author <author> publisher <publisher> editor/praeses/other responsibility in text production <respstmt> <resp> <name> publication place <pubplace> publication date <date> book size <dimensions type= (“folio”/ “quarto”/ “octavo”/ “duodecimo”)> volume <biblscope= “vol”> edition <edition> graphical additions <!—(comment) --> ibid/ejusdem etc. <ref> underline <hi rend= “underline”> strikethrough <del rend= “strikethrough”> ticks <add rend=“pencil”></add> ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution this case study has raised fundamental questions about the conceptual limits of tei and its capacity to support historically sensitive encoding. in spite of our experience of the limitations of tei we have been able to propose workable solutions which will enable people to conduct a search of the catalogues that is not determined by contemporary concepts and categories. figure : ms c vol. vi, f. . british library (public domain in most countries except the uk). an annotated extract from sloane’s catalogue of printed material showing composite parts of individual catalogue entries. for readability we have dropped the enlightenment namespace prefix. the markup of the transcription of this extract appears below in figure . figure excepted from the creative com- mons license and are public domain in most countries except the uk. figure : the expanded tei mark up of ms c vol. vi, f. . ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution case study : the object problem sloane produced separate catalogues for different types of natural history, according to taxonomies significant at the time of each catalogue’s production. of the catalogues being studied by enlightenment architectures, ‘fossils ’ consists of numbered folios containing , entries, which are divided across six sub- headings: ‘coralls’, ‘serpents &c.’, ‘echini’, ‘crustacea’, ‘starrfishes’ and ‘humana’ (catalogue of ‘coralls, sponges & some other submarines’, n.d.). sloane’s catalogue of miscellanies comprises , object descriptions. they are grouped under the headings of ‘miscellanies’, ‘antiquities’, ‘bronzes’, ‘impressions of seals’, ‘pictures &c.’, ‘mathematical instruments &c.’, ‘agate handles’ and ‘agate cups, bottles, spoons &c.’ (catalogue of ‘miscellaneous things’, n.d.). the respective catalogues are composed of a series of chronologically consecutive numbered entries that describe an object and, where possible, sloane includes other sorts of information including colour, size, material, provenance, names, uses and bibliographic references. much like his other natural history catalogues, but unlike those of his library material, sloane wrote the majority of these descriptions himself and was actively engaged in the process of recording and managing information about these natural and ‘miscellaneous’ objects. the natural history catalogues of sloane and his contemporaries have been described as interpretive ‘repositories of multiple intersecting stories that textualized and contextualized each object’ (findlen, : , note ). the crux of these stories was the lengthy object descriptions given in each entry. they appear to have been part of a method of ‘verbal description’ (wragge-morley, ) that was used by sloane and others to make the ever-expanding world knowable (not just by possessing the object itself, but by creating and retaining written information about its source and use). early modern techniques for understanding the natural world included close observation of differences between specimens and the rendering of these differences in text form. producing or reading these descriptions had a particular cognitive value that was central to understanding what was being described, especially for those without access to a collection. as descartes enthused, the purpose of a worthy description is to cause a sensory impression and create correspondent images in the ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution imagination: something that can be effectively done by words alone (wragge-morley, ). this is implicit in the writings of nehemiah grew, a contemporary of sloane (wragge-morley, ). grew wanted his account of the royal society’s repository, musaeum regalis societatis, to be comprehensive and offered the following reason for his detailed descriptions: if any object against their length: perhaps they have not so well considered the necessity hereof, for the cleer and evident distinction of the several kinds and species, in so great a variety of things known in the world […] besides, that in such descriptions, many particulars relating to the nature and use of things, will occur to the authors [sic] mind, which otherwise he would never have thought of. and may give occasion to his readers, for the consideration of many more (grew, : preface). as discussed above, sloane’s catalogue entries consist of a catalogue number and an object description along with various annotations. tei markup has been used by enlightenment architectures to encode a wide range of this information. for example, the standard element <name> is used to identify names and to distinguish them from additional information about a person. the element <addname> allows for references to nicknames and aliases, and is particularly useful for variant spellings of names. in addition, tei offers various options for encoding the provenance of an object such as <placename>, which identifies an absolute place name, and <geogname> for the identification of more specific geographical features. similarly, the element <date> allows a date (in any form) to be tagged, which is useful for establishing the timelines of sloane’s catalogues. additional information such as pencil location codes, monetary values, brackets, drawings and much later curators’ comments can also be marked-up. for example, <add rend=“pencil”> and <add rend=“red”> encode ‘additional’ comments appearing in pencil and red ink. capturing these (and what are thought to be location codes) in the margins of the catalogues is crucial to understanding sloane’s methods of arranging objects in his own home whether by theme, use, material or size, for example (see caygill, ). ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution at an early stage of the project we identified the benefits that would result from encoding the objects that are described in sloane’s catalogues. the encoding of an object name in historical sources enables both humans and machines to identify and manipulate such names and, for example, to identify patterns in their descriptions and expand the potential for reuniting objects in the memory institution. indeed, identifying a string of text that can function as a verbal signifier of an object is central to treating a historical document like a manuscript catalogue with ‘curatorial sensibility’ (nelson, ). as we will show in this case study though, what has proved most difficult about attempting to encode object descriptions is not the application of tei but a more fundamental issue—namely the problem of how to consistently and reliably identify references to individual objects and to identify the boundaries that exist between ‘object names’ and their qualifying descriptions. we asked ourselves, might it be better to side-step the issue of identifying the boundaries of the object and instead encode only the catalogue number, which keys the entry back to the physical object? take, for example, ‘red corall growing on a rock wt. shells’(catalogue of ‘coralls, sponges, & some other submarines’, n.d.: entry no. , f. ). in this example, the boundary between the object that is being described and additional descriptive information about that object is difficult to identify. which, if any of the following suggestions specifies the object name? corall red corall red corall growing on a rock red corall growing on a rock with shells this problem has also been discussed by nelson who has argued: we must be able to determine and define the limits of what constitutes a mention of an object. this is crucial so that we retain all information that is immediately relevant to that object, but (ideally) no more than is pertinent. … we must be able to define the relevant and relative contexts of each mention ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of an object: … to enable an articulation of an object’s place in a hierarchy; … to enable identification of relevant and related information; and … to enable the articulation of events involving other entities (e.g., people, places, and other objects) ( ). in his discussion of the difficulties of identifying the boundaries of object names and their descriptions, nelson ( ) mentioned various document-dependent factors, including the fact that catalogue entries of the period often do not deal with proper nouns, ‘the question of when an inventory becomes a catalogue’ and the tendency to embed the object in continuous descriptive prose. however, we also wondered whether the problem of disambiguating the object from the surrounding text was fundamentally rooted in current forms of disciplinary knowledge rather than in understandings we were coming to through our document analysis. to explore this, we contacted five domain knowledge experts in separate but complimentary knowledge domains including natural history, collecting history, digital humanities and curatorial studies; all are areas pertinent to the ea project. we provided them with the following examples of object descriptions from fossils and ‘miscellaneous things’: . red corall growing on a rock with shells (entry no. , f. ). . the large claw of the triangular crab with tubercles from jamaica (entry no. , f. ). . two slates between which lives a shrimp (entry no. , f. ). . a piece of the keel of a ship eat by the worms (‘catalogue of “miscellane- ous things”’, n.d.: entry no ). we asked them to identify the ‘object’ in a longer description and to indicate which words should be marked-up as the object. these entries were chosen because they highlight the complexities of trying to disambiguate and encode an object in sloane’s catalogues. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution respondent , a digital humanities expert, saw the solution to tagging the object as relatively simple: ‘each of these descriptions is grammatically a noun phrase, and as a general rule i think the head noun of the phrase is as good a candidate for identifying the object [that hans sloane] (or his assistants) saw as the object being described’. the head noun in each example then, is the one on which everything else in the noun phrase grammatically depends and this would change depending on how the description is phrased. in example , ‘corall’ is the object and in example , ‘claw’ is the object. in those instances where the head noun denotes a measure, as with example , ‘the head noun and the prepositional phrase identifying the whole from which the part is taken is referred to as the object’. even with this rationale it remains challenging to be consistent in the identification of the object name. with regard to example , we remain unsure whether it is the ‘keel’ or the ‘piece’ that should be tagged. however, the historians of science, collecting and natural history whom we consulted reiterated an earlier argument, one of context. they consider grammar alone as insufficient for identifying an object. as respondent , a historian of science, argued, ‘if we want to be as “historically sensitive” as possible, then for sloane, the entire entry is the object’. this means that all of the words that detail colour, material and size were chosen specifically by sloane to describe the details of the object. their order and place within the catalogue had meaning for sloane. respondent , a historian and philosopher of science, likewise argued that ‘in all four cases it is the whole phrase that designates the object’. this is because the phrases are descriptive: they describe the objects but do not contain names in a technical sense that could be considered as labelling or indexing the object in question. what we find instead, are generic nouns like ‘corall’. but no analysis of what the object is can stop here, at the juncture between marking up one head noun or marking up the entire description. indeed, what becomes clear is the difference in current interpretive analysis depends on domain knowledge but also on the potential end use of the data. take for example the topic ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of species and taxonomy. respondent argued that, if the object ‘is the kind or species that the specimen is supposed to represent, [then the] “red coral” is the object, because corals were often distinguished by their colour’. likewise, respondent , a botanist, noted the importance of capturing ‘red coral’ for the purpose of indexing: ‘an index entry might read “corall, red” because of the need to alphabetise the index entries’. here the interpretive analysis takes into consideration the object as well as its features, such as colour, or its ecology. if the information found in these catalogues is to form part of an institution’s database, such as that of the british museum, context is still important, especially in terms of what object categories might mean, both then and now. respondent , a museum documentation expert, observed that ‘nuances are lost if only specific words can be tagged or highlighted and so there are “multiple key wording facilities” available that an institution like the british museum “consider essential”’. this would mean that ‘red corall’, ‘rock’ and ‘shells’ would all be tagged. in the case of example four, this becomes ‘tricky’, according to respondent , because it is the context of the description that alludes to why the object has been collected in the first place. while the british museum database would include ‘keel of the ship’ as the object, it is the addition of ‘eat by the worms’ that makes the object interesting, both then and now– even if for different reasons. moreover, as a result of such treatment, the object name loses its th-century meaning and context as it is divorced from the particulars of how sloane described and organised the knowledge contained in his catalogues. overall then, while it would be possible to align our encoding of the object with a particular current disciplinary understanding of the data, each of the four views expressed bring complexities. with regard to the grammatical approach, for example, it can still get complex and such interpretive analysis is time consuming. different researchers, whether they are historians, scientists or professionals working in galleries, libraries and museums, will always be interested in different aspects of the object being described. but as respondent pointed out, one cannot do everything in a finite life, let alone in a time- and resource-limited research project. therefore, one suggestion is to prioritise the xml markup so as to focus on ‘aspects ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of a catalogue entry which would yield information that is difficult to gain otherwise at a discrete level’ (respondent ). in other words, it is the information about issues like organisation (information about drawers and cabinets) that would yield the most conducive data for understanding the intellectual structures of these catalogues and their context. tagging provenance for example, would allow for mapping or visualisation of source networks and object movements such as with six degrees of francis bacon (six degrees of francis bacon, n.d.) while encoding collection locations would eventually allow for the ‘reconstruction’ of what kind of objects were placed together in a drawer or cabinet. at an earlier stage of this project we defined a new element <ea:objectdescriptor> for encoding descriptions of individual objects within entries. yet the difficulties of attempting to apply this element, which are further validated by the varying responses that we received from the experts we surveyed, show that we are still left questioning what the object name is. while some would suggest that the object can be defined by one head noun, others find this insufficient. either way, there is agreement that we must always consider context and be as historically sensitive as possible. in this way, our failure to model the object has opened mccarty’s ‘via negativa’ (discussed above) for the project. drucker has described how this approach can be understood as ‘a rigorous approach to the study of knowledge through attention to ignorance, that pushes at assumptions to lay them bare’ ( ). thus, our failure to satisfactorily model the object has forced us to consider our implicit understandings of object descriptions and their boundaries and to interrogate the nature of the object with a rigour that is not necessary when undertaking more traditional scholarship. it has also helped us to refocus our research questions by recognising that our task does not depend on defining what the object is, but on understanding how sloane’s descriptions have been constructed. by doing this, we can begin to understand how sloane and his contemporaries were managing, organizing and producing knowledge about the world around them. in this case study we have reflected on our efforts to model and encode the object names that are recorded in sloane’s catalogues. while we initially understood the ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution challenge of encoding object names in sloane’s catalogues to be a question of how to use tei appropriately, we came to realise that we faced something more fundamental, namely the challenge of computationally modelling highly interpretative historical information. we have argued that this issue raises important questions about the computational representation of early modern knowledge. at stake is not only how we can best use the methods of digital humanities to represent early modern catalogues such as that of sloane but also the current limits of humanities and curatorial knowledge about early modern catalogues. conclusion collections documentation has often been described as making the difference between a museum and a junk shop. catalogues are the core documents of museum structure and meaning, yet no significant computational analysis has been made to date of how catalogues from the early modern period are constructed or of how their structure and content relate either to the world from which collections are assembled or to the museums they form. enlightenment architectures is undertaking this task on some of the oldest, most detailed and most significant museum catalogues in the english-speaking world. the interdisciplinary approach that we are devising to pursue this in the context of sloane has the potential to enable us to model the information structures of sloane’s catalogues computationally and interrogate them in ways that would otherwise be impossible. our research, and the new directions opened by it, will profit the communities of researchers, curators and information professionals who are addressed in this article. we expect that historians and curators will benefit from the ability to digitally search the catalogues in ways that would be impossible using paper catalogues alone, such as being able to search according to the colours, materials, weights and sizes that are mentioned in respective entries. it will also be possible for researchers to download the tei-encoded versions of sloane’s catalogues and to extract, map and visualise information that is included in them. the tei extensions and customizations that we have proposed can also be taken up by other projects working on early modern ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution archival materials. finally, the more fundamental questions that we have raised about digital approaches to the modelling of early modern information may open new conversations between curators and digital humanists about current approaches to cataloguing and placing collections online. it is widely understood that early modern catalogues such as those of sloane are ‘not simply lists that can be taken at face value’ (keating and markey, : ). rather, they are ‘authored documents compiled under particular temporal, legal, political, and social constraints that affected their organization and the ways in which the objects they list were described’ (keating and markey, : ) as such, they are sites where narratives of power and knowledge are made, unmade, silenced and sometimes imagined anew. this is no less true of the digital models of sloane’s catalogues on which the enlightenment architectures project is at work. the object problem that we have discussed above points to parallels between early modern and current classification systems. we still struggle, despite our “sophisticated” systems of classification, to determine what things are, where they belong and how to classify them. while we don’t necessarily understand sloane’s cataloguing epistemology fully, we share his struggle regarding how best to use words to describe objects. the digital representations that enlightenment architectures is creating will contribute to what poole described as the ‘rich, complex and interwoven cultural experience on the world wide web’ ( ). therefore, it is crucial to interrogate the potential and limits of encoding languages like tei for representing early modern catalogue materials, as we have done in this article. bowker has written of the totalizing imperatives of data-driven fields such as biodiversity and of how such efforts to homogenise and standardise data can make it incompatible with the user-generated datasets organised by ‘local data cultures’ ( ). we understand the work that we have undertaken in the enlightenment architectures project, and digitally-mediated research on the early modern period more widely, as indicative of a ‘local data culture’ and this article has demonstrated the nuance this research can contribute to a digital humanities that is sometimes ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution portrayed as totalising and elitist (e.g. grusin, ; pannapacker, ). of the black-boxing effect of technology more generally, latour has written of: the way scientific and technical work is made invisible by its own success. when a machine runs efficiently, when a matter of fact is settled, one need focus only on its inputs and outputs and not on its internal complexity. thus, paradoxically, the more science and technology succeed, the more opaque and obscure they become ( : ). in this article, we have pushed against the black box to reveal some of the ‘internal complexity’ of the enlightenment architectures project. we have shown the importance of attention to ‘internal complexity’ when thinking about the potential of interdisciplinary research across the digital humanities, history of knowledge, the library and the museum, especially in terms of the digital collections that such work can give rise to. ethics and consent the aspects of this research that have involved human subjects have been carried out in accordance with the declaration of helsinki. our work was given ethical clearance by the research director of the british museum, in line with institutional norms. informed consent was sought from participants and their identities have been anonymised. acknowledgements the research that underpinned this article was funded by a leverhulme trust research project grant ( – ). we wish to thank most sincerely the individuals who agreed to be interviewed during the course of this research. we also wish to thank alexandra ault (british library) and mark carine (natural history museum) for their assistance with, and comments about, various aspects of this article. errors and omissions are, of course, ours. competing interests the authors have no competing interests to declare. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution sloane’s manuscript catalogues catalogue of ‘coralls, sponges, & some other submarines’ (fossils i), ms slo, paleontology library, natural history museum catalogue of ‘miscellaneous things’ (miscellanies), africa, oceania and the americas library, british museum references antoniou, g a and van harmelen, f a semantic web primer. cambridge, mass: the mit press. biblissima (n.d.) 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on the other hand, teachers, while having grown and studied in a still largely analogue world, have witnessed the evolution of today’s techno-society since its infancy. by connecting the field of the digital humanities with education, this article discusses the conception, design and results of two practice-based teaching experiences which were aimed at exploring the tensions embedded in our daily use of digital technologies, as well as in today’s techno-society as a whole. the first one is a “digital autoethnography” developed at the city university of hong kong; the second one refers to the course “anthropology of communication” – co-delivered at politecnico of milan – which adopted a “connected intelligence” approach to urge students to reflect on tomorrow’s techno-society in a collaborative way. while the first experience was chiefly a self- reflexive study on the impact of social media on the individual, the second one mapped the main criticalities of techno-society as a whole, according to seven macro-themes, and asked students to elaborate possible solutions. both courses considered students as active learners/users, insofar as they at the forefront of today digital revolution, but also the subjects most in need of critical tools to face it. oggi, nell’università, assistiamo a una congiuntura unica: da un lato, gli studenti che frequentano i corsi accademici sono la prima generazione ad essere completamente cresciuta in un mondo digitalizzato; dall’altro lato, i docenti, pur essendo cresciuti e aver studiato in un mondo ancora in gran parte analogico, hanno assistito all'evoluzione della tecno-società odierna sin dalla sua infanzia. promuovendo un dialogo tra le digital humanities e la didattica (accademica), questo articolo discute la concezione, progettazione e i risultati di due esperienze di insegnamento practice-based mirate a esplorare le tensioni implicite nel nostro uso quotidiano delle tecnologie digitali, nonché nella tecno-società odierna nel suo insieme. la umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , prima esperienza è una “autoetnografia digitale” sviluppata presso la city university di hong kong; la seconda è collegata al corso “anthropology of communication” – tenuto al politecnico di milano – nella quale abbiamo adottato l’approccio dell’“intelligenza connessa” per stimolare gli studenti a riflettere collaborativamente sulla tecno-società di domani. mentre la prima esperienza è stata principalmente uno studio autoriflessivo sull'impatto dei social media sull’individuo, la seconda ha mappato le principali criticità della nostra tecno-società, a partire da sette macro-temi, al fine di elaborare possibili soluzioni. entrambi i corsi considerano gli studenti come utenti attivi, giacché sono in prima linea nell’uso delle nuove tecnologie, ma sono anche coloro che necessitano maggiormente di un solido bagaglio critico per usarle/svilupparle al meglio. introduction this paper explores, through a qualitative approach, the field of the digital humanities – or better, its “outer ring”, as fabio ciotti put it during his keynote lecture at the aucid conference – in connection with education and teaching practices. notably, it does so by maintaining a critical standpoint (in the broad sense of the term) towards the impact that digital technologies are having on today’s teachers and students. to be sure, here “digital technologies” loosely refers to both web services – such as apps, platforms, social networks (snss) – as well as hardware devices, especially mobile phones. at the same time, it is, above all, higher education to be at the centre of the present discussion, although it would certainly be useful to promote a debate intersecting teaching, learning and digital technologies which spreads across all levels of education. as one last addendum, it is necessary to specify that the focus of this article is not on the (impact of the) use of digital technologies within a teaching- learning context. on this topic, literature is already consistent, involving all levels of education, as well as a variety of subjects ([ ]; [ ]; [ ]; [ ]). by contrast, this article makes digital technologies the subject of attention, highlighting the importance of developing new digital tech literacies, able to bring to the surface how digital technologies affect the individual and our daily life. a practice-based orientation towards the teaching of new digital tech literacies – of which we are increasingly in need, given where society is heading – is outlined. concrete examples concerning two courses developed by the author, in conjunction with colleagues in italy and abroad, will be provided. firstly, the discussion will dwell upon the design and pedagogical goals of these courses; secondly, the research insights coming from these experiences will be presented; lastly, future developments and research lines will be sketched. as a side note, it is important to stress that, although these two courses are reviewed together, their projectuality and objectives are different; as a consequence, their results, as we will see, cannot be comparable. s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities crucial times in higher education if we take as a starting point for the present discussion the mass diffusion of the web in the mid- s (alongside that of mobile phones, although initially they were not smartphones yet), we realize that by now the generation of digital natives born out of that milieu has reached the stage of undergraduate or postgraduate education. this means that these students have grown up, at least since their first cycle in schools, in an increasingly digitalized world, and certainly one in which digital technologies have had a progressively radical impact on daily life. education, however, has often been reactive, rather than proactive, towards this paradigmatic shift: most of the times, digital technologies have been implemented in curricula of primary and secondary schools as “mere” tools of support to otherwise unchanged teaching practices, rather than as technologies with unique features to be exploited ([ ]). it is only over the last five-ten years that this power relation has been rebalanced, with technology gradually taking the lead in a process of reconceptualization of teaching practices ([ ]). this rebalancing, after all, has become a necessity by now, insofar as digital natives represent the pulling force of digital technology’s (r)evolution. in fact, they are both the main target (as consumers) of tech companies and services as well as the main producers of digital content, providing an epitomizing example of what is meant by the term “produsers” (see, among others, [ ]; [ ]). according to recent statistics ([ ]), people aged between and years old are those using smartphones the most – % – while the percentage decreases to % for to year-old people. concerning social media, surveys ([ ]) show that users from to years old are the most active. if we look at facebook and instagram – two of the most popular social media platforms – we see that the percentage is respectively at % and %; at the same time, these two data drop to % and % in the users population aged - . on a similar note, it is interesting to remark that user-generated content (ugc) is mainly produced by millennials, who contribute to over the % of all ugc found online ([ ]). in contrast to this picture, today’s teachers and scholars are still, by and large, members of earlier generations, i.e. generations that, to various degrees, have transited from an analogue to a digital society. in italy, for instance, the average age of tenure-track professors is ; the age of associated professors is , while researchers are on average years old ([ ]). this means that academics were largely born and educated within a radically different socio-technological framework from the one we live in today; most importantly, the underpinning pedagogical vision of this framework privileged written words over moving images, syntagmatic step-by- step approaches to knowledge over paradigmatic hypertextual ones, and individual reading and memorization over interactional learning practices ([ ]; [ ]). under these conditions, teachers represent a cornerstone within today’s education system for motives that go well beyond mere pedagogical issues and point, rather, to their generational bridging role within the class. indeed, teachers literally keep one foot in an epoch that predates the digital revolution, while the other foot is now solidly grounded on today’s technologized society, which they have seen growing since its birth and of which they can pinpoint, for this very reason, both potentialities and shortcomings. in other words, today’s teachers are the public owners of a “knowledge heritage” umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , about technology that is unique – due to demographical circumstances – and which is now crucial to pass on to younger generations, in order for them to become aware of the roots and evolution of that technological shift which, to their eyes, appears as nothing more than a conditio de facto. the reason for reinstating what is maybe obvious, although sometimes overlooked – i.e. the encounter in class of two generations that have radically different approaches towards digital technologies – is crucial for highlighting the potential fruitfulness that can spring out of the synergy between today’s teachers and students in university. to be sure, this fruitfulness also comes with a responsibility, i.e. the need – now more than ever – to rethink teaching and learning as really interactive and mutually beneficial processes for all actors involved. students are certainly the subjects who more easily enter in contact and familiarize with (new) digital technologies, precisely because these are conceived for them in the first place. and yet, students largely lack – as one of the two teaching experiences discussed below will show – the tools for critically engaging with and using these technologies. teachers, by contrast, can help students to both put things into perspective – e.g. to investigate the archaeology of new media – and develop practical and critical skills for de-commoditizing technology and make a wiser use of it. at the same time, it is through constant dialogue with the students that teachers can remain abreast of technological innovation, which, for its very nature, tend to reach older generations only when it has already consolidated. in other words, the class becomes a space of negotiation for fruitfully engaging with what ragnedda ([ ]) has called “second digital divide”, meaning by that the needed competences and skills for an effective use of technology (rather than the mere access, which is described as “first digital divide”). above all, it is important to stress that the class remains the privileged environment where this encounter and exchange can mature at best. this is so because it is only through the collective sharing of the same teaching-learning horizon that knowledge transfer can occur most productively. on this point, studies ( [ ]) show that blended courses – i.e. courses that combine in-class and distant, technologically- mediated learning – are those leading to the best results for students; and yet, it is only when the in-class component is in the equation that we witness, in fact, an effective knowledge transfer in the long run. the risk with distant learning courses fully conceived as mediated by technology – which is a consequence of the evolution of digital platforms – is to witness what van dijck, poell and de waal ([ ]) call “learnification”, that is, the fragmentation and parcelling of the learning process into self-contained units, which eventually miss to entice an effective acquisition. building on stephen krashen’s ([ ]) distinction between “learning” and “acquisition”, it could be said that this process of fragmentation and parcelling tend to be apprehended on a superficial level, rather than acquired in depth, precisely because technology still functions as a barrier or, at best, as a form of mediation of the learning process, to which a shared collective dimension has been subtracted. here, the distinction made by german philosopher walter benjamin ([ ]) between two different kinds of experience – “erfahrung” and “erlebnis” – might be of help to clarify the point. according to benjamin, “erfahrung” is a collective, qualitative experience that leads to forms of shared reflection, knowledge, and understanding across individuals, while “erlebnis” is a kind of immediate experience that is focused on the moment and is lived through momentarily by the single subject. according to benjamin, the passing from oral storytelling to written storytelling and further down to the s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities technologized information conveyed by mass media has produced a decay of “erfahrung” in favour of a blossoming of parcelled and individually lived experiences as erlebnisse. the latest occurrence along this line – although benjamin could not foresee that – might well be considered the kind of information and socialising practices fuelled by today’s digital technologies. such premises are crucial to pave the way to the present discussion. in fact, they highlight the need, at all levels of education, to foster collaboratively shaped (teacher-students) new digital tech literacies which consider digital devices not only as tools, but as the subject of a critical reflection to be performed also, but not exclusively, through them, in the context of a broader discussion concerning the individual, technology and society as a whole. in this respect, digital tech literacies are framed within the fields of philosophy of technology (e.g. [ ]), critical media studies ([ ]) and digital cultures ([ ]) and their coming to being has to be regarded more as a synergetic ongoing praxis involving all actors, than as a set of guidelines for the understanding of what technology can do for education and pedagogical purposes. digital autoethnography & connected intelligence the theoretical-critical premises outlined above were at the core of two practice-based teaching experiences aimed at exploring, in innovative ways, the tensions embedded in our daily use of social networks and in today’s techno-society. overall, the shared common goal of these experiences was to enhance students and teachers awareness about the impact that digital technologies can have on the single individual, as well as on society in its entirety, thus stressing the relevance that digital tech literacies play (and will increasingly play) for all actors involved in the fostering of tomorrow’s society, from scholars to students to professionals. in order to do so, such technologies were put at the centre of two academic courses and approached, at once, as subjects and objects of a critical reflection connecting both teachers and students. in this way, the teaching-learning experience really allowed for the emergence of collaboratively built digital tech literacies. as we will see, this approach led, in one case, to reshape students’ attitude towards social media use; and, in the other case, to the design of projects meant to concretely tackle the tensions implied by today’s technologization of society. the following section is dedicated to the description of the conception and design of both experiences, after which a discussion on their results will follow. this will lead to stress strengths and weaknesses of both experiences as potentially replicable courses aimed at fostering digital tech literacies at university level. digital autoethnography the first experience was a course in new digital literacies – titled “facebook and autobiography” – that was delivered at the city university of hong kong in the fall semester of by myself together with prof. roberto simanowski. the goal of the course was to umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , explore the practices of self-representation on social networks (i.e. facebook and instagram ) and assess how these differ from traditional forms of written self-representation, such as traditional diaries. most importantly, we aimed to do so by putting the students enrolled in the course at the centre of the analysis and the learning experience so that they could capitalise on it in terms of critical insights about technological subjugation. overall, students were involved. methodologically speaking, beyond the delivery of typical lectures focused on autobiographic writing across old and new media (e.g. [ ]; [ ]; [ ]; [ ]), we elaborated a “digital autoethnography”, defined as the study of “the discourses that emerge at the intersection of online/offline and the offline context through which the online worlds are entered” ([ ]). in fact, the digital autoethnography consisted of a double-sided analysis. on the one hand, as researchers, we entered facebook and instagram via the creation of profiles that students befriended, on a voluntary basis, in order for us to monitor their activities over a period of five weeks; on the other hand, we instructed our participants to self- reflect upon their snss use through a number of assignments, whose assessment was part of the final evaluation for the course. the assignments were designed, together with three other colleagues from germany, during a workshop held at the university of wuppertal in july (thus prior to the beginning of the semester). to begin with, students were asked to answer a first round of questions aimed at providing us with a general understanding of their use of facebook. questions were: a) “why do you use facebook?”; b) “to what extent would you say that your profile reflect yourself?”; c) “what is a diary for you?”; d) “does facebook work as a diary for you? (why or why not)”; e) “what do you look up on facebook?” students had to write down the answers and they could elaborate on them as freely as they wished. secondly, they had to parse all of their facebook posts over five weeks and tag them by using a set of previously elaborated tags. we developed four categories of tags which respectively referred to a) the type of posts’ content; b) the authorial stance responsible for the posts and its relation to the user’s self-representation; c) the mood of the posts; d) if/how posts had a time- related connotation or interrelation with other posts on the user’s timeline. specifically, the first category was inspired by roman jakobson’s ([ ]) communication functions. participants were instructed that posts would have a “referential function” whenever the facebook’s user, or one of his/her friends, geolocated themselves or tagged other friends; posts (and comments) bore an “emotive function” when they overtly expressed the user’s emotion or state of mind; posts (and comments) had a “phatic function” when they were meant to simply keep in contact with friends (this function comprised emoticons, bare expressions of agreement/disagreement, likes and similar reactions). the second category of tags moved along the self-other axis: we asked participants, on the one hand, to identify if they had published the post themselves (“self-authored”), or if this activity had been outsourced (“other-authored”, further disentangled as “shared by user”, “shared by other friends”, or “frictionless sharing” by external apps); on the other hand, we wanted to know whether the content of the post directly referred initially, our focus was solely on facebook, as this is the most widely used social network. then, through in-class debates, we realized the necessity to also include instagram into the picture, as this social network is increasingly popular especially among young adults. s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities to the user (“self-related”) or to a different topic/issue (“other-related”, such as news, commercials, entertaining content, etc.). the third category addressed the mood of the posts: “euphoric” (positive content), “dysphoric” (negative content), or “neutral”. under the fourth category fell those tags that dealt with time. in fact, we were interested in exploring if/how posts connected to each other along one’s timeline, as well as in those occurrences where a single post contained a “small story” within itself. from here we defined three tags: “temporal”, which signalled the centrality of time (either as a single moment or a duration) with respect to the action/event described in one or several posts (e.g. journeys, anniversaries, timeframe of the semester, etc.); “hermeneutic”, in which posts (or comments) displayed an effective process of understanding among users (it is the case of posts and comments that contain questions and answers); “cause-effect”, when posts on the timeline were linked by a clear cause-effect relation (e.g. when a post is published as a critique or in support of precedent posts or comments). since, in practice, these tags overlap and can be co-present, we instructed students that each post could well be labelled with more than one tag belonging to the same category. thirdly, alongside the tagging of the posts – which we also observed and captured with screenshots – we asked the participants to keep a written diary in which they jotted down, on a weekly basis, reflections about their snss diet and all their activities on facebook and instagram, from posting, to sharing and liking, to commenting. the goal, in this regard, was to let participants digest their daily snss use and prompt a “distanced” reflection – via the traditional act of writing – which could trigger a retrospective assessment of the users’ snss activities. lastly, because the befriending of our avatars was on a voluntary basis, a distinction was made. those students who did befriend our avatars – thus allowing us to closely monitor their activity – had to answer at the end of the five weeks a second round of questions that were tailored on their specific timelines and aimed at understanding the underpinning reasons of their snss posting. the students who opted for taking part in the experience but not revealing their own profiles to us were required to write a final essay which reflected upon the whole experience of having kept a written diary alongside their daily snss use. eventually, two groups were constituted: group a ( students) submitted a diary, the tagging, and a final essay. group b ( students) – those who befriended us – submitted a diary, the tagging, and answered a second round of questions at the end of the five-week survey period. by comparing the insights derived from our monitoring of snss and the assignments of the students it was possible to better understand how participants represent themselves on snss (indeed, a fragmented representation across different media platforms, as we will see) and, most importantly, to sharpen the students’ awareness concerning their online self-projection, which is, in fact, an almost unperceived drowning, rather than a conscious and controlled exposure. in this respect, the experience did bring to the surface the embedded tensions involved in the technological subjugation to which individuals are exposed when using snss. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , connected intelligence the second teaching experience refers to the course “anthropology of communication” which i co-delivered during the fall semester together with prof. derrick de kerckhove at politecnico of milan. by addressing seven macro-themes – ethics, education, ecology, politics, economy, urbanism, and technology – the aim of the course was to map the status of today’s techno-society and provide students with new critical insights and tools for consciously reflecting upon its evolution for eventually elaborating possible alternatives. in order to do so, the students enrolled in the course (curriculum in “design of communication”) were put at the centre of the learning experience, being aware that they are, indeed, the pulling force of today’s techno-society and the designers of tomorrow’s. in fact, the overreaching goal of the course was to make students conceive and design a technologically sustainable village, intended as a community space – of the dimension of a neighbourhood or a small city – in which technology was at once tool and framework of the citizens’ daily life, on the wave of martin heidegger’s ([ ]) well known idea that technology is instrumental to the individual but always, inevitably, also “enframing” him/her. by “technologically sustainable” we meant a village in which technologically delivered services were free to access, fair in their algorithmic functioning (i.e. unbiased, see discourses on algorithmic and data justice: e.g. [ ]; [ ]; [ ]; [ ]) and respectful of privacy (e.g. private data ownership, or also the possibility of withdrawing from the use of technology, without losing access to services and rights; see discussion on the ethical boundaries of the digitalized society, e.g. [ ]; [ ]). more concretely, the course was inspired by the then recent news of google’s goal to plan and build a fully smart neighbourhood in an area of the city of toronto. given the corporate-driven conditions behind google’s project – which led to harsh critiques from various actors both within and outside of the project – our course also came to have a meta-political relevance, especially with regard to the repurposing of technology as a public utility. hence, while we, as teachers, provided students with recent evidence of what has been called “surveillance capitalism” ( [ ]), the project aimed – at a broader level – to confront students with the need to rethink the relation between technology, individuals and collectivity, renewing the debate on what it means to acquire (and put to use) tech competences. methodologically, apart from traditional lectures focused on various topics revolving around critical data studies ([ ]), digital cultures ([ ]; [ ]; [ ]), transhumanism ([ ]) and digital methods (rogers ), as teachers we provided the conceptual framework of the course, which took the form of a wiki cloud of keywords (figure ) that helped students navigate today’s techno-society (examples of keywords are: “participatory democracy”, “datacracy”, “digital twins”, “deep learning”, “smart city”, “social credit”, “transparency”, “net neutrality”, “big data”, “algorithmethics”). for each keyword a short definition was given, together with a couple of references for further exploring the concept, as well as links to its most closely related keywords. beyond this initial setting, we relied upon a “connected intelligence” approach for the development of the course, which meant to leave students autonomously manage their https://www.citylab.com/solutions/ / /alphabet-sidewalk-labs-toronto-quayside-smartcity- google/ / https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- https://www.citylab.com/solutions/ / /alphabet-sidewalk-labs-toronto-quayside-smartcity-google/ / https://www.citylab.com/solutions/ / /alphabet-sidewalk-labs-toronto-quayside-smartcity-google/ / s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities research work (albeit supervised). such approach was articulated on three different and interconnected levels. initially, we asked students to pick one keyword and research upon it by expanding its definition and the reference list. in so doing, each student became an expert of his/her own keyword. subsequently, students gathered in groups of three to four (coordinated by us in order to avoid the formation of too big groups) depending on the similarities among the owned keywords and the researches conducted individually. as part of this second stage we asked students, in groups, to deliver weekly in-class presentations that highlighted the interrelation across the three/four keywords, according to one of the seven macro-themes identified at the beginning of the course. so, for instance, we had the students focusing on “big data”, “algorithm” and “blockchain” working together under the macro-theme of technology insofar as their individual researches led them to explore the technical/operative side of the keywords. thirdly, over the last three weeks of the course, students clustered in seven bigger groups composed of six to nine members, always following the affiliation of their keywords to one of the macro-themes. this enlarged grouping allowed a cross-fertilization of ideas based upon the research conducted up to that stage. in fact, the principle at the basis of the “connected intelligence” approach – differently from pierre lévy’s ([ ]) idea of “intelligence collective” – is to favour innovation through collaboration and sharing. as a matter of fact, “connected intelligence” is neither “owned” by the single individuals, nor it is simply the sum of the link connecting them, rather; it is the outcome/surplus that derives from such rhizomatous connectivity ([ ]). eventually, the objective for each macro-group was to elaborate a project that either outlined the conception of a product or service that addressed one key issue of the afferent macro-theme – e.g. the unwilling circulation of private data on digital platforms, tackled by the technology group – or defined a manual of good practices for the design/use of technology (as it was the case with the ethics macro-group, whose work remained inevitably on a more conceptual level). in so doing, not only students became more aware of the criticalities of technological innovation, but also learnt to think collaboratively in view of possible solutions for making tomorrow’s techno-society (more) sustainable. figure : the wiki cloud of keywords. the font size was randomly assigned. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , results in the following section the main findings of the teaching experiences are presented and discussed in light of the debate on the use of digital technologies in/for today’s techno-society, as well as in connection with an assessment of the achieved results for the enhancement of digital tech literacies and tech-related awareness in both students and teachers. in the last part of the article the main limitations of these experiences and possible future developments will be addressed. digital autoethnography the teaching experience in hong kong provided valuable insights in two respects (see also [ ]): ) how young adults choose and use snss for self-representation; ) the (often surreptitious) impact that snss have on users’ cognitive and social self-perception. concerning the first point, in her work on small life stories on facebook, ruth page ( [ ]: ) notes that, despite the fact that updates are “self-contained units rather than the bricks of an ongoing narrative”, it is still possible for readers to “fill the gaps” between statuses and reconstruct small stories about the user. by contrast, we highlighted an increasing difficulty in identifying a coherent self-representation of the user on facebook. one main explanation for our diverging conclusion has likely to do with the renewed medial and technological affordances of the platform. when page conducted her study, facebook had not yet introduced the timeline; now, as also noted by mcneill ([ ]) a few years later, the platform has completely changed its design and, consequently, the use its users make of it. first of all, we witnessed a rather limited frequency of posting. we reported a total of posts, which means an average of . posts/user over five weeks, i.e. a bare . posts/user per week (in line with the tendency of young adults to shift towards the use of instagram and also snapchat). moreover, of these posts the majority ( . posts/user) were tagged as “phatic”, thus reasserting the primary function of “keeping in contact” rather than providing insightful information about one’s own life ( . posts/user were tagged as “referential”, . as “time-related”, and . posts/user as “emotive”). the phatic dimension of facebook’s communication appears more vividly in relation to comments: out of a total of comments reported, simply consisted of emoticons or phatic expressions. secondly, we noted the tendency to post or share content that was “other-related” and “other-authored” – such as news, entertaining videos, or advertisements – rather than “self-related” and “self-authored”, that is, produced by the users and directly pertaining to their lives. in fact, taken individually, the tag “posted by user” is the one that recurs slightly more often than the other two: . posts/user against . (“shared by others”) and . (“shared by user”). and yet, as soon as we add up all posts that are not authored by the timeline’s owner (“shared by user” and “shared by others”) they amount to almost two thirds of the total. this means that, for the greatest part, the timelines of our participants are already an outsourced projection of them; one that produces a sort of depersonification of their representation and perception (it is in this respect that franco berardi ([ ]: ) warns against the reduction, brought about by technology, of the uniqueness of the subject to “a set of components, or a format”). in fact, the gradual withdrawal of users from s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities facebook – which is considered, more radically than instagram and snapchat, as a public space rather than a diary, according to the majority ( ) of our participants – is, at once, cause and effect of the platform’s shift from being user-focused to functioning as a news-aggregator (with all the related issues concerning the control of fake news and publishers’ copyrights). this finding can be also derived from the replies of our students to the first round of questions. in particular, to the question “what do you look up on facebook?” % of the students ( ) responded, “news,” among whom twenty-six coupled “news” with “entertaining stuff,” highlighting the extent to which “hard news” and “entertaining content” are perceived as overlapping. moreover, from the participants’ essays and replies to the second round of questions we realized that for our students facebook constitutes just one platform of a more conspicuous snss diet. overall, our participants claimed to post on facebook only very relevant life events or episodes of public interest, delegating the bulk of social interactions to other snss, namely instagram and snapchat. more precisely, snapchat is where users tend to be more authentic and unreflexive, facebook is where they choose to present a strongly and positively crafted self, and instagram works as an in-between semi-private form of photographic diary. these are the words of a student: “i use snapchat almost on a daily basis whereas my instagram posts depends on when i go out […] so i would post at least once or twice every week in instagram, whereas i have almost stopped using facebook”. this means that, across the three platforms, there is a quantitative narrowing down as well as qualitative discrepancies concerning what is being posted. hence, if we are to look for coherent self-representations, we need to conceive of a comprehensive approach to snss in that “to fill the gaps,” has become a matter of collation among different platforms. concerning the impact that snss have on users’ cognitive and social self-perception, by collating our monitoring of the posting with the participants’ diaries, we realized that users: ) often share materials and reply to comments uncritically (i.e. without really checking the content of the posts shared or commented on); ) forget by and large what they have liked/shared after a few days. these phenomena are symptomatic of broader tensions affecting the relation between users and social media. an example of the first kind can be found in the video, shared by a female participant, in which a woman jokingly pretends to be against public breastfeeding. the irony of the video is quite evident in that the woman’s supposed puritanism is contrasted with images showing the fetishization of the female body, which goes well beyond the exposure of breasts. what is significant is that one of the user’s friends did not perceive at all the irony of the video and commented disappointedly on the post. when asked to elaborate on that, the student said: “i suppose my friend didn’t reflect enough when watching the video and concluded that the woman in the video was serious”. it seems, then, that not only did the user’s friend not interpret the “hidden” ironic meaning of the video, but she also felt the urge to intervene, without much consideration. on the other hand, an example showing the process of forgetfulness triggered by social media is particularly acute with regard to liking. in fact, such act remained largely untracked by the majority of participants in their written diaries. prompted by our question, one student umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , reported that “out of my expectations, when checking my activity log i discovered that i liked an overwhelming number of posts in five weeks!” the main problem is that, while users tend to quickly forget what they liked, it is not so for the platform, which tracks and remembers everything they do on it. more broadly, the technology’s erosion – through the unreflexive actions it promotes – of the (human) ability to remember, opens the way to what benjamin ([ ]) defined precisely as an “impoverishment of experience” (as “erfahrung”) brought about by technology: as soon as users are led, by technology itself, to act mechanically, their acts are deprived of a shared value and turned into solipsistic “erlebnis” (in this regard, bernard stiegler ([ ]: ) talks of a “mercantile production” of memory). the experience in hong kong allowed us (as teachers/researchers) as well as the students (as the main actors of the experience) to bring these tendencies to the surface, in order to become fully aware of them via direct experience. the most relevant result was achieved when such consciousness triggered a counter-action in the way of using snss. we were glad, for instance, to witness one student discussing how the keeping of a written diary affected his reflection about potential upcoming posts: “i can’t deny that keeping a written diary affected my posting: i became more aware of things or moments around me and i wondered whether i would really like to share them with others.” another participant confessed: “over the five weeks of logs, i changed some of my views toward my use of facebook and other snss. i have always thought that i kept a very low profile on social media. however, after this self-tracking, i found that i don’t keep at all a low profile.” these testimonies definitely attest to the synergies between the online and offline realms and the distanced (more aware) self-perception that the autoethnography triggered with regard to online modes of self-representation. connected intelligence the teaching experience in milan led to the elaboration of seven macro-projects (thematically clustered), which were presented and discussed in class during the last week of the semester. what is most interesting to remark is the interconnection among the various projects, as a result of the “connected intelligence” approach adopted during the whole course. this is particularly evident in the final project of the technology group. being this group focused on the “stuff ” itself – i.e. technology – that traversed also all the other macro-groups, its members decided to conceive a tech space on which the other projects might converge. more specifically, the technology group designed a mockup platform, named village technology service (vts), which addressed the issue of data security and data privacy, by allowing citizens/users to re- appropriate their own data created through multiple interactions with digital services and devices. in the words of the students, the platform “compiles the history of all our data transactions, allowing each citizen to easily manage her own data”. in so doing, this project came to be connected in particular to the ethics and education macro-groups, although politics and ecology groups were also involved. concerning the ethics project, the group drafted a chart discussing the pros and cons of a more transparent society, based upon the open circulation and access of data made public either necessarily by services and companies, or voluntarily by users/citizens. by offering a critique of china’s top-down social credit system, the group advanced a collective assessment of services through publicly relevant data, leading to forms of s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities rewards and/or disincentives for both services and users (so that social responsibility is double- sided). concerning education, the group focused its attention on the ethical and practical implications of the emergence of digital twins, that is, the datafied doppelganger of the individual, made up of the collection of all its (so far dispersed) data. in their own words, the group explored what it means to have “a digital twin serving the individual as a personal assistant and a digital face in society” and how to think of and frame its coming into being (i.e. through which data and under which conditions of liability). as for the politics group, their project elaborated on the concept of “epistemocracy”, i.e. the idea that processes of democratic/participative decision-making, especially on local matters, should be based upon the acquisition of prior knowledge. to advance this idea the group designed an e-governance online service for promoting the direct participation, collaboration and voting of citizens on a number of proposals. in the cases envisioned by the group, before voting online, citizens are required to pass a test focused on the debated proposal and meant to assess the citizen/user knowledge of its key tenets (and s/he can only try the test twice). subsequently, we have two projects that offer concrete examples for a more sustainable circular economy based on e-services. the ecology group conceived the mockup of an app called “veg- eat-ables” for launching fair practices in the production and consumption of local food. in this spirit, vegetables are grown in collectively managed gardens – at the level of streets or neighbourhoods (see also the urbanism group) – its consumption is meant for self-subsistence and, if needed, the app put in contact members of different neighbourhoods for the recirculation of leftovers (which can be given in exchange for other small social services, see economy group). the app also contains a section with information on how to preserve food, limit packaging, and recycle organic and inorganic waste. strictly connected with the ecology group is the economy group, which came up with a platform for the sharing of (voluntary) services based on the logics of time banking. time banking is, indeed, a grassroots way of trading – close to bargain – where the currency is actually time. the economy group, then, collaborated closely with the ecology group for implementing a sustainable model intersecting the working hours in the collectively managed gardens with the possibility of receiving food (or getting lower utility bills, see also urbanism group) by cumulating a “time capital” for the provided social work. last, the project of the urbanism group addressed three layers – building, mapping and mobility – which were deeply interwoven and eventually described via few renderings at micro level (e.g. single houses and streets), meso level (e.g. neighbourhoods, social spaces, natural areas) and macro level (the whole village). to link the three layers was an environmentally sustainable mobility plan, which also included tech connectivity and free wifi. more in detail, the group planned house building using both renewable materials and d printing, as well as designing them to be energetically sustainable (reducing, if not zeroing, utility bills); the topographical organisation of the village included modularly-planned streets and neighbourhoods hosting canals, green areas, public spaces and buildings, as well as info points describing the overall conception of the village; mobility was based on pedestrian zones, bike sharing and electric car sharing fuelled by renewable energies (obtained by allotting communal areas for solar panels and windmills). https://cmte.ieee.org/futuredirections/ / / /digital-twins-where-we-are-where-we-go-vii/ https://cmte.ieee.org/futuredirections/ / / /digital-twins-where-we-are-where-we-go-vii/ umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , overall, the projects presented different levels of accuracy and depth. and yet, they all did rely upon existing technologies for their conception, design and implementation of the proposed solutions, thus stressing the importance of creating synergies across sometimes distant areas (such as politics and technology, or economy and ecology) in innovative, tech-based ways. most importantly, by building upon their practical skills as designers, students demonstrated to be able to cut through the critical discourses surrounding digital technologies and techno-society, in order to pragmatically address (if not solve) some of the most relevant issues connected to them. limitations and further developments the experience in hong kong brought to all actors involved a more “distanced” perception of the use of snss (and how these, in turn, impact surreptitiously on the user’s life). this is certainly significant in light of the goal to foster critical awareness as far as our daily social media diet is concerned. however, given the small cohort of participants and its socio- demographic uniformity (all asian students between and years old), the findings would require further testing to be confirmed. no doubt, the research would greatly benefit from the replication of the digital autoethnography in a different cultural context (e.g. europe) and with the involvement of a larger and more varied group of participants. the experience in milan, on its part, represented a very proactive approach towards the status of today’s techno-society, the unveiling of its shortcomings and potentialities and the reflection upon possible more sustainable directions it can take. in fact, students had the chance to not only discuss cutting edge issues related to the pervasiveness of technology in our society, but also be at forefront of innovative solutions to be conceived and implemented collaboratively. and yet, the breadth of the macro-themes likely constituted a major limitation to the students’ effective elaboration of their final projects, especially given the short span of time they had. in this respect, the possibility of linking this course to a second one, either in the same semester or in a subsequent one, might represent a viable option leading to finalize sounder projects. this would also be enhanced by connecting students in dh with peers studying computer sciences: the collaboration would certainly favour the conception of more feasible projects, possibly ready to be presented and implemented at municipality level. references [ ] benjamin, walter. 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[ ] simanowski, roberto. . digital humanities and digital media: conversations on politics, culture, aesthetics and literacy. london: open university press. [ ] stackla. . “ statistics about user-generated content you need to know.” accessed september , . https://stackla.com/resources/blog/ -statistics-about- user-generated-content-you-need-to-know/ [ ] stiegler, bernard. . “memory.” in critical terms for media, edited by w. j. t. mitchell and mark hansen, - . chicago: university of chicago press. [ ] taylor, linnet. . “no place to hide? the ethics and analytics of tracking mobility using mobile phone data.” environment and planning d: society and space ( ): - . [ ] università. . “università, in calo professori e ricercatori. quasi mila in meno in anni.” accessed september , . https://www.universita.it/universita-calo- professori-ricercatori/ [ ] van dijck, josé. . the culture of connectivity: a critical history of social media. oxford: oxford university press. [ ] van dijck, josé, thomas poell, and martijn de waal. . the platform society: public values in a connective world. new york: oxford university press. [ ] zuboff, shoshana. . the age of surveillance capitalism: the fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. new york: public affairs. https://www.universita.it/universita-calo-professori-ricercatori/ https://www.universita.it/universita-calo-professori-ricercatori/ https://stackla.com/resources/blog/ -statistics-about-user-generated-content-you-need-to-know/ https://stackla.com/resources/blog/ -statistics-about-user-generated-content-you-need-to-know/ https://digitalreality.ieee.org/images/files/pdf/transhumanism.pdf https://doi.org/% . / abstract introduction crucial times in higher education digital autoethnography & connected intelligence digital autoethnography connected intelligence results digital autoethnography connected intelligence limitations and further developments references [pdf] discovering relationships from imperial court documents of qing china | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: discovering relationships from imperial court documents of qing china @article{hsiang discoveringrf, title={discovering relationships from imperial court documents of qing china}, author={j. hsiang and shih-pei chen and hou ieong ho and h. tu}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } j. hsiang, shih-pei chen, + author h. tu published history, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. the qing imperial court documents are a major source of primary research material for studying the qing era china since they provide the most direct and first-hand details of how national affairs were handled. however, the way qing archived these documents has made it cumbersome to collect documents covering the same event and rebuild their original contexts. in this paper, we describe some information technology that we have developed to discover two important and useful relations among these… expand view via publisher thdl.ntu.edu.tw save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations methods citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper figure table figure table figure figure table figure table figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables text mining digital library historical document diagram archive citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency discovering land transaction relations from land deeds of taiwan shih-pei chen, yu-ming huang, j. hsiang, h. tu, hou ieong ho, ping-yen chen business, computer science lit. linguistic comput. pdf view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed a chinese ancient book digital humanities research platform to support digital humanities research chih-ming chen, c. chang computer science electron. libr. save alert research feed application of taiwan's human rights-themed cultural assets and spatial information shuhui lin sociology, computer science complex. pdf save alert research feed visuality in a cross-disciplinary battleground: analysis of inscriptions in digital humanities journal publications rongqian ma, kai li computer science pdf view excerpts, cites methods save alert research feed a bibliographic analysis of scholarly publication in the emerging field of digital humanities in taiwan k. chen, muh-chyun tang sociology save alert research feed references showing - of references methods for identifying versioned and plagiarized documents t. c. hoad, j. zobel computer science j. assoc. inf. sci. technol. pdf save alert research feed collection statistics for fast duplicate document detection abdur chowdhury, o. frieder, d. grossman, m. mccabe computer science tois pdf save alert research feed related papers abstract figures, tables, and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students doi: http://doi.org/ . /issn. - / students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students floriana carlotta sciumbata università di trieste, italy floriana.sciumbata@gmail.com abstract questa indagine riguarda le conoscenze digitali di studenti universitari, nativi digitali di ultima generazione, iscritti a corsi in materie umanistiche, in cui le competenze digitali e l’informatica rischiano spesso di passare in secondo piano sia per quanto riguarda l’interesse degli studenti sia nell’offerta formativa. l’obiettivo è capire come gli studenti percepiscono il proprio livello di competenza digitale e se esista una discrepanza tra il livello percepito tramite autovalutazione e la conoscenza effettiva. gli studenti hanno perciò risposto a un sondaggio di quattro sezioni contenenti domande conoscitive, due sezioni di autovalutazione e una comprendente domande a risposta multipla, basate sul quadro europeo delle competenze digitali, su aspetti pratici e teorici del lavoro al computer utili in ambito universitario e professionale. i risultati evidenziano che i partecipanti tendono a sopravvalutare le proprie competenze e che le loro conoscenze presentano diverse lacune anche su aspetti basilari. oltre che per tracciare il profilo delle capacità digitali degli studenti universitari, il sondaggio indica quali conoscenze, spesso date per assodate da docenti e istituzioni, dovrebbero invece essere potenziate per fornire agli studenti strumenti adeguati ad affrontare il loro percorso accademico e, più avanti, quello professionale, ma anche l'uso quotidiano degli strumenti digitali. this paper presents a study carried out to survey the digital skills of italian students belonging to the latest generation of digital natives and currently enrolled in university courses of humanities, in which it and digital skills risk to be neglected both by the students’ interest and the range of courses that are offered. the study aims to understand how students perceive their level of digital skills and whether there is a discrepancy between their self-assessed level and their actual knowledge. participants answered a survey of four sections, including preliminary questions, two self-assessment parts and a section containing multiple-choice questions, based on the european framework of digital competences, on both theoretical and practical aspects of it and digital skills. results show that participants tend to overestimate their digital skills and that they lack knowledge of basic topics. besides outlining the digital competences of italian humanities students, this study points out digital skills that should be strengthened, whereas they are often taken for granted by teachers and institutions, although students need those skills in their university and professional life, but also for their daily digital needs. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , introduction in his infamous work digital natives, digital immigrants, published in , mark prensky states that “our students today are all “native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games and the internet” ([ ]) and defines them ‘digital natives’. at first, the term indicated the first generation born and raised after the spread of digital technologies (i.e. after ) such as “computers, video games, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age” ([ ]), and the term is still commonly used today to designate younger generations that always lived in contact with digital tools. there is a misleading assumption that generations born and raised in a digital environment are naturally skilled that might lead to overestimating the digital skills of digital natives. however, “in the seminal literature on digital natives these assertions are put forward with limited empirical evidence (e.g. [ ]) or supported by anecdotes and appeals to common-sense beliefs ([ ])” ([ ]). according to the same authors, literature “demonstrates a clear mismatch between the confidence with which claims are made and the evidence for such claims”. indeed, living with digital tools and using them daily does not necessarily determine tech- savviness, as confirmed by several studies. italian students belonging to the digital native generation are not an exception. according to a study carried out in italian schools, - -year- old italian students can perform more technical and procedural activities using computers, although they have very low skills in more complex tasks such as using logical operators or distinguishing between tasks that can be accomplished or not by computers ( [ ]). more importantly, the same study found that the sample does not spontaneously doubt the reliability of internet information, a much-needed skill in the era of fake news. furthermore, an oecd- pisa survey found out that italian students “do not learn how to plan and execute a search, how to evaluate the usefulness of information, or how to assess the credibility of sources” and they seem to receive little help from italian schools in developing those increasingly important skills ([ ]). additionally, italian university students have “an erroneous perception of the level of it security knowledge, even amongst respondents studying technical subjects” ( [ ]). finally, the istat ([ ]) report found out that . % of italian internet users have low digital skills. although the aforementioned studies were carried out mainly with italian teenagers, it can be assumed that students enter university with lacks in their digital skills. in the “digital turn in higher education” ([ ]) is therefore important to identify them to assess the actual level of knowledge and plan better teaching syllabi according to the results. the survey this study explores the digital skills of university students born after and currently attending humanities courses in italy. indeed, in such courses students often seem not also see [ ] for more ‘myths’ regarding digital natives. see, among others, [ ], [ ]; [ ]; [ ]. other data are reported in [ ]. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students particularly interested in digital skills and icts (information and communication technologies), that can be limited or even neglected in the range of courses offered by universities. in other cases, applied it courses (applied to humanities, to translation, courses on digital humanities applications, practical courses on specific software, etc.) are offered, but they do not focus on basic it and digital skills. nonetheless, digital skills are nowadays fundamental (or, at least, extremely helpful) in any field of knowledge, and required for most jobs. it is therefore important to understand the students’ level of knowledge to determine which skills, useful at an academic, professional, but also personal level, should be strengthened during the students’ training. for this study, students born after were considered as, first of all, they represent the generation currently enrolled in both bachelor’s and master’s degrees in italy. furthermore, students born after are often referred to as the ‘google generation’ ([ ]) or ‘i-generation’ and are often considered the ‘actual’ digital natives since they have grown up in a web . environment ([ ]). the aims of the survey are: • outlining the digital skills profile of italian university students of humanities; • understanding if there is a discrepancy between their self-assessed level of digital skills and the actual level of knowledge; • identifying specific skills that should be improved in order to give students better tools for their academic, personal and professional use of digital tools. structure the survey is divided in four parts. the first part contains preliminary questions to outline the data set, including complete responses, graphs, python and r scripts, can be found at https://github.com/flometis/informaggio (last consulted on / / ) those courses are undoubtedly useful. however, they often require some previous knowledge that students do not have. for instance, in my experience as a teacher of it applied to translation, i have noticed that students do not have any previous knowledge of file formats, encodings, ocr, text formatting, ‘conscious’ google searches: all useful tools when it comes to compile corpora, tag them, or use cat (computer-assisted translation)-tools. students even struggle with standard software interfaces or keyboard shortcuts, which suggests that they are not very familiar with using those tools. the survey is still available at https://www.zorbaproject.org/informaggio/ (last consulted on / / ). the first section and the following ones can be consulted (in html format and in italian) and downloaded at https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario- informaggio.html (last consulted on / / ). they can be also viewed at the url in footnote . the first part also contains what software developers and videogamers would call an ‘easter egg’. the privacy note at the beginning of the survey asked participants to write “accept” in the text box and listed a “read more” option. it contained more details about the privacy policy, but also a part that https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio.html https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio.html https://www.zorbaproject.org/informaggio/ https://github.com/flometis/informaggio umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , the profile of the respondents. first, it contains general questions aimed to understand the demographics of respondents (year of birth, gender, region of origin, university, degree course, etc.). the following questions focus on the ‘user profile’ of participants, including how long they have been using computers and the internet, if they own a computer, which operating system they use, which device they use more often. there are also questions regarding their attitude towards icts and the digital world that investigate if participants are interested in them and if they have ever fixed or changed a computer part (such as ram, internal hard disk, video card, etc.). then, participants are asked if they got an ecdl certification , if they feel that they know more about computers than their high school/university teachers, and finally if they help friends and family to solve their problems with their devices. the second section includes a single self-assessment question that asks participants to place their skills on a -grade scale going from insufficient to excellent without giving further details. the goal of this section is to understand how participants evaluate their skills overall. moreover, its results will be compared to the answers to the following section. the third section contains a second self-assessment set of questions based on the european digital competence framework . (digcomp). the framework identifies the key components of digital competence in five areas, described as follows: • information and data literacy: to articulate information needs, to locate and retrieve digital data, information and content. to judge the relevance of the source and its content. to store, manage, and organise digital data, information and content. • communication and collaboration: to interact, communicate and collaborate through digital technologies while being aware of cultural and generational diversity. to participate in society through public and private digital services and participatory citizenship. to manage one’s digital identity and reputation. • digital content creation: to create and edit digital content to improve and integrate stated “if you read this, please write ‘read’ instead of ‘accept’ in the text box, otherwise you shall give a case of ipa beer to the administrator of this survey”. out of all the participants only one spotted the easter egg by underlining that “a case of ipa is an ambiguous reference for a linguist”, so now i should have ipa cases in my fridge. with regard to this, see the experiment ran by f-secure (described in [ ]) concerning free wifi terms and conditions. the team set a free hotspot, but customers where asked to sign terms and condition that contained the “herod clause”, stating that “the recipient agreed to assign their first born child to us for the duration of eternity”. ecdl is the european computer driving licence, now known as international computer driving licence. it is a computer literacy certification often promoted by italian schools, especially in the first decade of s. see the url linked in footnote . https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html (last consulted on / / ). the descriptions were retrieved from the digcomp official website: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/digital-competence-framework (last consulted on / / ). https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/digital-competence-framework https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students information and content into an existing body of knowledge while understanding how copyright and licences are to be applied. to know how to give understandable instructions for a computer system. • safety: to protect devices, content, personal data and privacy in digital environments. to protect physical and psychological health, and to be aware of digital technologies for social well-being and social inclusion. to be aware of the environmental impact of digital technologies and their use. • problem solving: to identify needs and problems, and to resolve conceptual problems and problem situations in digital environments. to use digital tools to innovate processes and products. to keep up-to-date with the digital evolution. participants are asked to read the descriptions of the framework levels as they appear in the europass cv self-assessment of digital competencies and choose to which level they feel they belong for each area (basic, independent or proficient user). two more options are added and participants can also choose “i am not competent enough and i do not fit in any of the levels listed above” or “i am more competent than all the levels listed above”. finally, the fourth section represents the core of the survey. it comprises fifteen multiple- choice questions that try to investigate the actual knowledge of participants. the questions are based on the european framework and refer to theoretical and practical aspects of working with it and digital tools. they include the following topics: ) definition of rar files; ) creation of pdf files; ) identification of mark-up languages; ) identification of hardware items; ) definition of duckduckgo (alternative search engine); ) identification of reliable websites containing news/information; ) identification of encrypted websites; see the descriptions of the single levels at https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/resources/digital- competences (last consulted on / / ). the names of the areas vary from the digicomp ones and correspond to information processing, communication, content creation, safety, and problem solving. https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html (last consulted on / / ). questions were categorised according to the five digcomp areas for scoring purposes, although some questions overlap two categories. question , , , , and belong to the “information and data literacy” area. questions and belong to the “communication and collaboration” area. questions , , and belong to the “digital content creation” area. questions , , and belong to the “safety” area, whereas the “problem solving” area only includes question . question was not inserted in any of the previous categories. https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/resources/digital-competences https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/resources/digital-competences umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , ) functioning of ‘allinurl:’ on google; ) privacy of content on social media; ) password management; ) reaction to phishing e-mails; ) understanding of how search engines work; ) sending big files; ) sharing documents with others; ) solving problems related to safety (viruses, spyware, etc.). all the questions have four or more answers, always including an “i don’t know” option, and some had more than one correct answer. for example, the question “which of the following items are hardware?” lists the following answers, with four correct options (hard disk, printer, ssd memory device, hdmi cable): • hard disk • operating system • printer • ssd memory device • cloud computing • hdmi cable • browser • ip address • i don’t know some trick answers are present to ‘mislead’ participants and assess their actual knowledge on certain topics. for example, answers to the question “which of the following are safe (encrypted) websites?” are: • https://www.pornhub.com • http://units.it/ • https://musicagratis.ita • http://mail.google.com • https://www.unicredit.com the correct answers are, of course, the urls containing the ‘https’ protocol, whereas the here, the second-level domain can be translated in english as ‘freemusic’. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students second level domains (meaning the names preceding .it, .ita or .com) used here might trick respondents because they can be associated to safe or malicious websites. a similar technique is used in the question “which of the following contain reliable information?”: • il fatto quotidaino • facebook • ansa • wikipedia • corriere della sera • retenews • treccani while three of the listed sources are reliable (corriere della sera, ansa, and treccani), il fatto quotidaino and retenews were popular fake news websites. the former mimicked the italian newspaper il fatto quotidiano (note the imperceptibly reversed vowels), the latter recalls a tv news channel named rainews . distribution the survey was distributed through social media by posting its url on facebook groups of italian universities, with a focus on departments and degree courses of humanities. respondents answered anonymously. the system registered responses from participants coming from italian universities and enrolled in several degree courses of humanities including languages, literature, translation and interpreting, art, history, philosophy and so on. results responses were collected between november and january and were later filtered by using a python script that discarded the incomplete ones and excluded respondents who did not meet the requirements of being born after or enrolled in a relevant degree. the ansa is the leading italian wire service. corriere della sera is a well-known italian daily newspaper. treccani is a renowned italian encyclopaedia. a detailed study on italian fake news can be found in [ ]. the complete list of groups can be found at https://pastebin.com/ggbkg h (last consulted on / / ). the answer collection system encrypted the respondents’ ips using a hash md algorithm. https://pastebin.com/ggbkg h umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , filtering process resulted in valid responses. another python script automatised the data processing phase, and to weigh the answers registered in section of the survey. every right answer gave point if correct, or . points for answers that can be considered partially correct. wrong answers corresponded to - or - . point, and not answered questions or “i don’t know” answers mark points. the maximum possible score is points. after calculating the results, an r script automatically generated charts and graphs. the overall result is quite complex and several correlations between data can be made, however, only the most relevant ones will be discussed here. profile first of all, the preliminary questions of the first section found that respondents are mostly female ( out of ). their years of birth range from to and are distributed as shown in figure . figure : years of birth of the respondents f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students most participants come from the northern regions of italy, especially veneto ( respondents), lombardy ( ), and friuli-venezia giulia ( ), that virtually cover half of the sample. other regions can be seen in the chart in figure . gender and origin are interesting starting data that might play a role in the performance of the participants in this survey. indeed, according to studies, there is a digital divide between male and female users, with the latter showing a disadvantage. on the other hand, respondents come mainly from the northern part of italy, less affected by regional digital divide ([ ]). students are currently enrolled in a bachelor’s degree, with several degrees represented (translation, interpreting, languages, history, philosophy, literature, art, pedagogy…). many of them are attending the university of trieste ( ), whereas milan ranks second ( ) and bologna third, with respondents. less than half ( ) already attended an it course at university, although age and the fact that many respondents are enrolled in the first year of university must be considered in this case. only respondents have an ecdl certification. figure and figure shows the years of usage of computers and the internet respectively. an overview can be found in [ ]. see also [ ]; [ ]; [ ]. figure : regions of origin of the respondents umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , as the charts show, the majority of respondents have been using computers for at least ten years, whereas they have been generally surfing the internet for less time. figure : years of usage of computers. figure : years of usage of the internet. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students almost all the respondents own a computer ( ), of which use windows, macos, and linux as their operating system. laptops seem to be the most used device according to respondents, while smartphones are preferred by , tablets by , desktop computers by , and other devices by . devices are mostly used for studying ( ), entertainment ( ), communication ( ) and work ( ). almost two-thirds of the respondents declare that they are not interested in itc ( ), and have never tried to change a computer part. the majority of participants still believe that they are more expert than their high school teachers ( ), whereas fewer respondents think that they are more expert than their university teachers ( ). finally, three out of four respondents ( ) help their friends and family if they have any issues with their devices. first self-assessment when asked to measure their knowledge on a -grade scale including insufficient, poor, average, good, and excellent, respondents answered as illustrated in the graph in figure . almost half ( ) answered that their knowledge is good, with ‘good’ being the second-top grade of the scale. think that their knowledge is average, that it is poor, that it is insufficient and that it is excellent. it can therefore be assumed that respondents generally believe that their level of skills is high but not perfect, while many are aware of their low-level skills. figure : self-assessed overall level of digital skills umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , second self-assessment based on the digcomp framework while students seem to have a quite good overall opinion about their skills, the third section of the survey shows a slightly different picture. indeed, the descriptions used in the european digital competence framework . give more contextualised definitions of what digital skills are and how they can be evaluated. responses to this section are summarised in figure . more than half feel that their description corresponds to the independent user one when it comes to information and data literacy. respondents feel proficient, and respondents feel less competent than the described profiles. only consider themselves basic users. respondents feel even more self-confident in the communication area. as easily predictable in the communication era, the vast majority of respondents seem to be quite positive about their skills, with independent, advanced, and basic users. on the contrary, the self-assessed level in the content creation area appears quite different, as most respondents ( ) declare to be basic users, while are independent users. according to respondents, their skills are too low and they do not fit in any of the descriptions. finally, only users are proficient. a similar scenario appears in the problem solving area. indeed, as in the previous area, most respondents ( ) are basic users, are independent users, are extremely-low-skilled users, whereas only are proficient. finally, in the safety area, the majority of respondents are independent users. however, almost for a more comprehensive study on italian university students and safety, see [ ]. the study figure : respondents' digcomp self-assessed levels f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students the same amount of respondents declare to be basic users, whereas are proficient. in the first self-assessment phase (section of the survey), almost half of the respondents reported having a ‘good’ level of skills, which might correspond to an independent to proficient user profile. however, the participants’ self-perceived level downsized simply by giving them a more punctual definition of the areas connected with digital skills. although in two areas out of five (content creation and problem solving) basic users prevail, respondents still perceive that their level of skills is good. it is also interesting to note that some users believe that their level is so low that it does not correspond to any of the profiles described in the european framework. multiple-choice questions as mentioned, the fourth section represents the core of this survey and comprises fifteen multiple-choice exploratory questions that test the actual knowledge of the participants. the questions are based on the five areas of the european framework and refer to theoretical and practical aspects of working with it and digital tools. answers were weighed using a scoring system (+ or + . to correct answers, - or - . wrong answers, and points for empty or “i don’t know” answers), with the maximum possible score corresponding to points. the respondents obtained the scores represented in figure . although only few respondents reach a negative score, the graph shows a peak on , with concluded that “there is an erroneous perception of the level of it security knowledge, even amongst respondents studying technical subjects”. figure : respondents' scores umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , respondents who obtained that mark. the score distribution is clearer in figure , representing the scores divided into -point ranges. the graph demonstrates that more than half of the scores (about %) concentrate between and points. moreover, only respondents got a score higher than points and no one reached the maximum score of . the high incidence of scores could suggest that respondents often resorted to the “i don’t know” option. although out of respondents answered “i don’t know” at least once while filling out the survey, “i don’t know” answers represent only % of the total given answers. low scores are therefore caused mainly by incorrect answers. figure shows how respondents scored according to their first self-assessment. figure : respondents' scores represented in -point ranges f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students self-declared ‘good’ users still peak on points, while several ‘excellent’ users got low marks. the graph suggests that many users tend to overestimate their skills, except for a ‘poor’ user reaching one of the highest scores. respondents who already took an it course at university show slightly better results, as shown in figure . figure : scores according to the respondents' first self-assessment figure : scores represented according to whether participants already took an it course at university umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , note that all the highest scores were reached by students who already took a course. nonetheless, most still get low results, which might suggest that it courses currently offered help but are still not enough to enhance many skills described in digcomp. scores can also be analysed by categorising them according to digcomp, as shown in the following figures, in order to identify the most problematic areas. see footnote for more details on how questions were categorised. the graphs show the minimum and maximum score that could be reached in the five areas and the percentage of respondents for each score. figure : scores referred to the digcomp communication area figure : scores referred to the digcomp content creation area figure : scores referred to the digcomp problem solving area figure : scores referred to the digcomp information area f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students respondents seem to lack knowledge in all the areas, as they generally score low or even negative. the most problematic area is the information-related one. indeed, few respondents got points while the maximum score is . although most respondents declared to be independent users, they seem to lack knowledge in the safety area, where they got several negative marks and never reached the maximum of . points. moreover, despite the fact that participants seemed very confident in the digcomp self-assessment section regarding the communication area, they showed some gaps in their knowledge, and % reached a score of while the maximum score is . finally, it is interesting to analyse some striking answers to single questions. for instance, respondents out of reported that they do not know what a .rar file is. only indicated correctly that ‘allinurl:’ on google is an operator to narrow search queries but do not know what it is, and this probably indicates that they do not know any of the advanced search operators all ending with a colon that can be specified in the google search bar. the meaning of ‘https’ seems clear to respondents who chose all three correct answers. only identified correctly all the listed mark-up languages, while out of identified html and only know that latex is a mark-up language. it is also surprising to see that most students do not even understand a basic concept as the differences between hardware and software. while correctly indicated that hard disks belong to hardware (possibly because of the two sounding similar), consider operating systems as hardware, and do not know. no one checked all the correct answers in the question. figure : scores referred to the digcomp safety area umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , conclusion this exploratory study was conducted on a diverse sample, although not statistically significant. however, it still gives some ideas on how italian university students of humanities perceive their skills, whether they lack some competencies, and whether there is a gap between their self- assessed level of knowledge and the actual one. indeed, there is still a need for further studies involving other populations, as well as a more extensive and more balanced set of questions including other topics. students of humanities who participated in this study have a very good opinion about their digital skills: most of them consider themselves ‘good’ users overall, and ‘independent’ users in three out of five digcomp areas. however, when tested, they showed significant gaps in their knowledge in all the areas, indicating that they tend to overestimate their skills, as a study published by the ecdl foundation ([ ]) already stated. in particular, the areas related to safety and information are problematic. furthermore, while students feel very confident in their communication digital skills, they seem to be lacking knowledge in this field, too. as argued by selwyn ([ ]) “many young peoples’ actual use of digital technologies remain rather more limited in scope than the digital native rhetoric would suggest”. when thinking that their skills are good or even excellent, students are not motivated to strengthen them as they do not feel the need to. furthermore, they do not understand the potential of using digital skills in their everyday, academic, and work life. this can also be one of the reasons why they tend to overestimate their skills, as they do not know the potentialities of using digital tools and do not perceive any gap in their knowledge. there are also other risks associated with the fact that digital skills are taken for granted. for example, teachers will not feel the need to teach basic aspects and will rather go for more advanced ones, employers will still expect their employees to have certain digital skills, maybe the ones declared on their cvs based on a self-assessment like digcomp, and governments will not allocate enough resources as they do not feel the urge to do so. nonetheless, digital skills are gaining importance and represent a key factor in every aspect of our lives. it is therefore important to reconsider how digital skills are passed down to younger generations in order to avoid a future gap. there is a need to rethink how digital skills are taught, first of all, in early education, then in humanities (and other) courses, besides finding effective ways to assess them and to make students more self-aware. another issue is the lack of interest that this study found, which can compromise the students’ will to improve their knowledge. a good starting point for humanities courses could be considering to enhance basic it/digital courses before applied ones in order to improve fundamental skills before giving students more advanced tools. demonstrating that the skills that students acquire can actually help them to work better and more efficiently might help to spark their interest in the subject. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students acknowledgements i thank luca tringali, programmer and specialised journalist, for his valuable help with r and python and throughout all the phases of this study. references [ ] bennett, sue, karl maton and lisa kervin. . “the “digital natives” debate: a critical review of the evidence.” british journal of educational technology ( ): – . 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[ ] tapscott, don. . growing up digital: the rise of the net generation. new york: mcgraw-hill. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students [ ] tech and law center. . security of the digital natives. http://www.techandlaw.net/wp- content/uploads/ / / _tlc_sdn_report-eng.pdf. abstract introduction the survey structure distribution results profile first self-assessment second self-assessment based on the digcomp framework multiple-choice questions conclusion acknowledgements references deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa research how to cite: yékú, james. . “deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa.” digital studies/ le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / dscn. published: december peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / yékú, james. . “deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa james yékú university of kansas, lawrence, ks, us jyeku@ku.edu this article explores the relationship between the forms of representation and the modes of production of african online writing, rendering visible an appreciation of the digital contexts that have occasioned new experimentations with regard to genre, style and the formation of digital publics. but it’s the bibliographic form and materiality of african digital texts that interest me the most. the medium of african literature, profoundly transformed since the arrival of the internet, conditions the transmission, reception of meaning and the constitution of reading publics and the identity of audiences. more so, the new textual environment of african writing and creatives expressions such as digital networks and literary blogs are terrains of discursive contestations that activate these digital fields of cultural production in africa as materially connected to prior literary forms. deploying several examples, including the recent ‘transition’ of saraba magazine to print and mike maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl, i argue that, despite the widespread uses of digital media forms in new african narratives, there is a lingering print imaginary in the digital articulations of african literary texts. while this tension between print and digital forms shapes textual meanings, it signals new directions in african literary studies more broadly. keywords: materiality; african literature; digital media; textuality; print cet article explore la relation entre les formes de représentation et les modes de production de l’écriture africaine en ligne, en rendant visible une appréciation des contextes numériques qui facilitent de nouvelles expérimentations en ce qui concerne le genre, le style et la formation des publics numériques. c’est pourtant la forme bibliographique et la matérialité des textes africains numériques qui m’intéressent le plus. le média de littérature africaine, profondément transformé depuis l’arrivée de l’internet, conditionne similairement la transmission, la réception de la signification ainsi que la composition de publics de lecteurs et l’identité d’audiences. en outre, le nouvel environnement textuel de l’écriture africaine et les expressions créatives, tels que les réseaux numériques et https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:jyeku@ku.edu yeku: deference to paperart. , page of les blogs littéraires, sont des terrains de contestations discursives qui stimulent ces domaines numériques de production culturelle en afrique, liés matériellement à d’anciennes formes littéraires. en me servant des exemples de la « transition » récente vers la presse écrite de la saraba magazine et le journal d’une fille zulu par nkululeko maphoto, j’argumente que, malgré les usages répandus des formes numériques de média dans de nouvelles narrations africaines, il existe une anxiété persistante imaginaire ou archiviste dans les articulations numériques de textes littéraires africains. pendant que cette tension entre les formes imprimées et numériques façonnent les sens textuels, cela indique plus généralement de nouvelles directions dans les études littéraires africaines. mots-clés: matérialité; littérature africaine; médias numériques; textualité; écriture imprimée introduction few studies on postcolonial african literary productions online have focused on the digital environments and materialities of many born-digital literary texts by african writers. for scholarly works that present critical analyses of these important domains, the emphasis is more on content than on the form and physical features of the medium of expression. ideas from bibliographic and textual criticism can be beneficial to studies of the african digital literary spaces that produce multiple textual forms, and which remain strongly linked to print culture. i use “textual criticism” not as a synonym for “literary criticism,” but in the sense of thomas tanselle ( ) who in “textual criticism and deconstruction” writes of the ambiguity that emerges when both are used interchangeably. for him, “textual criticism” has traditionally meant the scholarly activity of studying the textual histories of verbal works in an effort to propose reliable texts of those works according to one or another definition of correctness. as i will show throughout this paper, my interest is not to focus on a single digital text or the remediated form of a print text for my analysis; the point is to use several examples which signal the material implications of an enduring print consciousness permeating african digital spaces. it is thus imperative to begin a conversation on new works that exist purely through the medium of the web, texts whose ontology is shaped by digitality and that later appear as printed texts. as the internet is increasingly central for the circulation of african creative yeku: deference to paper art. , page of expressions in web . spaces like literary blogs and social media, we need to explore connections between the material form of these spaces and the variations of the texts produced. in her work on the emergence of digital literary studies, amy earhart writes that a unique approach of the digital humanities is the decentering of print scholarship which is “beginning to wield less power in shaping the area as blog posts, tweets, listserv discussions, and digital projects gain attention” ( , ). while a similar situation may be found in digital literary studies in africa, print culture lingers as a solidified aspiration of digital literary writers who mostly encounter the digital as an experimental space for their creativity. if as karin barber suggests, “literature is a social product and bears the imprint of the conditions of its production” ( , ), we can seek to understand the ways in which digital technologies shape the form, genres and texts of african literary texts circulating online. the platformization of african literature, evident in several literary blogs devoted to publishing new writers, has meant that spaces such as saraba and jalada have become central in the recent invigoration of literary sensibilities on the continent. the importance of the digital moment in african literature is asserted by established writers like chimamanda adichie ( ) who not only experiments with literary blogging in her novel, americanah but also makes digital affordances central narrative techniques. structured around social media as a meta-fictional space from which her protagonist, ifemelu expresses grim perspectives about race, the novel demonstrates a range of textualities that highlight how print and digital poetics actually converge, rather than displace each other in contemporary works from the continent. new platforms of african writing not only assure the visibility of new names, but also accommodate novel forms of authorial agency that enriches african cultural productions more generally. theoretically, the field of african digital literary studies itself is responding to this digital explosion of literary agency, with an increased engagement with the internet as the medium of new literary voices. shola adenekan’s inaugurating dissertation in the area frames this process as “the internetting of african literature” ( ) and is the basis for his forthcoming monograph on african literature in a digital yeku: deference to paperart. , page of age. the new volume addresses class and sexual politics in online writing from kenya and nigeria and provides an analysis of digital literary networks and their importance to the understanding of literary history in both countries (adenekan ). in the study, adenekan argues that the platformization of literary craft in the kenyan and nigerian literary contexts arguably started from the mid to late s when writers seeking to draw attention to their printed work started posting poems and short stories on e-mailing lists, such as krazitivity and ederi, and other similar listservs hosted by the likes of yahoo and the now defunct geocities. in more recent years, newer online spaces, such as brittlepaper and africaisacountry have appeared as platforms from which new writers produce literary and cultural discourses on africa. in the last ten years, brittlepaper, in particular, as an afrocentric space of literary circulations has consolidated its status as the most formidable literary portal into creative writing on the continent. in line with adenekan’s work, i analyzed an online fan fiction of chinua achebe’s novel things fall apart that was published by brittlepaper in , demonstrating that these digital platforms of african literature have created new roles for readers of african fiction who “recast the monologic frame and individual authority of print,” resulting in “a decentered medium, structured on the logics of interactivity and participatory culture” ( , ). the reading experience is now such that allows people to easily respond to literary texts and even engage directly with other writers themselves, even as new reading habits are formed. my goal in that article was to show that the structure and design of web . platforms and applications, such as blogs and social media, democratize and decenter authorial space, opening up more user-focused engagements and reformulations of traditional modes of cultural representations. around the same time, zahrah nesbitt-ahmed ( ) likewise argued that an explosion of new technologies has meant a completely new way of reaching and interacting with an african audience that not only changes the traditional gatekeepers of literature on the continent but enables creators and consumers of african literature to reclaim—and then reframe—their own narratives ( ). a more recent paper stresses the role of social media in amplifying yeku: deference to paper art. , page of articulations of reader agency in african literary texts. exploring the intersection of digital culture and african writing on the internet, another study uses social media commentary discussions and reader responses to china achebe’s war memoir, there was a country to track the nature and functions of the digital publics of african literature (yékú , ). i have outlined these studies to acknowledge the existing theoretical engagements with a rapidly expanding field of african literature in a digital age and to counter critical any tendencies that obfuscate the presence of african digital subjects both as producers and critics of new digital genres. indeed, stephanie santana’s brilliant exploration of serialized fiction from southern africa published on facebook and blogs show that the digital is ‘helping to foster multiple cyberplaces in which new literary forms and indigenous languages are thriving’ ( , ). in a work that is closest to the topic i examine in this article, digital literary forms are asserted as influencing from local, national, and regional zones, with diverse audiences of these online fictional forms drawing from broader african, diasporic, and global audiences. also, this theoretical excursion gestures towards the relevance of my present interest— that the close connection of print culture to the digital informs different forms of textualities which mandate an appreciation of bibliographic and textual criticism— areas that are undertheorized in african literature more generally. the making of literary texts, in terms of, for example, the archival materials and manuscripts drafts of several pioneering african writers, offers a glimpse of the changes that occur in the process of textual production and circulations. one recent iteration of this materialist approach in african literature is nathan suhr-sytsma’s essay “christopher okigbo’s materials,” a work that investigates the poetics and compositional practice of the nigerian modernist writer christopher okigbo through unpublished drafts ( ). for my own reflection, i am interested in the conceptual implications of the bibliographic variations that emerge when africa literary texts first exist online and later in print. after examining the “transition” of saraba magazine ( ) to print, i will proceed to use mike maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl ( ), to reflect on how different yeku: deference to paperart. , page of platforms of african online writing both shape reading of literature and provoke new textual forms. i am hoping to use this article to explore the relationship between the forms of representation and modes of production of online african writing, showing how print and digital platforms can complement each other in a context in which print remains an unconscious or perhaps tactical objective. as several african creative writers connect and nurture relationships with readers by effectively leveraging social media and real-time collaboration tools, we are invited to appreciate why the internet “serves as a test-bed for work that may later go into print” (adenekan and cousins , ). this possibility that works produced online may end up in print is what i set out to explore in this article, particularly in the framework of how ideas in textual and bibliographical criticism intersect with the african writing online. some of the ideas expressed here are of course not new, but i do wish to restate what i believe is a lingering print imaginary in the digital articulations of african literary expressions. this is necessary in the framework of african digital studies in which conversations around the text, in either its print or digital iteration, are limited in terms of their materiality and bibliographic form. a print imaginary refers to the ways in which print practices continue to undergird and inform digital expressions of literary agency. this persistence of print is informed by the popular notion that the digital realm is a domain of impermanence and instability. as katherine hayles writes, a print-centric perspective in the ways electronic writing and textuality are discussed (hayles , ). this is evident among african writers online. i am interested in how these oft-repeated arguments in the digital humanities manifest in the particular contexts of online writing from several african countries. a print consciousness continues to shape the digital expression of works produced via electronic platforms, despite the tendency to romanticize the digital that we see in ideas of nigerian online literary critic ikhide ikheloa. i am suggesting that the mobility from the digital to print is itself something we need to investigate since print in african writing remains pervasive despite our celebratory posture toward the digital. because of the vast amount of literary data from blogs and platforms on african content, it is reasonable to assume that currently, the digital is the chief medium yeku: deference to paper art. , page of of literature. however, considering present realities that show the simultaneous investments in both print and online writing, this may be a tad essentialization of digital media, one that is impervious to the class politics of the digital divide on the continent. according to data from the itu, a united nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies, . billion people around the world still lacked online access, with africa as the region with the lowest ( . per cent). the itu data revealed a growing internet uptake, with . billion people now online, but also a widening digital gender divide. while we need to acknowledge the important contributions of literary blogs and platforms that give prominence to previously unrecognize creative voices, we need to avoid fetishizing views on the medium as the new mainly uncontested space of creative writing. that writers use digital media as creative and experimental terrains for rendering visible their creative genius has received attention from others. new african voices online “use this space to overtly attack the ‘single story’ of african representations outside africa through the modality of “their facebook status updates and in much of the online fiction they post on social media networks” (adenekan and cousins , ). while the focus on saraba magazine enables me to reflect on this persistence of print, maphoto’s experimentation with his literary blog allows me to examine more fully the ways in which the interactions of both print and digital platforms can structure meanings differently. saraba magazine’s “deference to paper” saraba as a literary magazine published its first online issue in and has since then aimed to “create unending voices” by publishing the finest emerging writers, with focus on writers from nigeria, and other parts of africa. what i undertake in this section is to use an important digital literary space in africa to make a point about print, rather than use the magazine’s foray into print to undermine the platform. a major platform’s turn to print proves the point that the digital only serves as a testbed for their literary works that ultimately aspire to print. from the editorial page of its first printed issue, the magazine expresses their commitment to “publish at least one print issue each year,” writing that “the idea, as we have done here, is to anthologize yeku: deference to paperart. , page of new writing, squarely on the premise of promise; as though this is a document with which readers might return to understand how the featured contributors have prospered in their calling as writers” ( ). i am using this saraba example to make legible the many other literary works that circulate on blogs and social media which, though are born-digital, desire the conditions of print since the digital, as testbed for the imagination, produces writing as an aesthetic of contingency. contingency manifests as writing emerges through parameters of transience that subject online texts to constant emendations. this is particularly the case as texts evolve because of the multiplicity of those participating in its emergence. although this particular saraba example may seem to be only one instance, there are other similar gestures in africa’s literary communities on the internet. for instance, we may think about another platform, african writing online which published some of today’s most important writers in contemporary african literature long before web . became a converging point for cultural productions on the continent. the nigerian writer chuma nwokolo one of the pioneering founders of the platform told me via social media on april , that their platform “was always meant to be hybrid” in the sense that digital works could later be published in print as a strategy of making african writing online “more sustainable without depending on grants and the like” from patrons (nwokolo ). therefore, although it is a foundation platform of african online writing, the magazine has had about five print issues and literary texts from many of its writers have appeared in print. the material differences between online poems by niyi osundare or jack mapanje and their print iterations deserve more scholarly attention than what we currently have. saraba indicates that print is still very much entangled with digital environments, thus enabling a richer understanding of the production of texts in a material and bibliographical sense. as figure indicates, what they call a “deference to paper,” which i explore more below, provides a sufficient metaphor for the kind of conversations and analyses on african bibliographical criticism which we need to be having as texts move back-and-forth between print and digital platforms. we can begin unpacking the implications of this post by saraba magazine by examining how the editors imagine a reader who dives “into something of beauty” yeku: deference to paper art. , page of as a gross misunderstanding of the act of reading in a digital environment. the language the editors employ invokes the physical affordances of print as a domain the reader dives into. on the other hand, digital reading is an interaction with a screen environment that transforms perception and the acts of comprehension and interpretation. readers express the cognitive demands of print reading differently in a digital space in which non-linearity, speed reading, and browsing are reading strategies typically employed by digital natives. in the light of their desire to treat “the magazine as an aesthetic object” the editors at saraba reinforce the idea that figure : saraba magazine. “the transition issue – a note from the editors.” (see saraba magazine ). yeku: deference to paperart. , page of digital reading does not offer the kind of stability and permanence associated with reading print. the assumption here is that electronic texts are not as stable as printed works, even if the supposed fixity of print is an idea many scholars including matthew kirschenbaum ( ) have challenged. in what they acknowledge as their “deference to paper,” the editors at saraba suggest that literary meaning in digital texts may be diminished and, in fact, not organized around any aesthetic impulse. what could become evident is an untended and ironic devaluation of the literary merits of the works on platforms like saraba itself. again, this language offers the sense that in a digital environment, a reader or user cannot possess “a lingering touch” or “a felt presence” that is enabled by the reading experience of print technology. it is mere subjective speculation to propose, for instance, that a kindle edition of ayobami adebayo’s debut novel, stay with me ( ) presents a less “lingering touch” than its various print editions. whether it is print or digital, the materiality of both media offers different textual opportunities that constitute the reading experience, although materiality in a digital space is apparently of a haptic yet intangible kind. also, the idea of “a lingering touch” invokes narratives of materiality regarding the digital text. matthew kirschenbaum ( ) calls this supposition that a digital text or artefact cannot be material because you cannot reach out and touch them an instance of tactile fallacy ( ). kirschenbaum, alongside other members of the textual community, such as johanna drucker ( ) invite critics to understand the differences between print and electronic texts, arguing for a thorough understanding of their materiality. scholars that imagine the role-playing game narrative bioshock or world of warcraft as important expressions of digital literature can hardly be convinced that there is not a felt presence in these interactive narratives. beyond an uncritical suggestion that consolidates a bias for print, saraba’s turn to a printed edition is in fact “a deference to paper” that emanates from the assumption that electronic literature cannot constitute a sufficient textual aesthetic for readers. their view restates problematic ideas that digital environment is problematic for literature. rather than the assumption that the internet reduces literary texts to the surface spectacles of digital interfaces and typefaces, or to any other material structure of the electronic medium, the digital does not depend solely on language yeku: deference to paper art. , page of for the conveyance of its aesthetics and narratives. it also looks to its own materiality and navigational apparatus as part of semantic transmission, to the visual strategies of presenting data and metadata, and to the media itself. in other words, we need to pay more sufficient attention to how the materiality of the text is central to the aesthetics and the reading experience of the reader. in a email interview in which i asked rasak malik gbolahan what he thought about saraba’s print edition and his own reading practices and preferred medium, the nigerian poet rasak malik gbolahan who uses social media to circulate his works and has published his poetry on saraba elaborates on this idea of print culture as a more enduring space: there is something magical about holding a book. the magic emanates from the smell of each page, the letters gracing each page, and the book in its entirety. also, i prefer to carry books around with me. they are like passports to a new city, to a world inhabited by people intoxicated by the opium of stunning sentences. when i hold a book, i feel a certain connection to it. this extends to every genre. for instance, in reading a poetry book, i find it easier to mark a page, or underline a line. i am quite focused in reading a print book than reading online. this is not to undermine the power of digital literature, but hard copies are always tugging my heart, offering me the liberty to embrace them (gbolahan ). although it appears a mystifying logic of fetishization is being extended to print technology, gbolahan’s argument may suggest that the transitioning of literary texts from their original digital domain to print is symptomatic of a larger practice in african digital literary culture: the persistence of print in the imaginaries of cultural producers, one that is probably undergirded by an unstated capitalist impulse to circulate print copies and recoup investments. though also evident in other cultural and writing traditions elsewhere, it undercuts the sometimes unacknowledged, over- celebration of digital platforms in african literary discourses. what is at stake here is perhaps an unwillingness to appreciate the ways in which linguistic texts, images and other formal transmitters of meanings can have narrative power based on a graceful form that does not hinder the fullest expression of aesthetic content. it is yeku: deference to paperart. , page of ironic, though, that the presentation of content on the saraba website is carefully designed to render graphic as an aesthetic appeal that contributes to the semiotics of the creative works posted on the online magazine. put simply, despite the numerous sites, blogs, platforms and data on african online literature, a deference to paper by one of africa’s leading online literary platforms aptly symbolizes the persistence of print in an otherwise saturated digital environment. this is not to suggest that saraba magazine is denouncing the digital or that it does not trust the aesthetic abilities of digital technologies. while the editors may not necessarily romanticize the printed version, their transition does suggest the fixation with print that i argue is still largely to be found among some digital actors. being able to access the printed version in digital format on online publishing platforms like okadabooks can also mean that the material complexities of both the printed and the digital versions warrant an exploration of the texts produced from a perspective that recognizes the physical peculiarities of both platforms. diary of a zulu girl my second example is nkululeko maphoto’s literary blog dairy of a zulu girl which started in as a fictionalized presentation of sexual politics and crime in urban south africa. this online diary presents the opportunity to explore the re/imagination of african literary practices on web . platforms, enabling a focused attention on the many ways social media and literary blogs signify as new media spaces in which new african writers express literary talents. maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl is an important work of popular culture that stages the materiality of the text of online african writing in fascinating ways, aside from its alertness to the poetics of the medium and the dialogic possibilities of social networks. the diary of a zulu girl is a fictional blog about -year-old thandeka mkhize who leaves her small town in mooi river to study law at wits university in south africa. the diary details her experiences in the big city, where she is introduced to older men, from nigeria mostly, who buy her drinks and expensive clothes in order to exploit her sexually. the diary chronicles the story of the average cosmopolitan girl who must navigate the social pressures of living in urban south africa. maphoto’s narrative is in the form of an online diary, serialized as a blog, and therefore gets his readers to interact both with the story, and with one yeku: deference to paper art. , page of another. like many other recent expressions of african online writing that use the authorial affordances of social media to produce and sustain “networked publics” (ito ), the diary of a zulu girl brings readers and the writer in a shared media space in which the boundaries between author and reader are almost nonexistent. whether it is on maphoto’s blog or on his social media accounts, the medium structures literary meaning and conditions reader behavior and responses. in the seventh chapter of the e-book, which almost appears to reproduce the entry in the original facebook post, thandeka the protagonist is made aware of the dialogic space in which she has been constructed when she appears to step outside of her original fictive environment and negotiates some dignity for herself: by the time i went to university i had slept with two guys and yes that sounds sluttish to some but count how many people you have slept with before you judge. if you have more than in five years then i guess we in the same boat (maphoto ). in this passage, thandeka mkhize asks her readers and the potential moral judges of her sexual choices to look at themselves in the mirror before judging her erotic proclivities. maphoto presents a character that is aware of the readerly gaze of the online reader glued to the screen of a mobile phone or a desktop. thandeka is rendered conscious of a need for a dialogue with the readers of the story in which she exists and signifies an awareness of the medium in which her subjectivities have been constructed. while both the initial facebook entries and e-book version have an easy- flowing style, the obvious spelling and grammar errors reveal maphoto’s story has not been well edited, indicating the fluidity and mutability of a work whose language is in a perpetual state of flux. also, as evident in this narration by the protagonist in the seventh chapter of part , the original blog entries were riddled with grammatical glitches and stylistic incongruities that are more effectively presented in the print edition: “i was not born poor but i cant say i was born rich either. my parents are both teachers in mooi river halfway between johannesburg and durban…yes i do not stay in the rural parts of it but its still deeply cultured with rules and traditions that go deep.” yeku: deference to paperart. , page of aside from the fact that the print edition polishes the linguistic glitches of the digital versions, another major difference is the difference in material and physical properties. as stephanie bosch santana reveals, in general, the success of maphoto’s blog is due to its “exploitation of strategies associated with both the digital and print realms ” employing the anonymity of the online space to gain initial traction for the diary began, maphoto later revealed his identity, and cast himself in the more traditional role of “author” rather than “blogger” (santana , ). what is significant from the perspective of bibliographic and textual criticism is how his fictional work usefully illustrates how the book object, or the text, is usually open to emendations. seeing the edited print version of the diary as merely polishing the unofficial language of the web version sequesters the changes in both. accounting for these textual alterations is important. traditionally, emendation is designed to arrest the influx of error and corruption in textual transmission. it is the editorial intervention a text is made to have when it is disturbed by a fault. emendation eliminates errors and repairs the text where its record of authority is deemed to be interrupted and broken (hans gabler , ). the print edition of the diary of a zulu girl ( ) introduces variations and corrections since there are significant changes and substantives to both blog versions and digital editions of the original text. the textual critic of this text would, therefore, be interested in how the transmission of writing from digital formats to print texts affect the different versions and editions of these texts. a digital critical edition of maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl, for instance will attempt to examine how the book differs considerably in its material form from the blog. such materialist reading of the book as an object that has physical properties which contribute meaning is not common in african literary circles and it is one that i hope the imbrications of print and digital media can facilitate. as maphoto’s online fiction morphs into a printed book, as well as a planned television drama that is still being expected, it forces us to appreciate how a text can change its form and, hence, its meaning, and audience when its medium of expression changes. in figure , we get a sense of the text on both facebook and wordpress. yeku: deference to paper art. , page of maphoto’s blog has been described as “something of a digital literature phenomenon” (santana ). literary forms such as the diary proliferate on social media and blogging as a genre of popular culture that asks us to rethink the ways african writing is being reconfigured by web . platforms. areas impacted include author-reader interactivity as well as the digitally enabled fluidity of these identities. it invites us to appreciate anew how traditional authors use platforms, such as facebook pages and profiles as alternative spaces for the articulation of creative expressions. in a conversation with jeanette chabalala of city press, maphoto explains that “readers have not stopped lapping it up and keep begging for more of the sex, drugs, lies and betrayal that fuel the story lines... what is fascinating is that parents contacted me and requested the blog to be turned into a book because they could not read it on their phones.” (chabalala ). that parents “requested the blog to be turned into a book” may be read along with the many responses to the fictional diary as demonstrating the spontaneous nature of interactions on social media, but it also raises a question of age and class since the reading space of the net could be tenuous for older people with limited access to the internet. in another context, the request for book also recalls ikhide ikheloa’s question about books in african writing: “how is africa viewed everywhere, if not primarily through hard-copy books?” ( ). while it is productive to imagine ikheloa’s figure : screen grabs of facebook and blog versions of maphoto’s dairy of a zulu girl (see maphoto ). yeku: deference to paperart. , page of question as an exploration of the persistent focus on print culture as the major medium of the canons of african literature, it is also essential to discern the logic of materiality and the changing modes of the production of texts inherent in his question. in his response, ikheloa locates his concerns not only within a trajectory of a book history in africa that is unsettled by the intractable problems of indigenous publishing houses in africa, but also in a hasty dismissal of print culture to coherently represent the african condition. ikhide ikheloa argues on the usa-africa dialogue listserv that “the book [understood as print] is an inappropriate gauge of africa’s stories, history and circumstances. you would have to look to the great book in the sky, the internet, to have a well-rounded view of our world, not just africa” (ikheloa ). while ikheloa, in the tradition of several other techno-optimists, does indeed fetishize the net and essentialize “the great book in the sky” in his reflection on the medium of africa’s stories and narratives, his observations are largely reasonable in signaling a need to recognize the close associations between print and digital texts. the materiality of text as the work of karin barber ( ) shows, african theories of textuality often invoke oral poetics, something that is relevant in the framework of the regeneration of meanings in literary texts both in print and digital realms. the major moments of textual representations in african knowledge productions includes the oral text best demonstrated by its context of performance, the printed text that emerged in the early twentieth-century africa through the works of early publications, and finally, an electronic textuality of african literature that is gaining traction among scholars of what walter ong ( )refers to as secondary orality. an expanded perspective of the text as any site of discourse, therefore, finds precedent in african oral frameworks that identify the text as a mutable entity produced by social and technological developments that affect its aesthetic and literary production and appreciation (olorunyomi , ). in terms of digital texts, shola adenekan ( ) reckons that the movement of texts and writers across different mediums signals “an important way through which some of the emerging african voices negotiate the relationship between their works, themselves, africa and the outside world” ( ). adenekan’s yeku: deference to paper art. , page of argument is a useful commentary on the nature of textuality in contemporary african literature. that said, there are more significant bibliographical issues the textual critic might be interested in, including what this “movement of texts and writers across different mediums” means for literary interpretation. that seems to me to be pertinent for an appreciation of the material history of the african literary text today. his work highlights the emergence of online literary magazines which focused principally on the publication of short stories, essays and poems that appeal to a reading public that is equally online. blogging and social media sites also give young african writers more platforms to publish works that did not exist previously outside of the computational space. critical evaluations of such work must be mindful of the structure and materiality of their new medium. this seems to me a crucial point to emphasize as it points to what mathew kirschenbaum identifies elsewhere as first-generation objects. a “first generation electronic object,” writes kirschenbaum “is one that enjoys no material existence outside of the electronic environment of a computational file system-though this is not…to say that such objects enjoy no material existence at all” ( , ). in relation to african literature, it is important to engage more conceptually with not just works that exist purely through the medium of the web but also the forms of textualities propelled by digital technologies, particularly in terms of their ontology and materiality. texts, whether written, oral, or digitally transmitted, can help us understand the political contexts of their producers as well as the publics that emerge from and cohere around them. however, beyond questions of class and the political touchstones of texts online, the various formal changes that accrue from a digital-to-print move need to be foregrounded too. significant emendations involving a wide range of accidentals and substantives are therefore usually present in the transformation from electronic formats to print texts. adenekan explains that this process of textuality “involves reshaping the text for different formats, and in the process the creative piece is unfixed” ( , ). this idea of an unfixed, sliding, and impermanent textuality that is obvious in the saraba example is reiterated in the view that these digital texts may later appear in print. yeku: deference to paperart. , page of the traditional obsession with “canonical texts has blocked our view of the real historical processes at work in the emergence and spread of literary forms” (karin barber , ). there is a sense here in which barber’s assertion calls for a study of genre and textuality that is wide and varied in its orientation. this view can inform an appreciation of the ways a book’s production history, and its various editions also help to understand the sociocultural contexts of writers and their works, the form and physical shape of the text itself is the focus of my analysis. karin barber’s argument connects well to d.f mckenzie’s description of text. in the framework of textual bibliographical criticism, d.f mckenzie ( ) broadly conceptualizes the term in the famous pannizi lectures. mckenzie ( ) defines ‘texts’ to include verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information ( ) mckenzie’s perspective on textuality may be read alongside other theories of textualities in the core digital humanities tradition, including perennial names, such as katherine hayles ( ) and jerome mcgann ( ). for some of these early dh, scholars, a textual object, whether in a print or an electronic context, needs to be alert to not only materiality, design, and physical features but also the social contexts that inform the texts. in other words, our engagement with the physical hardware of the text is essential to understanding its semiotic transmissions and diverse economies of meanings. items, such as page size, fonts, binding and other “bibliographic codes” are as important as the linguistic codes and social context of the work. these ideas were originally put forward by jerome mcgann ( ), who in his discussion of the production of the scholarly edition of the rossetti archive, asserts: the apparitions of text—its paratexts, bibliographical codes, and all visual features—are as important in the text’s signifying programs as the linguistic elements; second, that the social intercourse of texts—the context of their relations—must be conceived an essential part of the ‘text itself’ if one means to gain an adequate critical grasp of the textual situation.” (mcgann , ) yeku: deference to paper art. , page of this view of textuality suggests that the text has a constructed character, and together with “documents are fields open to decisive and rule-governed manipulations” (mcgann ). a description of the textual situation of chinua achebe’s canonical text things fall apart, for instance, would include numerous editions that present a wide array of bibliographical codes and visual features that form part of the algorithms and rules which control the text as a literary work that transmits meaning. the first edition of achebe’s novel was published in by heinemann publications in london. because of its significance as a strategic postcolonial response to the history of colonial discourse in africa, many other editions of things fall apart have been published and circulated since then. in , anchor canada published a -page paperback edition of the novel, adding to several other paperback editions by penguin, oxford, and norton, although these various editions obviously differ significantly from the first edition by heinemann in terms of material and physical features, there is not much critical work by achebe scholars that foreground how these bibliographical variations—in terms of design, page number and paper textures—can be one of the determinants of the text’s semiotic impulses. the production of meanings in the text can no longer remain only at the level of close reading of linguistic content; it needs to be extended to the various physical elements that constitute the text. a scholarly critical edition of, say a kindle edition of things fall apart, would be interested in how it differs from earlier printed texts from the perspective of its electronic features, interface, and other aspects of its physical design. to be interested in a physical description of this kindle edition is to take seriously how the presence of substantive elements, such as coding structure and paratextual features make this digital edition different from earlier editions. the code of this kindle edition has a material existence whose structure is central to the ways online writing articulate meaning. these questions of form and physical elements are significant considerations in terms of the materiality and form of the text of african writing in the age of the internet. in my article on kiru taye’s thighs fell apart,’ an online fan fiction of things fall apart, i demonstrate that an established african text is reconfigured by a work of digital yeku: deference to paperart. , page of literature that “articulates a paradigm of erotic fantasy not too familiar in canonical african literature’ ( ). the gendered politics of achebe’s original text is revisited by an online subject whose reading reproduces and extends the text’s narrative boundaries. for instance, “the spectacle of okonkwo’s wrestling with amalinze the cat in things fall apart “is recast in ‘thighs fell apart’ as sexual contest in which bodies clash in an ideological force field, with phallocentric might triumphing over female desire,” forcing a rereading of one of africa’s famous fictional heroes. what is of more interest to me here is that by using blogging to produce a new text that remediates okonkwo’s identity, kiru taye also use digital technology to materially reshape the original text. a critical edition of achebe’s novel may be linked with taye’ short story to complicate and trouble textual meanings in the original work. another helpful example of the material transformations of textuality in the making of african literature is probably evident in the digital copies of literary pamphlets in the tradition of the famous onitsha market literature. these pamphlets, produced by local publishers in a popular nigerian trading center of the s, are composed of moral narratives, social discourses, plays, advice, and other popular stories, and have been recently digitized in different library holdings in the us. emmanuel obiechina traces the development of the onitsha literature to the concentration of large numbers of locally-owned and operated printing presses in the town, writing that “the influx in the s of indian and victorian drugstore pulp magazine fiction that also shaped the format of pamphlet literature ( , ). several digitized versions of the onitsha market pamphlets that appear in the digital collection of university of kansas libraries are held at the spencer research library at the university of kansas. the onitsha market pamphlets are a legacy of colonialism in nigeria, representing, as charlotte nunes’s article imagines, “the culturally textured crossroads of british colonial influence and the print record of a traditionally oral regional narrative tradition” ( , ). the digital archives at the spencer library hold digital copies of the pamphlets (see figure ) which are important in the context of this essay because they demonstrate how the production of a new text, or even a remediated one propel new material conditions that can enable a better appreciation of cultural meanings. yeku: deference to paper art. , page of katherine hayles’s notes that “the navigational apparatus of a work changes the work,” and constitutes a “part of the work’s signifying structure” ( , ). this suggests that an appreciation of these digital manuscripts and their meanings is also now dependent on the functional designs and algorithmic structures that shape them. digital environments, as hayles intimates, do not merely provide us with ways of encountering the texts, they are central to our critical reading of the texts themselves. this idea that meaning is altered when the medium is translated may not be new in the study of textuality in an african context; yet, considered from the framework of digitality, there is an enrichment of the discourse of african literary studies itself. the materiality of the new digitized pamphlet offers the most obvious example of difference since the reading experience is now dependent on other textual codes and physical properties not evident in the original printed versions. also, since the original print copies of the pamphlets are different in terms of meaning and interpretations from the digital copies, our reading experience of the text becomes varied. in how we think: digital media and contemporary technogenesis, katherine hayles describes reading types in terms of a close reading that “correlates with deep attention” and a hyper reading that “includes skimming, scanning, fragmenting, and juxtaposing texts, and is “a strategic response to an information-intensive environment” we find ourselves in ( , ). hyper reading produces a cognitive figure : digitized copies of the onitsha market literary pamphlets from the university of kansas library’s special collections (see onitsha market literary pamphlets ). yeku: deference to paperart. , page of mode that eschews boredom in its preference for different information streams a high level of stimulation. the onitsha market pamphlets as print texts have animated research on african popular culture and print culture, but not much work exist on their iterations as digital text. from figure , i am currently creating an archive based on digital critical editions of several of the pamphlets, using jekyll and ed to repurpose digitized copies of the pamphlets from the university of kansas special collections, jekyll is a preservation-friendly website generator that requires no database since it is static, with all stored information displayed on a webpage contained in an html file for the webpage. ed as a jekyll theme is based on minimal computing principles and was designed for textual editions. my goal with this project is a scholarly digital edition that makes available a large corpus of text which yields more insights on nigerian market literature, while offering ideas on what the digital transmission of texts may look like in the context of african literatures. the textual situations of the new literary pamphlets produced will have to incorporate the entire digital contexts and materiality of the new works. figure : a jekyll-based project on market literature from nigeria (see onitsha market literature . ). yeku: deference to paper art. , page of conclusion the need to examine how the impact of the physical properties of the text on the transmission of meaning has been the central idea of this work. to recast the title of amy earhart’s book, the old is not just a mere trace in the new digital contexts of african online writing, it appears to be a desired condition. despite a massive growth of digital publications in africa, print culture not only remains solid as a major goal for writers who deploy digital technologies to circulate their works but also impels us to see how the reverse movement from digital to print create multiple texts with different physical features. the medium of the text of african literature in the present moment has to be understood beyond the print technology that continues to permeate digital discourses. when shola adenekan and helen cousins argue in their discussion of class and online african writing that “cybertexts are not permanent,” and that “like orature, the meaning of cybertexts is unfixed and subject to multiple interpretations ( , ), they restate an assumption about the materiality of both print and electronic texts that needs to be highlighted: indeed, they praise impermanence, but this is only to the extent that it is the condition that makes the transition to print possible. whether the medium is oral, print, or electronic, texts transform and are transformed by alterations in their technological conditions. how the materiality of african texts harbor part of their meaning signals an alertness to the importance of the medium. the new digital spaces of african literature alter several aspects of literary conversations and interactions in africa, even as they recall several poetics from oral tradition. there are several ideas one can uncover when reflecting on the critical implications of the digital reconfiguration of literary expressions in contemporary africa. it is apparent that writers based on and outside of the continent are using digital media to alter the form of their writing and that the platforms of creative expressions can inform the relationship between form and content, while transforming the relationship between writers and their publics. on different web . environments, writers connect with other writers, and with new audiences who in turn share and transmit their works in their own digital networks. indeed, the platforms themselves as well as the workings of algorithmic protocols and databases play an active part in yeku: deference to paperart. , page of the networked ecologies of social media. there is a democratization, a decentering, of authorial space, as african literature and its audiences are reconstituted in a dialogic space that assures a polyphonic assemblage of new authorial perspectives and reading publics in rhizomatic networks of literary relations and socialities. the interactive and connective logics of social media implicate these social arenas of literary networks and affinities as cultural terrains that consolidate interactive performances of writerly agency. editorial contributions dscn go::dh issue special editors: barbara bordalejo (university of saskatchewan, canada), and juan steyn (north-west university, south africa). section editor/copy editor: darcy tamayose, the journal incubator, university of lethbridge, canada. bibliography manager: shahina parvin, the journal incubator, university of lethbridge, canada. competing interests the author has no competing interests to declare. references achebe, chinua. . things fall apart. new york: anchor books. adebayo, ayobami. . stay with me. edinburgh: canongate. adenekan, shola. . african literature in the digital age: class and sexual politics in new writing from nigeria and kenya. phd dissertation, university of birmingham. ———. . african literature in the digital age: class and sexual politics in new writing from nigeria and kenya. suffolk: boydell & brewer. adenekan, shola, and helen cousins. . “class online: representations of african middle-class.” postcolonial text, ( ): – . adichie, chimamanda ngozi. . americanah. first edition. new york: alfred a. knopf. barber, karin. . the anthropology of texts, persons and publics: oral and written culture in africa and beyond. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. yeku: deference to paper art. , page of chabalala, jeanette. . “the interview: diary of a zulu girl’s mika maphoto.” news . november . accessed march . http://www. news .com/archives/city-press/the-interview-diary-of-a-zulu-girls-mike- maphoto- . drucker, johanna. . “performative materiality and theoretical approaches to interface.” digital humanities quarterly, ( ). accessed september , . http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html earhart, amy e. . traces of the old, uses of the new: the emergence of digital literary studies. ann arbor: university of michigan press. doi: https://doi. org/ . /etlc. . . gabler, hans w. . “what “ulysses” requires.” the papers of the bibliographical society of america, ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / pbsa. . . gbolahan, rasak malik. . email interview. april, . hayles, katherine. . my mother was a computer: digital subjects and literary texts. chicago: university of chicago press. doi: https://doi.org/ . / chicago/ . . ———. . how we think: digital media and contemporary technogenesis. chicago: the university of chicago press. doi: https://doi.org/ . / chicago/ . . ikheloa, ikhide. . “are you a nigerian writer? why join the association of nigerian authors?—brittle paper q&a with richard ali.” conversation on usa- africa dialogue listserv, november . accessed november , . https:// brittlepaper.com/ / /nigerian-writer-join-association-nigerian-authors- brittle-paper-qa-richard-ali/. international telecommunication union. . “new itu data reveal growing internet uptake but a widening digital gender divide.” accessed september , . https://www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/pages/ -pr .aspx. ito, mizuko. . “introduction.” in networked publics, edited by kazys varnelis. cambridge: mit press. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / mitpress/ . . http://www.news .com/archives/city-press/the-interview-diary-of-a-zulu-girls-mike-maphoto- http://www.news .com/archives/city-press/the-interview-diary-of-a-zulu-girls-mike-maphoto- http://www.news .com/archives/city-press/the-interview-diary-of-a-zulu-girls-mike-maphoto- http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html https://doi.org/ . /etlc. . . https://doi.org/ . /etlc. . . https://doi.org/ . /pbsa. . . https://doi.org/ . /pbsa. . . https://doi.org/ . /chicago/ . . https://doi.org/ . /chicago/ . . https://doi.org/ . /chicago/ . . https://doi.org/ . /chicago/ . . https://brittlepaper.com/ / /nigerian-writer-join-association-nigerian-authors-brittle-paper-qa-richard-ali/ https://brittlepaper.com/ / /nigerian-writer-join-association-nigerian-authors-brittle-paper-qa-richard-ali/ https://brittlepaper.com/ / /nigerian-writer-join-association-nigerian-authors-brittle-paper-qa-richard-ali/ https://www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/pages/ -pr .aspx https://doi.org/ . /mitpress/ . . https://doi.org/ . /mitpress/ . . yeku: deference to paperart. , page of kirschenbaum, matthew g. . “editing the interface: textual studies and first generation electronic objects.” text, : – maphoto, mike. . “diary of a zulu girl.” wordpress. http://diaryofazulugirl. co.za. accessed june . ———. . diary of a zulu girl: from mud huts, umqomboti and straight back to penthouses, expensive weaves and moët. centurion: wakahina media. mcgann, jerome j. . radiant textuality: literature after the world wide web. new york: palgrave macmillan. mckenzie, donald francis. . bibliography, and the sociology of the text. cambridge: cambridge university press. nesbitt-ahmed, zahrah. . “reclaiming african literature in the digital age: an exploration of online literary platforms.” critical african studies, ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / . . nunes, charlotte. . “digital archives in the wired world literature classroom in the us.” ariel: a review of international english literature, : – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /ari. . obiechina, emmanuel. . “market literature in nigeria.” kunapipi, ( ): – . olorunyomi, sola. . “the mutant called ‘text.’” ibadan journal of english studies, : – . ong, walter j. . orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word. new york: routledge. onitsha market literary pamphlets. . the university of kansas library’s special collections onitsha market literature, edited by elizabeth macgonagle and ken lohrentz. accessed november , . https://exhibits.lib.ku.edu/ exhibits/show/onitsha/ku-onitsha-collection. onitsha market literature . . . github, edited by james yékú. accessed june . https://idrhku.github.io/onitsha-market/. santana, stephanie bosch. . “from nation to network: blog and facebook fiction from southern africa.” research in african literatures, ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /reseafrilite. . . http://diaryofazulugirl.co.za http://diaryofazulugirl.co.za https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /ari. . https://exhibits.lib.ku.edu/exhibits/show/onitsha/ku-onitsha-collection https://exhibits.lib.ku.edu/exhibits/show/onitsha/ku-onitsha-collection https://idrhku.github.io/onitsha-market/ https://doi.org/ . /reseafrilite. . . yeku: deference to paper art. , page of saraba magazine. . “the transition issue – a note from the editors -saraba magazine.” facebook. october , : a.m. accessed september, , . https://www.facebook.com/sarabamag/. suhr-sytsma, nathan. . “christopher okigbo’s materials.” the cambridge quarterly, ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /camqtly/bfaa tanselle, g. thomas. . “textual criticism and deconstruction.” studies in bibliography, : – . yékú, james. . “‘thighs fell apart’: online fan fiction, and african writing in a digital age.” journal of african cultural studies, ( ): – . doi: https:// doi.org/ . / . . ———. . “chinua achebe’s there was a country and the digital publics of african literature.” digital scholarship in the humanities. doi: https://doi.org/ . / llc/fqz how to cite this article: yékú, james. . “deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: july accepted: august published: december copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://www.facebook.com/sarabamag/ https://doi.org/ . /camqtly/bfaa https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqz https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqz https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. introduction saraba magazine’s “deference to paper” diary of a zulu girl the materiality of text conclusion editorial contributions competing interests references figure figure figure figure perseids: experimenting with infrastructure for creating and sharing research data in the digital humanities codatacodata ii ss uu almas, b perseids: experimenting with infrastructure for creating and sharing research data in the digital humanities. data science journal, : , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dsj- - practice paper perseids: experimenting with infrastructure for creating and sharing research data in the digital humanities bridget almas perseids project, tufts university, the green, medford, ma , us balmas@gmail.com the perseids project provides a platform for creating, publishing, and sharing research data, in the form of textual transcriptions, annotations and analyses. an offshoot and collaborator of the perseus digital library (pdl), perseids is also an experiment in reusing and extending existing infrastructure, tools, and services. this paper discusses infrastructure in the domain of digital humanities (dh). it outlines some general approaches to facilitating data sharing in this domain, and the specific choices we made in developing perseids to serve that goal. it concludes by identifying lessons we have learned about sustainability in the process of building perseids, noting some critical gaps in infrastructure for the digital humanities, and suggesting some implications for the wider community. keywords: infrastructure; digital humanities; data sharing; interoperability; research data overview the perseids project provides a platform for creating, publishing, and sharing research data, in the form of textual transcriptions, annotations and analyses. an offshoot and collaborator of the perseus digital library (pdl), perseids is also an experiment in reusing and extending existing infrastructure, tools, and services. this paper discusses infrastructure in the domain of digital humanities (dh). it outlines some general approaches to facilitating data sharing in this domain, and the specific choices we made in developing perseids to serve that goal. it concludes by identifying lessons we have learned about sustainability in the process of building perseids, noting some critical gaps in infrastructure for the digital humanities, and suggesting some implications for the wider community. general approaches what constitutes infrastructure, and how does it facilitate data sharing in the domain of dh, and in the perseids project in particular? according to mark parsons, secretary general of the research data alliance (rda), infrastructure can be defined as ‘the relationships, interactions and connections between people, technologies, and institutions that help data flow and be useful (parsons ).’ in the realm of dh, any of the following might be considered infrastructure: original digital collections, linked data providers, general purpose and domain-specific platforms, content management systems (cmss), virtual research environments (vres), online tools and services, repositories and service providers, aggregators and portals, apis and standards. table provides some specific examples of these in the dh and digital classics (dc) communities, illustrating the diversity and breadth of infrastructure in this community. enabling data sharing includes ensuring that data objects have persistent, resolvable identifiers, providing descriptive and structural metadata, providing licensing and access information, and using standard data formats and ontologies. the recent w c recommendation ‘data on the web best practices’ (loscio, et. al. ) cites many strategies such as providing version history, provenance information, and data quality information. https://doi.org/ . /dsj- - mailto:balmas@gmail.com almas: perseidsart. , page of infrastructure type examples in dh and dc original digital collections pdl, papyri.info, nines, digital latin library, coptic scriptorium, roman de la rose linked data providers and gazetteers pleiades, periodo, syriaca.org, viaf, getty, trismegistos, dbpedia general purpose platforms, cms, vres, tools and services omeka, mediawiki, heurist, textgrid, voyant, mirador, collatex, juxta, neatline domain-specific platforms, cms, vres, tools and services perseids, recogito, symogih, pece repositories and service providers clarin, dariah, eudat, mla commons/core, humanum, hathi trust research center, california digital library aggregators and portals europeana, digital public library of america, huni, ehri apis and standards iiif, oa, tei, oauth, shibboleth/saml, cts table : examples of infrastructure in digital humanities and digital classics. above and beyond this, ensuring that adequate editorial and/or peer review has taken place before data is shared is often an important criteria for data sharing in the humanities. background perseids evolved to fill a critical need of the digital classics community of scholars and students (bodard and romanello ): infrastructure that supports textual transcription, annotation, and analysis at a large scale, with review, in both scholarly and pedagogical contexts. such infrastructure would give us the ability to work with text-centric publications containing a variety of different data types, and would include: • stable, persistent identifiers for all publications; • a versioned, collaborative editing environment; • the ability to extend the environment with data type-specific behaviors and tools; • customized review workflows. perseids is, in part, a successor to a prior ambitious, but ultimately unsuccessful, infrastructure effort in the humanities, project bamboo (dombrowski ). one of the aims of project bamboo was to develop a service oriented architecture (soa) that could serve a wide variety of use cases and requirements for textual analysis and humanities research. this accorded with the goal of the pdl: to begin to decouple the many services making up the perseus application, so that they could be recombined and reused to build new applications (almas ). the pdl’s contribution to bamboo included development (and implementation) of service apis for morphological analysis and syntactic annotation. these services, intended to be shared on the bamboo services platform, reused code from two main sources: the pdl’s web application and the alpheios project’s reading environment, and were designed to be easily extended to serve additional languages and use cases. they provided essential functionality for textual analysis and annotation. at the same time, we also began separately investigating development of a scalable solution for engaging undergraduate students in the production of original transcriptions and translations of medieval latin manuscripts and greek epigraphy. this work was inspired by, and involved reuse of architecture and tools from, two major projects in digital classics, the homer multitext and papyri.info (almas and beaulieu ). one thing that prevented bamboo from succeeding was the assumption that scholars would be willing to give up their domain-specific tools and services for a more general infrastructure to which everyone would contribute (dombrowski ). humanities use cases at the time appeared too diverse for that, and t echnologies were moving very fast. it is unclear whether or not bamboo could have succeeded but the project ended before we could develop a critical component needed for our own use cases, a platform for management of the data and scholarly workflow which would allow for full peer and professorial review. perseids took up in part where bamboo left off, but with a more modest goal of providing infrastructure for our own specific set of use cases. we reused the services we built for bamboo in perseids, and also reused http://www.syriaca.org/ almas: perseids art. , page of an existing piece of infrastructure from another project, the son of suda online (sosol), to fill the role of managing the data and review workflows. drawing on the experiences of bamboo, we decided that perseids would support a looser coupling of existing tools and services. one goal of infrastructure is to connect what already works, adding value and capacity without reinventing solutions. our development approach for perseids was thus based on three principles: . data interoperability; . flexibility and agility; . tool interoperability. we wanted not only to support our scholarly workflows, but also to be sure that the outputs would be fully sharable and preservable. perseids currently serves an active user base, averaging between one and two thousand sessions by at least five hundred unique users per month during the academic year, the majority of which come from six active dh communities: tufts, the university of nebraska at lincoln, the college of letters and science of the sao paulo state university, the university of leipzig, the university of lyon, and the university of zagreb. several external projects also connect to perseids’s tools and review workflow via its api. functionality use cases perseids offers functionality for creation, curation and review of texts, translations and annotations. it enables its users to: . create and edit a new text transcription. . edit an existing text transcription. . create and edit a new text translation. . edit an existing text translation. . create and edit a new commentary annotation. . create and edit a new treebank annotation. . create and edit a new text alignment annotation. . ingest and edit simple annotation data from external sources. . create and edit simple annotations on texts. the process of creating a publication on perseids involves workflows fulfilling one or more of these use cases (figure ). workflows a workflow, in this context, is a series of actions carried out by a user to achieve some goal. in a typical workflow on perseids the user creates a publication containing one or more of the supported data types. she uses an editing tool appropriate to the data type to edit and curate her work and then submits it to a review board for acceptance. for example, she may choose to create and edit a treebank annotation using the arethusa editing tool (figure ). if the work is being done in the context of a pedagogical assignment, the review board is likely to be made up of the professor and teaching assistants for the class. if the work is being done in the context of a specific project or community, the review board will be composed of peers or expert members of an editorial team (figures and ). the ability to support peer-review functionality is a distinguishing feature of the perseids infrastructure, and an important driving factor behind the architectural decision to built it upon the sosol platform. as we discuss further below, a common driver for external projects to integrate with perseids is to take advantage of the flexible review workflow features it offers. annotation of morphology, syntax and sentence structure. n-to-n word-level alignment across two texts. almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : the perseids home screen, showing a variety of data types and actions. figure : annotating a treebank in arethusa. figure : perseids user interface – voting on a publication. almas: perseids art. , page of figure : perseids review workflow. architecture the perseids architecture (figures – ) supports these workflows through a complex sequence of interactions between its core components, hosted tools and services, rd party applications and platforms and external identity providers and content repositories. sosol is the core of the perseids platform. it is a ruby on rails application, built on top of a git repository, that provides an open-access, version-controlled, multi-author web-based editing environment that supports working with collections of related data objects as publications. sosol was developed for the papyri.info site by the integrating digital papyrology project, a multi-institution project aimed at supporting interoperability between five different digital papyrological resources (baumann ) and is now maintained jointly by the duke collaboratory for classics computing and the perseids project. a git repository provides versioning support for all documents, annotations and other related objects managed on the platform. sosol also provides additional functionality on top of git’s, including document validation, templates for documentation creation, review boards, and communities. it uses a relational database (mysql) to store information about document status and to track the activity of users, boards, and communities. sosol uses the openid and shibboleth/saml protocols to delegate responsibility for user authentication to social or institutional identity providers. social identity providers (idp) are supported through a third-party gateway, currently janrain engage. the perseids deployment of sosol incorporates the canonical text services (cts) protocol. the cts specification defines an api protocol and a urn syntax for identifying and retrieving text passages via machine-actionable, canonical identifiers (smith and blackwell ). to support cts, as well as provide features such as tokenization of texts, the perseids deployment of sosol delegates some functionality to external databases and services. the sosol application itself provides lightweight user interfaces for creating and editing documents and annotations, but in order to support an open-ended set of different editing and annotation activities, we rely on integrations with external web-based tools for editing and annotating. these integrations are enabled by api interactions between the tools and the sosol application. the perseids client applications component acts as a broker between the end-user, the sosol platform, external repositories and services, and the web-based editing and annotation tools. built on the python flask framework, this component implements a client-side workflow for the creation of new annotations of text passages identified by cts urn. it uses the cts abstraction libraries from capitains infrastructure for cts urn resolution and processing, as does the nemo browsing interface, which offers a discovery interface for identifying texts to annotate and an anchoring point for front-end annotation tools and visualizations. the perseids client applications were co-developed by perseids and the humboldt chair for digital humanities at the university of leipzig. almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : perseids core components. figure : perseids infrastructure and ecosystem. a recent addition to the platform is a flask based github proxy service which enables us to send data directly to external github repositories after it has been through the review workflow. (see the ‘tool interoperability’ section below for further details on these scenarios.) the role that each component of the architecture and ecosystem plays in supporting the workflow is described in the ‘tools interoperability’ section below. development of this component was supported by an neh-funded collaboration with the syriaca.org project. http://www.syriaca.org/ almas: perseids art. , page of information model data publications produced on perseids are collections of related data objects of different types. the sosol information model was designed for this type of publication. the “publication” is the container for a collection of data objects belonging to a parent abstract class of “identifier.” different type object types are implemented as derivations of the “identifier” class, which add type-specific behaviors and properties, such as schema validation rules. figure shows how this design applies in perseids. however, perseids publications can also be thought of as research objects (bechhofer, et. al. ), where the object of the research is a passage or passages of canonically-identifiable text. figure shows our original vision for a cts-focused publication on perseids (figure ). tool interoperability decoupling data creation tools from the sources and destinations of the data was a key part of our design approach. apis and standards are critical components of infrastructure, and integration and sharing require that data be retrievable from and persistable to any source (hilton ). perseids offers an api for create, read, update, and delete update operations for all data types supported by the platform. api clients can authenticate using the oauth . protocol (hardt ) or co-hosted tools have the option of using a shared session cookie. these approaches enable integration with specific tools and services, such as the arethusa annotation framework and the alpheios alignment editor, as well as external projects such as sematia (vierros and henriksson ) and the syriaca.org gazetteer (figure ). perseids also uses external apis to pull data from other infrastructures. we use the canonical text services urn protocol and api (smith and blackwell ) to identify and retrieve textual transcription, translation, and annotation targets (figures and ). the vision in figure has largely been implemented, with the exception of cite collections server component. we now expect this function to be filled by an implementation of a multidisciplinary collections api we are working on as part of the research data alliance’s research data collections working group. figure : perseids hosted tools and services. http://www.syriaca.org almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : perseids information model. figure : perseids publication as a cts focused research object. almas: perseids art. , page of figure : creating and submitting a publication from an external application using oauth . figure : sequence of api interactions for creating and editing a cts-focused annotation template using the perseid client apps and a locally hosted editing tool. we also offer a lightweight url-based api which lets individual scholars and smaller projects, particularly those without the time or skills to develop client software, pull their own data in or integrate perseids with their application. professors such as robert gorman at university of nebraska lincoln (gorman and gorman, forthcoming) are using this feature to produce templates for new annotations that they publish on their university learning management systems (lms). they then include links to perseids in their syllabi that instruct perseids to pull the templates from the lms to create a new annotation publication (figure ). almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : using the perseids client apps to create a new translation alignment annotation in perseids for editing via the alpheios alignment editor. texts available for use are populated via a call to the cts api. figure : sequence of actions for creating a publication from an lms-hosted syllabus and annotation template. other applications such as digital athenaeus use perseids’s url api to offer links to perseids with specific content already identified for transcribing, translating, or annotating (figures and ). we also implemented a workflow for marie-claire beaulieu’s journey of the hero course which allows students to use the hypothes.is annotation tool to annotate named entities and social networks of mythological characters from smith’s dictionary of greek names. this workflow uses the hypothes.is api to pull the annotations into perseids for review and publication (figure ). https://hypothes.is/ https://hypothes.is/ almas: perseids art. , page of figure : screenshot of the digital athenaeus interface (at http://www.digitalathenaeus.org) showing the links to annotate in perseids. figure : perseids hypothes.is workflow. figure : sequence of actions for creating a cts targeted text annotation publication from a link from digital athenaeus. http://www.digitalathenaeus.org/ https://hypothes.is/ almas: perseidsart. , page of the perseids/eagle integration uses a combination of both of these pull strategies: links from eagle to perseids identify a resource on the eagle site, and trigger a callback to the eagle mediawiki api to pull metadata and data from that resource into new translation publications on perseids (figures and ). we also use external apis to push data to external repositories. for the eagle project integration, perseids uses the mediawiki api to publish data to the eagle repository once it has passed through a review workflow. through a new neh-funded collaboration with the syriaca.org project, we have developed a service which allows us to push data to external github repositories at the end of the review workflow (see figure , step b). eventually we’d like to be able to support pushing data to any external api endpoint. figure : perseids/eagle workflow. figure : screenshot of the eagle portal (http://www.eagle-network.eu/wiki) showing a link to edit a translation in perseids. http://www.syriaca.org/ http://www.eagle-network.eu/wiki file:// . . . /typesetting/silicon% chips/up_journals/ _dsj/application% cs . / /dsj- _almas\ file:// . . . /typesetting/silicon% chips/up_journals/ _dsj/application% cs . / /dsj- _almas\ almas: perseids art. , page of designing for flexibility and agility from the outset, we have taken an agile approach to development of perseids. while we do not use official sprints and strictly scheduled iterations, we approach planning in short increments, guided by a long-term vision and goals. in addition, we aim to deploy features to users as quickly as possible, so that we can get feedback from them. we do this not only for internal-facing features, but also to prototype new integrations with external services and projects. this flexibility allows us to try many things, keeping those that work and prove to be useful and deprecating those that do not. to support this approach, we could not commit to a specific set of hardware requirements in advance, as we needed the flexibility to extend and reduce resources used as development proceeded. we therefore chose to budget for cloud-based resources on the amazon web services (aws) platform rather than using university it resources. full ownership and control over our infrastructure allowed us to experiment with features and integrations that otherwise would not have been possible; however, it did have some drawbacks and unexpected costs. these are described in the ‘sustainability’ section below. standards for data data interoperability a strategic principle in our development is to take steps to ensure data interoperability through the use of stable identifiers and standard formats. we use cts urns to identify both texts and annotation targets. these urns can be considered stable identifiers, but do not quite qualify as persistent identifiers as they are not universally resolvable or guaranteed to be available. other identifier systems, such as handles (sun et. al. ), are designed for persistence, and one approach we might take in the future to address this would be to map cts urns to the handles (almas and schroeder, ), but in the absence of this piece of infrastructure, the cts urns do provide stable, machine actionable identifiers that are technology independent. we also use other types of stable identifiers within our annotations and texts, including the uris published by the pleiades gazetteer. we are working towards ensuring that any data published by the platform has a persistent identifier as well. we are therefore participating in the research data alliance’s research data collections working group to develop a multidisciplinary, collections-based approach to data management that supports persistent identifiers for the collections themselves, and for the items within a collection. we also strive to use standard data formats and ontologies for our data and to validate all objects against these. the primary data format standards supported on the platform include the tei epidoc schema for textual transcriptions and translations, the open annotation protocol for annotations, the aldt/algt schemas for treebank data, the alpheios alignment scheme for translation alignments, and the snap ontology for social network annotations. provenance and preservation incorporating provenance information in our publications is an important enabling factor for data sharing. we have taken steps in this direction, for example by supporting shibboleth/saml protocol for authentication on perseids in order to to be able to ensure a chain of authority for university repository systems. we have also included provenance information for tokenization services and tools in our annotation documents, and have explored models for more comprehensive approaches (almas, berti, et. al. ). however, capturing and recording provenance information reliably across a diverse ecosystem of tools and services is difficult, and we need general-purpose solutions that we can reuse. as articulated by padilla ( ): “a researcher should be able to understand why certain data were included and excluded, why certain transformations were made, who made those transformations, and at the same time a researcher should have access to the code and tools that were used to effect those transformations. where gaps in the data are native to the vagaries of data production and capture, as is the case with web archives, these nuances must be effectively communicated.” we recognize that we fall short of meeting these goals currently and aim to do a more complete job of this in the future. it is also very important to us that the research data produced with perseids be preserved. however, our data models and approach to publications are constantly evolving, making coordination with the university library to preserve this data challenging, as they don’t necessarily fit the data models the library is already able to support. as a publicly available and open infrastructure, we also have many users from many institutions across the world, and it is not clear what responsibility tufts, the university hosting the infra- structure, should have for data created by external users. we mitigate this with perseids by providing links almas: perseidsart. , page of that users can use to access and download their data, and encouraging them to take responsibility for publishing and preserving it on their own. we continue to explore general models such as the research object (belhajjame, et. al. ), or bagit, which will enable users to export data in a format that is ready to store in a repository. another question is that of software preservation (rios ). as the perseids software is under active development, it is difficult to keep the code for digital publications up to date with all the underlying services providing the data (rios and almas ). we need to plan better for this preservation, including taking into account the need to represent interdependencies between visualizations and the underlying services and software (lagos and vion dury ). sustainability human and governance factors we have learned much about infrastructure building throughout the course of this project. the technical hurdles to interoperability and sharing are usually much less difficult to overcome than those of social issues, funding, and governance. even where there was a clear interest in interoperability and it was technically possible, we failed sometimes to implement or sustain an integration because doing so wasn’t in the funded mandate of the partner project. this was the case for us with the recogito application from the pelagios project. but even where explicit funding support doesn’t exist, interoperability can still succeed if one project can fill a key gap in another, and if there are people willing to champion the effort to ensure its success. one example was our integration with the eagle project, where perseids provides a review workflow for eagle, and which was implemented without being a funded deliverable for either project, but it remains to be seen if we can sustain it indefinitely. this is an area where more formal governance structures, such as those offered by larger research infrastructures such as clarin and dariah (lossau ) could be useful. the key challenge for the community is to encourage and support ad-hoc collaborations to get initial solutions working, and then move from there to more formal agreements to ensure sustainability. hardware and software factors laura mandell talks about the various models being considered for where and how to position dh, and points out that the question of how to support diverse infrastructure needs is still unsolved (dinsman ). a second lesson we have learned from our experience on perseids is that for development of interoperable infrastructure to succeed and be sustainable, we need better collaborative models for working with our university information technology departments and libraries. we knew we needed the flexibility to change our hardware requirements as we developed, and to deploy new code and services quickly to support rapid prototyping. this allows us to develop and try out new solutions more rapidly than we would have been able to if we had to go through university policies and procedures, but it also involved a lot of extra system administration work we had not anticipated, leaving us with a somewhat over-complicated infrastructure at the end of the first phase of the project. accordingly, in the second phase we built in funding for a devops consultant, who helped us move to a fully configuration-managed system, so that the perseids platform can be deployed easily by others and sustained for the long term. this is a critical characteristic for software-related infrastructure - in order for it to be reproducible by others, building and deploying it must be automated. in hindsight, having such consultancy from the outset would have been beneficial; collaboration between developers and the it staff responsible for deploying and sustaining software is a more viable model than throwing code ‘over the wall’ at the end of a project (arundel ). as cloud computing becomes increasingly cost-efficient, and new models of deployment, such as container- based solutions, are introduced, there is a need for models in which university it departments can partner with projects to provide expertise and facilities (for example, private cloud or container infrastructure, or extending university infrastructure to the public cloud). conclusion with perseids, we have explored an agile approach to infrastructure development, emphasizing reuse of both software and data. this has been successful on many levels. reuse of existing infrastructure compo- nents leads to collaborations which increase the chances of sustainability, such as the joint maintenance of the sosol application. agile approaches to prototyping cross-project integration also benefit all parties involved. however, transitioning to more formal governance models and increased engagement with host institutions will be essential to longer term success. almas: perseids art. , page of acknowledgements the author wishes to thank her colleagues, john arundel, frederik baumgardt, marie-claire beaulieu and thibault clérice for contributing their energy and ideas in reviewing this paper. competing interests the author has no competing interests to declare. author information bridget almas is the software architect and co-director of the perseids project at tufts university. bridget has worked in software development since , in roles which have covered the full spectrum of the software development life cycle, focusing since in the fields of digital humanities and pedagogy. bridget served as an elected member of the technical advisory board of the research data alliance (rda), from – , and 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( ). las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades digitales «silenciadas» en el cine de animación. index.comunicación, ( ), - . | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional abstract. one of the main ways of controlling power is to prohibit access to speech. indoctrination through silence places women in a lower stratum in the digital narrative of animation film and, therefore, in society. this article reflects —from a qualitative perspective— on various aspects of disney princesses' children's cinematography: the images of their characters, their representations, their speeches and their silences are analyzed with the intention of denaturing this type of fictions, since education, participation, transgression, perverse reading and the alternative view are the basis for recovering the freedom to crea- te stories and identities. we start from making visible the mechanisms of audio- visual creation and the ways of suggesting to the public that they are essential elements to avoid manipulation and we conclude with the need to provide lite- racy in the media from schools so that the digital humanities can be built with such solid pillars as equality, critical thinking and humanist values, with which to give coherence to our existence. keywords: digital storytelling; animation film; media literacy; digital humanism; culture of silence. . introducción: de la comunicación a la participación afectiva la comunicación es una de las características más distintivas y definitorias del ser humano. a través de este proceso se establece una relación entre dos o más personas que interactúan para compartir información en un proceso de transfor- mación continua (aparici, ). el devenir comunicativo es más eficaz cuan- do el medio utilizado para transmitir la información está apoyado en un relato, ya que el cerebro humano está concebido para contar y escuchar historias. en cualquier parte del mundo, desde hace miles de años, el ser humano siempre ha utilizado la narración de historias para compartir el conocimiento, los valores y las creencias. hoy en día, las historias siguen siendo las herramientas más poderosas para la comunicación, puesto que provocan un estado de atracción y entretenimiento con una fuerza capaz de conectar a las personas entre sí y con el medio que las rodea. existe una conexión permanente entre las prácticas discursivas de nuestro entorno comunicativo y la sociedad. en el caso concreto de la infancia, el estu- dio de las imágenes y los mensajes que proliferan desde las más diversas repre- sentaciones son el punto de partida para construir valores y normas, así como desarrollar las capacidades reflexivas necesarias con las que se consolidarán las humanidades digitales en la sociedad del siglo xxi. el estudio de la narra- tiva digital es esencial para saber valorar y juzgar qué transmiten este tipo de discursos mediáticos. por tanto, conocer los mecanismos de creación audiovi- sual y las formas de sugestionar al público son buenos comienzos para evitar la manipulación informativa y, al menos, suponen el principio para su detección. index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | el semiólogo y teórico cinematográfico christian metz ( ) estable- ció una nueva vía para separar las metodologías utilizadas en los análisis del lenguaje del cine, diferenciando lo «fílmico (técnica, industria, directores, censura, público, actores, etc.) de lo cinematográfico (estudio interno de la mecánica de las películas, aisladas de todo contexto, cómo se construyen y transmiten sentidos, y cómo una película, o un grupo de ellas, tiene significa- ciones especiales)» (intef, ). en este artículo analizamos la cinematografía de las princesas disney desde una doble perspectiva, que tiene en cuenta: el aspecto mercantilista de la multinacional disney, así como los símbolos de sus mensajes, que son el fundamento de una ideología androcéntrica, representada en códigos con una potente carga de significados. partiendo de la apertura evitamos rechazar o magnificar los posibles prejuicios con los que contaminar este estudio, plan- teado desde una perspectiva cualitativa, para proponer pautas de análisis del lenguaje audiovisual que eduquen en la lectura e interpretación de las actuales narrativas y con los que obtener herramientas para desnaturalizar estas lectu- ras que nos permitan dejar de considerarlas inocentes. de lo contrario, se nos condenará a una domesticación audiovisual que bloqueará el desarrollo de la dimensión humana. en un primer instante, encontramos que las industrias del entretenimiento son un agente educativo muy eficaz para transmitir y mantener los valores dominantes en la sociedad. sin embargo, las empresas de medios se encuen- tran en manos de gigantes mediáticos globales con los que comparten cosmo- visión, criterios comerciales y valores. en estos valores es donde la juventud y la infancia puede descubrir sus verdaderos modelos de conducta (garabedian, ). georges orwell afirmaba en su novela que «quien controla los medios controla el mundo» y actualmente la mayor dominación la ejercen los sistemas de comunicación más poderosos de la historia que, desde la más tier- na infancia, inculcan qué pensar, cómo vivir y qué imagen mostrar al mundo. la cuestión consiste en tener el poder para utilizar instrumentos con los que crear «patrones de pensamiento, conjuntos de imágenes e ideas y marcos de referencia para entender cómo se debe vivir la vida» (mander, : ). en cuanto a los aspectos comunicativos, encontramos que la narrativa digital establece un modelo interactivo, en el cual los papeles de quién emite y de quién recibe el mensaje puedan intercambiarse, accediendo ambos en las mismas condiciones materiales al canal comunicativo y compartiendo la misma situación temporal. la organización de la narrativa establece las rela- ciones entre la historia y sus audiencias a partir de dos dimensiones: ¿qué contar? y ¿cómo contarlo? el reto radica en aproximar el argumento al público | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional mediante una narrativa y un medio que lo transforme en realidad. la cuestión es que sea un relato creíble, pues «las narrativas nos rodean, pero también deambulan por los recovecos de nuestra mente» (scolari, ). la participación afectiva del público en los relatos siempre ha sido un tema de interés entre todos los movimientos artísticos. sin ir más lejos, en la década de los años cincuenta del siglo xx encontrábamos representaciones multidisciplinares y provocativas como el performance art o el happening artístico, instando a la concurrencia a abandonar su posición pasiva ante la historia narrada. en la actualidad, este espíritu provocativo lo localizamos en la narrativa digital, un contexto cambiante en el que las historias adoptan dife- rentes aspectos, discurren por contextos variables, con diferentes grados de interacción y participación, se adaptan a múltiples dispositivos y nos ofrecen una visión heterogénea de una realidad, de la que también seremos parte acti- va (cantillo, a). desde la aparición de la fotografía, las técnicas usadas para hacer partí- cipe a la audiencia han ido evolucionando, se han ido introduciendo provo- caciones estéticas cada vez más sofisticadas que, enfocadas hacia el reino de las emociones, han explosionado para dejar atrás la mera exégesis del hecho cotidiano. las narrativas digitales han sido un valor añadido para el público espectador, pues, al movimiento intrínseco que ya tenía la imagen cinemato- gráfica le han agregado elementos nuevos para motorizar su activa pasividad. en la misma línea que la participación está el factor afectivo, que condicio- na la comprensión de la información, debiendo prestar especial atención a la fuerza de los apegos emocionales que generan determinadas imágenes, ya que este fenómeno contiene un inmenso potencial para estandarizar nuestro pensa- miento y resulta preocupante cuando se dirige al público infantil, carente de recursos para detectar la influencia de las imágenes que contempla. existe un debate abierto sobre los afectos de estas narrativas, pues resulta imposible sepa- rar las emociones de la sugestión afectiva que transmiten imágenes inocentes utilizadas por multinacionales como disney, con un poder de atracción indiscu- tible. giroux ( : ) nos advierte de que «debemos prestar especial aten- ción a cómo los niños utilizan y comprenden estas películas y medios visuales». por tanto, tendremos que detenernos en esos aspectos cinematográficos, donde las narraciones fílmicas reconstruyen una experiencia que sólo conoce nuestra imaginación y que nos traslada a un mundo mágico que seremos capaces de visualizar, sin apenas sorprendernos. es alarmante comprobar la facilidad con que los estados de ánimo influyen en la interpretación de la realidad y la toma de decisiones, esta asociación emotiva va a condicionar la valoración que se haga de la misma, ya que, «las emociones pueden distorsionar el pensamiento y el index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | pensamiento puede distorsionar las emociones. siempre a través de asociacio- nes falsas, o al menos, arbitrarias» (ferrés i prats, ). . metodología de la investigación: las relaciones de poder y el conocimiento (en el mundo disney) para establecer objetivos y delimitar el universo de estudio la marca distintiva de las relaciones de poder es la dominación. este poder lo ostentan las instituciones y los organismos encargados de proporcionar infor- mación y conocimiento a la sociedad. aunque, el mayor riesgo de dominación se encuentra en nuestro desconocimiento, el cual impide detectar este poder y, por tanto, encontrar sus efectos en la infancia. pierre bourdieu ( : ) califica a esta violencia como simbólica, amortiguada e invisible, porque pasa desapercibida para sus propias víctimas y «se ejerce esencialmente a través de los caminos puramente simbólicos de la comunicación y el conocimiento o, más exactamente, del desconocimiento»; paulo freire ( : ) también encontra- ba una explicación a esta relación cuando afirmaba que «lo que pretenden los opresores es transformar la mentalidad de los oprimidos y no la situación que los oprime. a fin de lograr una mejor adaptación a la situación que, a la vez, permita una mejor forma de dominación”. los medios de comunicación, actualmente, son las herramientas con mayor autoridad para ejercer el poder y establecer el orden simbólico en el imaginario infantil. en este proceso de formación y adoctrinamiento ocupan un lugar privi- legiado las multinacionales que tienen unos intereses privados y particulares. las tecnologías unidas a la cultura del entretenimiento han modificado la forma de contar historias en el público infantil. vemos cómo los personajes de los cuentos van proliferando por medios y plataformas, con discursos que se apoyan en la lógica del espectáculo y la dramatización. a través del tamiz del cine y de los más variopintos dispositivos han pasado todos los cuentos clásicos para ofrecer una imagen renovada que se ajuste al público del momento. además, los discursos van dirigidos hacia las emociones y ejercen una violencia simbólica a sujetos de escasa edad y con unas estructuras mentales en construcción y que, fácilmente, pueden ocupar la posición dominada. varios estudios (llorens-maluquer, ; albarrán, ; gomery, ; cantillo, ) nos revelan que estamos ante multinacionales que, en su esen- cia empresarial, anteponen su lógica comercial a los contenidos educativos, [ ] nich nicholas, expresidente de time inc, cuando firmó la fusión con el grupo time warner en marzo de comentó: «la industria del entretenimiento y los medios estará constituida por un limitado número de gigantes globales. estas empresas estarán integradas verticalmente, serán suficientemente grandes como para producir, comercializar y emitir mundialmente, y suficientemente flexibles como para asumir los costes de tales actividades a través de una vasta y cada vez más creciente red de distribución» (citado en llorens-maluquer, : ). | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional con el agravante de que tenemos delante narrativas que discurren por dife- rentes ámbitos, así que estamos frente a un problema muy serio y mucho más grave de lo que podamos percibir. el control que ejercen este tipo de empre- sas sobre los medios adquiere tal magnitud que los productos y juegos que la infancia utiliza para internalizar los valores están en manos de unas pocas empresas que controlan el universo transmediático (la televisión, las emisoras de radio, las revistas, los cómics, las redes sociales, los videojuegos, las edito- riales, las productoras cinematográficas, la distribución de películas, etc.). se trata de la mayor concentración de poder y apropiación de la propiedad inte- lectual de la historia, y lo más peligroso de todo esto es que este poder no se ejerce sobre los productos, sino sobre las conciencias, en este caso, infantiles, las más maleables y fácilmente dominables. . métodos y análisis del material audiovisual partimos de la idea de que toda investigación que pretenda incidir sobre las narrativas audiovisuales ha de iniciarse con el estudio de la imagen como un elemento decisivo en el desarrollo de la historia cultural. frazer ( ) propone una catalogación de las operaciones mágicas de las imágenes que nos permi- te conocer: en el plano figurativo, cómo son sustituidas o prolongadas por el pensamiento humano y, en el plano performativo, provocan los efectos que de ellas se pretenden (gubern, ). pues, es tan importante investigar lo que las imágenes muestran, como todo lo que esconden, ya que toda imagen constitu- ye un comentario que, unas veces está implícito y otras explícito; para lo cual, deberemos dedicar un interés especial a la atribución performativa de las imáge- nes que estas narraciones suscitan en su joven público, puesto que al exhibir a personajes capaces de realizar prodigios, princesas dignas de ser adoradas, etc. se transmite no sólo una ideología, sino que se construye el imaginario infantil con unos mapas de significado que les harán conferir sentido al mundo. en definitiva, estamos ante imágenes que construirán identidades con las que niños y niñas encontrarán un lugar en el mundo adulto; por tanto, para conocer los diferentes modos en que se presentan los personajes según sea su sexo creemos necesario realizar un análisis de los discursos que tienen lugar en las películas, de la narrativa audiovisual, de los gestos de los personajes y todo lo que comunique emoción y sentimientos al público espectador, ya que consideramos que el lenguaje tiene capacidad para producir o reproducir las relaciones de poder de la sociedad. de este modo, visibilizaremos las peculia- [ ] román gubern, en su obra patologías de la imagen, menciona las funciones de las imá- genes utilizadas en las prácticas mágicas, citando las categorías establecidas por frazer ( ) en su obra the golden bough: a study in magic and religion. index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | ridades que rodean a las situaciones comunicativas representadas, ya que «el problema no está en las características del discurso, sino en que un discurso de tales características circule y se haga dominante» (alonso y callejo, : ). . establecer objetivos en la filmografía de disney se pueden encontrar historias edulcoradas donde las princesas al final encuentran a su príncipe (su premio). estas narraciones transmiten información de los papeles propios de cada sexo y que su público irá asimilando, de forma inconsciente, hasta integrarla como algo natural en su comportamiento, reproduciendo los estereotipos sexistas al ser sus personajes imitados desde la infancia. esta hipótesis y los antecedentes mencionados en el apartado anterior nos llevan a establecer el objetivo principal del presente estudio, fijando esta investigación en interpretar las imágenes y los discursos del material audiovisual de las princesas disney para hacer visibles las posturas de poder de los oligopolios mediáticos que propagan entre el público femenino una «cultura del silencio» prescrita por sus opresores y positivada en formas de dominación androcéntrica. este objetivo principal nos conduce a un segundo objetivo, no por ello menos importante: resaltar la necesidad de introducir un análisis crítico de las narrativas audiovisuales en la infancia para impedir la manipulación y adoctrinamiento. mediante estos objetivos podremos reflexionar sobre cómo se adultera la realidad en las representaciones de las princesas disney. así, verificarermos si se cumple otra hipótesis de partida: «la narrativa audiovisual escoge un punto de vista determinado y anula otros; por tanto, se adultera la realidad. tras la representación de la realidad hay una ideología» cuyo calado en la identidad adulta se propaga a través de las emociones. los personajes ficticios dejan de serlo en el momento que se personifican en nuestra realidad, una realidad que nuestros sentidos perciben, pero que nuestro cerebro procesa con base en los recuerdos y las emociones. de ahí la influencia que estas imágenes inocen- tes pueden provocar en la conducta, ya que ejercen un desmedido poder de adoctrinamiento que trasciende el ámbito informal y que tiene una fuerte incidencia en la construcción de la humanidad digital del siglo xxi. para alcanzar estos objetivos mostramos algunos análisis de cómo se ven representados los principales personajes, cómo se relacionan entre sí los elementos figurativos de la ficción, así como las diferencias entre estas figu- ras y lo que representan en la realidad, y así reflexionamos acerca de algunas acciones reflejadas en la filmografía. | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional . delimitar el universo de estudio para realizar este estudio se han tenido en cuenta los documentos gráficos de una parte muy concreta de la filmografía de disney; al centrar el estudio en los este- reotipos de género se han elegido los personajes de las princesas como universo de la investigación. se escogen las películas en las que estas aparecen, desde la primera estrenada en , blancanieves y los siete enanitos ( ), hasta la más reciente frozen: el reino del hielo ( ). la filmografía de disney es extensa y en muchas más películas pueden analizarse los estereotipos sexistas, aunque se ha partido de un patrón común donde el personaje principal a analizar tuviese el mismo peso específico en la película; esto se ha conseguido al elegir sólo los filmes donde el personaje principal estuviese interpretado por una princesa de facto, o una joven que adquiere esa condición al contraer matrimonio con un príncipe; y se excluyen las cintas en las que su protagonista era un animal, por no responder al perfil de persona que pudiese formar parte del imaginario infantil. . resultados: perdimos la libertad… y hasta la voz una de las principales formas de controlar el poder consiste en prohibir el acceso a la palabra. para demostrar este argumento, en este apartado recordamos algu- nos momentos, escenas, diálogos, etc. que utilizan el silencio femenino como elemento narrativo para posicionar a los personajes del film en un espacio deter- minado de la historia. así nos preguntamos: ¿qué nos dicen los discursos de las mujeres? esto se visualiza, sobre todo, en los comienzos de cada película a través de la narrativa audiovisual utilizada, en los gestos de los personajes, sus expresiones y sus discursos. en este sentido, las sensaciones transmitidas mediante las escenas que representan los personajes animados han sido analizadas para comprobar que estos supuestos movimientos de cámara consiguen imprimir una carga emocional que involucra al público en el relato. por ejemplo, hemos asimilado los movimientos de grúa al efecto visual que se pretende transmitir al sorpren- der a jasmine robando en el bazar, o también un travelling de acompañamien- to que resalta la imagen dulce de jasmine cuando aparece por primera vez en la película, por considerar que muestran claramente la posición de indefensión que se confiere a los personajes femeninos, aunque sean principales, en este tipo de películas. el código gestual de las princesas cuando se muestran la primera vez ante la cámara es dulce e inocente o, en todo caso, su gesto es de estar sufriendo, esperando o realizando tareas domésticas. la introducción en la narración se hace mediante una voz conductora del relato. su incorporación a la escena index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | es a través de planos generales que de un modo descriptivo van mostrando la figura de las princesas, poco a poco, y mediante travelling de acercamiento se llegará hasta primeros planos que presentan la belleza y dulzura de estos personajes. figura : escenas de la película aladdín ( ). sin embargo, los personajes masculinos son presentados mediante trave- lling de acompañamiento y primeros planos que demuestran el carácter supe- rior del género dominante, por tanto los valores de valentía, lucha, etc. quedan reforzados desde el principio de la narración. es interesante el análisis realizado acerca de los códigos gestuales de los personajes protagonistas, ya que encontramos a bella, en la bella y la bestia ( ) en una actitud soñadora; y a bestia, a quien no podemos considerar como antagonista de ésta ya que será su príncipe, pero que actúa brutalmen- te y muestra un código gestual agresivo en toda la narración fílmica. como en la publicidad, se le concede a la imagen un poder en la comunicación de emociones estereotipadas «la imagen ocupa una función esencial, un valor de comunicación que ha sustituido el razonamiento argumental por una retórica visual fundamentada básicamente en estereotipos» (correa, : - ). figura : escenas de la bella y la bestia ( ). | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional al presentar a la protagonista en los primeros comentarios se revela la sumisión femenina. una posición consustancial a la mujer en la sociedad patriarcal, aunque queda remarcada en los comentarios que realizan cuando están ante la presencia de hombres. blancanieves al llegar a la casa de los enanitos exclama: «¡cuánto polvo!» o «¡qué montón de platos sucios!» y, una tras otra, va repasando las tareas domésticas que están descuidadas. después, por inducción, va construyendo una realidad que se reproduce en su mente androcéntrica y que se reconstruye en el imaginario de la audiencia: «¿creéis que su madre?... a lo mejor no tienen madre...» hasta llegar a ofrecer su trabajo a cambio del alojamiento «y, si dejáis que me quede, limpiaré la casa, fregaré y también cocinaré...». figura : escenas de blancanieves y los siete enanitos ( ). mulan ( ) también comienza recordando las cualidades que toda mujer debe poseer: «callada y recatada, elegante, refinada, educada, delicada, desen- vuelta, puntual...» y siempre dejando clara la posición de vasallaje en relación a los hombres: «para complacer a tu futuro suegro» (estos son los consejos para agradar y casarse que recibe por parte de sus mayores). el caso de silenciamiento más perverso se da en la sirenita ( ), cuan- do la bruja del mar pide a ariel que le dé su voz, interpretando esta canción: «hablando mucho enfadas a los hombres… se aburren y no dejas buen sabor, pues les causan más placer las chicas que tienen pudor, admirada tú serás, si callada siempre estás». a todas luces, lo que se pone de manifiesto en estas representaciones es la capacidad comunicadora y transmisora que los excelentes arreglos musica- les confieren a las escenas, dándoles ese toque emocional que hace percibir como humanas las experiencias representadas por los dibujos animados y que disney utiliza para transmitir su ideología conservadora y sexista. la narración del relato nos introduce en una historia donde la mujer es una proyección de los propios fantasmas masculinos, donde la imagen de «lo otro» postulada por simone de beauvoir no se emite como la de un sexo diferente e index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | independiente, sino como una proyección hacia fuera de sus instintos reprimi- dos (mantelli, ). por ejemplo, así encontramos a ariel, la sirenita ( ) transformada en pantalla muda reflectora de los propios temores masculinos, en imagen de una masculinidad terrorífica en que la cola (miembro viril) es reemplazada por unas piernas y su singularidad como sirena (mujer indepen- diente) deviene sumisión del falo castrador. ariel se transforma en una sirena silenciosa, y un eje mudo que la exhibe indefensa ante el hombre, puesto que, al no hablar, permite el libre juego del deseo masculino. es significativo este silencio impuesto por disney al personaje de la sirena, ya que según la leyen- da, las sirenas no eran silenciosas, sino que seducían a los hombres con sus cantos mortales. aunque, al privarla de voz, se niega la posibilidad de inde- pendencia de la mujer. esta figura muda de una sirena revela una función de signo imaginado por y para el hombre (cantillo, b). la habitación de elsa, en frozen: el reino del hielo ( ), también se caracteriza por su silencio: un silencio discreto y avergonzado que da un aire solemne a la escena, dejando traslucir ese deseo mudo de una sexualidad prohi- bida que se expresa con un aislamiento y una altivez impuesta. este silencio es lo que también le permite al mundo femenino de rapunzel (enredados, ) servir de blanco al deseo masculino, llamando la atención masculina ante un cautiverio y alejamiento por no se sabe qué causas. de ahí que este mundo femenino represente una «esfera mágica» o «atmósfera mística», misticismo no en el sentido del lenguaje religioso femenino que se expresa a través de sus silencios, sino en el sentido de constituir una pantalla muda sobre la cual se proyecta el deseo masculino en la ficción narrativa. figura : escenas de frozen: el reino del hielo ( ). en líneas generales, el elemento más llamativo que recorre todos los discursos, tanto hablados como cantados, es el uso del masculino genérico para referirse tanto a hombres como a mujeres (por ejemplo, en la sirenita, Úrsula le comenta a ariel: «... para conseguir lo que quieres, debes convertirte en humano...», o en la bella durmiente ( ), cuando hablan los padres sobre la boda de sus hijos: «los chicos necesitan un hogar propio, un sitio donde | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional criar a sus polluelos...». en pocahontas ( ), se refieren a los «hombres blancos», no dejando lugar a las mujeres en su discurso, etc.). de igual forma, el lenguaje del discurso de una narrativa que limita el acceso a la palabra femenina aparece en momentos cuidadosamente meta- forizados, está presente en lo que no dice o no puede decir la mujer y donde los personajes fílmicos se verán atravesados interna y externamente en una borrosidad androcéntrica que denota un vacío, que revela la inexistencia de un espacio neutral en el plano interpretativo y semántico. a lo largo de la historia literaria y social, cuando se habla de humani- dad, no se incluye a todos —varones y mujeres— sino que se alude o se sintetiza el pensamiento de un grupo de varones que hace prevalecer su imaginario dominante y parcializado (mantelli, : ). tanto en la literatura como en la cultura popular se valora el arquetipo de la mujer enigmática y silenciosa por encima de la irritante mujer charlatana, que cuando aparece lo hace como un personaje chistoso que aporta comicidad a la narración. aquí encontramos que la «cultura del silencio» es otro paradig- ma adoctrinador utilizado en las narrativas cinematográficas como un agen- te propagador de la ubicación de la mujer en la sociedad. el silencio, según christian salmon, está asociado a diferentes cualidades: la modestia, el respeto a los demás, la prudencia, el saber vivir. por culpa de reglas de decoro profundamente arraigadas, la gente se calla para evitar los problemas, los conflictos y otros peligros percibidos. las virtu- des sociales del silencio están reforzadas por nuestros instintos de super- vivencia (salmon, : ). la mujer acepta su papel de objeto mudo. su palabra se ha secuestrado y el sentido de estas, si llegaran a emitirlas, también se ha asumido por las ideologías dominantes (androcéntricas) para travestir y constituir algo inherente a la dialéc- tica entre opresores y oprimidos. la mujer ni siquiera ha tenido la posibilidad de comunicarse, estando silenciada y, cuando ha podido ejercer este derecho, ha utilizado una palabra robada que ha sido reemplazada «por otra que conlleva la idea de transmisión […] el robo, entonces, [el poder hegemónico ha cumplido] el objetivo: secuestrar el significado de las palabras más hermosas de nuestra lengua: la comunicación» (aparici, : ); por tanto, habrá que sospechar de una falsa posibilidad de comunicación otorgada a la mujer, ya que formaría parte de una «ideología difusa» que sirve para justificar el poder y sus prácticas. index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | todos estos discursos (y la ausencia de ellos también) encasillan y atrapan a las mujeres en unos esquemas mentales de dominación, sin saber por qué se sentirán sufridoras y formarán parte de las relaciones de dominación eterna, puesto que «los dominados aplican a las relaciones de dominación unas catego- rías construidas desde el punto de vista de los dominadores» (bourdieu, ). en todas estas películas encontramos los arquetipos de la mujer sumisa y obediente, que se guía por sus emociones, se orienta al amor y al matrimonio, es la que cuida de la familia y de la casa y en muchas ocasiones se presenta o en el rol de mujer «malvada» o en el de la niña «inocente» (giroux, ). los personajes animados pueden llegar a ser arquetipos, ya que ofrecen la imagen de un mundo desconocido para el público espectador, que sentirá atracción hacia su carácter insólito. el «mérito» a la hora de convertir un personaje de ficción en un modelo arquetípico estriba en hacer que esa historia exótica adquiera un carácter absoluto y se presente como un nuevo modelo de referencia. en lo relativo a la expresión de las emociones, encontramos una ebulli- ción de emotividad en los papeles femeninos que suelen hacer caso a impul- sos afectivos irracionales, en contraposición con el equilibrio y pragmatismo de los masculinos. por ejemplo, en la sirenita ( ) aparecen dos perso- najes femeninos: ariel y Úrsula, protagonista y antagonista respectivamen- te, [la mujer es sumisa y obediente, se guía por sus emociones, se orienta al amor y al matrimonio... se presenta en el rol de mujer «malvada» o en el de niña «inocente»] (giroux, : - ) y, cuatro masculinos: el rey tritón, príncipe eric, grimsby el mayordomo y el chef louis, quienes tienen un claro reconocimiento en función de su posición socio-laboral, configuran- do su perfil en la escena en relación con sus acciones. incluso en las relaciones afectivas se reserva una posición pasiva para la mujer, otorgando la iniciativa al hombre y el papel de espera pasiva a la mujer. por este motivo, se escucharán comentarios por parte de personajes femeni- nos como: «¡qué tonta es! ¡está loca!, ¡es tan lindo!», quienes no dan crédito a que una mujer no entre en el juego de la seducción masculina, donde el movimiento siguiente, en la bella y la bestia ( ), supondría la concesión progresiva de los favores de bella hacia gastón. el amor para una mujer y las prácticas de cortejo de un hombre hacia ella, le hacen conceder un lugar secundario a toda la actividad que ésta viniera realizando, se abre ante sí la esperanza de escapar del desierto al que se ve abocada por ser mujer, de alcanzar la felicidad gracias a la compañía masculi- na y de poder concebir así una vida más intensa. trabajos relacionados con el neuromarketing (braidot, ; damasio, ), ponen de manifiesto la importancia de la estimulación de las emocio- | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional nes en la ficción, hasta llegar al punto de ser equiparadas con situaciones vivi- das en la realidad. las emociones influyen en la construcción de la identidad y en la cimentación de la memoria. a las emociones van dirigidos los relatos infantiles que, con una finalidad mercantilista, pretenden conseguir un acer- camiento del público hacia sus productos, pero las técnicas utilizadas por la mercadotecnia tergiversan la realidad, provocando una potenciación del esta- do hipnótico encargado de automatizar la toma de decisiones. la visión de las imágenes infantiles de disney suele erigirse como un escenario poderoso, estratégicamente construido para «formatear las mentes» infantiles, donde se encuentran representados los sueños y las esperanzas. incluso, en el margen más machista de los relatos hemos encontrado discursos donde se muestran, bajo apariencia divertida, verdaderas escenas de violencia hacia las mujeres, pero que al envolverse en un halo de chascarrillo pasan desapercibidas, pues «como tendencia, la ficción tiende a hacerse amable y busca edulcorar los sucesos. al fin y al cabo, la primera y primordial función de la ficción es esa: entretener» (marta-lazo, c. y abadía urbistondo, a., ). conocida es la habilidad de walt disney para conectar con las emociones del público (infantil y adulto), unida esta destreza al poder del cine, puesto que «influye en nuestras emociones directamente, sin necesidad de pasar por el intelecto» (ferrés i prats, ), constituye un montaje de imágenes en sus películas que genera un relato atrayente con el que también alcanzará esa asociación emocional y, a través de la cual, se transmitirán ideas y creencias. cuando la política se reviste con la imagen de la inocencia, está en juego algo más que el simple engaño. se trata de la cuestión del poder cultural y de cómo influye en las formas públicas de comprensión del pasado. la inocencia en el mundo de disney se convierte en el vehículo ideológico a través del cual la historia se escribe de nuevo. [...] la disney company no ignora la cultura, la reinventa como un instrumento pedagógico y político de sus propios intereses, autoridad y poder (giroux, : ). en las últimas producciones de disney, sin embargo, encontramos cómo se incita al público espectador a controlar sus emociones (quizás aquellas que no se ajustan a un modelo establecido) para no alterar el orden natural. así, el triunfo de elsa como reina, en frozen: el reino del hielo ( ) es aprender a controlar sus emociones que estimulan su crioquinesis. esto sugiere que cuando las mujeres poderosas necesitan capacitación, no es para desarrollar sus habilidades sino para evitar abusar de su poder (streiff, ). index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | . discusión y conclusiones: cuando la narrativa digital silencia y esclaviza el cine es un vehículo de valores y de contravalores, se puede considerar el mejor medio para influir en la educación integral del ser humano. una película puede ser un ejemplo de lo correcto y socialmente establecido o, por el contrario, se puede convertir en un elemento destructor, todo dependerá de las referencias, de cómo se proyecta su narrativa y del contexto en donde sea exhibida. (cantillo y gil-quintana, ). la naturaleza del silencio no tiene voz propia y esta voz tiene el reflejo del hombre y se muestra legitimando un determinado producto cultural, al representarlo como objeto natural que no puede ser de otra manera; es decir, el silencio naturalizado de la mujer. trasladando este enmudecimiento (tácito o explícito) a la narrativa del cine infantil, encontramos que las princesas disney también suelen aparecer silenciadas y condenadas a un mutismo con el que se transmitirá su sumisión femenina, actuando, estas figuras, como «máquinas de enseñar» apoyadas sobre el registro del aislamiento comunicativo de la mujer. sus personajes son silenciados sin tener en cuenta que el silencio puede tener un coste psicológico enorme en los individuos, al crear sentimientos de frustración y aislamiento. estas historias están perfectamente narradas para que penetren en las mentes infantiles y sean absorbidas sin apenas percibirlo (salmon, ). se introducen en el imaginario infantil como una muestra más de domina- ción masculina, ya que las palabras (o su ausencia) forman el lenguaje que contribuye a la aceptación de la realidad; es decir, se sigue naturalizando la cosmovisión androcéntrica como representación del orden social, donde el lenguaje es patrimonio masculino y el silencio es femenino. estas asimetrías impuestas, desde los ámbitos de la fantasía, suponen que la abnegación, la resignación o el silencio han sido virtudes negativas aprendidas de forma dife- rencial por niños y niñas del currículum oculto y manifiesto de la pedagogía androcéntrica, de tal forma que llegan a ser asumidas como pertenecientes al orden natural de las cosas (correa, en aguiar y farray, : ). la narrativa digital del cine de animación ha reproducido el silencio y el encierro femenino como otro ejemplo cultural más que establece los espacios propios de los géneros. su lenguaje universal ha ido evolucionando, desarro- llando una capacidad comunicativa en diversos sectores y ha dado lugar a que su narrativa se haya convertido en un factor clave en el mundo de la comunica- ción actual, puesto que la gran mayoría de las propuestas audiovisuales toman como base su estructura expositiva. la energía creativa de la narrativa cine- matográfica consolida la jerarquía de los seres humanos universales y propaga las realidades culturales particulares que se considerarán como naturales. | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional el poder que se otorga a las imágenes de las mujeres subyugadas y prisio- neras, junto a las palabras (no pronunciadas) nos lleva a idealizar a los perso- najes y a internalizar ciertos estilos de vida. encontramos contradicciones en un discurso que representa a la vez la voz de la mujer sumisa y la de la hembra vigorosa, dejando ver «lo femenino» a través de los silencios de un discurso contradictorio y no como una realidad esencial. en el caso de las narraciones de las películas infantiles de dibujos anima- dos, tal y como hiciera vladimir propp ( ) con los cuentos maravillosos, podemos aislar sus partes constitutivas para analizarlas según la aplicación de unos patrones particulares y ponerlas en relación para descubrir la descripción exacta de la trama narrada. entre las funciones establecidas por este autor para analizar los cuentos se encuentra la de proferir una proclama donde «un prisionero pida al héroe que le libere», también paulo freire nos traslada a que la causa de la liberación es un compromiso de carácter amoroso, dialógico y «por esta misma razón, no pueden los dominados, los oprimidos acomodar- se a la violencia que se les imponga, sino luchar para que desaparezcan las condiciones objetivas en que se encuentran aplastados» (freire, : ). sin embargo, «los oprimidos, como objetos, como ‘cosas’, carecen de finali- dades. sus finalidades son aquellas que les prescriben los opresores […] que los explotados casi siempre llevan consigo, condicionados por la “cultura del silencio”» (freire, : ). afortunadamente, y gracias a la interacción y la participación que nos ofrecen las redes sociales digitales «la ciudad comienza a percibir su propio potencial comunicativo a escala local y global, a tal punto que están creando redes informativas paralelas, y muchas veces independientes, a las que esta- blecen los grandes medios de comunicación y las industrias de la cultura» (aparici y osuna-acedo, ). hemos llegado a un nuevo umbral diegético que nos sitúa ante un siste- ma de intercambio simbólico audiovisual que invierte los papeles de la cons- trucción de la realidad. la sociedad de consumo actual ofrece «una gran diversidad de productos para escapar a las presiones y angustias de la vida cotidiana, para evadirse a través del juego y del entretenimiento, para inten- tar satisfacer las esperanzas y los deseos secretos» (romano, : ). en este sentido, pensamos que el estudio de las humanidades digitales no puede quedar en el mero análisis de las narrativas infantiles o «en el simple análisis de las producciones; nuestra atención se ha de fijar en el modelo comunicativo llevado a cabo, convirtiéndose en el elemento determinante de nuevas formas de narrar» (gil-quintana, : ). index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | la construcción del sujeto femenino que se lleva a cabo en la pantalla configura la no-presencia (la ausencia) y la no-estimación (insignificación). a través de sus silencios se las caracteriza como algo marginal, unos perso- najes sometidos en la narrativa digital a unos estereotipos que se empeñan en delimitarlas y que las ciñen a la mirada masculina que será la que configurará la identidad femenina. luce irigaray en spéculum de l’autre femme ( ) sostiene que el reflejo está íntimamente unido a la percepción y a la formu- lación de esta percepción, su exigencia incluye un nuevo lenguaje que sería el de la subversión, por tanto, sólo podrá librarse del estigma de espejo que le provoca la mirada viril, sobre la que se valora y construye su identidad, si consigue la mirada interior, donde encuentra sentido al espacio vacío que es su ser interior. si, como decía paulo freire ( : ) ,«la existencia, en tanto humana, no puede ser muda, silenciosa […] existir, humanamente, es “pronunciar” el mundo, es transformarlo […] los hombres [y las mujeres] no se hacen en el silencio, sino en la palabra, en el trabajo, en la reflexión». una posible solución para evitar que con estos mensajes se construyan humanidades digitales silenciadas pasa por la alfabetización mediática, respaldada por profesionales que nos hagan saber cómo reaccionar ante una industria, que, aunque ya suponemos que está detrás de estas prácticas, no existen cauces legitimados para entablar una lucha contra estos mensajes adoctrinadores y que estandarizan nuestras conciencias. en definitiva, replan- tearnos la narrativa digital con miradas alternativas que se sitúen en lo más profundo de las significaciones. . bibliografía albarrán, a. 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( ). who owns de media?. en alexander, a.; owers, j. y carveth, r. (ed.). media economics. theory and practice (pp. - ). hills- dale nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. gubern, r. ( ). patologías de la imagen. barcelona: anagrama. intef. instituto nacional de las tecnologías educativas y de forma- ción del profesorado ( ). el cine como recurso didáctico. módulo b: lenguaje cinematográfico: teorías. semiótica. recuperado desde: http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/ /cd/m _ /semitica.html index.comunicaci�n http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/tesisuned:educacion-ccantillo/cantillo_valero_carmen_tesis.pdf http://commons.lib.jmu.edu/jmurj/vol /iss / / http://mediterranea-comunicacion.org/. http://dx.doi.org/ . /medcom . . . http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/ /cd/m _ /semitica.html las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | irigaray, l. ( ) spéculum de l’autre femme. parís: les Éditions de minuit. llorens-maluquer, c. 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(directores) ( ). la sirenita [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/ / http:// -www.ebrary.com.jabega.uma.es https://www.persee.fr/doc/comm_ - _ _num_ _ _ http:// -www.ebrary.com.jabega.uma.es http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /htm | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional disney, w. (productor) y wise, k. y trousdale, g. (directores) ( ). la bella y la bestia [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. disney, w. (productor) y clements, r. y musker, j. (directores) ( ). aladdín [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. disney, w. (productor) y cabriel, m. y goldberg, e. (directores) ( ). pocahontas [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. disney, w. (productor) y cook, b. y bancroft, t. (directores) ( ). mulan [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. sarafian, k. (productora) y andrews, m.; chapman, b. y purcell, s. (directores) ( ). brave. indomable [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures, pixar. vecho, p. del (productor) y buch, ch. y lee, j. (directores) ( ). frozen: el reino del hielo [película]. estados unidos: walt disney animation studios y walt disney pictures. para citar este artículo: cantillo valero, c. ( ). las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades digitales «silenciadas» en el cine de animación. index.comunicación, ( ), - . index.comunicaci�n reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale - this is a repository copy of reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale - . white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: accepted version article: bibby, p.r. ( ) reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale - . international journal of arts and humanities computing, ( ). pp. - . issn - https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. the copyright exception in section of the copyright, designs and patents act allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. the publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the white rose research online record for this item. where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. mailto:eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale – peter bibby abstract this paper uses land tax records to attempt to reconstruct the pattern of urbanization in a pennine fringe township which formed part of the lancashire cotton complex during the early industrial revolution. it uses logic programming to articulate rules to develop a longitudinal approach which chains together individual land tax records for successive years to identify perduring property objects, which are then located geographically using the pooled descriptors drawn from the returns. it investigates not only house repopulation, but also the character of new property development, of sub- division and amalgamation of holdings and the changing control of housing. it allows a remarkably detailed reconstruction of change in the particular locality, revealing events that have gone unnoticed. pent-up demand associated with proto-industrialization combined with the self-interest of a major absentee landlord to allow a flurry of small scale construction between and ; property then converted to workers’ housing with the onset of industrial urbanism. more generally, it is suggested that a computational approach of this sort allows for a more serious engagement with a source all too often dismissed as unpromising. the paper concludes by drawing out implications of the work for more traditional approaches to interpreting land tax returns. keywords: land tax, logic programming, house repopulation, pennines, proto-industrialization international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press www.euppublishing.com/ijhac http://www.euppublishing.com/ijhac http://www.euppublishing.com/ijhac august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby introduction this paper explores the feasibility of using land tax returns to examine urbanization of a particular locality over the period – . it attempts to chain together individual land tax records for successive years to identify enduring property objects, and to locate them geographically using any of the pooled descriptors within the returns. it also seeks to identify change and development as these property objects divide or combine. more tentatively it attempts to move beyond the phenomenal level, beginning to examine the relationship between these physical chnges and broader changes in economic organization. urbanization universally involves a reduction in direct economic dependence upon the land through the adoption of more indirect methods of production, and also the accretion of buildings. the form of any urbanization- that is the scale and configuration of the physical effects, the balance of working time assigned to direct agricultural production and the organization of all forms of production is historically specific. the particular locality of concern - mottram-in-longdendale- a township in the pennine fringe in the north eastern ‘panhandle’ of the former county of cheshire perhaps epitomized in the mutual dependency of domestic textile production and dairying. a ‘cold and inclement’ place, where ‘the herbage is sour and turns to rushes’ if not sufficiently limed , mottram shared the archetypal preconditions for the emergence of the classic dual economies discussed by thirsk . its place in the geographic division of labour did not entail severance from the land, but a system of land use and development similar to that held by defoe to typify the country around halifax in which ‘as every clothier must keep a horse, perhaps two, to fetch and carry for the use of his manufacture . . . then every manufacturer generally keeps a cow or two, or more, for his family, and this employs the two, or three, or four pieces of enclosed land about his house’ it has long been appreciated that by the late eighteenth century the pennine fringe was studded with cottages and adjoining crofts, intercalated within a mosaic of larger holdings -still too small to provide adequate income by agriculture alone . dependence on agriculture had been reduced not only through domestic spinning and weaving, but engagement in crafts and trades such as tailoring and shoemaking. population growth had been accommodated ‘not so much [by] an urban increase but a thickening of the population over the countryside’ as farm units were successively fragmented , a process which continued by the s producing spaces august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbaniza tion ‘dotted with villages and groups of dwellings, and white detached houses, and manufactories presenting an appearance somewhat like that of a vast city scattered amongst meads and pastures, and belts of woodland’ such specific configurations might be seen through the lens of the proto- industrialization thesis, their dispersed domestic industry reliant on distant markets, their need for greater capital inputs and changes in the organization of production driving subsequent industrialization . indeed, mottram formed part of the south east lancashire cotton complex, producing for markets in ireland, america and europe and considered by walton to bear all the ‘stigmata of the classic proto-industrial model’ . a specifically proto-industrial perspective on this dual economy might suggest that this landscape might be subject to intense demographic pressure and raise questions about the lines of continuity with an emerging industrial urbanism, although the grand narratives turn away from such patterns of economic organization (and physical development) after , as walton has argued proto-industrialization without industrial urbanism was not necessarily a ‘dead-end’ . moreover, because the mechanization of weaving lagged so long behind the spinning branch, weaving continued to be undertaken by ‘nearly identical household units of production’ which composed bamford’s vast scattered city. nevertheless, at least one local family active within the traditional dual economy- the sidebottoms – became a major industrial capital within the township. part of the challenge in this current paper involves attempting to assess how changes in patterns of land-use and development that might be imputed from the land tax returns might variously have contributed to intensification of a proto-industrial pattern or to the constitution of an urban- industrial ensemble. within the confines of a single township, however, competition for land implies that development of one form necessarily excludes others, and the perspectives of specific landowners become important. despite levine’s view that a landlord-dominated proto-industrial village would be a contradiction , two thirds of the land in this particular township was controlled by a single absentee landlord. the tendency to fragmentation of farm units found here and frequently associated with proto-industrialization cannot be ascribed in this instance to partible inheritance. it must be understood in relation to the tollemache family’s perception of their interests, to the perceptions of their stewards, which are central to what follows, and also in relation to the contemporary discourse of estate management which ran seamlessly into political economy. practice on the tollemache estate ran counter to contemporary conventional wisdom regarding the proper size of cottage grounds and the desirable size of farm units on landed estates which usually favoured large farm units. although a counter position was championed by nathaniel kent and the potential of an alternative ‘cow and cottage economy’ was august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby promoted by the society for bettering the condition of the poor, this was denounced by malthus as it might lead to a general diminution in means of subsistence, and feared by others because of its association with jacobinism . much of what follows therefore is concerned with attempting to identify different moments of urbanization variously associated with different patterns of social organization, in circumstances where physical property was continually being put to new uses. running through this long period of adaptation is an intriguing idealistic continuity between the principal landlord’s fragmentation of holdings in the last two decades of the eighteenth century and the celebrated advocacy of cottage farms by his successor, lord john tollemache. this paper does not prioritize the views of the tollemache estate, but inclines towards a market perspective, imagining a marketized cottage economy. tollemache interests shaped the supply of land, but the pattern of demand was driven by the same forces that led to fragmentation under proto-industrialization. no common remained in the township, and the pressure to proletarianization is seen as the squeezing out of particular households’ claim on land, through the market. investigation of these possibilities proceeds by attempting to infer physical change and change in the organization of holdings by chaining land tax records, and by attempting to impute the function of property by gathering information about occupiers through nominal record linkage to a range of further sources. the following sections first introduce the land tax returns and the idea of chaining them, sets out the relations to previous studies, and the centrality of the value of the sum assessed in constructing chains and the need to link to the physical. subsequent sections seek to identify the influence of first national legislative and second local administrative practice on the values assessed, so as to filter out extraneous influences not attributable to physical change or change in occupancy. land tax and land tax chains: introduction to readers familiar with the land tax returns, the foregoing may seem quite unreasonably ambitious. any attempt of this sort requires a detailed understanding of the land tax assessments for the period, described in some detail by ginter . land tax was introduced in great britain in , initially being levied not only on the annual rental value of real property, but on assessments of (personal) sources of income other than land and buildings. from the returns were used to establish entitlement to vote in county elections, and as clerks of the peace for counties were between and required to keep copies for electoral purposes, they survive in large numbers for that period in county record offices. the information within the returns is minimal (see figure ). adopting ginter’s terminology, these ‘duplicates’ for any year and township comprise a series of ‘line entries’ providing the name of the proprietor, august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization a) b) shows least detail; providing occupier and sum assessed only provides fuller property descriptions than all other years. source: land tax returns, mottram-in-longdendale, qdv/ / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. figure . land tax duplicates (extracts); mottram-in-longdendale township; a) ; b) . the occupier, the sum for which they were liable, and very often a description of the property ‘bundle.’ the returns do not appear to have been used to explore urbanization, let alone competing forms. indeed turner and mills’ collection of studies based on the land tax maintained a clear distinction between urban applications and rural applications . the crux of the present work involves matching the line entries longitudinally into chains, gathering together the scanty information about particular holdings to reveal their successive occupiers, to identify new development and to track the reconfiguration of individual holdings over time. although land tax returns have often been used in local studies to point to changes in occupation of particular properties of interest , they have rarely been used systematically to enrich information about enduring entities. there are exceptions. hunt, for example, attempted to track holdings over time to identify tithes (where this was not stated) ; henstock linked land tax line entries over time more systematically to examine ‘house repopulation’ in ashbourne, a derbyshire market town . there do not, however, appear to have been studies which attempt to reconstruct the changing pattern of physical development and occupation of land and property by tackling the far more difficult task august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby of examining the amalgamation or subdivision of particular bundles, and the systematic identification of new property. this study attempts that task, through a computationally realized extension of henstock’s approach. while henstock’s study was designed to examine the succession of occupiers of a fixed set of property objects, deliberately excluding the rural area and abstracting from land parcellation, the present work allows for far more complex patterns of succession. one way of visualizing the central task is to imagine the individual line-entries as a set of vertices; and then consider the problem of specifying a set of edges, that is linkages between line entries for successive years, so as to construct a directed graph showing the history of the various property objects within the township. under the idealized fixed property objects assumption, each line entry would refer to one of a fixed number of unchanging properties. each separate property could be represented by a disjoint subgraph, a simple ‘chain’, with only the occupiers changing (suiting henstock’s prime purpose). with physical development and reorganization of agricultural holdings, however, the township ‘land tax graph’ and the constituent sub graphs for different holdings take the form of ‘trees’. when tracking individual bundles, any tendency for yeoman holdings to give way to large scale capitalist farms would imply tree structures, with fewer disjoint graphs, different chains joining together over time as holdings were combined. conversely, when tracking individual properties, if there was a tendency for holdings to fragment (in a manner frequently associated with proto- industrialization), the number of disjoint subgraphs would be maintained, though more would take the form of trees. this paper sketches out a method for reconstructing the entire land tax graph for the township as a set of chains, each chain corresponding to a series of line entries. when properties are combined, chains join (or more strictly one is absorbed into the other). when a property is divided, loosely speaking a chain splits; strictly a new additional chain begins. not surprisingly, when reconstructed, the actual graph for the township proves to be a hybrid, though the tendency to fragmentation dominates (as will become evident in figure a). identification of the succession of line-entries forming any particular chain rests principally on the limited information which they themselves contain, and it is important that the character of this information is understood. it is the identification of enduring property objects which is crucial, and although the bundle descriptions might seem the most obvious indicators of continuity, returns for many years include no such description. where they are present, most descriptions take relatively uninformative generic forms such as ‘house and land’ or ‘cottage and croft.’ moreover, in a given year the same property name (eg ‘hague farm’) may occur in several line entries. hence continuity must also be sought in the names of proprietors and occupiers and in the sum assessed. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization the approach to forming chains taken here rests crucially (but not solely) on consideration of the sum assessed. under idealized conditions, unchanging property bundles should be expected to have unchanging tax liability, whatever changes of ownership or tenancy might occur. similarly, one might expect that where two bundles had been amalgamated, the corresponding line entries would be replaced the following year by a single one with sums assessed combined. where a bundle had been divided, it would likewise seem reasonable to anticipate that in the following year new line entries would show apportioned liabilities. the approach developed centres on the articulation and testing of rules expressing such continuities. these idealized conditions include the maintenance of a stable legal and administrative system, fixity of valuations and poundages and fairness and consistency of local practice. the fundamental assumption (implicit in henstock’s study) that liability can be added and divided as suggested rests on a principle embedded in english law and custom from the time of commutation of feudal services into money values. the principle is set out as a dialogue in an early nineteenth century commentary: ‘q: what if the tenant since that statute enfeoff a stranger of part of the land? a: then the stranger shall hold of the lord per particular [sic] morum, viz. the rent shall be apportioned; as if there be twenty acres of land, and twenty shillings rent, the purchaser shall hold by three shillings rent, for three acres: but if there be an entire service that cannot be apportioned, as a horse, a hawk, the lord shall have the whole’ . in this particular locality, evidence of such apportionment is found at least from the s . the next sections consider firstly stability and change in the land tax regime over the period in question and secondly the nature of valuation and administrative practice in the particular township. together they form a basis for identifying potential discontinuities and for constructing modified and augmented line entries, compensating where possible for administrative changes and hence exposing substantive changes in value. influences on individual assessments: the land tax regime critical aspects of the statutory provisions and their implications for the present work are summarized in table . in principle at least, the greatest difficulty in interpreting any individual land tax assessment lies in understanding its place within a system in which individual townships were required to return a fixed sum in accordance with a hierarchy of quotas, irrespective of physical change. county quotas were set in statute (annually before ), while commissioners at county level were statutorily required to set quotas for hundreds or divisions in proportion to assessments of , and to set township quotas without statutory instruction. these quotas are usually regarded as having been fixed in practice from a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y table . potential sources of change in reported land tax liability. change in liability arising from issue note significance and treatment changed valuation prerogative of local assessors local revaluation in . specific adjustments applied (see text) changed poundage % statutory maximum; otherwise prerogative of local assessors imputed from returns; standardised values calculated (see text) change in asset classes recorded treatment of property worth less than £ redemption of liability and exoneration redemption of liability by third party provision for redemption by ecclesiastical and other bodies land, buildings, tithes and official salaries identifiable in the township returns. no effect on quota locally. statutory provisions refer to wealth of individual; not value of parcel. lower assessments are recorded locally individuals buying out their liability were exonerated from further payment and property not subject to reassessment. those exonerated are listed in the township returns in principle, property on which liability was redeemed but where owners or occupiers were not exonerated remained listed and subject to reassessment provisions made under various statutes for ecclesiastical and other bodies to sell property in order to redeem land tax liability official salaries and tithes excluded from analyses property included in analyses regardless of value; inconsistencies investigated (see text) exoneration of sidebottom bros means the development of the broadbottom colony cannot be tracked no known instances in the township church’s liability locally redeemed from , and further change not traceable. possible land sale a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion reduced liability following appeal double taxation of roman catholics revaluation of individual properties to reflect in situ change complete omission of influential owners or occupiers clear provisions for appeal against assessment throughout but no surviving local appeal documentation roman catholics were in principle liable to double taxation, though this may not have occurred in practice. there were no known catholic households locally occurred in principle, but doubted in practice by contemporary commentators and later analysts occurred in principle, but doubted in practice by contemporary commentators and later analysts some falls between and might result from appeal after revaluation ignored very large number of upward in-situ revaluations evident (see text) august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby generally, reconciling physical growth with fixed quotas represented a significant challenge. the geographically inequitable nature of quotas which took no account of population shifts since the s was much discussed . although this poses major problems for comparing assessments between townships, for present purposes it is more important to understand how or if equitable treatment of those with interests in new and existing property might be achieved within a township. writing in , lord fitzwilliam believed: it occurs most frequently that a land tax rate levies a sum considerably beyond the sum payable to government as the land tax of the district. this has arisen from various causes, but principally from new property arising within the district, as for instance a house is built. the house immediately becomes liable to bear its proportion in the landtax of the district. the assessors rate it regulating the sum, we suppose, by the known standard of some antient house of equal size. to keep the levy down to the precise demand of government upon the district every article of taxed property within the district ought to be relieved in its just proportion on such an occasion, but this has not been the practice.’ other commentators, by contrast, were quick to suggest that new property avoided the tax and that newly developing areas contributed little. in principle, local revaluations and adjustment of local poundages might have been used to bring the township quota and assessments of individual properties into alignment. specific local adjustments evident in the mottram returns are examined in the next section. beyond the general difficulties implied by fixed quotas, account must be taken of discontinuities arising from arrangements introduced from allowing the redemption or purchase of land tax liability in order to ease the debt crisis arising from engagement in the napoleonic wars. at this time, the land tax formerly agreed annually became perpetual, the quotas became statutory, and a series of further measures was introduced to encourage redemption of debt in return for lump sum payments. the main consequence for the present investigation is that incremental development of particular sites in the township was obscured where land tax liability had been redeemed. apart from the church (after ), only two land holders in the township bought exoneration; john bostock and the sidebottom brothers. from they redeemed their liability respecting holdings at the southern limit of the township, precluding the use of the returns to track development year-on-year within the sidebottom’s cotton works and their adjoining broadbottom colony. when the sidebottoms later secured further land, they again redeemed their land tax liability, and so subsequent incremental development was again obscured. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization table draws attention to additional aspects of the legislation which might potentially introduce discontinuities and affect the possibility of completing land tax chains. no substantial effects are identified, but the significance of the approach taken in this study (regarding treatment of tithes and official salaries; and of properties with an annual value of less than £ ) is considered further in the course of the work. influences on individual assessments: locally determined changes in poundage and valuation previous work, particularly that due to ginter, stresses the extent of the variation in local practice, indicating that localities had considerable autonomy to undertake valuations, to set poundages, and to alter timing of collection and so forth. this section seeks to identify any such changes which might have to be accounted for in attempting to construct land tax chains. in the absence of surviving documentation explicitly discussing practice within mottram township, the following paragraphs draw inferences from the returns themselves. systematic changes in poundage are found between and . inspection reveals that assessments of individual properties in the township vary in a predictable manner year-on-year. thus any property taxed at / d in might be expected to be assessed at / d in , / d in or / d in , signalling changes in local poundage. from until , local poundage appears fixed at s d in the pound (ie . %). this conclusion is permitted by the inclusion of ‘annual values’ for each property on return. in forming the chains, therefore, annual multipliers are used to estimate standardized liability for the years – on the basis of the local poundage. the source of the annual values shown in the return is unknown, although both the modern and contemporary literature suggest that it is likely to be the survey of which formed the original foundation for the quotas. the valuational rents implied by the annual land tax assessments are referred to below as notional annual value (or nav by way of shorthand). in analysing and discussing development and change it proves more convenient to refer to these implied values rather than the land tax payment due. nav for a bundle is typically about half the rateable value for the corresponding property in (the only year in the period considered for which a rating list survives) . the specific values of nav recorded usually increase in steps of s (£ . ), suggesting the rough and ready character of the valuation. nav for a cottage and ‘croft’ (a small parcel of land) was typically £ exactly, with few bundles showing lower values. in the spirit of lord fitzwilliam’s comment above, new property might be easily rated by local assessors. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby from , although the township quota remained fixed, the basis of the individual assessments changed significantly. the assessments of have no arithmetic relationship to those of earlier years (except in the case of properties where liability was exonerated which remained constant). quite different valuation principles are implied which remained in place until , shifting the relative values of land and buildings and transferring a greater part of the burden of the tax onto the manufacturing interest. the valuation(s) underlying the new land tax assessments of do not survive, but their principles are presumed similar to those underlying the surviving rating valuations of , to which they are closely related statistically. there is, however, a sharp contrast between the rough and ready valuations of nav and the number of gradations in value found from (referred to here as nav ) . perhaps it is no coincidence that this shift occurred the year after the death wilbraham tollemache, earl of dysart, the principal landowner since . certainly, this discontinuity was limited to the township, not affecting the neighbouring townships or stockport division more generally. because of the changed valuation principles applied after , a different approach must be taken to standardization. to extend the chains beyond in a consistent manner, a specific assessment conversion factor is used for every – transition. these factors are also used to produce estimates of nav for each bundle from onwards, by applying them to the later land tax assessments. in the few cases where new property was built after , the value of nav is set at % of the nav value overall change in aggregate assessment – on the basis of the foregoing, a modified version of the line entries was produced including standardized assessments and nav estimates. aggregations of these provide an initial picture of the overall trajectory of development (see figure ). series a represents the constant quota. the actual sum of the individual assessments represented by series b (unadjusted and including liability in respect of tithes and salaries) in fact diverged from the quota even where this was not reflected in the reported totals. ginter treats such returns as ‘defective’ and warns against their use. nevertheless, it is clear that these divergences were transparent and approved by those commissioners serving the stockport division who allowed the assessments. subsequent analyses of the chains, in fact confirms the internal integrity of the aggregations. it is suggested that the latitude displayed should be seen as part of the actual approach to accommodating the tension between fixed quotas and local equity in circumstances of growth. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization figure . land tax aggregates; mottram-in-longdendale township; – . series c shows the total sums actually assessed in respect of land and buildings alone, highlighting the effect of the shift to a new valuation in . excluding tithes and official salaries seems desirable in principle, as explained above. in this specific instance their exclusion seems straightforward. they had not been commuted into land, were owned by the bishop of chester, and were leased to absentees. from time to time, excisemen were resident in the township, and in principle there is a possibility that as their contribution to meeting the quota rose and fell, the contributions of other taxpayers might alter correspondingly. it is clear, however, from figure that no such adjustments were made. series d adjusts c, removing the effect of local variations in poundage, all occurring before . series d summarizes the core facts represented by the adjusted line entries used to generate the chains. the final series shown, nav , tracks the imputed notional value of property on the basis of the old valuation. these initial analyses clearly demonstrate that at least some new physical development was recorded year on year, and reveal a continual rise in aggregate valuational rent, contrary to initial expectations given fixed quotas. changes in local poundage aside, two of the possible forms of local revaluation discussed august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby by ginter are found ; the one-off revaluation of , and the continual reassessment on which the following analyses depend. nature of the physical objects corresponding to the line entries having attempted to ensure as far as possible that any change in the standardized values reflects either a physical change or a change in occupancy, the next step is to attempt to understand the likely physical character of bundles with a particular value in order firstly to link the land tax records to other information, and secondly to gain an appreciation of the character of unlinked bundles. general principles distilled from ginter’s analysis form the starting point: i) bundles cannot be assumed to be either functional ‘wholes’ (such as farm units), or geographically contiguous parcels, ii). specific buildings cannot be assumed to be individually represented; but may instead be ‘clumped’ and represented in line entries along with other buildings (whether contiguous or scattered), and iii). there may be an untaxed residuum and hence many buildings may not be included (either individually or within a composite line entry). on the initial assumption that a bundle will usually correspond to a ‘holding’ defined by a specific lease or deed, information about its physical character - in the case of property owned by the principal landlord- might be found within tollemache estate documentation. nearly all holdings on that estate fell into one of three types; property let on fourteen-year leases, property let on annual ‘cottage tenancies’, and property leased for years determined by three lives. very little documentation survives for the annual cottage tenancies though it appears that they typically included more than one dwelling and encompassed small parcels of land, the tenants serving as gatekeepers, subletting property and controlling access to clusters of dwellings. the legal power to grant - year leases was only secured by the principal landlord in by a private parliamentary bill, which proved a pivotal moment in the physical development of the township. in the case of agricultural land leased from the tollemache estate, the relation between the physical character of a bundle and its assessment is readily understood. property held on -year lease included parcels of agricultural land which themselves might or might not be contiguous and which might include disjoint cottage property. these leases ran concurrently, the period examined being covered by five allocations or ‘tacks’ made in , , , , and with associated surveys being undertaken in the preceeding year. for years when a survey took place, the land tax liability of a bundle may be compared with the area and rent of the corresponding holding. restricting attention to and cases where a one-to-one match between a holding and a line-entry can august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization be identified, a strong correlation between assessment and rent is found ( . ), but a much stronger one with acreage ( . ). a rate of tax per hectare for the township may be estimated by regression using area measures for holdings on the tollemache estate in : t = + a + where t represents the land tax assessment, a is the area of undeveloped parcels let, and are parameters to be estimated, and is an error term lt ax = . + . *hectares statistically, variation in acreage accounts for . % of the variability of the land tax assessment (or equivalently of nav ). with tax payable estimated at . p per hectare as above, the notional annual value (nav ) of agricultural land in the township would be $ . per hectare (or p per acre). this relationship is used to guide the matching of land tax and estate documentation more generally and to make rough estimates of the acreage of holdings outside the tollemache estate for the period up to . the intercept in the above expression ( . pence) is interpreted here as the land tax typically payable on the built property within a holding leased for fourteen years- equivalent to an annual value of £ . (nav ), representing say . bays of building. although the value of buildings has been largely ignored in estimating area equivalent land tax assessments, it should not be discounted. gregory king’s estimates imply that in the assessed value of land and buildings were in the ratio : . in the pennine fringe, where holdings were typically very small, this lack of attention seems difficult to justify. only limited inferences can be made about the nature of built property, especially property with £ . nav (the usual minimum in the township). this is because very few holdings leased for terms of years had values as low as this, and no descriptions of annual cottage property survive. the area/tax relationship discussed above suggests that one form might be a one-bay cottage with three acres of land. some other possibilities appear. descriptions of phoebe stead’s -year holding grandiosely styled taylors hospital stands as an example- a house, a shop, a cottage and a wash house (with a nav of £ ) beside the turnpike road at the lane end tollhouse, makes no explicit reference to a croft or any garden ground. it is clear that some property went untaxed. the potential scale and nature of this untaxed residuum might be crudely gauged by comparing receipts for cottage rentals for the tollemache estate in with land tax entries for the same year. assuming that any bundle represents a holding, and that the ‘tenant’ and the ‘occupier’ should always be identical, any cottage tenancy without a corresponding line entry might be considered to have gone untaxed. of the august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby tollemache cottage tenancies of , can be found immediately on the land tax returns. some of the mismatch should be expected to be attributable to divergence between recorded occupiers and tenants, and the accuracy with which the residuum can be measured depends on the approach to matching. tollemache cottage tenancies without a corresponding a line entry all have a (market) rent of £ per annum or less, and three of these six have a rent of under £ . as all the property on -year lease can be matched, and most of the cottage tenancies, for that portion of the rental income for the estate attributable to property identifiable in the land tax returns accounts for . % of the total. the untaxed residuum would therefore appear of no significance in terms of aggregate rental value, although it may be of more significance in terms of tracking development. the untaxed residuum might result from a particular interpretation of statute, from deliberate local policy, from oversight or from the simple play of power. these possibilities have slightly different implications for the attempt to construct land tax chains. any principle that bundles with an annual value less than £ were exempt from land tax either from or throughout- supposedly grounded in statute- is disputed, and the practice in mottram township was evidently to tax such parcels in some circumstances both before and after . over the entire period, entries are found with values of nav less than £ , the smallest value being s (£ . ) for ‘part of brick croft’ in . even assuming that market rent rather than valuational rent were the appropriate measure and that this might be four times higher, the £ threshold would still not be exceeded in that case. a literal interpretation of successive statutes would suggest that the value test should be applied to the entire property of the person assessed, rather than the specific bundle. on this reading, the undeveloped houseplot at brick croft was liable because of the value of the occupier’s entire holding (which amounted to £ nav within the township). subsequent sections take this further by exploring circumstances where chains appear to break down as existing property ceases to be or starts to be taxed. constructing chains: overview assembly of the chains, and establishment of the links between them to construct the entire land tax graph is achieved by applying a series of a ‘rules’ to ‘facts’ drawn primarily from the line entries. the facts and rules together might be thought of as a knowledge base, coded in the logic programming language prolog which serves as an ‘inferencing engine’. it might be thought of as a computational theorem prover which can be made to draw out the implications of knowledge of very different forms (including topological, geometric and grammatical relations) provided that knowledge can be expressed either as facts or rules. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization the ‘facts’ derived from the line entries with some preprocessing take the form landtax(case,year,proprietor,occupier,bundle,tax), for example landtax( , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, shaw], [], . ). landtax( , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [widow, stead], [cottage], . ). landtax( , , [john, bostock], [john, bostock], [broadbottom], . ). spellings of personal names are standardized at the outset. where the line entry records the occupier as ‘tenants’ or similar, this is replaced by the proprietor. tax is expressed in pounds, the standardized measure being used for the years – . as shown above, proprietor, occupier and bundle description are represented as prolog lists, allowing various required natural language processing tasks using definite clause grammars. an empty list, [], indicates that the line entry has no property description. where possible, property descriptions are added to line entries originally lacking them by recursively copying descriptions from the previous (or following) year, provided that the specific combination of occupier name and (standardized) tax matches uniquely. facts based on the line entries are supplemented by further prolog facts based on a body of other material (summarized in table ) which might are used both to locate the bundles to which particular line entries refer, and to guide the construction of chains. this encodes some estate documentation, facts recording familial relationships derived from parish registers, enumerators’ books from the census and the tithe apportionment survey of . other historic sources, such as wills, have been used to corroborate linkages, confirming reconstructed events, but are not stored as prolog facts. most of the effort in the project lies in the specification and re-specification of rules. taken together the rules seek to identify the most likely successor(s) to any line entry. in terms of the graph metaphor, this involves identifying the ‘edges’ most likely to link line-entries (vertices). a bundle in year t might be succeeded by one or more bundles in year t+ if their aggregate values were equal (subject to some tolerance). from the various sets of linking arcs that meet this minimal condition, further rules are designed to identify the most likely links by scoring potential arcs principally in terms of continuity - a composite based on continuity of occupier, of proprietor and of bundle continuity. each time the procedure is run, (that is the rules are applied to the facts), links are made and chains are extended computationally if the scores merit. where two or more candidate links score equally as potential ways of extending a chain, or where no candidates score sufficiently highly, no link is made, but documentary evidence is reconsidered or more sought. as possibilities are resolved, linkages between line entries in these uncertain cases are recorded as specific facts and assigned superior scores. incomplete matches (ie those which do not maintain value in full) can also be recorded by the analyst as specific facts, ‘pseudobundles’ being a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y table . detailed sources of supplementary information. topic scope dates content source application valuation, surveys, tollemache estate , , names, areas, cheshire cro locating land particulars of estates , rents, tenants of tax bundles land parcels leases ( years) tollemache estate onwards date, lessee, cheshire cro identifying expected property description new construction register of leases tollemache estate , date, lessee cheshire cro identifying assignees cottage rentals tollemache estate cheshire cro tithe apportionment township cheshire cro locating land tax bundles census enumerators’ books township locating land tax bundles household heads township – dates of marriage, burial, parish registers assessing continuity business partnerships wives township – parish registers assessing continuity children township – dates of baptism, parish registers assessing continuity link to hoh tollemache estate map tollemache estate - reconstruction locating land tax bundles sale plan part of tollemache estate cheshire cro locating land tax bundles highway rate book township tameside archives and local studies toponomy township throughout subareas all the above restricting chain formation created to account for discrepancies. by repeated application of the procedures problems reduce and chains are defined. the rule-based inferencing deployed has parallels with the approach of expert- systems , but crucially the rules used must rely largely on consideration of statute, contemporary texts and modern scholarship rather than ‘expertise’. an assessor’s awareness of local practice and his understanding of matters taken for granted in everyday life are all missing. posited rules rely instead on abduction - ie on positing a hypothetical relation (concerning admissable arithmetic mismatch, for example) and then testing it by applying it to the facts. to develop rules in this manner is to explore what must be true for the particular outcomes to be possible and this extends from admissable arithmetic mismatch towards the more general tacit knowledge at the core of social relations. if posited rules admit too many possibilities, they are of little immediate value as they suggest too many plausible chains. if they admit too few possibilities, chains will not form at all. progress depends on repeatedly respecifying rules, which serves not only to construct the chains, but also to reconstruct some of this tacit knowledge to a limited degree as discussed below. not only therefore is there a symmetry between the specification of rules and the resulting outcomes, but the rules provide pointers to how language and legal provisions must have been interpreted. at any particular stage in the analysis, there may be competing ways of extending a chain, and this opens up new approaches to making sense of undated endorsements, crossings out and annotations in estate documentation for example. potential paths may be supported by and illuminate such minutiae. the approach, however, is very unforgiving. chains break down where posited rules cannot be satisfied. this might result from failure to identify consistency in local practice correctly, from the inconsistent practice of assessors, or simply from error in data preparation. in more familiar quantitative analyses of land tax concerned with aggregates, to overlook a single line entry, to duplicate one or to mistype a value, though undesirable, is of relatively little consequence. in attempting to chain individual records, the emphasis is largely on the difference between line entries and such errors are crucial. the overall approach demands the presumption of order is absolutely maintained until it is no longer possible. following the value: introduction the first group of rules express principles for defining summations of individual land tax assessments for a given year to compare with a specific assessment the following year. each line entry is assigned a unique identifier, and considered to denote a property bundle with the same identifier. in terms of the graph, this corresponds to a specific vertex (node). on the basis of very restrictive assumptions about how property may be broken up, an initial identity [ ] is august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby posited in which lj, the land tax liability in respect of bundle j, can be related to liability with respect to bundles present in the previous year by the expression: lj = li + lk − ll + cj −dj +rj +aj + zj ( ) where k栗m l栗s m is a set of bundles merged with i, s is a set of bundles split from i, cj represents liability in respect of new development observed in bundle j dj represents a reduction in liability corresponding to physical change (devalorisation of capital) in bundle j, or the outcome of an appeal in respect of property forming (part of) that bundle, rj is a revaluation adjustment that takes a specific parcel for all bundles dated and is otherwise, aj represents an adjustment for rounding errors and other very small changes in liability, and zj represents an adjustment for all other attributes of bundle j, its proprietor and its occupier which affect change in liability from one year to the next. the following sections elaborate the principle underlying [ ], and extend it, first relaxing the assumptions about property subdivision and second accommodating matters of administrative practice which emerge. identity [ ] considerably extends the logic implicit in henstock’s study of ashbourne , which presumes that almost invariably an (important) special case of [ ] will hold, in which there will be no material change in physical character from year to year. in this fixed property object case, a single line entry j for a particular year would be found in place of entry i the previous year and (without wholesale revaluation), li and lj would be identical and all the other terms on the right hand side of [ ] would be . even in the ashbourne study, however, it was necessary to recognize ‘occasional subdivision of properties’ and one case of amalgamation, and hence to identify bundles corresponding to sets m and s in [ ], and in these cases, the principle that liability could simply be summed and divided (‘and resolved by simple arithmetic’) was implicitly accepted. it should be appreciated that in equation [ ], the distinction between bundle i (the predecessor) and bundles in the set m is one of convention. identity [ ] moves beyond the fixed property object case by considering change in the building stock. in the case of construction of a new cottage all terms on the right hand side other than cj will be . by dj, the possibility of devalorization, or of successful appeal is admitted, but without any expectation that these effects would be substantial. the tolerance, aj, avoids including changes which might be considered de minimis. initially set at ±£ . ( d), it was later reduced to ±£ . , ‘filtering out’ change with a notional annual value (nav ) of less than / d august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization identity [ ] allows that bundles may be combined or split, but only in very restricted ways. under [ ] a bundle found in any particular year must either comprise one or more bundles recorded in the previous year, or be part of a single bundle from the previous year. it is, however, quite possible that a bundle comprises parcels which were never explicitly represented as bundles. it is far from adequate, however, as it does not admit the possibility that a parcel might cease to be part of one bundle and become part of another. a totally general solution would be to treat any land tax bundle as a mereological sum of atoms of real property at an instant in time . identity [ ] would be re-written without a specific ‘predecessor’ li and replacing sets m and m by sets of infinitessimal property elements. within mereological calculus any objects may have a sum, though following quine those which are not useful are discounted. implementation would obviously be impractical and moreover the formulation would suggest a world that were infinitely and immediately plastic. a less comprehensive approach might define potentially useful sums by recognizing that property transfers may be hidden wherever (subject to some tolerance) some set of bundles found in one year carries the same aggregate land tax liability as another set of bundles the following year. this would imply a large but finite set of sums, rather than an infinite set of combinations of atoms of real property. in the work reported, a more modest extension of [ ] has been applied. ‘useful sums’ have been defined only in three very restrictive sets of circumstances: • when there is a possibility that property objects would (from an endurantist perspective) be treated as changing in value (eg where a taxpayer name or bundle name remains constant) • when the specific value of a bundle suggests that an apportionment has occurred (ie falls outside the set values usually encountered), and • when the value of a particular bundle cannot be expressed as the sum of the values of a series of bundles in the year previous or following. relaxing the highly restrictive assumptions of identity [ ], lj , the land tax liability in respect of bundle j might be related to liability with respect to bundles present in the previous year by summation of liability for ‘property elements’ or simply ‘elements’ for short. an element may be either a bundle as [ ] or part of a bundle recognized as a ‘useful sum’. on this basis, a revised identity is defined: where lj = k栗m vk − l栗s vl + cj −dj +rj +aj ( ) and vk = ln pnk august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby m is a set of elements merged with i, s is a set of elements split from i, vk is the liability assigned to element k, ln is the standardised liability carried by bundle n, pnk is the proportion of the standardized liability for bundle n assigned to element k inter-temporal adjustments in applying [ ] and [ ] it became clear that modification was necessary to capture intertemporal adjustments made by local assessors, which frustrate the formation of chains and shift the interpretation of individual line entries. at least three such types of adjustment are found. the first accounts for vacant property. a second form of adjustment, entirely unanticipated within the literature, is found to occur in some circumstances after the death of an occupier, and is assumed to allow for an executor to settle an individual’s affairs. in these cases an occupier’s name may disappear from the land tax return, but one or more lagged assessments may subsequently be recorded after a gap (in the name of the deceased and at the former level). hence following ten deaths in for example, new occupiers for the respective bundles are recorded in both and , before a final lagged assessment for the deceased occupier is recorded in . third, it appears that further lagged assessments were recorded, consequent on the second group. in these cases the liability of those entering on property vacated on the death of the previous occupier was set at the level appropriate to the bundle that they themselves had previously occupied. (beside these three sets of adjustments are very small year-on-year changes where occupancy appears continuous, which are filtered out in equations [ ] and [ ] by the aj tolerance). likelihood scores in principle (though not procedurally), the computational exercise is concerned to identify for each particular line entry, all summations which might satisfy [ ]. the attempt to reconstruct change involves choosing between them, which demands further rules, and perhaps suggests a probabilistic approach. although such an approach was not finally preferred, consideration of probability forms a useful stepping stone to explaining the procedures adopted. restricting attention to the fixed property object case, and without any further information, the probability that line entry j (dated y + ) with liability lj would succeed line entry i (dated y) might be considered to depend on n, the number of line entries dated y + with a liability equal to lj. the probability pij that j would succeed i might be estimated as if lj i= li or /n otherwise. this might be thought of as a uniform prior probability of succession. given the crude nature of the valuations, there are many cottages assessed at £ , while far fewer smallholdings august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization share a specific value. the prior probabilities of succession under these assump- tions are thus far higher in the latter case. this principle is easily extended to consider not only the frequency with which a particular value is recorded, but the number of bundles with that value owned by a particular landowner. of course, the line entries provide substantive evidence relevant to assessment of the probability of a particular linkage. in the spirit of henstock, it is assumed that the similarity of line entries year-on-year should influence the degree of belief that occupation continued. a bayesian approach to assessing the probability of a particular linkage developed on this basis might consider not only the prior probability of succession, but estimate two further probabilities. the first would be that of finding the observed degree of similarity between line entries if they really did represent the same property. technically, this is the likelihood that the succession occurred. the second would be the probability of finding that degree of similarity otherwise. on the basis of these three values, the probability of the particular transition might be estimated . although henstock judged the similarity of line entries year on year (implicitly allied to the likelihood of the transition), he did not consider the three probabilities. estimation of the likelihood of specific transitions was attempted in the present study, but this proved impractical. moreover, as the work progressed it appeared that rather than assigning a probability to each potential succession, it might be possible and preferable to identify a single most likely solution. indeterminacy, rather than being commuted into probability, has driven the search for additional evidence. the approach taken does not estimate likelihood as such, but assigns a likelihood score to each potential succession based primarily on similarity. the likelihood score for a particular summation rests on four groups of considerations; similarity, structural priority, the broader evidence of related lagged summations and the ordering of the line entries within the return. each of these considerations is outlined below. the values taken by the scores are illustrated in table and examples of scores assigned to particular potential transitions are provided in table . an overall succession score is calculated for any summation, by combining the likelihood score with the prior probability of the transition (which varies with the prevalence not only of the sum assessed, but of the other details - the proprietor being particularly significant in practice). the goal is to find the best overall succession score for each bundle. it should be understood, however, that identification of the ‘best’ summation of elements in year t corresponding to any particular line entry i in year t- does not depend solely on the overall succession scores for line entry i. it also depends on the scores associated with all other summations, such as that for line entry k, in year t- which might ‘compete’ for the same elements in year t. potential changes involving the same bundle or element are mutually exclusive; if a given bundle or sub-bundle forms part of one summation, it cannot participate in another. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby table . similarity component scores. sequence related simplicity proprietor occupier bundle continuity parts similarity similarity similarity score possible values minimum −轡轡 maximum forced − calculated values for all tested summations average . . − . . . . . minimum − maximum calculated values for best tested summations average . . . . . . . minimum − maximum values for best tested summations (including forced) average . . . . . . − . minimum − − maximum notes scores for individual components increase with similarity. values under ‘all tested summations’ refer to the scores for the relevant components of similarity between any given line entry and all its potentially matchable line entry summations (ie those for which land tax liabilities are equal subject to a tolerance, and which do respect all other constraints). values under ‘best tested summations’ refer to the scores for the relevant components of similarity between any given line entry and the potentially matchable line entry summation (s) with the best (ie lowest) continuity score (combining similarity and structural priority). values under ‘forced’ summations refer to the scores assigned to the relevant components of similarity between any given line entry and that identified by the analyst as the preferred line entry summation (to which a continuity score of − assigned). a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion s tr uc tu re s eq ue nc e r el at ed p ar ts s im pl ic it y p ro p ri et o r o cc up ie r b un dl e s co re table . similarity scores; examples. type line entry potentially matching summation split [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [cottage, and, croft], . ]] continuation [[ , , [edward, hollingworth], [william, heap], [part, of, roe, cross, farm], . ]] continuation [[ , , [john, swindells], [john, swindells], [summerbottom, and, lands], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [wilbraham, tollemache], [brick, croft], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [occupation, [plasterer], thomas, harrop], [house, and, garden], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [kelsall, farm], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jonathan, hadfield], [hurstclough, farm], . ]] merge [[ , , [john, bostock], [john, bostock], [broadbottom], . ]] merge [[ , , [widow, wood], [widow, wood], [silver, spring], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, langwith], [foundry], . ]] split [[ , , [widow, wood], [widow, wood], [silver, spring], . ]] split [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, harrop], [], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [john, roberts], [james, heap], [part, of, roe, cross, farm], . ]] [[ , , [john, dale], [john, dale], [summerbottom, and, lands], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [thomas, hill], [part, of, brick, croft], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [ann, harrop], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [kelsall, farm, and, cottage], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jonathan, hadfield], [hurst, clough], . ]] [[ , , [john, bostock], [john, bostock], [broadbottom], . ], [ , , [john, bostock], [william, and, george, sidebottom], [broadbottom], . ]] [[ , , [widow, wood], [john, harrison], [roe, cross], . ], [ , , [widow, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, langwith], [], . ]] [[ , , [joseph, wood], [john, harrison], [roe, cross], . ], [ , , [joseph, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jonathan, bowers], [], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [senior, james, harrop], [], . ]] a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y s tr uc tu re s eq ue nc e r el at ed p ar ts s im pl ic it y p ro p ri et o r o cc up ie r b un dl e s co re table . continued. type line entry potentially matching summation continuation [[ , , [edmund, kershaw], [nathan, bowers], [[ , , [william, and, george, sidebottom], [william, [harryfields], . ]] and, george, sidebottom], [harryfields, farm], . ]] continuation [[ , , [edward, hollingworth], [daniel, mercer], [[ , , [edward, hollingworth], [robert, heap], [roe, [roe, cross], . ]] cross], . ]] merge [[ , , [james, hurst], [james, hurst], [], . ]] [[ , , [james, hurst], [occupation, [innkeeper], thomas, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ], [ , , [james, hurst], [occupation, [innkeeper], thomas, chadwick], [roe, cross, land], . ]] invention [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [edward, moss], [], [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [wilbraham, . ]] tollemache], [], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [neddy, holt], [], . ]] continuation [[ , , [joseph, bardsley], [joseph, bardsley], [house, [[ , , [joseph, bardsley], [joseph, bardsley], [house, and, garden], . ]] and, garden], . ]] lagged continuatio n [[ , , [widow, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, [[ , , [joshua, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ]] cross], . ]] split − [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [robert, bennett, and, james, harrop], [house, and, land], . ]] lagged merge [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [widow, stead], [cottage, and, croft], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, shaw], [garlick, cottage], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, swindells], [hodge, mill], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [cottage], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [robert, bennett], [late, hills, barn], . ]] lagged continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [samuel, doxon], [], [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [joel, howard], . ]] lagged continuation [[ , , [john, reddish], [john, reddish], [cottage], . ]] lagged merge − [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, reddish], [house, and, land], . ]] [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [john, sidebottom], [robert, bennett], [silent, mill], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [robert, bennett], [harrops, land], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [thomas, lowe], [cottage], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [enoch, bretnor], [croft, late, woolley], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [cottage], . ]] august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization the overall succession score for the ‘best’ summation for any bundle is assessed against a threshold. where the threshold is satisfied, necessary new links are created to extend the chain(s). where the overall score is not considered determinate, no links are made but more evidence has been sought from other documentation. similarity: proprietor and occupier names three dimensions of similarity - of the names of the proprietor, of the occupier and of the bundle description - are assessed, extending to the several occupiers of the several potential bundles or elements in the case of merges and splits. assessment of similarity makes use of elementary natural language processing techniques using the definite clause grammars (dcg) extension of prolog. each dimension of similarity is assigned a score between (no similarity) and (identity). the limited value of the bundle descriptions underlies the emphasis on proprietor and occupier names. assessment of the similarity of personal names extends beyond direct matching to consider possible transfer to family members, business partners, and in the case of -year leases, assignees using sources referenced in table . well-understood problems of nominal record linkage apart, matching proprietor names proves straightforward, save insofar as account must be taken of tollemache long leaseholders, who were not consistently treated as proprietors. as the principal landowner did not dispose of the freehold property in the township over the period, a specific rule discounted any summations implying such transfers. using similarity of occupiers’ surnames to frame judgments about likelihood of succession makes implicit assumptions about security of tenure. locally, where property was held on fourteen year lease, there seem to be strong expectations of tenant right of renewal, and of nominating a successor, which seem matched by equally strong presumptions in contemporary treatises on estate management. this is not clear in the case of annual tenants. similarity: bundle descriptions comparisons of bundle descriptions may entail assessment of the compatibility of generic property descriptions with each other, of the compatibility of generic descriptions with topographic proper names (definite descriptions), and of the compatibility of topographic proper names with each other. particular attention is given to the compatibility of parts with each other (where property units are being divided or combined). generic property descriptions are recognized as such and compatibility of pairs of generic property descriptions is assessed by decomposing noun august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby phrases (eg ‘house, mill and land’) into their components and applying similarity constraints based on implied physical changes. this prevents, for example, any built property being part of a summation corresponding to an undeveloped bundle (described as say ‘lands’). as work progressed, these ‘physical’ constraints were loosened (allowing compatibility of ‘cottage’ with ‘house’ or ‘cottages’, for example) in recognition of the far from precise way such generic terms were actually used. topographic names are treated as a special class of noun phrases. they are regarded as attributes of the places to which they refer rather than as rigid designators , so several bundles in one year may be described as ‘hague farm,’ while ‘harrop edge’ is treated as identical to ‘part of harrop edge’. the tendency for the referents of names to drift implies that allusions to topographic features, holdings and localities are not easily distinguished. few presumptions are therefore made about the assumed extent of places denoted (for example, ‘nogon,’ or ‘lane end’). for this reason too, the phrase ‘in mottram’ in the township returns was treated as having no specific import (ie ‘x in mottram’ or ‘x at mottram’ are treated identically to ‘x’ alone). assessment of the similarity between a topographic name and a generic description is relatively straightforward where the proper name has both a proper element and a generic element which indicates a building (eg ‘woolley cottage’), or takes a related form (such as ‘a cottage, late platts’). by analogy with the matching of personal names above, a similarity score of is assigned to matches such as that between ‘woolley cottage’ and ‘wooleys cottage’, but a score of is assigned to that between ‘woolley cottage’ and ‘cottage’. in treating names of this specific type, comparisons are also made between the proper element of the bundle description and the name of the preceeding occupier (potentially allowing a higher score of to be assigned). this form can even justify merges (in the case of the description ‘barbers cottage, bretnors field’). acknowledging once again typical transference of reference from landscape features to buildings, there is, however, no assumption that topographic names such as ‘harrop edge’ or ‘dolly meadow’ necessarily denote parcels of undeveloped land, and so matches including built property are permitted. thus the score for a match between such a name and a generic cottage, house or land remains . a specific approach to topographic matching was designed to exclude the implausible without attempting an exhaustive assignment of bundles to geographic locations which patchy knowledge would not permit. a difficulty particularly of historic applications of gis is that it can be difficult to hold information that is not placeable. to make best use of the locational information inherent in such terms as ‘at lane end’, a number of sublocalities were identified with which particular bundles might be associated (deliberately without any further definition). hence ‘mudd,’ ‘new mudd’, ‘mudd island’ and also ‘dolly august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization meadow’ were treated as having the property of association with the sublocality, mudd. most bundle descriptions do not imply association with any sublocality, but when two line entries are compared, both of which can be associated with sublocalities, a match is considered implausible if the implied sublocalities differ. this allows use to be made of locational knowledge while maintaining the overall strategy of building relationships between historic textual data while permitting locational reference to be deferred. structural priority in casually comparing two line entries for successive years believed to refer to the same proprietor and occupier, higher liability in the later year might be attributed either to development or expansion. both possibilities fit the endurantist intuition that the value of a persisting object had increased. contrarily, it would also be consistent with an individual having relinquished occupation of one bundle and entered into another comprising entirely different property. structural priority refers specifically to the following predispositions about which changes in landscape and occupancy are more or less likely: i) a there is no evidence in the tollemache estate documentation of any abandonment of buildings a ‘fall’ in liability is presumed to imply transfer of property, unless it is impossible to identify any plausible set of corresponding increases; ii) while the ossibility of loss of value or appeal are admitted, they are treated as outcomes of last resort; iii) give relative values of land and buildings, and on the evidence of property constructed, any increase in the value of an apparently continuing holding greater than £ (nav ) is presumed to result from transfer rather than construction and must be offset by a fall in liability of another holding; iv) give the overall precedence accorded to transfers over new development, a penalty of applied to any other in situ development; and v) although ummations that satisfy [ ] might include any number of property elements and imply any configuration of property, a penalty is imposed which increases with the number of property elements combined within or carved out of a bundle. the penalties associated with summations not preferred by principles i, ii and iii prevent the associated linkages being formed automatically. in the absence of preferable options chains will remain incomplete and further review will be necessary. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby ordering the ordering of line entries within a return played an important role in henstock’s longitudinal matching, as before the ashbourne returns followed a consistent street sequence. ordering is of much less significance in the present study because (alphabetic listings apart) different topographic orderings were followed in different years. the sequence numbers added to each line entry allow order to be exploited, however. for any line entry, expected sequential positions for the previous and following years may be calculated. when the expected position differs from the actual position by less than three entries, the likelihood score is adjusted. lagged summations when considering succession from or to a particular line entry, summations are identified and likelihood scores calculated not only for entries in the year immediately following (or preceeding), but also for more distant years (termed ‘lagged summations’). this allows identification of the various intertemporal effects outlined and assists in identifying those holdings repeatedly divided and recombined, or whose occupiers alternate. the scores assigned preclude lagged summations ever being preferred to non-lagged ones (thereby preventing jumping through time). results: chains, geographic reference and audit each time the procedures are run, (ie the rules are applied to the facts), a series of chains is created, together with the link information required to produce an entire graph. each chain represents a continuous path between bundles through time. an example of a chain is provided in box , while the entire reconstructed graph is illustrated in figure a (a, b and c), the thickness of the edges in figure a being proportional to the associated notional annual value (nav ). the information associated with each chain includes together with the successive estimates of nav , the content of the line entry corresponding to successive vertices (and also a reference to its geographic ‘patch’ as described below). it also includes the imputed circumstances of the chain’s origin, of its termination, and of critical events within it (such as gaining value from, or losing value to another chain) together with matched information from tollemache estate documentation where applicable (as in box ). each chain is identified by the number of its starting vertex, that is the unique reference of the specific line entry. a chain may originate by being ‘split from’ another chain, or be treated as ‘expected built’ in the case of properties matched with a tollemache -year building lease. the origin of chains starting in a ugust , t im e: : p m ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion figure a. mottram-in-longdendale land tax graph – ; tollemache estate; larger properties extant in . a ugust , t im e: : p m ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y figure b. mottram in longdendale land tax graph - ; tollemache estate; smaller properties and holdings created after . a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion freeholds : cresswell (lowe from ); kershaw; bostock; harrison; parish; stamford & warrington; church; shaw chains (shaw ) and (hill ) are included in figure a (as in some years land tax liability for a constituent bundle also includes property subject to tollemache freehold) numbers on the horizontal axis denote year of assessment; numbers in grey for indicate the 'patch' occupied by the chain in that year (see text). all other numbers denote the start of specific chains. a number in a rectangular box denotes a chain originating with new construction; numbers in red indicate that property appears to have been previously untaxed. italic script indicates a chain representing only an inter-temporal adjustment associated with liability of a deceased occupier. bundles (vertices) are represented by black points. the thickness of edge is proportional to the notional annual value of property (nav ) transferring to the bundle at its right hand side an arrowhead on an edge indicates that liability in regard to the bundle on the right is exonerated and hence changes in value (nav ) arising from new physical development cannot be traced figure c. mottram-in-longdendale land tax graph - ; bundles controlled by other freeholders. a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y box : a specific chain: chain ; cooper holding at hague; tollemache estate h each chain is represented as a prolog list. each element in that list provides information for a specific year. each element is itself a list which takes the form [identifier,year.proprietor,occupier,bundle, tollemacheparcels, sum_assessed, nav , patch].where a bundle corresponds to a series of parcels on the tollemache estate, these appear as a list in the tollemache parcels slot (italicized here), otherwise [] appears. the information about any tollemache parcel is also ordered as a list of the form [identifier, alpha, num, parcel, sqmetres, value]. alpha and num together (eg h ), refer to the missing estate map. the reconstructed version of this map forms a key source for the map of land tax patches for included as figure .chain remained with the cooper family, throughout but was augmented by addition of william oldham’s old gate in (involving an intertemporal adjustment).[[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [[ , h, , [great, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [little, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [long, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [dodds, butts, and, little, brow] , . , ], [ , h, , [top, of, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [wheat, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [wall, hey, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [sick, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [new, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [brow, above, house, and, homesites], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lower, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lowermost, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [catt, tor, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [farmost, field, and, wood], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, field], . , ]], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [[ , h, , [farmost, field, and, wood], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, field], . , ], [ , h, , [great, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [little, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [long, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [dodds, butts, and, little, brow], . , ], [ , h, , [top, of, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [wheat, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [wall, hey, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [sick, meadow] , . , ], [ , h, , [new, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [brow, above, house, and, homesites], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lower, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lowermost, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [catt, tor, meadow], a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion . , ]], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [cottage], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [cottage], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jo, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [[ , h, , [catt, tor, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [farmost, field, and, wood], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, field], . , ], [ , h, , [great, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [little, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [long, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [dodds, butts, and, little, brow], . , ], [ , h, , [top, of, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [wheat, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [wall, hey, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [sick, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [ new, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [brow, above, house, and, homesites], . , ], [ , v, , [old, gate], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lower, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lowermost, banks], . , ]] , . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [houses, and, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [houses, and, farm, at, hague], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [thomas, and, holland, cooper], [houses, and, farm, at, hague], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [thomas, and, holland, cooper], [houses, and, farm, at, hague], [], . , . , ]] august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby is described as ‘censored.’ all other chains are initially considered to have an ‘unknown’ origin, though most have subsequently been reclassified as ‘new built’. chains may end when they are merged into another chain, or in after which they are ‘censored’, or in ‘unknown’ circumstances. the extent and character of these unknown origins and terminations is considered below. inherent within each chain is an imputed development history, complemented by a locational history. a chain comprises one or more subchains each corresponding to a geographic patch. the geographic footprint of a chain obviously alters as holdings are combined or divided, but each of the subchains that stretch between such events corresponds to a fixed (though initially unknown) geographic patch. the specification of subchains, and hence of patches, rests on the separation of those changes in notional value arising from change in geographic extent from those others due to physical development and intertemporal adjustments. potentially, therefore, a chain might be thought of not as a one dimensional object attenuated through time, but a three dimensional object - the additional dimensions allowing representation of its footprint at the time of each successive land tax assessment. the final processing step - locating the patches geographically - is largely distinct from generation of the chains, and predominantly involves clerical rather than computational effort. this matching rests on the one hand on the information in the chains themselves, and on the other the availability of appropriate cartographic sources. the locational evidence attached to the chains is of two forms. the first derives from matches with estate documentation which (where appropriate) associate the names of parcels held on -year lease with specific patches, and from matches with property subject to -year lease. the second comprises the successive descriptions of enduring features provided by the chains themselves. although many individual bundle descriptions (when present) may be uninformative (eg ‘cottage’) or now untraceable, an entire chain frequently provides one or more recognizable descriptions (eg ‘cottages on pingot lane’). problems remain in locating cottage property which are discussed below. as in henstock’s study of ashbourne, there is some reliance on the tithe map (of in this case). a computational reconstruction of a lost tollemache estate plan produced for a sister project relying on higher quality plans of the s and a range of other material provides the other principal cartographic resource. audit: can the chains be completed? although later sections attempt to draw out emergent understandings of urbanization prompted or supported by the reconstructed chains, the present concern is simply with the extent to which it is possible to complete them. this proves very satisfactory; table provides some summary statistics. there are august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization table . completion of chains; number of bundles in chains by status. termination known unknown total known number origin pct . . . unknown number pct . . . total number pct . . . table . chains ending unexpectedly. origin term occupier property nav chain comment unknown bundles year (years) origin? john richardson [] £ wealth? j joseph dewsnap [] £ lost .. samuel richardso n cottage £ wealth? j james shaw silent mill £ lost .. joseph band [] £ wealth? j all bundles in total, each representing a property object at a point in time, which using the methods outlined can be arranged into chains, defining the land tax graph in figure a(a,b,c). in contrast to the fixed property objects case, only five chains simply continue with a constant notional value from through to (implying both unchanging boundaries and the absence of material development affecting land tax assessment). overall, bundles ( . %) occupy a place in a chain for which the circumstances of origin and termination are both known. thirty six bundles ( . %) form part of a chain where neither the circumstances of origin or of termination are clear. in , the township was assessed as sixty bundles (excluding tithes and official salaries), fifty three of which define chains which can be traced directly through to . seven of the remaining ten were merged into others and two incurred some radical rupture. none of the chains beginning in become untraceable. chains begin or end unexpectedly when the logic set out above fails to capture the practices of the assessors. they may also begin unexpectedly when new property is built. problems of continuity are thus more easily understood by focussing on chains that end unexpectedly (which are listed in table ). august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby though the inconsistencies seem modest, most of the broken chains appear to arise from changes in the untaxed residuum. sometimes such changes seem to result from the personal circumstances of an occupier, consistent with the interpretation of statute in table . thus while let to samuel richardson, a tollemache cottage with an unusually low nav (£ ) was assessed for land tax, but ceased to be traceable after his death. more convincingly, a tollemache - year let with an unusually low rent was not assessed for land tax while occupied by jacob jackson but became so once it was occupied by the wealthy attorney, robert bennett . other broken chains seem to reflect possibly systematic changes in the margin of the untaxed residuum. thus in when the assessment seems especially assiduous, two additional holdings were assessed for the first time although they had been built some years earlier, though given the values of the property their previous exclusion might have been a matter of policy. moreover, with the local revaluation of , the earl of stamford and warrington’s plantation appears for the first time, which might be more likely to be oversight. nevertheless, it seems clear both that these inconsistencies are modest, and that the method adopted goes quite a way towards unravelling them. audit: can the chains be placed - and with what degree of precision? each of the individual bundles was assigned to a patch, thereby defining distinct patches. some ( . %) of them can be located. for the remaining ( . %), different solutions are possible. figure illustrates the extent to which it proves possible to locate the patches by mapping (where possible) the footprint of the chains in a single year- . each number shown on figure corresponds to a chain shown on figure a(a, b or c) at that particular stage. the ease or difficulty of locating a particular patch depends fundamentally upon the richness of the cluster of descriptions associated with the chain on the one hand and the cartographic resource on the other. there are, however, two mediating considerations: the geographic configuration of the patch itself, and the extent of changes in occupancy between , and the time at which cartographic survey was undertaken. these are considered in turn. as the amount of descriptive matter brought together within a chain increases, the chance of locating the patch improves, even though many individual bundle descriptions may be either entirely uninformative (eg ‘cottage’, or ‘house and land’) or now untraceable (‘badgers hall’, ‘bolton hill’, ‘baron (or barren) alley’). cottages traceable only by their occupier are thus hard to place and hence only . % of patches with a nav of £ or less can be located as opposed to . % of other patches as table shows. locating such august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization to manchester roe cross lane end to woodhead to stockport hodge broadbottom hodge : part of stamford estate which cannot be assigned to a specific patch - : untaxed land (stamford plantation and places of worship) parts of tollemache estate which cannot be assigned to a patch are shaded yellow figure . land tax patches: mottram-in-longdendale . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby table . percentage of all patches traceable – ; by circumstance. stamford estate other freeholds all traced . . . untraced . . . all . . . entire township cottage holdings larger holdings all traced . . . untraced . . . all . . . township excluding stamford estate cottage holdings larger holdings all traced . . . untraced . . . all . . . patches depends largely on continuity of occupancy between and the time of the tithe commutation survey. the range of cartographic resources is obviously critical. for patches within the tollemache estate, the availability of a digital plan reconstructed on the basis of the tithe map, surviving books of reference and other textual and graphical sources proves very valuable. chains are linked directly to parcels on -year lease as reconstructed. for patches within the stamford and warrington estate, no special cartographic sources are currently available and this proves a problem. in the case of the other minor freeholds, the chains derived are not complex and hence the tithe map suffices. configuration of holdings has less obvious effects. where a freeholding (for which no estate map is available) comprised several contiguous patches with different occupiers, the possibility of defining their limits depends entirely on the extent of changes in occupancy between and the tithe commutation survey of . the configuration of patches corresponding to -year tollemache leases also cause difficulties. although the location of the agricultural parcels included in such leases is known from the reconstruction (however scattered they may be), the location of disjoint cottages is not known. once again, the feasibility of locating such cottages depends on the extent of changes in occupancy between and . ultimately, therefore, where the tithe map is the only cartographic resource, the most critical consideration is the extent of changes in occupancy between and . turnover of tenants on the stamford and warrington estate was august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization such that it proves possible to locate only seven of its patches ( . %). the specific pattern of turnover on the tollemache estate in that period allows that % of cottage holdings can be located (but this should be compared with % of larger holdings). reconstructing urbanization: the pattern of land allocation and development the chains derived from surviving land tax records expose a period of substantial change, revealing the chronology and pattern of development in remarkable detail. they establish the succession of occupiers of a changing mosaic of holdings, and of an expanding stock of building, providing a framework for organizing and making sense of further materials. overall, they reveal three phases: phase : – ; a ‘considerable increase:’ development of village by petty capitalists guided by the landed interest, with active subdivision of small farms, creation of new cottage farms and the establishment of first generation machine spinning factories; phase : – ; the ‘finished town:’ establishment of second generation spinning and calico printing factories, with intensification of housing, and the transfer of control of cottage property to larger capitals; phase : – ; minor dispersed development; resumption of small- scale development on the tollemache estate. phase : – ; a ‘considerable increase’: unlike neighbouring townships, mottram had experienced little of the rapid demographic growth typical of proto-industrialization. aiken in observed that ‘it is only of late years that the town has had any considerable increase, which has been chiefly at the bottom of the hill, but some latterly on the top . the chains allow that period of increase to be reconstructed and more surprisingly point towards some of the processes underlying his observation. chaining indicates that this growth was almost entirely within the tollemache estate. chains begin as the -year leases of come to an end, making way for the ‘tack.’ it was also in that wilbraham tollemache secured the parliamentary act allowing him to grant long leases on his mottram estate (overcoming limitations of tenure shared with other major landowners). the new ‘tack’ provided an opportunity for change, and the power provided by the act was critical to the program of subdivision and physical development shown by the land tax chains (see figures a and b respectively). neither a record of the ‘tack’ nor a contemporary survey survive, but the chains reveal its effects. opportunity was taken to break up the two tenant august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby farms to the east of the manchester turnpike (chains and ), releasing plots immediately adjoining the road for development, the remaining parcels either being packaged into smaller bundles (chains , or ) or assigned to other very small scale holdings (augmenting chains , , and ). single parcels of land adjoining the woodhead and stockport turnpikes were separated from former holdings and assigned to publicans (chains (bennett) and (goddard)). elsewhere, cottages were severed from the small farms with which they had been previously let (reducing chain ). the overall effect of the changes across the tollemache mottram estate was to re-configure holdings in a form more attuned to the pattern of demand, reducing their typical size and presumably contributing to the increase in rents per acre discussed below. moreover, the apparent rigidity of -year leases did not prevent further subdivision after . between and , thomas cardwell’s farm (chain ) was divided so as to create four ‘cottage farms,’ (chains , , , ), at minimal expense to the landowner as existing buildings provided the dwellings . developers of the ‘middling sort,’ representing a specific ’combination of work and property’ (in the spirit of lubow ) re-centred the village. new housing built on the roadside plots by the surgeon james stead (chain ) and by thomas chadwick, a woollen clothier (chain ) became subject to land tax by . by the same year, william garside, a shopkeeper, had built his ‘baron alley’ (chain ) in what was becoming the core of the village near the junction of the three turnpikes. alongside, the tailor robert hamilton completed the property subsequently styled ‘grocers’ hall’ (chain ), and wagstaffe’s mill (chain ) was built adjoining a farm house built a century before, a remnant of a holding evidently divided before the period examined. all these had the benefit of -year leases; the market was unmuzzled, but regulated by the aspirations of the tollemache estate. chaining shows how the release of further parcels by the principal landowner allowed for thickening and extension of this core (see figure b). housebuilding by the publican-farmer samuel cook on the pit croft by (chain ), drew it southwards on the stockport turnpike, while development by the weaver joseph bardsley (chain ) extended it northwards on the stalybridge road. by , thomas cardwell, the farmer whose holding had been divided into cottage farms, had completed the first housing on ‘brick croft’ (chain ), the remainder being incrementally built-out and subdivided, changing hands repeatedly before development was ultimately completed in . while most of this activity contributed to the formation of a minor commercial centre - ‘a sort of market’ as aiken put it, at its peak in , building started at the hamlet of mudd - the top of the hill which he described. thomas shaw’s houses (chain ) and jonathan hadfield’s badgers hall (chain ) of were followed by joshua binns’ bolton hill (chain ) from . again the august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization developers were of the middling sort, but rather than the craftsmen-shopkeepers of the new village core, two of the three (binns and shaw) were cotton spinners and aspirant industrial capitalists who in together secured a lease for an ambitious scheme to create a water-powered cotton mill at hodge never in fact built. chaining also indicates the attenuated period of incremental development on individual plots. setting the evidence of the chains alongside documentary and photographic material, it becomes clear that the basic development units of the period were usually single houses or pairs, frequently abutting existing buildings (see figures and ). within any particular land tax chain, incremental development appears as increases in nav of between shillings (£ . ) and £ not attributable to transfer of property from others. figure shows the aggregate value of these incremental changes year by year, highlighting their significance in the late s and into / . much of the property built in this way at the village core was evidently poor, and was demolished in the early years of the twentieth century. at mudd too, incremental accretion once again produced ‘a number of irregular tumble-down houses’. closely spaced parallel terraces played no part in this form of urbanization (although they typified the later broadbottom colony). indeed, the building plots released on -year lease were too narrow to permit this. instead, the discontinuous ribbon of development meant occupiers of the new property might still occupy garden land and grazing land rented separately. in the absence of property it was not possible - in malcomson’s terms - to provide ‘for one’s own needs by one’s own efforts, without the mediation of wage-employment’ , but access to means of subsistence was possible. the development forms of the township in the s and s thus had no necessary direct connection with proletarianization. they were consistent with the extension of a mixed marketized cottage economy, and the small-scale developers frequently occupied (adjoining) land for fourteen-year terms, allowing them or their tenants the possibility of cow keeping. moreover, the particular pressure of demand for small areas of pasture and grazing abutting the village is strongly suggested by the pattern of tollemache rents and increases in those rents. alongside those changes in the closing years of the late eighteenth century that appear to reflect the late flowering of a proto-industrial economy - or rather one based on pluriactivity - the land tax chains also track the onset of industrialization proper. on the tollemache estate, chaining shows both minor textile development intercalated in the village and larger-scale machine spinning on riverside sites at the southern limit of the township. chaining shows the severance of an old fulling mill - hodge mill (chain ) - from a small farm (chain ) subdivided in the ‘tack’ (also forming chain ). it shows the succession of its occupiers and following realignment of business interests, the construction of an adjacent factory - wharf mill (chain ) - by . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby figure . incremental development. building a with three steps predates the rebuilding, appearing on a lease plan of as a saddler’s shop and is part of chain . the property which extends it, b, is accounted for within chain , its construction presumably corresponding to an increase in its annual value of £ in , or a further increase of £ in . property c occupies a site accounted for within chain . a notional value of £ . in increased to £ by , and £ . by . the site was granted a -year lease in , including an area where development had taken already taken place (source: tameside image archive; copyright tameside mbc). beyond the limits of the principal landlord’s estate, the land tax chains track the construction of thomas lowe’s mill (chain ) on his family’s freehold by , and its absorption once again into chain on the death of his father. chaining shows, however, that even the reconfiguration of land uses and the pattern of development accompanying machine spinning did not begin to constitute urban forms typified by ‘confined streets’. alongside a demand for workers’ housing, machine spinning induced a demand for land for grazing august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization figure . incremental development. samuel cook’s development first appears as chain in with a notional annual value of £ , being subject to a -year lease from wilbraham tollemache dated january . with incremental development, the value rose to £ in , and to £ . in . in , the property was split forming two further chains- and (copyright: author). horses, pasturing cattle and growing fodder crops, leading to displacement of households engaged in more traditional activity. in the case of hodge mill, a single terrace was built unrelated to a street system, in nearby pastureland, accommodating workers and collective loomshops (chain ). chaining tracks the block’s initial construction on land taken from the holding of farmer-clothier john lees (chain ), its later extension and the subsequent increase in notional value as adjoining land was transferred from lees (presumably a cow ground for the benefit of the occupiers) . chaining shows that through the s the demand of incipient cotton capitals for ‘agricultural land’ prompted the displacement of long-settled families - bowers (chains and ) and lees (chain ) - who perhaps epitomised the traditional dual economy, culminating in the subdivision of lees’ hurst clough farm in the tack of , and august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby ‘further development’ refers to the notional value of built development undertaken within any bundle, other than development in the year the bundle first became taxable. ‘all development’ refers to the notional value of all built development undertaken in any given year, including development within taxed for the first time and ‘further development as defined above. figure . notional annual value of new built development: mottram-in- longdendale - . assignment of a further portion to moss (chain , ), the cotton spinner who controlled wharf mill. thus although in this locality land ownership was highly concentrated, the demand of both craftsmen and of machine spinners had continued to stimulate fragmentation of holdings in contrast to pervading trends and the conventional wisdom of estate management. phase : – ; the ‘finished town’: analysis of the chains suggests a marked change in the pattern of development and the organization of housing with the opening of the nineteenth century. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization apart from change at hodge discussed, the ‘tack’ of involved little further subdivision of holdings. for whatever reason, possibly an active policy of restraint, new housebuilding ceased on the tollemache estate, and mottram became a ‘finished town’. the remaining plots on brick croft (chains and ) transferred between petty capitalists without development until construction on of chain in by the publican william warhurst. with restraint came intensification and escalation of rents, with rents of cottages securing twice their rateable value by , and yields on cottages double expectation by . the balance of forces driving change in the new century, and the physical character of development, seem quite different. factory-based industry came to the fore, while some of the first generation machine spinning businesses disappeared. most significantly, the sidebottom brothers - locally rooted major capitals - established broad mills and the adjoining broadbottom colony outwith the tollemache estate at the southern limit of the township (chain ). although chaining cannot trace subsequent development because of exoneration, other evidence highlights the stark difference between the physical configuration of housing in the colony and that elsewhere in the township. these parallel terraces in their tightly confined complex, emblematic of proletarianization, were the principal addition to the housing stock in the period. while physical development was restricted, the township’s economy grew, becoming dominated by large-scale textile manufacture. development by the sidebottoms apart, the land tax chains show that opportunities offered by the early mechanization of calico printing were realized by samuel matley and co who took over tollemache property at hodge following the collapse of the earlier spinning partnership (chain ). despite the scale of the physical investment by this second major capital which the chains suggest (an increase of £ . nav in – ), the matleys built no further workers’ housing. rather they intervened in the supply of housing space by buying up property built on long lease in the preceeding period. besides the block controlled by their predecessors at hodge (chain ), its second floor loomshops divided to provide further accommodation, they acquired housing constructed at the height of the boom by jonathan hadfield at mudd (chain ). although chaining shows that building had virtually stopped on tollemache land, successive censuses ( , , ) demonstrate that the number of households in the township continued to grow at levels outstripping building by the sidebottoms. property use thus intensified. much of the building developed by the boom which tollemache had promoted was bought up to provide workers’ housing. the chains show that the interests involved were not limited to industrialists such as matley, who might be motivated at least in part by their own need to secure labour power. centrally, chaining exposes the hitherto unrecognized market-making role of the local attorney and rentier, august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby robert bennett. evidently a man of substantial means holding bank of england debt, by the close of the eighteenth century he had become actively involved in its growth. he had played a transitory role in silent mill (chain ), an enterprise of john sidebottom, two of whose sons controlled the broad mills complex. by , bennett had both himself built new property on -year lease (chain ), and engaged in a series of transfers allowing further subdivision of harrop’s holding and creation of housing out of its stable (chain ). chaining shows bennett’s transitory direct involvement before the property passed to the manchester liquour merchant, henry cardwell, while bennett’s account book shows that he retained an interest as cardwell’s mortgagee. after , bennett’s role grew as he acquired properties demised by tollemache for years, including housing developed in the preceeding spurt of growth by the woollen clothier thomas chadwick (chain ) and the cotton spinner thomas shaw (chain ). he took older cottage property demised to john sykes (chain ), and that property demised to the publican edmund hill, creating further housing out of his barn (chain ). bennett, moreover, played an important role in providing mortgage finance for the final developments on building leases granted in the period of expansion (eg chain ). renting out land that he held from tollemache on -year lease (including chains and ) - not merely parcels of meadow but gardens and pigcotes gave bennett further income streams, and influence over what remained of the ‘cow and cottage’ system in its continuing form, and the provision of housing space with no land at all. the land tax chains show, moreover, that the major cotton spinning and calico printing capitals also came to control substantial areas of pasture land and grazing. the sidebottom brothers succeeded to freehold land formerly held by two lesser freeholders - lowe (through chain ) and kershaw (chain ), but leased nothing from the principal landlord. subsequent development on those freehold bundles (limited in fact to substantial mansions for their own occupation) cannot be traced through the land tax returns, because they purchased exoneration once they came into possession of the property. matley secured tollemache land including not only that leased to the spinners that preceeded them (chain ), but took the adjoining hurst clough holding (chain ) from and the farm previously occupied by the publican samuel cook (chain ) from . phase : after : ‘minor dispersed development’: the final years of the surviving land tax record form a codicil to this account, indicating a new period of construction on the principal landlord’s estate (chains ?, , , ), following a flurry of building leases. an estate survey of , preparatory to a new tack, perhaps signalled this change, noting that august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization matley’s houses at hodge (chain ) made a return of % per annum, roughly double that expected. the pattern of land release was similar to that of the period before , with the blocks longer, but still widely dispersed. the land tax chains show development in on tollemache land near, but distinctly separate from, the broadbottom colony. john clayton, a publican-shopkeeper, developed haven house m to the west. william loughridge’s terrace was built metres to the north, surrounded by pasture land which the chains show was taken from brown road farm (chain ). any suspicion that this continues a pattern of thirty years before seems confirmed by roughly contemporary comment that ‘loughridge wants a cow-keeping out of i ’ in an estate notebook. urbanization: summary in summary, therefore, chaining allows the construction of a history of changing land-use and development at the simple, phenomenal, level. it reveals a period of subdivision, and rapid village development, whose character and sudden ending remain unrecognized. at this level there are significant gaps - most obviously problems arising from exoneration, rendering the account offered of the sidebottom cotton enterprise seriously deficient. understanding the nature and extent of the untaxed residuum also remains a problem, despite the possibility of noting changes under the longitudinal approach. moreover, these changes at the phenomenal level can be seen to have contributed to attenuation of a proto-industrial configuration, creating cottage farms, stimulating pluriactivity, accommodating crafts and trades, and satisfying pent-up housing demand. their significance within the constitution of an urban-industrial ensemble can also be appreciated; there is direct evidence of construction and expansion of mills, printworks, and (though occluded) of a factory colony. while other sources show more clearly the nature of the sidebottoms’ starkly class-divided locale, chaining reveals some of the less obvious aspects of this urbanization, including the manner in which the substantial capitals secured control of undeveloped land, and the control and intensification of previously developed housing. chaining exposes the role of robert bennett which seems totally unknown. the capacity of the land tax chains to track the building stock (subject to exoneration) assists obliquely in appreciating facets of proletarianization, provided one recalls that it does not track numbers of households. the present study qualifies the nature of this urban-industrial ensemble. it stands as a warning against simplistic imagining of this form of urbanization as a force ‘that covered the hills and valleys of lancashire and the west riding with the factory towns that were to introduce a new social type for the world to follow’. in the township examined, physical urbanization after august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby did not engage forces strong enough to increase the flow of housing output substantially. the present study shows the modest scale of the particular physical developments that contributed to urban growth and their configuration relative to each other. it points to the persistence of the cottage farms and the demand of industrial capitalists for grazing and pasture, which partly underpins this intermingling of agriculture and industry. mottram became part of the vast scattered city that bamford described in , a place where people, although deeply engaged in urban social movements did not spend their ‘lives in the confined streets of large towns, shaded alike from the winter’s wind and the summer’s sun’ as in the imaginings of john revans, scourge of the chartist land plan. although portrayed by a royal commission in that same year as part of the third largest town in the country outside london, its households were as deeply rooted in small scale agriculture as in textiles, and the large town merely a geostatistical artifact . the evidence of the land tax chains allows for reflection on the strategies open to specific actors, and shows before , tollemache and his steward apparently pursuing a form of planning barely discussed. favouring subdivision of holdings, and turning their backs on conventional wisdom they pursued an approach to promoting cottage farming far removed from any sort of paternalism, and avoiding all capital expenditure, but employing regulation in a period of local economic expansion. moreover, they seem to have recognized that while issuing ninety-nine year building leases would generate only modest income, it unlocked development potential, in turn stimulating increased economic output, a portion of which would accrue to the estate in the form of rack rent on the adjoining land. whatever the ideological position, the material benefits to the landlord of extending the ‘cow and cottage’ system outweighed those offered by industrial urbanism. conclusions finally, some broader conclusions are offered about aspects of the land tax returns and the nature of social relationships implied which are thrown into high relief when the methods developed here are adopted. although the chain perspective deploys an interpretative strategy which emphasizes the relation between line entries in successive returns rather than the individual line entries alone, its insights carry implications for more familiar approaches to the land tax. it demonstrates, for example, that without an understanding of the pattern of assessments across a township it is not possible to interpret change at individual properties. . chaining reveals, moreover, the variety of linguistic descriptions which may be applied to the same enduring referent, and thus stands as a warning against overly nice interpretation of particular terms. it shows in the context considered that terms such as ‘house’ and ‘cottage’ do not clearly pick august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization out different property types. neither can ‘a cottage’ be distinguished from ‘a cottage and croft’ or a ‘house’ from a ‘house and land’. (in the circumstances, both should be understood to include small areas of land). such variant terms are variously applied in different years without any change in the proprietor, occupier or most critically the notional annual value of the property described. no more can a ‘cottage’ be distinguished from ‘cottages’, though the plural is rarely used. in fact, comparison with estate documentation shows that reference to ‘a cottage’ in a line entry may include a number of dwellings, and typically denotes more than one. chaining also indicates that assessors were varyingly assiduous in carrying out their duties, and more significantly points to limited systematic local change in the use of language over time. in some years, sharper (although not necessarily definite) descriptions are provided (eg ‘a croft, late woolleys;’ or ‘barber’s cottage; bretnor’s field’). for other years, particularly in the s when development was locally very limited and holdings static, bundle descriptions (though present) are very bland. in the mottram returns, the manner in which the use of the term ‘farm’ shifted as the mixed economy developed, however, is of more significance. as subdivision continued, the term ‘farm’ came to be subordinated to ‘house’ within the returns (as in the entry ‘house and farm’), and to refer to smaller and smaller holdings, denoting perhaps a single close. it seems no accident that the description ‘barber’s cottage; bretnor’s field’ later became ‘barber’s cottage; bretnor’s farm’, and that the field in question had been divided into two. despite the fact that only four of the households in the township in were primarily dependent upon agriculture , by , the land tax returns describe units within the township as ‘x farm . . . ’ or ‘house and farm ..’ and a further ten as ‘part of farm . . . ’ crucially, however, the sustained investigation demanded suggests that at least in this case the returns have more integrity than either mingay’s entirely dismissive view or even noble’s more detailed examination might incline us to believe. the prime purpose of the returns was to communicate liability as economically as possible, and if our intentions are different, it seems reasonable that we should pay the price. the present approach makes great demands of the returns and of related sources. in its pursuit, mismatches between the land tax returns and estate documentation have repeatedly been found to be explicable, and the sources to have different but complementary strengths. difficulties stem from the extended pyramidal nature of property-holding and occupancy which eludes the simple distinction between ‘proprietor’ and ‘occupier’ of the land tax returns, and occasional legal uncertainties. as local practice in mottram treated the earl of stamford and warrington’s lifeholders as proprietors for land tax purposes, the freeholder went almost unrecorded in the returns. the local assessor’s unexpected identification of the earl as proprietor in a line entry for in chain proves consistent with the agent’s supposition that the property august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby was likely to be forfeit following the death of the tenant in . line entries for the years until reflect actual occupation and shifting assumptions of ownership, until it became clear that another of the three lives had survived. those holding from the tollemache estate ninety-nine year leases determined by lives were not, however, consistently treated as proprietors. these anomalies are, however, a characteristic of the complexity of land ownership not the inadequacy of the returns. difficulties in matching ‘occupiers’ from the land tax returns with ‘tenants’, from estate documentation are thus to be expected. occasional notes in estate records serve as a reminder of the depth of the landholding pyramid. given a reference to property let by tollemache ‘occupied by joshua wagstaff and benjamin holdgate under james shaw under john reddish’, it is not clear which ‘occupier’ should be expected in the land tax returns. the repeated instances where leases are granted in the name of one partner while another is recorded as occupier should not occasion surprise. alternating occupiers may also be expected to appear in the land tax returns in such circumstances, and the inter- temporal adjustments noted provide a further reason for alternating occupancy. divergences between tenancy and occupation may be expected to carry meaning even if it cannot always be recreated. the mottram land tax returns record john harrison as the occupier of tollemache’s titterton farm (chain ) in , but robert bennett is recorded as lessee in the ’tack.’ in this case, bennett’s own account book survives showing the terms on which it was indeed sub-let to harrison. neither is john hadfield found in estate documentation through the s, despite appearing as the occupier of tollemache land in the land tax returns. in this case, however, a later note in an estate document claims that ‘john hadfield, joiner, has held w , w and w for all the present lease’ - again showing the distinction between the lessee and the occupier . there seems a very real possibility, at least in the township considered, that the land tax returns provide a more accurate record of actual occupation than the evidence of leases. it is presumably easier for the modern-day analyst observing mismatch to conclude that the returns are deficient than for the assessor or collector of the land tax to justify a baseless demand. ultimately, this investigation begs the question of what must be true of the organization of society at the time in question for this manner of reconstruction to be possible, and what aspects of that social organization underlie the difficulties and limitations. obviously, despite the contemporary belief that many went untaxed, in the locality considered regular partial updating of valuations allowed for inclusion of newly built property, local changes in poundage were applied and local comprehensive ‘revaluation’ in systematically shifted the relative value of agricultural, domestic and industrial property. the possibility of forming the chains, however, demands much more - requiring (and hence providing evidence of) a high degree of consistency in practice at local level in a time of august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization change. where chains are broken, sustained investigation has usually resolved the problem, demonstrating that this is more usually the result of complexity rather than oversight. this implied order and stability, rests on the mentality of part-time assessors of a ‘middling sort’, whose common sense also provided for the local administration of the elizabethan poor law. it was this mentality which compensated for the deficiency of the land tax returns as a ‘technology of power’. the mechanisms of government were crucially undeveloped. government’s lack of awareness of or concern for the operation of the land tax at local level as late as the s is amply demonstrated in the evidence provided to a royal commission by the officials responsible at national level. governing at a distance was hardly possible. the pennine fringe at the end of the eighteenth century was barely a ‘geocoded landscape’: the ‘spatial regime of inscriptions’ in rose-redwood’s terms was poorly developed . the underdeterminancy (and occasional inaccuracy) of the line entries, however, would only have prejudiced the original purpose of a return in the absence of collectors and occupiers whose local knowledge allowed them to appreciate its assumptions and draw necessary inferences, resolving the problems of reference both personal and geographical. in the terminology of relevance theory, the message of each line entry is linguistically communicated, but not (fully) linguistically encoded. the core challenge of the current paper has lain in the attempt to compensate for that tacit knowledge, and to reconstruct it to a degree. this, however, is only possible because of an original order. end notes aikin, j., description of the country from thirty to forty miles round manchester. , london: stockdale, p . thirsk, j., ‘industries in the countryside’ in the rural economy of england, j. thirsk, editor. , hambledon press: london. defoe, d., a tour through the whole island of great britain. , london: dent. p . wadsworth, a.p. and j.d.l. mann, the cotton trade and industrial lancashire – . , manchester: manchester university press, p – ; walton, j.k., proto- industrialisation and the first industrial revolution: the case of lancashire, in regions and industries: a perspective on the industrial revolution in britain, p. hudson, editor. , cambridge university press: cambridge. p. – , p stobart, j., the first industrial region: north-west england, c. – . b, manchester: manchester university press, p , p ; also aiken, description of the country from thirty to forty miles round manchester, p wadsworth and mann, the cotton trade and industrial lancashire, p bamford, s., walks in south lancashire. , blackley: s bamford, p see p of marfany, j., is it still helpful to talk about proto-industrialization? some suggestions from a catalan case study. economic history review, . ( ): p. – august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby see p and p of walton, j.k., ‘proto-industrialisation and the first industrial revolution: the case of lancashire’, in regions and industries: a perspective on the industrial revolution in britain, p. hudson, editor. , cambridge university press: cambridge. p. – . ibid. p . levine, d., reproducing families : the political economy of english population history. , cambridge: cambridge university press, p ibid. p see for example van bavel, b.j.p., ‘early proto-industrialization in the low countries? the importance and nature of market-oriented non-agricultural activities in the countryside in flanders and holland, c. – ,. belgisch tijdschrift voor filologie en geschiedenis/ revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, . : p. – ; gray, j., spinning the threads of uneven development: gender and industrialization in ireland during the long eighteenth century. , lanham: lexington.; hudson, p., ‘proto-industrialization in england’, in european proto-industrialization, ogilvie; s.m. cerman, editor. , cambridge university press: cambridge. kent, n., hints to gentlemen of landed property. , dublin: lawyer’s and magistrate’s magazine see marshall, w.h., on the management of landed estates: a general work for the use of professional men. : printed for longman, hurst, rees, and orme. ginter, d.e., a measure of wealth: the english land tax in historical analysis. , london: hambledon press. turner, m., mills,d (eds.), land and property: the english land tax – . , gloucester: alan sutton examples for this locality are found in nevell, m. and j. walker, tameside in transition. , ashton-under-lyne: tameside metropolitan borough council; and haynes, i., the cotton industry in hollingworth and mottram-in-longdendale. , ashton-under-lyne. hunt, h.g., ‘land ownership and enclosure – ’, economic history review, . : p. – henstock, a., ’house repopulation from the land tax assessments in a derbyshire market town, – ’, in land and property: the english land tax – , turner, m., d. mills, editors. , alan sutton: gloucester. p. – . this was a particular concern of writers such as gray, h.l., ‘yeoman farming in oxfordshire from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth’. quarterly journal of economics, . : p. – and davies, e., ’the small landowner, – , in the light of the land tax assessments’. economic history review, . : p. - . noy, w., the principal grounds and maxims: with an analysis of the laws of england. , london: sweet, p harrop, j., p. booth, and s. a. harrop, extent of the lordship of longdendale , , record society of lancashire and cheshire, p xxxiii. on statutory provisions and practice see evidence of wood and garnett included within second report from the select committee appointed to inquire into the state of agriculture; with the minutes of evidence, and appendix, , ( ), p . mottram was included within and subject to quotas for the stockport division of cheshire. see ginter, d., ‘the incidence of revaluation’ in land and property: the english land tax – , turner, m., d. mills, editors. , alan sutton: gloucester. p. – . despite frequent claims that the land tax poundage was fixed at s in the pound ( %) from , this appears to be a statutory maximum. see miller, s., the laws relating to the land tax its assessment collection redemption and sale. , london: sweet, p . latitude august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization at township level to alter both poundage and valuation is discussed in ginter, a measure of wealth. between and land tax fell almost entirely on real property. tithes, in principle analogous to rent, remained subject to land tax and have been variously treated by previous analysts. gray ‘yeoman farming’ ignored them; hunt ‘land ownership and enclosure’ attempted to exclude tithes in situations where before enclosure they were received in kind. ginter, a measure of wealth systematically included tithes. tithes would be pertinent to this study only if commuted into land, which does not appear to be the case. a small range of specific income streams remained liable to land tax including official salaries (at a nationally constant poundage of s in £ (ie %)). see evidence of wood and garnett in second report p ). some line-entries in the mottram return refer to the salaries of excise officers. despite claims (by authorities including miller the laws relating to the land tax, p ) that property with an annual value of less than £ ceased to be liable from , the stipulation of s of the act refers to the exemption of persons whose entire real property is worth less than £ , and merely extends previous provision. see for example burn, r., the justice of the peace, and parish officer. , london: cadell, p ). there appear to be no consequent changes in line entries in mottram in the years immediately after , and it is clear that locally property bundles with lower annual values were taxed although the aggregate values of property held by those liable exceeded £ . from , when land tax became perpetual, proprietors or occupiers (other than tenants at rack rent) were allowed to redeem their liability by payment of a lump sum (equivalent to fifteen year’s purchase). see p of hunt, h.g., ‘land tax assessments’. economic history review, . ns : p. – . they were thereafter ‘exonerated’, and although still listed in the returns, subsequent assessments of the annual value of their property remained constant, and so further development cannot be traced. from , further provisions allowed that if an owner did not redeem their land tax, another private person or group of people (‘the redemptioner’), could redeem but not exonerate that tax. under this arrangement the government received the lump sum as if the land tax had been exonerated, but continued collecting the tax for the redemptioner. (these arrangements were repealed in ). property subject to these arrangements were still liable to reassessment. see wood and garnett’s evidence in second report, p ). at least locally, such property was not separately identified in the returns. an act of confirmed and amended by further statutes allowed ecclesiastical and other bodies to sell property in order to redeem land tax liability. see miller the laws relating to the land tax, p ). from , the church’s liability with respect to both the glebe land and the tithes in mottram township were exonerated. provision for appeal is found in the statutory timetable for administering the tax as discussed by beckett, j.v., ‘land tax administration at the local level, – ’, in land and property: the english land tax – , m.t.d. mills, editor. , alan sutton: gloucester. p. – . in some cases the returns themselves indicate provision for appeal. although catholics who had not sworn an oath of allegiance and supremacy and who refused to do so were liable to double tax, beckett, ’land tax administration at the local level’, p , suggests that this did not usually occur in practice. national administrators doubted that liability was revised as development occurred, and assessors might have avoided reassessment ‘in the interests of local harmony’ (beckett ’land tax administration at the local level’, p ). ginter, ‘the incidence of revaluation’ and ginter a measure of wealth points to the frequency of reassessment of individual property. this possibility is raised in beckett, ’land tax administration at the local level’,p . note also that case law established that while the tenant might deduct the land tax from his rent, the amount deducted could only be the sum for which the property would be liable had it remained august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby in the form it was when the tenancy began, with liability for any improvements falls upon the tenant. eg sayer, b., an attempt to shew the justice and expediency of substituting an income or property tax for the present taxes .. , london: hatchard and miller, the laws relating to the land tax lord fitzwilliam, letter to laurence french , th or th dec , box x / , milton manuscripts, northamptonshire record office quoted in ginter, a measure of wealth p . beckett ’land tax administration at the local level’, p . the validity of this procedure can be tested by considering the frequency with which the standardized assessment remains constant from one year to the next in circumstances where the owner, occupier and description of the ‘property bundle’ remain the same. in , such cases the hypothesis of constancy holds; in it does not. those cases appear to reflect substantive change of the types of concern, allowing the conclusion that the fundamental stability of the (standardized) assessments provides a basis for identifying material change. miller, the laws relating to the land tax highway rate book for the township of mottram, – , dd / a, records of the heginbottom family, tameside local studies and archives, ashton-under-lyne. most land tax payers’ liability fell slightly, but the assessment of samuel matley’s printworks almost doubled, and that of beckett’s hodge mill increased by over %. land tax due on the larger of the township’s small farms in typically fell to two-thirds of the assessment, while the sum due on blocks of cottages with little associated land either remained almost constant or increased slightly. given the large number of distinct property values recorded, and the very low likelihood that a new survey had been undertaken, it seems possible that the ‘valuations’ underlying the land tax assessments for onward rests on a combination of more than one source. . limiting consideration to cases where the sum assessed was less than s (implying £ nav ) regressions was used to estimate nav on the basis of nav for chains starting in different circumstances (censored, expected built, split), with estimated values of nav ranging from % to % of nav ( . % for expected built property). on this basis, nav for new property has been treated as being . of the value of nav . ginter, a measure of wealth p . tithes were leased from to to william ulithorn wray, rector of darley, derbs, and afterwards to his widow. see lease for lives (copy nov ), , p / / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. from time to time, excisemen were resident in the township, and in principle there is a possibility that as their contribution to meeting the quota rose and fell, the contributions of other taxpayers might alter correspondingly. it is clear, however, from figure that no such adjustments were made. ginter, ‘the incidence of revaluation’ p . see ginter, ‘the incidence of revaluation; ginter, a measure of wealth. references to numbers of cottages, undertenants etc are found in tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, dtw series, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. local assessors were not consistent in their treatment of holdings of this last type- lessees being considered as proprietors in some years and in some cases, but not all. this notional value is very much less than the actual rental value, though this was not material to the local operation of the land tax in the period in question (or of consequence for estimation of area equivalents). august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization unfortunately, although there are good descriptions of the buildings in holdings leased from tollemache for years from , the range of descriptors seems too variable to provide useful measures of influences on the assessed value of built property. in some cases the number of houses or cottages is included, in others the numbers of bays of building together with their age and quality. these are shown in hilditch, r., aristocratic taxation: its present state origin and progress with proposals for reform. , london: simpkin and marshal, p any principle that bundles with an annual value less than £ was exempt from land tax either from or throughout - supposedly grounded in statute - is disputed (see endnote ). it is also possible that local assessors might seek to avoid taxing the least valuable cottages, even though this was not a legal requirement as the steward of a major landowner (treating aggregate tax liability of tenants as a deduction of total rent) might seek to determine the share of an estate’s land tax liability to be placed on each tenant. this practice is advised in mordant, j., the complete steward. , london: sandby. mordant’s exemplar estate accounts place no land tax responsibility on cottage tenants (vol , p – ). although he recommends this on the basis that the manor includes all the property within the township, he adds that ‘where the lord owns only part of the land .. the tax is to be proportioned to each tenant exactly (if he pays it) or if not to the value of the whole estate compared with others &c by the rule of proportion’ ibid p . if very small potential liabilities are spread across the entire estate, an untaxed residuum will exist, but the distinction between clumping and omission becomes a fine one. see bratko, prolog programming for artificial intelligence. , boston: addison- wesley. see pereira, f.c.n. and s.m. shieber, prolog and natural-language analysis. , brookline ma: microtome publishing. see siler, w. and j.j. buckley, fuzzy expert systems and fuzzy reasoning. , new york: wiley key sources amongst these are miller, the laws relating to the land tax and ginter, a measure of wealth. peirce, c., s, ‘harvard lectures on pragmatism’, in collected papers of charles sanders peirce, in hartshorne, c. and p. weiss, editors. , p – ) henstock . ‘house repopulation’ ibid. p . various land tax statutes specify that sums less than a halfpenny should be spread between years. see miller the laws relating to the land tax. comparison of line entries for tollemache property held by john goddard and samuel cook in and provides a simple illustration of this. between and cook’s liability for land tax fell by precisely the same amount as goddard’s increased, consistent with the possibility that property transferred between them. in this case, there is evidence from estate documentation that in fact cook’s occupation of marled field gave way to occupation by goddard. no bundle, however, corresponds to marled field; it passed from being part of one bundle to being part of another. it therefore cannot be sufficient to suggest that bundles in one year can be represented as combinations of bundles in adjacent years or that the land tax liability carried by a bundle can be decomposed as in [ ]. it is possible to define a set of differences that together with the values for the bundles themselves in contrast to [ ] exhaust all the ways in which any specific bundle could be composed. without any other information, it is possible (though very far from likely) that if any set of bundles in year y (for example [c’,g] in ) carried the same aggregate liability as another set in year y+ (eg [c,g’]) that they comprised the same property. in some of these cases, however, if for example c’ represented cook’s bundle in (ie with marled field), g represented goddard’s holding august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby in that same year and c and g’ represented their respective holdings in the following year (g’ including marled field), then the two sums c’-g and c-g’ would represent sums useful for present purposes, and the liability carried by the hidden part can of course be found by subtraction. cf quine, w.v o., word and object. , cambridge ma: mit press; heller, m., the ontology of physical objects: four-dimensional hunks of matter. , cambridge: cambridge university press, and jubien, m., ontology, modality, and the fallacy of reference. , cambridge: cambridge university press. quine, word and object. in principle, it would be appropriate to combine such simple prior probabilities with further subjective probabilities based on the evidence of the strength of similarity of the line entries. in the example above, the prior probability, p(h) might be seen as the degree of belief in the proposition that when tenant t surrendered his lease, s occupied his cottage, without knowing the identity of s or t. assessment of the similarity of the line entries provides some additional evidence, which might potentially be combined with p(h) allowing the subjective probability to be revised. according to bayes theorem, the revised probability p(h|e) given the evidence of similarity(e) is p(h|e) = p(e|h) 侹 p(h) p(e) where p(e|h) is the probability of finding that similarity given the proposition, and p(e) is the overall probability of such evidence of similarity being found. p(e) must be estimated as the sum of two components; the probability of finding the evidence of similarity if the hypothesis of continuity were true p(e|h) and the probability of finding that evidence if it were not p(e|∼h). the actual pattern of transitions that occurred cannot be known. moreover as an element of property can only pass to one chain, there are strong interactions between the probabilities. it combines seven sub-scores modified by a score for sequence within the line entries, inclusion of continuing parts and a penalty for complexity. in the middle of the range, a likelihood score of is assigned to a possible linkage between two unmatched line entries for successive years sharing the same liability and proprietor but different occupiers. reference to occupier names may be the only way to identify a specific bundle. indeed contemporary legal opinion held that ‘the names of the tenants were only inserted in order to shew for what property the landlords were rated’ (lord kenyon cj r v the inhabitants of folkestone michaelmas term ). see durnford, c, sir edward hyde east, term reports in the court of king’s bench, volume , london: butterworth. it is very important, however, that a circumstance where a tenant relinquishes one tenancy and takes on another is not mistaken for a change in the nature of a holding. see bequest of -year interest in tollemache land ‘with the tenant right and benefit of renewal thereof’: will of samuel radcliffe of mottram in longdendale, , ws ,cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. more generally see mordant, complete steward, p – or marshall, on the management of landed estates, who asks ’what superintendent who knows the difficulty of procuring a good tenant would wish to discharge him? and no such tenant will readily leave the farm he is settled upon if he find proper treatment’ (p ). the term rigid designator was introduced in kripke, s., naming and necessity. , cambridge ma:harvard university press to characterize the relation between a name and its referent. the less orthodox approach here, resting on jubien, ontology, modality, and the fallacy of reference proves helpful in dealing with changing objects of uncertain extent. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization this might be thought of as analogous to treating perduring objects as a series of stages rather than a d space-time worm as in sider, t., ‘the stage view and temporary intrinsics’. analysis, . : p. – bennett held a wide range of financial assets including bank of england debt and a mortgage portfolio in addition to substantial real property interests including the freehold of substantial cotton mills. see also endnote . in a printed form was used in mottram for setting out land tax liabilities, annual values were recorded for the first and only time, and care was taken to identify tollemache -year leaseholders accurately, consistently treating them as proprietors. two additional holdings were assessed for the first time (both at £ nav ), both of which were subject to -year leases granted some years before (to band( ) and marshall ( ), one on an existing cottage with an unusually low rent. assessment of one of these (band) ceased after , ending the chain, but resumed in , the year of the local revaluation. there are three groups of circumstances a patch cannot be located with sufficient precision to identify a land parcel that could be projected on to the national grid. in the first, a series of patches will be known to correspond to an area of land, but the portions of that land belonging to each patch cannot be known. this is typical of patches on the stamford and warrington estate, but the bounds of the two patches created by temporary division of tollemache estate c from , for example, are similarly unknown. the second circumstance involves cottage property (with any associated land) of unknown extent. such patches might be thought of as occupying unassigned cottage space (the overall distribution of which can be approximated). in principle, the location of property of this second type might be taken further by first representing unassigned cottage space as a grid of probabilities (having taken account of assigned space within the township and various sketch maps and drawings). having probabilistically represented the entire unassigned cottage space, a particular patch might then be probabilistically located by reference to ordering information from the land tax returns and the notional annual value. the third circumstance is where cottage property of this type represents part of a patch. aiken, description of the country from thirty to forty miles round manchester, p . see chalkin, c.w., ‘the provincial towns of georgian england: a study of the building process, – ’. , london: edward arnold. the holding broken up in included messuages - far more than any other holding within the mottram estate cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester lubow, l., b, ‘from carpenter to capitalist: the business of building in postrevolutionary boston’. , boston: northeastern university press p the lease is amongst counterpart leases and expired and leases, mottram, – , dtw/ /f/ , tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. in , bretnor’s or brow cottage is also found away from the village. chadwick, w., reminiscences of mottram. , stalybridge p . malcolmson, r.w., life and labour in england, – . , london: hutchinson, p between and the tenants of hodge mill were marsland, holt (bankrupt), moss and swindells with a vacant spell between holt and moss when tollemache himself became liable for the land tax. john swindells and his partner john dale are alternately reported between and . the partnership between moss and swindells was dissolved in , after which moss with other partners developed wharf mill. cow keeping had been used to attract skilled labour by samuel greg at styal. see also redford, a., labour migration in england, – . , manchester: manchester university press, chapter . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby ‘mottram-in-longdendale has often been spoken of as a finished town, as few, if any one, could speak of new houses being erected, except in place of other houses or repairs’. the manchester times and gazette (manchester, england), saturday, july , ; issue . ‘finished town’ seems to have been in fairly frequent use in the nineteenth century. in rents on properties shown in ‘rent accounts for premises, mainly cottages and small houses in mottram, hattersley and glossop co. derby, – , ddx / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester) were typically double the rateable value (notionally a measure of annual value) shown in the mottram highway rate book for that year (see endnote ). a comment in a survey of dtw/ tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester confirms the unexpectedly high yield of cottage property. the land tax shows virtually no development on the tollemache or stamford and warrington estates on this period, nor does the tollemache archive in chester record office (dtw) tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. the sidebottom brothers were recorded as owners of units (all built since ) in the highway rate book (see endnote ). expansion of the sidebottom enterprise between and , with the operation of a second mill on the site from and a third from is summarised in their evidence to the royal commission of employment of children in factories of factories inquiry commission. supplementary report of the central board of his majesty’s commissioners appointed to collect information in the manufacturing districts, as to the employment of children in factories, and as to the propriety and means of curtailing the hours of their labour, ( ). its scale relative to other local cotton mills can be gauged by the crompton census of – . the expansion of the matley’s hodge printworks can be gauged in part from the land tax returns, but its employment cannot be estimated before (resolution of confidence in richard cobden and his work towards the repeal of the corn laws, , employees in the calico printing works of richard matley of hodge. signatures, cobden/ ,west sussex county record office, chichester). the block at hodge (chain ) is described in p – of nevell, m., the archaeology of industrialisation and the textile industry: the example of manchester and the south-western pennine uplands during the th century (part )’. industrial archaeology review, . ( ): p. – . the ‘houses’ of the census for mottram township should be compared with the of the census and the separately rated properties in the mottram highway ratebook (see endnote ), of which were owned by the sidebottom brothers. see rent accounts and papers relating to the affairs of john [sic] bennett of mottram in longdendale, solicitor and property owner, – , ddx / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. his role subsumes those discussed by anderson, b., l, ‘the attorney and the early capital market in lancashire’, in liverpool and merseyside, j.r. harris, editor. , cass: london. p. – . apart from bennett’s control of the titterton farm he received rents on the ‘cottages by the church yard side’ that estate documentation indicates had been let with it. whatever his relationship with kershaw’s freehold at harryfields, his account book shows a stream of rents coming from bowers its tenant, and this role continued when ownership of the harryfields freehold shifted to the sidebottom brothers. dtw / , tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. despite the availability of a recently commissioned series of local studies, and despite the fact that property remaining from the boom of – lends the present day village much of its physical character, a recent conservation area appraisal (tameside ) demonstrates that this decisive episode in its development remains unknown. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization these events are, however, documented in nevell and walker, tameside in transition; sayer, m., broadbottom – : a history. , broadbottom: broadbottom community association, and haynes, the cotton industry in hollingworth and mottram-in-longdendale. the current narrative could be potentially enriched by sustained analysis of bennett’s account books, ddx ) cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester but this would be difficult without the organizing framework of the land tax chains. hammond, j. and b. hammond the skilled labourer. , london: longmans, green & co, p . the phrase is from revans’ evidence in fourth report from the select committee on the national land company; together with the minutes of evidence, – ( ), p . appendix of first report of the commission on the state of large towns and populous districts, – , ( ), provides population and mortality statistics for the ashton and oldham registration district (appendix p ). this area had a population of almost , - much greater than birmingham or leeds, but only , people (ie %) lived in ashton itself - the ‘large town’ examined subsequently. the area included both mottram and bamford’s middleton km’s away (see endnote ); the true character of bamford’s vast scattered city being evident from the ordnance survey six-inch maps of lancashire of c. . the specific case is discussed tangentially in mathews, s., ‘the cheshire estates of john tollemache of peckforton, – ’. transactions of the historic society of lancashire and cheshire, . : p. – . that examination is critical of the consequences of granting year leases, wrongly assuming that they covered agricultural land rather than building plots. one local example of failure to overlooks total local revaluation in and treats change at the hodge printworks as vast investment (haynes, the cotton industry in hollingworth and mottra m-in-longdendale). given concern with the provision of shelter, and the frequent references in tollemache estate notebooks to the effect that dwellings have be sub-divided (‘house in two dwellings’) or recombined, the lack of concern with numbers of units is easily understood. the work reported here indicates that at least in this particular circumstance it is possible to track the creation of dwelling space, but not the number of dwelling units. abstract of the answers and returns made pursuant to an act, passed in the first year of the reign of his majesty king george iv, intituled,"an act for taking an account of the population of great britain, and of the increase or diminution thereof. ( ) mingay, g.e., ‘the land tax assessments and the small landowner’. economic history review, . : p. – . noble, n., ‘the land tax returns in the study of the physical development of country towns’, in land and property the english land tax – , m.t.d. mills, editor. , alan sutton: gloucester. stamford property was held by tenants on leases for three lives, rather than for a fixed term (cf clay, c., ‘lifeleasehold in the western counties of england – ’. agricultural history review, . : p. – ). on payment of a fine, on the death of the first or second life tenants might make up their three lives again. this is a form of tenure distinct from that of ‘leasehold for lives-determinable-on-years’ found after on the tollemache estate and which occupied an intermediate position between lifehold and a lease for a fixed term. divergence between land tax and estate documentation in this particular case arises from uncertainty over the whereabouts of an individual who deserting his wife surreptitiously left the district more than years before. see letter, joshua hegginbottom to worthington & nicholls, , hattersley building grounds, box no : hill : – , ashton- stalybridge from enville, tameside local studies and archives, ashton-under-lyne. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby valuation (detailed) of the mottram, micklehurst and arnfield tollemache estate, , dtw / , tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester the term is used in the sense of rose-redwood, r., and a. tantner, ’introduction: governmentality, house numbering and the spatial history of the modern city urban history, . : p. . wood and garnett ’s evidence in second report p – . cf miller, p. and n. rose, ‘governing economic life’, economy and society . : p. – ;.barry, a., ‘lines of communication and spaces of rule’, in foucault and political reason: liberalism, neo-liberalism and rationalities of government, in barry, a., t., osborne and n. rose editors. , university of chicago press: chicago. p. – ; and rose, n., powers of freedom: reframing political thought. , cambridge: cambridge university press. rose-redwood, r., ‘governmentality, geography, and the geo-coded world’. progress in human geography, . ( ): p. – , esp. p . eg sperber, d., and d. wilson, relevance: communication and cognition. , oxford: blackwell. assessing and improving human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- v submitted on feb hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. assessing and improving human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation pauline maurice, vincent padois, yvan measson, philippe bidaud to cite this version: pauline maurice, vincent padois, yvan measson, philippe bidaud. assessing and improv- ing human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation. international journal of computer integrated manufacturing, taylor & francis, , ( ), pp. - . � . / x. . �. �hal- v � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- v https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr assessing and improving human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation pauline mauricea,b,d, vincent padoisb,c, yvan meassond and philippe bidaudb,e auniversité de lorraine, cnrs, inria, loria, f- nancy, france; bsorbonne université, cnrs umr , institut des systèmes intelligents et de robotique, isir, f- paris, france; cinria, centre bordeaux sud-ouest, équipe auctus inria / ims (univ. bordeaux, cnrs umr ), f- talence, france; dcea, list, interactive robotics laboratory, gif-sur-yvette, f- , france; eonera, palaiseau, france abstract enhancing the performance of technical movements aims both at improving opera- tional results and at reducing biomechanical demands. advances in human biome- chanics and modeling tools allow to evaluate human performance with more and more details. finding the right modifications to improve the performance is, how- ever, still addressed with extensive time consuming trial-and-error processes. this paper presents a framework for easily assessing human movements and automatically providing recommendations to improve their performances. an optimization-based whole-body controller is used to dynamically replay human movements from motion capture data, to evaluate existing movements. automatic digital human simulations are then run to estimate performance indicators when the movement is performed in many different ways. sensitivity indices are thereby computed to quantify the influence of postural parameters on the performance. based on the results of the sensitivity analysis, recommendations for posture improvement are provided. the method is successfully validated on a drilling activity. keywords digital human simulation, dynamic motion replay, sensitivity analysis of human motion, ergonomics. . introduction performance enhancement in technical postures or movements has always been of great concern. in numerous applications the overall performance is twofold, consist- ing of both the achievement of some operational goal and the minimization of the biomechanical demands experienced by the person. workstations designers now often take into account the exposure to musculoskeletal disorders risk factors in addition to workers’ productivity (schneider and irastorza ; nrc ). in sports, coaches aim at finding the right movement to improve athletes’ results while preventing in- juries (fortenbaugh, fleisig, and andrews ; robinson and odonoghue ). in rehabilitation, knowing which motion patterns alleviate the stress on a weakened body part helps provide exercises or recommendations to prevent further injury (sturnieks et al. ). the assessment and improvement of a movement are usually conducted under the supervision of an expert (e.g. ergonomist, physiotherapist) who observes the person corresponding author: pauline maurice. email: pauline.maurice@polytechnique.org. performing the activity and provides recommendations based on his/her knowledge and experience. the availability of experts may however be limited. besides, obser- vational methods provide only qualitative measures of the biomechanical demands experienced by the person. digital human software (software in which human motions are reproduced with a digital human model) have therefore been developed to as- sist and supplement experts (e.g. opensim (delp et al. ), anybody (damsgaard et al. )). such software enable easy access to detailed force and motion-related biomechanical quantities, which otherwise can only be measured on real humans with complex instrumentation, if at all (e.g. muscle or joint forces). however, the relia- bility of these biomechanical measurements is questionable (hicks et al. ). one key factor is the mapping of the human motion onto the digital model: the resulting motion should be dynamically consistent (i.e. respect the laws of physics) to enhance the reliability of force-related quantities. yet, existing software do not guarantee such consistency (hicks et al. ). the other difficulty in improving technical movements lies in the identification of suitable modifications which will enhance the performance (fig. ). relations between the macroscopic parameters of the movement (i.e. adjustable parameters defining the way the movement is performed) and the resulting performances are often complex. therefore, despite advances in human biomechanics and modeling tools, successful modifications generally still result from an intensive trial-and-error process. in (demir- can ), demircan proposes a tool for analyzing the relation between novice and expert athletes’ movements and the resulting performances. this tool reveals the fea- tures differentiating an efficient movement from a non-efficient one, but cannot provide explicit recommendations for an optimal execution. besides, a single performance cri- terion is considered (tool acceleration), whereas a detailed assessment of biomechanical performances relies on several quantities which may be differently affected by a same parameter of the movement (e.g. joint loads, joint positions, energy consumption). this paper presents a framework to assess the performance of a technical movement and easily identify how to improve it, while addressing the aforementioned concerns. the proposed framework consists of two components: • a method for replaying pre-recorded human motions while ensuring the dy- namic consistency of the resulting motion. this dynamic replay relies on an optimization-based controller which enables to track subjects’ motion in oper- ational space, while imposing dynamic and biomechanical constraints. existing situations can thus be evaluated. • a method for analyzing the dependence between parameters and performances of the movement. a variety of situations are automatically created and evaluated using an autonomous digital human model (no motion capture), and a sensitivity analysis is conducted on the simulation results. the critical parameters of the movement can thus be identified and tuned, using only little input data. the paper is organized as follows. section presents the two components of the framework, with an emphasis on the dynamic replay method. the sensitivity analysis part has already been published in (maurice et al. ) and is only briefly described here. section describes the experimental set-up which is used as a proof of concept of the proposed framework. the results are presented in section and discussed in section . . method human motion is often captured through optical motion capture techniques, in which markers are positioned on the human body and cameras record the markers d posi- tions. the recorded markers trajectories are then mapped onto a digital human model (dhm) to estimate movement-related biomechanical quantities. despite their exten- sive use, the current mapping techniques still lack physical consistency, especially when the motion is highly dynamic and/or involves significant interaction forces with the environment. note that the retargetting problem (i.e. mapping the motion of a subject onto an avatar with a different morphology is not considered here. this work assumes that the dhm morphology can be adapted to each subject, and that its kinematics is very similar to the human body kinematics. . . dynamic replay of human motion: related work recorded human motions are commonly mapped onto a dhm with inverse kinematics techniques (ik), which convert markers operational (i.e. cartesian) space trajectories into joint space trajectories. with ik, kinematic quantities such as joint positions and velocities can be measured. conversely, the estimation of the driving forces (joint torques or muscle forces) requires an additional inverse dynamics (id) step, in which forces are computed from the dhm dynamic model and the joint space trajectories resulting from ik. though widely used, the ik+id process has several drawbacks. first, the ik step can be time consuming. second, the ik solution is not unique, so the resulting motion may not be plausible. many authors address this concern by using a modified ik to match the resulting motion with a given set of constraints (lee and shin ; grochow et al. ). however, the dynamic properties of the human body are not considered so the computed motion is not dynamically consistent (such techniques are especially used in computer animation, where the visual realism is the primary concern). this inconsistency prevents the force equilibrium in the id step when experimental external forces are added (e.g. ground reaction force). in opensim, for instance, this inconsistency appears in residual forces (hicks et al. ). in order to improve the dynamic consistency of the replayed motion, some studies include dynamic considerations in the motion computation. multon et al. (multon et al. ) combine ik with dynamic corrections, modifying motion capture data to respond to physical collision forces. da silva et al. (da silva, abe, and popović ) and muico et al. (muico et al. ) directly use controller-based techniques including dynamic constraints to animate a dhm, but they still require the joint trajectories resulting from ik as an input. to avoid the ik step, some authors work directly in the operational space. john and dariush (john and dariush ) use a task space kinematic control method (closed- loop inverse kinematics) and dynamic constraints to track the motion directly in task space. ott et al. (ott, lee, and nakamura ) connect the markers to the dhm body with virtual springs, and use the generated forces to compute the dhm motion through the dynamic model equation. demircan et al. (demircan et al. ) use an operational space approach based on null-space projection (khatib ) to track the cartesian markers trajectories. however, these techniques cannot explicitly take into account certain constraints of the movement. specifically, inequality constraints such as joint limits cannot be included in null-space projection techniques. instead, authors resort to suboptimal heuristics to account for inequality constraints through avoidance tasks (sentis and khatib ), or simply dismiss these constraints. . . dhm controller the dynamic replay method presented in this work is based on a direct control of markers in the operational space through an optimization-based controller. unlike analytical techniques such as explicit null-space projection (khatib ), numerical optimization-based techniques enable to solve the human kinematic redundancy while explicitly taking into account both equality and inequality constraints. the dhm used here is a rigid body model which does not include muscles. each joint is controlled by a single ideal rotational actuator, so the actuation variables are the joint torques. though muscle-related quantities cannot be measured with such a model, biomechanical demands can be estimated with quantities such as joint loads, joint dy- namics, or mechanical energy. besides, while musculoskeletal models have proved valid and insightful in specific cases, no general criterion has been established yet to solve the muscle recruitment problem. this is a concern for the reliability of muscle-related measurements (hicks et al. ; thelen, anderson, and delp ; damsgaard et al. ; chaffin, andersson, and martin ). the questionable gain of information and the significantly higher computational cost therefore reduces the interest of mus- culoskeletal models in the current context. the dhm motion is computed with the linear quadratic programming (lqp) con- troller framework developed by salini et al. (salini, padois, and bidaud ). lqp handles the optimization of a quadratic objective that depends on variables subjected to linear equality and inequality constraints. the variables are the joint torques, but also the contact forces. the ground reaction force (grf) is therefore computed in the optimization process, and does not need to be recorded beforehand to replay the motion. the grf estimation is a significant advantage over most of the other motion replay techniques since it simplifies the experimental set-up. the control problem is formulated as follows: argmin x ∑ i ωiti(x) s.t.   m(q)ν̇ + c(q, ν) + g(q) = s τ − ∑ j jtcj (q)wcj gx � h ( ) where τ is the vector of joint torques, wcj the contact wrench of the j-th contact point, q the generalized coordinates of the system (i.e. joint angles), ν the generalized velocity concatenating the free-floating base twist and the joint velocities q̇, and x = (τ t , wc t )t . the equality constraint is the equation of motion; m is the inertia matrix of the system, c the vector of centrifugal and coriolis forces, g the vector of gravity forces, s the actuation selection matrix due to the free-floating base, and jtc the jacobian of contacts. the inequality constraint includes the bounds on joint positions, velocities, and torques formulated in τ , and the contact existence conditions for each contact point according to the coulomb friction model: ccj wcj ≤ ∀j jcj (q)ν̇ + j̇cj (ν, q)ν = ∀j ( ) where ccj is the linearized friction cone of the j-th contact point. the objective function is a weighted sum (weights ωi) of tasks ti representing the squared error between a desired acceleration or wrench and the system accelera- tion/wrench. the solution is a compromise between the different tasks, based on their relative weights (the proposed method could however easily be adapted to a strict priority strategy such as hierarchical quadratic programming (escande, mansard, and wieber )). four categories of tasks are defined by the following errors: • operational space acceleration ‖jiν̇ + j̇iν − ẍ∗i‖ • joint space acceleration ‖q̈− q̈∗‖ • operational space wrench ‖wi −w∗i ‖ • joint torque ‖τ −τ ∗‖ where ẍi is the cartesian acceleration of body i, and wi the wrench associated with body i. the superscript ∗ refers to the desired acceleration/wrench/torque. the desired acceleration is defined by a proportional derivative control: z̈∗ = z̈goal + kv(ż goal − ż) + kp(zgoal −z) ( ) where z stands for x or q, and kp and kv are the proportional and derivative gains. the superscript goal indicates the position, velocity and acceleration wanted for the body or joint (reference trajectory). note that the acceleration variable ν̇ can be expressed as a function of x using the equation of motion. . . tasks for motion replay the recorded motion is mapped onto the dhm by creating an operational accelera- tion task for each marker placed on the subject’s body, and using the recorded marker trajectories as reference trajectories (fig. ). due to unavoidable differences between the human and dhm kinematics, the markers tracking tasks alone are often not suffi- cient to maintain the dhm balance (the balance is in open-loop control and the dhm falls). a center of mass (com) acceleration task is therefore added to control bal- ance. the reference com acceleration is computed with a zero moment point (zmp) preview control method (kajita et al. ). additionally, if the activity includes ex- erting intentional force on the environment (e.g. pushing an object), an operational space wrench task is created at the hand. the original zmp preview control scheme is modified to take into account these known external forces acting on the dhm. unlike the grf, the intentional reference force must be given as an input to the controller (e.g. from force sensor measurement or known object features). in order to obtain a natural posture even when some body segments are not entirely constrained by the markers tracking tasks, preferred joint angles are specified with joint acceleration tasks (corresponding to a standing posture arms along the body). eventually, joint torque minimization tasks are added to prevent useless effort and ensure the uniqueness of the solution to the optimization problem. given the high number of tasks in the controller and the differences between the hu- man and dhm kinematics, not all tasks can be fully fulfilled. the weighting strategy of the controller allows to deal with conflicting objectives, but tasks weights nevertheless affect the resulting motion. the balance task, for instance, is required to prevent the figure . two different ways of pushing a heavy object, resulting in different biomechanical demands on the human body (inspired from (demircan )). positions velocities accelerations forces torques physical consistency dynamic replay balance markers manipulation force posture - effort lqp controller operational space acceleration task operational space wrench task joint torque task joint space acceleration task figure . joint space and operational space tasks used in the lqp controller for the dynamic replay of human motion. dhm from falling, but alters the lower and mid-body markers tracking tasks. approx- imate values of tasks weights are first determined from common sense. in accordance with demircan et al. (demircan et al. ), distal markers tasks are assigned larger weights than proximal markers tasks to reduce the effect of cumulative errors in pre- ceding joint positions. joint space tasks (torque minimization and preferred posture) have the lowest weights since they are background tasks. weights are then manually tuned by trial-and-error. though time consuming in the first place, the tuning process does not need to be repeated; the weights obtained are general enough to be used for successfully replaying many different activities. the weights values are given in table . . . sensitivity analysis of human performances the dynamic replay method allows easy measurement of operational and biomechani- cal performances with a dhm. but these measurements alone do not give information about the postural changes which would enhance the overall performance. providing postural recommendations requires to know the influence of the adjustable postural parameters on the movement performance. most of the time, however, no straightfor- ward analytical relation between parameters and performances is available. this work therefore proposes to establish parameter-performance influence through a statistical sensitivity analysis. the sensitivity analysis method has already been published in (maurice et al. ) in the context of collaborative robots assessment. the method is summarized below, with a focus on its application to movement improvement. statistical sensitivity analysis relies on numerical evaluation of the output (indi- cators of performance) for numerous values of the input parameters (saltelli, chan, and scott ). given the large number of trials required, movements are simulated with an autonomous dhm so that many situations can rapidly be tested without the need for any human subjects. unlike motion capture and replay, the motion of an autonomous dhm is automatically generated from high-level descriptions of the tasks to execute. the whole process for analyzing the dependence between the postural pa- rameters of a given movement and the resulting performance is summarized as follows (fig. ): ( ) define the adjustable parameters characterizing the way the movement is per- formed (e.g. position/orientation with respect to the environment, initial pos- ture), and select among all the possible combinations the values that should be tested. ( ) simulate the movement with an autonomous dhm for each selected combination of parameters values, and measure the associated performance indicators. ( ) compute sensitivity measures for the performance indicators, based on their values in all the tested cases. in step , the adjustable parameters and the numerical bounds within which these parameters are allowed to vary depend on the movement that is considered. as such, their choice is not addressed by the method described here. instead the choice is left to the user. appropriate numerical values to test for each of the selected parameters are determined according to the experimental design of the extended fast method (fourier amplitude sensitivity testing) (saltelli, tarantola, and chan ). the fast exploration method is a good compromise between the comprehensiveness of the space exploration and the number of trials. in step , the dhm is animated with an lqp controller similar to the one used table . numerical values of the tasks weights used for dynamic re- play. task weight balance m a rk e rs back head . shoulder . elbow hand knee ankle p o st u re back − neck − scapula − shoulder − elbow − wrist − hip − knee − ankle − torque minimization − task description parameters set #nparameters set # human and task parameters selection ... analysis relevant indicators influential parameters indicators set # indicators set #n... dynamic simulation manikin controller lqp figure . flow chart of the method for analyzing the dependence between postural parameters of the task and resulting operational/biomechanical performances. for motion replay, but the markers tracking tasks are replaced by hands and/or feet operational acceleration tasks (depending on the goal of the movement). the reference trajectory – or at least the start and end points – must still be given as an input to the simulation. a detailed assessment of biomechanical performances requires several indicators to account for the different demands (e.g. posture, effort, energy). the number of performance indicators should however be limited to facilitate the analysis, while suf- ficiently accounting for the overall performance. hence, step aims at identifying both the most relevant performance indicators and the most influential parameters (i.e. the parameters that have the strongest effects on the relevant indicators). in the context of performance improvement, the relevance of an indicator is not related to its value but to its variations when the movement is performed in different ways; if the value of an indicator remains unchanged whichever way the movement is performed, this indicator is not useful to compare different situations. therefore indicators are ranked according to their variance, after they have been normalized to make the variances comparable. the number of indicators that should be kept is then chosen according to the scree test (jolliffe ). eventually, the influence of each parameter on the relevant performance indicators is estimated by computing sobol indices which measure the percentage of variance of an indicator that is explained by the parameter (hoeffding ; sobol ). sobol first order indices si and total indices sti are used because they give information about the ith parameter xi independently from the influence of other parameters (homma and saltelli ). a high si means that xi alone strongly affects the performance indicator, while a small sti means that xi has very little influence, even through interactions. this method allows to identify which parameters should mainly be tuned to improve the overall performance. it should be noted that sobol indices represent relative contributions, i.e., they inform on the influence of a parameter compared to all parameters within the tested set. . experiment this section presents an application of the method for guiding performance enhance- ment presented in the previous sections. human motions are recorded and replayed to evaluate the dynamic replay method. the sensitivity analysis is then applied to the considered movement, and the results are used to provide postural recommendations. the improved situation is compared to the original one to ensure that the proposed recommendations do enhance the performance. it should be noted that the application presented here is a proof of concept of the method proposed in this paper. . . task description an industrial manual task requiring significant effort is used as a test case. the tasks consists in drilling six holes consecutively in a vertical slab of autoclaved aerated concrete (dimensions: × cm) with a portable electric drill. the locations of the holes are imposed and depicted on fig. . the drill weighs . kg. the average force needed to drill a hole in these conditions is around n (measured with a force sensor embedded in the drill). the task duration is not constrained, but it takes about min to perform the whole activity (take the drill, drill the six holes, put the drill down). aside from the task correct execution (i.e. localization and depth of the holes), the main concern is the biomechanical performance: biomechanical demands should be minimized in order to decrease the risk of disease or injury. . . motion capture set-up . . . participants five right-handed healthy students ( males and females) aged to years take part in the experiment (average size . ± . m; average body mass index . ± . kg.m− ). all participants gave informed consent before starting the experiment. each participant performs the task ten times, with a resting period between each trial. the drill is held with the right hand only. participants choose their feet positions; they are allowed to move their feet between each trial but not within a trial. . . . instrumentation participants’ motions are recorded with a codamotion system at hz. participants are equipped with markers spread all over their body (both legs, both arms, back and head). they stand on an amti force plate while performing the task to measure the grf (for validation purpose only). a axes ati force sensor is embedded in the drill handle to measure the drilling forces (fig. ). the recorded data are filtered with a zero-phase hz low pass th order butterworth filter. all recorded data are available upon request. . . . replay the recorded motions are replayed with a dhm using the dynamic replay method described in section . . the drilling force measured with the force sensor is used as an input to the simulation, whereas the grf measured with the force plate is used for validation purpose (in the simulation the grf is automatically computed by the dhm controller). simulations are run in the xde dynamic simulation framework developed by cea- list (merlhiot et al. ). the dhm consists of rigid bodies linked together by compound joints, for a total of degrees of freedom (dofs), plus dofs for the free-floating base. each dof is a revolute joint controlled by a single actuator. given each participant’s size and mass, the dhm is automatically scaled according to average anthropometric coefficients . each body segment can be further manually modified to match the participant’s morphology when needed. . . sensitivity analysis set-up . . . postural parameters in manual tasks, postural parameters that can be adjusted are generally related to participants’ position/orientation with respect to the environment. for the drilling www.codamotion.com http://www.amti.biz/ http://www.ati-ia.com/products/ft/ft_models.aspx?id=gamma segments lengths: http://www.openlab.psu.edu/tools/calculators/proportionalityconstant, segments masses: http://biomech.ftvs.cuni.cz/pbpk/kompendium/biomechanika/geometrie_hmotnost_vypocet_en www.codamotion.com http://www.amti.biz/ http://www.ati-ia.com/products/ft/ft_models.aspx?id=gamma http://www.openlab.psu.edu/tools/calculators/proportionalityconstant http://biomech.ftvs.cuni.cz/pbpk/kompendium/biomechanika/geometrie_hmotnost_vypocet_en task, nine parameters are defined and listed in table , along with their user-defined limits. they include morphology-related parameters to check whether the formulated recommendations should depend on the the person’s morphology or not. note that the parameters used in this work are specific to the task addressed. the proposed analysis method is generic and can be applied to any movement, however the list of parameters and their bounds are movement-specific. the r software sensitivity toolbox is used to select, within the user-defined nu- merical bounds, the parameters values that need to be tested for the extended fast analysis. the sample size and set of frequencies are chosen based on the number of parameters, according to the recommendations of saltelli et al. (saltelli, tarantola, and chan ). they result in a total of simulations. one simulation takes approximately min (real time: s) on one core of a . ghz intel r coretm i laptop. the simulations are parallelized on cores. . . . simulations the drilling task is simulated in the xde framework with the autonomous dhm. only the right hand trajectory and force are explicitly specified. the reference hand trajectory and drilling force profile are estimated from the data recorded for the replay step. the dhm feet do not move during a simulation, except if balance cannot be maintained and the dhm falls. the correctness of the drilling task execution is ensured by checking the hand actual trajectory and force in each simulation. . . . performance indicators indicators are measured to assess the biomechanical performance. they are chosen to quantify as exhaustively as possible the effects of all kinds of physical demands, including dynamic phenomena (see maurice et al. for a detailed description of the indicators (maurice et al. )). indicators are local quantities which directly estimate joint demands: joint position, velocity, acceleration, power and torque for the right arm, left arm, back and legs respectively. indicators are global quantities which represent the ability of a person to comfortably perform certain actions. the force ( resp. velocity ) transmission ratio of the right hand estimates the capacity to produce force (resp. movement) in the drilling direction (chiu ). the sum of the square distances between the center of pressure (cop) and the base of support boundaries (balance stability margin) (xiang et al. ), and the time before the cop reaches the base of support boundary (dynamic balance) estimate the balance quality. the kinetic energy of the whole body estimates human power consumption due to movement. in order to make the variances comparable, the indicators must be scaled because they have non-homogeneous units and different orders of magnitude. experimentally obtained reference values are used for the scaling (see (maurice et al. ) for more details). to summarize each time-varying indicator in a single value, time-integral values over a whole simulation are used. it should be noted that these biomechanical indicators are independent from the method presented in section . the method can be used with any indicators of human performance that can be measured on a dhm. http://www.r-project.org http://www.r-project.org motion capture camera force platemotion capture markers embedded force sensor x y z figure . motion and force capture instrumentation for the drilling task. a commercial drill has been modified to embed a force sensor. the red circles on the slab represent the drilling points. table . parameters definition and limit values for the drilling task. the total horizontal distance between the pelvis and the stab center is equal to the value of the corresponding parameter plus the arm length of the dhm. the right foot is front when the inter-feet distance in the sagittal plane is positive. the influence of the person’s morphology is taken into account both directly (with the dhm size and body mass index parameters) and indirectly since some parameters are partly calculated based on the dhm size (inter-feet distance in frontal plane, vertical distance between shoulder and stab center, horizontal distance between pelvis and stab center). parameter minimum maximum dhm size (m) . . dhm body mass index (kg.m− ) . . preferred elbow flexion angle (◦) inter-feet distance in frontal plane (% of hip width) inter-feet distance in sagittal plane (m) - . . orientation of drill handle w.r.t. vertical (◦) pelvis horizontal orientation w.r.t. normal to stab (◦) - vertical distance between shoulder and stab center (m) - . . horizontal distance between pelvis and stab center (m + dhm arm length) - . . . results this section presents the comparison between the recorded and replayed motions (fig. ), the output of the sensitivity analysis, and the comparison of the initial and improved situations. . . dynamic replay validation . . . motion the reliability of the replayed motion is assessed by comparing the d cartesian posi- tions of the experimental markers (recorded with the codamotion) with the simulated ones (points on the dhm body). the rms errors between the experimental and simulated markers positions are presented in table . the tracking error is smaller than cm for all markers except the knee and right shoulder markers. the tracking error is smaller for the distal body parts, in accordance with the tasks weights distribution in the controller (higher weights for distal body parts). the tracking is better for the left arm than for the right arm because the left arm remains almost still. the right hand tracking error is nevertheless satisfactory (around cm), given that the overall length of the hand trajectory is about m. the results are consistent across participants. . . . force the reliability of the force data should be assessed by comparing the dhm joint torques computed with the controller with the human joint torques estimated from muscle forces. however, getting reliable human joint torques measurements is a practi- cal issue. conversely, the grf is easily measured and provides an indirect estimation of the joint torques through the equation of motion (equality constraint in eq. ). the experimental grf (measured with the force plate) and simulated grf (computed with the dhm controller) are therefore compared. the pearson’s linear correlation coefficient r between the experimental and simu- lated grf components is given in table . a good correlation is observed for each grf component (four components with r ≥ . , two components with r ≥ . ). no significant permanent force/moment offset is observed (fig. ). fy (direction of drilling) shows a better correlation than fx and fz because the variations of fy have a larger amplitude (fig. ). there are no significant differences across participants, except for the vertical force fz. the disparity of the fz results might however be due to the lower precision of the force plate in this direction, because of the higher load. . . sensitivity analysis out of biomechanical indicators, are identified as relevant for the drilling task by the sensitivity analysis. these relevant indicators are given in table . together they account for % of the total variance information, so little information is lost by not taking into account the other indicators. the presence of the upper-body torque and position indicators among the relevant indicators is consistent with the physical demands of the drilling task (exerting a significant force with the right hand while covering an extended area). the absence of any velocity and acceleration indicators is expected since the drilling task does not require fast motions. figure . motion capture (left) and dynamic replay with the lqp controller (right) of the drilling task. a video of the recorded and replayed motions is available in the supplementary material. table . average rms error between the experimental and sim- ulated d markers positions across the trials, for the partici- pants (si stands for subject i). several markers are placed on each body/joint, but only the largest rms error of all markers placed on a body/joint is given. position rms error (cm) s s s s s mean sd ankle . . . . . . . knee . . . . . . . back . . . . . . . head . . . . . . . right shoulder . . . . . . . left shoulder . . . . . . . right elbow . . . . . . . left elbow . . . . . . . right wrist/hand . . . . . . . left wrist/hand . . . . . . . table . average pearson’s correlation coefficient be- tween the simulated and experimental grf components across the trials, for the participants (si stands for subject i). x is the sagittal axis, y the frontal axis (drilling direction), and z the vertical axis. force moment fx fy fz mx my mz s . . . . . . s . . . . . . s . . . . . . s . . . . . . s . . . . . . average . . . . . . sd . . . . . . a b c d e f figure . time evolution of the experimental and simulated grf components, for one trial of participant no. . a: force fx . b: force fy . c: force fz . d: moment mx . e: moment my . f: moment mz . the force and moment errors of this trial are representative of their average values across all participants and trials. the moments are given at the center of the feet. table also gives the value of sobol indices for the relevant indicators. some parameter-indicator relations represented by these indices are expected and confirm the consistency of the proposed analysis (e.g. strong influence of the inter-feet frontal distance on the balance stability margin indicated by the high value of sobol first order index). other relations are less straightforward and could not easily be guessed without the sensitivity analysis, for instance the influence of the pelvis orientation on the right arm torque indicator. overall, sobol first order indices indicate that the pelvis orientation, the inter-feet sagittal distance, and the desired elbow flexion have a significant influence on several of the relevant indicators. these parameters should primarily be optimized to enhance the biomechanical performances. conversely, low values of sobol total indices indicate that the influences of the stab height and the pelvis-stab distance are small. the values of these parameters can be freely chosen by the person performing the activity. surprisingly at first, the dhm morphological parameters are not identified as influent according to sobol indices. this phenomenon can however be explained by the fact that other parameters are scaled based on the dhm size. therefore, the set-up is adjusted depending on the dhm size, which likely reduces the influence of the morphological parameters on the biomechanical demands. . . posture modification sobol indices provide quantitative information about the magnitude of the parame- ters influence, but they do not inform on the detail of the indicators vs. parameters evolution. such evolution can be estimated with a metamodel (box and draper ), but building a metamodel requires many more trials. as such, sobol indices are not useful to find the parameters optimal values. however, trend curves can be obtained from the large number of trials performed for the sensitivity analysis, and used to identify well-performing parameters values. for each parameter, the optimal value is determined by considering only the associated relevant indicators. recommendations for the drilling task are provided in table . pure morphological parameters (dhm size and body mass index) are excluded since they do not have a significant influence on the performance according to table . the modified activity is compared to the initial one to validate the benefit resulting from the proposed recommendations. as a first validation, both the initial and the modified situations are evaluated with the autonomous dhm simulation (a complete validation would require the recording and replay of the movement performed by a human subject following the recommendations). the initial and recommended values of the parameters are displayed in table and the corresponding situations are illustrated in fig. . the values of the relevant indicators measured in both situations are presented in table . out of the relevant indicators, are significantly improved by the proposed modifications, while the last one is only slightly worsened. biomechanical demands associated with the right arm torque, legs position, right arm position, force transmis- sion ratio and balance stability are reduced by , , , and % respectively, whereas the back torque demand is increased by %. importantly, the significant re- duction in biomechanical demand is achieved even though the range of variation of the adjustable parameter is limited. this result advocates for the use of the proposed method which can identify minor changes with a major impact. the evolution of the shoulder flexion and rotation torques during the drilling move- ment are plotted in fig. to illustrate the reduced physical demands on more detailed table . sobol indices for the biomechanical indicators identified as relevant for the drilling task. for each parameter and indicator, the upper value is the first order index, the lower value is the total index (sobol indices can range from to ). the biomechanical indicators are presented in decreasing order of importance (decreasing variance) from left to right. the percentages below their names correspond to the percentage of the total variance they explain. ftr stands for force transmission ratio. numbers are colored from blue (minimum) to red (maximum), to facilitate the reading. relevant biomechanical indicators right arm legs right arm back ftr drilling balance stability torque position position torque direction margin % % % % % % p a r a m e t e r s dhm size − . − . . . . . . . . . dhm bmi − − − . . − . . . . . . elbow flexion . . . − . − . . . . . . inter-feet sagittal . . . . − . distance . . . . . . inter-feet frontal − − − . − . distance . . − . . . drill . − . − − − orientation . . . . . . pelvis orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . stab height . − . . . − . . . . . . pelvis distance . . . . . − . . . . . . table . initial and recommended parameters values for the drilling task. the parameters which have the largest influence on the performance are highlighted in bold. the values for the initial situation are measured on participant no. . parameter initial recommended preferred elbow flexion angle (◦) inter-feet distance in frontal plane (% of hip width) inter-feet distance in sagittal plane (m) - . orientation of drill handle w.r.t. vertical (◦) pelvis horizontal orientation w.r.t. normal to stab (◦) - vertical distance between shoulder and stab center (m) - . horizontal distance between pelvis and stab center (m + dhm arm length) . table . values of the relevant biomechanical indicators measured in the initial and modified situations. ftr for force transmission ratio. for each indicator, the value displayed is the percentage of the indicator reference value used for the scaling. right arm legs right arm back ftr drilling balance stability torque position position torque direction margin init. modif. biomechanical quantities. both joint torques are reduced in the modified situation, and the dhm simulation allows a quantitative estimation of this reduction. . discussion the results presented in the previous section demonstrate the usefulness of the pro- posed method. on one hand, the dynamically replayed motion is very similar to the original one, and the simulated grf is consistent with the experimental one. on the other hand, the situation modified according to the sensitivity analysis results exhibits enhanced performances, confirming the benefit of the postural modifications. never- theless, the application of the proposed method should be considered carefully because of some current limitations of the human model and control. such limitations are dis- cussed thereafter, along with leads on future research directions which may help lift those limitations. . . accuracy of dynamic replay the tracking error of the markers d trajectories obtained with the dynamic replay method is similar to the tracking error reported for other replay methods including dynamic considerations (table ). demircan et al. report a tracking error between and cm depending on markers, when replaying a throwing motion (demircan et al. ). john and dariush report an rms tracking error of cm for the worst marker, when tracking a set of markers (john and dariush ). this latter study however addresses seated motions where balance is less of an issue. though good, the replayed motion is nonetheless not exact (non-zero tracking error). in addition to soft tissue deformation and uncertainty on markers placement, the tracking errors are mainly due to differences between the human and dhm kinematics. for instance, the complexity of the human shoulder (de sapio ) is not rendered in the dhm kinematics, hence the right shoulder tracking error. the balance task in the controller also alters the accuracy of the replayed motion. due to differences between the human and dhm kinematics and the lack of decision skills of the dhm regarding how to recover balance, the zmp preview control scheme in the balance task is tuned to be conservative. most unstable situations are thus avoided as long as the original motion is not too unstable. however, the balance improvement is achieved at the cost of a modified motion, hence a less accurate replay. this partly explains the knee tracking error observed despite the small displacement of the knees during the drilling movement. the kinematic differences between the human and the dhm can be minimized with more complex musculosketetal models, but they remain unavoidable and necessarily affect the quality of the replayed motion and forces (hicks et al. ). these differ- ences are, however, not specific to the dynamic replay method, but affect any kind of motion replay. moreover, the replay method presented in this paper with a basic human model could also be used with more accurate musculosketetal models – though at a larger computational cost – to reduce model-induced errors. a b figure . snapshots of the initial (a) and modified (b) drilling movement simulated with the autonomous dhm. sh ou ld er f le xi on to rq ue ( n .m ) time (s) initial modified - - - - time (s) sh ou ld er r ot at io n to rq ue ( n .m ) initial modified a b figure . time evolution of the shoulder flexion (a) and rotation (b) torques in the initial and modified situations. the grey areas correspond to the drilling periods. . . musculoskeletal model and motor control unlike the muscular actuation of the human body, the actuation of the dhm is de- scribed at joint level only, with each dof controlled by a single actuator. the biome- chanical quantities measured with such a model are necessarily less detailed than what could be measured with a musculoskeletal model. moreover, the dhm joint torques do not fully represent the physical effort exerted by a person. due to the redun- dancy of human actuation, different combinations of muscle forces can result in a same joint torque. when simultaneously contracting antagonist muscles (co-contraction phe- nomenon), a person can generate forces which do not produce any net joint torque. these ”internal forces” do not have any equivalent in the dhm and are not accounted for in the evaluation. co-contraction of antagonist muscles aims at increasing joint impedance to withstand perturbations arising from limb dynamics or external loads (gribble et al. ); though especially important in high accuracy motions, it is nev- ertheless present in all motions. not taking co-contraction forces into account therefore leads to an under-estimation of the human effort. nevertheless, the motion replay method presented in this work is modular, in that it decouples the rigid body dynamics from the actuation dynamics. the output of the dynamic replay fully describes the evolution of the system dynamics in terms of state [ qt (t), q̇t (t) ]t , joint torques τ (t) and applied external wrenches wc(t). given this evolution, the use of an inverse musculoskeletal model (mm) could give access to the evolution of muscle activations um(t) = f − (q(t), q̇(t), τ (t), wc(t), mm). muscle-related performance indicators could thus be estimated. however the question of muscle recruitment in the mm – especially regarding co-contraction – remains an open issue. . . autonomous motion generation the sensitivity analysis being based on dhm simulations, the biomechanical reliabil- ity of the results depends on the realism of the autonomous dhm motion. simulating highly realistic human motions requires a model of whole-body motor control which accounts for the redundancy of the human musculoskeletal system and for the slow dynamics of human muscle activation. the slow dynamics is particularly limiting as it requires to consider the motor control problem from an optimal control perspective rather than from a purely reactive perspective. the first consequence is a large increase in the computational cost, which is not compatible with running thousands of simula- tions in a reasonable amount of time. moreover, solving this optimal control problem requires to understand the psychophysical principles that voluntary movements obey. though many studies have been conducted to establish mathematical formulae of such principles (e.g. fitt’s law (fitts ), minimum jerk principle (flash and hogan ), two-thirds power law (viviani and flash )) and some have been success- fully applied to dhm simulations (de magistris et al. ), these formulations remain largely limited to reaching motions. indeed, driving principles are not yet known for all kinds of whole-body motions, especially when significant external forces are at play. transposed to a dhm, determining the underlying principles of human motion comes down to establishing which mathematical quantities are optimized when human-like motions are performed. optimality criteria can be investigated through inverse opti- mization techniques – as proposed by clever et al. (clever, hatz, and mombaur ) for human locomotion or by berret et al. (berret et al. ) for reaching motions – but they remain an open research problem. nevertheless, the sensitivity analysis method in itself is independent from the dhm control. if an improved control law is available, it can be used to generate more realistic motions, while the analysis method remains the same. . conclusion this paper presents a framework to easily assess and enhance the performance of human postures and movements, based on dynamic dhm simulations. existing situ- ations are replayed from motion capture data with an lqp controller. this method guarantees the dynamic consistency of the replayed motion and forces, unlike what is currently achieved with most existing replay methods. the reliability of the biome- chanical measurements taken on the dhm is thus increased, without requiring exper- imental grf measurement. then a sensitivity analysis of the movement is conducted with autonomous dhm simulations to identify the most influential parameters of the movement, and thereby provide recommendations for improvement. because the dhm motion is automatically generated in this step, only little input data are needed to carry out the analysis. in particular, there is no need for human participants to per- form multiple repetitions of the motion. the proposed method is applied to a drilling movement. experiments carried out on participants show that motions and forces are reliably replayed. the sensitivity analysis allows to highlight and rank some non trivial phenomena, which cannot be quantified a priori. finally, the assessment of the modified situation shows significant improvement in performances compared to the initial situation, demonstrating the usefulness of the proposed method. futur work includes presenting the movement improvement tool to a human move- ment expert (e.g., ergonomist) to receive his/her feedback and compare the optimal movement obtained with the method proposed in this work to his/her own recommen- dations. future research will also be directed towards coupling the developed tool with more detailed human models, such as musculo-skeletal models. such a coupling will allow to measure quantities that more accurately represent the physiological demands during the movement. this will require investigating optimal coupling between the fast rigid-body simulation presented here and computationnally expensive musculo- skeletal models, in order to keep the simulation time compatible with the execution of multiple simulation instances. to conclude, though the application presented in this paper focuses on biomechan- ical performance, the method is more general and can be applied to other domains, such as rehabilitation. funding this work was partially supported by the rte company through the rte/upmc chair ”robotics systems for field intervention in constrained environments”, held by v. padois. p. maurice is supported in part by the european union’s horizon research and innovation program under grant agreement no. 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accuracy of dynamic replay musculoskeletal model and motor control autonomous motion generation conclusion from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development of digital forensics from law enforcement to archival authority research article from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development of digital forensics from law enforcement to archival authority corinne rogers published online: march # springer nature switzerland ag abstract the field of digital forensics seems at first glance quite separate from archival work and digital preservation. however, professionals in both fields are trusted to attest to the identity and integrity of digital documents and traces – they are regarded as experts in the acquisition, interpretation, description and presentation of that material. archival science and digital forensics evolved out of practice and grew into established profes- sional disciplines by developing theoretical foundations, which then returned to inform and standardize that practice. they have their roots in legal requirements and law enforcement. a significant challenge to both fields, therefore, is the identification of records (archival focus) and evidence (digital forensics focus) in digital systems, establishing their contexts, provenance, relationships, and meaning. this paper traces the development of digital forensics from practice to theory and presents the parallels with archival science. keywords archivalscience.digitalforensics.digitalrecordsforensics.digitalevidence introduction the field of digital forensics seems at first glance quite separate from archival science and digital preservation, but these disciplines have overlapping histories and legacies deriving from similar goals, common challenges, and shared theoretical perspectives (rogers and john ). in the s forensic investigation of computer crime was largely unknown – indeed, some questioned whether computer crime existed. at the same time, archivists were beginning to discuss the characteristics and implications for practice of machine-readable records. today, crime involving digital evidence is the norm and digital forensics is a growth industry in legal investigations. archives and international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y * corinne rogers cmrogers@mail.ubc.ca school of library, archival and information studies, university of british columbia, vancouver, canada http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -y&domain=pdf mailto:cmrogers@mail.ubc.ca records are increasingly born digital, and archivists need new tools to access digital sources, and assist in processing archival material. elizabeth diamond foreshadowed these developments when she wrote in : “[i] f the historian is the lawyer in the court of history, then the archivist is the forensic scientist” (diamond : ). both fields are concerned with discovering, understanding, describing, and present- ing or making accessible digital material. digital forensics was developed to assist law enforcement in investigations of crimes using computers in order to bring digital evidence to trial and is concerned with the authenticity, reliability, and accuracy of digital material. archival science traces its roots to administration and law, and studies the relationships between records, the persons, procedures, actions, and means through which they are created. archivists support accountability and trustworthiness of records by establishing their identity and assessing their integrity, reliability, and accuracy through analysis of records and record aggregations. but digital records require the mediation of technology to read and understand them, and so present the archivist with new layers of abstraction for analysis. in recent years, archivists have adopted and adapted digital forensics tools in service of accountability and preservation of societal memory (c.f. kirschenbaum et al. ; lee ), and digital forensics practitioners have noted similarities between their work and records’ management (c.f. irons ). much of the published material about digital forensics focuses on the techniques and tools of practice, and is highly technical, falling within the realm of computer science and mathematics. the purpose of digital forensics is predominantly in service of legal evidence, admissible in court, incident response and security. but throughout the development of the discipline, there has been a small but steadily growing body of literature that calls for digital forensics research to be situated within a broader social and theoretical framework (palmer ; mocas ; irons ; duranti ; duranti and endicott-popovsky ). while the tools and techniques of digital forensics are necessarily technical, the conceptual underpinnings of the discipline can be examined through the lens of archival science, diplomatics, and law. the following review of predominantly non- technical literature endeavors to understand the genesis and evolution of digital foren- sics as law enforcement practice and academic discipline in order to explore parallels with archival science. this paper traces the chronological development of digital forensics from its evolution in the s to the present through the issues that have shaped it. these issues include the evolving challenges presented by society’s increasing reliance on computer technology, a collaborative approach by legal personnel, law enforcement, and it specialists in identifying and solving these challenges, the spread of digital forensic practice from law enforcement to other domains, specifically archival practice. a note about terminology: early practitioners referred to the practice of computer forensics. as digital devices became ubiquitous and were not necessarily traditional computers, the term “digital” began to replace “computer” (c.f. whitcomb ). however, there is little consistency even today. while the tendency may be to prefer- ence “digital”, the term computer forensics is still in use. c. rogers the legal context digital forensics and archival science both have roots in law. the nature of archives and the responsibilities for their care and custody are discussed in the justinian code of ancient rome, and in the literature of the jurists of the eleventh century (duranti ). archival research focuses on establishing the evidentiary capacity of records and documents. according to menne-haritz, ‘(e)vidence means patterns of process- es, aims and mandates, procedures and results, as they can be examined. it consists of signs, of signals, not primarily of words. … all those are nonverbal signs that must be interpreted in context to disclose their meaning. to one who understands them, they will tell how processes worked and who was responsi- ble for which decision’ ( , ). digital forensics developed in response to the needs of law enforcement to inves- tigate computer crime. it has been defined as the use of scientifically derived and proven methods toward the preservation, collection, validation, identification, analysis, interpretation, documentation, and presentation of digital evidence derived from digital sources for the purpose of facilitation or furthering the reconstruction of events found to be criminal, or helping to anticipate unauthorized actions shown to be disruptive to planned operations (palmer ). while admissibility requirements for traditional documentary evidence have a long- established history and are well understood, digital evidence has raised a host of problems that the judicial system, regardless of jurisdiction, was (and in some cases may still be) ill equipped to handle. the inadequacies and inconsistencies of the law of evidence and rules of court to deal with digital media despite the passage of new laws to address it, the explosive increase in quantity of potential evidence to be examined, lack of understanding of the nature of digital media and its differences from traditional media all contributed to the need for a scientific and theoretical base for digital forensics. the legal context has been approached in the digital forensics discourse in one of two ways. first, those concerned with the development of the discipline have sought, through standards, principles and guidelines, a scientific basis for practice. second, several practitioners have advocated for the development of open source tools which, by nature of the availability of their source code, would support the forensic expert witness in asserting their reliability (carrier b; kenneally ). while it is not within the scope of this paper to address the legal context in full, it is worth citing a few milestones. in the ruling in daubert v. merrell dow pharma- ceuticals, u.s. changed the law with respect to the admissibility of scientific evidence and expert testimony. daubert required that scientific evidence be based on theory and technique that has been reliably tested, subject to peer review, with known or potential error rates, and generally accepted as a standard in its particular scientific community. these requirements were expanded in kumho tire v. carmichael ( ) to include technology expertise. because digital evidence is extracted from digital media, its reliability and integrity depends in part on the means of its extraction, which must be conducted and accounted for according to scientific principles. these two cases have, therefore, had a profound impact on the development of the digital forensics discipline (marsico ). from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... a brief history of digital forensics: looking back to look forward at the end of the s, three short historical retrospectives captured past development and predicted future directions of digital forensics (charters ; pollitt ; garfinkel ). these articles are important first-hand accounts of the evolution of the discipline and predictions for future growth reflecting the perspectives of the intelligence community, law enforcement and academic researchers. each author has been and continues to be influential in shaping the field. each has approached the task from his particular point of view, and yet there are similarities. all accounts track the changes in computer technology, which have driven the course of digital forensics, and arrive at complementary yet distinct conclusions about future directions. ian charters’ background is in it security and information assurance spanning more than years in the united states’ intelligence community. he describes the devel- opment of computer forensics in terms of stages of evolution – the ad hoc phase, the structured phase, and the enterprise phase. he suggests that these phases are cyclical, repeating as developments in technology offer new opportunities for criminality and introduce new challenges for investigators. charters explains the development of digital forensics through the development of policy, procedure, and forensic tools. he char- acterizes the ad hoc phase by shortcomings in investigative structure, goals, policies and procedures, and lack of accuracy of forensic tools. the resulting confusion of the ad hoc phase gives way to the imposition of structure expressed in policy-based programs, defined and coordinated procedures closely aligned with the policy, and a requirement for – and development of – more forensically sound tools – the structured phase. the enterprise phase is characterized by real-time collection, tailored field tools and forensics-as-a-service, built seamlessly into the technological infrastructure. the future, he predicts, will be aimed at greater automation and interoperability, proactive collection and analysis, and increased focus on standards in software architectures and reporting. mark pollitt begins his paper a history of digital forensics with an apology. his is not, he claims, a fully-informed, objective and unbiased account of the rise of digital forensics, but his personal story – the journey of a digital forensic investigator (pollitt ). one may argue, of course, that there is no such thing as an objective and unbiased account. no matter one’s intention to present “the facts and nothing but the facts,” every narrator chooses what to include and what to ignore in the telling of a story, and in so doing shapes that story through the material she choses. pollitt’s personal account is nevertheless a particularly clear summary of the development of the field, outlining the salient characteristics of the practice and the profession. he presents the history of computer forensics through the notion of epochs, beginning with pre-history, and then adopting a lifecycle model, moving from infancy through child- hood and adolescence, with maturity still to come. within that framework, he defines the discipline through the elements of people, targets, tools, organizations, and the community as a whole. pollitt, a former military officer with over twenty years’ service experience as a special agent of the federal bureau of investigation, approaches the history from the perspective of law enforcement. his experience spans the epochs he describes, and his influence is evident in the development of standards, and the recognition of digital forensics as a forensic discipline by the american society of crime laboratory directors/laboratory accreditation board. c. rogers simson garfinkel is an academic practitioner who has developed computer forensics tools, conducted computer-related research and authored books and articles published in the academic and popular press. in digital forensics research: the next years ( ), he suggests a research agenda that will carry digital forensics into the next phase of development, and sets the stage by summarizing the characteristics of past phases. he argues that marks the approaching end of a “golden age” of computer forensics, characterized by relative stability of operating systems and file formats, examinations largely confined to a single computer system, removable storage devices, and reasonably good and easy-to-use tools coupled with rapid growth of research and increasing professionalism. an impending crisis looms, brought on by advances and fundamental changes in the computer industry – specifically increased storage capacity, proliferation and diversification of devices, operating systems and file formats, pervasive encryption, use of the cloud for remote processing and storage, and increasing legal challenges to search and seizure that limit the scope of inves- tigations. current forensics tools are challenged to meet these needs for law enforcement because they focus on finding specific pieces of evidence for presentation in court. however, this evidence-oriented model – what garfinkel calls the ‘visibility, filter, and report model’, is well suited to archival process- ing needs, if not all law enforcement needs. garfinkel has contributed to the development of forensics tools for archivists through his participation in the bitcurator project that supports digital forensics practices in libraries, archives, and museums (lee ). a view from the field – the s and s clifford stoll’s book, the cuckoo’s egg: tracking a spy through the maze of computer espionage, is an early account of finding a computer hacker and bringing him to court (stoll ). an astronomer supporting the computer systems at a california research laboratory in the mid- s, stoll stumbled upon a hacker when he investigated a -cent discrepancy in the accounting charges for computer use time in his lab. this led him on an intercontinental cyber chase that lasted over a year through the networks that linked research and military computers in europe and the united states. law enforcement and military personnel alike were slow to take interest; because there was no financial or other damage, they could not determine if a crime was being committed. nor, until they could locate the hacker’s point of origin, could they agree on jurisdictional responsibility. this story highlights the characteristics of intentional computer misuse and response in the late s: uncertainty about what constituted a crime using computers; the practice of a lone investigator working on his own, often with little support; and use of tools adapted or created by the investigator for a specific incident. as early as , some law enforcement agencies had begun to develop programs to examine computer evidence. the computer analysis and response team (cart), developed by the fbi, was duplicated in law enforcement agencies in north america and europe (noblett et al. ; whitcomb ). however, while some progressive investigators delved into the new frontier of digital evidence, there was also reluctance, as stoll’s experience illustrates. the inspection service lab of the us postal service from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... expressed dismay when first confronted in the late s with a request for an examination of a computer – “what should we do with this?”, they asked. they questioned how they could secure and preserve digital evidence, how they could collect it without changing it, what practices would withstand the scrutiny of the court, and what examination protocols they should follow. however within ten years the postal inspection unit had not only established a computer forensic unit, but considered changing the name to digital evidence unit to reflect the growing variety of digital sources of evidence. the first published use of the term “computer forensics” in the academic literature appeared in an article entitled a forensic methodology for countering computer crime (collier and spaul ). the authors proposed the term ‘computer forensics’ as a label for ‘existing but very limited activities amongst the police and consultancy firms’ ( ) and advocated for its inclusion in the realm of traditional forensic sciences. they identified the skills required of a computer forensic expert to be multi-disciplinary, including investigative capacity, legal knowledge (including the law of evidence, rules of hearsay and admissibility), courtroom presentation skills as well as knowledge of computers. the bulk of published material begins in the mid- s, originating from interna- tional gatherings of law enforcement. some of these, like the fbi international confer- ences on computer evidence, were symposia devoted to computer crime (noblett et al. ). others were long-established gatherings that began to include sessions on computer forensics, such as interpol’s international forensic science symposia (internet / home - interpol n.d.). mark pollitt’s frequent reports and presentations to international law enforcement in the s give a clear picture of the state of development of the discipline. through observation and experience, pollitt developed one of the first high-level models of the computer forensic process, reflecting the common principles that guide the conduct of an examination. his “three-tiered approach” consists of principles, methodologies (practices), and procedures. with this three-tiered model he formulates a basis for standards development. moving from the general to the specific, he identifies universal principles: that evidence should not be altered; that examination results should be accurate; and that the results are verifiable and repeatable (pollitt a, b). this model was further developed in a later article (noblett et al. ) and has been the foundation of many subsequent models. digital evidence was recognized as a principle type of evidence at interpol’s international forensic science symposium in (pollitt ) and each subsequent conference has received a report on the status of digital evidence collection and analysis, as well as areas of growth and challenge. the reports outline the growth of community through working groups, professional organizations, and scientific bodies (diclemente et al. ); challenges and concerns such as increased workload, and need for accreditation and certification balanced by professional maturity and methodology; and the increasing complexity of computer crime with its parallel demands on computer forensics, and the spread beyond its original stakeholders (reedy et al. ). in a sobering picture was presented of a ‘coming digital forensic crisis’ caused by rapidly increasing storage capacity, data volume on networks, an expanding variety of computing devices, growing case loads, and limited resources (garfinkel , s :). c. rogers definitions, standards, and the building of community early in the evolution of digital forensics practice, the need for standards to guide and regulate the discipline and increase the acceptance of digital material offered as evidence in court became an important subject of discussion. standards were recog- nized as instruments that ensured quality and served as a guarantee of reliable results, dictated a minimum acceptable level of performance, ensured proper training of examiners, and limited liability for the actions of both examiner and examining organization (pollitt a). however, some questioned the ability to develop standards for digital forensics because of the variety and pace of change of technology. the challenge was to build in sufficient flexibility to balance meaningful standards with rapid change and individual investigative approaches. digital forensics working groups sought to develop universal principles that could be applied irrespective of the media under investigation. in the us federal crime laboratory directors group established the scientific working group on digital evidence (swgde), with a mandate to explore digital evidence as a forensic discipline (pollitt ). shortly after it was formed, the swgde proposed draft definitions and, on the principle that digital evidence must be ‘collected, preserved, examined, or transferred in a manner safeguarding the accu- racy and reliability of the evidence’, a draft standard was presented to the international hi-tech crime and forensics conference in october (swgde and ioce ). the draft defined digital evidence as information of probative value stored or trans- mitted in digital form, and identified that its acquisition begins when information and/or physical items are collected or stored for examination purposes. the process of collecting evidence should be conducted according to the rules of evidence in the relevant jurisdiction. data objects are defined as information of potential probative value that are associated with physical items, and may occur in different formats without altering the original information. the draft standard also distinguished original digital evidence from duplicates or copies. original digital evidence is defined as the physical items and data objects associated with such items at the time of acquisition or seizure. duplicate digital evidence is an accurate digital reproduction of all data objects contained on an original physical item, while a copy is an accurate reproduction of information contained on an original physical item, independent of the original physical item. other organizations were also pursuing the development of standards and best practices. in the united kingdom, the association of chief police officers (acpo) drafted good practice guidelines for search, seizure and examination of digital evidence. the original four principles of digital forensics examination still stand today, in the fifth edition of their guidelines (association of chief police officers (acpo) ). they require that no action taken by law enforcement agencies or their agents should change data held on a computer or storage media which may subsequently be relied upon in court; that in exceptional circumstances, a competent person may need to access original data held on a computer or on storage media and must be able to give evidence explaining the relevance and the implications of their actions; that an audit trail or other record of all processes applied to computer based electronic evidence should be created and preserved, and an independent third party should be able to examine those processes and achieve the same result; and that the person in charge of the investigation (the case officer) has overall responsibility for ensuring that the from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... law and these principles are adhered to. standards and practice guidelines continue to be updated as the field matures. with standards and principles drafted for forensic investigations related to law enforcement, the discipline was ready to explore a more theoretical focus and build a multi-disciplinary community. in the first digital forensics research workshop (dfrws) was convened in utica, new york. the conference represented the nucleus of a multi-disciplinary digital forensics community that included law enforcement, military and civilian partners; participants included academics and digital forensic practitioners, with keynote speakers from law enforcement, military operations, infra- structure protection, industry, academia and government. these domains each employed a difference paradigm for forensic analysis––prosecution (law enforcement), security and continuity of operations (military), and availability and security of service (business and industry) (palmer ). the report from that conference provides an important benchmark of the profession––a synchronic snapshot of digital forensic science at that moment, and a blueprint for future research. it provides a base from which much of the subsequent literature derives. participants agreed that to be considered a discipline, digital forensics must be characterized by a combination of theory, abstractions and models, elements of prac- tice, a corpus of literature and professional practice, and confidence and trust in results. they also agreed that these areas had not all yet been adequately addressed. the keynote speakers expressed strong concern for development of the profession that goes well beyond the solely technical aspects. this “full-spectrum” approach does not rest on technology alone, but draws on the procedural, social and legal realms to create a holistic body of knowledge that both informs and supports the primary objectives of forensic analysis and leads to an integration of “forensic hooks” into live computer and network systems and away from the “current band aid approach that produces point solution tools.” lack of standardization of analytical procedures, protocols and termi- nology; issues of accuracy, efficiency and retention of extracted material; the conflict between individual privacy rights and data collection requirements were all identified as holding back the development of the profession. participants agreed that future research should build on collaboration. important foci included work to define terms and develop taxonomies and ontologies that would make communications more effective and research more applicable, increasing opportunities for training and certification, and continuing to work on standards and standardized procedures, among many more specific goals. towards a theory of digital forensics theory develops through contemplation of practice intended to uncover general or abstract concepts, which are modeled and tested, and eventually transcend the specific, returning to inform and guide practice. in relation to disciplined knowledge creation, theory ‘denotes systematic ideas to explain or account for observed facts or phenom- ena’ (eastwood , ). digital forensics is practiced in an investigative context, regardless of the domain of the investigation. the roots for the development of a theory of digital forensics, then, may be found in the early practice guidelines and principles developed by law enforcement and technical working groups (mocas ). c. rogers the call for development of a theory of digital forensics was first broadly articulated in the dfrws report (palmer ; carrier and spafford ). the framework proposed by the dfrws modeled a typical investigation: identification, preservation, collection, examination, analysis, presentation and decision (palmer ). models have been proposed that elaborate on the stages of investigation, outline incident response, frame the process through a particular lens, or define the discipline through abstracted concepts (c.f. pollitt a; noblett et al. ; palmer ; reith et al. ; carrier a; carrier and spafford ; ciardhuáin ; beebe and clark ; ieong ; selamat et al. ; blackwell ). they share similarities as they present more or less detailed abstractions of investigative steps. there is no consensus about the maturity of the models that have been proposed, or a universally accepted theory. perhaps there can never be, as process models are subjec- tive, and must be evaluated with respect to scalability for future technologies and applicability to different types of investigations (carrier and spafford ). they are descriptive in nature, presenting in greater or lesser detail the elements of an investi- gation in linear detail as it unfolds. proposed theoretical foundations begin to enter the literature with the search for functional requirements that a process model must meet. carrier and spafford propose five requirements: that the model be practical and follow the steps of an investigation, that it be technology-neutral, but allow enough specificity to support technology requirements for each phase, that it be based on existing theory for physical crime investigations, and that it must apply across domains to law enforcement investigations, corporate investigations and incident response. they approach the development of a model from a particular perspective––that the computer or system under investigation is analogous to a physical crime scene. this offers a way of organizing the steps of the process into five categories: readiness phases; deployment phases; physical crime scene investigative phases; digital crime scene investigative phases; and review phase. this model contributes to developing knowledge in several ways. its foundation in the theory of physical crime scene investigation is intended to enhance credibility in the eyes of the court. considering the digital environment as a crime scene rather than simply an object of physical evidence supports a richer and more holistic analysis, and identifies interaction between the physical and digital investigation. the model is abstract enough to be generalized to any investigative situation (carrier and spafford , ). . digital forensics concept models and functional requirements descriptive process models, however, are necessarily limited in their ability to suggest a theory of digital forensics that identifies concepts and functional requirements of the discipline. the goal is to develop a conceptual model that is based on more than “investigative experiences and biases” (carrier and spafford ). a model that succeeds in this will conceptualize the requirements for “forensic soundness,” and support the development of procedural methods and tools (casey ). rather than propose a model for the forensic process, sarah mocas defined a set of organizing principles for the development and evaluation of digital forensics research ( ). she identified five abstractions, or properties, through which the researcher can frame questions, model behaviors and evaluate procedures. integrity, authentication, from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... reproducibility, non-interference, and minimization also define what properties are necessary and/or sufficient for evidence to be viable in a specific investigative context. these properties are considered within that context, including reasons for the investi- gation, constraints on its scope, and a set of potential and desired outcomes that provides the framework for the model. the reasons-constraints-outcome framework and the necessary/sufficient digital forensics properties, she claims, can be adapted to any domain. michael andrew has proposed further theoretical considerations ( ). he outlines the overall forensic process as acquisition-preservation-analysis, and focuses in par- ticular on formalizing the analysis phase. starting with basic system concepts (that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, the whole determines the nature of the parts, the parts cannot be understood if considered in isolation from the whole, and the parts are dynamically interrelated or interdependent), he argues in favour of analysis in context, rather than isolating information items. starting with two principles of well designed systems – the principle of consistent results (a well designed system will produce consistent results from any given action unless corrupted by an outside force) and the principle of static storage (data at rest will remain at rest unless accessed for a directed purpose), he poses five requirements (stated as laws): association (data must be correctly associated with the processes that created it and the source that initiated the process), context data can only be interpreted correctly in context, internal and exter- nal), access (it must be demonstrated that the individual had access to the device at the time the data was created), intent (it must be demonstrated that the data was created as the result of an intentional action taken by the user), validation (the integrity, authen- ticity, and accuracy of the data must be validated before it can be presented as evidence in support of conclusions and opinions). the parallels with archival science are clear, and discussed below. . interdisciplinarity legal theory, computer security and information assurance, and computer science (systems architecture and computer history models) have all driven the development of digital forensics. several writers, however, look beyond digital forensics’ traditional partners to find similarities and mutual affordances in other disciplines: information theory (hama and pollitt ), records management (irons ), archival diplomatics (duranti ; cohen ), and archival science (kirschenbaum et al. ; duranti and endicott-popovsky ; john ; dietrich and adelstein ). alistair irons made explicit the parallels and complementarity of digital forensics and records management in his analysis of the principles of computer forensics in the context of record characteristics of authenticity, reliability, integrity and usability. ‘computer forensics’, states irons, ‘should be based around the characteristics of good records, levels and nature of access and an indication of the completeness of the records’. (irons , ) likewise, computer forensics techniques can help the records manager monitor the integrity, authenticity, reliability and completeness of records. irons also proposed that computer forensics could benefit through the appli- cation of theoretical models of the record. in digital forensics and born digital content in cultural heritage collections, michael kirschenbaum, richard ovenden, and gabriela redwine examine the c. rogers relevance of digital forensics for archivists, curators, and others working in the field of cultural heritage. one purpose of the report was to promote interdisciplinarity between fields increasingly recognized as having converging interests ( ). the digital records forensics project, conducted at the university of british columbia from to and funded by the social sciences and humanities research council of canada studied the challenges presented by digital technology to the records management, archival and legal professions, including the identification of records among all the digital objects produced by complex digital systems, and the determination of their authenticity when they are removed and stored outside of their originating systems. the interdisciplinarity explored by the project is represented in fig. (rogers ). one of the research objectives of the drf project was to develop the theoretical and methodological content of a new discipline, called digital records forensics, resulting from an integration of archival diplomatics, digital forensics, and the law of evidence (duranti ; rogers ). the project also led to a new proposed academic curriculum that weaves the complementary knowledge from archival science and digital diplomatics with digital forensics and information assurance (duranti and endicott-popovsky ). a course entitled digital diplomatics and digital records forensics (arst h) taught in the master of archival science program at ubc addresses the convergence of digital forensics and archival science for the purpose of furthering digital archival work. digital forensics and archival diplomatics – pulling it all together archival science and digital forensics are, first and foremost, applied sciences. both evolved out of practice and grew into established professional disciplines by develop- ing theoretical foundations, which then returned to inform and standardize practice. they have roots in law and legal practice, and professionals in both fields are trusted to attest to the identity and integrity of the materials for which they are responsible – they are regarded as experts in the acquisition, interpretation, description and presentation of that material. a significant challenge to both fields, therefore, is the identification of records (archival focus) and evidence (digital forensics focus) in digital systems, establishing their contexts, provenance, relationships, and meaning. the digital archivist is concerned with identifying records among all the digital objects present in digital media, and assessing their reliability, authenticity, and accu- racy. when an archivist acquires records contained in a digital storage device for appraisal and accessioning (ingest) into a repository, it is critical that she be able to identify the records on the device, analyze them to ascertain their provenance, assess their authenticity and accuracy, establish whether there are issues regarding intellectual property or copyright, privileged communication, or personal information that will be subject to redaction, data privacy protection, or access restrictions. the digital forensics investigator is similarly concerned with identifying digital objects that may serve as diplomatics is a discipline first developed in the seventeenth century to assess the authenticity of documents, taught in faculties of law and archival science in europe, and subsequently applied to modern office documents and digital records (duranti and thibodeau, ). from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... evidence of criminal or other activity, and analyzing those objects for their evidentiary capacity, that is, their attribution, integrity, and verifiability. privileged information must also be identified and protected from unauthorized disclosure (rogers ). archivists and digital forensics practitioners share the challenges of appraising and analyzing large volumes of digital material. the core archival functions are appraisal and acquisition, arrangement and description, retention and preservation, management and administration, reference and access (duranti and giovanni ). the ability to preserve digital records that are authentic and reliable over time and across technolog- ical change also depends on the circumstances of records creation and record keeping, thereby extending the archival functions across the entire life of the records. this compares with the functions of digital forensics practice: identification, preservation, collection, examination, analysis, presentation and decision (palmer ). at the root of each is investigative research into the material in question – namely the story revealed by analyzing the digital objects and traces of activities, and the relationships of those objects and traces to the actors and actions that gave rise to them. the archival first principle is respect des fonds, essentially equivalent to the principle of provenance and the principle of original order. these principles demand that the records of one creator are maintained separately from another creator, and that a creator’s records are kept in the same order in which they were created and used. when they are respected and articulated through archival description, the authenticity of the record aggregations is protected (macneil , ; millar ). a pre- sumption of authenticity derives from the context of creation and chain of custody, and the processes of establishing intellectual, administrative, and usually, physical control – appraisal, accessioning and archival arrangement. description is the primary means of illuminating provenancial and contextual relationships that are at the heart of the principles. archival description is the expression of the essence of the archivist’s accountability, which confers authority, and in court, affords the status of expert witness. records offered in evidence must be authenticated, and the archivist who is responsible for the records has that authority. by exerting intellectual control over the records through fig. interdisciplinary approach c. rogers archival description, the archivist becomes accountable for the records and can speak with authority to their identity and integrity––to their trustworthiness. the archivist is recognized as a trusted custodian and confers trustworthiness on the records by virtue of his or her accountability. the digital forensics practitioner, confronted with a digital crime scene, may be compared with the archivist, who, when processing a new acquisition by the archives, must approach the task of arrangement and then description of these records, which have been removed intellectually and physically from their creator, that is from their functional, documentary and technological context, and placed in the context of the investigation. we have seen that accountability is intertwined with responsibility, authority, and trust (millar ). just as the archivist acquires the status of trusted custodian through accountability for the records, digital forensics practitioners are called upon as expert witnesses to account for and report their investigative process. digital forensics practitioners act as expert witnesses because of their accountability to the investigative process. they are bound, however, by a different set of demands than archivists: theirs is scientific testimony given to justify their tools and techniques in identifying and authenticating digital evidence. scientific testimony may be tested for credibility in a daubert hearing. digital objects are examined not as documentary residue of business activity, but as latent trace evidence of digital processes. they are bound not by business rules and procedures, but by ‘the physics of digital information’, which governs ‘the artificial digital world of bits and machines that operate on them’ (cohen ). it is the physics of digital information that is the scientific grounding of the digital forensics practitioner. the authority conferred upon these professionals has different roots deriving from the particular ontological view of the evidence they seek to authenticate. however, despite the different vantage points of the archival and digital forensic analysis of digital evidence, the goals are the same: to identify and authenticate digital evidence. to that end, the examiners from either profession must establish, document, and be prepared to justify, or account for, the identity, integrity, and context of the evidence and their role in discovering and describing it. as cohen has shown, there can be a crosswalk drawn between the concepts of diplomatics and the elements of forensic examination (cohen ). records are considered trustworthy if they can be shown to be authentic (by establishing their identity and assessing their integrity), reliability, and accuracy. in the digital environment, archivists benefit from also incorporating concepts from digital forensics: concepts of authentication, reproducibility, non-interference, and minimiza- tion (mocas ), and laws of association, context, access, intent, and validation (andrew ). references andrew, m. 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( ). an historical perspective of digital evidence: a forensic scientist’s view. international journal of digital evidence ( ). http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/ c e b- b - - e bb .pdf. accessed april, . c. rogers http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april /swgde.htm/ http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/ c e b- b - - e bb .pdf http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/ c e b- b - - e bb .pdf from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development of digital forensics from law enforcement to archival authority abstract introduction the legal context a brief history of digital forensics: looking back to look forward a view from the field – the s and s definitions, standards, and the building of community towards a theory of digital forensics digital forensics concept models and functional requirements interdisciplinarity digital forensics and archival diplomatics – pulling it all together references [pdf] will it come here? using digital humanities tools to explore medical understanding during the russian flu epidemic, – | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /mdh. . corpus id: will it come here? using digital humanities tools to explore medical understanding during the russian flu epidemic, – @article{ewing willic, title={will it come here? using digital humanities tools to explore medical understanding during the russian flu epidemic, – }, author={e. thomas ewing}, journal={medical history}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } e. thomas ewing published medicine medical history on december , , the detroit free press asked an intriguing question in the headline: ‘will it come here?’ the ‘it’ in the headline was the so-called ‘russian flu’, an outbreak of influenza that was first noticed on a global scale in st petersburg, the capital of russia. as this disease spread across europe, american medical authorities as well as the popular press expressed increasing concern about whether the disease would cross the atlantic and reach the united states. to answer this… expand view on cambridge press cambridge.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the review of past pandemics to predict what to expect after covid- emmanuel oppong peprah medicine pdf save alert research feed la grippe or russian influenza: mortality statistics during the epidemic in indiana e. ewing geography, medicine influenza and other respiratory viruses save alert research feed talking about research : applying textual analysis software to student interviews sarah e. wagner, ann marshall pdf save alert research feed related papers abstract citations related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue can forward dynamics simulation with simple model estimate complex phenomena?: case study on sprinting using running-specific prosthesis murai et al. robomech j ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e can forward dynamics simulation with simple model estimate complex phenomena?: case study on sprinting using running-specific prosthesis akihiko murai* , hiroaki hobara, satoru hashizume, yoshiyuki kobayashi and mitsunori tada abstract surpassing the world record in athletic performance requires extensive use of kinematic and dynamic motion analy- ses to develop novel body usage skills and training methods. performance beyond the current world record has not been realized or measured; therefore, we need to generate it with dynamics consistency using forward dynamics simulation, although it is technologically difficult because of the complexity of the human structure and its dynamics. this research develops a multilayered kinodynamics simulation that uses a detailed digital human model and a simple motion-representation model to generate the detailed sprinting performances of individuals with lower extremity amputations (ileas) aided by carbon-fiber running-specific prostheses (rsps), which have complex interactions with humans. first, we developed a digital human model of an ilea using an rsp. we analyzed ilea sprinting based on experimental motion measurements and kinematics/dynamics computations. we modeled the rsp-aided ilea sprint- ing using a simple spring-loaded inverted pendulum model, comprising a linear massless spring, damper, and mass, and we identified the relevant parameters from experimentally measured motion data. finally, we modified the sprint motion by varying the parameters corresponding to the rsp characteristics. here, the forward dynamics have been utilized to simulate detailed whole-body sprinting with different rsp types (including simulated rsps not worn by the subject). our simulations show good correspondence with the experimentally measured data and further indicate that the sprint time can be improved by reducing the rsp viscosity and increasing stiffness. these simulation results are validated by the experimentally measured motion modifications obtained with different types of rsps. these results show that the multilayered kinodynamics simulation using the detailed digital human model and the simple motion-representation model has the capacity to generate complex phenomena such as rsp-aided ilea sprinting that contains complex interactions between the human and the rsp. this simulation technique can be applied to rsp design optimization for ilea sprinting. keywords: digital human technology, running-specific prosthesis, motion modification simulation © the author(s) . this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. introduction we have measured the kinetic and physiological aspects of human performance using an optical motion cap- ture system, force plate, etc., and applied kinematics and dynamics analyses to compute the joint angles and torques and estimate muscle activities, in the fields of biomechanics and sports science. this method has real- ized excellent athletic performances and clarified injury mechanisms, although it cannot analyze the perfor- mances that have not been realized, for instance, a per- formance that surpasses the current world record. we usually generate the motions of robots, for instance, a grounded manipulator with dynamic consistency, by ( ) joint angle or task-based motion generation and ( ) forward dynamics simulation. however, applying this open access *correspondence: a.murai@aist.go.jp digital human research group, national institute of advanced industrial science and technology (aist ), - - , aomi, koto-ku, tokyo - , japan http://orcid.org/ - - - http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : technique to human whole-body motion generation is considerably difficult, because ( ) humans have many more degrees of freedom and a much more complicated structure compared to robots, and ( ) humans are float- ing systems; therefore, we need to estimate the contact forces that can easily become unstable, especially during dynamic motions such as sprinting [ – ]. this research solves these problems by developing a multilayered kino- dynamics simulation that uses a detailed digital human model and a simple motion-representation model, which parametrically represents human motion mechanisms. here, kinodynamics represents the discipline that tries to solve kinematic constraints and dynamic constraints simultaneously, as defined in [ ]. in this study, we ana- lyzed and modelled the sprinting performances of indi- viduals with lower extremity amputations (ileas), aided by carbon-fiber running-specific prostheses (rsps), which entail complex interactions between humans and rsps that form the kinematic and dynamic constraints, to improve the rsp-aided ilea sprinting performance. carbon-fiber rsps have enabled ileas to realize hith- erto unachieved degrees of high-level sprinting [ ]. while the running mechanics in able-bodied sprinters and ileas have been previously examined, these researches were mainly limited to biomechanical studies [ , ]. fur- ther, many studies have investigated the rsp behavior and performance during sprinting through rigid-body dynamics [ ] and finite element analysis [ ], but the relationship between the rsp characteristics and sprint performance remains unclear. in particular, rsp-aided ilea sprinting involves humans and rsps, as well as the kinematic and dynamic interactions between them, and its kinematics and dynamics analyses are techni- cally complex compared with those of general rigid body systems that are often analyzed in the robotics field. we generated the rsp-aided ilea sprinting motion, which contains the complex interactions between humans and rsps, by developing a multilayered kinodynamics simu- lation, which uses a detailed digital human model and a simple motion-representation model that parametrically represents human motion mechanisms. digital human models have been developed to study body kinematics and perform dynamics analyses. these models have been developed based on the knowledge of human anatomy, and they can estimate and ana- lyze human motion through kinematics and dynamics computations [ – ]. we extended the spring-loaded inverted pendulum (slip) model for the simple motion- representation model that parametrically represents human motion mechanisms. the sprinting motion is often simplified using the slip model, which models the entire human body as a spring-mass model and describes the spring-like leg movement during sprinting [ ]. we applied a unilateral slip model with a spring, damper, and mass, similar to the one used in [ ], to model the rsp-aided ilea sprinting motion. figure shows the concept of multilayered kinodynamics simulation. this simulation consists of (a) simplification of sprint motion by using the slip model comprising a spring, damper, and mass, and identification of the relevant parameters from experimentally measured motion, (b) modification of the sprint motion by varying the slip model param- eters and simulation of its forward dynamics, and (c) reconstruction of the detailed whole-body sprint motion from the simulated slip model motion. our approach realizes the simulation of the detailed whole-body sprint- ing of the specific subject using different rsp types and properties (including simulated rsps not worn by the subject). we evaluated our simulation results by com- paring them with the experimentally measured motion, and both result sets showed good correspondence. this modeling and simulation technique can contribute to the quantitative evaluation and design of rsps to realize higher levels of rsp-aided ’ilea sprinting’ performances. methods we first modified our anatomographic digital human model [ ] by adjusting the surface shape and skeleton, so that the model represented the kinematic and dynamic characteristics of the ileas using the rsps. the able- bodied individual and ilea models consisted of and bones, respectively. each bone was represented as - simplify sprinting motion with slip model - identify model paremters - reconstruct detailed whole-body motion - modify model parameters - simulate forward dynamics - compare/evaluate motions - apply to rsp designing, sports training, etc. experimentally measured motion motion that has not been performed by subject a) b) c) fig. concept chart of multilayered kinodynamics simulation of motion modification. this simulation consists of three steps: a sim- plify the sprinting motion with the slip model and identify its param- eters using experimentally measured motion, b modify the identified model parameters and simulate the forward dynamics of the simple model, and c reconstruct the detailed whole-body motion from the motion of the simple model page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : a rigid-body linkage with inertial parameters, and the bones were connected to each other via spherical joints. figure shows the digital human model of an able-bod- ied individual and an ilea with unilateral transfemoral amputation wearing an rsp (sprinter e , ottobock, duderstadt, germany, and xtreme, ossur, reykjavik, ice- land) with a prosthetic knee joint ( s , hydraulic single- axis knee joint, ottobock, duderstadt, germany) (male, height . e+ m and weight . e+ kg for an able- bodied individual and . e+ kg for the ilea). next, ilea sprinting with the unilateral transfemo- ral amputation was captured by means of a commer- cial marker-based optical motion capture system with cameras (vicon, oxford, england) operating at a frame rate of hz. the subject wore two types of rsps (sprinter e and xtreme) with the prosthetic knee joint ( s ). the subject was free from any injuries at the time of data collection, and our study protocol was approved by the local institutional review board and conformed to the guidelines outlined in the declaration of helsinki ( ). the subject wore markers, whose locations were determined based on an improved ver- sion of the helen hayes hospital marker set. further, additional markers were attached to each rsp to capture the detailed rsp deformation. the positions of the mark- ers are indicated in fig. by means of white spheres. we also recorded the contact force between the ilea and the floor using seven force plates (amti, ma, usa), each of which measured the six-axis contact force and momentum at a rate of khz. the inverse kinematics was computed with dhaibaworks [ ], and the inverse dynamics was solved with opensim [ ]. the multilay- ered kinodynamics simulation for motion modification consisted of the following three steps (fig. ). (a) simplification of sprint motion using the slip model and identification of relevant parameters the sprinting was analyzed with simplified models to extract the kinematic and dynamic characteristics to realize stable dynamic simulations. the slip model, which represents the entire human body as a spring- mass model, has been previously applied to describe the spring-like leg movement during locomotion and sprint- ing [ ]. in this study, we applied the unilateral ’spring- damper-mass slip model’ to represent rsp-aided ilea sprinting (fig. ). here, the whole body was modeled as a mass supported by a spring and damper connected in parallel. next, we identified the relevant parameters of this model using experimentally measured motion data. the natural length of the leg ( lleg, ) and the spring and damper parameters ( kleg and dleg , respectively) were identified for the intact limb and the rsp, respectively, by mathematical optimization. this optimization minimized the error between the spring and damper forces and measured the contact force between the ground and the intact limb or the rsp, as given in the following equation: ( ) ef = t∑ t (fleg(t) − (kleg(lleg(t) − lleg, ) + dleg ˙lleg(t))) , able-bodied model rsp (sprinter e ) rsp (xtreme) fig. digital human models of an able-bodied individual and ilea fitted with an rsp. left: digital human model of the able-bodied individual, mid- dle: model of the ilea fitted with sprinter e , and right: model of the ilea fitted with xtreme page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : where fleg is the measured contact force, lleg is the meas- ured length of the leg, and ˙lleg is its velocity. we also computed the height ( h ) of the center of mass (com) and the contact angle ( θ ) at forefoot strike for each case from the experimental data. (b) modification and simulation of the forward dynamics of rsp‑aided ilea sprinting the kinematic and dynamic characteristics of an rsp can be modified by changing its shape and material. we varied the slip model parameters that correspond to the rsp characteristics, ( kleg and dleg ). here, we remark that rsp-aided ilea sprinting is the result of complex interactions between the human controller and the rsp characteristics. the identified parameters in "results and discussion" (table ) indicate that all the parameters, except the rsp characteristics ( kleg and dleg of the pros- thesis), yield similar values during sprinting with differ- ent rsps. therefore, we assumed that this specific subject utilizes the same control strategy for all rsps, and only the parameters corresponding to the rsp characteris- tics change when the individual wears a different type of rsp. we simulated ilea sprinting using different types of rsps by modifying kleg and dleg of the prosthesis and computed the forward dynamics. here, we computed com acceleration ( acom(t) ) in the following process. if state == flight & pcom,y(t) < h state = stance pcop,x = pcom,x + pcom,y/tanθ pcop,y = if state = stance fleg = kleg(lleg(t) − lleg, + dleg) ˙lleg(t) if fleg > state = flight if state == flight acom,x(t) = acom,y(t) = −g else acom,x(t) = (pcop,x − pcom,x(t))fleg(t)/lleg(t)m acom,y(t) = (pcop,y − pcom,y(t))fleg(t)/lleg(t)m − g where state represents the phase of sprinting and m rep- resents the total mass of the body. kleg and dleg change depending on whether the intact or the prosthetic leg is in contact with the ground. the time integration of acom(t) computes the trajectory of com and cop in this forward dynamics simulation. (c) reconstruction of detailed whole‑body motion from the simulated slip model motion we reconstructed the detailed whole-body motion from the simulated simple slip model motion for detailed kinematics and dynamics analyses and visualization. the trajectories of all markers, which were experimentally measured, were represented using the quadratic form of the slip model status. the parameters of this mapping function from the slip model status to the trajectories of all markers were optimized by minimizing the follow- ing function: where pmar is the measured marker position, i is the marker id, j ∈ (x, y, z) , and m is the quadratic form of the com position ( pcom ) and the position of the center of pressure (cop) ( pcop ), as given in the following function: we optimized the parameters α and β to minimize the evaluation function em . the trajectories of the mark- ers were reconstructed from the slip model motion in the forward dynamics simulation, the abovementioned parameters, and the kinematics constraints arising from the cop position using this m(pcom,j, pcop,j) . this step ( ) em = t∑ t (pmar(i, j, t) − m(pcom,j(t), pcop,j(t))) , ( ) m(pcom,j(t), pcop,j(t)) = (α(pcom,j(t) − pcop,j(t)) + β) . h θ pcop(t) pcom(t), vcom(t) fleg(t) flight phase stance phase flight phase x y kleg dleg fig. slip model for rsp-aided ’ilea sprinting’ table parameters for the rsps and intact leg in the slip model prosthetic intact sprinter e xtreme sprinter e xtreme lleg, (m) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ kleg (n/m) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ dleg (ns/m) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ h (m) . e− . e− . e− . e− θ (rad) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : significantly contributes to the detailed kinematics and dynamics analyses. the whole-body joint angles were estimated using the inverse kinematics computation per- formed using these marker trajectories and the detailed digital human model. the whole-body joint torques were estimated using the inverse dynamics computation per- formed using these joint angles and the contact forces that were estimated in step (b) using the slip model. results and discussion we can observe the following points from the experi- mental results: . figure shows the analyzed motion of rsp-aided ilea sprinting (sprinter e ). our model simu- lates the com trajectories with an average error of . e+ mm during the stance phase of sprinting. the kinematics and dynamics of the digital human model compute both the human joint torque and bending torque of the rsp during sprinting using its shape and the external force acting upon it. figure illustrates the bending moment at each point of the rsps. with regard to step (a) in "introduction", table lists the parameters identified from the stance phases of the sprinter e and xtreme rsps and the intact leg. the values of the prosthetic parame- ters kleg and dleg exhibit apparent differences, which correspond to the rsp characteristics, although the other parameters yield similar values. . our model identifies these parameters with average errors of . e+ ± . e+ % and . e+ ± . e+ % (average ± sd) in the contact forces for sprinter e and xtreme, respectively. in step (b), the com trajectories during the rsp-aided ilea sprinting (sprinter e ) was simulated (fig. ). our model simulated the com trajectories with error of . e+ ± . e+ mm (average ± sd) during the stance phase of sprinting. in step (c), we reconstructed the whole-body -marker posi- tions through steps (a to c) without changing the slip model parameters. our method reconstructed the marker positions with an error of . e+ ± . e+ mm (average ± sd), whose maximum errors ranged from . e+ mm on the marker of the right tragus to . e+ mm on the marker of the top of the rsp during the stance phase of sprint- ing. . figure shows the detailed whole-body motion and com trajectories of ilea sprinting with differ- ent rsp types and properties. figure shows the hip joint torques at the sides of the rsp during the stance phase of ilea sprinting with different rsp types and properties, which are the results of the kin- ematics and dynamics analyses of the detailed whole- body motion. figure shows the -m sprint time obtained with different types of rsps. these results have three implications: . the appropriate digital human model, motion meas- urements, and kinematics and dynamics computa- tions aid in realizing dynamics analysis. figure represents the bending moment at each point of the rsps during ilea sprinting. the radii of these curva- tures fit well with the values listed in [ ]. the slip model with the spring, damper, and mass suitably represent the kinematics and dynamic characteristics fig. synthesized motion of ilea sprinting using rsp ( fps). blue: measured center of mass (com) trajectory; green: simulated com trajectory . . p p p p p p time [s] sprinter e xtreme jo in t t or qu e [n ·m ] p p p p p p p p p p p p fig. rsp torques during sprinting. horizontal axis: time, the origin of which represents the instant of the left forefoot strike, and vertical axis: flexion/extension torque whose positive value represents flexion. left: sprinter e and right: xtreme. each line corresponds to a point shown in the corresponding figure at the bottom page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : of the experimentally measured ilea sprinting using an rsp for both the intact limb and the rsp. . the forward dynamics simulation with the simple slip model realizes the kinematics and dynamics analyses of the motions that were not performed by the subject. figure shows the com trajectories of ilea sprinting with different properties of the rsps. the rsps with stiffness values of and % were not worn by the subject during the measure- ments; they were simulated. the simulation results show that both types of rsps exhibit similar patterns: the subject moves upward when kleg increases and downward when kleg decreases. figure shows the hip joint torques at the sides of the rsps during the stance phase of the rsp-aided ilea sprinting with different rsp types and properties, which were the result of the detailed whole-body kinematics and dynamics analyses. the rsps with stiffness values of and % were not worn by the subject during the . × kleg, xtreme kleg, xtreme . × kleg, xtreme . × kleg, sprinter e kleg, sprinter e . × kleg, sprinter e fig. simulated whole-body sprint motion and com trajectory during the stance phase with different rsps. top row: sprinter e , bottom row: xtreme, left (red): % of kleg , middle (green): % of kleg , and right (blue): % of kleg - % of stance phase sprinter e xtreme jo in t t or qu e [n ·m ] . kleg, sprinter e kleg, sprinter e . kleg, sprinter e . kleg, xtreme kleg, xtreme . kleg, xtreme fig. simulated left hip joint torque during the stance phase with different types of rsps. left graph: sprinter e , right graph: xtreme, red dotted line: % of kleg , green solid line: % of kleg , and blue dashed-dotted line: % of kleg page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : measurements; they were simulated. the simulation results show that both types of rsps exhibit simi- lar patterns: the required hip joint torque increases when the rsp stiffness ( kleg ) increases. here, we note that the relationship between the rsp stiffness and the required hip joint torque is not a simple lin- ear relationship. the complex relationships in the temporal and amplitude directions appear because of the kinematic and dynamic interactions between humans and the rsps. the multilayered kinodynam- ics simulation using the detailed digital human model and simple motion-representation model represents these complex interactions and realizes the non-lin- ear complex relationship between the rsp stiffness and the hip joint torque that is necessary for sprint- ing using the same control strategy. . from fig. , we note that the -m sprint time is significantly improved with decrease in dleg , and the model falls down ( pcom,y(t) becomes ) when dleg increases drastically. an increase in kleg also contributes to slightly reducing the sprint time. the sprint time was . e+ s when kleg = . e+ n/m, dleg = . e+ ns/m (sprinter e ), and . e+ s ( . e+ % slower) when kleg = . e+ n/m, dleg = . e+ ns/m (xtreme). the experimentally measured sprint speeds were . e+ m/s and . e+ m/s ( . e+ % slower) for sprinter e and xtreme, respectively. here, we first note that the simulated -m sprint times were relatively short because of the limitations in our model. one limitation was that a fatigue model was not considered in these simulations. in addition, there were certain dynamic and physical limitations; for instance, the friction parameter and maximum muscle tension have not yet been implemented in our slip model. regardless of the above limitations, our results indicate that the forward dynamics simu- lation with the simple slip model agrees satisfac- torily with the measured data at the point that the ratio between the simulated -m sprint times using rsps whose kleg and dleg correspond to sprinter e and xtreme is close to the ratio between the measured sprint speeds using the corresponding rsps. the simulation results indicate that an increase in kleg improves the sprint time; therefore, this prin- ciple can be applied to rsp design to improve the ilea sprinting performance. these results, how- ever, are limited to one ilea sprinter with unilateral transfemoral amputation and using several types of rsps. further, we have also assumed that the subject adopts the same control strategy when using differ- ent types of rsps. conclusion in conclusion, our multilayered kinodynamics simula- tion realized stable forward dynamics simulation of ilea sprinting with an rsp on a specific subject, and estimated the detailed kinematic and dynamic characteristics of this complex phenomena. we believe that our approach can contribute to simulating performances that surpass human performances, and particularly contribute to the optimization of rsp design for ilea sprinting. authors’ contributions in this study, am performed the model development, kinematics/dynamics computations, and data analysis, and participated in acquiring the measure- ments. hh, sh, and yk performed the measurements and helped in drafting the manuscript. mt performed the software development. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. acknowledgements this research was supported by a grant-in-aid for young scientists (a) # h and scientific research(a) # . competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. ethics approval and consent to participate written informed consent was obtained from the patient for the publication of this report and any accompanying images. funding this research was supported by a grant-in-aid for young scientists (a) # h and scientific research(a) # . . . . . . kleg [%] d le g [% ] . . . . . . . time [s] . fig. time taken for -m sprint for the slip model with varying kleg and dleg values. horizontal axis: kleg , vertical axis: dleg of sprinter e . the -m sprint time with the rsp having the corresponding parameters is represented in a color scale ranging from blue to yel- low. the color red indicates that the model falls down before crossing m page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- lished maps and institutional affiliations. received: january accepted: may references . taylor gw, hinton ge, roweis st ( ) modeling human motion using binary latent variables. in: nips’ proceedings of the th international conference on neural information processing systems. pp – . safonova a, hodgins jk, polland ns ( ) synthesizing physically real- istic human motion in low-dimensional, behavior-specific spaces. acm trans graph (tog) : – . yamane k, nakamura y ( ) dynamics simulation of humanoid robots: forward dynamics, contact, and experiments. in: the th cism-iftomm symposium on robot design, dynamics, and control . 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lengths. j appl biomech : – . endo y, tada m, mochimaru m ( ) dhaiba: development of virtual ergonomic assessment system with human models. digit hum model : – . funken j, willwacher s, böcker j, müller r, heinrich k, potthast w ( ) blade kinetics of a unilateral prosthetic athlete in curve sprinting. in: international conference of biomechanics in sports can forward dynamics simulation with simple model estimate complex phenomena?: case study on sprinting using running-specific prosthesis abstract introduction methods (a) simplification of sprint motion using the slip model and identification of relevant parameters (b) modification and simulation of the forward dynamics of rsp-aided ilea sprinting (c) reconstruction of detailed whole-body motion from the simulated slip model motion results and discussion conclusion authors’ contributions references reyna interested in family history, boston (usa) degree in economics experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, reyna wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license carlos digital humanities student, valencia (spain) third year college student experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, carlos wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license paul history teacher, manchester (uk) king david high school experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, paul wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license lis wikimedian in residence, berlin (germany) deutsche nationalbibliothek experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, lis wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license maria museum curator, são paulo (brasil) são paulo museum of modern art experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, maria wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license veena digital humanities researcher, punjab (india) postdoctoral fellow at university of chicago experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, veena wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license abasi data scientist, cairo (egypt) institut français d’archéologie orientale du caire experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, abasi wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license steve phd candidate, toronto (canada) university of toronto, department of political science experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, steve wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license this is a preprint of an article submitted for consideration in textual practice © copyright taylor & francis; textual practice is available online at: http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&issn= - x&volume= &issue= &spage= review of alan liu, local transcendence: essays on postmodern historicism and the database (chicago: university of chicago press) by martin paul eve is licensed under a creative commons attribution-sharealike . unported license. based on a work at www.martineve.com. alan liu, local transcendence: essays on postmodern historicism and the database (chicago: university of chicago press), pp., £ . (paper), £ . (cloth) 'keep cool but care' wrote thomas pynchon in his first novel, v.; an acknowledgment of the tension between the individual and the masses, an invitation to consider concepts of freedom and control, passion and apathy. it was also an invitation framed by the turbulence of an impending digital era, the 'flip' and 'flop' of these dichotomies corresponding to the zeros and ones of a 'computer's brain'. extending his previous work on romanticism and – more obviously from this context – 'cool', alan liu's latest collection is a volume that offers an insightful and much needed digital-era revision of cultural criticism since the s, while also exhibiting a playful side in which the work frequently posits a structural counter-irony to the obverse line of thought. containing an almost cartographic overview of liu's work from to present – from the new historicism to the spruce goose – local transcendence also provides, in its final two essays, 'transcendental data' and 'escaping history', a solid rationale for an extension of such cultural criticism into the digital humanities projects of the last decade. in contrast to many essay collections amalgamating such spans of work, liu's volume amounts, through the combination of cumulative argument and the constant structural plays on immanent transcendence, to more than the sum of its components; while this book has strong reference value it is thomas pynchon, v. (london: vintage, ), p. . http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&issn= - x&volume= &issue= &spage= http://www.martineve.com/publications/martin% paul% eve% -% review% of% alan% liu,% local% transcendence:% essays% on% postmodern% historicism% and% the% database% (chicago:% university% of% chicago% press)% -% preprint.pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / http://www.martineve.com/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / in the totality of its trajectory that it truly shines. to begin with this in mind, it is perhaps apt to remark that the subtitle, 'essays on postmodern historicism and the database', appears, for much of a first reading, somewhat misplaced, for it is only in the final essay, 'escaping history', in which liu combines historiography with the database. indeed, the early works in the collection – offering critique of, among others, the new historicism's angst regarding 'the marginality of literary history' (p. ) and welsh colonial discourse in relation to wordsworth, recusancy, patriotism and the new historicist subversion/containment dichotomy – leave the reader with a sense of disjointedness and an impression of a telos-less wandering. however, it emerges that this is integral to the very performativity of liu's writing; can one claim to have thoroughly covered, for example, the topic of anti-methodology in cultural criticism, if one's structural movement does not also query this model? liu, it would seem, thinks not: his critique of lists takes the form of a list; his damnation of new historicism's overemphasis on supposedly representative theatrical moments begins with a representative theatrical moment; the unacknowledged dangers of extensible markup language (xml) encoding for artistic practices are encoded within such a schema. while this could degenerate towards gimmickry, liu pulls it off as a serious methodological undertaking, for mirrored in the synthetic resolution of these structural dialectics is a parallel to liu's critique of 'that which the postmodern interpreter champions as subversive', the element which 'sympathizes with ourselves' (p. ). in proposing, and then undermining, a structurally 'subversive' element, local transcendence sidesteps the pitfalls of methodological hypocrisy that lie in wait for such meta-textual performativity and reveals a distinct path. this debate on form and content – so tired in other spheres – is further revived by liu in his digital humanities work. in the penultimate piece, 'transcendental data', liu argues that the increasing prevalence of content-transmission-consumption models (pp. - ) built upon standards such as xml, which aim to separate content from presentation, poses a threat to artistic modes that rely upon the blurring of this distinction. yet, is this pushing the implication of these technologies too far? after all, % of artists working in a digital medium are not currently exposed to xml, but rather constrained at the level of the user interfaces within which they must operate. the % who do encounter this medium will likely have the technical ability to craft a presentation layer – to borrow marshall mcluhan's phrase – that would transform it to the message. while xml is, indeed, designed for presentational re-construction at the consumer-end, specifying procedures and constraints for this reception – and thereby circumventing the problem of which liu writes – would be no different to the outcry at the tate modern when, in , a mark rothko painting was accidentally hung, against the artist's instructions, upside down. furthermore, it is possible that such a content/form dichotomy, in which each element must be separately considered, could lead to a culture of artistic practice which places a greater emphasis on the self-aware consideration of this distinction; surely a positive turn. from this mention of auto-consciousness, it is fair to state that liu's self-aware, self-criticism marks the strongest point in this volume. in knowledge of his earlier complicity with the new historicism, liu's work on romanticism and, in particular, wordsworth, wastes no time on preliminary synopsis and assumes a familiarity with the field, allowing his analysis of cultural criticism to shine through. when writing on the digital humanities, however, liu digresses into lengthy exegeses of what are, to figures in the computer science arena, trivial aspects of database theory (p. - ). this discrepancy somewhat betrays liu's objective to 'rethink thinking' (p. ) as regards interdisciplinarity. such an assumption of familiarity with the literary, and an opposing presumption of ignorance of the technological seems, at times, to recross the boundary of pragmatism back to a home discipline seeking 'some more absolute validation' (p. ) in the exotic other. these relatively minor critiques are outshone, however, by the majority of the book, none more so than in liu's approach to the academy itself. building on the premise that 'an adequate discussion of literary history must at some point cite the history of the academy' (p. ), local transcendence is topical and relevant, especially in its dealings with the already touched-upon interdisciplinary studies. situating this term within the military metaphor aptly applied to disciplinarity, liu covers the field with focus on the fishean critique of epistemological boundaries, acquiescing to a degradation of the interdisciplinary to a mere rhetorical trope, yet simultaneously offering a means of redemption. in the recognition that interdisciplinarity is a mode whose quest for knowledge risks a fall towards this rhetorical formation, liu sees the potential for a counterforce who, re-appropriating lyotard, would deny the 'consensus of good taste'; a war machine that reverts to a deleuzian horde, rather than a monolithic entity (pp. - ). similarly, the discussion on literary history as the management of presentations of literature – while having a wittgensteinian feel to its motif of 'citation-as-seeing' as opposed to 'citation-as-calling' (p. ) – also has a role in the practicalities of course design and pedagogy. although liu lacks the space, or perhaps inclination, to develop this into a full pragmatic paradigm, it is hinted that while the academy's current mode may permit plurality within its meta- structure, a move to a new literary history would involve – couched by liu in the terminology of packet switching and, even, patchwork quilting – less credulity towards these meta-narratives. from this description, one might be tempted to believe that local transcendence has scarcely advanced since the heyday of high postmodernism; be assured that this is not the case. while in both structure and content liu explores the bounds of knowledge that so pervaded this era, this collection is an entirely historicized account of the period which covers, ultimately, the unacknowledged tension between contingency and freedom, between the academy and its objects of study, between digital threat and digital redemption within the discourses of postmodern historiography. © copyright martin paul eve, university of sussex alan liu, local transcendence: essays on postmodern historicism and the database (chicago: university of chicago press), pp., £ . (paper), £ . (cloth) js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources judaica librarianship volume - - - js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources michelle chesner columbia university, mc @columbia.edu follow this and additional works at: https://ajlpublishing.org/jl recommended citation chesner, michelle. . "js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources." judaica librarianship : - . doi: . / - . . https://ajlpublishing.org/jl?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://ajlpublishing.org/jl/vol ?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://ajlpublishing.org/jl/vol /iss / ?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://ajlpublishing.org/jl?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://doi.org/ . / - . js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources the world in which we live is probably best described as a hybrid between the physical and the digital. as librarians working closely with the humanities, we encounter this dichotomy on a daily basis, purchasing both print and e-books via our computers, teaching the use of citation software and academic writing, and using an online catalog to access print monographs. increasingly, the use of the digital, and the multi-faceted term “digital humanities,” is becoming part of our daily conversation. at its simplest definition, writing this article could be considered digital human- ities, since it is written on a computer, in digital form, and describes a field of the humanities. however, as scholars and librarians (and librarian scholars) are producing more and more com- plex digital works of scholarship and bibliography or reference, there is a need to evaluate them, just as we evaluate print scholarship and reference works. following the lead of other scholarly resources, judaica librarianship will be premiering this new column to evaluate digital projects. librarians, especially those who provide reference assistance on a consistent basis, have to be familiar with all the resources (or those resources that identify the resources) in the field that they serve. many universities have some form of “digital center” in their libraries, but librarians not working directly with the centers are too often not familiar with the kinds of services they provide. even if one has never heard words like html, python, django, ruby, github or the many others that encompass the jargon of tech-speak, digital humanities projects should still be essential to librarians who work with researchers. like any other resources, we need to ensure that we are familiar with digital humanities resources—those grassroots projects that are gen- erated by scholars rather than vendors, and are often very useful, even in their “beta” versions. it was for this reason that i began aggregating sites that i called “dh jewish,” i.e. those sites that use digital techniques to advance scholarship in the field of jewish studies. this new column a new column reviewing digital humanities projects in the field of jewish studies. to submit a project for review, or to request to review a project, please contact michelle chesner at mc @columbia.edu. see, for instance, a recent report of the coalition for networked information (cni) on a workshop arranged by cni and the association of research libraries, and attended by a hundred librarians from academic libraries around the country (goldenberg-hart ). another important collection of articles on digital humanities in the library is christian-lamb et al. ( ). digital humanities in the library is beyond the scope of this column, but for those with interest in this area, the dh+lib website, hosted by the association of college and research libraries (http:// acrl.ala.org/dh), and associated publications such as an email roundup of research scholarship are quite informative. the data can be found at http://bit.ly/jewishdhprojects (accessed december , ). it is a google spreadsheet populated by a form (hosted at http://www.thedigin.org/jewish-studies-dh-projects/) that still receives submissions. i created the spreadsheet for myself because i could not find an aggregated collection of dh projects in jewish studies. as far as i know, this is the only “database” of jewish studies dh projects in existence. please contact me if you know of a more formal repository for these projects, and i would be happy to submit the information that i have collected. note that the aggregated collection of digital projects includes standard digitization projects, which are out of the scope for this column. m. chesner / judaica librarianship ( ) – mc @columbia.edu http://acrl.ala.org/dh http://acrl.ala.org/dh http://bit.ly/jewishdhprojects http://www.thedigin.org/jewish-studies-dh-projects/ will provide reviews and information about these resources in the digital field. as far as this column’s scope, digital humanities means projects that use digital technology to advance research in a way that could not have been done before the digital age. we will not be reviewing sites that solely feature digitized manuscripts or other digital facsimiles from one collection, unless there is a unique factor to the digitization or display that adds value to re- search beyond a digital reproduction of the item. such exceptions include sites like the british library’s polonsky foundation catalog of digitized hebrew manuscripts. this comprehensive site includes all of the metadata for the manuscripts (both electronic and physical), which can be used as a resource for a slew of various kinds of visualizations (mapping, timelines, genre breakdowns, etc.). another, older, example is the bezalel narkiss index of jewish art, which has aggregated a quarter of a million images of visual materials from about seven hundred collec- tions around the world to create a resource for teaching and studying jewish art. the friedberg genizah project, now one of many projects on jewishmanuscripts.org, went through many iter- ations before reaching its present state, and was one of the first digitization projects to utilize digital technology to allow new kinds of research in jewish studies. jews in america is also an aggregation project, allowing people to search over , items from nearly four hundred col- lections, all of which relate to american jewish history. the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) is an aggregation project as well, gath- ering and providing access to resources on the holocaust, but it also sponsors workshops, sym- posia, and other events to build a community of scholars around the study of the holocaust. another community of scholars can be found in the digital yiddish theatre project. the dytp is essentially an encyclopedia-in-process, with short and long articles about performers, theater groups, genres, and other topics. like ehri, it sponsors academic events surrounding yiddish theater, bringing people together in their shared topic of study. other kinds of digital humanities projects include text-based initiatives, like poetrans, the index of poetry translations into hebrew. this is a kind of digital reference book, something that would have been published as an index in the past, but is far more accessible in digital form. sefaria allows users to jump from text to commentary or other references, and then back again with just a few clicks. the digital mishna project, on the other hand, is working on creating a digital critical edition of the mishna based on many witnesses. this is an in-process project, and so we will be watching to see what it produces. yerusha is another great example of an in-process project that will become a remarkable resource for scholars upon its completion. its goal is not the digital publication of primary sources per se, but rather to provide information about collections scattered across europe so scholars know what the primary sources are, where they can be found—and, most importantly, how to access them. footprints is similar in that way, collecting scattered data about the movement of jewish all of the projects listed in this article come from the “dh jewish” list and are described in further detail there. m. chesner / judaica librarianship ( ) – https://www.bl.uk/hebrew-manuscripts http://cja.huji.ac.il/browser.php http://www.jewishmanuscripts.org/ http://www.jewishmanuscripts.org/ http://jewishmanuscripts.org http://www.jewsinamerica.org https://ehri-project.eu https://yiddishstage.org/ http://www.poetrans.org/poetrans http://sefaria.org http://www.digitalmishnah.org/ http://yerusha.eu http://footprints.ccnmtl.columbia.edu books into a format that allows researchers to locate materials that otherwise may not have been identified as relevant resources. the relatively new digital dh at the penn libraries has been working some incredible projects very recently, such as the “geniza scribes” collaboration with zooniverse to identify paleographical scripts in genizah fragments. but the purpose of this column is not simply to describe the various projects in existence. initial- ly inspired by the american historical review’s recent commitment to review digital projects as academic publications (lichtenstein ), this column should be viewed as a partner to the reviews section in this journal. it is a place for long-form essays describing the merits and drawbacks of a digital project. since digital projects are often iterative and published in “beta” versions, it is also a place to provide productive feedback to a project creator. where relevant and possible, we will publish a response from the project creator to provide context or future plans for a project. to allow the broadest access for both viewers and readers, only freely available digital human- ities resources will be reviewed in this column. this is not a venue to advertise or critique data- bases for purchase or subscription, as that can be done in the reviews section of this and other journals. in an age of digital information, new resources seem to pop up daily. it is the job of librarians to evaluate these sources to decide what is best for research and their users. when one is not familiar with the environment or the medium of the resource, however, evaluation of sources, and sometimes the source itself, is left out of the scholarly conversation, causing researchers to overlook important sources for their work. it is my hope that this column will go a long way in assisting its constituents with this daunting task. sources christian-lamb, caitlin, zach coble, thomas padilla, et al. . “digital humanities in the library / of the library: a dh+lib speical issue.” accessed january , . dh+lib: where the digital humanities and librarianship meet. http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ -spe- cial-issue/. goldenberg-hart, diane. . “report of a cni-arl workshop: planning a digital schol- arship center .” accessed january , , https://www.cni.org/wp-content/up- loads/ / /report-dscw .pdf. lichtenstein, alex. . “introduction.” the american historical review ( ): – . doi: . /ahr/ . . . this is a project i co-direct, with adam shear, josh teplitsky, and marjorie lehman. m. chesner / judaica librarianship ( ) – https://judaicadh.github.io/about http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ -special-issue/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ -special-issue/ https://www.cni.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /report-dscw .pdf https://www.cni.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /report-dscw .pdf https://doi.org/ . /ahr/ . . judaica librarianship - - js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources michelle chesner recommended citation js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources sources review: ellas tienen nombre reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre sylvia fernández quintanilla university of kansas published on: sep , updated on: sep , doi: . / e f f.bc e a license: creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre proyecto ellas tienen nombre: cartografía digital de feminicidios autor del proyecto ivonne ramírez ramírez, investigador independiente liga del proyecto https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ evaluadora del proyecto sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas traducción sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas desc ri pc i ón del proyec t o ivonne ramírez ramírez ellas tienen nombre es un proyecto de mapeo feminista cuya información se puso a disposición en marzo de , en el marco del día internacional de la mujer. el objetivo se centra en las víctimas de femi(ni)cidio en ciudad juárez, méxico, monitoreando y georreferenciado los lugares donde los cuerpos de niñas y mujeres se han encontrado asesinadas, además de desglosar las especificidades y datos de cada uno de los casos. mi perspectiva feminista del proyecto ha variado porque ha sido un aprendizaje continuo. es por eso que el mapa ha pasado por varios procesos, visualizaciones, metodologías, dilemas teóricos e incluso éticos desde entonces, aunque tengo cierta formación, formal e informal, en estudios feministas, no me especializo en humanidades digitales. por ejemplo, en vista de que google cerró sus tablas dinámicas (fusion tables) aún tenemos que actualizar los datos de los últimos meses de y hasta la fecha, por lo que estamos averiguando cómo implementar una nueva infraestructura técnica. por sus fuentes bibliográficas y cuestiones teórico-metodológicas, la información en este mapeo digital consta de dos f ases: la primera etapa corresponde de a . para el registro de feminicidios cometidos en estos años, me apoyé en expedientes de la fiscalía y otras agencias gubernamentales, en archivos de organizaciones sociales no gubernamentales, prensa, libros dedicados al tema, así como en información recopilada por mujeres, activistas, feministas, escritoras/es, todos aquellos especialmente de la región. sin degradar en modo alguno el trabajo hecho por todos/as los/as https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre reiterando que cada uno de estos casos tiene sus especificidades y que hay niñas y mujeres más vulnerables que otras, este mapa intenta mostrar que los feminicidios son una violencia extrema que afecta a todas las clases sociales, edades y espacios geográficos, ya que el mapa denuncia visualmente en primera instancia que, en toda la ciudad, hombres han matado a niñas, mujeres y mujeres transgénero. el proyecto pretende ser un instrumento complementario con el que podamos alertar sobre la gravedad de la violencia en contra de niñas y mujeres. parece que el impacto visual con el mapa y las fotografías es diferente a compartir información a través de estadísticas con gráficas. mediante la visualización del mapa en correlación con los feminicidios, también se puede imaginar, investigar y ahondar en cómo el contexto, las políticas públicas, la situación social, el régimen político, los sistemas opresivos, la cultura, etc. afectan a las personas (en este caso, niñas y mujeres) que viven en lugares geopolíticos particulares. dos personas colaboran en este proyecto: debido a una postura político-ideológica relacionada con el contexto histórico en ciudad juárez por los feminicidios, hasta ahora no he buscado y no he querido recibir fondos o apoyo financiero para este proyecto. esto puede cambiar en algún momento. investigadores/as en los que baso mi investigación, esta información previa publicada en la bibliografía, son datos sobre feminicidios difícil de consultar para muchas personas o el proceso de consulta es complejo y de alguna manera inaccesible para personas no académicas. ellas tienen nombre recopila los datos y la información que ya estaba ahí y los libera, aprovechando las posibilidades y herramientas que brinda el internet. la segunda parte comprende desde hasta la fecha. en esta parte he monitoreado diariamente la prensa escrita y digital (mayormente digital), así como redes sociales. también he recibido correos electrónicos donde las mujeres comparten conmigo información sobre feminicidios que yo no tenía registrados en el mapa. asimismo, intento utilizar fotografías respetuosas de las víctimas cuando estaban en vida para identificar cada uno de los casos, si no las obtengo incluyo fotografías de las víctimas no explícitas o de la escena del crimen. maestra ivonne ramírez (ciudad juárez -). activista cultural y feminista. fundadora del proyecto. gustavo ramírez (ciudad de méxico -). ingeniero en sistemas. trabaja en el código que permite tener una plantilla fija que se utiliza para completar la base de datos y para la visualización final (interf az frontal y trasera) reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre r evi si ón del proyec t o sylvia fernández quintanilla marcela lagarde de los ríos en el pref acio de terrorizing women, “feminist keys to understand feminicide” define: violencia feminicida, como “lo extremo, la culminación de muchas formas de violencia de género contra las mujeres que representa un atentado a sus derechos humanos y que dirige a diversas formas de muerte violenta” (xxi); y, el feminicidio, como “ una de las formas extremas de violencia de género; está constituido por todo el conjunto de actos misóginos violentos contra las mujeres que impliquen una violación de sus derechos humanos, representan un atentado a su seguridad y ponen en peligro sus vidas” (xxiii). ellas tienen nombre es un proyecto de mapeo digital feminista que documenta la violencia feminicida y los feminicidios desde hasta la actualidad en la frontera de cd. juárez, chihuahua. es un proyecto que, imagina, investiga y profundiza en los feminicidios a través de un contexto geopolítico — una región fronteriza gobernada por dinámicas nacionales, transfronterizas, binacionales y transnacionales. fue fundado por la maestra ivonne ramírez para contrarrestar la f alta de información disponible y accesible a distintos públicos interesados en el tema. ramírez inició este proyecto en marzo de recopilando y visualizando datos de las niñas y mujeres desaparecidas en el área fronteriza de donde es ella. el proyecto consiste en identificar datos específicos de cada uno de los casos y la georreferenciación de los lugares donde se han encontrado los cuerpos. además del mapa digital, el proyecto visualiza casos de estudio para mostrar la relación de algunos de los feminicidios cometidos, mediante la presentación de imágenes e información específica de niñas y mujeres. un ejemplo es el registro de jóvenes lesbianas o bisexuales desaparecidas y asesinadas en . esta iniciativa se sustenta de forma independiente y autónoma, a raíz de la postura ideológica-política relacionada con el feminicidio en esta región. ellas tienen nombre responde a las preocupaciones que lagarde de los ríos explica: “las autoridades no han revelado ninguna información sobre sus investigaciones o lo han hecho solo de manera parcial, incompleta y confusa...las autoridades se contradicen casi todo el tiempo. no hay certeza en muchos de los casos de que las víctimas corresponden a los cadáveres no identificados” (xiv). desde los primeros registros oficiales de feminicidios cometidos en esta frontera, las autoridades y una serie de representantes políticos han abordado estos casos de forma negativa. ellos han presentado informes en tonos misóginos e incongruentes que luego se transfieren a la forma en la que se trabaja con los datos. de al , los datos del proyecto consisten en información oficial de agencias gubernamentales, organizaciones no gubernamentales, asociaciones civiles, periódicos, así como información que activistas, escritoras, mujeres y feministas recopilaron previamente. de hasta la fecha, los datos reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre han sido monitoreados y registrados diariamente por ramírez a través de la prensa digital y análoga, en redes sociales y de reportes que le han enviado directamente por correo electrónico. los aspectos técnicos del proyecto han pasado por varias iteraciones a medida que ramírez ha evolucionado en su propio aprendizaje de nuevas metodologías, aspectos teóricos y éticos, así como nuevas tecnologías. actualmente el ing. gustavo ramírez supervisa el código para completar la base de datos y crear las visualizaciones. el proyecto está alojado en un portal creado en html y está compuesto por apartados: “projecto”, descripción en formato bilingüe (español e inglés); “mapa”, la cartografía digital creada con mapbox; “ ”, una serie de visualizaciones con imágenes e información de algunos de los casos particulares de niñas y mujeres asesinadas; “contacto”; y, “enlaces relacionados”, un listado de otros recursos digitales de los casos en cd. juárez y mapas digitales de feminicidios en otras partes de méxico y el mundo. ellas tienen nombre contribuye a las prácticas feministas y al trabajo de justicia social de la comunidad de madres y activistas que siguen buscando a sus hijas. esta comunidad participa haciendo rastreos por el desierto en busca de los restos de sus hijas. el uso de una cartografía local expone el modus operandi de los feminicidios fronterizos. el mapa muestra la complejidad de los casos más extremos de violencia de género permitiendo filtrar los datos de forma grupal, individualmente, así como de forma geoespacial y temporal. este enfoque indica la ética feminsita de ramírez al resaltar la subjetividad de estas mujeres al evitar presentarse como víctimas, objetos o cuerpos desechables. las limitaciones de este enfoque, sin embargo, están ligadas al estado del récord físico y digital que sigue controlado por poderes hegemónicos-patriarcales que intervienen en qué información está disponible. asimismo, las ausencias/silencios en los datos muestran cómo el problema estructural-sistemático prevalece a nivel institucional y social limitando el acceso o borrando la evidencia. al revisar este proyecto, es importante recordarles a los lectores la fuerte influencia hacia el lado mexicano y las intervenciones provenientes de estados unidos y otras partes del mundo, como parte de las principales causas de violencia de género y feminicidas en esta región. con esto en mente, este proyecto podría incluir datos de niñas y mujeres, víctimas de feminicidios, que han ocurrido en el lado estadounidense de la frontera y añadir información de cuando el feminicida/agresor está relacionado con los estados unidos o una institución que sea parte de este sistema binacional/transnacional. esto permitirá una comprensión más profunda de la realidad poscolonial de lo que es la frontera, donde poderes hegemónicos de ambos países y de terceros gobiernan y las mujeres deben navegar entre estos diferentes sistemas y culturas patriarcales. en general, este proyecto feminista cumple su misión al crear recursos digitales para hacer que los datos de niñas y mujeres, víctimas de feminicidios en cd. juárez, estén disponibles y accesibles. asimismo, desarrolla una mayor conciencia sobre la situación que enfrentan las mujeres fronterizas, así como la necesidad de compartir esta información al público en general, ya que es un tema que reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre forma parte del presente y la memoria histórica de la región. en esta línea, artistas, académicas/os de diversas partes del mundo, activistas y medios de comunicación han utilizado este proyecto para crear nuevas iniciativas artísticas, testificar ante las autoridades y abogar por políticas de justicia y equidad. cabe señalar que el esfuerzo y tiempo, no remunerado, que mujeres como ramírez o maría salgado (autora del mapa digital de feminicidios en todo méxico) le han dado a este tipo de proyectos independientes, es un trabajo humanitario crucial que merece de mayor reconocimiento y apoyo para mantener con vida este tipo de material digital que trabaja para representar las voces de protesta, demandar justicia y movilizar la solidaridad. bibliografía lagarde de los ríos, marcela. pref ace. “feminist keys for understanding feminicide: theoretical, political, and legal construction”. terrorizing women: feminicides in the americas, editor por rosa linda fregoso y cynthia bejarano, duke university press, , xi-xxvi. project ellas tienen nombre: cartografía digital de feminicidios project director ivonne ramírez ramírez, independent scholar project url https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ project reviewer sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas translator sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas p roj ec t overvi ew ivonne ramírez ramírez ellas tienen nombre is a feminist mapping project using information made available in march , within the framework of international women's day. the objective is to focus on the victims of femi(ni)cide in ciudad juárez, mexico, monitoring and georeferencing the places where the bodies of https://feminicidiosmx.crowdmap.com/ https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre murdered girls and women have been found, as well as breaking down the specificities and data of each of the cases. my feminist perspective of the project has varied because it is a continuous learning process. that is why the map has gone through various iterations, visualizations, methodologies, and theoretical and even ethical dilemmas since, although i have some formal and informal training in feminist studies, i do not specialize in digital humanities. for example, because google shut down its fusion tables, we have yet to update the last months of and year to date, so we are figuring out how to implement a new technical infrastructure. due to its bibliographic sources and theoretical-methodological issues, the information in this digital mapping consists of two phases: stressing that each of these cases has its specificities and that there are girls and women more vulnerable than others, this map tries to show that feminicides are extreme violence that affects all social classes, ages, and geographic spaces since the map visually denounces in the first instance that throughout the city, men have killed girls, women, and transgender women. the project tries to be a complementary instrument that communicates the gravity of violence against girls and women. it seems that the visual impact of the map and photos is different from sharing information through statistics with graphs. through the visualization of feminicides on the map, we could also imagine, investigate, and delve into how the context, public policies, social situation, the first stage corresponds with to . for the data on femicides committed in these years, i relied on files from the prosecutor's office and other government agencies, files of non- governmental social organizations, press, books dedicated to the subject, and information collected by women activists, feminists, writers, all of them specifically from the region. without criticizing the work i base my research on, this previous information, written in published bibliographies, made the data on femicides difficult for many people to consult or perhaps made the process of understanding the data more complex and somehow inaccessible for regular people. ellas tienen nombre collects the data and information that was already there and makes them available by taking advantage of the possibilities and tools provided by the internet. the second part comprises to date. for this part, i monitor daily the digital and written press (mostly digital), as well as social networks. i have also received emails where women share with me information about feminicides that i did not have registered on the map. likewise, i am trying to use respectful photos of the victims when they were alive to identify each of the cases, or, if i do not obtain them, non-explicit photos of the victims or of the crime scene are included. reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre political regime, oppressive systems, culture, etc., impact people (in this case, girls and women) who live in particular geopolitical areas. two people collaborate on this project: ● ma ivonne ramírez (ciudad juárez - ). cultural and feminist activist. head of the project. ● gustavo ramírez (ciudad de méxico - ). software engineer. he works on the code that allows me to have a fixed template that is used to fill out our database and for the final visualization (back end and front end). the project arises from the idea that this information should be available to all types of audience interested in the subject and with internet access. due to a political-ideological stance related to the historical context of ciudad juárez regarding feminicides, so f ar, i have not searched and did not want to receive funds or financial support for this project. this may change at some point. p roj ec t r evi ew sylvia fernández quintanilla in the pref ace of terrorizing women, “feminist keys to understand feminicide,” marcela lagarde de los ríos defines feminicidal violence, as “the extreme, the culmination of many forms of gender violence against women that represent an attack on their human rights and that lead them to various forms of violent death” (xxi). she defines feminicide, as “one of the extreme forms of gender violence; it is constituted by the whole set of violent misogynist acts against women that involve a violation of their human rights, represent an attack on their safety, and endangered their lives” (xxiii). ellas tienen nombre is a feminist digital mapping project that records feminicidal violence and feminicide from to the present in the border of cd. juárez, chihuahua. it is a project that, imagines, investigates, and delves into feminicides through a geopolitical context — a border region governed by national, cross-border, bi-national, and transnational dynamics. it was founded by m.a. ivonne ramírez to counter the lack of publicly available and accessible information from the different publics interested in the subject. ramírez began this project in march by collecting and visualizing data about the missing girls and women in the area of the border that she is from. the project consists of identifying specific data of each of the cases and georeferencing the places where the bodies have been found. in addition to the digital map, the project includes case studies that show the relationship between femicides committed by displaying images and specific information of girls and women. an example is the registry of reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre lesbian or bisexual youth disappeared and murdered in . this initiative is supported independently and autonomously, as a result of the political-ideological stance related to feminicide in this region. ellas tienen nombre speaks to the concerns of lagarde de los ríos who explains: “authorities have f ailed to disclose any information on their inquiries or have done so only in a partial, incomplete, and confused manner…the authorities contradict themselves almost all the time. there is no certainty in many cases that the victims correspond to unidentified corpses” (xiv). since the first official records of femicides committed in this border region, an array of authorities and political representatives have dealt with these cases in a negative way. they present reports with misogynistic and incongruous overtones, which then transfers as ways of working with this data. from to , the project’s data consists of official information from government agencies, non- governmental organizations, civil associations, newspapers, as well as activists, writers, women and feminists who previously collected this information. from to date, data has been monitored and recorded daily by ramírez through digital and analog press, on social networks and that have been sent to her directly via email. the technical aspects of the project have gone through various iterations as ramírez evolves in her own learning of new methodologies, theoretical, and ethical aspects, as well as new digital technologies. currently, ing. gustavo ramírez oversees the code for the database and creates the visualizations. the project is hosted in a portal created in html and is made up of sections: “projecto,” description in bilingual format (spanish and english); “mapa,” the digital cartography created with mapbox; “ ,” a series of visualizations with images and information of some of the particular cases of murdered girls and women; “contacto”; and, “enlaces relacionados,” a list of other digital resources of the cd. juárez cases and digital mapping of femicides in other parts of mexico and the world. ellas tienen nombre contributes to feminist practices and social justice work via the community of mothers and activists who continue to search for their daughters. they participate by doing crawls in the desert searching for remains of their children. the use of local cartography exposes the modus operandi of the border femicides. the map shows the complexity of the most serious cases of gender violence allowing users to filter the data as a group, individually, and in geospatial and temporal ways. this approach indicates ramírez's feminist ethic by highlighting the subjectivity of these women. it avoids presenting them as victims, objects, or disposable bodies. the limitations of this approach though are tied to its relationship to the physical and digital record still controlled by hegemonic- patriarchal powers that intervene in what information is available. likewise, the data absences/silences show how the structural-systematic problem prevails at the institutional and social level, limiting the access or erasing the evidence. reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre in reviewing this project, it is important to remind readers of the strong influences and capitalist interventions coming from the united states and other parts of the world towards the mexican side of the border, which are among the main causes of gender and feminicidal violence in this region. with this in mind, this project could include data of girls and women, victims of feminicides, that have occurred on the us side of the border and add indicate when feminicides are related to the united states or an institution that is part of this bi-national/transnational system. this will allow a deeper understanding of the postcolonial reality of the border, where hegemonic powers of both countries and third parties rule and women must navigate these different systems and patriarchal cultures. overall, this feminist project fulfills its mission by creating digital resources to make the data of girls and women, victims of femicides in cd. juárez, available and accessible. likewise, it has generated greater awareness of the situation f aced by border women, as well as the need to share this information to the general public, since it is part of the present and historical memory of the region. in this vein, artists, academics from various parts of the world, activists and the media have used this project to create new artistic initiatives, testify to authorities, and advocate for justice and equity policies. it should be noted that the effort and time, unpaid, that women like ramírez or maría salgado (author of the digital map of feminicides in méxico) have given to these types of independent projects, is crucial humanitarian work that deserves more recognition and support to maintain digital material that works towards the representation of voices of protest, demands justice, and mobilizes solidarity. bibliography lagarde de los ríos, marcela. pref ace. “feminist keys for understanding feminicide: theoretical, political, and legal constuction.” terrorizing women: feminicide in the americas, rosa linda fregoso and cynthia bejarano, editors, duke university press, , xi-xxvi. https://feminicidiosmx.crowdmap.com/ microsoft word - anm_revised_paper_for_repository.docx accepted, pre-published copy for university repository richard hetherington and rachel mcrae. make-believing animated films featuring digital humans: a qualitative inquiry using online sources. animation: an interdisciplinary journal vol. , issue , pp. xx-xx. copyright © (sage publishing). reprinted by permission of sage publications. corresponding author: richard hetherington, school of computing, edinburgh napier university, colinton road, eh dt, uk. email: r.hetherington@napier.ac.uk make-‐believing animated films featuring digital humans: a qualitative inquiry using online sources richard hetherington and rachel mcrae school of computing, edinburgh napier university, uk abstract a qualitative inquiry of reviews of films featuring digital humanlike characters was performed by sampling user comments from three online reviewer aggregator sites: the internet movie database, rotten tomatoes and metacritic. the movies chosen for analysis were: final fantasy: the spirits within ( ), the polar express ( ), and beowulf ( ), all produced using cgi animation, together with a scanner darkly ( a) whose visuals are depicted by rotoscoping using bob sabiston’s rotoshop software. our analysis identified individual differences in the viewing experience, particularly in relation to the uncertain ontology of the humanlike characters created using cgi (cgi-humans). we found examples of reviews indicating an inability to distinguish between real and cgi-human actors, observations of characters transiently exhibiting realism before returning to their artifice, and of characters being viewed as eerie (analogous to the uncanny valley) thus illustrating a complex and dynamic response to this phenomenon. in some situations character uncanniness was related to the presence of an atypical feature such as movement of the eyes. whilst specifically for beowulf, perceptions became more problematic when there was familiarity with the actor playing the cgi-human character, with some reviewers describing difficulties in categorising the character as either real or animated. cgi-human performances were also characterised by a lack of, or inappropriate social interaction. online reviewers did not perceive characters depicted using rotoshop (rotoshop-humans) as eerie and rotoscoping was found to preserve, and possibly enhance, the natural social interactions between actors recorded from the live-action film used as the source for the animation. our inquiry also identified user motivations for viewing these movies and the importance placed by reviewers on the form of display when viewing the cgi films. we situate our interpretation of these findings in relation to walton’s make-believe theory (mimesis as make-believe: on the foundations of the representational arts, ) revealing its application to our understanding of the viewing experience of animated films featuring digital humans. keywords make-believe, digital humanlike characters, cgi, rotoshop, uncanny valley, viewer experience. introduction in this article we differentiate between two distinct processes used to create digital humans in animated movies: in the first, characters were created using d computer- generated imagery (cgi) and animation techniques including motion or performance capture (mocap). such characters feature in works that are intended to be perceptually realistic (prince, ) and have been referred to as ‘hyper realistic’ (mcclean, ), ‘synthespians’ (aldred, ), or simply - cgi characters (sobchack, ); and are featured in movies including: final fantasy: the spirits within ( ), the polar express ( ) and beowulf ( ). we shall refer to these characters as ‘cgi-humans’. in the second process, humanlike characters were created by a digital implementation of rotoscoping – a technique whereby animators create an animated film by drawing frame- by-frame over a live-action source. the film we examined was a scanner darkly ( a), which was created using the rotoshop software developed by bob sabiston (flat black films, n.d.) and we use the prefix ‘rotoshop-’ or ‘rotoshopped-‘ to refer to digital humans depicted by this process. though all of these films are positioned towards realism, the outcomes produced from cgi techniques and rotoshop are aesthetically distinct from each other and have been the subject of much academic research and critical review, with attention frequently directed toward the uncertain ontological nature of the digital humans featured (e.g. aldred, ; sobchack, ; plantec, ; ruddell, ; honess roe, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen, and takala, ). a common experience when viewing the cgi films mentioned above is the eerie or uncanny nature of the cgi-humans they feature. these characterstics have been variously described as ‘lifeless’, ‘creepy’, ‘eerie’ and ‘zombie-like’ (aldred, ; plantec, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen, and takala, ); and as such are considered to occupy the ‘uncanny valley’ - a situation described by mori ( ) where near humanlike artefacts (e.g. a humanoid robot, bunraku puppet, prosthetic hand) prompt strong negative reactions in an observer (macdorman and entezari, ). a preliminary study revealed some viewers perceived the rotoshopped bob arctor character in a scanner darkly also to be eerie (hetherington, ). honess roe ( : ) describes the talking-head interviews created with rotoshop by bob sabiston as ‘an uncanny sense of reality haunting the animated image’. however, it remains unknown how generalisable the experience of characters being uncanny is when considering the reception of these films by viewing audiences. macdorman and entezari ( ) have reported individual differences in the perception of videos of androids exhibiting varying levels of human likeness and eeriness, concluding that sensitivity to the uncanny valley is associated with sociocultural constructions and biological adaptations related to threat avoidance. it seems clear that we cannot confidently extrapolate individual critical analyses of these movies to the wider viewing audience. in addition, the uncanny nature of these characters appears likely to form only part of the overall viewing experience. when asked to consider another dimension of the viewing experience of humanlike characters – their believability - participants identified a number of influences operating within and also beyond their direct experience of the character in the film, including references made to technical aspects of character creation and animation, the visual integration of the characters within their background and their interaction with props, previous experience of playing video games, narrative expectations, and familiarity of the actor connected with the animated character’s performance (hetherington, ). these observations motivated us to conduct the present study in order to gain a wider understanding of viewer responses to films featuring digital humans. the internet has become an increasingly important means to support the understanding of media. cresswell ( ) has discussed the pros and cons of qualitative data collection via the internet: problems include ethical issues over privacy, ownership and use of data, establishing the authenticity of data, and the requirement for participants to have computing skills. potential advantages include: cost and time efficiency, a more amenable environment for data generation and collection, and ease of accessibility to target groups and in providing data. successful examples of use include using social media to recruit participants and interview them using internet video chat for a qualitative inquiry of player-avatar relationships (banks, ), and the analysis of online collaborative discourse generated by fans of progressive rock music (atton, ). in this article we use openly available online film review aggregator sites as a source of qualitative data for our inquiry. three review aggregators were chosen as data sources for our qualitative inquiry: the internet movie database (imdb, www.imdb.com), rotten tomatoes (www.rottentomatoes.com) and metacritic (www.metacritic.com). all sites publish ratings and reviews of movies submitted by users and critics and typically receive to million unique monthly visitors (imdb, ; quantcast, ; trafficestimate.com, ). all the sites claimed to implement moderation and consistency checks by staff and reviewers to ensure reliability and accuracy of information. the distinction made between critic and user reviews on these sites prompted us to consider what would be the most appropriate sampling strategy for the present study. differences in ratings between critics and users have been noted with critics showing greater variability and harshness in their judgments (follows, ). an analysis of the content of online film reviews by professional critics or consumers found consumers to predominantly evaluate the films and write from a personal perspective, whereas reviews written by critics described the film instead of evaluating it (de jong and burgers, ). film critic todd mccarthy notes that reviews written by online pundits who aren’t recognised film critics are becoming increasingly prominent and influential (mccarthy, ). a film evaluation study by chakravarty, liu and mazumdar ( ) comparing the impact of online user comments with reviews by film critics revealed infrequent filmgoers to be more influenced by user reviews, while frequent filmgoers were more influenced by the reviews written by the critics. as the aim of our study was to collect information to help us understand how viewers experience films we concluded that the more useful source of experiential information would be online user comments. we have chosen to situate our interpretation of user comments of these films in relation to the characters’ believability - a recognised objective of many animated films including those examined here. in order to engage with animated works the audience is often assumed to ‘suspend their disbelief’ i.e. to make-believe. kendall walton’s theory of make-believe (walton, ), also known as pretend theory, proposes that representational artworks including paintings, plays, novels and movies serve as ‘props’ which prescribe specific imaginings and are analogous to the role toys serve in children’s games, enabling entry into a fictional world . recently, bateman ( and ) has applied make-believe theory to engagement with games and videogames. however, to our knowledge, animated movies per se have not been examined even though believability is an important quality of the viewing experience. in view of the reported eerie nature of the characters, we contend that the films chosen in this study make interesting candidates to examine make-believe and its possible limitations. qualitative inquiry random samples of user reviews were taken from each of three online reviewer aggregator sites (imdb, rotten tomatoes and metacritic) for three cgi films (final fantasy: the spirits within, the polar express and beowulf) and a film animated by interpolated rotoscoping using rotoshop (a scanner darkly). at this stage, determining a sample’s demography for imdb was problematic due to the cryptic nature of many usernames making it impossible to accurately determine reviewer gender. this was less of a problem for the other two sites as user profiles typically contained a first name and often a photograph of the reviewer. using only unambiguous reviewer usernames revealed a male to female ratio of around three to one (n = ). if we were to assume that site visitor demographics reflected those of reviewers, data for rotten tomatoes indicate a male to female ratio of . : with the majority of visitors being in age groups of - yrs and - yrs (quantcast, ). another issue we encountered was only being able to access the more recent user comments posted from rotten tomatoes. movie viewing information was garnered by a thematic analysis assisted by computer software (nvivo , qsr international). the analysis involved induction, interpretation and iteration of data in order to identify relevant themes, bracketing any prior knowledge from articles read and our own viewing experiences of these films. only data considered relevant to the description of the viewing experience were included in our analysis, which proceeded by identifying individual coded references. a coded reference represents a discrete thought or observation and may take the form of a phrase, sentence, or paragraph in a review - a ‘unit of meaning’. these thoughts are captured and aggregated through the process of coding into categories of information (codes) that were allowed to emerge naturally and from which themes were identified and developed. coding was done by repeatedly reading film reviews to give an initial set of coding categories, which after several reflexive iterations were re-structured into a working set of main categories covering comments relating to: actors and acting, aspects of production, character, writing, believability, interpretation; and other aspects of the viewing experience including time and location of viewing, emotional response, memorability, immersion, atmosphere and mood. several main categories were differentiated into sub-categories. for example, an ’aspects of production’ category was broken down into recognised elements of production including: cinematography, effects, animation, sound design; ‘actors and acting’ was subdivided into comments relating to performance, the cast, and comments relating to real versus computer-generated actors. the ‘character’ category contained a diverse range of comments which were broken down into sub-categories including: visual appearance, relationship to other characters, movement, voice, perceived depth and development, portrayal of emotions, and interaction with the environment and props. any unit of meaning belonging to more than one category or sub-category was coded to all relevant categories or sub-categories. when the coding system was considered stable, inter-rater reliability was tested for a random sample of five reviews from each movie (n = ) coded independently by two researchers. the percentage agreement was % and the value of cohen’s kappa coefficient was . indicating a substantial level of agreement and reliability for the coding process (landis & koch, ). reviews sampled for each movie varied considerably in quality and length. in some cases there were few words of relevance to the study, whilst in others several paragraphs of relevant discourse were found. meaningful data were recovered from all the review aggregator sites, the imdb being the most prolific source, and on completion of the process around - coded references were obtained for each film in total. in situations where data is collected through participant interviews (for example in phenomenological research), interviewing typically continues until a point of information saturation has been reached. in our study, the order of analysis of the databases was randomly determined as: imdb, rotten tomatoes and metacritic and by retrospective examination we suggest an equivalent point had been reached after data gathering from the first two databases had been completed (the order of analysis being a significant factor in this estimate). further analysis of coded references often led to the identification of higher-level themes frequently informed by data clustered from different coded categories. those themes considered relevant to the viewing experience were: how films were viewed, reviewer expectations, individual differences, character perceptions and actor-character relationships. an example of the relationship between an identified theme, its related categories and sub-categories and corresponding reviewer data is shown in table . table . selected example of an identified theme, its related categories and sub- categories and corresponding data. theme code category: sub- category reviewer comment excerpts ‘character perception’ character: appearance ‘unfortunately, the cg characters were not quite realistic enough, and looked like zombies’ – ‘franzh’, ( ) character: character relationships ‘the eyes of the characters often seem to 'stare into space' rather than effectuating eye contact with one another’ – ‘eternality’, ( ) ‘when the heroes, grey and aki, finally kiss, it's almost pornographic in its lack of emotional commitment’ – ‘awjonesjr’, ( ) acting and actors: actors – real versus computer- created ‘…the motion captured animations that are used in many of the action sequences are great and at times are so life like you are fooled and for a second here and there and it looks as if it is a real actor running’ – ‘joltjohn’, ( ) ‘this is a groundbreaking milestone in the history of animation and it answers a question as old as time: can we really animate realistic human beings? the answer is, i am happy to report, yes’ – ‘crowrobot’, ( ) acting and actors: performance ‘for me the most disappointing part of the film was actually ray winstone as the titular character - he was fantastic when talking in a low growl, however the film really suffers when he shouts in full cockney accent. “i will kill your monstah!”’- ‘cdemw’, ( ) make-believe and the viewing experience background propositions and principles of generation make-believe can be viewed as exchanging one worldview with an alternative whilst still being aware of this substitution, which makes it useful to consider what brought viewers to voluntarily engage in the fictional world of the animated film. the reviews sampled presumably originate from individuals motivated to engage in the fictional worlds of these films for various reasons, and an examination of these motivations or expectations may inform our understanding of the viewing experience. reviews revealed viewer expectations came from prior knowledge of either the reputation of director or actors, or of interest in the technology used to create the movie (e.g. cgi, motion capture), or of the prospect of seeing a new representation of the story. the narratives in the featured movies originated from or were inspired by an earlier source, such as a novel, epic poem, or videogame. so through intertextuality, prior knowledge may serve as a ‘scaffolding’ to support make-believe in the fictional animated world. walton’s theory of make-believe (walton, ) refers to ‘background propositions’ imported by the viewer to enhance the fictional world, making it easier to imagine and participate in. the importance of such propositions is illustrated by comments of a scanner darkly where some reviewers noted challenges engaging with the story. ‘reviewer_a’ ( ) wrote: ‘this film is a jigsaw puzzle. it's certainly not for everyone, and it requires patience and possibly repeat viewings in order to be fully understood and enjoyed’. some reviews criticised the clarity and pacing of the plot, with cases of disengagement from the film due to boredom. while other reviewers familiar with the original novel praised its representation in animated form, commenting on the appropriateness of its depiction through rotoscoping. as a film inspired from a videogame, the anticipated release of final fantasy: the spirits within seems to have raised expectations from gaming fans that the film would reflect the stories encountered in the videogame. the outcome was commonly disappointment. ‘reviewer_b’ ( ) wrote: ‘fans of the videogame series will be disappointed to see this film has very little in common with any plot from the games, nor does its world fit with the final fantasy cosmos.’ another fan elaborated: ‘… i learned a painful fact: the movie was to be set on earth, a final fantasy no-no as any die hard fan will tell you’ (‘reviewer c’, ). reviewers not having prior knowledge of the videogame tended to regard the film’s story more favourably. similar condemnations of how the original story had been represented were found for some of the other movies. in the case of the polar express the extension of the plot from the original book in order to produce a feature length film was criticised (‘theshadow ’, ). while for beowulf, ‘cinderellakt’ ( ) stated her disgust at the terrible job that was done in ‘conveying the real meaning of the poem’. walton ( ) contends that what is prescribed to be imagined by a prop (in this case the animated film) is governed by certain conventions, understandings or agreements termed ‘principles of generation’ of which there are two: the reality principle is based on similarities to the real world, while for fantastic worlds the mutual belief principle applies and is based on a tacit agreement between the creator of such worlds and those who engage in them. the films examined here are to varying extents fantastical and importing ‘narrative scaffolding’ into the viewing experience; this may be an important factor in establishing make-believe for a scanner darkly. for final fantasy: the spirits within, the polar express and beowulf many viewers appeared to have this scaffolding in place from either playing the video game or reading the relevant text, but on viewing the movies were often disappointed when their expectations, particularly in relation to the story, weren’t met suggesting that the mutual belief principle was compromised. depiction knowledge of how a phenomenon is experienced forms an important part of the overall understanding of it. comments made by many reviewers included information relating to the media used to view the movies, which included dvd, television, and various forms of cinema viewing. the need to attend a cinema viewing was highlighted in reviews specifically for the cgi movies, which at the time represented the technological state-of- the-art in use of production and display technologies. final fantasy: the spirits within was released in and online reviewers praised the visual spectacle created. movie critic roger ebert described the look of the film as ‘revolutionary’ (ebert, ). the polar express and beowulf were both directed by robert zemeckis - an enthusiastic early adopter and developer of digital technologies, most notably mocap (bestor, ). this enthusiasm was also evident by the director’s choice to render beowulf and the polar express in imax (image maximum – a high resolution, large-frame format requiring specialist capture and display technologies) imax- d and d cinema formats: …it was a pleasure to view the film [beowulf] in imax- d. zemeckis utilizes the technology well, giving us moments of true depth. whether flying through the tree branches, having a spear frozen in front of our eyes, watching bodies fall and flip towards us, and seeing blood splattered in our faces, we are thrown smack dab in the middle of the action. (‘jaredmobarak’, ) ‘robert d’ compared his viewing of beowulf to ‘a rollercoaster ride, i was jumping, and moving with the camera’ (‘robert d’, ). in make-believe theory, walton identifies two ways in which representations can be created: they could be perceptual in nature invoking one or more of our senses and are considered as depictions, or as verbal representations as in the case of novels and are mainly narrative in nature. walton ( ) defines depiction as ‘a representation whose function is to serve as a prop in reasonably rich and vivid perceptual games of make-believe’, referring to representations where it is relatively straightforward for a viewer to deduce that what they are looking at is the intended representation. consequently, the additional depth cues, wrap-around vision, and improved visual and aural fidelity provided by imax, imax- d and d cinema suggest these modes of presentation could act as more effective depictive props into the film’s fictional world, as well as providing added spectacle. this situation doesn’t hold with all viewers however: for beowulf, one reviewer expressed concern that this mode of presentation may overburden their experience and impede them in engaging with the story and its themes (‘aaronn’, ). in another case a reviewer points out: ‘...the big problem i had was that the movie tried too hard to make the audience remember it's in d’ (‘the_amazing_spy_rises’, ). a preoccupation with the medium, particularly the medium chosen for viewing was a characteristic of reviews of the three cgi movies, the previous examples describing highly embodied experiences. the enhanced visual and aural stimuli provided in imax- d possibly contributing to a greater sense of presence by placing the viewer more in the diegetic world. the uncertain nature of digital humans online reviews revealed some viewers to express confusion and uncertainty about the ontology of the cgi-human characters. one feature of this being the perceived eeriness of characters which is consistent with them occupying the uncanny valley (see macdorman and entezari, ). some reviewers directly referenced the uncanny valley , but it was more common to find reviewer descriptions consistent with this phenomenon. ‘franzh’ provides a suitable encapsulation: ‘unfortunately, the cg characters were not quite realistic enough, and looked like zombies. i spent too much time noticing how creepy they all looked’ (‘franzh’, ). this comment was directed towards beowulf, but similar observations were found in the other cgi movies, with characters being variously described as ‘animated dead people’, ‘zombie-like’, ‘ghoulish’, ‘mummified’ and ‘doll-like’; which are consistent with several studies (e.g. aldred, ; sobchack, ; plantec, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen & takala, ). as noted in earlier work, features contributing to a character’s uncanniness predominantly related to facial animation, in particular the character’s mouth and hair movements in final fantasy: the spirits within, and the eyes for beowulf (see figure ): there's a jarring problem though - the eyes of the characters often seem to 'stare into space' rather than effectuating eye contact with one another; it's the main reason there's low chemistry among the characters, and also why we feel the presence of a vacuum between viewer and character. (‘eternality’, ) figure . example of ‘staring’ character appearance: ‘unferth’ played by john malkovich in beowulf ( ). screen grab from dvd [beowulf, robert zemeckis]. ‘eternality’ ( ) makes the connection between this deficiency and its impact on the social interaction between characters. in a related instance for final fantasy: the spirits within the misinterpretation of social interaction produced a confused message: the computer technology can reproduce the mechanics of acting, but not the ineffable qualities that make you care about the characters. when the heroes, grey and aki, finally kiss, it's almost pornographic in its lack of emotional commitment -- rather like sculptures being molested by puppets (‘awjonesjr’, ). the cgi-humans featured are part of a group of stimuli, all related by their human likeness which is able to elicit an uncanny experience, the result often being some form of aversion. however beyond this, what characterises the feeling that something is uncanny is ‘left unspecified by the experience itself’ (mangan, ). in his essay, jentsch concludes the uncanny arises from ‘intellectual uncertainty’ and refers to the uncertainty in terms of whether an apparently living being is animate or not, or whether a lifeless object may in fact be alive. he continues to suggest ways in which the uncanny can be achieved including interpreting a lifeless thing anthropomorphically as part of an organic creature – ‘a rafter covered in nails becomes the jaw of a fabulous animal…the outline of a cloud or shadow becomes a threatening satanic face’ (jentsch, / ) - descriptions similar to those encountered in childhood pretence in make-believe games. freud concluded the uncanny as being something familiar (heimlich) while at the same time unfamiliar (unheimlich) (freud, / ). a viewer observing a character that is both familiar and unfamiliar may be simultaneously attracted and repulsed, and may experience cognitive dissonance (festinger, ) which could lead to outright rejection and disengagement from the experience. plantec ( ) has proposed cognitive dissonance to account for the uncanniness of the cgi-human characters found in the films examined here. the uncanny valley has also been examined empirically, with a review of relevant studies revealing two main groups of theories to explain it: category uncertainty and perceptual mismatch (kätsyri et al, ). category uncertainty theories propose uncanniness is caused by doubt about what an entity is. the theories of jentsch ( / ), freud ( / ) and reports of cognitive dissonance belong to this category. perceptual mismatch theories relate uncanniness to a feature of an entity being atypical including disparities between specific visual, aural and motion character traits, for example reports about the eyes for the beowulf characters. however, it should be noted that uncanny experiences were described in less than a quarter of reviews sampled and significantly there were a number of instances, particularly for final fantasy: the spirits within, where comments revealed reviewers believed they were watching a real as opposed to an animated character: this is a groundbreaking milestone in the history of animation and it answers a question as old as time: can we really animate realistic human beings? the answer is, i am happy to report, yes….. during some scenes, i was thoroughly and utterly convinced i was watching a "real" movie (‘crowrobot’, ). other reviewers noted a transient aspect of this experience where their perception of a character appeared to fluctuate between that of a real and a cgi-human actor: …the motion captured animations that are used in many of the action sequences are great and at times are so life like you are fooled and for a second here and there and it looks as if it is a real actor running around in armor and not a creation of an artist (‘joltjohn’, ). it appears character uncanniness may form a significant part of the overall viewing experience for some viewers and be entirely absent for others, or a transient state exists in perception between the real and the animated. we consider these observations of inconsistencies in perceiving characters as real or animated to be an important part of the audience experience, and the above comments may help to explain findings of greater variability in viewer ratings of uncanniness and believability of these characters (hetherington, ). in comparison to cgi-humans, reviewers reported a different experience of rotoshopped characters in a scanner darkly. references to creepy or eerie characters were absent, leading us to question whether character uncanniness is a recognised experience when viewing this film. an earlier study revealed that when participants were asked to rate the eeriness of protagonists in films featured here, the rotoshopped character of bob arctor was rated as more eerie than any of the cgi-humans. analysis of comments made suggested the unease may be due to the way in which the character’s skin and beard kept moving and changing shape of their face (hetherington, ). a prescribed style guide was followed by animators in a scanner darkly, including instructions of how character facial features were to be rendered (a scanner darkly, b), the result being a painterly aesthetic (ward, ) closely resembling a graphic novel (materna, ). a comparative functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) study of a related film waking life ( ), with its live-action source, found that in the rotoshopped film, viewers found it harder to detect intentionality of characters, but found the films more rewarding to view (mar et al., ). in her aesthetic analysis of the visual style of waking life and a scanner darkly, ruddell draws attention to the dynamic relationship between the animated line and the live-action footage it is based upon, which seems to create a categorical uncertainty in the viewer as to whether these films should be regarded as live-action or animation (ruddell, ); this may help to explain any perceived eeriness of the characters. honess roe describes rotoshop animation as an ‘aesthetically liminal style’ creating ‘a pleasurably complex and challenging epistemological and phenomenological viewing experience’ (honess roe, : ). within the context of a scanner darkly, online reviewers often considered their feelings of strangeness and creepiness as an appropriate representation of the fictional world as intended by the novel’s author philip k. dick . the visual style of rotoshopped characters is less photorealistic than the highly textured and complexly shaded cgi- humans. using modified sets of isolated static cgi faces macdorman et al ( ) found that the closer to photorealism facial surface textures became the more humanlike they were perceived to be, with the consequence of this increased fidelity being a heightened sensitivity to uncanny facial features. consequently, the more stylistic look of rotoshopped characters may operate in their favour by being less likely to induce eerie feelings in viewers. actor-character relationships a review of keanu reeves’ performance as the protagonist in a scanner darkly noted: ‘maybe it's the rotoscoping, but here he delivers a touching and moving performance, something of the conflicted hero, a damaged and flawed presence, a complexity i didn't think i'd see from this actor’ (‘dribbleglass’, ). another reviewer continues: the acting is superb from all the cast, but robert downey jr.'s performance stands out as the best by far. the animation style adds to the surreal atmosphere and matches the disturbing dystopian setting perfectly. it is done in such a way that it doesn't detract from the story or any actor's performance at all, …(‘reviewer_a’, ). a similar depth and quality in acting was found in situations where there was interplay between the main characters. ‘legendarydrunkenmaster’, ( ) wrote: truly amazing. i love the banter between robert downey jr and woody harrelson, pure comic genius. i love all the little subtle things i missed the first time around and how almost everything had meaning taken collectively, the above comments reveal that the depth of character performance, both individually and socially, captured in the live-action source movie, was preserved and possibly even enhanced by rotoshop. the quality of social interaction observed between characters in this situation is in sharp contrast with that described previously for the ‘intimate’ scene in final fantasy: the spirits within. furthermore, in contrast to a scanner darkly, the presence of recognisable actors playing cgi-human characters in beowulf often created a negative viewing experience with the viewers’ familiarity of the actor in the character creating another dimension of eeriness: it is a very strange sensation to watch a film where the cast comprises largely imitations of the people in the cast: watching anthony hopkins occupy a replica of himself is profoundly weird. the experience then becomes even weirder when the character inhabited by the larger than life persona of ray winstone isn't winstone! (‘neil welch’, ). inconsistencies in the visual representation between different actors and the character they played was found to be disconcerting, further compromising their believability: …this search for realism brings to the spotlight a major problem: the quality of the animation doesn't look constant, as while some characters do look amazingly like the actors that play them (grendel's mother being the most notorious), others look extremely fake (wiglaf and hrothgar for example), so the contrast between them is glaringly obvious, and that's really bad (‘jluis ’, ). beowulf seems to have been particularly problematic with regard to the acceptance of characters. one reviewer reflected upon not recognising some of the main actors (anthony hopkins and john malkovich) while another commented: ‘why did ms. robin wright's eyes look so distorted? …. this movie distorted her appearance so much that it detracted from the story line (‘mary p’, ). another reviewer went further: i almost wish all the characters were devoid of any likenesses to their real- life counterparts like our lead. it is just too distracting, leading my mind to wander and think of how the cgi person differs from the actor. this is especially true with john malkovich's unferth. they try to make him different enough, but the face is still there (‘jaredmobarak’, ). plantec reports a similar case for characters tom hanks played in the polar express, suggesting this familiarity intensifies the uncanny valley situation (plantec, ). returning to theories of the uncanny valley, the above examples reveal some viewers appearing to have an uncertainty in categorising these digital humans: the actor playing the character is familiar, yet is somehow unfamiliar creating cognitive dissonance with the potential of experiencing an emotional state of discomfort and unease the viewer may be motivated to reduce (elliot and devine, ). as the causal factor of this dissonance is perceptual in nature, one possible way of reconciling the situation is through rejection or avoidance of the situation causing it as was found for this review of beowulf: i've walked out of fewer than five movies in my entire life, and this was one of them. ….and here's the real problem... cgi is getting so realistic it's almost good enough to fool you into believing the animated characters are real people. why do we want to do this? is there some hidden virtue getting to this point? (‘reviewer_d’, ) considering the comments that lend support to the idea of eeriness arising from uncertainty in the viewer as to how to categorize these characters (category uncertainty theory), together with earlier ones suggesting it is the jarring nature of the eyes of characters which is the cause of eeriness (perceptual mismatch theory) suggests viewers may experience the uncanny nature of characters differently. in addition to visual and motion features described earlier, an inconsistency in ray winstone’s voice for beowulf was commented upon with one reviewer noting ‘the film really suffers when he shouts in full cockney accent “i will kill you monstah [sic]!”’ (‘cdemw’, ). regardless of the precise nature of their uncanniness, films featuring cgi- and rotoshopped-humans were capable of eliciting negative feelings in some viewers. in an earlier study, when shown selected excerpts featuring the protagonists in the films examined here, just over half of the participants reported experiencing at least one of the primary emotions of fear, happiness, surprise, anger, disgust or sadness (hetherington, ). the emotional impact of a film is what may give it its appeal. using fear as an example, walton proposed that any emotions experienced during make-believing fictional truths in a fictional world are distinct from those experienced in reality, referring to them as ‘quasi-emotions’ (walton, ). this contentious view brings to light the ‘paradox of emotional response to fiction’ that responding emotionally to fictional characters that do not exist is irrational yet highly familiar (radford, ). putting the nature of these emotions aside, it is indisputable that engagement in fictions can produce an affective response and one aspect of the viewing experience this argument reminds us of is the nature of the affective response from being involved in a work of fiction as opposed to when examining it with ‘aesthetic distance’ (neill, ). also, of possible relevance to this argument is the observation that similar patterns of brain activity can be observed in viewers when emotional avatar faces look highly similar to human faces, suggesting that at least under certain conditions the emotional response to real and digital humans can be similar when determined by neuroimaging (de borst and de gelder, ). the difference in quality of social interaction between cgi- and rotoshopped- humans is an interesting finding from this study. both forms of animation are characterised by the involvement of an actor in the character’s performance. in the case of the cgi movies, character movement was predominantly created using mocap, whereby motion data from the body and face (if performance capture) is captured and abstracted from the performing actor and applied to a cgi model, which may or may not physically resemble the original actor. animators are usually involved in this process, as the data often requires ‘cleaning-up’ and augmenting; or in some cases, character movement may need to be created which is physically impossible for the actor to achieve. in the case of a scanner darkly the film was shot entirely as a live-action production. the film was then locked and handed over to the animators who used interpolated rotoscoping computer software (rotoshop) to create the final animated film. acting is a form of pretending, and clearly takes a very direct role in creating character performances in the films examined here. walton makes the distinction between different types of prop in authorised versus unofficial games of make-believe. in authorised games, the function of the prop is to prescribe a very specific imagining. this would be the case for representations including animated films where the imaginings of the viewers are to be in accordance with the creator’s intentions. in contrast, unofficial games of make-believe occur where the relationship between the prop and the imagining is less prescriptive (walton, ). an example would be the function of a stick in children’s make-believe play which could serve as a sword, machine-gun, magic wand, light sabre etc depending upon rules employed in the game. we suggest it is the form, availability and functioning of props available to actors in these movies that may assist in explaining the differences in audience perception of the social behaviours of these animated characters. in a scanner darkly the referent used for rotoscoping was the live-action movie, which from the perspective of the actor meant that they had the entire range of make- believe props to facilitate their imaginings of the fictional world their character was a part of including: costumes, props (as in the theatrical sense), other actors to act with, as well as being present on set and immersed in the story’s environment. knowing that the film was to be rotoscoped, the main actors when interviewed alluded to using exaggeration - an established animation principle. this can be seen in the facial expression of ‘freck’ played by rory cochrane (see figure ), with the rotoshop technique also being capable of enhancing any gestures made by the actors (ruddell, ). woody harrelson playing the luckman character states he went a little more ‘over the top’ with his acting technique because he knew the film was going to be animated and keanu reeves described ‘making a move a little bigger’ at times (a scanner darkly, b). this situation contrasts markedly with actors whose performance has been mocapped where many make-believe props were absent: instead of being in-costume with makeup, the actor has to wear a skin-tight suit with markers on it for capturing motion data and if facial data are required wearing a headset and facial markers; they are physically situated on a motion capture stage removed from the diegetic environment and often from the other actors involved in the scene thereby depriving them of any spontaneity and natural social interaction. so for example, rather than being able to establish eye contact naturally with another cast member, the actor may be required to fixate on some form of marker. furthermore, a drawback of motion capture is the inability to capture accurate, context-sensitive eye movement (for example, saccades) which may also have contributed to observations of characters staring into space (see figure ); any eye movement has to be supplied by an animator in post-production. in final fantasy: the spirits within, ming-na, the actress who played aki ross the female protagonist, expressed her difficulty at not having another actor’s performance to work off (ryan, ). acting knowledge and ability is also the province of the animator (hooks, ) and in the case of the films examined here the animator adds a secondary performance offering an additional opportunity to modify a character’s performance and its believability – a process which could preserve, augment or obscure the actor’s original dramatic intention. figure . exaggeration of facial expression in the ‘freck’ character played by rory cochrane in a scanner darkly ( ). screen grab from dvd [a scanner darkly, richard linklater]. conclusion and discussion wells points out a scarcity in studies of audience reception of animated films over ‘particular historically determined periods’ (wells, ) prompting us to attempt a qualitative inquiry using online film review aggregator sites as a source of data for the present work. moreover, the increasing importance and authority of online movie reviews written by ‘non-critics’ (mccarthy, ) and the potential consequences for a film’s commercial success provides an added dimension to the value of such studies. the films chosen were characterised by their use of digital humans as animated characters created either by cgi techniques or using bob sabiston’s rotoshop software. in terms of cgi, the three films chosen (final fantasy: the spirits within, the polar express and beowulf) represent a time span from to where many cgi and animation techniques were in a rapidly evolving phase of development contributing to the distinct aesthetic of these films. contemporary to this was the release of a scanner darkly, a film with it’s own distinct realistic yet painterly aesthetic created by interpolated rotoscoping of a live-action film with rotoshop. we also contend that these films have served as interesting examples to examine and apply walton’s make-believe theory on engagement with representational artworks (walton, ). the present work has demonstrated that online reviewer aggregator sites can provide a rich source of phenomenological content that contributes to our understanding of the viewing experience/audience reception of the films examined. we were able to identify that a significant motivation to view a film was previous knowledge of its story or characters from another form of media such as a novel or videogame, and the anticipation of experiencing it in a different form of representation. the viewers’ initial experience of the story often served as a benchmark from which to judge the film. for the cgi films, the nature of the viewing medium was also an important factor in motivating the viewer and providing them with an enhanced experience when displayed in d, imax or d-imax format with suggestions of the viewing experience moving from that of ‘looking at’ to one of more ‘being in’ the story world. for some reviewers, the viewing medium appeared to be the more memorable part of the viewing experience with d or imax technology offering the possibility of greater immersion into the diegetic world. the introduction of the dx film format may enable the experience to be further augmented through use of haptic and olfactory stimuli. our qualitative inquiry also highlighted the importance of taking account of individual differences in the viewing experience particularly in relation to the uncertain ontology of digital human characters. the eerie nature of cgi-human characters and their falling into the uncanny valley has been commented upon previously (aldred, ; sobchack, ; plantec, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen, and takala, ) and macdorman and entezari have reported individual differences in sensitivity to the uncanny valley (macdorman and entezari, ). rotoshopped-humans perceived to be eerie have also been reported in the literature (ward, ; hetherington, ), but we were unable to find supporting evidence of this from online reviews. the basis of the uncanniness may be related to the presence of an atypical feature of the character such as the eyes in cgi-humans or the movement of visual elements on the face in rotoshopped- humans, both of which favour the perceptual mismatch hypothesis (kätsyri et al, ). another interesting finding from this study was how character perceptions became more problematic when there was familiarity of the actor playing the cgi character in beowulf. in this case we propose that a different form of eeriness is operating where the viewer experiences difficulty in categorising the character as a complete entity (category uncertainty hypothesis); for one viewer this was enough for them to abandon their engagement with the fictional world. we found reviews ranging from an inability to distinguish cgi-human characters from real humans; observations of characters fleetingly exhibiting realism before returning to their artifice and cases of characters being viewed as eerie. such observations illustrate the complexity and the dynamic nature of this phenomenon. we also encountered examples of reviewers abandoning their viewing of beowulf, the polar express or a scanner darkly due to boredom. in the case of the latter, the breakout from make-believe appeared to be caused by difficulties with comprehending the story. in other instances, reviews didn’t identify the cause of boredom meriting further work to identify causation. in addition to confusing and inconsistent individual character traits, cgi-human character performances were often characterised by inappropriate or misunderstood social interaction. examples included characters not maintaining eye contact with each other in beowulf and a confused kiss in final fantasy: the spirits within. we suggest the lack of appropriate social interaction between characters could be due to the limitations and nature of the motion capture process where the actor is deprived of make- believe ‘props’ which prescribe specific imaginings assisting the actor in their performance (or game of make-believe). no reviews were found describing inappropriate social interaction between characters for rotoshopped-humans. furthermore, comments frequently identified and praised the ‘chemistry’ between the actors, with some speculating that the technique had enhanced the performance in some instances. rotoshop uses a live-action movie as its referent with the actors having access to all the necessary make-believe props to facilitate their imaginings of the fictional world (costumes, makeup, presence of other actors, mise en scène). moreover, the use of this technique in a scanner darkly appears to have conserved the performances captured in live-action. reviews consistently referenced performances in relation to the actors involved and didn’t reveal any evidence of the confusion in actor-character identity found with the cgi-humans. carruthers ( ) argues that adult creative thinking and problem solving draw upon the same cognitive resources as those utilised in childhood pretend play and that the role of childhood pretending is to practice and enhance adult forms of creativity. in animation practice, scripts, storyboards and concept artwork serve as make-believe props aiding the imagination in understanding and considering the proposed fictional world. acting also has an association with make-believe and hooks ( ) asserts that it isn’t enough to make a character move in a believable way unless they are animated with theatrical intention and purpose . actors and animators tend to acquire their acting skills differently: actors work in the present, responding to each other and the audience through workshops and performance. while animators learn acting largely through observation and discussion creating a single character performance in their mind (hooks, ). the films examined here serve as an interesting selection of case studies for examining the influence of actor versus animator on a character’s performance and believability. ideas from animation and drama have served as inspiration in artificial intelligence (ai) where the goal has been the creation of believable embodied agents and humanlike robots that offer the possibility of natural interaction between human and machine. in this context, consistency in narrative, verbal and non-verbal behaviour, and sociocultural context is seen as central to achieving believability (simmons et al, ). the abstract nature of believability has led gomes et al ( ) to propose a number of dimensions of believability for characters in interactive narratives including: visual impact, coherence and understandability of behaviour, personality (covering details of behaviour, thought and emotion), emotional expressiveness and social competence. these dimensions have been repurposed into metrics, some of which could be applicable in identifying relevant traits of animated characters in audience reception studies. in relation to narrative, we found a few cases of abandonment of the animated fictional world (e.g. a scanner darkly) or disappointment in the representation of the narrative by the movie (e.g. final fantasy: the spirits within, beowulf and the polar express). previous experience of a narrative is what walton refers to as ‘background propositions’ (walton, ) which are imported by viewers to extend the content provided and reveals a schematic nature to make-believe. schemata can be manifest as genres, recurrent plot devices (tropes) and various background assumptions or propositions (turner et al, ). however, in this situation rather than augment the experience, conflict has resulted where the new information garnered from the movie does not fit the viewer’s existing schema. when this happens a common reaction is rejection, or to quickly forget the new information (taylor and crocker, ). it seems likely that accommodating any existing schema, or creating a new one to address any inconsistencies that have arisen (restructuring), requires effort and it is tempting to relate this to wells’ observation of there being an essential ‘tension’ between belief and disbelief in the experience of viewing an animated film (wells, ). work by gerrig and colleagues relating to the cognitive psychology of engagement in literary fictional worlds may also be of relevance in this respect. gerrig and egidi suggest cognitive processing of written fictional texts occurs on a continuum with intuitive processes dominating at one end and reflective processes at the other. intuitive processes are rapid and effortless, while reflective processes are deliberate, slow and effortful. individual readers may occupy different positions on that continuum and may move along it depending upon the details of the story (gerrig and egidi, ). the amount of cognitive effort required is important in determining the ease of transport into the fictional world, the less effort required the greater the chance of engaging and remaining engaged in that fictional world. a number of studies have revealed that narrative experiences are predominantly guided by intuitive processes and that readers more easily believe rather than disbelieve fictions as less cognitive effort is required (prentice and gerrig, ; gerrig and rapp, ). importantly, gerrig and rapp ( ) propose this situation to be generalisable to any fictional narrative. the discussion above prompts a re-evaluation of samuel taylor coleridge’s ‘willing suspension of disbelief’ (coleridge, / ) which has been generalised to describe our engagement in all fictional worlds. the term seems often clichéd in its use and implies that our default state when approaching fiction is disbelief that must somehow be overcome to enable transportation into a fictional world. however, the work of gerrig and colleagues reveals a different situation – it is much less effort cognitively to adopt a state of belief as the default state as disbelief must actively be constructed (gerrig and egidi, ; gerrig and rapp, ). given the capacity of animation to create engaging, vivid and believable fictional worlds; the use of display technologies that have the potential to offer more immersive experiences for the viewer; and the pervasive nature of make-believe as a critical part of our development from child into adult, perhaps the notion of a state of belief rather than disbelief as the starting point for engaging with animated fictional worlds isn’t so surprising? acknowledgements we would like to acknowledge caroline ruddell, suzanne buchan, chris atton and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful advice during the writing of this article. we also thank the internet movie database (www.imdb.com), rotten tomatoes (www.rottentomatoes.com) and metacritic (www.metecritic.com) for permission to quote user reviews. part of this research was completed with the award of a university research internship to rachel mcrae. funding this research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. notes . mori’s original article became popular after its translation from the original japanese. in earlier versions the uncanny valley was shown graphically as the relationship between human likeness (x-axis) and familiarity (y-axis). however, upon re-examination it is now believed that mori’s intended meaning relates to affinity rather than familiarity. a complete description of the relationship can be found in macdorman and entezari ( ). . bracketing or epoche is applied in phenomenological-based qualitative research in order to alleviate any potentially damaging effects of preconceptions that may devalue the research undertaken. . walton’s consideration of make-believe is a relatively rare example of its application to adult cognition. the treatment of pretending in psychology is largely confined to its role in childhood where it has been implicated in social, affective and cognitive development. . a comprehensive discussion of the uncanny valley and related writings on the uncanny is beyond the scope of this article. royle ( ) provides a historical account of critical and cultural theory relating to the uncanny, and more recently tinwell has examined the uncanny valley theory in games and animation (tinwell, ). a recent review of empirical studies on the uncanny valley has been conducted by kätsyri et al. ( ). . dick pk ( ) a scanner darkly. london: gollancz. . the view expressed by walton ( ) that make-believing fictional worlds can lead to the generation of quasi-emotions has been refuted. noel carroll ( ) for example, questions the accuracy of walton’s description maintaining that an authentic rather than quasi-emotional state exists when we are moved by a work of fiction. alex neill’s article gives a succinct analysis and criticism of the ‘fear scenario’ offered by walton in support of quasi-emotions (neill, ). . an example of the conscious effort made to create believability in animated cartoons comes from the work of disney studios during the golden age of american animation (thomas and johnston, ) and is discussed in relation to pretending in turner et al ( ). references ‘aaronn’ ( ). beowulf. available at: http://www.rottentomatoes.com/user/id/ /# (accessed april ). aldred j ( ) from synthespian to avatar: re-framing the digital human in final fantasy and the polar express. available at: http://www.tft.ucla.edu/mediascape/winter _avatar.pdf (accessed may ). atton c ( ) listening to ‘difficult albums’: specialist music fans and the popular avant-garde. popular music, : - . a scanner darkly ( a) [film] usa: richard linklater. a scanner darkly ( b) the weight of the line: animation tales. 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. ward p ( ) independent animation, rotoshop and communities of practice: as seen through a scanner darkly. animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ): - . walton k ( ) mimesis as make-believe: on the foundations of the representational arts. cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university press. wells p ( ) understanding animation. london: routledge. the value of plurality in 'the network with a thousand entrances' | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: the value of plurality in 'the network with a thousand entrances' @article{siemens thevo, title={the value of plurality in 'the network with a thousand entrances'}, author={r. siemens and a. arbuckle and lindsey seatter and randa el khatib and tracey el hajj}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } r. siemens, a. arbuckle, + authors tracey el hajj published history, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. this contribution reflects on the value of plurality in the ‘network with a thousand entrances’ suggested by mccarty (http://goo.gl/h hafs), and others, in association with approaching time-honoured annotative and commentary practices of much-engaged texts. the question is how this approach aligns with tensions, today, surrounding the multiplicity of endeavour associated with modeling practices of annotation by practitioners of the digital humanities. our work, hence, surveys annotative… expand view via publisher hcommons.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure digital humanities wikipedia altran praxis endeavour (supercomputer) citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency towards open annotation: examples and experiments lindsey seatter computer science save alert research feed examples : tools for collaborative , text-based annotation example one : annotation studio flexibility : excellent lindsey seatter pdf save alert research feed “when i saw my peers annotating”: student perceptions of social annotation for learning in multiple courses jeremiah h. kalir, esteban morales, alice fleerackers, juan pablo alperin psychology save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency from text to work: digital tools and the emergence of the social text j. mcgann art, sociology save alert research feed automatic annotation of bibliographical references in digital humanities books, articles and blogs young-min kim, p. bellot, elodie faath, marin dacos computer science booksonline ' pdf save alert research feed creating scholarly tools and resources for the digital ecosystem: building connections in the zotero project d. j. cohen computer science first monday save alert research feed measuring researchers’ use of scholarly information through social bookmarking data: a case study of bibsonomy Ángel borrego, j. fry computer science j. inf. sci. pdf save alert research feed beyond browsing and reading: the open work of digital scholarly editions jon saklofske, jake bruce computer science pdf save alert research feed a framework for retrieval and annotation in digital humanities using xquery full text and update in basex c. mahlow, c. grün, alexander holupirek, m. scholl computer science doceng ' pdf save alert research feed user-defined annotations: artefacts for co-ordination and shared understanding in design teams jean-françois boujut computer science save alert research feed collaborative bibliography david g. hendry, j. jenkins, j. mccarthy computer science inf. process. manag. pdf save alert research feed modeling social annotation: a bayesian approach a. plangprasopchok, kristina lerman computer science tkdd pdf save alert research feed phrase detectives: a web-based collaborative annotation game j. chamberlain, massimo poesio, udo kruschwitz computer science pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract figures and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue tutkimusdatan määrittelyn ja aineistonhallinnan ongelmat ihmistieteissä lyhyt katsaus i hmistieteiden (so. humanistis-yhteiskun- tatieteellisen tutkimuksen) ongelmallista suhdetta tutkimusaineistojen hallintaan ylläpitää käsitteellinen sekaannus. tämä tulee esiin usein toistuvina kysymyksinä esimer- kiksi helsingin yliopiston kirjaston järjestämis- sä aineistojen käsittelyyn liittyvissä tutkijatyö- pajoissa. tutkijoita mietityttävät muun muassa seuraavat yksityiskohdat: mitä data on, onko minun tutkimusprojektissani dataa, miten da- ta eroaa tutkimusaineistosta, mitä tarkoittaa me- tadata, entä sen standardit. erityisen hämillään rahoittajien vaatimien aineistonhallintasuunni- telmien edessä ovat tutkijat, joiden työ perus- tuu täysin käsitteellis-teoreettisen viitekehyksen kehittämiseen tai vain aiemman kirjallisuuden tai historiallisten tekstien tarkasteluun. lainasana data on vakiintunut kuvaamaan lähinnä määrällisiin ja laskennallisiin menetel- miin soveltuvaa numeerista aineistoa. tästä huo- limatta data pitäisi ymmärtää yleiskäsitteenä, johon pitää erikseen liittää sitä selittävä määre; määrällinen, laadullinen, laskennallinen, tulkit- tu ja niin edelleen. termin data ja sen suomen- kielisen vastineen, aineisto, epäyhteensopivuus heijastuu ihmistieteiden tutkijoiden ongelmis- sa kuvailla oman tutkimusaineistonsa yksityis- kohtia selkeästi. termien epäselvyys ylläpitää myös keinotekoista vastakkainasettelua määräl- listen ja laadullisten tarkastelutapojen välillä. usealla ihmistieteiden tutkijalla on siis oman työnsä käsitteellistämiseen liittyvä ongelma. näyttää siltä, että koska systemaattinen ja tie- toinen aineiston käsittely ei ole menestyksek- kään tutkimuksen tekemisen välttämätön edellytys, on keskeisten, hyvää tieteellistä käy- täntöä noudattavien toimintatapojen harjoitta- minen rapistumassa. pohdin esityksessäni yllämainittuja ongelmia oman tutkimusprojektini näkökulmasta. esi- merkkinä käytän helsingin yliopiston elektroa- kustisen musiikin studion äänitearkiston digitointi- ja masterointiprojektia (ks. esim. oja- nen ) sekä historiallisen tutkimukseni laa- jaa aineistokokonaisuutta. konkretisoin käytän- nön työhön liittyviä ongelmia käyttäen hyväksi muutaman kuukauden aikana kertynyttä koke- mustani aineistonhallintasuunnitelmatyökalu tuulin parissa. työskentely aineistonhallintaan liittyvällä työkalulla on auttanut yhtäältä jäsen- tämään omaa tutkimusaineistoani ja toisaalta ymmärtämään paremmin jopa omaa tutkimus- mikko ojanen tutkimusdatan määrittelyn ja aineistonhallinnan ongelmat ihmistieteissä mikko ojanen, orcid.org/ - - - , helsingin yliopiston kirjasto, mikko.ojanen@helsinki.fi ojanen: tutkimusdatan määrittelyn... informaatiotutkimus ( ), kohdettani ja erityisesti historiankirjoituksen epistemologisia ongelmia. alan käsitteistöä ja erityisesti oman aineisto- kokonaisuuteni ymmärtämistä kehitän suun- nitteluasteella olevassa finears (finnish electroacoustic resourcess) -projektissa, jonka tarkoituksena on esitellä suomalaisen elektroa- kustisen musiikin historiankirjoituksen ja ana- lyysin taustalla olevia arkistoaineistoja. nyt alkavassa ensimmäisessä vaiheessa projekti on väitöstutkimukseni (ks. ojanen ) verkko- liite, jota päivitän helsingin yliopiston ylläpitä- mässä blogipalvelussa . jatkossa projekti on tarkoitus laajentaa käsittelemään samantyyppi- siä kysymyksiä, ongelmia ja mahdollisuuksia kuin erityisesti ihmistieteiden aineistonhallin- nassa tai esimerkiksi digital humanities -pro- jektissa on kohdattu. vaikka digital humanities -projekteissa painotetaan digitaalisten menetel- mien soveltamista erityisesti laajoihin tietoai- neistokokonaisuuksiin, voivat ihmistieteiden tutkijat hyötyä myös digitaalisten aineistomuo- tojen mahdollistamista laadullisista ja kuvanta- mismenetelmistä, joita sovelletaan yksittäisten kulttuuriperintöobjektien tarkastelussa. otta- matta tässä tarkemmin kantaa tieteenalojen mää- rittelyyn huomattavaa on, että rajanveto digitaalisten ihmistieteiden ja perinteisten, di- gitaalisia työkaluja käyttävien ihmistieteiden vä- lillä on ollut epämääräinen ja erityisen pohdinnan aihe – kaikissa tapauksissa jälkim- mäisiä ei ole määritelty kuuluvan digitaalisen ihmistieteen ydinalueeseen. (tarkemmin digi- taalisista ihmistieteistä – erityisesti suomessa ks. esim. sinnemäki & tolonen ; haveri- nen & suominen ; tolonen & lahti .) yksi finears-projektin tavoitteista on te- hostaa työprosessien kulkua ja hyviä aineiston- hallinnan käytäntöjä. erityisiä näihin liittyviä ongelmia ovat yksityisyyden suojan turvaami- seen ja tekijänoikeuksien kunnioittamiseen liit- tyvät toimintatavat. projektin päätavoitteena on lopulta tarjota mahdollisimman avoin tietoar- kisto elektroakustisen musiikin tutkimuksen raakamateriaaleille, tutkimusdatalle ja -aineis- toille sekä teosanalyyseille ja analyysimateriaa- leille. vastaava kansainvälinen esimerkki analyysien ja analyysimateriaalien tietoarkistos- ta on brittiläinen orema . lähteet haverinen, a. & suominen, j. ( ). koodaamisen ja kirjoittamisen vuoropuhelu? – mitä on digitaalinen humanistinen tutkimus. ennen ja nyt. / . http://www.ennenjanyt.net/ / /koodaamisen- ja-kirjoittamisen-vuoropuhelu-mita-on-digitaali- nen-humanistinen-tutkimus/ ( . . ) ojanen, m. ( ). mastering kurenniemi’s rules ( ): the role of the audio engineer in the mas- tering process. journal on the art of record pro- duction, ( ). http://arpjournal.com/mastering-kurenniemis-ru- les- -the-role-of-the-audio-engineer-in-the- mastering-process/ ( . . ) ojanen, m. ( ). electronic music and electronic musical instruments by erkki kurenniemi: a fra- mework for technologically oriented music pro- duction and composition processes. description of research and teaching, abstract for a ph.d. disser- tation. https://tuhat.halvi.helsinki.fi/portal/en/per- son/miojanen ( . . ) sinnemäki, k. & tolonen, m. ( ). digitaaliset ihmistie- teet tutkimuskartalle. tieteessä tapahtuu. / . http://ojs.tsv.fi/index.php/tt/article/view/ / ( . . ) tolonen, m. & lahti, l. ( ). aatehistoria ja digi- taalisten aineistojen mahdollisuudet. ennen ja nyt. / . http://www.ennenjanyt.net/ / /aa- tehistoria-ja-digitaalisten-aineistojen-mahdollisuu - det/ ( . . ) . http://blogs.helsinki.fi/miojanen/finearsintroduction . http://orema.dmu.ac.uk http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學 journal of educational media & library sciences http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vol. , no. (winter ) : - 應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統 applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory 林信成* sinn-cheng lin* professor e-mail：sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw 陳美聖 mei-sheng chen research assistant english abstract & summary see link at the end of this article mailto:sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw� http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) : - doi: . /joemls. . / .rs.cm 研究論文應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統林信成a*　陳美聖b 摘要淡水自古即為台灣歷史發展之重鎮，淡水史可謂台灣史極重要的部分，四百餘年來豐富多元的文化資產、歷史風貌，非常值得加以有組織、有系統的研究、保存、推廣與應用。本研究本著大眾史學的精神，藉由與專業史家、大眾史家和網路社群共同合作，善用數位科技、影音媒體、空拍技術等，並結合web . 中的wiki平台，攜手建構一個可供眾人參與淡水學書寫的數位人文協作系統，發揮大眾共寫淡水地方史的能量，共建淡水記憶，使淡水學知識建構工作能更有效開展。本系統可協助歷史學者、文史工作者、史蹟導覽者及社會大眾，更有效率的探索淡水在地知識、文化源流、社會變遷、地景地貌、生態環境與重要歷史事蹟；同時亦期望其成果可供相關研究者做為學術研究之參考。關鍵詞：數位人文，大眾史學，淡水學，wiki協作前　　言人類文明發展史上，知識的建構曾經一度掌握在少數菁英與貴族手中，隨著時代的變遷才逐漸普及至社會各階層。黃光國教授曾指出「生活世界」的知識，是由長期生活在同一文化中的群體，透過「主／客」不分的「參與式建構」（participative construction）過程共同創建的；而「科學微世界」的知識，則是由學有專精者採用技術性思考（technical thinking），透過「主／客」二元對立的「宰制式建構」（dominative construction）過程創建的。圖書館界長期強調所有服務應以滿足讀者為優先；可用工程（usability engineering）領域更是將使用者為中心（user-centered design）的設計理念奉為圭臬。史學界更是隨著社會運動的蓬勃發展，而興起「大眾史學」（public history）領域，強調歷史不應只由少數專業學者執筆，大眾的文化、大眾的歷史也值得重視、研究，人人都可參與歷 a 淡江大學資訊與圖書館學系教授 b 淡江大學資訊與圖書館學系研究助理 * 本文主要作者兼通訊作者：sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw / / 投稿； / / 修訂； / / 接受 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 史的書寫工作。如今，隨著web . 眾多應用蓬勃發展，許多社群軟體（social software）以「公眾協作」方式提供了「參與式建構」管道，讓知識的建構回歸到「生活世界」的本質，網路社群運作更像實體社會，傳播者與閱聽人隨時可以角色互換，讓資訊內容更貼近大眾所需。淡水舊稱滬尾，是個擁有四百多年歷史的城鎮，位於台北盆地西北方，環繞於大屯山系與淡水河域之間，兼具山城與河港特色，景緻優雅，人文薈萃。歷經西班牙人時期（ ~ ）、荷蘭人時期（ ~ ）、明鄭時期（ ~ ）、清治時期（ ~ ）、日治時期（ ~ ）、中華民國時期（ ~迄今），歷史悠久，至今依然保留著許多彌足珍貴的文化遺跡。其豐富多元且特有的文化資產、歷史風貌，非常值得加以有組織、有系統的研究、保存、推廣與應用。以往，雖然已有許多歷史學者、文史工作者或文物收藏者，陸續對淡水的歷史文化、古蹟建築、風土民情、地方特色⋯⋯等進行考證與探查，然而，結合資訊科技、大眾史學、公眾協作等概念，進行淡水地方史之參與式建構的研究則相對較少。淡江大學位於淡水，從事淡水的在地歷史文化研究，相較於其他地區而言，不僅佔地利之便且具相對意義；再者，從大學與在地社區互動的角度觀之，更肩負著責無旁貸的學術使命。若能進一步藉由資訊科技之助，利用數位工具結合在地的歷史學者、文史工作者或文物收藏者，進行歷史與人文之研究，運用於淡水地方史之知識建構與探索，則必能收相輔相成之效。因此，本研究希望本著大眾史學的精神，藉由與專業史家（professional historian）、大眾史家（public historian）和網路社群共同合作，應用數位典藏概念、web . 的特性，攜手建構一個可供眾人參與淡水地方史書寫的數位人文協作系統，達成「淡水記憶‧數位共筆」之目標，以發揮大家來寫淡水史的能量，重建淡水記憶，更有效地開展淡水地方史之知識建構工作，協助歷史學者、文史工作者、文物收藏家及對此一課題有興趣之人士，更有效率的探索淡水在地知識、文化源流、社會變遷與重要歷史事蹟；同時，亦期望其成果可提供相關研究者做為學術研究之參考。二、相關研究本研究以「淡水記憶‧數位共筆」為目標，建置數位人文協作系統，涉及之領域包含淡水學相關研究，屬專業史學範疇；另一方面亦期望能貼近大眾生活與記憶，從下而上由大眾角度來書寫，此為大眾史學所關注的面向；而隨著數位典藏與數位人文之發展，我們認為大眾史學撰寫工具不應再侷限於傳統紙筆，可選擇合適的公眾協作平台作為數位共筆工具。因此，本單元分別從大眾史學與淡水學研究、數位典藏與數位人文、web . 與公眾協作平台三部分，簡要描述與本文相關之研究概況。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統㈠大眾史學與淡水學研究年代以來，隨著歐美社會運動的蓬勃，人們開始認為歷史不應只由少數專業學者執筆，大眾的文化、大眾的歷史也值得重視與研究，人人都可參與歷史的書寫工作，於是年代便興起了所謂的大眾史學領域。大眾史學的發展是希望將長期以來由專業史家對歷史知識進行的「宰制式建構」，釋放出來由大眾史家共同進行「參與式建構」。逢甲大學周樑楷教授認為大眾史學的精神是： . 書寫大眾的歷史（history of the public） . 為大眾書寫歷史（history for the public） . 由大眾書寫歷史（history by the public）換言之，大眾史學強調從民間底層由下而上，不拘形式大家分別表述集體記憶或共同歷史，可讓歷史成為自己過往經驗與記憶的拼圖，而不僅是與自己無關的知識。而大眾史學傳達或表述的形式、媒體是多元的，可以是文字的、影像的、語音的、文物的，甚至數位化的、多媒體的。因此，本研究希望能藉由數位協作平台之助，發揮大眾史學精神，讓大家能共同對淡水史進行數位書寫。淡水是台灣發展史上極重要的門戶之一，具有多元文化與悠久歷史，藉由「淡水學」的研究，可使人們進一步了解淡水的歷史記憶與當代樣貌。「淡水學國際學術研討會」是目前「淡水學」研究極重要的學術論壇，自年至今已舉辦過五屆，除了歷史、文學、地理之外，還有土木建築、水利環境工程等學者，亦有文史工作室之田野調查、影像專家等專業人士參與。涵蓋議題包含中央與地方、軍事防衛、人物研究、聚落發展、淡水印象、生態環境、清法戰爭、古蹟建築、國際觀點、淡水河沿岸、教育藝文、宗教文化、田野調查、文化資產、產業經濟等面向。周宗賢淡水輝煌的歲月一書，除匯集了作者發表過與淡水有關的學術性文章，更收錄了許多古蹟照片、老照片與地圖資料。在地方上的淡水學相關研究，過去滬尾文史工作室曾發行不定期刊物滬尾街，其創刊宗旨為「探討淡水的過去、現在和未來，報導、記錄、見證，和評論其人、地、事、物，以落實本土文化為原則，一切資源取自民間和市場」，刊物內容邀請地方耆老、文史專家、建築史家撰寫，包含淡水開發史、寺廟、古蹟、人物軼聞與淡水環境風景等相關文章，同時也進行各種口述歷史，自年創刊至年最後一期，在六年期間總共發行九期。在網路上有網頁紀錄保存了第一期至第四期的內容全文。另有淡水文化基金會發行的文化淡水社區報，主要內容包含要聞、社論、專題、論壇、短訊以及社群營造、藝文活動相關報導或資訊等面向。在其中的「要聞」是攸關淡水的重大訊息為主，「專題」是針對特定主題深入探討，「論壇」開放給各界讀者的公共園 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 地；「生活」是屬於淡水人文、藝術訊息的報導。在每期的文化淡水中大致會反映出時下與淡水切身相關之議題。淡水古蹟博物館於年開始發行館刊博物‧淡水，內容結構包含封面專題、博物館實務與博物人文散記，封面專題除了專題內文與對專題的聚焦，亦收錄產官學三方之論述與他山之石借鑑，除了呈現學術研究價值，也將文化資產保存的概念傳達給社會大眾。林呈蓉在〈「淡水學」研究的回顧與展望〉中提到對於淡水歷史的書寫應跳脫過去「國家」、「中央」權力的觀點看待地方學研究。這與大眾史學強調的大家來寫歷史的概念是相通的。淡水發展四百餘年來雖累積許多具有歷史、文化、藝術、科學等價值之古蹟、聚落、遺址、歷史建築、文化景觀、傳統藝術、民俗文物、自然地景等文化資產，以往也已有許多鑽研淡水史之歷史學者、文史工作者、作家或文物收藏者，陸續對淡水的歷史源流、人物事蹟、建築遺址、文化特色等進行考證與探查，然而，結合資訊科技、大眾史學、公眾協作等概念，進行淡水史之參與式建構的研究則相對較少。這也是本研究相對重要之處。㈡數位典藏與數位人文近年來拜數位科技與網路發展之賜，以資源共享（resource sharing）理念為核心的數位典藏，不但賦予舉世文化資產全新生命力，也使得傳統文獻、史料、書畫、器物、典籍、建築、標本、藝術表演、民俗節慶⋯⋯等，得以透過無遠弗屆的數位網路，突破時空限制，提供大眾查閱、觀賞、研究與學習。世界各國近二十餘年來，不遺餘力推動以數位典藏技術為核心的數位圖書館或數位博物館計畫，如美國的「美國記憶」（american memory）計畫、「國家數位圖書館計畫」（national digital library program）；加拿大的「加拿大文化資產資訊網路」（canadian heritage information network，簡稱chin）；澳洲的「澳洲數位圖書館先導計畫」；聯合國教科文組織和美國國會圖書館推動的世界數位圖書館（world digital library，簡稱wdl）計畫等。台灣則於年起，持續推動「數位博物館專案計畫」、「國際數位圖書館合作計畫」、「國家典藏數位化專案計畫」，直至年合併為「數位典藏國家型科技計畫」（national digital archives program，簡稱ndap），年結合數位學習成為「數位典藏與數位學習國家型科技計畫」（taiwan e-learning and digital archives program，簡稱teldap）。數位人文是一個新興的、內涵仍在變遷中的領域，廣義而言只要是藉由數位科技而進行的人文研究即屬之。項潔等人認為繼數位典藏累積大量數位資料之後，新興的數位人文領域，著眼於如何更有效的融合資訊科技與人文關懷，進而從數位化材料中耙梳出新的現象與脈絡，以運用於人文社會學科領域進行知識探索。數位人文研究的基礎是大量的數位資料，除了原生數位（born http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統 digital）資料外，也有賴從實體轉換而來的數位化資料。因此數位人文既可說是一個新興的領域，也可說是從既有的領域，如人文計算（humanities comput- ing）和數位典藏（digital archives）演化而來，而非無中生有。本研究基於我們長期投入數位典藏研究的經驗與基礎上，進一步發揮大眾史學精神，藉由與專業史家（歷史學者）與大眾史家（文史工作者、文物收藏家、網路社群）共同合作，攜手強化數位典藏系統之設計，使其轉化為數位人文協作與研究平台，促進淡水史料與文化資產的累積、傳承、研究與應用。㈢ web . 與wiki協作平台 web . 一詞源於o’reilly和medialive公司的腦力激盪會議，並於年月召開以web . 為名的研討會、年發表名為「what is web . design patterns and business models for the next generation of software」的文獻後而廣為人知。但web . 的時代其實早在年代便已悄然展開，許多web . 的應用基本上仍來自於年代中期之後的眾多技術，如xml、dhtml、metada- ta、semantic web、open apis、rdf、rss、soap⋯⋯等，並體現於社群軟體或內容管理系統（content management systems）之中，如blogs、wikis、im⋯⋯ 等。markus angermeier認為web . 具有七項核心特性：參與（participation）、匯流（convergence）、重混性（remixability）、標準化（standardization）、設計（de- sign）、經濟（economy）、可用性（usability）。其核心精神不外乎鼓勵網路社群於知識建構過程中，更積極的參與、互動、交流、分享，於是「全民上網」轉化為「全民織網」，「專職作者」普及成「全民作者」。因此，web . 如同開啟了另一個由眾人共同參與知識建構的新里程。大眾史學強調「參與式建構」，web . 讓眾人共同參與知識建構，如同大眾史學的參與式建構。而在web . 的眾多技術中，wiki協作系統（wiki collaboration system）是一種以web為基礎、可自由擴展且相互連結的資料庫系統，每個頁面皆能開放任何使用者編輯，只要藉由web瀏覽器即可進行協同創作（collaboration）。全世界第一個wiki系統—「維基維基網」（wikiwikiweb） —是由ward cunningham為了方便社群交流於年創立，並用它建立了「波特蘭模式知識庫」（portland pattern repository），以推動模式語言（pattern lan- guage）的發展。目前wiki技術已被廣泛應用到許多不同領域，如：百科類的維基百科、圖書館類的library success、檔案類的archivopedia、醫學類的醫學快紀、電腦資訊類的mozilla taiwan、旅遊類的背包攻略、運動類的台灣棒球維基館⋯⋯等。由於wiki提供了集結群體智慧（collective intelligence）的平台，具有自由開放的特點，能協助人們在社群內共享領域知識（domain knowledge）、參與建構知識，達成大眾史學「由大眾書寫歷史」的精神，因此極適合作為本研究建 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 構公眾參與書寫淡水地方史協作平台的共筆工具。三、研究問題與方法本研究運用大眾史學概念，以web . 技術實踐數位人文協作系統之建置，以下分別說明本研究之研究問題與研究方法。㈠研究問題本研究之研究目的有三：「建構數位協作平台輔助人文研究」、「研擬協作模式產出與徵集數位內容」、「探討與評估數位協作平台的使用情況」，依上述目的設計以下研究問題： . 在大眾史學概念下，如何建置數位人文協作系統？ . 本數位人文協作系統，如何在大眾史學精神下產出或徵集數位內容？ . 本數位人文協作系統，其使用情況及可能遭遇的問題為何？㈡研究方法為達上述研究目的，本研究採用理論與實務並重之行動研究法（action research）為框架，搭配系統實作法、田野調查法、焦點團體法、記錄檔分析法等研究方法加以進行。本研究以行動研究法為主，在過程中為達成本研究目的之一「建構數位協作平台輔助人文研究」，將輔以系統實作法進行淡水數位人文協作平台之開發；而為達成本研究目的之二「研擬協作模式產出與徵集數位內容」，將綜合運用焦點團體法、田野調查法等方式進行；而對於研究目的之三「探討與評估數位協作平台的使用情況」，以達到品質提升、系統成功、使用者滿意的目標，則運用焦點團體法、記錄檔分析法進行。以下概述行動研究及配合運用到的研究方法。 . 行動研究法是以實際問題為題材、以解決現實問題為目的，具有「行動者即研究者」、「行動與研究結合」的特性。強調由實務工作者在實際工作情境中，依據自身遭遇的問題，結合「行動」與「研究」，有系統的收集資料，分析規劃，研擬出解決問題或改變現狀的行動策略，並付諸實際行動，進而觀察、評估、回饋、修正，以解決問題。kurt lewin認為行動研究是由許多迴圈形成的反省性螺旋（reflective spirals），包含了計畫（planning）、行動（acting）、觀察（ob- serving）、反思或評估（reflecting or evaluating）等步驟的演化循環。藉計畫→ 行動→觀察→反思的循環過程，使實務工作情境中遭遇的問題得以解決，現狀得以改善，品質得以提升。本研究將此循環稱為paor循環。本研究屬於實證應用，過程中須結合數位科技實務與大眾史學研究，有許多問題發生在實踐行 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統動中，非常適合採用強調「以研究提升行動品質」的行動研究法，本研究於達成三項研究目的過程中，皆以行動研究循環為主架構做設計。 . 系統實作法本研究採系統實作法開發能與淡水歷史研究者、文史工作者、網路使用者共同分享研究成果，增進研究便利性之協作平台。在目前為數眾多的系統開發模式中，本研究參考較常被提及和採用的雛型模式，以順利完成淡水數位人文協作平台之開發工作。「雛型模式」系統開發法興起於年代初期，主張從局部需求著手，強調在限定期限內，以最經濟且快速的方法開發出系統的雛型，以便及早澄清或驗證不明確的系統需求。雛型模式是一種循序漸進、反覆改善的系統開發方法，其核心精神與行動研究法極為相符。本研究以行動研究配合雛型模式，首先建立數位人文協作平台之雛形，由研究者與協作團隊成員直接進行編輯、操作與使用，觀察平台使用狀況與問題，透過反思進行檢討修正，持續使用、觀察、反思後修正，藉此達成平台之建置。 . 田野調查法本研究由研究者偕同歷史學家或地方文史工作者，實地參與淡水地區的歷史文化探勘與調查工作，以蒐集和記錄相關資料，並轉換為研究成果。本研究邀淡江大學文學院相關教師進行跨領域合作，組成研究顧問團，對淡水具有歷史、文化、藝術、觀光等價值之古蹟、建築、聚落、遺址、民俗節慶、文化景觀、傳統藝術、人物事蹟、自然生態等，進行以下型態之資料蒐集與記錄： ⑴採訪記錄：藉由對淡水耆老進行口述歷史，蒐集最直接的影、音記錄，並整理成文字稿，再將這些最忠實的田野採訪紀實，以數位文字影音方式呈現於本研究建置之系統平台上。⑵拍攝記錄：針對淡水地區的歷史建築、古蹟遺址、造型藝術或重要人物進行攝影記錄、地景空拍，對民俗節慶、文化活動進行紀錄片錄攝、後製，蒐集第一手的影像圖照資料，再將這些田野紀實數位圖像呈現於本研究建置之系統平台上。⑶翻製記錄：對於淡水昔日的文獻、古籍、圖稿或老照片等珍貴資料，若能徵得原收藏者同意，翻印或翻拍，並分享於本研究建置之系統平台上，更可成為日後進一步進行淡水學研究的基本材料。本研究在田調過程不僅借助歷史學家、相關領域教師，更借助地方文史工作者與其他專業人士之力，讓所徵集之資料不只有專業的歷史，更涵蓋大眾的歷史。 . 焦點團體法主要由數名對共同議題有興趣之參與者群聚討論，經由參與者的互動而得知彼此的反應及想法。大眾史學是書寫大眾的歷史，因此本研究邀請淡水學歷史研究者及地方文史工作者參與，同時加入資訊系統人員共同組成專家團體進行焦點座談。藉由討論過程以了解歷史研究者、地方文史工作者之資訊需求，並對徵集之數位內容、開發之系統功能提出針砭；另一方面，也藉此讓歷史研究者、地方文史工作者對本研究計畫與系統平台有更進一步之互動與了解後， http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 願意提供研究資料，在本系統平台上進行分享、研究、交流。而對於本系統不熟悉之歷史研究者或文史工作者，本研究也透過焦點團體，研擬更適用的數位資料與資訊代理協作模式，以取代一般慣用的直接協作模式，使數位史料的匯集能更順利。 . 記錄檔分析法藉助數學計量方法對紀錄檔進行分析，是系統使用評估或使用研究的有效方法之一。紀錄檔通常是指資訊系統處理使用者檢索需求的歷程資料，一般都以特定格式紀錄在電腦內部，作為系統人員分析資訊系統使用狀況的資料來源。hamid r. jamli等人認為資訊系統中的紀錄檔能提供關於使用者資訊尋求行為的不同層面，例如：使用的時間、使用的資料類型、瀏覽的模式等，相當適合用來研究和比較資訊系統的使用者行為。本研究以我們應用大眾史學概念所建置的淡水數位人文協作系統為對象，運用紀錄檔分析法了解使用者的資訊行為，檢視系統運作、使用者參與情況，藉以對系統進行品質評估與系統改善，達到提升系統品質與使用者滿意度及參與程度。四、研究成果大眾史學之概念，強調「參與式建構」，其精神是以大眾的歷史為主體，本研究選擇wiki協作系統達成參與式建構，透過結合專業史家、地方文史工作者及資訊系統人員之團隊，進行建置、規劃與內容徵集等。在研究成果部分，本研究藉由行動研究之「計畫→行動→觀察→反思」循環過程，解決在系統建置、運作等實務工作過程遭遇的問題。依據前述之研究問題，並搭配焦點團體法、系統實作法、田野調查法、記錄檔分析法等研究方法，擬定如下行動計畫，依序進行完成任務：㈠進行淡水數位人文協作系統實作；㈡籌組協作團隊並舉辦專家座談會；㈢以多元協作模式促進各方合作廣徵數位內容；㈣進行淡水文史研習、史蹟踏查與地景空拍；㈤推動「大家來數位書寫淡水史」協作活動；㈥進行數位協作平台系統評估與使用研究。茲分述如下：㈠進行淡水數位人文協作系統實作本研究建置之系統，係因應數位人文發展，以數位協作平台作為大眾史學共筆工具。在進行系統雛形建置初期，本研究針對參與合作之人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者、系統人員、內容協作者以焦點團體方式進行初步需求調查，確認初期的基本需求，再著手系統分析設計、開發工作雛型、進行系統實作。本協作平台之系統實作過程包含軟體選擇與系統建置、網站架構規劃與功能介面修改、相關擴充套件（extension）安裝等。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統網站軟體選擇部分，本文作者曾針對wiki之父ward cunningham列出top ten wiki engine的其中八種進行比較分析，並依據各系統功能面及中文支援能力綜合評估，最後以mediawiki最高分。而目前華文世界最大的維基網站「中文維基百科」，與單一主題維基網站中經營較為成功的「台灣棒球維基館」，亦是以mediawiki作為架站軟體。由於mediawiki可參考之資源較豐富，往後網站維護與管理皆能作為借鑒，因此本研究選擇採用mediawiki架設協作系統，並命名為「淡水維基館」。同時依據大眾史學之精神，在主要內容編輯權限的設定上採完全開放，即使用者不須註冊帳號也能夠對主要內容頁面進行編輯修改。為了配合網站主題、管理需求或者為增加文字描述、超連結及輔助說明等，通常需修改mediawiki系統之介面顯示。管理者可由網站上的「特殊:系統介面」頁面瀏覽或修改網站之系統介面，所有修改皆對應於頁面名稱有一前綴字為「mediawiki:」的名字空間（namespeace），且在系統介面頁中做的修改會影響到網站相關位置的文字或排版顯示。至於mediawiki外加套件選擇部分，考量網站內容頁面若涉及景點，如古蹟或歷史建物等，需要能在頁面內容中加入地圖標示景點或古蹟位置；而在文化活動或紀錄片相關頁面，需嵌入相關的影片，依據這兩項需求，本研究需安裝能夠在wiki頁面上加入地圖與影片之套件。mediawiki套件中屬於地圖類者共種，標示為穩定版本（release status: stable）之套件共種，功能較完整且近期仍有更新的套件分別為maps以及semantic maps二種。但就語法便利性而言，後者在使用的語法上較為複雜，因此本研究選擇以 maps作為網站嵌入地圖之套件。另，mediawiki中可嵌入youtube影音之套件共種，標示為穩定版本的共種，近期有更新之套件為e m b e d vi d e o與 yo u tu b e二種。經本研究評估之後，認為以embedvideo在編寫時較為便利，只需以「|」符號隔開，而youtube則是採用html語法形式編寫，需寫出 <youtube></youtube>開頭與結尾之標籤。影音播放服務的支援上，embedvideo 可支援嵌入包含youtube影音在內十種影音播放服務，對未來若需嵌入其他影音服務的影片時易於變更，而youtube則只限於嵌入youtube影音。因此本研究選擇安裝embedvideo作為網站之影音嵌入套件。在初步系統架設完成後，透過系統介面修改、內容樣式呈現、網站架構及內容分類架構的建立，完成協作平台基本雛型架構，再由參與編輯之協作者的實際操作經驗、感想，對網站提供調整、修改意見，不斷修正網站介面、內容與架構。本研究採用此種反覆式、循序漸進的系統開發方法，強調以雛型系統作為人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者等使用者與資訊人員需求溝通與學習之工具，雙方可透過雛型之操作與回饋，以釐清、修改及擴充需求，並藉以改善系統；不僅系統的建置及修改非常快速，同時可藉由提高人文學者、歷史 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 學者、文史工作者的參與度，使得本研究開發的系統更能滿足使用者的需求。完成的系統首頁如圖。圖　淡水數位人文協作平台：「淡水維基館」首頁㈡籌組協作團隊並舉辦專家座談會本研究之核心團隊係由資訊與圖書館學專業背景師生組成，由本文作者帶領若干研究生與大學部學生組成協作小組。此外，為了進一步與專業史家和大眾史家攜手合作，於是廣邀淡江大學對淡水人文、歷史文化、社區營造有研究之學者組成專家協作團，並邀請淡水在地之文史工作者共同組成專家顧問團，以輔助研究之進行。在歷史學者方面，邀約了身為淡水學、台灣史及古蹟維護權威的歷史系周宗賢老師；長期進行淡水田野調查的中文系周彥文老師；紀錄片歷史與美學專家且持續拍攝淡水紀錄片的大傳系王慰慈老師；積極投入淡水文史研究與踏查的歷史系黃繁光老師；深入淡水社區結合在地文化與服務學習的資傳系楊智明老師、賴惠如老師；長期投入建築研究與社區營造的黃瑞茂老師；專研攝影美學與藝術的馮文星老師等。而在長期關懷地方的文史工作者方面，邀約的合作對象有：曾任淡水社區大學主任且持續關注淡水發展議題的張建隆老師；現任淡江中學校史館館長且熟稔馬偕與淡水歷史的蘇文魁老師；現任殼牌故事館館長且投入在地文化關懷與保存的謝德錫老師；現任滬尾田野工作室文史工作者且搶救古蹟文物和歷史建築不遺餘力的紀榮達老師⋯⋯等。上述協作團和顧問團成員與本研究之資訊專長人員進行跨領域合作，所有成員既 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統是本研究仰賴的內容專家，也是本系統的前導用戶。本研究於籌組專家顧問團後，陸續藉由焦點團體法於年月至年月期間舉辦了四場專家座談會。與會者人數分別是位、位、位、位，共計人次，背景涵蓋淡水學專家學者、地方文史工作者、數位典藏相關人員、攝影工作者、藝術工作者、社區營造團隊等。與會者就內容與在地連結、紀錄不同的淡水、網站典藏的內容、特殊資料的呈現和不同語言的詮釋等方面，提供許多寶貴意見與建議，整理如下。 . 內容與在地連結關於網站典藏內容的未來方向，與會者建議可由淡江大學在過去學生生活過的痕跡、走過的路線作為主題式呈現。行銷網站的部分也可用說故事的方式進行，連結淡江與淡水在地、學術與地方的結合。在網站建置過程，如果只是單純將收集之資料、文獻寫入網站，就會演變成單方面的數位典藏紀錄，學校是學校的資料、地方有地方的資料，雖都存在網站中，但互相間沒有互動與關聯。然而網站的宗旨目的是要記錄淡水的一切，就須讓學校記憶跟淡水生活連結，藉此也能讓淡江學生對自己生活的地方有更多了解，將這兩方的力量跟記憶匯流，形成一股力量才能夠長期永續的經營下去。 . 紀錄不同的淡水不同領域、不同角度視野，形成不同面貌的淡水，我們最基本看的是歷史、文化的淡水，在座談討論中更進一步看到自然風景、地理，甚至文學、畫家、音樂都能看到淡水各個面向的發展、痕跡。與會者認為在網站建置過程，有考量影像的需求而安裝了嵌入影音的套件，網站預設有插入圖片，以及用畫廊方式呈現大量相片之功能，使得網站內容可以透過影音、相片等方式呈現各頁面與淡水的風貌，是很好的設計。建議未來對於更多不同面向的淡水，如各種文學或繪畫，或者淡水地方文史工作者發起的一些運動、活動，能呈現淡水在發展過程的面貌，未來可搜集關於這些方面的資料，以主題或故事形式呈現於網站。 . 網站欠缺的內容網站初始資料畢竟內容涵蓋有限，對於內容之強化，與會者提出目前較為缺乏、未來可以增加的方向。與會者建議，現存資料在中正路老街、捷運站這一帶鬧區已經算相當豐富的，但缺乏山區等偏鄉地方的資料。除此之外，另一種被忽略的是淡水「自然景觀」方面的記錄，在開發的過程中默默地消失，同時也指出網站中缺少與淡水過去歷史背景相關的產業活動，例如淡水漁業的資料與相關頁面。觀光或官方之資料大多敘述為淡水古蹟、歷史建築、著名店家等皆有許多資料敘述，較少見對其他淡水地方文化特色、還存在的淡水老店家的描述介紹。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) . 特殊資料的呈現針對網站之資料蒐集方向，除了影音、相片或文獻資料等，有一些較為特殊的資料亦可作為未來網站典藏整理的方向。與會者由歷史的角度出發，提到淡水史與台灣史，進一步提出關於「戶籍資料」的重要性，戶籍資料可以看出過去淡水的人口情況。而過去的「地籍資料」，則可以看見過去的發展情況，透過疊圖、套圖方式，更進一步重現歷史脈絡與相關位置。 . 不同語言的詮釋淡水豐富的歷史人文背景，過去曾有西班牙人、荷蘭人、日本人、漢人等在此生活，也留下不同的民族與語言寫下該時期的歷史資料。亦有與會者建議未來也許能夠透過其他語言來詮釋淡水在地文化，或藉由不同語文的翻譯，讓外國人能夠更了解淡水，感受淡水的歷史文化故事。㈢以多元協作模式促進各方合作廣徵數位內容本研究合作之人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者等，皆是研究「淡水學」一時之選的專家學者，長期投入淡水地方學之研究，擁有許多一手資料，這些皆是本研究要徵集的數位資料來源之一。由於大多數的人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者並非資訊科技專家，對本系統之操作模式可能感到陌生。為了克服此一問題，本研究研擬了兩種資訊協作模式，以達到多方徵集數位內容，重建淡水在地記憶的目的： . 直接協作模式此模式係由內容提供者直接將數位內容上傳至本平台。採用此模式之內容提供者須熟稔系統平台之編輯介面、操作指令與系統語法。著名之維基百科、台灣棒球維基館等wiki平台皆採用此一模式。 . 間接協作模式此模式係由內容提供者透過代理人間接將數位內容上傳至本平台。對於與本研究合作之人文學者、歷史學者或文史工作者等，本研究核心團隊可藉由間接協作模式安排具專業訓練之代理人，協助其完成數位內容之編輯與上傳工作。實務上，上述兩種模式可混合運作、靈活應用，成為「混合協作模式」。以本系統（淡水維基館）為例，至本文撰稿為止（年月），已靈活混合上述兩種協作模式完成近 , 頁之內容。舉例而言，本系統初步之資料來源之一淡水學用語辭典電子書，係由本文作者林信成教授帶領之團隊與本研究專家協作團成員歷史系周宗賢教授帶領之團隊合作完成，內容分類涵括人物、神祇、文化歷史事件、古蹟與歷史建築、民俗技藝與節慶活動、街道地區、機構協會、創作、特產景點、其他等，共個詞條。該書之內容授權本研究團隊以間接協作模式代為編排上網，先將各詞條依本系統設計之頁面結構一一建立初 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統稿，再由本研究團隊逐步檢視原始詞條不足之處，後續再以直接協作模式進行內容之增補。如圖即「紅毛城」頁面最初詞條僅有文字內容，及後續逐步編排與增補照片、地圖之頁面對照。圖　協作內容之一例：〈紅毛城〉頁面茲再舉一例，本系統內容協作另一重要資料來源大淡水地區紀錄片系列，係由本研究專家協作團成員大傳系王慰慈老師、資傳系賴惠如老師、楊智明老師分別帶領所屬團隊進行拍攝，三年內共完成人物志部、食貨志部、風土志部、屯山故事部，及黏稠記憶與系友大愛部，共計部紀錄片。這些紀錄片及其相關資料，皆授權本研究團隊以間接協作模式代為編排上網，內容包含專訪文稿、訪談照片與剪輯完成的紀錄片。本研究團隊逐步進行版面設計與編排，並檢視資料內容若有不足之處，再透過實地訪查、拍攝，以及與專家學者聯繫是否有相關文獻、古籍、圖稿或老照片等加以增補，如圖即為協作內容另一例：大淡水地區全紀錄人物誌其中一部紀錄片我心中尚未崩壞的淡水。本研究依據擬定的直接協作與間接協作兩種模式，加以混合運作、靈活應用，逐步增加建立與淡水相關之人事物資料，加強平台之內容範圍與深度，並將相關圖文影音資料置於首頁，方便使用者取用（圖）。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 圖　協作內容另一例：《大淡水地區全紀錄人物誌》紀錄片頁面圖　首頁放置與淡水相關之圖文影音等成果資料 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統㈣進行淡水文史研習、史蹟踏查與地景空拍淡水學的知識範圍相當遼闊而多元，若欲詳盡研究，必須長期投注時間、人力與經費，才能讓不同時代散布四方的知識與史料文獻趨近完整性。因此本研究藉助專家協作團與顧問團之力，舉辦「淡水歷史文化探究與踏查」研習活動，分四個方面進行研習，以培訓淡水數位人文協作者： .淡水史：涵蓋淡水政治史、經濟史、社會史、軍事史面向。 .淡水古蹟文物：涵蓋歷史久遠各種傳統與西洋交會的建築。淡水經歷西班牙人、荷蘭人、英國人、日本人管理，加上漢人移民的傳統建築及寺廟古蹟，淡水呈現出漢洋雜處的風情，訴說著河港的過往，走過中正路的福佑宮，到馬偕街上的滬尾偕醫館、禮拜堂與馬偕的故事，得忌利士洋行可見當時的輸入品倉庫、建物模型等。 .淡水歷史人物：長久發展的淡水為大台北地區的咽喉，聚落、街肆、商貿、稅務、農作等皆發達，歷史上各類人物眾多，各行各業秀異人士輩出。 .淡水日常生活：淡水伴河成港，街肆聚落格局自成，食衣住行顯現淡水庶民生活百態。如渡船頭附近老街的人文地景及各種小吃，魚酥、魚丸、海鮮、肉包、阿給、鐵蛋、酸梅湯等，長年作為淡水在地民眾之生活飲食，日經月累，今皆已是深具聲名之台灣飲食，亦是觀光賣點；淡水日常生活秩序、制度與內容皆值得論述。本研究擇要進行研習、踏查與探訪，藉此可了解過去歲月遺留的痕跡。 . 文史研習歷史部分，邀請歷史系周宗賢老師講述「淡水發展史」，從滬尾街市形成、河港貿易興起，講述淡水的發展過程與歷史沿革。「淡水重建街的人文情懷」則講述淡水第一街「重建街」的故事與早期生活樣貌，過去生活一條街，有著各式店家能滿足生活上的需求，且是連接山上與山下的道路，再從老照片看重建街道的變遷。影像部分，邀請馮文星老師分享「從圖片影像看淡水的今與昔」，藉由馮老師蒐集與拍攝的照片，看淡水的景色變換，以及「因緣今昔∼ 從老照片說淡江的故事」，由老照片講述淡江大學最初館舍的外貌、周遭地景，可遠眺觀音山與淡水河，以及早期存在而今已消失的教室、水池等景色。透過對地方今昔的認識了解，加深網站撰寫的深度與廣度。 . 史蹟踏查邀請歷史系黃繁光老師帶領，實地踏查「鄞山寺」、「殼牌倉庫」、「紅毛城」與「海關碼頭」等古蹟。藉由了解各古蹟之人、事、時、地、物，如古蹟建立重修的時空背景、發展的歷史沿革、發生過的事件與周遭環境相關的故事等，讓協作者更能夠感受淡水的歷史人文，在撰寫頁面時能有真實感。並藉著踏查過程，拍攝、蒐集影像資料，做為網站典藏之影像內容。 . 地景空拍為了以不同視野看淡水，本研究更藉由資訊科技之助，以無人飛行載具攜帶高解析度攝錄影機，空拍淡水地景地貌（圖），飛越淡水的山、海、河港 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 與街市，由不同角度記錄淡水之地景、地貌，其成果包含照片、影片及可供量測之正射影像，除可擷取靜態影像、景點之鳥瞰影像，作為網站典藏內容外，亦提供給協作團隊剪輯成紀錄片畫面。目前本研究已拍攝包含大屯溪、六塊厝漁港、淡水山區有機農場、淡金海岸沿岸現存可見之石滬，觀音山、淡水河與淡水街市之遠景，以及淡水特殊地形五虎崗。其中，淡水五虎崗是大屯山脈火山熔岩蜿蜒流至「虎頭山」分為五條尾稜，形成五條如虎爪般的丘陵，目前已因都市開發難以窺其原貌。淡水的地景、地貌隨著時代變遷不斷改變，有許多已不復見，本研究在無人飛行載具輔助下，透過空拍盡可能的保留現今淡水的樣貌，且由鳥瞰畫面，讓大家進一步認識不一樣的淡水。圖　以無人載具高解析度空拍淡水地景、地貌㈤推動「大家來數位書寫淡水史」協作活動在「大家來數位書寫淡水史」活動方面，本研究團隊於年月舉辦「淡水維基館wiki寫作工作坊」，藉著工作坊教導參與者如何以維基協作系統共同參與「書寫淡水」，主要內容包含wiki編輯語法編輯與實作，帳號註冊、基本頁面編輯方式，照片上傳並引用至頁面中等教學與實作練習，期望讓網站的編輯能有外部的、在地的力量加入。㈥進行數位協作平台系統評估與使用研究本研究之系統與內容建置告一階段後，為進一步了解本系統（即「淡水維基館」，或簡稱本館、本網站）被使用之狀況，我們透過google analytics收集 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統資料，並搭配系統本身之資料進行紀錄檔分析與統計，以了解使用者之造訪、瀏覽、搜尋等數據與行為，以及使用者關注之關鍵詞、熱門主題等。 . 整體使用狀況調查本系統自年月網站初步建置起，至年月本文撰稿期間，共計年個月（個月或天）的整體使用狀況，分析結果如附表。由表可知此期間，本網站共累積了 , 頁的網頁瀏覽量，使用者總數則有 , 人，總造訪次數（新版google analytics稱為「工作階段」）達 , 次。換言之，若以每月平均數計算，則每月平均瀏覽量約為 , 頁/月，平均使用者則有 . 人/月，平均造訪次數則為 . 次/月。如果再細算至每日平均數，則每日平均瀏覽量約為頁/日，平均使用者約有人/日，平均造訪次數則為次/日。再以使用者造訪及瀏覽行為數據看，每次造訪約瀏覽 . 頁，停留分秒，而每位使用者平均造訪次數約為 . 次。若進一步分析網站每月之瀏覽量、使用者以及造訪次數（詳見附表），單月瀏覽量最高峰在年月達 , 次，第二為年月 , 次，第三則是年月 , 次；使用者部分，年月單月使用者人數達 , 人，創下最高紀錄；而造訪次數部分，單月造訪次數最高在年月，有 , 次。若進一步將每月瀏覽量、使用者、造訪次數繪製成折線圖（圖），可清楚的看見使用者與造訪次數之變化呈現高度正相關，經計算兩者pearson相關係數高達 . ，且皆存在大約以每半年為一週期的規律性循環：每年上半年從低點逐步上升到月達到高點，之後略微下降又再度上升，到月達到另一高點後又下降，然後開始另一週期性循環。每一週期高點落於月和月，低點則大約在寒暑假期間。至於造成此週期性循環的原因則有待日後進一步探討。另一方面，從圖也可清楚發現，瀏覽量基本上亦隨著使用者造訪次數呈現正相關之高低變化，相關係數也有 . 。其中比較特別的是在年月，當月使用者人數與造訪次數並不高，但瀏覽量卻是最高峰的 , 次，這是因當時處於網站建立初期，本研究團隊成員大量輸入、瀏覽、編輯網站之初始資料所致，此為創站初期的過渡現象。 . 網站熱門頁面 mediawiki提供「特殊：熱門頁面」之功能，以統計網站最常被瀏覽頁面，表顯示本網站熱門頁面前名，其中以「首頁」的瀏覽次數最多，達 , 次，其次為「淡水大事記」 , 次，緊接著分別是「紅毛城」 , 次、「淡水清水祖師廟」 , 次、「淡水海關碼頭」 , 次、「淡水女學堂」 , 次、「重建街」 , 次、「淡水學用語辭典」 , 次、「新北市私立淡江高級中學」 , 次、「淡水藝術工坊」 , 次。其中仍以古蹟、建築或具歷史文化意涵的街市頁面瀏覽量較高，這也與專家座談會中與會者觀察到的現象與意見相符，亦即 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 多數焦點集中於中正路老街、捷運站周邊、埔頂古蹟區一帶，山區等偏鄉地方或自然景觀方面的資料則較少受到關注。這也是本網站日後可努力加強的方向。 . 網站編輯量統計依據網站之「使用者列表（依編輯量排序）」功能，表顯示自建站以來的註冊使用者編輯量排序前位，皆為本研究培訓之協作團隊成員。外部註冊編輯者與匿名編輯者的編輯量極少，主要可能因網站編輯門檻較高，需要學習基本的wiki語法，以及對於網站可編輯之內容不清楚，不知可以編寫那些資料等，這也是本研究日後可再努力加強的地方。圖　每月瀏覽量、使用者、造訪次數折線圖表　網站熱門頁面前頁排序頁面名稱瀏覽次數首頁 , 淡水大事記 , 紅毛城 , 淡水清水祖師廟 , 淡水海關碼頭 , 淡水女學堂 , 重建街 , 淡水學用語辭典 , 新北市私立淡江高級中學 , 淡水藝術工坊 , http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統表　使用者列表（依編輯量排序）排序 id 編輯量 , , 五、結　論本研究本著大眾史學的精神，藉由與專業史家、大眾史家和網路社群共同合作，攜手建構一個可供眾人參與淡水地方史書寫的數位人文協作系統，以發揮大家來寫淡水史的能量，重建淡水記憶，更有效地開展淡水地方史之知識建構工作。㈠應用大眾史學概念建置數位人文協作系統大眾史學強調參與式建構，其精神包含書寫大眾的歷史、為大眾書寫歷史、由大眾書寫歷史。本研究與合作之人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者、系統人員、內容協作者，以焦點團體方式進行初步需求調查，確認基本需求後，著手系統分析設計、開發工作雛型、進行系統實作。在系統方面，本研究選擇以能夠實現參與式建構的wiki協作系統，作為數位時代符合大眾史學精神之共筆工具，其成果網站命名為「淡水維基館」，同時將主要內容之編輯權限完全對使用者開放，供大眾進行編輯修改。且以初步完成之雛型系統，作為人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者等使用者與資訊人員需求溝通與學習之工具，雙方透過雛型之操作與回饋，以釐清、修改及擴充需求，藉以改善系統，加快系統建置與改善過程，也藉此提高人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者的參與度。㈡大眾史學精神下之數位內容產出與徵集藉由研擬出數位人文協作系統之資訊協作模式，以及相關活動舉辦來增加參與程度，讓大眾成為系統之內容提供者，達成大眾史學強調的參與式建構，也是由大眾來書寫歷史的一部分。本研究籌組協作團隊並舉辦專家座談會，廣納專業史家與大眾史家之意見與資料，並透過系統建置過程及座談會之交流，研擬數位人文協作系統的兩種資訊協作模式為： .直接協作模式：由內容提供者直接將數位內容上傳至本 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 平台； .間接協作模式：由內容提供者透過代理人間接將數位內容上傳至本平台。而在實務上本研究建置之「淡水維基館」是將兩種模式混合運作的「混合協作模式」，至本文撰稿為止（年月）已完成近 , 頁之內容，結合了專業史家、大眾史家所提供的內容，以及由本研究團隊實際研究調查或實地探勘所產出之內容，如淡水文史研習、史蹟踏查與地景空拍等。本研究更進一步以「大家來數位書寫淡水史」協作活動的舉辦，引導參與者加入「淡水記憶‧數位共筆」行列。㈢應用大眾史學概念建置數位人文協作系統之使用情況本研究於系統建置完成後，透過google analytics收集資料，並搭配系統本身之資料進行紀錄檔分析與統計，以了解使用者參與之情況如造訪、瀏覽、搜尋等數據與行為，以及使用者關注之關鍵詞、熱門主題等。大眾史學的三項精神：為大眾書寫歷史、書寫大眾的歷史，最後由大眾書寫歷史。在目前這個階段，已達成由本研究籌組核心團隊「為大眾書寫歷史」及「書寫大眾的歷史」，讓歷史與大眾更加接近，未來將加強推廣協作平台之編輯教學，讓更多社會大眾參與，達成「由大眾書寫歷史」的終極目標。本研究是一個持續進行的長期計畫，未來仍將本著行動研究精神，進入 paor下一循環，無論是系統建構、內容協作或使用評估方面，都將進一步進行更深入之探究，以使本系統平台更貼近使用者之需求。誌　　謝本研究感謝科技部編號most - -h- - -my 研究計畫、淡江大學文學院重點研究計畫經費補助，專家協作團及顧問團成員周宗賢教授、周彥文教授、王慰慈教授、黃繁光教授、楊智明教授、賴惠如教授、黃瑞茂教授、馮文星老師、張建隆老師、蘇文魁老師、謝德錫老師、紀榮達老師⋯⋯ 等，以及許多無法一一列舉的社會賢達、在地人士、師生團隊齊力合作，不吝提供資料、建議與協助，使得本研究得以順利進行，在此一併致謝。註　　釋 . vincent shen, confucianism, taoism and constructive realism (wien: wuv- universitätsverlag, ), accessed october , , http://www.crvp.org/book/series /iii- / chapter_viii.htm；黃光國，「現代性的不連續性假說與建構實在論：論本土心理學的哲學基礎」，香港社會科學學報，期（年冬季）： - ；黃光國，「心理學本土化運動的過去、現在與未來」，人文與社會科學簡訊卷，期（年月）： - 。 . 周樑楷，「大眾史學的定義和意義」，在人人都是史家：大眾史學論集第一冊，周樑楷主編（台中市：采玉，），，檢索於年月日，http://myweb. fcu.edu.tw/~t / /paper /public history.pdf。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統 . 同上註。 . 同上註，。 . 林呈蓉，「『淡水學』研究的回顧與展望」，（論文發表於年第七屆台北學暨第九屆北投學學術研討會－臺灣學內涵的建構，台北市，年月日）， - ，檢索於年月日，http://www.btcc.org.tw/web/ tc/ .pdf。 . 周宗賢，淡水輝煌的歲月（台北市：臺灣商務，），iii-vi。 . 滬尾文史工作室，「滬尾街」，淡水，無日期，檢索於年月日，http:// tamsui.yam.org.tw/hubest/hubest .htm。 . 財團法人淡水文化基金會，「文化淡水社區報」，淡水文化基金會，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://www.tamsui.org.tw/culture/。 . 林信成，開放式數位典藏系統之研究（台北市：文華，）， - 。 . the library of congress, “american memory,” n.d., accessed october , , http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html; canadian heritage information network, “about us,” n.d., accessed october , , http://www.rcip-chin.gc.ca/apropos-about/index-eng. jsp; renato iannella, “australian digital library initiative,” d-lib magazine, december , accessed october , , http://www.dlib.org/dlib/december / iannella.html; the library of congress, “world digital library,” world digital library, n.d., accessed october , , http://www.wdl.org/. . 中央研究院，數位典藏與數位學習國家型科技計畫，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://www.teldap.tw/。 . 項潔編，從保存到創造：開啟數位人文研究（台北市：國立臺灣大學出版中心，）， - 。 . tim o’reilly, “what is web . : design patterns and business models for the next generation of software,” o’reilly media, september , , accessed october , , http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web /archive/what-is-web- .html. . markus angermeier, “the huge cloud lens bubble map web . ,” kosmar, no- vember , , accessed october , , http://kosmar.de/archives/ / / /the-huge- cloud-lens-bubble-map-web /. . bo leuf and ward cunningham, the wiki way: quick collaboration on the web (boston: addison-wesley, ), . . “wikiwikiweb,” cunningham & cunningham, december , , accessed october , , http://c .com/cgi/wiki; “portland pattern repository,” cunningham & cunningham, november , , accessed october , , http://c .com/cgi/wiki?portlandpatternreposi- tory. . wikipedia, s.v. “wikipedia,” accessed october , , http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ wikipedia; meredith farkas, “library success: a best practices wiki,” library success, last modified october , , accessed october , , http://www.libsuccess.org/; archivope- dia, accessed october , , http://archivopedia.com/；「醫學快紀」，wikia，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://medicine.zh-tw.org/；mozilla taiwan, “mozilla taiwan com- munity,” moztw wiki, last modified december , , accessed october , , http:// wiki.moztw.org；「背包攻略」，背包攻略，最後更新於年月日，檢索於年月日，http://www.backpackers.com.tw/guide/；「台灣棒球維基館」，台灣棒球維基 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 館，最後更新於年月日，檢索於年月日，http://twbsball.dils.tku.edu. tw/。 . 張春興，張氏心理學辭典（台北市：東華書局，），。 . robin mctaggart, ed., participatory action research: international contexts and consequences (albany: state university of new york press, ), . . center for technology in government university at albany/suny, “a survey of system development process models,” , accessed october , , http://www.ctg; jus- tus d. naumann and a. milton jenkins, “prototyping: the new paradigm for systems devel- opment,” mis quarterly , no. (september ): ；季延平、郭鴻志，「系統分析與設計 -prototyping: 雛型方法」，國立中興大學，無日期，檢索於年月日，http:// web.nchu.edu.tw/~jlu/classes/ooad/proto.html。 . hamid r. jamali, david nichlas, and paul huntington, “the use and users of schol- arly e-journals: a review of log analysis studies,” aslib proceedings: new information per- spectives , no. ( ): - . . “top ten wiki engines,” cunningham & cunningham, september , , accessed october , , http://c .com/cgi/wiki?toptenwikiengines；林信成、陳瑩潔、游忠諺，「wiki協作系統應用於數位典藏之內容加值與知識匯集」，教育資料與圖書館學卷，期（年月）：。 . 「淡水維基館」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://tamsui. d i l s . t k u . e d u . t w / i n d e x . p h p / % e % % b % e % a e % a : % e % % % e % c % % e %bf%a %e % %af。 . “category:map extensions,” mediawiki, n.d., accessed feb , , http://www.me- diawiki.org/wiki/category:map_extensions. . “category: youtube extensions,” mediawiki, n.d., accessed feb , , http:// www.mediawiki.org/wiki/category:youtube_extensions. . 「熱門頁面」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http:// tamsui.dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/特殊:熱點頁面。 . 「使用者列表（依編輯量排序）」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://tamsui.dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/特殊:listusersbyedits。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統附　錄附表　網站整體使用狀況統計表項目數量說明瀏覽量 , 頁網頁的總瀏覽數（page views），即網站中被瀏覽的所有頁數總和使用者 , 人與網站互動的使用者，通常以不重複ip計算，因此，以同一ip進行的造訪會被視為同一人工作階段（造訪次數） , 次工作階段是指使用者積極與網站互動的這段期間，亦即自連線上該網站起，至離開該網站止，每一工作階段可視為一次造訪單次工作階段頁數 . 頁瀏覽量／工作階段平均工作階段時間長度：：自連線上該網站起，至離開該網站止的時間記為一次工作階段（造訪）時間。將每次的工作階段時間加總即為總工作階段時間。因此，平均工作階段時間＝總工作階段時間／工作階段跳出率 . % 瀏覽一頁即離開的比率新工作階段 . % 第一次造訪的比率單月暨單日平均數每月平均網頁瀏覽量 , 頁/月瀏覽量／統計總月數每月平均使用者 . 人/月使用者／統計總月數每月平均工作階段（造訪次數） . 次/月工作階段（造訪次數）／統計總月數每日平均網頁瀏覽量約頁/日瀏覽量／統計總日數每日平均使用者約人/日使用者／統計總日數每日平均工作階段（造訪次數）約次/日工作階段（造訪次數）／統計總日數 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 林信成 - - - 陳美聖 - - - 附表　每月瀏覽量、使用者、造訪次數年月瀏覽量使用者造訪次數 / , / , / , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : (winter ) : - doi: . /joemls. . / .rs.cm r es ea rc h a rt ic le applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory sinn-cheng lina* mei-sheng chenb abstract tamsui is the most important part of taiwan’s history, four more than a century, rich and diverse cultural assets, historical style, very worth to be organized and systematic research, preservation, promotion and application. this study in the spirit of public historiography, by working together with professional historians, public historians, and the internet community, using digital technology, audio and video media, aerial photography technology, combined with web . in the wiki platform, to construct a for everyone involved in tamsui science writing digital humanities collaboration system, to play the public co-write energy fresh local history and build a fresh memory, construction work so fresh knowledge more effectively. this system can help historians, cultural workers, and the community’s cultural tour, more efficiently explore tamsui’s local knowledge, cultural origins, social change, landscape, ecological environment and important historical deeds; but also can provide the desired outcomes researchers academic research as a reference. keywords: digital humanities, public history, tamsui study, wiki collaboration summary tamsui, formerly called hobe, is a town with a history of four hundred years. located in the northwest part of taipei basin, wandering around datun mountains and tamsui river, tamsui is with features of both a mountain town and a river port, and has kept lots of precious culture heritages, worth researching, conserving, promoting and utilizing in an organizational and systematic way. this study is based on concepts of public history and features of digital archives and web . , involving collaboration among professional historians, public historians and participants in social media, to build a digital archive of tamsui local a professor, department of information and library science, tamkang university, taipei, taiwan b research assistant, department of information and library science, tamkang university, taipei, taiwan * principal author for all correspondence. e-mail: sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : (winter ) histories, for everybody to contribute writing about tamsui histories and rebuild memories about tamsui. the results could be used to construct knowledge of tamsui local histories, and help historians, cultural and history workers, culture relic collectors, as well as anyone who is interested, to explore tamsui local knowledge, cultural origins, social changes and important historical events in a more efficient way. the results could also be a valuable reference for scholars in related academic fields. research questions and methodology the research questions of this study include: ( ) how to build a digital humanities collaborative system based on concepts of public history? ( ) how does this digital humanities collaborative system produce or collect digital content responding to the calls of public history? and ( ) what are the usages and possible challenges or issues related to this digital humanities collaborative system? the action research method balancing between theories and practices is adopted as the theoretical framework for this study, with assistances of methods including system construction, field study, focus group, and log analysis. the goal is to construct a digital collaborative platform for assisting humanities studies, to develop a collaborative model for producing and collecting digital content, and to investigate and evaluate the usages and usability of digital collaborative platforms. this study is based on the wiki collaborative system to develop participative construction. through the circulative process of action research—planning, acting, observing, reflecting (paor)—problems encountered in system building and working are solved. based on our research questions and methodology mentioned before, action plans are developed and implemented step by step. . actually constructing a digital humanities collaborative system of tamsui a digital collaborative platform is adopted as the tool for collaborative writing about public history. at the first stage of building the system prototype, scholars who participate in this collaboration are elicited about their basic needs through focus group surveys, and then the researchers engage in system analysis and design, develop system prototype, and implement system construction. based on concepts of public history, the end product, tamsui wiki website, is open for the public to participate in contributing and editing the content. . recruiting a collaborative team and holding professional seminars the core team consists of teachers and students in the field of library and information science, and the researchers lead a collaborative team consisting of several graduate and undergraduate students. a collaborative expert panel is set up consisting of scholars at tamkang university in the fields of tamsui http://joemls.tku.edu.tw lin and chen: applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory humanities, history and culture, and community development. an advisory board consists of tamsui local cultural and history workers, for assisting in conducting this study. through the focus group method, four professional seminars were held between june of and may of , with , , , and participants respectively, and a total of participants. these participants offer their opinions and suggestions on recording different aspects of tamsui, building the content of a digital archive, presenting special materials, and interpreting different languages. . collecting digital content through a collaborative model that involves professionals from multiple and diverse fields humanities scholars, historians, and cultural and history workers who participate in this study have engaged in studying tamsui local chronicles for a certain amount of time and collected lots of first-hand historical materials, which are one of information sources that could be collected into the archive of this study. meanwhile, to overcome the threshold of system operation, two information collaborative models are developed for achieving the goal of collecting digital content from multiple and diverse sources. one is the direct collaboration model, in which the content providers upload the digital content unto our digital platform, and the other is indirect collaboration model, in which the digital content is uploaded to the platform by agents. these two models are used interchangeably in this study in a flexible way. . conduct tamsui culture and history workshops, historical site visits and aero photo shooting at landscapes through the efforts of the collaborative expert panel and the advisory board, the historical and cultural exploration and investigation seminar is held, with four major features, including tamsui histories, tamsui historical sites and cultural artifacts, tamsui historical figures, and tamsui daily routines. research methods used in this seminar include historical and cultural studies, visits of historical sites, and aero-snapshots of landscapes. . promoting the collaborative writing event of “everybody comes to digitally write about tamsui histories” our research team held a “writing workshop for tamsui wiki” in may , in which we taught participants to write about tamsui histories through the wiki collaborative system, involving skills and techniques include account creation, wiki page editing, and uploading and hyper-linking images unto pages. the goal is for the tamsui wiki to have both external and local inputs. . conducting the evaluation and usability study of the digital collaborative writing system based on google analytics, as well as the log analysis and statistics of our system, it is found that from the first stage of website building in september http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : (winter ) to the writing of this article in september , during a total of months, the overall number of page views has reached , , with a total of , users and , visits. based on the free software mediawiki, the top three most viewed pages are main page (with a total of , visits), tamsui chronicles ( , visits), and fort san domingo ( , ). the most visited pages involve historical sites, architecture, and streets of cultural and historical meanings. this fact is consistent with what is observed by participants in professional seminars. pages about information on mountain and rural areas or natural landscapes are relatively less visited. users who highly engaged in editing pages are mostly members of the collaborative team trained for this study. external users rarely engage in editing pages, either with a registered account name or in anonymous status. this might be resulted from the fact that page editing involves learning basic computer grammars, which places a higher threshold for editing, or just because users are not clear about what content could be edited. these little drawbacks involving using the tamsui wiki could be improved in the future. conclusion participative construction is emphasized in the field of public history, thus in this study we develop a digital humanities collaborative system based on concepts of public history, and make this system open to the public for them to contribute and edit the content. direct, indirect and mixed collaboration models are adopted in this study for the production and collection of digital content, also based on concepts of public history. related activities are held for enhancing participation of the public, for them to become providers of content. based on the data from google analytics and the website’s log analysis, statistics on users’ participation (such as visiting, viewing, searching) and keywords and hot topics that users attend are used to investigate the usages of a digital humanities collaborative system based on concepts of public history. this is a long-term study project. in the future, the researcher team will advance to the next round of action research process (planning, acting, observing and reflecting), and further investigate issues on system construction, content collaboration and usage evaluation, for this system to be more satisfying regarding user needs. romanized & translated notes for original text . vincent shen, confucianism, taoism and constructive realism (wien: wuv- universitätsverlag, ), accessed october , , http://www.crvp.org/book/series /iii- / c h a p t e r_v i i i.h t m；黃光國，「現代性的不連續性假說與建構實在論：論本土心理學的哲學基礎」，香港社會科學學報，期（年冬季）： - ；黃光國，「心理學本土化運動的過去、現在與未來」，人文與社會科學簡訊卷，期（年月）： http://joemls.tku.edu.tw lin and chen: applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory - 。【vincent 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(in chinese)】 . 「使用者列表(依編輯量排序)」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://tamsui.dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/特殊:listusersbyedits。【“shiyongzhe liebiao (yi bianjiliang paixu),” tamsui wiki, n.d., accessed october , , http://tamsui. dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/%e % %b %e %ae% a:listusersbyedits. (in chinese)】 sinn-cheng lin - - - mei-sheng chen - - - adp b.tmp journal of educational media & library sciences http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vol. , no. (winter ) : - summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( – ) september www.neh.gov/odh summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ table of contents acknowledgements ..................................................................... introduction................................................................................ start-up awards by project director’s discipline ........................ start-up applicants from universities ......................................... start-up applicants from non-universities.................................. start-up funding by year............................................................ map of awarded start-up grants................................................. summary findings, – ................................................. outcomes .......................................................................... unanticipated problems .................................................... implications ...................................................................... future plans ...................................................................... conclusion......................................................................... attachments a. list of websites............................................................ b. software or tools ......................................................... c. blogs/media/press ...................................................... d. publications ................................................................. e. exhibits, workshops, and conferences ......................... summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ acknowledgements first, a big thank-you to the staff of the office of digital humanities who read many hundreds of draft proposals, chaired the bulk of the panels, championed projects, and made this program a success: michael hall, jason rhody, and jennifer serventi. also, thanks to the many guest program officers from other neh divisions and offices who volunteered their time chairing start-up panels: barbara ashbrook, julie goldsmith, karen mittelman, julia nguyen, tom phelps, danielle shapiro, stefanie walker, david weinstein, and joel wurl. a special thanks to fred winter, who wrote the original guidelines for the start-up grant program and jerri shepherd, from the neh’s office of grant management, who awarded, processed, and managed all the successful projects. the front cover image was created using jonathan feinberg’s wordle software. it is a word cloud taken from the abstracts of all the funded start-up grants. lastly, thanks go to kathy toavs, neh management and program analyst, who surveyed all our grantees from – and wrote the summary findings that form the bulk of this report. http://www.wordle.net/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ introduction on march , , the neh invited a number of scholars to our offices in washington to help us brainstorm on how the agency might best help the field when it came to the digital humanities. we dubbed this meeting the “digital humanities mini-conference” and had a day-long conversation with a number of neh-funded scholars who had done pioneering work in digital scholarship. in attendance were john unsworth, michael mcrobbie, david bodenhamer, bernard frischer, janet murray, ken price, worthy martin, vernon burton, and tom scheinfeldt. lisa spiro, clifford lynch, and roy rosenzweig sent us suggestions via e- mail but were unable to attend in person. the group discussed the increasing impact of technology across all humanities disciplines. several themes seemed to emerge from the conversation. one important point was that the stuff that humanists study (books, newspapers, music, images) were increasingly becoming available in digital form. this increased access had many advantages but also had implicit dangers. to paraphrase historian roy rosenzweig, we seemed to be headed for an age of abundance, as literally millions of pages of materials were being put on the web, forever changing the methods of scholarship. this led to the second point, which is the importance of “digital humanists” in the overall humanities landscape. that is, people who are comfortable both in the humanities disciplines and in the disciplines of library and information science, computer science, and other technical areas who can help to build the humanities archives, libraries, and research tools necessary for the field. there was a feeling that the well-established system of humanities graduate training wasn’t currently emphasizing this new breed of scholar nor recognizing how important they would be over the coming years. nor did the entrenched promotion and tenure system reward scholars who worked collaboratively with others outside of their discipline on projects that were heavily technology focused. the group suggested that the neh might be well-suited to use our imprimatur to help move the humanities forward in this regard and to start a much more sustained conversation around the topic of digital humanities and the importance of building what the acls (american council of learned societies) would later refer to as a humanities “cyberinfrastructure;” that is, the technology tools, standards, best practices and, most importantly, people and organizations capable of guiding the humanities through the digital era. across campus, we have already seen how technology has greatly changed the way scientists do their work. it has not simply allowed for faster or more efficient research; rather, it has allowed for research that could not take place before. the humanities needed to play a role in building its own technology infrastructure and, the group argued, the neh could play a role in making that happen. one specific suggestion the group had was for an neh grant program that funded innovative new methods but that cut across our traditional divisions. the group noted that technology was breaking down walls between research, education, public programs, preservation and access. a digital edition, for example, may well contain a public programming element, be assigned in a classroom setting, be used by researchers, and also provide better access to materials. so where does it fall? the group felt that a grant program that focused on the digital scholarship and cut across the traditional program boundaries might be an excellent way to spur innovative work. immediately after the conference, the neh formed a digital humanities working group to discuss ways in which we might address the issues raised at the mini conference. this group included representatives from across the endowment. in just a matter of weeks, this http://www.acls.org/programs/default.aspx?id= summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ working group put together the guidelines for the digital humanities start-up grant program which was officially announced to the public in the summer of . the start-up grant program had a number of interesting features. it would be cross- cutting; that is, the work proposed could involve aspects of research, education, public programming, preservation, or access. the work could also focus on new methods, on specific humanities content, or a combination of both. this methodological focus proved to be a key, as many digital humanities projects focus on developing the underlying methods of scholarship. the hope was to give projects an opportunity to develop these new methods, tools, and technologies so that, down the road, they could be used in a wide variety of humanities settings, e.g. in a research project, in an education project, or in a museum or other public venue. another interesting feature of the start-up grant program was a focus on innovation, future potential, and “high risk/high reward.” like a basic research grant program in the sciences, the guidelines were designed to encourage applicants to propose innovative projects that had long-term potential but in the short term needed funds to do preliminary work, to test out ideas, to develop prototypes, to get their planning in order, and perform other tasks necessary for the successful implementation of a digital project. we recognized the fact that digital projects can be expensive – not necessarily because of the technology, per se, but rather because of the people involved. unlike the stereotypical single-authored monograph project in the humanities, digital projects are almost always collaborative. the best projects bring together people from multiple specialties, including scholars, librarians, information scientists, computer scientists, museum professionals, and others. one hope was that this start-up program would be an opportunity for the team to use the modest start-up funds to test out some ideas, bring the right team together, meet with other scholars, and basically do the legwork that would later put them in better position to win a larger award from another neh grant program (or, for that matter, from another funder). the program also encouraged projects that studied the impact of technology, both on our culture as well as on the practices of the academic humanities itself. due in part to the important involvement of libraries in digital humanities projects, our colleagues at the institute of museum and library services agreed to contribute some funds to the start-up grant program. (the chart on page breaks down each agency’s contribution). since the announcement in , the “sug” program, as it is fondly known, has quickly grown into one of the most popular programs at the neh. the sug program has two deadlines per year. while having two deadlines is more work for staff, it enables applicants to hear back quickly and gives them time to revise and resubmit their application to the next deadline. this is our attempt at keeping up with “internet speed.” all sug awardees, as of , are required to submit an end-of-grant “white paper” which is posted on the neh’s own web site. this white paper, freely shared with the public, is an opportunity for these projects to share their lessons learned with their colleagues and the general public. building an infrastructure is not a solitary task; our white paper library of funded projects is becoming a valuable resource for the field. at the conclusion of the fourth year of the sug program, we have received a total of applications and made awards (meaning a very competitive % funding ratio). over that time, we brought in peer reviewers to evaluate the applications. it is important to note that we’ve rarely had a peer reviewer serve more than once, as interest in serving on a digital humanities panel continues to grow. in the pages immediately following, we have summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ put together some charts demonstrating what kinds of institutions are submitting these applications. the bulk of this summary report reflects work done by the neh’s kathy toavs who got in touch with of the project directors from the first two years of the program ( and ). we chose just the first two years because we wanted to talk to project directors who had concluded their work to find out more about outcomes. kathy provides an overview of her research including a thorough discussion of the many publications, conferences, web sites, and software tools that emerged from the first two years of the sug program. she also asked the project directors for their feedback on the program and kathy provides an excellent summary of their thoughts. on the whole, we have been delighted with the direction of the sug program and very encouraged about the fact that many of the projects have not only produced excellent results but also used the grant as a stepping-stone to further funding. we have seen many examples of this. recently, the acls announced the winners of their prestigious digital innovation fellowships and we were pleased to see that three of the five awardees were former sug projects. we’ve seen other projects graduate from the sug program and move on to major funding at other agencies like the nsf and private funders like the andrew mellon foundation. other sug projects have moved on to larger grants in neh programs offered by other offices and divisions. also useful to hear was the project directors’ thoughts on the impact of the sug program on their career and on the field in a larger sense. many of the project directors quoted in this report make mention of the importance of the neh imprimatur for their careers in the nascent digital humanities field. in a bit of late-breaking news, i was quite surprised and encouraged to see a front-page story in the new york times on august , entitled “scholars test web alternative to peer review” that focused on two of the start-up grant projects. many start-up grants receive media coverage, of course (see attachment c), but the fact that this piece peaked as the number one most-emailed article on the times’ website seems to demonstrate wide interest. while small, we feel these grants have had an impact larger than their budgets might suggest and we look forward to watching them continue to develop over the coming years. brett bobley chief information officer director, office of digital humanities national endowment for the humanities bbobley@neh.gov http://www.acls.org/research/digital.aspx?id= http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/ peer.html http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/ peer.html summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ digital humanities start-up grant awards sorted by project director discipline american history ( ) hd- - university of central florida, orlando project director: lori walters come back to the fair hd- - university of virginia project director: scot french and bill ferster jefferson's travels: a digital journey using the historybrowser hd- - university of richmond project director: andrew torget visualizing the past: tools and techniques for understanding historical processes hd- - connecticut humanities council project director: bruce fraser connecticut's heritage echosystem: resolving the challenges to interoperability across disparate digital repositories hd- - university of illinois project director: s. edelson the cartography of american colonization database project hd- - university of california, riverside project director: steven hackel the early california cultural atlas hd- - kansas state university project director: bonnie lynn-sherow lost kansas: recovering the legacy of kansas places and people hd- - marist college project director: ron coleman a digital pathfinder for historic sites hd- - western reserve historical society project director: edward pershey (ai) artificially intelligent artifact interpreter hd- - university of richmond project director: edward ayers landscapes of the american past: visualizing emancipation hd- - bank street college of education project director: bernadette anand civil rights movement remix (crm-remix) hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: david lester mith api workshop hd- - montana preservation alliance project director: kathryn hampton the touchstone project: saving and sharing montana's community heritage hd- - university of california, riverside project director: steven hackel the early california cultural atlas american literature ( ) hd- - university of texas, austin summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ project director: samuel baker the ecommentary machine project hd- - hofstra university project director: john bryant melville, revision, and collaborative editing: toward a critical archive hd- - american association for state and local history project director: matthew gibson online encyclopedia best practices and standards hd- - university of nebraska, lincoln project director: andrew jewell the crowded page hd- - suny research foundation, college at purchase project director: m. jon rubin internationalizing humanities education through globally networked learning hd- - cuny research foundation, nyc college of technology project director: matthew gold looking for whitman: the poetry of place in the life and work of walt whitman hd- - electronic literature organization project director: joseph tabbi electronic literature directory: collaborative knowledge management for the literary humanities hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: tanya clement professionalization in digital humanities centers american studies ( ) hd- - duke university project director: matthew cohen interface development for static multimedia documents hd- - lake forest college project director: davis schneiderman virtual burnham initiative ancient literature ( ) hd- - university of california, berkeley project director: niek veldhuis berkeley prosopography services: building research communities and restoring ancient communities through digital tools anthropology ( ) hd- - washington state university project director: kimberly christen mukurtu: an indigenous archive and publishing tool hd- - sweet briar college project director: lynn rainville african-american families database: community formation in albemarle county, virginia, - hd- - lewis and clark college project director: oren kosansky intellectual property and international collaboration in the digital humanities: the moroccan jewish community archives archaeology ( ) summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ hd- - cuny research foundation, brooklyn college project director: h. arthur bankoff cuneiform forensics - d digital analysis of cuneiform tablet production hd- - university of pennsylvania project director: david romano digital corinth synchronized database project hd- - mississippi state university project director: paul jacobs distributed archives transaction system hd- - university of chicago project director: nadine moeller digital documentation of a provincial town in ancient egypt hd- - state of vermont division for historic preservation project director: giovanna peebles creating a sense of place through archeology: moving archeology from deep storage into the public eye through the internet hd- - michigan state university project director: ethan watrall red land/black land: teaching ancient egyptian history through game-based learning architecture ( ) hd- - university of new mexico project director: jennifer von schwerin digital documentation and reconstruction of an ancient maya temple and prototype design of internet gis database of maya arch hd- - university of california, los angeles project director: lisa snyder software interface for real-time exploration of three-dimensional computer models of historic urban environments hd- - university of new mexico project director: jennifer von schwerin digital documentation and reconstruction of an ancient maya temple and prototype of internet gis database of maya architectur hd- - university of georgia project director: stefaan van liefferinge ai for architectural discourse archival management and conservation ( ) hd- - northeast historic film project director: karan sheldon finding and using moving images in context hd- - city of philadelphia, department of records project director: joan decker historic overlays on smart phones art history and criticism ( ) hd- - coastal carolina university project director: arne flaten ashes art: virtual reconstructions of ancient monuments hd- - old north foundation of boston, inc. project director: laura northridge tories, timid, or true blue? hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: amy gansell summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ identifying regional design templates of ancient near eastern ivory sculptures of women using computer technology hd- - alexandria archive institute project director: nada shabout the open modern art collection of iraq: web tools for documenting, sharing and enriching iraqi artistic expressions hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: paul kaiser spatialising photographic archives hd- - university of california, san diego project director: lev manovich interactive visualization of media collections for humanities research british literature ( ) hd- - university of california, berkeley project director: alan nelson records of early english drama: digital innovations for enhanced access hd- - new york university project director: robert squillace simonides: a student-centered humanities learning tool hd- - drew university project director: martin foys digital mappaemundi: a resource for the study of medieval maps and geographic texts hd- - early manuscripts electronic library project director: adrian wisnicki the nyangwe diary of david livingstone: restoring the text classics ( ) hd- - university of virginia project director: bernard frischer new digital tools for restoring polychromy to d digital models of sculpture hd- - university of virginia project director: david koller supercomputing for digitized d models of cultural heritage composition and rhetoric ( ) hd- - hope college project director: christian spielvogel living in the valley of the shadow: the creation of a web-based, role-playing simulation on the civil war hd- - michigan state university project director: william hart-davidson archive . : imagining the michigan state university israelite samaritan scroll collection dance history and criticism ( ) hd- - university of virginia project director: bradford bennett artefact movement thesaurus education ( ) hd- - university of nebraska, lincoln project director: brian pytlik zillig summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ evince visualization and analysis tool hd- - wayne state university project director: nardina mein the digital learning and development environment hd- - apprend foundation project director: laurel sneed crafting freedom along nc :discovering hidden history with mobile technology hd- - kent state university main campus project director: mark van't hooft the geohistorian project hd- - center for civic education project director: kaavya krishna project citizen casebase: strengthening youth voices in an open-source democracy hd- - publicvr project director: jeffrey jacobson egyptian ceremony in the virtual temple- avatars for virtual heritage english ( ) hd- - loyola university, chicago project director: peter shillingsburg humanities research infrastructure and tools (hrit): an environment for collaborative textual scholarship hd- - university of southern california project director: bruce smith and katherine rowe the cambridge world shakespeare encyclopedia: an international digital resource for study, teaching, and research hd- - cuny research foundation, nyc college of technology project director: matthew gold looking for whitman: the poetry of place in the life and work of walt whitman - level hd- - university of south carolina research foundation project director: george williams braillesc.org far eastern history ( ) hd- - university of california, santa cruz project director: alan christy eternal flames: living memories of the pacific war film history and criticism ( ) hd- - university of chicago project director: yuri tsivian cinemetrics, a digital laboratory for film studies. folklore/folklife ( ) hd- - university of kentucky research foundation project director: jeanmarie rouhier-willoughby russian folk religious imagination hd- - piedmont folk legacies, inc. project director: greg adams vernacular music material culture in space and time summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ french language ( ) hd- - old dominion university research foundation project director: betty facer the impact of academic podcasting: emerging technologies in the foreign language classroom hd- - university of chicago project director: robert morrissey dictionnaire vivant de la langue francaise (dvlf): expanding the french dictionary geography ( ) hd- - kohala center project director: karen kemp hawaii island digital collaboratory history ( ) hd- - university of california, irvine project director: patricia seed the development of mapping: portuguese cartography and coastal africa - hd- - eldridge street project, inc./museum at eldridge street project director: hanna griff-sleven illuminating the immigrant experience: level i digital start-up grant hd- - university of nebraska, board of regents project director: william seefeldt sustaining digital history hd- - george mason university project director: dan cohen scholar press hd- - university of north texas project director: andrew torget mapping historical texts: combining text-mining & geo-visualization to unlock the research potential of historical newspapers history and philosophy of science, technology, and medicine ( ) hd- - indiana university, bloomington project director: colin allen inpho: the indiana philosophy ontology project history of religion ( ) hd- - george mason university project director: sharon leon crowdsourcing documentary transcription: an open source tool humanities ( ) hd- - maine humanities council project director: brita zitin podcasting and the maine humanities council: integrating a new tool for public humanities education hd- - university of arizona project director: davison koenig virtual vault hd- - brown university summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ project director: julia flanders encoding names for contextual exploration in digital thematic research collections hd- - university of north carolina, chapel hill project director: natalia smith image to xml (img xml) hd- - itasca community college project director: timothy powell gibagadinamaagoom: an ojibwe digital archive hd- - university of north carolina, chapel hill project director: natalia smith main street, carolina: uncovering and reclaiming the history of downtown hd- - brown university project director: andrew ashton semantically rich tools for text exploration hd- - georgia tech research corporation project director: douglas (fox) harrell gesture, rhetoric, and digital storytelling hd- - brown university project director: julia flanders a journal-driven bibliography of digital humanities hd- - illinois state university, milner library project director: cheryl ball building a better back-end: editor, author, & reader tools for scholarly multimedia hd- - dartmouth college project director: mikhail gronas mapping the history of knowledge: text-based tools and algorithms for tracking the development of concepts hd- - st. louis university project director: james ginther the t-pen tool: sustainability and quality control in encoding handwritten texts interdisciplinary ( ) hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: michael newton building information visualization into next-generation digital humanities collaboratories hd- - university of virginia project director: worthy martin presenting progressions hd- - texas a & m research foundation project director: wei yan high dynamic range imaging for preserving chromaticity information of architectural heritage hd- - emerson college project director: eric gordon the digital lyceum: emerging frameworks for participation in live humanities events hd- - indiana university, indianapolis project director: david bodenhamer conceptualizing humanities gis: an expert planning workshop on religion in the atlantic world hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: daniel visel sophie search gateway summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ hd- - wheaton college project director: mark leblanc pattern recognition through computational stylistics: old english and beyond hd- - university of massachusetts, boston project director: joanne riley online social networking for the humanities: the massachusetts studies network prototype hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: bob stein where minds meet: new architectures for the study of history and music hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: douglas reside electronic broadway project hd- - ohio state university research foundation project director: h. lewis ulman and melanie schlosser reliable witnesses: integrating multimedia, distributed electronic textual editions into library collections hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: jennifer golbeck visualizing archival collections hd- - plymouth state university project director: casey bisson scriblio mu hd- - center for independent documentary project director: michael epstein murder at harvard mobile hd- - california state university, dominguez hills foundation project director: vivian price new approaches: tradeswomen archive project (tap) hd- - indiana university, bloomington project director: christopher raphael optical music recognition on the international music score library project italian literature ( ) hd- - university of oregon, eugene project director: massimo lollini oregon petrarch open book journalism ( ) hd- - loyola college in maryland project director: elliott king the journalism history hub: developing a research-based interdisciplinary social network and meta-conference languages ( ) hd- - university of alaska, fairbanks project director: siri tuttle minto songs library science, archival management, and conservation ( ) hd- - syracuse university project director: anne diekema enhanced access to digital humanities monographs hd- - drexel university summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ project director: robert allen automatic extraction of article metadata from digitized historical newspapers hd- - kent state university main campus project director: michael kreyche a bilingual digital list of subject headings hd- - new york university project director: brian hoffman mediacommons: social networking tools for digital scholarly communication hd- - willamette university project director: michael spalti bridging the gap: connecting authors to museum and archival collections hd- - university of virginia project director: bethany nowviskie and adam soroka neatline: facilitating geospatial and temporal interpretation of archival collections hd- - university of massachusetts, amherst project director: james allan ocronym: entity extraction and retrieval for scanned books hd- - university of nebraska, lincoln project director: katherine walter centernet: cyberinfrastructure for the digital humanities hd- - university of washington project director: ann lally collecting online music project hd- - columbia university project director: haimonti dutta leveraging "the wisdom of the crowds" for efficient tagging and retrieval of documents from the historic newspaper archive hd- - boston university project director: jack ammerman evolutionary subject tagging in the humanities linguistics ( ) hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: richard cook the character description language (cdl) digital humanities start-up hd- - university of montana project director: mizuki miyashita computer-based data processing and management for blackfoot phonetics and phonology literature ( ) hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: douglas reside digital tools hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: matthew kirschenbaum approaches to managing and collecting born-digital literary materials for scholarly use hd- - university of south carolina research foundation project director: randall cream the sapheos project: transparency in multi-image collation, analysis, and representation hd- - pennsylvania state university, main campus project director: jacqueline reid-walsh summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ learning as playing: an animated, interactive archive of th- th century narrative media for and by children hd- - university of arizona project director: hale thomas-hilburn poetry audio/video library phase media-general ( ) hd- - university of virginia project director: johanna drucker artists' books online: from prototype to distributed community hd- - dartmouth college project director: mary flanagan digital humanities start up grant: metadata games -- an open source electronic game for archival data systems hd- - lower eastside girls club of new york project director: dave pentecost the lower eastside girls club girl/hood project medieval studies ( ) hd- - university of kentucky research foundation project director: abigail firey carolingian canon law project: a collaborative initiative hd- - john woodman higgins armory museum, inc. project director: jeffery forgeng virtual joust: a technological interpretation of medieval jousting and its culture. music history and criticism ( ) hd- - north carolina central university project director: paula harrell training to establish the north carolina central university/african american jazz caucus jazz research institute digital lib. hd- - university of texas, austin project director: robert freeman utunes: music . hd- - haverford college project director: richard freedman the chansonniers of nicholas du chemin ( - ): a digital forum for renaissance music books hd- - american university project director: fernando benadon the map of jazz musicians: an online interactive tool for navigating jazz history's interpersonal network. nonwestern religion ( ) hd- - university of california, riverside project director: justin mcdaniel digital humanities start-up grants: thai digital monastery project religion ( ) hd- - claremont mckenna college project director: daniel michon virtual taxila: a web-accessible, multi-user virtual environment (muve) of an ancient indian city summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ slavic languages ( ) hd- - university of georgia research foundation, inc. project director: victoria hasko telecollaborative webcasting: strengthening acquisition of humanities content knowledge through foreign language education spanish literature ( ) hd- - duke university project director: margaret greer manos teatrales: cyber-paleography and a virtual world of spanish golden age theater theater history and criticism ( ) hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: douglas reside camp: the collaborative ajax-based modeling platform hd- - university of california, san diego project director: emily roxworthy drama in the delta: digitally reenacting civil rights performances at arkansas' wartime camps for japanese americans hd- - buffalo and erie county public library project director: anne conable "re-collecting the depression and new deal as a civic resource in hard times" hd- - university of california, san diego project director: emily roxworthy drama in the delta: digitally reenacting civil rights performances at arkansas' wartime camps for japanese americans summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ types of universities that applied to sug program sug applicants (universitie s) associate's colleges bac. colleges--general bac. colleges--liberal arts bac./associate's colleges doctoral/research uni--extensive doctoral/research uni--intensive master's colleges & uni i master's colleges & univ ii other specialized institutions schools of engineering & tech teachers colleges summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ types of non-university applicants to sug program sug applicants (non-university) archives art museum arts related organizations center for advanced study/research institute community-level organization educational consortium general museum historic preservation organization historical site/house historical society history museum independent production company independent research library indian tribal organization libraries museums national organization non-profit educational center philanthropic foundation professional association professional school publishing school district science and technology museum state humanities council state/local/federal government television/station summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ start-up grant funding by year imls neh year summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ map of all awarded sug projects summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ summary findings from completed start-up grants ( – ) kathy a. toavs management and program analyst national endowment for the humanities the national endowment for the humanities digital humanities start-up grant program offers relatively small planning grants that encourage innovations in the digital humanities. the first applications for this program were accepted beginning in november , and the first grants were awarded in february . a two-year study was initiated by the office of digital humanities to assess the effectiveness of the program. to accomplish this, a survey of six questions was sent to the project directors who received start-up grants in and . the request was initially made on august , with follow-ups on september and september , . the survey questions were: ) what is the current status of your project? ) did your project lead to any of the following: a) a project website? (please provide links) b) journal articles or other publications? (please provide links) c) a museum exhibit or other public program? (please provide link) d) software or tool? (please provide links) e) a class, workshop, etc? (please provide information) e) mentions in the press/blogosphere? (please provide links) ) has your project continued beyond the start-up phase (if appropriate?) a) if yes, tell us how? b) did you receive money from any other funders? who? if so, did having an neh sug help you in obtaining further funding? c) if you were turned down for further funding, can you give us an idea why? what barriers did you encounter? d) if your project has not continued, please tell us why? (e.g. fully complete, no funding, etc) ) what are your general feelings about your project? a) did you accomplish the goals you set out to do? b) what lessons did you learn? (e.g. what worked? what would you do differently?) ) if you have now completed the start-up phase, have you sent the neh a white paper about your project to place in the odh library of funded projects on our website? ) what are you overall thoughts about the start-up grant program? was it helpful for your work? your career? summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ answers were provided by ( %) of the project directors, and details varied depending on the stage of the project. those project directors who had already completed their projects ( of the responders) were able to provide more detailed answers regarding the effectiveness and future direction of their work. because the survey was sent so close to the beginning of the academic year, many of the project directors were only able to provide short answers. others were limited because of travel, or felt they were not able to answer all the questions completely because their projects were still ongoing. almost all of the participants agreed that the start-up grants were beneficial and hugely successful. thirty ( %) of the responding project directors have created new websites (see attachment a); another one has expanded an existing site. seven others ( %) responded that they are in the process of developing new sites. twenty-four tools or new software have resulted from these grants; another six are planned or are in testing. for a list of some of these tools/software, see attachment b. at least of the projects have received press, media, or blogosphere coverage (attachment c). one project even received honors in for its podcasting research. over articles or chapters have been published as a result of the start-up grants; at least another are forthcoming or under review. for a list of publications, see attachment d. at least conferences, symposiums, or speeches (attachment e) have already taken place, although this is a conservative estimate. it is reasonable to assume that there are many more, as project directors tended to answer this question with “several” or “many”, and those answers were only counted once in tallying the survey results. also, at least eighteen classes, workshops, lectures, or podcasts have incorporated some element of the start-up grants; and others are forthcoming. as with the conferences, above, many of the project directors answered this question with “several” or “many”, so this is a rounded, conservative number. thirty-seven of the responders believed that they had achieved the goals as set out in the grants. another eleven, whose grants are ongoing, answered that they had not yet done so. the two remaining project directors did not answer this question, although both of their projects are still in progress. several noted that their goals had changed somewhat in the course of development, mostly for the better. one noted that the project would now be “more useful to users than what we initially thought we would accomplish.” beginning with the competition, grantees were expected to prepare a “lessons learned” white paper. twelve of the directors with grants stated that their papers had already been submitted. interestingly, many of the grantees, while not required to do so, indicated that they were planning to submit a paper as well summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ outcomes almost all of the project directors who responded to the survey thought that their projects had been very successful, and highly praised the neh digital humanities start-up grants program for giving them the impetus they needed to move forward. they emphasized the advantages of these grants, not only to their institutions, but to the larger humanities community. one director wrote, “this project exceeded our expectations in terms of the positive reactions and involvement of humanities professionals statewide.” some of the kudos for the program included such statements as, “the project fulfilled everything that we hoped that it would…the greatest value was in being able to quickly and effectively perform necessary (but usually hard to come by) preliminary research and networking on historical visualization work that will enable us to develop new software and research techniques for such work. that would simply not have been possible without the grant.” another wrote, “it was a fantastic opportunity to develop a really important educational initiative that will have legacy value for a long time to come.” most were satisfied that their teams were able to work together efficiently and productively. neh grant support for internships was indispensable in some cases. “we were able to successfully complete the project goals within the allotted time (plus a summer extension), in part because we had the wonderful advantage of a highly cooperative library environment…and terrific grad student (supported by the neh funds).” “the primary reason for success in my view was having two graduate students and an undergraduate programmer who combined a passion for the subject material with technical skills in computing, and thus we did not have the problems of communicating between content experts and technology experts that is often a barrier to such projects.” another boasted that, “we accomplished more than we had hoped. people everywhere…tell us they are shocked at the quality of work our students produce.” “the student development team thought outside the box and brought to the project a young peoples’ view of how things should work.” project team members expressed a variety of lessons learned during the grant period. one director stated that, “as with most issues in the field of humanities computing, the lessons learned involved technical, organizational and human behavior aspects. over the course of the project year, we learned a great deal about the benefits and challenges of incorporating free, online applications…into the operations of non-profit organizations. we also learned that humanities professionals are very willing to participate in an online network of this sort, when it is tuned to their professional interests and needs. however, it became apparent that many of them need a level of technical training before they feel comfortable with the online tools, and able to participate to the extent they desire.” many of the lessons learned had to do with technical issues, especially in learning how to navigate between the priorities and realities of the humanities scholar and various technical personnel. “on the technical side, we have gained much experience in navigating the sometimes tricky relationship between the highly-skilled consultants…and the rest of the project team. we have found it extremely beneficial to engage “technology translators,” those who have both a grasp on complex technical issues and the importance of practical solutions that help achieve project goals. technologists tend to get caught up in the challenge of the technology itself and need strong guidance on remaining in the “real” world. too, we’ve found the need to develop strong project management tools to help focus the technology consultants and keep them on track.” another project director noted that “finding a programmer who is thoroughly comfortable with the humanist inclination to have summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ inspirations or visions along the way is a real asset in the collaboration between the technical and humanistic personnel.” other comments regarding technical issues and lessons learned included the following: “we tried a few methods in the field first and not all of them were successful, we have to improve some of the data collection process.” “i learned that outsourcing some technical work is difficult and it should be done yourself.” “i would ask for technical support for website building.” “it is essential to build infrastructure on a flexible, open-source platform to avoid creating a mere boutique tool; that an in-house programmer can respond more fluidly to the changing needs of a complex process than a vendor; that it is essential for academics and it specialists to communicate fully about the nature of a project’s pedagogical goals and the systemic effects of individual technical choices.” “i learned that a software development project focused on integrating multiple applications requires a person in the middle to be actively engaged in all aspects of code development and testing.” “next time i’d really focus on creating one tool, or even just a set of guidelines: that way, the project could take its time to link together all of the different scholars and projects in the digital humanities world that are working on similar issues and create something even more broadly useful.” “i would build in additional opportunities for crowdsourcing. much of our content is housed on third-party platforms (google earth), and this seems to be much smarter that developing a database or presentation system that will be obsolete due to technological changes. and yet, i’d like to have even more content filter through third-party channels in partnership relations.” “i would encourage future applicants to look around to find better "off the shelf" solutions before reinventing the wheel.” the need to set goals was critical. “the main lesson i personally learned is that even in a short-term project it is necessary to put intermediate goals in writing.” one director “learned that it’s worth taking the extra time to define your terms as clearly as you can from the outset.” the need for teamwork and cooperation was needed at all stages of the process. one director noted that they had “learned more about the value of teamwork in complex technology projects and got better at working that way across disciplines.” other teamwork related comments included: “we learned that we have to work as a team, not as a set of individuals. once we had a good team ethic, the work really took off.” “weekly meetings of the project team proved vital to progress, review, and development.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ “collaborations with a variety of people (technologists, students, scholars) is crucial.” project directors learned that engaging the assistance of others, especially within the organization, had a large influence on how well goals were met. “partnering with museum and library professionals on the project encouraged us to develop the tool with both academic and general audiences in mind. we learned that students can be active collaborators on digital humanities start-up projects and produce exemplary work. finally, we presented the project at numerous workshops and conferences and recruited several “early adopters” to help in the development of the tool.” one of the directors expressed praise for workshops, “especially one that links technology and content. they allow projects to gain a quick start, but expanding the core is more difficult because other scholars bring different knowledge and potential different directions.” however, some directors learned that other personnel were not always available or willing to meet a projects needs or deadlines. “i learned that artists are difficult to work with, professional librarians and curators are not. i learned that funding is essential for interns because the workload of current library and museum professionals is so tight and they cannot add new tasks to their jobs.” another lamented that “it was difficult to achieve good “buy in” with other faculty and staff on the project, given the limited funding.” yet another complained that, “if there is a single lesson we have learned it is the need for a clear development structure with a concrete time commitment from the academic project participants. because our project focuses on faculty development in an area unfamiliar to the participating faculty, it was hard to define what we expected of them on a weekly basis and this made scheduling training workshops quite difficult. in the future we plan to support faculty by enrolling them in a training course with a more clearly pre-defined workload.” while setting goals and encouraging teamwork were necessary, a project also needed to plan for contingencies. this was especially clear when faced with changes in institutional personnel and job reductions “in the future, i will have contingency and alternate plans for each goal.” a technology-intensive project means that “everything takes longer than we think it should and everything is more difficult than it at first appears.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ unanticipated problems none of the survey participants cited any failures with their project, although several of the projects did encounter some unanticipated problems and issues. technical problems included frustration over proprietary issues. owners of data were reluctant to release data or allow permissions. “wide adoption of cdl font technology has been limited by the proprietary nature of the source code.” at least one project team became creative in working around this problem by the “writing of pseudo-agents” to include “data from sources outside the data sets of data owners”. another wrote, “…the goal of involving other holders of digital data into the project has been very slow in developing. though people express agreement that the idea of having a central place to use for collecting information is ideal, all too often there is a reluctance to release data to the use of other scholars and to the public.” other technical issues had to do with service providers (“we ran into technical challenges that arose from the online service provider changing its terms midstream”), and lack of institutional support (“we had trouble finding the technical support we wanted within the university. it may have been easier for us to start from scratch with a more common set of programming languages and tools than to stick with our original prototype and require a developer to work with that.”) still other problems cited had to do with issues of long-term preservation of complex digital projects, data collection issues, and finding/maintaining qualified/interested encoders/programmers. by far, the biggest problem encountered by project directors had to do with personnel issues, either internally or with outside collaborators. one project director wrote that “personnel issues made the project immensely frustrating, costing me and others immense personal time and psychological energy.” many realized that while their projects required library professionals and other support personnel, that assistance was not always timely or forthcoming. other problems cited included changes in personnel, job reductions, mandates, and time restraints. one director wrote “i spent an unwanted additional amount of time coping with fractious bureaucrats.” a co-director, faced with the economic recession, had to take another position, causing problems in communication between team members and a re-focus on priority issues. still another was not pleased with the role of the advisors to the project. other collaborations did not work out as well as planned (“involving the native american community was harder than i had thought. community members don’t typically attend meetings.”). other difficulties revolved around time and budget issues. some were concerned that the project took more time than was anticipated. eleven ( %) noted that they had been granted extensions by neh odh. “as is often the case, it was a lot more work than we anticipated…doing the work that we outlined as ‘preliminary’ in the grant turned out to be a huge project in itself.” others underestimated the amount of funding needed. “what we learned is that the funding (at the initial $ , cap for odh digital start-up grants) was really inadequate for the amount of effort, even with a modest investment in digital tools and technology,” stated one director. another explained that “…since i needed to collaborate with other institutions the high overhead rates cut deeply into the work i wanted done, and curtailed the amount which my team could have accomplished. summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ implications every project director citied benefits gained from the start-up grants. advantages included personal career enhancements, institutional enhancements, and broader implications for the broader scholarly community. personal most project directors thought that the dh start-up grants had been beneficial to them in some way. one project team claimed that the “project has been the “finest achievement of our pedagogical careers.” quite a few emphasized how useful the grants were in establishing some form of credibility and legitimacy, as well as enhancing their reputations in the field. “i have credibility in my own eyes and that of the digital community i would not have had without it.” “the grant provided legitimacy to my ideas to a skeptical traditional history department that is now looking to make digital a cornerstone of their nascent public history program.” “i am now recognized as a leader in providing a model for digital scholarship in my academic specialty, and the grant certainly confirmed for my department and college that digital scholarship is alive and well.” “it helps tremendously within our institutions that, though the funds are relatively small, they came for the neh. the external grant gives credibility to our project within our institution, even in the start-up phase.” “the willingness of neh to invest in our project, based on the recommendations of an independent scholarly review panel, provided us with external validation, so crucial to internal funding decisions and professional advancement.” others cited improvements to job satisfaction (“it’s given my work (and my career, i hope!) a tremendous boost”), promotions and tenure (“this grant was also helpful in my career, forming part of my promotion to full professor dossier”), and opportunities for future research and long-term career trajectories (“it has been extraordinarily useful for me. i’ve entered the world of digital humanities; i got a new “dream” job at uva, i think in part because the grant demonstrated my seriousness with digital humanities work; and i’ve simply learned a lot in doing this work that will benefit my own research”). another stated that “the sug has given me the chance to undertake innovative digital work that i’d be unlikely to undertake on my own.” only one gave a negative response to the question of whether the grant was beneficial to the director’s career. that person stated that the “real challenge confronting academic historians who do digital history is the fact that there is no tangible professional recognition for this work.” institutional benefits cited were not limited to the careers of the project team members. other beneficiaries of the start-up grants included students. one director explained that, “the start-up grant program enabled me to begin a digital project on our campus that will not only benefit our students but the "international" classroom.” yet another stated that, “the neh grant was helpful in promoting a new career path for our students, exposing this technology to the university, increasing the skills and knowledge of the grant personnel making them (and myself) more marketable in the workplace.” more impressive still were the comments offered by the director who boasted, “i view this as a legacy project before i retire in a few years that is of great benefit to the state.” similar claims were made by those who exclaimed, “the start-up grant we received was summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ indispensable to our work. it allowed us to attract the necessary interest and support to turn concept into reality and a small program’s dream into a university-wide vision that promises to spread out to many institutions.” citing the importance of neh to their institution’s future, another project director was pleased that , “although our university is late in beginning digital projects, the neh sug was instrumental in providing the first trained university personnel who can now continue work in this area.” broader scholarly community the start-up grants allowed for development and testing of new ideas, tools, and software beneficial to the international community. the following are just some of the comments related to broader implications: “this was an excellent opportunity for us to experiment on a small scale and develop procedures and prototypes that could be scaled up later on.” [we] “made significant progress in creating a new field.” “this was a wonderful opportunity to put into practice many of the new media ideas i had played with only theoretically. i made connections with numerous like-minded colleagues, and thought through enormously enjoyable technical issues.” “this start-up grant has become a model example on our campus for how to start a new interdisciplinary project and get external funding for them…we now have a queue of external scholars who are either directly trying our tools, modifying our software, and/or seek to collaborate so we can design and implement experiments in their area of the corpus.” “i think for the localized purpose of giving the community a way to get together, talk face-to-face, ask questions, debate answers, and come to some consensus on what we all need that can make our processes more efficient was more than well spent time and money.” “as a senior scholar in my field, it has also given me the chance to reach out to other specialists—at research universities and liberal arts colleges alike—in an effort to encourage collaborative work of a sort that is all too often absent in the humanities.” “it was very helpful for envisioning what is possible and for bringing together a group of researchers and technologists, some of whom continue to build out projects from those early ideas.” [this grant] “enabled us to begin important conversations among like-minded scholars scattered widely.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ future plans one of the survey questions asked if work was going to be continued on the grant once the start-up phase was completed. most of the project directors responded that they have continued, or plan to continue their projects. the grants were helpful in establishing credibility and “demonstrated that other people thought the project worth funding.” other awardees agreed, claiming that “having an neh start-up grant gave our project the imprimatur of a major humanities organization and served as external validation of the methods employed. it also helped convey the scholarly value of our work to chairs deans, provosts, and others in a position to support it.” wrote one director, “…without this support our project would not have moved forward.” yet others stated that the grants had been helpful in “demonstrating and promoting’ project goals, and served as a “gold seal of approval” for securing further funding. some other examples of how projects have expanded their original goals include: national and international collaboration several of the projects intend to expand their projects to include collaboration with other institutions, either to build functionality and content, or to disseminate findings in joint publications and conference presentations. one director claimed that, “further collaborations are also in the offing...we fully expect an international collaboration.” another professed that “we will be working over the next six months to share the product within our professional communities as well as asking some of the questions posed by our experience working across applications and communities of interest.” yet another director stated that, “several important one-of-a kind projects have been identified to produce after the completion of this project.” incorporation into established programs beyond the benefits already cited elsewhere for the university and students, other potential benefits were also mentioned. one explained that, “this project will be a permanent part of our digital library collections web site and is being incorporated into our permanent program of offerings.” another stated that, “the funding allowed us to complete preliminary work that was essential to establishing the basis for several possible projects, which are currently in the process of being put together for larger and more sustained grant possibilities.” several project directors, while admitting that they have not officially entered a new phase of development, stated that they have already exceeded their initial goals. one director explained that, “essentially we used the start up for much more than just starting up. we used it as implementation as well.” for those projects that have not continued, many of the project directors explained that, while they had an interest in continuing, they were stymied by their inability to procure additional funding. at least eight of the start-up projects were turned down by neh for further funding, some multiple times. only one project was successful in receiving another neh grant after an initial failure. one project director expressed frustration that that there is a “disconnect between neh’s desire for digital projects and yet reviewers who still have a traditional model of research.” citing comments from reviews, it seemed to the director that “the greatest single objection, however, seemed to be to the proposition that results (scholarly editions produced by users of our resources and tools) would appear in print format. the enraged (in some instances) comments suggest that there is an unfortunate summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ hardening of the divisions between scholars who still see value in print and those committed to digital humanities.” other reasons for projects not proceeding included problems with “social engineering” questions, hesitation on the part of granting agencies to fund projects that rely on undergraduate work, and issues of methodology. others felt that there were misunderstandings about the field and the related procedures, and fears that the projects were too ambitious, or the projects “did not sufficiently match the parameters of the granting agency.” “generally, granting agencies seem to be worried about funding projects that rely heavily on undergraduate work. i hope that our project can help to change that, because the product (completely designed and implemented by undergrads) is as professional as anything produced by graduate students or in the professional world.” one suspected that “funding of the boring part of the project (populating and refining a database) will be harder to come by.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ conclusion all of the project directors who answered the survey had the utmost praise for the neh digital humanities start-up grants program. most responded along the lines of the director who stated, “we feel this is an excellent program: the small scale of both the target projects and the funding application make it easy to try out ideas without committing enormous amounts of time.” another opined, “the startup grants are a great idea. humanities funding is so hard to get, this is a good way to spread it around and stimulate new projects.” “this is a wonderful program. it is so unusual to have such an opportunity to take risks in exploring cutting edge approaches to humanities education. it has served to help legitimize our method of post-secondary course internationalization and has seeded further research and training in this area.” “this grant program was a god-send! it provided us with the resources to experiment with a tool that had great potential, but which required time and focus from a wide variety of people in order to assess the scope of its usefulness for humanities professionals.” some likes and dislikes regarding the program included the following: several expressed satisfaction with the opportunity to gather together at the project directors’ meeting. one wrote, “although the day-long meeting was almost too much to grasp, i got a fuller sense of what a digital project might entail.” “the start-up grant was very helpful, and the project directors’ meeting in dc was especially good as it provided direct encouragement for our approach and the incentive to take the project further.” “we were very impressed by neh’s willingness to take risks here by investing in a broad spectrum of promising but preliminary approaches to the digitization and access of historical materials. one of the lasting memories of the project for me was the extraordinary sophistication of the projects funded under the start up program evident in your project directors’ meeting in washington, the enthusiasm of the group and the remarkable ways in which these projects promised to re-imagine and re-invigorate the disciple. it was a delight to be included.” suggestions for improvement included asking neh advice on how to create “a smooth way of creating ‘layers’ of participants—owner of site; editor for individual projects; and contributors who might pose questions or offer solutions. i am sure that other project directors supported by the odh have faced and solved this sort of problem, but in some ways i am at a loss to know exactly how to discover exactly who could help. i am confident that we will shape a workable solution, but wonder whether there might be some mechanism beyond the odh website for sharing solutions to this sort of problem.” on the program guidelines, one director questions the requirement for (c)( ) status of applicants.” i would think that this restriction reduces competition among applicants, and makes limited funding more limited (given excessive institutional overhead requirements).” however, the complaints about the neh digital humanities start-up grant program were minimal. although some of the projects encountered various obstacles, most of them were able to find solutions to their problems. one director, faced with job reduction in the it staff, was forced to reach out to another institution. as a result, “the subsequent partnership for technical guidance and development has been wonderfully creative and productive.” it was deemed “an extremely valuable program, and frankly perhaps the most innovative thing i've seen come out of the neh. the sug established legitimacy and credibility for our work, and was an important vehicle for allowing us to publicize what we were doing (which in turn put us into contact with other individuals who are attacking similar problems and with whom we can collaborate in the future. i very much hope to see summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ the dh sugs continue.” “i have always (and continue to) believed that the start-up grant program was extremely important in assisting humanities scholars to investigate whether their scholarship can be enhanced by technological developments. i believe that on a local level, a start-up grant can provide the motivation for the humanities scholar to seek out technologists at their institution and leeway for the technologists to allocate personnel resources to the scholar’s problem. i believe that the size of the grants makes it difficult to measure their impact in traditional ways, for example, the opening of effective communication lines between scholar and technologists may not yield documentable evidence, yet still have a sustained impact on the scholarship of the grantee.” “this comes as close as anything in the humanities to a broad-scale address to the problem of training, collaboration, and development in humanities computing. the resources and time involved in developing tools, debates, training, and archives in the humanities today are more similar to the resources and time needed in the natural sciences. this program recognizes that challenge, and it was crucial to allowing me to move forward in my digital work while also generating the kinds of traditional scholarship required for tenure in the literary humanities. again, the neh is providing an extremely valuable service to the nation by helping to spur the embrace and adoption of digital tools through the odh program. it has helped to provide a new window of perspective into our understanding of the humanities, as well as a new platform for sharing that understanding.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment a websites http://www.wenlin.com/cdl/ (character description language - hd - ) http://tdm.ucr.edu/ (thai digital monastery project - hd - ) http://www.rch.uky.edu/rfri (russian folk religious imagination - hd - ) http://www.artistsbooksonline.org/ (artists’ books online - hd ) http://corinthcomputerproject.org (digital corinth synchronized database project - hd - ) http://www.pmoca.org (portuguese cartography and coastal africa, - - hd - ) http://www.coastal.edu/ashes art (ashes art: virtual reconstructions of ancient monuments - hd - ) http://www.reed.utoronto.ca/downloads.html (records of early english drama- hd - ) http://movingimagesincontext.org (finding and using moving images in context - hd - ) http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu (inpho: the indiana philosophy ontology project - hd - ) http://lcsh-es.org (a bilingual digital list of subject headings -hd - ) http://www.asmodeus.ws/cohenlab/annotations.htm (interface development for static multimedia documents -hd - ) http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml (evince visualization and analysis tool - hd - ) http://utunes.utexas.org (utunes: music . - hd - ) http://sophieproject.org/ (sophie search gateway - hd - ) http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu (pattern recognition through computational stylistics: old english and beyond - hd - ) http://www.jeffersonstravels.org ; http://www.historybrowser.org ; http://www.viseyes.org (jefferson's travels: a digital journey using the historybrowser - hd - ) http://mastudies.ning.com (hd - ) http://www.datsproject.org/ (distributed archives transaction system - hd - ) http://vbi.lakeforest.edu (virtual burnham initiative - hd - ) http://www.people.virginia.edu/~msg d/idea (project temporarily housed at this site) (online encyclopedia best practices and standardshd - ) http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ (the chansonniers of nicholas du chemin ( - ): a digital forum for renaissance music books - hd - ) http://ccl.rch.uky.edu/ (carolingian canon law project - hd - ) http://dsl.richmond.edu/workshop/ (visualizing the past: tools and techniques for understanding historical processes - hd - ) http://libmedia.willamette.edu/acom/neh/ (bridging the gap: connecting authors to museum and archival collections - hd - ) http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ (creating a sense of place through archeology - hd - ) http://www.telledfu.org (digital documentation of a provincial town in ancient egypt - hd - ) www.literae.com/echo (prototype) (connecticut's heritage echosystem – (hd - ) http://www.wide.msu.edu (archive . : imagining the michigan state university israelite samaritan scroll collection - hd - ) http://www.wenlin.com/cdl/ http://tdm.ucr.edu/ http://www.rch.uky.edu/rfri http://www.artistsbooksonline.org/ http://corinthcomputerproject.org/ http://www.pmoca.org/ http://www.coastal.edu/ashes art http://www.reed.utoronto.ca/downloads.html http://movingimagesincontext.org/ http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/ http://lcsh-es.org/ http://www.asmodeus.ws/cohenlab/annotations.htm http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml http://utunes.utexas.org/ http://sophieproject.org/ http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu/ http://www.jeffersonstravels.org/ http://www.historybrowser.org/ http://www.viseyes.org/ http://mastudies.ning.com/ http://www.datsproject.org/ http://vbi.lakeforest.edu/ http://www.people.virginia.edu/% emsg d/idea http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ http://ccl.rch.uky.edu/ http://dsl.richmond.edu/workshop/ http://libmedia.willamette.edu/acom/neh/ http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ http://www.telledfu.org/ http://www.literae.com/echo http://www.wide.msu.edu/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment b software or tools http://www.wenlin.com/cgi-bin/wenlinsvghelp.pl (hd - ) http://www.pmoca.org/ (hd - ) http://www.flintbox.com/technology.asp?page= (hd - ) http://valleydev.cs.hope.edu; www.valleysim.com (hd - ) http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/ (hd - ) http://lcsh-es.org (hd - ) http://www.structuralknowledge.com/markup_demo/markup/ (hd - ) http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml (hd - ) http://www.historybrowser.org ; http://www.viseyes.org/edit.htm (hd - ) http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu (currently only available to developers) (hd - ) http://mastudies.ning.com (forthcoming sep ) (hd - ) http://mel.hofstra.edu/textlab/ (hd - ) http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ (hd - ) http://www.stoa.org: /cclxtf/search (hd - ) http://www.wide.msu.edu/content/archive/ (hd - ) https://source.sakaiproject.org/contrib/simonides/ (hd - ) www.telledfu.org (hd - ) http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ (hd - ) http://www.wenlin.com/cgi-bin/wenlinsvghelp.pl http://www.pmoca.org/ http://www.flintbox.com/technology.asp?page= http://valleydev.cs.hope.edu/ http://www.valleysim.com/ http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/ http://lcsh-es.org/ http://www.structuralknowledge.com/markup_demo/markup/ http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml http://www.historybrowser.org/ http://www.viseyes.org/edit.htm http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu/ http://mastudies.ning.com/ http://mel.hofstra.edu/textlab/ http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ http://www.stoa.org: /cclxtf/search http://www.wide.msu.edu/content/archive/ https://source.sakaiproject.org/contrib/simonides/ http://www.telledfu.org/ http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment c blogs/media/press old dominion university’s research/innovations/breakthroughs quest, volume , issue , summer (hd - ) old dominion university’s center for learning technologies: video broadcast to prospective students on distance learning/podcasting technology. august , . (hd - ) the virginian-pilot, “ipod instruction,” by janette rodrigues, february , . (hd - ) http://movingimagesincontext.org/blog/ (hd - ) http://www.research.iu.edu/news/stories/ .html (hd - ) http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id= (hd - ) http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/queens/ / / / - - _time_warp_ _world_fair_to_make_web_comeback.html (hd - ) http://collocate.wordpress.com/ / / /experimental-spanish-version-of-lcsh/ (hd - ) http://bengu-cn.blogspot.com/ / /more-chinese-translations-of-ifla.html (hd - ) http://splconferences.blogspot.com/ / /at-last-bilingual-subject-access-to.html (hd - ) http://laureltarulli.wordpress.com/ / / /standards-are-like-toothbrushes-a-good- idea-but-no-one-wants-to-use-anyone-elses/ (hd - ) http://lumagoo.wordpress.com/ / / /session-thoughts-the-future-is-now-global- authority-control/ (hd - ) http://www.libraryjournal.com/blog/ /post/ .html (hd - ) http://www.uaf.edu/research/frontiers/studying/index.xml (hd - ) http://www.datsproject.org/blog/ (hd - ) http://grou.ps/digitalobjects/talks/ (hd - ) http://placebased.typepad.com/placebased_education/theory_and_practice/ (hd ) http://museum-musings.blogspot.com/ / /national-council-on-public-history.html (hd - ) http://mastudies.ning.com/" #ncph : pm apr rd (hd - ) http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/blog/?p= (hd - ) http://vbi.lakeforest.edu/press.html (hd - ) http://hangingtogether.org/?p= (hd - ) http://chronicle.com/article/archiving-writers-work-in/ (hd - ) http://news.haverford.edu/blogs/digitalduchemin/ (hd - ) http://movingimagesincontext.org/blog/ http://www.research.iu.edu/news/stories/ .html http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id= http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/queens/ / / / - - _time_warp_ _world_fair_to_make_web_comeback.html http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/queens/ / / / - - _time_warp_ _world_fair_to_make_web_comeback.html http://collocate.wordpress.com/ / / /experimental-spanish-version-of-lcsh/ http://bengu-cn.blogspot.com/ / /more-chinese-translations-of-ifla.html http://splconferences.blogspot.com/ / /at-last-bilingual-subject-access-to.html http://laureltarulli.wordpress.com/ / / /standards-are-like-toothbrushes-a-good-idea-but-no-one-wants-to-use-anyone-elses/ http://laureltarulli.wordpress.com/ / / /standards-are-like-toothbrushes-a-good-idea-but-no-one-wants-to-use-anyone-elses/ http://lumagoo.wordpress.com/ / / /session-thoughts-the-future-is-now-global-authority-control/ http://lumagoo.wordpress.com/ / / /session-thoughts-the-future-is-now-global-authority-control/ http://www.libraryjournal.com/blog/ /post/ .html http://www.uaf.edu/research/frontiers/studying/index.xml http://www.datsproject.org/blog/ http://grou.ps/digitalobjects/talks/ http://placebased.typepad.com/placebased_education/theory_and_practice/ http://museum-musings.blogspot.com/ / /national-council-on-public-history.html http://mastudies.ning.com/ https://twitter.com/search?q=% ncph https://twitter.com/publichistorian/status/ http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/blog/?p= http://vbi.lakeforest.edu/press.html http://hangingtogether.org/?p= http://chronicle.com/article/archiving-writers-work-in/ http://news.haverford.edu/blogs/digitalduchemin/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ http://chronicle.com/blogpost/archive-watch-good-samaritans/ / (hd ) http://www.archivesnext.com/?p= (hd - ) http://beyondwordsblog.com/ / / /archive- - -transforms-traditional-practices/ (hd - ) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus . (hd - ) http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section=news/localandid= . (hd - ) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus (hd - ) http://www.cal.msu.edu/samaritan.php.(hd - ) http://www.archives.gov/research/online-access-newsletter/ -december.pdf. (hd - ) http://www.lansingstatejournal.com/article/ /news / / /news . "msu newsroom." (hd - ) http://www.capitalgainsmedia.com/inthenews/texts .aspx. (hd - ) http://news.msu.edu/story/ /. (hd - ) peck, jim, prod. "samaritan scrolls." samaritan scrolls. big ten network. jan. . (hd - ) sorg, walt. ""archive . "" amlansing with walt sorg. -wils, lansing, mi. dec. . (hd - ) http://www.amlansing.com/amlansing/hart-davidson_ . .html. (hd - ) http://www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/story/bwire. . /gistory (hd - ) http://finance.yahoo.com/news/nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-bw- .html?x= &.v= (hd - ) http://www.tmcnet.com/viewette.aspx?u=http% a% f% fwww.tmcnet.com% fusubmit% f % f % f % f .htm&kw= (hd - ) http://www.freshnews.com/news/ /nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-portfolio-track- th-annual-sakai-conference (hd - ) http://www.reuters.com/article/pressrelease/idus + -jul- +bw (hd - ) http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlyw nzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /** http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html (hd - ) http://www.champlain.edu/emergent-media-center/projects/virtual-archeology- museum.html (hd - ) http://www.timesargus.com/article/ /features / / /features (hd - ) http://chronicle.com/blogpost/archive-watch-good-samaritans/ / http://www.archivesnext.com/?p= http://beyondwordsblog.com/ / / /archive- - -transforms-traditional-practices/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section=news/localandid= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus http://www.cal.msu.edu/samaritan.php http://www.archives.gov/research/online-access-newsletter/ -december.pdf http://www.lansingstatejournal.com/article/ /news / / /news http://www.capitalgainsmedia.com/inthenews/texts .aspx http://news.msu.edu/story/ / http://www.amlansing.com/amlansing/hart-davidson_ . .html http://www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/story/bwire. . /gistory http://finance.yahoo.com/news/nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-bw- .html?x= &.v= http://finance.yahoo.com/news/nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-bw- .html?x= &.v= http://www.tmcnet.com/viewette.aspx?u=http% a% f% fwww.tmcnet.com% fusubmit% f % f % f % f .htm&kw= http://www.tmcnet.com/viewette.aspx?u=http% a% f% fwww.tmcnet.com% fusubmit% f % f % f % f .htm&kw= http://www.freshnews.com/news/ /nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-portfolio-track- th-annual-sakai-conference http://www.freshnews.com/news/ /nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-portfolio-track- th-annual-sakai-conference http://www.reuters.com/article/pressrelease/idus + -jul- +bw http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlywnzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /**http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlywnzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /**http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlywnzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /**http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html http://www.champlain.edu/emergent-media-center/projects/virtual-archeology-museum.html http://www.champlain.edu/emergent-media-center/projects/virtual-archeology-museum.html http://www.timesargus.com/article/ /features / / /features summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ atttachment d publications “performantive metatests in metadata, and mark-up” in european journal of english studies, vol. , no. (august ), pp. - . (hd - ) speclab: digital aesthetics and speculative computing, university of chicago press, . (one chapter) (hd - ) academic podcasting and mobile assisted language learning: applications and outcomes. edited by betty rose facer and m’hammed abdous, scheduled to be published in . (hd - ) “mall technology: use of academic podcasting in the foreign language classroom.” recall, ( ), uk: cambridge university press (january ). http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid= d f e a c cf d a c.tomcat ?frompage=online&aid= (hd - ) “the impact of academic podcasting on students: learning outcomes and study habits” in research on e-learning methodologies for language acquisition, ed. rita marriott and patricia torres (new york/uk: information science reference/igi, july ). http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+f acer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=- ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty % rose% facer&f=false (hd - ) “the cone of africa…took shape in lisbon,” humanities magazine, nov . (hd - ) arne r. flaten and alyson gill, eds. and contributors, visual resources, an international journal of documentation, special edition: using digital representations in the humanities (london: taylor & francis/routledge, forthcoming december ); essays: “state of the discipline (gill),” and “ashes art: digital models of th century bce delphi, greece (flaten).” under contract. (hd - ) arne r. flaten, “ashes art as pedagogical experiment,” in peer-reviewed proceedings of computer applications & quantitative methods in archaeology th annual meeting, budapest; accepted. (hd - ) alyson a. gill, “’chattering’ in the baths: the urban greek bathing establishment and social discourse in classical antiquity,” in peer-reviewed proceedings of computer applications & quantitative methods in archaeology th annual meeting, budapest; accepted. (hd - ) arne r. flaten, “ashes art: digital collaboration in the humanities,” in book: new technologies to explore cultural heritage (washington and rome: national endowment for the humanities and the consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, ). (hd - ) alyson gill and arne r. flaten, “digital delphi: the d virtual reconstruction of the hellenistic plunge bath at delphi,” in the digital heritage: proceedings of the th international conference on virtual systems and multimedia, ed. m. ioannides, a. addison, a. georgopoulos, l. kalisperis, hungary: archeolingua, . (hd - ) http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid= d f e a c cf da c.tomcat ?frompage=online&aid= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid= d f e a c cf da c.tomcat ?frompage=online&aid= http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ flaten and gill, “ashes art: collaboration and community in the humanities,” in first monday: peer-reviewed journal on the internet , ( august ). http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/index (hd - ) flaten and gill, “virtual delphi: two case studies,” in the isprs international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, xxxvi- /c , ; also published in cipa international archives for documentation of cultural heritage, xxi- . (hd - ) rajan, p and yan, w. “cast shadow removal using time and exposure varying images”, proceedings of the th international conference for advances in pattern recognition (icapr), kolkata, india. . http://www.isical.ac.in/~icapr / (hd - ) yan, w. and rajan, p. “towards digitizing colours of architectural heritage”, proceedings of the conference on virtual systems and multimedia (vsmm) ' : dedicated to digital heritage, october - th, , limassol, cyprus. http://www.vsmm .org/ (hd - ) china in the world: a history since , published by cheng & tsui, . http://www.cheng-tsui.com/store/products/china_world [book & cd] (hd - ) “inpho: the indiana philosophy ontology”, american philosophical assn. newsletter on philosophy and computers ( ) : - . http://www.apaonline.org/documents/publications/v n _computers.pdf (hd - ) “answer set programming on expert feedback to populate and extend dynamic ontologies.” in proceedings of st flairs. aaai press, ; - . http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/ -inpho-flairs.pdf (hd - ) “the world is not flat: expertise and inpho.” first monday [online], volume number ( august ). http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/ / (hd - ) “working the crowd: design principles and early lessons from the social-semantic web.” in proceedings of the workshop on web . : merging semantic web and social web - (sw)^ at acm hypertext, turin, italy, . http://sunsite.informatik.rwth- aachen.de/publications/ceur-ws/vol- / (hd - ) cameron buckner, mathias niepert, and colin allen. from encyclopedia to ontology: toward a dynamic representation of the discipline of philosophy. in a special issue of synthese, springer-verlag, (forthcoming) http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/taxonomizingideas.pdf (hd - ) david bodenhamer, john corrigan, and trevor harris, eds., the spatial humanities: gis and the future of humanities scholarship (indiana university press), inaugural volume in a series on the spatial humanities, with bodenhamer, corrigan, and harris as general editors (two other titles under contract; another volume on religion and the atlantic world under development. http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?products_id= (hd - ) http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/index http://www.isical.ac.in/% eicapr / http://www.vsmm .org/ http://www.cheng-tsui.com/store/products/china_world http://www.apaonline.org/documents/publications/v n _computers.pdf http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/ -inpho-flairs.pdf http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/ / http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/publications/ceur-ws/vol- / http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/publications/ceur-ws/vol- / http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/taxonomizingideas.pdf http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?products_id= summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ drout, m., kahn, m., leblanc, m.d., jones, a. ‘ , kathok, n. ‘ , and nelson, c. ’ . “lexomics for anglo-saxon literature.” old english newsletter, [in press] fall . (hd - ) drout, m., kahn, m., leblanc, m.d. (submitted june ). lexomic methods for analyzing relationships among old english poems. journal of english and germanic philology. (hd - ) [in progress] downey, s., drout, m., kahn, m., kisor, y., leblanc, m. ( ) “lexomic evidence for the relationship between guthlac and vercelli homily .” (hd - ) [in progress] downey, s., drout, m., kahn, m., kisor, y., leblanc, m. ( in preparation). “‘us gewritu secgað’: lexomic evidence for an unknown source for the lamech material in genesis a.” (hd - ) jacobs and holland, “sharing archaeological data: the distributed archives transaction system” (invited article) in near eastern archaeology, . (hd - ) jacobs, “getting data into the hands of archaeologists: dats” in proceedings of conference “co-operation networks for the transfer of know-how in d digitization applications” at the cultural and educational technology institute/”athena” r.c., xanthi. (hd - ) jacobs, “coroplastic studies, an argument for total publication” in coroplast studies interest group (csig) newsletter no. , summer . http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf (hd - ) holland, “a distributed archive for coroplastic research: www.datsproject.org” in coroplast studies interest group (csig) newsletter no. , summer . http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf (hd - ) connect, “simonides: a faculty-led, student-centered technology initiative” (forthcoming; november, volume , number ) (hd - ) http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf http://www.datsproject.org/ http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment e exhibits, workshops, and conferences “spreading the word: reaching out to students and faculty.” iallt annual conference, georgia state university, atlanta, georgia, may , . (hd - ) “authentic materials as portable media content," at the summer institute - center for learning technologies, "web . : social networking at odu” at old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, may , . (hd - ) "academic podcasting for foreign language, literature, and culture," at the summer institute - center for learning technologies, "making the magic happen” at old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, may , . (hd - ) "academic podcasting technology," at the summer institute - center for learning technologies, "technology fair” at old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, may , . (hd ) “academic podcasting technology: the impact on foreign language acquisition.” research expo , “communities of research: discovery, innovation & entrepreneurship,” old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, april , . (hd - ) “the impact of academic podcasting on student learning outcomes.” calico with iallt annual conference, university of san francisco, san francisco, california, march , . (hd - ) “the impact of academic podcasting on student learning outcomes: emerging technologies in the foreign language classroom (neh-dhi).” seallt-maallt joint conference , pine crest preparatory school, ft. lauderdale, florida, february , . (hd - ) "ipods, podcasting and podagogy: the new generation of technology for foreign language education," at the summer institute “poducation: all about podcasting,” center for learning technologies at old dominion university, may , . (hd - ) conference presentation at http://www.vsmm .org/ (hd - ) presentation on “archive . ” at the european conference of digital libraries, september -october in corfu, greece on the panel “digital libraries, personalisation, and network effects - unpicking the paradoxes.” the full description is available here: http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl /pnl_per.php (hd - ) the jefferson’s travels demonstration project inspired an interactive exhibit in the new monticello visitor center and has led to collaborations on other historybrowser/visualeyes projects with the smithsonian institution www.viseyes.org/show/?base=smithson and the hagley library http://www.historybrowser.org/brower.php?id= (hd - ) http://www.vsmm .org/ http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl /pnl_per.php http://www.viseyes.org/show/?base=smithson http://www.historybrowser.org/brower.php?id= summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ in addition to designing textlab, the project’s tasks were for hofstra to host a day-long mini-conference (called melcamp) on the shaping of the melville electronic library (mel) and for me to write an neh grant proposal for launching mel online.melcamp met on october , , with over twenty melville and digital scholars in attendance. the neh start-up grant provided some travel reimbursement. hofstra provided matching funds for travel and footed the food expenses for the day. in november, , i submitted a proposal for a scholarly editions grant to fund the launching of mel. it was provisionally accepted in may, , with the condition of budget downsizing. the revised proposal for $ , for two years was finally accepted in august. the new grant will begin in november, .(hd - ) digital humanities presentation http://www.mith .umd.edu/dh /?page_id= (hd - ) http://www.mith .umd.edu/dh /?page_id= – – journal of siberian federal university. humanities & social sciences ( ) – ~ ~ ~ УДК . from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and teaching samuel nowakowski and guillaume bernard* university of lorraine loria umr , nancy, france received . . , received in revised form . . , accepted . . in a world in which digital interfaces, dematerialization, automation, so-called tools of artificial intelligence aim to drive away the human or eliminate the relationship with humans! the way other beings see us is important. what would happen if we took the full measure of this idea? how would this affect our understanding of society, culture, and the world we inhabit? how would this affect our understanding of the human, since in this world beyond the human, we sometimes find things that we prefer to attribute only to ourselves? what impacts on education, learning, teaching? after having explored the field opened by these questions, we will bring an answer with a reinvention of the learning platform named koala (knowledge aware learning assistant). koala is a new online learning platform that comes back to internet sources. symmetrical and acentric, koala combines analyzes from the digital humanities and answers to the challenges of education in the st century. keywords: computer environments, lms, human values, digital support, teaching and learning. research area: psychology; pedagogy. citation: nowakowski, s., bernard, g. ( ). from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and teaching. j. sib. fed. univ. humanit. soc. sci., ( ), – . doi: . / – – . introduction “it’s our dreams that turn us from machines into full-fledged human beings.” k. dick why this quote? it is from one of philip k. dick’s last lectures, you know k. dick, you have certainly seen minority report, blade runner (obviously the version), © siberian federal university. all rights reserved * corresponding author e-mail address: samuel.nowakowski@univ-lorraine.fr; ippssfu@mail.ru this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international license (cc by-nc . ). – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… total recall, … in his end-of-life lectures, k. dick poses the question of the place of man and technology, of what makes us human beings. in this world of technology, this question is central today — not to ask it, it is to take the risk of entrusting to the machines our capacity to decide, to think, … our humanity … and without possible turning back (dick, )! first, a little digression! with a book entitled “how do forests think?” “as we settled down to sleep under the thatch of our hunting camp on the foothills of the sumaco volcano, juanicu warned me, ‘sleep on your back!’ if a jaguar comes, he will see that you can look back and he will not bother you. if you sleep on your stomach, he’ll think you’re aicha, a prey or literally meat in quichua and he’ll attack you” (kohn, ). “he said that if a jaguar sees you as a being able to look at him in return — a self like him, a you — he will leave you alone. but if he came to see you as a prey — one of them — you could end up dead meat. the way other beings see us is important. […] and more especially and more strongly in a world in which digital interfaces, dematerialization, automation, so-called tools of artificial intelligence aim to distance the human or eliminate the relationship with humans! the way other beings see us is important. what would happen if we took the full measure of this idea? how would this affect our understanding of society, culture, and the world we inhabit? how does this affect our understanding of the human, since in this world beyond the human, we sometimes find things that we prefer to attribute only to ourselves? why tell you this? because the question that animates me and must animate us today is what we are going to do with all the tools, more and more powerful, that we are developing. recall with plato or bernard stiegler, that any tool is a pharmakos, both remedy and poison, emancipator and destroyer, and our powerful tools from the digital do not escape! destroyers, these tools are, i want for proof their ecological impact. to take a concrete example, each consultation of a web page results in the emission of g of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the consumption of centilitres of water. globally, the internet is a th continent that “weighs” annually twh of energy, million tons of greenhouse gases and . billion cubic meters of fresh water. about times the footprint of france! in addition to being colossal, the environmental impacts of digital are multiple: depletion of non-renewable natural resources, pollution of the air, water and soil inducing health impacts contributing to the destruction of ecosystems and biodiversity, emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change, etc. and they reinforce – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… each other. it is therefore essential to adopt a multi- criteria approach when studying these impacts and not to limit oneself to a single environmental indicator. these environmental impacts occur at each stage of the life cycle. but they are concentrated especially in the manufacture of equipment and their end of life. it is therefore essential to extend the active life of equipment by promoting their reuse and by pushing the inevitable stage of recycling as much as possible. it is therefore essential to put the human in the center! not to subordinate the intelligence to the tools, and not to forget it in the implementation of our tools. humanity and digital human beings obviously have genius to design, manufacture and use tools. our innate talent for technological invention is one of the main qualities that distinguish our species from others and one of the main reasons why we have taken such a hold on the planet and its destiny. but if our ability to see the world as a raw material, something we can alter and manipulate as we please, gives us tremendous power, it also carries great risks. the first risk is that we ourselves become a technical instrument, optimized and programmed, a technology among the others. the anxiety of seeing machines attack our humanity is as old as the machines themselves. max weber and martin heidegger have described how a narrow and instrumentalist vision of existence influences our understanding of ourselves and shapes the kind of societies we create. with our smartphones and other digital devices ubiquitous, most of us are permanently connected to the computer network (internet live stats, ). the companies that control the network seek to know as much as possible about the users to control their senses until their thoughts through the applications, sites and services that they “propose”. at the same time, the proliferation of connected objects, networked machines and devices, from home to workplaces always immerses us in computer environments designed to anticipate our needs (une rentree pour tout changer, ). there are of course many advantages to an existence more and more mediatized. many activities, once difficult or lengthy, have become easier, requiring less effort and reflection, and the risk of losing, if we are not careful, our ability to act on our own in the world. however, by transferring the initiative to computers and software, we give control of our desires and decisions to programmers and the companies that employ them. already, many people rely on computer programs to choose which movie to watch, which meal to cook, which news to follow, even which person to meet! – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… why think when you can click? by giving such choices to strangers, we inevitably open ourselves to manipulation. since the design and operation of algorithms is almost always hidden from us, it can be difficult, if not impossible, to know whether the choice made on our behalf reflects our own interests or those of corporations, governments or other third parties. we want to believe that technology strengthens our control over our lives and circumstances, but if it is used without consideration, technology is just as likely to turn us into puppets of those who master and deploy these technologies (zamiatine, ). thomas hughes’ “technological impetus” is a powerful force, and opposing this force becomes possible when we have a keen awareness of how technologies are designed and used. if we do not accept this responsibility, we risk going from creator to creature status. what will become of us when we install the externalization of the calculus in “rational” machines in a will to get rid of the uncertainties of the human “reason” which is fallible, unpredictable, submissive, subject to the feelings. this reduction of human contingencies to sequential protocols makes it possible to associate economic rationality with algorithmic rationality. philip k. dick expresses it very well: “to become […], for want of a more appropriate term, […] an android, [which] means, […] to be transformed into an instrument, to let oneself be crushed, manipulate, become an instrument without his knowledge or consent — it’s the same thing. but you cannot turn a human into an android if that human tends to break the law whenever he has the opportunity. androïdization requires obedience. and, above all, predictability. it is precisely when the reaction of a given person to a given situation can be predicted with scientific precision that the doors to the trojan horse are opened wide. for what purpose would a flashlight be if, when the button is pressed, the bulb only comes on once in a while? every machine must walk without firing to be reliable. the android, like any other machine, must walk on the finger and the eye (dick, ).” it would then be “like ray bradbury’s story in which a los angeles man discovers in horror that the police car chasing him has no driver — and that he pursues it of his own accord! what is frankly horrible is not that the car has its own tropism in pursuing the protagonist, but it is the fact that inside the car there is a void. an empty place. the absence of something vital — that is what is horrible! “the person, once gone, cannot be replaced in any way. whatever our feelings about her, we cannot do without them. and once gone, nothing can make her come back. what’s more, if this person is turned into an android, she will never come back to the human state either (dick, ).” – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… what is the human in a world increasingly machinized? what crossroads where to decide alone the path to take at the expense of the dream promise of the other way? remember that there is never “too much human” in a world of dehumanized multitudes. so how to find a way out? find a way out let’s take these words from etienne klein. “it’s not because there are frogs after the rain that we have the right to say that it’s raining frogs”. but why? because today, big data is erected as a means to access the ultimate knowledge! indeed, learning analytics in prediction, profiling in artificial intelligence, to profile, to induce from behavioral regularities, to model consumer behaviors, to identify regularities, we infer laws that we consider as general or even universal then even that they are only the digest of what has already been given! whereas only human thought alone can predict the existence of new dimensions of reality! let’s take a few examples! it is not thanks to big data but thanks to the equations of particle physics that we have been able to predict the existence of the higgs boson and allow its detection in ! it is not thanks to big data but thanks to the equations of gravitation that we have been able to predict the gravitational waves that were detected in , a century after their prediction by the general relativity formulated in by einstein. thus, the thought it alone makes it possible to go beyond the limits of the observable world, the empirical world, the world as it is given to us. thought cannot be dissociated from our nature of being situated and experimenting. the most demonstrative example is that of einstein who proceeded by “thought experiment”, that is to say by experiments capable of keeping the empirical world at a distance and prolonging, in a sort of elsewhere, the implications of a theory: what would happen in this or that situation that i can imagine, if this physical law was really accurate? what would the equations say if they could talk? big data is obviously a fantastic opportunity but may lead us to look only at correlations between the data that are available, or a correlation is not the same as a cause-and-effect relationship. the moral of this beautiful story is that a theory allows to emerge new data but the reciprocal is not true. data does not always make it possible to bring out a theory leading to understanding. so, to all the data gurus, to all who think to read our future in the marc of the algorithms, remember that without the thought in action, nothing – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… that you set up as new gods would exist! that mechanical intelligence, programmed, calculated, is in no way comparable to human intelligence. collecting and processing masses of data, to act intelligences cannot replace this ability of human thought to go beyond frames, to look beyond the hill blocking the horizon. a question of education — towards a reinvention? the understanding of all this necessarily involves learning, listening to nature and others (“we always learn alone but never without others” philippe carré). as science is the most effective method we have found to understand the world and the democratic modes that are the best way we have found to organize the collective decision- making process, education must be based on tolerance, debate, rationality, the search for common ideas, learning, listening to the opposite point of view, awareness of the relativity of its place in the world. in order to be aware that we can be wrong, to retain the possibility of changing our mind when we are convinced by an argument, and to recognize that views opposed to ours could prevail. every step forward in the scientific understanding of the world is also a transgression from what was happening before. so scientific thought always has something subversive, volutionary (a term that i borrow from alain damasio because a revolution always returns to the point of departure). whenever we redraw the world, we change the very grammar of our thoughts, the frame of our representation of reality. to be open to knowledge is to be open to the subversive. unfortunately, in school, on the contrary, science is often taught as a list of “established facts” and “laws” or as a problem- solving training. this way of teaching betrays the very nature of scientific thought (le guin, ). we must teach critical thinking, not the respect of textbooks. we must invite students to question preconceptions and teachers, not blindly believe them. science and thought must lead us to recognize our ignorance, and that in “others” there is more to learn than to dread. that the truth is to be sought in a process of exchange, and not in the certainties or the common conviction that “we are the best”. teaching must therefore be the teaching of doubt and wonder and we must be careful to put our tools at its service. – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… reinventing education? towards openness, the participative, the agile, the connected and the human martin luther king said in his sermon pronounced in new york on april , : “when machines, computers and the quest for profit are more important than people, the fatal triptych of materialism, militarism and racism is invincible.” what is more premonitory than such information? half a century away from a world in which the machine and materialism have never been so overwhelming! so, me too, in this present, in france today, i have a dream! i dream of a society in which industry, economy, democracy, education will be conceived in symbiosis. i dream to see people living in green cities, planted with bamboo oases that will purify the waters and produce biomass for a local industry and adapted to the needs. participatory workshops or fablabs will allow everyone to upgrade their skills, learn, learn to learn and accompany, to repair objects rather than replace them, to produce what is needed without passing by massive industrialization. i dream of a society in which we will have fewer objects. i dream of a measured and intelligent use of the internet, an internet whose resources will be relocated, adapted to the needs, an internet which will allow to share vehicles, various tools and any device with intermittent uses. i dream of a digital resource that will be local, “populated by artificial intelligences” accompanying, adaptable and benevolent. i dream of a sustainable internet, responsible and respectful of humans, life and the earth. i dream of a company where to rent phones and computers rather than buy them, will encourage builders not to promote planned obsolescence. a society in which the bulk of the goods would be made from recyclable materials, all within a circular economy. i dream of a society that can reduce, reuse, recycle, repair, rent, share in a logic of interconnectivity and preservation of diversity, diversity fostered by the education of a conscious citizen, enlightened, responsible and able to reject the clutches of silicon valley engineers, advertisers, media directors who seek to make them more vulnerable, impressionable and receptors of standardized thinking. so, i dream of a school where, from their early years, children are taught co- operation, in addition to mathematics, the digital humanities in addition to grammar and history, the art of communicating better with others express their needs and resolve conflicts instead of competition and coercion. i dream of an education that accompanies throughout life the citizen in his understanding of digital and its issues. i dream of a school that supports the construction of a digital culture accessible to all by facing the difficulty of the uses that have become – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… part of our professional and personal lives. i dream of a school that, beyond familiarity, recall the foundations of the digital sciences and human sciences. so, at a time when we agree on the importance for every citizen to have a critical spirit to escape all forms of obscurantism, i dream of a school that gives the keys to understanding issues related to digital, to avoid falling into a too angelic or too demonizing vision of the contributions of digital. i dream answers, tracks, alternative ways. i dream with ivan illich of a convivial society “which gives to man the possibility of exercising the most autonomous and creative action, using tools less controllable by others. productivity is conjugated in terms of having, usability in terms of being” (illich, ). i dream of a universe-city, imagining a friendly university society open to all and without distinction of sexes, ages and origins. i dream of a world in which one considers with deleuze, that “[…] to make your questions, [it must be] with elements coming from everywhere, from anywhere”. i dream of thinking of the actions that will create the conditions for the inclusion of the university in the city, a connected university, which makes it possible to “think, in things, among things, [that makes it possible] to make rhizome, and not root”. a university that “grows between and among other things (deleuze, parnet, )”. i dream of a universe-city that grows where you do not expect, interstices. i dream of doing universe-city, of working “from” and not “on the side”, of working from society, of these issues, of the needs and expectations of students, and not “beside” stakes of the beginning of the st century. it is careful not to “substitute the awakening of education for the awakening of knowledge” so as not to “stifle in man the poet, [and] freeze his power to give meaning to the world”. i dream of the university as an active part of the city to welcome, give a place, guide, accompany the student. i dream the universe-city open on the city, which give a role to the student by adapting and accompanying the project of all to the city. to universe-city is to consider that the learning and the construction of the personal and professional project does not take place only in formal teachings but, in a university involved in the city, in which a true university citizenship apply. to universe-city is to be free, not to live in a flock by thinking yourself free! to universe-city is to give the conditions for the emancipation of the individual! so my idea for france is to dare the universe-city to remember that people more important than “machines, computers and the quest for profit”! – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… our answer in a digital learning platform our answer is called koala, for “knowledge aware learning assistant”. based on the observations above, in the idea of giving meaning to the action of each, we make ours the statement of van jacobson in , “how to kill internet?” it’s easy, just invent the web. the educational platforms are not immune to this. we sought to introduce a new logic of definition of the authority, the states and the exchanges of roles between the actors of the educational act. our guiding principle is to work on the notion of commitment to all by proposing a space that facilitates commitment by enabling cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement, social engagement and emotional engagement. the goal is then to lead to emancipation, the re-enchantment of the educational act and the well-being in learning and teaching (smolyaninova, ovchinnikov, ). based on these observations and on the experience of previous projects and the challenges of the early st century of a learning society, we have developed a new platform that allows us to return to the sources of the internet. koala is a space for facilitating engagement by installing a new dynamic of the occupation of the learning and teaching space. koala will promote accessibility, continuity and porosity where the other platforms enclose. we thus have a vision that goes from centric to a-centered, from a-symmetrical to symmetrical. koala leaves a place on the periphery and puts another approach to the authority. access to educational resources, the realization of learning activities, the exercise of the educational relationship is built within the spaces that everyone fig. . koala-lms (learning management system) is now at the following address: https://www.koala-lms.org/fr/ – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… wants to invest, and that it will appropriate in its own way. koala is thus a living space that guarantees socially and physically situated actions. it promotes an action that fits in a lived and proxemic space and redefines the articulation between private / individual and the collective at the level of each user. moreover, koala authorizes the indeterminacy of the conditions of realization of an action: invention, freedom, autonomy, capacitive environment and potential of situation. in order to provide an answer to our questions, koala thus opens up a renewed approach to digital support that allows us to integrate the recommendation of content adapted to the needs, contexts, objectives of learning and training of each according to its needs. koala is then an ecology of the learning experience (fig. ). conclusion you know the story dr. frankenstein. dr. frankenstein “makes” a man, he “manufactures” it. an act so frightening that he himself abandons this creature who has no name. the monster as we call it, is monster because it is both similar to us and so different. the monster is therefore a creature who will make his education alone but will sink into violence when the abandonment of its creator will be combined with the stupidity of men. but what a foolish enterprise to want to make a human! yet this is what we strive for each time we want to “build a subject by adding knowledge,” or “make a student stacking knowledge.” we all want, more or less, to “do something with someone” after “doing something”. but like dr. frankenstein, we do not always quite understand what “something” and “someone” is, it’s not quite the same and we often do not know that this confusion condemns us, despite all the goodwill we can deploy, to failure, to conflict, to suffering, and sometimes even to misfortune. and in this world of connected machines, so-called “intelligent machines,” “the question of what it means to be human in the face of machines is no longer so trivial. we should not be so afraid of robots as we are afraid of becoming robots ourselves. we need to introduce human values into technology rather than technology introducing its values into our humanity. for this, one must be able to measure when a technology is dehumanizing or when humans do not think or behave in humans” (meirieu, ). in addition, today, some voices are raised, relayed by the higher authorities of power to say that learning can be explained only through measurable and optimizable mechanisms, by a procedural decomposability optimizable and modelable, by an – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… approach to optimal control of learning and especially forgetting the child as a human becoming and evacuating the political dimension of choices in terms of education. education is not just a process to be optimized. education is a social milieu, education is a political project of elaboration of society. what are we? a brain only, or a complex complex in perpetual construction who’s learning. to educate is not to manufacture! to educate is not to equip, to educate it is perhaps there in a few words in this text of the comité invisible: “do not wait anymore, do not hope anymore. do not be distracted anymore, unseat. breaking. return the lie to the ropes. believe in what we feel. act in consequence. force the door of the present. try. miss. to try again. to miss better. be proactive. attack. build. defeat, perhaps. in any case, overcome. go his way. live, then. now.” adopt koala, and join the experience! references deleuze, g., parnet, c. ( ). dialogues. in flammarion. p. dick, p.k. ( ). if this world displeases you … and other tests [si ce monde vous déplaît… et autres essais]. in eclat eds de l’. illich, i. ( ). convivality. chapter ii. internet live stats ( ). available at https://www.internetlivestats.com/ (accessed july ). koala-lms ( ). available at: https://www.koala-lms.org/fr/ (accessed july ). kohn, e. ( ). how forests think [comment pensent les forêts]. in editions zones sensibles. le guin, u. ( ). the dispossessed [les dépossédés]. in robert laffont. p. meirieu, p. ( ). frankenstein pedagogue [frankenstein pédagogue]. in editions sociales françaises. samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… smolyaninova, o., ovchinnikov, v. ( ). university electronic library for human resources development in siberia: school content. in th europen conference on elearning (ecel ), – . une rentree pour tout changer [a return to change everything] ( ). available at http://multimedia.ademe.fr/infographies/infographie- travail-ademe-logo- qqf/ (accessed july ). zamiatine, e. ( ). we [nous autres]. gallimard. p. От цифровых технологий к обновленному подходу в сфере цифрового обучения Самуэль Новаковски и Гильом Бернард Университет Лотарингии Франция, Нанси, , Лориа umr Мы живем в мире, где цифровые интерфейсы, дематериализация, автоматизация и так называемые инструменты искусственного интеллекта стремятся свести к ми- нимуму взаимоотношения между людьми. Но ведь то, как нас видят другие существа, очень важно. Что будет, если мы в полной мере осознаем эту идею? Как она повлияет на наше понимание общества, культуры и мира, в котором мы живем? Как изменится восприятие нами человека, тем более что в этом мире за пределами человеческого мы иногда находим то, что предпочита- ем приписывать только себе? Что влияет на образование, обучение, преподавание? Изучив очерченную этими вопросами область, мы дадим ответ: koala (knowledge aware learning assistant). Это новая образовательная онлайн- платформа, которая отсылает к интернет- источникам. Будучи симметричной и ацентрической, koala ведет анализ цифровых материалов в сфере гуманитарных наук и дает ответы на вы- зовы образованию в xxi веке. Ключевые слова: компьютерная среда, СДО, человеческие ценности, цифровая под- держка, преподавание и обучение. Научная специальность: . . — психологические науки; . . — педагогические науки. volume issue / c o m p u t e r v i s i o n a n d t h e d i g i ta l h u m a n i t i e s a d a p t i n g i m a g e p r o c e s s i n g a l g o r i t h m s a n d g r o u n d t r u t h t h r o u g h a c t i v e l e a r n i n g christoph musik st. pölten university of applied sciences institute of media economics matthias corvinus-straße st. pölten austria christoph.musik@fhstp.ac.at matthias zeppelzauer st. pölten university of applied sciences institute of creative media technologies media computing research group matthias corvinus-straße st. pölten austria matthias.zeppelzauer@fhstp.ac.at abstract: automated computer vision methods and tools offer new ways of analysing audio-visual material in the realm of the digital humanities (dh). while there are some promising results where these tools can be applied, there are basic challenges, such as algorithmic bias and the lack of sufficient transparency, one needs to carefully use these tools in a productive and responsible way. when it comes to the socio-technical understanding of computer vision tools and methods, a major unit of sociological analysis, attentiveness, and access for configuration (for both computer vision scientists and dh scholars) is what computer science calls “ground truth”. what is specified in the ground truth is the template or rule to follow, e.g. what an object looks like. this article aims at providing scholars in the dh with knowledge about how automated tools for image analysis work and how they are constructed. based on these insights, the paper introduces an approach called “active learning” that can help to configure these tools in ways that fit the specific requirements and research questions of the dh in a more adaptive and user-centered way. we argue that both objectives need to be addressed, as this is, by all means, necessary for a successful implementation of computer vision tools in the dh and related fields. keywords: digital humanities, computer vision, image understanding, machine learning, ground truth generation, explainable artificial intelligence, active learning mailto: christoph.musik@fhstp.ac.at mailto: matthias.zeppelzauer@fhstp.ac.at c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities i n t r o d u c t i o n with the constantly growing amount of visual and audiovisual data, the automated and computer-assisted analysis gains more and more attention. automated computer vision tools that are based on image processing algorithms (ipas) offer new ways of analysing audio-visual material in the realm of digital humanities (dh) and also in digital social sciences. while there are some promising results where cv tools can be applied and are used in dh and beyond , there are basic challenges one needs to carefully deal with in order to use these tools in a productive and responsible way. for instance, heftberger reported that “whenever semantics (image content) comes in, software is not able to detect and annotate it” automatically. a combination of manual and automated annotation and analysis is proposed. other challenges are algorithmic bias and its implications, or, the lack of transparency of algorithmic decision-making. when it comes to the socio-technical understanding of ipas and how different kinds of these operatively work in automated computer vision tools, a major unit of sociological analysis, attentiveness, and access for configuration (for both computer vision scientists and dh scholars) is what computer science calls ground truth. in short, we define ground truth as an interpretation template that instructs the automated decision of ipas and computer vision tools during learning. what is specified in the ground truth is the template or rule to follow, e.g. what an object looks like, where an object is located and which area of the image it covers. this paper brings to the fore the sociotechnical construction and basic modes of operation of ipas and their ground truths in order to understand and work on computer vision tools and their relation to the dh in an interdisciplinary manner. this article aims at, firstly, providing scholars in the dh with knowledge about how automated tools for image analysis work and how they are constructed, i.e. in the words of bruno latour we try to open up the black box of computer vision tools. secondly, based on these insights, the paper proposes an approach to configure these tools in ways that fit the specific requirements and research questions of the dh in a more adaptive and user-centered way. this especially refers to the approach of active learning and takes up discussions and challenges of explainable artificial intelligence (xai) , . we argue that both objectives need to be addressed, as this is, by all means, necessary for a successful implementation of computer vision tools in the dh and related fields. one reason for this is the narrow, inflexible and opaque nature of ready-made and off-the-shelf available computer vision tools, which may restrict their application in the context of dh and may further introduce unwanted bias in the analysis. this contribution represents a position and conceptual paper aiming at both a critical understanding of computer vision tools in their application in the dh and based on this, a constructive approach of how to apply computer vision in the dh in a more meaningful and responsible way. these two objectives are closely linked and do not contradict each other as they both address limitations and opportunities. it is a call neither simply for nor against the deployment of computer vision in the dh but a proposal for how it should be involved in a nuanced and reflexive way. the paper and its objectives are the outcome of the previous experience of the authors (a social scientist specialised in science and technology studies (sts) and media sociology, and a computer vision researcher) in interdisciplinary research at the interface between computer vision and different dh areas. in this regard both refer to practical work and empirical projects where they either worked on or analysed computer vision, ipas and ground truth construction. in the following, we first elaborate on the wider sociotechnical developments as well as debates framing the involvement of this paper. this refers to the age of visual big data and the social power of algorithms. in a second step, we provide methodological background information on the practical work and empirical ethnographic research maia zaharieva, dalibor mitrovic, matthias zeppelzauer, and christian breiteneder, ‘film analysis of archive documentaries.’ ieee multimedia, , , , pp. - . adelheid heftberger, ‘do computers dream of cinema? film data for computer analysis and visualisation’, in david m. berry, ed, understanding digital humanities, , p. . bruno latour, pandora’s hope: essays on the reality of science studies, harvard university press, , p. . bernard, j., hutter, m., zeppelzauer, fellner, d., sedlmair, m. ( ) comparing visual-interactive labeling with active learning: an experimental study. ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics (tvcg), : ( - ), doi: . /tvcg. . , issn: - . tim miller, ‘explanation in artificial intelligence: insights from the social sciences.’ artificial intelligence, , , pp. – . amina adadi and mohammed berrada ( ). peeking inside the black-box: a survey on explainable artificial intelligence (xai). ieee access, , , pp. – . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities that shaped our position and thereby this conceptual paper. this also includes the example of automatic visual ‘fall detection’ that we focus on at the end of the main part of the paper. furthermore, we discuss different conceptual and basic levels of computer vision, including questions of difference between computer and human vision, and, visual expertise. following this, we address the sociotechnical construction of ground truth and its implications for the dh. this part completes with a discussion of algorithmic bias and error and of how this issue can be dealt with. in the final part of the paper, we propose an approach enabling user participation in the construction of ground truth and highlight the importance of explainable artificial intelligence in this context. t h e a g e o f v i s u a l b i g d a t a a n d t h e s o c i a l p o w e r o f a l g o r i t h m s in recent years, there has been a worldwide explosion of visual and audiovisual data. these data come from various sources such as images and video clips on social sharing sites (e.g. instagram or youtube), films and series on video-on-demand streaming platforms (e.g. netflix), live coverage on over-the-top services (e.g. dazn), a multiplicity of new digital linear television channels, and the digitalisation of analogue and historic moving image (e.g. film collections). there is no doubt that with the beginning of this decade we started living in the “age of big data”. for example, in an article published in (feb , “mining an information explosion”) the new york times officially welcomed this new age. the welcome call referred to the constantly growing amount of data and stated, quoting an estimation by idc, a technology research firm, that data is currently growing at percent a year, or doubling every two years. the most recent idc white paper on the data age , sponsored by the us data storage company seagate, estimates the amount of worldwide data to be , zb (that is bytes). idc forecasts see the amount of data growing up to zettabytes by . it is important to note that this data explosion is predominantly visual, with data deriving from various sources such as images, videos, and surveillance streams, with the moving image being in pole position when it comes to the quantity of global data. we thus live in the age of “visual big data”. idc estimates a constant growth of both entertainment data (image and video content created or consumed for entertainment purposes) and non-entertainment data (image and video content for non-entertainment purposes, such as video surveillance footage or advertising). figure . data creation by type. there is a strong pre-dominance of visual data (source: idc’s data age study). david reinsel, john gantz, and john rydning, ‘data age : the evolution of data to life-critical,’ an idc white paper, sponsored by seagate, april , https://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/our-story/trends/files/seagate-wp-dataage -march- .pdf https://www.instagram.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.netflix.com/ https://www.dazn.com/ https://www.nytimes.com/ https://www.idc.com/ https://www.seagate.com/ https://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/our-story/trends/files/seagate-wp-dataage -march- .pdf c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities the great quantity of (audio)visual data and its constant growth implies that coping with, and making sense of data, is not limited to numbers and textual data but does most of all refer to visual data. against this background, image processing algorithms (ipas) implemented in computer vision tools for automated image analysis and understanding are essential in making sense of this ever-growing amount of visual data. ipas can be considered as the basic technology behind all approaches that deal with the automatisation of analysing and understanding visual materials on different levels . since more and more scholars in the dh work with automated computer vision tools such as cinemetrics and videana, ipas are becoming increasingly more powerful societal actors in this regard . thus, it is important to understand exactly and reflect carefully on the production, processing, and interpretation of (digital) images by algorithms on a broader scope and not exclusively in the realm of computer sciences. algorithms challenge traditional human approaches of analysis in the humanities and other scientific disciplines as they provide a new perspective to the investigated problems and data as well as a new knowledge logic . this logic depends very much on the “proceduralized choices of a machine, designed by human operators to automate some proxy of human judgement or unearth patterns across collected social traces” . according to gillespie, this logic is competing with the ‘editorial logic’ in which the subjective choices of trained and certified experts (e.g. registrars, researchers) are dominant. the following questions remain: how do algorithms choose information? how do they select and “know”? how do they “see”? and, is there actually a difference between the ‘algorithmic logic’ and the ‘editorial logic’? the amount of (critical) literature regarding the role of algorithms in recent years in the fields of social sciences and humanities keeps growing constantly (see for example on “the ethics of algorithms” mittelstadt et al. , on the “ethics and politics of algorithms” matzner , or, on “algorithms as culture” seaver ). there is, however, a gap in critical literature reflecting on this topic and its relation to the dh from an interdisciplinary perspective. n o t e s o n m e t h o d s , m a t e r i a l s a n d b a c k g r o u n d this conceptual and position paper is the outcome of the research experience of the authors (a social scientist specialised in science and technology studies (sts) and media sociology and a computer vision scientist) in the interdisciplinary engagement on computer vision in the dh. the paper focuses on a conceptual and practical level of computer vision, computer vision tools, and their relation to the dh. this involvement is nevertheless informed by and grounded in different kinds of empirical analyses, case studies and practical interdisciplinary work in the context of computer vision and dh. therefore, we very briefly provide some basic information on the background of the authors and their work. we are well aware that especially ethnographic fieldwork is in need of proper contextualisation and reflection but the framework of this contribution does not allow for accounting this in-depth. the first author analysed the field of computer vision and the matter of ipas in different projects (some of these collaborative interdisciplinary projects) from the standpoint of sts over the course of the last ten years. this means, christoph musik, computers and the ability to see. understanding the negotiation and implementation of image processing algorithms, phd dissertation, university of vienna, . david beer, ‘the social power of algorithms,’ information, communication & society, , , , pp. - . tarleton gillespie, ‘the relevance of algorithms,’ in tarleton gillespie, pablo j. boczkowski, and kirsten a. foot, eds, media technologies. essays on communication, materiality, and society, , p. . tarleton gillespie, ‘the relevance of algorithms,’ in tarleton gillespie, pablo j. boczkowski, and kirsten a. foot, eds, media technologies. essays on communication, materiality, and society, , p. . brent daniel mittelstadt, patrick allo, mariarosaria taddeo, sandra wachter, and luciano floridi, ‘the ethics of algorithms: mapping the debate,’ big data & society, december , pp. - . tobias matzner, ‘grasping the ethics and politics of algorithms,’ in ann rudinow saetnan, ingrid schneider, and nicola green, eds, the politics of big data. big data, big brother?, , pp. - . nick seaver, ‘algorithms as culture: some tactics for the ethnography of algorithmic systems,’ big data & society, december , pp. - . http://www.cinemetrics.lv/ https://www.uni-marburg.de/fb /arbeitsgruppen/verteilte_systeme/forschung/pastproj/videana c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities based on approaches of ‘laboratory studies’ , and in particular on forsythe’s interpretative cultural anthropology approach , both computer scientists’ viewpoints and the everyday techno-scientific practice in computer vision laboratories and its surroundings were analysed by means of ethnographic fieldwork . while the paper at hand is able to also draw on many (formal and informal) interviews and collaborative projects with different computer vision scientists from around the world, the main part of this lab-based fieldwork took place in an austrian computer vision laboratory over a period of two months in . within this period, the first author was able to observe and be involved in the work on so-called automated fall detection. this involvement is the empirical basis for the example presented in the main part of this paper. the second author is a computer vision scientist with long-time experience in developing ipas. a specific focus of his work is the research and application of ipas in interdisciplinary problem settings, e.g. in cooperation with media scholars and film scholars . in previous joint research, we could identify both limitations and potentials of the application of ipas in the dh. from the joint research, we could gather in-depth information about the diverse requirements of researchers in the dh employing computer vision approaches in their research. in this paper, we discuss and elaborate on the basic findings and insights gained of the previous interdisciplinary research and develop ideas of how computer vision can be best integrated in dh research and studies. w h a t d o e s “ s e e i n g ” m e a n ? b e t w e e n c o m p u t e r v i s i o n a n d h u m a n v i s i o n to understand computer vision we need to understand human vision. computer vision and human vision are closely connected and intertwined, which stems from the fact that computer vision tries to imitate human vision. research in sts showed that the boundaries between humans and machines are constant subjects of discussion and negotiation. so are the boundaries between human vision and computer vision. it is crucial to note that questions addressing computer vision are simultaneously always questions addressing human vision, too. to put it briefly, this is because humans are inevitably involved in the design and development of computers that are able to see. but what does “seeing” actually mean? what understandings of seeing, and closely connected to it - recognising - do we have, especially when it comes to teaching computers to achieve sight? is there one universal way of seeing that is easily transferred to machines, or is seeing rather a diverse “situated” and cultural activity that hampers a simple and smooth transformation of this ability? from a sociological point of view, seeing is subject to change, both culturally and historically . in order to emphasise different forms of seeing in the context of artificial intelligence, collins distinguishes a formal (or pattern recognition) bruno latour, and steve woolgar, laboratory life. the construction of scientific facts. sage publications, . karin knorr-cetina, the manufacture of knowledge. an essay on the constructivist and contextual nature of science. pergamon, . diana e. forsythe, ‘engineering knowledge: the construction of knowledge in artificial intelligence,’ social studies of science, , , , pp. - . christoph musik, computers and the ability to see. understanding the negotiation and implementation of image processing algorithms, phd dissertation, university of vienna, . maia zaharieva, dalibor mitrovic, matthias zeppelzauer, and christian breiteneder, ‘film analysis of archive documentaries.’ ieee multimedia, , , , pp. - . matthias zeppelzauer, dalibor mitrovic, and christian breiteneder, ‘archive film material - a novel challenge for automated film analysis’ in catherine grant,ed, frames cinema journal, , . matthias zeppelzauer, maia zaharieva, dalibor mitrovic, and christian breiteneder, ‘retrieval of motion composition in film.’ digital creativity, , , , pp. - . lucy suchman, human-machine reconfigurations. plans and situated actions. nd edition, cambridge university press, , p. . regula valérie burri, and joseph dumit, ‘social studies of scientific imaging and visualization,’ in edward j. hackett, olga amsterdamska, michael lynch, and judy wajcman, eds, the handbook of science and technology studies. third edition. the mit press, , pp. – . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities model of seeing from an enculturational model . the formal model of seeing “involves recognizing what an object really is by detecting its distinguishing characteristics.” the enculturational model of seeing stresses that the same object may be seen as many different things. in this regard, goodwin’s analysis of the so-called ‘king trial’ and the video footage of police violence discussed and transformed in court is a good example for the enculturational model. in the ‘king trial’, four white police officers were charged with beating rodney king, an african-american motorist, who had been stopped for speeding in the us in . the incident had been videotaped (see video “rodney king beating video full length footage screener” below) and for the prosecutor it was clear, objective evidence showing uncontrolled and brutal violence against rodney king. however, the lawyers defending the police officers did not treat the tape as evidence that spoke for itself. rather, they were able to transform the perception of the tape from evidence to “a very disciplined and controlled effort to take mr. king into custody” . with the help of a coding scheme delivered by experts showing how police usually work, a ‘perceptual transformation’ was accomplished. goodwin concludes that “the perspectival framework provided by a professional coding scheme constitutes the objects in the domain of scrutiny that are the focus of attention” . video . “rodney king beating video full length footage screener” w h o i s t h e v i s u a l e x p e r t ? h u m a n v s . m a c h i n e o r : h u m a n a n d m a c h i n e ? reading and analysing audiovisual data in the humanities and in other scientific fields such as the social sciences is first of all about the understanding and interpretation of (moving) images. as such, it is an interesting subject of analysis for the approach of a “sociology of images” . this approach investigates the processes by which (scientific) image interpretation (e.g. what is depicted on an image, painting, x-ray, etc.) is interactively negotiated in social practices. this means that the focus is not only on the images and their content alone but also on the micro-practices and contexts of image production, interpretation and use (e.g. as evidence for an entity). this focus is similar to harry m. collins, tacit and explicit knowlegde. university of chicago press, , p. . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , pp. - . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , p. . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , p. . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , p. . regula valérie burri, ‘visual rationalities: towards a sociology of images,’ current sociology, , , jan , pp. - . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sb wywiputy c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities what burri and dumit developed in their concept of the social studies of scientific imaging and visualisation (siv) . here, the sociotechnical negotiation of images and their meanings is central, because next to human interpreters and images there is a wide array of technical actors and influencing factors such as different algorithms and parameters (e.g. scale and resolution) involved in the processes of image production, interpretation, and use. what seems to be clear for techno-scientific fields, one example being the interpretation of magnetic resonance imaging (mri), is a rather new aspect when it comes to the dh and its use of computational tools whose influence in and on the analysis is often underestimated. a key question referring to both fields concerns the visual expertise: who is actually able to read images and who is allowed to read them because visual expertise is its own form of literacy and specialisation ? when it comes to the engagement with images, the focus is on the process of making visual data meaningful. this leads to the following questions: how is meaning addressed to images and by whom? are ipas, and if so to what extent, positioned or perceived as visual experts in this regard? these questions can only be answered adequately if we have a clear understanding of how much agency and authority is or can be ascribed to ipas and how these are integrated within sociotechnical assemblages . from our point of view, the question needs to be how human and machine vision can be synchronised in the best possible way, rather than if humans or machines have more visual expertise. a follow-up question is how to combine the mutual strengths of human and computer vision in a way that they attain synergies. c r e a t i n g g r o u n d t r u t h i n c o m p u t e r v i s i o n : i m a g e p r o c e s s i n g a l g o r i t h m s a s g r o u n d t r u t h m a c h i n e s an important observation in the described fieldwork, interviews and also apparent in the practical work in computer science is that a crucial requirement in the development of ipas is the creation of what computer scientists call “ground truth”. ground truth provides the definition of what should be learned by the algorithm, such as categories of objects, behaviour etc., and as such it is a significant societal element as it defines and standardises what is perceived to be real and true in the world. ground truth in this sense is a specific powerful form of an ‘interpretation template’ or even ‘truth template’. it is applied to visual material to analyse it in terms of specific categories of interest (e.g., people, faces, gender, age, facial expressions). thus, subject to its assumed authority, ground truth very much predetermines what people and faces look like, who is male, female, or different, how old people are and even how people might feel. in this sense, ipas are — to refer to the analytic term “truth machines”, introduced by lynch and colleagues in their analysis of the pattern recognition technology of dna fingerprinting — “ground truth machines”, i.e. powerful agents that follow ground truth-specific rules and make them applicable in a large scale to massive amounts of data. in short, ground truth is an essential element for ipas and computer vision. to become familiar with how a machine learning method actually learns different ground truth categories, we invite the reader to train their own classifier and for their own ground-truth categories by using the following online demo tool: https://teachablemachine.withgoogle.com/ major questions in the context of ground-truth are: how is it actually created, and by whom? with a first basic answer being that it is constructed in a sociotechnical way. that is, humans and technology work together. a more elaborated answer that we frame is: it is a process between the application of tacit and explicit knowledge and between specific computational scripts and experimental imaginations. regula valérie burri, and joseph dumit, ‘social studies of scientific imaging and visualization,’ in edward j. hackett, olga amsterdamska, michael lynch, and judy wajcman, eds, the handbook of science and technology studies. third edition. the mit press, , pp. – . regula valérie burri, and joseph dumit, ‘social studies of scientific imaging and visualization,’ in edward j. hackett, olga amsterdamska, michael lynch, and judy wajcman, eds, the handbook of science and technology studies. third edition. the mit press, , p. . lucy suchman, human-machine reconfigurations. plans and situated actions. nd edition, cambridge university press, . cf. the term “truth machines“ in michael lynch, simon cole, ruth mcnally, and kathleen jordan, kathleen, eds, truth machine: the contentious history of dna fingerprinting. university of chicago press, . https://teachablemachine.withgoogle.com/� c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities b e t w e e n t a c i t a n d e x p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e the basic resource for building ground truth is knowledge. a specific ground truth is not there from the beginning. creating ground truth requires existing knowledge about the entity of interest from the people who generate it (usually computer scientists, students or crowd workers). there is no general “truth” from which to start, i.e. the one and only ground truth in the literal sense of the word that one could draw on universally, but a specific “truth” that has to be negotiated and created by humans. that is, by human selection and interpretation, especially the selection of images, semantic content and the context of the given task. the algorithm has to be taught this knowledge therefore it needs to be fed with example data for training purposes. to give an example: if the task is to automatically recognise individual persons from their face (i.e. face recognition), computer scientists need to show the algorithm images of the corresponding persons. in addition, the scientist has to label this particular person with a name. in this case, the face identity represents the ground truth. a further example is to classify scenes shown in images as either indoor or outdoor scenes, a ground truth for image classification needs to be established that labels images into indoor and outdoor scenes. this means, the correct answer—what is indoor/what is outdoor—is provided explicitly in the training phase of the ipa. in this sense, a ground truth represents the correct or true assignment of input data to well-defined and pre-defined classes and concepts of interest they belong to in the real world. the crucial question is: who is actually able to give the correct answer? in our previous interdisciplinary research, we have observed different ways to obtain ground truth data. one way is to generate it automatically together with the data, e.g. if synthetic test data is employed. sometimes ground truth is already available, e.g. from previous manual investigations and it only needs to be converted into a machine-readable format. however, in most cases ground truth needs to be generated manually by annotating the corresponding objects of interest. this process of manual ground truth generation is often referred to as “annotation”, a process posing several challenges. annotating image data is a complex and time-consuming process that in the everyday practice of computer vision is a compulsory basic task. taking these characteristics into consideration, it is often the case that students or interns annotate images. sometimes this task is also outsourced to a crowd of people (crowdsourcing). this practice is particularly common in situations where computer scientists assume that no special expert knowledge is required to assign the classes or concepts of interest to the data. this form of “what everybody knows knowledge” corresponds to rather more informal, fluent and changing forms of knowledge that are called ‘tacit’ , or ‘non-explicit’ knowledge. an example from fieldwork observation is as follows: the ability to recognise whether something is machine written or hand written might be clear for most literate people that are used to both types of writing. there might also be tacit agreement about this recognition task, suggesting that expert knowledge for this specific recognition task would not be needed. the ability to recognise and differentiate between machine written and hand written texts does not appear as something specific, but as something self-evident (“what everybody knows”). another example for “what everybody knows knowledge“ might be gender recognition. as long as we assume that there is a clear distinction between male and female persons in a binary gender system, this task is indeed a matter of everyday tacit knowledge. however, as soon as this binary system is challenged by more elaborate systems of gender categories or any other form of disruption (e.g. masquerade in carnival), it might become a task for experts in gender recognition (e.g. human ethologists) or even an infeasible task. finally, in most cases the developing computer scientists have to make the decision whether to consult experts of a specific field (and if so, what kind). in any case, in theory there is need to use consistent annotation vocabulary and an annotation protocol must be defined which provides a detailed and explicit guide to the annotating person. the annotation protocol defines the classes or a taxonomy of classes, their corresponding labels, categories, characteristics, and their relationships. however, in practice—and this is a crucial point — different classes and concepts are often ambiguous and assessed diana e. forsythe, ‘engineering knowledge: the construction of knowledge in artificial intelligence,’ social studies of science, , , , p. . michael polanyi, the tacit dimension, doubleday & co, . harry m. collins, tacit and explicit knowlegde. university of chicago press, . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities subjectively by annotators due to cultural influences, different background knowledge and interpretation. especially for concepts with a certain level of semantic complexity, ambiguities in interpretation arise. an example stemming from previous research in the dh are scenes in a film . the segmentation of a film into scenes allows for different possible interpretations because there is no unique definition of a “scene” that covers all possible types of scenes that may occur in films and thus the boundaries between scenes can often not be clearly defined. furthermore, even for much simpler concepts, such as shot cuts which have low semantic complexity, ambiguities have been reported when it comes to concrete annotations . the major challenge in the creation of an annotation protocol is the specification of well-defined distinct classes or—sociologically speaking—“islands of meaning” to avoid ambiguities. in addition, experience has shown that it is beneficial for the process of ground truth generation to allow for annotators to highlight ambiguous cases with a predetermined label instead of forcing them to decide for one of the pre-defined categories. this approach helps to identify unclear cases, ambiguities and inaccurate definitions of categories early in the process and thereby fosters knowledge gain. b e t w e e n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l s c r i p t a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l i m a g i n a t i o n while still most computational tools used in the dh operate on a low-level (e.g. shot cut detection ) or mid-level of semantic complexity (e.g. gender recognition), a challenge for future tasks is the visual analysis at higher levels of semantic complexity. on this level, relations of objects and more complex actions of these objects need to be interpreted automatically . the human power of imagination generates an unlimited array of possible tasks to recognise automatically, such as the automated recognition of same-sex couples and their representation in films, the analysis of gait velocity in order to measure the historic development of acceleration in tv-series, or the recognition of kissing and killing and their relation in hollywood blockbusters. nevertheless, there might be limits to the realisation of automating these. on the one hand, these limits relate to the computational script. the computational script refers to the question of what can be realised with specific computer vision solutions and how does technology influence, restrict and prescribe the creation of a ground truth. on the other hand, these limits connect to the narrow universalisation of specific domains. every algorithm emerges in a specific context at a specific place and at a specific point of time. in addition to this, many ipas and therefore many ground truths are custom-made for specific tasks and data. a simple transfer to other contexts is often not possible without loss of scope or depth or this transfer might even create forms of bias. a simple process of universalisation is at least questionable. to demonstrate this and possible implications, we bring in the example of creating a ground truth for the task of automatically recognising the fall of people (that was observed during ethnographic fieldwork of the first author). the fall of persons might be a result of different events, such as being killed in a violent act or losing one’s balance as it frequently is the case with elderly people in their homes. while the latter is connected to environments of “ambient assisted living” (aal) and in-house surveillance cameras or visual sensors, the challenge remains the same once an ipa needs to recognise falls of people in the context of killing events. both scenarios make use of visual content for a similar type of action (i.e. falls). in the case of automated fall detection of elderly people in private homes, a challenge for computer vision is to differentiate between critical falls, which need emergency assistance, and other uncritical mitrovic dalibor, stefan hartlieb, matthias zeppelzauer, and maia zaharieva, ‘scene segmentation in artistic archive documentaries.’ hci in work and learning, life and leisure, lncs, , , pp. - , springer, berlin/heidelberg. anton fuxjäger, ‘wenn filmwissenschaftler versuchen sich maschinen verständlich zu machen - zur mangelden operationalisierbarkeit des begriffs “einstellung” für die filmanalyse,’ maske und kothurn, , . eviatar zerubavel, ‘lumping and splitting: notes on social classification,’ sociological forum, , , , pp. - . matthias zeppelzauer, dalibor mitrovic, and christian breiteneder, ‘analysis of historical artistic documentaries,’ in proceedings of the th international workshop on image analysis for multimedia interactive services, klagenfurt, austria, , pp. - . pavan turaga, rama chellappa,r., v.s. subrahmanian, and octavian udrea, ‘machine recognition of human activities: a survey,’ in ieee transactions on circuits and systems for video technology, vol. , no. , nov. , pp. - . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities actions, such as bending forward or lying down on a bed or couch for resting. this means, while the physical process of falling might look similar in many different cases, there is a wide array of what this physical process really means (e.g. critical fall or a part of lying down for taking a rest). in the aal case of elderly people falling in their homes, ground truth was constructed within the framework of the computational script of a microsoft xbox kinect sensor as well as through the ingenuity and creativity of the researcher in de-scripting , rewriting and making use of this specific hardware-software-data assemblage. the researchers used a kinect sensor because at that time it was considered a keenly priced and affordable hardware and to keep down future prices of an imagined commercial system. next to the relatively low price, the kinect sensor also had the advantage of delivering d information using a depth sensor, meaning it was possible to estimate distances. it was further privacy enhancing, since in depth images individual persons can hardly be recognised as only the body shape is outlined. the kinect sensor promised several advantages for the researchers in this specific case but in order to benefit from these it was necessary to first understand and then “de-script” its specific characteristics. so all that followed in the research process took place within this specific script of the kinect sensor. as such, the existing product microsoft xbox kinect and its configuration was “inscribed” into the ground truth and thereby implicitly into the entire process of fall detection. this strong dependency on a specific hardware and type of data (depth images) makes the approach specific to the problem at hand but hinders its application to other fall detection problems, for example fall detection in films. even if there is a solution to tackle the transformation problem of kinect d input data to d video data, the respective ground truth would hardly be transferable to the other problem because the nature of the falls, their visual appearance and the contextual embedding is different. the adaption of an algorithm to a certain problem always introduces bias with respect to the data and the targeted task. the other fundamental element observed in the construction of ground truth was an experimental investigation into the dynamics of falling within the context of aal environments as there was no substantial or applicable knowledge or even images or videos available of “real” or “realistic” falls of elderly people and thereby a lack of suitable training data. consequently, it was a matter of experimental imagination how “real” or “realistic” falls of elderly people look like. as there were no training sequences showing real falls of elderly people, the training sequences had to be created synthetically by the young computer scientists (by filming them simulating a fall) to train the algorithm. the ground truth was defined within this framework and a mathematical equation was formulated for the detection of falls. this equation was based on the relationship between two central visualized geometric elements; first, the orientation of the floor plane and second, a straight line visually representing the human body (medial axis) in the scene. the assumption was that the more similar the orientation of these two elements was, the more likely it was that a fall had occurred. once a specific critical threshold of this relation was reached, a fall was declared to be detected. from this observation can be concluded that ground truth, and connected to it the specific decision rules, should be generated for the specific material to avoid ambiguities as best as possible and to increase the likelihood of a correct detection. similarly, for detecting people in films being killed and hence falling, a specific training dataset and ground truth needs to be established to enable a robust detection. to sum up, the data-centric nature of ipas makes them less generalisable to other type of material or to the same actions in different contexts. this means, there is always a tradeoff between generalisation/universalisation and the accuracy of an algorithm. for the use of computer vision in the dh, this means that the more specific a given research topic or research question is, the more important it gets to actively participate in the generation of ground truth to improve the adaption of the tools to the actual problem. e m e r g i n g c h a l l e n g e s : e v a l u a t i n g e r r o r a n d b i a s in the sequel, problems of ground truth construction and ipas such as false negative and false positive detections and systematic biases are discussed. how can we actually know that the delivered results are “correct”; which leads madeleine akrich, ‘the de-scription of technical objects,’ in wiebe e. bijker, john law, eds, shaping technology/building society. studies in sociotechnical change. the mit press, , pp. - . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities to the follow-up question of how we can assess if the ground truth itself is correct? the crucial point is that evaluation depends on “consistent results no matter who is doing the coding” that help the method gain “…credibility as an accurate measure of reality.” thus, if human coders (the ones who previously annotated the visual material) initiating the evaluation come to an agreement that the tested algorithm was accurate in any random case, then the algorithm is accurate. therefore, it is a “closed loop” system that works “in terms of the system’s internal agreement—that is, whether the classification system consistently agrees with itself” . what is at stake becomes apparent when talking about false negative and false positive detections. false negatives are relevant cases (e.g. falls) that are not detected as relevant (i.e. missed). false positives are irrelevant cases (e.g. a curtsy) that are falsely detected as relevant. usually the performance of algorithms is measured by computing false negative rates and false positive rates. here it has to be noted that the concept of gathering false negative and false positive rates does always imply that there is one universal ground truth with which any domains of scrutiny are examined to evaluate accuracy. if in a specific case or context the detection rate of a certain class or object is rather low, this does not automatically mean that the specific class or object does not appear. it might be the case that the object is of course there but not detected because the algorithm has a systematic bias and is not able to detect it in the given context. to give an example: if a ground truth of people being killed (in films) was generated solely based on training images deriving from car accident scenes, sequences of people being killed in a shoot-out may not be recognized correctly. the goal in the development of ipas is always to achieve a large generalisation ability, i.e. to obtain robustness to different contexts, perspectives, scales, and appearances of the target entity. at the same time the number of false detections should be minimised, which is usually a conflicting goal to generalisability. thus, a tradeoff has to be found for each concrete task and application. furthermore, there is the risk of generating algorithmic bias. for example, introna and wood analysed the politics and implications of face recognition technologies . one of their central results was that facial recognition algorithms have a systemic bias: men, asian and afro-american populations as well as older people are more likely to be recognised than women, white populations and younger people . bias in gender and race was also discovered in a more recent evaluation of three commercial gender classification systems. using another image dataset, it was shown that darker-skinned females belong to the most commonly misclassified group with error rates of up to , % similarly, in the early years of speech recognition a constant bias of speech recognition systems towards male speech was observed. this bias originated from the fact that it was mainly men who developed those systems at this time and they used their own voices to record their training data (speech sequences) due to a lack of large training corpuses. this inherent tendency to bias bears the risk for a “new type of digital divide” that requires close attention in research. therefore, introna and wood call for “bias studies,” especially regarding the question of what can be done to limit biases. while there will be always be forms of algorithmic and human bias and we understand that an unbiased algorithm or world might not exist, it seems to be crucial to reduce bias in terms of transparency and algorithmic explanation possibilities as more and more political decisions are grounded in algorithms. another example for scholars researching and fighting bias in machine learning is joy buolamwini. kelly gates, our biometric future: facial recognition technology and the culture of surveillance, nyu press, , p. . kelly gates, our biometric future: facial recognition technology and the culture of surveillance, nyu press, , p. . lucas introna, david wood, ‘picturing algorithmic surveillance: the politics of facial recognition systems,’ surveillance & society ( / ): , pp. – . lucas introna, david wood, ‘picturing algorithmic surveillance: the politics of facial recognition systems,’ surveillance & society ( / ): , p. . joy buolamwini, timnit gebru, ‘gender shades: intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender classification,’ proceedings of the st conference on fairness, accountability and transparency, pmlr, , , pp. - . lucas introna, david wood, ‘picturing algorithmic surveillance: the politics of facial recognition systems,’ surveillance & society ( / ): , p. . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities video . ted talk: joy buolamwini on fighting bias in algorithms (tedxbeaconstreet, november ) c o n c l u s i o n s : t o w a r d s u s e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d a c t i v e l e a r n i n g what are the consequences and implications for the digital humanities and for the use of automated visual analysis tools in this domain? while there are promising results to extract visual information on a low-level of semantic complexity, the higher-level interpretation of (moving) images is highly dependent on situation and context. drawing meaningful conclusions from situation and context is a major challenge for computer vision algorithms because it requires a high-level of understanding of objects, relations, diversity, ambiguity, situated actions and cultural local particularities (e.g. greeting rituals, political symbols). therefore, we argue in support of an integrated and critical approach to the use of computer vision tools, whereby we attach particular importance to transparency and the involvement of (expert) users (e.g. scholars in the dh) in ground truth creation and the training process of the algorithms. we argue that a major limitation for the application of existing (pre-trained) computer vision approaches in dh is their limitation to a certain and previously defined ground truth. research questions addressed in the dh often relate to specific high-level concepts, which are not covered by existing ground truths, making the training they received insufficient. since there is no unique and all-encompassing ground truth, we propose to move away from rigidly pre-defined ground truths to more flexible ground truths that adapt to the specific requirements of the actual expert users. we believe that this is a useful strategy in particular in dh-related research where highly complex and hitherto not analysed concepts are the subject of investigation. furthermore, the ground truth is often not known a priori and ground truth concepts may evolve or are discovered during the analysis of the visual content under consideration. such a flexibility should be provided by computer vision tools to support exploration and the establishment of hypotheses. a promising approach to enable a more flexible learning is “active learning” (al) , . in al the algorithm is not trained in an offline manner from pre-existing ground truth like in most existing approaches today. instead, the algorithm is lucy suchman, human-machine reconfigurations. plans and situated actions. nd edition, cambridge university press, . burr settles, active learning literature survey. university of wisconsin-madison department of computer sciences, . devis tuia, michele volpi, loris copa, mikhail kanevski, and jordi munoz-mari, ‘a survey of active learning algorithms for supervised remote sensing image classification.’ ieee journal of selected topics in signal processing, , , , pp. - . https://www.ted.com/talks/joy_buolamwini_how_i_m_fighting_bias_in_algorithms c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities trained in an online fashion by taking input from the user into account. thereby the (expert) user and her/his needs are directly integrated into the learning process, which replaces the need to define a ground truth explicitly. this is best explained with an example. imagine that a dh scholar wants to find political symbols (e.g. flags, graffiti, posters etc.) in a large corpus of videos (e.g. documentaries or news broadcasts). with a very high probability, no algorithm exists which has been trained for detecting such specific symbols. al can circumvent this problem. in al the user may provide one or a few examples of symbols that she/he is interested in for initialisation. starting with these examples, the algorithm tries to train an initial detector for the desired symbols. concerning symbols that the classifier is not certain about, it can ask the user who can then assign the symbol to a specific category. this queried feedback is used by the algorithm to improve its detection capabilities iteratively. additionally, the user may provide feedback on the relevance of detection results and communicate them back to the algorithm, i.e. whether a certain detected symbol is relevant or not for the user. this type of feedback mechanism is also referred to as “relevance feedback” and can easily be combined with al. more recent developments further extend the idea of al to interactive data exploration methodology (i.e. visual interactive learning, vial) to further enable the user to proactively select items for labelling to better guide the training process . the different strategies for incorporating user feedback into the training process makes the algorithm more adaptive to the actual data and thereby enables it to better fit to the actual research questions investigated by the user. al further circumvents the explicit and a priori definition of a ground truth. instead, the ground truth is defined implicitly from the expert user’s feedback. this approach makes it possible to adapt directly to the needs of the user and release her/him from the explicit definition of categories and typologies of classes, i.e. the annotation vocabulary. al can lead to a higher level of transparency and understanding of the algorithms by making the training data explicit to the user. the interactive nature of the al process empowers the user and enables her/him to learn from the data and to get a higher level of understanding of the problem as well as novel insights from the data. thereby, the “black box“ of today’s computer vision algorithms can be opened to a certain degree and transformed into a “grey box” which enables a basic level of transparency and documentation. in this regard, the methodology connects well to the research on explainable artificial intelligence (xai) , . the goal of xai is to explain the decisions of a machine-learned algorithm and how the trained model internally works. this enables verifying if the correct patterns (e.g. visual patterns in our case) are learned for a certain class and to answer the question if the algorithm “looks” at the right spots when making a decision (e.g. to eyes and nose when detecting a face). furthermore, explainability mechanisms enable us to identify biases learned from the data . an online visualisation tool for complex neuronal networks trained from image data is available under: http://shixialiu.com/publications/cnnvis/demo/. this demo shows what kind of visual patterns are learned in the individual network layers. another interactive online tool for the visualisation of the internals of a classifier is available under: http://scs.ryerson.ca/% eaharley/vis/conv/flat.html. here the user can generate input data themselves and trace how the decision of the classifier is made. we argue that the combination of xai techniques with al is especially promising as both types of approaches are likely to exploit mutual benefits. by integrating the user’s feedback into the process, the training can be better guided by the needs and intentions of the user. this in turn fosters the generation of more useful and targeted algorithms and tools for expert users . especially in the dh, where the research questions are often very specific and semantically complex, we believe that such a user-guided approach is a promising solution. the combination with xai approaches will be essential in the future not only to verify decisions made but also to discover biases learned from the data and to better understand false detections (false positives and false negatives). xiang sean zhou & thomas s. huang, ‘relevance feedback in image retrieval: a comprehensive review.’ multimedia systems, , , , pp. - . jürgen bernard, matthias zeppelzauer, michael sedlmair, and wolfgang aigner, ‘vial - a unified process for visual-interactive labeling.’ the visual issn (tvcj), , , pp. , springer: berlin, heidelberg. brian, hu zhang, blake lemoine, & margret mitchell, ‘mitigating unwanted biases with adversarial learning.’ proceedings of the aaai/acm conference on ai, ethics, and society, , pp. - . http://shixialiu.com/publications/cnnvis/demo/� http://scs.ryerson.ca/% eaharley/vis/conv/flat.html� c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities b i o g r a p h i e s christoph musik, dr. phil. is a postdoctoral researcher at the institute of media economics at st. pölten university of applied sciences (austria). he is the lecturer in technology and society in the department of science and technology studies at the university of vienna and a lecturer at the institute of sociology at the university of innsbruck. since , he has been co-speaker of the section sociology of science and technology of the austrian association for sociology (Ögs). matthias zeppelzauer is a senior researcher at the institute of creative media technologies at st. pölten university of applied sciences (austria). he received his phd in computer science from vienna university of technology in with highest distinction. his research focuses on content-based retrieval, computer vision and machine learning with a special focus on active and user-centered learning. matthias received several performance scholarships from the vienna university of technology and was awarded by the austrian computer society for outstanding achievements in the area of pattern recognition. view journal of european television history and culture vol. , , doi: . / - . .jethc publisher: netherlands institute for sound and vision in collaboration with utrecht university, university of luxembourg and royal holloway university of london. copyright: the text of this article has been published under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial-no derivative works . netherlands license. this license does not apply to the media referenced in the article, which is subject to the individual rights owner’s terms. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /nl/deed.en_gb http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . .jethc _ref _ref _ref analysis of weight distribution in term of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human modelling analysis of weight distribution in terms of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human modelling zafar ullah*and shahid maqsood university of engineering and technology, peshawar , pakistan abstract construction activities performed by workers are usually repetitive and physically demanding. execution of such tasks in awkward postures can strain the body parts and can result in fatigue, back pain or in severe cases permanent disabilities. in view of this digital human modelling (dhm) technology offers human ergonomics experts the facilities of an efficient means of kinematics characteristics of lifting heavy weights in different postures. the objective of this paper is to analyse and calculate the forces and torques on the different body parts during lifting weights in four different postures using digital human modelling software. for this purposes four different lifting postures were analysed and the forces and torques were calculated. it was identified that changing the postures considerably minimize the redundant stresses on the body muscles. keywords: musculoskeletal disorders; lifting task; lower back pain introduction the international labour organization (ilo) estimates that some . million women and men around the world succumb to work-related accidents or diseases every year; this corresponds to over deaths every single day. worldwide, there are around million occupational accidents and million victims of work-related illnesses annually [ ]. over the years, manufacturing companies have taken ergonomics and usability as basic parameters of quality for their products [ ]. the design approach has been reviewed, giving to the end-users’ needs, requests, and limitations an extensive consideration. for this reason, an increasing attention is currently devoted to ergonomics and human factors evaluations even from the early stages of the design process [ - ]. digital mock-ups (dmus) provided by many computer aided engineering applications enable manufacturers to design a digital prototype of a product in full details, simulating its functions and predicting interaction among its different components [ - ]. the production of physical prototypes, which is a very time consuming task, is then deferred to the final stages of the design process [ ]. in order to take advantage of digital simulations to conduct ergonomic assessments (computer aided ergonomics), digital substitutes of human beings capable of interacting with the dmus in the simulation environment are required [ , ]. this has given birth to the so- called digital human modelling (dhm), which led to the development of many software tools [ , , ]. these tools are mainly used to study human-product and human-process interaction and to conduct ergonomic and biomechanical analyses, as well as manual process simulations, even before the physical prototype is available. dmus, together with digital human models, are increasingly used in order to reduce the development time and cost, as well as to facilitate the prediction of performance and/or safety [ ]. the ergonomic design methodology relying on digital human models makes the iterative process of design evaluation, diagnosis and review more rapid and economical [ , ]. it increases also the quality by minimizing the redundant changes and improves safety of products by eliminating ergonomics related problems [ , ]. furthermore, with the arising of the forth-industrial revolution (industry . ), the concept of the virtualization of the manufacturing processes has gained a greater importance. in this context, human simulation in production activities will certainly play a significant role [ ]. these digital humans, provided by many process simulation software, are essentially kinematic chains consisting of several segments and joints [ ]. in view of this the digital human modelling software helps to construct the jo ur na l of ergonom ics issn: - journal of ergonomics research article correspondence to: ullah z, university of engineering and technology peshawar , pakistan, tel: + ; e-mail: zafarullah @yahoo.com received: october , ; accepted: march , ; published: march , citation: ullah z, maqsood s ( ) analysis of weight distribution in term of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human. j ergonomics : . doi: . / - . . . copyright: © ullah z, et al. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: mailto:zafarullah @yahoo.com human replica within the software and analysis is made on the mannequins in lifting task to calculate the forces and torques. methodology digital human models are computer-generated prototype of human beings used for biomechanical analysis. the mannequins are design through human computer aided design (cad) software to mimic the real life industries workers posture. the facility of ergo tool is also available in the software which provides the static biomechanical stress on the different body parts. four different lifting postures were analysed for forces and torque calculation assigning kg concrete block to be lift. mannequin posture during lifting weight the mannequins were assigned kg weight to be lift in four different postures. through ergo tool in human cad mannequin pro were applied to calculate the forces and torques applied on different body parts. mannequin in figure , picking the kg load in semi standing forward bending position, in figure picking the same load in semi sitting position with align knee and hip position with hand more extended and neck bending slightly from frontal plane. similarly the mannequin in figure , loading the load with standing feet and hand extended, the mannequin in figure , picking the load with sitting position with one leg front support and one leg back support. figure : mannequin lifting block sitting with head extended down. figure : mannequin lifting block in semi sitting. figure : mannequin lifting block with forward extension with legs straight. figure : mannequin lifting block with one leg back with knee support. results of digital human modelling the detailed forces and torque is provided in the static biomechanics (tables - ). the postures taken is the replica of real life workers during lifting blocks. four mannequin were created and assign to pick kg concrete block and the masses act as a weights due to gravity. in the human cad the ergo tool of static biomechanics tool were applied and all the forces and torque are displayed on the window screen. the details of static biomechanical stress are given in the tables - . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . left foot . . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: left forearm . . left palm . . left shank . . left thigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . left foot . . left forearm . . left palm . . left shank . . left thigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . leftfoot . . left forearm . . left palm . . left shank . . left thigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . left foot . . left forearm . . left palm . . leftshanke . . leftthigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. results of forces of the four postures given in below table and comparing results of torque of the four postures given in below table . figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . table : comparing forces, comparing results of the four postures and results of forces of the four postures. figure (force(n)) figure (force(n)) (force(n)) figure (force(n)) head . . . . left arm . . . . left foot . . . . left forearm . . . . left palm . . . . left shank . . . . left thigh . . . . pelvis . . . . right arm . . . . left foot . . . . right forearm . . . . right palm . . . . right shank . . . . right thigh . . . . thorax . . . . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: figure figure torque(nm) figure torque(nm) figure torque(nm) figure torque(nm) head left arm . . . . left foot . . . . left forearm . . . . left palm . . . . left shanke . . . . left thigh . . . . pelvis . . . . right arm . . . . left foot . . . . right forearm . . . . right palm . . . . right shank . . . . right thigh . . . . thorax . . . . discussion musculoskeletal disorders are noted as a result of the presence of different risk factors, including contact stress, force, vibrations, repetition and jobs that put muscles under redundant physical forces. in the proposed study it is shown that changing the posture significantly change thee stresses. figure shows the comparative forces applied, the highest forces allied on posture in figure , followed by posture in figure . similarly in posture in figure a less forces is applied and the most ergonomically less stresses posture is in figure of posture . similarly is the case of torque produced in the body is concentrated in the pelvis region. as from figures and , it is clear that most of the forces and positive torque is concentrated in pelvis region and the pelvis region is the most sensitive region of the human skeletal system. figure : static biomechanical graph of the forces. figure : static biomechanical graph of the torques. conclusion through human cad tool the static biomechanical stresses distributions were calculated. in an industrially developing countries like pakistan the source of exposure to msds risks seem to be severe mainly because of the untrained workforce and due the absence of the labour laws implementation. the conclusion taken is that, though many studies have shown a significant relation between manual labour and msds, in an industrially developing countries, people are exposed to work without knowing the new job physical demand. in this regard, there is a dire need for medical and physical examination as a prerequisite for new jobs. in addition, workers should be trained on ergonomics basis before they are exposing to manual material handling. references . kaulio ma. customer, consumer and user involvement in product development: a framework and a review of selected methods. total quality management. ; : - . . stanton na, salmon pm, rafferty la, walker gh, baber c, jenkins dp. human factors methods: a practical guide for engineering and design. crc press. . shackel b. ergonomics in information technology in europe-a review. behav inf technol. ; : - . . martinsons mg, chong pk. the influence of human factors and specialist involvement on information systems success. human relations. ; : - . . de sa ag, zachmann g. virtual reality as a tool for verification of assembly and maintenance processes. computers & graphics. ; : - . . stark r, krause fl, kind c, rothenburg u, müller p, hayka h, et al. competing in engineering design- the role of virtual product creation. cirp journal of manufacturing science and technology. ; : - . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: table : comparing torque, comparing the results of torque of the four postures. . dolezal wr. success factors for digital mock-ups (dmu) in complex aerospace product development. technische universität münchen. . . mourtzis d, papakostas n, mavrikios d, makris s, alexopoulos k. the role of simulation in digital manufacturing: applications and outlook. int j comput integr manuf. ; : - . . whiteside j, bennett j, holtzblatt k. usability engineering: our experience and evolution handbook of human-computer interaction. elsevier. . . pelliccia l, klimant f, de santis a, di gironimo g, lanzotti a, tarallo a, et al. task-based motion control of digital humans for industrial applications. procedia cirp. ; : - . . magistris gd, micaelli a, savin j, gaudez c, marsot j. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis based on humanoid robotics techniques. int j digital human. ; : - . . di gironimo g, pelliccia l, siciliano b, tarallo a. biomechanically-based motion control for a digital human. int j interact des manuf. ; : - . . magistris g, micaelli a, evrard p, andriot c, savin j, gaudez c, et al. dynamic control of dhm for ergonomic assessments. int j ind ergon. ; : - . . ma l, chablat d, bennis f, zhang w, guillaume f. a new muscle fatigue and recovery model and its ergonomics application in human simulation. virtual phys prototyp. ; : - . . rasmussen j. skills, rules, and knowledge; signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. ieee transactions on systems, man, and cybernetics. ; : - . . maguire m. methods to support human-centred design. int j hum comput stud. ; : - . . demirel ho, duffy vg. applications of digital human modeling in industry. international conference on digital human modeling. springer. ( ) . macleod d. the ergonomics edge: improving safety, quality, and productivity. john wiley & sons. us. . . hai z. development of smart industry maturity model. university of twente. master’s thesis. . . aggarwal jk, cai q. human motion analysis: a review. comput vis image underst. ; : - . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: de 内容 analysis of weight distribution in term of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human modelling abstract introduction methodology mannequin posture during lifting weight results of digital human modelling discussion conclusion references ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies ucla ucla previously published works title ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ n h journal pmla-publications of the modern language association of america, ( ) issn - author carruth, allison publication date - - doi . /pmla. . . . peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ n h https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ in william pannapacker pronounced the digital human- ities to be “the first ‘next big thing’ in a long time” promising to reconfigure and reinvigorate the humanities. the same could now plausibly be said about the environmental humanities with the recent rise of dedicated academic centers (at, e.g., kth royal institute of technology, in sweden; princeton university; the uni- versity of california, santa barbara; and the university of utah), grant- funded projects (like the saw yer seminar on the environ- mental humanities at the university of california, los angeles, and the consortium humanities for the environment ), and faculty positions. if the digital and environmental humanities have been ascendant amid what christopher newield describes as the “un- making” of public higher education and what richard grusin terms the “crisis humanities,” such an assessment invites the question of whether the ecological digital humanities (ecodh) might serve to combine the most saleable facets of the digital humanities and the environmental humanities for university stakeholders who promote applied humanities work outside academia or, alternatively, a hybrid method for researching, teaching, and designing cultural responses to structures of ecological and social precarity (grusin ). while these potential futures of ecodh could unfold simultane- ously, i aim in what follows to pave the way for this hybrid method, by ofering a supplemental framework for connecting the environ- mental and digital humanities, which this essay terms ecological me- dia studies. a prompt for academic inquiry as well as collaboration outside academia, this framework combines scholarly attentiveness to the material ecologies of new media and digital computing with the participatory, playful media practices at work in twenty- irst- century environmental art and activism. he new materialist provo- cation to understand all bodies—human, animal, plant, mineral, microbial, machine, and inanimate—in their material and semantic lives and in their networked and individuated phases informs my conceptualization of ecological media studies by suggesting that the allison carruth , associate professor in the department of en glish and the institute for society and genetics at the university of california, los angeles, is affiliated with the university’s institute of the environment and sustainability. she is the author of global appetites: american power and the literature of food (cambridge up, ). the changing profession ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies allison carruth [ p m l a © allison carruth pmla . ( ), published by the modern language association of america ubiquity of ecological metaphors for the digi- tal (from data mining to media ecology itself) obscures the matter of digital technologies. the ecological digital humanities: genealogies and horizons in a primer, greg garrard deines eco- criticism capaciously as the literary and cul- tural study of ecological problems wherein rhetorical analysis is central. garrard ob- serves that the organizing premise of such an endeavor is the notion that “environmental problems require analysis in cultural as well as scientiic terms, because they are the out- come of an interaction between ecological knowledge of nature and its cultural inlec- tion,” or, more aptly, inlections ( ). in step with lawrence buell and ursula k. heise, garrard traces the history of ecocriticism from an initial focus on nature writing, wil- derness rhetoric, and local place- based identi- ties to widening concerns with environmental justice, urban ecologies, other- than- human bodies, and the environmental consequences of colonialism and globalization. ecocriticism by this measure has become a “convenient shorthand,” as heise puts it, for variegated ap- proaches that fall under the headings of “en- vironmental criticism, literary- environmental studies, literary ecolog y, literary environ- mentalism, and green cultural studies”—a catalog to which we could add theoretically and politically inlected ields such as post- colonia l ecologies, environmenta l justice cultural studies, and material ecocriticism (“hitchhiker’s guide” ). as ecocriticism has become more multiform over the last de- cade, so too have ecocritics resituated their work within the environmental humanities, deined to include literature, media studies, science studies, philosophy, history, art his- tory, cultural geography, and anthropology (not to mention the digital humanities). how- ever multidisciplinary, the environmental hu- manities arguably cohere in how they depart from what buell terms irst- wave ecocriticism (“ecocriticism”). namely, environmental hu- manities projects are expanding the param- eters of environmental culture by addressing not only literar y texts but also visual art, performance, new media, activist ephemera, popular science, ethnographies, and scientiic models; by imagining nature to include cities, food systems, diasporas, indigenous cosmolo- gies, and global energy networks along with wilderness sites and rural locales; and by de- veloping critical theories of the environment. two publications illustrate these intel- lectual trends and open onto the question of what imperatives and ideas are shaping (or might shape) ecodh. he irst is a criti- cal inquiry essay that has become required reading in the environmental humanities: the postcolonial historian dipesh chakrabarty’s “he climate of history.” organized around four theses, the essay posits that the science of anthropogenic climate change—which shows that with industrialization humans become geological agents and which accordingly sug- gests an epochal shit from the holocene to what has been provisionally termed the an- thropocene—requires a new historiographic practice. such a practice, chakrabarty con- tends, should start by jettisoning “the age- old humanist distinction between natural his- tory and human history” ( ). while critics of anthropocene discourse have cautioned against its tendency toward a universalism that elides the unequally shared causes and consequences of climate change, chakrabarty mostly avoids this pitfall in arguing that en- vironmental history—and by extension the environmental humanities—best responds to climate change by bringing “together intellec- tual formations that are somewhat in tension with each other: the planetary and the global; deep and recorded histories; species thinking and critiques of capital” ( ). his idea has particular implications for ecodh. if we fol- low chakrabarty’s argument, a ield sited at the convergence of ecological problems and . ] allison carruth t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n digital humanities methods should strive to interlace the timescales of “deep and recorded histories” with the compressed temporality of the digital (as in the real- time cadence of rapid prototyping, database querying, and media streaming) and to recognize not only the bodies of species and institutions of capi- tal but also the virtual networks that connect, track, and animate both. the second publication with insights for ecodh is bodily natures, by the femi- nist science studies scholar stacy alaimo, who has been at the forefront of the material turn. like the collections material feminism (which she coedited) and material ecocriti- cism (to which she contributed an essay), bodily natures takes nature seriously in its concrete multiplicities—presenting alaimo’s research on the science and culture of x- rays, toxic chemicals, deep -sea creatures, and plas- tic compounds. in doing so, it contests ten- dencies in poststructuralism, posthumanism, and certain strands of ecocriticism to abstract nature from its material and historical in- stantiations. to guide her research, alaimo develops a theory of transcorporeality, a the- ory rooted in the idea that “the material self cannot be disentangled from networks that are simultaneously economic, political, cul- tural, scientiic, and substantial ” and in the corollary notion that the “material environ- ment is a realm of oten incalculable, inter- connected agencies” ( – ; emphasis mine). putting cha k rabar t y’s sca le- shif ting historiography into dialogue with alaimo’s materia list feminism of fers anot her pos- sible direction to early adopters of ecodh (whether or not they would identify with the label)—from the humanities for the environ- ment–sponsored life overlooked, an archive that contains multimedia narratives of lora, fauna, and other bodies inhabiting the crev- ices of local places, to the interactive nature- hoods, a database of parks and other green spaces in three dozen cities in the united states that stanford university hosts and that employs spatial mapping as well as text- mining methods. scholars like chakrabarty and alaimo suggest the importance of histo- ricizing and materializing the digital technol- ogies that constitute the research apparatus of such ecodh projects by mapping those tech- nologies onto timescales slower than the real- time “interval” of “versions, updates, and . . . half- lives” and by apprehending them within material networks composed of biological and engineered bodies (raley ). the digital humanities: from computational techniques to material conditions i will return to chakrabarty’s and alaimo’s principles below in pivoting from ecodh to ecological media studies. as a bridge, i turn now to recent calls for the digital humanities writ large to examine and intervene in the ma- terial social conditions of network society and digital infrastructure. in dialogue with other scholars, n. katherine hayles locates the ori- gins of the digital humanities in decades- old humanities computing eforts to digitally pre- serve and parse text archives. these efforts laid the groundwork for the digital humani- ties to organize initially around “machine reading” techniques of encoding, mining, and analyzing lexical and generic patterns in large corpora of texts. taking stock of the present, hayles contends that the digital humani- ties are “morphing” as researchers “advocate a turn from a primary focus on text encod- ing, analysis, and searching to multimedia practices that explore the fusion of text- based humanities with f ilm, sound, animation, graphics, and other multimodal practices” ( ). gary hall reinforces this claim, noting that the digital humanities now encompass “interactive information visualization, science visualization, image processing, geospatial representation, statistical data analysis, net- work analysis, and the mining, aggregation, management, and manipulation of data” ( ). ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n such appraisals dovetail with alan liu’s blog post on the thorny question of whether the term digital humanities should be singular or plural. while liu acknowl- edges that when treated as singular the term names a coherent ield, he suggests that the digital humanities would do well to retain a plural sense of self by “engag[ing] in much fuller conversation with their affiliated or enveloping disciplinary fields (e.g., literary studies, history, writing programs, library studies, etc.), cousin ields (e.g., new media studies), and the wider public about where they it in, which is to say, how they contrib- ute to a larger, shared agenda expressed in the conjunction and collision of many ields” (“is”). liu echoes recent critiques of the digi- tal humanities (including his own) that query the growing professional divide between the production of computational algorithms, databases, and tools and the cultural study of digital media (grusin; hall; hayles; liu, “where”; raley). hese analyses of such a di- vide encourage a détente between praxis and criticism and between the digital humanities and the so- called interpretive humanities. holding up franco moretti ’s distant reading methodology for its capacity to pose cultural and sociological questions of large text corpora, liu envisions digital humani- ties approaches that integrate “text analysis and cultural analysis” (“where”). namely, he advocates for cultural analysis of the “instru- mentality” paradigm that shapes knowledge work in the information age, including the knowledge work of the digital humanities. elaborating on this idea, rita raley argues that the digital humanities have proved “par- ticularly useful” (or instrumental, as liu puts it) “in our current mercantile knowledge re- gime, with its rational calculus of academic value” ( ). she identiies a pressing need for “more critical ref lection upon, and ironic self- awareness about, the embedded place of digital humanities in the contemporary knowledge economy” ( ). for grusin, this project is vital, given that “the institutional structure of digital humanities threatens to intensify . . . the proliferation of temporary insecure labor that is rampant not only in the academy but throughout twenty- irst- century capitalism” ( ). in enumerating the forms that “critical relection” might take for the digital humanities, raley looks to the “self- ref lexivity about situatedness” in cultural studies and the “play ful inter ventions” of new media art practices that she has classed under the heading of tactical media ( , ). referring to exempla like the independent network wifi .bedouin, raley writes, “tac- tics are designed to produce open- ended questions rather than def initive answers, to lead to new discovery rather than diag- nostic evaluation, such that the researcher remains continually aware of the mechan- ics of knowledge production and attuned to the possibilities of alternative techniques, frames, and paradigms” ( ). his mode of tactical critique and countercultural engi- neering, raley suggests, could powerfully retool the digital humanities. ecological media studies: projects and prototypes he environmental humanities have a poten- tially unique contribution to make to such tactical digital humanities by delving into what we could term, building on raley’s for- mulation, the ecological materiality of digital “knowledge production” and by collaborat- ing on “techniques, frames, and paradigms” that model alternative labor conditions and alternative environmental ethics to those of late capitalism. i contend that ecological me- dia studies ofers a nimble rubric for doing just that. my thesis builds on the arguments that hayles, raley, tara mcpherson, patrick jagoda, wendy h. k. chun, and others have made for linking the digital humanities, me- dia studies, and multimodal media practices and thereby generating more robust methods . ] allison carruth t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n and theories by which the “materiality in me- dia” may be understood (hayles ). hayles teases this trope out on grounds that are especially resonant with ecological media studies. her work provides concep- tually rich histories of the embodied forms that digital technologies assume in literary narratives, visual media, scientiic research, engineered machines, and human- computer interfaces. her latest thinking along these lines swerves toward new materialism and, if tacitly, the environmental humanities. in how we think, she writes that to “gras[p] the complex ways in which the time scales of human cognition interact with those of intelligent machines requires a theoretical framework in which objects are seen not as static entities that, once created, remain the same throughout time but rather are under- stood as constantly changing assemblages” ( ). this argument chimes with alaimo’s concept of transcorporeality while calling to mind jane bennett’s description of assem- blages in vibrant matter. his sense of com- puting technologies as bodies embedded in material networks informs hayles’s related points about the geospatial materiality of digital production. “if time is deeply involved with the productions of digital media, so too is space,” hayles writes, explaining that “gis (geographic information system) mapping, gps (global positioning system) technolo- gies, and their connections with networked and programmable machines have created a culture of spatial exploration in digital me- dia” ( ). hayles’s arguments show that we think the digital not just through virtual programs and distributed networks but also through the extended, embodied “cognition” that human- computer interactions germinate and, critically, through the “larger networks that extend beyond” devices and users “into the environment” ( ). ecodh qua ecological media studies can lesh out these principles by addressing the nonhuman and nonmachine bodies of lora, fauna, rare earth minerals, earth and sea un- dergrounds, regional watersheds, and glob- ally networked energy ields that constitute both the environments and infrastructures of the digital. situated at the crossroads of the environmental humanities and media stud- ies, a number of projects have recently begun to model this undertaking. notable examples include sue thomas’s exploration of “tech- nobiophilia”; the essay collection ecomedia and its companion blog (rust, monani, and cubitt); heise’s account of “unnatural” eco- logical metaphors in media ecology (“unnat- ural ecologies”); richard maxwell and toby miller’s environmental history of old and new media and accompanying criteria for green media practices; stephanie lemenager’s in- clusion of print and digita l media in the “petroleum archive” she builds for her book living oil; nicole starosielski’s accounts of the media heat and undersea cables that help to power the internet (“materiality”); heather houser’s contemplation of how data visual- ization and information management tools operate across contemporary environmental media to disseminate “data sets that are too large, complicated, inaccessible, or tedious for [individuals] to comprehend ” ( ); an online storytelling platform about foraging ecosystems, cultures, and economies, known as matsutake worlds live; and, finally, the open- source app curatescape, designed to enable communities to exhibit site- specific histories (tebeau and cleveland state univ.). as this range of examples indicates, the emerging field of ecodh, which i am fur- ther delineating as ecological media studies, runs the gamut from peer- reviewed scholar- ship that draws on archival research, herme- neutics, and cultural history to experimental research that blends ieldwork, media aesthet- ics, and creative noniction to self- published sites that aggregate multimedia narratives with geolocated data. he projects share the investments identiied above as constitutive of ecological media studies. hat is, each endeav- ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n ors to provide material histories and theories of digital technologies and—whether through traditional scholarship, public projects, or both—to make visible the ecological as well as the sociocultural circumstances of networks. i hope that in the future ecological media studies—now a somewhat aspirational ield— will continue to bring further coherence to these multipronged eforts. here, starosiel- ski’s research on internet infrastructure (de- ined to encompass the mined metals, cellular towers, satellites, cables, servers, data centers, and networked devices that coproduce digi- tal networks) provides an exciting prototype. starosielsk i was arguably the f irst media studies scholar to develop an eco- centric ap- proach to the materiality of digital media and networks. he approach informs her research on the undersea cables that disturb coastlines around the world (“beaches,” “‘warning,’” and “critical nodes”). so too does it inlect her short history of the evolving hot- and- cold registers for diferent media (“materiality”). hat account ends with a relection on data centers and suggests that material as well as rhetorical links now exist between the inter- net and global climate change: “data centers and computer systems generate enormous amounts of heat, which in turn form one of the greatest threats to communications sys- tems. . . . an attention to the generation and redistribution of this heat connects media to the energy infrastructures on which they depend and, in turn, to the intensification of globa l warming” (“materia lit y” ). as starosielsk i concludes, t his at tention to virtual- biophysical exchanges (like the heat exchanges that attend the f low of data through networks) “help[s] us to better un- derstand how media both enfolds and gives rise to a set of broader environmental rela- tions and conditions for life” ( ). her con- clusion here dovetails with my own analysis of “the digital cloud” (or the internet in the era of apps, social media, mobile computing, cloud storage platforms, and the estimated ten billion network connections worldwide). observing that “the cloud’s apparent ubiquity makes it diicult to assume an outside, criti- cal perspective on its infrastructure,” i have elsewhere identified a lack of attention in environmental and media studies to the con- crete materials, and material consequences, of the internet’s growing footprint ( ). such inquiries underscore that it would be fruitful for ecological media studies to cultivate “an ecological ethic for storing, accessing, and sharing data that takes into account forms of digital power and disempowerment” ( ). in marshall mcluhan and quentin fiore asserted that in the information age any “un- derstanding of social and cultural change is impossible without a knowledge of the way media work as environments” ( ). while their assertion relegated biophysical environ- ments to the rhetorical status of metaphor (ironically, just as environmentalism was coming to life as a social movement), ecologi- cal media studies might return ecology to a literal register by taking up the matter of digi- tal technologies and the ecology of media. coda: ecological media praxis he intellectual contexts for ecological media studies posited above suggest how blurry the boundaries are becoming between the digital humanities and media studies. hese blurred boundaries stem partly from cultural work outside academia—including do- it- yourself maker culture, citizen science, new media art, tactical media, and hacktivism—that does not separate practice from theory, engineer- ing from critique. the existing projects we might tag as ecodh have of ten ta ken cues from and, in some cases, joined these communities of practice beyond the university. the hu- manities for the environment stands out on this score. an international mellon- funded consortium of humanities centers, it has in- volved an array of collaborators, including . ] allison carruth t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n historians, ecocritics, bioethicists, environ- mental justice scholars and activists, forest ecologists, creative writers, artists, and urban designers. one project in which public en- gagement and collaborative environmental media praxis coalesced was dinner , organized by the arizona state university team in the western observatory of the hu- manities for the environment. dinner adapted a design process used in architecture and urban planning known as charrette to convene local and visiting academics as well as artists, chefs, farmers, activists, and other community members to address the question “what should be on our plates for dinner in ?” (“dinner”). a creative and speculative exercise that digitally archived participants’ narratives, values, concerns, and hopes in response to that question, dinner was modeled on an actual public dinner that took place in the street along multiple blocks of downtown phoenix and that used media old and new (including vinyl illustrated place- mats) to galvanize conversation about the ecological prospects and possibilities for the region’s food system. keeping in mind the experimental and participator y structure of dinner , i would highlight another prototype for ecolog- ical media studies in which generating public engagement with a city’s ecological futures animates a participatory project that is at once artful and activist: play the la river. a project cofounded by the urban planner john arroyo, the designer and documentary pho- tographer barron bixler, the artist amanda evans, the historians catherine gudis and jenny price, and me (and in which lemenager, a coeditor of this special cluster, was an early collaborator), play the la river took shape as a mix of environmental outreach and so- cially engaged participatory art. grant kester deines “socially engaged” art as collaborative creative work outside the “international net- work of art galleries and museums, curators and collectors,” which adopts a “process- based approach” aiming to catalyze conversation, community, and social change (xiii, , ). play the la river can be described in kindred terms: a public call to communities across los angeles, especially those living along the ity- one- mile length of the los angeles river, to “enjoy, reclaim and reimagine the river as a civic space that can green and connect” ur- ban communities (“play”). he project sought to support ongoing environmental and social justice eforts and to widen the public sphere around those eforts through tactics—in ral- ey’s sense—that made use of print media, dig- ital tools, and community gatherings. he last of these tactics, which proved challenging to implement, centered on a single year (septem- ber to september ) of collaborative programming with other groups (in addition to social media prompts to spontaneous river excursions). this part of play the la river featured small- scale picnics and riverside zine- making workshops as well as exhibits of site- speciic student art and performance, among other events. at the project’s center was a playful and playable media artifact that dovetailed with these community eforts: an oversize deck of cards and an online interac- tive companion that each worked as a provi- sional and open- ended guide to ity- two sites along the los angeles river. his mix of print and digital media, live gatherings, and distrib- uted participation made play the la river an experiment in employing tactical media and participatory art to foster and make publicly visible community involvement and invest- ment in urban ecologies. projects like play the la river and din- ner demonstrate how the environmental humanities—in turning toward t he digi- tal—might turn outward to ecological media practices and publics. such projects expand the purview of ecological media studies be- yond the critical analysis and cultural study of digital materiality to include creative uses of digital technologies and new media, which in turn become lively materials for imagining ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n environmental crises, layered histories, and alternative futures. notes . buell, future and “ecocriticism”; buell, heise, and horn ber; heise, “hitchhiker’s guide,” sense, and “eco- criticism.” . inluential work in postcolonial ecocriticism in- cludes that of cara cilano and elizabeth deloughrey; deloughrey and george handley; graham huggan; and rob nixon; environmental justice cultural studies has been developed by, among others, joni adamson, mei mei evans, and rachel stein; t. v. reed; and michael ziser and julie sze. works cited adamson, joni, mei mei evans, and rachel stein, eds. he environmental justice reader: politics, poetics, and pedagogy. tucson: u of arizona p, . print. alaimo, stacy. bodily natures: science, environment, and the material self. bloomington: indiana up, . print. bennett, jane. vibrant matter: a political ecology of hings. durham: duke up, . print. buell, lawrence. “ecocriticism: some emerging trends.” qui parle: critical humanities and social sciences . ( ): – . print. ———. the future of environmental criticism: envi- ronmental crisis and literary imagination. oxford: blackwell, . print. buell, lawrence, ursula k. heise, and karen hornber. “literature and environment.” annual review of en- vironment and resources ( ): – . print. carruth, allison. “he digital cloud and the micropoli- tics of energy.” public culture ( ): – . print. chakrabarty, dipesh. “he climate of history: four he- ses.” critical inquiry ( ): – . print. cilano, cara, and elizabeth m. deloughrey. “against authenticity: global knowledges and postcolonial ecocriticism.” interdisciplinary studies in literature and environment . 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( ): – . print. tebeau, mark, and cleveland state univ. curatescape. center for public hist. and the digital humanities, . web. oct. . homas, sue. technobiophilia: nature and cyberspace. london: bloomsbury, . print. ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach browse explore more content repository ijdh shahrol .pdf ( . kb) crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach citedownload ( . kb)shareembed journal contribution posted on . . , : by shahrol mohamaddan, keith case human movement in a crowd can be considered as complex and unpredictable, and accordingly large scale video observation studies based on a conceptual behaviour framework were used to characterise individual movements and behaviours. the conceptual behaviours were free movement (moving through and move-stop-move), same direction movement (queuing and competitive) and opposite direction movement (avoiding and passing through). movement in crowds was modelled and simulated using an agent-based method using the gaming software dark basic professional. the agents (individuals) were given parameters of personal objective, visual perception, speed of movement, personal space and avoidance angle or distance within different crowd densities. two case studies including a multi-mode transportation system layout and a bottleneck / non-bottleneck evacuation are presented. categories mechanical engineering not elsewhere classified keywords agent-based modellingcrowd simulationobservational study history school mechanical, electrical and manufacturing engineering published in international journal of the digital human volume issue pages - ( ) citation mohamaddan, s. and case, k., . crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach. international journal of the digital human, ( ), pp. - . publisher © inderscience version am (accepted manuscript) publisher statement this work is made available according to the conditions of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international (cc by-nc-nd . ) licence. full details of this licence are available at: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / acceptance date / / publication date - - notes this paper was accepted for publication in the journal international journal of the digital human and the definitive published version is available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijdh. . doi https://doi.org/ . /ijdh. . issn - publisher version http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijdh. . language en administrator link https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/account/articles/ licence cc by-nc-nd . exports select an optionrefworksbibtexref. managerendnotedatacitenlmdc categories mechanical engineering not elsewhere classified keywords agent-based modellingcrowd simulationobservational study licence cc by-nc-nd . exports select an optionrefworksbibtexref. managerendnotedatacitenlmdc hide footeraboutfeaturestoolsblogambassadorscontactfaqprivacy policycookie policyt&csaccessibility statementdisclaimersitemap figshare. credit for all your research. provided by the author(s) and nui galway in accordance with publisher policies. please cite the published version when available. downloaded - - t : : z some rights reserved. for more information, please see the item record link above. title communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship:a review article author(s) cox, john publication date - - publication information cox, john. ( ). communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship: a review article. new review of academic librarianship, ( - ), - . doi: . / . . publisher taylor & francis link to publisher's version http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . item record http://hdl.handle.net/ / doi http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /ie/ communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship: a review article abstract academic libraries enable a wide range of digital scholarship activities, increasingly as a partner rather than as a service provider. communicating that shift in role is challenging, not least as digital scholarship is a new field with many players whose activities on campus can be disjointed. the library’s actual and potential contributions need to be broadcast to a diverse range of internal and external constituencies, primarily academic staff, university management, library colleagues and related project teams, often with different perspectives. libraries have significant contributions to offer and a focused communications strategy is needed to embed libraries in digital scholarship and to create new perceptions of their role as enabling partners. introduction digital scholarship has generated new roles for libraries in recent years. it spans all disciplines, ranging in terminology from e-science to the digital humanities. neat definitions of digital scholarship are elusive, however, and waters ( , p. ) notes hundreds of definitions even of digital humanities on three different websites. lynch ( , p. ) refers to a digital scholarship disconnect, questioning the need to describe scholarship as digital. he does, however, recognise digital scholarship as a term applicable to the transformation of most areas of scholarly work by technologies such as high-performance computing, visualisation and the manipulation of large datasets. computational, data-intensive science is seen as representing a new paradigm (lynch, , p. ; tenopir, sandusky, allard, & birch, , p. ). new methods of enquiry characterise digital scholarship, especially in the humanities. waters ( , pp. , - ) sees the defining feature of digital humanities as the application of digital resources and methods to humanistic enquiry, identifying three broad areas of investigation and tool sets: textual analysis, spatial analysis and media studies. sinclair ( ) observes that “new hybrid communities of inquiry are increasingly visual, collaborative, and spatial, or simply seek to make new connections possible in a digital world”, thanks to technologies such as data visualisation and mapping applications, to which can be added tools for text and data mining. new approaches to publishing findings and sharing data, often on an open access basis, are very much in scope across all disciplines too. digital scholarship relies on collections of information and data, along with a range of tools, infrastructures and, above all, people. libraries have embraced this opportunity to take on a variety of roles, encapsulated by calhoun ( , p. ), alexander ( ), vinopal ( , pp. - ) and sula ( , pp. - ), and including:  digitisation and digital preservation, often of archives and special collections  metadata creation and enhancement for linked data, exchange and reuse  assignment of identifiers to promote discovery  hosting of digital collections in library repositories  publishing of faculty-edited journals  open access dissemination of research outputs and learning materials  management of research data  curation of born-digital collections  advice on copyright , digital rights management and the application of standards  participation in text mining, data analysis and geographic information systems (gis) projects  provision of spaces, tools, equipment and training for digital scholarship these roles have represented a fundamental shift for libraries towards publishing of digital content and active participation in research projects. they bring with them many communication challenges in terms of the environment of digital scholarship, the diversity of audience interests, important messages to be communicated and the range of channels for doing so. a challenging communications space library roles to enable digital scholarship are multi-stranded, reflecting the field itself. rockenbach ( , p. ) describes digital humanities as “messy”, while she and others (lippincott, hemmasi, & lewis, ; schaffner & erway, , p. ; vandegrift & varner, , p. ) emphasise its experimental approach, indicative of a rapidly evolving field without clear boundaries. establishing and communicating a clear library offering in response is, not surprisingly, often difficult. an ithaka study of institutional models of support for digital humanities outputs (maron & pickle, , pp. - ) identifies some further characteristics, including piecemeal approaches, multiple players on campus and a lack of joined-up campus-wide strategies. the range of stakeholders with whom the library may need to communicate includes university leadership, administration, it services and the research office, as well as the different academic departments or research centres involved in digital scholarship, among whose ranks may be scholars, doctoral students, interns, web developers and programmers. achieving effective communication across all of these constituencies is problematic. the ithaka study (maron & pickle, , p. ), while urging regular communication, noted that dissemination is a function that is not owned by any unit and therefore sporadic, resulting in lack of awareness of projects in the absence, typically, of any directory of campus-wide projects (p. ). schrier ( ) too observes, somewhat depressingly, that digital collections “often remain obscure, unknown, and therefore inaccessible to their intended user populations”. there are many audiences and many perspectives. university leadership will want the benefits of digital scholarship for the institution’s research profile but may be unwilling to invest in understanding fully the range of activity involved in order to enable a coherent resourcing strategy to emerge. academic staff may embrace involvement by libraries or may be slow to ask, preferring a self-sufficient, independent and autonomous approach (schaffner & erway, , p. ). equally, library staff may fail to connect with their diverse audiences. an earlier ithaka study on the sustainability of digitised special collections (maron & pickle, , p. ) notes that “investments in understanding the needs of the audience are quite low”. this does not bode well for successful audience engagement with libraries’ digital scholarship activities. mismatches in perspective are particularly evident in the areas of open access and research data management. each is a hard sell to academics who may not see the need to engage, especially if they perceive that further work, primarily of an administrative nature, may come their way. pinfield ( , pp. - ) notes continued “significant levels of disinterest, suspicion and scepticism about oa amongst researchers”. he (p. ) and creaser et al. ( , pp. - ) report strong loyalty to the traditional publication system, and in particular to journals. calhoun ( , p. ) cites problems with the way that librarians talk to faculty about open access, often emphasising a subscriptions crisis that academics do not recognise as needing attention. similarly, librarians’ promotion of their roles in research data management may face barriers in the shape of researcher negativity towards data sharing (pinfield, cox, & smith, , p. ) . convincing library staff that libraries should adopt new roles to enable digital scholarship can also be an issue. the messy, unpredictable nature of digital scholarship asks questions of libraries in terms of agility and risk taking. its experimental approach, with projects prone to failure, may not sit well with libraries’ tendency towards orderliness and predictable outcomes (posner, , p. ). a clash of cultures is evident here. equally, the culture of easy creation of content and its publication to the social web may clash with librarians’ values of authority and authenticity (calhoun, , p. ), limiting their full engagement with social media and thereby with new modes of scholarship. library staff may not recognise the validity of adding a publishing role to existing offerings (huwe, , p. ). rockenbach ( , p. ) identifies tensions between traditional notions of library service and new models of user engagement. this is most manifest in a debate, further discussed later in this article, as to whether librarians should take a supporting role in digital scholarship or should see themselves as active partners. the support model is traditional but there is a strong body of literature which sees it as sub-optimal (posner, , p. ) and advocates an equal partnership approach, with some (vandegrift & varner, , p. ) adducing a problem of librarian timidity based on an inferiority complex in relation to academics. librarians’ lack of confidence in their own skills can hold back progress in areas such as research data management (tenopir, et al., , p. ). all of this creates a strong imperative for library leaders to communicate very effectively the strategic importance of new digital scholarship roles and initiatives to library staff as well as external audiences. the preceding paragraphs have focused on challenges, but there are great opportunities for libraries to broadcast a series of very positive messages about their contribution to digital scholarship. libraries have some real strengths to communicate and these are the focus of the next section. a recurring theme is the importance of relationships in this space (lippincott, et al., ; rockenbach, , pp. - ; vandegrift & varner, ) and libraries have a successful tradition of building good relations (pinfield, et al., , p. ; rockenbach, , p. ). uncertainties regarding the sustainability of digital scholarship projects and ongoing responsibility for them (arms, calimlim, & walle, ; kitchin, collins, & frost, ) can be turned to advantage by libraries through the more stable funding models they typically enjoy. the greatest strength for libraries, however, is that they have shared interests with their constituencies, and particularly with the humanities, in “collecting, organizing and preserving our shared collective memory”, helping to “remember the past, understand the present and build the future” (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). libraries and digital scholarship are, in fact, a natural fit and this should shape communications around them. key messages to communicate libraries have much to offer to digital scholarship and need to communicate these advantages strongly. sinclair ( ) argues that libraries are natural incubators for digital scholarship, and others (alexander, et al., ; rockenbach, , pp. - ) make a similar case in relation more specifically to the digital humanities. positive features include libraries as neutral, interdisciplinary spaces with staff who can bring together the many different and often disparate players on campus, at a minimum enabling dialogue but often also productive partnership between them. strong relationships with faculty and a habit of collaboration and connecting can be leveraged to the full in this regard. the library as place is a significant asset and there has been a move towards establishing digital scholarship centres in library buildings, with numerous examples in the united states in particular (sinclair, ). a particular advantage the library can offer is to make expensive technologies available for use and experimentation at an accessible and welcoming location by anyone on campus (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). the traditional skills of librarians and the areas of focus of libraries match well with the needs of digital scholarship. these include cataloguing, curation and sharing of information, translating in more recent times to metadata, digital preservation and open access. library collections, notably archives and rare materials, are the backbone of many projects, especially, but not only, in the digital humanities, and their digitisation enables new forms of enquiry (green & courtney, ). there are therefore vital human and documentary resources to offer and promote. another essential infrastructure, in which libraries are often lead investors on campus, is the hardware and software environment for digital preservation, publishing and presentation, as well as open access and data curation. experience and expertise with platforms such as fedora, open journal systems, omeka, dspace and dataverse places library staff in valued advisory and consultancy roles. academic staff and other stakeholders, including university leadership, whose perception of libraries can be somewhat dated, may not appreciate the key roles that the library can play in digital scholarship, so communicating them actively and effectively is essential. the concept of library as equal partner in digital scholarship is key and should be communicated clearly, with positive linkage both to success and sustainability. such partnership need not be seen as a departure from traditional research library strengths (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). the opportunity to move from established service-based approaches to research collaboration (brown, wolski, & richardson, , p. ) and co-contribution to the creation of new knowledge (monastersky, , p. ) should be embraced. librarians have clearly asserted this partner role in some areas, notably research data management, as at griffith university in australia (searle, wolski, simons, & richardson, ), while digital scholarship centres have enabled engagement with constituents as partners rather than clients (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). service models are limiting and library roles should more productively be marketed in terms of expertise (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). posner ( , p. ) emphasises the valuable digital humanities work that library professionals have conceived and performed and the importance both of ensuring it is credited and of promoting it as a vital and rare skill, “not a service to be offered in silent support of a scholar’s master plan”. the skills and resources libraries can bring to digital scholarship will be more effectively harnessed through partnership and this outlook should pervade library communications. partnership represents enlightened self-interest for all parties too. sustainability is a core issue for digital scholarship, often due to its experimental nature, and many projects encounter an uncertain future beyond any initial funding. it is no coincidence that the ithaka study on sustaining the digital humanities (maron & pickle, , p. ) places knitting deep partnership among campus units, including libraries, at the top of its list of success factors for developing a system to sustain digital humanities resources. the mutual support at the university of maryland between the libraries and the maryland institute for technology in the humanities is provided in the ithaka study as an example of good practice. the partnership model at digital scholarship centres has also been seen as likely to generate sustainable results and to involve the library in funding proposals and grant applications (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). faculty partnerships have proved vital to digitisation projects, as at the university of nevada, las vegas (lampert & vaughan, , pp. - ). libraries take a long view of digital resources and have a particular interest in promoting their sustainability and preservation. they can leverage their more stable budget model (schaffner & erway, , p. ) to advantage, both for others on campus and for themselves. in the latter context it is important to make a statement of intent by putting the library’s own digital scholarship engagements, staffing and infrastructures on a long-term footing (posner, , p. ). articulating to funders and stakeholders the benefits of digital scholarship, associated projects and the library’s involvement is key to the sustainability agenda. surprisingly, deficits have been noted in terms of dissemination of information about projects and resources (maron & pickle, , p. ), and the literature on marketing of digital collections is thin (schrier, ). failure to communicate the value of digital scholarship initiatives is likely to have negative implications in terms of funding and long-term sustainability. those benefits will vary from institution to institution but some are common enough and are well presented in a report on the impact of uk investment in digitised resources (tanner & deegan, ). this report outlines benefits for research, such as enabling new areas of enquiry and allowing scholars to concentrate on analysis instead of data collation, and for teaching through access to a more varied and rich range of materials (pp. - ). other benefits to be promoted locally may include text and data mining opportunities, wider access to the institution’s research, stronger interdisciplinary collaboration and partnerships with other institutions. communicating a clear value proposition is vital to sustainability (calhoun, , p. ; maron, smith, & loy, , pp. - ). this could focus on the unique features of a digital resource and the scholarship it enables or the time a new platform saves. equally, alignment with the institutional mission may be emphasised, for example higher rates of citation for open access publications or the institutional credit bestowed by the publication of high-quality digital resources such as the university of virginia’s valley of the shadow (http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/) project. communication strategies also need to look beyond emphasising immediate and local benefits. libraries have rightly begun to move away from a collection-centric focus (calhoun, , p. ) to a broader view of the positive social influence of digital initiatives, recognising that the collection is only a means to an end (schrier, ). wider, often global, benefits to promote include the advancement of knowledge, more equitable sharing of research outputs through open access, cultural engagement, economic benefits, bringing communities together and achieving long-term preservation (calhoun, , pp. - ; tanner & deegan, , pp. - , - ). the delos digital library manifesto captures well the social and intellectual function of digital libraries, emphasising their facilitation of communication, collaboration and other forms of interaction and placing them at the centre of intellectual activity (candela et al., ). http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/ returning to a local focus, a further area for communication is the library’s capacity to enable digital scholarship and how this will be managed relative to demand and expectation. as mentioned earlier, capacity can take the form of space (sometimes incorporating digital scholarship centres), equipment, storage, and hardware and software platforms. people, however, represent the most valuable resource the library can offer. telling the story of previous or current involvements and initiatives is a good indicator of success and potential for future engagement. identifying and promoting the teams, roles, skills and individuals available to participate in digital scholarship is important. job titles and team nomenclature can convey a lot. new library job titles have emerged, such as digital humanities librarian and digital humanities design consultant (rockenbach, , p. ), as have new teams, examples being the scholarly communications team at the university of edinburgh and the open access and data curation team at the university of exeter (corrall, , p. ). brown university (http://library.brown.edu/cds/) is interesting in that its center for digital scholarship represents a cross-departmental library team, led by a digital scholarship services manager and incorporating posts such as scientific data management specialist, manager of imaging and metadata services and data visualization coordinator, with other new posts on the horizon, including digital scholarship editor and information designer for digital scholarly publications, enabling partnership through all steps of the research cycle (maron, , p. ). managing the library’s involvement in digital scholarship is challenging and there needs to be clarity around what can and cannot be done within finite resources in a climate of high expectation and demand. digitisation, in particular, has created unrealistic expectations that any collection can be made accessible in digital format without consideration of cost, complexity or copyright, and librarians have to explain the need for selectivity (mills, , p. ). it is interesting to note the inclusion of a sub-section on managing expectation in an earlier version of the digitisation strategy of the university of manchester library ( , p. ). the management of expectations is a recurrent http://library.brown.edu/cds/ theme in the literature (maron & pickle, , p. ; schaffner & erway, , p. ; vinopal & mccormick, , pp. - ). strategies include publishing criteria for project selection, developing service level agreements, using scale solutions, implementing project and portfolio management, and cost recovery. some of these measures, especially when they involve saying no or levying costs, are unpopular. standing firm and communicating a clear position calls in particular on library leaders to take a strong and active role and to be decisive with regard to prioritisation (vinopal & mccormick, , pp. - ). without clear communication strategies, resources will be spread too thinly, or invested inappropriately, and the library’s reputation as a key player in digital scholarship will be compromised. communication strategies promotional campaigns could be regarded as the most likely way to broadcast the library’s capacity to deliver new value and new services, but communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship poses different challenges. there is a stronger emphasis on understanding, having a facilitative mindset, being “of” the relevant communities, actively delivering, advocating effectively and using social media to build community delivering on digital scholarship projects and infrastructures is probably the best advertisement for what the library can do. resources and communication effort can, however, be misdirected without a full appreciation first of the local landscape. investment is vital in understanding the priorities of the range of audiences involved and recognising their diverse skills, culture, needs and challenges (lewis, spiro, wang, & cawthorne, ). calhoun ( ) rightly emphasises this point and it is no coincidence that in her table (p. ) of barriers to institutional repositories and possible responses the most common action recommended is conducting audience needs assessments. surveys have also proved to be valuable tools in understanding perspectives on open access (moore, ), including different disciplinary attitudes (creaser, ). they can helpfully inform the creation of digital collections (green & courtney, ) by elucidating the complex requirements of users and creating an understanding of how such collections are integrated into humanities scholarship. consultation engages users with the selection of digitisation projects (mills, ) and is essential to the development of policies for research data management (digital curation centre, ; pinfield, et al., , pp. , ). observation is also recommended in assessing the library’s level of engagement with digital humanities and noting gaps to fill (schaffner & erway, , p. ), while there is value in online forms of listening by following social media to learn of developments and to understand language and cultural norms (schrier, ). the mentality that libraries bring to digital scholarship underpins how they communicate their roles. it has already been noted that this field is multi-stranded, experimental and lacking clear boundaries. this calls for an agile outlook from libraries, characterised by “flexibility, inquisitive practices, collaboration, starting with "yes," and being courageous” (alexander, et al., ). a level of confidence, positivity and openness is implied, as is curiosity, which can manifest itself in a willingness to learn and to explore possibilities. it has been noted that the traditional reference interview offers an ideal foundation in this regard (vinopal & mccormick, , p. ). what is needed is to orient it in the direction of open-ended exploration instead of guidance towards specifics (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). a good understanding of user needs can generate a solutions-focused approach. libraries’ digital scholarship websites may communicate this “can-do” approach effectively. the emory center for digital scholarship website bills the center as providing “a one-stop shop for anyone at emory interested in incorporating digital technology into teaching, research, publishing, and exhibiting scholarly work” (http://digitalscholarship.emory.edu/). the website of the center for digital http://digitalscholarship.emory.edu/ scholarship (cds) at brown university has a section titled “how can i work with cds?” which shows what the center can do for users by translating its activities into typical actions for users, followed by photos of staff who can help, creating a very confident offering and a highly positive impression (http://library.brown.edu/cds/). there is no shortage of problems to solve, or user needs to be addressed, and libraries can productively focus their efforts and communications accordingly. for example, discoverability of their digital projects and publications is known to be a concern for scholars (calhoun, , p. ; schaffner & erway, , pp. , ). libraries have always been committed to discovery and have taken on new roles in minting digital object identifiers (dois) and promoting the use of author identifiers such as orcid to associate authors unambiguously with their content. these roles should be positively communicated as value-added solutions from the library. a participative mentality is also needed, and immersion into the digital scholarship community is an effective way of promoting the contributions of librarians. this happens readily when digital scholarship centres are based in libraries, encouraging also a social dimension (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , pp. - ). any form of proximity certainly helps and co-location at national university of ireland (nui), galway, of the library’s archives and special collections with two major humanities and social sciences research institutes in a new research building has opened up new digital project collaborations (cox, ). going out of the library and having conversations with a range of stakeholders makes a statement of engagement and builds trust. this may involve attending digital scholarship events in academic departments or presenting papers at seminars and conferences outside the institution (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). libraries can host their own events with positive impact. examples of such events include a programme of digitisation workshops at university college dublin ( ), and a seminar on creating and exploiting digital collections at nui galway ( ) which brought together a number of players http://library.brown.edu/cds/ across the campus and promoted engagement with the library’s digital scholarship enablement strategy. actively participating in conversations is important and can advance the library role in research data management policy (erway, ) or prove the value of digital collections (schrier, ). relationships are of particular importance in digital scholarship (lippincott, et al., , pp. , ; rockenbach, , p. ), need investment by libraries (posner, , p. ) and can be mutually supportive (vandegrift & varner, ). ultimately, participation is communication. a track record of delivery on digital scholarship projects and infrastructures is the best credential for library capability. libraries commonly use their websites to advertise successful project involvements, examples being the digital humanities center at the university of rochester (http://humanities.lib.rochester.edu/) and the digital scholarship lab at the university of richmond (http://dsl.richmond.edu/). staff expertise is a vital strength and is prominently featured by, among others, the center for digital scholarship at brown university library (http://library.brown.edu/cds/). documenting progress and achievement through publications can be effective, as experienced at nui galway which has issued annual reports (http://tinyurl.com/legpsxk) of its project to digitise the archive of the abbey theatre (bradley & keane, ), focusing strongly on scholarly engagement with the digital archive. a compelling approach to communicating the library’s role is to link its contributions to all stages of the research lifecycle. good examples of this can be seen at king’s college london, (http://www.kcl.ac.uk/library/researchsupport/index.aspx ) and the university of california irvine (http://www.lib.uci.edu/dss/ ). the library can be a leader as well as a partner. librarians develop and lead their own digital humanities projects (posner, , pp. - ) and these need to be promoted. librarians have exercised leadership on campus in open access and, more recently, research data management. each of these areas is complex and in need of people who can advise knowledgeably on policy formulation, interpretation and implementation (briney, goben, & zilinski, http://humanities.lib.rochester.edu/ http://dsl.richmond.edu/ http://library.brown.edu/cds/ http://tinyurl.com/legpsxk http://www.kcl.ac.uk/library/researchsupport/index.aspx http://www.lib.uci.edu/dss/ ). librarians have established and communicated strong credibility, often as “resident experts in campus discussions” (fruin & sutton, , p. ). advocacy forms part of the communications strategy across all areas of digital scholarship. this is especially the case for open access and research data management the benefits of which, as already noted, may not be understood or embraced by faculty. promoting each successfully requires an appreciation of campus politics and cultivation of good relations with senior personnel such as research or it directors (pinfield, et al., , p. ), or respected academics who can partner in developing policy and be effective champions in selling it (fruin & sutton, , pp. - ). keeping documentation concise, clear and benefits-focused is important. an example of how this approach works was in the drafting of a two-page open access policy at nui galway (http://tinyurl.com/pfpslqd). language is significant too, and a very helpful guide to open access policies (harvard university) includes a section on “talking about a policy” which notes terminology to promote or avoid. the word “mandate”, for example, may prove problematic in creating a perception of institutional coercion. empathy with academic concerns and articulation of differentiated audience-specific benefits (calhoun, , p. ) will enhance communication and successful implementation. marketing techniques come into play too and branding can communicate important messages. nui galway’s library has published a digital scholarship enablement strategy (http://tinyurl.com/next cw) , deliberately choosing the word “enablement” rather than “service” or “support”. succinct branding is evident in “collaborate → iterate → discuss” for the university of virginia library’s scholars’ lab (http://scholarslab.org/), or “partnering to advance scholarship” at the digital scholarship lab in the j. murrey atkins library, university of carolina at charlotte (http://dsl.uncc.edu/). the latter institution also offers an example of the successful use of “joined- http://tinyurl.com/pfpslqd http://tinyurl.com/next cw http://scholarslab.org/ http://dsl.uncc.edu/ up” marketing campaigns to promote the library’s publishing services through a variety of channels, including campus conversations, newsletters, guides and a launch party to mark the publication of its first journal issue (wu & mccullough, , pp. - ). multi-faceted campaigns can be built around events such as international open access week (http://www.openaccessweek.org/) every october, the publication of a digital collection at harvard university (madsen, , pp. - ), or the establishment of a new research storage service at griffith university (searle, ). the use of social media has become a vital component of libraries’ communication strategies, enabling them not just to promote digital scholarship roles and resources but to engage users and build communities. usage of channels such as blogs and twitter is common enough but libraries’ exploitation of the full potential of social media has been limited by a collection-centric rather than people-centric worldview (calhoun, , p. ), with a tendency to promote collections rather than engage users (schrier, ). there has, however, been a definite shift in perspective in recent times from collections to networked communities, from repositories to social platforms and from content consumers to content creators and contributors, creating new roles for libraries on the social web and impacting scholarship more widely as well (calhoun, , pp. - ). researchers have embraced scholarly social networks such as researchgate, academia and mendeley as they enable sharing, discovery and new contacts. similar benefits are expected of digital scholarship platforms and institutional repositories have integrated rss feeds, altmetrics and social media functionality (marsh, , p. ). libraries have used social media optimisation strategies to make it easy to share, bookmark and comment on digital content (calhoun, , pp. - ). crowdsourcing approaches such as transcription, supplementing metadata and the identification and provenance of materials (peaker, ) have also actively engaged audiences and built communities around projects. examples http://www.openaccessweek.org/ include diy history (http://diyhistory.lib.uiowa.edu/) at the iowa digital library, which has engaged participation in the transcription of over , pages of handwritten archival material to date, and the university of pennsylvania libraries’ provenance online project (https://provenanceonlineproject.wordpress.com/) which sources information on the provenance of rare books. value-added participation by librarians in social media conversations around digital collections, and posting of contributions targeted at known areas of interest to a community, are also seen as ways of enhancing credibility, developing trust, building relationships and engaging support (schrier, ). finally, as noted earlier, library managers in particular need to communicate effectively with their own staff. library staff with traditional views of service boundaries may be sceptical about engagement with digital scholarship and the investment of resources in that direction, especially when this represents the replacement of positions formerly assigned to more established, possibly legacy, functions. a clear and ongoing articulation by library leadership of the strategic importance of new digital scholarship roles is needed (vinopal & mccormick, , pp. , , ), incorporating messages around vision, rationale, expectations, priorities and challenges. ensuring connectivity between digital scholarship staff and the rest of the library is important too. briefing sessions to all library staff about activities and initiatives are valuable. they have, in the author’s experience, proved effective at nui galway, enabling face-to-face communication and discussion. linkage with established areas like archives or research services is needed and can be cultivated. the number of library staff involved in digital scholarship is typically small relative to the whole library team and this creates its own pressure. such staff may be overextended, in need of guidance or direction, challenged by the evolving skillset required or frustrated by slow progress. they too need particular communication from library leadership to support, guide, reassure and encourage, http://diyhistory.lib.uiowa.edu/ https://provenanceonlineproject.wordpress.com/ as well as to commit the necessary resources, including training or development opportunities and even the permission to fail (posner, , p. ). effective communication structures within a digital scholarship team, including regular meetings, will ensure awareness of activities as well as sharing of, and learning from, experience. conclusion digital scholarship is a relatively new field of activity and is presenting both opportunities and challenges for libraries. the field is multi-stranded and the library response has mirrored this, with a wide range of initiatives and innovations in evidence. there are many communities involved in digital scholarship and a distinctive, experimental culture has developed, often resulting in a somewhat disjointed approach across the campus. libraries need to make their contribution and to communicate their roles in this environment, recognising and overcoming potential mismatches in culture and perspective. some big positives are the strong relationships that libraries have typically built with their academic communities, the natural fit between digital scholarship and the library mission, and the need for library contributions, both of themselves and to deliver sustainability. communication on campus and beyond about digital scholarship projects, by libraries and others, has not always been a strength. library roles may not be recognised and it is vital to get out important messages about people, skills, capabilities, collections, spaces and infrastructures, as well as the benefits delivered. these are valued, as is the move towards a partnership approach which can also be promoted in new job titles and team names. a specific communications strategy is needed, one that focuses on inserting the library into digital scholarship communities, mirroring their experimental mindset, and projecting a confident, “can-do” outlook. librarians need to participate, attend, present and converse, in general by being “out there”, communicating by doing and by sharing expertise. all of this must, however, be based on understanding the nature and needs of those involved in digital scholarship and their range of activities in order to communicate added value and to advocate effectively and sensitively. online communications are important, especially the strategic use of social media to build trust and community. engaging all library staff also needs effort so that they understand and can promote the library’s new roles as an enabling partner in digital scholarship. references alexander, l., case, b. d., downing, k. e., gomis, m., & maslowski, e. 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( ). first steps for a library publisher: developing publishing services at unc charlotte j. murrey atkins library. oclc systems & services: international digital library perspectives ( ), - . retrieved from doi:http://dx.doi.org/ . /oclc- - - http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/services-and-support/staff/teaching/services/digitisation-services/about/_files/digitisationstrategyfinal.pdf http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/services-and-support/staff/teaching/services/digitisation-services/about/_files/digitisationstrategyfinal.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://publications.arl.org/rli / http://dx.doi.org/ . /oclc- - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /oclc- - - project_muse_ the digital edition and the digital humanities amy e. earhart abstr act the legacy of early digital editions and their related scholarship reveals the textual founda- tion of digital literary studies, a foundation that emphasized form and materiality, in effect a representational rather than interpretative view of text. early digital editions were formed out of a “whole text” approach, a cohesive print-to-digital model that features interrelated textual materials, often in print book form, rather than an expansive and fragmented repre- sentation of text, as is increasingly the case with data-based practices. this article examines the ways in which the digital edition privileges the structure of the book, which is viewed as a self-contained entity with a naturalized means for displaying knowledge and replicated in most aspects of creating digital editions, from display to data treatment. in the early s, liter ary editor ial schol arship was in upheaval. conflict within, authorial intent versus the social construction of the text, and without, the devaluation of editorial work by the larger discipline, made the field extremely unstable. while textual studies work was considered a central aspect of literary studies during the early to mid century, by the s high literary criticism had driven textual studies to the borders of the field. post-structuralists rejected the materiality of the text that those invested in editorial work relished, broadening the con- cept of text to a definition far more amorphous than that embraced within the textual world. some, such as derrida, refused the physical constraints attached to text, arguing for “a ‘text’ that is henceforth no longer a finished corpus of writing, some content enclosed in a book or its margins, but a dif- ferential network, a fabric of traces referring endlessly to something other than itself, to other differential traces” (der r ida , ). harold bloom likewise rejected texts; “there are no texts [. . .] but only interpretations” (tanselle , ). while american textual studies scholars bemoaned . judith kennedy ( ) offers a clear and useful summary of the conflict within textual studies. amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | their increasing distance from the scholarly mainstream, internal tensions were also emerging between greg–bowers textual studies critics, such as g. thomas tanselle, and those who championed a reevaluation of the theo- retical framework of textual studies, such as jerome mcgann, d. f. mcken- zie, and david greetham. in addition to these challenges, the increasing constraints of scholarly publication began to make editors fear that the future of scholarly editions was bleak. by the mid s the scholarly pub- lishing market was already in decline. peter shillingsburg recognized that as the scholarly market contracted, the ability to publish textual editions would likewise diminish: a scholarly edition is a thick book (five hundred to a thousand pages) printed on acid-free paper guaranteed for years, in sturdy bindings, with a list of ten to twenty editors and advisory editors, published by a reputable academic press and costing a minimum of fifty dollars, but more often over one hundred. it contains a pure virgin text or, unironi- cally, a fully restored one. already a thick tome because of the histori- cal and textual introductions and textual apparatus, scholarly editions frequently exclude explanatory annotations because the space they require would add unduly to the cost (already out of the reach of ordi- nary mortals and nearly out of reach for the ordinary research library). (shillingsburg , ) shillingsburg predicted the decline of the scholarly edition based primarily on economics, which was verified by the mla ad hoc committee on scholarly publishing report. the committee report noted that declin- ing subsidies of university presses and decreasing library acquisition fund- ing has caused a substantial decrease of sales while the numbers of faculty who are required to publish a monograph for tenure and promotion has increased, putting undue pressure on the fragile system. the committee noted that scholarly editions, in particular, were under threat because of cost, time of production and neh funding cuts (mla ad hoc commit- tee , .). it was at this bleak moment that what we now call digital . the scholarly publishing industry has only become less stable since the mla report. scholarly presses, such as rice, are closing, and those that remain continue to struggle to find a sustainable economic model. additionally, library funding continues to contract while more and more universities and colleges demand monographs for tenure and promotion. | textual cultures . ( ) editing emerged as a potential solution to the increasing pressures on edi- tion production. as editors searched for ways to create a better edition and to reinsert editing into the core of literary studies, they began to consider digital tech- nologies as a possible helpmate. experimental digital editions, including the electronic beowulf, the canterbury tales project, and the piers plow- man, adopted a tool-based technology approach to enact best practices in the new environment and launched digital editing, a focus on what the mla committee on scholarly editions described as “the scholarly edi- tion’s basic task” — “to present a reliable text”. (mla commit tee for scholarly editing ). during this period groundbreaking scholar- ship was published that defined the direction of digital literary studies in english. from peter shillingsburg’s early scholarly editing in the computer age to jerome mcgann’s later radiant textuality, many textual studies scholars professed their investment in technology and the text. collec- tions, including the literary text in the digital age (finner an ) and electronic textual editing (bur nard, o’br ien o’keeffe, unsworth ), helped to define digital humanities with a textual studies slant. even the most traditional textual scholars recognized the need to con- front the digital, whether to embrace, to alter, or to reject the new tech- nology. richard finneran would call the digital a “fundamental paradigm shift” ( , ix) and david greetham argued that we “will need the facili- ties of electronic, reader-driven editions to achieve the flexibility and lack of closure that differance observes” ( , ). still other scholars of english literature, among them the aforementioned shillingsburg and mcgann, developed digital tools and editions, and contended that digital work was central to textual studies. g. thomas tanselle recognized that the digi- tal was useful to editorial work, though he posited a far more constrained view of the power of digitization: “computerization is simply the latest chapter in the long story of facilitating the reproduction and alteration of texts; what remains constant is the inseparability of recorded language from the technology that produced it and makes it accessible” ( , ). while these scholars did not agree about how the digital would be used . in this article i focus on those projects that emerge from the textual studies milieu. i exclude discussion of for-profit digitization projects, such as chadwyck- healey’s the english poetry full-text database, gale’s eighteenth century col- lection online (ecco), and e-text projects developed out of libraries. both models have different structures and concerns and it would be most beneficial to address these issues elsewhere. amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | within textual studies, they all acknowledged that the digital would have an impact on scholarship. the legacy of early digital editions and archival projects and their related scholarship reveals the textual foundation of digital literary stud- ies, a foundation that emphasized form and materiality. in scholarly editing in the computer age, peter shillingsburg notes that “editing is, above all else, a matter of forms”, and that the “forms, the details of presentation, are often thought to be the responsibility of editors” ( , ). the pat- terns and structure to which shillingsburg points are concepts that have transferred into the digital literary studies and are particularly apparent in the way in which interface represents the physical object. for many early edition projects, the digital interface is the book form, with digital design mimicking the traditional book structure including a table of contents, page display and index. the form, however, was a correlation of materi- ality, not a means of manipulation. in his foreword to electronic textual editing, tanselle ( , ) accepts that the digital is a useful medium in which to publish the edition, but warns that “when the excitement leads to the idea that the computer alters the ontology of texts and makes possible new kinds of reading and analysis, it has gone too far”. the binary that tanselle notes — digital as a tool versus the digital as a means to new forms, ontologies, reading or analysis — is a theme replicated across digital textual scholarship and projects. or, as speed hill has written, “i can live with technological change per se, but i fear the more fundamental shift in the aims and purposes of scholarly editing that threatens the work we invest in preserving the artifacts we cherish. technological change overvalues the new, the computer-hip, the gee-whiz factor, while devaluing editions that appear in the form and format of the traditional code” ( , ). david gants also sees the digital environment as a way to represent “a well- designed electronic edition” that “can exploit the flexibility of the digital medium and avoid the need to deform the text; it can shift and adapt to the . david greetham lambasted the decision to invite tanselle to write the intro- duction for the electronic textual editing volume, wondering: “[a]re the con- tributors aware that many of their arguments and practices are being undercut by the forward?” ( , ). while there is no doubt that tanselle spent a good portion of his career attacking the textual editors represented in the book, i would argue that there is much in the formulation of textual studies’ methods that is replicated in digital humanities work that matches tanselle’s methodolo- gies. however, it is the experimentation in the field, the work that forms new knowledge, that he rejects. certain kinds of digital editions that resemble print editions would not be challenged by tanselle. | textual cultures . ( ) needs of the individual user, encouraging us, as tanselle notes, to become collaborators” ( , ). in each of these representations of digital edit- ing the goal remains the same — “to avoid the need to deform the text” (cfr. mcgann ). even those who are some of the staunchest support- ers of digital innovation recognize that early digital editions did little more than replicate print structures. peter robinson, for one, acknowledges the imitative qualities of early textual studies projects: “the first missing aspect is that up to now, almost without exception, no scholarly electronic edi- tion has presented material which could not have been presented in book form, nor indeed presented this material in a manner significantly different from that which could have been managed in print” ( ). it is the digital edition’s apparent similarity to print that reassuringly runs through early digital editorial work; the hallmark of the early digital edition is the sense of stability and the reassurance of forms that look like a print text. and while those forms might remain stable, the digital allows for the creation of better-than-print editions. for example, the electronic beowulf project collects dispersed materials to allow scholars to view and manipu- late easily otherwise fragile materials. the focus of the edition interface is on the physical format of the primary manuscript source. in truth, the digital beowulf resembles the book, in the best of the print tradition, that medievalist editors dream of — beowulf collected and collated in its ancient form, rather than dispersed across multiple libraries and countries. pages are laid out side by side, and the tools are designed to manipulate the book- based image, rather than to deconstruct, separate, or treat blocks of text as data sets. traditionally philological in its approach, electronic beowulf includes the images of multiple manuscripts, transcriptions, and other types of support materials, effectively becoming a highly enriched facsimile edition. this method is reinforced by the editor kevin kiernan’s stated desire “to draw attention back to the manuscript, not to provide definitive solutions to problems that exist in the manuscript [. . .]. the edition and its glossary also draw attention to their source in the manuscript by providing citations to folios, folio-lines, and verse-lines” ([ ] ). joe viscomi, one of the editors of the blake archive, similarly sees the digital environ- ment as a way to resolve problems found in a traditional print edition. in the case of the blake archive this has meant even how to represent details such as the variations in the hand-colored poems. when previously faced with the limitations of print, editors either developed a text only edition, which was inexpensive, or monochromatic reproductions, which left out the details of the original, or published hand-colored collotypes, often pro- hibitively expensive (viscomi , ). the blake archive has developed amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | protocols to replicate the uniqueness of the individual texts in the digital environment, producing a stunning and groundbreaking archive. the end result is an edition that is as close to the printed original(s) as possible. the project was awarded the mla prize for a distinguished scholarly edition, an honor rightly bestowed on the edition for its use of the digital to make an accurate edition. at the same time, the success of the blake archive depends in large part on a recognizable association to print form that bridges the gap between printed editions and digital humanities. while editors have seen the digital as a tool to produce ideally expanded facsimile editions, they have continued, in this period, to bemoan the seemingly unstable environment of the digital. beyond the problems with the digital per se, where the files seem fragile, upgrades are unsteady and interoperability is unsure, textual studies scholars are hesitant about the way by which the digital leaves the text malleable. it is no surprise that early forms of digital editions were issued in cd forms. like a book, a cd could be published, distributed, and owned. it could be placed on a shelf, taken down and perused when needed. digital editions tried to create a representation that was as close to the original as possible, often center- ing the edition on a high quality image such as is the case with the blake archive. peter shillingsburg notes: “just as a researcher in a library request- ing the first edition of a work would reject a transcription of that edition as a basis for research, so a researcher using an electronic edition should also reject a transcript. an image is, after all, as close as one can get, electroni- cally, to the original. the transcript becomes a convenience for searching, while the original (or a good image of it) continues to be used as the real thing” (shillingsburg ). notice here that shillingsburg privileges the image over the editorial transcription, rejecting the transcription as not good enough or not authentic enough, in effect using the digital to produce a high-quality facsimile. projects of the mid- to late s like the walt whitman archive or rossetti archive are not imagined as mere facsimiles, but fluid and malleable textual materials, often treated, at the code level, as data sets, a view that clearly made editors like speed hill uncomfortable. hill rejected mcgann’s digital work which, he says, embraces “a device designed for and dedicated to the de-materialization — for that’s what the term ‘digitization’ really means — of that very same material artifact into a signal stream made up of zillions of offs and ons, wholly dependent on a complex infrastructure over which none of us has any control” ( , ). these same fears remain with us today, as reactions to the digital are often critical of any technological treatment of the text that manipulates the form. | textual cultures . ( ) the early period of electronic textual studies projects might be char- acterized as that of the “value added” edition, where textual scholars believed that technology “has a set of qualities that can be used to give the electronic text an added value towards the printed text” (k arlsson and malm , ). as long-standing print editorial projects, from the founding fathers’ documents to shakespeare, develop digital components, versions, or editions, and as presses in the united states now seem less likely to support large-scale editorial projects, it seems apparent that the future of editing is digital. early projects along these lines have been so suc- cessful that kenneth price has maintained that “digital work has achieved primacy only for editions” ( , ). but what if we flip price’s statement?: textual studies are central to digital humanities work. textual studies theo- ries, forms, practices, and methodologies have been and are interwoven into the digital humanities. but what, exactly, does the legacy of textual studies mean to the way in which we understand digital literary studies? in spite of the importance of digital editorial production, many prac- titioners of digital humanities lack an understanding of the theories, methodologies, and history of textual studies. editions are recognized early digital forms, yet issues of production that hinge on methodology in scholarly editing, from tei to interface design, have been integrated in the field without a clear understanding of their historical context. at the same time, some in the digital humanities community have begun to view digital edition building as technologically unsophisticated, in effect echoing ian small’s view of editing as “a largely pragmatic, unsophisticated activity” ( , ). amanda gailey and andrew jewell call this techno- logical hipsterism: “this shift in focus from content development to tech- nological innovation, a trend that sometimes seems driven by innovation for innovation’s sake, can at its worst seem to posit a ‘hipster ethos’ for the digital humanities community — that the quality of the work you do is not so important as staying at the edge of innovation, always one step ahead of the unfashionable masses” ( , ). we might wonder if digital humanities is potentially in danger of replicating the rejection of edition building years ago at the hands of literary critics? michael groden sums up the initial divide: “literary theorists and critics have tended to see edit- ing and bibliography as activities that are preliminary to criticism and the textual theorists and critics themselves as concerned only with empirical evidence, often with minute details (commas, watermarks)” ( , ). we must guard against a similar paradigm within the digital humanities by which editing would be viewed merely as preliminary to the “real work” of amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | interpretative technology in data mining. there is good reason to consider textual studies a central pillar of digital humanities work. the centrality of textual studies to digital humanities has helped to draw charges of a lack of critical rigor in digital humanities work. leroy f. searle has suggested that “[f]or an earlier generation, the vocation of edito- rial scholarship often seemed a haven (if not the very citadel) of intellec- tual probity, in which one could practice a science — mild and respectful, if sometimes dull — without being drawn into the relatively unregulated life of literary criticism and theory, where, as i. a. richards remarked after a lifetime of experience with it, ‘an indecent disregard of fact is still current form’” (searle , ). martha nell smith makes a similar argument regarding the conservatism of digital humanities, arguing that the repli- cation of traditional methodologies damages the possibilities contained within the new medium. in “the human touch: software of the highest order, revisiting editing as interpretation”, smith ( ) points to the way in which digital humanities has retreated into the modes of analytic, objective approaches as a “safe” alternative to the messy fluidities found in literary studies, noting: “[i]t was as if these matters of objective and hard science provided an oasis for folks who do not want to clutter sharp, dis- ciplined, methodical philosophy with considerations of the gender-, race-, and class-determined facts of life [. . .]. humanities computing seemed to offer a space free from all this messiness and a return to objective questions of representation” ( , ). the methodological histories of textual studies profoundly inform arguments voiced by searle and smith, and would be of great utility to digital humanists. perhaps the area of greatest impact of the historical traditions of tex- tual studies is the emphasis on what we might call a whole-text approach in the potential creation of a digital edition that is not deformed, that is a trustworthy text that has been subjected to strict editorial controls. peter shillingsburg has very vocally argued for such an approach to digital texts: “out of many (methodologies), one, but not a singularity of mono- lithic view — rather a general methodology of relational complexities: that can be the aesthetics of scholarly editing in the twenty-first century if we understand that the emerging oneness does not consist of simplification or elimination of the complexity but instead that it arises from our recogni- tion of the textual condition understood whole” ( , – ). the final outcome is still a centrality of the whole text, not text as discrete parts bro- ken into data chunks as we see, for instance, in approaches whose goal is data mining. as with the interfaces developed during the heyday of digital | textual cultures . ( ) edition building, a whole-text approach seeks to represent the text without intervention or deformation. as digital humanists experiment with data mining and visualizations, the treatment of the text is less about a repre- sentation and more about interpretation created through an algorithmic manipulation of the textual data points. such an approach is counter to those who championed the digital edition, but there remains no reason why such approaches cannot coexist within the larger digital humanities. one of the dangers of the loss of textual studies traditions is that we have not critically attended to the means by which certain approaches to digiti- zation have brought particularized assumptions into the field (small , ). tei’s limitations have received a great deal of attention, but the big data approaches are also flawed due to a lack of critical understanding of the processes of production and their methodological reasons in scholarly editing. as i have argued elsewhere, it is difficult to treat texts responsibly as “data” when much of our data set is inaccurate, whether because of faulty editing or because of the lack of digitization of certain types of texts, par- ticularly those by what we might think of as non-canonical authors. the tensions between such approaches threaten to create splits between digital editing and digital humanities reminiscent of the textual studies wars of the second half of the twentieth century. instead of envisioning scholarly textual editing as separate from inter- pretative approaches such as data mining, it might be useful to adapt the concept of the interface, which — as we recall — is in the primary para- digm of computer science a program that controls the display and allows the user to interact with the system. the majority of scholarly editorial work has focused on the interface as a display and interaction mechanism, as a single representation of the theoretical conception of editorial produc- tion. but what if we were, instead, to utilize the notion interface as con- structed by chemistry, creating a surface that forms a common boundary between two different phases? if we understand “interface” in this manner, then we might accept that the boundary necessitates multiple phases or approaches working in contact with each other, and that at those points of contact there is more interaction and interpretative flexibility. in this model, the interface allows seemingly contradictory items to coexist and work with one another. data sets and editions can coexist, but only if those from digital and textual editors can find bridges to those approaching digi- tal humanities from other traditions and with other goals. texas a&m university amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | works cited bur nar d, lou, katherine o’br ien o’keeffe, and john unsworth, eds. . electronic textual editing. new york: modern language association of america. der r ida, jacques. . archive fever: a freudian impression. chicago: university of chicago press. ezell, margaret j. m. . “editing early modern women’s manuscripts: theory, electronic editions, and the accidental copy-text”. literature compass . : – . finner an, richard j., ed. . the literary text in the digital age. ann arbor: uni- versity of michigan press. gailey, amanda, and andrew jewell. . “editors’ introduction to the first issue of scholarly editing: the annual of the association for documentary editing”. scholarly editing : – . gants, david. . “the cup ben jonson: ruminations of the electronic edition”. ben jonson journal : – . gr eeth am, d[avid] c. . “editorial and critical theory: from modernism to postmodernism”. palimpset: editorial theory in the humanities, edited by george b or nstein and ralph g. willi ams, – . ann arbor: university of michigan press. ———. . review of bur nar d, o’br ien o’keeffe, and unsworth . textual cultures . : – . groden, michael. . “contemporary textual and literary theory”. representing modernist texts: editing as interpretation, edited by george b or nstein, – . ann arbor: university of michigan press. hill, w. speed. . “editorial theory and literary criticism: lamb and wolf?” review : – . ———. . “from ‘an age of editing’ to a ‘paradigm shift’: an editorial retrospect”. text : – . k ar lsson, lina, and linda m alm. . “revolution or remediation?: a study of electronic scholarly editions on the web”. humanit . : – . kennedy, judith. . “‘a terrible beauty is born’: textual scholarship in the s”. victorian literature and culture : – . kier nan, kevin. 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pandemia eum rivista fondata da massimo montella dall’analisi al cambiamento della realtà paolo clini, ramona quattrini, umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile / digital humanities and commons: guidelines and recflections for a possible salvation «il capitale culturale», supplementi ( ), pp. - issn - (online); isbn - - - - doi: . / - / umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile * paolo clini, professore ordinario in disegno e rilievo, dipartimento dicea dell’università politecnica delle marche, via brecce bianche, ancona, email: p.clini@univpm.it. ** ramona quattrini, ricercatrice a tempo determinato in disegno e rilievo, dipartimento dicea dell’università politecnica delle marche, via brecce bianche, ancona, email: r.quattrini@univpm.it. alcune riflessioni e considerazioni presenti in questo saggio sono sostanziati e convalidati dalle applicazioni sviluppate e testate all’interno del progetto civitas, progetto strategico di ateneo di univpm. paolo clini*, ramona quattrini** abstract il covid- ha evidenziato in maniera drammatica la condizione di totale fragilità della cultura e, in particolare, del nostro patrimonio artistico e storico, tangibile e intangibile. una fragilità determinata sostanzialmente dall’assenza di relazioni, di cui invece il patrimonio vive nel susseguirsi storico delle società che lo conservano e lo condividono. ai tempi del covid- , in cui tutti i musei, i siti archeologici e i luoghi della cultura erano chiusi, si è posta con urgenza la riflessione su come mantenere vive queste relazioni, attraverso il digitale. l’articolo tratteggia riflessioni teoriche e metodologiche per un manifesto di buone pratiche operative e scientifiche, a partire dalle numerose esperienze condotte in ambito di umanesimo digitale. vengono esplicitati i quattro passaggi, intimamente connessi, su cui far leva per una filiera digitale consapevole e sostenibile: digitalizzazione scientifica, nuove forme di interazione virtuale, misurazione del gradimento dei pubblici, formazione di nuove competenze. paolo clini, ramona quattrini the pandemic crisis dramatically highlighted the fragility of culture and, in particular, of our tangible and intangible, artistic and historical heritage. a fragility determined substantially by the absence of relations, of which the heritage lives on in the historical succession of the societies that preserve and share it. in the days of covid, when all museums, archaeological sites and places of culture were closed, there was an urgent need to reflect on how to keep these relationships alive, through digital technologies. the article outlines theoretical and methodological reflections for a manifesto of good operative and scientific practices, starting from several experiences conducted in the field of digital humanities. the four closely connected steps on which to leverage for a conscious and sustainable digital supply chain are explained: scientific digitization, new forms of virtual interaction, measurement of public acceptance, training of new skills. . introduzione il covid- ha posto in maniera drammatica davanti ai nostri occhi la condizione di totale fragilità della cultura e, in particolare, del nostro patrimonio artistico e storico tangibile e intangibile. una fragilità determinata sostanzialmente dall’assenza di relazioni. il patrimonio vive quando agisce nei confronti delle società che nel loro susseguirsi storico lo conservano e lo condividono. questo è il suo autentico valore. ai tempi del covid- abbiamo vissuto un momento epocale. ci sono stati giorni in cui tutti i musei del mondo, tutti i siti archeologici, tutti i luoghi della cultura erano chiusi. non era mai accaduto, neanche durante la guerra. un silenzio inaccettabile perché testimoniava il silenzio della nostra civiltà. inaccettabile perché da tali situazioni l’uomo può morire, le stesse civiltà possono morire. oggi siamo quindi costretti a riflettere da un lato su come prevenire queste situazioni drammatiche, dall’altro su come trarre insegnamento e opportunità da questi passaggi storici che sempre più ci inducono a considerare il patrimonio come un bene comune vitale per il singolo individuo, per la comunità a cui esso appartiene, per la civiltà che lo ha generato. da sempre la tecnica ha costituito uno strumento indispensabile per compiere fino in fondo il percorso straordinario che si genera da un atto creativo. la tecnica ha assunto diverse denominazioni nell’evoluzione della nostra civiltà artistica. oggi la chiamiamo digitale: sicuramente una delle chiavi che ci possono aiutare a rinnovare il ruolo della tecnica nella sua simbiosi con la creazione artistica e porre le condizioni per una nuova forma di umanesimo. umanesimo digitale proprio in riferimento alle tecniche che permettono, oggi come nelle ricorrenze antiche e moderne, di rimettere l’uomo al centro dei processi creativi e artistici. questo attraverso processi che consistono nella possibilità di riprodurre sempre più fedelmente il nostro patrimonio, arricchendone da un lato le valenze di espressione artistica, dall’altro la possibilità di circolare e diffondersi all’interno della nostra civiltà in luoghi e contesti lontani da dove quel patrimonio è umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile collocato ma garantendone così la sua condizione indispensabile di bene comune, senza la quale sarebbe anche priva di significato la sua collocazione fisica in uno specifico luogo museale. una democrazia dell’arte essenziale alla sua stessa sopravvivenza e a quella della civiltà e delle civiltà che la producono e che la accolgono. come aveva ben intuito quasi un secolo addietro walter benjamin, pur non consapevole della straordinaria possibilità e accelerazione che il digitale avrebbe concesso a questo processo. . verso un manifesto sono sicuramente innumerevoli i documenti programmatici che indicano le ict o il digitale come soluzione o volano per rendere il patrimonio bene comune: l’ultimo che può essere citato è stato effettivamente scritto e pubblicato in piena crisi pandemica . l’europe day manifesto richiama infatti per le istituzioni europee un ruolo di primo piano nel patrimonio culturale digitale e il grande potenziale che esse presentano per andare avanti con le nuove tecnologie come l’intelligenza artificiale e l’apprendimento automatico, pur nel perseguimento di principi umanistici ed etici. nell’auspicare una accelerazione della trasformazione digitale, viene subito richiamata la necessità di ridurre il divario tra le istituzioni che sono digitalmente attrezzate e quelle che non lo sono. la necessità di democratizzare l’accesso al nostro patrimonio per sostenere diversità, inclusività, creatività e impegno critico nell’educazione, va di pari passo, come vedremo in seguito, con la promozione delle competenze digitali, per rafforzare il ruolo delle nostre istituzioni culturali. ma accanto a questo documento non possiamo non citare altri atti fondamentali di questo passaggio, tra cui segnaliamo: carta di siena , carta di londra , convenzione di faro , nuova agenda per la cultura e, per rimanere in ambito nazionale, il piano strategico per la digitalizzazione del turismo e il piano triennale per la digitalizzazione . documenti che evidenziano la consapevolezza a livello di autorità centrale di cogliere l’inevitabile trasformazione che il digitale genera sul nostro patrimonio. poco però è stato realizzato in questi anni. ad una consapevolezza culturale della trasformazione non è mai seguita una sistematica azione, anche economica, che abbia potuto portare i nostri luoghi della cultura a trasformarsi realmente e a cogliere la ricchezza di questo cambiamento. il european heritage alliance . icom italia . epoch . europe council treaty office . european commission . laboratorio per il turismo digitale (tdlab) . direzione generale musei – mibact . paolo clini, ramona quattrini covid- ne è stata la palese dimostrazione. infatti di fronte a questa emergenza si è scatenata una corsa a cercare forme digitali e virtuali alternative o sostitutive di quella cultura fisica cancellata. e così ci siamo resi conto di quanto valga un dipinto digitalizzato o un museo capace di mettere on line la sua collezione o uno spettacolo che non si esaurisce nel breve spazio della sua espressione. ma abbiamo anche capito di non essere pronti. perché un modo nuovo e diverso di continuare a fare e comunicare cultura lo si costruisce in tempo di pace e non di guerra. da anni parliamo di digitalizzazione del patrimonio ma davanti a questa emergenza abbiamo visto che molto poco era stato fatto, che addirittura i più grandi musei del mondo non avevano loro rappresentazioni virtuali degne di essere chiamate tali. e che alla fine tutti gli esiti digitali si risolvevano in un più marcato uso dei social; esiti che nulla hanno però a che vedere con la reale dimensione della digitalizzazione del patrimonio. e così abbiamo capito che la cultura virtuale o digitale, come la vogliamo chiamare, non è una pezza che mettiamo a un vestito rotto ma è una straordinaria opportunità affinché la bellezza che le nostre civiltà hanno prodotto e continuano a produrre, possano raggiungere ogni uomo che vive in questa terra, che vive in luoghi e in condizioni che non gli permetteranno mai di potere godere fisicamente di quell’opera. abbiamo scoperto che il nostro patrimonio non è digitalizzato scientificamente, che non abbiamo le competenze per gestire questi processi di trasformazione, che non sappiamo usare i mezzi più attuali per la fruizione del patrimonio digitale, che manca un confronto ed empatia tra patrimonio e utente, che non abbiamo dati che ci permettano davvero di capire come creare un rapporto profondo e personale con un visitatore alla ricerca di esperienze sempre più personali, proprio attraverso le potenzialità del digitale e dei nuovi mezzi di fruizione. molti di questi aspetti sono evidenziati e fotografati con chiarezza nel final report di nemo (network of european museum organisations) pubblicato nel mese di luglio . diciamo quindi che sul digitale è stata fatta in questi anni molta propaganda, che oggi forse il covid- interrompe o permetterà di superare. come è possibile rendere efficace e reale il nuovo umanesimo digitale? come è pensabile usare le nuove tecniche, ormai sufficientemente affidabili e pervasive, per ricreare la simbiosi tra arte e tecnica? come possiamo muoverci con passo sicuro nella tutela delle relazioni tra beni e uomini, se non cercando di mettere a punto concrete filiere operative rispetto a piani di trasformazione digitale dei nostri luoghi della cultura e di ingaggio digitale reale del nostro patrimonio. un manifesto di buone pratiche operative e scientifiche non può che ripartire da una filiera digitale fondata quindi su quattro passaggi tra di loro intimamente connessi, come illustrato in figura , e che sembrano proprio essere le grandi lacune mostrate in questi mesi di emergenza: – la digitalizzazione scientifica del patrimonio; nemo, szogs . umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile – le nuove forme di fruizione digitale: a sostegno dell’analogico, in situ e sostitutive o alternative, in remoto; – la misurazione e il monitoraggio del pubblico a cui è destinato il carattere di bene comune del patrimonio; – una profonda revisione delle competenze e dei percorsi di formazione per la gestione di queste filiere e del loro continuo rinnovamento. su questi passaggi e riconnessioni (fig. ) possiamo fondare un nuovo umanesimo digitale. ed è su ognuna di queste leve che nei nostri percorsi di ricerca e con le attività del gruppo distori heritage , attraverso l’integrazione di approcci storico-umanistici e tecnologici, abbiamo agito valorizzando e strutturando le competenze nel campo delle digital humanities (dh) cercando anche di definire, attraverso casi concreti, buone pratiche di aiuto alla scrittura di un manifesto/filiera digitale . digitalizzare scientificamente a partire dalle attività di ricerca che riguardano l’applicazione di nuove tecnologie di rilievo e documentazione digitale al patrimonio nelle sue varie forme – dall’archeologia ai dipinti e alle statue all’architettura, al paesaggio – sono state testate e validate varie forme e modalità di digitalizzazione, scientificamente fondate. il cardine di queste digitalizzazioni è senz’altro l’acquisizione tridimensionale, basata principalmente sulle nuvole di punti. al di là della ormai indiscussa e necessaria integrazione delle tecniche, ovvero l’utilizzo per la fase di acquisizione di fotografie, panoramiche, nuvole di punti da laser scanner terrestre (tls) e da fotogrammetria, anche con l’ausilio dei veicoli a pilotaggio remoto (apr); la bontà e duttilità dei facsimile digitali basati su nuvole di punti è principalmente dimostrata dai numerosi applicativi che ne risultano (fig. ). riportiamo qui ad esempio le digitalizzazioni che hanno riguardato i reperti archeologici del museo archeologico nazionale delle marche, poi confluiti in una libreria digitale che abilita una interazione intima con i reperti e varie tipologie di approfondimento nell’ottica di testare anche gli apprendimenti basati sulle ict . la libreria è stata anche premiata da icom nell’ambito delle installazioni interpretative, guadagnando la medaglia di bronzo al premio avicom svoltosi a shanghai . per quel che riguarda le digitalizzazioni tridimensionali in ambito di patrimonio costruito storico gli esempi sono innumerevoli: dai rilievi dei manufatti palladiani poi confluiti nei modelli della palladio library alla recente acquisizione www.distori.org. clini et al. . cfr. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tn xnrn a m&t= s>. gaiani et al. . paolo clini, ramona quattrini del palazzo ducale di urbino e della galleria nazionale delle marche , che potremmo definire omnicomprensiva: dal quadro al complesso monumentale del palazzo (fig. ). questa multiscalarità delle acquisizioni, prevista già negli intenti del progetto civitas (chain for excellence of reflective societies for digitization of cultural heritage and museums. a pilot case in palazzo ducale at urbino), si prefigge di affrontare le varie sfide di un grande museo, ospitato in un edificio storico di grandissimo valore, come accade in larga parte dei casi, mettendo a punto buone pratiche di trasformazione digitale per esso. inoltre digitalizzazioni complete e piene di significati sono altresì in grado di aprire a percorsi molto articolati di gestione attraverso le piattaforme hbim ma anche ad uno sfruttamento dei facsimili digitali d relativi al patrimonio storico basato sull’intelligenza artificiale, approccio sicuramente foriero di esiti molto promettenti in termini di sostenibilità per questa tipologia di dati. infine per quel che riguarda la scala del paesaggio, inteso nella sua accezione più recente come un unicum di territorio naturale e antropizzato costellato da beni e manufatti storici, di valore o meno, le sperimentazioni relative alla sua digitalizzazione hanno fatto largo uso, in aggiunta ai dati morfometrici, di acquisizioni low-cost che hanno dimostrato grande efficacia. si veda ad esempio l’efficace utilizzo di fotografie panoramiche e video a °, utilizzati sia per la documentazione del convegno en route landscape&archaeology , che per il racconto e la mappatura anche ai fini turistici. si riportano qui due buone pratiche di cui siamo stati ideatori ovvero il portale del dce distretto culturale evoluto della via flaminia , e il portale marcheology. nel primo caso, una piattaforma cloud-based collegata a dei luoghi pilot ha permesso la valorizzazione di una intera infrastruttura lineare e del paesaggio che la caratterizza, facendo largo uso di database sulle informazioni storiche e naturalistiche esistenti. esse sono state poi integrate da campagne di acquisizione dati dedicate (fotografiche e tridimensionali), utilizzando tecnologie all’avanguardia e/o standard (fotogrammetria, scanner laser, fotocamere , foto hd, rpas, ecc.). in questo modo è stato possibile effettuare un rilievo dell’intero paesaggio della via flaminia, da fano al passo scheggia. l’altro caso studio è marcheology , nato dal progetto musst archeogate: è un portale di archeologia, realizzato in collaborazione con il polo museale delle marche con la finalità di comunicare l’unicità del patrimonio archeologico e di rafforzare il valore identitario creando una rete tra luoghi della cultura. gli asset tecnologici innovativi creati sono clini et al. a. clini et al. b; nespeca . quattrini et al. . clini et al. . clini et al. . <https://www.marcheology.it/it/>; il portale è stato anche riportato nei link di successo della iniziativa culture@home della dg connect in <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/ cultural-heritage-home>. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile stati: una piattaforma multicanale per la fruizione dei beni con tecnologie di virtual reality (vr) di estrema portabilità, a stretto contatto con una rete di attori pubblico e privati del turismo locale. tale sistema tecnologico-culturale attua il coinvolgimento e radica nella comunità l’importanza del patrimonio archeologico per la propria memoria. anche in questo caso, si è fatto uso di contenuti multimediali immersivi e d per raccontare dei siti particolarmente significativi e dimostrare la facilità di nuove forme di rappresentazione per il web. accanto alla più tradizionale navigazione dei contenuti standard raccolti nel database, sono stati scelti luoghi pilot oggetto della realizzazione di contenuti multimediali e d, in linea con le più contemporanee forme di rappresentazione presenti sul web. infatti, la diffusione della vr fruibile da visori, ha democratizzato la visualizzazione immersiva in modalità ° e la piattaforma ha garantito una integrazione di contenuti scalabili, grazie a uno sviluppo dedicato. la vera novità, in un portale dal taglio turistico, è costituita dalla integrazione della libreria digitale d, dove si raccoglie una selezione scelta dei pezzi più rappresentativi delle collezioni archeologiche. i modelli d, realizzati tramite fotogrammetria digitale, sono navigabili grazie all’inserimento sulla piattaforma open sketchfab, che offre un ottimo visualizzatore d, leggero e intuitivo. la ricchezza e qualità dei contenuti digitali garantiscono il coinvolgimento degli utenti ma anche una prima formazione degli esperti archeologi che hanno collaborato alla selezione dei contenuti e alla loro progettazione. . fruire la creazione dei facsimili digitali tridimensionali fin qui raccontati, innesca poi la seconda leva ovvero la creazione e conseguente validazione, come vedremo nel paragrafo successivo, di modalità inedite di accesso ai saperi, offerte dalle potenzialità delle ict. in questa ottica è possibile promuovere e diffondere la conoscenza e valorizzazione del patrimonio culturale, che non vanno viste come disgiunte dalle necessità di sua gestione e conservazione. le metodologie non sono circoscritte alla ricerca individuale e strettamente accademica, ma tendono a massimizzare la collaborazione interdisciplinare estesa alla dimensione del territorio, alle sue aziende ma soprattutto alle sue istituzioni culturali, per fornire loro soluzioni testate e mature di fruizione realmente efficaci e rispondenti ai bisogni e alle caratteristiche dei beni culturali. non si tratta dunque di seguire la tecnologia emergente ma di verificarne l’efficacia e la portabilità in un ambito delicato e fragile come quello della cultura. da questo punto di vista la missione i luoghi pilot, scelti nelle province, sono: il museo archeologico “a. vernarecci” di fossombrone, la collezione paleontologica di serrapetrona, l’area archeologica di suasa, il museo archeologico “g. allevi” di offida, l’area archeologica “helvia ricina” a villa potenza, macerata, area archeologica di potentia a porto recanati, il museo archeologico nazionale delle marche. paolo clini, ramona quattrini delle università e dei laboratori di ricerca in dh si concretizza come una azione di ponte, utile allo sviluppo di una digital literacy più che mai necessaria, come vedremo nel quarto tassello del nostro percorso. la recente crisi pandemica ha messo in evidenza come, nell’impossibilità di far esperire la dimensione fisica dei luoghi, si sia cercato di surrogarla acuendo una cesura nelle modalità di accesso e fruizione del cultural heritage (ch), da on-site a unicamente on-line, che ha moltiplicato i tentativi di ‘messa online’ non ancora strutturati e colto impreparate le istituzioni, soprattutto sul piano dei contenuti prettamente digitali. tale impreparazione lascia in qualche modo sconcertati, se si pensa alle tante esperienze che si sono succedute a livello nazionale e internazionale, ma che evidentemente non erano vissute come parte integrante della vita del museo. per quel che riguarda il nostro lavoro, sono maturi i tempi per generalizzare e fornire degli standard, in tema di musei virtuali. È quanto si sta effettivamente facendo all’interno del progetto interreg it-hr remember , in cui stiamo coordinando l’implementazione di musei virtuali per il patrimonio tangibile e intangibile dei porti tra italia e croazia. in questo ruolo è stata sviluppata una metodologia portante per la realizzazione dei musei, con particolare riferimento alla combinazione di contenuti, sviluppo tecnologico e hardware correnti, per l’ottenimento di esperienze digitali scalabili a diverse tipologie di utenti e target group. a partire da esperienze di successo come quella del v-must , si è cercato di dare risposte in termini di fattibilità tecnica e standard qualitativi ed economici. ma l’altra faccia della medaglia, come vedremo nel prossimo paragrafo, è cercare di soddisfare le aspettative dei visitatori , e su questo c’è tanto da analizzare e sperimentare. si è fatto tesoro delle esperienze pregresse in materia di prodotti virtuali divulgativi, ma soprattutto di esperienze interdisciplinari di learning by interacting , in particolare della lunga collaborazione e sperimentazione sviluppata per i dipinti della galleria nazionale delle marche. l’applicazione ducale , in tutte le sue varie versioni, si incardina sulla possibilità di sfruttare la augmented reality (ar) per sviluppare esperienze coinvolgenti ed educative intorno alle opere d’arte, stando all’interno del museo. tuttavia il caso studio forse più efficace nella presente trattazione è un progetto, finalizzato proprio durante il lockdown e che ha portato a un primo prototipale risultato di museo virtuale: la pinacoteca civica di ancona “f. podesti”. in esso ci si è proposti di dotare il museo di uno strumento virtuale che si configurasse come alternativo nei casi eccezionali di chiusura totale e complementare nei casi di flussi limitati di visitatori. l’approccio si è configurato non solo come risposta contingente all’emergenza sanitaria ma come occasione per produrre valore aggiunto <https://www.italy-croatia.eu/web/remember>. <http://www.v-must.net/>. pescarin . clini a. clini b. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile rispetto al museo on-site in termini di narrazione inedita e di documentazione dei contenuti. questo lavoro è consistito nell’attivazione di una riflessione interdisciplinare, congiunta trai ricercatori e esperti (storici e operatori didattici) del museo, che ha condotto il gruppo di lavoro alla messa a sistema di una progettualità più ampia rivolta alla creazione di un prodotto digitale dalle spiccate potenzialità interattive ed esperienziali. si è così realizzato un virtual tour con panoramiche, immagini ad alta risoluzione (fig. ), modelli d e testi descrittivi, anche con commento audio, ma che fondasse un laboratorio di sperimentazione permanente atto a potenziarlo e aggiungere strumenti rivolti alla cura della relazione con le persone. in particolare i temi da approfondire nel futuro saranno: a) la accessibilità e l’inclusività, con strumenti di mediazione per vari target; b) l’intrattenimento, con un vero e proprio palinsesto virtuale; c) la fruizione multidisciplinare, integrando contenuti anche sui restauri, come già sperimentato altrove . la grande sfida di questo approccio è tendere a dimostrare che la tecnologia possa entrare nel mondo della fruizione dei beni culturali realizzando supporti che, a partire da una corretta digitalizzazione del patrimonio quale nuova forma di tutela e conservazione, implementino la funzione educativa mettendo in atto nuovi sistemi di interazione e possibili servizi rivolti al nuovo pubblico virtuale. . misurare in considerazione di quanto fin qui esposto, dopo aver assistito negli anni a applicazioni ict abbandonate dalle istituzioni dopo breve tempo o non manutenute perché percepite come inefficaci, nei prossimi anni è auspicabile che gli amministratori di siti archeologici e musei intraprendano un approccio completamente digitale per gestire e comunicare i loro beni. sebbene tecnologie all’avanguardia siano disponibili anche senza ingenti investimenti, mancano ancora metriche e possibilità concrete di misurare l’accettazione da parte dei pubblici: pochi lavori si stanno concentrando sul feedback dell’utente. recentemente è stato accettato un lavoro che testa diverse esperienze multimediali dal punto di vista degli utenti per valutarne il coinvolgimento. il lavoro mostra un flusso di lavoro per lo studio e l’analisi della soddisfazione quantitativa e qualitativa degli utenti riguardo a diverse applicazioni dedicate all’archeologia, su tre diverse scale: paesaggio, museo e manufatto archeologico. i risultati dimostrano che l’approccio proposto fornisce ad addetti ai lavori <https://www.mira-ancona.it/un-tour-virtuale-per-la-pinacoteca/>. quattrini et al. . quattrini et al. . paolo clini, ramona quattrini e curatori d’arte dati significativi per analizzare l’esperienza-utente e, di conseguenza, per modificare o migliorare la propria offerta . le prime sperimentazioni di ricerca in questo senso si sono dimostrate molto promettenti (fig. ) e hanno suggerito inoltre di avviare progetti di ricerca congiunti con aziende, in un’ottica di trasferimento tecnologico. ad esempio è possibile citare il progetto regionale c.o.me. (change your museum – analysis of behavior, emotions and reactions of museum visitors) da cui è poi nato il sistema memus , attualmente sperimentato a palazzo buonaccorsi di macerata e al museo omero di ancona. obiettivo del progetto era migliorare l’esperienza di visita dei musei tramite lo sviluppo e la sperimentazione di un nuovo sistema automatico di monitoraggio dei pubblici museali. il sistema di monitoraggio fa uso di tecnologie di tracciamento basate su flussi video e di analisi dei comportamenti di utenti e visitatori e ha agito con un approccio interdisciplinare, unendo conoscenze museologiche, museografiche e competenze nel settore delle tecnologie applicate alla retail intelligence e al neuromarketing. questa prima fase di trasferimento tecnologico è solo una parte dello cammino, infatti se n’è dimostrata necessaria una seconda, complementare, in cui l’università possa proseguire nell’ambito della ricerca e operare una personalizzazione e specializzazione dei metodi di misurazione alle sfaccettate realtà culturali dei territori. l’apertura verso il contesto socio-economico mediante la valorizzazione e il trasferimento delle conoscenze e le iniziative dal valore socio-culturale ed educativo sono alcuni dei punti di forza dell’approccio qui presentato. in situazioni impreviste come quelle nate dalla grave crisi della pandemia globale, la promozione di una strategia digitale condivisa e sviluppata nel corso degli anni offre opportunità di crescita per il settore culturale, evidenziando come nuove forme di conoscenza siano in grado di attivare processi innovativi e opportunità di contatto con i fruitori. . formare arrivando all’ultimo tassello della nostra filiera operativa, va detto che la formazione di nuove professionalità in ambito di digital cultural heritage è anche il tassello più significativo per dare sostenibilità futura alla digitalizzazione e innovazione in un intero comparto economico. fino a che non avremo professionisti preparati ad affrontare i piani trasformazione digitali, inseriti organicamente nelle istituzioni culturali, l’intero settore non potrà conoscere il suo nuovo umanesimo. quindi da una parte si necessita della formazione di queste figure, ancora percepite come ibride, dall’altra si necessità di un recentemente l’università politecnica delle marche ha organizzato con icom un webinar dal titolo “misurare per crescere ed innovare. i musei italiani nelle nuove sfide digitali dopo covid” attualmente consultabile su: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l iznoqmlm&t= s>. <https://www.memusmusei.it/>. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile ringiovanimento e potenziamento degli organici. sul primo fronte l’università e i centri di ricerca, in particolare i gruppi in digital cultural heritage, stanno facendo molto. in particolare è necessario contribuire all’affinamento delle expertise necessarie per operare in un settore in continuo aggiornamento ed evoluzione. nelle numerose collaborazioni già avviate, questo lavoro ha anche dimostrato di rispondere alla terza missione dell’università: il nostro approccio supporta e focalizza processi decisionali con importanti istituzioni incoraggiando processi di costruzione e condivisione degli indirizzi strategici: dalla scelta delle tecnologie più idonee in base al tipo di patrimonio, agli aspetti di gestione e sostenibilità degli strumenti messi in campo nel medio-lungo periodo. le buone pratiche e le iniziative messe in campo si sono dimostrate un punto di partenza per necessarie discussioni che prevedano, in accordo con i principi della resilienza e della sostenibilità, l’abilitazione di campagne di rilievo massive e l’integrazione di queste nelle policies delle istituzioni pubbliche con l’obiettivo di stabilire nuove visioni per l’accesso e la comprensione del patrimonio culturale. possiamo riportare ad esempio il massive open on line course (mooc) in digital cultural heritage, sviluppato in collaborazione con diculther e messo a disposizione dei docenti delle scuole secondarie per la loro formazione, o il costruendo micromaster sulla valorizzazione e la comunicazione dei paesaggi culturali europei e del suo patrimonio ferroviario con l’ausilio delle ict, all’interno del progetto railtoland . il progetto, un erasmus + key action , partenariati strategici per l’istruzione superiore, più in generale mira a esplorare il valore sociale ed educativo del paesaggio culturale europeo come patrimonio comune e come catalizzatore dei processi di consolidamento dell’identità europea, attraverso forme innovative e virtuali di apprendimento tra pari e di design by thinking. altre attività formative, istituzionalizzate nel percorso universitario, sono sviluppate con laboratori di tesi di laurea all’interno del corso di studi in ingegneria edile architettura della univpm, in cui è previsto un curriculum specifico in fruizione e gestione dei beni culturali e architettonici. . conclusioni il nuovo umanesimo digitale, come è stato fin qui approfondito e tratteggiato, costituisce un concetto fondante che viene da lontano, perché da sempre fondato sul concetto di riproducibilità dell’opera d’arte. questo concetto ha vissuto sul connubio che ogni civiltà ha sempre ricercato tra la sua scienza e tecnica <https://www.diculther.it/blog/ / / /corsi-open-di-univpm-sul-digital-cultural- heritage/>. <https://railtoland.eu/>. paolo clini, ramona quattrini possibili e l’arte sempre eterna. oggi le straordinarie possibilità del digitale, non solo di riprodurre perfettamente un’opera d’arte ma anche di metterne in evidenza nuovi significati artistici estetici e narrativi, ci permettono di riscrivere una nuova definizione di umanesimo digitale e di tracciare le linee per un nuovo manifesto. come si attuano e come si legano tra loro le quattro leve, sopra descritte? che cosa oggi le tecnologie ci permettono di realizzare? come rimettere l’uomo al centro del suo patrimonio? come le nuove esperienze di realtà aumentata e immersiva possono profondamente trasformare il rapporto tra uomo e patrimonio? come è possibile oggi pensare ad un patrimonio dematerializzato dalla sua realtà fisica e disponibile dovunque e per chiunque? come l’umanesimo digitale può realizzare quel concetto di democratizzazione dell’arte che quasi un secolo addietro walter benjamin leggeva esattamente nella possibilità della riproducibilità dell’opera d’arte? tale riflessione generò al contempo un equivoco da cui però è giunto il momento di uscire. va superato quello che è senz’altro un gigantesco luogo comune, ovvero che un’opera vada vista dal vivo e che questa esperienza sia molto più ricca e coinvolgente del vederne una riproduzione virtuale. se questo è ancora il livello del dialogo con le istituzioni culturali possiamo tranquillamente alzare bandiera bianca. ben più complesso e foriero di innovazione per la nostra civiltà è questo umanesimo digitale che cerca nella riproducibilità del patrimonio nuove forme di arte e di democrazia. la missione è dare credibilità scientifica, fattibilità tecnica, sostenibilità economica e dignità istituzionale a varie tipologie di servizi culturali al momento non presenti ma indispensabili per valorizzare il patrimonio come bene comune. da qui, rafforzando il ruolo delle comunità di patrimonio virtuali, vanno forniti alle istituzioni museali strumenti chiave nell’implementazione di piani strategici di trasformazione digitale, necessari ad aggiornare la gestione di contenuti culturali di qualità incardinati su artefatti digitali d. ma è tutto da costruire. come dimostrato dalla frenesia digitale che il covid- ha generato nei mesi drammatici del lockdown e dai risultati imbarazzanti di tale frenesia. questa è la condizione per ristabilire la cultura e il patrimonio come luogo delle relazioni. questa è la condizione per non sentire mai più l’urlo assordante del silenzio della nostra civiltà. riferimenti bibliografici benjamin w. ( ), das kunstwerk im zeitalter seiner technischen reproduzierbarkeit. frankfurt/main: suhrkamp, , trad.it.: l’opera d’arte nell’epoca della sua riproducibilità tecnica, torino: einaudi, . benjamin . umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile clini p., frapiccini n., quattrini r., nespeca r. ( ), toccare l’arte e guardare con altri occhi. una via digitale per la rinascita dei musei archeologici nell’epoca della riproducibilità dell’opera d’arte, in ambienti digitali per l’educazione all’arte e al patrimonio, a cura di alessandro lugini, milano: franco angeli, pp. - , <http://library.oapen.org/ handle/ . . / >. clini p., frontoni e., martini b., quattrini r., pierdicca r. ( b), new augmented reality applications for learning by interacting, «archeomatica», , n. , pp. - . clini p., frontoni e., quattrini r., pierdicca r., puggioni m. ( ), archaeological landscape and heritage. innovative knowledge-based dissemination and development strategies in the distretto culturale evoluito flaminia nextone, «il capitale culturale», n. , pp. - . clini p., galli, quattrini r. ( ), landscape & archaeology, «scires-it scientific research and information technology», , pp. - . clini p., quattrini r., bonvini p., nespeca r., angeloni r., mammoli r., dragoni a.f., morbidoni c., sernani p., mengoni m. ( b), digit (al) isation in museums: civitas project-ar, vr, multisensorial and multiuser experiences at the urbino’s ducal palace, in virtual and augmented reality in education, art, and museums, guazzaroni g., pilai a.s. (eds.), hershey: igi global, pp. - , doi: . / - - - - .ch . clini p., quattrini r., frontoni e., pierdicca r., nespeca r. ( a), real/ not real: pseudo-holography and augmented reality applications for cultural heritage in handbook of research on emerging technologies for digital preservation and information modeling, ippolito a., cigola m. (eds.), hershey: igi global, pp. - , doi: . / - - - - .ch . clini p., quattrini r., nespeca r., angeloni r., mammoli r. ( a), digital facsimiles of architectural heritage: new forms of fruition, management and enhancement. the exemplary case of the ducal palace at urbino, in graphical heritage, congreso internacional de expresión gráfica arquitectónica, cham: springer, pp. - . direzione generale musei – mibact ( ), piano triennale per la digitalizzazione e l’innovazione dei musei, <http://musei.beniculturali. it/wp-content/uploads/ / /piano-triennale-per-la-digitalizzazione-e- l’innovazione-dei-musei.pdf>. epoch ( ), the london charter, <http://www.londoncharter.org/>. europe council treaty office ( ), council of europe framework convention on the value of cultural heritage for society – faro’s convention, <https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/ >. paolo clini, ramona quattrini european commission ( ), a new european agenda for culture. bruxelles, <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/txt/pdf/?uri=celex: dc &from=en>. european heritage alliance ( ), europe day manifesto, <https://www. europanostra.org/wp-content/uploads/ / / _europe-day- manifesto.pdf>. gaiani m., apollonio f., clini p., quattrini r. ( ), a mono-instrumental approach to high-quality d, reality-based semantic models. application on the palladio library, in digital heritage, vol / , ieee computer society. icom italia ( ), carta di siena . , <http://www.icom-italia.org/ wp-content/uploads/ / /icomitalia.museiepaesaggiculturali. cartadisiena . .cagliari .pdf>. laboratorio per il turismo digitale (tdlab) ( ), piano strategico per la digitalizzazione del turismo italiano, roma. nemo, and nina szogs, digitisation and ipr in european museums, , <https://www.ne-mo.org/fileadmin/dateien/public/publications/ nemo_final_report_digitisation_and_ipr_in_european_museums_ wg_ . .pdf>. nespeca r. ( ), towards a d digital model for management and fruition of ducal palace at urbino. an integrated survey with mobile mapping, «scires-it – scientific research and information technology», , n. , pp. - , <http://dx.doi.org/ . /i v n p >. pescarin s. ( ), museums and virtual museums in europe: reaching expectations, «scires-it – scientific research and information technology» , n. , pp. - , <http://caspur-ciberpublishing.it/index. php/scires-it/article/view/ >. quattrini r., clini p., nespeca r., ruggeri l. ( ), misura e historical information building: sfide e opportunità nella rappresentazione di contenuti d semanticamente strutturati, «disegnare con...», , pp. - . quattrini r., gasparetto f., angeloni r., d’alessio m. ( ), modelli digitali per comunicare il patrimonio e l’intervento di restauro, «archeomatica- tecnologie per i beni culturali», , n. , pp. - . quattrini r., pierdicca r., paolanti m., clini p., nespeca r., frontoni e. ( ), digital interaction with d archaeological artefacts: evaluating user’s behaviours at different representation scales, «digital applications in archaeology and cultural heritage», e , <http://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/s >. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile appendice fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. verso un manifesto per i beni culturali digitali come beni comuni e per una nuova forma di arte: le quattro leve principali. paolo clini, ramona quattrini fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. scienza e tecnica per fondare una nuova civiltà. la filiera di acquisizione che conduce alla realizzazione dei facsimili digitali d umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. i luoghi d’arte dovunque e per chiunque studiolo del duca, palazzo ducale di urbino. esperienza di realtà virtuale immersiva sviluppata all’interno del progetto civitas, basata su realizzazione del facsimile d ad altissima risoluzione con integrazione di laser scanner e fotogrammetria, basata su scatti a luce polarizzata paolo clini, ramona quattrini fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. quello che gli occhi non vedono. madonna col bambino di carlo crivelli, dipinto a oro e tempera su tavola, dimensioni x cm, databile al . i risultati dell’acquisizione high resolution (hr) del dipinto e un suo ingrandimento umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. un’arte a misura di ciascuno. le tecnologie per misurare comportamento e gradimento degli utenti negli spazi museali e creare sistemi a supporto delle decisioni per le istituzioni culturali eum edizioni università di macerata direttore / editor in-chief pietro petraroia texts by stefano baia curioni, giovanna barni, claudio bocci, giovanna brambilla, salvatore aurelio bruno, roberto camagni, roberta capello, silvia cerisola, anna chiara cimoli, paolo clini, stefano consiglio, madel crasta, luca dal pozzolo, stefano della torre, marco d’isanto, margherita eichberg, chiara faggiolani, pierpaolo forte, mariangela franch, stefania gerevini, maria teresa gigliozzi, christian greco, marta massi, armando montanari, marco morganti, umberto moscatelli, maria rosaria napolitano, fabio pagano, elisa panziera, sabina pavone, carlo penati, tonino pencarelli, pietro petraroia, domenica primerano, ramona quattrini, corinna rossi, valentina maria sessa, erminia sciacchitano, emanuela stortoni, alex turrini, federico valacchi http://riviste.unimc.it/index.php/cap-cult/index issn - journal of the division of cultural heritage department of education, cultural heritage and tourism university of macerata isbn - - - - euro , white paper report report id: application number: hd project director: anne mcgrail (mcgraila@lanecc.edu) institution: lane community college reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / report id: grant number: hd- project director: anne b. mcgrail (mcgraila@lanecc.edu) institution: lane community college grant period: / / – / / white paper/report due: / / date submitted: / / bringing digital humanities to community colleges and vice versa white paper to the neh office of digital humanities level digital humanities start-up grant march , author: anne b. mcgrail, ph.d., project director contact: mcgraila@lanecc.edu above: project director anne mcgrail’s literature students’ dh projects - abstract: lane community college implemented a level i project for the national endowment for the humanities digital humanities start-up grant program. the project, entitled “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa” (dh@thecc), initiated a much needed national dialogue regarding the lag in community college participation in the emerging field of digital humanities (dh). the program’s short-term outcome was the engagement of national thinkers, experts and community college stakeholders in a survey, strategic conversation and workshop to prompt greater community college engagement with digital humanities. the long-term desired outcome of the project is improved access to digital humanities for the nation’s community college students. three major goals inspired the grant’s activities: to develop a picture of the dh landscape in community colleges; to cultivate an inclusive dh community of practice at community colleges in conversation with research-focused initiatives and institutions; and perhaps most importantly, to bring dh to lower- division humanities students and their communities and develop their st century literacies in an open- access context. to achieve these aims, the grant supported several major activities: . design and implementation of a national survey of digital humanities at community colleges . a pre-conference strategic discussion led by dh experts at the community college humanities association (ccha) national meeting to discuss opportunities and obstacles to increased engagement . a follow-up workshop led by the project director during the ccha regular session to expand the conversation to the ccha membership . the development of a website and wiki where dh resources, including grant products, would be housed. this is intended as a hub for a developing community of practice of dh@thecc. mailto:mcgraila@lanecc.edu table of contents list of figures……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………….…… background………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………….. national survey of digital humanities in community colleges: a preliminary discussion of the results……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………….…… participants……………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………… meeting summary: preconference session at community college humanities association…………….… meeting summary: saturday follow-up session at community college humanities association……….. products…………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… outcomes and next steps………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… appendices…………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………….. - appendix i national survey of digital humanities in community colleges survey questions ( ) appendix ii participant bios ( ) appendix iii workshop agendas ( ) appendix iv websites referred to by experts during pre-conference session ( ) list of figures figure : screencapture of cfp for national survey on the humanities, arts, science and technology alliance and collaboratory (hastac) website. ( ) figure : call for participation on the two year college english association facebook page. ( ) figure : respondent familiarity with digital humanities technologies, etc. from the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges. ( ) figure : all comments to question in the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges as a wordle. ( ) figure : l-r: anne mcgrail, matthew k. gold, julia huston nguyen (senior program coordinator for neh educational programs) and terri whitney at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. ( ) figure : terri whitney (l), jake agatucci (c) and jesse stommel (r) discuss dh in community colleges at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. ( ) figure : jesse stommel (l) and rebecca frost davis (r) co-led the session, “in the open access, lower- division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” at the pre-conference workshop. ( ) figure : dean rehberger (l) and matthew k. gold (r) at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. ( ) figure : participants paul vanheuklom and carol hahn discuss their work at the pre-conference session at ccha. ( ) figure : project director anne mcgrail introduces expert panelists at the beginning of the pre- conference session at the ccha. ( ) figure : slide from anne mcgrail’s presentation at the ccha, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities.” ( ) figure : slide from project director anne mcgrail’s presentation, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities.” ( ) background digital humanities has reinvigorated humanities programs nationally. this grant was intended to include community colleges in this movement and in so doing strengthening the humanities while addressing equity. community college humanists have been slow to enter conversations and communities of practice in digital humanities (dh), in part because serving students in an open-access context involves intensive teaching and service workloads and constraints on professional development. “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa” (dh@thecc) began a critical conversation about what digital humanities can look like at the lower-division level and how to put digital humanities at the center of educational reform efforts. while the dh community is known for its openness and generosity, the energy and engagement in dh has not extended equally to community college humanities programs, to the detriment of students who seek associates degrees or eventually bachelor degrees. through the general education requirement, community colleges provide foundational humanities courses for transfer students and for associate degree students. community colleges are often the gateway to degrees for low-income, first-generation students, returning adult students, students of color, and students with disabilities. two-fifths of traditional-age students begin their post-secondary education in one of the public community colleges in the u.s., and / of adult learners begin theirs at ccs. these students are often from the lowest socioeconomic quintile. these students and the humanities faculty and programs that work with them deserve a voice in digital humanities conversations. as professor matthew gold notes in his essay, “whose revolution? towards a more equitable digital humanities,” the lag in full entry of community colleges into the digital humanities “revolution” is an inequity that needs to be addressed. lane’s dh@thecc program began the process of addressing this inequity in a formal and systematic way. digital projects offer empowering tools for these students to represent their communities, to challenge inequalities they experience and observe, and to learn sophisticated ways of engaging with st century tools for creation and interpretation in the humanities. digital humanities projects geared to community college students can offer a new avenue for engagement with academic work for lower-division students who may not otherwise be drawn to the humanities. scope of the project activities several connected activities supported the goal of increasing community college engagement in dh. the first activity began in spring and summer , during which time the project director developed a dh@thecc project website and wiki and invited community college humanities faculty to use its resources and contribute to it. this site is intended to become a hub for developing an online community of practice among community college digital humanists. the website currently hosts much of the grant’s products: a collection of dh@thecc assignments developed by the project director, links to videos of the conference sessions supported by the start-up grant, slides from these sessions, and other resources related to the project. (see below for more details of grant products). american association of community colleges. “fact sheet.” http://www.aacc.nche.edu/aboutcc/pages/default.aspx adelman, clifford. "executive summary: moving into town--and moving on: the community college in the lives of traditional-age students." us dept. of educ. office of vocational and adult education. feb. . oct. <http://www.ed.gov/print/rschstat/research/pubs/comcollege/index.html>. the lapland chronicles. january , . web. march , . http://blog.mkgold.net/ / / /whose-revolution-toward-a-more-equitable-digital-humanities/ http://www.aacc.nche.edu/aboutcc/pages/default.aspx http://www.ed.gov/print/rschstat/research/pubs/comcollege/index.html the second activity, also begun in spring and continuing through fall , was the development and administering of a national community college digital humanities survey. the survey included questions about participants’ levels of interest and participation on the digital humanities spectrum. options ranged from developing courses using web . technologies, teaching online courses or components and developing digital exhibits and capstones, to partnering with local and regional collections and museums and historical societies and critical engagement with interpretive methods of inquiry, et al. the survey also queried receptivity and resources among community college humanists and their institutions to faculty development with the intent to identify potential paths to future dh engagement at community colleges. a detailed analysis of survey responses follows below. the website and survey results then informed the conversations at the program’s third and major activity—a day-long pre-conference session at the fall community college humanities association (ccha) conference october , . this activity convened leading digital humanities experts with thought leaders in the humanities, in technology in education and in the community college humanities for a strategic conversation. these invited experts discussed opportunities and obstacles to deeper engagement with digital humanities nationally and brainstormed paths to broader community college participation in the dh movement. the group of experts also heard from the nine ccha members who joined the conversation. together they began a conversation that will likely continue into the future. participants agreed that community colleges can make unique contributions to dh, and that inclusion of community colleges is important for the health and vitality of dh and of humanities generally. detailed notes on session topics, goals and discussions follow below. following the pre-conference session, the fourth activity was a -minute workshop during the regular ccha conference intended to engage more members of the ccha membership in exploring the value of digital humanities principles and methodologies. the project director framed dh@thecc within david perkin’s pedagogical model and shared assignments with attendees to adapt and infuse into their current courses. for several community college faculty attendees this workshop provided an introduction to dh and helped them to clarify how dh could be practiced at their institutions. this white paper is the fifth activity of the dh@thecc project. what follows is a discussion of the survey results, a summary of the pre-conference session, and an overview of the regular-session workshop. then the grant products and impacts will be discussed, followed by a discussion of outcomes, lessons learned and next steps. see appendix i for a list of survey questions. for a detailed agenda of the workshop, see appendix iii. for a list of participants, see below. national survey of digital humanities in community colleges: a preliminary discussion of the results overview part of the neh odh start-up project, the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges provides a window into how digital humanities are perceived at community colleges now and what might be done to aid the field’s expansion. in many ways some of the survey results reflect a community out of touch with how much digital methods have changed the questions we can ask of cultural artifacts. arguably, this uneven development of dh is an consequence of the institutional hierarchy and perceived separation of spheres that organizes the division of intellectual labor in higher education nationally. the perception is that community colleges teach “basic skills” and four-year colleges and universities “develop minds.” such a perception has lasting effects on access to professional development as well as institutionally recognized incentives for innovation. still, community college faculty surveyed were generally comfortable with technology. while the term “digital humanities” was somewhat unfamiliar among some survey respondents, % of these faculty valued highly or very highly the use of technology in the classroom. when asked how well their institution meets their expectations for faculty and staff development, however, only % reported that their institution met or exceeded their expectations for reliable, equitable funds and opportunities to develop professionally. “we are given funds to present traditional literary papers at conferences without question,” wrote one respondent, “but we would have to argue to get funds to attend a conference in which we would not present but learn from others who are decades ahead of our department in digital humanities” [sic ]. such institutional barriers are in addition to the intensive faculty workloads: “i also have to prep, teach and grade materials for classes per semester which leaves little time for training and learning new technology.” the survey methodology was as follows: in june , the project director drafted a set of survey questions based on her understanding of the field and gaps that she had observed in her engagement with the field. she posted it to a google doc and solicited feedback directly from experts in the field of dh as well as colleagues she knew in the dh community. she also put a cold call for feedback out on twitter with hashtags for digital pedagogy, digital humanities, community colleges and other key words and phrases. the program coordinator for the neh office of digital humanities, jennifer serventi, also consulted on the survey and offered suggestions. finally, the project director discussed a revised draft with her home institution’s research director, craig taylor, who offered advice on finding a balance between complete data and useable data and functionality. twenty-six multiple choice questions with spaces for commentary comprised the final survey. to distribute the survey as widely as possible, the project director posted onto sites such as hastac (see figure ), emails, professional association listservs in history, philosophy, composition/rhetoric, the league for innovation in the community college, and used social media such as facebook pages for the community college humanities association and the two year college association (see figure ). she also sent direct appeals to officers of these groups, and sent an email to faculty at her home institution, lane community college. complete survey questions and results are available online here: https://www.surveymonkey.com/results/sm-cl cvr/ . a pdf of the results is also available on the project website https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data- available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ the draft and comments are available on google docs here: https://docs.google.com/document/d/ - z irnr xq zwp aajh zadwrsxwlekjn ajd c/edit https://www.surveymonkey.com/results/sm-cl cvr/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ https://docs.google.com/document/d/ -z irnr xq zwp aajh zadwrsxwlekjn ajd c/edit https://docs.google.com/document/d/ -z irnr xq zwp aajh zadwrsxwlekjn ajd c/edit figure : screencapture of cfp for national survey on the humanities, arts, science and technology alliance and collaboratory (hastac) website. figure : call for participation on the two year college english association facebook page. to date the survey has received responses. what follows is a discussion and commentary on survey questions and response data. q : familiarity one thing i was curious about was what was already being done at ccs among faculty: how much were faculty using technology in their classrooms; did they consider this work “dh” or not, etc. results showed that the most common use of technology was student-production of multimedia artifacts: % of respondents reported familiarity with student productions of this sort. more than % were familiar with the use of technology to study human objects and culture (a key feature of humanities disciplinary inquiry) or the use of humanities methods to study technology. the full text of the questions and pdf with the data collected are available on the dh@thecc website here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ figure : respondent familiarity with digital humanities technologies, etc. from the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges. q : employee role of the who answered the question, or almost % of respondents identified as faculty. others were program directors and management. q teaching discipline: by far the largest number of faculty respondents taught courses in writing and rhetoric—with more than % or respondents; % taught in humanities, % in literature, and % or respondents in media studies/media arts. a few respondents were not on the list and so wrote in their disciplines: biology, gis, and education disciplines responded. q courses regularly taught since much professional development in digital humanities is at the graduate and primary-research levels, it was important to get a picture of our respondents’ work life in the classroom. respondents regularly taught first-year courses, either required ( respondents or %) or elective ( respondents/ %). this was the largest contingent of faculty. sixty seven faculty or % did teach “special topics” classes or second-year courses; respondents recorded that they taught professional development courses. my conclusion at this point is that faculty development must be designed with first-year required courses in mind if dh is to become prevalent at community colleges. while professional development opportunities such as that (the humanities and technology) camps have become widespread, only one serves community college faculty specifically (planned for october ). q : employment status: approximately % or faculty were full-time at the same institution for more than years; about % or of those responding were full-time at the same institution for fewer than years. another faculty or about % were part-time—about % from between and years and another % fewer than years at the same institution. these results demonstrate a key flaw in much communication with part-time faculty: while part-time/adjunct faculty represent nearly % of the instructional workforce of community colleges , only % of our respondents were part-time. so we are not hearing from enough part-time faculty. this is a structural limitation of the reliance on part-time faculty. q autonomy with the question on course design autonomy, i wanted to get at the possibility for individual faculty developing their own infusions of dh, as i had done in the past months. i know that many required courses at ccs use common textbooks and even common course calendars, and so i thought this might be a problem. about % reported complete or significant course design autonomy, with another % reporting some design autonomy. only % reported little or no course design autonomy. this is encouraging for developing a dh community among these faculty, since dh methods require course redesign at some level. q technical proficiency of the who responded to this question, sixty-five faculty or % rated themselves “proficient and comfortable” with digital tools. another %, or respondents, rated themselves “highly proficient and very comfortable.” thirty-three per cent were somewhat proficient and only % rated themselves not very proficient or comfortable. again keeping in mind the self-selection of the sample through digital means (including email), these results show that more than % of this survey cohort enjoys some degree of proficiency with digital tools. q value technology when asked how highly they valued the use of technology in teaching, or nearly % reported that they valued it highly or very highly. another % valued it moderately, and people valued it not at all. since the survey itself is digital, those who don’t value digital tools may have skipped the survey entirely. sixteen skipped the question altogether. q digital divide students i was interested in the so-called “digital divide” among students because i wondered how typical my own experience was. for this survey, i defined “digital divide” as the difference between those students who have access to technology through computers and other devices and data plans and those whose access is limited to classroom and lab access. when attending the digital media and learning conference in san francisco in , presenters regularly commented how computers, data plans, devices, software and skills all represented economic obstacles to students. and in fact, just over % of respondents to this survey reported either a “pervasive” or “widespread” digital divide on their campus among students. another % or respondents found an “occasional” instance of it, and only respondents or about % found a “rare” instance. this may change every year as computers become more prevalent and data plans become cheaper, but it’s an ongoing consideration for any course redesign in community colleges. q digital divide faculty when i put the survey questions up on the google doc last june, i was really struck by the frustration “a national survey of part-time/adjunct faculty.” american academic vol. march . p. . web. march , . expressed by part-time faculty about professional development opportunities at their institutions. so i worked to really integrate issues of part-time faculty equity for professional development into the survey. for the purposes of this question, i defined the digital divide as follows: by "digital divide" we refer to a working environment that lends itself to developing and using digital competencies: access to hardware, software, tech support, adequately equipped office and classroom space, money and time for faculty development opportunities. the question about the digital divide among faculty prompted the most pointed individual answers: part-time have access to shared computers, and digital classrooms, but that is all. there is no support for contnuing education, and in fact, any support that was once offered, has recently been revoked due tokeeping the hours paid, in any capacity, under , due to "obamacare", per administration. oddly, it's mainly the full-time tenured instructors who are disconnected from technology use in the classroom. sixty-seven per cent of respondents did observe a digital divide among faculty: % saw it as a part- time/full time faculty divide; % found that this divide was not due to part-time/full-time status. given that a large majority ( %) of our respondents are full-time, this may not represent the part-time experience of the digital divide. q online components? seventy-one respondents or % reported that they regularly teach online courses and have an online companion site for their face-to-face courses; respondents or % reported that they don't teach online courses but have an online companion site for their face-to-face courses. another % occasionally taught hybrid or online courses, and almost % said that they did not teach either online or hybrid courses. again, we may have a skewed sample here, as the survey is online. q what do you regularly use in your humanities courses? in the digital pedagogy section of our survey, we asked whether respondents regularly use a learning management system for their courses; respondents said that they do; or % reported using web components of some sort in the classroom; % used digital archives, and % reported producing their own audio or videos for the classroom. sixteen per cent said that they only occasionally rather than regularly used any of the list, and only % reported never using any of these technologies in the classroom. q hiring committee emphasis arguably, new faculty represent the embodied vision of a discipline’s future. intentional recruitment of faculty with interest and expertise in a subfield such as dh has the potential to change curricula and even program organization and funding over time. when asked if they were willing to advocate for or consent to considering skill in “digital technologies and pedagogies” as preferred qualifications in evaluating candidates for hire, respondents or % were willing to either actively advocate or consent to such qualifications being considered. q support among your colleagues? while the overwhelming majority of respondents would consider dh qualifications for hiring in their disciplines, respondents were slightly less confident when considering their colleagues’ likelihood to consider such qualifications. about % thought that there would be high support among colleagues to put emphasis on digital technologies in hiring, and just under % thought there would be moderate support among colleagues. just over % thought that there would be little support, and % felt there would be some support. q meet expectations for faculty staff devt? about respondents or % felt that their institutions were approaching their expectations for faculty and staff development through curriculum development grants, reassigned time, professional leave time, travel funds, sabbatical funds, relevant on-campus resources, etc. however, % felt their institutions fell below or far below their expectations for faculty and staff development. only % said that their expectations were met. respondents took the time to write individual responses/explanations. here are some excerpts verbatim: no funds or opportunities for adjuncts, but plenty of funds and opportunities for full-time faculty. no funds for the part-time faculty who carry the bulk of our teaching load very unfocused allocation. we tend to fund a number of little projects that inevitably stall. it looks like we fund hobbies, not sustained infrastructure supported research. no time release. little travel funding. no it support for anything outside the classroom, and even then. it support and currency is major impediment to doing dh-oriented anything. workshops are offered but sometimes only once and at inconvenient times. basic skill classes are mixed with advanced courses. it's hard for part time instructors to participate because workshops are often announced only a few days in advance, assuming a daily on campus presence. we are given funds to present traditional literary papers at conferences w/o question, but we would have to argue to get funds to attend a conference in which we would not present but learn from others who are decades ahead of our department in digital humanities. they will fund full time tenure track. that is all. they are less than % of the faculty. there are excellent opportunities, but we do not have any time built into our paid work to take advantage of them. i do not need to pay for them, but i lose time at another job when i spend time doing workshops. little to no opportunities for part time faculty who often have to teach elsewhere or have other commitments gah. deep despair. there is little or no travel funding. staff and adjunct faculty have unreliable access to professional development opportunities. q methods used to keep current in the field while faculty’s response to their institutions’ efforts to support professional development was mixed or troubling, respondents’ answers to this question suggests that faculty are engaging in many kinds of professional activities to keep current in their fields. with multiple answers allowed, and respondents answering this question, respondents or % said they learned from their colleagues— an important consideration for dh projects which often involve collaboration over time. seventy-seven per cent of respondents also said they read journals and books in their fields regularly; % attended and presented at regional and national conferences. on-campus teaching workshops were also significant sources of professional development: % or respondents attended them. importantly, % or respondents used what they learned in workshops in their curriculum development. almost % read journals and books on pedagogy, and % read about teaching and research on blogs. nearly % use social media to keep current in their fields and in educational trends (e.g., twitter). q conditions to attend a campus dh workshop since the goal of my grant was to build a community of practice in dh at community colleges, i was curious to know what it might take to gather a group of community college educators together for a workshop. the definitional question about what exactly digital humanities is remains. overwhelmingly, respondents felt that a strong understanding of the value and usefulness of digital humanities to their teaching was a critical condition for considering attendance at an on-campus workshop: of the who responded, . % or chose this condition. released time for the event was important for . % or of the respondents, and money for attending the event (a stipend) was critical to % or respondents. q necessary conditions to attend a regional or national institute money became more important for considering a regional or national institute such as those the neh offers: respondents or % said that money was critical, and % mentioned tenure/promotion credit as being a necessary condition. this question did not allow more than one response, so this was an interesting response. several added “money and time are both necessary” in the “other/explain” column. q would you attend a summer institute? the neh has offered summer institutes on special topics for years, and recently has begun to support work in community colleges. the bridging cultures institutes, for example, are highly regarded and well attended, and represent a concerted effort on the part of the neh to increase diversity and equity and cross-cultural understanding through pedagogy. when asked about respondents’ interest in a similar week-long institute for digital humanities work, % were highly interested or interested in attending, and % were “mildly” interested. only % were uninterested. reasons were highly varied, and respondents shared their opinions. a selection verbatim follows: because i am part-time faculty, the time that i am most likely to have more than two classes is during the summer term. it would be wonderful to attend a week long period with like minded peers, learning almost anything that would help students learn more effectively by encouraging digital literacy in the classroom. normally my summer fellowships are for improving content. it would be interesting to have a week-long seminar/workshop to improve delivery. i can't say how valuable it would be to attend a summer institute to expand use of digital humanities methodologies in the classroom. i think digital tools will be essential for keeping classical humanities topics of enduring interest to st century students. see, for example, carl straumshein, “digital humanities in demand.” inside higher education, january , , web, especially the comments section http://bit.ly/ d mox . http://bit.ly/ d mox i'm interested and i'm w/ years in the field. we need young faculty who already do and know this to help show us how. we've been hiring too many people in our own image of our selves (a s "comp. & lit" model) to perpetuate the illusion that we're doing well. we've been living w/ our heads in the sand here at xxxx eng/com several other respondents offered reasons for not attending: from not wanting to travel during summers to needing to work summers for money and being too close to retirement. q institutional obstacles at your college to increasing dh presence on campus among the institutional obstacles to increasing dh presence on their campuses was a lack of clarity about learning goals of "digital humanities”—a clarity that i contend will best emerge when community college faculty enter the conversation rather than letting the critical paths develop without their knowledge or input. sixty-five per cent or respondents wanted to know what dh is and why it’s important. sixty-eight per cent or respondents felt that there was a lack of clarity about the difference between "digital humanities" and other kinds of technology on campus (e.g., the sentiment that “we already have computer labs and technicians...."). some ( %) felt that there was a lack of interest in what seemed to be trendy. a lack of commitment to supporting part-time faculty development was felt to be an obstacle to % of respondents. lack of commitment on the part of administration to support new courses that are not directly related to job training was chosen by % of respondents. q rate adequacy of facilities for dml the majority of respondents— —found that the facilities for technology were adequate or highly adequate. however, there were some pointed critiques in the comments section: we have plenty of computer labs for math/science courses, but humanities courses do not have a designated computer lab or have minimal access to lab time. we have the technology. but not the expertise -- least of all at the administrative levels. administrators seem to want to quantify everything (loa) w/ a business model of efficiency of course delivery in mind, rather than genuine trust in faculty to use digital media to meet their learning objectives in ways that might be highly creative and rewarding for and motivating to students (and therefore leading to higher rates of student retention and success) -- though perhaps not "quantifiable" in the current admin. matrix. admin lacks a variety of "narratives" for imagining pedagogical uses of digital media -- as do our older and young-but-old-school faculty. no smart board in my classroom, i teach art history and still have to use an old kodak projector for comparison images. q rate familiarity with neh prof devt when asked about their familiarity with the neh’s professional development opportunities, respondents were very familiar, quite familiar or familiar; however, nearly % were not familiar with them at all. given how many respondents are full-time faculty teaching in humanities disciplines, this suggests that the neh itself might expand its outreach to community colleges. q which program of neh familiar with? of the who answered this question, had never attended an neh professional development event. but a total of respondents, or %, had attended either the “bridging cultures,” “landmarks of american history” or other summer seminars/institutes. q familiarity with ccha while many were familiar with the community college humanities association, % of respondents knew nothing at all about this national professional association. given that so many respondents were full-time community college humanities faculty, this tells us that ccha could expand its base. about % of respondents are regular attendees at events, which suggests that the ccha is just one way to get the word out about digital humanities at community colleges. q familiarity with league for innovation in cc while about % of those who responded had heard of the league for innovation in the community college or came from a league college, % were unfamiliar with the organization. the league has a lot of influence among administrators and can help set broad agendas for support of innovations such as dh. q mechanisms for development: an open-ended question ( respondents). below is a selection of verbatim comments from respondents when asked what would be the most useful mechanism by which the neh, the ccha, the league for innovation in the community college or other humanities organizations might support their development in the area of digital humanities pedagogy or research: facilitate workshops that put me and my colleagues in touch with digital humanities experts and involve us in the ongoing conversation. such facilitation would need to be supported by time off and/or monetary support (the latter depending on where such workshops were held). have chapters in each area and email lists or a publication. if the league for innovation is really of any value beyond a bragging right for college administrators, it needs to be presented to humanities depts. and faculty as a serious means of prof. development for classroom teaching pedagogy in eng/com. neh has established such a reputation. either stipends for attendance, or webinars. travel funds and travel time are the big obstacles. offer - day conferences within driving distance and specific workshops/lessons easily transferable to my courses. costs covered by my institution or free to veteran faculty. a ccha national conference seminar/presentation on the subject short webinars accessible from anywhere that give institutionally-recognized credit for faculty development. they should assume we know nothing, have knowledge of their target audience so its applicable to curriculum and be no more than minutes in length. funding. that is the bottom line. faculty who want to be involved in ccha are unable to attend conferences because of lack of funding. ccha conferences are much more expensive than national conventions like the mla or cs, also. the registration fee is too high, the hotels are too pricey, the locations are often out of the way and require missing more work days just to travel to them (louisville is a hour one way door to door trip, in addition to the cost). i don't know if this is in their purview, but i'd need funds to spend time on any pedagogical development. answers from all answers to question were loaded into wordle.org as a visual experiment, with the following results: figure : all comments to question in the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges as a wordle drawing conclusions from the survey while designing this survey, the project director understood that its statistical validity would be limited. the questions themselves and the answers given provided useful leads for developing conversations about future directions for dh, but these are not intended to serve as “hard data” upon which to base high-stakes policy decisions. if community colleges can respond to the concerns raised here and elsewhere, and begin to join the conversations already occurring in classrooms at four-year colleges and at research institutions, museums, libraries and archives, a national community of practice could emerge and influence the future of digital humanities. participants pre-conference session leaders rebecca frost davis, ph.d., director of instructional and emerging technologies, st. edward’s university. matthew k. gold, ph.d., associate professor of english and digital humanities at cuny graduate center. anne mcgrail, ph.d., project director, english faculty, lane community college, eugene, oregon. dean rehberger, ph.d., director of matrix: the center for humane art, letters, and social science online and associate professor of writing, rhetoric and american cultures. jesse stommel, ph.d., assistant professor in the college of liberal studies at university of wisconsin, madison. terri whitney, ph.d., english faculty at north shore community college in salem, massachusetts. jake agatucci, assistant professor of writing and literature at central oregon community college. russell h. shitabata, ph.d. (videographer), english faculty at lane community college, eugene, oregon. pre-conference session attendees monica fleming, program coordinator, historic preservation trades, edgecombe community college, tarboro, north carolina. professor rayka rush, philosophy department, metropolitan community college omaha, nebraska. andrew barnett, dean, public service, humanities, social sciences westmoreland county community college youngwood, pennsylvania. paul nagy, english department clovis community college clovis, new mexico. melissa hebert johnson, associate professor of art history black hawk college moline, illinois. maya sharma, assistant professor of english hostos community college bronx, new york. laura bergstrom, school of liberal arts and sciences, ivy tech southern indiana, sellersberg, indiana. paul vanheuklom, professor arts and humanities, lincoln land community college, springfield, illinois. carol hahn, chair, humanities and fine arts, heartland community college normal, illinois. for complete expert bios, see appendix ii meeting summary: preconference session at community college humanities association session i: “digital humanities at community colleges now” topics introduced: presentation of survey data from spring/summer national community college digital humanities survey. problems of defining the digital humanities and possible effects on the community college embrace of dh. understanding the reception of digital humanities at community college campuses. effects of a fluid and evolving dh definition on community college engagement with and understanding of digital humanities. community colleges taking the lead in digital humanities. goals for this session: share the data that we have collected so far on perceptions about digital humanities at community colleges. make visible how widespread is understanding of digital humanities –what it is and how much it is being practiced on community college campuses. understand institutional obstacles to offering new elective courses given part-time faculty ratios, teaching loads, enrollment pressure etc. understand where community colleges are on the dh spectrum of participation to determine the long-term needs for a mainstream embrace of dh at community colleges nationally. discussion: project director anne mcgrail introduced the day by talking about how she wanted to jump- start development of a community of practice for dh at the cc. for dh to gain a foothold in cc curricula, she argued, a professional and social infrastructure is necessary. one question that framed the day was how to build that infrastructure. a second strategic goal was to foster the conditions for mid-career community college faculty such as herself to learn dh. anyone browsing for information can observe a rising sea of work coming from scholarly practitioners of dh who share their work in a constant feedback loop of inspiration. but stretched as community college faculty are in teaching workloads, she asked, is this possible for ccs? how will digital humanities be mainstreamed at the cc? she suggested that dh at the cc will add another layer to the “eternal september” of dh, and welcomed the experts gathered for the day. terri whitney, hawthorne in salem terri whitney discussed how at her home institution, north shore community college (nscc) in danvers, massachusetts, the term “digital humanities” hadn’t really caught on yet, even though she and colleagues had been doing dh for a long time. whitney began her journey in dh by attending some conferences at mit and creating a cd rom in . in , when the world wide web was just starting, she found herself asking what the web could actually do. she thought that it allowed one to video of mcgrail’s introduction is available here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= weatu syqc&feature=youtu.be . slides available on the dh@thecc website here https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc- workshop/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= weatu syqc&feature=youtu.be https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ use local resources and make them available globally. this led her to develop www.hawthorneinsalem.org . she explained why nscc put hawthorne in cyberspace and how they are trying to help their audience use the site. whitney emphasized how important it was to collaborate with local resources. for hawthorne in salem, collaborators included the peabody essex museum, the house of seven gables, and salem maritime national historic site, sponsored by the national parks department. she also collaborated with faculty from several institutions—community colleges, four-year institutions and even high schools. for content expertise, she also engaged seven hawthorne scholars, two historians, two evaluators to evaluate the content, and someone to evaluate the technical aspects and offer computer expertise. in this way, whitney’s experience of putting together a team is highly characteristic of many dh projects, and demonstrates both the opportunities and challenges of dh at the cc. one problem that whitney ran into immediately was copyright, and so her team worked with the riverside edition of hawthorne, whose copyright was open. another issue was developing the database, and local resources proved to be the answer: a community college programmer from norway came up with this database in two weeks. whitney recounted the need for institutional support for project release-time. she emphasized the need for collaboration and developing a clear plan that you stay with. technical support, she suggested, can come from the college and from students. she also said that having some mechanism for tracking traffic to the website or project is essential, as it gives you data for administrators looking at effectiveness and the bottom line. summarizing her experience on the project, whitney said there is no end of work to do, but given the limits of time, she is pleased to maintain the project. figure : l-r: anne mcgrail, matthew k. gold, julia huston nguyen (senior program coordinator for neh educational programs) and terri whitney at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. jake agatucci, digital games culture jake agatucci has developed a digital games culture course at his home institution, central oregon community college in bend, oregon. he recounted that one of the difficulties he has found in teaching this class has been getting support for access to the digital games products that students were supposed professor whitney’s comments begin at : in part i of the video available here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ to be studying. but the lesson he learned from this problem was that resistance from the institution helped him to develop the class in a way that eventually satisfied him. like whitney and her colleagues at nscc, he “never really identified as a digital humanist.” he said that he leveraged the collaboration affordances of prezi to create presentations that his own students then edit. “there are some things about digital games that students know better than i do,” he said, and the “collaborative nature of constructing knowledge” was a hallmark of this class. he advised those interested in developing new classes such as digital games culture to be prepared to be creative in responding to institutional matters beyond faculty control. figure : terri whitney (l), jake agatucci (c) and jesse stommel (r) discuss dh in community colleges at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association session ii: “in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” session leaders: jesse stommel and rebecca frost davis topics introduced: designing introductory undergraduate digital humanities projects. infusions and embedded pedagogies as a path to mainstreaming digital humanities at the community college level. learning communities, service learning, mini-capstones and other ways to introduce digital humanities to community college students. adapting upper-division projects, capstones, initiatives for lower-division students. skill building for faculty and staff. developing communities of practice locally and nationally for community college dh faculty. designing open-access assignments and activities that extend dh across the digital divide. goals for this session: understand how current faculty at early- or mid-career or later can adapt digital humanities methods in their classrooms. learn how dh can be practiced in the - and -level humanities classroom, whether as embedded pedagogy and/or as new courses. understand minimum requisite skills for students to practice dh and brainstorm ways to expand and build on these skills. address the impact of the digital divide in classrooms where some students may not have computers at home. agatucci’s comments can be found beginning at : in part i of the video of the session here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ discussion: jesse stommel began the session, “in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” by recognizing the importance of this conversation and the usefulness of having both faculty and administrators in the room (there were two division deans in attendance). rebecca frost davis commented that community colleges have a lot in common with teaching-intensive four-year colleges. she said that in , when she was first researching digital humanities, she was told that “there was no place for undergraduates in dh.” but that has changed, and her previous employer, the national institute for technology in liberal education (nitle) is one of the leaders in that development. stommel recounted how he had practiced dh in many levels of higher education, and continues today working with non-traditional learners at university of wisconsin. bringing students into the faculty conversations is new to academic culture, he suggested, but it needs to happen if we want to create a welcoming environment for all students to practice dh. both stommel and davis agreed that in working with all students—from those who “don’t know how to click a mouse” to those who can code— it’s important to create assignments and environments that meet students where they are. peer-driven learning, in which students can help each other across the digital divides they may inhabit, is critical. davis was interested in thinking about the desired learning outcomes for dh in community colleges. discussion moved to the floor, where mcgrail offered that her reasons for developing dh in community colleges is that “this is where humanities are going—this is where human beings are going.” this resonated with davis’s experience. matthew k. gold took up a perennial dh question and asked it in a community college context. “there’s something i worry about,” he remarked. “what is the difference between dh and digital literacy, information literacy?” gold was concerned that the innovations in dh—thinking about new methods for research and teaching—could get blunted by a focus on digital literacy. but stommel suggested that a venn diagram is the best way to think about dh and digital literacies. “i am interested in how we approach tools critically—critically interrogating and analyzing our methods,” stommel remarked. davis agreed that it’s important to avoid an “ossification” of digital literacy skills, to avoid turning programs into “computer competency exams.” this conversation, which in some ways continues the longstanding definitional debates, continued. “my fear about dh at the cc level,” remarked gold, is “that it will become almost a digital remedial effort to raise the skills of cc students. whereas the best way dh has been used is to build new paradigms. we need to say to community college students: you need to innovate, to create new tools, new methods, that speak to you as students, and to us as audience.” this thread of the discussion was a natural one for talking about community college teaching, as often ccs are considered places where “job skills” or “basic skills” are taught. stommel argued that critical thinking is the best job skill you can teach and dh can support that. davis argued that humanities could take a lesson from the sciences, where students have collaborated with students as part of the disciplinary culture. she suggested that developing projects in which students could perform microtasks would involve students in building something. dean rehberger suggested that the true value of dh is to transform the humanities. he remarked that teaching courses where we can teach critical thinking to - students sitting in front of us is a model that is not going to work anymore. creativity and critical thinking is our call to what we do well. a video of jesse stommel and rebecca frost davis’s session is available here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ following this conversation, stommel then demonstrated several examples of where “the digital” and “the humanities” work together. his recent article in hybrid pedagogy provides an overview of dh work that stommel has undertaken that would be appropriate for community college students. following the demonstration, davis asked, “should we be changing our learning outcomes or are they the same learning outcomes in a different context?” a discussion ensued about whether the student projects stommel demonstrated illustrated that the object of inquiry—and therefore the outcomes— had changed or not. but stommel suggested that understanding the poem (in this case one by emily dickinson) is important for production of digital projects about her poetry. and davis agreed: “it’s important to have a reflection piece built into the project, so that you can understand the thought process behind it. for students to learn about risk-taking, failure, etc.” one participant, carol hahn, who is an artist, suggested that in her discipline they’d been doing this for centuries: “if we flip the studio classroom, we have the lecture classroom.” the conversation turned to assessment: “we need to have a rubric for everything,” said davis. stommel uses a lot of self-assessment and self-grading. in one assessment technique, students write a “writer’s letter” in which students enter into dialogue with stommel about their work. davis described the kinds of assessments that she thinks are the most useful for dh: “implicitly you are looking for self-awareness, agency on the part of the writer.” figure : jesse stommel and rebecca frost davis co-led the session, “in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” at the pre-conference workshop. session iii: “equity and institutional policy: opportunities and obstacles for dh development on community college campuses” session leaders: matthew k. gold and dean rehberger topics introduced: the importance of introducing dh methods, practice, theoretical principles to cc students. digital humanities, digital fluencies and degree qualifications for the associate’s degree. defining digital humanities for community colleges. what community colleges can offer the evolving field of dh. imagining community college counterparts to the digital humanities centers; possibilities for internal jesse stommel, “the digital humanities is about breaking stuff.” hybrid pedagogy, september , . web. march , . partnerships (with media studies and instructional technology departments at community colleges) and external partnerships (with two-year and four-year colleges and universities, libraries, digital intitiatives, etc.) understanding faculty and staff profiles and expertise for hiring and institutionalizing dh at community colleges. goals for this session: develop a definition of “digital humanities” that would resonate with and be understood by the broad audiences of community college faculty, staff, instructional technology specialists, administrators and communities. map out the unique contribution to an associate’s or transfer degree that dh can offer st century students. articulate the unique contributions that community college students, faculty and projects could offer dh in terms of visibility and expansion of its evolving values and function in society at large. articulate how dh could draw more community college students to the humanities in general. articulate where dh projects and personnel can “live” in the cc institutional structure (operationally, physically, politically). brainstorm ways to effectively recruit dh faculty, given the more generalist emphasis of community college faculty and the few digital humanists currently practicing at ccs. discussion: matthew k. gold began this session on improving equity and institutional policy in dh at community colleges. “dh need community colleges more than community colleges need dh,” he remarked. “dh scholars need to speak to the wider public, and community college students are an audience that we can speak to.” gold’s journey in dh began when he got a faculty development grant from neh to work on the history of downtown brooklyn and walt whitman. much of whitman’s work happened across the street from city tech, where he works. this project led him to ask, “why, in the digital age, are our classrooms still these spaces within these walls?” the web-based digital pedagogical project, looking for whitman, emerged from this work. because the project connected students from different kinds of institutions, gold felt that it was a model project for possible community college engagements of similar kinds. looking for whitman engaged different students at different stages in their scholarly inquiry— undergraduate liberal arts students as well as general education students and master’s and ph.d. candidates. because this project connected students across multiple institutions located variously in places where whitman had worked, it led to a natural study of place. “place-based study provides a level engagement for students to do original work and connect with others. what do our students have that others don’t? the places where they are.” gold suggested that the model of place-based learning in looking for whitman could help community college faculty conceive of projects in their own locations. at the heart of the work is an invitation to students to do the archival, historical work—“primary digging in their own locations and then sharing it out,” as gold put it. the multiple levels of engagement allows for students with different skill levels to still engage: “i could bridge the gaps in skills: students could annotate a whitman poem and create an annotated text.” gold invited participants to think about dh projects of their own using the places where they and their students live and work. he also encouraged faculty to aim high and be ambitious in developing a community and infrastructure. “you’d be surprised,” he remarked. early in his career, he was able to work with library of congress manuscripts division. “rope in high profile institutions in your project,” he offered to the community college faculty gathered. such high-profile collaborations will help convince home institutions that a project is worthwhile. the connections that gold made with looking for a video of matthew k. gold and dean rehberger’s session is available here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ whitman led to further work and great opportunities for his students. he offered as an example a project that the brooklyn historical society did through a fund for improvement of post secondary education (fipse) grant, “students and faculty in the archives.” this is especially relevant, since first- year students in that project do archival work in their first moments in college. “start from your place, and be willing to go outside,” he suggested. as with whitney’s hawthorne in salem, gold emphasized the importance of interinstitutional collaborations, and he recommended davis’s article, co-authored with brian alexander, “should liberal arts campuses do digital humanities? process and products in the small college world” as a resource. “if your institution is like mine, you can’t trust that there are enough seats, wifi, etc., but partnerships can help ease various strains.” gold then demonstrated a project he directed, the cuny academic commons, which uses wordpress and buddy press. it was built through a university-wide committee and enables various campuses to connect with each other. many in attendance were very interested in the “commons in a box” concept, which won the digital humanities award for best dh suite of tools. the “digital commons” idea sparked quite a bit of interest among faculty in the room, perhaps because many are looking for ways to connect with like-minded faculty in their regions. gold interjected that it was important to be strategic when thinking about funding for dh projects such as the open lab. embedding dh projects into institutional projects that are a priority can help gain leverage for projects. gold summarized his advice as “start where you are, build partnerships with high-profile institutions, and, to the extent you can, be ambitious in the people and institutions you ask to join you. you’d be surprised at the institutions that would be willing to partner with you and your institutions.” he also reminded participants of the importance of project- and self-promotion: “let your administrators know what you’re doing. spread the word on your own campus, through twitter, blogs, etc. demonstrate to your administration how your project is aligned with the goals of your institution. digital humanities projects build the kinds of skills administrators like to see.” figure : dean rehberger (l) and matthew k. gold (r) at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association dean rehberger joined matthew k. gold in his remarks, adding that community colleges have been doing digital humanities in ways that universities didn’t even think about in the s; it was just under a different guise. rehberger explained that he has done digital humanities himself since , when he worked on a project with women from west africa running ngos. he demonstrated his latest project, “should liberal arts campuses do digital humanities? process and products in the small college world.” in debates in the digital humanities, ed. matthew k. gold. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, . http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/ http://dhawards.org/dhawards /results/ http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/ http://dhawards.org/dhawards /results/ the public philosophy journal. “philosophers are the most insular, anti-digital of all,” he joked, and so this project is an achievement. another significant project he has worked on that community colleges could learn from is oral history in the digital age. the project involves institutions and is a model for interinstitutional collaboration. what oral history teaches us all, rehberger commented, is that “if we are to do oral history in such a way that it can be preserved and is valuable, then we have to think about the oral history process right from the moment we collect data. all the way down to archives.” this means that oral history projects can provide a pedagogy and practice that are innovative, create new knowledge and also provide training in critical thinking and planning skills. in other words—amenable to a community college context. rehberger suggested that oral history makes humanists rethink how they do humanities research. for generations, humanists kept their research hidden until they wrote a book. but the digital era fosters an atmosphere of sharing along the way—and a culture of openness that old-school humanists need to get used to. echoing davis’s comments earlier, rehberger says that digital humanists have to be more like scientists in this way. oral history projects build skills in planning, project management and collaboration as well as the critical thinking skills that all humanists recognize and value. rehberger explained the importance of protocols when collecting oral histories which will translate into good metadata and create accessible projects that are useable. because rehberger and his colleagues have worked on international projects with low resources and overburdened people, they have had to learn how to plan well enough to make the best of difficult situations. this kind of work is applicable to community college students who may be working in low- resource environments. “we’ll go into labs where power is on two hours a day with no air conditioning. we’ll go into mali, how do we get the digitization done when we only have one scanner?” rehberger advocated a can-do, diy attitude that leverages what is available and makes the best of it. participants were very receptive to this idea. the emphasis at matrix is on strict protocols and students whose work style is collaborative and interoperable. working together as a “digital commons” means that if something takes a student away, another can step in. rehberger suggested that such awareness of other students and the project- centeredness of the work is applicable to community colleges, since collaboration is a critical skill for all students. rehberger’s work on the explore pennsylvania history (http://explorepahistory.com/ ) project also is applicable to a community college context: “teachers don’t have time. . . . what we found is that we have to put lesson plans for them. we tie this to teaching themes: people love oral history, but they can’t use the whole thing in their classroom. . . . when you create resources, it’s important to create them in a way that’s useful from the beginning.” to engage more faculty in digital humanities in community colleges, the more that assignments and projects have been thought through and tested, the more likely that time-stretched faculty can adopt these projects. rehberger summarized his advice: “two things that are critical: you need to work together. it requires a whole new thinking about humanities. you don’t just go off into the archive, do your research, and create your monograph. whether you’re in an r or a cc: we are in a resource-strapped place in humanities. people are doing more work than they used to do. how can we leverage technology in those situations for us to ease our way, make things better for us, for our students?” for a list of all websites referred to by session experts, see appendix iv. http://publicphilosophyjournal.org/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://explorepahistory.com/ figure : participants paul vanheuklom and carol hahn discuss their work at the pre-conference session at ccha figure : project director anne mcgrail introduces expert panelists at the beginning of the pre-conference session at the ccha meeting summary: follow-up workshop session at ccha : “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities” project director anne mcgrail led the saturday session at the community college humanities association, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in humanities.” she adapted david perkins’ seven principles for making learning whole to provide a framework for talking about the value and usefulness of digital humanities at community colleges. david perkins uses a terrific baseball metaphor for explaining the importance of holistic learning in successful pedagogies. mcgrail adapted this metaphor to demonstrate the way that digital humanities projects provide a perfect platform for “making learning whole.” she sharedsome of the digital humanities projects that she has used in her community college classes and talked about how digital humanities projects increase engagement. figure : slide from project director anne mcgrail’s presentation, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities” a key feature of perkin’s model is that it’s important for students—even novices—to “play the whole game.” just as kids play a “junior version” of baseball when they are as young as three years old, so, perkins says, we should lead our own students into whole digital humanities projects that are scaled for their skills and goals. such a model avoids what perkins calls “elementitis”—a focus on rote skills that are suspended from any relevance for the student. likewise, “everybody plays” in baseball, and so should all students participate in digital projects. mcgrail described her requirement that all students create some kind of digital project by the end of the term, learning how to manage their project and deal with failures and unmet expectations as well as the satisfaction of creating new knowledge. a combination of high expectations and high support characterizes mcgrail’s dh classes, and students meet in a lab for an hour each week so that they can work with each other and the instructor as they making learning whole: how seven principles for teaching can transform education. david n. perkins. san francisco: jossey- bass, . slides from this session are available on the project website here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides- from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ develop their skills. she establishes an atmosphere of “unconditional positive regard” where there are “no stupid mistakes”; such an atmosphere is critical to successfully embedding digital projects into community college classrooms, as many students come to open-access institutions with fear of failure. another feature of perkin’s model is that it’s important to “make the game worth playing.” mcgrail demonstrated how teaching students about ngrams and text mining builds skills in inference and deduction and helps students begin developing generative topics and conceptual knowledge that they can learn for their lives. perkins call to “work on the hard parts” is another feature that can be adapted for digital humanities pedagogies in a community college context, demonstrated mcgrail. providing deliberate practice in the context of the whole game and integrating writing, critical reflection and self-evaluation into projects helps students develop a tolerance for working through the difficult stages of a project, when they may be in the doldrums just before a moment of insight. mcgrail’s student projects on uncle tom’s cabin and material culture and the gospel of slavery illustrated how this pedagogical concept works. figure : slide from anne mcgrail’s presentation at the ccha, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities” mcgrail also demonstrated how several projects such as “live tweeting last of the mohicans” and “using storify to archive class discussions” helps students to take important steps in “near” and “far” knowledge transfer. she discussed the ways in which dh projects offer opportunities for layered aspects of learning to emerge, and how such projects draw learners into the game of inquiry. she shared how she has introduced students to new kinds of interpretive analysis such as basic text mining, first showing students wordles and then even summarizing professor ted underwood’s work. for some students this way of reading has opened up a whole new world of thinking about texts. even basic online work with primary source documents and crowdsourcing annotations with google docs has created a sense of collaboration not previously possible in even the liveliest humanities class discussions. those in attendance at the workshop shared their enthusiasm for the goals of “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa.” many were interested in learning more and were referred to the website for assignment ideas and to the national survey for their opinions and experiences. products a white paper was submitted on march , . the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges questions and data are available on the dh@thecc website here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available- from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ these data and the discussion of results by project director anne mcgrail will appear in print in the spring issue of the community college moment. the website for the magazine is http://www.lanecc.edu/ccmoment the project director wrote an article covering the ccha pre-conference session and workshop for the the humanist, the association newsletter for the community college humanities association which goes to all membership. the project director will present findings of her project at the ccha pacnw in seattle in october . https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ http://www.lanecc.edu/ccmoment lessons learned and next steps “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa” emerged from the project director’s own desire to engage with a community of practice in digital humanities. and the time is right for that community to develop: perhaps from the moment that the start-up grant was in september , an emerging community began to spring up. at the october pacific northwest chapter of the community college humanities association, for example, the project director presented to a room full of faculty interested in digital humanities and wanting to hear more. the respondents to the online survey also suggest that there is a group of faculty who are interested, engaged, and want to learn more. a clear outcome of this project has been a fuller picture of the state of professional development among community college humanists and a raised awareness on the part of the major professional association of community college humanists. lessons learned: wiki: while the project director enthusiastically shared her own work on the dh@thecc website, the wiki has been slow to engage interest. this perhaps because the nature of a wiki assumes a crowd to source from as well as be a resource for. that crowd has yet to emerge. however, the national survey of digital humanities at the community college has brought enough email queries to the project director’s inbox that its role as a mechanism for outreach as well as inquiry is clear. sharing your work in all its imperfection is an innovation that dh has brought to humanities teaching, but it may be slow to catch on with mid-career humanists used to keeping their work in their own classrooms. participation: while the regional ccha conference session on dh at the cc was well attended, the number of participants at the pre-conference session in the national meeting was somewhat disappointing: nine signed up and another four attended without registering officially. this small turnout could be explained by one comment made in the national survey: that the ccha meetings are already expensive and that louisville was too far out of the way for most faculty to attend. what is the pipeline for new dh faculty at the cc? this grant and its activities demonstrated how much work there is still to be done to raise the salience and relevance of digital humanities for community college faculty, students, and their communities. bringing dh to the cc brings another wrinkle to the definitional questions surrounding dh. can community college students and their teachers contribute to digital humanities, to the new knowledge and new paradigms that dh has been about since its inception? or are they to be stuck creating derivative products that mimic what is being done in research institutions? what does a “junior version of the whole game” look like at community colleges and how what is the pipeline for community college humanist faculty looking like now? will it eventually lead to dh at the cc? next steps: community college faculty need a digital humanities (dh) institute of their own. results of the survey and conversations at conferences demonstrate that community college (cc) faculty are immersed in the daily intensive work of teaching and are unable to devote time and resources needed to learn dh theory, methods and practice. for this reason the project director has requested funds to support an neh office of digital humanities advanced topics summer institute specifically for community college faculty to engage with new digital methods, tools and practices for humanities teaching and scholarship. participants will work with experts to translate current theory and practice in dh for the unique learning needs of community college students in open-access institutional contexts. ultimately, the institute will increase the profile and relevance of humanities in the st century by extending engagement with digital humanities to a higher education community that has been largely overlooked in the developing field. in the course of the conversations that emerged at the ccha conference in and and in analyzing the responses from the national survey, several research topics and questions significant to community college digital humanists materialized. an institute for community college humanists would allow deep engagement with these questions: dh as content: what kinds of dh content are best suited to the open-access and lifelong learning contexts in community college humanities classes? outcome: participants explore, use and/or create digital exhibits scaffolded for community college students. dh as method: how can faculty expand and deepen traditional humanities and close reading methods by adapting and adopting tools for text mining, distant reading, and other dh methods? outcome: participants infuse instructional designs with digital textual analysis. dh as pedagogy: how can the use of “living laboratories” and creation of born-digital projects enhance humanities’ relevance to higher education and support students’ developing intellectual identities as producers and not just consumers of knowledge? outcome: participants design a place-based research project that invites students to use digital methods in humanities courses. dh as rhetoric: what kinds of dh projects can help students see the (often hidden) rhetorical power of digital tools and methods and learn about the constraints and arguments embedded within them? outcome: participants create a scaffolded design for tool use and analysis of the rhetorical functions and interactions of digital assets, architecture and user displays. dh as community builder: how can dh projects cultivate connections among students and their communities? outcome: participants create prototypes for community-based projects in, for example, crowdsourcing data, oral history projects, maps and georeferencing. dh as tool for public humanities and equity: what projects illuminate systemic biases and exclusions embedded in dh tools, methods and culture and how might we leverage the affordances of dh to address these problems? outcome: participants prototype a project for identifying and responding to a demonstrably exclusionary digital tool or practice. if the institute is funded, the participants would emerge from the institute with a portfolio of project prototypes in, for example, data visualization, multimedia production, geospatial mapping, crowdsourced research, and digital storytelling, among others, each designed for an open-access community college context. as with the start-up grant, participants’ work will be shared on an online commons that will serve as a hub for developing a national community of inquiry and practice in dh at the cc. this neh odh summer institute will not replace the myriad professional training opportunities that exist in dh nationally and internationally; it will also not merely be a workshop in teaching with technology. rather, this institute will guide participants in understanding and scaffolding dh curriculum tailored to the learning needs of open-access institutional settings. it will provide opportunities for participants to see their work within the larger picture of the digital humanities field while developing dh projects suitable for community college students. along the way, participants will develop a professional learning community that could lead to diffusion of dh into humanities programs at community colleges nationally in coming years. one thing became clear through the start-up project: for community college faculty to engage with dh work, digital humanities must be very tightly aligned with clear pedagogical goals and readily adaptable to lower-division transfer (i.e., “freshman and sophomore”) courses. teaching loads are higher ( - courses per semester) in community colleges than universities and most four-year colleges and, according to one study, community college faculty spend more than times the number of hours in the classroom teaching than do public doctoral faculty, and more than one and a half times the number of contact hours with students. moving from pockets of innovation to a community of practice model our expert community college digital humanists illustrate how important an active national community of practice is. terri whitney’s hawthorne in salem digital archive and jake agatucci’s work with digital games culture—as well as the project director anne mcgrail’s ongoing curricular infusions and website—demonstrate that pockets of innovation in digital humanities are springing up nationally. but they remain isolated. in future, reliable and coordinated activities are needed to build a critical mass of community college faculty. these faculty can then become a resource for one another and for the field’s development. an neh institute is one kind of activity. the humanities and technology (that) camps are another. constrained by it is by a shoestring budget, the community college humanities association itself can still offer a place for sharing new work in community college digital humanities. national study of postsecondary faculty, cited in mla committee on community colleges, “a community college teaching career.” modern language association, . web feb . appendix i survey questions national survey of digital humanities in community colleges . which of the following digital humanities pedagogies, methods, and objects of study are you familiar with? (check all that apply.) . what is your employee role? . what is/are your teaching discipline(s)? . if you teach, what level courses do you teach regularly? . what is your employment status? . what level of autonomy do you have in designing your courses? . please rate your own technical proficiency and comfort with digital tools. . how highly do you value the use of technology in your teaching, curriculum development, assessment and research? . mark the extent to which you witness the so-called “digital divide” in your daily teaching on your campus. (by “digital divide” we mean the difference between those students who have access to technology through computers and other devices and data plans and those whose access is limited to classroom and lab access). . in your opinion, does a "digital divide" exist between part-time faculty on your campus and full-time faculty? (by "digital divide" we refer to a working environment that lends itself to digital competencies: to hardware, software, tech support, adequately equipped office and classroom space, money and time for faculty development opportunities.) . do you teach your course(s) with some online components and/or entirely online? . which of the following do you use regularly in your humanities courses? ("regularly"= at least once a week in all your classes.) . hiring: digital humanities is a new umbrella term for expertise across a broad spectrum of special skills and disciplines, and hiring this expertise is new to community colleges. if you were to serve on a hiring committee in your discipline or a neighbor humanities discipline, how much emphasis would you place on a candidate’s facility with digital technologies and pedagogies in the classroom? . how much support do you think there would be among your colleagues for adding emphasis in the hiring process for facility with digital technologies/technologies in the classroom? . how well does your institution meet your expectations for faculty and staff development through curriculum development grants, reassigned time, professional leave time, travel funds, sabbatical funds, relevent on-campus resources, etc.? . what methods do you use to keep current in your discipline and teaching practice? please check all that apply. . in your opinion, which of the following conditions would be necessary for you or your colleagues to attend a workshop on your campus to learn more about digital humanities? (check all that apply.) . which of the following conditions would be necessary for you or your colleagues to attend a regional or national institute about digital humanities for community college faculty? . if given the opportunity, how interested would you be in attending a week-long summer institute to learn how to use digital humanities methodologies in your classroom? . what do you see as institutional obstacles at your college to increasing the presence of digital humanities courses, curricula and programs of study at your institution? . rate the adequacy of your institution's facilities for supporting using digital media in the learning environment (e.g., computer labs, smart classrooms, wifi access for students, etc.) . rate your familiarity with the national endowment for the humanities professional development opportunities: . for question , if you answered that you have attended an neh-funded professional development opportunity, please indicate which particular program. check all that apply: . rate your familiarity with the community college humanities association (ccha). . rate your familiarity with the league for innovation in the community college: . what would be the most useful mechanism by which the neh, the ccha, the league for innovation in the community college or other humanities organizations might support your development in the area of digital humanities pedagogy or research? appendix ii: participant bios rebecca frost davis, ph.d. is director of instructional and emerging technologies, st. edward’s university. previously, she was program officer for the humanities at the national institute for technology in liberal education (nitle). dr. davis served as assistant director for instructional technology at the associated colleges of the south technology center and as assistant professor of classical studies at rhodes college, denison university and sewanee: the university of the south. dr. davis has taught numerous workshops on teaching with technology for faculty, technologists, and librarians at liberal arts colleges. she has also planned conferences and consulted on digital teaching, the teaching of writing with technology, classical studies, intercampus teaching, and virtual collaboration. matthew k. gold, ph.d., is associate professor of english and digital humanities at cuny graduate center. he is director of cuny academic commons, new york city college of technology and teaches in interactive technology and pedagogy. he is editor of debates in the digital humanities (minnesota upress: ). he is advisor to the provost for master’s programs and digital initiatives at cuny graduate center. anne b. mcgrail, ph.d., project director, joined the english faculty at lane community college in eugene, oregon in ; she has taught online writing and literature courses since . she maintains the website, dh@thecc and was activity director for faculty development for lane’s title iii dept. of education grant, learning communities coordinator for the college, and a participant in the aac&u’s roadmaps project. she was founding co-editor of the community college moment. dean rehberger, ph.d., is the director of matrix: the center for humane art, letters, and social science online and also associate professor of writing, rhetoric and american cultures. his primary areas of research include: high performance computing and the humanities; oral history online; information design and architecture; digital libraries, museums and archives; and online learning environments. he overseas the development of a number of open access projects in the humanities including the oral history in the digital age (http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu), quilt index (http://www.quiltindex.org), overcoming apartheid (http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/), studs terkel: conversations with america (http://www.studsterkel.org/) and many other projects found at (http://matrix.msu.edu). jesse stommel, ph.d., is assistant professor in the college of liberal studies at university of wisconsin, madison. previously he was asst. prof. of english and digital humanities at marylhurst university. he is co-founding editor of hybrid pedagogy. terri whitney, ph.d., is project director for hawthorne in salem, an neh-sponsored digital archive. she is on the english faculty at north shore community college in salem, massachusetts. jake agatucci is asst. professor of writing and literature at central oregon community college. he is instructional designer for “digital games culture” at cocc and also editor of the community college humanities association newsletter. russell h. shitabata, ph.d. (videographer) is on the english faculty at lane community college. he has produced two documentaries, one on sugar plantation workers on the big island of hawaii and the second on first year experience programs at lane community college. he teaches asian american literature and folklore and mythology as well as writing courses. he is co-chair of lane’s college council and faculty council, and currently co-edits the community college moment. http://www.nitle.org/about/bios/davis.php http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/members/?s=new% york% city% college% of% technology http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/members/?s=interactive% technology% and% pedagogy http://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/debates-in-the-digital-humanities http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/members/?s=cuny% graduate% center http://www.aacu.org/roadmap/index.cfm http://www.lanecc.edu/ccmoment/index.html http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://www.quiltindex.org/ http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/ http://www.studsterkel.org/ http://matrix.msu.edu/ http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/ appendix iii: workshop agendas bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa an neh office of digital humanities start-up grant-funded project community college humanities association national meeting pre-conference workshop thursday, october , am- pm the brown hotel, louisville, kentucky agenda a.m.- : welcome, introductions, plan for the day anne mcgrail, project director : - : digital humanities at community colleges now terri whitney, hawthorne in salem neh-sponsored website jake agatucci, digital games culture at the cc anne mcgrail, dh at ccs now: data from the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges : - : boxed lunch : - : in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development discussion leader: rebecca frost davis and jesse stommel : - : equity and institutional policy: opportunities and obstacles for dh development on community college campuses discussion leaders: matthew gold and dean rehberger : -end next steps: plans for white paper draft and dissemination, level ii grant proposal. discussion leaders: all pm close helping students navigate the “digital turn” in humanities anne b. mcgrail, ph.d., lane community college project director, “bringing digital humanities to the community college—and vice versa” an neh office of digital humanties digital start-up project @annemcgrail on twitter national survey of digital humanities in community colleges: please circulate widely and take it if you haven’t! www.surveymonkey.com/s/dhatthecc david perkins’ seven principles for making learning whole i provide a framework for dh at the cc making learning whole: how seven principles for teaching can transform education. david n. perkins. san francisco: jossey-bass, . . play the whole game a. avoid “elementitis” b. everybody plays c. high support d. “unconditional positive regard”—no stupid mistakes i. primary source document assignment . make the game worth playing a. learning for life b. generative topics that teach for understanding c. conceptual knowledge i. ngrams—word clusters that build skills of inference and deduction . work on the hard parts a. deliberate practice in the context of the whole game b. dh always integrates writing, analysis, self-reflection i. gospel of slavery ii. uncle tom’s cabin and material culture . play out of town a. knowledge transfer is difficult to learn b. “near” and “far” transfer intrinsic to dh work i. “live tweeting last of the mohicans” ii. storify for the class archive of work . play the hidden game a. opportunities for layered aspects of learning to emerge b. drawing learners into the game of inquiry c. interpretive analysis extended to the screen and methodologies of dh i. incidents in the life of harriet jacobs—wordles: what kinds of words should we count? how do we decide? (ted underwood for those really interested) ii. what difference does publication location make? mary rowlandson’s history of the captivity and restoration…london and cambridge, ma. . learn from the team a. dh leverages the social, collaborative aspects of learning i. “crowdsourcing” an annotated “edition” of “the great lawsuit” ii. collaborative annotation of a primary source text (google docs—students show up “live on the page” even when home sick. . learn the game of learning a. let learners take control of their learning b. they will surprise you and each other http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/dhatthecc appendix iv list of website resources referred to in the pre-confernece dh at the cc session home | hastac http://nycdh.org/ http://thatcamp.org/ http://mla .thatcamp.org/about-thatcamp/ http://explorepahistory.com/ http://msu.seum.matrix.msu.edu/ http://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/ http://commonsinabox.org/ http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/courses/ http://waterandwork.wordpress.com/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://www .matrix.msu.edu/ http://publicphilosophyjournal.org/ http://historyhacks.org/ http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/wordle.html http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/ http://www.jessestommel.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /viscera/ http://lanssolo.wordpress.com/ / / /a-certain-slant-of-light-typographically-speaking/ http://timmydigiwriting.files.wordpress.com/ / /photo.png http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/ http://rachelblumeblog.files.wordpress.com/ / / - .jpg http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /final-project/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /what-the-helvetica/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/page/ / http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/blog/index.html http://www.racheldoesstuff.com/ http://www.hybridpedagogy.com/journal/files/digital_humanities_is_about_breaking_stuff.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/customhouse/introduction.html http://www.hastac.org/ http://nycdh.org/ http://thatcamp.org/ http://mla .thatcamp.org/about-thatcamp/ http://explorepahistory.com/ http://msu.seum.matrix.msu.edu/ http://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/ http://commonsinabox.org/ http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/courses/ http://waterandwork.wordpress.com/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://www .matrix.msu.edu/ http://publicphilosophyjournal.org/ http://historyhacks.org/ http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/wordle.html http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/ http://www.jessestommel.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /viscera/ http://lanssolo.wordpress.com/ / / /a-certain-slant-of-light-typographically-speaking/ http://timmydigiwriting.files.wordpress.com/ / /photo.png http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/ http://rachelblumeblog.files.wordpress.com/ / / - .jpg http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /final-project/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /what-the-helvetica/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/page/ / http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/blog/index.html http://www.racheldoesstuff.com/ http://www.hybridpedagogy.com/journal/files/digital_humanities_is_about_breaking_stuff.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/customhouse/introduction.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/introduction.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/introduction.html http://hawthorneinsalem.org/ http://hawthorneinsalem.org/mmd/search.php?view= &search=witches&topic= &mediasel= &submit =submit http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/introduction.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/introduction.html http://hawthorneinsalem.org/ http://hawthorneinsalem.org/mmd/search.php?view= &search=witches&topic= &mediasel= &submit=submit http://hawthorneinsalem.org/mmd/search.php?view= &search=witches&topic= &mediasel= &submit=submit s jra .. research article what is local knowledge? digital humanities and yuan dynasty disasters in imperial china’s local gazetteers* dagmar schäfer * , shih-pei chen and qun che max planck institute for the history of science and shanghai jiaotong university. *corresponding author. email: dschaefer@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de (received march ; revised may ; accepted may ) abstract this paper focuses on the historical politics of disaster records in chinese local gazetteers (difangzhi 地方志). using records of mulberry crop failures as examples, the authors ask how gazetteer editors collated yuan disaster records—initially collected to help prevent disasters and authorize the legitimacy of dynastic rule—in gazetteers and, in so doing, made them into ‘local’ knowledge. digital humanities methods allow for both qualitative and quantitative analyses, and the authors deploy them to demonstrate how, in structured texts like the chinese local gazetteers, they could help combine close reading of specific sections and larger-scale analysis of regional patterns. in the first part, the authors show how disasters were recorded in a yuan zhenjiang gazetteer to facilitate taxation and disaster prevention locally—a strategy rarely traceable in subsequent gazetteers until the qing. in the second part, the authors shifted their perspective to the historical accumulation of data and what that reveals about the reception of yuan disasters: whereas local gazetteers from the north generate long chronologies of mulberry disasters from the ming to the qing, others depict the south as disaster-free. keywords: local gazetteers; historical disasters; mulberry crop failures; digital humanities; big data according to its local gazetteer (dongming xian zhi) of , disasters hit dongming county in hebei hard during the era of mongolian yuan rule ( – ). in alone the gazetteer lists three events: a plague of insects wiped out the mulberry crop during the fourth lunar month, and a drought in the sixth lunar month was followed *this article results from collaborative work and datasets collated by many hands. contributions are indicated in footnotes. we would like to thank franz maulshagen, sun mengmeng, xu chun, masato hasegawa, alexis lycas, marianna szczygielska, peter bol, and the two reviewers for commenting on earlier versions of this article. part of this article was conceptualized while one of the authors, dagmar schäfer, was at the institute for advanced studies, princeton, and we would like to express our appreciation for this support as well. © the author(s), . published by cambridge university press. this is an open access article, distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. the written permission of cambridge university press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work. journal of chinese history ( ), , – doi: . /jch. . h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:dschaefer@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog?doi= . /jch. . &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms by a flood in the seventh. in the fifth month of another insect plague devoured all of the mulberry leaves. in the third month of , frost destroyed mulberry and fruit trees as well as grain seedlings. one of thousands of reports in china’s historical liter- ature, the disasters listed in dongming’s local gazetteer have contributed to narratives of china’s political and climate change over the centuries. since the ming dynasty ( – ) scholars have interpreted these reports as evidence that the mongolian rulers’ war policies and inability to rule china had upset heavenly patterns and nature’s balance in china’s north. in the late s, one of the first generation of china’s western-trained scientists in climate research, zhu kezhen 竺可楨 ( – ), put such ideas in sci- entific terms, integrating yuan dynastic disasters into his global model of climate and temperature fluctuations. the story might well have ended here, as mid-twentieth-century researchers first ignored zhu’s scientific interventions and then dismissed them quickly. the pattern of geography and the chronology of disasters as laid out in this research proved tena- cious, however, even as later historians and scientists hotly debated the added impact of wars, migration, and technological change. in china’s rich historical literature, the local gazetteers—approximately ten thousand titles covering the core regions of imperial gov- ernance—have been an important source for research that lent “local” credibility to research on longue-durée geographies of environmental change. shortly before his death, zhu kezhen himself contended that, “apart from meteorological measurements with instruments, local gazetteers provide the most reliable historical data on a region’s climate.” by then, zhu could draw on the established field of “local gazetteer studies” ( fangzhi xue 方志學), which liang qichao 梁啟超 ( – ) had established in the s. treated as “local realities that editors and authors recounted impersonally in an yang risheng 楊日升, (kangxi) dongming xian zhi (康熙) 東明縣志 ( ; repr. in beijing daxue tushuguan xijian fangzhi congkan 北京大學圖書館藏稀見方志叢刊. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “zazhi” 雜志 . a. the scholar-official and minister in charge of agriculture, xu guangqi ( – ), a disciple of the jesuit scholar matteo ricci ( – ), commented on the biased agronomical policies of the yuan in the north; xu guangqi 徐光啓, “nongzheng quanshu” 農政全書 in xu guangqi quanshu 徐光啓全書, vol. – (shanghai: shanghai guji, ), “huangzheng” 荒政 . . for a summary of the yuan and ming era in light of weather events see timothy brook, the troubled empire: china in the yuan and ming dynasties (cambridge, ma: belknap press ), – . zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “nan song shidai woguo qihou zhi chuaice” 南宋時代我國氣候之揣測, kexue ( ), . zhu used the records of the numbers of cold years in tushu jicheng: shuzhengdian: hanshu yibu 圖書集成: 庶徵典: 寒暑異部 to confirm the cold weather from the thirteenth to the fourteenth cen- turies. this conclusion never changed until his final temperature model in . in a paper (english version ) he noted that “it is well known to the chinese historians that during the yuan dynasty the mongol invaders demolished the drainage system in the yellow river valley.” see zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “zhongguo lishi shang qihou zhi bianqian” 中國歷史上氣候之變遷, dongfang zazhi ( ), – . see also zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “lun woguo qihou de ji ge tedian jiqi yu liangshi zuowu shengchan de guanxi” 論我國氣候的幾個特點及其與糧食作物生產的關係, in zhu kezhen wenji 竺可楨文集 (beijing: kexue, ), , ; co-ching chu, “climatic pulsations during historic time in china,” the geographical review ( ), – . the “ice age” was a popular theme in the s, and zhu’s model attracted some international attention during the s and s. sun mengmeng 孫萌萌 and jiang xiaoyuan 江曉原, “zhu kezhen qihou bianqian sixiang de laiyuan” 竺可楨氣候變遷思想的來源, ziran kexueshi yanjiu ( ), – . zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “zhongguo jin wuqian nian lai qihou bianqian de chubu yanjiu” 中國近五千年來氣候變遷的初步研究, in zhu kezhen wenji, . liang qichao 梁啟超, zhongguo jin sanbainian xueshushi 中國近三百年學術史 (shanghai: shanghai sanlian shudian, ), – . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms explanatory manner,” local gazetteer data thus supported historians of the environ- ment, specialists in cultural climate studies, and scientists alike in claiming that “ – might have been the warmest thirty years in the ensuing two thousand years in eastern and middle china,” with marked as “the year after which the weather started to turn cold, culminating in a little ice age around .” this paper queries the reliably “local” nature of local gazetteers with regard to their accounts of disasters. at the core of this investigation stand three interrelated debates about local knowledge, environmental change, and the use of digital humanities (hence- forth dh) in historical research. beginning in the twentieth century, historians of disas- ters in china have embraced local sources to inquire into the regional effects of china’s imperial-disaster politics and produce the thick descriptions that clifford geertz intro- duced to anthropology to “gain access to the conceptual world in which [the partici- pants] live.” in the study of chinese history, local gazetteers offered an alternative account that seemed presumably more concrete, locatable, and immediate in character than those of dynastic histories and court historiography and that revealed the locally diverse effects of a global phenomenon beyond culture, economy, societal configuration, and intellectual worlds. historians know that local sources do not necessarily equate with local events, local information, or local knowledge. the records of weather events and disasters in china’s local gazetteers are the product of a long historical dialectic between local and imperial knowledge- and space-making, in which any unpredicted and anomalous events, but especially those causing harm to the people and the state, were indicators of the mandate of heaven (tianming 天命) and dynastic legitimacy. since at least the western han ( bce– ce), diviners, astronomers, and astrologers forecast the weather, prognosticated, and interpreted such events. local officials, for their part, observed and managed earthquakes, floods, droughts, and insect plagues and tried to cope. the thousands of datasets in local gazetteers that big data analysts since zhu kezhen have interpreted as quantitative evidence of a period of historical change are seen by historians as the “local” residue of a continuous dynamic practice in what we term a “genre of scale,” because in an almost inverse relation we see how with increasing numbers local gazetteers included disaster reports in a decreasing number of categories as editors followed genre-specific guidelines ( fanli 凡例). starting as a systemic luo lin 羅琳, “zhongguo gudai difangzhi zhi zaiyi jilu” 中國古代地方志之災異紀錄, in difang wenxian guoji xueshu yantaohui lunwenji 地方文獻國際學術研討會論文集, edited by guojia tu- shuguan gujiguan 國家圖書館古籍館 (beijing: beijing tushuguan, ), . ge quansheng 葛全勝, zhongguo lichao qihou bianhua 中國歷朝氣候變化 (beijing: kexue, ), , . this assessment was based on phenology records over , years. geertz, who drew on gilbert ryle ( – ) inspired in particular an increased interest in historical anthropology. clifford geertz, “thick description: toward an interpretive theory of culture,” in the interpretation of cultures: selected essays, edited by clifford geertz (new york: basic books, ), , . we define space-making here as the traditional practices and theories that historical actors used to understand, define, and create geopolitical entities. felix driver, “‘making space: territorial themes in the history of science’, a conference organized by the british society for the history of science, held at the university of kent, canterbury, – march ,” ecumene . ( ), – . andrea janku, “‘heaven-sent disasters’ in late imperial china: the scope of the state and beyond,” in natural disasters, cultural responses: case studies toward a global environmental history, edited by christof mauch and christian pfister (lanham, md: lexington books, ), – , . while there was no known top-down fanli issued in song and yuan, many local gazetteer editors ori- ented their compilations based on earlier templates or followed up on orders by the central government to systematically collect certain datasets such as on taxes, geographical features, resources. court or provincial journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms bureaucratic practice in the tenth century, local gazetteers had by the twentieth century grown to ten thousand existing titles covering diverse scholarly and state-related con- cerns in single titles as well as continuously re-edited issues. the “footprint” of the local gazetteers expanded and shrunk depending on changing territory ruled by the liao ( – ), xi-xia ( – ), song ( – ), jin ( – ) and yuan ( – ). in environmental history terms, disaster reports in local gazetteers can be understood as the result of a central state policy that spurred individuals to gather data, not unlike the historical weather data that austrian habsburg officials collected in the eighteenth century and upon which scientists in the nineteenth century devel- oped dynamic climatology. unlike the habsburg weather data, the data in local gaz- etteers were shaped by almost a millennium of scholarly and bureaucratic cultures that used and re-interpreted earlier records of previous generations while continuing to report disasters of their own era. as historians of science, our perspective in this article is to ask how disasters were understood locally, made a category of local (administrative) practices, and became local knowledge. our major concern is to complement the rich research on china’s his- tory of disasters and its politics, with an analysis of the politics of (disaster) data in local gazetteers. what interests us methodologically in this article is how the view, both of china’s history of disasters and of the yuan, changes when we are able to incorporate into the analysis the large-scale development of local gazetteers as a genre and the spe- cific local conditions and individual authorial or editorial choices. unlike historians of environment and cultural climate studies who use historical climate data to explain his- tory, we have combined quantitative textual data (on disasters) with qualitative contex- tual studies (of disaster politics and discourses around the mandate of heaven) to query the nature of historical data on disasters; in this article we use dh methods to undertake qualitative research on a large scale. first, along with other authors in this issue, we are interested in practices of distance-reading, asking what happens when we pursue qual- itative textual analysis with a quantitative orientation. choosing a genre-specific (that is, local gazetteers) view, we look for the strategies that local gazetteer editors employed to gather disaster data and organize and interpret this information; we ask how common or idiosyncratic approaches to disaster data collection were and what knowledge readers may have expected to gain from local gazetteers. these questions, when asked on a large scale, constitute a quantitative approach to qualitative historical work—one that reflects on historical practices of organizing content and protocols of reading—which can help us understand the value and reliability of claims about disasters made in the gazetteers and thus which claims we should be wary of using as a base for extrapolation. we will at least know what we do not know. governments started to issue generic editorial regulations in the ming. see wu zongqi 吳宗器, shenxian zhi 莘縣志 ( ; repr. in tianyige cang mingdai fangzhi xuankan 天一閣藏明代方志選刊. shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), “zuanxiu zhishu fanli” 纂修志書凡例, a– b. peter k. bol, “the rise of local history: history, geography, and culture in southern song and yuan wuzhou,” harvard journal of asiatic studies ( ), – . see also james m. hargett, “song dynasty local gazetteers and their place in the history of difangzhi writing,” harvard journal of asiatic studies ( ), . deborah r. coen, climate in motion: science, empire, and the problem of scale (chicago: university of chicago press, ). see franco moretti, distant reading (london: verso, ). for the methods, see his earlier publica- tion franco moretti, graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for a literary history (london: verso, ). dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the shift of perspective proposed in this article—from seeing disasters as historical events to seeing them as discourse and subject of local knowledge as epistemic practice —brings up a second dh-related issue about how digitized tools can help assess the qualitative implications of quantitative phenomena. we are interested in how data on disasters historically reflected and exerted power and control in the foucauldian sense ( ) as the material condition of the actual event, ( ) as an affordance for a dis- course about disasters and ( ) from an a posteriori view. we thus explore our gazetteer data in relation to yuan politics and disaster management practices, on the one hand, and yuan’s legitimacy as seen in texts whose transmission is partial and influenced by a literati mindset on the other. we peruse the layers of text history and reception, observe the ways in which generations of ming and qing local gazetteer editors, collating such data, reflected on the yuan dynasty and its disasters, and ask whether we can identify a point of view generated by local gazetteers as a genre. to do this in a field as complex as disasters and climate, we singled out mulberry-related crop failures (sangzai 桑災). zhu kezhen, like nineteenth-century habsburg climatologists, included mentions of the impact of weather events on plant growth. he systematically inferred changes in temperature by correlating modern scien- tific understandings of the relation between seasonal plant growth and temperature with historical observations on anomalous plant growth (unusual fruiting, seeding, flower- ing, freezing, and thawing). although the practice of phenology is still in use today, modern historical disaster studies—which have focused almost exclusively on earth- quakes, floods, droughts, or famines—have ignored agricultural crop failures, on the grounds that they were mainly political and economic events that were often a conse- quence of corrupt practices. indeed, disasters involving the mulberry crop were both political and economic. mulberry leaves were the major fodder of the silkworms neces- sary to produce the textiles that constituted a large part of the yuan dynastic economy, and hence they played a major role in the politics of tax relief whenever disaster struck. just as our modern world defines disasters in relation to how humans wish to make use of lands (as habitat and resource), fourteenth-century state actors and producers per- ceived moriculture crop failure as a major “disaster” (zai 災) because of the mulberry tree’s important agricultural and economic role. zhu understood “the study of the times of things” (wuhou xue 物候學), which equates to the later phenology or chronobiology, within the chinese tradition of defining cyclical and seasonal phenomena cal- endrically and for medicinal purposes as sun mengmeng, the construction of “ancient chinese climatology” in the practice of phenology (forthcoming) points out. gong gaofa 龔高法, zhang piyuan 張丕遠, and wu xiangding 吳祥定, lishi shiqi qihou bianhua yanjiu fangfa 歷史時期氣候變化研究方法 (beijing: kexue, ), – note that in correlation to international debates, he emphasized the great potential of the quite continuous historical records of china for scientific climate studies. for the international, european debate see also coen, climate in motion, . harry f. lee and david d. zhang, “a tale of two population crises in recent chinese history,” climatic change ( ), – . literature in general concentrates on “natural” disasters and makes a note of famines, yet largely ignores mentions of crop failures. for an example in chinese-language environmental history, see luo lin, “zhongguo gudai difangzhi zhi zaiyi jilu,” , who concentrates on natural (ziran 自然) disasters such as water and fire disasters as “objective reality” (keguan shishi 客觀事實). we will henceforth use the english term disaster mostly as a summarizing generic term. chinese dis- aster terminology emphasized accountability in terms of morality and finances, as does the english term “disaster” that signifies a moment of substantial destruction and distress or the italian/latin term dis- astrum that identified an evil influence of a star; see webster’s third new international dictionary of the english language unabridged (chicago: encyclopaedia britannica, ), . different political and journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms we begin with an exercise in a close reading of one local gazetteer to see how yuan imperial politics related to local practices of cultivating mulberries for silk production (henceforth moriculture) and what role disasters play therein. for this we use one of the few still-extant yuan local gazetteers that recounts disaster events in zhenjiang, situated in southern china on the yangtze river east of nanjing. zhenjiang’s local gazetteers have bolstered in two ways the view that the north was subject to repeated disasters while moriculture was evolving in the south: first, yu xilu 俞希魯 ( – ), the yuan editor, testifies that mulberry was cultivated by the yuan. second, none of zhenjiang’s various local gazetteer editions record any moriculture disasters. localizing imperial politics: mulberry trees and taxes in southern zhenjiang “sang: its leaves feed the silkworm. several kinds exist. blossoming sang have small and thin leaves,” noted yu xilu in zhenjiang’s local gazetteer published in . yu, whose lifespan coincided almost exactly with that of the short-lived yuan dynasty, had a career that reflects the ambiguous characteristics historians have attributed to his times: the descendant of a song official, he served the mongolian yuan conquerors as a teacher and negotiated as a member of the elite and erudite scholar-official between the local and central state and court in various, mostly local, administrative roles. epistemological implications inform notions of prevention or damage control throughout different dynas- ties and we would like to thank chun xu for pointing this out. chinese literati and administrators distin- guished “unexpected” deviations from normalcy as zai 災 (which denotes a raging fire) from disasters causing anxiety (huan 患) or damage (hai 害), or auspicious or inauspicious signs/omen (xiang 祥) for the legitimacy of rule etc. in lieu of research on such terminological changes during the song and yuan, see the discussion of ming uses of terminology in water management in chun xu, “reaping the benefits of water: a history of water(s) in ming yunnan” (phd diss., heidelberg university, ). we introduce moriculture here as a summarizing technical term for the sum of knowledge (i.e. sci- ences) and practices of cultivating plants for the purpose of silk production. morus (mulberry) identifies the linnean genus of the most common plants used for feeding the silkworm (morus nigra, morus alba, morus laevigata, and morus latifolia); linnean students traveling to china in the nineteenth century introduced the term. alexandra cook, “linnaeus and chinese plants: a test of the linguistic imperialism thesis ,” notes and records: the royal society journal of the history of science ( ), – . this modern identification does not pay respect to the broader range of plants that chinese farmers identified as sang 桑 or used to feed silkworms such as the sugarcane or elm tree (zhe 柘). yu xilu 俞希魯 and tuoyin 脫因, zhishun zhenjiang zhi 至順鎮江志 ( ; repr. in song yuan fangzhi congkan 宋元方志叢刊. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), “tuchan” 土產 . a. by the qing era, ruan yuan 阮元 ( – ) still noted that the authorship for this gazetteer was unclear. ruan yuan 阮元, preface in “jiading zhenjiang zhi 嘉定镇江志,” edited by lu xian 盧憲 in , revised and edited by shi mijian 史彌堅 in ( ; repr. in song yuan fangzhi congkan 宋元方志叢刊. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), “xu” 序 b. for an analysis of the authorship of yu see yang jiqing 楊積慶, “yu xilu qiren: zhishun zhenjiang zhi de zuozhe” 俞希魯其人: ‘至順鎮江志’的作者, zhenjiang shizhuan xuebao (shehui kexue ban) . , – . sheng quan 盛銓 and huang bingkui 黃炳奎, chongren xian zhi 崇仁縣志 ( ; repr. in zhongguo difangzhi jicheng 中國地方志集成. nanjing: fenghuang chubanshe, ), “yiwen zhi: wenzheng” 藝文志: 文徵 . a. for an analysis of epitaphs and other tomb inscriptions, see shang yanbin 尚衍斌, “yuandai weiwu’er nongxue jia lu mingshan shiji zai tantao” 元代畏兀兒農學家魯明善事蹟再探討, zhongguo bianjiang shidi yanjiu ( ), – . see also yu ji 虞集, “jingzhoulu daluhuachi lu gong shendao bei” 靖州路達魯花赤魯公神道碑, in yu ji 虞集, daoyuan leigao 道園類稿 (yuan keben 元刻本 [yuan dynasty print], n.d.; repr. in zhonghua zaizao shanben 中華再造善本. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “shendao bei” 神道碑 . a– b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms most of what is known about yuan-dynasty zhenjiang was penned by yu—his was the second of a set of four still-extant zhenjiang local gazetteers—for which he consulted historical geographic records and contemporary administrative sources. historians have seen his texts, rich in detail about local economic and social conditions, as the work of a well-informed local who aimed to serve the interests of the ruling class. yu relates local customs, social configurations, architectural features, landscapes, and taxes. he describes the form and function of sang, the plant, in the chapter on “local products.” how does yu’s approach fit into the information politics of yuan times? sang was a central political theme by and well-covered in writing. yuan chinese and later ming voices attribute a voracious appetite for silk to the ruling elite of the yuan, but also emphasize that this elite was much less familiar than its pre- decessors with all the processes relevant to its production. qubilai khan (reigned – ) invested in agriculture and silk by strengthening institutions such as the board of agriculture (sinongsi 司農司). by , yu could look back at a continuous, intensive and increasingly systematic campaign by the state and elites to circulate infor- mation about sang. the compendium on agriculture and mulberry plants (nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要) was a re-compilation of earlier texts. over , copies of this preface to zhishun zhenjiang zhi 至順鎮江志. the other three local gazetteers of zhenjiang are of the song jiading era ( ), the qing kangxi era ( ) and the qing qianlong era ( ). two editions of the qianlong zhenjiang fu zhi are in logart. chen lijian 陳立健, “zhishun zhenjiang zhi suo zai zhenjiang dishisi—youguan yuandai dishisi yu menggu zixue de yidian zuozheng” ‘至順鎮江志’ 所載鎮江帝師寺—有關元代帝師寺與蒙古字學的一點佐證, zhongguo zangxue . , – . for comparative studies on yuan local gazetteers see e.g. yin guangzhong 殷光中, “jiading zhenjiang zhi, zhishun zhenjiang zhi tiyao” ‘嘉定镇江志,’ ‘至顺镇江志‘提要, jiangsu shelian tongxun . , – and fu guangsen 傅光森, “zhizheng jinling xinzhi yu zhishun zhenjiang zhi zhi bijiao: yi zhengzhi ji renwu jizai wei li” ‘至正金陵新志‘與‘至順鎮江志‘之比較: 以政制及人物記載為例, xingda renwen xuebao ( ), – . yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “tuchan” 土產 . a– b: “桑葉司飼蠶有數種有花者葉小而薄.” most prominently in dynastic historiography: “其俗不待蠶而衣不待耕而食初無所事焉” in song lian 宋濂, yuan shi 元史 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), . . an exemplary song scholar, qin guan 秦觀 ( – ) compiled a very short book about the silkworm (can shu 蠶書) while in mourning. wang pan 王磐 mentions in the preface of nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要 that the compilation happened with the institutionalization of the ministry of agriculture (da sinongsi 大司農司) and required almost six years for completion, which zeng xiongsheng has dated to . see zeng xiongsheng 曾雄生, zhongguo nongxue shi 中國農學史 (fuzhou: fujian renmin chubanshe, ), – , . the posts were stopped in the fourteenth year ( ) and the task of advising on agriculture was handed over to the surveillance commission (ancha si 按察司). in the eighteenth year ( ) then the “courtyard for agricultural policies” (nongzheng yuan 農政院) was inaugurated with six officials which again changed the name two years later and assigned one mongolian head (daluhuachi 達魯花赤, rank), one chinese supervisor (wunong shi 務農使, rank) and two administrators (tongzhi 同知, rank). ranking, appointments, and the local office’s denomination were altered several times between and to reflect these changes. a reform of the system of agri- and moriculture (nongsang zhi zhi 農桑之制) was issued in . see song lian, yuan shi, . . nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要, edited by sinongsi 司農司 ( ; repr. in zhonghua zaizao shanben 中華再造善本. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), juan, and sections. the nongsang jiyao replicates , characters of the important arts for common people (qimin yaoshu 齊民要術) written by jia sixie 賈思勰 (ca. th century) which thus makes up a third of the final nongsang jiyao. see zeng xiongsheng, zhongguo nongxue shi, . it furthermore quotes the sericulture sections and contents of ten other books mostly compiled by song and jurchen-jin authors. for an analysis of the different approaches of the works on mori- and sericulture see chuan-hui mau, “les progrès de la sériciculture sous les yuan (xiie–xive journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms compendium were printed in the first run; it was reprinted in , and . there were other works. the chinese literatus wang zhen 王禎 ( – ) wrote on contemporary practices and methods in . the local son of the famous and influ- ential buddhist uighur translator karunadasa, lu mingshan 魯明善, published a tract titled synopsis of agriculture and mulberry, clothing and food (nongsang yishi cuoyao 農桑衣食撮要) in , after having served in several local posts in jingzhou (hubei) and anfeng (jiangsu) in central and southeastern china. imagery was abundant, too. the yuan court recompiled illustrations of tilling and weaving (gengzhi tu 耕織圖), previously sponsored by the song court, and ordered public dissemination of individual scroll-paintings of landscapes such as the illustrations with explanations of mulberry tree plantations (zaisang tushuo 栽桑圖說). wang zhen had his work illustrated with images of tools and plants. yuan elites went beyond literary dissemination. the government dispatched voca- tional trainers to places that books would not reach. huang jie 黃玠 (fourteenth cen- tury), for example, called upon his peers to include mulberry trees in their flower gardens for educational purposes. all possible means and media were employed: print, images, and oral education. the compendium on agriculture and mulberry plants’ editors at the court’s hanlin academy “newly added” (xintian 新添) contents on new plants and repeatedly duplicated information, such as “how to use [mulberry] siècles) d’après le nongsang jiyao,” in travail et savoirs techniques dans la chine prémoderne. revue de sydenthèse, edited by Éric brian (paris: springer, ), – . as wang yuhu 王毓瑚, “guanyu nongsang jiyao” 關於’農桑輯要,’ beijing nongye daxue xuebao ( . ), – has noted, the compendium does not include chen fu’s 陳敷 nongshu 農書, which primarily tackles the southern regions. southern books had not yet percolated to the north, with the exception of the suishi guangji 歲時廣記, compiled by the southern song contemporary chen yuanliang 陳元靚. also missing is han yanzhi’s 韓彥直 book yongjia julu 永嘉橘錄 or wang zhuo’s 王灼 tangshuang pu 糖霜譜, which sug- gests that the nongsang jiyao was produced before the mongols had any access to southern song literature, i.e. before , and that later authors, such as wang zhen, saw a need for updates. xiao kezhi 肖克之, “nongsang jiyao banben shuo” ‘農桑輯要’ 版本說, gujin nongye . , – . wang zhen 王禎, nongshu 農書 ( ; repr. in zhonghua zaizao shanben 中華再造善本. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ). as a survey of book catalogues throughout the ming shows, this book exists under various titles. lu mingshan served in jingzhou as a foreign expert local official (daluhuachi 達魯花赤) and was appointed to anfeng province as surveillance official in . his career is described in the tomb stele by yu ji, “jingzhoulu daluhuachi lu gong shendao bei,” “shendao bei” . b. see yang lian 楊镰, “lu mingshan shiji gouchen” 魯明善事迹勾沉, xinjiang daxue xuebao . , – . a biography of lu’s father karunadasa (jialunadasi zhuan 迦鲁纳答思传) is included in song lian, yuan shi, . – . see angela von driesch and herbert franke, “niu-ching da-ch’üan: ein altchinesisches buch über tierärztliche behandlungen von rinderkrankheiten,” monumenta serica ( ), – . song lian, yuan shi, . . huai jingqiu 隗靜秋, wu rugong 吳如功, “yuandai zhejiang chubanye shulüe“ 元代浙江出版業述略, xuelilun ( ), – . all dynasties since the han compiled some illustrated guidance for tilling and weaving, even though most have not survived. roselyn lee hammers, pictures of tilling and weaving: art, labor, and technology in song and yuan china (hong kong: hong kong university press ), emphasizes the shifting political emphasis of these illustrations with song ideals of governance and a “well-ordered” state. she identifies poetry as contemporary and cautions on the dating of images which she considers as transmissions of later versions. as yang dezhong 楊德忠 pinpointed, the yuan utilizied such imagery purposefully; see da yuan qixiang: yuandai huangquan yi- shixia de shuhua huodong jiqi zhengzhi yihan 大元氣象: 元代皇權意識下的書畫活動及其政治意涵 (beijing: shangwu yinshuguan, ), – . huang jie 黃玠, “zhong hua yin” 種花吟, in bianshan xiaoyin yinlu 弁山小隱吟錄 ( ; repr. in siming congshu 四明叢書. yangzhou: guanglin shushe, ) . b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms leaves,” from varied sources that were relevant to the beginner cultivating mulberry trees and breeding silkworms. although the elites of that time emphasize the state-driven top-down nature of such education, it was not a one-way street. lu mingshan recorded proverbs and folk sayings, most likely sourced from farmers. the daoist and painter ma zhen 馬臻 ( –?) acknowledged the experience of commoners in his poetry ironically noting that “old farmers who live far away in the village pass regularly through alleys of mulberry trees and sugarcane. and still, their sons and grandsons are called into the city where they have to listen to readings on the promotion of agriculture [quannong wen 勸農文].” quannong literature was the pedagogical tool of choice. it included a con- glomerate of official edicts of agronomy, sayings, terminological clarifications, poetry and illustrations (often a simplified form of imperially commissioned tilling and weaving) with agricultural contents, along with either useful quotations from or sum- maries of elite and state agronomy literature, which represented what francesca bray has called the “science of the state.” ma here implies that authors such as wang zhen had not only their peers in mind, but truly may have expected that their elabo- rations would be read out loud to farmers and practitioners. documents excavated in heishui 黑水, a postal relay station located in the hexi-gansu corridor in northern china, show that by imperial information cam- paigns had reached far into the yuan imperial territory and to the edges of traditional sericulture regions. local officials there also reported that they had “supervised agri- and moriculture based on diverse texts.” one of these descriptive reports by local offi- cials meticulously lays out measurements for a mulberry plantation because, as its author had realized, the scarcity of water in the region required farmers to introduce important technical adaptations at the locality. mulberry bushes rather than trees “should be planted every two feet in rows of ten feet … partitioned into … with newly added was cotton, nongsang jiyao, “mu mian” 木綿 . a– a. “si can” a was mostly drawn from the shinong biyong, but information on the nurturing chamber is identified as a quote from an unknown source called “chen hong zhi” 陳宏志. together with all unmarked passages, about one third of the content in the compendium cannot be found in other literature. newly added or unmarked passages by comparison offer insights into “non-chinese” fields of agricultural engagement important to new rulers mainly in the horse husbandry section. for an in-depth analysis of the language of these works see zeng lingxiang 曾令香, yuandai nongshu nongye cihui yanjiu 元代农书农业词汇研究 (phd thesis, shandong shifan daxue, ), – . for example: “移樹無時莫教樹知多留宿士記取南枝” and “十耕蘿蔔九耕麻.” see lu mingshan 魯明善, nongsang yishi cuoyao 農桑衣食撮要 (ming keben 明刻本 [ming dynasty print], n.d.), “zheng yue” 正月 a, b. ma zhen 馬臻, “xiawai shiji” 霞外詩集, in yuanren ji shi zhong 元人集十種 [ ; repr. in jiguge yuanren ji ji lidai shijia 汲古閣元人集及歷代詩家] beijing: quanguo tushuguan wenxian suowei fuzhi zhongxin, ), . b/ a. francesca bray, technology, gender and history in imperial china: great transformations reconsidered (new york: routledge, ), – . a recently rediscovered stele roots wang zhen’s life firmly within yuan traditions and situates him geographically in tai’an 泰安 instead of dongping 東平. see zhou ying 周郢, “wang zhen jiqi nongshu shizheng er ti” 王禎及其‘農書’史證二題, in shumu wenxian 書目文獻 (published april , ; last accessed october , , https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/uxvjubnawcphzeuwtfdxvw). for the relation between agricultural themes in poetry, reading, and official state literature see also he fasu 何发甦, “jiangxi gengdu wenhua yanjiu” 江西耕讀文化研究, nongye kaogu . , – . heicheng chutu wenshu (hanwen wenshu juan) 黑城出土文書 (漢文文書卷), edited by li yiyou 李逸友 (beijing: kexue chubanshe, ), [f :w ] . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/uxvjubnawcphzeuwtfdxvw https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/uxvjubnawcphzeuwtfdxvw https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms pathways one foot wide, sufficient for one man to walk between the rows.” intercropping (qutian 區田) with grains is promoted, a method also described by wang zhen, and the local official underlined the usefulness of his renderings by sug- gesting “printing multiple copies for all provinces to disseminate such information widely.” heishui would be swallowed by the desert by , but its records from the turn of the fourteenth century show a rich information flow in which the central state collected and disseminated information from literature and different regions and local officials learnt from practice and local farmers and documented such information for further use in other regions or dissemination to the central state. in this context, yu xilu depicts zhenjiang through its local gazetteer as a place that embodied the success of the policies of qubilai khan and those of his grandson temür khan (ruled – ), in reviving zhenjiang’s former role as a hub of social life, a marketplace, and a major center for the collection of taxes. yu makes sure to verify that mulberry could grow in zhenjiang, by quoting a tang dynastic historical source; he specifies field sizes, and the amount of textiles taxes in chapter on “taxes” ( fushui 賦稅). and he adds a phenomenological description of the plant in the chapter on “local prod- ucts” (tuchan 土產) explaining that different kinds of plants could feed the worms: “zhe: of the sang-kind with small and thick leaves can also be fed to silkworms.” stylistically, yu’s short, descriptive entry mirrors dictionary entries or those that can be found in materia medica (bencao 本草), both literary styles that display yu’s erudi- tion. when contextualized with further information given in the local gazetteer itself, see wang zhen 王禎. donglu wang shi “nongshu” yizhu 東魯王氏‘農書‘譯注, commented by miao qiyu 繆啟愉 (shanghai: shanghai guji, ), “nongqi tupu ji zhi yi: tianzhimen: qutian” 農器圖譜集之一: 田制門: 區田, – . “各路镂板, 多廣印散.” wang zhen, donglu wang shi “nongshu” yizhu, commented by miao qiyu, . zhenjiang’s importance as a hub by the song is also verified by the official qin jiushao 秦九韶 ( – ) whose mathematical guide to algebraic and indeterminate equations, geometry, and linear systems con- tains several references to zhenjiang. ulrich libbrecht, chinese mathematics in the thirteenth century: the shu-shu chiu-chang of ch’in chiu-shao (new york: dover, ). for zhenjiang’s multicultural community see dietmar w. winkler and li tang, hidden treasures and intercultural encounters: studies on east syriac christianity in china and central asia (berlin: lit. verlag, ). for a description of the port of zhenjiang in the nineteenth century, see keith stevens, “the yangzi port of zhenjiang down the centuries: 鎮江: part i,” journal of the hong kong branch of the royal asiatic society ( ), – . yu xilu includes a historical reference about a plantation of mulberries trees on a tomb site during the wei dynasty ( ). the rather large number of different textiles listed in the tax chapter reflects the fact that zhenjiang hosted a weaving and dyeing bureau (zhiran ju 織染局) producing silk for the court and tribute. as zhenjiang was a port city, raw silk may well have been transported there from other regions. many of the state-owned weaving sites were located in the north. later ming local gazetteers of the south such as hangzhou or suzhou commemorate yuan origins. in comparison, almost all northern local gazetteers avoid mentioning yuan origins. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “tuchan” 土產 . a/b: “柘類桑葉小而厚亦可以飼蠶.” in its most basic form this reference mirrors the erya 爾雅 (coming close to correctness). the descrip- tive style follows writings such as the contemporary tangye bencao 湯液本草 ( – ) compiled during the yuan dynasty. wang haogu 王好古, tangye bencao 湯液本草 (qing guangxu keben 清光緒刻本 [qing dynasty guangxu edition], n.d.; repr. in gujin yitong zhengmai quanshu 古今醫統正脈全書. taibei: yiwen yinshuguan, ), see e.g. “mu bu: sang bai pi” 木部: 桑白皮 . a/b. for the most part, materia medica are officially commissioned works by the tang–song periods. for materia medica styles see george métailié, “concepts of nature in traditional chinese materia medica and botany (sixteenth to seventeenth century),” in concepts of nature: a chinese-european cross-cultural dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms yu’s entry in the ‘local products’ chapter can be understood as a way to equip tax offi- cers with important information necessary to perform their duty. identifying the tree had become a crucial skill for tax officers, because by the wet regions south of the yangtze increasingly changed from monoculture featuring plantations or orchards, originally introduced in the song dynasty, to new cultivations with a mixed cropping method in which mulberries were grown on dikes and along fishponds. tax officials could rely on straightforward measurements for field plantations (tianmu 田畝), but mixed cropping required tax officers to distinguish different kinds of tree. field and tree counts were converted into workday calculations based on a system known already by the tang era. tax quotas were then set in the form of lengths of fabrics (so-called silk tax, shui juan 稅絹). the amount of tax-silk in zhenjiang’s local gazetteer suggests that by , zhenjiang was successfully cultivating mulberry for the production of raw silk. yu’s presentation of contents underlines the purpose of zhenjiang’s local gazetteer as a handbook for local administration—for himself and for his peers. to facilitate tax recording, he sourced information (such as tax numbers) locally, and arranged it to fit the court’s agenda. this is evident in the local gazetteer’s categories of “local prod- ucts” and “taxes.” he used the gazetteer to put zhenjiang on the yuan moriculture map and arranged information so that later generations would have it at hand “for future use.” in full text search of digitized texts it is easy to find similar entries about perspective, edited by hans-ullrich vogel, günter dux, and mark elvin (leiden: brill, ), – , . for erudite culture in zhenjiang see chen lijian, “zhishun zhenjiang zhi suo zai zhenjiang dishisi,” – . for a description of the “fishpond” method, also called mulberry-dyke-fishpond method, see kenneth ruddle and zhong gongfu, integrated agriculture-aquaculture in south china: the dike-pond system of the zhujiang delta (cambridge: cambridge university press ). such tax methods were widely used by the tang and adapted by the liao, song, and jin. see wu shuguo 吳樹國, “shilun jindai de sangshui” 試論金代的桑稅, heilongjiang minzu congkan ( ), – and “songdai sangshui kaolun” 宋代桑稅考論, shixue yuekan ( ), – . möngke khan (ruled – ) had the tax form originally imposed when conquering the jin territory. but it was mainly implemented in the south. richard von glahn, “cycles of silver in chinese monetary history,” in the economy of lower yangzi delta in late imperial china: connecting money, markets, and institutions, edited by billy k. l. so (london: routledge, ), . the song used a standardized quota system: “計地栽桑計桑科絹府州縣具有定額.” see wu shuguo 吳樹國, tang song zhiji tianshui zhidu bianqian yanjiu 唐宋之際田稅制度變遷研究 (ha’erbin: heilongjiang daxue chubanshe, ), . because zhenjiang hosted a local weaving and dyeing bureau, it delivered most of its taxes as finished cloth, although some raw silk was also collected: “絲八千四百四十七斤二十五兩九錢二分三釐.” yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “fu shui” 賦稅 . a. a couple of different taxes, not only for moriculture, had to be delivered in the form of silk-juan 絲捐 (sometimes by advance-indebting [hemai 和買], as yu also singles out). hence the numbers alone in local gazetteers do not allow any conclusions to be drawn on mulberry taxes. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “fu shui” . a– b. the yuan levied higher silk taxes than the song and later ming, yet more so in the north. the trend of zhenjiang’s juan-silk taxes is reverse: the yuan only levied half as much as song taxes. fan jinmin 范金民, “yuandai jiangnan sichouye shulun” 元代江南絲綢業述論, nanjing daxue xuebao . , – . see also fan jinmin, yibei tianxia: ming qing jiangnan sichoushi yanjiu 衣被天下: 明清江南絲綢史研究 (nanjing: jiangsu renmin chubanshe, ), – . the history of the yuan mentions two tax collection forms: ( ) a raw silk tax (na si 納絲), ( ) granting imperial descendants and nobilities producing households, in units of five households (wu hu si 五戶絲), directly on an annual (sui ci 歲賜) basis. in the latter case, it stipulated how many lengths (in bolts, down to chi 尺 and fen 分) of silk each household transferred to which prince or princess from which place. see song lian, yuan shi, . – . only local gazetteers record and specify the woven fabric. journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms juan taxes in other local gazetteers which may seem to imply moriculture activity, but in fact only the mention of juan-taxes and sang tree kinds as tax category proves that moriculture was taking place, because, first, juan-tax silk was also traded across regions (to be then paid as tax) and, second, other taxes were levied in the form of juan-tax silk. it is here that the local gazetteer research tool (logart), introduced in greater detail in the section on utilities in this issue, proves most useful. using logart to search for keywords as they appear under specific subject-headings or editorial sections such as “local products” or within certain text structures of local gazetteers allows researchers to see when editors had similar purposes in mind—such as yu’s efforts to enable local tax collection. it is not enough to find whether terms are mentioned, what is crucial is where they are mentioned and in what context—that is, what else is mentioned around them. for the purposes of our analysis, we refer to the textual organization of different sections and the organization of content in them as the syntax. we began by combining searches of multiple terms, each in conjunction with syntac- tical characteristics (such as “sang” being mentioned in a “local products” section) with the aim of finding interesting cases for further research on the basis of similarities in syntax and knowledge organization. in our set of earlier local gazetteers, only the jiading-era zhenjiang gazetteer, which yu had consulted, uses a similar strategy in its tax and local product sections, showing that in such efforts yuan actors indeed relied locally on song precedents. yet, as we will see later on, yu substantially changes the tenor and contents of other chapters, even when he sometimes continues using stan- dard headings, which suggests that yu made deliberate choices of content placement (which, although this cannot be discussed here, also appear in late ming and qing local gazetteers of the north and in border regions). in the still-existing twenty-four local gazetteers of the yuan era, yu points the way forward, as did many of his contem- poraries. it must be taken into consideration that all extant local gazetteers of this period are southern examples, which means they were compiled by song literati—or their descendants—who are known to have proliferated the genre, but who also, rather than following guidelines, enjoyed setting up alternative, even peculiar rules in their content arrangement. an issue for future research is to clarify the survival of just these two dozen rather idiosyncratic yuan gazetteers and what their role was for the compilation of later, ming and qing, gazetteer compilations. as for those still extant yuan gazetteers we can see that many mention juan-tax silk without mentioning mul- berry trees. from this viewpoint, mentions in the tax and local product chapters alone sun shifang 孫世芳, xuanfu zhenzhi 宣府镇志 ([china]: [publisher not identified], ), “gongfu kao” 貢賦考 . b, for instance, notes a straight juan-silk tax (zheng shui pi bo 正稅匹帛), but no sang, reflecting that the jin in xuanfu raised only a conversion tax and not a moriculture tax. for the varying regional approaches to moriculture taxes (paid as juan silk) from the song to the jin dynasty and their reflection in local gazetteers, see wu shuguo 吳樹國, “shilun jindai de sangshui” 試論金代的桑稅, heilongjiang minzu congkan . , . for the ming era, fan jinmin takes the sum of juan-silk or bolts bo 帛 given in local gazetteers as evidence for moriculture. fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, . no catalogues of yuan book collectors survived. ming collections such as the famous tian yige 天一閣 library or the bibliophile qi chenghan collect mainly ming gazetteers. ding bing 丁丙 lists the zhenjiang zhi too, see ding bing 丁丙, shanben shushi cangshu zhi 善本書室藏書志 ( ; repr. in song yuan ming qing shumu tiba congkan 宋元明清書目題跋叢刊. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), “shibu” 史部 . b. several other copies made it into libraries in japan and france. none of these titles appears in the “yiwenzhi” of the database zhongguo fangzhi ku 中國方志庫 or the zhongguo lidai dianji zongmu 中國歷代典籍總目. further research is also needed on later ming and qing gazetteers, especially in border regions that describe mulberry in similar ways. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms are not sufficient to assess the performance of moriculture—not even for the limited regions covered by the still extant yuan local gazetters. literary analysis with an empirical orientation while historians are perfectly comfortable sliding between (entirely valid) exegetical claims based on just a few passages in a source (such as that sang = tree, but sang in a chapter on tax should refer to tax) and larger historical claims (such as the yuan had more frequent disasters than other dynasties, or most local gazetteers contain chap- ters on local products), they hesitate when testing qualitative assessments empirically over large corpora. this reluctance has to do with the complexities and variations in the transmission of texts over time, with the suspicion that large datasets ignore edito- rial selections, with knowledge that that the authors of our sources chose different rules of compilation (for instance yu xilu’s use of the prior song edition of zhenjiang’s gaz- etteer as a template), and with a sense that such texts did not exist in a vacuum. central to our methodological concern about dh methods, the texts subsumed as local gazetteers can be understood as a compound, interlaced set of databases: we find varied, partly compatible structural designs with similar, but not always, overlap- ping datasets. the gazetteer of dongming, located in hebei in northern china, featured disasters and local weather conditions under the section heading “auspicious and omi- nous events” (xiangyi 祥異) in , similar to the local gazetteer of the southern pre- fecture of zhenjiang that had been compiled almost two centuries earlier. but the syntax in the two local gazetteers is very different: the fourteenth-century local gazetteer of zhenjiang categorized different topics (distinguishing, for example, between auspi- cious events and strange occurrences) under which disasters are listed in chronological order. dongming and the majority of later local gazetteers simply chronicle disasters. we built the logart platform in order to address a specific phenomenon of syntactical patterns in our analysis, to examine how its pattern of occurences can be explained in relation to the genre and thus what dorgeloh and wanner define as the “genre effects of syntax.” this approach allows us to inquire into the dialectics (“between” rather than against!) of historical meaning-making and meaning-giving indicators in local gazet- teers—how topics and categories and classifications developed and which contents were featured under them. to do this we built tools to transfer textual structures into tabular structures for the currently available set of , digitized local gazetteers. logart allows researchers to run a search based on content structure (section titles) with or without syntactical anchors (keywords) to identify datasets. then, after close reading, texts can be tagged to encode meaning and to attribute scholarly assessments and interpretations to words or text passages; this helps researchers to assess not only whether the set of all occurrences of the term “mulberry” under the category “local products” has meaning, but also how, under a certain heading, contents, in particular orders in listings (which might express certain preferences, for instance priority) and chu yuansheng 儲元升, qianlong dongming xian zhi 乾隆東明縣志 ( [ ]; repr. in zhongguo fangzhi congshu 中國方志叢書. taibei: chengwen chubanshe, ), “nianji xiangyi” 年紀祥異, . a– b; yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “xiangyi” 祥異 . b– b. the port of zhenjiang held the status of a superior prefecture (fu 府) until and then became the seat of the much larger unit of a circuit (lu 路). heidrun dorgeloh and anja wanner, “introduction,” in syntactic variation and genre, edited by heidrun dorgeloh and anja wanner (berlin: de gruyter mouton, ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms other structures of narration, might change. tagging also makes it possible for us to fol- low similar contents or arrangements of contents through the genre, and eventually to track observations such as the relation between contents and headings or how headings change but contents remain largely the same. for instance, at some point disasters are listed mainly under the rubric of “strange events”, but they can also appear in a local- ity’s history or irrigation sections. by encoding these qualitative assessments into quan- titative structures, historians are able to see how authors developed and used local gazetteers regionally, or how categories, arrangements of content or functions devel- oped locally, nationally, or across different periods. the advantages of logart are that it allows the entire corpus ( ) to be examined by a textual/syntactical search com- plemented with structural search (section headings), ( ) to have an overview with a stat- istical visualization that discloses “the spatial and temporal patterns of transmission flows,” ( ) to enable scholars to call up individual cases for checking and comparison through close reading, and ( ) to implement tagging, which helps convert qualitative scholarly assessment into quantitative structures. in the case of big data analysis, logart offers tools helping researchers to keep in mind what is not known, such as the limitations of the source base—what one might call the blank spots. a major task of curating data is to review prior research on the source situation. in the case of local gazetteers, the geographical range of the still extant yuan era local gazetteers is small, but it is important to understand that during the song, liao, jin, and yuan eras, local gazetteers were mainly produced in the central southern regions. jiangxi, jiangsu, fujian, and hunan were particularly enthusiastic about compiling local gazetteers. during the song, major gazetteers came from zhejiang, sichuan, jiangxi, jiangsu, and guangdong, while the yuan added major local gazetteers in shanxi and shaanxi, hebei, and henan (figure ). mapping the geographic coverage of the text cor- pus helps us to make qualitative assessments and to understand the baseline distribution of our data. it helps to interpret the blank spaces on the map, representing a textual absence. this absence of textual documentation might lead some to suppose an absence of taxes or disaster, especially when working with big textual databases, whereas it may simply indi- cate that a certain place had no local gazetteer, that an edition was lost, or that none is available in the digitized corpus, or data is hidden by the gazetteer’s compilation rules. research began by curating data from varied digital and analog sources. this cura- tion generated many insights about the genre of local gazetteers and its development, and required us to question current assumptions that cannot all be addressed in the scope of this article but are reflected in our maps and datasets. for example, we addressed issues such as how many yuan local gazetteers actually existed, but also more difficult ones including why and how authors, from the song to the yuan applied, shih-pei chen, calvin yeh, and sean wang, “logart: local gazetteers research tools,” max planck institute for the history of science, accessed february , , www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/pro jects/logart-local-gazetteers-research-tools. shih-pei chen, dagmar schäfer, and qun che, “local gazetteers working group,” max planck institute for the history of science, accessed february , , www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/departmentschaefer_spc_ms_localgazetteers. for an approach to visualizing epidemics in big data see mei-po kwan, “algorithmic geographies: big data, algorythmic uncertainty, and the production of geographic knowledge,” in geographies of mobility: recent advances in theory and method, edited by mei-po kwan and tim schwanen (abingdon: routledge ), . if we only look at zhongguo gufangzhi kao 中國古方志考, edited by zhang guogan 张國淦 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ) for pre-yuan local gazetteers, zhejiang has the most ( ). in this case we need to include sichuan and guangdong as well as jiangxi, jiangsu, fujian, and hunan. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/logart-local-gazetteers-research-tools https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/logart-local-gazetteers-research-tools https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/departmentschaefer_spc_ms_localgazetteers https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms continued or changed the structural design of their gazetteers, and how such choices reflect social and intellectual networks. how editorial rules—and thus categories— went in and out of fashion regionally, while the contents may have remained the same, is relevant for our understanding of local gazetteers as a source. our mappings are also meant to highlight the limitations of our sources: while the central government issued policies to collect data across the empire in a systematic fashion and during the yuan nearly titles were compiled—some probably based on song precedents, we do not know their actual contents and arrangements. the forty-two extant song-yuan local gazetteers vary considerably in their syntactical choices and thus the comparability of contents, with a dozen featuring, for example, mainly images (tu 圖) (dongxiao tuzhi 洞霄圖志), biographies (jing xiang lu 敬鄉錄) or anecdotes (gu hang zaji 古杭雜記). the various biases in these datasets have to be considered. figure . geographical distribution of local gazetteers compiled or published during the song, jin, and yuan dynasties, both extant and lost. the data are drawn from four sources: zhongguo gu fangzhi kao, song liao jin yuan fangzhi ji yi, song chao fangzhi kao, and jin yuan fangzhi kao. while the dots represent the coverage of locations of these gazetteers, the background heat map reflects the number of gazetteers compiled for each locale dur- ing all three dynasties. data curation by cathleen paethe, lin nungyao, tang yuting, and jiang yexin; map by lin nungyao. the da yuan da yitong zhi 大元大一統志 was ordered in . edited by zhamaluding 札马剌丁 and expanded by bolanxi 孛蘭肹. the current edition is incomplete and was recompiled based on the yongle dadian 永樂大典. see also zhang guangda’s qiuhuang huomin leiyao who summarized relief mea- sures from various historical tracts. zhang guangda 張光大, jiuhuang huomin leiyao 救荒活民類要 [ ; ming keben明刻本 [ming dynasty print] n.d.; repr. in xuxiu siku quanshu 續修四庫全書] shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), – . these numbers result from consultation of song yuan fangzhi congkan 宋元方志叢刊 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), song yuan zhenxi difangzhi congkan 宋元珍稀地方志叢刊 (chengdu: sichuan daxue chubanshe, ), yuandai shiliao congkan chubian: yuandai dili fangzhi 元代史料叢刊初編: 元 journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms because structural features can be addressed in logart, this offers an exciting ave- nue for inquiring into the genre itself. automated analysis can conveniently compare regional differences in structure and content that would require an unimaginably huge investment of time and energy when done by analog reading. in automated que- ries, exceptions to the rule stand out and can be used to detect and fix the bias con- tained in one’s method and analysis or to identify interesting deviations from an assumed norm. skimming large sets of data, we can detect interesting exceptions that have been overlooked by research (such as singular examples of disaster records from one specific border region). or assumptions that have been inferred about larger sets by relying on particular examples (such as about the content organization of southern, jiangnan, etc. local gazetteers) can be tested. historians, seeing yuan local gazetteers sandwiched between the song and ming, have focused on their structural continuity with song gazetteers and the improvement of their ming successors. huang yansheng, for instance, notes that the “majority” of yuan local gazetteers still showed a continued interest in taxes and in household numbers. he sees yuan gazetteer editors as increasingly standardizing the use of images and applying an encyclopedic approach to collecting local knowledge. he suggests that yu xilu modelled the zhenjiang local gaz- etteer on the song-dynastic jiading “bureaucratic” gazetteer while yu was particularly meticulous in his “scrutiny of economic goods.” although it is not surprising that the song and yuan editions are similar, it can be quickly shown using logart that no other extant song-yuan local gazetteer replicates this content-structural pattern. close reading, combined with an empirical orientation, can reveal significant insights into both the idiosyncratic case and the development of the genre itself. instead of “people” (renwu 人物) yu, for instance, chose “human talents” (rencai 人材) to title a listed recording of professions such as archers, doctors, or monks, and ethnic-linguistic groups (such as huihui, hexi, qidan, han), thus reflecting an era and dynasty that recruited groups other than literati-scholars into its state apparatus, assembled practical talents at the court and traded talented craftsmen and experts as slaves across long distances. he has a section on “buildings” (gongshi 宮室) that includes information on the broad range of other religious and cultural buildings in zhenjiang reflecting the cosmopolitan, multicultural, and multi-religious character of yuan rule. early big data research tended to collapse differences, but tagging can 代地理方志 (anhui: huangshan shushe, ), song yuan dili shiliao huibian 宋元地理史料匯編 (sichuan: sichuan daxue chubanshe, ), and song liao jin yuan fangzhi jiyi 宋遼金元方志輯佚 (shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ). they list local gazetteers of the yuan. zhongguo gufangzhi kao accounted for yuan local gazetteers. jun fang identifies without revealing his source. he then lists extant local gazetteers. jun fang, “a bibliography of extant yuan gazetteers,” journal of song-yuan studies ( ), – . huang yansheng 黃燕生, “yuandai de difangzhi” 元代的地方志, shixueshi yanjiu . , – also notes that yuan local gazetteers equally aimed at comprehensive coverage and this era’s authors already engaged with enthusiasm into historical accounts. the yuan local gazetteer of jiahe lists several kinds of mulberries. xu shuo 徐碩, zhiyuan jianhe zhi 至元嘉禾志 ( ; repr. in song yuan fangzhi congkan. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), and offers taxes, “wuchan” 物產 . b– a. as the number is small, we cross-checked the automated result additionally one-by-one. see thomas allsen, culture and conquest in mongol eurasia (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), . the section is followed by a section on “government buildings” (gongxie 公廨). yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “mulu” 目錄 b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms address such issues, as historians can decide which word groups they wish to form and which expressions within a specific search should be deemed duplications, typos or sim- ilar or which ones carry meaning (figure ). the collation of data across large sets of texts in logart has another advantage. it allows us to see content nuances in relation to changing structural emphasis given by the gazetteer’s syntax. yu xilu, for instance, added a subsection on “auspicious and inauspicious events,” which the song edition did not have. yu located this subsection in the final chapter on “miscellanea” (zalu 雜錄). the heading of “auspicious and inauspicious events” invokes a standard rubric of imperial historiography (zhengshi 正史) which, as local historians regularly emphasize, had been in use since han times. a search in logarts repositories shows, however, that song and yuan local gazetteers rarely use “auspicious and inauspicious events” as a heading, even if they document such events. also, the content of this category varied considerably. wuzhou’s yuan local gazetteer offered locally flavored “tales of the strange” under this rubric, thus emulating tang approaches and earlier views of what made the local interesting. yu, though, under this rubric “orders the past for future figure . tagging as a curation process. this figure shows logart’s tagging interface with a text snippet from the dongming xian gazetteer, resulted from keyword search for mulberry disasters. we tagged the dates of when such disasters happened, place names, reasons, and results of mulberry loss, all shown in different colors. logart allows scholars to define thematic topics for tagging and tags, then assign tags to parts of text to specify their meaning, and also incorporate their assessments of the text parts. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “mulu” 目錄 b. even though local studies emphasize that such a section can be found already in earliest imperial han dynastic local gazetteers, only a couple of song dynasty gazetteers actually feature such sections. reviewing tables of contents and the small number of still extant song gazetteers, the zhongguo gufangzhi kao iden- tifies a good dozen of the known local gazetteers with such a chapter heading—among them four of the titles included in the set researched here. journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms use.” in noting the floods and gales of zhenjiang’s past, yu xilu provided a historical snapshot of the environmental dangers significant to the management of a port city on the yangtze river. yu xilu introduces a category of “auspicious and omnious events” (xiangyi 祥異), but stays clear of yuan legitimacy debates. he chronicled events from the jin 晉 through to the tang era as historical references, but avoided references to incidents during the song that could have been interpreted as political statements on “portents” and been used to support arguments about these ruling houses legitimacy. for the same reasons he may also have wanted to avoid references to the yuan era. although no conclusive statement is possible because of the few surviving editions, in those that survive yu xilu is the only editor to add a disaster section. his approach to zhenjiang’s disaster report- ing prompts several questions regarding the sourcing of such data, the purpose editors had for mentioning disaster data in local gazetteers, and how such sections were devel- oped and used throughout time. in contrast to the unique example of zhenjiang, the dongming local gazetteer is one of a larger group of early to mid-ming local gazetteers that included yuan disasters. in the case of this northern county, almost two hundred years separated the actual disaster event from its first mention in the provincial gazet- teer for daming to which dongming was subordinated since . although dongming became a county in , its first local gazetteer (now lost) dates from . as gao xiang’s preface to the edition explained, he had adapted existing classification schemes to fit their purpose of depicting “the everchanging vestiges that are the course and change of any development.” starting with a typical arrangement of data in the categories of heavenly patterns (tianwen 天文 i.e., astronomy and astrol- ogy), patterns of the earth (dili 地理, geography), affairs of government (zhengshi 政事), and historical figures (renwu 人物), editors added rubrics for government bol, “the rise of local history,” . yu ends with the year when enormous floods along the grand canal inundated northern china and several thousand people drowned. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “xiangyi” 祥異 . b– b. wei chongwu 魏崇武, “lun meng yuan chuqi de zhengtong lun” 論蒙元初期的正統論, shixueshi yanjiu . , – . contained in the erudition dataset are two early editions of the daming fu zhi 大名府志, one edited by li lu 李輅, zhao ben 趙本, and wu ji 吳驥 in , and the other edited by shi lu 石祿 and tang jin 唐錦 in . before dongming had been subordinated to kaizhou 開州, then after to caozhou 曹州. from after the ming conquest in until the unit was dissolved and governed from kaizhou, changyuan county, before being permanently returned to daming. the administrative changes are described in the gazetteer itself, and dynastic histories can be followed in chgis. both the kaizhou and the changyuan gazetteers were compiled slightly before the first dongming gazetteer in , however, also clearly after that of daming. none of them contains yuan disasters records for dongming. wang chongqing 王崇慶, (jiajing) kaizhou zhi (嘉靖) 開州志 ( ; repr. in yuan guoli beiping tushuguan jia ku shanben congshu 原國立北平圖書館甲庫善本叢書. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “xiangyi” 祥異 . a– b, and liu fang 劉芳, (jiajing) changyuan zhi (嘉靖) 長垣志 ( ; repr. in yuan guoli beiping tushuguan jia ku shanben congshu 原國立北平圖書館甲庫善本叢書. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “zaixiang” 災祥 . b– a. see old preface ( jiu xu 舊序) by yang risheng 楊日升 in chu yuansheng, qianlong dongming xian zhi, “jiu xu” 舊序, b. the editors also point towards the zuozhuan and shiji (大抵如左氏史遷之法). zuozhuan, which is chronological, and shiji, which is by events, are the major two frameworks of chinese historiography: “是志者史屬也夫志之體必天文地理政事人物世代風俗常變之迹沿革之由備書而詳紀之大抵如左氏史遷之法故曰志.” the classification scheme was chosen arbitrarily: “遂約諸生徒立凡例定程規門分類.” see old preface (jiu xu 舊序) by gao xiang 高橡 in qianlong dongming xian zhi, “jiu xu” 舊序 a, b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms buildings (gongyu 公宇) and shrines and sacrifices (cisi 祠祀), historic relics (guji 古蹟), and taxes (tianfu 田賦) “in an attempt to provide facts, to learn about disasters and auspicious events, to point out vigilance and admonishments, to extend one’s knowledge about what can be seen and heard, to see the achievements and failures of administration, and to allow scrutiny of the rise and fall of customs and habits, to be passed on eternally and without any concealment.” specific sections of a local gazetteer, such as disasters, were not only affected by local conditions, individual editorial choices, or textual transmission. in the case of yu xilu’s gazetteer, political ideologies and intellectual trends affected disaster-reporting practices at the time, and their historical reception. by including tang records on big floods, yu during yuan reign provided administrators with useful information about local condi- tions and hazards, outlined prior failures and, by remaining silent about his own times, avoided a contentious political theme. in the case of dongming we equally need to con- sider how yuan officials originally handled and documented mulberry disasters, and how ming local gazetteer editors, local officials, or members of the local scholarly elite reflected on the yuan and on disasters in their own time. the kangxi edition of , the earliest extant edition that puts dongming on the yuan disaster map, followed the structure of four preceding ming editions ( , , , and ). the “old preface” to the edition indicates that editors con- sulted local sources, but in fact many northern gazetteers for which the first edition appears in the mid-ming era based their accounts of earlier events on dynastic histo- ries. the extant qing editions do not specify whether dongming cultivated mulberry trees or had to pay juan-taxes in yuan, but give field sizes for moriculture for their own eras. the kangxi and qianlong editions would add on disaster events towards the actual date of compilation while continuing to copy prior entries without adding further information from other sources on matters such as tax relief or damage reports. how, then, did dongming’s moriculture disaster records relate to yuan practices and politics of disaster recording? to answer this question, we queried the current set of digitized gazetteers of , titles. see old preface by gao xiang in qianlong dongming xian zhi, “jiu xu” 舊序 b. of daming fu zhi compiled by li lu, zhao ben, and wu ji in . the records are still in the re-edition by shi lu and tang jin, and in the edition by gao huanyuan 郜煥元 and zhou bangbin 周邦彬. all are available in zhongguo fangzhi ku 中國方志庫, licensed through berlin state library’s crossasia and in gugong zhenben congkan 故宮珍本叢刊, edited by gugong bowuyuan 故宮博物院 (haikou: hainan, ). xijian zhongguo difangzhi huikan 稀見中國地方志彙刊, edited by zhongguo kexueyuan tushuguan 中國科學院圖書館 (beijing: zhongguo shudian, ). for a full overview of the county’s administrative changes from song to qing, see china historical gis (harvard university and fudan university) records of the following numbers: hvd_ , hvd_ , hvd_ , and hvd_ . for the emergence of northern local gazetteers, see bai biling 白璧玲, “ming qing shiqi huabei huang fanqu wenhua jingguan zhi xingsu yu bianqian: yi kaifeng fu diqu wei zhu” 明清時期華北黃泛區文化景觀之形塑與變遷: 以開封府地區為主 (phd diss., taiwan normal university, ). in several instances the local gazetteer notes silk related taxes, which confirms that dongming contin- ued sericulture. silk from official mulberry land translated into liang 兩, qian 錢 silk per mu 畝 of land. moriculture fields in private hands were charged by liang 兩 silk threads. silk floss was raised per male head, amounting to , liang 兩, bolts of tax silk, which is per adult male one liang and per eight liang one bolt of tax silk. by the county had to deliver liang 兩 strings of silk floss and bolts, zhang 丈 of juan-tax silk. chu yuansheng, qianlong dongming xian zhi, “fu shui” 賦稅 . a. in the republican era editors increasingly aimed at updating and complementing accounts. this set is from erudition’s zhongguo fangzhi ku. another titles are from harvard yenching library’s rare book collection. in this article we only use the erudition set, which ranges from tang journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms data curation: mulberry-related disasters to assess dongming’s records on moriculture disasters within the whole set of gazet- teers we first extracted information about mulberry disasters through a full-text search with a set of keywords that incorporated regional and historical variations in language, and next identified typos, marked them (for identification) and normalized them. using semi-automated exclusion processes and close reading, data was then normal- ized—that is cleansed of irrelevant mentions and duplicates (same disaster at the same year/month at the same place). we found reports of moriculture disasters, most of which were in sections for auspicious and ominous events or related sections titled as chronologies of events (for example, ji 紀, nianbiao 年表) and a few under relief policies (xuzheng 恤政). we then geo-coded each report in this dataset and, since some of the reports mentioned that the disasters actually took place in several counties, in this process we expanded the dataset to , specifying the mulberry dis- aster events at actual plottable locations. one hundred and fifty-six of the actual reports and of the expanded geo-referenced recorded disaster events are from the yuan. these data served as the basis of our analysis. collating the data and the spatial and statistical analysis on the dataset’s chronology showed several interesting patterns. as we tagged events in primary sources, we observed several patterns, such as that the nomenclature of moriculture disasters during the yuan was particularly rich. mapping confirmed prior observations that moriculture disasters appeared until and mostly during the yuan dynasty ( percent), but not so much during the ming and qing. figure shows a chronological overview of the dataset by dynasty (and reign era) of occurrence and by dynasty of appearance in local gazetteers. for example, moriculture disaster events reported in these local gazet- teers reach back as early as the western han dynasty, yet all local gazetteers that men- tion moriculture disasters were published in the ming ( ), qing ( ), and the republican ( ) period. figure shows changing dynastic emphasis on moriculture disasters. displaying yuan data proportionally to the increase in the number of local gazetteers during the ming, qing, and republican periods illustrates that yuan data were quite consistently carried over from earlier editions, suggesting that faithful copy- ing enhanced the impression of a peak of moriculture disasters during yuan times. for comparative purposes we curated another dataset of moriculture disaster reports from the “five phases” chapters (wuxing zhi 五行志) of the history of the yuan (yuan shi 元史), a ming era compilation, and the new history of the yuan (xin yuan shi 新元史), a qing era compilation. ninety-seven reports were found based on a full text search of “mulberry” (sang 桑) and “silkworm” (can 蠶). we expanded these into location- ( – ) through minguo ( – ), while the majority of gazetteers were published in the ming ( ), qing ( , ), and minguo ( ). currently logart links to , digitized local gazetteers. we collected thirteen keywords indicative of mulberry disasters which we expanded as we read through primary sources: shisang 食桑, shasang 殺桑, sangsun 桑損, sang duosun 桑多損, sunsang 損桑, haisang 害桑, huaisang 壞桑, sangguo dangjin 桑果蕩盡, feican shi 廢蠶事, sangzai 桑災, sangcan jiezai 桑蠶皆災, sangdiao 桑凋, and shangsang 傷桑. the data curation process involves several colleagues and student assistants, whom we would like to thank here: cathleen paethe, calvin yeh, luo en-mien, zhao wenhua, lin nung-yao, liu yuxin, du ruixuan, tang yuting, and jiang yexin. western jin ( %), northern song ( %), and ming ( %). this dataset is based upon the database curated by lin nung-yao, hung yi-mei, and su hong-ting for natural disasters from the twenty-five official histories (ershiwu shi 二十五史). substantial differences mark these sources, song lian’s compilation of the yuan shi sourced the yuandai gechao shilu 元代各 dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms figure . chronological breakdown of mulberry disasters reported in lg: dynasties of the disasters and when they were published in lg. figure . chronological breakdown of mulberry disasters, proportional to number of extant lgs published by each dynasty 朝實錄 and the jingshi dadian 經世大典, whereas xin yuanshi 新元史 compiled by ke shaomin 柯劭忞 during the qing also used the yongle dadian 永樂大典, the yuanshi yiwen zhengbu 元史譯文證補 and the yuanshi leibian 元史類編. see song lian, yuan shi, – . see also zhang jianghua 張京華 and huang shuhui 黃曙輝, “chuban shuoming” 出版說明 in xin yuanshi, compiled by ke shaomin, – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms based plottable disaster events and obtained cases. the set of all disasters from yuan dynastic histories is also preserved for baseline reference. our first step was to ask how the data reflected practices and policies of disaster management. in a second step we com- pared politics of the gazetteers and yuan data management from other dynasties. disasters in dongming: yuan bureaucracy in ming local gazetteers dongming was a northern county situated east of the taihang mountains where the yellow river spilled into an alluvial zone of rich agricultural lands, and was, like zhenjiang, no stranger to disasters, in particular capricious floods and droughts. under the song, officials from here had participated in capital politics. it would survive mul- tiple military incursions during the jin–song wars ( – ) and mongol–jin wars ( – ). by , the year of dongming’s first recorded mulberry-related disaster, how- ever, wars had moved elsewhere. we can imagine farmers in dongming working their rich alluvial fields in relative peace, growing grain and raising silkworms as they had done in this region since pre-tang times. they would have been contributing to the yuan’s abundance of panni tartarici silk and gold textiles which we still find spread throughout the modern museum world. chinese textual sources of the yuan consistently empha- sized the pressure placed on localities such as dongming to revive silk production in the post-conquest period and increase output. a poem by wang yun 王惲 ( – ), a former politician and scholar of the jin dynasty, also describes the incredible haz- ards of mulberry cultivation for farmers livelihoods: young mulberry develops green leaves by the end of spring, charmingly sparkling in the sunlight. a farm family’s annual budget is indeed unstable. farmers’ wives look after the mulberry trees, sweeping away the worms [sao sangyi 掃蠶蟻]. but a black frost sweeps over the land so that , trees are dried out and, encountering a torch, are burned up; or even if they continue into the spring, their branches are sheared off by heavy winds from the sea, and the business is ruined. though the goddess of weaving is appealed to, the loom is empty. dongming’s population was also quite active in capital politics and during the reform campaign. see ruth mostern, dividing the realm in order to govern: the spatial organization of the song state ( – ce) (cambridge, ma: harvard university asia center, ), . in comparison to earlier periods, as humble notes, the dynastic biographies of this period also empha- size consolidation and adherence to rules and regulations as a major characteristic. geoffrey humble, “princely qualities and unexpected coherence: rhetoric and representation in ‘juan ’ of the ‘yuanshi’,” journal of song-yuan studies ( ), . this included the intensive promotion of agricul- ture including that “all possible parts of the steppe that could be put under the plow” were used. see john dardess, “from mongol empire to yuan dynasty: changing forms of imperial rule in mongolia and central asia,” monumenta serica ( ), . jiang ying 姜穎, shandong sichou shi 山東絲綢史 (jinan: qi lu shushe, ), – . juliane von fircks, “panni tartarici: splendid cloths from the mongol empire in european contexts,” orientations ( ), – . translates as: to sweep the newly-born silkworms off the silkworm egg paper into baskets with mul- berry leaves inside. 桑災嘆: 穉桑發暮春緑葉光旎旎田家嵗計固不常農婦相桑掃蠶蟻黒霜一夜從天來萬樹焦枯遭燎燬令春継以海多風剪碎枝條生意靡天孫仰訴錦機空, see wang yun 王惲, qiujian ji 秋涧集 ( ; repr. sibu congkan 四部叢刊, taibei: taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, ), “sangzai tan” 桑災嘆 . a. for dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms wang spent most of his life in hebei, shandong, and fujian; he identified north china as a region that had long been familiar with moriculture. he urged yuan emper- ors to alleviate the farmers’ burden with tax relief and compensation (which could include financial support for the raising or purchase of new seedlings) whenever disas- ter struck. as chen gaohua has pointed out, the yuan implemented different gover- nance practices and regimes in different regions of their empire. they favored their steppe homeland in every regard and they differentiated northern and southern regions when handling and taxing agriculture and sericulture. variations in local farming prac- tices and natural conditions explain regionally different approaches to tax policy and practice. this practice reached back to the northern song, when the government had begun introducing sericulture in the south, while relying on the established tradition of such trades in the north. before , yuan officials mainly continued the policies of previous dynasties. in qubilai khan adopted jurchen-jin disaster policies and ideas. emperors in – increasingly accepted neo-confucian views from the southern song. by the s the regions had again broken apart, leading eventually to civil war. tracing this trajectory it becomes clear that the song treated north and south differently and that the yuan enforced this trend by following jin politics (which had adapted song policies) in the north and song approaches only in the south. because the north had cultivated mulberry for a long time, yuan rulers anticipated regular yields, as this had been the case before the conquest; the south was treated as an area of new cultivation where farmers and local officials mostly monitored new plantations. disasters were thus regionally defined, and even if one occurred in the south, the eco- nomic effects were expected to be less severe. in the history of the yuan and local gazetteers, most disaster reports refer to regions whose levies were based on the five-household silk quota system. whenever a disaster was expected to bring about a loss of more than percent of the expected tax revenue a report had to be made and local taxes were reduced accordingly. as noted earlier, this was just the tip of the iceberg, as only severe disasters were reported by censors to the central government. as shen youliang notes, there was a third level in the disaster selec- tion process: depending on the gravity of the disaster and the efficiency of relief mea- sures, the upper level of the central government usually reacted with an inspection. if the authors of local gazetteers made regular use of local information, whether from personal experience, by hearsay, or by consultation of local archives—as historians his discussion on legitimacy see yuan chen, “legitimation discourse and the theory of the five elements in imperial china,” journal of song-yuan studies ( ), . chen gaohua 陳高華, “yuandai zaihai fasheng shi gaishu” 元代災害發生史概述, in yuanchao shishi xinzheng 元朝史事新證, edited by chen gaohua 陳高華 (gansu: lanzhou daxue chubanshe, ), – . for chen, taxes were the major reason for regionally different disaster approaches and he notes that yuan approaches relied on the song expanded surveillance of locust plagues, epidemics, and famines. for a finer regional distinction moriculture disasters and sericulture in sichuan should also be considered, but, as in other studies, they are not included here, because the source situation is difficult. da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang 大元聖政國朝典章 (beijing: zhongguo guangbo dianshi, ), . “水旱災傷皆隨時檢覆得實 […] 損八分以上其稅全免損七分以下止免所損分數收及六分者稅既全徵不須申檢.” wang peihua 王培華, yuandai beifang zaihuang yu jiuji 元代北方災荒與救濟 (beijing: beijing daxue chubanshe, ), also mentions that the loss of – % would not be reported and recorded, but that does not mean no disasters happened. supervision also included the punishment of tax officials; see shen youliang 申友良, xiao yue’e 肖月娥, “yuandai shenjiang tifu zhidu yu jian zai jiu zai” 元代申檢體覆制度與減災救災, zhanjiang shifan daxue xuebao . ( ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms of local gazetteers and disasters such as luo lin made explicit but most studies take as a default assumption —we should find some traces of the hierarchy of such reporting practices. to assess this, we searched for different strategies, allowing for copying, dupli- cates, and text reuse. hierarchies/geographies of reporting historical sources can be interpreted in two directions: as a reaction to or as a product of certain conditions. when shen, following other historians, assumes that the state’s increased sophistication in policies of disaster management was a reaction to an increased disaster rate, he focuses on textual production as a reactive effort. what do these data thus allow us to say about the enactment of yuan administrative rules on disasters and their management? as shen has emphasized, the yuan code on administrative hierarchies of reporting, handling, and archiving disasters ruled that the transmission of a disaster report within the system depended on its severity—the more severe the disaster, the higher it travelled up in the administrative hierarchy of county (xian 縣), prefecture (zhou 州), superior prefecture ( fu 府, assigned for strategically important places), and circuit (lu 路). according to various rules given in the great record of the unified yuan dynasty (da yuan da yitong zhi 大元大一統志), we have also to take into account that, whereas local levels were directly responsible for handling disasters, only the central government and court could grant tax relief or even offer additional grain supplies or financial help. usually local officials had to first seek help within their districts/county— from rich gentry, for instance—and were not allowed to request help from bodies such as the local granaries (for famine relief). the regional censors, in positions sub- ordinate to the central censorate (xingyu shitai 行御史台) were the only administrators empowered to decide on tax issues, communicate with the court directly, and react on an ad hoc basis. those censors strictly supervised prefectural offices (luzong guanfu luo lin, “zhongguo gudai difangzhi zhi zaiyi jilu,” . see zhai yu 翟禹, “yuandai zaihai shi yanjiu shuping (yi)” 元代灾害史研究述评(一), chifeng xueyuan xuebao ( ), – , and the second part in chifeng xueyuan xuebao ( ), – ; gu jing 顧靜, zhao jingbo 趙景波, and zhou jie 周杰, “guanzhong diqu yuandai ganhan zaihai yu qihou bianhua” 關中地區元代幹旱災害與氣候變化, haixiang dizhi yu disiji dizhi ( ), – . for an analysis of corruption and financial incentives, but also notions of ecology and nature, or yuan nomadic life styles and how those may have influenced the perspective on what exactly constituted a disaster, see zhao xinggen 赵杏根, “yuandai shengtai sixiang yu shijian juyao” 元代生態思想與實踐舉要, ha‘erbin gongye daxue xuebao ( ), . shen refers to the chinese translation of alien regimes and border states, – , edited by herbert franke and denis c. twitchett (cambridge: cambridge university press, ). shen youliang and xiao yue’e, “yuandai shenjian tifu zhidu yu jian zai jiu zai,” . note also that “reported disasters” (gaozai 告災) are always “disasters under scrutiny by censors” (shenzai 申灾). da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, : “今後各道按察司如承各路官司申牒災傷去處 [...]”. see also quan yuan wen 全元文, edited by li xiusheng 李修生 (nanjing: jiangsu guji chubanshe, ), . . . quan yuan wen, . . . censors (fengshi 奉使, yushitai 御史臺) were not punished, whereas local officials were regularly accused of corrupt practices. see for instance song lian, yuan shi, . . therefore, individuals often used their own money, instead of asking for relief. during the great famine of in guanshan 關陝, for instance, the official mazha’ertai 馬札兒台 helped by spending his own funds ( jinchu sicai 盡出私財). yuan dian zhang, . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 路总管府) and all lower levels. by the s, regional and local level officials no longer had the right to open granaries. as shen youliang also adds, we must take into account that both reporting policies and relief measures reflect attempts to prevent corruption and misuse of tax exemption policies and do not necessarily reflect an interest in damage mitigation. the extant documentation and historical reproduction of dongming’s various moriculture disas- ters in dynastic sources and in gazetteers of various administrative levels reflect some of the paper trails that such reporting practices left in the various administrative levels and their archives. all three of dongming’s moriculture disasters made it into dynastic accounts, but they landed in different sections. of the three disaster records mentioned in the dongming gazetteer’s disaster section, the history of yuan listed the inci- dent in both the “five phases” (wuxing 五行) treatise and “basic annals” (benji 本紀) with a reference to daming prefecture (to which dongming was subordinated), whereas the and incidents were only listed in the “annals” but not in “five phases.” the name dongming was only referred to in the incident, which seems to have been the most severe since the mulberry trees were killed (shasang 殺桑). all three cases were recorded in the gazetteer of daming prefecture (daming fu zhi 大名府志), compiled in . the dynastic history states that dongming could not deliver its taxes in , but does not say this for . the report of thus can be iden- tified as a report from the county level included as a historical event of some regional significance. such an interpretation allows the possibility that mid-ming gazetteer authors may have had to rely on local sources, although, as we will see later on, we have to consider that by the late ming dynastic historiography and prefectural gazetteers were not inac- cessible and thus contents were regularly copied. in our global survey we were able to observe that percent of the yuan mulberry-related disaster reports are from (ming and qing) county level gazetteers, while percent are from the prefecture level. that disaster events are also not consistently copied suggests that the gazetteers admin- istrative hierarchy mirrors at least to some extent that of the yuan administrative hier- archy of disaster relief and tax management. two explanations for this are possible. we might assume that editors in a northern locality like dongming, compiling a gazetteer during the mid-ming period, were able to record information that derived ultimately from yuan-period local (rather than central) sources. this implies that significant usable local records—or information in some form (perhaps even oral?)—survived the yuan–ming transition and a century or two beyond, so that it could be drawn quan yuan wen, . . . see also da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, . shen youliang and xiao yue’e, “yuandai shenjiang tifu zhidu yu jianzai jiuzai” also note that super- vision also included the punishment of tax officials, . dongming was subordinated to changing units but belonged to daming after ming rule. see china historical gis (harvard university and fudan university) records of the following number: hvd_ . we can imagine this as a second or third wave of local gazetteer production that the ming initiated already before the unification in . joseph dennis, “early printing in china viewed from the perspective of local gazetteers,” in knowledge and text production in the age of print: china, – , edited by lucilla chia and hilde de weerdt (leiden; boston: brill, ), – , . dennis’s source is the preface of the baoding junzhi 保定郡志, . according to the yuan shi neither could dongming deliver in (延祐元年 [ … ] 東明長垣等縣隕霜殺桑果禾苗.) see song lian, yuan shi, . . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms upon by mid-ming gazetteer editors. another explanation would be that what we see here are simply the traces of yuan hierarchies of reporting in central state archiving practices. before we can address this conundrum, we wish to first delve a bit deeper into the question of what kind of “event” we actually see reported by inquiring into the timing of disaster records. regulations in yuan codices not only addressed hierar- chal lines of reporting, but also how and when to report. the rhythm of reporting when treating disaster reports as “data,” environmental studies have implied that the report date reflects the actual occurrence of the event. following song and jin poli- cies, the yuan set reporting deadlines for disasters based on when weather had the greatest adverse effects on agriculture. considering that weather events affect agriculture more at certain times of the year, the submission of reports on disasters were restricted to certain periods: “at all places disasters such as floods and droughts harm the fields and grain harvests. for summer fields, this concerns the fourth (lunar) month and for autumn fields the eighth (lunar) month. untimely disasters are to be reported within a month [of the event]. reports after this deadline will not be considered.” amendments to and enforcements of deadlines were made in and , when the yuan allowed northern places such as yulu to report into the fifth (lunar) month. in the lower yangzi region was allowed to report up to the ninth (lunar) month acknowledging that in the south, autumn floods regularly harmed agriculture. assuming that dongming’s reporting practice followed this rule, of its three disasters in only the drought would have counted as an untimely disaster as it occurred in the sixth month (or fifth month, considering that officials had up to one month to report), whereas the moriculture failure is noted for the fourth month and the flood for the seventh month (and the latter was hence still before the eighth month and hence could be included). in the global set of mulberry-related disasters, one third ( out of , percent) occurred in the fourth and seventh lunar months. seven out of ten times frosts are reported to have happened in the third month, noting a “diminishing of the mulberry yield [sunsang 損桑].” nine reports mention that the mulberry tree had been killed (shasang 殺桑). this divergence did not converge over the centuries. thus far, we have not found no examples of later ming or qing editions adding all records in the official history of the yuan (yuan shi 元史). wang lige 王麗歌, “song yuan jiang huai diqu ziran zaihai de shikong fenbu tezheng yu jiben guilü” 宋元江淮地區自然災害的時空分佈特徵與基本規律, anhui shixue . , – . peng weiying 彭維英, [et al.] “hanjiang shangyou lishi shiqi handong zaihai tezheng jiqi shehui yingxiang yanjiu” 漢江上遊歷史時期寒凍災害特徵及其社會影響研究, ganhan qu ziyuan yu huanjing . , – . wan honglian 萬紅蓮, [et al.], “guoqu nian lai shaanxi diqu bingbao zaihai jiqi dui nongye de yingxiang yanjiu” 過去年來陜西地區冰雹災害及其對農業的影響研究, gaoyuan qixiang . , – . “該各處遇有水旱災傷田粮夏田四月秋田八月非時災傷一月為限限外申告並不準理.” da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, . it is likely that this date reflects the enthronement and rules already in place before the final usurpation of the song. the jin dynasty explicitly emphasized moriculture disas- ters, but, in general, this concerns all disasters (zai), floods, droughts, famines, etc. song lian, yuan shi, . . da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, . all of these amendments enforce a timely response to disasters. for the former song rule see tuotuo 脫脫, song shi 宋史 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), . , and tuotuo, song shi, . – . the years were , , , , , , , , , and . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms references to dongming disasters all fit within the officially sanctioned rhythm of reporting. it is quite unlikely that “disasters”—at least if we understand them as events that were not foreseeable and in particular when we understand them as events induced by climate change and thus out of the usual rhythm of seasonal change—should con- sistently follow a specific human rule (unless this rule is very vague) which suggests that, rather than reflecting the date of the actual event, local gazetteer authors may have col- lected events and used the deadline to report all accumulated incidents. we must also consider that just as weather may be expected to induce harm within any given annual cycle, beginning with capricious periods in spring impacting sowing and the first growth period, only in late summer when harvests were brought in could any actual harm be determined—and yuan reporting regulations reflect such considerations. content of reports as noted earlier, during our process of tagging we observed variations in the nomen- clature for moriculture disasters during the yuan and looked further at the quality of information given in local gazetteers. in this process we observed that some entries mention successive disasters, and others singular events; big data approaches miss this when they count each incident as a singular event. as an illustration of how this observation may affect our interpretations, when we simply cluster all the different terms that specify “moriculture-disasters” into global full text searches, we miss the fact that the “killing of the trees” was the only event that qualified as a severe disaster, because it meant that new plantations would have to be established and no harvest could be expected for at least two years. in our inter- pretation, we have to consider that many other mulberry-related incidents such as “mulberry leaves were eaten (by insects)” (shisang 食桑) may not necessarily have constituted a major crisis, as under favorable conditions in late spring the mulberry would simply sprout new leaves and silkworms could still be fed. the degree of havoc and financial harm some of the specified events could produce varied consider- ably: mulberries could recover from a late frost; local officials could try to redirect har- vests within a region to prevent local sericulture being impacted. that yuan recording practices followed this logic is likely as most of the mulberry-related disasters recorded in local gazetteers—frost ( percent), insects ( percent), rain ( . percent), or snow ( . percent), heavy winds ( . percent), or thunderstorms ( . percent)—include assessments of the degree of harm: whether mulberry seedlings, spring leaf sprouts, or entire trees were destroyed. in other such causal strings we can see the logic of cumulative effects. in dongming’s string of disas- ters in only the enumeration of multiple harmful incidents offers a compelling argument for the court to offer tax relief: not only had insects destroyed the mulberry qiu yunfei 邱雲飛, zhongguo zaihai tongshi: songdai juan 中國災害通史: 宋代卷 (zhengzhou: zhengzhou daxue chubanshe, ), – . fourteen different kinds of disasters, including water/floods, droughts, famine, insects, hail, frost, earthquakes, windstorms, snow, sanddust, rats/venom, landslides, and human and veterinary epidemics are identified by li tiesong 李鐵松, ren deyou 任德有, zhang xiaoxia 張曉霞, and li jian 李劍, “liang song shiqi ziran zaihai de wenxue jishu yu dili fenbu guilu” 兩宋時期自然災害的文學記述與地理分佈規律, ziran zaihai xuebao . , – . they leave out specifications of agricultural disasters. for veterinary epidemics as another “political” disaster event during the song, see dagmar schäfer and han yi, “great plans: song dynastic ( – ) institutions for human and veterinary healthcare,” in animals through chinese history: earliest times to , edited by roel sterckx, martina siebert, and dagmar schäfer (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms leaf harvest, meaning that spring silkworms could not be raised, but subsequent droughts and floods had meant that no further silkworms could be bred that year. what we may consider then, is that when local officials decided to report disaster events, they may have bundled several events in chronological order to offer a convinc- ing case to censors that lasting harm was done. our interpretation, derived from the observation of patterns around the mention of moriculture disasters, runs counter to big data approaches that have a tendency to itemize data into the smallest possible unit—one dataset of one event such as flood or drought—and an environmental history approach that interprets multiple disasters as an indicator of the severity of environmental changes—in which a flood, a drought and an insect plague suggest an increased degree of damage to humans and not a more convincing scenario for an actual disaster to begin with. it is not the singular event that should be counted as the disaster event, but only the succession of multiple incidents that constitutes one event: only the moriculture crop failure, caused by too much rain, successive insect plague and finally a drought, constitutes what we could call the causative string to substantiate one single disaster. to focus on moriculture also means to acknowledge that disasters are always relative to their impact on humans. in principle a flood or drought only counts as a disaster when it damages human food resources, shelter, life, or economic basis. in the case of china, where disaster management was an issue of state legitimacy, prevention was an important theme. contemporary writings on how to prevent mulberry-related disasters suggest that tax officers and censors would not accept just any damage as a disaster; officials were expected to prevent disasters and farmers to adapt to circum- stances. the compilers of the compendium on agriculture and mulberry plants pro- vided details on destructive insects’ life cycles, habits, and characteristics, so that officials could both advise mulberry farmers how to avoid damage and assess whether appropriate preventive measures had been taken. the explanation was that: “at mid- summer, [the insects] breed around the tree trunk on the ground. their offspring have the form of maggots and suck the resin from the tree.” wang advised farmers to pick insects off their trees regularly: “a mulberry [tree or berry] cannot be free of insects. it is important to get rid of them. one can use iron wires to hook them off; or smoke them off with sulfur, so they die when they are blackened; or burn tong oil paper to block them. this is based on experience.” such preventive regimes empha- size that, when taken well care of, mulberry trees could develop a second growth of leaves, even after insect damage or an early frost. it is difficult to assess whether there is a “yuan” style in such data, given the gazet- teers and the dynastic history were compiled in the early ming. the official history of the yuan often specifies the financial repercussions of disasters, recording that in mulberry-related disasters harmed , households in shandong; that, in , when frost destroyed the mulberry yield in the regions around yidu (益都) and banyang (般陽), a total of , , trees were killed; and that tax censors recorded such interpretations of quantity increase are particularly popular in science history studies and the basis of most statistical analysis. wang zhen, nongshu, “zai sang” 栽桑 . b. wang zhen, nongshu, “zhongzhi pian shier” 種植篇十二 . b: “桑果不無蟲蠧宜務去之其法用鐵線作鈎取之一法用硫黃及雄黃作烟薰之即死或用桐油紙燃塞之亦騐.” dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a loss of about , baskets of silkworms in hejian’s four counties of qing 清, cang 滄, mo 莫, and xian 獻. when comparing entries over time, however, different dynastic “styles” of listing disasters emerge that make the yuan entries look sober and factual, if not “objective.” pre-song references to disasters are historical quotes and abbreviated narratives, as in yu xilu’s zhenjiang gazetteer. ming accounts increasingly address the actual damage whereas qing disaster records increasingly narrate events and consistently specify tax relief. dongming exemplifies these dynastic differences quite consistently, although such observations invite a close look at copying practices during the ming era to further explore which other sources ming editors of local gazetteers may have consulted when including yuan disasters in their compilations. before going into the issue of ming approaches to yuan disasters, we need to take at least a short look at the ideological and political implications in the data. data as discourses: local gazetteers and dynastic histories the mandate of heaven in the yuan and ming chapters on “auspicious and inauspicious events.” when in herbert franke asked how the embedding of buddhism, portents, prophecies, and yuan politics within the pax mongolica had an effect on this era’s approach to environmental hazards and legitimacy, he was unable to detect the influ- ence of either a “mongolian” lifestyle, or a steppe or nomadic identity. wang yun exemplifies the dominance of “chinese” voices in such debates, but also exemplifies the bias in current research on the impact of the political views on disaster studies. yuan chen also observes that yuan theories of legitimacy increasingly emphasized the rulers benevolence rather than earlier notions of the cycle of five phases, area, state power, blood lines, or ethnic belonging. disasters quite clearly occupied com- mentators of the shangshu, as well as yin-yang specialists and diviners. wang yun thus has been studied as a contemporary politician who attempted to convince the yuan rulers to legitimize themselves within the chinese theory of the five elements and to place themselves in line with jin-jurchen rule. his remark on moriculture disas- ters is indicative of the huge ideological importance of disasters in yuan politics for legitimacy, which has not been well researched or understood. chen gaohua describes yuan emperors in his analysis of disaster politics as hands-on and practical when song lian, yuan shi, . – . for a detailed analysis see wang peihua 王培華 and liu yufeng 劉玉峰, “yuandai beifang sangshu zaihai ji guojia jiuzai jianzai duice” 元代北方桑樹災害及國家救災減災對策, gujin nongye . , – . fan shen 樊深, hejian fu zhi 河間府志 ( ; repr. in tianyige cang mingdai fangzhi xuankan 天一閣藏明代方志選刊. taibei: xinwenfeng chuban gongsi, ), “fengtu zhi: xiang yi” 風土志: 祥異 . b– b. herbert franke, from tribal chieftain to universal emperor and god: the legitimation of the yuan dynasty (münchen: verlag der bayerischen akademie der wissenschaften, ). see also wei chongwu 魏崇武, “lun meng yuan chuqi de zhengtong lun” 論蒙元初期的正統論, shixueshi yanjiu . , – . yuan chen, “legitimation discourse and the theory of the five elements in imperial china,” . this includes literati scholars such as wang tianyu 王天與, or dong ding 董鼎, or specialists of the shangshu 尚書 such as chen li 陳櫟 ( – ), zhao fang 趙汸 ( – ) or zhu zuyi 朱祖義 (yuan). for the general role that weather forecasting and astrological-astronomical concerns played in these debates in imperial china in general see david pankenier, “the cosmopolitical background of heaven’s mandate,” early china ( ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms responding to disasters. comparing them to song rulers, he identifies them as quite hostile towards the political scheming of chinese local officials. any historical anal- ysis of chinese sources has to recognize that ming scholars and politicians molded the historical image of their predecessors on many levels. the ming founder, zhu yuanzhang ( – ), primarily had the yuan history compiled to authorize his own rule, asking editors “not to add any appraising remarks, but write in a straightfor- ward manner, forget about formalities so as to let the evil shine through.” geoffrey humble has identified such editorial policies in the biographical sections suggesting this might be applicable for the other sections as well. quantitative data have informed most conclusions about the environmental foot- print of the yuan, yet a close reign-by-reign view of moriculture disasters in northern local gazetteers illustrates the overwhelming dominance of neo-confucianism in the yuan period and its growing impact in that of the ming. for instance, during the nine- year reign of emperor renzong—who reduced taxes and occasionally listened to song-confucian chinese advisers—only one moriculture disaster was documented, whereas disaster references not unsurprisingly increased during the reign eras of aggres- sive or unruly emperors. when comparing yuan and song dynastic histories, gong guanming and yang wansheng observed that statistically moriculture disasters were reported with a lower frequency during the northern song than the yuan. between and , they identified mulberry disaster reports to the song court, on average once every . years. during the years of the yuan rule, between, and , mulberry-related disasters reached the court, on average once every . years and thus six times more often than during the song. however, close scrutiny shows that the song often listed moriculture disasters around important political events such as the loss of the north. the yuan, by comparison reported disasters quite regu- larly, and often in the same places. dongming illustrates that once a local gazetteer included disaster records, succeeding editions continued to chronicle such disasters. during the years of yuan in total disasters are mentioned in the dongming gaz- etteer, an average of once every . years. whereas, as gong and yang also observed, more disasters are recorded in texts for the yuan period than for the song. if we now compare forward in time, we can see that during the years of the ming there is a total of disasters, which also gives an average of once every . years. from a big data and long-durée viewpoint, disasters did not hit dongming particularly hard during the yuan rule. or we could simply say that compilation practices were con- sistent over time. cross-dynastic analysis reveals other important differences in the styles and content of disaster records. in comparison to the ming and qing, yuan records are quite plain, consisting mainly of dates and disaster kinds which led luo lin to identify them as reli- able and objective. this still is apparent in the qing gazetteer of dongming, for chen gaohua, “yuandai zaihai fasheng shi gaishu,” – . “不作論讚但據事直書具文見忘使共普惡自見.” song lian, yuan shi, “zuanxiu yuan shi fanli” 纂修元史凡例, . humble, “princely qualities and unexpected cohenerce,” . gong and yang begin prior to unified rule and beyond the jianyang rupture, implying that such dis- aster policies in the case of the song state, as with yuan rule, did not entirely comply with the unification of dynastic territory. gong guangming 龔光明 and yang wangsheng 楊旺生, “song yuan liangchao sangzai bijiao” 宋元兩朝桑災比較, nongye yu jishu . , – . gong guangming and yang wangsheng, “song yuan liangchao sangzai bijiao,” . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms instance, whereas ming and qing entries also contain other information, such as amount of granted tax relief. differences in content illustrate that much had changed even as the structure of local gazetteers was continuous. in contrast to yu xilu who had quoted very few categorical disasters in zhenjiang’s gazetteer prior to the yuan and stopped with reports of the tang era, the extant kangxi ( ) and qianlong edi- tions ( ) of the dongming gazetteer offer a chronological overview of reporting styles. as sampling from both southern and northern regions shows, ming editors of local gazetteers began listing disasters up to their own life time, often up to the actual publication date of the local gazetteer, as did most qing editors. from the yuan to the qing, a miscellanea of historical information with practical implications thus was turned into a historical collation of precedents of administrative and political decision- making for practical use. consistency in datasets: the north and moriculture disaster events as historians we learn that, whereas dynastic historiography may have tended to smooth out regional variations, local gazetteers provide us with insights into local con- ditions, sometimes even allowing us to see how such conditions changed dynamically over time. one might expect that datasets derived from local gazetteers would reflect either the local patterns of editorial rules or syntactical choices. a statistical analysis of tables of contents shows that local gazetteers in some of these northern regions favored certain categories. further research on prefaces and postfaces in gazetteers and the content of specific sections is necessary before we can determine if such pat- terns resulted from a regional preference or administrative guidance. local gazetteer records of yuan moriculture disasters occur all across the north and hardly at all in the south (figure ). this is the case even though, as fan jinmin noted, the lower yangtze region became the major center of silk production during the ming, which would give local officials an interest in conveying moriculture-related information and disasters to “order the past for future use.” ming literati in southern regions could often rely on still extant earlier copies of local gazetteers and we may assume that the conditions of local archives in the different regions of ming china was different too, with northern wu fengxiang 吴鳳翔 and li shunming 李舜明, chongxiu wuxi xianzhi 重修無錫縣志 [ ; repr. in zhongguo difangzhi jicheng 中國地方誌集成] nanjing: fenghuang chubanshe, ). in chapter xiangyi 祥異 disasters recorded up to , . a– b. huang zhongzhao 黃仲昭, baimin tongzhi 八閩通志 [明弘治 r. – ; repr. in siku quanshu cunmu congshu 四庫全書存目叢書] jinan: qi lu shushe, ), chap. xiang yi 祥異, disasters recorded up to , . a– a. in han sizhong 韓思忠, zhengde zhongmou xian zhi 正德中牟縣志 [ ; repr. in yuan guoli beiping tushuguan jia ku shanben congshu 原国立北平图书馆甲库善本丛书] beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), chap. “zaiyi” 災異 did the same (no historical disasters; only the ones from the ming, up to chenghua 成化, two reigns earlier), . b. an du 安都, jiajing taikang xian zhi 嘉靖太康縣志 [ ; repr. in tianyige cang mingdai fangzhi xuankan xubian 天一阁藏明代方志选刊续编] shanghai: shanghai shudian, ), chap. “wuxing” 五行 . b– b did the same (historical disasters up to the same reign; but under guochao 國朝 disasters are organized cate- gorically rather than chronologically). dongming xian zhi, the kangxi edition recounts disasters until the year it was published in (kangxi ), “nianji zaixiang” 年紀灾祥 . a– b and qianlong until (qianlong ), “nianji zai- xiang” 年紀災祥 . a– b. chen shih-pei, “what one should know about a locality: analyzing knowledge categories in chinese local gazetteers,” in a forthcoming publication edited by huiyi wu and mackenzie cooley. fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms regions presumably being more impacted by war and destruction. and still it is mainly northern mid-ming and later gazetteers that report on moriculture disasters. xu guangqi 徐光啟 ( – ) identified a similar bias in dynastic records towards insect and moriculture incidents. should we assume that moriculture in the south was stable and less affected by weather than in the north? fan jinmin, for instance, who has amply emphasized the rise of sericulture production in jiangnan by the ming era, notes indeed that summer taxes of juan-silk in jiangnan during the yuan were partly even higher than the song and definitely higher than the ming. while these numbers indeed manifest the presence of private tax-silk weaving in this region, we must read them in the context of other policies that targeted the introduction and expansion of the trade, as testified by con- tinuous complaints by contemporary local worthies. figure . geographical distribution of the reported mulberry-related disasters, mentioned in , local gazetteers, color-coded with the time periods they are dated. map by lin nungyao. xu guangqi, nongzheng quanshu, “huangzheng” 荒政 . . xu guangqi then puts this into a rule: “the south has gloomy places, changjiang and huaihe rivers flow in the north. lush greens are in the west and the liang and song eras opened the soil in several prefectures of the east. ponds and lakes spread out expansively; when overflows are impermanent, they call it dried up lakes. here the locust is born. all his- torical records are like this.” see wang peihua, yuandai beifang zaihuang yu jiuji. see also zheng peng 鄭鵬, “weiji yu yingdui: huangzai zhong de yuandai guojia” 危機與應對: 蝗災中的元代國家, luojia shiyuan ( ), – . see also zi qing 自慶, ‘zengxiu jiaoyuan qinggui’ shidu “增修教苑清規” 釋讀, translated and explained by xin hao 心皓 (shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), “qianhuang” 遣蝗, . fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, – , see also his comparison of taxes on page . these numbers are actually misleading, as they must be read against a changing tax system. by the yuan juan-silk no longer functioned as a monetary item (and was replaced with paper, then copper etc.), and the use of cotton as a dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms are such geographic patterns caused by environmental patterns; are they the result of contemporary policies, or simply an artefact of textual transmission? working under time pressure, the editors of the history of the yuan mostly relied on the archives at the former yuan capital, beijing and the vicinity. one important reason why local gazet- teers as a genre amplified, rather than nuanced, regional coverage, is the loss of local archival records due to warfare during the ming conquest which impacted localities in the northern regions hard. we need to keep in mind that quirks in textual transmis- sion shaped datasets and that the very structure of the genre, and varying applications of “editorial rules” also had an effect. for instance, ming and qing local gazetteer editors begin with , the first year when the yuan had successfully conquered the song and proclaimed the unification of the territory. some disaster references in the history of the yuan such as li dehui’s 李德辉 ( –?) report about moriculture disasters in , are omitted in ming local gazetteers, probably because of formal reasons. comparing datasets also indicates that by mid-ming times, when editors in general remained faithful to the historical nature of the chapter on “auspicious and ominous events” (xiangyi 祥異), they got their information from the official history of the yuan at least as often as from archival records. for the yuan, out of location-based records of mulberry disasters actually match the records in the history of the yuan, with a small number being traceable in other dynastic compilations, such as ma duanlin’s 馬端臨 ( – ) comprehensive study of literary remains (wenxian tongkao 文獻通考, compiled ca. ). the regional focus of yuan moriculture disasters in local gazetteers matches that of the history of the yuan which also contains references to the regions of hebei ( . percent), shandong ( . percent), henan ( percent) and shanxi ( . per- cent) (see the black crosses in figure ). more surprising is how that matches the regional distribution of all other disasters specifying weather events that are listed in dynastic history regardless of kind, despite the wide geographical spread of locations (see in figure the heat map and red points respectively). even though both the dynas- tic historiography of the ming and qing as well as private writings occasionally note moriculture disasters in the south, until the s local gazetteer editors identified the south as a pristine region, keeping this region—at least in the historical view of the genre—free from any disaster-events. it is more difficult to substantiate the environmental causes of disasters. in her sur- vey of dynastic accounts, wang peihua, relying on the same data as xu guangqi in the textile for commoners was popularized. ming provisioned raw silk and high-end silk threads for its state- owned production and not cheap tax-silk. dagmar schäfer, des kaisers seidene kleider (heidelberg: edition forum, ). the daming yitong zhi 大明一統志, published in , and li hongzhang 李鴻章, jifu tongzhi 畿輔通志 [originally published in and revised in ; ; repr. in zhongguo difangzhi ji 中國地方志集] nanjing: fenghuang chubanshe, ) contain no moriculture disasters at all, which sug- gests a substantial shift in disaster policies. song lian, yuan shi, . . su tianjue 蘇天爵, yuanchao mingchen shilüe 元朝名臣事略 (beijing, zhonghua shuju, ), – and “zuocheng li zhongxuan gong” 左丞李忠宣公 . – . jiang ying, shandong sichou shi, . see also fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, – . only two local gazetters of the late qing identify mulberry disasters in the north retrospectively: wu lufu 吳履福, miao quansun 繆荃孫 [et al.], changping zhouzhi 昌平州志 [ ; repr. zhongguo fangzhi congshu 中國方志叢書] taibei: chengwen, ), “dashibiao” 大事表 . a– b. zhou jiamei 周家楣 [et al.], guangxu shuntian fu zhi 光緒順天府志 [ ; repr. in xuxiu siku quanshu 續修四庫全書] shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), “gushi zhi” 故事志 . a: “mulberry trees were killed” (大德九年春二月 [ / ]: 殺桑). journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms seventeenth century, concluded that regions between the thirtieth and fourtieth parallels of latitude were reported as suffering mainly from insect plagues, frost, or snow damage, with few references to wind and rain. dongming is within this region, yet as our mapping makes apparent, not all localities that produced mulberry in this zone reported such events. in contrast to wang peihua’s thirty to forty degree zone, gazetteers suggest that shandong province suffered more from frost and less from insects, the opposite being true for hebei province. other interesting effects are that hebei, shanxi, and shandong, the three provinces on the huabei plain accounted for most of the moricul- ture disasters. as for the temporal proportion distribution, hebei and shandong gazet- teers have similar structures: for moriculture disasters, both include more reports from the yuan than any other era. in shanxi, which reported fewer incidents than the other two regions in general (even though it had more reports prior to the ming), all refer- ences to disasters relate to the western jin, eastern jin, and northern song; there are no reports from the yuan. in beijing, tianjin, shandong, jiangsu, hebei, and hubei, records from the yuan are dominant, whereas anhui and henan provinces have a lower proportion of yuan records, but do have reports from the song and ming periods. twenty-five of the thirty-two reports from the ming period come from anhui, shanxi, henan, shandong, hebei, and the lower yangtze region (by the ming part of northern jiangsu), all places that had traditionally cultivated mulberry up until the yuan period, figure . locations of natural disaster reported in the yuan dynastic history (yuan shi and new yuan shi). the mulberry disaster reports are highlighted as black crosses. the background heat map reflects the number of nat- ural disaster reports in each locales. data curated by lin nungyao, hung yi-mei, su hong-ting, and liu yuxin; map by lin nungyao. wang peihua, yuandai beifang zaihuang yu jiuji, – . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms but ceased to be prime centers of the silk industry during the ming period when central jiangsu and zheli became the major coastal centers of silk production. such patterns cannot be easily explained as they result from the status of sericulture across time and space, as well as the commercialization of mulberry leaves, changing tax collection methods, changing policies that once centralized and then again localized control over disaster management and tax relief. further research is necessary as some of these patterns suggest that social networks may have played a role through which editors negotiated how to compile local gazetteers and what role they thought disasters should play herein. another important influence observable in big data sets is emulation: once a local gazetteer listed moriculture disasters, succeeding editors con- tinued to account for such disasters, tracing incidents as far back as they could. such efforts differed in quality. while the local gazetteer of huzhou prefecture (huzhou fu zhi 湖州府志) only included records from the ming and qing, that of zouping county (zouping xian zhi 邹平縣志) started in the western jin, and then jumped back to the guangxu ( – ) and xuantong ( – ) reigns in qing, leaving a , -year gap. further research is necessary to substantiate how far topography may have created different weather effects—along river banks east of the shandong mountain ranges and on the huabei plateau that indeed are also reflective of micro-climatic environmental conditions. nuanced mapping also suggests that other factors should be taken into account, including that social networks may have taken a fancy to devaluing the yuan by commemorating its failures and disasters. digital humanities, local gazetteers, and disaster regimes: towards a conclusion historical research relies on a vast array of methods—hermeneutics; and enriching or limiting this toolkit inevitably also limits, defines, or enriches the results. when pursu- ing research on one local gazetteer, scholars are able to give a nuanced account, but are limited by their capacity to take other texts into account and thus extrapolate from the particular case. readers—in dynastic times mostly from the same scholarly elite as edi- tors, later on twentieth-century scientists such as zhu kezhen and modern historians— relied on their understanding of the local gazetteers as sources as verified historical facts and collected information and interpreted data for statistical and spatial analyses of disasters based on their understanding of the local gazetteers meaning-giving subcate- gories—the syntax of the local gazetteers. whereas early big data analysts suggested that idiosyncratic cases would be compensated for by big data—that is, multiple men- tions would identify the severity of an event, logart allows analysts to combine both views and to address local gazetteers in their digitized sum as a source. logart has been built primarily to enable the genre itself to be examined: how individual or com- munal a practice such as disaster control was, whether a locality set standards, adhered to them or ignored them. by enabling analysts to switch between a bird’s eye big data view and a close reading of an individual case, logart helps researchers to generate in zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “zhongguo jin wuqian nian lai qihou bianqian chubu yanjiu” 中國近五千年来氣候變遷的初步研究, kaogu xuebao . , – . zhu identified – as lg era and exempli- fied a couple of “unusual weather” records, such as lake freezing events, which can be found under the respective sub-chapter heading. for an overview of such collations of data see lai xinxia 來新夏, zhongguo difang zhi 中國地方志 (taibei: shangwu yinshuguan, ), – . see also andrea janku, “heaven-sent disasters.” for an example of mapping, see chen zhengxiang 陳正祥, zhongguo wenhua dili 中國文化地理 (beijing: sanlian shu dian, ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms new research questions, some of which cannot be addressed by analog means. first and foremost, it allows us to study how local gazetteers emerged and grew and what effects they had. local gazetteers, for all their heterogeneity, provide an important source of informa- tion about localities—deliberately arranged and strategically organized. with regard to disaster records the geographies and chronologies derived from local gazetteers can only be understood as the historical product of textual transmission, in which some informa- tion was preserved and some lost. but we have also to consider that local gazetteers were by definition “working documents” that people regularly consulted and used to construct senses of local identity, belonging, and history. they were important for the regulation of trade, local society, and the local economy; they were scholarly works—“books for remembering the past and understanding when and how things in the present came to be known as they were.” their contents helped shape local and imperial views. when yu xilu in the yuan era added a subsection on disasters, he may have acted on a personal whim. but even if we find regional trends in compilation styles and disaster management, local gazetteers cannot be considered innocent, seeing that by the mid-ming period mainly editors in the north included yuan disaster reports systemati- cally into their disaster sections. political power mattered in china’s history of disasters, or, as hsu cho-yun put it in : “since the imperial reign environmental changes are suggestive of the success and failure of politics” and “human efforts and weather are seen in relation to each other.” it is thus crucial to see that disasters were political on all possible levels: as they happened, were observed, valued, named, classified, administered, recorded, and retrieved from any dynastic, bureaucratic, or imperial record. this inevitable relation to power also means that any notion of an environmen- tal condition as “given” or inevitable, or harmful, or a product of warfare, settlement, or cultivation was inherently political too. this means that landscapes accessed through texts are mediated by politics and scholarship. each genre fulfilled a role in this meaning-making. agricultural tracts (nongshu 農書) and seasonal calendars recorded weather events while individuals reflected on practices and concepts of weather also in their private writings or in novels and poetry. court historiographers established precedents and formed politics and regulations that each succeeding dynasty consulted, even if they broke with tradition. in china’s vast literature, local gazetteers were reflective of local and central state approaches and at the same time also reveal nuances of individual and regional awareness, how one knew, retrieved, and used historical disasters. this genre hence has preserved and reveals the changing historical awareness of disasters, or what yves citton has termed bol, “the rise of local history,” . cho-yun hsu, “chinese attitudes toward climate,” in the way the wind blows: climate change, history, and human action, edited by roderick j. mcintosh, joseph a. tainter, and susan keech mcintosh (new york: columbia university press, ), – . ruth mostern, dividing the realm in order to govern. ruth mostern, “sediment and state in imperial china: the yellow river watershed as an earth system and a world system,” nature and culture ( ), – . david biggs, “history and the militarized landscape: long historical and broad social views,” in nature and history, edited by mahesh rangarajan and gunnel cederlöf (oxford: oxford university press, ), – shows how south-east asia’s changing political forces defined coastal vary- ingly as unused lands. in addition, historians such as j. schlesinger have recently complicated the notion of wild, pristine, or natural lands. jonathan schlesinger, world trimmed with fur: wild things, pristine places, and the natural fringes of qing rule (stanford: stanford university press, ). dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms an ecology of attention (“écology de l’attention”) when describing capitalism, overabun- dance, and advertising in our modern world. citton is mostly interested in this mech- anism within capitalism and an “economy” of the modern age, but we suggest that his definition also describes the historical role and modus operandi of local gazetteers and the transformations in attention and distraction that they reflect within epistemic (how to know) or political regimes. as each local gazetteer was meant to resonate, in structure and content, with other local gazetteers, the genre offered its own ecology, that is, “a vital communicational milieu.” this milieu functioned, even if individual compilations deviated from any given norm, because sections such as “auspicious events and disasters” proliferated over time. logart enables us to look at how, as the genre emerged and multiplied, local gazetteers created one layer of attention that existed in a larger ontology of visibil- ity, how it reflected local knowledge about weather and disasters and how they created or recognized the locally known. in this combined analysis of events and structures of disasters, we see local gazetteers’ approaches to disasters emerging as a foucauldian dis- positif: they represent a network of information on tactics, institutional processes, and local subjectivities exerting power. disaster records are heterogeneous artifacts of local and imperial discourses, regulations, material practices of archiving, documenting, and narrating disasters and the history of a place, both the product of an individual effort and a collective enterprise. through their appearance as local knowledge, local gazet- teers’ disaster records were facilitating public action. tracing their historical reproduc- tion suggests that these data were continuously feeding into scholarly discourses about the political role of the yuan and what a disaster was—even though more research is necessary to understand its effects and nuances at different points in time. part of understanding this discourse is to follow the lines of textual transmission that have left us with fragments rather than a complete set; regional variety rather than imperial unity. logart allows us to follow strategies for anchoring imperial politics locally and imperializing local political insights through time. for instance, using computational methods to examine both syntax and style, we can see that whereas no other yuan edi- tor followed yu xilu, later in the ming and qing periods others described mulberry sang in “local product” sections and juan-tax silks in “tax” sections. these examples are mostly found in the gazetteers of regions that were unfamiliar with this practice, such as gansu, or the island of hainan around the fourteenth century, and they pro- liferate at times when the empire invested in this trade region: for example when the ming wanli ( – ) and chongzhen ( – ) emperors promoted sericulture around beijing in the seventeenth century, or when the manchu-qing emperors kangxi ( – ) and qianlong ( – ) were attempting to revive sericulture in northern regions. various researchers, emphasizing the importance of local gazetteers, have shown that this genre and each of its parts varied with intellectual trends and individual posi- tions. however, if we take seriously local gazetteers as working documents, then their role goes beyond that of a product: they themselves, must be understood as a constit- uent part of china’s intellectual life—an intellectual stance on “local knowledge.” documenting historical disasters in local gazetteers has underlying dynamics that shed new light on efforts by chinese scholarly and state elites to localize information for use. and such disaster records are indicative of an epistemological practice—of how to know locally. this by itself may not be surprising, except when compared yves citton, the ecology of attention, translated by barnaby norman (cambridge: polity, ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms with other intellectual traditions or a modern approach to the “local” as an analytical category. scholars in the past, by generating and using this genre, constituted “local knowledge” through action. while china’s intellectual elites when authoring local gaz- etteers produced an ecology of imperially visible localities and local knowledge, readers and users of the same class assessed such information-gathering efforts as a necessary but minor residue of governance practices, up until the mid-qing intellectually relevant only to the minor man (xiaoren 小人). for the intellectual elites of the ming, for instance, “native” (ben 本, tu 土), or “indigenous” (gen 根) and local (difang 地方) information belonged in the category of customs and habits ( fengsu 風俗), not knowl- edge (zhi 知) or wisdom (zhi 智). while, by the late seventeenth century, local gazetteer authors occasionally introduced categories such as “local languages” (or dialects tuyan 土言), liang qichao anchored his approach to “local gazetteer studies” to intellectuals such as gu yanwu 顧炎武 ( – ), who began taking an interest in “daily knowl- edge” (rizhi 日知), or zhang xuecheng 章學誠 ( – ), who utilized regional trends to criticize certain trends at the qing court. we could thus say that historical chinese actors—in contrast to modern historical approaches since geertz—long denied “local” any analytical purpose in intellectual life and evidently when defining what knowledge was. or we could see that from a his- torical view, local gazetteers represent a different epistemological approach, one that dynamically created an epistemology-in-action. for a historical approach, especially when pursued with geertz’s anthropological method in mind, the “local” has to be con- sidered in all its dynamics: as it was practiced and as the concept came into use in china’s intellectual life. when modern sociological theory—not only in chinese and china—foregrounds the analytical purpose of the “local” or works with neologisms of the “situated,” or “localized” to assess historical accounts of knowledge-making, it neglects the huge impact that local gazetteers had and still have. a chance lies in such historical cases to refine and sophisticate an important analytical category. in a genre-specific view, historical notions of yuan rule as a particularly disastrous time emerge as the product of yuan disaster reporting practices and ming and qing data collection efforts, impacted by broken lines of transmission, political machinations, and individual choices. what may be even more important though, as citton further helps to highlight, is how the local gazetteers as epistemology-in-action first created a collective public for yuan disasters and then by the twentieth century slowly achieved the status of “l’ontologie de la visibilité qui mesure le degré d’existence d’un être à la quantité et à la qualité des perceptions dont il fait l’objet de la part d’autrui” (the ontol- ogy of visibility, which measures a being’s level of existence by the quantity and quality of its perception by others). when modern historian david morgan stresses “that the mid-fourteenth century was a difficult time in many parts of the world; mongol china see gu yanwu 顧炎武, “ying ping er zhou shishi xu” 營平二州史事序, in gu yanwu wenxuan 顧炎武文選, edited by gu yanwu 顧炎武 ( ; repr. in ming qing ba dajia wenxuan congshu 明清八大家文選叢書. suzhou: suzhou daxue chubanshe, ), – . see also zhongguo fangzhi tongjian 中國方志通鑒, edited by zhongguo difangzhi zhidao xiaozu 中國地方志指導小組 (beijing: fangzhi, ), vol. , ; christine moll-murata, die chinesische regionalbeschreibung: entwicklung und funktion einer quellengattung, dargestellt am beispiel der präfekturbeschreibungen von hangzhou (wiesbaden: harrassowitz, ), . liang’s generation usually took recourse to gu’s tianxia junguo libing shu 天下郡國利病書 of . zhang qiong sees the changing techniques of these eras in relation to jesuit influ- ences. zhang qiong, making the new world their own: chinese encounters with jesuit science in the age of discovery (brill: leiden ), – . citton, the ecology of attention, – . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms suffered as much as anywhere, being afflicted with a variety of natural disasters—espe- cially floods and pestilences” or tsai sees that environmental pressure across the con- tinents “opened the way for disorder on a massive scale”; or when chinese climate scientists ponder a possible early asian beginning of a little ice age, they assign “zai” (災), a “natural” character beyond yuan-contemporary notions of human respon- sibility and counteraction, and have awarded an ontological status to the local gazetteers and its data and no longer see an epistemology-in-the-making. only because these groups assign local gazetteer disaster records the status of truth, reality, or facts can they provide data for ontological claims on historical climate change. the digital datasets created in this research themselves suggest that many assump- tions about local gazetteers require further research. this includes how local gazetteers spread and expanded from the song to yuan dynasty or how their references to disas- ters and tax accounts varied regionally and how historiographically local gazetteers as a genre have shaped s assumptions about economic and malthusian population in china. dh methods that help researchers address structural issues and content have here been employed to illustrate a genre-specific analysis on china’s disaster his- tory. china’s disaster literature, unlike the hapsburg case mentioned earlier, not only offers a longue-durée construction of weather reports, but maybe a genre-specific one too, one in which dates, localities, and degree of severity may have been reliably recounted—yet, as much as this was “imperially observed,” it only became a fact very late, when it was “locally made true.” david o. morgan, “the decline and fall of the mongol empire,” journal of royal asiatic society ( ), . wei-chieh tsai, “ethnic riots and violence in the mongol empire: a comparative perspective,” mongolian studies ( ), . the literature on this topic is too vast to recount here; especially if one includes debates that see cli- mate in general as a motor of political history, the creation of wealth, and the s discussion on malthusian growth. an early example of a longue durée correlation within climatic models is pao-kuan wang, “on the relationship between winter thunder and the climatic change in china in the past years,” climatic change ( ), – . see also an early longitudinal study anticipating further work on china’s environment by peter c. perdue, exhausting the earth: state and peasant in hunan, – (cambridge: harvard university asia center, ); other examples include jared diamond, guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies (new york: w.w. norton, ); robert marks, the origins of the modern world : a global and environmental narrative from the fifteenth to the twenty-first century (lanham: rowman & littlefield, ); mark elvin, retreat of the elephants: an environmental history of china (new haven: yale university press, ). cite this article: schäfer d, chen s, che q ( ). what is local knowledge? digital humanities and yuan dynasty disasters in imperial china’s local gazetteers. journal of chinese history , – . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms what is local knowledge? digital humanities and yuan dynasty disasters in imperial china's local gazetteers* localizing imperial politics: mulberry trees and taxes in southern zhenjiang literary analysis with an empirical orientation data curation: mulberry-related disasters disasters in dongming: yuan bureaucracy in ming local gazetteers hierarchies/geographies of reporting the rhythm of reporting content of reports data as discourses: local gazetteers and dynastic histories the mandate of heaven in the yuan and ming chapters on “auspicious and inauspicious events.” consistency in datasets: the north and moriculture disaster events digital humanities, local gazetteers, and disaster regimes: towards a conclusion microsoft word - lothian_ .docx journal of e-media studies volume , issue , dartmouth college can digital humanities mean transformative critique? alexis lothian and amanda phillips we need new hybrid practitioners: artist-theorists, programming humanists, activist- scholars; theoretical archivists, critical race coders. we need new forms of graduate and undergraduate education that hone both critical and digital literacies. we have to shake ourselves out of our small, field-based boxes so that we might take seriously the possibility that our own knowledge practices are normalized, modular, and black boxed in much the same way as the code we study in our work. ––tara mcpherson, “why is the digital humanities so white?” ( ) we were invited to this issue of the journal of e-media studies because we gave something a name. we are two participants in a group of early-career queer, feminist, and ethnic studies scholars of media, literature, and culture who are interested in digital scholarship, who kept meeting at conferences and wondering why the critical frameworks and politicized histories of our activist inquiry were so rarely part of the conversations we were having about scholarly technology. the series of academic conference events that led us to converge as a collective have by now been hashed and rehashed many times: there was an idea at thatcamp socal in response to anxiety at mla ; then a small but productive panel at asa (american studies association) ; some blog posts on hastac (humanities, arts, sciences, and technology advanced collaboratory) and elsewhere, a tumblr; and the birth of a hashtag that finally caught the attention of the digital humanities (dh) twittersphere. somebody made a google doc, some bodies attended a panel, and some buddies were in the collective hoping that people would take over the hashtag and submit to the tumblr and blog about why #transformdh was cute but vague and ultimately misguided. but, ultimately, the project’s goal was to put a name to a feeling and see who else was thinking the same thing. that there are now names out there, records of attendance, email trails, and other evidence for the future tenure files that might take such endeavors into account, was a side effect that has taught us much about the power of naming–– you might even say of branding––when you want to get an idea into circulation. what was the idea? in short, #transformdh is an aggregated statement of the obvious. first of all: the emergent methods and practices we call digital humanities are not only for traditional work. years of dh criticism might point to the banality of this sentiment; the changing shapes of communication and technology alter the terms of scholarship, and keeping afloat in the coming century will require mastery over new tools and methods. the revolution of dh is in full swing, with the force of multicampus institutions, internet portals, and federal funding at its back. the histories that dh as a discipline traces back through practices of humanities computing have indeed done transformational work on the structures of scholarship and the bureaucracies that shape our careers. yet the bright lights and marching bands of the so-called big tent outshine less marketable histories of engagement with technology that have emerged from standpoints that critique the privileging of certain gendered, racialized, classed, able-bodied, western-centric productions of knowledge. in a recent blog entry, filmmaker, feminist, and academic alex juhasz describes why she does not affiliate herself wholeheartedly with digital humanities: the “field” does the amazing potentially radicalizing work of asking humanities professors (and students) to take account for their audiences, commitments, forms, and the uses of their work. but this was always there to take account of, being obscured by the transparent protocols of publishing and pedagogy that have been revealed because of the force of the digital. however, this turn is occurring, for the most part, as if plenty of fields, and professors, and artists, and students, and humanists hadn’t been already been doing this for years (and therefore without turning to these necessarily radical traditions of political scholars, theoretical artists, and humanities activists). #transformdh was our attempt to turn the digital humanities toward these radical traditions, as well as toward the bodies of critical work in new media studies by wendy chun, lisa nakamura, anna everett, tara mcpherson, and many others, that unpack the politics inherent in the force of the digital, the powers that shape the hardware and software that in turn shape our scholarly work. we wanted to think about the institutions that were forming in this ever more amorphous thing called digital humanities. we didn’t want the ways of engaging knowledge that were important to us to be left out. we felt it would be too easy to say that we were doing something other than dh, whether that be new media studies or critical cultural studies with a focus on the digital; instead, we wanted to bring what juhasz calls “necessarily radical traditions,” which have nourished us, into the dh field in which we also felt at home. if humanities scholars in critical media and cultural studies, queer studies, ethnic studies, disability studies, and related areas are doing work in and with the digital, we should lay claim to our place within digital humanities. we should explicitly occupy that space and assert––as mcpherson and jamie “skye” bianco, among others, have recently done––that the honorable history of humanities computing is not the only one that matters for whatever it is we mean when we talk about the field. inclusivity is important to dh practitioners in the humanities computing tradition. we share that goal, but it is not the heart of our project. in “whose revolution? towards a more equitable digital humanities,” matthew k. gold’s mla talk reflecting on his book debates in the digital humanities, gold raises the question of which hierarchies, uneven distributions of labor, and value systems dh might preserve even as it seeks to change the way academic work is done. his important discussion focuses on the vital and often overlooked power of institutional resources to shape what scholarly work gets done. yet the metaphor that comes after his set of concrete and useful suggestions for diversifying dh is interesting: “as any software engineer can tell you, the more eyes you have on a problem, the more likely you are to find and fix bugs in the system.” if the system of dh were to run smoothly, gold implies, it would not perpetuate hierarchies or inequalities. gender, race, sexuality, ability, and class––and the marked bodies on which they become most visible––can be content that would fit within the forms already being established and funded for digital work: the on-campus centers, the annotated archives. but what we know about the academy, from its constitutive imbrications with nationalism and empire to the structures of race and gender that still shape its labor practices, suggests otherwise. content and form are not so separable; truly accounting for one will unavoidably change the other. so instead of smoothing out the bugs in the digital academy, we wonder how digital practices and projects might participate in more radical processes of transformation––might rattle the poles of the big tent rather than slip seamlessly into it. to that end, we are interested in digital scholarship that takes aim at the more deeply rooted traditions of the academy: its commitment to the works of white men, living and dead; its overvaluation of western and colonial perspectives on (and in) culture; its reproduction of heteropatriarchal generational structures. perhaps we should inhabit, rather than eradicate, the status of bugs––even of viruses—in the system. perhaps there are different systems and anti-systems to be found: diy projects, projects that don’t only belong to the academy, projects that still matter even if they aren’t funded, even if they fail. what would digital scholarship and the humanities disciplines be like if they centered around processes and possibilities of social and cultural transformation as well as institutional preservation? if they centered around questions of labor, race, gender, and justice at personal, local, and global scales? if their practitioners considered not only how the academy might reach out to underserved communities, but also how the kinds of knowledge production nurtured elsewhere could transform the academy itself? these questions are not hypothetical. these digital humanities already exist. here we offer a curated list of projects, people, and collaborations that suggest the possibilities of a transformative digital humanities: one where neither the digital nor the humanities will be terms taken for granted. the transformative digital humanities will not be found only among the members of our ad hoc collective. nor will it be found only where the funding is, where the easily recognized and intensively supported dh projects are. we’ve gathered a selection of projects, ranging from institutionally sponsored archives of less-than-traditional materials to networks that purposefully have no direct connection to the academy as such. none belongs to a core member of our collective, because we are becoming a little alarmed at the publicity our act of naming has begun to generate. all the projects put the questions of decades of feminist, queer, and critical race theory (all of which share significant temporal nodes with the politicized computing movements at the heart of much dh philosophy) at the center of their work, leveraging the affordances and methodologies for social justice. here one can find collaboration pushed to collectivity, interdisciplinarity that reaches outside of the ivory tower, and art that builds its own theory. these are only beginnings, suggestions; you may disagree that these are projects worth gathering, or you may wish to suggest other projects for consideration. your feedback, critiques, and additions will help us to build a transformative digital humanities together. curation transformative archives archives may be the most legible form of digital humanities production, as digital tools have been developed to preserve, gather, and share historical documents. digital humanities practitioners have increasingly been theorizing the power structures and silences of the archive, as well as drawing on materials less often granted the legitimacy of academic preservation. adeline koh: digitizing “chinese englishmen”: representations of race and empire in the nineteenth century adeline koh’s online digitizing “chinese englishmen” project is an early step in the direction of decolonizing the archive, offering a forum for collaborative annotation and novel social media intervention on texts that expand the victorian anglophone repertoire beyond its current “narrow geographical boundaries.” koh’s project carves out a space for the postcolonial archive: the website is meant to be both a “decentralized” and a “postcolonial” archive. by a “decentralized” archive, it refers to one which provides modes for democratic access and exchange. on first glance, the term “postcolonial” nineteenth century archive may appear anachronistic, as no colonies were in fact “postcolonial” in this time period. my use of the term “postcolonial,” however, derives more from the type of postcolonial literary criticism and postcolonial theory commonly associated with edward said and the subaltern studies collective than with movements towards decolonization before and after the second world war. in this definition, a “postcolonial” archive is one which examines and questions the creation of imperialist ideology within the structure of the archive. additionally, it aims to assemble a previously unrepresented collection of subaltern artifacts. (“addressing archival silence on th century colonialism – part ”) straits chinese magazine, the project’s source text, offers readers a complicated, alternative view of what it meant to be both an englishman and a chinese gentleman in the th century. koh’s archive makes no effort to resolve or simplify the complicated identity practices of the chinese englishmen, hoping instead to offer a platform to evaluate them without the colonial impulse to reduce these victorians to paragons of false consciousness or imitations of “real” british gentlemanliness. digitizing “chinese englishmen” expands the archive beyond colonial representations of nonwhite peoples in the th century, leveraging the reach of the digital to transform the face of th-century studies. women who rock: making scenes, building communities at the university of washington women who rock is an oral history archive at the university of washington, built from the ground up on the principles of women of color feminism: collaboration across difference, intersectional critique, and accountability to communities outside the academy. participation in the project provides training for women’s and ethnic studies graduate students in the digital skills that suit their research interests, from web design to video production. headed by michelle habell-pallán, this is one of the few well-established, institutionally supported dh projects that are rooted in critical feminist media theory and praxis. women who rock research project (wwrrp) supports, develops, and circulates cultural production, conversations and scholarship by cultural producers and faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates across disciplines, both within and outside the university, who examine the politics of gender, race, class, and sexuality generated by popular music. our goal is to generate dialogue and provide a focal point from which to build and strengthen relationships between local musicians and their communities, and educational institutions. (women who rock project: making scenes, building communities) [video by angelica macklin: http://vimeo.com/ ] oral histories such as this are committed to the production of knowledge from below, bringing people and practices who have traditionally been excluded from academic spheres––or simply not taken seriously there––into the frameworks of institutional preservation. in the case of women who rock, the preservation of popular music’s communities and histories is also aimed at a transformation of the institutional archive itself, bringing down barriers between the university and the knowledge worlds that lie outside its walls. transformative artistic production definitions of the digital humanities do not often include digital artistic production. but why not? the borders of artistic practice, software design, political activism, and critical knowledge production are porous. micha cárdenas: transreal politics a queer performance artist currently working toward a phd in the university of southern california (usc)’s interactive media arts and practice program, micha cárdenas uses art, theory, and technology to encourage social justice thinking, which results in a unique brand of art-theory that pushes each of the fields in which it engages. cárdenas develops new software applications, designs and builds electronic gadgets that challenge hegemonic regimes, and infuses each performance with theoretical writing. cárdenas’s collaborative work has resulted in two theoretical texts so far: trans desire/affective cyborgs, coauthored by barbara fornssler and wolfgang shirmacher, and the transreal: political aesthetics of crossing realities, coauthored with zach blas, elle mehrmand, and amy sara carroll. cárdenas’s work takes trans- to its fullest extent, crossing realities, genders, theoretical perspectives, and technical design. the video featured here, “becoming transreal,” a performance in collaboration with elle mehrmand and chris head, focuses the attention of the digital back on the material body and its entanglement with global capital, reminding us, through the pain of transgender experience braided with a dystopic science fiction narrative, that technology is of concern to bodies (and corporations) most of all. from the video’s description: what if you could become anything? what happens after species change surgery becomes a reality? becoming transreal speculates on a future in which the promises of bionanotechnology have become realized, and yet as capitalism has continued to fail, both the interiors of our bodies and the virtual world have become totally commodified. you can become anything, but to finance your whims of identity transformation, the same nanohormones that transform your body are also producing drugs for others. becoming transreal looks at transgender experience through a lens of slipstream science fiction poetry about bio-nano drug piracy. the performance uses motion capture to interface with second life avatars [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second_life] and d stereoscopic imagery to immerse the audience in this transreal world. cárdenas operates in the tradition of mixed-reality performance, which steve benford and gabriella giannachi define broadly as a subset of performance art, including augmented reality and pervasive gaming, that combine “many real, virtual, augmented reality, and augmented virtuality environments into complex hybrid and distributed performance stages” ( ). although many mixed-reality works, such as blast theory’s uncle roy everywhere or entertainment’s i love bees, focus on direct user participation and mobile technologies, cárdenas invites the audience to enter the world of the performance through indirect means such as audience props and immersive presentation technologies. using large-scale projection equipment and biometric sensors keyed to the performers’ bodies, cárdenas’s transreal performances bridge a physical installation space with the virtual world of second life, (dis)embodying their own content through form. cárdenas creates a performance space and temporality layered with autobiography and speculative fiction, physical bodies and digital avatars. [video by micha cárdenas and elle mehrmand, “becoming transreal”: http://vimeo.com/ ] zach blas: queer technologies zach blas’s queer technologies project invites viewers to rethink the role of critical theory by bringing it out of academic language and into the realm of product design. blas’s art reimagines queer theory as a high-design brand, building objects that we can imagine as desirable accessories for the discerning plugged-in activist, and challenging us to pay attention to the commodification of art and ideas. part manifesto, part news report, part critical essay, queer technologies’ suite of instructional videos takes digital production as both theory and praxis. each video documents a queer weapon of resistance that responds to, yet participates in, the methods of the technological tools of empire. blas’s playful, speculative products ironically reproduce the signifiers of global capital while offering queer possibilities for undermining them, as indicated by the promotional speech embedded in each video: queer technologies is an organization that develops applications for queer technological agency, interventions, and social formation. we use technology to make queer weapons of resistance. these include: transcoder, a queer programming anti-language software development kit; engendering gender changers, a solution to gender adapters’ male/female binary; gay bombs, a technical manual manifesto that outlines a how-to of queer networked activism; and grid, a mapping application that tracks dissemination of queer technologies and maps the battle plans to more thoroughly infect networks of global capital. you can find our products at the disingenuous bar, a center for political support for technical problems, or in various consumer electronics stores, such as best buy, radio shack, and target. this sarcastic pr spin calls into question the apple products and slick gadgetry on which media- inclined academics depend; indeed, queer technologies asks us to consider not only the ends to which we apply our digital tools, but also the troubling legacies and potential applications of cutting-edge developments in science and technology. the video “fag face, or how to escape your face” responds to biometric technologies that enlist the face in governmental control systems, whose applications range from commercial digital camera software to surveillance technologies used by local law enforcement. responding to legacies of homophobia and neoliberal governance with deleuze, guattari, and gay pornography, “fag face” offers a new way to think about and produce critical theory. [video by zach blas, “fag face”: http://vimeo.com/ ] from the center scholarship and activism, academy and community, theory and pedagogy are often considered to be separate. by including this project, in which researchers and technology educators work with incarcerated women of color using digital storytelling techniques, we hope to challenge readers to think about what it might mean to allow our ideas about scholarship and political commitment to be transformed from the ground up. digital scholar, poet, and university of california– berkeley graduate student margaret rhee serves as project co-lead and conceptualist. at the hastac conference, rhee spoke of this collaborative activist work as “counterintuitive to the logics and rewards of the academy”––yet absolutely necessary. as feminists in our new media age, we believe women should be the authors, directors and storytellers of our own lives. we re-imagine how new media technologies can provide a vital intervention for all women, even those whose voices are subsumed in larger hegemonic discourse. oftentimes, incarcerated women and issues of race, class and sexuality are unacknowledged even in interdisciplinary areas such as ethnic, women and queer studies and in larger conversations and decisions of hiv/aids prevention education, policy and new media technologies. “from the center” derives from intersectional issues, domains and disciplines. we hope to bridge seemingly disparate subjects: feminist praxis, hiv/aids education, digital storytelling, the prison industrial complex, women’s studies, ethnic studies and new media studies. thus, we question, hope and urge a re-articulation of women’s identity, hiv/aids education and the digital divide by centering the issues and concerns of incarcerated women. (from the center) the field of digital humanities has become well known for its willingness to challenge academic conventions on one level: the idea that a phd constitutes professional training that should lead invariably to a tenure-track university teaching position. yet the vision of from the center, and rhee’s insistence that her work should be considered part of a scholarly project, highlights the limits of the academic transformations suggested by the increasingly celebrated alt-ac narrative (which encourages phds to seek careers in non-teaching roles in the university). from the center is a far more radical vision of what alternative scholarly knowledge projects and professional practices could be. it is not uncommon for scholars with particular political commitments to use their skills for activist projects in addition to their university work of teaching, research, and (in the age of dh) digital projects. but what would it mean to slip the bounds of the neoliberal academy, even for a moment, and imagine this work as the center of scholarly activity? [digital story, “miracle”: http://vimeo.com/ ] because i want to help women know that it is okay to go through things like that, this life. because i have someone in my family who has hiv. and i learned from her how to have safe sex and get tested. from the evocative intensity of the video to the straightforward statements that highlight a reality too rarely acknowledged within scholarly spaces, knowledge is being produced and transmitted here. when from the center’s team travels to conferences, its presenters include formerly incarcerated participants as well as academics and professional activists. their presence suggests that the privileged sphere of digital scholarship need not remain hermetically sealed from those who “go through things like that, this life.” transformative networked pedagogies connections and support networks among those engaged in knowledge production are central to the growth of the digital humanities sphere. much unacknowledged work of consolidation, mentorship, and intellectual framing takes place in and through digitally mediated social networks. here we highlight two examples that make the work of theory/practice explicit and conscious, building collaborative spheres on feminist principles and connecting transformative praxes inside and outside the academy. fembot collective: feminism, new media, science and technology the fembot collective consists of faculty, graduate students, and librarians who created a portal for feminist scholarship about technology. committed to the ideals of open source, fembot hosts an online journal, ada: journal of gender, new media and technology, with an open peer editorial process, an expanded notion of what “article” means, and a built-in system to help contributors bolster promotion and tenure portfolios: fembot has developed a framework for a two-level review process that includes an open editorial peer review and a community level of review for works in progress. valuing both the scholarly works and participation in the community of review, fembot will provide metrics on article views/downloads and the usefulness of comments. these metrics will be aggregated into a portfolio, which is conducive to forming an incentive to participate in the community and support an argument for value toward promotion. in addition to its transformation of scholarly publishing, fembot contributes pedagogical tools on the undergraduate and graduate levels, hosting blog posts in the site’s laundry day section that outline short, teachable moments in feminist technology scholarship, and providing tenure policies and dissertation prospectuses for use in professionalization training. most recently, fembot acts as the portal for femtechnet, a feminist technology teaching network that hopes to launch a course taught worldwide, dialogues on feminism and technology, in . billed as a “distributed online collaborative course,” femtechnet is an attempt at developing a viable model for transdisciplinary, transnational, transmedial collaborative pedagogies, and a feminist intervention on the mooc (massive open online course) model that is prevalent and controversial in current digital humanities discourse. in the future, fembot will host peer-evaluated readings, videos, bibliographies, and other teaching resources to aid participants in tailoring local instances of the course to its networked goals. experiments such as femtechnet and ada position the fembot collective as an innovator in scholarly communicative possibilities. crunk feminist collective “mission statement” in its mission statement, the crunk feminist collective throws off “hegemonic ways of being” in favor of reveling in and sharing the intoxicating effects of women of color feminisms with its readership and commenting community. this blogging community provides a space for women of color to commune, critique, and call out hegemonic culture in ways that reach across the divide separating academia from the popular. beat-driven and bass-laden, crunk music blends hip hop culture and southern black culture in ways that are sometimes seamless, but more often dissonant. its location as part of southern black culture references the south both as the location that brought many of us together and as the place where many of us still do vibrant and important intellectual and political work. the term “crunk” was initially coined from a contraction of “crazy” or “chronic” (weed) and “drunk” and was used to describe a state of uber- intoxication, where a person is “crazy drunk,” out of their right mind, and under the influence. but where merely getting crunk signaled that you were out of your mind, a crunk feminist mode of resistance will help you get your mind right, as they say in the south. casting off stilted academic speech for lyrical manifestos, insisting on the utility of affect for deep and considered arguments, and refusing to disconnect deeply personal stories from the project of scholarship, the crunk feminists’ commentary is more timely than journal production and more effective in enlisting the passion and drive of reader-students for social justice purposes. the collective’s interventions in internet and popular culture have included critiquing mainstream media for its coverage of olympians gabby douglas and claressa fields, covering the triumphs and missteps of the popular the misadventures of awkward black girl web series, and offering film and television reviews that range from love and hip hop to pariah. the crunk feminists also offer practical career advice for young academics and swap experiences and strategies for the unique struggles of the black feminist running a university-level class. as the blog’s large community of regular readers and commenters attest, the tactics and philosophies of crunk feminism reach into academia and beyond, educating and transforming their corner of the web. conclusion as the tools and methods of the digital humanities take up their new positions of prominence, we can only hope that they will begin to take on the mutations and instabilities represented by the practitioners and projects featured here, rather than settle into the creaky machine of the corporate university. whatever its future, dh has already proved its power to unsettle the old guard, inducing anxious and skeptical blog posts from high-profile critics and me-too conference panels spreading the word to far-off disciplines. the spirit of #transformdh is not to arrest this momentum, but to channel it in truly transformative directions—to avoid trading whiteness for more whiteness, heteropatriarchy for more heteropatriarchy, one imperialist hierarchy for another. we hope the community at large will continue to find and go viral with the social justice-minded hybrid practices, identities, and collaborations elaborated in mcpherson’s epigraph to this work of curation and analysis—the antiracist archives, the queer art-theories, the collaborative feminist pedagogies, the crunk academic activisms, the critical race coders. #transformdh is a convenient means to do so, but in the spirit of transformative work, we hope it will be supplanted by something else soon. about the authors alexis lothian is assistant professor of english at indiana university of pennsylvania, where she researches and teaches at the intersections of cultural studies, digital media, speculative fiction, and queer theory. she is the editor of an upcoming special issue of ada: journal of gender, new media and technology on feminist science fiction, a coeditor of a social text periscope dossier on speculative life, and a founding member of the editorial team for the journal transformative works and cultures. her work has been published in international journal of cultural studies, cinema journal, camera obscura, and journal of digital humanities. amanda phillips is a phd candidate in the department of english with an emphasis in feminist studies at the university of california–santa barbara. her dissertation takes a vertical slice of the video games industry to look at how difference is produced and policed on multiple levels of the gamic system. her interests more broadly are in queer, feminist, and race-conscious discourses in and around technoculture, popular media, and the digital humanities. in addition to participating in the humanities gaming institute , sponsored by the national endowment for the humanities (neh), amanda has been a hastac scholar since ; she has also hosted, in conjunction with margaret rhee, an online hastac forum on queer and feminist new media spaces, the organization’s most commented on forum to date. she has presented at the conferences for ucla queer studies, the american studies association, the modern language association, the popular culture association, and the conference on college composition and communication, and has participated in unconferences such as hastac’s peer-to-peer pedagogy workshop, thatcamp socal, and the transcriptions research slam. most recently, she has been involved with the #transformdh collective’s efforts to encourage and highlight critical cultural studies work in digital humanities projects. bibliography benford, steve, and gabriella giannachi. performing mixed reality. cambridge, ma: mit press, . blas, zach. “fag face, or how to escape your face.” vimeo. . accessed may , . http://vimeo.com/ . ———. “queer technologies: automating perverse possibilities.” queer technologies. . accessed may , . http://www.zachblas.info/projects/queer-technologies/. cárdenas, micha. transreal.org. . accessed may , . http://transreal.org/. cárdenas, micha, and elle mehrmand. “becoming transreal.” ucla freud playhouse, los angeles, ca. performed nov. , . vimeo. may , . the crunk feminist collective. the crunk feminist collective. –present. accessed may , . http://crunkfeministcollective.wordpress.com/. ———. “mission statement.” the crunk feminist collective (blog). mar. , . accessed may , . http://crunkfeministcollective.wordpress.com/about/. the fembot collective. fembot: feminism, new media, science and technology. . accessed may , . http://fembotcollective.org/. gold, matthew k. “whose revolution? towards a more equitable digital humanities.” the lapland chronicles (blog). jan. , . accessed may , . http://mkgold.net/blog/ / / /whose-revolution-toward-a-more-equitable-digital- humanities/. gonzález, isela, margaret rhee, allyse gray, and kate monico klein. from the center: facilitating feminist digital theory and praxis in a digital environment (blog). . accessed may , . http://hastac.org/blogs/alexislothian/ / / /hastac - center-facilitating-feminist-digital-theory-and-praxis-dig. graduates of from the center. “miracle.” vimeo. . accessed may , . http://vimeo.com/ . juhasz, alex. “two conferences: one students’/women’s media power.” media praxis: integrating media theory, practice and politics (blog). apr. , . accessed may , . http://aljean.wordpress.com/ / / /two-conferences-one-studentswomens- media-power/. koh, adeline. “addressing archival silence on th century colonialism – part : the power of the archive.” adeline koh (blog). mar. , . accessed may , . http://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/ / / /addressing-archival-silence-on- th-century- colonialism-part- -the-power-of-the-archive/. ———. “addressing archival silence on th century colonialism – part : creating a nineteenth century ‘postcolonial’ archive.” adeline koh (blog). mar. , . accessed may , ). http://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/ / / /addressing-archival-silence-on- th-century- colonialism-part- -creating-a-nineteenth-century-postcolonial-archive/. ———. digitizing “chinese englishmen.” . accessed may , . http://chineseenglishmen.adelinekoh.org/. macklin, angelica. “i saw you on the radio!” vimeo. . accessed may , . http://vimeo.com/ . mcpherson, tara. “why is the digital humanities so white?, or, thinking the histories of race and computation.” in debates in the digital humanities, edited by matthew k. gold, – . minneapolis: minnesota university press, . women who rock project: making scenes, building communities. . accessed may , . http://womenwhorockcommunity.org/. published by the dartmouth college library. http://journals.dartmouth.edu/joems/ article doi: . /ps . - .a. textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions research article textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions susan schreibman & costas papadopoulos published online: may # the author(s) abstract d (re)constructions of heritage sites and digital scholarly editions face similar needs and challenges and have many concepts in common, although they are expressed differently. d (re)constructions, however, lack a framework for addressing them. the goal of this article is not to create a single or the lowest common denominator to which both dses and d models subscribe, nor is it to reduce d to one scholarly editing tradition. it is rather to problematise the development of a model by borrowing concepts and values from editorial scholarship in order to enable public-facing d scholarship to be read in the same way that scholarly editions are by providing context, transmission history, and transparency of the editorial method/decision-making process. keywords d . (re)construction . digital scholalry editions . d scholarly editions . ambiguity. transparency. evidence introduction the nature, functionality, and theories informing digital scholarly editions (dses) have flourished over the past three decades, moving beyond how to represent print- based texts in digital forms into new types of knowledge production and dissemination informed by the affordances of the medium (apollon et al. ; sutherland ; driscoll and pierazzo ; pierazzo ). the creators of the earliest dses were cognizant of these differences in the nomenclature used to describe their scholarship: the rosetti archive, the blake archive, the macgreevy archive, the whitman archive. the shift from conceiving of their scholarship as an editorial product for print publication to web-based carried with it a new spatiality in which variants, versions, and secondary sources did not have to be decomposed into a notational shorthand international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * susan schreibman s.schreibman@maastrichtuniversity.nl department of literature & art, faculty of arts and social sciences, maastricht uiversity, maastricht, the netherlands http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:s.schreibman@maastrichtuniversity.nl delivered at the bottom of the page, but rather connoted a shift in thinking of scholarly editions from sites of textual compression to decentred webs of textuality (after all, this was the height of hypertext theory). in derridean terms, the digital archive was a space for gathering together texts on a specific theme, individual, or topic, expanding the world of its creation into an archontic space for inscription and investigation (derrida and prenowitz , ). these new forms of editions could be also described as assemblages, little machines of knowledge (deleuze and guattari , ). thinking of dses as machines of knowledge which represent texts as open objects that can be read and understood through and by their means of production and reception reelevates long-standing textual practices such as annotation, apparatus, and commentary as interlinked dis- courses, ‘not in serially additive arrangements, but in functional interdependence’, providing a palette for both textual and contextual study (gabler , ). this model of dses repositions the editor, not as an objective arbiter of the text, but more like a hunter-gatherer, a constructor of a dynamic and rhizomatic knowledge site. these knowledge sites need not privilege the alphanumeric. as early as , when the first digital archives were being published, mckenzie described the panoply of objects that could be open to the kinds of intensive bibliographical study (transmission, production, and reception) that textual scholars had traditionally reserved for print and manuscript traditions, ‘as verbal, visual, oral and numeric data’ (mckenzie , ). like mckenzie, we believe that the digital provides us with a pan-glossary to abstract the material medium of the objects of our contemplation to conceptual ones, and that the text(s) at the centre (or periphery) of the knowledge site we create is worthy of representing any human activity, not simply the artistic but the anthropologic. in his definition of digital scholarly editions, sahle has also advocated that scholarly digital editions not be restricted to literary texts but rather ‘cover all cultural artefacts from the past that need critical examination in order to become useful sources for research in the humanities’ (sahle , ). what is key, however, is not simply that the object, or what we are broadly calling the ‘text’, is digitised and distributed electronically, but that it exists within a knowledge site, what we are calling a digital scholarly edition; what derrida (derrida and prenowitz , ) and the earliest textual editors of web-based scholarship called the archive, what deleuze and guattari ( , ) called the assemblage, and mckenzie ( , ) ‘the sociology of texts’, integrating interrogating and interlinking, the textual and the contextual (gabler , ). at first glance, conceiving of three-dimensional ( d) (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions might seem anti-intuitive. after all, the technologies, methodol- ogies, and theories that have informed the creation of dses, everything from tei/ xml, documentary vs critical editions, and relational vs xml-aware databases to more recent discussions of how the texts created in dses can be repurposed, remodelled, and algorithmically analysed and visualised, share little with the tech- nologies, methodologies, and theories that have informed scholarship expressed through d reconstructions. d reconstructions are computer generated models produced in computer graphic software packages. they represent in three dimen- sions geometric data combined with textures and a simulation of how light interacts with different surfaces. the d(re)constructions we refer to in this article concern cultural heritage visualisations and simulations. these visualisations range from schematic s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos representations of buildings to photorealistic renderings and predictive simulations of ancient structures (see dawson et al. ) and from spatial analysis (see paliou et al. ) and physics simulations (see oetelaar ) to interactive virtual worlds utilising online platforms (see sequiera and morgado ) and game engines (see the projects carried out as part of the humanities virtual worlds consortium – http://virtualworlds. etc.ucla.edu/). examples of the types of projects that could be informed by the principles outlined in this article include the virtual rosewood research project (http://www.rosewood-heritage.net/), which focuses on rosewood, florida, an african american town destroyed during the race riot (gonzález-tennant ), virtual williamsburg (fischer ; http://research.history.org/vw /), and digital hadrian’s villa (frischer and stinson ), the unity version of which allows users to test archaeoastronomical theories (e.g. the alignment of the sun with the tower of roccabruna on the summer solstices during hadrian’s reign to discover celestial arrangements in the night sky as they would have been seen in the past). it also includes contested memories: the battle of mount street bridge project (http://mountstreet .ie), which will be discussed at the end of this article. we will be utilising the term (re)constructions (as opposed to reconstruction) to signify the theoretical nature of the research being undertaken, reinforcing the hypo- thetical nature of the models created as described in more detail below. although three- dimensional modelling has been seen as an essential research practice in fields such as archaeology and architecture, with hundreds of applications providing opportunities for experimentation and new insights, it has never assumed a central role or been established as scholarship in its own right, and it has been less frequently used by other fields in the humanities. there is no doubt that these models can have a ‘wow’ factor, and they are commonly used as the last step that takes place at the end of a project as a means of communicating absence in a visually engaging way (hermon and fabian ; gillings ) and attracting publicity and funding. the situation is changing, however, as the cost of the technologies and equipment needed to create d models has become more affordable, and more institutions at third level teach the skills, methods, and theories involved. over a decade ago, gillings ( , ) called for a robust theoretical and conceptual framework that would realise the potential of the method, providing a means of making visible the underlying decision-making process while disseminating research findings within a single methodological framework. that framework still does not exist. today d (re)constructions are being used as analytical tools within the broad area of history and heritage studies to explore the impact of light on the experience and perception of ancient environments, as simulations to investigate how battles unfold, as a means of providing an embodied and sensorial understanding, and as immersive experiences of a period, culture, or historical event. in most cases these (re)constructions have been created for offline use due to the computational power required to undertake various analyses or even to host the worlds online, making it difficult for researchers outside project teams to learn from the work of others. it may be due to these difficulties that those working with these technologies have spent less time developing a framework within which to convey to a wider public the scholarship that has gone into the creation of the (re)construction, including the choices used in creating the model, the methodologies used, the history of the subject under investiga- tion, and the decisions made during the process of its creation. textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions http://virtualworlds.etc.ucla.edu/ http://virtualworlds.etc.ucla.edu/ http://www.rosewood-heritage.net/ http://research.history.org/vw / http://mountstreet .ie/ current d scholarship primarily exists in a bifurcated information space. the models exist electronically, but the knowledge generated from them is written about in journal articles, illustrated by static two-dimensional images, while the models themselves cannot be accessed beyond the individual or the team who worked on them. while years ago earl and wheatley ( ) ascribed the under-theorisation of the field to a widespread belief that d visualisation had a small role to play as an interpretive mechanism, there now is a growing body of practitioners in a wide variety of fields who are looking for a holistic information environment within which to disseminate their work. the authors of this article, one with a background that stretches back to scholarly editing in print and, since the mid- s, has included digital forms and the other with a background in digital archaeology and particularly in the use of d modelling for analytical and documentary purposes, have come to believe that recent scholarship in digital scholarly editions, as it moves away from the conceptual and medium-specific frameworks of print traditions into more dynamic knowledge sites, can provide a productive model of the ways in which d (re)constructions can be used to reach larger audiences and shape intellectual debates. this scholarship can also provide a model for the ways in which the knowledge gained by the researchers who created it can be embedded in d (re)constructions. this is a speculative article, the essential intention of which is to propose and test theories from two domains which at first glance seem to have very little in common. however, its authors have come to realise after several years of collaboration and conversation that they share significant concerns and have wrestled with similar concepts, from expressing transparency and ambiguity to modelling absence from the extant record. this is an opening salvo to generate discussion about how the current theories about dses could be expanded and applied beyond their dominantly text- based practice and how d (re)constructions can be conceived of as open knowledge networks which contain, embedded within them, the analytical and archival scholarship that informed their creation. modelling in d: an introduction three-dimensional computer graphical approaches flourished in the television and film industry with the first commercial d software package, wavefront technologies, released in to serve the increasing needs of motion pictures. around the same this article has grown out of present and previous conversations. the authors thank the participants in the virtual worlds as digital scholarly editions masterclass (maynooth university, – june , http://dhprojects.maynoothuniversity.ie/vwdse/, funded by the digital scholarly editions initial training network (dixit). this masterclass provided a fruitful dialogue between scholars from the fields of heritage d visualisation and digital scholarly editing, allowing them to explore theoretical and practical issues pertaining to the creation, annotation, and publication of d models with the ultimate aim of marrying the practices of the two communities. the authors are also part of the andrew w. mellon foundation project ‘scholarship in d: digital edition publishing cooperative’, which attempts to build a sustainable framework within which to reconceive d works as digital editions and create an infrastructure that will enable its recognition as scholarship. s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos http://dhprojects.maynoothuniversity.ie/vwdse/ time, d modelling was used to (re)construct heritage datasets, with the earliest reported work being that of the bath building at caerleon roman fort in south wales (smith ) and a year later the first animated virtual tour, that of the old minster of winchester (reilly et al. ). in this paper, we focus on the type of d modelling in which computer graphics are used to (re)construct ‘what is not there’ as a means of providing a better understanding of and generating hypotheses concerning and interpretations of different datasets, from ancient structures to twentieth-century buildings. like textual scholarship, d model- ling requires evaluations of the reliability of different, often incomplete and ambiguous sources, and it gathers evidence that leads to a series of decisions regarding the type, amount, and style of models to be constructed, depending on their intended uses and audiences. the d scholarship to which we are referring in this paper has been called by many names, from three-dimensional (solid) modelling to virtual reconstructions and d computer graphic simulations. these terms have emerged from particular schools of thought, theoretical and methodological traditions, and biases and assumptions. for example, the term virtual reconstruction became popular in the s after reilly ( ) coined the term virtual archaeology, while in the mid- s the term virtual worlds was used to reflect online, multiplayer, avatar-based game approaches (see for example bell ; nevelsteen ), facilitated by platforms such as second life, open simulator, and unity. in these three decades, no consistency or consensus emerged concerning the terminology used to describe this type of scholarship; some consistency has only been seen in the association of these terms with the word reconstruction. the fallacy of the term ‘reconstruction’ (taylor ; clark ) is ingrained in the practice of many disciplines. for example, in archaeology under the influence of the processual school, emphasis was placed on the objectivity of scientific methods, while in textual editing, according to the american school, particularly within the bowers/ tanselle approach, the goal of the edition is to restore the text to the author’s final intention (shillingsburg , ). reconstruction implies an attempt to bring some- thing back to its original state based on available evidence as its starting point. however, such attempts can never be accurate, as they are interpretations of some past reality or of the documentary evidence, and as such, they reflect present-day social and cultural agendas. much as editing texts for digital publication has made editors aware of the con- straints of editing for print publication (mcgann , ) coupled with new theoret- ical approaches which do not favour (re)construction of the text according to what the editor believes the author would have intended. equally, the possibility of photorealistic rendering of d heritage opened up new debates as to the purpose and role of d models in the interpretive process (gillings ). calling what we model a ‘recon- struction’ which is indistinguishable from real life (as in the case of d) or professing to know what a long-dead author wanted (in terms of textual editing) leave little room to question the process according to which the ‘reconstruction’ was made, the authenticity of the new work that has been created, or the reliability or interpretation of the evidence used in its construction. therefore, we use the term (re)construction to emphasise the decision-making process and the non-absolutist approach in the construction of the model. textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions d and textual scholarship: a parallel path scholars in both textual editing and d (re)constructions have faced similar issues in modelling the textual/material record, and surprisingly, they have employed either the same or similar terminology in confronting these challenges. this is what we refer to as ‘a parallel path’. these issues concern the use of evidence, ways of making the decision making process visible, and ways of dealing with ambiguity. in this section we outline these parallels, which form the key features of the last section, towards d digital scholarly editions. . evidence both fields work to reconstruct the text on the basis of existing, albeit imperfect evidence (if the evidence were perfect, there would be no need for editors or editions). in both cases, the researcher is evaluating the evidentiary record, and the further we go back in this record chronologically, the less evidence remains. in many respects, the d (re)constructions of ancient spaces are more akin to the textual editing tradition of stemmatics applied to premodern texts, in which the editor reconstructs the original text by working backwards from extant witnesses through a set of relationships expressed as a tree structure in an effort to come as close as possible to the original text before it was corrupted (or indeed thought to be improved) through the copying process. d (re)constructions of sites that exist in fragmentary form, e.g. a prehistoric settlement, also go through a process of evaluation of extant data, resolving, discarding, and harmonising evidence in an effort to understand what might have existed. this can be likened to an interpretation of secondary sources documenting remains in the form of textual records/field notes, photographs, and illustrations, site-specific physical remains, and information coming from other sites which bear some resemblance (temporal or spatial) to the subject under investigation. the goal in both fields is the (re)construction of an artefact (be it a poem or an ancient building) which makes clear to the user where there are gaps in knowledge of the putative original and what methods and evidence were used in order to fill these gaps. on the other hand, d (re)constructions based on (nearly) complete evidence, e.g. (re)constructions of a twentieth-century urban battlefield in which old buildings still stand, share more with traditions and methods used to edit nineteenth-century and twentieth-century texts. in both cases, there tends to exist an abundance of evidence, and the researcher adjudicates among extant sources, each of which carries its own authority. just as texts can exist in multiple versions, manuscripts, typescripts, and printings, some or all of which might have been authorised by the writer, bringing back in d a building or a street or what happened in that space at a specific point in time (or indeed, over time) may utilise a plethora of evidence, including documentary, oral, and visual. this evidence may be contradictory and fragmentary, and some items of evidence may be more ‘authorised’ or credible than others. the theories underlying the textual tradition of versioning in which the goal is not to establish a definitive or reading text, but to reconstruct, not only a textual history, but the underlying view of the nature of the text’s production (tanselle , ) might prove a useful foundation for models of d (re)constructions in which what is of interest is the potential to make visible multiple states over time or alternative s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos possibilities in interpretation. these ‘textual’ moments can be viewed as snapshots, each providing a unique, equally valid window onto the past (schreibman , ). textual editors have the ability to model these differences in tei/xml within one apparatus or framework explicitly to denote regions of both shared and divergent text. once these regions are marked, they can be analysed and visualised, providing the modeller with a method for recording difference over time and the reader with a standard notation for the decision making process. while tei/xml is not a suitable language for d, the theoretical framing may well be, as it offers a way to make variation visible within a single model. . ambiguity the oxford english dictionary defines ambiguity as the ‘quality of being open to more than one interpretation; inexactness’. it is precisely because of the ambiguous nature of evidence that textual scholarship exists. revealing, acknowledging, and/or resolving this ambiguity is part of the interpretive process. in the transition from print to digital editing of alphanumeric texts, it has become possible to represent ambiguity more explicitly in a non-notational manner, providing the reader with the documentary evidence to mediate between different textual states (schreibman , – ). there have been lengthy discussions concerning the contention that simply providing the reader with facsimiles of the various witnesses is a form of unediting (schreibman ), i.e. an abdication of the editorial role. on the other hand, modelling the text according to a theory such as genetic editing or versioning to make visible the writing process allows readers to formulate their own sense of the work (or work-in-progress) situated in both time and place (machan , ). in other words, the point of this type of editing is not to resolve the ambiguity of the textual record, but to expose it through modelling. modelling ambiguity has been the subject of much discussion in d (re)construc- tions. while in both fields there exists the subjective nature of gathering, selecting, and interpreting evidence, with d (re)constructions there are less codified ways to express ambiguity (or indeed to consider whether or not it should be expressed) and to make the modelling process as transparent as possible (for a recent discussion see watterson ). representing ambiguity began to become more pressing in the mid- s and especially in the s, as photorealistic models started dominating heritage represen- tation. this, in turn, fuelled debates about their misleading nature (miller and richards ; james ; goodrick and gillings ; eiteljorg ) and the problematic use of the word ‘reconstruction’ (clark ). these concerns gave rise to a series of proof-of-concept implementations that demonstrated intellectual rigour in d models and explicated decision-making in the process of their creation as a means of counteracting their problematic photorealistic nature. these implementations included alternative reconstructions, annotations, renderings in different colours, textures, and shadings, as well as ways of activating or deactivating ambiguous features and alternative models that would in turn affect other elements (kensek ). unlike the digital scholarly editing practices in which there exists a core set of technologies and methods (largely around xml/tei), to a large extent d visualisations utilise bespoke solutions with no sustainable platforms, methodologies, or standards which might lead to the wider adoption of such practices (see for example: textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions archaeology data service guide to archiving virtual reality projects ( ): http://guides.archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/g gp/vr_ - ; mcdonough et al. ). the world wide web currently hosts a wide variety of dses, some going back to the earliest digital archives in the mid- s, providing the field with a tradition from which new theories, models, and editions are developed. however, due to their intensive computational nature, most d visualisation projects are developed for offline use and in a constantly changing environment in which software and frameworks become obsolete soon after their release. also, the internet itself, with constant changes to browsers, does not offer a stable environment for such projects (ruan and mcdonough ), providing little opportunity to build a body of knowl- edge and a practice-based community. . transparency as mentioned above, the creation of d models under the influence of photorealism gave birth to a series of debates regarding transparency, documentation of decision- making, standards, and intellectual rigour in the process of (re)construction. earlier, more schematic work did not carry with it the same calls for transparency, as it did not, however unintentionally, ‘trick’ the viewer into reading reality into the (re)construction. several projects attempted to establish principles to address this new environment. the best-known is the london charter (denard ; http://www.londoncharter.org/), developed in at a meeting of d visualisation specialists who came up with a series of principles that would ensure a certain level of standardisation in terms of the creation of documentation, ensuring sustainability and access and articulating the aims and methods of (re)creation (denard ). for example, principle . , ‘documenta- tion of process (paradata); states that: documentation of the evaluative, analytical, deductive, interpretative and creative decisions made in the course of computer-based visualisation should be dissem- inated in such a way that the relationship between research sources, implicit knowledge, explicit reasoning, and visualisation-based outcomes can be under- stood (denard , - ). while a worthy goal, it is impossible not only to document, but, as was found in editing according to the greg/bowers (bowers ) school of copy-text, even to represent each and every editorial decision and the rationale for that decision. this would amount to providing a textual record of not only how each accidental (e.g. punctuation, spelling, word division which was considered less significant and meaning-making than substantives, e.g. word choice) was handled, but why it was handled that way. in both traditions, this goal becomes even more unobtainable, as it would involve a full time amanuenses following the researcher (or team of researchers), recording every conversation, saving every version of every document, every state of every electronic file. even if it were possible to save all this, how could it be presented to the reader so as to make more transparent the decision-making process? this might be more akin to an archive or an assemblage, but even if this could be ordered and catalogued, what it does not necessarily demonstrate is what happens in the space between the evidence, s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos http://guides.archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/g gp/vr_ - http://www.londoncharter.org/ the ideas that inform the decision-making process, tracing a path from evidence to its representation. despite the fact that several reports and frameworks followed the london charter, none of them tackled the inherent visual illiteracy in reading photorealistic d visualisations as texts. there is no scaffolding within which the d model is situated to provide the reader with access to its conceptual and methodological underpinnings. towards d scholarly editions we have argued that digital scholarly editions act as mediators and gatherings of evidence (gabler , ), textual, social, and historical, that is read in an increasingly multimodal infrastructure. as knowledge sites, they encompass within the same com- putational paradigm both the primary text and the evidence that informed the decisions in creating the text, thus providing the community which it serves a tool for ‘prying problems apart and opening up a new space for the extension of learning’ (apollon et al. , – ). this framework provides the information structures and evidence that make up the edition so that the audience can understand the process behind the creation of the edition and adjudicate its authenticity and reliability. hence we believe that there exists a case and a rationale for designing a blueprint to link editorial, epistemological, and technical practices in the development of editions of d (re)constructions as scholarship in its own right, as assessable assemblages to combat the problem of the vacuous nature of most models: empty sites where the research that went into their creation remains invisible to those outside project teams. while photorealistic models are ever more beautiful to behold, if their raison d’être is not to serve as works of art, but as mediators of evidence, the ways in which the chain of production that informed their creation needs to be made visible in the same information space as the models. we are not advocating that a dse of a d (re)construction be thought of as a defined object, but rather as a methodological field in which a set of codes imposes a prefiguring frame on the reality being created, and not only the technological codes that govern the creation of this reality, but also the social, theoretical, and historical codes that its makers adopt in its creation (barthes ). the construction of such an edition entails building an intertextual network com- posed of the d model along with its accompanying annotation and apparatus, thus providing a base from which the reader can actively engage in the knowledge creation process. this approach is being taken in the redevelopment of the contested memories: the battle of mount street bridge (bmsb) project, a spatiotemporal (re)construction of one of the most important battles during the easter rising between a small pletinckx ( ) and the network of excellence, epoch developed the interpretation management knowhow booklet, which explained different methods, including source assessment and correlation, hypoth- eses trees, and updating, to ensure scholarly transparency in d visualisation. this information and the comments, decisions, and interpretive processes comprise the paradata of the project (baker , – ), which allows a clearer interpretation management and understanding of the relationships between primary data and the outcome. more recently, the seville principles (lopez-menchero and grande ) used the london charter as a theoretical framework to develop a series of principles to increase the applicability of the latter to d visualisations of archaeological heritage. other works have also elaborated on how scientific reasoning can become visible (hermon ; niccolucci ). textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions group of irish volunteers ( ) and a much larger force ( ) of british soldiers (https://mountstreet .ie/ papadopoulos and schreibman in press).the apparatus being explored includes a narrative-driven camera with a voice over providing an evidence-informed interpretation of how the battle unfolded; audio files that replicate the types of sounds that accompanied the battle; and a user interface to display in-world textual annotations about the combatants and other participants (such as the medical personnel), key buildings and events, the types and makes of guns used, and the sources for the (re)construction (from the methods used to the primary sources consulted; see fig. for a mock up). the project has also experimented (see fig. ) with animated agents to help the reader better visualise troop movements as the battle unfolded. fig. the new user interface of the standalone unity d environment includes an annotation panel that provides contextual information (text and/or multimedia) activated by hotspots, as well as a timeline for exploring the battle temporally. fig. a total of ai agents ( for each of the seven companies of british soldiers) have been included in a webgl version of the d model s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos https://mountstreet .ie/ embedding the iconography of d (re)constructions into what we might broadly describe as scholarly editing practice, opens up new vistas for scholarship and the communication of the results of that scholarship within spatio-temporal environments that are immersive and multisensorial. if the goal of the modelled dataset is to create its own ecosystem to provoke and encourage evolving thought about the materials, aesthetics, and cultures it simulates (schreibman ), then the scholarly editing framework we have outlined here, we believe, fulfils that goal. the real difference between the two domains is not the technologies utilised in digital production, but the fact that textual editors have a long history of models, theories, and paradigms of the documentation and display of text and paratext (as well as models, theories, and paradigms for the fashioning of arguments), and d (re)constructions do not. this article presents a rationale for the development of such as framework. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references apollon, d., bélisle, c., & régnier, p. 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( ). beyond digital dwelling: re-thinking interpretive visualisation in archaeology. open archaeology ( ). retrieved from https://doi.org/ . /opar- - . accessed , march . textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions http://media.digitalheritage.se/ / /interpretation_managment_tii.pdf https://doi.org/ . /j.daach. . . https://doi.org/ . /j.daach. . . https://doi.org/ . /itime. . https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/digital-scholarly-editing/ https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/digital-scholarly-editing/ https://journals.tdl.org/jvwr/index.php/jvwr/article/view/ / https://journals.tdl.org/jvwr/index.php/jvwr/article/view/ / https://doi.org/ . /opar- - textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions abstract introduction modelling in d: an introduction d and textual scholarship: a parallel path evidence ambiguity transparency towards d scholarly editions references durham research online deposited in dro: january version of attached �le: accepted version peer-review status of attached �le: peer-reviewed citation for published item: crang, m. 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promises and perils of a digital geohumanities abstract this intervention asks to what extent to developments of digital media offer new objects that demand new methods, and to what extent they create new methods that might be applied to older cultural fields creating a digital humanities. it argues that digital media sometimes reanimate older debates and issues not only in what we study but how we do so, and their significance may be less in new techniques than altering the general tools of our trade in cultural geography. the paper looks at both new digital cultures, such as gaming and new converging media, and new methods, be they analysing the data exhaust of digitally mediated social lives, or using new software in literary analysis. profound tensions exist between quantitative imaginaries of a massive stock of texts yielding determinate meanings and deconstructive visions of texts yielding indeterminate and proliferating meanings. big data sits uneasily with big interpretation. the paper suggests a materialist semiosis is needed to attend to the permutations where new digital techniques may form affective technologies conveying meanings as much as effective analytical tools. keywords: methods, digital humanities, new media, literary geography introduction there has never been a shortage of hyperbole regarding digital media’s always imminent, somehow never arriving, effects on society and the academy, be they from cheerleaders or prophets of doom. and yet there is a remarkable sensation i sometimes feel about the relationship of research and digital devices that everything has changed and nothing has changed. there was a moment doing fieldwork in for me when i looked at the back seat of a hire car and realised there were two digital cameras, one digital camcorder, a voice recorder and laptop. they were all making digital files which i would process and link with a bibliographic database package that in turn linked increasingly either digital versions of papers or my own notes on publications stored as digital files. i had perhaps consequently chosen a moleskine notebook for my fieldnotes as something of a retro affectation. this short intervention seeks to unsettle the continuity of methods in a world whose cultures are increasingly lived through digital media, whilst probing some of the claims of new ‘digital’ methods that seem to promise miraculous solutions to well-worn problems. this commentary draws on materialist media studies that point to the effects of technologies of media on how we think as well as the effect of their content on what we think about. they refuse to divide ‘container’ and ‘content’ or ‘atoms’ and ‘bits’. all media have complex materialities and are not dematerialised information. like johanna drucker i want to resist the ‘pixel-plagued bit-weary’ investment in a form of materiality that creates a false binary of ‘the matter of the real’ in opposition to an immateriality attributed to the ‘virtual’. i to exemplify this it is perhaps salutary to return to an old technology when it was new. at some point in , friedrich nietzsche bought a typewriter. he bought it since his failing eyesight meant staring at the page whilst writing brought on terrible headaches. typing by touch, he could write with his eyes closed. but it also began to inflect what nietzsche wrote. friedrich kittler notes that nietzsche's prose ‘changed from arguments to aphorisms, from thoughts to puns, from rhetoric to telegram style’. ii nietzsche himself recognized that ‘our writing equipment takes part in the forming of our thoughts’ suggesting we all need to think about the tools of our trade. nor can we opt out of new technologies, not even by using a retro notebook. we are all now digital scholars these days – even if it is ‘digital lite’ in terms of using various forms of digital mediation in various aspects of our work. this general engagement should not be overlooked, when the banal technologies of storing, filing and writing work as the scaffolds for our practice. as katherine hayles notes for contemporary thinking ‘the keyboard comes to seem an extension of one’s thoughts rather than an external device on which one types. embodiment then takes the form of extended cognition, in which human agency and thought are enmeshed within larger networks that extend beyond the desktop computer into the environment’. iii the impact of new media is not just on what we study but how we think. there is then no opting out of digital scholarship. as kittler reminds us, heidegger highlighted that: ‘whether or not we personally ever use the typewriter is not important. what is important is that all of us are thrown into the age of typewriting, whether we like it or not. of course, heidegger himself preferred to continue his work in his own handwriting’ iv but we do not need to rely on the slightly romantic and anti-technological bent of a thinker like heidegger. walter benjamin was similarly intrigued by the way technologies for storing, processing and presenting information shaped our thinking. as he put it looking at the desk of the s, ‘the card index marks the conquest of three-dimensional writing, and so presents an astonishing counterpoint to the three-dimensionality of script in its original form as rune or knot notation. and today the book is already, as the present mode of scholarly production demonstrates, an outdated mediation between two different filing systems. for everything that matters is to be found in the card box of the researcher who wrote it, and the scholar studying it assimilates it into his own card index.’ v it is well known then that he attempted to create a form of writing that enabled such a three dimensionality through ‘files’ of examples rather than linear prose. all underpinned by the humble technology of filing, indexing and referencing. a reminder that the database has longer pedigree in academic work than its digital form. in the s there was a rash of work heralding the new possibilities and forms of electronic writing as a hyperlinked database, pointing to the almost embarrassingly literal enactment of deconstructive theory’s destabilisation of the text. vi and yet, as jacques derrida reflected, the texts of his that were ‘most disobedient to tenets of linear writing,’ he wrote before computers enabled dislocations and grafts, in fact glas was written with an olivetti typewriter: ‘it was theorized and it was done – yesterday. the path of these new typographies, which have become common today, was blazed in an experimental fashion a long time ago. it’s thus necessary to invent other ‘disorders’, more discreet, less jubilatory and exhibitionist ones which this time would be contemporary with the computer.’ vii this intervention will seek those modest disruptions in arenas of cultural geography both where the object of our study has become digital and where our mode of study now uses digital media. i use that as a heuristic conscious it risks restaging the dualism of field and academy, things and thought, res extensa and res cogitans, which material media analysis debunks. viii within these two broad areas, i want to make a further subdivision between the ‘migration of our cultural legacy into digital form and the creation of new, born-digital materials’. ix i will first, and most briefly, look at new digital objects of study; secondly, the ways the prevalence of digital media renders the social perceptible in new ways. likewise i divide the effects of digital media on academic practice, into, first, converging forms of knowledge as they become digital and, second, the application of new digital and computational techniques to old issues –exemplified by new approaches to literary geographies. in doing this i cut across the terrain staked out as a project of geohumanities and that of a digital humanities. ketchum, luria, dear, and richardson’s recent text speaks then of four dimensions of geohumanities, ‘geocreativity (creative places), geotexts (spatial literacies), geoimagery (visual geographies), and geohistories (spatial histories)’. x this intervention stresses the challenge of new media to the first three with the creation of new kinds of place and modes of interacting, with new textual and visual apparatus. it comes back to the ‘spatial humanities’ which they bracket as one and same as ‘the digital humanities’ which is described as ‘the absorption of methods of geographical information science into humanities scholarship’. that constricted definition of the digital humanities is not one many who identify as practitioners would accept – even if they acknowledge the rise of spatial databases and spatialised presentations of data. i want to hold to katherine hayles expansive set of possible outcomes. xi to do this means a seeing the digital geohumanities as being an oscillation between using digital technologies in studying traditional objects and also humanities methods in studying digital objects. xii digital cultures and born digital objects there are new cultural forms and practices created through digital media that would seem at first blush to beckon for newly digital modes of analysis. and yet on probing, these born digital cultural artefacts – like computer games – turn out to be ‘remediating’ previous media structures. xiii we need to ask what are the continuities and what are the changes, for instance attending to how game aesthetics remediate landscape. there is little novel in the ideological content of, say, many video games’ depiction of racialised others. the long running franchise of grand theft auto plays on an american urban imaginary taken from tv and film. it also trades on racialised and sexualised stereotypes to animate urban spaces. xiv we might see a not so crypto- orientalism in the conversion of middle eastern cities into backdrops and theatres of action, people into targets and victims for ‘first person shooter’ games positioning the player as a western soldier. however, games such as full spectrum warrior: ten hammers remediate that by using simulated contemporary cnn style news media coverage as framing devices. xv in contrast to first person view games, some, such as age of empire, use map views deploying the cartographic device of a slow map reveal in the corner of the screen and play around the different spatial knowledges and forms of representing travel and mapping. xvi studies have looked at the socialities (and less often spatialities) of online worlds as new creative places for either simulated social encounter (as in virtual worlds) or collaborative quest based games (massively multiplayer online roleplaying games (mmporgs)). the coming together in a simulated place by distributed actors challenges the embodied copresense in participant observation manuals. and yet, as illustrated by longan’s piece in this issue, research practice seems a very familiar ethnographic one at heart. so we have new forms, recycling formats, being analysed by methods that fuse old techniques with new practices. digital lives: rendering culture perceptible. the percolation of new media into everyday life suggests separations of real and virtual, material and cyberspace are misconceived. this is not the place to explore the transformations this enables in the organisation of culture, society, economy and urban life, my concern here is more with the methods it enables to study these. suffice to say initial prophecies of placeless or dematerialised living have now been replaced by an attention on how for instance media enable local life to function. xvii beyond that far from there just being social networks there has been a proliferation of location based social networks, xviii and far from virtual games there are ‘hybrid’ digital games that embed themselves into places – with simulated zombie attacks in real life streets or playing around and against other nearby participants. xix moreover art works increasingly annotate spaces and layer digital content onto places, or use places to inform media content. xx a variety of geowebbed media are now also conveying stories in situ, for instance in the work of janet cardiff or indeed repopulating urban settings with past soundscapes or artistic interventions. xxi here then new media are allied with a distributed archive imbricated in spatial practices. others mash multiple different forms of data together to alter the experience of the spaces and add possibilities for popular archiving. of course popular archiving and authorship then (as ever) reflect the multiple dimensions of power in this case mediated through new technology, about who gets to author what. it is at this point then possible to analyse the layering of different signifiers in different variants of media onto places – to look at either a palimpsest or indeed competing media and their differing constituencies of users trying to create hegemonic meanings for places. xxii we have then a very literal enactment of long established arguments about contested and polysemic landscapes. but here then for cultural geography are either new tools for intervention, where we might add public archival annotation via geotagging to existing techniques. social media render the back and forth of social life perceptible to analysis (be that by academics, governments or more often corporations) through the digital traces – the data exhaust – they leave. our banal social lives become digitally mediated and can be subject to quantitative encapsulation through lexical analysis. for instance alan mislove and colleagues applied a word-rating system –scoring positive and negative connotations – to us based geolocated tweets to produce stunning time lapse maps of the ‘mood of the nation’. xxiii similar approaches have correlated postings with stock market movements xxiv and yet so far the conclusions have been banal. the poetics and affective power of the visualisation have often been more powerful than the supposed ‘result’. one result that is clear is the institution of the social media used as ‘evidential’ and media researchers who use it are ‘not mere observers or utilizers of social media content but are promoters of this infrastructure’ who by framing an issue via a specific media platform risk reproducing how that media frames the issue. xxv such analyses render apparent the centrality of the transmission of affects and feelings to the going on of social life. xxvi and yet, this is done via quantification whereas so much work on emotions or affects has started from postulating them as unquantifiable. latour and lepinay turned to gabriel tarde, who saw the economy and the social as a series of quantifiable intensities, in response. at the start of the twentieth century, he argued that the problem of scientific study of society was not that it quantified, but that its metric was wrong. he wondered about the possibilities of developing metrics for fame, charisma, happiness by creating ‘valuemeters’ or ‘glorimeters’. they note, we should nowadays ‘have no difficulty understanding what digitization has done to the calculation of authority, the mapping of credibility and the quantification of glory’. xxvii however, enthusiasm for alternate metrics rather underplays possible alienation by any and all metrics. so to take an example close to home, the concatenation of student evaluations, national research evaluations, league tables, citation analyses, twitter buzz (where the circulation of academic work on social media is logged by initiatives like alt.metrics xxviii ) and so forth that increasingly govern academic life do not seem to promote positive affects. xxix these metrics do not simply report the world, but rather format it in their own image. rendering cultural life more perceptible, and thus amenable to action by different groups, highlights what kittler called ‘institutions of selection’ which attribute significance. xxx it is also the case then that such data by replicating current patterns of interaction tend to be conservative both in repeating what is currently dominant but also restaging a simplistic monism. xxxi digital convergence if new media are recording traces of cultural life, so too are the old media being transformed. cultural geography has tended to focus on the meaning rather than the substance of media, saying much more about the dematerialised ‘text’ than the ‘book’. as keighren and withers note most work in geography focuses on the content of printed narratives to the neglect of epistolary conventions. xxxii we have been (too) eager to read artefacts like texts, and rather less adept at seeing texts as artefacts. xxxiii as kittler argues media are ‘material devices for producing, processing, transmitting and storing information’. xxxiv what is underway with the increasing use of digital media is a mnemotechnical shift from the library to the database. xxxv roger chartier suggests that the result is a dedifferentiation of discourses that were previously held apart by material differences and associated conventions. chartier is led to speculate that ‘in the digital world all textual entities are like databases that offer fragments, the reading of which in no way implies the perception of the work or the body of works from which they come’. xxxvi the question is whether the database is antitethical to narrative, as argued by lev manovich, or symbiotic with it as katherine hayles would have it. xxxvii this suggests attending rather more to the conventions and modes of information presentation. drucker argues it highlights the spatial organisation of texts and how those structure semantic relations. xxxviii in this she raises two approaches made possible, the first she calls speculative computing, the other a digital humanities where there is a scientific attachment to objective data. the former kind of vision draws on the power of visualisation to produce an affective response and drucker calls for ‘diagrammatology’ where the compositional possibilities and distribution of materials perform relations. xxxix the latter approach of digital humanities mines the universe of digital textual objects to reveal patterns of relations through data visualisation or ‘infovis’ techniques: ‘infovis uses graphical primitives such as points, strait lines, curves, and simple geometric shapes to stand in for objects and relations between them - regardless of whether these are people, their social relations, stock prices, income of nations, unemployment statistics, or anything else. … this reductionism becomes the default “meta-paradigm” of modern science and it continues to rule scientific research today.’ xl therefore this approach may well unnerve many for it is not only radically quantitative but informed by a reductionist sensibility: ‘in the sciences, theory distils from experience a few underlying regularities, thus reducing a seemingly infinite number of particularities into a parsimonious few. the more instances that can be reduced, the more powerful the theory is meant to be […]. reduction is good, proliferation is bad’ xli this reductive digital humanities is exemplified in ‘culturomics’ xlii that mines the digitised books available through google to chart, for instance, the frequency of emotive terms over time and between countries or look at the rise and fall of key terms about climate change. xliii however, looking for cultural markers as metonyms of wider larger cultural units is something that has rather gone out of fashion in cultural geography. by contrast when social media are mined, what is being traced are performative flows rather than markers of specific cultures. i share delyser and sui’s concern that such might submerge traditional interpretative scholarship with superficial number crunching that does not situate the object or process of analysis. xliv mays argues powerfully that deconstructive and quantified approaches view texts in contrasting ways. deconstruction tends to focus on a specific work to show its meaning is indeterminate, open to proliferation and contested interpretation, whilst quantitative methods grasp the proliferation of texts assigning them determinate meanings. xlv quantifying the aesthetic or the aesthetics of quantification?: digital mapping and literary geographies in this context we might revisit the notion of mapping texts inspired by authors such as franco moretti: what do literary maps allow us to see? two things basically. first, they highlight the ortgebunden, place-bound nature of literary forms, each of them with its peculiar geometry, its boundaries, its spatial taboos and favourite routes. and then, maps bring to light the internal logic of narrative: the semiotic domain around which a plot coalesces and self-organises. xlvi the rise of gis has eased the literal mapping of all the places mentioned or where scenes occur in books, which mostly follow the relatively inert idea of space in moretti. the restricted spatiality may stem from a sometimes shallow engagement of gis work with other work on literary geography. for instance, piatti at al. imagine themselves viewing ‘the horizon of a promising interdisciplinary research field – a future literary geography’. xlvii according to the ‘literary geographies’ blog xlviii some works on place, space and literature that had already been published that decade. the spatio- temporal forms, relations and analyses worked through in those offer rather richer concepts than typologising types of spaces (visited by characters, scenes of action, imagined or spoken of, or routeways) and their frequency of occurrence. one can mine william wordsworth’s poems xlix or joyce’s ulysses for place names but it is less clear how that gets us very far in understanding ideas of the natural in the former or, say, the influence of vico’s geopoetic theory of scalar recapitulation in the latter. l indeed when travis uses vico’s recapitulative time to understand s dublin in o’brien’s at swim two bird, he ends up moving away from what he terms a scientific metonymic gis to a metaphorical gis. the former can trace timespace paths of o’brien’s narrator but to include vico inspired temporality he has to employ metaphorically separated layers. the result is less an analytical map than an evocative visualisation; less digital humanities than speculative computing in drucker’s terms. li there is also traffic the other way, where literary material is infusing mapping. so now there are geowebbed applications that say transpose the places of ulysses back onto dublin. or, more in the spirit of diagrammatology, take the relations between places and transpose them onto entirely different cities. agendas i finish then not with conclusions but issues developing or challenging both to digital approaches and to non-digital techniques. it seems to me that it is impossible to ignore these challenges to how cultural geographies approach their objects of study. equally, it seems unproven that some of the new techniques lead to much conceptual advance. three points do emerge across the range of approaches presented here. first, many of these approaches serve to mobilise texts and destabilise the relationship with people. texts are made much more strongly performative than representational and people are no longer ‘autonomous’ actors. moreover, digital media shift attention from stocks of information (in archives and libraries which people may choose to visit) to flows of information (even if people try and ignore them). as kittler puts it ‘persons are not objects but addresses which make possible the assessment of further communications’. lii second, this seems to decentre the agency of the human actors or as kittler puts it the hylomorphism of media as matter and content as spirit, where ‘living spirit’ is opposed to ‘the dead letter’. liii third, there is challenge from digital geohumanities to reconcile the elaboration of meaning from a specific body of material and the reduction of a massive corpus to a pattern. here then we must ask about the desire behind analysing big data and how it throws into relief cultural geographers’ taste for ‘big interpretation’. forms of monism may have made something of a comeback in cultural geography, but not the reductive forms of social physics sometimes underpinning calculative analysis. liv fourth, digital media affect all our research not just by creating new ‘objects of study in new formats’, but shifting ‘the critical ground on which we conceptualize our activity’. lv acknowledgements: i would like to thank dydia delyser for her forbearance and her engagement which along with the comments of three referees improved this immeasurably. author biography: mike crang (durham university) edited the anthology virtual geographies more than years ago (when it seemed they might be), and he has since done projects and published on digital divides, digital 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h. mao, and x. zeng, twitter mood predicts the stock market. journal of computational science ( ): - . xxv m. w. wilson, morgan freeman is dead and other big data stories. cultural geographies online early. xxvi as in the travels of a football related fracas far from its origin, see j. w. crampton, m. graham, a. poorthuis, t. shelton, m. stephens, m. w. wilson, and m. zook. beyond the geotag: situating "big data" and leveraging the potential of the geoweb. cartography and geographic information science ( ), p. - . xxvii b. latour, and v. a. lépinay, the science of passionate interests: an introduction to gabriel tarde's economic anthropology (chicago, pricky paradigm press, ) p. xxviii the project seeks to use twitter and social bibliography notes, on services like mendeley or citeulike, to record the equivalent of corridor conversations to reveal the travel and influence of work see http://altmetrics.org/manifesto/ xxix r. burrows, living with the h-index? metric assemblages in the 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manovich, what is visualization? paj: the journal of the initiative for digital humanities, media, and culture ( ), np. xli , n. hayles, writing machines, p. xlii d. delyser, and d. sui, crossing the qualitative- quantitative divide ii: inventive approaches to big data, mobile methods, and rhythmanalysis, progress in human geography ( ), p. - . xliii a. acerbi, v. lampos, p. garnett, and r. a. bentley. the expression of emotions in th century books, plos one ( ):e ; r. a. bentley, p. garnett, m. j. o'brien, and w. a. brock, word diffusion and climate science, plos one ( ):e . xliv delyser and sui, crossing divides ii, p. xlv mays p. - xlvi f. moretti, atlas of the european novel - (london, verso, ) p. . xlvii b. piatti, h. r. bär, a.-k. reuschel, l. hurni, and w. cartwright, mapping literature: towards a geography of fiction, in . w. cartwright, g. gartner and a. lehn, eds. cartography and art, (berlin, heidelberg: springer, ), p. emphasis added xlviii http://literarygeographies.wordpress.com/ xlix d. cooper, and i. n. gregory, mapping the english lake district: a literary gis. transactions of the institute of british geographers ( ), p. - . l m. crang placing stories, performing places: spatiality in joyce and austen, anglia: zeitschrift für englische philologie ( ), p. . li c. travis, transcending the cube: translating giscience time and space perspectives in a humanities gis. international journal of geographical information science ( ), p. - . lii f. kittler, the history of communication media, ctheory ( ). liii f. kittler, number and numeral, theory, culture & society ( ), p. ; mays, literary digital humanities, p. liv t. j. barnes and m wilson, a brief history lv j drucker writing, p. white paper report report id: application number: hd- - project director: marie-claire beaulieu (marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu) institution: tufts university reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / digital humanities start-up grant final performance report grant number: hd- - digital humanities in the classroom: bridging the gap between teaching and research project director: prof. marie-claire beaulieu tufts university report submitted: / / period covered: / / to / / a. project activities perseids in the classroom as indicated in our original proposal, this project aims to bring digital scholarship into the classroom by means of our online editing platform. accordingly, project director marie-claire beaulieu started to use perseids in class in september in her classical mythology course. a dynamic syllabus was created which collected all the readings assigned in the class, whether they were specific passages of ancient texts offered in perseus or entire works. in addition, three optional texts were assigned each week. these readings concerned the same myth or mythical complex studied during the week. the students’ task was to choose one of the optional readings and analyze it with respect to other sources on the same myth. they were encouraged to address questions such as: “how does this text/artifact compare to other testimonies on the same myth? why is it different/similar? did the author/artist have a particular purpose in producing such a rendering (political, social, artistic, etc.)?” the students then produced short essays (maximum words) and typed these essays in the perseids annotation system. to receive full credit, they had to submit a minimum of two essays graded as satisfactory over the course of the semester. in their essays, the students were encouraged to include links to further materials such as parallel texts/artwork or bibliography. after undergoing several review and feedback cycles through perseids, the commentaries were published as student annotations on the perseus digital library. the interactive nature of these assignments — as well as the prospect of seeing their work published online — has proved to be a motivating factor for students. however, this first trial round demonstrated the need for strict planning regarding grading. the students were allowed to submit their essays at any time during the semester and to re-submit them any number of times after receiving feedback. this system, while allowing maximum flexibility for the students, overloaded the instructor and teaching assistants with grading, particularly at the end of the semester. in subsequent iterations of the class, mandatory submission and grading periods were imposed in order to produce a more regular grading cycle. in the fall of , prof. beaulieu also used perseids in her intermediary greek class to edit and translate greek inscriptions with the students. the inscriptions are now published to the web as a demo for the collection. the texts were marked up in tei xml using the epidoc standard for maximum interoperability with the international community of epigraphists. the epidoc standard is ultimately based on the leiden conventions, which have long been in use by scholars to render the characteristics of epigraphical or manuscript texts. similarly, in january , students in prof. beaulieu’s medieval latin class edited and translated sections of the fourteenth century compendium of english forest law preserved at tufts university in tisch library using the epidoc markup standards. we are currently preparing the students’ work for publication, as well as preparing a similar workflow for the upcoming iteration of prof. beaulieu’s medieval latin class. this work continued after the end of the grant period. in the fall of , prof. beaulieu continued using perseids in her intermediary greek class and in her classical mythology class. the greek students are currently editing and translating greek funerary inscriptions which will be published along with the ones from last year at the end of the term. in classical mythology, the students enrolled in the class were asked to use perseids as part of their term projects. the term project for this class consists in analyzing the presentation of a given myth on an assigned object in the greek and roman collection in the boston museum of fine arts. the students, who are organized in teams of two or three, must observe their assigned objects and compare their depiction of the myth with other depictions of http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi/tuftsmythf .html#module- http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://sourceforge.net/p/epidoc/wiki/home/ http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi/tuftsmythf .html#module- http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://sourceforge.net/p/epidoc/wiki/home/ the same myth in ancient texts and ancient art. once this dossier has been assembled, students prepare an interpretative research paper which seeks to explain the evolving meaning of the myth to ancient audiences. during the course of their research, students use perseids to upload timelines and timemaps which help them organize the primary sources for their myth from a chronological and geographical standpoint. students create these timelines and timemaps using timemapper, a utility created by the open knowledge foundation labs. timemapper relies on spreadsheets created through google docs. we provided an input form on perseids which the students use to submit a link to their google spreadsheet data. we also created an xsl stylesheet to transform the data provided by the google spreadsheets api to rdf triples adhering to the open annotation standard upon ingest into perseids. this allows us to preserve the students’ work in a way that is interoperable with perseids (as well with the growing number of other tools supporting the open annotation standard) and enables us to apply the perseids review and approval workflow to data the students collected using the timemapper tool. we plan on publishing the timelines and timemaps as part of a nascent perseus collection on ancient mythology which will offer information on myths as seen through the primary textual and artistic sources. finally, prof. beaulieu is also using perseids in her intermediary greek class to support treebanking. treebanking consists in creating a full semantic and grammatical annotation of a sentence by organizing the words according to their dependency relationships. in the process, the annotator also provides morphology data for each word. in prof. beaulieu’s class, students have been treebanking the text of plato and xenophon’s apologies of socrates through the arethusa framework, and then submitting their work for review through the perseids platform. students express enthusiasm for treebanking, as the method allows them to gain full grammatical control while examining questions such as style, as they compare plato and xenophon’s very different renderings of the same speech. we plan on publishing the students’ work online as annotations to the texts at the end of the semester. other project activities in order to support our efforts, christopher barbour has overseen the digitization of two manuscripts held in the tisch library special collections, namely the commission of doge andrea gritti to lorenzo diedo as podesta of montefalcone (venice, ) and the historia regum angliae (england, ). christopher barbour also oversaw the acquisition of an early printed latin version of one of galen’s treatises titled “quos, quibus, et quando purgare oporteat” (lyon, ). students will start working on these new materials in upcoming classes. two graduate students, matthew kelley and timothy buckingham, worked for the perseids project in and . matthew kelley was in charge of final preparations for the epigraphy project which was implemented in prof. beaulieu’s intermediary greek class. matthew collated bibliographical references for each inscription and documented the history of the successive editions and textual criticism. timothy buckingham was in charge of preparing the manuscripts to be edited and translated by prof. beaulieu’s students in her medieval latin class scheduled in january . timothy focused on preparing the fourteenth century compendium of english law preserved at tisch library for prof. beaulieu’s medieval latin class. in collaboration with christopher barbour and alexander may (tisch http://timemapper.okfnlabs.org/ https://okfn.org/ http://www.w .org/style/xsl/ https://developers.google.com/google-apps/spreadsheets/ http://www.w .org/tr/ /rec-rdf-concepts- / http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/ http://sosol.perseids.org/tools/arethusa/app/#/ http://timemapper.okfnlabs.org/ https://okfn.org/ http://www.w .org/style/xsl/ https://developers.google.com/google-apps/spreadsheets/ http://www.w .org/tr/ /rec-rdf-concepts- / http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/ http://sosol.perseids.org/tools/arethusa/app/#/ library), timothy started analyzing the compendium. he noticed that the book was divided at some point in its history and re-bound in order to take some materials out and to insert new texts, copied by a different hand. this process led to the creation of two different tables of contents which were inserted at the beginning of the book. in order to facilitate the students’ work, timothy prepared an outline of the manuscript and started documenting the two scribal hands present in it. timothy also worked on identifying the manuscript sections in the two tables of contents in order to eventually produce a display which will lead directly from the tables of contents to the corresponding sections. in january , we extended timothy buckingham’s hire as a research assistant for the project between december and may . during this period, timothy built on the work he did on preparing the fourteenth century compendium of english law. he continued to enhance the outline of the manuscript he had prepared and also continued to document the scribal hands present in the manuscript. most importantly, timothy offered support to students taking professor beaulieu’s medieval latin class and editing the manuscript. timothy was in charge of directing and grading student markup of the manuscript and also oversaw their translations. we are currently preparing to publish the student’s work, and their findings are already available on perseids. we held a hackathon at tufts university with the duke collaboratory for classics computing (dc ) team, represented by ryan baumann, on december - . the first day was dedicated to workshops held in prof. beaulieu’s mythology class and in her intermediary greek class. students were introduced to the editing features available in perseids and had the occasion to edit texts as a group and to offer feedback to the team of developers. an open workshop to which all classics students and faculty were invited also took place over the lunch hour. overall, this first day was a success, and students reported enjoying their work in perseids and offered valuable comments and feedback to the technical team. the second day of the meeting was dedicated to development work on the part of the technical team, during which we reviewed the tufts and dc teams’ current development plans for the sosol application and made plans for merging our separate branches of the code back together. technical development and deliverables our first technical objective in this project was to put the online editing platform in place, which eventually became perseids. senior software developer bridget almas worked on integrating the sosol collaborative text-editing environment with the cite services and the image citation tool created by the homer multitext project. she was able to reuse large parts of the xml validation and display code from the papyri publication support on sosol while focusing on the addition of support for the cts identifiers. the cite architecture, of which cts is a part, provides us with a set of protocols and services around identifying, organizing and linking canonically cited texts and related objects. cite and cts make use of uniform resource names (urns), which are intended to serve as persistent, location- independent, resource identifiers. cts urns provide a system of persistent, technology-independent identifiers for texts and passages of texts. cite urns provide a companion system of identifiers for objects related to texts. the first deliverable was to create a prototype implementation that re-used the existing sosol code for epidoc transcriptions almost in its entirety by sub-classing it and changing only the structure of the document identifiers to correspond more closely to the cts urn syntax. she also substituted a cts text inventory for the papyri.info catalog. coding the prototype provided a means to to see all images of this manuscript currently available, visit: http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/lawimgs.html. https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/sosol http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/ http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/guides/ict.html http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/lawimgs.html http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/lawimgs.html https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/sosol http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/ http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/guides/ict.html explore the design of the sosol platform code and assess its viability for reuse. however, as cts is a read-only api, there was a need to develop a set of parallel write/update/delete functionality that could be used to update and create new editions of cts-compatible texts. to experiment with this, bridget almas augmented her xquery based implementation of the cts apis from the alpheios project. she also coded prototypes of additional extensions to the sosol code to work with texts and passages that use the tei-a xml schema rather than epidoc, and to present a passage selection interface. completing these two deliverables gave us confidence that the integration was in fact viable, and the neh start-up funding enabled us to move the work beyond the prototype stage to actual implementation. development of the platform has continued beyond the neh funding through the support of a new grant from the andrew w. mellon foundation ( - ). we have added support for shibboleth/saml authentication, so the students are now able to login with their educational institution accounts as well as through social identity providers. we enabled this for selected institutions starting with tufts and university of leipzig, but the functionality can be configured for any institution that supports shibboleth. we have also made some improvements to the image mapping functionality, to support multiple images per text/inscription, and to generalize it to work with any sparql endpoint to retrieve images related to the text. our original proposal indicated that we intended to work with imagej and tile to produce mappings between text and images. however, these pieces of software proved unreliable and the image citation tool developed by the homer multitext project was selected instead. in turn, we have now replaced the image citation tool with the imgspect image editor plugin , which was developed through funding from the mellon foundation. imgspect is a jquery plugin which allows us to embed the image citation functionality directly into any page, rather than bringing it in as a web page in a frame, allowing for a more seamless integration with the editing workflow. outreach work on perseids has afforded numerous opportunities for conference presentations. we had the opportunity to present this project to the scholarly community and the public at large in many different venues so far (see appendices for a full listing). throughout this project, we have also maintained the perseids blog, which we use to document workflows available on the perseids platform, news and updates concerning our work, as well as recent presentations and papers related to the perseids project. further documentation, especially regarding development work, is available on our github repository. we also repost our news, updates, and announcements on the perseus blog as well as on facebook and twitter. in this way, we are keeping the digital humanities community and the public informed about our progress and accomplishments. “developing perseids: enhancements to a collaborative editing platform for source documents in classics” ( ). https://github.com/perseusdl/imgspect http://jquery.com/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ https://github.com/perseusdl/imgspect http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ b. accomplishments we are pleased to report that the objectives outlined in our original proposal have been met. the perseids platform has been continuously available on the perseids.org domain since fall and new functionality is regularly being added as we continue our work beyond the start-up phase of the project. student work has been published online and continues to evolve as classes and other projects unfold. perseids is now firmly implanted in the digital humanities community and beyond, as other teams in other universities in europe and america are using the platform for their own projects. c. audiences over the years, perseids has developed a broad and diverse audience in the usa and abroad. as described above, perseids is being used at tufts university for collaborative editing, translations, and treebanking. currently, over users are registered on the platform. in the usa, perseids is currently being used at the university of nebraska, where professors robert and vanessa gorman are integrating it into their teaching. robert gorman is making use of the treebanking functionality available in arethusa and the review workflow in perseids to teach introductory greek and latin. vanessa gorman is using the same features to edit athenaeus’ deipnosophistae with her students. a team at the university of buffalo under professor neil coffee is planning on using perseids in january for classroom work on intertextuality in statius’ achilleid and flavian epic. another team of researchers and students at the university of georgia, under the supervision of frances van keuren and elena bianchielli, are planning on collecting all the ancient texts and artwork mentioned in timothy gantz’s early greek myth in the form of an online dynamic syllabus which will now accompany this important reference work. in europe, a croatian team of scholars and students led by professor neven jovanovic at the university of zagreb is editing latin poems written by croatian authors. the team is using the alignment functionality available in alpheios to align the latin texts to the croatian translations and the review functionality in perseids as part of their workflow. at the university of leipzig, perseids is being used by professor monica berti’s team in the fragmentary texts project. the team is collecting fragments of lost authors (quotations, paraphrases, etc) in preserved greek and latin literature and annotating them through perseids. the perseids team has established a collaboration agreement with the eagle consortium (electronic archive of greek and latin epigraphy). the eagle consortium aims to federate various epigraphical databases already present on the web and pool their data in a decentralized way. the result is a set of locally hosted and managed databases that are interoperable and searchable as a group. eagle is also providing an interface, via the mediawiki platform, by which users can contribute new translations of inscriptions. in its collaboration with eagle, perseids is particularly involved in managing the user workflow around translations. as mediawiki does not support a controlled workflow that allows for review of submissions before they are posted, eagle approached perseids to provide an see for instance our demo for the publication of student work on greek epigraphy: http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/. http://www.fragmentarytexts.org/tag/monica-berti/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/mediawiki http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://www.fragmentarytexts.org/tag/monica-berti/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/mediawiki alternate workflow for new translation submissions, which allows them to be reviewed and voted on by members of a board on perseids before publication on the eagle site. we succeeded in deploying this integration in september . over the past two years, perseids has developed a beneficial partnership with our colleague michèle brunet (cnrs-université lyon ii). professor brunet is in charge of editing and publishing the greek inscriptions preserved in the louvre museum in paris as a collection. to ensure maximum visibility and continued relevance, she chose to prepare a digital publication of the inscriptions through perseids. the project, entitled e-pigramme, is currently ongoing and we are in regular communication with the team. also in collaboration with professor brunet, tufts university and perseids are participating in the visible worlds project. this three-year project, funded under the partner university fund program, aims to promote the practice of digital epigraphy by providing training to graduate students and professors of classics. the project involves student and scholarly exchanges between the partner institutions, namely brown university, tufts university, université lyon ii, and the network of the french schools abroad. field training sessions will take place in greece in may , in cambodia in , and in egypt in . the perseids team visited lyon in september to train the french professors and students in the use of the editing platform. another training and planning meeting will take place in leipzig in february , where the focus will be on the overlap between the visible worlds project and the sunoikisis europe program, which is based in leipzig. sunoikisis europe will emulate the work started by sunoikisis usa, which is run by the center for hellenic studies. sunoikisis aims to pool the classics resources available across institutions in order for students and faculty at participating institutions to benefit from opportunities normally available only at large research institutions. it has been decided that some of the visible worlds sessions in greece would be part of the sunoikisis program, in which perseids will be used as a publishing platform for prosopography and social network visualization. perseids is not only used in classics, but has made important inroads in other disciplines. our tufts colleague ioannis evrigenis (political science) is using perseids to produce a digital edition of jean bodin’s six livres de la république. although jean bodin ( - ) is not widely known today, his work on the notion of sovereignty influenced major western thinkers such as montesquieu and hobbes. professor evrigenis’ digital edition will be the first to take into account the three available versions of bodin’s work, namely the french, latin, and english versions. the three versions do not fully correspond to one another and reveal important changes and evolution in bodin’s thought. d. evaluation throughout the project, we have been in constant communication with our user base through email as well as face to face meetings such as hackathons and formal presentations at conferences. the feedback we receive ranges from general user comments to questions about specific functionality and desiderata. one comment that has been persistently made concerns the availability of the leiden+ http://www.hisoma.mom.fr/mb/ig_louvre/e-pigramme-fr.html http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-used-in-lyon/ http://wp.chs.harvard.edu/sunoikisis/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-participates-in-sunoikisis-europe/ http://sites.tufts.edu/dynamicvariorum/ http://www.hisoma.mom.fr/mb/ig_louvre/e-pigramme-fr.html http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-used-in-lyon/ http://wp.chs.harvard.edu/sunoikisis/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-participates-in-sunoikisis-europe/ http://sites.tufts.edu/dynamicvariorum/ encoding system for the transcription of epigraphic texts and manuscripts as an alternative for marking the text up directly in xml using the epidoc standards. in response, we will enable this function in . student feedback has generally concerned the workflow, and we have been working to integrate the different components of perseids more and more seamlessly into one another. for instance, we aim to provide a way for students to move directly to treebanking once they have entered a transcription of an epigraphical text into perseids. currently, the text has to be entered manually into a different module in order to treebank an object that is not otherwise available in perseus. we have also received requests for additional customization and enhancements to the review workflow, for example ensuring that a publication, once submitted, always goes to the same reviewer after requested corrections are made. all feedback is entered in the project’s github issue tracker. e. long term impact and continuation of the project perseids has received an enthusiastic response in the community and new collaborations keep arising. as mentioned above, perseids will continue to be used in tufts classes for editing, treebanking, translation alignments, timelines, and many other use cases. starting in january , perseids will be used in professor beaulieu’s journey of the hero class to work on prosopographical data in the greek mythological corpus and to publish social network visualizations. the same features will be put to use in may with the perseids’ team participation in the visible worlds project and sunoikisis europe. perseids also continues to expand beyond digital classics, as colleagues in other disciplines such as syriac, and early english literature have been contacting us to explore possibilities for collaboration. tufts university is strongly committed to perseids, as the platform keeps taking a more and more important place in our courses and supports our position of leadership in digital humanities. perseids will be central to the new master’s program in digital humanities and premodern studies currently being planned at tufts. the program frames the use of historical languages such as classical greek, latin, and arabic in an intellectual context that includes but extends beyond antiquity to encompass all disciplines and time periods of the premodern world. furthermore, the premodern studies program is designed to capitalize upon, and to incorporate within its curriculum, emerging digital technologies that have given humanists powerful tools for analyzing texts, objects, and physical spaces. the curriculum integrates learning and research from an early stage, so students are expected to produce new knowledge in the form of digital editions, datasets, and analytical research. thus, the program will showcase a new model of training in the humanities that transcends the traditional departmental and curricular boundaries: it is a convergent, collaborative effort to use abstract skills and training to add to the sum of human knowledge. perseids, with its versatile design and its emphasis on collaborative work, offers numerous ways to support and enhance this effort. continuing development of the perseids platform is currently ensured by new grants. after a successful start-up period funded by the neh, we went on to receive a two-year grant from the andrew w. mellon foundation, “developing perseids: enhancements to a collaborative editing platform for source documents in classics”. https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs/issues http://syriaca.org/ http://www.sas.ac.uk/videos-and-podcasts/culture-language-literature/shakespeare-his-contemporaries- exploring-early-moder https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs/issues http://syriaca.org/ http://www.sas.ac.uk/videos-and-podcasts/culture-language-literature/shakespeare-his-contemporaries-exploring-early-moder http://www.sas.ac.uk/videos-and-podcasts/culture-language-literature/shakespeare-his-contemporaries-exploring-early-moder perseids attracted further non-federal funding in the form of a digital resources grant from the samuel h. kress foundation titled: “the digital milliet: greek and roman painting in the st century”. the project aims to collect and annotate greek and latin texts concerning ancient painting in an online collection which updates the now obsolete recueil milliet published by salomon reinach in . the digital milliet will offer a fully integrated digital edition of the ancient texts that will include translations, commentaries, and an iconographical database. the project will serve as a model for further work of this nature, utilizing the resources developed on perseids for the dynamic syllabus and annotation modules. f. grant products the perseids platform itself is the central product to come out of this project. the platform is available online and new users can create accounts using their institutional credentials, a social identity provider such as gmail, yahoo, and aol, or through openid. as stated above, documentation and updates about perseids are available on our blog and from our github repository. grant products are also available in the form of student publications. as stated above, commentaries produced by students in marie-claire beaulieu’s fall classical mythology class have been published on perseus as student annotations. a demo of the epigraphy work performed in marie- claire beaulieu’s intermediary greek class is also available online. we are currently working on publishing student work produced in in marie-claire beaulieu’s medieval latin, intermediary greek, and classical mythology. further user publications are available on perseids as well as on the eagle wiki, which now uses the perseids review workflow. finally, the team and collaborators have produced articles, posters, papers, and talks, which are listed in appendix . http://www.kressfoundation.org/ see project announcement: https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/the-digital-milliet-greek-and- roman-painting-in-the- st-century/ working demo available: http://perseids.org/tools/digmill/#callout http://sosol.perseids.org/sosol/signin http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/italiano/index_it.htm http://www.kressfoundation.org/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/the-digital-milliet-greek-and-roman-painting-in-the- st-century/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/the-digital-milliet-greek-and-roman-painting-in-the- st-century/ http://perseids.org/tools/digmill/#callout http://sosol.perseids.org/sosol/signin http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/italiano/index_it.htm appendix . papers and presentations presentations ( links to some of these presentations are available on the perseids blog at http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/.) christopher barbour and alexander may “hidden treasures of the middle ages”, osher institute, september , . alexander may and alicia morris, “the miscellany collection: how a small digital collection caught the imagination of the scholarly community at tufts and beyond.” presentation at the new england library association annual conference, burlington, vermont, october , . marie-claire beaulieu, francesco mambrini and j. matthew harrington, “toward a digital editio princeps: using digital technologies to create a more complete scholarly edition in the classics”, from ancient manuscripts to the digital era. readings and literacies, - august , lausanne, switzerland. marie-claire beaulieu, francesco mambrini and j. matthew harrington, “treebanking and digital scholarly editions in the classics”, interedition symposium: scholarly digital editions, tools and infrastructure, march - , , the hague, netherlands. alicia morris, “rethinking tech services: how we used the tisch miscellany to reshape technical services.” presentation at the netsl annual conference, worcester, ma, may , . marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “digital humanities in the classroom: introducing a new editing platform for source documents in classics”, digital humanities , - july , hamburg, germany. marie-claire beaulieu, “the perseids platform”, institute for advanced topics in digital humanities, “working with text in a digital age”, tufts university, aug. , . http://sites.tufts.edu/digitalagetext/ marie-claire beaulieu, “une nouvelle plate-forme éditoriale pour les sources primaires en études classiques”, epigraphy seminar of the french school in athens, nov. , , epigraphical museum, athens, greece. marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “open philology workshop”, august , , “teaching with the perseids platform”, university of leipzig, germany. bridget almas, “the perseids platform”, digital classicist london seminar, march , . http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ http://sites.tufts.edu/digitalagetext/ monica berti, “fragmenta historica . . quotations and text re-uses in the semantic web”, word, space, time: digital perspectives on the classical world, april - , , university at buffalo, suny. marie-claire beaulieu, “teaching with the perseids platform: tools and methods”, digital classicist london seminar, july , . monica berti and bridget almas, “the perseids collaborative platform for annotating text re-uses of fragmentary authors”, dh-case workshop, september , , florence, italy. bridget almas, “the perseids platform”, research data alliance, october , . rensselaer polytechnic institute. monica berti and bridget almas, “the linked fragment: tei and the encoding of text re-uses of lost authors”, the linked tei: text encoding in the web, tei conference and members meeting , università di roma sapienza, october - , . bridget almas, david dubin, sayeed choudhury, “combining complementary provenance data models in humanities research”, research data alliance, plenary , dublin, march , . accepted : marie-claire beaulieu and j. matthew harrington, “beyond rhetoric: the correlation of data, syntax, and sense in literary analysis”, digital classics association, society for classical studies, annual meeting, new orleans, la, january - , . published papers marie-claire beaulieu, francesco mambrini and j. matthew harrington, “towards a digital editio princeps: using digital technologies to create a more complete scholarly edition in the classics”, lire demain/reading tomorrow, papers of the international conference “from ancient manuscripts to the digital era. readings and literacies, lausanne, - august , clivaz, c. et al. eds, presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, (ebook), p. - . marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “digital humanities in the classroom”, literary and linguistic computing, ( ) ( ): - . forthcoming: marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “scholarship for all!”, classics outside the echo- chamber: teaching,collaboration, outreach and public engagement, gabriel bodard & matteo romanello eds. (publisher tbd) appendix . examples of manuscripts digitized with grant funds see the tisch library special collections flickr site for full record of images: https://www.flickr.com/photos/tischlibraryspecialcollections/sets/ figures and . photograph of the th century compendium of english forest law before digitization vs. high resolution flattened image produced by boston photo imaging. figures and . photograph of the commission of doge andrea gritti to lorenzo diedo as podesta of montefalcone (venice, ) vs. digitized image. https://www.flickr.com/photos/tischlibraryspecialcollections/sets/ appendix . course syllabi marie-claire beaulieu, classical mythology, tufts university, fall . dynamic syllabus susan dunning, introduction to classical mythology, university of toronto, summer dynamic syllabus: http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi /html/torcla h f.html http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi /html/torcla h f.html marie-claire beaulieu, intermediary greek, tufts university, fall greek : plato’s apology of socrates tufts university fall professor: marie-claire beaulieu, phd meets: mon-wed h - h , eaton email: marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu office: eaton office hours: mon-wed h - h objectives this course will familiarize the students with greek prose and further their knowledge of greek grammar. the students will develop their skills at reading continuous passages in greek and will become familiar with plato’s style. grading participation and preparation, weekly verb quizzes: % quizzes: % paper: % exams: % each (= %) special project (inscriptions): % paper -choose a work of plato or xenophon not discussed in class and introduce it -choose a particularly significant passage in this work and analyze it in detail special project this semester, we will edit and translate greek funerary inscriptions which we will then publish on the perseus website. attendance policy and making-up work class attendance is required. absences for religious holidays, family emergencies, and properly documented medical reasons will be excused. missed quizzes and exams can be completed upon presentation of proper documentation. religious holidays students can make up work missed for religious holidays if they notify the instructor in advance. let me know as early as possible in the semester so that we can make arrangements. students with disabilities all necessary accommodations will be made for students with documented disabilities. mailto:marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu marie-claire beaulieu, medieval latin, tufts university, spring lat / : medieval latin spring meets: mon-wed h - h prof. marie-claire beaulieu marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu office: eaton office hours: mon-wed. h - h or by appointment teaching assistant timothy buckingham timothy.buckingham@tufts.edu office hours: - wed-thurs. course description an introduction to medieval latin that covers a variety of european authors over a period of years. the course will be organized around the theme of travel and map making in the middle ages. texts we will read include friar odoric's thirteenth-century account of his travels to india and crusader narratives. we will also read sections of isidore's etymologiae, in which the author describes the world, and we will pay close attention to medieval maps such as the hereford mappa mundi. occasionally, we will read excerpts from other contemporary travel accounts not written in latin such as john mandeville and marco polo. term projects for the class will be conducted in collaboration with the tufts special collections. students will transcribe, translate, and publish manuscripts held in the special collections. grading quizzes: % ( % each) final exam: % term project: initial transcription and markup: % final transcription and markup: % initial translation: % translation: % attendance policy and making-up work class attendance is required. absences for religious holidays, family emergencies, and properly documented medical reasons will be excused. missed quizzes and exams can be completed upon presentation of proper documentation. students with disabilities all necessary accommodations will be made for students with disabilities. mailto:marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu mailto:timothy.buckingham@tufts.edu marie-claire beaulieu, classical mythology, tufts university, fall greek and roman mythology meets: mon-wed h - h , eaton instructor: dr. marie-claire beaulieu office: eaton office hours: mon-wed h - h email: marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu teaching assistants elizabeth andrews: elizabeth.andrews@tufts.edu john moore: john.moore@tufts.edu course description this course offers a survey of greek and roman mythology. in addition to learning the names and stories of mythical figures, we will explore different interpretations of the myths and their religious significance for the ancients. we will also pay attention to recurring mythical patterns and their significance in the larger context of indo-european myth. required textbooks: morford, m., lenardon, r., sham, m. classical mythology, th ed. oxford, . hesiod, theogony and works and days (tr. m.l. west) sophocles, antigone, oedipus the king, electra (tr. h.d.f. kitto) ovid, metamorphoses (tr. a.d. melville) grading museum visit: % pop-quizzes: % (lowest score dropped) bibliography: % outline: % timeline assignment: % map assignment: % first draft of research paper: % final draft of research paper: % attendance policy and making-up work class attendance is required. absences for religious holidays, family emergencies, and properly documented medical reasons will be excused. missed exams can be completed upon presentation of proper documentation. however, pop-quizzes cannot be made-up if missed. mailto:marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu mailto:elizabeth.andrews@tufts.edu mailto:john.moore@tufts.edu exporting finnish digitized historical newspaper contents for offline use search d-lib: home | about d-lib | current issue | archive | indexes | calendar | author guidelines | subscribe | contact d-lib d-lib magazine july/august volume , number / table of contents exporting finnish digitized historical newspaper contents for offline use tuula pääkkönen national library of finland, centre for preservation and digitization tuula.paakkonen@helsinki.fi jukka kervinen national library of finland, centre for preservation and digitization jukka.kervinen@helsinki.fi asko nivala university of turku, department of cultural history asko.nivala@utu.fi kimmo kettunen national library of finland, centre for preservation and digitization kimmo.kettunen@helsinki.fi eetu mäkelä aalto university eetu.makela@aalto.fi doi: . /july -paakkonen printer-friendly version abstract digital collections of the national library of finland (nlf) contain over million pages of historical newspapers, journals and some technical ephemera. the material ranges from the early finnish newspapers from until the present day. the material up to can be viewed in the public web service, where as anything later is available at the six legal deposit libraries in finland. a recent user study noticed that a different type of researcher use is one of the key uses of the collection. national library of finland has gotten several requests to provide the content of the digital collections as one offline bundle, where all the needed content is included. for this purpose we introduced a new format, which contains three different information sets: the full metadata of a publication page, the actual page content as alto xml, and the raw text content. we consider these formats most useful to be provided as raw data for the researchers. in this paper we will describe how the export format was created, how other parties have packaged the same data and what the benefits are of the current approach. we shall also briefly discuss word level quality of the content and show a real research scenario for the data. introduction the historical newspaper, journal and ephemera collection of nlf is available up to . the online system offers page images of the content, which can be accessed either by browsing or using the search engine. recently, the text content of the page as alto xml (analyzed layout and text object) was also released for the users. however, for doing any mass operations on the xml files, there needs be to a way to offer the whole content at once, instead of having to download it page by page. part of the finnish newspaper corpus has been made available via the fin-clarin consortium and europeana newspapers. fin-clarin offers the data in two different formats. in the recent one the data is provided in the original alto xml format, but the directory structure follows the original file system order, where one newspaper title can span different archive files. fin-clarin offers the original alto format via the language bank service for years - . secondly, fin-clarin also provides a processed version by offering the finnish word n-grams - of the newspaper and periodicals corpus partitioned in decades with word frequency information. thirdly, the data is available as one of the materials of the korp corpus environment. in addition, nlf has provided a data set to the europeana newspapers via the european library (tel), which was one of the partners of the europeana newspapers. at tel, for example, eleven representative finnish newspapers were selected that are in the public domain. tel does not offer the texts themselves, but only the metadata associated with them (with links to page images). these are offered in rdf (in rdf/xml and turtle serializations), as well as dublin core xml. the metadata records are also available in json format via the europeana project, this time also including the raw text of the page. presently, there are plans to move the tel portal to a new newspaper channel of europeana. creation of the export before beginning export creation we needed to decide which metadata is added to the set, and which formats the data would be offered in. during outlining of the digital humanism policy of the nlf, there was lots of internal discussion about the various formats which the library should provide for researchers. for the newspaper corpus we decided to create the export with original alto xml and raw text plus the metadata. initially we considered offering just alto xml as it is the main format from the post-processing of the production line. raw text format was chosen to enable more convenient use for those who might not feel comfortable with alto xml, as it was relatively straightforward to extract the text from the nlf xml format. however, just when we were starting exporting, the need to also have the metadata arose. in order to avoid having several separated datasets, we also incorporated metadata to each xml file. we had earlier provided the raw text in the digital humanities hackathon of (dhh ), where the raw texts were used alongside the precompiled word n-grams from the fin-clarin (the language bank of finland). the alto format of the package contains the information, which has been captured from the original page images. the quality assurance process of nlf is quite light and it aims mainly to check the metadata. for example, no layout or reading order issues are typically fixed from what the backend system (docworks) provides with the text content and logical layout of the page off-the-shelf. the digitization of the nlf has spanned several years, averaging about million pages a year. nearly every year the backend system has also improved, and new versions, with new features or improvements have appeared, and the mets/alto files also contain this version information. the generic structure for the export is shown in figure (metadata, xml alto and the plain text). figure : general structure of the export files . technical implementation in the generation of the export, our main database, which contains the information of the material (i.e. title metadata, page data, and file data containing the archive directory information) was utilized. at the beginning of the export, a title is selected and its metadata and location of alto xml files are extracted first from the database. then the corresponding alto xml files are extracted, and combined with the raw text of the page, which is available in the database. all of these are combined as a nlf-specific xml file. we decided to produce one xml format, to ease our internal generation of the export and to keep the export as one complete set. in the long run, we hope that this will make management and versioning of the export set easier, in comparison with having three separate data sets. our goal is to have one master set, which would be the same, which we offer to those researchers who do offline analysis. if we get feedback for the export set, it will be easier to trace back any suggestions and improve the originals or re-generate the export with enhancements with only one main export. implementation of the export script took a few days, but the most time consuming task was to run it against the material set. to speed the creation of the export packages, execution of the generation script was replicated so that it was possible to run different exports in parallel. extracting one particular file from the database is quite fast, but adding the database operations and other processing takes time when it has to been done to millions of files. with several simultaneous batch runs the extraction was completed faster. . metadata within the exports the format of the nlf-specific xml file is presented in figure in detail. the metadata fields of rows - and - are currently visible in the web presentation system on the page itself, but the details of the publisher rows - are only visible via the detailed information of the title. this information is not conveniently located in the event that some page-level calculations or analysis needs to be done. page label is not visible in the presentation system, where the page numbers are as given in pageorder. language will be made available as one of the search criteria in an upcoming release, but currently it is not visible anywhere. figure : example of an exported xml file: metadata, alto xml and cdata thanks to a suitable infrastructure for the exporting, where we have one table with information about the storage location of the alto xml files and information about the publication date of the material, we were able to extract the material in a straightforward way. all pages before . . were exported and extracted in two different directories, one based on issn and other based on the publication year. after the metadata comes the matching alto xml file for the given page id (starting from line in figure ). for any processing that might be feedbacked from the researchers, for example, the tags pageidentifier and bindingidentifier are useful for the nlf, as they identify that particular item in a reliable manner as every page and binding have a unique identifier. this enables a feedback loop, in case there is opportunity to get improvements from the researcher community. the alto xml is generated by the content conversion specialists' docworks program in the post-processing phase of the digitization. alto xml contains the layout and the actual words of the page text, with the coordinates that indicate the location of each word on the page. finally, at the end of each of the files, there is the raw text of the page from the database (cdata, starting from line in figure ), which is what the search of the presentation system uses when giving search results to the users. . top-level structure in the planning phase of the export we thought of potential user scenarios for the export. based on earlier feedback we figured that the most probable needs are based on years or by issn, which were used as ways to divide the material before packaging. language of the pages was also included as one folder level. figure shows the folder structure . figure : the folder structure below the lowest-level folder are the actual alto xml files, which are named descriptively, for example: fk _ - - _ _ .xml (= issn_year_date_issue_page). we hope that the folder level structure and the file naming policy will provide enough flexibility for us to be able to generate subsequent exports based on user needs. if the request is for all of the material, then everything under by_year structure is given. the selected year divisions are estimations based on the amount of pages and estimated sizes, to get each year span's export package to be roughly of the same size. . export file sizes the sizes of the export files are considerable: gigabytes as zip files. for this reason, downloadable packages were put in the first phase to an external service, which provides enough storage space. the pilot version was offered to the key contact points via funet filesender, and the upload speed was at some point mb / second, meaning that just uploading the whole data set took nearly nine hours. in the future, the export dumps will be offered via the http://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi website, which enables us to generate new versions more fluently. table shows sizes of the zip package parts. export file name size nlf_ocrdump_v - _journals_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ .zip . g table : packages and their sizes the number of alto xml files in the newspaper part of the export is presented in figure with languages. the total number of pages is ca. . m. the language is the primary language of the title as listed in our newspaper database. for clarity, information about the number of russian and german pages has been omitted (in total , and , pages, respectively) and we show only the number of finnish and swedish pages. the total number of finnish pages is , , , and the total number of swedish pages , . journal data is more varied: out of its , , pages, , are in finnish and , are in swedish (total , , pages). the rest are either multilingual or in other languages. figure : number of pages in finnish and swedish in different packages nordic situation briefly opening of data is in its early phases in scandinavia. in finland, the national library of finland has started by opening the main portal finna (finna api, ) and ontology and thesaurus service of finto. the fenno-ugrica service has opened material from the digital collection of uralic languages. in comparison to these, the finnish newspaper and journal collection data would be quite large, consisting of around three million pages. in sweden, the national library of sweden has opened their data via the http://data.kb.se service. the opened data is an interesting cross-cut of different material types, with a couple of newspapers, namely post- och inrikes tidningar ( - ) (aka poit) and aftonbladet ( - ). interestingly, these have made different data available: poit offers original page images (.tif), text of the pages and the corrections of the page texts as .doc files. the data set of aftonbladet, on the other hand, offers the combination of post processing outputs, i.e. mets, alto and page images (.jp ). in denmark the practice is currently that access to the digitized newspapers is provided via the state and university library, the royal library and the danish film institute. in norway, for example, the newspaper corpus is offered via the språkbanken, for the years - . in the nordic context the nlf export is thus quite extensive, with a time range of - , and coverage of all the titles published during that time. the year is in finland currently the year before which we feel that the risk of copyright problems is minimized. however, in the feedback from some researchers, there is a desire to get data from later than , especially as the centenary of finland's independence in is nearing. quality of the ocred word data in the package newspapers of the th and early th century were mostly printed in the gothic (fraktur, blackletter) typeface in europe. most of the contents of digi have been printed using fraktur, antiqua is in the minority. it is well known that the typeface is difficult to recognize for ocr software (cf. e.g. holley, ; furrer and volk, ; volk et al., ). other aspects that affect the quality of the ocr recognition are, among others: quality of the original source and microfilm; scanning resolution and file format; layout of the page; ocr engine training; noisy typesetting process; and unknown fonts (cf. holley, ). as a result of these difficulties, scanned and ocred document collections have a varying amount of errors in their content. the amount of errors depends on the period and printing form of the original data. older newspapers and magazines are usually more difficult for ocr; newspapers from the early th century are usually easier. tanner et al. ( ), for example, report for the british library's th century newspaper project an estimated word correctness of %. there is no single available method or software to assess the quality of large digitized collections, but different methods can be used to approximate quality. in kettunen and pääkkönen ( ) we discussed and used different corpus analysis style methods to approximate overall lexical quality of the finnish part of the digi collection. for the swedish part, assessment is missing so far. methods include usage of parallel samples and word error rates, usage of morphological analyzers, frequency analysis of words and comparisons to comparable edited lexical data. our results show that about % of all the . b word tokens of the finnish digi can be recognized with a modern finnish morphological analyzer, omorfi. if orthographical variation of v/w in the th century finnish is taken into account and the number of out-of-vocabulary words (oovs) is estimated, the recognition rate increases to - %. the rest, about m words, is estimated to consist mostly of ocr errors, at least half of them hard ones. out of the m most frequent word types in the data that make . billion tokens, . % can be recognized. the main result of our analysis is that the collection has a relatively good quality rating, about - %. nevertheless, about a - % share of the collection needs further processing so that the overall quality of the data can improve. however, there is no direct way to higher quality data: re-ocring of the data may be difficult or too expensive/laborious due to licensing models of the proprietary ocr software or the lack of font support in open-source ocr engines. post-processing of the data with correction software may help to some extent, but it will not cure everything. erroneous ocred word data is a reality with which we have to live. use case of the material: text reuse detection and virality of newspapers computational history and the transformation of public discourse in finland - (comhis), a joint project funded by the academy of finland, is one of the first large projects that will utilize the newspaper and journal data of digi. the objective of the consortium is to reassess the scope, nature, and transnational connections of public discourse in finland - . as part of this consortium, the work package "viral texts and social networks of finnish public discourse in newspapers and journals - " (led by prof. hannu salmi), will be based on the text mining of all the digitized finnish newspapers and journals published before . the export package will be the main data source for this. the project tracks down the viral texts that spread in finnish newspapers and journals by clustering the - collection with a text reuse detection algorithm. this approach enables one to draw new conclusions about the dissemination of news and the development of a newspaper network as a part of finnish public discourse. we study, for example, what kinds of texts were widely shared. how fast did they spread and what were the most important nodes in the finnish media network? the historical newspaper and journal collection of nlf from the s to the s enables various digital humanities approaches, like topic modeling, named-entity recognition, or vector-space modeling. however, the low ocr quality of some volumes sets practical restrictions for the unbiased temporal distribution of the data. fortunately, text reuse detection is relatively resistant to ocr mistakes and other noise, which makes virality of newspapers a feasible research question. the comhis project is currently testing a program called passim for detecting similar passages with matching word n-grams, building on the methods developed for the similar study of th century us newspapers by ryan cordell, david a. smith, and their research group (cordell, ; smith et al., ). text reuse detection is an especially suitable method for a newspaper corpus. in contrast to novels, poetry, and other forms of fiction, authorship of a newspaper article was usually irrelevant in the th century publication culture. the more the news was copied the more important it was, whereas fictional texts were considered as an individual expression of their author. circulation of the texts was reinforced by the lack of effective copyright laws prior to the berne convention in . by analyzing the viral networks of finnish newspapers, our aim is not to track down the origin of a specific text, but rather to study the development of media machines and the growing social and political influence of the public sphere from a new perspective. in the finnish case, the rapid increase in newspaper publishing happened relatively late. as shown in figure , the growth of the press was almost exponential at the beginning of the th century. it thus makes sense to analyze the - data as its own group. because the project has just started, a complete analysis of the clustering results is not finished yet, but it is possible to give a few examples of widely shared text. during the time period of - , one interesting cluster encountered so far is the succession of the russian throne to tsar alexander iii. these dramatic events started with the assassination of tsar alexander ii, who died in the bomb attack by polish terrorists on march . the death of the beloved emperor became viral news. the official statement of the new ruler alexander iii to finnish people was first printed in suomalainen wirallinen lehti on march . between - march the text was printed in major newspapers around finland. the same text was also reprinted in the following years, e.g. on july in waasan lehti and on december in lappeenrannan uutiset (table ). finally, the death of alexander iii was reported in november in suomalainen wirallinen lehti and it also became a similar viral text. newspaper title, number of reprints date suomalainen wirallinen lehti, uusi suometar ( ) - - aura ( ) - - sanomia turusta, tampereen sanomat, satakunta ( ) - - waasan lehti, vaasan sanomat ( ) - - savo ( ) - - tapio, karjalatar ( ) - - hämeen sanomat ( ) - - ahti, kaiku, savonlinna, waasan lehti ( ) - - lappeenrannan uutiset ( ) - - turun lehti ( ) - - table : reprints of the inauguration statement of the emperor alexander iii virality was a more typical feature of newspapers, but it is of course possible to process all finnish journals with passim. when it comes to journals, the most shared texts are bible quotations. among the biggest clusters mined so far is the one consisting of references to the finnish translation of the book of revelations ( : ). in swedish material, john : is reprinted times over the time period, and there are lots of other widely-shared bible passages, which could provide an interesting perspective to the tempo of secularization in finland. the biggest group of clusters after the religious texts appears to be advertisements by publishing houses, banks, and insurance companies. only after that there are stories and magazine articles, which can be reprinted many years after their original time of publication. historical newspapers have been an important genre of sources for historical research. before becoming available as a digitized collection, the finnish newspapers and journals were read as originals or on microfilm. traditionally historical scholarship has been based on the ideal of close reading, which implies careful interpretation of each document before one is able to draw any conclusions based on the sources. however, in the case of the digitized newspapers, the mere quantity of available textual data makes this approach virtually impossible. franco moretti ( ) has asserted that in order to readjust the methodology of humanities to the scale of big data, we need to develop methods of distant reading to process substantial amounts of textual documents without losing analytical rigor. moreover, the humanist scholars may have to abandon any strict dichotomy between narrative and database (hayles, ). the research questions of the digital humanities often entail converting a textual corpus to a database for various forms of computational analysis and heuristics. after this, the new textual locations discovered by the computational algorithm are then closely read. for example, the text reuse detection algorithm can cluster widely shared text passages together for further analysis, but it cannot typically distinguish whether the text is an advertisement, a common bible quotation, or an interesting news article. in future it could be possible to use alto xml metadata or machine learning methods (like naive bayes classifier) to group the detected clusters according to their textual genre. conclusion as tanner ( ) says, the digital library can face a "growing unfunded mandate", as additional requirements of digital material, such as availability and accessibility, create a new kind of demand for the material, while data production resources decrease or remain the same. therefore it is crucial that research use is considered to be one impact factor, and for it to become more observable to a content or raw research data provider, such as national library of finland. collaboration with research units should be increased so that researchers can express their needs regarding what should be digitized, and they could tell if there is need for curation or special formats. however, this is a balancing act — how should a library organization best serve researchers with its limited resources? is it possible to find joint funding opportunities and actually complete tasks together, in close relationship? the national library of finland is aiming to improve this via forthcoming digital humanism and open data policies which are due to be published during . the key tenet in the policies is to work together and consider researchers as one customer segment. research usage should also be considered as a result metric for nlf, either via collaborative projects or keeping track of where the digitized materials are used. the work on the export continues. during early summer we plan to set up our own website to share the export data sets with anyone who is interested. for the statistics, we will have a short survey about the research use which we hope will also give us insight into what kind of exports would be useful in the future, and if there is something that should be taken into consideration with the long-term digitization roadmaps. the big question is the structure of the export. should it contain all of the content within one file, or should it be structurally divided so that each data item (metadata, alto, page text) is available separately. there are advantages and disadvantages in both approaches, so it needs to be determined which would be the best long-term solution with the available resources. in addition, we need to consider the content itself, to see if there is a need for the mets and the page images, too. with input from those who have the first released versions we have the opportunity to develop the export further, by adding data or adjusting the fields and their content accordingly. we anticipate a clear increase in researchers' needs which could lead to closer collaboration between nlf and researchers. acknowledgements part of this work is funded by the eu commission through its european regional development fund and the program leverage from the eu - . comhis is funded by the academy of finland, decision numbers and . references [ ] cordell, r. ( ). reprinting, circulation, and the network author in antebellum newspapers. american literary history, ( ), pp. - . http://doi.org/ . /alh/ajv [ ] finna api (in english) — finna — kansalliskirjaston kiwi. ( ). [ ] furrer, l. and volk, m. ( ). reducing ocr errors in gothic-script documents. in proceedings of language technologies for digital humanities and cultural heritage workshop, pp. - , hissar, bulgaria, september . [ ] hayles, n. k. ( ). how we think. digital media and contemporary technogenesis. chicago; london: the university of chicago press. [ ] holley, r. ( ). how good can it get? analysing and improving ocr accuracy in large scale historic newspaper digitisation programs. d-lib magazine march/april . http://doi.org/ . /march -holley [ ] hölttä, t. ( ). digitoitujen kulttuuriperintöaineistojen tutkimuskäyttö ja tutkijat. m. sc. thesis (in finnish), university of tampere, school of information sciences, degree programme in information studies and interactive media. [ ] kettunen, k. and pääkkönen, t. ( ). measuring lexical quality of a historical finnish newspaper collection — analysis of garbled ocr data with basic language technology tools and means. proceedings of the tenth international conference on language resources and evaluation (lrec ). [ ] kingsley, s. ( ). eteenpäin sopimalla, ei lakia muuttamalla. kansalliskirjasto, ( ), pp. - . [ ] moretti, f. ( ). graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for a literary history. london; new york: verso. [ ] smith, d. a., cordell, r. and mullen, a. ( ). computational methods for uncovering reprinted texts in antebellum newspapers. american literary history ( ), pp. e -e . http://doi.org/ . /alh/ajv [ ] tanner, s. ( ). using impact as a strategic tool for developing the digital library via the balanced value impact model. library leadership and management, ( ). [ ] tanner, s., muñoz, t. and ros, p. h., ( ). measuring mass text digitization quality and usefulness. lessons learned from assessing the ocr accuracy of the british library's th century online newspaper archive. d-lib magazine july/august. http://doi.org/ . /july -munoz [ ] volk, m., furrer, l. and sennrich, r. ( ). strategies for reducing and correcting ocr errors. in c. sporleder, a. bosch, and k. zervanou, editors, language technology for cultural heritage, - . springer-verlag, berlin/heidelberg. about the authors m. sc. tuula pääkkönen works in national library of finland as information systems specialist. her work includes the development of some of the tools to support digitization efforts, technical specification and projects for the digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi service. she has been working in the library in a project dealing with copyrights and data privacy topics as well as other development projects, which have dealt with digital contents, crowdsourcing and metrics. mr. jukka kervinen has worked as a systems analyst in the national library of finland since . his main responsibilities have been designing and setting up library's in house digitization workflows and post processing. his experience encompasses metadata development (mets, alto, premis, mods, marcxml), system architecture planning and database design. he is a member of alto xml editorial board since and member of mets editorial board since . dr. asko nivala is a postdoctoral researcher in cultural history at the university of turku, finland. his research focuses on early nineteenth-century cultural history and especially on the romantic era. his other research interests include the recent discussions on the digital humanities and posthumanism. nivala has co-edited the collection "travelling notions of culture in early nineteenth-century europe" (routledge ) and written the monograph "the romantic idea of the golden age in friedrich schlegel's philosophy of history" (routledge, to be published in ). dr. kimmo kettunen works at the centre for preservation and digitisation of national library of finland as a research coordinator in the digitalia project. his work includes research related to the digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi service. he has been involved especially in the quality estimation and improvement of the content of the service. he has also conducted research on named entity recognition (ner) of the ocred newspaper material. kimmo is part of the digital humanities research team at the centre. d.sc. eetu mäkelä is a computer scientist from aalto university, finland. his current main interest is to further computer science through tackling the complex issues faced by scholars in the humanities when using their tools and data. thus, he currently spends most of his time in collaboration with multiple international digital humanities research projects. through these collaborations, and through having attained his doctorate in research on data integration and linked data, he has ample experience in best practices for publishing data in as usable a form as possible. copyright ® tuula pääkkönen, jukka kervinen, asko nivala, kimmo kettunen and eetu mäkelä beyond digital human body atlases: segmenting an integrated d topological model of the human body | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijehmc. corpus id: beyond digital human body atlases: segmenting an integrated d topological model of the human body @article{barbeito beyonddh, title={beyond digital human body atlases: segmenting an integrated d topological model of the human body}, author={antonio barbeito and m. painho and pedro cabral and j. o'neill}, journal={int. j. e health medical commun.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } antonio barbeito, m. painho, + author j. o'neill published computer science int. j. e health medical commun. the use of integrated models of the human body in three-dimensional environments enables the study of the anatomic structures with a high degree of interactivity and detail. the geographical information systems approach in building topological models allows overcoming certain limitations found in anatomical atlases. in this study, an integrated vector-raster d model, which defines the external surface of the human body, is expanded by adding the corresponding anatomical structures. the… expand view via publisher igi-global.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations methods citations view all topics from this paper interactivity geographic information system spatial analysis transverse wave citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency development of d models of female pelvis embedded in anatomical sections from de visible human project l. romero, m. a. gómez, j. a. j. méndez computer science teem save alert research feed d models of female pelvis structures reconstructed and represented in combination with anatomical and radiological sections l. romero, m. a. gómez, a. prats-galino, j. a. j. méndez computer science, medicine journal of medical systems save alert research feed a numerical study concerning brain stroke detection by microwave imaging systems i. bisio, a. fedeli, + authors e. tavanti computer science multimedia tools and applications pdf view excerpt, cites methods save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency an integrated model of the human body antonio barbeito, m. painho, pedro cabral, j. o'neill geography save alert research feed d interactive topological modeling using visible human dataset p. beylot, p. gingins, + authors j. fasel computer science comput. graph. forum pdf save alert research feed visible korean human: its techniques and applications j. s. park, m. s. chung, s. b. hwang, b. shin, h. s. park medicine clinical anatomy pdf save alert research feed semi-automated color segmentation of anatomical tissue. c. imelińska, m. downes, w. yuan computer science, medicine computerized medical imaging and graphics : the official journal of the computerized medical imaging society save alert research feed d visualisation for education, diagnosis and treatment of lliotibial band syndrome e. beveridge, m. ma, p. rea, k. bale, p. anderson engineering international conference on computer medical applications (iccma) pdf save alert research feed creation of a female and male segmentation dataset based on chinese visible human (cvh) yi wu, l. tan, + authors s. zhang computer science, medicine comput. medical imaging graph. view excerpt, references background save alert research feed topological models and frameworks for d spatial objects s. zlatanova, a. abdul-rahman, w. shi computer science comput. geosci. pdf save alert research feed body segment classification for visible human cross section slices z. xue, s. antani, l. long, dina demner-fushman, g. thoma computer science ieee th international symposium on computer-based medical systems highly influential pdf view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed screened poisson surface reconstruction m. kazhdan, hugues hoppe mathematics, computer science togs pdf save alert research feed on problems and benefits of d topology on under-specified geometries in geomorphology m. löwner geology pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms city, university of london institutional repository citation: puschmann, c. & bastos, m. t. ( ). how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms. plos one, ( ), e . doi: . /journal.pone. this is the published version of the paper. this version of the publication may differ from the final published version. permanent repository link: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ / link to published version: http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. copyright and reuse: city research online aims to make research outputs of city, university of london available to a wider audience. copyright and moral rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. urls from city research online may be freely distributed and linked to. city research online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ publications@city.ac.uk city research online http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ mailto:publications@city.ac.uk research article how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms cornelius puschmann *‡, marco bastos ‡ faculty of social sciences, zeppelin university, am seemooser horn d, friedrichshafen d- , germany, franklin humanities institute, duke university, s. buchanan blvd, bay box , durham, north carolina , united states of america ‡ these authors contributed equally to this work. * cornelius.puschmann@hiig.de abstract in this paper we compare two academic networking platforms, hastac and hypotheses, to show the distinct ways in which they serve specific communities in the digital humanities (dh) in different national and disciplinary contexts. after providing background information on both platforms, we apply co-word analysis and topic modeling to show thematic similari- ties and differences between the two sites, focusing particularly on how they frame dh as a new paradigm in humanities research. we encounter a much higher ratio of posts using humanities-related terms compared to their digital counterparts, suggesting a one-way de- pendency of digital humanities-related terms on the corresponding unprefixed labels. the results also show that the terms digital archive, digital literacy, and digital pedagogy are rel- atively independent from the respective unprefixed terms, and that digital publishing, digital libraries, and digital media show considerable cross-pollination between the specialization and the general noun. the topic modeling reproduces these findings and reveals further dif- ferences between the two platforms. our findings also indicate local differences in how the emerging field of dh is conceptualized and show dynamic topical shifts inside these respective contexts. introduction the advent of the internet has profoundly affected scholarly communication [ – ]. few schol- ars, whether in the sciences, social sciences, or humanities can imagine conducting research or organizing teaching without relying on email, digital library services, or e-learning environ- ments. formal academic publishing has undergone a series of changes with the increased avail- ability of electronic publications, whether under an open access or toll access regime [ ]. structural changes in the dissemination of knowledge have largely been gradual and evolution- ary: while the volume of scholarly publications has greatly increased in the past decades and the formal and distribution models have diversified, the form and function of research articles and scholarly monographs have remained relatively stable [ ]. plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / open access citation: puschmann c, bastos m ( ) how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms. plos one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. academic editor: vincent larivière, université de montréal, canada received: june , accepted: november , published: february , copyright: © puschmann, bastos. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. data availability statement: all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files. funding: this work was supported by the national science foundation under grant number and the german research foundation under grant number pu / - . the funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. competing interests: the authors have declared that no competing interests exist. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /journal.pone. &domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / meanwhile, the range of avenues available for the dissemination of informal scholarly com- munication has increased exponentially. in addition to formal publication venues, scholars can now communicate their findings in (micro)blogs, wikis, social networking sites (sns) and countless other social web platforms [ – ]. such services carry both opportunities and risks for early-career researchers, and they are used for a wide variety of purposes and with a range of motives [ – ]. while researchers are able to disseminate their findings more quickly and reach out to broader audiences than was previously possible, they also risk that their work will not be acknowledged in more traditional and hierarchical professional structures. informal genres of scholarly communication frequently lack peer review and rely on new measures of impact, rather than the established currency of acceptance within a field [ ]. as a result, re- searchers have overall been very careful in their acceptance of digital formats that compete with established forms of expert knowledge dissemination, largely choosing instead to focus on established formats [ ]. this is especially true in the humanities, where conservatism towards new formats is particularly strong. digital humanities (dh) can be broadly characterized as the adoption of an array of computational methodologies for humanities research [ , ]. during the early nineties, dh scholarship developed under the umbrella of several academic organizations dedicated to what was then commonly referred to as humanities computing [ ]. these organizations brought together scholars from different fields interested in exploring computational methods for traditionally-defined humanities scholarship [ ]. the suffix “digital” is increasingly used to delineate the new computational areas of humanities research (i.e. digital literature, digital archaeology, digital history, etc.). the introduction of computational methods aims among other things to supplement established humanities research routines and explore new method- ological avenues, such as text analysis and encoding; archive creation and curation; mapping and gis; and modeling of archaeological and historical data [ , ]. since the early s the term digital humanities has also been used to refer to humanities research defined by a data-driven approach, in which summarization and visualization are im- portant methodological cornerstones. media and cultural studies, library and archival studies, digital pedagogy, and the recently emergence of moocs have also been referred to as digital humanities in a more general sense [ ]. as a result, dh has evolved to incorporate a range of different definitions and is subject to considerable interpretative flexibility [ ]. the central hypothesis of this study is that the variety of terms and topics associated with dh is locally configured, and that their makeup reflects different (and to a degree contradictory) conceptual- izations of what constitutes dh. dh and social media because of its interdisciplinary and international character, its affinity for digital media, and its recent emergence as a scholarly movement, dh has been comparatively strongly impacted by informal communication tools such as blogs and twitter, with junior scholars invested in dh research using such tools widely to organize, network, and collaborate. kirschenbaum notes the important role of social media for establishing and galvanizing dh as a movement: “twit- ter, along with blogs and other online outlets, has inscribed the digital humanities as a network topology, that is to say, lines drawn by aggregates of affinities, formally and functionally mani- fest in who follows whom, who friends whom, who tweets whom, and who links to what.” [ ] usage of twitter and blogs has contributed to establishing dh as a brand, and it has helped to increase its visibility on a global scale [ ]. while actively using social media does not make one a digital humanist, social media applications seem to be perceived as valuable instruments for intra-community communication in the dh community, rather than being used just out of how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / curiosity or for self-promotion [ ]. crucially, there are scholars who take up blogging and twitter because they are important channels of communication in the dh community. such tools therefore increasingly constitute scholarly infrastructure to their users in the same sense that library services and communal mailing lists constitute infrastructure. while traditional scholarly organizations are struggling to integrate social media, dh scholars, espe- cially junior researchers, have considerable uptake of such tools, reflected for example in the strong use of twitter at the annual digital humanities conference [ , ]. dh can therefore be characterized as an emerging digital scholarly network—a group of scholars that has integrat- ed digital genres of scholarly communication into its communicative infrastructure from the onset. inside such a network in which heterogeneous links connect different actors it should be possible to study the flow of ideas, trends, and discourses much more effectively through social media than purely by assessing formal publications in scholarly journals and monographs [ ]. hastac the humanities, arts, science, and technology alliance and collaboratory (hastac) is an online community and social network that connects researchers, young scholars, and the gen- eral public interested in a wide range of subjects associated with dh and peer-to-peer learning. founded in by davidson and goldberg [ ], hastac emerged as a consortium of edu- cators, scientists, and technology designers funded by the national science foundation, the digital promise initiative, and the macarthur foundation, with infrastructure provided by duke university and the university of california humanities research institute. hastac dif- fers from similar initiatives in that it is largely decentralized with content generated by a net- work of over ten thousand members including university faculty, students, and general public. the network platform is built on the drupal content management system and requires an inclusive free-of-charge membership. member participation varies widely, with many register- ing but passively interacting with the website by reading the content and a robust minority ex- pressing their thoughts and communicating their interests by writing or commenting on blog posts, joining discussion forums, or contributing information about current events. according to the initiative’s website, “hastac members are motivated by the conviction that the digital era provides rich opportunities for informal and formal learning and for collaborative, net- worked research that extends across traditional disciplines, across the boundaries of the acade- my and the community, across the two cultures of humanism and technology, across the divide of thinking versus making, and across social strata and national borders.” [ ]. while the platform is interdisciplinary in nature, it is strongly focused on learning and dh-related topics. hypotheses hypotheses is a publication platform for academic blogs. launched in , it is funded and operated by the centre for open electronic publishing (cléo), a unit that brings together two major french research institutions and two universities: the centre national de la recherche scientifique (cnrs), the École des hautes Études en sciences sociales (ehess), the aix-mar- seille université, and the université d’avignon. in addition to hypotheses, cléo provides other tools via the openedition portal: revues.org, a platform for journals in the humanities and so- cial sciences and calenda, a calendaring tool. according to the hypotheses website “[a]cademic blogs can take numerous forms: accounts of archaeological excavations, current collective research or fieldwork; thematic research; books or periodicals reviews; newsletter etc. hypotheses offers academic blogs the enhanced visibility of its humanities and social sciences platform. the hypotheses team provides support how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / http://revues.org and assistance to researchers for the technical and the editorial aspects of their project.” [ ] to publish on hypotheses, a blog must first be admitted by the platform’s editorial team. only researchers employed by institutions of higher learning are eligible to join hypotheses after having been evaluated, and the criterion for positive evaluation is a consistent focus on aca- demic issues. through its policy the platform maintains some characteristics of a formal publi- cation outlet, aiming to stimulate both open discussion within scholarly disciplines and exchange with the broader public. hypotheses is based on the wordpress content management platform, with a home page that features current contributions from participant blogs. in addition to english, a large por- tion of hypotheses’ content is composed in french, german, spanish, and other languages, but for the purpose of this study we only considered posts published in english. similarities and differences both platforms share strong similarities: they aim to promote new forms of scholarly commu- nication and knowledge dissemination. at the same time, there are also considerable differ- ences: hastac places a clear emphasis on learning and also mentions media and communication in its self-characterization. while hypotheses is also interdisciplinary in char- acter, it has a stronger slant towards traditional humanities subfields, and specifically towards history. the concept of scholarly blogging outlined on the hypotheses website points to its role for intradisciplinary communication, whereas hastac is more geared towards interdisciplin- ary exchange. despite these differences, the two platforms make an ideal case for comparison on the grounds of their functional similarities. both are related to dh, both seek to integrate blogging into scholarly communication, and both are publicly funded. furthermore, both plat- forms have been operational for a similar timespan and attract broadly comparable user communities. research design our aim is to characterize differences in the discourse that takes place on hastac and hy- potheses reflecting different cultural implementations of dh and different understandings of what constitutes dh. to this end, we formulated two research questions: how frequent are particular keywords associated with (digital) humanities on the two platforms (h ) and what are thematic differences in the distribution of topics in the two sites (h )? we approached the first question by counting the co-occurrence of humanities-related terms and their digital equivalents (e.g. history—digital history) on blog posts. in a second step we applied topic modeling to the post content to identify substantial thematic differences between the commu- nities in both platforms and their respective approaches to blogging. based on the self-charac- terizations of both platforms, we expected there to be both overlap and variation with regards to the adoption of dh-related labels and overall disciplinary focus. data the data from the two platforms were collected from database dumps containing the sql table structure and the blog post content. hastac data included content posted between august , and august , , together with the profile data of , users. most users shared brief biographical information and identified a set of topical interests, institutional affiliation, and links to personal websites. in addition to the posts themselves, the hypotheses data includ- ed metadata such as author information, timestamp, text, internal and external links in each post, which was collected between the st of july and the rd of june . how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / the language of posts was detected automatically using the language identification system langid.py for python, which supports a large number of languages and achieves a high level of accuracy without requiring prior in-domain classifier training [ ]. the material initially in- cluded a large number of posts published in languages other than english ( , posts) pub- lished over different periods of time. for the purpose of this investigation, we only considered blog posts in english published between the st of july and the th of june , thus ex- tracting , posts from hastac and , posts from hypotheses. we performed a co- word analysis over these , posts [ ] and subsequently extracted a random sample of , posts from each platform to perform topic modeling. fig. shows a frequency histogram of blog posts in the abovementioned period on a logarithmic scale, with hastac posts being comparatively more frequent from to , and posts on hypotheses being comparatively more frequent in the period thereafter. activity on both platforms drops during the summer vacation months (july for hastac and august for hypotheses) reflecting seasonal work patterns. methods we approached our first question (h ) by means of a co-word analysis of keywords associated with humanities and digital humanities research [ ]. we used one vector of twenty humani- ties areas (anthropology, archaeology, archive, art, culture, ethnography, history, humanities, learning, libraries, literacy, literature, media, pedagogy, preservation, publishing, rhetoric, scholarship, storytelling, knowledge) and another identical vector plus the suffix “digital” (digi- tal anthropology, digital archaeology, digital archive, digital art, digital culture, digital ethnog- raphy, digital history, digital humanities, digital learning, digital libraries, digital literacy, digital literature, digital media, digital pedagogy, digital preservation, digital publishing, digital rhetoric, digital scholarship, digital storytelling, digital knowledge). these keywords include terms that describe fields or general domains associated with the humanities on the basis of raw token frequencies identified in the two datasets. this approach comes with considerable limitations. firstly, the semantics of the terms differ considerably, as some describe fields of scholarship (history—digital history), while others are more general and tend to be polysemous (knowledge, media). the same applies to their prefixed counterparts, with digital history likely fig . english-language blog posts published on both sites between and . doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / identifying a field, while digital media most likely describes certain kinds of technical media. furthermore, issues of precision and recall arise, due to which not all discussion of the relevant phenomena is reliably captured and some of what is captured relates to other concepts. in spite of these limitations, we found co-word analysis to be useful, because it shows the entrenchment of the terms as convenient and fashionable labels on both platforms. we accept that such labels do not narrowly identify concepts, but believe that they are suitable to characterize the success of particular terms around which the dh community can rally. using these terms we generated a series of term-document matrices for each of the net- works. we visualized the association between humanities and dh by performing a multinomi- al logistic regression on the terms. we relied on the textir package for r [ ] to convert the term-to-term co-occurrence matrix to a matrix of the log-odds ratios of co-occurrence. the re- sulting matrices (hastac and hypotheses) scales the word similarity as a function of word frequency, with terms of similar semantic content numerically represented as being similar to one another [ ]. after converting the log-odds ratios to distance matrices using cosine simi- larity [ , ], we relied on multidimensional scaling [ ] to visualize humanities and dh terms in a latent semantic space [ ] with a two-dimensional density surface [ ]. the second question (h ) was addressed using latent dirichlet allocation [ ] implementa- tion for r [ ]. r package topicmodels allows the probabilistic modeling of term frequency oc- currences in documents and estimation of similarities between documents and words using an additional layer of latent variables referred to as topics. the package provides the basic func- tions for fitting topic models based on data structures from the text mining package tm [ ]. topics were modeled using a mixed-membership approach in which documents are not as- sumed to belong to single topics, but to simultaneously belong to several topics, with varying distributions across documents. to equally represent both platforms, we drew a random sam- ple of , posts from each platform from the data previously described. prior to mapping the documents to the term frequency vector, we tokenized the posts and processed the tokens by removing punctuation, numbers, stemming, and stop words, in order to sparsen the matrices. we also omitted very short documents (< characters) for the same purpose. ethics statement. the authors confirm that the study is in compliance with the terms and conditions of hastac and hypotheses. results co-word analysis with respect to our first research question (h ) we found that unprefixed keywords occurred in a much higher ratio relative to their prefixed counterparts. table shows the number of oc- currences of humanities and dh terms on both platforms, with a high concentration of posts focusing on art, media, history, culture, and humanities, followed by learning, publishing, and libraries. the areas of research with fewer occurrences are archaeology, storytelling, ethnogra- phy, and preservation. hastac presented a much higher number of references to humanities ( , ) and dh ( , ) in comparison to hypotheses ( , and , respectively). the ratio of posts with humanities to dh related terms is also higher on hastac at seven posts on hu- manities to each post on dh while on hypotheses the ratio is of fifty-one posts on humanities to each post on dh. in fact, we found no mention to nine areas of dh in the hypotheses sample. although the distribution of humanities and dh terms is skewed towards hastac, the distribution per area of research on humanities is fairly similar. fig. shows a cluster dendo- gram of term co-occurrences based on euclidean distance, with humanities areas appearing at the top of the hierarchical structure and dh terms appearing near the bottom. art, culture, how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / and media are likely to also refer to general terms rather than only humanities disciplines, therefore presenting a higher value of intergroup dissimilarity and appearing higher up in the hierarchy. more narrowly defined areas such as learning and digital media are followed on hastac, while the hierarchical clustering of topics on hypotheses is topped by history and publishing. fig. shows internal differences and dissimilarities between the two platforms in their usage of the labels listed in table . dh subfields are much more distinct from other terms in hastac that they are on hy- potheses, where many of the dh labels are either uncommon or not used at all. unsurprisingly, we found that most blog posts that made reference to dh terms also included references to the unprefixed terms, but not the other way around. from the , posts on hastac that in- cluded references to humanities-related terms ( , occurrences), % of them also included references to the corresponding label in dh. however, from the , posts on hastac that included references to digital humanities terms ( , occurrences), only % of them also in- cluded references to the corresponding term in the humanities. this asymmetry is actually more pronounced in the hypotheses network. from the , posts on hypotheses that in- cluded references to humanities-related terms ( , occurrences), % also included refer- ences to the corresponding term in dh. however, from the posts on hypotheses that included references to dh-related terms ( occurrences), only % also included references to the corresponding humanities area. the dependence of digital humanities on established humanities labels is consistent, but it varies considerably within each of the areas investigated. the average percentage of posts per area that include reference to both humanities and dh is still quite skewed, as % of posts on hastac (mean = . , median = . ) and hypotheses (mean = . , median = . ) dedicated to digital humanities areas also including references to the main humanities area. the reverse table . number of occurrences of humanities and dh terms. hastac hu hastac dh hypo hu hypo dh anthropology na archaeology na archive art culture ethnography na history humanities knowledge na learning na libraries literacy na literature na media pedagogy na preservation publishing rhetoric na scholarship storytelling doi: . /journal.pone. .t how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / dependency is also observed in the aggregated data per area, as less than % of posts on has- tac (mean = . , median = . ) and hypotheses (mean = . , median = . ) dedicated to hu- manities also included references to the related dh area. however, the dependency is noticeably lower in some fields of humanities. preservation and archival studies presented a much lower ratio of posts dedicated to digital humanities that also referred to the associated humanities area ( % and % on hastac, and % and % on hypotheses). storytelling, literacy, and pedagogy are also particularly independent in the hastac network, with %, %, and % of posts making reference to digital terminology without mentioning the related fig . hierarchical cluster dendrogram of term co-occurrences in both platforms. doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / humanities field. on hypotheses, art is the term most detached from the main humanities area, with % of posts dedicated to digital art not making reference to the unprefixed field. some areas show a strong intersection of humanities and dh terms. a considerable propor- tion of articles that refer to humanities, storytelling, and libraries also made reference to digital humanities, digital storytelling, and digital libraries ( %, %, and % on hastac, and %, %, and % on hypotheses). media, scholarship, literacy, and preservation also pre- sented higher-than-average levels of cross-pollination on hastac, with %, %, %, and % of the articles focusing on these terms also making reference to their niche digital human- ities label. most of these terms also presented a considerable level of intersection of dh with general terms. we further explored the interplay between humanities and dh by performing a multinomi- al logistic regression on the terms. the matrices of log-odds ratios of co-occurrence indicate the word similarity and allow for visualizing humanities and dh terms in a latent semantic space with a two-dimensional density surface. fig. shows a contour-sociogram of the terms with substantial cross-pollination across different topics of humanities and digital humanities research. hastac posts with humanities and dh terms are clearly clustered around four main groups. the first includes terms associated with humanities at large, culture, and arts; the second is dedicated to education and learning; the third to archives and libraries; and the last clusters terms associated with anthropology and history. on the other hand, hypotheses posts with humanities and dh terms are mostly concentrated on a single cluster due to many topics lacking more entry points. nonetheless, humanities content published on hypotheses presents clusters around humanities and media; archives, history, and arts; and one cluster grouping li- brary-related materials. the vast majority of articles focusing on digital media, digital libraries, digital art, digital hu- manities, digital culture, and digital publishing also included references to the main humanities area. this is particularly the case on hastac ( %, %, %, %, %, and %, respective- ly), but also on hypotheses ( %, %, %, %, %, and %, respectively). in short, the re- sults predictably show a considerable one-way dependency of dh on the unprefixed keyword, and a relative independence of the latter relative to the former. however, there are a few dh fig . density curves of log-odds co-occurrence ratios between humanities-related terms. larger labels represent thematic areas manually identified. doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / areas that presented substantial independence from the related humanities area, namely preser- vation, archive, storytelling, literacy, and pedagogy. we interpret this emancipation as an indi- cator for the establishment of these terms as convenient labels, which, while not necessarily identifying clear-cut concepts, provide attractive brands for the dh community to rally around. topic modeling we proceeded by exploring the topical differences between the two platforms to test our sec- ond research question (h ). we modeled twenty topics for the combined corpus of both plat- forms ( , posts each). table provides an overview of twelve selected topics and their ten most distinct terms by rank, some of which related to particular domains (health, history, law, art, games), while others are related to more general themes (chatter, learning). topics were labeled through a qualitative interpretation of the most salient topic keywords and table . common topics on hastac and hypotheses. topic : health topic : cold war topic : law topic : dh health war law digital medicine university legal humanities medical korean series university history history turkish hastac food korea history new university cold also media social culture said will urban women one scholars care art book technology research visual new research topic : socmed topic : data topic : art topic : urban std social can university urban can data art social new use museum political media will history new one digital heritage international cultural information museums studies culture project cultural european time also music global digital site new economic space work sound management topic : gaming topic : chatter topic : learn topic : energy game one students energy games people learning climate video like will change play can can policy virtual just class countries world time new will one even education global can think digital gas gaming now one carbon worlds many work paper doi: . /journal.pone. .t how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / reading a sample of the associated blog posts, meaning that they retain a certain subjective bias. most domain areas identified are strongly associated with content published on hypotheses through individual blogs with a clear and consistent topical focus (e.g. health, history, law, energy), while hastac has a stronger association with metatopics such as learning, data, and gaming. some topics of general interest (e.g. social media and data) are shared between the plat- forms. conference calls and job advertisements form two distinct yet evenly distributed topic based on their stylistic uniformity. in addition to pointing out thematic differences, topics also reflect differences in style between the two sites. topic # (chatter) is lexically distinct from other topics in that it uses much more general nouns (time, people) and verbs (think, know). it reflects a set of essayistic posts, particularly on hastac, which discuss controversial issues and tend to be relatively short. spam is also a distinct topic, but one that is also shared between both sites. we also found that while some topics overlap somewhat, many are highly characteristic of one of the two platforms. topics # (health), # (cold war), # (law), # (art), # (urban studies), and # (energy) are relatively clearly associated with hypotheses, while topics # (digital humanities), # (gaming), # (chatter), and # (learning) are prevalent on has- tac. topics # (social media) and # (data) show a more even distribution between the two sites. similar to our findings in the co-word analysis, # (digital humanities) is more prevalent in hastac than in hypotheses. the distribution of topic scores suggests that a number of lin- guistically distinct thematic areas exist on hypotheses, and that these areas follow disciplinary patterns. by contrast, hastac posts are less clearly associated with a single field of inquiry and most closely associated with metatopics such as learning and general conversation. has- tac posts are also linked to the discussion of digital humanities and the usage of labels relat- ed to dh. the differences between the two platforms may point to diverging goals associated with scholarly blogging: addressing broad interdisciplinary issues before a wider public vs. con- ducting focused scholarly discussion within fields. the difference in the number of unique authors between the two platforms ( authors on hastac vs. authors on hypotheses) may influence the result of the topic modeling, with a few very specific topics present on hypotheses not represented on hastac (e.g. cold war). nonetheless, the results confirm the observations drawn from the co-word analysis, with topics on hypotheses tending to be more disciplinarily aligned and connected exclusively to a single area of research, while posts on hastac are more likely to pick up interdisciplinary and gen- eral themes. fig. shows the topic scores in the selected topics, with each dot representing a post and its color indicating the platform. discussion the results reported in this study can be summarized in two parts. firstly, we found a substan- tial one-way dependency of dh terms on their unprefixed counterparts, as most blog posts dedicated to dh also included references to the corresponding humanities term ( % on has- tac and % on hypotheses). dh-related labels are considerably more frequent in hastac pointing to an unequal adoption of digital humanities-related terms in different local contexts. secondly, we found a tendency in hypotheses towards focused thematic areas representing dis- ciplinary interests contrasted with a tendency to discuss more general, cross-disciplinary themes in hastac. in terms of institutional branches of humanities research, history is the areas with the largest number of posts across the networks for the sample of topics considered in this study. areas that are not traditionally associated with humanities research (or institutions that support the how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / field), i.e. library and media, also account for a considerable portion of the posts. we also found considerable topical differences between the two platforms. while traditional areas of the humanities and social sciences (history, art, law) are clearly represented in hypotheses, hastac is topically more cross-disciplinary and less focused on single disciplines. some of these topics show considerable overlap between the networks (i.e. social media and data), highlighting the fact that there are areas in which users of hastac and hypotheses have simi- lar interests, while others are considerably more predominant in one of the networks. although both networks are on the forefront of the digital humanities research agenda, they present considerable differences in how explicitly they use new disciplinary labels (hastac) and ad- dress well-established disciplinary themes without explicitly associating them with dh (hypotheses). the differences we observed highlight that two platforms that attract broadly similar user communities may still differ considerably with regards to topics. we interpret the differences in adoption of digital humanities terminologies and topics across the networks to mirror dif- ferent developments in dh. whereas digital learning, digital literacy, and particularly digital scholarship are particularly prominent labels on hastac, hypotheses is mostly focused on digital libraries, digital history, and digital archives. these differences are of qualitative and quantitative nature reflecting not just the personal preferences of bloggers and users, but may also indicate broader conceptual differences. while blog posts in hastac tend to raise issues suitable for (controversial) discussion, contributions in hypotheses more closely mirror tradi- tional expository humanities genres (e.g. book chapters or essays). moreover, while hastac is a social network in which users can create profiles and interact with other users by posting and commenting on content, hypotheses is a publishing platform with lesser emphasis on community building than hastac, and a closer alignment with traditional genres of publishing. the content of each network also presents considerable variation in terms of formats and style. the prominence of topic # (chatter) in hastac indicates that hastac’s blog en- tries are conceptually more like casual conversation rather than academic writing. as blogs serve different purposes for different users, the data necessarily includes posts of different gen- res comprising of short essays, conference reviews, book reports, group discussions, and fig . distribution of posts per topic, with posts in red from hastac and posts in blue from hypotheses. doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / general academic advertising. while hastac and hypotheses are interdisciplinary in charac- ter, they have a strong slant towards the humanities, particularly towards learning and digital media on hastac, and specifically towards history on hypotheses. common to both net- works is the small proportion of users producing the large majority of the content, which leads to a typical long-tail distribution of content within the platforms. in the last instance, the results reported in this study show that the variety of terms and top- ics associated with dh is locally configured and reflects different conceptualizations of what constitutes dh. we expect this study to be informative for future research grappling with the rapid establishment of dh in humanities departments. at any rate, it will be interesting to fol- low the ongoing maturation of both platforms and their respective approaches to scholarly blogging, as well as the different conceptualizations of digital humanities scholarship in north american and european contexts. supporting information s materials. hastac dataset with , entries including timestamp and blog posts. (zip) s materials. hypotheses dataset with , entries including timestamp and blog posts. 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http://dx.doi.org/ . /b:scie. . .e http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmlr. . . - . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmlr. . . - . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm 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e f d e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice edinburgh research explorer digital editions of text citation for published version: franzini, g, terras, m & mahony, s , 'digital editions of text: surveying user requirements in the digital humanities', journal on computing and cultural heritage, vol. , no. . https://doi.org/ . / digital object identifier (doi): . / link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: peer reviewed version published in: journal on computing and cultural heritage publisher rights statement: © acm, . this is the author's version of the work. it is posted here by permission of acm for your personal 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).html digital editions of text: surveying user requirements in the digital humanities greta franzinia, melissa terrasb, simon mahonya auniversity college london, ucl centre for digital humanities buniversity of edinburgh, college of arts, humanities and social sciences abstract this paper presents the findings of a web survey designed to better understand the expectations and use of digital editions of texts. the survey, modelled upon a detailed analysis of projects, recorded complete responses, shedding light on user requirements of digital editions. specifically, the survey indicates that issues of data reuse, licensing, image availability, and comprehensive documentation are the most requested features of digital editions although ones which seldom are provided. this analysis feeds into previous studies on good practice in building digital humanities resources and puts forward practical recommendations for both creators and funders of digital editions in an e ort to promote a stronger consideration of user needs. this survey will be of interest to those who produce digital editions of texts, including developers and engineers, and will also be of interest to those who commission and fund these projects, such as universities, libraries and archives, whose documentary collections are often showcased in digital editions. introduction "good idea this survey!" since the early s there has been a great amount of effort put into the creation of digital textual editions. a digital textual edition can be broadly defined as a reconstruction of a literary text inserted in the text's print or manuscript tradition and which makes use of digital technologies to reproduce any level of detail of that text. to better understand the methods, technologies and rationale behind the production of digital editions, we created a catalogue that has so far identified and categorised of these projects produced worldwide. the user- side of digital editions, however, has not received equal attention. the study described in this article follows on from the few existing efforts in this relatively unexplored area and sought to answer the following research question: what are the expectations of digital editions in the digital humanities and how do these correlate with existing digital editions? here, we compare the findings of our analysis of digital editions, which detailed their attributes and implementation, with the results of a widespread user survey that identified the important and salient features the community most desires. we compare and contrast the two, resulting in a series of practical recommendations for creators and funders of digital editions, indicating that issues of data reuse, licensing, image availability, and comprehensive documentation are the most requested features of digital editions (although ones which seldom are provided). this comment left by a participant of this survey (in reply to question - see further below). see: https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at. this analysis was undertaken by the first author. all numerical considerations made in this paper with regard to the catalogue of digital editions reflect the state of the project as of may . since then, new digital editions have been added and these are not included in the data analysis described here. paper is the first comparative analysis of the differences between what the digital humanities community who builds online digital editions of texts provides, and what the user-base wants. it therefore provides useful guidance for those producing digital editions of texts and will also be of interest to those who commission, fund, and support these projects, including universities, libraries and archives, whose documentary collections are often showcased in digital editions. digital editions in the digital humanities, the term 'digital edition' is typically used to denote projects that make use of digital technologies to reproduce editions and transcriptions of literary texts, be those inscribed on tablets or penned on papyrus, vellum or paper. digital editions themselves are to be considered an asset of cultural heritage, as tomasi explains: le edizioni digitali fanno parte del patrimonio culturale e vanno quindi valorizzate al pari delle raccolte librarie, archivistiche e museali, anche in considerazione della realizzazione di digital libraries nella forma di aggregatori di risorse come strumento di accesso integrato al patrimonio culturale [...]. ( , p. ) the multiple definitions and types of (digital) edition that exist are listed in the lexicon of scholarly editing. scholars distinguish between digital and digitised editions –the former indicating interactivity as opposed to mere reproductions of analogue material–, or between digital editions and digital scholarly editions –the latter describing a project with a strong critical component. digital editions are a key interest in the digital humanities. for almost forty years, the community has been building these resources (vanhoutte ), which now number in the hundreds (franzini et al., ). a handful of digital editions are worth mentioning to briefly show the range of contributions they make to textual scholarship. one of the earliest digital editions produced was the canterbury tales project; conceived in , published seven years later on cd-rom (robinson, ) and now part of a collaborative editing platform , this project bears witness to developments over the past twenty years. another example is the codex sinaiticus project, widely recognised as one of the first endeavours to virtually reunite a disbanded work, in this case a fourth century manuscript of the christian bible whose leaves are scattered between the uk, russia, egypt and germany. the briefwechsel sauer-seuffert project builds a body of correspondence into a dynamic timeline. and, finally, the digital dead sea scrolls project mimics the act of rolling through parchment scrolls allowing users to interactively select regions on an image to inspect the corresponding text. these examples show the variety of projects available, often carried out in order to provide wide access to cultural heritage, which would otherwise be restricted to experts (e.g. researchers, conservators the following is an english translation of the quote by the first author: "digital editions form part of cultural heritage and should, therefore, be valued equally to library, archival and museum collections; they should also be considered for inclusion in digital libraries –intended here as resource-aggregators– as access tools to cultural heritage [...]." see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://uahost.uantwerpen.be/lse/index.php/lexicon/editio n-digital/ van hulle has published an annotated list of key theoretical works in the field ( ), to which the authors would add hockey ( ) and more recent volumes, including sutherland and deegan ( ), pierazzo ( ), driscoll and pierazzo ( ), sahle ( ) and mcgann ( ). available at: http://www.textualcommunities.usask.ca/web/canterbury-tales the codex sinaiticus project is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/ see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://sauer-seuffert.onb.ac.at see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dss.collections.imj.org.il and other individuals who are specifically granted access) or to special occasions (e.g. temporary exhibitions in libraries or museums). related work despite the large number of digital editions being created, no extensive study has been conducted to discuss the needs of users of digital editions, with the consequent result that anybody attempting to do such research, or build a digital edition, does so with very little prior evidence as to usage patterns or requirements. in , the lairah (log analysis of internet resources in the arts and the humanities) initiative analysed twenty-one digital resources and found that: p[rincipal]i[nvestigator]s [...] infer[red] user requirements from their own behaviour. (warwick et al., , p. ) in , terras stated that project reports typically disclose information about the number of visits, downloads and time spent on a particular page but not the users’ actual experiences, and that few users self-report (terras , pp. - ). in the same year, an article entitled 'electronic editions for everyone' hinted at users but, in fact, mainly discusses the difficulties creators face in building digital editions for a wide range of users, not the identity of these users nor their needs for digital editions (robinson, ). in , hughes' volume evaluating and measuring the value, use and impact of digital collections examined, as the title suggests, approaches to evaluating digital collections, not digital editions, even though digital editions can, in certain cases, be considered collections or archives in the sense that they collect documents that make-up a particular literary work: in a digital environment, archive has gradually come to mean a purposeful collection of surrogates. as we know, meanings change over time, and archive in a digital context has come to suggest something that blends features of editing and archiving. to meld features of both — to have the care of treatment and annotation of an edition and the inclusiveness of an archive — is one of the tendencies of recent work in electronic editing. one such project, the william blake archive, was awarded a prize from the modern language association recently as a distinguished scholarly edition. (price, ) in , dot porter published an article entitled 'medievalists and the scholarly digital edition' in which she summarised the results of two surveys she conducted in and to learn more about medievalists' attitudes toward electronic resources, including digital editions (porter, ). both surveys asked participants from different departments to indicate their use of print and digital editions in a five-point likert scale (electronic only; electronic mostly; electronic and print; print mostly; print only). her first survey, circulated in , addressed a random controlled sample of faculty members of medieval studies in different departments and was delivered via mail ( participants) and email ( participants); of the surveys sent, ( . %) were completed (ibid., p. ). a second survey was prepared in and targeted a wider audience. to do so, porter again selected a random controlled sample of faculty members but also shared the survey via twitter, facebook and mailing lists. the total number of respondents of the survey was ( from faculty, from the open survey). the difference between the two surveys, see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/lairah/ porter informs, was that the survey did not ask about the use of electronic books (i.e. those available on e-readers such as kindle, nook and the ipad), which were only popularised a decade later (ibid., p. ). the results of the survey indicated a preference of print over electronic editions, possibly because of the lower number of electronic resources available at that time. in the survey, a majority of all groups except for music and history again reported a preference for print editions. in summary, porter's experiments showed that the nine- year gap between surveys did not record a large shift in medievalists' usage of digital editions, a behaviour which, she posits, might be explained by their lack of interest in this type of resource (as opposed to electronic journals and facsimiles) and "a lack of understanding by non- digital-editing medievalists about what exactly a digital scholarly edition is" (ibid., p. ). more recent monographs on digital scholarly editing, such as digital critical editions by apollon et al. ( ) also do not give much space to user-studies (franzini, ). a mit online announcement searching for people to test the infinite ulysses digital edition is one of a very small number of initiatives interested in understanding how a project is used (visconti, ). more worryingly, at the conference of the european society for textual scholarship (ests) entitled 'users of digital editions' –the first effort of a well- established scholarly network to examine users and their needs– only one paper touched upon the topic and that described a user interface. interfaces of digital editions were also the central theme of the conference digital scholarly editions as interfaces organised by the digital scholarly editions initial training network (dixit) . in the same year, dillen and nyet ( ) introduced three categories of users modelled upon three types of use the authors envisage for digital editions, confirming that users and user needs are not well known but often inferred by creators: at the most basic level of interest, users are looking for simple browsing functionalities. to satisfy these users, editors will want to present the materials within an attractive and intuitive interface. at a more advanced level of interest, users will want to research the materials the dse [digital scholarly edition] has to offer, and access them in non-linear ways. to reach those users, editors will need to provide indexes, advanced search options, advanced textual comparison options, to open the corpus up for analysis in a standardized format, etc. finally, at the highest level of interest, there are meta-users, who want to re-use the dse's data for their own purposes: to write their own transcriptions of the dse's facsimiles (and publish the results), to build their own interface around the data the flyer of the ests conference can be accessed here: http://cts.dmu.ac.uk/ests/ests- flyer.pdf. the ests homepage is available at: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/https://textualscholarship.eu/ the talk, entitled “beyond google search: editions as dynamic sites of interaction”, was given by phd student shane mcgarry from maynooth university. mcgarry reported on the user survey undertaken for the woodman diary project to evaluate the usability of the digital edition's user- interface. the project is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dhprojects.maynoothuniversity.ie/woodman/ more information about the conference is available at: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/https://informationsmodellierung.uni- graz.at/en/events/archive/digital-scholarly-editions-as-interfaces/. video recordings of the talks given at this conference are available at the zim acdh youtube channel: https://web.archive.org/channel/ucfb_iysrdxhsvs dzw o lw for more information about dixit, see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dixit.uni-koeln.de/ http://cts.dmu.ac.uk/ests/ests-flyer.pdf http://cts.dmu.ac.uk/ests/ests-flyer.pdf the dse provides, or to perform functionalities the dse does not (yet) offer (and publish the results). (dillen and neyt, , p. ) the closest we have come to exploring the gap between creators and users of digital editions is the relatively recent establishment of the ride review journal of digital scholarly editions and resources, which excels at evaluating digital scholarly editions through the publication of individual reviews : however, no overarching analysis has been done on community investment in digital resources, as compared to user desires of digital resources. users of digital editions should be able to share their concerns, needs and feedback with regard to the creation of these projects. this large gap should no longer be ignored as excluding users' voices from the early development stages of digital edition can lead to neglect: in the case of digital humanities large amounts of public funding is wasted if a resource is not used. (warwick et al., , p. ) again, in reference to digital humanities resources in general, not digital editions specifically: very few projects maintained contact with their users or undertook any organised user testing, and many did not have a clear idea how popular the resource was or what users were doing with it. (warwick et al., , p. ) these studies confirm that by involving users in the creation process of a digital edition the risk of neglect might be reduced and, therefore, the chances of it being used in the long-term increase. so why are creators not engaging potential users more actively? aside from the findings of the aforementioned lairah study, the most recent article on the topic reports that usability testing in digital humanities is not yet widely established for a variety of reasons, including the absence of usability tests or survey templates in the humanities for specific services and the vague or unspecific research questions feeding the development of the services (bulatovic et al., ): the aim of those of us designing resources in digital humanities, therefore, remains analogous to this. we must understand the needs and behaviours of users. as a result of this understanding, we must design resources that fit well with what our users already do, while providing advantages in terms of convenience, speed of access, storage capacity and innovative information tools that digital publication affords. if we do so, there is every chance that such resources will be used and will help to make possible new kinds of scholarship that would be inconceivable without digital content, tools and delivery mechanisms. (warwick, , p. ) this article reports on the first initiative to bring together a varied group of users of digital editions with a view to identifying needs and expectations. before turning to this study, however, it is first necessary to introduce the catalogue of digital editions as the data contained therein will help us better evaluate user needs against the digital (scholarly) editions being built in the digital humanities. available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://ride.i-d-e.de/ the catalogue of digital editions the catalogue of digital editions was first launched by the first author in in response to a need to survey and identify best practice in the field of digital editing. inspired by patrick sahle's catalog of digital scholarly editions, the first resource of this kind, this catalogue sought to examine online digital editions in order to extract statistical information and thus better observe developments in the field. franzini et al. ( ) described the early days of the catalogue. in summary, data collection began as a spreadsheet for the first author's personal use; there, she recorded a small number of identifying features for every project, including name, url, name of manager(s), responsible institution(s), and the historical period to which the edited text belonged. in time, with the addition of more projects the number of cataloguing criteria also increased to address as many dimensions as possible (e.g. type of licence, availability of images, search functionality, provision of indices and download options, etc.). once a stable table structure was reached, a decision was made to publicly share the spreadsheet as a collaborative document for others to use and edit should they so wish. although the catalogue did not see a large number of external contributions, the interest shown over a period of two years prompted the first author to maintain this list as an open and citeable data resource in github. in the summer of , the catalogue of digital editions turned into a collaboration with the austrian centre for digital humanities at the austrian academy of sciences; the goal of the collaboration is to give the catalogue dynamic functionality, shaping it into a web application and dissemination platform to allow users to contribute, download, browse, search, visualise and filter data around their research interests. in april , the german datenbank-infosystem (dbis) added the catalogue to its list of open scientific databases as a service for use in over libraries in germany. as of september , the number of cataloguing features used by the catalogue is , and users have requested an additional five features to be added. ultimately, as outlined by the digital publications manager of the j. paul getty trust, the catalogue proposes an evaluation model for digital editions and similar digital educational resources: though limited to its own particular subset of digital publishing activity, franzini's catalogue comprises a dataset of some digital editions, currently, with some fifty consistent and comparable pieces of data on each, that range from the edition's subject matter and url, to its features, textual encoding scheme, and technological infrastructure. while it takes a more object, data-focused approach to reviewing and cataloguing the included editions, the catalogue also uniquely offers the possibility of rich comparison and analysis across publications, even if that more subjective and evaluative work is yet to be done. it may also someday provide a model to be applied to the evaluation of other types of digital publishing projects, specifically like the mellon-funded university press projects, the getty's osci collaborative, and other open access, scholarly editions which have been the subject of our history here thus far. (albers, ) the analysis in the present paper does not consider the fourteen digital editions in the catalogue marked as digitised editions (i.e. whose value in the 'digital' column of the catalogue table is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.digitale-edition.de see: https://github.com/gfranzini/digeds_cat see: http://rzblx .uni- regensburg.de/dbinfo/detail.php?bib_id=allefreien&colors=&ocolors=&lett=k&tid= &titel_id= . the number of libraries that make use of this service increases on a monthly basis. see: https://github.com/gfranzini/digeds_cat/issues?q=is% aopen+is% aissue+label% afeature https://github.com/gfranzini/digeds_cat ) or, in other words, projects that exist as electronic or digital versions of print editions. this means that only of the editions present in the catalogue were analysed. methodology to answer this study's research question (what are the expectations of digital editions in the digital humanities and how do these correlate with existing digital editions?), on th march the authors circulated a web survey entitled 'expectations of digital (textual) editions' to collect information about what users expect or want from a digital edition. this survey was targeted at the digital humanities community, the field the authors identify with and within which many digital editions take shape. the decision to collect data about the users of digital editions through a web survey was dictated by a number of factors. firstly, web surveys are inexpensive; secondly, they are often quicker to set-up and run compared to other methods, which typically require calls for participation and participant selection; and thirdly, they allow to survey a large population and to collect large data samples (horner, , p. ). on the other hand, the nature of web surveys automatically excludes participants who do not have access to an internet connection (ibid.). this drawback, however, was not relevant for this particular survey, as an internet connection is the prerequisite for the consultation and use of digital editions, whether users are accessing the web from their own machines or from library workstations. those who do not have access to an internet connection are unable to work with digital editions (unless these allow for offline use, which is not usually the case). survey design in order to compare the results of the survey against the digital editions in the catalogue of digital editions, the questions were modelled upon the cataloguing features used in the catalogue. to encourage as many responses as possible, the authors opted for twenty questions only, some of which grouped features by typology or purpose (e.g. question brings together indices, string search, advanced search and apis - see further below). the questionnaire the reader may ask why a digital edition is in the catalogue if it is neither digital not an edition (if, in other words, its 'digital' and 'edition' values in the catalogue are set to ). this is because, while some projects self-define as digital and editions, the meaning of both terms does not match that of sahle's definitions, which the catalogue uses as a reference to catalogue entries ( ). the reader is reminded that this analysis was done in may and thus ignores digital editions added to the catalogue from june onward. the survey was distributed via the authors' twitter accounts, and to the following mailing lists and facebook groups: associazione per l'informatica umanistica e la cultura digitale (aiucd) at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://lists.lists.digitalhumanities.org/mailman/listinfo/ai ucd-l; corpora at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://clu.uni.no/icame/corpora/sub.html; digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum (dhd) at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dig-hum.de/dhd-mailingliste; digital classicist at https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/cgi- bin/webadmin?a =digitalclassicist; digital medievalist at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://listserv.uleth.ca/mailman/listinfo/dm-l; humanist at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dhhumanist.org; tei-l at https://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?a =tei-l; aiucd facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/aiucd/; digital medievalist facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/ /; european association for digital humanities (eadh) facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/ /; ucl centre for digital humanities facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/ucldh/. facebook and twitter posts were re-advertised by individuals in numerous other social spaces. early "offline" examples of digital editions, such as the thesaurus linguae graecae (tlg), were published on cdrom, but these are rare (and often replaced, like the tlg, by an online version), difficult to access or expensive to purchase. contained a mix of multiple choice and likert scale questions for a total of twenty questions. the likert scale was used to measure the importance of a particular feature in a five-point scale: - not important - slightly important - moderately important - important - very important after generally imposing a structure, question (is there anything else you would like to tell us about your user needs for digital editions that we have not covered here?) was designed to give respondents the opportunity to freely express their views, thus mitigating what krippendorff identifies as a common problem in such surveys: for efficiency's sake, researchers gain a considerable advantage if they can impose a structure on the data-making process so that the results are readily analyzable. surveys, mail questionnaires, and structured interviews typically offer respondents predefined choices that are easily tabulated, coded, or processed by computer. but they thereby also prevent the respondents' individual voices from being heard. (krippendorff, , p. ) the software chosen for this particular web survey was opinio , which is freely provided by the author's home institution. the survey broadly defined a digital edition as: an edition or transcription of a text that makes use of digital technologies to enhance users' access and experience of the source material. it can be a completed or an ongoing project, and does not necessarily have to provide a critical commentary. a mere replica of a printed edition is, in this instance, not considered to be a digital edition. as horner reports ( , p. ), "[...] web surveys may pose additional participant confidentiality issues", which might deter participants from contributing their answers. in this survey, demographic information about the participants, such as gender, age, ethnicity, location and religion, was not collected, as it was not considered relevant. the complete anonymity was announced in the survey's advertising message and the chosen software was set to not reveal any information about participants to the authors. on the closing date one month later, th april , the survey recorded completed responses and incomplete responses, for a total of stored responses. comparatively, the lairah study recorded completed responses over a period of four months (warwick et al., , p. ) and porter's aforementioned and surveys recorded and completed responses respectively. with every survey, there is the issue of representativeness, that is, the quality or relevance of the results and if these adequately represent the total target population (schouten et al., ). despite being set-up to qualitatively assess digital editions in relation to user expectations, the survey's large number of responses might also be considered statistically relevant. however, as no evidence exists with regard to population size, the authors refrain from claiming for more information about the likert scale, see allen and seaman ( ). available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.ucl.ac.uk/isd/services/learning- teaching/elearning-staff/core-tools/opinio. opinio provides survey data in html, pdf, spss and raw data formats. representativeness, and acknowledge the qualitative nature of the results. while preliminary, these results are still valuable for those who are planning to build digital editions. in the next section, we juxtapose the features of digital editions built by the community present in the catalogue of digital editions with the complete answers collected through this web survey in order to identify meeting and diverging points. the incomplete questionnaires are not considered in this discussion, as their differing degree of completeness do not make for a uniform analysis. median (of the five-point likert scale) and standard deviation (from the median) values will be hereafter referred to as m and sd respectively. results to facilitate the presentation of the statistics, the present article does not defer the discussion of the results but divides them between the twenty survey questions to readily contextualise them. therefore, where applicable, for every question we provide a breakdown of the corresponding responses, their correlation with the statistics gathered from the catalogue of digital editions, a brief discussion and ensuing practical recommendations. the results section is then followed by a summary discussion, which visualises the overall creation trend in digital editing against the results of this survey. questions , , : overview of respondents the largest group within the survey participants identified themselves as a researcher ( . %); professors follow in second place ( . %); the undefined 'other academic position' participants place third ( . %); and students in fourth ( . %); and participants provided new identifying categories, some of which could have been represented by the options already provided (e.g. the free-text answer 'phd student' was not necessary seeing as a 'student' category was already provided). this is a first indication that digital editions are more likely to be accessed and potentially reused in research. almost % of participants identified themselves as belonging to the humanities, % as working across different disciplines and . % as belonging to the applied sciences. these results may seem unsurprising, given that the documentary and literary content of digital editions is at the core of humanities studies, but we have no concrete information as to what exactly forms this clear majority. there could be many reasons for the survey's popularity among humanists: the advertising channels used to circulate the survey were mostly humanities-oriented and would therefore explain the low science participation; traditionally, the preparation of (digital) editions of documentary heritage is a humanities-driven activity; the low presence of scientists might also be dictated by the fact that few practitioners have a need for digital editions of cultural and historical texts. with respect to the specific disciplines of the responding participants, % are involved in literary studies and % conduct historical studies. within this % subpopulation of literary and historical studies, % focus on the classical period, while % research upon the middle ages. other disciplines are as diverse as shakespeare studies, law, history of ideas, history of daily life, television, agriculture, medieval legal history, medieval medicine, surgery and the history of medicine, musicology, liturgical medieval chant, history of exotic animals in the middle ages, folklore, engineering, historical metrology, theatre, architectural history and anthropology, military history, hittitology, children's literature, language pedagogy, food history, digital archaeology, sinology, lexicology, social history of the ottoman middle east, conceptual history, journalism, visual rhetoric, caribbean literature, celtic studies, information science, sociology of culture and science, history of photography and bureaucracy. those who identified as scientists include, among others, a computer scientist focussed on interaction design, a cyber security and automation engineer, an information architecture writer, a data modeller and web frontend developer, and a computer programmer with an interest in classical literature. question : what do you primarily seek in a digital edition? participants were asked to specify what primary use they make of digital editions. the largest group of users, ( %), consume digital editions for data and public reuse, while ( %) users look for a complete educational resource to learn more about the subject matter. a third group of users, ( %), is interested in digital editions for private (re)use. one user stated that (s)he seeks the "reconstruction of the lost original of a text" and all materials used to that end; another user expressed the need to annotate digital editions and share the annotations; two users emphasised the importance of being able to search a text. question : how important is the scholarly component of a digital edition for you? this question was designed to elicit the rate of importance of the scholarly component of a digital edition. according to sahle's definition of a digital scholarly edition, used in this survey as a reference for answers, projects that do not offer a critical examination of the text(s) are not scholarly ( ). survey results (m = , sd = . ). almost % of respondents rated the scholarly component of a digital edition as very important. despite being affected by the three 'no opinion' outliers, the median score indicates that there is an expectation that digital editions should critically assess the texts at hand. catalogue data. of the digital editions under consideration in the catalogue, ( %) were catalogued as not scholarly. recommendation. this low percentage ( %) is encouraging as it suggests that creators of digital editions are already meeting the needs of many users in this regard. creators are reminded to always provide a glossary or list of domain-specific terminology in their critical edition, regardless of its intended audience. question : how important is knowing the production lifespan or duration of a digital edition (begin and end years)? this question was asked to understand how important it is for users to know the production span of a digital edition, that is, the time taken to complete the digital edition as intended by its editors. this duration can vary greatly: one ongoing project will be funded for as long as fifteen years , while a completed project ran for sixteen years. duration is not necessarily indicative of the quality of a digital edition but combined with other factors, such as funding and team size, it provides a rough understanding of what is achievable with a given amount of resources, therefore offering a means of comparison. start and end dates also place digital editions in a historical and chronological context, helping users better appreciate the technological affordances and choices made at a particular time. survey results (m = , sd = . ). ( . %) participants rated the knowledge of the duration of a digital edition as important, while slightly more than % of participants consider it to be a very important characteristic. catalogue data. of the digital editions under consideration in the catalogue, ( . %) do not provide either begin or end years ('forthcoming' is included in this count as it does not the edition humboldt digital project, for example, expects to reach completion in . see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/editions/detail/ the dead sea scrolls project, at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dss.collections.imj.org.il provide a more specific estimate of the expected project start date); ( . %) provide both begin and end years (where the end year can also be 'present', e.g. ); and ( . %) provide partial information by either specifying the beginning or the end year of the project. in sum, just over half of the projects in the catalogue ( . %) provide complete information about project duration. recommendation. accordingly, given this question's high median of , it is recommended that creators publish beginning and (expected) end years. question : how important is knowing which audience the digital edition targets (e.g. students, scholars, general public)? although creators do not preclude unintended audiences from using their resources, making this information known helps users contextualise the data and better to understand the objectives of the creators. if, for instance, a digital edition is targeted at experts of medieval latin manuscripts, creators might perceive the publication of a glossary of terms or a list of conventions as redundant, and thus refrain from making one available. making this choice abundantly clear on the project website helps define the scope of the endeavour, and guides users accordingly. survey results (m = , sd = . ). almost % of respondents rated target audience as moderately important information, % as important and % as very important. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, the majority, ( . %) do not provide information about the intended audience. out of the remaining , ( . %) explicitly target the general public (analogous terms used include 'global audience' and 'laypeople'). recommendation. given the response to this question, it is recommended that creators specify the intended audience of their project. question : how important is detailed editorial and technical documentation (i.e. glossaries, information about the technologies used to produce the digital edition, the imaging settings, was the text ocr'd or keyed, etc.)? documenting the process of creation behind any type of project serves to communicate development, quality and to give appropriate context. with documentation, creators can make aims, limitations and the expected use known to their users, as well as facilitate the reuse of a resource. one of the basic principles and assumptions of research is reproducibility or, in other words, the ability of one researcher to take the work of another researcher, follow their pathway and arrive at the same results. reproducibility is key to research acceptance and validation, so much so that entire courses are based on this principle. while reproducibility might not be essential to all disciplines (casadevall and fang, ), scholars argue that research should be sufficiently documented in order for it to be accepted by the community. moreover, although scholars in the humanities do not typically reproduce digital editions, some of their constituent parts might be reusable (e.g. the texts themselves, an xml schema or other underlying code), and should, therefore, be adequately described to facilitate reuse and reproducibility (allison, ). ten years ago, the lairah study found that many digital humanities resources did not keep organised documentation ( , p. ). such as the coursera reproducible research online course by johns hopkins university, available at: https://www.coursera.org/learn/reproducible-research. a nature survey asked , researchers to measure reproducibility, with somewhat alarming results. see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.nature.com/news/ - - scientists-lift-the-lid-on-reproducibility- . . survey results (m = , sd = . ). an aggregate of participants ( %) rated the importance of detailed editorial and technical documentation between important ( . %) and very important ( . %). catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, four of them do not make clear what the source of the edited text is (i.e. is it derived from a printed edition, what is the base text, on which digitised documents is the digital edition based on, is it a new born- digital edition), while provide some form of philological or editorial statement. of the projects, ( %) provide partial information with regard to the source of the text and the editorial policy, and the remaining ( %) provide complete information. with respect to the technical information, that is, information about technologies used and related standards used, ( %) digital editions do not provide any such information, ( %) provide partial information and ( %) provide complete information; finally, the websites of the ( %) digital editions published on cd-rom or protected by a pay-wall/login system also do not provide this information, which is not to say that it is not available on the cd-rom itself or within the subscription portal. only projects (approximately %) out of provide both complete editorial and technical documentation. disappointingly, these results corroborate the lairah findings published over ten years ago. recommendation. given the low statistics currently discernible in the catalogue and, conversely, the high rating of this question, creators must take more care to incorporate comprehensive documentation. this should provide descriptive information about the project itself, including purpose, motivation, duration, limitations, human and financial resources invested, and target audience. additionally, and also in reference to question below, it should provide details about the source document's history, its significance, context, its provenance and current repository or location, as well as technical documentation pertaining to its digitisation (image-capturing equipment and settings) and to the entire project back-end. question : how important is the exhaustiveness of contextual information (e.g. current repository of source material, links to external resources, quality of source materials, etc.)? similarly, participants were asked to rate the importance of contextual information, such as the provenance and current repository of the source material(s). survey results (m = , sd = . ). an aggregate of participants ( %) rated the provision of contextual information between important ( . %) and very important ( . %). catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( . %) provide information about the institutions currently housing the source material(s), while ( . %) do not and ( %) are built on materials that do not have a specific physical location (e.g. print editions published in multiple copies). with respect to provenance, only projects ( %) do not provide clear information, one project does not apply and the remaining ( %) either provide the countries or the cities of provenance. finally, ( %) provide links to external resources and supplementary materials, and ( %) do not. recommendation. for this question, the catalogue shows that, generally, projects are providing contextual information and are thus meeting the expectations expressed by the participants. question : how important is the provision of high quality digital images upon which the digital edition builds? survey results (m = , sd = . ). this question found a high consensus, with an aggregated ( . %) participants rating the provision of digital images to accompany the edited or transcribed texts either important ( . %) or very important ( . %). catalogue data. of the projects under consideration, ( . %) provide images, ( . %) do not and ( . %) provide only some. the remaining are catalogued as 'not provided', a value used for projects published on cd-rom or behind a pay-wall (inaccessible to the authors) to indicate that the information available on the site is inconclusive with regard to the provision of images. of the projects ( . %) that provide images, ( %) allow users to zoom in and out, and ( %) come with text-image linking functionality to enhance the reading experience of the document. recommendation. the response rate to this question suggests that many users expect digital editions to provide images. the provision of images, however, is often tied to copyright regulations enforced by rights holders (e.g. individuals and/or institutions), and these do not always facilitate access or employ fair use of their resources in teaching, learning and scholarship. there is the demon of copyright. some of the most exciting digital edition projects focussed on modern authors. it can be difficult enough gaining permission for print editions for these; for digital editions, in some notorious cases, it has proved impossible. but even for older texts, where there should be no copyright issues, there have been problems. arranging for digital photography and reproduction rights is, with very rare exceptions, arduous and too often forbiddingly expensive. (robinson, ) in light of these restrictions, creators of digital editions must endeavour to establish and clear rights on the images they plan to use or secure publication permissions before the start of the project. if permission is not granted by the image holders and the digital edition proceeds without images, creators are strongly advised to publish a visible statement on the project website documenting this drawback. the negative publicity to the rights holders will not only increase the awareness of the issue but will also clearly communicate to users the imposed limitations of the project. question : how important is the availability of advanced functionality and browsing, such as indices, filtering, searching and application programming interfaces (apis)? survey results (m = , sd = . ). the great majority of participants ( %) rated the browse and search functionalities of digital editions, such as indices, text searches and advanced filters either important ( . %) or very important ( %). application programming interfaces (apis) were included in this category as they provide a similar means of understanding how the components of a digital edition come together "under the hood". four participants ( . %) rated search functionalities as not at all important and the remaining % rated them as slightly to moderately important. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( . %) come with an api, ( %) provide indices, ( %) provide a text or string matching search and ( %) provide advanced search functionality. a total of ( %) projects provide both string search and advanced functionality. recommendation. given this question's high median of , it is recommended that, where applicable, creators provide search functionality (string searches, indices, filters, concordances and more advanced options) to help users locate information more easily and, in the case of apis, repurpose and integrate information in other resources. question : how important is the possibility of consulting a digital edition's website in multiple languages other than english? digital editions are often the result of international collaborations and in an effort to maximise outreach, some projects localise the website and interface of the digital edition. this question sought to elicit the importance of providing multilingual sites, not translations of the content of digital editions. survey results (m = , sd = . ). the high sd value of this question indicates that there is no clear consensus, with % of participants rating multilingual websites or web interfaces as not important against an aggregate % who judge it between important ( . %) and very important ( . %). these results attest to english as the recognised global lingua franca (montgomery, ; seidlhofer, ), and yet a sizable portion of participants expressed the need for a language option. given that the survey did not collect any personal information about participants, it is impossible to prove or disprove hypotheses about this result based on the nationality of the respondents. even so, the rating for this question might not necessarily be dictated by the respondents' own linguistic abilities (i.e. an english-speaker might not consider multilingual sites important as many are published in english anyway) but could also constitute an independent evaluation of what they think ought to be done in this regard. responses may have also been influenced by the modern availability of tools to translate web pages (e.g. google translate's browser extension for google chrome ); despite their limitations as machine- translators, these tools can, at the very least, help non-natives locate information more easily. catalogue data. looking at the catalogue, of the digital editions considered, ( . %) project websites are published in one language only and, of these, ( . %) are in english. the remaining ( . %) projects are published in two or more languages and all provide an english translation or domain. recommendation. in light of the mixed opinions recorded in this survey with regard to multilingual sites, and unless this feature is explicitly required by funding agencies, creators might want to reconsider providing localised versions of their resources (i.e. translations of the user-interface of the edition) or prioritise these differently in project development. while localisation opens up resources to a wider audience, the outcome of this survey suggests that the resources needed for translations and their maintenance might be better invested in features rated as very important and thus more useful to users. question : how important is the provision of data in open source/access formats? the digital humanities has joined the world movement to make scientific research available to the widest possible audience in free and open form (hamilton and saunderson, ). community experts have addressed the importance of open source and open access models in digital humanities practice, and this survey question sought to hear the opinions of users in this regard. the catalogue of digital editions categorises openness into five levels:  proprietary, all material is copyrighted. the source is closed and not reusable by other research projects. to access the material, users must pay a subscription fee.  same as above but the subscription is free of charge.  open access. the texts may be accessed through specific software but the source is not accessible. see: https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/google- translate/aapbdbdomjkkjkaonfhkkikfgjllcleb?hl=en-gb see, for example, cohen, d. ( ), ramsay, s. ( ) and fitzpatrick, k. ( ).  open access and partial open source. part of the data underlying the digital edition (e.g. text but not images) is freely available for access and reuse.  open access and open source. all data underlying the digital edition is freely available for access and reuse. survey results (m = , sd = . ). the vast majority of participants ( %) rated the importance of open source and open access formats between important ( %) and very important ( %). only participants rated it as not at all important and participants expressed no opinion. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, one project has yet to make data available, ( %) are protected by a pay-wall, ( . %) are accessible through a free registration process, ( %) allow data to be accessed but the source is not accessible, ( %) are both open access and open source but only part of the source is available for download and reuse; finally, ( %) are both open access and open source making all of the source available for download and reuse. furthermore, only ( %) projects release their data under various forms of creative commons licenses. [...] the major problem i see, in practice, is the strange reluctance lots of tei projects still have to expose their tei source directly. (lou burnard, november ) recommendation. given that this question has the highest possible median of , it is strongly recommended that creators adhere to open source/access policies to the fullest extent possible, and that permissions be made clear on the project website (i.e. which parts of the project can be reused and under what conditions). while creative commons licenses are typically used for non-software works, there are many other permissive licences to choose from depending on the needs of the project, including the academic free licence (afl), mit, apache and gpl licences. question : how important is knowing the financial and human resources invested in the production of a digital edition (e.g. amount of funding obtained, number of researchers/staff involved)? large teams are not necessarily indicative of quality as they may not cover the range of skills required to produce a digital edition (warwick et al., , p. ). survey results (m = , sd = . ). although human and financial resources are not necessarily indicative of the quality, or lack thereof, of a digital edition, providing some information in this regard is considered by almost % of participants to be moderately important. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( . %) do not provide information concerning the budget or grant size, do, and do not apply as these projects are carried out as leisure activities. the catalogue does not currently record information pertaining to the size of the teams behind digital editions, so no numbers are available at this time. recommendation. it is recommended that creators of digital editions include information about team and grant size in the project description as this helps users gain a better understanding of the scope of the project and of how resources influence its development. excerpt taken from a discussion held on the text encoding initiative (tei) mailing list: https://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?a =tei-l; f d. a comprehensive list of open source licences can be accessed at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://opensource.org/licenses question : how important is the mobile-device compatibility of a digital edition (i.e. the possibility of using it on a tablet and/or smartphone)? web technologies are increasingly adapting desktop web browsing to a variety of mobile devices in order to make content as widely accessible as possible. this survey question sought to understand users' views on accessing digital editions from handheld devices. the survey did not ask whether users make the fullest use of digital editions on their handheld devices, preferring instead to focus on access intended as light browsing. survey results (m = , sd = . ). as indicated by the high sd, respondents took a range of views: users ( . %) rated mobile-compatibility as slightly important and another ( . %) as important; ( . %) users rated it as not at all important and ( %) as very important. of the remaining users, expressed no opinion and ( . %) rated it as moderately important. catalogue data. the mobile compatibility of digital editions present in the catalogue is verified using google's mobile-friendly test . of the projects considered in the catalogue, projects ( %) passed the google mobile-friendly test while ( %) did not. recommendation. while the responses recorded by this web-survey with regard to the importance of mobile access to digital editions was not conclusive, employing technologies to this effect is recommended if creators intend for their project to be more widely visible and usable. more importantly, the adherence to web accessibility standards, such as those issued by the world wide web consortium , to champion inclusivity should become an integral part of the development process of a digital edition. the findings of a survey entitled "inclusive design and dissemination in digital scholarly editions", circulated in july , will tell us more about the types of access and web accessibility options of digital editions observed by the scholarly community. question : how important is the possibility of downloading and reusing the data published within a digital edition? survey results (m = , sd = . ). consonant with question about open source/access, the majority of participants ( %) rated the possibility of downloading and reusing digital edition content as very important. one participant did not express an opinion and none of the participants rated this feature as not at all important. catalogue data. in its present form, the catalogue only records the availability of downloads where the digital edition is encoded in xml(-tei). of the digital editions considered, ( . %) are encoded in xml(-tei) and, of these, ( %) allow users to download the xml(- tei) files. only a handful of projects –the catalogue does not specify the exact number yet but this feature will be added in the near future– provides a single bulk download option for the entire digital edition. as expressed by one participant in answer to question (see further below), bulk downloads are desirable and a more efficient means of reusing data. recommendation. these statistics show that the digital editions examined are not adequately meeting the download expectations expressed by the participants of this survey. it is therefore strongly recommended that creators enable download and preferably in bulk. for instance, the mobile-responsive framework bootstrap, available at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://getbootstrap.com/, or the wordpress content management system, available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://wordpress.org/ for a study on the dissemination of digital scholarly editions via mobile devices, see (kelly, ). available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://search.google.com/test/mobile- friendly see: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/https://www.w .org/ available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/mcdrmyy question : what use would you make of the data published in a digital edition? this question sought to learn more about the types of (re)use some users make of data published in digital editions. teaching was placed first with a frequency of %, closely followed by text analysis with a rate of % and corpus aggregation or building with %. the free-text input recorded other uses, including research, literary analysis, re-editing and annotation. this variety of applications speaks to the value of digital editions not only as research-enabling instruments but also as pedagogical tools worthy of being used in the classroom alongside more traditional study materials. question : which of the following data formats would facilitate your studies? many digital editions adhere to xml(-tei) standards to encode texts. editors especially advocate this practice as a suitable means of marking-up and publishing texts online. despite tei's claims to interoperability, the fact that the selection and use of an xml(-tei) tag is based on the human interpretation of that tag inherently obstructs an effortless reuse of xml(-tei) files (schmidt, ). it follows that file reuse requires some form of adjustment to fit the new context or purpose. in some cases, adjustments can turn into extensive pre-processing tasks in order to get the data into a (re)usable format. to incentivise, and reduce the complexity of, reuse, some creators of digital editions, and of digital textual resources in general, present texts in multiple formats. survey results (m = , sd = . ). this multiple-choice survey question was designed to elicit participants' views on data formats in digital editions by asking them to state their preference. xml(-tei) tops the list with a frequency of . %, followed by images optimised for the web (e.g. png and jpg) ( . %), plain text ( . %), pdf ( . %), xml ( . %), tiff images ( . %) and epub ( . %). free-text replies included microsoft word ( participants), csv ( participant) and json ( participant). the results obtained for images contradict robinson's claim: firstly: it appears that rather few readers (indeed, rather often, only the editors) actually want to see all the images, all the transcripts, all the collations. traditional print editions acted as filters, straining out all this information so that readers did not have to see it: if readers do not want to see it, then including all this is no advantage at all. (robinson, ) in this article, robinson does not provide evidence for these claims but the results of this survey either contradict this article or suggest that the provision of high quality images over the past seven years has caused a change in user mentality and needs. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( %) are encoded in accordance with xml(-tei) standards, ( %) do not use xml at all, and ( %) texts are accompanied by images of the source documents. the catalogue does not list all available data formats for each project, so there are currently no numbers with regard to the projects that, for instance, also provide plain text (txt) versions the tei wiki dedicates a page to 'conversion and preprocessing tools'. see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://wiki.tei- c.org/index.php/category:conversion_and_preprocessing_tools of the edited texts. this information, planned as a future addition to the catalogue, would prove particularly useful to those who wish to run different analyses on a text, as recently expressed in a digital medievalist mailing list thread: [...] is there a way to access the plain text directly, or is there only a search interface at the moment? having direct plain text access can be useful for others to do various further analysis on the corpus. (nick white, june ) and, again, three years ago in the digital humanities questions & answers forum: i'd like to use the available corpora in the german text archive (http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/download) to train ocr software. for this i need these texts as plaintext. all the german text archive texts however are all tei p tagged. how do i best convert these (hundreds..) of documents into plaintext? i'm comfortable on the command line and with small shell scripts but i wouldn't be able to write an app to make use of a public api to such a service. ideally i'd like to find some tei text-ish command line tool but the ones i've found in googling around and looking on github don't appear (to me, leastways) to be suitable for tei texts. (arno bosse, ) recommendation. based on the responses recorded for this question, it is recommended that creators provide a marked-up (xml) text for users interested, for example, in close-reading the text, as well as a plain text (txt) version of the same text to meet the needs of those who wish to perform some form of computer-aided text analysis. question : can you provide an example of a digital edition that has good functionality for your needs? why and how does it meet your needs? the intention of this question was to draw out examples of digital editions that participants feel meet their needs (see appendix a). the majority of participants provided examples of projects they consider satisfactory, specifying both the positive and their negative aspects: response . i've found the search function of the loeb online very helpful and comprehensive, although obviously it's a pain in the bottom to navigate. response . oldbaily [sic], criminocorpus...excellent information retrieval and statistical analysis. download and reuse options could be better. digital editions mentioned by multiple respondents are the perseus digital library (seven respondents), electronic beowulf (five respondents), folger digital texts (four see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/dm-l/ - june/ .html this question and all given answers can be viewed here: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://digitalhumanities.org/answers/topic/how-do-i- best-convert-hundreds-of-tei-p -documents-to-plaintext accessible at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ accessible at: http://ebeowulf.uky.edu; the project's record in the catalogue is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/editions/detail/ http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/download respondents), online froissart (three respondents), loeb classical library (two respondents), corpus corporum (two respondents), e-codices (two respondents) and the bayeux tapestry (two respondents). some participants, in total, stated that no project currently meets their needs: response . there is none. response . none are really good. google books is almost always bad. response . i'm not sure i have found one that meets my needs for teaching [...]. response . i've never had the pleasure to use an edition that fulfilled my ideal. six participants (responses , , , , , ) self-publicised their own work (but only responses and provided a link to the resource) and there is no way to tell from this survey whether other participants did the same in less overt ways. the claims of these six participants reinforce the aforementioned lairah findings: expressing appreciation over one's own digital edition suggests that the digital edition was built to primarily fulfil the needs and requirements of the creator. this line of enquiry deserves further attention to determine the extent to which creators of digital editions engage with their target users during the preparation and development stages of the project. the general impression one can glean from reading all of the answers given to this question is users' understanding that digital editions are imperfect tools and that they cannot meet the needs of every single user. although creators may feel reassured by this awareness, the answers given in this survey carry a somewhat negative tone, suggesting tolerance towards the issue rather than acceptance. question : is there anything else you would like to tell us about your user needs for digital editions that we have not covered here? with this question, the authors sought to fill any gaps in the survey by asking participants to express concerns or make suggestions with respect to their expectations of digital editions. the following were chosen as representative of the full answer-set (see appendix b): response . much more important than fancy browsing, searching capabilities on the digital edition's site is the availability of either an api or the full xml-tei download option [...]. response . how can we have a digital edition tailored to various needs in one place? response . the best editions are about providing textual data to researchers, not dictating how researchers will read or make use of the data. response . the ability to download all xml files in an edition - preferably all in one single download - would be very useful. not available in that many editions. accessible at: http://www.folgerdigitaltexts.org accessible at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.hrionline.ac.uk/onlinefroissart/; the project's record in the catalogue is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/editions/detail/ accessible at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.loebclassics.com accessible at: http://mlat.uzh.ch/mls/index.php?lang= accessible at: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/http://www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en accessible at: http://www.sd-editions.com/bayeux/zoom/#/facsimile% dbayeux% panel% d response . all the and only the essential information (name of the edition, authors, publishing institution, publishing date, last update, topic/mission of the edition) should be visible on the landing page. no other distraction. response . digital editions are not just of interest to and production [sic] by those in literature and cognate areas! response . clear and open license, provide a manual so theat [sic] users can actually rtfm. response . stable (persistent) urls for resources; clear version system (=defined versions/updates of the digital edition). response . you mention the work done to put the edition together: no-one i should think thinks the technical and editorial labour is worth recording but it should be: only by recording it as standard will we get this work credited and the resources we need to produce it made available. response . always, always, always evaluate how accessible your digital edition is for people with disabilities. response . a clear license statement is the most important thing a digital edition must have. other: are the responsible contacts for the edition available/named? response . a standard for critical apparatuses which show more than the reading variants is desperately needed. discussion and recommendations how do the digital editions in the catalogue compare to the responses recorded by this survey? the correlation is best captured as a chart, as shown in figure : in this histogram, the x-axis lists the features of the digital editions that survey participants were asked to rate; for every feature, the histogram provides five coloured bars, each corresponding to a likert scale point (' -important' being 'very important' and ' -important' 'not important'). the overlaid red point- line plots the percentage of digital editions in the catalogue that possess that particular feature. generally, the bigger the distance between the red points and the tip of their respective coloured bars, the better the "performance" of the digital editions with respect to survey responses. for example, the highly rated scholarly component of digital editions is present in approximately % of the projects in the catalogue, showing that digital editions are adequately meeting user needs. in contrast, digital editions in the catalogue are performing badly when it comes to documentation, with only projects (approximately %) providing both editorial and technical documentation, and to access, with only projects giving users full access to the source. moreover, despite receiving the highest rating in the survey, only % of digital editions in the catalogue provide download options. abbreviation of "read the fucking manual", a disparaging comment used often on social media, see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=rtf m figure . in this histogram, the x-axis lists the features of digital editions survey participants were asked to rate; for every feature, the histogram provides five bars, each corresponding to a likert scale point (' - important' being 'very important' and ' -important' 'not important'). the overlaid red point-line plots the percentage of digital editions in the catalogue that possess that particular feature. the conclusion one can draw from the results discussed is that the digital editions collected in the catalogue of digital editions only adequately cover roughly half of the features examined in this study. creators of these digital editions need not take these results as a denunciation of their efforts but, rather, as an invitation to reflect on how their editions can be improved to meet user requirements . to promote usefulness and fight the risk of neglect, funding agencies can support creators by formalising mandatory requirements and by allocating funds to the necessary administrative assistance that each project requires. to this end, the authors propose four deliverables –modelled against the lairah recommendations ( ), the responses recorded in the present survey as well as the data collected in the catalogue– that they believe should become standardised in grant application forms. these are: staff training. shortcomings of digital editions can sometimes be traced back to the absence of a particular skill within the team. for this reason, funders should allocate sufficient resources for the training of research staff should no candidates with the optimal set of skills be available. training should take place at the beginning but also during the project, depending on the employment status of the research team. user surveys and contact. users must have a voice in the development of a digital edition. to strengthen their role, funders are advised to make user studies a mandatory deliverable. these studies should iteratively evaluate the progress of the project against the needs of the users, so that, if possible, any modifications and additions can be factored in during the development of the project. contact details should also be a compulsory requirement to offer users a means of communication with creators. maintenance. dissemination and regular activity have been shown to reduce the neglect of a resource (warwick et al., , p. ). these, however, can be time-consuming and are typically carried out by the researchers themselves, robbing the project of valuable research time. to help digital edition teams make the best use of research time, funders should allocate resources to hiring dedicated staff –on part-time positions even– to cover the marketing, management and administrative obligations of digital edition projects. documentation. documentation is key to communicating the quality and value of the work assembled in a digital edition. funders should make detailed documentation a compulsory requirement. to help creators provide all of the necessary information, funders may wish to adopt a documentation template. conclusion this paper discusses the results of a web survey entitled "expectations of digital (textual) editions" circulated among the digital humanities academic community. the survey sought to give users of digital editions a platform to express their needs and expectations of digital editions of text. the survey ran for a month and recorded completed responses, the highest response rate for a user survey recorded in the field to date. these user responses were compared against digital editions collected by the catalogue of digital editions project in order to identify meeting and diverging points between what creators of digital editions build and what users want. this comparative analysis assessed data both quantitatively and qualitatively to give the widest and most detailed picture to date of the two sides to digital (scholarly) editing, showing areas where resources can be better deployed, and user experience improved, by understanding the tools and features that a use community most desires, alongside those that have previously been delivered. the results obtained from this study feed into previous studies on good practice in building digital humanities resources and crystallise the diverse range of needs of users of digital editions. the impression these results bestow upon the reader is that digital editions are imperfect tools unable to meet the expectations of every single user. while creators may feel discouraged by these results, one way to alleviate the negative sense of lenience exuding from these user responses might be to reconcile data reuse, licensing, image availability, and comprehensive documentation –the four most requested features– to the extent possible and to more clearly state motivations, objectives and intended audience. to help better align digital editions to the needs of users and thus combat the risk of neglect, this study puts forward practical recommendations for both creators and funders of digital editions. these recommendations should not be considered mandatory but they conform to the needs expressed by the participants of this survey. the results of this research should not be ignored in the development of digital editions: it has signposted new avenues of enquiry along this line of research. for example, a future study could explore the extent to which creators of digital editions engage with their target users during the preparation and development stages of the project; another study might determine or categorise user needs according to user profiles (e.g. researcher versus general public, or versus student); another might shift its focus from the digital humanities to a wider user-base to address digital editions specifically designed and intended for other audiences; or, indeed, one may wish to create a survey specifically target at people who feel dissatisfied with existing digital editions. these and other possibilities speak to a field of research deserving of greater attention. appendix a: answers given to question the intention of this question was to draw out examples of digital editions that participants feel meet their needs. some sixty digital editions were explicitly mentioned, and, as previously discussed, only eight of these were named by perseus digital library (seven respondents), electronic beowulf (five respondents), folger digital texts (four respondents), online froissart (three respondents), loeb classical library (two respondents), corpus corporum (two respondents), e-codices (two respondents) and the bayeux tapestry (two respondents). given that not all respondents who singled out these eight digital editions justified their answers, it is difficult at this stage to make an informed assessment as to the drivers behind their selection. perseus digital library, folger digital texts, loeb classical library and corpus corporum all provide a large number of texts, leading one to speculate that quantity plays a role in usage; similarly, e-codices provides high quality image reproductions of a large number of manuscripts; bayeux tapestry, online froissart and electronic beowulf, on the other hand, provide detailed contextual information, suggesting an appreciation for comprehensive introductions to the texts at hand. some respondents gave examples of digital editions that do not subscribe to the definition of digital edition used as reference in this survey (e.g. response . free courses on line (coursera, open university, stanford, mit, etc. or response . yellow s online (the yellow book)). these answers had no bearing over the analysis described in this paper but can be used for spin-off studies aimed at, for instance, better understanding digital editions of non- literary texts. appendix b: answers given to question as previously mentioned, although generally imposing a structure, question ('is there anything else you would like to tell us about your user needs for digital editions that we have not covered here?') was designed to give respondents the opportunity to freely express their views. comments given vary greatly: some corroborate the findings of the analysis of the digital editions collected in the catalogue of digital editions, while others flag up issues or dimensions of digital editions that are currently overlooked, such as accessibility for people with disabilities, citation information and discoverability. the answers collected with this question are instrumental in the preparation of user-centric digital editions. acknowledgments the authors wish to thank all of the participants of the web survey for their key contribution toward a better understanding of users in digital (scholarly) editing. we also wish to thank our reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions, as well as our collaborators peter andorfer and ksenia zaytseva from the austrian centre for digital humanities for their support in preparing this article. bibliography albers, greg. “bringing books online.” mw : museums and the web (blog), . https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://mw 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(september , ): – . doi: . /llc/fqn . warwick, claire, melissa terras, isabel galina, paul huntington, and nikoleta pappa. “the master builders: lairah research on good practice in the construction of digital humanities projects.” in digital humanites : the th joint international conference of the association for computing in the humanities and the association for literary and linguistic computing. university of illinois, urbana champaign, june - , . urbana champaign, . http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/ /. ispf lab ispf lab laboratorio dell’ispf rivista elettronica di testi, saggi e strumenti anno xiii - . www.ispf-lab.cnr.it ispf lab laboratorio dell’ispf. rivista elettronica di testi, saggi e strumenti www.ispf-lab.cnr.it issn n. - direzione: david armando, leonardo pica ciamarra, manuela sanna. comitato scientifico: josep martinez bisbal, giuseppe cacciatore, silvia caianiello, maria conforti, pierre girard, matthias kaufmann, girolamo imbruglia, pierre-françois moreau, barbara ann naddeo, valeria pinto, enrico i. rambaldi, salvatore tedesco, maurizio torrini, amadeu viana. redazione: roberto evangelista, armando mascolo, assunta sansone, alessia scognamiglio (segretaria). responsabile tecnico: ruggero cerino. istituto per la storia del pensiero filosofico e scientifico moderno consiglio nazionale delle ricerche via porta di massa, napoli email: lab@ispf.cnr.it © ispf-cnr, quest’opera è pubblicata sotto licenza creative commons “attribuzione - non commerciale . italia”. ne sono libere la copia e la diffusione a scopo di studio, a condizione dell’indicazione completa della paternità e della licenza. specifiche limitazioni possono applicarsi alla pubblicazione di materiali di proprietà non esclusiva. gli articoli della rivista, accettati dopo un processo di peer review, si conformano agli standard della “iniziativa di budapest per l’accesso aperto”. gli autori mantengono tutti i diritti d’uso del proprio lavoro, col solo vincolo alla menzione della prima pubblicazione. gli articoli approvati prima della chiusura di ciascun numero sono pubblicati con procedura online first. sommario • questo numero / this issue testi • le “carte villarosa” sei fascicoli di carte vichiane non rilegate (ms. xix, ) nota editoriale e indici fascicolo i fascicolo ii fascicolo iii fascicolo iv fascicolo v fascicolo vi speciale atti del convegno “giambattista vicos de universi juris uno principio, et fine uno im kontext der europäischen naturrechtstradition und vicos bedeutung für die heutige debatte”, halle, .- . maggio • matthias kaufmann giambattista vicos umgang mit dem begriff des dominium • antonino falduto vico, das naturrecht, und der begriff obligatio • giuseppe d’anna “genese” und “komposition” in vicos de uno • claudia megale il “dono del libero arbitrio” nella terza orazione inaugurale: analogie e differenze con jean bodin • julia v. ivanova - pavel v. sokolov physica ingeniosa and abyssinian philosophy: the ambivalence of the cartesian physics in de ratione, v • sertório de amorim e silva neto la “natura corrotta” tra antichi e moderni • giulio gisondi vico e il problema del metodo tra sperimentalismo e retorica • romana bassi il de uno alla luce dell’exemplum tractatus de iustitia universali, sive de fontibus iuris di francis bacon • fabrizio lomonaco appunti sul “diritto universale delle genti” nel de uno • dominik recknagel vicos vindiciae. eine auseinandersetzung um den naturrechtsbegriff • stefania sini “letizia cattolica, antico-europea”? qualche osservazione sulla “letteratura” secondo vico tra repubblica delle lettere e mondo delle nazioni • giuseppe cacciatore il concetto di cittadinanza in vico come manifestazione del nesso tra universalitÀ della legge e storicitÀ empirica della civitas saggi • agata anna chrzanowska ghirlandaio, ficino and hermes trismegistus: the prisca theologia in the tornabuoni frescoes • david armando suppliques des vassaux, pouvoirs du baron (etats pontificaux, xviiième siÈcle) • patrizia delpiano acadÉmies et crÉation du savoir scientifique: circulation des idÉes et mÉcanismes de la censure • geri cerchiai cinque scritti metodologici di eugenio colorni nelle carte di vittorio somenzi • fabio d. palumbo il “giapponismo” di deleuze strumenti • alessandro stile tra cinema e filosofia. esperienze didattiche in un istituto di ricerca del cnr • roberto mazzola - ruggero cerino biblioteca napoletana digitale (sec. xviii) diapositiva taipei, / / antonella fresa technical coordinator central institute union catalogue italian libraries a data infrastructure for digital cultural heritage: characteristics, requirements and priority services february teldap conference taipei, / / table of content • the digital cultural heritage sector: characteristics and needs • the vision towards a dch data infrastructure • two inter-related projects: dc-net and indicate • positioning of the dch sector taipei, / / initiatives of the european member states in the last year a wide range of activities: • building a shared platform of tecommendations and guidelines • agreement on common data models • experimenting and launching innovative online services • e-infrastructures for the citizens • e-infrastructures for the research • international cooperation: in europe and abroad • digitisation within national and regional programmes taipei, / / data model & services digital cultural heritage e-infrastructure national & regional initiatives europeana recommendations & guidelines e-infrastructures for the citizens for the researchers taipei, / / the amount of digitised material is growing very rapidly • national, regional and european programmes support the digitisation of the content of museums, libraries, archives, archaeological sites and audiovisual repositories • the generation of digital cultural heritage is accelerated also by the impulse of europeana that is fostering the european cultural institutions to produce even more digital content • digital cultural heritage content are complex and interlinked through many relations digital cultural content characteristics taipei, / / national programmes regional programmes european programmes digital cultural content national portals national portals regional portals thematic portals data continuum the vision …….. international portals taipei, / / . high quality information technology management, to ensure trust, availability, reliability, long term safety of content, security, preservation and sustainability; . access facilities to the final users (the researchers) who will search into the dch e-infrastructure for their research and to the cultural institutions that will deliver their data to the dch e-infrastructure; . interoperation among existing cultural heritage repositories and of cultural heritage data with research data. the needs of the dch sector taipei, / / the e-infrastructure for dch it is not a “new infrastructure”, but it is instead a “new approach” - based on national and regional systems - valorising existing resources the keyword is interoperability regional system national system thematic system national system regional system taipei, / / expected impacts • e-infrastructures the adoption of the e-infrastructures by the digital cultural heritage community will open new scenarios of use and exploitation • cultural heritage cultural managers will become more aware about the potential that the e- infrastructures can offer to their work: storage, preservation, access services for the cultural institutions, etc. • research a better integration of the cultural sector with the e-infrastructures will enable the research of new advanced services and applications • other sectors digital cultural content will become more usable and re-usable for education, cultural tourism, long-life learning, non-professional cultural interests, creative industry, etc. taipei, / / • to focus on the use of existing e-infrastructures as a channel for digital cultural heritage data • storage, computing, connectivity together with authentication , authorisation and accounting mechanisms offered by the e-infrastructures can well serve the needs of the sector: the issue here is to establish factual cooperation among two sectors (the research and the cultural heritage) that are not used to work together dch v/s e-infrastructures taipei, / / • key players from the dch: – ministries of culture – cultural institutions  cross-domain: museums, libraries and archives together • key player from the research: – ministries of research – researchers in the humanities – researchers in ict applied to ch • e-infrastructure providers key players taipei, / / • to define priorities among the services to be deployed • to consult and to advocated with stakeholders • to engage with programme owners • to improve awareness: standards, who-is-who, … • to promote trust building, covering different aspects and including organisational, operational and legal issues • to run experiments: pilots and use case studies • to open international cooperation • to establish an e-culture community preparatory actions taipei, / / . dc-net: joint activities plan for dch e-infrastructure implementation . indicate: international cooperation, use case studies, pilots, policy harmonisation two integrated projects priorities and progamming support and demonstration taipei, / / dc-net era-net a network for the european research area: • composed by programme owners and programme managers in the cultural sector • to agree common perspectives & priorities across eu member states • to establish an operative dialogue between cultural heritage and e-infrastructures communities in europe, • to identify constraints and capabilities in order to establish a plan of joint activities started in december , it will last until march a project funded by ec fp e-infrastructures taipei, / / indicate a concrete approach within an international dimension – stimulating the international cooperation of einfrastructures providers and cultural heritage users – target areas: • mediterranean region, (egypt, turkey and jordan) • cooperation with china in liaison with the epikh grid school • exchanges with south america in the frame of experiments for live distributed performances – case studies: preservation, virtual exhibitions, gis started in september , it will last until september a project funded by ec fp e-infrastructures taipei, / / • the two projects share the same coordinator and have many partners in common. • the e-infrastructure programmes identified in dc-net will be at the basis of the sustainability of the results of indicate. • the two projects represent the same dch community. dc-net / / / / indicate / / / / / / taipei, / / research workflow and service priorities priorities for the digital cultural heritage sector have been put together, having in mind the typical workflow of the dch research. taipei, / / typical dch research workflow • find: accessing information • process: tools for manipulating information • publish: make the results visible online • conference: discuss and annotate published information • preserve: maintaining access to content over the longer term • secure plus lower-level “basic digital services” such as email, data storage, web hosting, etc. taipei, / / services priorities on the basis of the typical workflow of the dch research, services are divided into categories: . services for content providers, i.e. those related to the creation of online data resources for dch . services for managing and adding value to the content itself . services which enable, support and enhance virtual research communities and the activities of content consumers taipei, / / services for content provides and data resource creation from common issues to common priorities taipei, / / services for content provides and data resource creation common issues: • interoperability of online resources • insularity in terms of searching • changes in location • high cost of establishment • vulnerability to technical problems • limitation on servers capacity and processing taipei, / / services for content provides and data resource creation common priorities: • interoperation of systems • aggregation of content • cross-search • semantic search • persistent identification of digital objects • simplification of set-up services • stable platform • scalability taipei, / / services for managing and adding value to content e.g.: • geo-referencing • d representation • virtual reality and immersive interfaces • annotation • linked data generation taipei, / / services for content consumers the “cafeterial model”: a broad range of services to be made available, without the need to actually deliver them for all members of the community. e.g.: • user authentication and access control • collaborative environments • advanced search • visualisation taipei, / / services priority ordering a prioritised list of the most immediately important services has been agreed: . long-term preservation . persistent identifiers . interoperability and aggregation . advanced search . data resource set-up . user authentication and access control . ipr and digital rights management taipei, / / culture research e- infrastructures cooperation and coordination among these three sectors is at the core of the dch e-infrastructure taipei, / / the network of common interest it combines: – regional, national and international levels, – bottom-up (working groups) and top-down (joint programming) approaches working groups: experts seconded by their cultural, research and infrastructure organisations cooperation with other networks and projects: epikh, chain, eumedgrid-support, eumedconnect , linked heritage, …. taipei, / / liaisons with strategic bodies factual cooperation is established with: – e-irg e-infrastructure reflection group – esfri european strategy forum on research infrastruftures (ssh thematic working group) – egi european grid initiative – terena trans-european research and networking association – mseg member states expert group on digitisation – asren – arab states research and education network taipei, / / position paper open consultation green paper on common strategic framework . european coordination: the role of member states and european commission . europeana: towards its full deployment . preservation: a task for the member states . digital cultural heritage: the need for a research e-infrastructure . research and innovation in the digital cultural heritage: an international matter . users involvement: the success factor . coordination and demonstration: a requirement for the dch sector taipei, / / next appointment march , rome – dc-net final conference april , catania – indicate technical conference to demonstrate the e-culture science gateway and to present the result of the use case studies on long-term preservation, virtual exhibitions and geo-coded cultural content - july , cairo – indicate final conference taipei, / / the vision • indicate and dc-net are part of a wider process, which started years ago among cultural institutions • this process entered in a new phase joining the research e- infrastructures • time is ready to start working towards an open science infrastructure for digital cultural heritage in joint programming support and demonstrations roadmaps dch-rp proposal taipei, / / thank you antonella fresa dc-net and indicate technical coordinator fresa@promoter.it antonella.fresa@beniculturali.it www.dc-net.org www.indicate-project.org mailto:fresa@promoter.it mailto:antonella.fresa@beniculturali.it http://www.dc-net.org/ http://www.dc-net.org/ http://www.dc-net.org/ http://www.indicate-project.org/ http://www.indicate-project.org/ http://www.indicate-project.org/ - - linköpings universitet institutionen för kultur och kommunikation baskurs inom forskarutbildningen vid forskarskolan språk och kultur i europa vetenskapsteori: lingvistik och litteratur, , hp kursen behandlar grundläggande vetenskapsteori med inriktning mot litteraturvetenskap och lingvistik. genom en diskussion av relevanta frågeställningar och begreppsbildningar inom det vetenskapsteoretiska området syftar kursen till att fördjupa förståelsen av lingvistikens och litteraturvetenskapens ställning inom humaniora samt kritiskt granska den vetenskapshistoriska uppdelningen av litterärt och annat språk. i kursen belyses hur språkliga processer och handlingar utgör fokus för båda vetenskaperna och hur en mängd likartade frågeställningar bearbetas på ömse håll med ofta identiska vokabulärer. kurserna behandlar och uppfyller följande examensmål: kunskap och förståelse . – visa brett kunnande inom och en systematisk förståelse av forskningsområdet samt djup och aktuell specialistkunskap inom en avgränsad del av forskningsområdet, och . – visa förtrogenhet med vetenskaplig metodik i allmänhet och med det specifika forskningsområdets metoder i synnerhet färdighet och förmåga . – visa förmåga till vetenskaplig analys och syntes samt till självständig kritisk granskning och bedömning av nya och komplexa företeelser, frågeställningar och situationer . – visa förmåga att kritiskt, självständigt, kreativt och med vetenskaplig noggrannhet identifiera och formulera frågeställningar samt att planera och med adekvata metoder bedriva forskning och andra kvalificerade uppgifter inom givna tidsramar och att granska och värdera sådant arbete . – visa förmåga att identifiera behov av ytterligare kunskap värderingsförmåga och förhållningssätt . – visa intellektuell självständighet och vetenskaplig redlighet samt förmåga att göra forskningsetiska bedömningar, och . – visa fördjupad insikt om vetenskapens möjligheter och begränsningar, dess roll i samhället och människors ansvar för hur den används. uppläggning och examination: tillfällen timmar varje gång samt timmar sista gången. upplägget bygger på introducerande föreläsningar och diskussioner av de frågeställningar och begrepp som kurslitteraturen behandlar. - - examination sker i form av en skriftlig uppgift på ca sidor där minst en grundläggande vetenskapsteoretisk frågeställning diskuteras och problematiseras i förhållande till det egna avhandlingsprojektet. en muntlig presentation av denna uppgift ges vid sista tillfället och kommentarerna från opponenten och seminariet ska arbetas in i den version som lämnas till carin franzén senast januari. lärare: carin franzén, leelo keevallik, angelika linke, jesper olsson anmälan till: carin.franzen@liu.se lokal: esa:s konferensrum ( ) oktober – . introduktion kurspresentation vad är vetenskap; humaniora och samhällsvetenskap? var placerar sig lingvistik och litteraturvetenskap i förhållande till övriga vetenskaper? vilka data, material, källor använder vi? litteratur benveniste, Émile, “subjectivity in language”, critical theory since , red. hazard adams & leroy searle. (gainesville ) – ; http://faculty.georgetown.edu/irvinem/theory/benveniste-linguistic-sign.pdf ; även: “om subjektiviteten i språket”, människan i språket. texter i urval av john swedenmark (stockholm/stehag ) – . hayles, n. katherine, ”the digital humanities: engaging the issues”, how we think. digital media and contemporary technogenesis (chicago ), – . givón, talmy [thomas], ”syntax. an introduction”, volume i (amsterdam/philadelphia ), – . liu, alan, ” where is cultural criticism in the digital humanities?”, debates in the digital humanities (new york ), http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ nussbaum, martha c., not for profit: why democracy needs the humanities (princeton ). sapir, edward, “communication”, selected writings of edward sapir in language, culture, and personality, red. d. g. mandelbaum (berkeley [ ]), – , https://archive.org/download/selectedwritings sapi/selectedwritings sapi.pdf oktober – . för och mot tolkning diskussionsseminarium utifrån frågeställningen: vad är mening, förklaring och förståelse? http://faculty.georgetown.edu/irvinem/theory/benveniste-linguistic-sign.pdf http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ https://archive.org/download/selectedwritings sapi/selectedwritings sapi.pdf - - litteratur: barthes, roland, ”semantics of the object”, the semiotic challenge, (oxford ), http://people.su.se/~snce/texter/barthes_object.pdf grice, herbert paul, “logic and conversation”, syntax and semantics, bd. , red. p. cole och j. morgan (hgg. ), – , http://www.sfu.ca/~jeffpell/cogs /gricelogicconvers .pdf gumbrecht, hans-ulrich, “a farewell to interpretation”, materialities of communication, (stanford ), - . humboldt, wilhelm von, “on the task of the historian”, the hermeneutics reader, red. kurt mueller-vollmer, (new york ), – , https://www .southeastern.edu/academics/faculty/jbell/humboldt.pdf mondada, lorenza, “understanding as an embodied, situated and sequential achievement in interaction”, journal of pragmatics, ( ), - , doi: . /j.pragma. . . ricoeur, paul, “what is a text. explanation and understanding”, hermeneutics and the human sciences, (cambridge, ), - . sontag, susan “against interpretation”, against interpretation and other essays, (new york, [ ]), http://www.coldbacon.com/writing/sontag-againstinterpretation.html wittgenstein, ludwig, philosophical investigations, övers., g.e.m. anscombe, (oxford ), i urval. november – . ontologiska frågor textseminarium utifrån frågeställningen: vad det betyder att någonting är "verkligt" eller "konstruerat" samt problematiken relativism och objektivitet när det gäller mening och kunskap. litteratur berger, p. l. och t. luckmann, “the foundations of knowledge in everyday life”, the social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge, (new york ), – , http://perflensburg.se/berger% social-construction-of-reality.pdf butler, judith, “performative acts and gender constitution: an essay in phenomenology and feminist theory”, theatre journal, : ( ), – , http://people.su.se/% esnce/texter/butlerperformance.pdf foucault, michel, the order of things: an archaeology of the human sciences, (routledge ). heidegger, martin, ”the question concerning technology”, basic writings (routledge ). latour, bruno, ”fourth source of uncertainty: matters of fact vs. matters of concern”, reassembling the social (oxford ), – (e-bok). linell, per, rethinking language, mind, and world dialogically, (charlotte, nc ), – . http://people.su.se/% esnce/texter/barthes_object.pdf https://www .southeastern.edu/academics/faculty/jbell/humboldt.pdf http://www.coldbacon.com/writing/sontag-againstinterpretation.html http://perflensburg.se/berger% social-construction-of-reality.pdf http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici= - % % % a % c % apaagca% e . .co% b -c http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici= - % % % a % c % apaagca% e . .co% b -c http://people.su.se/% esnce/texter/butlerperformance.pdf - - sacks, harvey, “on doing being ordinary“, in: atkinson john m. / heritage, john (ed.), structures of social action (cambridge & new york ), – . december – . lingvistik och litteraturvetenskap i praktiken vetenskapsteoretiska frågor utifrån forskarnas egen praktik. litteraturvetenskapliga och lingvistiska exempel. litteratur: delas ut på seminariet. december – . presentation och diskussion av examinationsuppgifter (deadline november till opponenten) avslutning med middag long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march auscinemas presentation abstract: as part of our current arc project “mapping the movies”, dr. mike walsh and i are developing, a geodatabase of australian cinemas, covering the period from to and based on a consistent dataset found in the trade journal film weekly, providing basic information on the ownership, location and capacity of approximately , venues. a principal purpose of the database is to provide an opportunity for crowdsourcing information about the venues from other material available on the web and from the interested public. we expect to engage the interest of organisations devoted to the history and preservation of cinemas, and of school teachers developing local history projects under the national curriculum. the information gathered will include details of screening programs, photographs and digitised newspaper reports. funded by an ereasearchsa summer scholarship, we are developing a set of templates for collection of crowdsourcing data and extend the website to manage and use the additional information. a broader aim of the project is to develop a generic open source geodatabase for use by digital humanities researchers who want to map relatively small scale datasets. the system is focused around a database structure that supports the definition of objects with metadata, allowing additional objects to be added to the system without the need to significantly change the underlying database structure. the system is focused on easy implementation and management, needing high-level it skills for only brief periods in the establishment of a project, to define objects in the database and in the programming code, and customise the user interface to meet their specific needs. the paper will describe the evolution of the research project, and demonstrate the website. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : opening screen] this project forms part of the output for an arc discovery project involving deb verhoeven, mike walsh, kate bowles, colin arrowsmith and jill matthews, called mapping the movies: the changing nature of australia’s cinema circuits and their audiences. this project was a continuation of a previous discovery project, regional markets and local audiences: case studies in australian cinema consumption, – . both projects are contributions to an emerging international trend in research into cinema history, that has shifted its focus away from the content of films to consider their circulation and consumption, and to examine the cinema as a site of social and cultural exchange. this shared effort has engaged contributors from different points on the disciplinary compass, including history, geography, cultural studies, economics, sociology and anthropology, as well as film and media studies. their projects have examined the commercial activities of film distribution and exhibition, the legal and political discourses that craft cinema’s profile in public life, and the social and cultural histories of specific cinema audiences. many of their projects have been collaborative, facilitated by computational analysis and the opportunities for quantitative research offered by databases and geographical information systems, which allow for the compilation of new information about the history of cinema exhibition and reception in ways that would previously have been too labour intensive to undertake. having achieved critical mass and methodological maturity, this body of work has now developed a distinct identity, to which we have given the name ‘the new cinema history’. in calling this work cinema history, we are deliberately distinguishing it from a film history that has been predominantly constructed as a history of production, producers, authorship and individual films most commonly understood as texts, and long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march that has been predominantly evaluative, classificatory or curatorial in its remit. methodologically, this practice of film history has often struggled to place films into a wider historical context; its most common approach has been to treat films as involuntary testimony, bearing unconscious material witness to the mentalité or zeitgeist of the period of their production. the idea that films, along with other forms of mass or popular culture, are ‘eloquent social documents’ reflecting the flow of contemporary history has been an implicit assumption of much writing about cinema, but explanations of how ‘the film-making process taps some reservoir of cultural meaning’ have remained relatively unformulated and untheorised, little advanced from siegfried kracauer’s proposal in that some movies, or some ‘pictorial or narrative motifs’ reiterated in them, might be understood as ‘deep layers of collective mentality which extend more or less below the dimensions of consciousness’. versions of this proposition have encouraged historians to treat films as historically symptomatic and to examine the ‘unconscious’ of a filmic text to reveal the biases, tastes or secret fears of the cultural moment in which it was produced. instinctively reaching for metaphor and allusion as clues, this mode of analysis turns the movies themselves into proxies for the missing historical audience, in the expectation that an interpretation of film content will reveal something about the cultural conditions that produced it and attracted audiences to it. such analyses pay little attention to their actual modes of circulation at any time, and risk ascribing to individual films a representational significance that may be disproportionate to their capacity for historical agency. this symptomatic film history has also largely been written without acknowledging the transitory nature of any individual film’s exhibition history. motion picture industries require audiences to cultivate the habit of cinemagoing as a regular and frequent social activity. from very early in their industrial history, motion pictures were understood to be consumables, viewed once, disposed of and replaced by a substitute providing a comparable experience. the routine change of programme was a critical element in the construction of the social habit of attendance, ensuring that any individual movie was likely to be part of a movie theatre audience’s experience of cinema for three days or less, with little opportunity to leave a lasting impression before it disappeared indefinitely. sustaining the habit of viewing required long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march a constant traffic in film prints, ensuring that the evanescent images on the screen formed the most transient and expendable element of the experience of cinema. oral histories with cinema audience members consistently tell us that the local rhythms of motion picture circulation and the qualities of the experience of cinema attendance were place-specific and shaped by the continuities of life in the family, the workplace, the neighbourhood and community. stories that cinemagoers recall return repeatedly to the patterns and highlights of everyday life, its relationships, pressures and resolutions. only the occasional motion picture proves to be as memorable, and it is as likely to be memorable in its fragments as in its totality. new cinema history takes these facts as its premise, and focuses its attention on the questions that surround the social history of the experience of cinema rather than the histories of its ephemeral products. by doing so, it becomes possible to engage scholars from more diverse disciplinary backgrounds in this emerging field. cinema has become a matter of historical interest to researchers who have not been schooled in the professional orthodoxy that the proper business of film studies is the study of films. from the perspective of historical geography, social history, economics, anthropology or population studies, the observation that cinemas are sites of social and cultural significance has as much to do with the patterns of employment, urban development, transport systems and leisure practices that shape cinema’s global diffusion, as it does with what happens in the evanescent encounter between an individual audience member and a film print. new cinema history uses quantitative information, articulated through the apparatus of databases, spatial analysis and geovisualisation, to advance a range of hypotheses about the relationship of cinemas to social groupings in the expectation that these hypotheses must be tested by other, qualitative means. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide adelaide ] the mapping the movies project has begun an investigation into the significance of australian cinemas as sites of social and economic activity, focusing on the period from to . this period covers a major change in the number, nature and geographic distribution of cinemas in australia, and on reason for focusing on it is because there is a conventional explanation for those changes in the appearance of television as a functional alternative to cinema. from the perspective that i’ve outlined, we want to ask questions about the persuasiveness of that explanation, and to consider a range of other factors that might have contributed to the relative decline in cinema attendance over the period. the long-term aim is to combine archival, social and spatial data with oral histories to construct a gis database of cinema venues and their neighbourhoods, creating maps of distribution practices and audience movements in order to analyse the responsiveness of cinemas and their audiences to social and cultural change. of course, this has turned out to be a far more ambitious agenda than one grant can achieve, and the part of the project that i want to discuss today might be considered an initial enabling device for the larger project. in one sense, the project is also an attempt to address an issue raised by alan liu in his keynote address, in the historical parallel to the debate over close and distant reading, which is in the relationship between microhistories and larger scale social or cultural history: how many microhistories do you need to make a general historical statement? at one level, the cinema history we are discussing describes a highly localised activity, involving individual sites and the individuals attached to them. but these individuals were also part of a globally-organised supply chain, the profitability of which was dependent on the predictability of their behaviour. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : film weekly records] the primary information source for our initial dataset comes from the annual trade publication, the film weekly yearbook, which contains a listing of cinema exhibition venues in australia, with minimal information about their location, seating capacity and ownership. [slide : record extraction into a simple exportable excel database file] we have extracted the information initially into a series of spreadsheets, geocoded each of the venues, and generated a map based on google maps technology. [slide : website frontend based on google maps technology] it’s worth saying two things about the underlying data at this point, just to highlight what i think is an instance of a wider debate. this project uses the film weekly data as a consistent dataset; this is industry-sourced data, which existed for industry use. its virtues are its volume, its national coverage, and its consistency. what we also long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march know about it, from the other research in our project, is that its data is not always accurate. it doesn’t, for example, capture the closure data of cinemas with any accuracy – closure is simply recorded by a cinema’s absence from the list in a given year. within the project, we have had long discussions about how to use this data, and whether to integrate it with the project’s main database, caarp, which has retained a higher level of exactitude, and a much greater level of detail in the data we’ve stored in it, but does so for smaller areas and narrower periods of time. our solution has been to maintain a separation between the two datasets, but to allow the auscinemas site to access caarp data, and for caarp to have the capacity to ingest auscinemas data when we’re sure of its reliability. this also, of course, means that auscinemas will grow from its base data, and in the process distort the consistency of the original dataset. this is an inevitable consequence of the research, and of the crowdsourcing aspect of our project, with which we hope to generate a collection of microhistories which will correct, amplify and complicate the picture we can create from the existing data. a quick your of what the site does. [slide : more website frontend screenshots] venue data is linked to a set of markers, which represent locality type and cinema type. clicking on a marker opens an information window which displays all available film weekly data and additional linked resources. (we must get prettier icons!) long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : website features: browse, search, time slider and contribute] you can search or browse the data, and select a set of venues to display. you can then examine what happens to that set of venues over time by using the time slider, either manually or as an automation. [slide : brisbane] [slide : contribute form] the crucial bit of all this for the development of the project is the contribute form, which is how we plan to gather crowdsourced information from the general public, from local historical societies and cinema preservation groups, and potentially from school local history projects. i suspect that we have some lessons to learn from the papers yesterday by donelle mckinley and mia ridge in the session on successful crowdsourcing, but this is our current version. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march the aim is to collect images, stories, clippings, personal histories, information about screenings, and more generally accounts of the role and function of the cinema in the community, which will augment the work that we will do with students in harvesting information from trove, picture australia and elsewhere. this is also likely to take us outside the boundaries of our initial period of - , and this will involve a number of revisions and reiterations of the site. we also have a range of questions to develop as the project grows beyond its current users: one of our original intentions was to develop the geodatabase as a generic piece of software for use by digital humanities researchers who want to map relatively small scale datasets. the system is focused around a database structure that supports the definition of objects with metadata, allowing additional objects to be added to the system without the need to significantly change the underlying database structure. the system is focused on easy implementation and management, needing high-level it skills for only brief periods in the establishment of a project, to define objects in the database and in the programming code, and customise the user interface to meet their specific needs.  what do other researchers want to use the site for, and how do we make the site more useful to a broader range of users, at a variety of levels of use?  how do we get people to contribute? how much further can we simplify and clarify the contribution process?  how closely do we monitor the reliability of contributor-supplied information? how far can we automate input processes to reduce monitoring costs but ensure reliability?  what do we do when the money runs out?  can this system be picked up by others and readily used or has it become too intertwined with our own data? [slide : case study ] [click on coloured horizontal arrows to move to linked slides] long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : case study ] [slide linked to red arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to green arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to blue arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : case study ] [slide linked to blue arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to purple arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [click on coloured horizontal arrows to move to linked slides] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to red, green and blue arrows on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : case study ] [slide linked to dark pink arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : questions for the future] 虚拟现实纵览专刊 . 重大项目介绍中国科学 : 信息科学年第卷第期 : – scientia sinica informationis 引用格式: 赵沁平, 张绍祥, 樊瑜波, 等. 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究. 中国科学: 信息科学, , : – , doi: . /n - c⃝ 《中国科学》杂志社 www.scichina.com infocn.scichina.com 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究赵沁平¬, 张绍祥, 樊瑜波®, 郝爱民¬*, 谢叻¯, 王莉莉¬ ¬ 北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室, 北京第三军医大学, 重庆 ® 北京航空航天大学生物与医学工程学院, 北京 ¯ 上海交通大学, 上海 * 通信作者. e-mail: ham@buaa.edu.cn 收稿日期: – – ; 接受日期: – – ; 网络出版日期: – – 国家自然科学基金重大项目 (批准号: ) 资助项目概述 . 项目背景可交互人体器官数字模型是利用信息技术和现代医学技术建立的能够全面刻画人体器官形态特性、物理特性和生理特性的数字模型, 可支持切割、缝合、自碰撞和大尺度形变等交互式诊疗操作. 基于可交互人体器官数字模型的虚拟手术包括手术模拟训练、手术方案规划和手术预演与评价等, 对创新医疗人才培养模式、提高优质医疗资源利用效率、缓解医患矛盾、带动医疗器械产业发展等具有重要的技术支撑作用, 是我国抢占医工交叉技术制高点的新突破口. 在此背景下, 国家自然科学基金委员会于年月正式立项支持了“可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究”重大项目 (项目执行时间 . – . , 总经费万元). 由北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室作为项目牵头单位, 联合第三军医大学、上海交通大学、南方医科大学和北京协和医院的优势力量 (含个国家重点实验室, 个国家工程中心, 个省部级重点实验室, 个附属医院) 共同实施. . 主要内容项目以可交互人体器官数字模型和虚拟手术的基础理论和方法为核心, 凝练了三个基本科学问题: 人体器官的多尺度几何建模理论、人体器官物理建模与生理建模理论和手术虚拟仿真与评价理论. 项目从基础理论研究、关键技术创新、典型应用示范三个层次, 设置了相互配合、有机联系的五个课题, 分别是: • 人体器官几何形态建模与矢量化 (由第三军医大学牵头, 联合南方医科大学); • 面向可交互人体器官数字模型和虚拟手术的物理与生理建模 (由北京航空航天大学生物医学与工程学院牵头); • 手术虚拟仿真与手术评价的基础理论和关键技术研究 (由上海交通大学牵头); 赵沁平等: 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究图 (网络版彩图) 项目课题设置及其相互关系 figure (color online) the settings of five sub-projects and their relations • 人体器官及手术现象的逼真表现与绘制理论和方法 (由北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室牵头); • 虚拟手术支撑平台及经皮冠状动脉成形术模拟训练原型系统 (由北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室牵头, 联合北京协和医院). 如图所示, 课题 , 侧重人体器官的几何、物理、生理建模理论研究, 课题侧重交互理论研究, 课题侧重绘制与可视化理论研究, 课题侧重应用技术研究、平台与原型系统研制, 共同构建建模、交互、绘制的理论体系和验证系统. 理论与关键技术创新项目通过虚拟人体与虚拟手术基础理论和应用基础研究, 开展医工结合的理论、技术研究和原型系统研发, 初步建立了支持人体器官几何、物理、生理建模与表现, 以及具有力反馈的手术仿真技术体系, 并在以下三方面取得了突出进展. . 虚拟人体建模与虚拟手术技术在人体器官矢量化建模方面: 针对人体器官结构存在多尺度空间和不同组织结构成像差异, 导致三维矢量化建模困难的挑战, 建立了多模态、多尺度的联合建模理论, 将高精度数据集与临床个性化数据融合, 搭建了形态学研究从宏观到微观、从系统到局部、从静态到动态的桥梁. 在人体器官生理建模方面: 针对生理和病理条件下血管组织形态、血流流场与物质传输相互作用以及多场作用下植介入支架手术的生物学效应的定量描述问题, 提出了基于多尺度多场耦合生理模型的植介入体与宿主组织相互作用仿真理论, 建立了主动脉、颈动脉、腹主动脉、脑动脉和冠状动脉等多尺度心脑血管模型, 仿真了导丝/支架等植介入体与血流/血管、一氧化氮/腺嘌呤等物质的相互作用, 揭示了植介入体与宿主组织相互作用的生物力学及力生物学规律, 可为心血管植介入虚拟手术和手术规划提供理论支撑. 在流固交互物理仿真方面: 针对心脏介入手术中血流和手术器械相互作用物理过程复杂多变, 对其模拟的计算量大, 实时性难以保证的难题, 基于血流动力学分析基础, 提出了一种粒子与网格混合的中国科学 : 信息科学第卷第期图 (网络版彩图) 个性化 pci 手术模拟器总体结构图 figure (color online) the architecture of our pci simulator 建模方法, 建立了流体和固体耦合的几何表示与物理解算模型, 较为真实地模拟了血流与导丝的相互作用及其实时三维逼真表现. 在六维力觉交互仿真方面: 针对人体组织和手术器械的多样性, 以及力觉交互的高实时性和高稳定性要求, 提出了层次球树单边接触约束建模和基于位姿变量约束优化的六自由度力觉合成理论, 实现了复杂形状刚体、变形体、混合组织的多点多区域接触下的 hz 的六维力和力矩联合模拟. . 自研数据采集装置和力觉测量/反馈装置自主研制了多类数据采集装置和力觉测量/反馈装置, 具体包括: ( ) 研制了完整的冰冻刨切实验装置, 完成了设备主体、进给系统、刀具的制作, 在高精度人体数据采集中发挥了关键作用; ( ) 研制了适合采集不同温度条件下生物组织电特性参数的实验装置, 用于采集部分生物组织的电特性参数; ( ) 建立了基于微泡超声造影剂的血压无创测量装置, 开展了环境压力对超声造影剂微泡次谐波散射特性影响的实验研究; ( ) 研制了虚拟心血管介入手术系统力反馈装置样机, 包括力反馈机构、位移采集单元、造影剂注射器注射量采集单元、球囊加压泵压力测量单元、处理器、驱动电机以及电机驱动板等, 实现了介入手术中推送力和旋转力的分离; ( ) 研制了六维力和力矩传感器物理样机, 通过静态和动态加载实验验证了该传感器的性能, 为面向心血管手术的在体力信号测量系统提供了一种新的设计途径; ( ) 研制了微小型术中在体力觉测量装置, 准确测量和记录微小尺寸手术器械 (导丝、导管等) 与人体组织作用力, 开展了静态测量和动态测量实验验证. . 心血管介入手术模拟器在理论创新、关键技术突破的基础上, 将研究成果进行有机集成再创新, 研制了一套支持个性化 pci (percutaneous coronary intervention) 手术预演与模拟训练、全手术过程力触觉交互操作的 pci 手术模拟器, 整体结构如图所示, 可为医生提供多个训练案例, 最大程度地降低临床手术风险. 该模拟器具有数据驱动的心血管系统几何与物理建模、心血管系统实时物理形变仿真、介入导管和导丝物理赵沁平等: 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究行为交互仿真、x 光模拟成像、力触觉反馈、三维逼真绘制、术前临床影像数据即时动态关联、生理参数仿真等特色功能, 可以满足导丝和导管介入、支架释放、造影剂注射、x 光成像、紧急情况模拟处置等 pci 手术操作的仿真需要, 保证了 pci 手术仿真的物理、视觉、力触觉的真实感. 该 pci 手术模拟器的技术创新或突破可以归纳为如下点: • 个性化临床数据的即时建模处理; • 基于位置动力学和弹簧质子混合模型的心血管系统物理仿真; • 基于 cosserat 理论的导丝和导管物理仿真; • 基于光线投射算法的虚拟 x 光成像; • 支持 pci 手术操作的力触觉反馈硬件设计; • 基于 cuda 加速的系统整体实现. 总结在国家自然科学基金重大项目的支持下, 针对可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究这一信息科学和医学科学交叉的重大前沿问题, 研究了人体器官多尺度几何建模理论、人体器官物理与生理建模理论、手术虚拟仿真与手术评价理论三个基础科学问题; 创新了人体器官几何、物理、生理特性的一致表示模型及相互作用机制、力觉和运动觉相结合的虚拟介入手术人机交互机制、特征驱动的海量医学数据多尺度分析方法、基于运动分析和力觉测量的手术行为特征分析与建模方法等系列关键技术; 初步建立了人体器官仿真建模与虚拟手术理论体系. 在本领域顶级期刊和会议上, 发表高水平学术论文多篇, 其中, sci 检索多篇, q 区 (含 ccf a 类会议) 论文多篇. 申请国家发明专利多项, 其中, 已获批发明专利多项. 项目组在开展应用基础研究的同时, 特别注重系统集成创新, 研制了支持手术模拟训练和个性化手术方案规划与预演的经皮冠状动脉成形术模拟器. 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third military medical university, chongqing , china; school of biological and medical engineering, beihang university, beijing , china; shanghai jiao tong university, shanghai , china *e-mail: ham@buaa.edu.cn linked (open) data at web scale: research, social and engineering challenges in the digital humanities michele barbera in the last decade, the amount of data available in the linked data cloud has grown enormously in several domains, including cultrual heritage and digital humanities. however creative reuse of data both within the scholarly community and within the cultural in- dustry is still very limited. the limited creative reuse of data does not only depend on the limitations of existing technologies, but also on several social and cultural habits whose consequences need to be fully addressed and further researched. if linked data is to be exploited at its full potential, a profound cultural shift needs to occur in the way data is produced, managed and disseminated. this is especially true in the cultural heritage and digital humanities domains, where a strong tradition of two-dimensional, paper-like thinking is still predominant. the first section of this paper briefly presents the most pressing technological and engineering challenges to be addressed within the linked data sector. in the second section it is argued that the full exploitation of the linked data sector does not only depends on technological advancement but also on the possibilities enshrined in a radical cultural change in thinking about the semantic web and linked open data visions. the potential effect jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). doi: . /jlis.it- http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlis.it- m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale on the cultural industry and on the scholarly community is also explored. the importance of nurturing a lively business ecosystem and the role of public and open data published by glam orga- nizations is the main condition enabling the linked data vision to take off. despite it is here impossible to provide a comprehensive analysis of potential of the semantic web, its enabling conditions and implications, this paper nonetheless aims at offering a stimulating insight into one of the possible ways of thinking about it. technical and engineering challenges the web of data is characterized by its universal nature, its virtually infinite size, and by the heterogeneity of data. it comes at no surprise that these and many other features have influenced the way in which data producing and data consuming applications are -– or ought to be -– designed. first of all, due to the rapidly growing amount of data available in the linked open data cloud and in enterprise linked data repositories, it is not possible to centralize and compute all the data in a single local repository. the largest existing public repository, sindice.com holds today around billion triples, which is just a fraction of the lod cloud. sindice.com is based on a large map-reduce cluster (implemented on apache hadoop) whose tco is still beyond the possibilities of most small and medium enterprises (smes) and research organizations. one of the most significant features of the linked data vision is its capacity to find novel ways to exploit unexpected information and links to discover new insights from data. a way of slicing large datasets and reduce them down to a manageable size – possibly on demand – is necessary in order not to sacrifice this desirable feature. galleries, libraries, archives and museums. http://sindice.com. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://sindice.com jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) this approach is not entirely new and it is sometimes refereed as dataspaces in the relational database community. linked dataspaces are essentially a transient materialization (or a view) computed on demand of a slice of the originating data graph. despite some imple- mentations of linked dataspaces do already exist, neither standard specifications nor reference implementations have been defined yet. streaming linked data streaming linked data has been only partially addressed by the research community (barbieri and della valle; le-phuoc et al.; sequeda and corcho) and almost entirely neglected by production- grade industrial systems. at a first sight, this may appear marginally relevant but it is instead of paramount importance considering the growing amount of live streaming data produced by sensor net- works and sensors embedded in personal mobile devices. versioning from the capacity of versioning rdf graphs comes the possibility of identifying evolutionary atomic changes and to roll them back, in order to revert the graph to a previous state. although some approaches have already been explored in research, efficient and production-ready industrial implementations in commercially or open source graph stores are still under-developed. in the web of data, data sources are highly heterogeneous. the capacity of slicing and mixing different sources, that have various degree of trust (e.g. think about crowsdourced data vs. authoritative national library larkc: the large knowledge collider, http://www.larkc.eu. the availability of open source software of high quality is a very important element in the growth of this field of study. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://www.larkc.eu m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale data) and frequent updates a core feature. hence, the lack of solid versioning systems is an important gap to fill as soon as possible. despite the importance of overcoming such limitations, tech- nological innovation is a necessary but not sufficient condition for exploiting the potential of the semantic web. as the next section shows, this must come along with a critical understanding of the cultural shifts which are inner to the semantic vision itself. social challenges in a famous blog post, written in , (“giant global graph”) introduced the concept of ”thinking in the graph” and the notion of a “giant global graph” as opposed to the existing web of documents. the most striking changes whose effects are not yet being fully internalized in the digital publishing sector, are well summarised by berners-lee who writes: ”the less inviting side of sharing is losing some control. indeed, at each layer – net, web, or graph – we have ceded some control for greater benefits”, and ”it is about getting excited about connections, rather than nervous”. in order to understand the importance of these changes, in the following, three issue are considered: the aaa principle, the graph nature of the giant global graph and the open world assumption (owa). one of the pillars underpinning the vision of the semantic web and linked data – which also holds true for the web itself – is the principle known as aaa, which stands for anyone can say anything, anywhere. this implies a profound shift in the paradigm dominat- ing the publishing and media industry. in the era of the web of documents – and prior to the advent of the web – the dominant con- ceptual framework rested upon individuals acting as information producers, publishers (gatekeepers) or distributors. information consumers (e.g. readers), acting as passive actors, were neither in- jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) volved in the production nor in the distribution of information. as a result of the cultural and technological revolution enshrined in the web . , readers have become active producers of information. yet, the dissemination and often the production of information, as well as the gatekeeper role of filtering, was in the hands of publishers or aggregators of information. the web of data– which is here used as a synonym for semantic web and linked data – and the prominent role of the aaa principle in shaping publishing and consumption mod- els,including query federation across multiple repositories, imply shifting the core activity of the information lifecycle from the produc- tion to the mesh-up of several heterogeneous and personalized data sources. in this novel scenario, individuals and organizations play at the same time the roles of information producers, gatekeepers, and consumers of information in an ever-reconfiguring ecosystem. in the traditional publishing world, both in the public and in the private sector, on the web and in other media, information (and data) are modeled in order to maximize the accessibility and especially the usability for consumers. this is achieved by anticipating scenarios in which information is consumed. by design, we cannot know in ad- vance how data will be used, combined, enriched and repurposed to produce information goods. this is one of the premises that makes linked data so powerful. however, habits are difficult to change es- pecially when they affect not only the production of data but also its consumption (e.g. think about the need for data consuming applica- tions to be able to deal with unexpected data). additionally, without knowing in advance how data will be consumed, data have to be represented in the most universal way possible. such a universal representation does not allow any optimization in the information design phase and leaves room for optimizing data usage only in the consumption phase. secondly, the graph nature of the giant global graph has profound jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale social implications in the way in which information is produced and consumed. thanks to the great success of relational database tech- nologies and spreadsheets, people mentally model data in tabular structures. it developers and programmers, as well as information and data managers, scientists, marketers, educators and other actors involved in the data lifecycle think about data in a purpose-specific context and from an individual point of view. thinking in the graph as berners-lee puts it, is not an easy task when data is modeled, produced, aggregated or consumed. as my col- league gradmann often remarks, this is even more difficult in the cultrual heritage and digital humanities communities, where there is a strong tradition of two-dimensional thinking derived from the paper-world. the two-dimensional paper-world approach has often been mimicked rather than revolutionized in the digital world. the problem is once again aggravated by technological constraints. first of all, most of the linked data nowadays published in the cultural lod cloud is semi-automatically generated from legacy tabular data repositories. secondly, many computer science and informa- tion design courses in universities are still mostly based on tabular, relational and tree-like data structures. another source of misun- derstandings is the use of uris or iris to identify at the same time informational and non-informational resources, that is seldom ac- cepted and understood, even within the experts community (see for example the recurring discussion about http-range- ). the issue known as the http range problem, is about what mechanisms should be used to distinguish between statements about web pages and statements about the real world item or concepts the web page talks about. along with some technical and engineering implications, what is interesting is that the distinction between information and non-information resources is not always clear for data publishers and data consumers. as a result, the web of data and many data- jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) consuming applications present inconsistencies which derive from the misinterpretation of this concept. this is not a critical problem per-se, but it becomes a serious problem when reasoning is applied to these inconsistencies (e.g. same-as reasoning). finally, the web of data is built upon the open world assumption (owa) , according to which ”the truth-value of a statement is independent of whether or not it is known by any single observer or agent to be true. in other words, a statement cannot be considered false just because there is nothing explicitly stating that it is true. this is another im- portant shift from the relational database world, which is based on the closed world assumption. the logical and the technical implica- tions of the owa are beyond the scope of this presentation, however it is worth spelling out some of its social consequences. the choice of operating under owa is justified by the fact that open worlds are particularly well suited to deal with incomplete information and exceptions. owa’s features are desirable within a universal systems such as the web. however, they also pose some serious challenges. for instance, some problems are inherently related to closed worlds and most importantly many of the it tools are designed to work in closed worlds. furthermore, people are more familiar with thinking in closed worlds rather than in open ones. once it has been shown which are the intrinsic cultural implications of the vision of the se- mantic web and linked data, the next section introduces another problematique which is essential for advancing a revolutionary twist in the semantic web: the importance of nurturing a dynamic linked data economy. open world assumption, in wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open_ world_assumption. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open_world_assumption http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open_world_assumption m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale nurturing a linked data economy in the last decade, europe has made large investments in research over semantic technologies. this has generated brilliant ideas, core scientific knowledge and many prototypal implementations. unfor- tunately, the research community has not yet been able to leverage this potential within the industry to build production-ready tools easily usable by end-users. there is not yet a microsoft excel, or an apple itunes for linked data. similarly, there is not yet mysparql or any apache httpd that can serve streamed linked data. a lively data economy, with a rich ecosystem, is not yet in place. the time has come to invest in innovation in order to be able to transform the enormous knowledge accumulated through research and the large amount of data recently produced/liberated into a virtuous circle able to generate a self-sustaining and evolving ecosystem. recently a number of game-changing announcements has been made which can be considered as potentially contributing to create a linked data economy: first of all, google knowledge graph, a sort of closed enterprise linked data cloud as well as the acquisition by the big g of one of the most important nodes of the lod cloud, freebase; sec- ondly, the coalition between the largest search engines to introduce schema.org, a combination of a technology and a set of incentives for web publishers to annotate their content with semantic markup. finally, large private organizations are approaching the web of data, by evolving their business models or by modifying their production processes to comply with the openess of the linked open data cloud, or by building closed enterprise linked data clouds (e.g. many large pharma are bolding their own enterprise linked data). on the one hand some of these announcements may raise some socio-economic issues related to the risk of endangering the public good and to mo- nopolistic threats (see for example the interesting, if a bit outdated, jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) analysis of the risks related to schema.org published by (tennison) on her blog. in europe, there are numerous small-medium enterprises which are the major driver for innovation and economic growth. a care- ful strategy to protect our common knowledge-heritage and the (linked!) public good that is at the same time able to offer the right economic incentives to smes, is key in paving the way to a vibrant and sustainable linked data economy. on the other hand, this is clearly a huge leap forward for the web of data, whose economic value may start to unlock thanks to the critical mass (of users, invest- ments, technology, media visibility and demand) mobilized around the leading web companies. in a recent post (dodds) suggests that the media-hype created by google’s knowledgraph, – that is still mostly fed by public domain and open knowledge – may represent an opportunity for smes which can leverage the same public goods to meet the increasing demand of vertical and custom enterprise linked data clouds. conclusions after having presented some of the technological challenges for a full exploitation of the linked open data web, this paper has argued that such innovation must come along with a new understanding of the cultural changes inner to the web of data. this is, however, not enough. the web of data needs a lively economic environment where to flourish and further develop around its potential. yes, but how? the policy advices suggested by this paper are well expressed by the european union in the following quote which concludes this contribution: http://schema.org. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://schema.org m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale the volume of data being digitally stored and exchanged is growing exponentially. [...] obviously, these data generate the potential for many new types of products and services. the accessibility of public services can be improved for open and linked data, smart traffic and cities can improve mobility, products can report their life cycles, monitoring their prove- nance and quality, social trends can be recognized and turned into services, and products can come closer to meeting con- sumers’ needs. we foresee a whole new industry implementing services on top of large data streams. the impact of this emerg- ing economic sector - the data economy - may soon outrange the current importance of the software industry. the gist of the matter is to turn large streams of data into added value for the public and private sector. this industry can help to increase the efficiency of processes working with these data, it can provide transparency, support well-informed decision making, and enable new services not possible today (e.g., smart cities, interactive trend analysis or seamless data flows along value creation chains). clearly, research, engineering, policy making for the data economy and the exploitation of the un- precedented wealth of data have become keys to the future of europe. references barbieri, davide and emanuele della valle. “a proposal for publishing data streams as linked data - a position paper”. proceedings of the linked data on the web (ldow ) workshop, co-located with www . . (cit. on p. ). berners-lee, tim. “giant global graph”. http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/ node/ . dodds, leigh. “welcome to the knowledge graph”. http://talis-systems.com/ / /welcome-to-the-knowledge-graph/. http:// .data-forum.eu/about. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/ http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/ http://talis-systems.com/ / /welcome-to-the-knowledge-graph/ http://talis-systems.com/ / /welcome-to-the-knowledge-graph/ http:// .data-forum.eu/about jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) sequeda, juan f. and oscar corcho. “linked stream data: a position paper”. pro- ceedings of the nd international workshop on semantic sensor networks (ssn ). washington dc, usa, . (cit. on p. ). tennison, jeni. “schema.org and the responsibility of monopoly”. http : / / www. jenitennison.com/blog/node/ . michele barbera, net ; spazio dati. info@netseven.it barbera, m. ”linked (open) data at web scale: research, social and engineering challenges in the digital humanities”. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ): art: # . doi: . /jlis.it- . web. abstract: the amount of data available in the linked data cloud has grown enor- mously in the last years in several domains, including cultural heritage and digital humanities. however creative reuse of data both within the scholarly community and within the cultural industry is still very limited. it depends on a mixture of technical and social problems that needs to be addressed in research and within the industry. the paper will explores some of these challenges with a focus on the digital humanities. keywords: library linked data; semantic web submitted: - - accepted: - - published: - - jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://www.jenitennison.com/blog/node/ http://www.jenitennison.com/blog/node/ mailto:info@netseven.it http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlis.it- digital human modelling and the ageing workforce - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference doi: . /j.promfg. . . procedia manufacturing ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect th international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics (ahfe ) and the affiliated conferences, ahfe digital human modelling and the ageing workforce keith casea,*, amjad hussainb, russell marshallc, stephen summerskillc, diane gyic amechanical and manufacturing engineering, loughborough university, loughborough, leicestershire, le tu, uk bdepartment of industrial and manufacturing engineering, university of engineering and technology, lahore, pakistan cdesign school, loughborough university, loughborough, leicestershire, le tu, uk abstract digital human modelling (dhm) has often focused on user populations that could be characterised as able-bodied and in the working age group. it is clear however that demographic changes are resulting in older populations in developed countries but this is also becoming increasingly true even in developing countries. the economic pressures of increased life expectancy are resulting in demands for workers to remain in employment well past what would previously have been considered a normal retirement age. in many countries legislation is increasing retirement ages for entitlement to state pensions, and enforceable retirement ages are being outlawed. as a consequence older working populations can be expected. age in the workforce has many positive aspects including increased experience, wisdom, loyalty and motivation, but an inevitable consequence of ageing is negative effects such as the loss of capabilities in strength, mobility, vision and hearing. the challenge of including older workers is recognised as an important aspect of inclusive design and dhm is recognised as a potentially useful method for its implementation. today’s highly demanding and competitive working environments require the highest levels of productivity from individuals so that overall operational and business objectives can be achieved. dhm-based workplace risk assessment methods have successfully been used to improve working environments by conducting virtual posture based ergonomic risk analysis. older workers are significantly different from younger workers in terms of their physical, physiological and cognitive capabilities and these capabilities directly or indirectly affect human work performance. this article suggests the use of human capability data in a virtual environment to explore the level of acceptability of a working strategy based on real capability data (joint mobility in this case) of older workers. a case study shows that the proposed dhm-based inclusive design method is useful recommending working strategies that are acceptable for older workers in terms of work productivity, well-being and safety. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference. keywords: workforce challenges; ageing; workplace design; digital human modeling; inclusive design * corresponding author. tel.: + - - ; fax: + - - . e-mail address: k.case@lboro.ac.uk © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.promfg. . . &domain=pdf keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . introduction this article discusses global workforce challenges and focuses on changing demographic trends in terms of workforce diversity and ageing. humans differ in many aspects and age significantly affects human capabilities that influence work performing capabilities. consequently there is a need for design methodologies that can address the needs of older people while they are working. a proposed digital human modeling based inclusive design methodology is introduced and verified by conducting a case study in a furniture manufacturing company. . background literature diversity refers to differences between individuals because of their gender, age, functional capability, cultural background, experience and education [ ]. there are multiple dimensions of diversity but age, race, gender, disability and national origin are frequently considered [ ]. workforce diversity comes with a number of potential benefits and challenges as it increases work performance inconsistencies because of human variability issues. effective diversity management can provide an opportunity for better work performance by utilizing more diverse ideas in decision making. however, failure to manage a diverse workforce may lead to an environment of conflicts, frustration and sense of insecurity that can promote absenteeism, high turnover, job dissatisfaction and lower work commitment [ , ]. however, competitive advantages arise from having a diverse workforce, such as variations in skills, experiences and backgrounds that can increase creativity, competitiveness and innovation [ - ]. the focus of this research is on age as a major dimension of diversity. the world is experiencing a significant increase in the proportion of older people. there were about million people aged or above in , but it is estimated that this will increase to billion by , with this trend being more prominent in the developing world. it is estimated that one out of persons will be of age years or above by and this will significantly increase the dependency ratio (the proportion of economically inactive versus active population). like other parts of the world, the uk population is also ageing [ ]. there has been an increase of . million people aged and over in last years. on the other hand, the percentage of the population aged less than years has decreased from percent to percent from to . the continuing trend by will result in the percentage of people aged more than years being approximately percent, whereas the percentage of the population under years will further decrease to percent. there are other noticeable trends in the uk population which will continue in the future. these are that the fastest percentage increase in the population will be in those who are more than years old and a decrease in the ratio of women to men in the over- age group. in comparison with other european countries the uk has a relatively higher birth rate, which makes it these considerations less alarming than they are elsewhere. these demographics in the context of the recent global economic crisis encourage the retention of older and experienced workers, so that this resource might be utilized for national and global economic growth. this is reflected in recent uk legislation removing compulsory retirement ages and increasing the age for receipt of state pensions. however, retention of older workers comes with potential benefits and challenges for the organizations. experience, knowledge and skills of older workers are considered prominent factors that attract positive inclination of employers and older workers are considered as an asset for the organization. however, decline in physical and physiological capabilities, and differences in psychological attitudes and behaviour create many challenges. there is a need to understand the effects of ageing and the potential impact on work performance. a realistic understanding of both positives and negatives about older workers can provide an opportunity for designers to address the design needs of this part of the workforce. otherwise, unrealistic and over ambitious production targets create a mismatch between job demands and working capabilities of older workers. such situations ultimately result in an unsatisfied, over-stressed, frustrated and less loyal workforce and a decrease in individual and organizational work performance. age affects humans in different ways including the physical, physiological, cognitive, psychological, attitudinal and psychosocial aspects. there is a need to understand all these changes so that the challenges faced by older workers might be addressed in a logical way. however, physical, physiological and cognitive issues are the primary concern for designers, ergonomists, managers, engineers and human resources personnel. the functional capacity of workers declines with age in a number of ways and becomes critical for workers aged years and more. the musculoskeletal strength of the body starts to decline after the age of , and a year old keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – has muscular strength which is approximately % of a year old [ ]. balance disorders and risks of falls and injuries lead to a decline in work performance in sitting, standing, walking, leaning and stooping positions [ ]. joint mobility reduces considerably with age; however, its severity and level depends on the joint and type of motion [ ]. reaction time variability is higher in older people and directly affects work performance [ ]. this decline in reaction time is more prominent in older women as compared to men [ ]. similarly there are relationships between functional capacity, vision and type of task performed by older workers [ ]. there are a number of other performance factors including fatigue, memory deterioration and thermoregulation problems faced in extreme environmental conditions, which are influenced by age and affect work performance. to conclude, in the light of above discussion, it is very important to understand all the physical, physiological, psychological and cognitive changes that result from ageing. on the other hand, there are a number of other factors like experience, decision-making, loyalty to the organization, sense of responsibility and critical thinking which make older people a real asset for organizations. the removal of an experienced and skillful older worker is not simply the loss of one person; it is also a drainage of skills, knowledge, experience and relationships and to regain these attributes, needs resources in the form of money and time [ ]. . digital human modelling and workplace risk assessment to accommodate older workers in workplaces, it is considered extremely important to investigate design solutions at an early design stage. moreover, earlier product and process design evaluations are equally important in keeping design costs at reasonable levels, as redesign costs increase the final cost of the product. computer-aided simulation tools, such as digital human modelling tools (dhms) are effective in facilitating proactive ergonomic design investigations. however, it is very important to ensure that dhm simulation results are delivering valuable outcomes in terms of workplace improvements. studies investigating the relationship between dhm simulation results and real life assessment reached the conclusion that the correlation is fairly high [ ]. furthermore, it was also found that certain workloads, such as static postures might be detected more reliably in dhm simulations as compared with real-life assessments. however, estimation of action forces is difficult to estimate through dhm simulations as their direct observation is rather difficult [ , ]. in spite of the many limitations of dhm tools, it has been concluded that early design investigations based on digital human modelling can substantially reduce overall product development costs including design, engineering and ergonomics evaluation costs. in part this is because these tools enable the development and testing and assessment of a virtual product prototype without any real contact with users and operators. similarly, designers can check different options before going for actual production and so expensive product design and development costs can be reduced significantly. there are many digital human modelling systems commercially available such as sammie, jack, ramsis and their effective use in product, process and workplace design has been reported in many studies. a more recent digital human modelling based tool, hadrian, is explicitly aimed at an ‘inclusive design’ or ‘design for all’ philosophy based on sammie. data was collected for individuals having a broad range of human capabilities with special attention to older people and people with disabilities. a database provides data about their age, capabilities like joint range of motion, body shape, anthropometry, experiences and preferences with a range of daily activities including domestic and transport related tasks. data is held on individuals and is not used to form statistical representations of populations as is most common in dhm systems. hadrian is also equipped with a task analysis system where accessibility issues are reported at the level of individual subjects. virtual individuals with their task performing capabilities are used to carry out any task analysis and results show why an individual is excluded and how these issues and problems can be eliminated. previously, it has been successfully used for daily living activities like kitchen activities, use of atms by wheelchair users, and transport-related activities. however, this human modelling inclusive design strategy has not previously been used for industrial activities [ ]. this paper focuses on the use of a dhm-based inclusive design strategy for industrial activities like manufacturing assembly activities where most of the work is done manually and ergonomics issues include demands for physically effort, repetitiveness, quick and fast movements with high level of productivity and quality. for the validation of this concept, older workers’ capabilities (joint mobility) data are used to assess assembly related tasks. keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . method digital human modelling was used for the concept validation of using a human modelling based inclusive design strategy in a manufacturing assembly environment. data captured at a furniture manufacturing company was used for human modelling based risk assessment of the working strategies adopted. assembly workers were recorded to capture a variety of working strategies, methods and procedures. selected snap-shots of a variety of workers performing similar tasks were used for the purpose of analysis. the sammie human modelling tool was used to generate a cad model of the working environment that includes the sofas that are being assembled, tools used during the assembly operations and other relevant objects. selected postures recorded in the factory were replicated by human models in sammie. sammie has the capability of developing a customized human by defining different anthropometric and capability data like joint mobility constraints. actual joint mobility data of workers who were older than years has been used to assess suitability of working postures or strategies. postures adopted in the real assembly working environment have been replicated virtually by these older workers where their joint mobility constraints data has been used as a criterion for the acceptability of postures. it provided the following upper extremity joint constraints: arm flexion; arm extension; arm abduction; arm adduction; arm medial rotation; arm lateral rotation; shoulder flexion; shoulder extension; shoulder abduction; shoulder adduction; elbow flexion; elbow extension; elbow pronation; elbow supination; wrist flexion; wrist extension; wrist abduction; wrist adduction. . concept validation – a case study at a furniture manufacturing company figure shows three workers carrying out the same assembly operation at a workstation. it is very clear that they are performing their task in entirely different ways. differences in their working methods are significant in terms of tool handling, tool orientation, object or product orientation and body posture. it can be said that orientation of the object (sofa) and holding of a tool (drill) account for significant differences in adopted postures. the most difficult posture is adopted by worker (method ), where the position of the upper-arm, lower-arm, neck and orientation of the hand might be the assessment criteria for the acceptability of this method’s inclusiveness. it is also clear that the positions of the upper-arm and lower-arm of worker are the most awkward and differentiating features and have a direct relationship with joint mobility of the workers. it seems that a variation in joint constraints for the upper-arm and lower-arm for older people can make this method unsuitable for them. digital human modelling tools are capable of predicting risk involved during work, with an acceptable level of reliability. use of the computer-based digital human modelling tool sammie can provide information about the acceptability of these working strategies regarding their inclusiveness for older workers. for this purpose, computer- model of the workplace was created and virtual humans included to enable design assessments to be carried out. during this experimentation, all workers (older) were evaluated performing each working method. in this way, ( x ) scenarios were created and attempts were made to replicate actual working postures of older workers. the differences in joint mobility capabilities means it is unlikely that all older workers can adopt all these working postures. for the purpose of analysis, lower-arm and upper-arm positions of these actual working postures were replicated in sammie. assessment of a fully capable sammie human model was first made to check whether or not a fully capable person can perform this particular activity in this way, and what level of joint mobility requirements are involved in any adopted posture. the joint constraints of a fully capable sammie human model set the criteria for comparison of these (actual working postures with joint constraints of fully capable sammie human model) and older workers (with limited and varying levels of joint mobility). complex body movements that contain both simultaneous bend and twist have a high level of risk at work and these must be avoided. clearly, worker (method ) adopted a complex and relatively difficult trunk/back posture, where the main cause of this awkward posture was the orientation of the object (sofa). it can be seen that the orientation of the sofa for worker and was different, and this determined the view and height of the object (position of the working object with reference to face, shoulders etc.). difficulty in viewing the working object and inappropriate height led worker to adopt an unfriendly working posture where the neck is bent, the trunk/back is bent and twisted and one elbow is above shoulder level. in comparison with worker , worker performed better in terms of level of risk, but worker seemed very relaxed and comfortable during his work. moreover, the working keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – strategies of worker and were different in tool holding and object holding, and positions of the shoulder were different. all these aspects can be seen in figure . the above discussion reveals that, differences in these work organization issues lead to entirely different working strategies where adopted postures demand different joint mobility capabilities. for example, the positions of the upper-arm and lower-arm are found to be different for these three working methods. for finding the exact joint mobility requirements necessary for a successful replication of these postures, the sammie computer aided modelling system was used. the process started with capturing actual dimensions of the objects used during any working process. in this case, these objects were the sofa, work table and drill gun. after developing a computer- aided model of the work environment, a virtual human was placed appropriately and the actual posture replicated with a human model, to establish the joint mobility requirements. for this case study, the actual working postures of the assembly activity for three different methods have been replicated by a sammie human model, and joint mobility requirements have been noted (figure ). it is very clear from the snap shots that upper-arm and lower-arm movements are significantly different for these methods and are considered important for inclusiveness of these working strategies. figure also illustrates that working method imposes the highest level of joint mobility requirements, where the lower arm bend (r) demands a extension which is high as compared with the other two methods, where it is and respectively. similarly, right upper-arm swing value ( ) is also significantly higher than that of method and ( and respectively). so, these pre-defined joint mobility requirements can be used as criteria to investigate the acceptability of any method for a broad range of the population. the hadrian database consists of joint mobility data for about people, of which people are older than years without any functional disability that can reduce joint mobility. the joint mobility data of these older and fully capable people has been utilized to assess the acceptability of any working strategy for older workers at the individual level. as mentioned worker . method . tool held by both hands; both arms are below shoulder level; no bend or twist in trunk; neck is straight; object is at appropriate height worker . method . tool held in one hand (other hand grips the object); both arms are nearly at shoulder level; trunk has little bent or twisted; neck is twisted; object is at appropriate height worker . method . tool held in one hand (other hand grips the object); one arm is above shoulder level; trunk bent/twisted; neck bent /twisted; object is at lower height upper arm(r) swing sweep twist lower arm (r) bend cock twist upper arm(l) swing sweep - twist - lower arm (l) bend cock twist - upper arm(r) swing sweep twist lower arm (r) bend cock twist upper arm(l) swing sweep twist - lower arm (l) bend cock twist - upper arm(r) swing sweep twist red lower arm (r) bend cock twist upper arm(l) swing sweep - twist - lower arm (l) bend cock - twist - fig. . three workers performing same task with different methods. keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – earlier, sammie has the capability of managing capability data for individuals, where a designer has to provide a manual input about all these parameters that defines any human’s work performing capability. during experimentation, working postures were analysed where every older worker (virtual human with actual joint constraints of an older worker of hadrian database) was tested against the three different working methods shown in figure . figures , and show the examples of posture replication by sammie (middle) and an older worker (right) against working methods , and respectively. joint mobility requirements needed by a fully capable human (sammie) for the approximate replication of an adopted posture, set a criterion for the acceptability of a method for any individual and older workers in general. the aim was to investigate whether or not the digital human modelling system sammie can be used to investigate inclusiveness of any adopted working strategy. fig. . using sammie human modelling system to assess task inclusiveness for method . fig. . using sammie human modelling system to assess task inclusiveness for method . fig. . using sammie human modelling system to assess task inclusiveness for method . keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . hadrian database worker ; design inclusion for work performing method , method and method . . results this section is a detailed description of the design evaluation process through the sammie human modelling system. figure shows the same worker (number in the hadrian database) with his own joint mobility constraints. for comparison purposes, he has been shown to perform the same activity in three different ways, shown previously. here the aim is to assess whether or not he is capable of performing these activities based on his limited joint mobility as he is years old. it has already been stated that methods and impose relatively less joint mobility requirements as compared with method . here, figure clearly indicates that worker can easily accomplish this assembly task by adopting method . however, the same worker is unable to successfully complete the same assembly task element through methods and . the red highlighting indicates violation of joint constraints and unacceptability of these two methods for this worker. it can be concluded that a person with limited joint mobility can easily perform this assembly task by adopting work method . unlike method , the other two methods demand high joint mobility requirements and make them unacceptable for the same worker. as described above, the database has been used to define older workers (> years of age) with individual joint constraints and then tested against these three working methods for the same assembly activity. the results indicate that work method is acceptable for % of the older workers, which is the highest proportion as compared with % and % for methods and respectively. only out of older workers were found to be excluded for method , whereas and were excluded for methods and respectively. the above results indicate the usefulness of the dhm-based inclusive design method where designers, ergonomists, engineers, managers and planners can promote such work practices that are equally acceptable for a broad range of the population, for example, older people in this example. the results clearly indicate that method is the optimal solution in terms of its accepability for older workers, based on joint mobility criteria. as all these assessments are based on the captured working strategies adopted by different workers, so the pool of avaible solutions can be increased by capturing more workers. . strengths and limitations this case study has shown a great potential for using the digital human modelling technique for the promotion of an inclusive design approach in industrial applications. in the future, workforce diversity will increase and people with different backgrounds, cultures, sizes, shapes, age and expereinces will be sharing the same workplaces. the inclusive design method provides an opportunity to address all these issues proactively so that safe, healthy and productive workplaces might be assured. in future, organizations will have to think more seriously about these human variability issues, so that they can retain their skilled and experienced workforce, which will be a key driving force for achieving organizational sustainability. this study provides an idea about how the proposed inclusive design method can work for the benefit of individuals and organizations, in terms of workplace safety, productivity and human well-being. it also highlights the importance of the availability of more realistic human capabilities data (physical, physiological and cognitive) and use of that in an appropriate design tool. on the other hand, validation of the proposed method has been carried out only for furniture manufacturing assembly activities. there is a need to validate the method against more industrial applications where its usefulness keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – can be assessed against a variety of applications. moreover, this case study has only used the physical capabilities context of human working capabilities, but the concept should also be validated for some more complex dimensions of human capability such as physiological, psychological and cognitive abilities. similarly, older workers’ capability data is not limited to joint mobility; there are many other functional capabilities that decline with age, so other available data should also be used to promote healthy and safe working of the ageing workforce. initially, the proposed method has been validated through sammie, where older worker’s joint mobility data has been used manually. previously, the hadrian automated task evaluation method (based on sammie human modelling) has been used for some simpler applications like kitchen based activities, use of atm machines, and transport related activities. there is a need to enhance the automated task evaluation capability of hadrian from simple activities to more complex industrial activities like manual assembly operations. . conclusion a digital human modelling based inclusive design approach is considered useful for addressing work-related issues of a diverse workforce, especially older workers. like joint mobility data, other functional capabilities data can be collected and used for assessing whether or not working conditions, environments and strategies are suitable for a broad range of the population. this proactive design approach benefits individuals and organizations by securing safe working conditions where people, with their existing differences, can perform at their best. in this way, global workforce challenges of diversity and ageing can be addressed by promoting such design practices. however, still there is a need to capture more data about the human differences and effectively utilize that in appropriate tools, so that more realistic work strategies can be implemented. references [ ] williams, k.y., o’reilly, c.a., . demography and diversity in organizations: a review of years of research. research in organizational behavior , – . [ ] shore, l.m., chung-herrera, b.g., dean, m. a., ehrhart, k.h., jung, d.i., randel, a.e., singh, g., . diversity in organizations: where are we now and where are we going? human resource management review , – . [ ] richard, o.c., . racial diversity, business strategy and firm performance: a resource based view. academy of management journal , – . [ ] childs jr., j.t., . managing workforce diversity at ibm: a global hr topic that has arrived. human resource management , – . [ ] bassett-jones, n., . the paradox of diversity management, creativity and innovation. diversity management, creativity and innovation , – . [ ] o.n.s., . population trends - autumn . office of national statistics. [ ] wanger, s.g., pfeifer, a., cranfield, t.l., craik, r.l., . the effects of afeing on muscle strength and function: a review of the literature. physiotherapy theory and practice , – . [ ] sturnieks, d.l., st george, r., lord, s.r., . balance disorders in the elderly. neurophysiologie clinique /clinical neurophysiology , – . [ ] chung, m.j., wang, m.j., . the effect of age and gender on joint range of motion of worker population in taiwan. international journal of industrial ergonomics , – . [ ] hultsch, d.f., macdonald, s.w.s., dixon, r.a., . variability in reaction time performance of younger and older adults. the journals of gerontology. series b, psychological sciences and social sciences , – . [ ] der, g., deary, i.j., . age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: results from the united kingdom health and lifestyle survey. psychology and aging , – . [ ] sue, b., . the association between low vision and function. journal of aging and health , – . [ ] dychtwald, k., erickson, t., morison, b., . it’s time to retire retirement. harward business review , – . [ ] fritzsche, l., . ergonomics risk assessment with digital human models in ca factors and ergonomics in manufacturing and service industries , – . [ ] demirel, h.o., duffy, v.g., . application of digital human modeling in industry, in: duffy, v.g. (ed.), digital human modeling. lcns springer, pp. – . [ ] marshall, r., case, k., porter, m., summerskill, s., gyi, d., davis, p., sims, r., . hadrian: a virtual approach to design for all. journal of engineering design , – . grial research group university of salamanca francisco j. garcía-peñalvo alicia garcía-holgado computer science department research institute for educational sciences university of salamanca, spain fgarcia@usal.es aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es situation research group recognized by the university of salamanca in castilla y león regional government excellence group from to (gr ) consolidated research unit of the junta de castilla y león granted in july and renewed in may (uic ) grial - university of salamanca who we are grial is a multidisciplinary group, fundamentally a mixture of computer engineering and education, but also theere are researchers from other fields (philosophy, philology, humanities, etc.). grial - university of salamanca who we are grial - university of salamanca members men women mª josé rodríguez conde francisco j. garcía peñalvo roberto therón who we are grial - university of salamanca what we do grial - university of salamanca research lines • visual analytics • education quality and evaluation • information sciences • technological ecosystems • knowledge and technology strategic management • digital humanities • web engineering and software architectures • elearning methodologies • social responsibility and inclusio • interactive learning systems • learning technologies • ict and educational innovation what we do • participation in national and international networks grial - university of salamanca ibero-american network for innovation and research in technologies and uses in e-learning (red iberoamericana de innovación e investigación en tecnologías y usos en el aprendizaje electrónico) (red ritual) – méxico international research network openergy – méxico snola – spanish thematic network of learning analytics (ref. tin - -redt) ibero-american network of research on the quality of doctoral education in social sciences what we do • research projects: local ( ), regional ( ), national ( ), european ( ) and internacional ( ) https://grial.usal.es/projects grial - university of salamanca % % % % % local regional nacional european internacional https://grial.usal.es/projects what we do grial - university of salamanca what we do • services • customised training plans (specialised in elearning, ict, social networks) • development of technological solutions for learning and knowledge management • consultancy in information systems and technological ecosystems • comprehensive elearning advice and consultancy • installation, support and customization of elearning platforms • development of training content on demand • support and collaboration in project management • collaboration in r+d / r+d+i initiatives • on-demand training (specialisation in elearning, ict, etc.) grial - university of salamanca grial - university of salamanca grial research group university of salamanca francisco j. garcía-peñalvo alicia garcía-holgado computer science department research institute for educational sciences university of salamanca, spain fgarcia@usal.es aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es a study of kinematic cues and anticipatory performance in tennis using computational manipulation and computer graphics hirofumi ida & kazunobu fukuhara & seiji kusubori & motonobu ishii published online: april # psychonomic society, inc. abstract computer graphics of digital human models can be used to display human motions as visual stimuli. this study presents our technique for manipulating human motion with a forward kinematics calculation without violating anatomical constraints. a motion modulation of the upper extremity was conducted by proportionally modulating the anatomical joint angular velocity calculated by motion analysis. the effect of this manipulation was examined in a tennis situation—that is, the receiver’s performance of predicting ball direction when viewing a digital model of the server’s motion derived by modulating the angular velocities of the forearm or that of the elbow during the forward swing. the results showed that the faster the server’s forearm pronated, the more the receiver’s anticipation of the ball direction tended to the left side of the serve box. in contrast, the faster the server’s elbow extended, the more the receiver’s anticipation of the ball direction tended to the right. this suggests that tennis players are sensitive to the motion modulation of their opponent’s racket-arm. keywords motion analysis . motion modulation . forward kinematics . cg . digital human model humans can recognize various types of human motion instantaneously and accurately, not only when viewing the actions of real-life humans, but also when viewing the movements of artificial human models. for instance, the point-light display (pld) technique has been one of the best- known approaches and has shown perceptual robustness for biological motions (johansson, ; neri, morrone, & burr, ). previous studies have revealed that human perception is highly sensitive even to the pld, in that observers were able to distinguish the gender of a walker (kozlowski & cutting, ; troje, ; troje, sadr, geyer, & nakayama, ), identify friends by their walking pattern (cutting & kozlowski, ), and recognize the emotions expressed by actors (dittrich, troscianko, lea, & morgan, ; pollick, paterson, bruderlin, & sanford, ). recently, in association with the development of computer graphics (cg) technology, various digital human models have become available for providing a visual stimulus of human motion. for example, the stickfigure model is regarded as a simplified human model, as is the point-light model, whereas many cg character models constructed from polygons or nurbs (non-uniform rational b-splines) imitate real humans. motion capture systems and cg animation software facilitate the use of a digital human model in studies of human motion percep- tion. one of the advantages of this approach is that several visual stimuli—for example, the polygon and stickfigure h. ida (*) : k. fukuhara : m. ishii department of human system science, graduate school of decision science and technology, tokyo institute of technology, meguro, tokyo, japan e-mail: hiroida@me.com s. kusubori department of environmental sciences, prefectural university of hiroshima, hiroshima, japan h. ida kanagawa institute of technology, human media research center, atsugi, kanagawa, japan behav res ( ) : – doi . /s - - -x models—were created on the basis of the same motion data (dekeyser, verfaillie, & vanrie, ; vanrie & verfaillie, ). these models were artificial versions of a real-world human or of one captured on video. they contained extra (pictorial) information in addition to the essential (kinematic) information that a point-light model does. it is necessary to evaluate the perceptual effect of digital human models, particularly in comparison with real-world or video displays. the anticipatory performance and visual search strategy when a tennis serve was viewed in order to predict the ball direction have been compared between a cg display with a polygon model and a video display (fukuhara, ida, kusubori, & ishii, ). it was revealed that the polygon model allowed the observers to perceive anticipatory cues from the serve motion, but the response accuracy was lower than that of the video. digital human models have been utilized to simulate sports situations and to examine the response of the user in a virtual environment (ve)—for example, a baseball batter hitting a virtual ball (gray, ), playing against a virtual pitcher (ranganathan & carlton, ), or a handball goalkeeper facing a virtual thrower (bideau, multon, kulpa, fradet, arnaldi, & delamarche, ; vignais, bideau, craig, brault, multon, & kulpa, ). the aim was to examine the perception–action coupling in the sport- simulating ve, and this approach promises to reveal uncovered features that cannot be assessed in real-world situations or video displays. the use of a digital human model has had another experimental advantage—namely, the arbitrary manipu- lation of displayed human motion. principal component analysis has been used to identify systematic similarities and/or dissimilarities in the motion patterns across tennis passing shots (huys, smeeton, hodges, beek, & williams, ). the authors displayed simulated tennis shots in which motion dynamic structures were manipu- lated and revealed that tennis players predicted the shot direction by using the information in multiple low- dimensional dynamic modes. this approach was extended in further studies (huys, canal-bruland, hagemann, beek, smeeton, & williams, ; williams, huys, canal- bruland, & hagemann, ). in related work, spatially exaggerated tennis serve motions were displayed with a polygon model, and the exaggeration led to accurate categorizations of the types of tennis serves—that is, flat, slice, and topspin (pollick, fidopiastis, & braden, ). in other work, the joint motion of a runner was modulated, and the modulated motion was displayed using a polygon model and a stickfigure model (hodgins, o’brien, & tumblin, ). the results revealed that the identification of the running motion was more accurate for the polygon model than for the stickfigure model. the findings suggest that the perceptual performance for human motion could be affected by the pictorial (“geometric,” according to the study) information of the human model. their manipu- lation technique kinematically modified the motion data obtained from a dynamic simulation on the basis of the laws of physics and targeted the “torso rotation” and “dynamic arm motion” of the original running motion pattern. in this study, we used another manipulation technique: the upper extremity motion was computationally manip- ulated by using a forward kinematics (fk) calculation, widely used in cg modeling and robotics, that outputs the position and orientation of the end effector as a function of joint angles (zatsiorsky, ). this manip- ulation technique followed the anatomical constraints of the joint—that is, the degrees of freedom and range of motion—and calculated the motion data of the upper extremity as a function of the joint angular velocity modulated proportionally to that of the original motion. the computationally simulated test motion derived from the kinematic modulation is useful for revealing the quantitative relationship between the motion pattern of the performer and the perceptual performance of the observer. the anatomically validated motion can provide insight into the observer’s perceptual skill for real-world human motion. furthermore, the manipulation technique also enabled us to create various visual stimuli of cg animations in which the motion was arbitrarily modulated but anatomically feasible for humans. server motion and receiver cognition in tennis were examined in this study. a real-world tennis serve was analyzed and kinematically modulated at the server’s racket- arm and then was displayed with cg animations as visual stimuli for assessing the receiver’s anticipatory performance. the kinematic modulation was performed by modulating the angular velocity of the forearm and that of the elbow during the forward swing phase of the original serve motion. the purposes of this study were to provide an explanation of the manipulation technique with an fk calculation and to verify whether the kinematic modulation has any effect on the receiver’s anticipatory performance. we hypothesized that the anticipatory performance of the tennis player would be sensitive to the degree of motion modulation. computation of motion analysis and motion modulation in the manipulation of the upper extremity, the anatomical joint angular velocity along an individual rotational axis— for example, the extension/flexion at the elbow—was selected as the modulating parameter. first, motion analysis was conducted to obtain every anatomical joint angular velocity in the upper extremity, using the three-dimensional coordinate data of the original motion. second, motion behav res ( ) : – modulation was performed using an fk calculation in which the obtained anatomical joint angular velocities were proportionally modulated. the computational expressions of the motion analysis and motion modulation will be described in the following sections. motion analysis for motion analysis, the anatomical joint angular velocities at the wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder were calculated. the upper extremity was defined as a link segment model: the body segment of the hand, forearm, upper arm, and upper trunk are connected with the joint of the wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder (see fig. ). note that the forearm was regarded as the joint as well as the body segment, because it has the degree of freedom of pronation/ supination. first, the resultant segment angular velocity was calculated from the motion data; then the resultant joint angular velocity at each joint was derived and, finally, separated into each anatomical axis of the joint as the anatomical joint angular velocity (winter, ). an orthogonal reference frame (ijk) was defined for each body segment of the hand, forearm, upper arm, and upper trunk. the resultant segment angular velocity (ωsegment) is de- scribed vectorially using the orthogonal vectors isegment, jsegment, and ksegment, as follows: wsegment ¼ w isegment þ w jsegment þ w ksegment; ð Þ where ω′ ~ω′ are scalar. since an arbitrary vector r that rotates around an axis with an angular velocity ω satisfies dr/dt = ω × r, transforming eq. for r = isegment, jsegment or ksegment, the values of ω′ ~ω′ are obtained as w ¼ ksegment � djsegment dt ; w ¼ isegment � dksegment dt ; w ¼ jsegment � di segment dt ; ð Þ where the dot operator represents the scalar product. the resultant joint angular velocity (ωjoint) defined for the wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder is the relative angular velocity of the distal segment to the proximal segment of the joint: wjoint ¼ wdistal segment � wproximal segment: ð Þ the joint reference frame was determined by an anatomical definition: palmar/dorsi flexion (plm/drs) and radial/ulnar flexion (rad/uln) at the wrist; pronation/supina- tion (prn/spn) at the forearm; flexion/extension (flx/ext) at the elbow; and horizontal adduction/abduction (had/hab), adduction/abduction (add/abd), and internal/external rota- tion (inr/exr) at the shoulder. the anatomical joint angular velocities (ω′ ~ω′ ) were defined as the vector projection of the resultant joint angular velocity onto the orthogonal joint reference frame (uvw): w ¼ wjoint � ujoint; w ¼ wjoint � vjoint; w ¼ wjoint � wjoint: ð Þ motion modulation for motion modulation, the motion of the upper extremity was manipulated by modulating the anatomical joint angular velocities and then calculating the resulting coordinate data of the joint,using an fk algorithm. the manipulation was defined such that it generated a displace- ment of the distal adjacent segment of the target joint but did not generate a displacement of the proximal adjacent segment. as a result, the modulation at a certain joint generated simultaneous displacements of all distal joints and segments; however, the positions and orientations of all proximal joints and segments remained unchanged. in particular, the position of the target joint was also unchanged. the modulated anatomical joint angular velocity (ωm mod_joint) was obtained by multiplying the original iforearm hand upper armforearm kforearm jforearm ihand khand jhand ωforearm wrist elbow shoulder ωhand ωwrist = ωhand - ωforearm uwrist vwrist (wwrist) fig. segment reference frame (e.g. ihand, jhand, khand), joint reference frame (e.g. uwrist, vwrist, wwrist), resultant segment angular velocity (e.g. ωhand) and resultant joint angular velocity (e.g. ωwrist) behav res ( ) : – anatomical joint angular velocity for a certain duration (from t to t ) by a constant, wmod jointm ¼ wmðt < t Þ cwmðt � t < t Þ; wmðt � tÞ >>< >>: m ¼ ; ; ð Þ where c is an arbitrary constant associated with the modulation percentage and m represents the nominal number of each anatomical axis. by using the anatomical description of the upper extremity, the modulated joint angular velocities (ωmod_joint) are defined as follows: wmod joint ¼ wmod jointplm=drs u wrist þ wmod jointrad=uln vwrist wmod jointprn=spn w j:forearm wmod joint flx=ext uelbow wmod jointhad=hab u shoulder þ wmod jointadd=abd vshoulder þ w mod joint inr=exr w shoulder; >>>>>>< >>>>>>: ð Þ where j. forearm represents the forearm joint in distinction from the forearm segment; joint motions with no degrees of freedom were omitted. for general fk calculations, a coefficient matrix—that is, the jacobian—is used to describe the relationship between the attitude of the end effector and the joint angular velocities of the link–segment system (zatsiorsky, ): dr dt ¼ jðaÞ da dt ; ð Þ where r consists of the position vector and orientation vector of the end effector, j(α) is the jacobian, and α is the nth order group vector of the angular velocities of the n-joints. for the reconstruction of the modulated motion in this study, however, the coordinate data of all the upper extremity joints were required. therefore, a sequential calculation of all the segment longitudinal unit vectors (ksegment) from the proxi- mal joint to the distal joint was more convenient than using eq. . the time derivative of ksegment is associated with ωsegment by the following equation: dksegment dt ¼ wsegment � ksegment; ð Þ where the cross operator represents the vector product. the vector ωsegment was replaced by the modulated segment angular velocities (ω ), which was calculated from in eq. . this led to the following relationships: wmod upper arm ¼ wtrunk þ wmod shoulder wmod forearm ¼ wmod upper arm þ wmod elbow wmod hand ¼ wmod forearm þ wmod j:forearm þ wmod wrist: ð Þ we conducted a time progressive calculation to obtain the modulated segment longitudinal unit vectors (kmod_segment) by using the differential transform of eq. : kmod segmentðtÞ ¼ Δtðwmod segmentðt� Þ � kmod segmentðt� ÞÞ þ kmod segmentðt� Þ; ð Þ where Δt is the time interval of the sampling frames and τ, the frame number. then the three-dimensional coordinate data of the modulated joint position (xmod_joint) were obtained: xmod elbow ¼ xshoulder þ kmod upperarmlupperarm xmod wrist ¼ xmod elbow þ kmod forearmlforearm xmod mp ¼ xmod wrist þ kmod handlhand; ð Þ where l is a function of τ of the segment length determined by the original motion data and mp represents the third metacarpophalangeal joint. the position and orientation of the racket were assumed to remain unchanged relative to those of the hand segment; therefore, the modulated racket reference frame (rmod_racket) is described as rmod racket ¼ trmod hand; ð Þ where t is a transformation matrix dependent on τ that is not changed by the motion modulation and rmod_hand, the modulated hand reference frame. the coordinate data of the racket landmarks were determined by rmod_racket. non-modulated motion was derived through all the processes described above; namely, all the modulation constants in eq. were equal to one (c = ). note that the non-modulated motion also had a slight displacement, relative to the original captured motion, due to the reconstruction processing—for example, low-pass filtering and the assumption that the racket was rigid. at racket–ball impact, the increments of the kinematic parameters of the non-modulated motion, relative to the original motion, were (Δx, Δy, Δz) = ( . , . , . m) for the position of the racket face center, Δvr = . m/s for the linear velocity of the racket face center, and Δαyaw = . ° and Δαpitch = - . ° for the racket attitude. experiment with modulated motion method participants eight experienced male tennis players (m ± sd: age = . ± . years, experience = . ± . years) participated in the experiment. the participants were behav res ( ) : – ωmod_joint mod_segment college or graduate students who were carrying out daily practice in the collegiate club team, and all of them were unfamiliar with stimulus materials used for the experiment. they gave informed consent before the experiment. test stimuli a video-based system was used to collect three-dimensional coordinate data of serve motions on an outdoor tennis court. the serve motions performed by a skilled male test player (height = . m, weight = kg, age = years, experience = years) were videotaped as the original motion at a -hz sampling rate, using two synchronized high-speed cameras (hsv- c , nac inc., tokyo). the test player was instructed to hit a flat serve– that is, a serve with less spin—using his best effort, aiming at a target area ( × m) set at the back center of the court within the right serve box. outrigger marker devices were attached to the test player’s hand and wrist in order to calculate the anatomical angular velocities of the wrist flexion and forearm rotation separately (see fig. ). the most successful trial among the three collected flat serves was selected for analysis. the landmarks of the entire body, outrigger landmarks of the hand, outrigger landmarks of the wrist, and landmarks of the racket were manually digitized frame-by-frame, utilizing motion analy- sis software (frame-dias ii, dkh inc., tokyo). then, using the process described in the motion analysis section, all the anatomical joint angular velocities of the racket-arm were obtained (see fig. ). the modulation duration was set during the forward swing phase ( . s), beginning from the initiation of the forward swing (t = ifs) and ending at time of the racket– ball impact (t = impact). the ifs was defined as the time at which the racket head was positioned at the lowest point. the forearm pronation/supination and elbow extension/ flexion were selected for modulation separately, because the joint angular velocities of them showed relatively high and consistently positive almost throughout the forward swing phase (fig. b). the consistent positive sign of the joint angular velocity was interpreted as indicating typical unidirectional joint rotation of forearm pronation and elbow extension. the modulation coefficients were set to c = . , . , . , . (- %, - %, + %, + %, slow to fast modulation, respectively) for each joint rotation. non- modulated motion was also constructed through the same modulation procedure, with c = at every anatomical joint angular velocity. finally, the test stimuli of serve anima- tions consisted of one non-modulated motion (± %), four forearm pronation/supination modulated motions (- %, - %, + %, + %;see fig. ), and four elbow extension/ flexion modulated motions (- %, - %, + %, + %;see fig. ). cg animations were created using cg modeling software (maya . , alias inc., toronto). the template character “jackie” from the maya . documentation and lessons was used as the digital human model. the racket model was made of a rigid body polygon. a scripting language (maya embedded language, mel) was used to convert the motion data to the cg human model (fukuhara, ida, kusubori, & ishii, ). the ball was erased from the animation to eliminate unexpected perceptual effects other than human motion; for example, the racket might miss the ball because the modulation procedure changed the path of the racket. the viewing point was set around the receiver’s view point—that is, m above the cross point of the baseline and sideline of the singles court on the right. the frame rate of the animation was set at hz. the total duration of the animation was . s from the ready position to the racket–ball impact. the animation was occluded immediately after the frame of racket–ball impact. procedure the participants sat . m away from, and directly in front of, the screen on which the test stimuli were projected. the maximum height of the test serve motion was adjusted to . m. this provided a visual angle of approximately . °, which is similar to a real game situation. the experiment was conducted on our stand- alone test program built utilizing application development software (real basic, ascii solutions inc., tokyo). this body vertex tragion shoulder elbow wrist mp rd lowest rib hip knee ankle heel toe : digitizing point : calculated point racket and ball racket head left side right side face end grip end ball center outrigger marker hand nd hand th hand extension wrist ulnar wrist radial b) hand marker racket markers wrist marker nd th ulnar radial extension a)fig. attached hand marker and wrist marker (a), and digi- tizing points and calculated points (b) for original serve motion behav res ( ) : – test program runs an experiment flow involving the presentation of a quicktime movie, an input window for providing the anticipatory estimation score, and an auto-output function of all the response results. the participants first viewed the non-modulated motion at least three times and then viewed one of the modulated test motions, which included the non-modulated motion at a certain trial turn. after viewing, the participants were instructed to give their anticipatory score for the ball direction on a visual analogue scale (vas) from (left) to (right) in comparison with the non-modulated motion ( on vas). the participants performed a total of trials: forearm modulated motion trials with repeats, elbow trials with repeats, and non-modulated trial with repeats. data analysis the vas scores were analyzed using statistical software (spss . , spss japan inc., tokyo). a repeated measure one-way analysis of variance (modu- lation percentage) with a least significant difference post hoc comparison was performed to test the effect of the modulation percentage on the anticipation of ball direction for the forearm modulation and elbow modulation. mauchly’s test of sphericity was conducted, and when there was a violation of the sphericity assumption, the greenhouse–geisser correction was used to adjust the degrees of freedom. partial eta-squared (ηp ) was estimated to measure the effect size. the significance level was set at α = . . result and discussion for forearm modulation, the anticipatory score of ball direction decreased (shifted to the left) monotonically with the modulation percentage (fig. a). there was a signifi- cant effect on the modulation percentage, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . . significant differences between modulation percentages were found in eight pairwise comparisons (p < . ; *s in fig. a). because the forearm of the test server pronated throughout the forward swing phase (fig. b), applying a positive modulation resulted in a faster pronating motion than non-modulated motion, whereas applying a negative modulation resulted in a slower pronating motion. the results indicate that the faster the server’s forearm pronated, the more the anticipation of the ball direction tended to the left side of the serve box. for elbow modulation, as opposed to forearm modulation, the anticipatory score of ball direction increased(shifted to the right) monotonically with the modulation percentage (fig. b). there was a significant effect on the modulation percentage, f( . , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . . significant differences between modulation percentages were found in five pairwise comparisons (p < . ; *s in fig. b). the server’s elbow extended almost throughout the forward swing phase (fig. b). using the same consideration as forearm modulation, the result signified that the faster the server’s a) c) b) - - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . - . . time (s) shoulder hor. flexion (+) / extension (-) abduction (+) / adduction (-) internal (+) / external (-) rot. ifs impact - - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . - . . time (s) wrist palmar (+) / dorsi (-) flx. ulnar (+) / radial (-) dev. ifs impact - - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . - . . time (s) elbow and forearm extension (+) / flexion (-) foa. pronation (+) / supination (-) ifs impact fig. the anatomical angular velocity of wrist (a), elbow and forearm (b) and shoulder (c). flx: flexion, dev: deviation, foa: forearm, hor: horizontal, and rot: rotation. ifs: initiation of forward swing (- . s), impact: racket-ball impact behav res ( ) : – elbow extended, the more the anticipation of ball direction tended to the right. these results suggest that tennis players are sensitive to the motion modulation of their opponent’s racket-arm. in previous work, the adjustment of preimpact racket motion during overhand serve—for example, changing the racket’s vertical and lateral velocity—was carried out by skilled players when going from the first to the second serve (chow, carlton, lim, chae, shim, kuenster, & kokubun, ); therefore, receivers might have changed the antici- patory judgment depending on the opponent’s arm kine- matics. it is highly possible that skilled players may benefit from the visual information found in the racket-arm and racket during the forward swing and use it as an anticipatory cue. the results demonstrated that the manipulation tech- nique worked well for detecting the change in the pattern of the anticipation of ball direction. interestingly, both forearm modulation and elbow modulation evoked monotonic tendencies in ball direction score depending on modulation percentage. both of these target motions were almost unidirectional, forearm pronation or elbow open occlusion - % + % + % - % ± % (non-modulated) - . s s- . s- . s - . s - . s- . s- . s ifs impactmodulation modulation - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . . time (s) forearm pronation / supination ± % (non-modulated) - % - % + % + % ifs impact fig. the sequential image of cg animation with the modulation of the forearm angular velocity. time-course curves show the profile of the modulated forearm pronation (+) / supination (-) angular velocity behav res ( ) : – extension, in the motion analysis; therefore, the result is clear: the anticipation of ball direction shifts monoton- ically depending on joint motion speed. the situation would be more complex if the modulation targeted bidirectional motion—for example, the dorsi flexion followed by the palmar flexion—or multijoint motions. the judgment of ball direction is one of the most popular criteria for assessing the response accuracy in sports situations, and thus, the manipulation technique contrib- utes further to this field. general discussion we proposed a methodological approach that utilized the manipulation technique with the fk calculation to control test motion quasi-arbitrarily and a cg display with a digital human model. this methodology is referred to by hodgins et al. ( ). however, our approach was intended to be more applicable to ball sport practitioners; therefore, we examined the anticipatory performance of a tennis oppo- nent’s serve motion, which requires great attention and open occlusion - % + % + % - % ± % (non-modulated) - . s s- . s- . s - . s - . s- . s- . s ifs impactmodulation modulation - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . . time (s) elbow extension / flexion ± % (non-modulated) - % - % + % + % ifs impact fig. the sequential image of cg animation with the modulation of the elbow angular velocity. time-course curves show the profile of the modulated elbow extension (+) / flexion (-) angular velocity behav res ( ) : – skilled visual search behavior. the motion exaggeration in the spatial location enhances the discrimination accuracy of the type of tennis serves (pollick, fidopiastis, & braden, ). this technique has modified the joint positions of the entire body but did not permit precise manipulation of the anatomical joint rotation. the use of anatomically validated motion in our study enables meaningful suggestions for practitioners, because real players may duplicate such motions without violating anatomical constraints. our manipulation technique is more plausible in an anatomical sense, but this still presents a problem: can real players hit the ball with the manipulated motion? during the anticipation of the tennis ground stroke, the skilled players spent a significantly shorter time visually searching the racket area than did their less skilled counterparts, whereas no differences were observed between them at the racket-arm and hand area (williams, ward, knowles, & smeeton, ). this suggests that the changes in racket kinematics may have a greater influence on less skilled players than on skilled ones. however, gaze analysis gave no conclusive evidence about whether or not the racket or racket-arm is more informative; to understand this, it will be necessary to clarify the effect of central vision and peripheral vision in tennis perception. in a related study, the isolated motion display of a badmin- ton stroke revealed that the pld of the racket-arm raised the anticipatory performance of experts above chance level at an earlier phase than that of the racket (abernethy & zawi, ). the challenge is determining whether or not anticipatory performance based on the racket or racket-arm depends on task or skill level. in addition, the anticipatory accuracy for the pld of the lower extremity cleared chance level at an even earlier phase than that of the racket-arm. skilled players appear to benefit from the anticipatory cue located around the proximal body; in contrast, less skilled players preferred to focus on more deterministic cues located around the racket area (williams et al., ). the limitations of this study were as follows: the relationship with real world, film, or pld was not studied, and the vas response could not explain the effect of perception–action coupling. recently, the effect of using a digital human model for studying the anticipatory perfor- mance of a tennis serve was discussed, and a cg display was found to be more similar to a video display rather than to a pld (fukuhara et al., ). the assessment of a cg display of the manipulated motion in comparison with real world or film remains to be examined. in our study, a video-based system was used to capture the motion of the test player because the field was a wide outdoor environment. auto-motion analysis systems—for example, motionanalysis (motionanalysis corp., santa rosa, ca) or vicon (vicon inc., los angeles, ca)—are also available if the environment is suitable for data collection. these systems simplify the process of creating visual stimuli. previous studies (abernethy, ; ward, williams, & bennett, ; williams et al., ) have suggested that skilled players were able to perceive anticipatory cues from an earlier part of an opponent’s stroke motion and more proximal segments of the opponent’s body than were their unskilled counterparts. our motion modulation, in contrast, focused on the later part (forward swing phase) and more distal segments (racket and racket-arm), because early and proximal modulation might generate complicated and unexpected motion. if the motion modulation with fk at the early phase and proximal segment generates the visual stimuli of natural and valid modulated motion, the study using this will provide mutually complementary under- standings with those previous studies. the methodology of this study included a distal approach in cognitive psychology, but it allowed informa- tion to be added in parallel to the visual stimulus. a typical distal approach uses natural motion as a visual stimulus and subtracts information (e.g., color, shape) from the motion. using simplified information from the cg model for a captured natural motion is subtractive, and thus, this b) elbow modulationa) forearm modulation * s co re s co re left right left right - % - % ± % + % + % modulation percentage - % - % ± % + % + % modulation percentage * fig. the anticipatory score (m ± sd) of estimated ball direction for forearm modulation (a) and elbow modulation (b) . *: p < . behav res ( ) : – approach is categorized as a distal approach. however, the motion modulation is additive, which is a typical concept in the proximal approach, because the parameters of the modulated joint angular velocity are added to control the racket-arm motion. pollick et al. ( ) referred to this distal but additive approach as unique in the study of biological motion perception. the motion manipulation has a significant effect on biological motion perception, and the motion modulation with fk calculation may have various applications in the study of human motion perception, together with the techniques such as cg animation or motion capture (e.g., in a sport simulation or in nonverbal communication). references abernethy, b. ( ). anticipation in squash: differences in advance cue utilization between expert and novice players. journal of sports sciences, , – . abernethy, b., & zawi, k. ( ). pickup of essential kinematics underpins expert perception of movement patterns. journal of motor behavior, , – . bideau, b., multon, f., kulpa, r., fradet, l., arnaldi, b., & delamarche, p. ( ). using virtual reality to analyze links neuroscience letters, , – . chow, j., carlton, l. g., lim, y.-t., chae, w.-s., shim, j.-h., kuenster, a., et al. 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( ). visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis. perception & psychophysics, , – . racquet kinematics of elite tennis players' first and second serves: a journal of motor behavior, , cognition, , a study of kinematic cues and anticipatory performance in tennis using computational manipulation and computer graphics abstract computation of motion analysis and motion modulation motion analysis motion modulation experiment with modulated motion method result and discussion general discussion references the .txtual condition, .txtual criticism and .txtual scholarly editing in spanish philology research article the .txtual condition, .txtual criticism and .txtual scholarly editing in spanish philology bénédicte vauthier published online: march # springer nature switzerland ag abstract the impact of new technologies on writing proccess is not new at all. this digital revolution first resulted in the appearance of new text formats and the development of an ad hoc literary theory. in angloamerican area, this revolution made philologists and patrimonial institutions reflect on the necessity of developing formats of study, edition and perennial conservation of these new formats of digital texts. what is the reason for such a delay in these disciplines that can be observed in europe? why can we say that digital forensics and media archaeology (kirschenbaum) are not trasnational disci- plines? in this paper, i assess the impact in europe and in angloamerican area of .txtual condition. moreover, i make a contrast between these conclusions and the answers given by three emblematic writers of the ‘new spanish narrative’ to a survey about ways of managing and preserving digital files. keywords spanish .txtual condition . .txtual criticism . .txtual editing . new comparative filology. spanish filology the .txtual condition and .txtual criticism in spanish philology a little more than ten years ago, in june , around forty representatives of contemporary book culture––among them, authors, critics, journalists, publishers and booksellers––gath- ered in seville at the initiative of a prestigious spanish publishing house, seix barral, and the josé manual lara foundation. the aim of the three-day summit and its round-tables was to exchange ideas about and survey into the achievements, objectives and innovations of a international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x dedicated to thorsten ries for his interest in my work. also dedicated to agustín fernández mallo, robert juan-cantavella and vicente luis mora, without whose generous support this study would not have the same relevance. * bénédicte vauthier benedicte.vauthier@rom.unibe.ch institut für spanische sprache und literaturen, universität bern (schweiz), bern, switzerland http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -x&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:benedicte.vauthier@rom.unibe.ch group of writers who were born between the early s and mid- s and began publishing their work in the early years of this millennium. although, for many of these writers, the meeting in seville was not strictly speaking a debut––and neither were they members of the so-called “nocilla generation”, which, nonetheless, became synonymous for the group after the event ––it was a fortunate choice of timing to bring together such a heterogenous group of authors. by biological age, they could belong to different generations, but this meeting proved to be the foundational act of the “new spanish narrative.” while a reader of their works will notice many compositional, stylistic and thematic differences between these authors, there are two features many of their works have in common and which have received scholarly attention in the form of doctoral theses (calles hidalgo ; barker ; pantel ; del pozo ortea ; saum-pascual ): hypertextuality, on the one hand, and inter-, multi- or transmediality on the other. as is widely known, both concepts have been usually linked to the impact that new media has had on literary production and creative writing and this has most prominently been reflected in the pioneering and internationally well-known studies by bolter, landow, ryan, douglas, etc. compared to the most influential works in the anglo-american area (michael joyce’s afternoon, a story, stuart moulthrop’s victory garden) spanish electronic literature has received less scholarly attention so far (pérez ), especially in spain. this might be understandable in some cases with respect to limited innovative aesthetic quality and the ephemeral character of the digital works in question. as a matter of fact, several works of spanish electronic literature which have been collected, preserved and presented in a section of the institutional online portal virtual library miguel de cervantes are not available online anymore. there is a risk that some of the “expanded literature” texts––or exonovels, to use the neologism one of the new spanish narrative’s most famous representatives coined (fernández mallo : )––will sooner or later be confronted with digital obsoles- cence. the second part of this article discusses this problem, but will also address another issue. i will look beyond contemporary literary studies, focused on the inter- pretation of singular authorised texts published under their author’s name, which often fail to recognise the multitude of reprints, and instead turn to questions of the (digital) the label “nocilla generation” refers to the title of a novel by agustín fernández mallo called nocilla dream. nuria azancot reused part of the title in an article published just a few weeks after the meeting ( . . ). other labels used - related to monographs, anthologies or compilations - are “afterpop”, “mutant”, “last generation spanish narrative”, “pangeic”, “postmodern”, “new spanish narrative”, “post- humanist narrative”. according to the literature, the number of writers that would be part of the group varies from six to twenty. among them, it is common to find lolita bosch, javier calvo, harkaitz cano, jorge carrión, diego doncel, domenico chiappe, Álvaro colomer, juan francisco ferre, javier fernández, agustín fernández mallo, eloy fernández porta, salvador gutiérrez solís, robert juan-cantavella, milo krmpotic, gabi martinez, javier moreno, vicente luis mora, sofia rhei, isaac rosa, mario cuenca sandaval, germán sierra, manuel vilas, etc. literatura electrónica hispánica fundación biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes (ed.): biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes. url: http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/literaturaelectronica/obras. html (accessed / / ). an exception is the three volumes: nocilla dream ( ), nocilla experience ( ) and nocilla lab ( ) that form a trilogy, republished under the common title proyecto nocilla ( ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/literaturaelectronica/obras.html http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/literaturaelectronica/obras.html writing process, scholarly editions (of born-digital material) and (born-digital) ar- chives. in this area, the landscape of european research, especially for spanish studies, seems to offer less encouraging prospects. it is clear that european research in digital humanities lags behind its counterpart in the anglo-american world for reasons that are not easy to overcome. matthew kirschenbaum’s concept of the “.txtual condition” in the digital age does indeed apply to many european writers––spanish in particular––and i will refer to three of them in the second part of my study: “in the specific domain of the literary, a writer working today will not and cannot be studied in the future in the same way as writers of the past, because the basic material evidence of their authorial activity—manuscripts and drafts, working notes, correspondence, journals—is, like all textual production, increasingly migrating to the electronic realm” (kirschenbaum : par. ). however, very little, if any, scholarly attention has been paid since to this change that will affect in crescendo four branches of literary studies––analytical bibliography, philology, scholarly editing and interpretive studies––when it comes to the literary production of the twenty-first century. it is useless to bemoan the situation. it is much more interesting to try to understand the causes and to examine the difficulties, or perhaps the resistances, that will have to be overcome in europe in order to create the digital humanities community that kirschenbaum has called for. digital forensics: a transnational discipline? in the context of anglo-american academia and research, authors, textual scholars, editors and, above all, cultural and memory institutions work hand in hand to meet the “.txtual condition” (kirschenbaum : par ). regarding european countries where english is not the official, but rather a second language, the delay of glam institutions (galleries, libraries, archives, and museums), the lack of digital edition projects that are comparable to the pioneering work in the anglo-american area and the scarce curiosity of researchers for the impact of the digital transformation on literary ways of writing that kirschenbaum exhibits in track changes ( ) cannot be properly explained unless we make explicit how an apparently transnational discipline––the adaptation of computer forensics methods in archival science and philology—is rooted in the specific philological tradition of anglo-american analytical bibliography and textual criticism. this is probably the key reason for the success of this approach. media archaeology […] offers one set of critical tools for coming to terms with the .txtual condition. another, of course, is to be found in the methods and theoretical explorations of textual scholarship, the discipline from which mcgann launched his ongoing program to revitalize literary studies by restoring to it a text in the broad sense of the word, that is, as defined by donald mckenzie: “i define ‘texts’ to include verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information, everything in fact from epigraphy to the latest forms of discography” ( : ). in mechanisms, kirschenbaum cites, as a representative sample button, the electronic beowulf, the canterbury tales project, the william blake archive and the rossetti archive ( : note ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – sense of its roots in philological and documentary forms of inquiry. as i’ve argued at length elsewhere, the field that offers to most immediate analog to bibliography and textual criticism in the electronic sphere is computer forensics, which deals in authenticating, stabilizing, and recovering digital data. […] digital forensics is the point of practice at which media archaeology and digital human- ities intersect (kirschenbaum : par. ). the double philological root to which kirschenbaum refers is undoubtedly at the center of the success and fruitful development of this research paradigm within the digital human- ities in his field of research. however, it might be more straightforward to say that the analogue precursor of the adaptation of computer forensics as a tool in born-digital philology was mckenzie’s “heterodox bibliography or sociology of texts” and mcgann’s “new textualism or modern textual criticism”. the reference to jerome mcgann, who is given the honor of having revitalised literary studies, may be seen as proof of this assertion. in textual criticism and scholarly editing of modern english literature texts––the stress on “modern” is essential here––the names donald mckenzie, “heterodox” bibliographer (darnton : ) and book historian, and jerome mcgann, american critic and philologist of modern texts, are often mentioned together and may seem synonymous with the paradigm shift that took place in literary disciplines during the mid- s (greetham : , sutherland : ; shillingsburg : ). mcgann’s and mckenzie’s books a critique of modern textual criticism (mcgann , st ed., , nd ed.) and bibliography and the sociology of texts (mckenzie , st ed., , nd ed., the result of the panizzi lectures, mckenzie ), published within a narrow time frame, have contributed to this misconception. the fact that the two authors sought to distance themselves almost at the same time––though they did it regarding different corpus and interests––from the “greg-bowers-tanselle theory”, which at the time was the predominant paradigm in the field of textual criticism and scholarly editing of premodern texts (lernout ), may also have contributed to the shakeup of the discipline. a survey into the academic reception of the two scholars not only in the anglo- american sphere, but also in european research, reveals, however, that things are not simple at all, and neither their names nor their proposals are interchangeable. mckenzie is an undisputed authority on anglo-american bibliographical research. however, it is the name and the work of jerome mcgann that has become the most emblematic reference among the representatives of new textualism. his book a critique of modern textual criticism became part of the school’s “canon” (greetham in shillingsburg : vii). the earlier the textual condition ( ) is one of the most frequently cited works among researchers interested modern scholarly editing, such as scholarly editing in the computer age (shillingsburg ), the fluid text. a theory of revision and editing for book and screen (bryant ) and the .txtual condition (kirschenbaum ), to mention just three important works by mcgann’s followers. in his assessment of anglo american textual criticism, lernout ( ) suggests that mcgann calls into question greg’s “base text” theory and the concept of “authorial aim” later introduced by bowers in the context of his philological study on manuscripts and modern texts. mckenzie, however, tries to widen the field of analytical bibliography with his new definition of “text” and his reflection on the production and spreading of printing history. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – in the part of europe where english is not a lingua franca, however––particularly in romance-speaking europe (e.g. france, italy, spain)––with the exception of english literature studies, the work of mcgann is hardly known, while “the second mckenzie” (willison : ) enjoys international reputation throughout europe, although more among book historians than among modern philologists. the french book historian roger chartier is the one who mainly disseminated mckenzie’s work and ideas in the european context. the absence of a modern philology in france and spain at the time allowed chartier to leave out the dominant bibliographical facet in the new zealander’s work by skipping the outset of his reflection to highlight the second key idea underlying mckenzie’s panizzi lectures: the material and social dimensions of text, which led to his own history of books, reading and readers. in this way, chartier did away with the strong link between librarianship and bibliography, between archives and editing, in mckenzie’s work and diluted his very early concerns about the emergence of new technologies that were substantially affecting the understanding of text and its circulation (vauthier a, b). these lectures were conceived and prepared, not as a text destined for print, but as lectures occasions. the challenge, as i saw it, was to sketch an extended role for bibliography at a time when traditional book forms must share with many new media their prime function of recording and transmitting texts. could we read in the preface to the first edition of his book ( : ix). in its second edition, following a review of mcgann’s ( ) response and, thanks to chartier’s work, the unexpected international reception of the book in europe (mckenzie : ; : ); he resumes: the familiar historical processes by which, over the centuries, texts have changed their form and content have now accelerated to a degree which makes the definition and location of textual authority barely possible in the old style. professional librarians, under pressure from irresistible technological and social changes, are redefining their discipline in order to describe, house, and access mckenzie’s book, bibliography and sociology of texts, was translated to french in , to italian in and to spanish in . in all three cases, translations were accompanied by a substantial prologue by chartier, who has channeled the author’s reception, very particularly in france and then in spain, in the somewhat exclusive direction of the history of the book (vauthier a). these three ideas are: . “an extended role for bibliography”, as it is shown in the first lines of the preface that follows. in the second paragraph, mckenzie specifies: “there were two other considerations which it seemed timely to voice” ( , ix, italics are mine). . the acknowledgment of historical bibliography as a discipline in itself: “historical bibliography (as distinct from descriptive and analytical bibliography and stemmatics) has gained acceptance as a field of study” and . the essential instability of the text and the impossibility of fixing it for good: “definitive editions have come to seen an impossible ideal” and “each version has some claim to be edited in its own right” ( , ). these three ideas clearly show mckenzie’s wide oversight, as bibliographer and book historian. chartier is a book historian, not a philologist, and consequently only refers to the first and second idea. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – sounds, static and moving images with or without word, and a flow of computer- stored information ( : ). these two dimensions––the impact of new technologies and the necessary renovation of the traditional bibliography––explain the honored place that donald mckenzie now occupies among anglo-american scholars of modern text, particularly in the works of mcgann and kirschenbaum. although in the .txual condition ( : par. , and ) and in mechanisms ( : ) kirschenbaum admits his debt to mcgann, in the opening pages of his collective report digital forensics and born-digital content in cultural heritage collections, he asserts very clearly that the necessary connections and interactions between the world of archives and digital forensics stem from mckenzie’s work, particularly from his early attention to new technologies: we maintain that such parallels are not coincidental, but rather evidence of something fundamental about the study of the material past, in whatever medium or form. as early as , d. f. mckenzie, in his panizzi lectures, explicitly placed electronic content within the purview of bibliography and textual criti- cism, saying, ‘i define texts to include verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information, everything in fact from epigraphy to the latest forms of discography ( , ) (kirschenbaum et al. : ). in the same way, mcgann’s recent popularity among modern philologists may be a consequence of the fact that he knew how to minimize his first book’s precedence to mckenzie’s panizzi lectures, which would be published two years later, and, conse- quently, could make mckenzie ‘the hero of our own time’, that is, the hero of scholarly edition. d. f. mckenzie became the hero of our own time not because he discovered the sociology of the text – we’ve known about that for a long time. he became the hero because he knew that the idea of the social text had to be realized as a scholarly edition. such an edition would be addressing and answering some key – basically philo- logical – questions. could one develop a model for editing books and material objects rather than just the linguistic phenomena we call texts? to pose that question, as mckenzie did, was to lay open the true dimensions of what he was after: a model for editing texts in their contexts (mcgann : - , italics are mine). after having clarified the intrinsic alignment between the adaption of digital forensics as a philological and archival scientific method, on the one hand, and the traditions of theory and practice of modern scholarly editing, textual criticism and analytical it is very interesting to note that in the section “the history of the book” of his review of “textual scholarship”, marcus does not mention mckenzie, but only chartier and darnton. instead, he mentions mckenzie along with mcgann in the section “textual scholarship in present” ( ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – bibliography in the anglo-american academia and research, on the other, i turn the scope of this survey back to europe. unlike the anglo-american context, where authors, textual scholars, publishers and, above all, cultural and memory institutions work hand in hand to meet the “.txtual condition”, the european cultural and research landscape features neither such a clear, nor such an unanimously shared strategy among the involved parties. moreover, there is no such thing as a standardized “continental” or “european theory of scholarly editing”, nor are there language-specific models for scholarly editions (lernout , ; vauthier a, b). even tei encoding and tei-based editions still face difficulties in establishing a standard model for digital scholarly editions (marcus : – ), which may complicate the long-term preservation of editions. last and above all, the idealistic understanding of the modern text that prevails among european philologists and an individualist or romantic concept of authorship have been the main factors which impeded studies focused on the materiality of the textual media, on the graphic dimension of prints and books, and on non-authorised or posthumous versions of texts (vauthier ; vauthier a, b). an article penned by rüdiger nutt-kofoth illustrates this point, which allows me to further detail and expand my above claims regarding the lack of scholarly reception of mcgann’s work in europe. in editionsphilologie als mediengeschichte (scholarly editing as media history, nutt-kofoth )––the simplicity of the title should be noted as meaning- ful––a german literary scholar and specialist for scholarly editions invites his col- leagues to stop focusing solely on the “linguistic” dimension of the text and instead turn to the concept of “bibliographical orientation” by peter shillingsburg ( : ), the representative of the new anglo-american textualism, which, in recent years, has made large efforts to build bridges between the scholars of german and english literature. it is too early to see whether his colleagues will follow this invitation, although it may kirschenbaum’s article illustrates how the invaluable legacy of an author, editor and educator like deena larsen, a pioneer of electronic writing, to an institution (the mith) is not a result of chance, but of friendship that unites the writer to the center and its researchers. that is to say, the same scenario as the one at the origin of the legacy or the sale of working manuscripts of contemporary writers to memory institutions is repeated: louis aragon at the institut des textes et manuscrits modernes in paris, miguel Ángel asturias at the bibliothèque nationale de france, friedrich dürrenmatt in switzerland. in all three cases, the legacy was made with the explicit desire for exploration and evaluation using latest editing techniques. the geneticists—members of both french and german schools—have put a lot of emphasis on the materiality and the graphic substance of the drafts, of the avant-texte, a characteristic that they have not granted to the text completely (lebrave, ; mahrer reuss ). in the same way, even among those who declare to be interested in the process, the death of the author remains an insurmountable frontier (lebrave, , mahrer ) or remains clearly on the side of the history of reception (reuss ). and that is what the anglo-americans question with the idea of “versioning” (reiman ), “fluid text” (bryant ), etc. “based in the bibliographical studies of d. f. mckenzie, this orientation enlarges the definition of text to include all aspects of the physical forms upon which the linguistic text is written. this approach does not admit to any parts of the text or of the physical medium to be considered non significant and therefore emendable. […] all aspects of the physical object that is the book that bear clues to its origins and destinations and social and literary pretentions […] are text to the bibliographic orientation” (shillingsburg : – ). two recent books of italian philology (cadioli , italia ) also draw attention to the importance of the works of mcgann and even more of peter shillingsburg. like the german editor of ulysses, hans walter gabler, did at his time and like it is still done by belgian anglists geert lernout and dirk van hulle (lernout : – ). that invitation is the same that margarita santos zas and i made to edit valle-inclán ( ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – seem unlikely that it will be possible to put an end to the debate about the issue of textual versions that opposes the scholars of german and english literature— an issue that hinges on questions of materiality on the one hand and “authorial intentionality” on the other (shillingsburg : – ). more instructive may be patrick sahle’s work ( ) on the typology of digital scholarly editions and on the definition of the term “text”, in which the historian reflects upon its polysemy and, instead of one definition, proposes a dynamic wheel of terminological perspectives on the term “text”. in this way, he intends to overcome static definitions that construe “text” in antagonistic terms. after this overview, in which some light was shed on the specificity of modern textual criticism and scholarly editing of modern texts both in european traditions and in the anglo-american research context, it is necessary to return to memory institutions and to the urgent issue of the long-term preservation and curatorship of writers’ private digital archives. ‘i unpack my digital library and show you my digital desktop’ in their studies of librarianship and digital curatorship, becker ( ) and weisbrod ( ) highlighted the challenges and deficits that research and memory institutions–– they take libraries and literary archives in germany, austria and switzerland as an example––need to address in terms of long-term preservation, curatorship and scholarly appreciation of born-digital heritage and digital culture in comparison to memory institutions, archives and research in european countries where english is not the main language spoken. both books seek to understand how writers write, how they organise their working process, and how they organise and preserve their documents in the digital era. yet, the question arises: to what extent authors have an interest in and are willing to receive support from memory institutions to ensure long-term preservation of their literary and personal digital archives. additionally, dirk weisbrod complemented the empirical part of his doctoral thesis with in-depth expert interviews with archivists and directors of memory institutions. both authors in their conclusions put emphasis on the need for archivists to establish contact between memory institutions and likely donors or depositors of private digital archives as early as possible in order to make writers aware of the need and possibilities in place to preserve their published or ongoing work, for instance, in an institutional archive cloud (weisbrod : – , here ). in the course of his argument, weisbrod forges the neologism ‘präkustodiale intervention’ (pre-custodial intervention), which refers to the interven- tion of archivists with possible donors or depositors as a preliminary measure to ensure long-term preservation of and access to their archives. this conclusion is very much in line with the institutional collaboration with writers advocated for by kirschenbaum. from the more modest academic perspective of a scholar of contemporary spanish literature, who is not directly connected to particular memory institutions and who does in from gutenberg to google, shillingsburg lists the main works of the polemics ( : – ) and vauthier analyzes some of the editorial implications of the two paradigms ( and a). this polysemy is activated or reactivated, if we consider mckenzie, through the problems of coding. that is, from what new technologies make the editors see. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – not feel inclined to acquire digital forensic skills anytime soon, i still find it important to scrutinize the implications of the digital media turn for the scholarly edition and interpretation of twenty-first century literature. it was jean-louis lebrave’s research program that guided my steps when exam- ining the hybrid dossier génétique of robert juan-cantavella’s transmedial novel el dorado, a born-digital novel (vauthier : ). this research program, proposed to the french critique génétique by one of its pioneers, put forward his scholarly attention for the changes that the arrival of personal computers on the authors’ writing desks meant for their ways of working. having studied the dossier génétique of el dorado, it became very clear to me that the critique génétique and scholarly editions of twenty-first century literature will depend on the preservation state of the private digital archives and that these disciplines will have to focus on the question of digital versions and variants––and on the complexity of the problem of the versions (lebrave : ). consequently, i contacted three writers of the “new spanish narrative” to start a survey about their way of working in the digital age. without being aware of it at the time—given that i formulated my questions based on my years-long practice as a scholarly editor of avant-textes and modern spanish texts and not aimed at the interviewees’ way of writing—i happened to collect data about their methods of organising their work on the computer and about how they ensured the preservation of their creative work at the same time. despite the relatively small sample of three writers, the data collected is relevant in the context of the methodological framework of qualitative survey (heigham and croker ). qualitative surveys gather generic information, illustrate general trends, may seek answers to research questions that cannot be operationalised and addressed in quantitative surveys or questions where the personal relationship and the interaction between interviewee and researcher may play a key role. in short, my survey responds to the research question formulated by becker in her conclusion: “it would be inter- esting to have a closer look at the youngest generation of writers with respect to their ways of writing” ( : ). in the present case, the answers are interesting with respect to two dimensions. nocilla dream ( ) by agustín fernández mallo ( ), el dorado ( ) by robert juan-cantavella ( ) and alba cromm ( ) by vicente luis mora ( ) are among the most representative inter- and transmedial works of the new spanish narrative. all of them meet the definition of the exonovel, a neologism coined by fernández mallo. “it would be a much greater matter of urgency to mobilize the energy for approaching two crucial questions for the future of genetic criticism. first, it is about really knowing how the writers appropriate the computer, and which are the effects of this appropriation on writing. the second concerns the way in which geneticists will be able to construct real scientific objects based on data of a new type stored on computer memories” (lebrave : ). the mention of the personal relationship and friendship is necessary, since the access to author files must be approved by the authors and / or beneficiaries. in the case of digital archives, the question of trust placed in the researcher and the confidentiality of the documents to which they may have access is more crucial than ever. i sent the questionnaire “i unpack my digital library and show you my digital desktop” during the christmas period of and the answers came between th december and th january, allowing me to request additional information. in addition, agustín fernández mallo and vicente luis mora also have articles and / or essays that focus on the impact of new technologies and they maintain blogs of literary criticism. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – a neologism, based notion of a exoskeleton, exonovel refers to “that which sustains to novel, providing internal solidity and protection, without which the novel itself is not possible” (fernández mallo : ). “the model that this exonovel follows is that of a protective shell on the outside of the book’s body, but it is dislocated.” ( : ) the examples that the author provides between the two definitions refer to digital formats that the three authors use on a regular, varying basis: websites, blogs (either installed for the purpose of a specific writing project or their pre-existing blog), videostreams on youtube or other platforms, facebook accounts operated by the authors under their real names or avatars, etc. with respect to the problem of digital obsolescence of electronic literature, which has already been briefly addressed, this calls for precautionary measures; it is time to be concerned about the impact that a partial or complete loss of the elements “without which, the novel itself is not possible” would have on our understanding of the exonovels. i will postpone dealing with the private digital archive, the submerged part of the iceberg— the digital files poised to possibly disappear—and first address the work’s digital representation in the public sphere. although the texts seem to be independent from the “cinematic poetics of their provenance”, what would happen if the readers of the nocilla trilogy––dream ( ), experience ( ), lab ( )––had no longer access to the movie proyecto nocilla? accordingly, what would happen to our understanding of the work if cantavella’s punk journalism website––available on punkjournalism.com––that complements the novel el dorado, the url of which already no longer corresponds to the one mentioned on the back cover, ceased to exist? even so, if the two texts are autonomous, the parodistic weblog will not stop laying open its deck of cards, revealing to its reader parts of the documentary (digital photos, cutouts of scanned texts, etc.) and critical material (articles of the fictive character published in the press) that the author’s alter ego trebor escargot used to write his road movie, a remake of fear and loathing in las vegas ( ), inspired by hunter s. thompson’s homonymous novel (vauthier , ). furthermore, how could we not think about the implications for our understanding of alba cromm ( ) if we know that the author’s logbook “alba cromm y la vida de los hombres” (“alba cromm and the life of man”), which vicente luis mora wrote parallel to his novel and to which the novel refers, and also know that this logbook “is only accessible through the internet archive search engine” (ilasca : )? these preliminary observations may be sufficient to illustrate why it is essential to understand how writers imagine the future of their work, which they develop, almost exclusively, in digital media. despite the fact that all of the authors’ answers to the various survey blocks are interesting and relevant with regard to the issue, i will not document them in full. it would be impossible for several practical reasons, mainly because some of them are very long and some contain confidential information. even without having access to the authors’ computers or, in this case, their files, but having seen some of their the film is available in the writer’s blog “el hombre que salió de la tarta”: “proyecto nocilla, la película” http://fernandezmallo.megustaleer.com/proyecto-nocilla-la-pelicula/ (accessed / / ). el dorado is based on both thompson’s novel and the film directed by terry gilliam, which stars jonny depp as raoul duke. the work on el dorado was realized through the examination of the material collected in a usb key that the author gave me in , along with personal documents (dvd, press, logbook, etc.) kept in a backpack (vauthier , ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – http://punkjournalism.com http://fernandezmallo.megustaleer.com/proyecto-nocilla-la-pelicula/ screenshots, it is clear that “access to someone else’s computer is like finding a key to their house, with the means to open up the cabinets and cupboards, look inside the desk drawers, peek at the family photos, see what’s playing on the stereo or tv, even sift through what’s been left behind in the trash” (kirschenbaum : par. ). this is the natural and understandable reason for the cautious reluctance of the authors to deposit or donate their private digital archives––and surely one of the greatest challenges for the effort of building future born-digital archives and pre-custodial interventions. to give an overview, three quarters of the questions asked were related to what weisbrod describes as “ways of administrating and managing work on the computer” ( : – , – ), one quarter was about the “methods to ensure preservation of the archives” ( : – , – ). to be more precise, i was interested in the following topics: & how do authors organize their digital work and when do they start organizing their materials; & the metadata and criteria they use to organize their work (date (timestamps), file name, file type, extension, title, etc.) and their possible variations according to textual genre (narrative, essay, poetry, academic work, etc.); & the time and naming schemes according to which they create and name versions, the timing and regularity when they do so; & the possible metadiscursive component (“notes de régie”) in their work and the way they use visual queues for marking up certain digital writing operations (color, strikethrough, bold, track changes, etc.); & the way of documenting their work in the digital environment (type of used sources and consulted documents) and, if applicable, the way this “external” material is stored; & the possibility of recycling documents, versions, own and/or “external” texts and the concrete way this is done (duplication of documents, copy and paste, etc.); & the use of the operating system’s virtual recycle bin; & the preservation of digital files and hardware (self-archiving): what do they keep (own and/or external documents, draft versions, final versions etc.)? when does the author self-archive their born-digital materials? where is the archive stored (cloud, hard disk, hard copy)?; & their possible representation of a digital library of literary authors that would replace traditional, paper-based archives, and their willingness to deposit or donate their born-digital archives. due to my interest in the writing process, on the one hand, and in scholarly editing of both avant-textes and authorised texts, on the other, i was especially interested in the way the authors document their own working materials and even more in the manage- ment of possible versions of their work. moreover, their answers to my questions regarding their willingness and interest to deposit or donate their digital files to archives and about their self-archiving practice seemed somewhat unexpected to me, if not alarming. in the following section, before commenting on them altogether and coming to a conclusion, i will reproduce the answers they gave to the first block of questions–– documentation and version-management– and i will outline the answers to the second block––archive preservation. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – “version” staying within the methodological context of a philological study that does not utilise digital forensics (ries ), during the interviews, i used the term “version” in the sense of “text” that slightly differs from another text, saved by the author before or after the first text. a comparison between both texts would show a variation, that is, would allow a researcher to reconstruct the writing process. i did not try to establish a new definition of the term “version” in the context of this study that would allow to include, in a strict sense, textual versions in automatically saved backup or temporary files (von bülow : ). i also did not take into account the definition of the term version that kirschenbaum refers to, for whom “versioning is a hallmark of electronic textual culture––as a thriving industry of content management systems, file comparison utilities, and so-called version control or concurrent versions systems, […]”, that is, concurrent versions system (cvs) ( : ). i will argue, however, that the issue of “textual identity” still needs to be at the center of scholarly interest. with this clarification, my question and the answers by the three authors are documented below. bénédicte vauthier: what is your criterion to be met in order for you to save a new version or to duplicate the document on which you are currently working? what do you do with previous “versions”? how do you name them? how often do you save what you wrote? agustín fernández mallo: i create a new file version if the novel is very advanced and it seems that i can open a path that will radically change things. i usually keep the name of the original file and simply add a number at the end. “[...] ,” “[...] ”, etc. sometimes i specify the reason of the change in order to remember it: “[…]substitutiondistortion”. i keep the previous versions, even if i consider them complete failures—you already know my opinion about garbage and about how it can be recycled. years may pass until i am able to see that something i had discarded was waiting for its natural place somewhere else. (email on january ). robert juan-cantavella: the criterion is not very scientific. i save a new version every time i think that i have made many changes to a document, just in case i may have to review later once more what i discarded. sometimes a long time passes (months), sometimes very little (days), depending on the changes made. when i return to a version, i usually save a copy of the previous version when i start, because i do not have everything under control; i keep the copy just in case. previous versions are saved in a dedicated folder. i usually name it “out” or “ant”, although it can be a different name. (email on january ). vicente luis mora: [...] when i spoke about versions, i was referring to the same base document with some changes; sometimes with many changes, sometimes with technically it would have been perhaps more accurate to speak about the “state of a text”, to distinguish this rewriting, typical of “avant-texte”, from another possible rewriting, posterior to a first publication. i translated my questions and their answers to english for this documentation. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – fewer. the base document, however, is always the same and therefore keeps the same creation date. each one of these digital copies that you have is a backup copy of the same document in progress, in continuous change: i enter the document and i add new things, correct or delete some of the old ones, so the document is not the “same” anymore when i finish. this is why i said it is a version, while you called it a “changed draft”. when i create a digital copy, it is because i think that i have made enough changes in the original to save it separately, and the chronolog- ical order is not marked by the date of the file, but by [...] [the date of the backup]. [this latest file] [...] contains the most recent version of each of the [texts]. [...] as i sometimes change minor things here and there in the document that are difficult to remember, and i hate the “track changes” mechanism of [microsoft] word, this is the only solution for me not to get lost: by successively saving multiple backups of the same document while it transforms towards its final “gestalt”. it is possible that between these copies there are only a few variants, but all of them together are the writing-polishing process of the novel, the demanding toil of writing, which [...] includes even the proofeading. (email january ). preservation with a nod to walter benjamin’s essay “ich packe meine bibliothek aus” (“unpacking my library”, ), which is echoed in the title of my questionnaire, i formulated the following two blocks of questions that refer to the preservation of digital files. . where do you keep the digital files related to the writing process of your works? hard disk, cloud, hardcopy? do you also keep the external documents that you have consulted? . how do you imagine a future library/digital archive of authors (for example, residencia de estudiantes)? can you imagine depositing or donating the digital archive of your works to a public research library? do you organize your folders with this in mind when you finish a work? do you manipulate them? are there any documents that you would like to delete? when you buy a new computer, do you keep the hard drive of the one you dispose of? to the first question, the three authors declared that they save their material to one or several hard drives separately. they save their work with varying regularity and, in any case, when they move or migrate to a different computer. two of them also use email as a save and backup tool and none of them seem to use the cloud. agustín fernández mallo even declared that he does not trust it. in general, working on paper, either for proofreading or to keep hardcopies of their work, has rather a marginal role in their working process. they may use it merely for “more sentimental than practical reasons”, as fernández mallo puts it, referring to the gallery proofs his publisher sends him. the on my initiative, the author returns to the response he had given me in the first place: “i do not usually make different versions’ ( . . ), which contradicted the status of a digital file to which i was given access.” specifically he refers to the “digital versions” of the novel alba cromm that he sent me in through a cloud. i gave up studying them because i did not find a satisfactory form of exploring the genetic dossier composed of versions which, in addition, as the author suggests, all have the same date of creation. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – three writers seem to move only a few of their digital documents to the virtual trash bin, and never while they are still in the writing process. some of these documents end up bloating folders named “discard”, “keep” or “out”, which leaves the writer the option to recover or reuse the text, immediately or later. draft versions may also be found in these folders. they mostly move material to the trash folder that may have turned up in the phase of documentary research, excerpts, early notes and drafts and that is not regarded as useful any longer (downloads, photos, etc.) or which is considered “exter- nal” to their work. agustín fernández mallo and vicente luis mora said that they keep their old computers when buying a new one. vicente luis mora said that once when he was abroad (in the usa), he disassembled a laptop “in order to puverise all its main components one by one with a hammer” as a measure of destroying his data. in addition to laptops, he also has a personal desktop computer which serves as a “method of general physical backup of everything.” the answers referring to their interest or willingness to deposit or donate their digital archive to a library that ensures their preservation cannot be easily summarized, nor do they show an unified tendency. agustín fernández mallo said that he imagined “a library in which the digital and the analogue are perfectly intermeshed, what i call postdigitalism: i organize the folders thinking about my personal organization and nothing else.” robert juan- cantavella imagines “a library that is accessible from computers. i do not know whether one would be required to enter a physical space (a building) to go and consult them. i would not donate the digital working documents of my books to a library or to any other type of institution. when i finish a work, i do not organize the materials thinking about any later external research consultation. there are usually no documents that i want to eliminate more than others.” as for vicente luis mora, he seemed to doubt that there will be such libraries “when i will be older”, imagining, in addition, a careful process of selection of “writers who wish to be included in their archive”. however, he expressed his concern about the idea that “textgenetic researchers like me” could dig into his computer and into the drafts of his works, with which, even when finished, he is usually not satisfied. hence, he declares: “you may be able to understand my feelings about the materials i have put aside. i guess, i will make many things disappear that would interest you, although i will keep others because the love for the work that took place during the consecutive drafts does not allow me to get rid of them.” having documented these answers by the authors, i would like to conclude by returning to the question of born-digital and the scholarly edition. .txtual editing anyone who knows anything about digital files and is familiar with the concerns of writers ––and even more those of their relatives––about the idea that researchers will search through their drafts as they please, have access to private materials, potentially reveal well-guarded or forgotten secrets, will understand certain fears triggered by the idea of delivering not just previously selected drafts and prints, but also the key to their digital “home” to unknown philologists, who would use forensic methods in order to access those digital secrets. regardless whether out of fear, lack of confidence or interest, if the artists of the th and twenty-first century do not deposit or donate their digital archives to professional memory institutions or take curatorial measures in order to preserve them, an important international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – resource for understanding the works of this era would be lost. they would end up only printed and published, making them appear curiously single or decontextualised if we think of the heterogeneous modern archives that may consist of drafts, notes, gallery proofs, prints, annotated books, correspondences, photos, etc. the apparent reluctance towards the archives of the future on the side of those authors who turned to and embraced the new media and their technologies to the extent of even becoming strongholds of the worldview of a connected society seems somewhat puzzling. if these authors did not give researchers access to the materials and traces of the creation of their works, geneticists and philologists would have to, like other critics, turn to texts published in book format in the future––e.g. in the form of works reedited and republished by the authors themselves. the majority of scholars, who do not seem to feel much curiosity for the unpublished, archived part of the work, usually accept this situation and base their work on the texts that circulate in the public realm. without reiterating the interpretation problem posed by transmedia works here, it obvious that failing to apply curatorial measures would risk losing the published, and even more these works’ unpublished parts and materials, rendering their historical record incom- plete, historically inaccurate and potentially incomprehensible. in cases where authors give philologists and textual geneticists access to the folders of one or more of their works, e.g. via a pen drive or their cloud account containing a complete record of unaltered documents that could belong to the constellation of the works, the challenge for the researcher with standard user skills will be to determine the possible or actual number of textual states or versions of the work exist. even if we content ourselves with the versions saved voluntarily by the authors, we could see that they do not hesitate to duplicate the most complete version of the text in order to avoid regrets in case they have to “come back” to a previous one. although this duplication is not merely mechanical, it is – from a critique génétique perspective––a fundamentally different process compared to the isolated revision and the revision by rewriting of a text in the analogue medium. in addition to this challenge, there are two other problems to be addressed: first, as the authors do not see their desktop full of drafts, they tend to avoid disposing of their things, which raises the issue of textual garbage and recycling that some of them have inscribed at the center of their work––this is, for instance, the case with fernández mallo ( : – ) and mora ( : – , – ). the second difficulty is related to the size of the digital files of narrative works: the systematic analysis of these is impossible without the aid of text collation tools such as included in juxta, medite, collatex, iteal. i would like to highlight a conclusion drawn by lebrave at the end of his review of the kirschenbaum’s and ries’ work: “it is very likely that genetic forensics has to renounce being a poetic of processes and instead will content itself with being a poetic of transitions between textual states” ( : ). i think this is accurate. however, as i do not want to give in to pessimism (lebrave : ), i hope that the unexpected multiplication of “versions” or “states” of a text with which a researcher is confronted when accessing a digital archive, will prove an invitation for them to address the question of “textual identity” under a new digital perspec- tive. faced with “different states of what we can suppose to be the same text, with all the epistemic difficulties posed by the problem of simultaneously identical and different texts” (ganascia and lebrave : , [italics mine]), it is time to stop supposing and start investigating this theoretical issue. however, it is necessary to international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – investigate it before launching a digital collation tool (mahrer : – ) or before making available for the reader or user all the versions of a text to be edited (bryant : ). to argue that beyond their differences two texts that can be compared, which is to say textually aligned, must be considered together in a genetic perspective (mahrer : – ), or that “a version, like any text of a work, is effectively an approximation of the attempt to achieve the work” (bryant : ) is equivalent to solving the problem that was to be elucidated “in favor of identity” (reuss : – ). references azancot, n. 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( ). don mckenzie and the history of the book. in j. thomson (ed.), books and bibliography: essays in commemoration of don mckenzie (pp. – ). wellington: victoria up. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://www.onb.ac.at/koop-litera/termine/kooplitera /buelow_ .pdf http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv: - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv: - the .txtual condition, .txtual criticism and .txtual scholarly editing in spanish philology abstract the .txtual condition and .txtual criticism in spanish philology digital forensics: a transnational discipline? ‘i unpack my digital library and show you my digital desktop’ “version” preservation .txtual editing references towards an african indigenous model of communication for software development in digital humanities akin-otiko akinmayowa augustine akintunde farinola abstract drawing insight from toyin falola’s call for african scholars to africanize knowledge, this paper argues for a review of the digital technological tools being used for research in african studies in order to adequately capture and properly process and present african data. to achieve this, the inadequacies of digital humanities for specific areas of african studies will be highlighted, especially in the deployment of digital humanities tools. the major challenge being the distortion and constraint experienced in processing and presenting research through the use of digital humanities ‘tools of translation and communication. the paper argues that such technological limitation has its root in the incompatibility of the epistemological frameworks within which those digital tools were developed. the paper discusses 'ojú lòrówà' – a theory of communication in an african society as a model to highlight the importance of african context to african scholars in their exploration into african history, technology, culture, philosophy and tradition. indigenous theory is an appropriate model for developing digital as well as virtual software for african scholars in human communication. the paper concludes by enjoining scholars in african studies to ensure that the digital tools employed in african studies are not only able to collect data, but also able to process and present data adequately without losing the original meaning or sense. keywords: african studies, data-presentation, data-processing, 'ojú lòrówà', software development, digital humanities. introduction in our increasingly digital world, it is expected that scholars in the humanities will embrace computer software and programs designed as tool for research. meanwhile, experience has shown that scholars in african studies have encountered difficulties in using those tools to capture a true representation of african heritage in the light of africa’s indigenous concepts, phenomena, beliefs and worldviews. instead of discouraging the use of these digital tools, we are developing a conceptual and epistemological framework for developers, as well as identifying the appropriate tools for research in africa. to achieve this objective, we shall embark on a brief conceptual analysis and discussion on the humanities, digital technologies in the humanities, the idea of communication and digital communication, and technological tools used in research in the humanities. then, we shall examine the inadequacies of some digital humanities tools for researchers in african studies and argue that they were built on a theory of communication within the framework of western and oriental knowledge and belief system. this would necessitate the explication of the idea of ojú lòrówà’ as a theory of communication to address this epistemic imposition on the technologies of the digital humanities. we will then deploy this theory to address the identified limitations of digital technological tools developed to be used by scholars in humanities. the humanities: definition, disciplines, goal, and peculiarities the term ‘humanities’ comes from the latin word ‘humanus’, meaning ‘human’ (vito r. giustiniani, ). so, the idea of the humanities is considered as a loosely defined group of academic subjects united by a commitment to studying aspects of the human condition. these subjects produce reflections and thoughts on human experiences and practices. the disciplines of humanities include history, anthropology, literature, art, philosophy, and law, political and cultural studies. the study of the humanities helps to understand human values and how these values translate to knowledge, attitudes, policies and inventions for the advancement of commodious living and common good. (godwin sogolo, ) digital humanities and its technological tools the digital humanities (dh) currently incorporates both digitized and born-digital materials and combines the methodologies from traditional humanities disciplines (such as history, philosophy, linguistics, literature, art, archaeology, music, and cultural studies). it provides computing tools (like data visualization, information retrieval, data mining, statistics, text mining) and digital publishing tools (arjun sabharwal, ). today, scholars in the humanities are using chat rooms, bulletin boards, and social networking websites for academic interactions. these digital technologies help in making digital information to travels over thousands of miles, thereby making research findings shareable within a global academic community. to be a member of these cyber communities, one simply needs a networked computer, or a computer that is connected to a larger system of other computers (albert borgmann, ). furthermore, it is becoming easier than ever for scholars, through the use of technology, to validate, track, and cross-check information (anne burdick et al., ). the most interesting aspect is the easy access to primary source materials, understanding texts written in different languages, and in preserving digital resources for the future. digital humanities technologies have enhanced perception, automated analysis, modelling and simulation, easy search for books, interactive music scores, dynamically generated maps, and other multimedia and digital resources or repositories. most scholars in the humanities currently make effort to digitalize their works. the first process in doing this is the digitalization of texts, images, and other data (e.g., survey data, videos, etc.), then the delivery of that data via the web (ibid.). the digitalization of text has helped scholarship as many more people could access those virtual libraries, museums, and archives across the world (ian foster, ). this has enabled historians, folklorists, digital humanists, ethnologists, anthropologists, and archivists in the process of collecting, preserving, and understanding, interpreting, and retelling stories of humanity (douglas a. boyd and mary a. larson, ). it does not require advanced computing or programming skills to benefit from the opportunities offered by digital humanities tools. media outlets such as youtube or soundcloud offer near instant and free distribution of audio and video oral histories, while digital repository and content management systems like contentdm, omeka, or even drupal or wordpress, provide powerful infrastructure for housing oral histories in a digital archive or library. systems such as ohms (oral history metadata synchronizer) now provide free opportunities to enhance access to oral histories online, connecting a textual search of a transcript or an index to the correlating moment in the online audio or video interview. mobile applications like curatescape offer enormous opportunities for collecting, curtain, and disseminating interviews and projects (ibid). it must however be stated that as they offer benefits, these tools also posed potential threats such as increased vulnerability of narrators, infrastructure obsolescence, and hosts of other ethical issues (ibid). most of these technologies are built on the mandate that we have to be online and be connected to a source of power. this imperative creates a sense of significance dependence by that fact. for instance, with the advent of apple icloud, amazon, microsoft and other online storage systems, one no longer need the memory of one’s computer because everything one writes, photographs and records will be saved in the ‘cloud’ or on a server somewhere which one can access anywhere in the world. in other words, cloud storage allows scholars to manage their data in an infinitely more convenient way so that they are synchronized across our growing collections of information appliances (domenico fiormonte et al., ). communication and research in humanities research is a process by which human beings investigate and obtain an understanding of the world. today, the way in which research is carried out is changing either for better or for worse. we use our brain along with technological aids so as to enhance the limited biological capabilities (ian foster, ). in our present-day society, electronic communication plays a vital role within the academic community such that anyone ignorant of the use of digital tools would become near invisible in the global academy. this is not a surprise since the seeds of modern digital technologies were planted many centuries ago and develop with the research of renowned scholars in the humanities (albert borgmann, ). researchers in the humanities currently use tools such as such as telephones, cell phones, e-mail, and so on (ananda mitra, ) for interpersonal communication; while electronic bulletin boards, chat rooms, digital conferencing, and small private digital networks tools are used for group communication (albert borgmann, ). these tools have enabled author(s) or researcher(s), editor(s), technician(s), publisher(s), librarian(s), reader(s) and audience(s) to interact without even meeting physically. but there have also been some observation as the limitations that researchers are facing in their engagement. daniel o'donnell's review of global participation of researchers in digital humanities suggests that digital activity may be correlated with the economic situation of a country, such that countries with high income, will most likely witness a high participation in digital activities while countries with average or low income [here africa studies fit] have partial or low participation (o'donnell, ). beyond the link the digital humanities has with economics, there is also the necessary link it has with culture and context, such that digital humanities finds it easier to express data within the worldview of the coder and developer than the worldview of the user and learner where many african scholar belong. inadequacies of tools in digital humanities as scholarship moves from the libraries and the lecture halls to the digital communication networks, in order to deploy digital humanities, which is “an interdisciplinary academic field that is focussed on the development and use of applications that improve the quality of research and teaching in the humanities” (babalola, ). researchers are faced with new challenges, such as, collaborative authoring, multiple versioning, flexible attitudes toward intellectual property, peer contributions, access to multiple and multiplying communities, and overall pattern of distributed knowledge production, review, and use (ibid.). some of the real problems which the use of digital tools have engendered include: immersion in the virtual communities rather than the human communities, deception, misinformation or vulnerability of information, phishing, sudden loss of data, spamming and unwanted digital communication (ibid.), open-source knowledge, lack of bridge between the academic and social life. digital humanities scholars like anne burdick, johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, todd presner, jeffrey schnapp, and others have expressed their fear that “as humans and data machines become equal partners in cultural practice, social experience, and humanistic research, the humanities may no longer look like ‘the humanities’ (anne burdick et al., ). they pointed out the negative contributions tools of digital humanities have had on the tension between those in the humanities who now solely embrace quantitative methods and those who insists on qualitative analysis. this is a tension that has integrated the quantitative wing into the social sciences, while the other wing fights to defend its autonomy and critical stance (ibid.). thus, the digital humanities scholars enjoined us, as the next generation of digital experimenters, to contribute to humanities theory by forging digital tools that quite literally embody humanities-centered views regarding the world. it is not helpful to classify digital humanities as unhelpful or dangerous to african studies, researches show that technology is positively impacting on researchers and students, babalola ( ) noted that in , lawal conducted a survey on the level of computer literacy and the use of the internet for research among the students and staff of computer science and engineering faculties in a nigerian state university. the result revealed that ninety-four percent of the respondents are computer literate (lawal et al. ). beyond the positive side is the limitation of digital humanities to researchers in african studies, because digital humanities does not fully represent the context and meanings that african ideas and worldviews carry when it tries to process and present data. it is the lack of adequacy in dh that this paper points out and attempts to engage. “the most cutting criticisms of digital humanities: that it constitutes a naively positivist refuge from cultural studies, critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and other scholarly methods designed to surface the concerns of marginalized communities” (brier, : ) researches have shown that digital humanities lack ‘for now’ the ‘know how’ of detailed data processing and presentation of data from african studies, “african writers are at times forced to relate their worldviews in western colonial languages which do not often lend themselves easily to expressing african sociocultural reality” (bandia, : ). there are african ideas that cannot so far be completely and properly captured when translated or interpreted data into the language or programmes that the current digital humanities developer have and know. global language and representatives many times shut out african context and particular views and ideas get missing (give examples) for many africans, words [signs representations] are never adequate to fully express salient ideas, and there are issues and ideas that are commonly hidden in words and signs such that, only trained person can understand the hidden ideas. this epistemic framework is contained in sayings such as àbò òrò làá so f’ómolúàbí tí ó bá dénú rè á di odindin (half a word is spoken to the wise, once heard, it becomes complete). this sets the background for the epistemological frameworks of 'ojú lòrówà'. there is so much that is said when eyes meet in communication, that which is not said can also be understood, these unspoken and unpresented ideas represent a percentage of data that so far do not have representations or equivalents in the digital space; this makes it important to develop digital humanities in the context of africans. the existing digital tool cannot adequately process or present african ideas and now is the best time to begin to make changes since digital humanities, is still “a relative newcomer to the media scholar’s toolkit, is notoriously difficult to define” (posner, ) and so gives room for the required addition and adjustments for a clearer processing and presentation of data in african studies. if “most digital humanities practitioners would agree that the digital humanist works at the intersection of technology and the humanities (which is to say, the loose collection of disciplines comprising literature, art history, the study of music, media studies, languages, and philosophy)” (posner, ) there will be the required effort to develop tools that can adequately and correctly process and present african ideas with correct interpretation. raising the issue is not enough, it is important to engage the issue because of the fact that “digital humanities has very real problems with racial diversity and gender representation in its scholarly community” (posner, ). the concern of this paper is to engage the second and the third layers of gh engagements with particular reference to african studies, there seems to be little concern with ‘sourcing’ idea since this happens at all levels of research, from the fieldwork to uploading ideas into machines. it is important to engage these issues as digital humanities does not constitute a new discipline in itself, but rather a new approach to humanities research that cuts across different existing humanities disciplines, but the effect is not yet adequate in african studies because “although many nigerians have acquired skills that are useful in digital humanities, and though the internet and computers are widely used for research purposes across the country, the integration of digital tools into the educational system is very low” (babalola, ). importation and use of computer and digital technologies in africa the use of computer and digital technologies in africa has led to what can be called ‘technological dependence’ – a situation in which almost all the technologies that we boast of in africa has their root in america and europe, and indications that we have no total control. this poses a huge difficulty in the presentation and processing of ideas especially where the context influences the meaning and representation of ideas. the technological globalization agenda has not achieved the desired result of global representation of ideas and views. there is a sort of theoretical framework which enables what most scholars would call ‘the politics of technology’, this basically reflects the knowledge interest of the major game players, the major scholars in the dh. attempts to close the gap there are no doubts that “technology has certainly made leaps and bounds over the past fifty years, yet it is evident that many conversations about africa from external perspectives have remained somewhat stunted” (falola and sanchez : ). the shortfall in digital humanities’ politics of ideas has raised notable african linguists and technologists who now have recognized the need to develop digital humanities technologies that are built on african indigenous knowledge system and ontology. such individuals include tunde adegbola, tunde opeibi, victor odumuyiwa, frank ugiomo, and many others. this shift is not limited to africa as microsoft and google have been working to incorporate indigenous african languages into their software which are used by million of scholars and researchers in africa. this quest leads to emergence of african linguists and information technology experts on the scene of localization of computer technology and the africanization of the cyberspace. while digital humanities extend well beyond language-based research, textual resources and spoken language materials play a central role in most humanities disciplines. in the digital humanities, scholars have begun to see an increase emphasis on anthologies, especially for the purposes of annotation and data integration. adegbola's approach to computer and digital technology satisfy to a great extent the requirement for ordering technology for the good of a society. first, he mastered the principle of technology and gained expertise in programming languages. he then contributed immensely to the development of human language technology (hlt) and this has lead to the localization of computer and digital technological tools in africa. his investigation of african languages from acoustic, information theoretic and linguistic perspective led to the development of theories and frameworks for designers or developers of african based human language technology (hlt). the concerns of these scholars raised the need to create technology within the ontology and epistemology of any indigenous society, and an avoidance of foreign ones that could destroy the local language and culture. this argument is built on the assumption that there is no account in history of people who became great after adopting the culture and language of other people. such society won’t be able to connect their act and activities with their behaviour nor allow technology to respond their culture. for instance, when most african societies first came in contact with mobile phone, it was a communal device. it should be made clear that technology cannot consider the ontology of a society by itself; rather it is the designers that need to be motivated by question asked by the culture. it is in the course of technology transfer that one begins to ask which part of our culture it conforms into. this representation of the reality around us can be done either by creating analogy (between the known and the unknown) or digital (that in which values in the analogical sense is being represented by a number and compared with its equivalence in reality) bridging the gap: ojÚ lÒrÓwÀ, a theory of communication the contribution of africans to digital humanities in order to process and present ideas in african studies is an urgent task considering the low level of scientific and technological attitude within the continent. writers have begun this attempt, through the use of “a characteristic feature of african creative writing [called] code-switching (cs) and code-mixing (cm) as a writing technique. cs and cm have a social, discursive and referential significance in a text” (bandia, : ). these reconstructed ideologies must then be incorporated into computer and digital technologies that characterize this milieu. this is in line with what an african scholar kofi awoonor opines that science and technology must be grafted upon african social and cultural realities, without losing sight of the original humanistic impulse of their communal existence (awoonor, ). this is reflected in cs, “in code-switched discourse, the items in question form part of the same speech act. they are tied together prosodically as well as by semantic and syntactic relations equivalent to those that join passages in a single speech act” (romaine : ). what then is the possibility for the localization of digital humanities technologies on african studies for better processing and presentation. a typical african setup or research field has folklores, proverbs and parables are folkmedia and means of information dissemination in nigerian towns and villages (nwuneli, ; akpan, ; and otasowie, ). folkmedia are intangible artefact of a culture, made up of customs, traditions, stories, songs, religion, performance arts and superstition and these can pose difficulty to tools used in digital humanities. the concept of ‘ojú lòrówà’, as a theory of communication, addresses some of the limitation in the existing digital humanities tools which serves as bedrock for the processing and presentation of research ideas in african studies. ‘ojú lòrówà’ is a yoruba statement which could be literally translated as ‘discussion is in the eye’; that is, ‘communication takes place when we see physically’. the eyes have always been a formidable means of initiating, sustaining and emphasizing details of conversation among the africans and not just among the yoruba. according to nwuneli “in some cultures it is considered sincere and trustworthy when a person looks straight in the face or,...looks [at] you right in the eyes. in other cultures it is rude and impertinent to “catch somebody’s eye” during conversation. in some cultures, people express themselves non-verbally by the mimicry of the face” ( : ). as a communication framework, ‘ojú lòrówà’ has five major components: . coding: in this theory, like every communication, there has to be an operative coding system understood by the parties involved. ojú lòrówà demands eye contact, or even contact through any of the other senses, for there to be communication using known and agreed on code. holding one’s ear while talking with a child or another person, for the yoruba, is a sign of warning. this may pass an entirely different communicative meaning in some other cultural contexts across the world. the reality of digital humanities can at best capture a sense of warning, but it will find it difficult to process how the holding of ears translates to warning. beyond the processing, the limitation of the existing tools become visible in its inability to communicate to the listener or reader why the warning is being issued. the general popular warning sign learnt by road users or public space users will not work here in the context of the african. the same sign can mean different things, the face (ojú) adds the context; if a mother holds her ears while looking at a child in a friend’s house, it simply will mean ‘i am warning you about what we had discussed earlier’, here the facial expression provides the context. but if the same mother does the same thing at home and the mood is happy, the facial express this time also provides the context, they mother may hold the ears and still be smiling, the child understands that the context is milder and may not require to total halt in whatever is being done. there are not digital humanities tools that can fill this expression gap. the fixed tools and too mechanical for many african expressions. . privacy in communication: this theory ensures and protects privacy in communication on the ground that only the child or any other person in the know of the code can decipher what is being communicated. persons outside the code will not understand the code. and this applies to codes that are specially developed by a group of people for particular communication either to exclude others from their communication for the sake of privacy or to password their communication. developed codes serve as gate ways meanings and contents to be processed and presented, but these passwords and learnt and accessed by people who are trained across the globe, which is part of the aims of digital humanity, but africa is replete with information that are coded and limited to specific groups and contexts. this are excluded from the tools of digital humanities either because the data is not made available because of the nature of digital humanities or because the data is for coded group that do not find representation in the present sphere of digital humanities. a good example will the content of different cults in the african contexts. . participation: this theory ensures effective communication by ensuring that the subject and object of communication are totally immersed in the process through participation. for instance, the eye contact leaves out doubt as to whether the message was delivered or received. communication is usually straight to the point; message is usually clear, and brief. every sign is done only when there is an eye/sound/touch contact between the parties engaged in the communication. studies have shown that africans are expressive, and messages are passed swiftly just as they can be changed using same code. this has no equivalent in digital humanities and codes are representative of particular messages. the swiftness and flexibility of messages requires participation. communication is like a game where every player is expected to be focus for success and team play. . concentration: this theory sustains concentration by ensuring that messages are brief and straight to the point, for effective communication there is always the need to concentrate, that is why messages are given only when there is an eye contact, whenever there is no eye contact, a form of a sign (cough, taping of finger, etc.) is given to draw the attention of the person to receive communication, and once attention is gained, attempt is made to sustain the concentration of the other party. data in african studies are continuous in their nature, it is not a once and for all encounter. when information is being passed, relationship is built as well. persons involved in data sourcing are expected to maintain regular contact with the information for relevance. a password only makes information available, but the effectiveness of the information is achieved through proper use of context. for example, the tradition of greeting the king when one is passing by his palace will hold true, but there are certain times that the information will not be. . feedback: this theory ensures feedbacks – which are usually in the form of reaction to communication. what is communicated is either understood or not, once understood; a sign is given to indicate that communication had taken place. if code is not understood, a sign is given to indicate that message is not understood. it is never presumed; an affirmation or denial of message is always given. as the world becomes a global village, and “moves into this increasingly transnational and global age, it is more and more evident that homelands and identities are profound spaces for social, political, cultural, and academic engagement in africa and beyond.” (falola and sanchez : ). this creates the need for an effective theory of communication, that can source for data and beyond that adequately process and present data from african studies. lessons can be learnt from writers such that “when african writers cannot adequately express african sociocultural reality in a european language, they resort to the use of indigenous words and expressions” (bandia, : ). digital humanities experts must also realize that there are ideas that cannot be captured unless the african context and tools are deployed to facilitate communication among functionaries in humanities. in the development of those tools (software), it would be necessary for the developers to put those five components into consideration in the course of their brainstorming. . conclusion digital humanities is still, but the reality of african studies is beyond material representation, there is òrò which represents the material data that has been sourced but beyond the material data there is also, ojú which give the contest and more details to the material substance that has been gathered. this for now is beyond the developed programs and tools of digital humanities. in this article, we have been able to illustrate how digital technological tools can be africanized using ‘ojú lòrówà’ as an indigenous theory suitable for developing digital as well as virtual software for african scholars. we have addressed the cause of those challenges confronting scholars in african studies in their deployment of digital humanities tools. we have also identified beneficial digital tool that could genuinely promote research in african studies, as well as discourage the usage of digital technological tools such antconc, nvivo, e-translators, and likes, on the basis that they distort or imposes a certain framework on literatures in african history, techne, culture, philosophy and tradition. furthermore, we enjoin scholars in african studies to provide contents and frameworks for appropriate digital technological tools for research in africa. effort must be made to develop multimedia documentaries, archives of cultural movies, digital translators for african languages, virtual galleries that would display african sculptures, arts, artifacts and antiques. in this age of technology, there is need for scholars in african studies to extract, from our indigenous practices, theories and framework that would help software developers to create tools appropriate for our knowledge system. on a final note, we advocate for minimum digital literacy for african researchers and scholars in humanities. this will ensure the availability of their works online, through academic social media and community such as academia or research gate, thereby bringing the research efforts made in africa available to the global academic community. “digital humanities work has been criticized as empiricist, secular, and reductive of the creativity of human expression to a mathematical elegance that perhaps no longer carries the evocative mysteries of the original object or experience of it” (hall, ). if the existing digital humanities tools are not improved upon, by including and using african contextual digital representations: meanings will be lost, details will be sacrificed and fundamentally, ideas will be misrepresented. about the authors akinmayowa akin-otiko currently works at the institute of african and diaspora studies, university of lagos. akinmayowa does research in african traditional medicine, religion and culture. their current project is on: i) the use of traditional medicine for primary health care; ii) religion and culture of the yoruba in nigeria. augustine farinola is currently a researcher at the department of english literature, university of birmingham, united kingdom. his research focuses on post phenomenological analysis of digital humanities (dh) technological tools used for scholarly communication and linguistic analysis. references babalola, t. l. ( ). the digital humanities and digital literacy: understanding the digital culture in nigeria. digital studies/le champ numérique, ( ). bartscherer, thomas and coover, roderick .(ed.). ( ). switching codes: thinking through digital technology in the humanities and the arts. `university of chicago press. borgmann, albert ( ). holding on to reality: the nature of information at the turn of the millelium. chicago: the university of chicago press, ltd. borgmann, albert. ( ). technology. in dreyfus and wrathall (ed.) a companion to heidegger (pp. - ).washington: blackwell publishing. burdick, anne. schnapp, jeffrey. drucker, johanna. and lunenfeld, peter. ( ). digital humanities. cambridge ma, united states of america: mit press. c.n, davidson ( ). humanities . : promise, perils, predictions. in m. k. gold (ed.) debates in the digital humanities (pp. ). minneapolis, mn :university of minnesota press. das, apurba. ( ) digital communication: principles and system modelling (india: springer. das, apurba. ( ). digital communication: principles and system modelling. india: springer. davidson c.n. ( ). humanities . : promise, perils, predictions. in m. k. gold (ed.) debates in the digital humanities minneapolis, mn: university of minnesota press. domenico fiormonte et al. ( ). the digital humanist: a critical inquiry (brooklyn, new york: punctum books. douglas a. boyd and larson, mary a. ( ) oral history and digital humanities: voice, access and engagement usa: palgrave macmillan. fiormonte, domenico. ( ). the digital humanist: a critical inquiry. brooklyn, new york: punctum books. gill, jim and geoff, vincent. ( ) software development handbook texas: texas instruments. meinel, christoph and sack, harald. ( ). digital communication: communication, multimedia, security berlin, germany: springer. mitra,ananda. ( ). digital communication: from email to the cyber community. new york: infobase publishing. rydberg-cox, jeffery a. ( ). digital libraries and the challenges of digital humanities oxford: chandos publishing limited. sabharwal, arjun. ( ). digital curation in the digital humanities: preserving and promoting archival and special collections. usa: elsevier. skolnikoff, b. eugene. ( ) the elusive transformation: science, technology, and the evolution of international politics princeton. nj: princeton university press. journals borgmann, albert. ( ). semiartificial intelligence. in mark wrathall & jeff malpas (ed.) heidegger, coping, and cognitive science: essays in honour of hubert l. dreyfus vol. (pp. - ) cambridge, massachusetts: the mit press f. reynolds, dwight. ( ) ‘from basmati rice to the bani hilal: digital archives and public humanities’ in elias muhanna (ed.), the digital humanities and islamic & middle east studies germany: de gruyter. sogolo, godwin. ( ). literary values and the academic mind: a portrait of the humanistic studies. ibadan journal of humanistic studies, no. . the journal of epsilon pi tau, vol. , no. (spring ), pp. - weidong, xia and lee, gwanhoo. (march ) “toward agile: an integrated analysis of quantitative and qualitative field data on software development agility” in : mis quarterly, vol. , no. pp. - published by: management information systems research center, university of minnesota. white paper report report id: application number: hd- - project director: julia flanders (j.flanders@neu.edu) institution: northeastern university reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / final performance report hd- - a journal-driven bibliography of digital humanities project director: julia flanders northeastern university may , overview this project began with a simple premise. digital humanities quarterly is an online, open-access journal whose founding coincided with the founding of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) in , and whose topical scope covers all areas of the field we now know as “digital humanities.” the bibliographies of dhq articles thus reflect the intellectual watershed of this field, and also its formation over the life of the journal itself. under this grant we sought to aggregate these bibliographies into a central bibliographic database, with two goals. first, at a practical level we wanted to simplify the journal’s production workflow and eliminate the duplication of data resulting from storing bibliographic data in the articles themselves. with a centralized database, we could store authoritative bibliographic data in one place and reference it from the articles, taking advantage of the fact that many dhq articles draw on a common pool of material for their citations. second, from a research perspective this data clearly constituted a potential public good and a fascinating data set in its own right. with a centralized database, we would be able to study patterns of co-citation, learn about the evolution of the field, and study the citation practices of different subcommunities. bibliographic data could also potentially serve as a way for readers to find articles of interest, or clusters of related articles. we framed the effort as an -month process, with the project originally scheduled for completion in july . although this workplan was not unrealistic, retrospective analysis reveals its vulnerabilities: above all, because of the small size of the grant, we relied on commitments of donated effort for significant parts of the technical development work, notably the original data capture system and the integration of the new bibliographic data into the dhq interface. as described in more detail below, one of the initial obstacles we faced was a set of problems with the data capture system which could not be addressed because the anticipated expertise was no longer available to us. another more significant vulnerability was the fact that the data capture itself required fairly significant attention to issues of bibliographic genre and hence required a level of training and dedication that was somewhat out of proportion to the overall interestingness of the work, making it difficult to hire and retain students. as a result, there were periods of inactivity and delay while we searched for new research assistants. the third and most significant disruption could not have been predicted: in july , the principal investigator changed jobs and moved from brown university to northeastern university, and dhq moved its editorial operations to northeastern at the same time. during the period of transition, work on this project was more or less suspended, and was not resumed until we hired a new research assistant in january who was able to bring the data capture and error correction to completion in december after three no-cost extensions. this prolonged and constantly changing work process could look from some perspectives like a narrative of failure, and certainly there have been important lessons learned. however, this project also illustrates an important principle that informs the design of the dh startup grant program, namely the fact that some kinds of work are especially unpredictable. small-scale projects are more vulnerable to disruption because they tend to have fewer resources to fall back on, and because they are operating on small enough quantities of effort that even a small reduction makes a significant difference. because small-scale projects in academic settings often rely on student labor, they have the additional vulnerability that comes from unpredictable turnover. the ultimate successful outcome of this project owes a great deal to the flexibility afforded us by neh, for which we are extremely grateful. project activities main activities data capture the initial capture of bibliographic data for this project was undertaken using a web- based bibliographic data capture and management system developed at the brown university center for digital scholarship for use in its digital humanities projects. the system offered a form-based data entry interface, with the data being saved as mods. configuration files permitted different projects to define different bibliographic genres and the required and permitted fields associated with each one, allowing a high degree of control which we felt was desirable for dhq’s purposes. using this system, we established a set of bibliographic genres representing the requirements of dhq’s existing citations, and hired a group of undergraduate students to undertake the data capture. our original goal as defined in the grant proposal was to capture bibliographic items not only from dhq’s own article bibliographies, but also items from the other major digital humanities journals (including computers and the humanities and literary and linguistic computing), and we made significant progress on those two journals. however, changes to personnel and local support at brown university interrupted that work process and we did not complete the capture of chum and llc data. we encountered two chief obstacles at this stage. first, the data capture system was engineered in a way that caused its performance to suffer dramatically under large quantities of data, and second, changes in personnel at brown university reduced the levels of technical support available to us, so we were not able to address the problems with the data capture system, or add the features for de-duplication and error checking that we had anticipated. however, under this system we were able to capture a significant number of records (approximately in all). after the move to northeastern, we hired a graduate research assistant to complete the data capture, and we also faced the fact that we needed to adopt a different data capture tool and process. although the web data entry interface of the brown tool had significant advantages of ease of use, our new graduate assistant had greater familiarity with xml and we anticipated that once the data capture was complete our general dhq workflow would rely on dhq’s managing editors (also comfortable with xml), so a form-based system would not be necessary. in addition, the remaining data capture was focused on the bibliographies of existing dhq articles which were already expressed as lightly encoded xml, so we could benefit from using xml tools to convert them into our target format. at this stage we developed a schema (described in more detail below) that reflected the genres of bibliographic record we had already established (including their requirements for the presence and order of fields) and set up a work flow to convert these bibliographies. the first step in the process involved an xslt stylesheet that converted the existing tei elements into the corresponding bibliographic elements of our schema, wrapped in a generic <biblioitem> element. the second step involved hand editing these records to change the wrapper element to a more specific one reflecting the genre of the item (e.g. <book>, <booksection>, <journalarticle>, etc.) and to add further detailed markup of the individual components of the entry that were not available in the original dhq encoding. (because that encoding was driven by display needs rather than by goals of bibliographic completeness, only titles and urls were typically explicit in that markup.) following the completion of the data capture, there was some further work involved in cleaning up the data: • some de-duplication was necessary, since the initial data capture had been done in a system that did not make it easy to check for the existence of a given record before entering it. • we had to ensure that record ids were unique. ids for bibliographic items in the system were based on author and date rather than on randomly assigned identifiers, to make it easier to spot errors of citation in the encoding of dhq articles, but the author-date system requires disambiguation for common surnames and for authors who publish multiple items in a single year. as part of the cleanup process we also had to consider and document our policies concerning the level of bibliographic management we were prepared to exercise. for example, in cases where different dhq articles cited different versions of the same published item (for instance, hardcover and the paperback editions, published in different years), we decided to treat these as separate items rather than develop a mechanism for coordinating them; at a later stage we may institute a formal mechanism for representing these connections in the data to improve analysis. similarly, we do not track connections between versions of published items (such as a blog post that is republished in a journal and then anthologized in a book). we also determined that some kinds of cited items did not belong in the centralized bibliography at all, the primary example being items that had only local relevance within the context of a specific dhq article, such as personal communications (“private email to the author, may ” and the like). these items would remain in the separate dhq articles and would not be aggregated centrally. bibliographic identifiers in dhq articles once the bulk of the data capture was complete, the next step was to establish the linkage between dhq articles and the bibliographic items they cite. all published dhq articles include full bibliographies, and in our earlier practice any citations in the text pointed to entries in those bibliographies, as in the following example: inline reference in the body of the article: <ptr target="#mcgann " loc=" – "/> bibliography entry: <bibl xml:id="mcgann " label="mcgann "><author>mcgann, j. j.</author> <title rend="italic">radiant textuality: literature after the world wide web

, but the tei guidelines do not allow for a

to be placed within an . nevertheless, contrasting the structure of witness with the structure of witness already alerts the reader to structural revisions and invites a closer inspection. the edges in a hypergraph are called hyperedges. in contrast to edges in a dag, hyperedges can connect a set of nodes. from graveyard to graph https://collatex.net/ be visualised in any meaningful way. at the same time, the various types of information contained by the collation hypergraph are of instrumental value to a deeper study of the textual objects. for that reason, hypercollate offers not one specific type but rather lets the user select from a wide variety of visualisations, ranging from alignment tables to variant graphs. in selecting the output visualisation, the user decides which information she prefers to see and which information can be ignored. she may consider an alignment table if she’s primarily interested in the relationships between witnesses on a microlevel, or a variant graph if an insightful overview of the various token orders is more relevant to her research. furthermore, she may decide what markup layers she want to see: arguably knowing that every token is part of the root element ‘text’ is of less concern than detecting changes in the structure of sentences. making such decisions does require the user to have a basic knowledge of the underlying dataset and a clear idea of what she’s looking for. requirements for visualising textual variance this overview allows us to draw a number of conclusions regarding the visualisation of textual variation and to what extent each visualisation considers the various dimensions of the textual object. we have seen that intradocumentary variation is as of yet not represented by default; the editor is required to make certain adjustments to the visualisation. alignment tables and parallel segmentation can be extended to some extent, for instance by using colours and visualising deletions and additions. regular variant graphs may include intradocumentary variation if the different paths through the texts are collated as separate witnesses ; only hypercollate’s variant graph output includes both intra- and interdocumentary variation. structural variation, is currently only taken into account by hypercollate and consequently only visualised in hypercollate’s variant graph. while the added value of studying this type of variation may be clear, it remains a challenge to visualise both linguistic/semantic and structural variation in an informative and clear manner. fig. may clearly convey the structural difference between witness and witness (i.e., the element), but the raw collation output contains much more information which, if included, would probably overburden the user. a promising feature of visualisations intended to further explorations of textual variation is interactivity. one can imagine, for instance, the added value of discovering promising sites of revision through a graph representation, zooming in, and annotating the relationships between the witness nodes. acknowledging the various strengths and shortcomings of existing visualisations, we propose that there is not one, all-encompassing visualisation that pays head to all properties this practice leads to some problematic issues in case of complex revisions, see de bruijn et al. ; bleeker , – . fig. alternative, black-and-white visualisation of hypercollate output, with the markup repre- sented as hyperedge on the nodes. other markup is not visualised e. bleeker et al fig. alternative visualisation of hypercollate output, with each node containing the xpath-like informa- tion about the place of the text in the xml tree (e.g. the path /tei/text/div/p/s/ indicates that the ancestors of a text node are, bottom up, an element, a
element, a
element, the element and the element) from graveyard to graph of text. instead, each visualisation highlights a different aspect of textual variance or provides another perspective on text. each perspective puts another textual characteristic before the footlights, while (ideally) making users aware of the fact that there is much more happing behind the familiar scenes. as tanya clement argues, focusing on one aspect can be instrumental in our understanding of text, helping the user ‘get a better look at a small part of the text to learn something about the workings of the whole’ (clement , § ). indeed it seems that multiple and interactive representations (cf. andrews and van zundert ; jänicke et al. ; sinclair et al. ) are a promising direction. visual literacy and code criticism the process of visualising data is a scholarly activity in line with the process of modelling, hence the resulting visualisation influences the ways in which a text can be studied collation output can be visualised in different ways, which raises essential questions regarding the assessment and evaluation of visualisations. the function of a digital visualisation is two-fold: on the one hand, it serves as a means of communication and on the other hand it provides an instrument of research. the communicative aspect implies that visualisation is first and foremost an affair of the scholar(s) who creating visualisations. the diversity of visualisations, each of which highlights different aspects of the text, reflects the hermeneutic aspect inherent to humanist textual research. thus, by using visualisation to foreground textual variation, editors are able to better represent the multifocal nature of text. in order to choose an appropriate representation of collation output, then, scholars need to know what argument they want to make about their data set, and how the visualisation can support that argument by presenting and omitting certain information. accordingly, they can estimate the value of a visualisation for a specific scholarly task and expose the inevitable bias embedded in technology. when a visualisation is used as an instrument of study and exploration, it is vital to be critical about its workings and its (implicit) bias. this includes an awareness of which elements the visualisation highlights and, just as important, which elements are ignored. as martyn jessop has pointed out, humanist education often overlooks training in ‘visual literacy’, which can be defined as the effective use of images to explore and communicate ideas (jessop , ). visual literacy, then, denotes an understanding of the fact that a visualisation represents a scholarly argument. jessop identifies four principles that facilitate the understanding of a visualisation: aims and methods, sources, transparency requirements, and documentation (jessop ). the documentation of a visualisation of collation output then, could describe what research objective(s) it aims to achieve, on what witnesses it is based, and how these witnesses have been transcribed, tokenized, and aligned. another suitable rationale for critically evaluating the visualisation process is offered by the domains of ‘tool criticism’ or ‘code criticism’ (traub and van ossenbruggen ; van zundert and dekker , ). tool criticism assumes that the code base of scholarly tools reflects certain scholarly decisions and assumptions, and it raises critical questions in order to further awareness of the although the value of documenting a tool’s operations is uncontested, making use of documentation is not yet part of digital humanities’ best practice. in that respect, it is worthwhile to keep in mind the rtfm-mantra of software development (‘read the f-ing manual’). e. bleeker et al relationships between code and scholarly intentions. questions include (but are not limited to) ‘is documentation on the precision, recall, biases and pitfalls of the tool available’, or ‘is provenance data available on the way the tool manipulates the data set?’ (traub and van ossenbruggen ). indeed, when it comes to evaluating the visualisation of automated collation results, one may well ask to what extent these witnesses and the ways in which they have been processed by the collation tool are subject to bias and interpretation. like transcription (and any operation on text for that matter), collation is not a neutral process: it is subject to the influence of the editor. this becomes clear if we look at the different steps in the collation workflow as identified by the gothenburg model (gm; ). the gm consists of five steps: tokenisation, normalisation, alignment, analysis, and visualisa- tion. for each step, the editor is required to make decisions, e.g. ‘what constitutes a token’, ‘do i normalise the tokens and, if so, do i present the original and the normalised tokens’, or ‘what is my definition of a match and how do i want to align the tokens?’ as joris van zundert and ronald haentjens dekker emphasise, not all decisions made by collation software are easily accessible to the user, simply because they are the result of ‘incredibly complex heuristics and algorithms’ (van zundert and dekker , ). to illustrate this, we can look at the decision tree used by hypercollate to calculate the alignment of two simple sentences. the graph in figs. and are complementary and show all possible decisions the alignment algorithm of hypercollate can take in order to align the tokens of witness a and witness b and the likely outcomes of each decision. an evident downside of such trees is that they become very large very quickly. for that reason, we see them as primarily useful for editors keen to find out more about the alignment of their complex text. the gm pipeline is not strictly chronological or linear. although automated collation does start with tokenization, not every user insists on normalising the tokens, and a step can be revisited if the outcome is considered unsatisfactory or not in line with the user’s expectations. though visualisation comes last in the gm model, this article has argued that it is surely not an afterthought to collation. in fact, the visual representation of textual variance entails an additional form of information modelling: editors are compelled to give physical form to an abstract idea of textual variation which exists at that point only in the transcription and (partly) in the collation result. using the markup to obtain a more optimal alignment, as hypercollate does, only emphasises this point: marking up texts fig. the collation of witness b against witness a, with potential matches indicated in red from graveyard to graph entails making explicit the knowledge and assumptions that would otherwise have been left implicit. visualising the markup elements, then, implies that these assumptions and thus a particular scholarly orientation to text is foregrounded. conclusions the present article investigated several methods of representing textual variation: alignment tables, synoptic viewers, and graphs. two small textual fragments containing in-text variation and structural variation formed the example input for the alignment table and the variant graph visualisation. the fragments were transcribed in tei/xml and subsequently collated with collatex and fig. the decision tree for collating witness b against witness a. chosen matches indicated in bold, discarded matches rendered as strike-through; others are potential matches. arrow numbers indicate the number of matches discarded since the root node (this number should be as low as possible). red leaf nodes indicate a dead end, orange leaf nodes a ‘sub-optimal’ match, and green leaf nodes indicate an optimal set of matches e. bleeker et al hypercollate respectively. in addition, we looked at existing visualisations of the versioning machine and the diachronic slider. these visualisations were judged on their potential to represent different types of variance in addition to the regular interdocumentary variation: intradocumentary, linguistic, and structural. visualising these aspects of text paves the way for a deeper, more thorough, and more inclusive study of the text’s dimensions. we concluded that there is currently no ideal visualisation, and that the focus should not be on creating an ideal visualisation. instead, we propose appreciating the multitude of possible visualisations which, individually, amplify a different textual property. this re- quires us to appreciate what a visualisation can do for our research goals and, furthermore, to evaluate its effectiveness. to this end, methods from code criticism and visual literacy can be of aid in furthering an understanding of the digital representations of collation output as rhetorical devices. we propose evaluating the usefulness of a visualisation on the basis of the following principles: ) interactivity. this may range from annotating the edges of a graph, adjusting the alignment by (re)moving nodes, to alternating between macro- and micro level explorations of variance. ) readability and scalability. especially in a case of many and/or long witnesses, alignment tables and variant graphs become too intricate to read: their function becomes primarily to indicate complex revision sites. ) transparency of the textual model. the visualisation not only represents textual variance, but simultaneously makes clear what scholarly model is intrinsic to the collation. it needs to be clear which scholarly perspective serves as a model for transcription and representation. ) transparency of the code. visualisations represent the outcome of an internal collation process which is usually not available to the general user audience. a clear, step-by-step documentation of the algorithmic process helps users under- stand what scholarly assumptions are present in the code, what decisions have been made, what parameters have been used, and how these assumptions, decisions, and parameters may have influenced the outcome. decision trees may be of additional use. this applies particularly to interactive visualisations: if it’s possible to adjust parameters or filters, these adjustments need to be made explicit. digital visualisation is sometimes regarded as an afterthought in humanities research, or even considered with a certain degree of suspicion. some consider it a mere technical undertaking, an irksome habit of some digital humanists who recently learned to work with a flashy tool. yet if used correctly, these flashy tools may also function as instruments of study and research, which means they should be evaluated accordingly. within the framework of visualising collation output, visual literacy is key. having a critical understanding of the research potential of visualisations facilitates our research into textual variance. after all, these representational systems produce an object which we use for research purposes; we need to take seriously the ways in which they do this. in addition to communicating a scholarly argument, digital visualisations of collation output foreground textual variation. the collation tool hypercollate facilitates the examination of a text from multiple perspectives (some unfamiliar, some inspiring, some contrasting, but all of them highlighting a particular element of interest). this from graveyard to graph freedom of choice invites scholars to reappraise prevalent notions and continue explor- ing the dynamic nature of text in dialogue with other disciplines. digital visualisations, then, give us a means to take variants out of the graveyard and into an environment in which they can be fully appreciated. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references andrews, t., & mace, c. ( ). trees of texts: models and methods for an updated theory of medieval text stemmatology. paper presented at the digital humanities conference, , july – , university of hamburg. abstract available at http://www.dh .uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/trees-of-texts- models-and-methods-for-an-updated-theory-of-medieval-text-stemmatology. .html. accessed dec . andrews, t., & van zundert, j. ( ). an interactive interface for text variant graph models. paper presented at the digital humanities conference, , july – , university of lincoln, nebraska. abstract available at http://dh .unl.edu/abstracts/ab- .html. accessed dec . bleeker, e. ( ). mapping invention in writing: digital infrastructure and the role of the genetic editor. ph.d. dissertation, university of antwerp. bleeker, e., buitendijk, b., dekker, r. h., neyt, v., & van hulle d. ( ). the challenges of automated collation of manuscripts. in advanced in digital scholarly editing, leiden: sidestone press, pp. – . bleeker, e., buitendijk, b., dekker, r. h., & kulsdom, a. ( ). including xml markup in the automated collation of literary texts. proceedings of the xml prague conference , february – , pp. – . burnard, l., jannidis, f., middell, g., pierazzo, e., & rehbein, m. ( ). an encoding model for genetic editions, accessible at http://www.tei-c.org/activities/council/working/tcw .html (last accessed , march ). clement, t. ( ). text analysis, data mining, and visualizations in literary scholarship. in literary studies in the digital age: an evolving anthology. https://doi.org/ . /lsda. . . de bruijn, p. ( ). dancing around the grave. a history of historical-critical editing in the netherlands. in plachta, b. & van vliet, h.t.m. (red.), perspectives of scholarly editing/perspektiven der textedition (pp. – ). berlin: weidler buchverlag. dillen, w. ( ). digital scholarly editing for the genetic orientation: the making of a genetic edition of samuel beckett’s works. ph.d. thesis, university of antwerp. drucker, j. ( ). humanistic theory and digital scholarship. in m. gold (ed.), debates in the digital humanities (pp. – ). minneapolis: university of minnesota press. haentjens dekker, r., & birnbaum, d. j. ( ). it’s more than just overlap: text as graph. presented at balisage: the markup conference , washington, dc, august - , . in proceedings of balisage: the markup conference . balisage series on markup technologies, vol. . https://doi. org/ . /balisagevol .dekker . jänicke, stefan, gessner, annette, büchler, marco, & scheuermann gerik ( ). design rules for visualizing text variant graphs. in proceedings of the digital humanities , edited by clare mills, michael pidd and jessica williams. joyce, j. ( - ). ulysses: a critical and synoptic edition, prepared by hans walter gabler with wolfhard steppe and claus melchior, vols. new york & london: garland publishing inc. jessop, m. ( ). digital visualization as a scholarly activity. literary and linguistic computing, ( ), – . roos, t., & heikkilä, t. ( ). evaluating methods for computer-assisted stemmatology using artificial benchmark data sets. literary and linguistic computing, ( ), – . schacht, p. ( ). ‘introduction’ in: thoreau, henry david. walden: a fluid-text edition. digital thoreau. http://digitalthoreau.org/fluid-text-toc. accessed may . e. bleeker et al http://www.dh .uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/trees-of-texts-models-and-methods-for-an-updated-theory-of-medieval-text-stemmatology. .html http://www.dh .uni-hamburg.de/conference/programme/abstracts/trees-of-texts-models-and-methods-for-an-updated-theory-of-medieval-text-stemmatology. .html http://dh .unl.edu/abstracts/ab- .html http://www.tei-c.org/activities/council/working/tcw .html https://doi.org/ . /lsda. . https://doi.org/ . /balisagevol .dekker https://doi.org/ . /balisagevol .dekker http://digitalthoreau.org/fluid-text-toc schäuble, j., & gabler, h. w. ( ). visualising processes of text composition and revision across document borders. paper presented at the symposium digital scholarly editions as interfaces, graz, austria, september – . schmidt, d., & colomb, r. ( ). a data structure for representing multi-version texts online. international journal of human-computer studies, ( ), – . sinclair, s., ruecker, s., & radzikowska, m. ( ). information visualization for humanities scholars. in literary studies in the digital age, an evolving anthology, edited by kenneth price and ray siemens. available at https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/information-visualization-for-humanities-scholars. accessed dec traub, m., & van ossenbruggen, j. ( ). workshop on tool criticism in the digital humanities. cwi techreport july , . available at https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d /ce c fd d be c cfc fab dea.pdf. accessed may . vanhoutte, e. ( ). where is the editor? human it, . , – . van zundert, j., & dekker, r. h. ( ). code, scholarship, and criticism: when is code scholarship and when is it not? digital scholarship in the humanities, , – . from graveyard to graph https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/information-visualization-for-humanities-scholars https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d /ce c fd d be c cfc fab dea.pdf https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d /ce c fd d be c cfc fab dea.pdf from graveyard to graph abstract introduction automated collation properties of text existing visualisations of collation results alignment table synoptic viewers parallel segmentation critical or inline apparatus variant graph phylogenetic trees or stemmata hypercollate requirements for visualising textual variance visual literacy and code criticism conclusions references digital humanities: als een fraai essay | scholarly publications skip to main content leiden university scholarly publications home submit about select collection all collections this collection academic speeches dissertations faculty of archaeology faculty of governance and global affairs faculty of humanities faculty of science faculty of social and behavioural sciences leiden journals, conference proceedings and books leiden law school leiden university press medicine / leiden university medical centre (lumc) research output ul search box persistent url of this record https://hdl.handle.net/ / documents download als een fraai essay not applicable (or unknown) open access full text at publishers site in collections this item can be found in the following collections: institute for history alvarez francés, l. ( ) digital humanities: als een fraai essay article / letter to editor all authors alvarez francés, l. date - - journal tijdschrift voor geschiedenis volume issue pages - doi doi: . /tvgesch . .fran link http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/aup/tg/ / / /art ... © - leiden university a service provided by leiden university libraries contact about us recently added digital collections student repository ywcc-dh- this is an open access document downloaded from orca, cardiff university's institutional repository: http://orca.cf.ac.uk/ / this is the author’s version of a work that was submitted to / accepted for publication. citation for final published version: mandal, anthony . digital humanities. the year's work in critical and cultural theory ( ) , pp. - . . /ywcct/mbw file publishers page: http://dx.doi.org/ . /ywcct/mbw please note: changes made as a result of publishing processes such as copy-editing, formatting and page numbers may not be reflected in this version. for the definitive version of this publication, please refer to the published source. you are advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite this paper. this version is being made available in accordance with publisher policies. see http://orca.cf.ac.uk/policies.html for usage policies. copyright and moral rights for publications made available in orca are retained by the copyright holders. digital humanities anthony mandal the digital humanities continue to grow within the academy, moving from earlier concentrations on tools development towards more sustained conceptual encounters with our increasingly digital culture. a number of recent publications have introduced the key terms of reference for digital humanistic practice to those unacquainted or uninitiated with current developments in the field. nevertheless, the longstanding paucity of engagement with theory in the digital humanities has been critiqued as constructing a field that is fundamentally instrumental and un-self-reflexive. this chapter considers seven publications from that go some way to addressing this lacuna in their demonstration of digital humanities scholarship as not only open to, but capable of, persuasive and nuanced explorations of theory. this manifests itself in various ways: presenting the digital humanities as an inter- or transdisciplinary practice that reconfigures and replenishes the broader traditions of studia humanitatis; in the form of a new ‘digital rhetoric’ that brings production and usage ever closer; or as part of an emergent ecology of ‘knowledge machines’ that draw on the ‘mathematization’ of information. the chapter also considers works that analyse the role of digital media in wider culture, particularly through the affordances and constraints of the social media platforms of web . . after a long period as an outlier within the academy, there has never been a better time for the digital humanities than now. a cursory search on google.com on april for the term ‘digital humanities’ yields . million hits—this is a field that is beyond burgeoning. the results that cluster in the top ten of google’s mysterious search algorithms are especially revealing about the contours of the field. first comes a lengthywikipedia entry, providing a rich and detailed history of the subject, supplemented by an extensive bibliography. this is ywcct-mandal- accompanied by a cluster of portals, aggregators and publications: digital humanities now ( nd); the association for computers and the humanities’ ‘what is digital humanities?’ page ( rd); matthew gold’s debates in the digital humanities ‘unbound book’ ( th); the what is digital humanities? carousel, featuring different definitions with every refresh ( th); and george mason university’s journal of digital humanities ( th). appearing alongside are a number of institutional sites: stanford humanities center’s digital humanities microsite ( th); ucla’s center for digital humanities ( th); the supernumerary alliance of digital humanities organizations ( th). appearing last, perhaps tellingly, in our top ten is adam kirsch’s provocative essay for new republic, ‘technology is taking over english departments’, subtitled ‘the false promise of the digital humanities’—to which i shall return shortly. that the field of digital humanities (dh) is rich, varied and dynamic is clear. yet, the term itself is one of relatively recent invention, having first entered common scholarly usage around the mid-noughties. before this, the preferred term had been ‘humanities computing’, a term displaying a venerable pedigree that can be traced to the s. humanities computing focused principally on the creation of heuristic tools for literary, historical and linguistic analysis during the s and s. this was followed by new initiatives in digital text encoding in succeeding decades (the oxford text archive, founded in , is an early example). the exponential growth of the world wide web in the s saw humanities computing deliver the publication of manifold digital resources, such as the perseus digital library, the rosetti archive, the blake archive and the women writers project. this process, in turn, opened the fruits of humanities computing available to a wider scholarly (and public) audience. in , the publication of blackwell’s companion to digital humanities, edited by susan schriebman, ray siemens and john unsworth, encoded the new ywcct-mandal- term ‘digital humanities’, suggesting a wider cultural relevance beyond tools development and text markup (although both nevertheless feature heavily in the collection). labels might be taken to suggest a consensus regarding what the dh comprise, but the field’s patchwork history generates a problem of definition. are the dh focused on tool development and service provision to support other disciplines? do they comprise a stable transdisciplinary collection of hermeneutic approaches to other humanistic disciplines, such as literary and historical studies? evidently, the dh seem to signal something quite specific and distinct from ‘traditional’ humanities scholarship, while embracing a wide range of possible scholarly practices, from textual encoding to theorizing social media. as matthew k. gold observes, such attempts at definition represent ‘a foray into contested terrain, since there is wide disagreement and confusions about the contours of the field’ (‘digital humanities’, in m.-l. ryan et al., eds. the john hopkins guide to digital media (jhup [ ]) p. ). part of the ontological challenge emerges from whether dh scholarship should incorporate only a narrow field of specialist humanities computing practices that build on ‘making’ and ‘coding’ or any humanistic scholarship that employs digital affordances (so- called big tent dh). perhaps one of the most useful definitions is less a definition than a statement of intent—todd pressner and jeffrey schnapp’s foundational digital humanities manifesto . ( ): digital humanities is not a unified field but an array of convergent practices that explore a universe in which: a) print is no longer the exclusive or the normative medium in which knowledge is produced and/or disseminated; instead, print finds itself absorbed into new, multimedia configurations; and b) digital tools, techniques, and media have altered the production and dissemination of knowledge in the arts, ywcct-mandal- human and social sciences. (http://manifesto.humanities.ucla.edu/ / / /the- digital-humanities-manifesto- /) the emphasis on ‘convergence’ elegantly intertwines but avoids collapsing two aspects of the dh: the paradigm drift in the mediation of cultural communication and the creation of new digital tools that effect/reflect that transformation. an interesting response to these imbrications is offered by geoffrey rockwell, whose ‘is humanities computing an academic discipline?’ posits a rich ecology of multiple dh fields (in m. terras et al., defining digital humanities: a reader (ashgate [ ]) pp. – ). most useful, perhaps, is rafael alvarado’s declaration that the dh function as ‘a social category, not an ontological one’: ‘instead of a definition, we have a genealogy, a network of family resemblances among provisional schools of thought, methodological interests, and preferred tools, a history of people who have chosen to call themselves digital humanists’ (‘the digital humanities situation’, rptd in m.k. gold, ed. debates in the digital humanities (uminnesotap [ ]) p. ). these difficulties notwithstanding, a number of noteworthy essay collections have in recent years provided overviews of the state of the dh, which suggests a period of maturation in the field underpinned by reflections on past history and proposals for future directions. david berry’s understanding digital humanities (palgrave [ ]) gathers together sixteen essays that collectively presage a ‘post-humboldtian’ academy transformed by computational affordances, which the editor observes are radically redefining the meaning and processes of humanistic research. berry posits three ‘waves’ in the dh: the first involved building the field’s infrastructure through remediation of primarily printed materials; the second expands ‘the notional limits of the archive’ to include ‘born-digital’ materials such as electronic literature and interactive fiction; the third is ‘concentrated around the underlying computationality of the forms held within a computational medium’ (p. ). inflecting the ywcct-mandal- dialectical nature of the field, matthew k. gold’s debates in the digital humanities (uminnesotap [ ]) offers nearly fifty essays and blog posts covering a range of categories collocated with the dh: defining, theorizing, critiquing, practising, teaching and envisioning the future. as noted earlier, gold’s collection is also available as an ‘unbound book’ online (http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu), as well as being followed up by new volumes to be issued on an annual basis. aiming more squarely at the student reader, defining digital humanities: a reader, edited by melissa terras et al. (ashgate [ ]), reprints articles and blogs from major figures in the dh in order to provide core reading for those wishing to acquaint themselves with the field. a similar collection is the johns hopkins guide to digital media (jhup [ ]), edited by marie-laure ryan et al.—a handy a-to-z compendium of short essays that cover topics ranging from ‘algorithm’, ‘code’ and ‘materiality’ to ‘cognitive implications of new media’, ‘self-reflexivity in electronic art’ and ‘writing under constraint’. understanding, debating, defining, guiding: these terms suggest ways of inducting the reader into the complexities (and contradictions) of the field, primarily as points of ingress for curious (likely trepidatious) neophytes. paul longley arthur and katherine bode’s advancing the digital humanities: research, methods, theories (palgrave [ ]) explicitly seeks to push beyond the attempts to define, which have been ‘internecine’ and ‘public’ (p. ). instead, the editors explore topics that traverse four ‘key fault lines’ (p. ) of the dh: transforming disciplines (literature and history); media methods (old and new media); critical curation (collections and archives); research futures (past troubles and new possibilities). it is difficult to resist the view that studies of the ‘digital humanities’ over the last decade since the publication of the blackwell companion have tended to focus on the first part of that compound. the tantalizing affordances of the digital age have combined with a cornucopia of grant-funded dh projects to prioritize computational innovations over the ywcct-mandal- humanistic traditions with which they imbricate. promisingly, recent years have witnessed a more sustained consideration of the ‘humanities’ as the fulcrum for dh research and practice, resulting in less instrumentalist perspectives. fuller self-reflection by scholars, attentive to the wider academic and cultural contexst, suggests ways in which the opportunities offered by the dh are themselves accompanied by crucial ontological challenges. berry persuasively predicts that ‘[c]omputational techniques could give us greater powers of thinking, larger reach for our imagination and, possibly, allow us to reconnect to political notions of equality and redistribution’ (understanding digital humanities, p. ). however, this positivism is qualified by johanna drucker’s equally convincing assertion that ‘[t]he theoretical underpinnings of humanistic interpretation are fundamentally at odds with the empirical approaches on which certain conventions of temporal and spatial modeling are based’ (in gold, p. ). abandoning the nuance of drucker’s position, adam kirsch’s strident critique of the dh—to which i referred at the start of this chapter—sees the heuristic pragmatism of the field as inimical to traditional humanistic praxis: humanistic thinking does not proceed by experiments that yield results; it is a matter of mental experiences, provoked by works of art and history, that expand the range of one’s understanding and sympathy. it makes no sense to accelerate the work of thinking by delegating it to a computer when it is precisely the experience of thought that constitutes the substance of a humanistic education. (new republic [ may ] ) certainly, the dh have been somewhat preoccupied with process or making at the expense of a robust engagement with theoretical perspectives (e.g. race, gender, the postcolonial, biopower). gary hall has critiqued digital humanists’ resistance to theory as a fundamental flaw in the field: ywcct-mandal- the problem is, though, without such reflexive critical thinking and theories many of those whose work forms part of this computational turn find it difficult to articulate exactly what the point of what they are doing is […] (‘has critical theory run out of time for data-driven scholarship?’, in gold, p. ) todd presner’s ‘critical theory and the mangle of digital humanities’ notes that the digital humanities has distinguished itself as an enterprise deeply informed by design, making, and building, even developing ‘a materialist epistemology’ […], something that seems to place it at odds with the established notions of humanistic inquiry characterized by ‘reading,’ ‘interpreting,’ and ‘critiquing.’ (in p. svensson and d. t. goldberg, eds. between humanities and the digital (mitp [ ]) p. ) without such critical reflexiveness, the dh are in danger of slipping into instrumentalism and the corporatization of humanistic enquiry as an emergent knowledge economy. presner identifies the first challenge for the dh is ‘to develop both critical and genealogical principles for exposing its own discursive structures and knowledge formations at every level of practice’ (p. ). to a degree, this lacuna is starting to be addressed by a growing number of theoretically inflected approaches to the dh—not least the media archaeological approaches taken by scholars like jussi parikka, matthew kirschenbaum and lisa gitelman, the exploration of the ‘computational turn’ through coding theory by david berry and the ‘distant reading’ models proposed by franco moretti and matthew jockers. it is also encouraging to see a number of publications that directly address the broader propositions of critical theory. david berry’s critical theory and the digital (bloomsbury [ ]) applies the lessons of the frankfurt school to the dh, fluidly drawing together readings from adorno, heidegger and stiegler. similarly, a special issue of differences ( :i [spring ]), ‘in the shadow of the digital humanities’, presents a range of engaging perspectives on the ywcct-mandal- intersections between the dh and feminist theory, split into two complementary sections: ‘the shadow digital humanities’ and ‘shadowing the digital humanities’. the present chapter considers works that carry this promising momentum forward in revealing, stimulating and provocative ways. a recurrent theme across a number of studies published in the past year has been the relationship of the dh to the broader humanistic context, both longitudinally and within the today’s university habitus. a number range across interdisciplinarity and boundary work, the recalibration of classical rhetorical enquiry for digital culture and the emergence of so-called knowledge machines in the wake of big data, open access and culturomics. other scholars reviewed in this chapter attempt to locate the dh more theoretically, looking at paradigms of production and consumption in the post- kantian academic system. i have also sought to consider work that has examined the broader ramifications of the digital on our increasingly networked lives through increasingly converging and ubiquitous social media and ‘post-pc’ mobile technologies. an excellent account of the current state of the field is provided by eileen gardiner and ronald g. musto’s the digital humanities: a primer for students and scholars (cambridgeup [ ]). the first seven chapters focus on the practical aspects of the dh (covering, for example, organization, tools and environments), while the last four consider what the authors term ‘meta-issues’ in the dh. gardiner and musto note the current tangle facing attempts at definition, to which i alluded earlier, observing that the dh are both easy to write about, because they are now part of our culture, and difficult, because they have become normalized within scholarly discourse. the particular point of entry for the volume is the debate regarding whether digital transformations are aiding, transforming or undermining the humanistic mission. despite its credentials as a scholarly handbook, the volume thoughtfully positions the dh within the broader liberal traditions of studia humanitatis that emerged via the petrarchan university system. the shift in the nineteenth and early twentieth ywcct-mandal- centuries away from liberal arts traditions towards rankean empiricism transformed the academy into the modern research university focused on disciplinary specificity and specialist publication, separating the academic from the public. the dh, according to gardiner and musto, offer an opportunity to reconnect the scholar to the wider public, as both traditional and digital approaches turn back to ‘the core function of the humanities, which has always been to represent remote human experience in forms conveyable to our present understanding’ (p. ). if anything, the prime motivator in this process of reconnection was not the universities themselves but a new media corporation’s initiative: google books, which succeeded in one of [google’s] largest strategic goals: to change the habitus of both scholarly and popular reading and to make the digital fully capable of becoming a true representation of the historic past, itself one of the major goals of all humanities research and writing. (p. ) the question of the humanities’ public reach and (f)utility has been a persistent pressure-point since at least as early as j.h. plumb’s the crisis in the humanities ( ), and certainly in the internecine political debates following the publication of michael bérubé and cary nelson’s seminal collection, higher education under fire: politics, economics and the crisis of the humanities (routledge [ ]). gardiner and musto see the current crisis, ‘exposed but not created by the digital’, as the product of an eroded social contract or commons (p. ): only by re-establishing the social contract can humanities scholarship regain its traditional position within the wider habitus. the dh can play a central role in this process of rehabilitation and restitution, in their transformative approach to the objects of traditional enquiry. for instance, digitization projects can ‘transform the traditional notion of the critical edition, bound to the fixity of print, and return to a more fluid understanding of the text as it was for medieval and early modern scholars’ (p. ). more generally, large ywcct-mandal- digital corpora that allow the sources to ‘speak for themselves’ can displace ‘the gendered male overvoice of the monograph’, offering up in its place multilayered, polyphonic digital artefacts that ‘can be seen as a form of “liberation” from the male monograph’ (p. ). similarly, the collaborative nature of digital publishing can also displace the top-down hierarchy of the lone ‘great scholar and his circle of assistants’ (p. ). within this context, the authors propose the exposition of a ‘new digital grammar and rhetoric to accommodate this new digital form of representation’ (p. ), which accommodates and adapts studia humanitatis for the twenty-first century, notwithstanding the potential of the dh to reconnect scholars with petrarchan/pre- rankean humanistic paradigms, gardiner and musto remain attentive to the risks that come with new digital modalities, particularly the tendency towards the objectification and abstraction of humanistic endeavour, which might potentially alienate scholars from their own work. on the one hand, renewed emphasis on the text as an object of digitization may both return us to more traditional notions of text as autonomous subject/unique object. on the other hand, the aggregation and disaggregation produced by such digitization of the textual object ‘robs it of this very uniqueness’ (p. ). to ameliorate such risks while attempting to reframe those longstanding humanistic goals, the authors outline two challenges that face the dh. firstly, digital humanists must build a comprehensive system of scholarly communication, a ‘cyberinfrastructure’, which ‘bring[s] together all the disparate and excellent resources already created’ in order to facilitate ‘the work of individuals, publishers, learned societies and all institutions of higher learning in the humanities, investigating and answering questions from the most specialized research focus to the broadest public interest’ (p. ). secondly, the digital humanist must seek to democratize this cyberinfrastructure, in order ‘to provide frameworks that permit all scholars to take advantage of the available tools in their research fields’ (ibid.). ywcct-mandal- gardiner and musto’s concern with the possibilities and challenges facing the dh also forms the spine of judith thompson klein’s interdisciplining digital humanities: boundary work in an emerging field (umichp [ ]). given their imbrication of technology and humanities, klein posits the dh as a performed interdiscipline, a growing international movement and a putative revolution beset by limitations. setting aside prior conceptualizations of the dh as a disciplinary space or fluid organism, klein’s preferred model is that of an ecology that combines both the spatial and organic systems. the study is itself presented as an interdisciplinary triangulation of three analytical approaches: the historiographical (drawing on foucault), the sociological (by way of bourdieu) and the rhetorical (after becher). klein (pp. – ) identifies three boundaries that frame the interdisciplinary dynamics of the dh: methodological vs theoretical interdisciplinarity; instrumental vs critical interdisciplinarity; and the role of transdisciplinarity. for klein, transdisciplinarity in particular offers a persuasive critical framework for interpreting the dh: ‘the connotation of a new paradigm appears in digital humanities in arguments that “the digital” is not simply one more new field but an overarching framework that remakes all disciplinary research and education’ (p. ). building on a nuffield foundation study from , she observes that transdisciplinarity in the dh can operate in one of two ways: either it can build bridges between humanities and technology in the interest of cultural heritage, history and tradition; or, through restructuring existing disciplines, it can refigure humanities by introducing new technologies, methodologies and information systems. a necessary condition for interdisciplinarity is what klein identifies as interprofessionalism, cooperation between multiple disciplinary experts—a dynamic that perhaps more accurately represents current collaborations within the dh than the concept of interdisciplinarity. in framing the history of interdisciplinarity, klein again picks out the transformation from the renaissance liberal arts tradition, to the enlightenment shift towards ywcct-mandal- empiricism and thence institutionalization from the nineteenth century. such disciplinary specialization was ameliorated somewhat by the emergence of critical interdisciplinarity in the later twentieth century of integrative/synthetic approaches such as marxism, structuralism, feminism, black studies, semiotics, cultural history and media studies: ‘viewed as part of this history, digital humanities is both a hybrid specialization and a set of cross- fertilizing practices’ (p. ). the dh manifest both ‘integrative’ tendencies, in their formation of an identifiable field through a mature habitus (a recognized canon, journals, organizations, research centres), and ‘disintegrative’ tendencies, predicated on the function of the dh as servitor or transformer of the established humanities. as such, the dh operate as a liminal set of practices, given that no single practice can metonymically represent digital humanities. nor does it exist in a single space. it is located within disciplines, their subfields, and alternative practices. the field is multidisciplinary in scope. it is interdisciplinary in integrative and collaborative practices. it is transdisciplinary in a broad-based reformulation of humanities that places technology and media at the heart of research and teaching, and in embedding critique in all practices and engaging the public sector. (p. ) klein points to three trendlines in the trajectory of the dh: visualization, spatialization and a computational turn. the first two have enabled humanists to interpret artefactual datasets at exponentially greater magnitudes (as lionized in moretti’s model of distant reading), thus yielding new understandings of the humanities. the last development signals a cracial epistemic change in studia humanitatis, which has centred in particular on the study of code not simply as a neutral heuristic, but as a construct shaped by and capable of ideological work (pp. – ). the role of institutionalization within the dh ecology is central to such scholarly labour: in particular, research centres function as a critical ‘third space’ within the academic ywcct-mandal- ecology, having played a crucial role in ‘fostering ties critical to the life of a community’ (p. ) through a ‘laboratory model of the humanities’ (p. ). nevertheless, the centre model has brought its own challenges, principally those of sustainability and preservation of content, but also those of perception. furthermore, the dh can often be seen in instrumental ways within academia, generating a tension between service and research, which threatens to marginalize dh practitioners as vulnerable and under-regarded: ‘if the mantra in real estate is location, location, location, in digital humanities it is infrastructure, infrastructure, infrastructure. […] the cyberinfrastructure of tools, technologies, and methodologies needed for digital humanities, however, remains inadequate’ (p. ). one potential solution is to encourage ‘bottom-up’ dissemination of humanistic work by leveraging web . platforms such as twitter, blogs and other non-traditional forms of scholarship: ‘as research is being shared increasingly through social media, […] the lines between professional expert and amateur blur in an expanded form of distributed knowing and decentering of authority’ (p. ). in order to work effectively within the dh, klein argues, scholars must negotiate a shared knowledge base while pushing towards a ‘deep interdisciplinarity’ that ‘requires experts to adopt new media and modes of communication, learning to speak new hybrid languages, having an experimental attitude, being willing to learn from experience, and flattening hierarchy in project management’ (p. ). more fundamentally, education policymakers must find ways of rewarding collaboration and acknowledging the value of the processual, iterative nature of dh research, which often requires the regular revisitation and updating of research outcomes. of course, the challenge is that this model is significantly different from the post-rankean output-focused model of monographs, journal articles and conference proceedings that still dominates higher education. ywcct-mandal- interdisciplinarity also forms as a core feature of douglas eyman’s digital rhetoric: theory, method, practice (umichp [ ]), which classifies rhetoric as both ‘location and scholarly identity’ (p. ). eyman begins by considering the longer tradition of rhetoric from antiquity to the present day, noting that ‘rhetoric is both an analytical method and a heuristic for production’, which ‘can be structured as a kind of meta-discipline’ (p. ). chapter , ‘defining and locating digital rhetoric’, identifies three key components of classical rhetoric: logos (logical argument), pathos (emotional appeal) and ethos (the speaker’s authority). modern rhetorical models, influenced by theorists such as foucault, bakhtin, derrida and kristeva, posit that ‘knowledge arises through argument (persuasive rhetoric) within communities that share assumptions and beliefs’ (p. ). eyman distinguishes the usefulness of rhetoric to the dh in three ways: at the level of theory, it allows for the use of and alliance with other fields not typically associated with printed text or speech; it prompts a critical view of current rhetorical theories and methods and opens up the question of whether new theories and new methods can or should be developed; and it provides the boundary condition necessary for the emergence of a new field of study. (p. ) eyman’s formulation of the terms rhetoric, digital and text in his study is at once capacious and slippery, suggesting both the possibilities and limitations of his approach. he builds on george landow’s foundational proposition that hypertext embodies or instantiates barthes’s model of the individual text as the centre of a network (hypertext: the convergence of contemporary critical theory and technology (jhup [ ])). eyman’s ‘digital rhetoric’ extends landow’s theory of the networked hypertext as both an analytic and a heuristic for creating persuasive communicative networks enacted via new forms of media and distribution. significantly, ‘digital texts require not just an updating of traditional theory but the development of new rhetorical theories and methods designed to specifically account for ywcct-mandal- the features of digital texts’ (p. ). for eyman, the originary discipline of the humanities is rhetoric, yet rhetoric seems to have lost its distinct identity as a discipline and is often overlooked in the humanities: the dh offer an opportunity to address this (p. ). chapter , ‘digital rhetoric: theory’, positions digital rhetoric ‘as a field that engages multiple theories and methods rather than as a singular theory framework’ (p. ) building on classical (particularly, ciceronian) rhetoric’s focus on production, the chapter identifies five key components in digital rhetoric (pp. – ): . invention leads to new kinds of text, new forms of meaning, new practices of production and even new institutions; . arrangement is typically a formal system of organization that marks each part of speech based on its purpose, and can be seen as an emergent feature of digital texts (for example, in the process of ‘tagging’, in the erosion of distance between producers and users, in remix culture); . style is equivalent to design for digital rhetoric (for example, colour, font styles, layout, multimedia affordances); . memory can be configured through foucauldian ideas of the archive and through metadata tagging, primarily not as storage but as persistence of cognition, as bricolage—making memory an activity (in the classical sense) rather than just a repository; . delivery in the digital needs to take account of performance (particularly with regard to multimedia work). building on these classical canons of rhetoric, eyman turns to the issue of embodiment within the digital space, observing (as a number of other studies examined in this chapter have) that ‘the body—especially in digital form—is a discursive formation that resists the dissociation of the physical and the virtual’ (p. ). in classical rhetoric, identity was intrinsically linked ywcct-mandal- to the rhetor’s presence to generate ethos; in the digital age, ethos continues to operate despite the absence of a physical identity. this becomes particularly complex, as the user’s online identity is not necessarily arbitrated by the user but by those who develop the technologies or platforms that consequently assign limits to what a user can or cannot do. the habitus of the online rhetor is the network (an extension from the civic space of the classical era), which through its affordances and constraints mediates rhetorical situations, facilitates rhetorical ecologies and impacts on the formation of digital identity. eyman’s study suggests that [t]his notion of information ecologies does two things particularly well: it shifts from technology as tool to technology-in-use (that is, activity can be seen as a synergistic relationship between digital media/technologies and human actors) and it focuses the lens of inquiry on a finite context (which is useful for the development of research methods). (p. ) if ecologies represent the contexts of circulation, economies represent the mechanisms that motivate circulation, primarily through a marxian model of production, distribution and exchange recalibrated in the digital context through bourdieu’s categories of cultural and social capital: ‘the production of digital objects endows them with use-value, but the motivation for production is grounded in subjective exchange-value that is garnered through the distribution and publication (and ultimately circulation) of the texts’ (p. ). chapters and apply eyman’s rhetorical theories to ‘method’ and ‘practice’ respectively. digital rhetoric must account for the complications generated by the affordances of digital practices, and can leverage both close and distant reading models. composition continues to engage multiple modes and media as acceptable forms, with the digital world stimulating ‘an epistemological shift’ ywcct-mandal- from a view of the solitary writer who has available only limited material means of production and often no recourse to distribution or circulation of the work, to a view of composition as a collaborative activity that engages multiple means of production and that occurs within digital networks that provide broad opportunities for publication and circulation. (pp. – ) writing is a technology, so the teaching of writing is part of a technological system with which students interact as users, and research into digital writing must adopt a ‘cyborgian’, networked view of human communications. old methods cannot be applied to new events or practices, but require, in the words of james porter, ‘a new way of looking altogether’, an approach that ‘acknowledges the hybrid, symbiotic relationship between humans and machines’ (in h. mckee and d. devoss, digital writing research (hamptonp [ ]) pp. xv–xvi). these transformations mark a broader reconstitution of the production of knowledge, a phenomenon that forms the basis of eric t. meyer and ralph schroeder’s knowledge machines: digital transformations of the sciences and humanities (mitp [ ]). studying a number of projects based in the sciences, social sciences and humanities, the authors consider ‘how networked technologies have changed the ways we consume knowledge’ and ‘reconfigured the ways that knowledge is generated’ (p. ), in the form of e-research generated by knowledge machines. hitherto scantily examined, e-research ‘requires not just new tools and organizational structures but also changes in researchers’ everyday practices’ (p. ), as emergent research technologies reshape the topographies of scholarly research: ‘although efforts to establish e-infrastructures or cyberinfrastructure are important, many scholars are likely to become or to have become e-researchers accidentally or unwittingly’ (p. ). the authors locate research styles and technologies in the algorithmic (that is, mathematical) processes of the computational turn: ‘e-research uses networked computing ywcct-mandal- (digital tools) to manipulate digital data by means of calculations—algorithms to produce knowledge’ (p. ), resulting in an increasing ‘scientization’ of even those less cumulative disciplines such as the social sciences and humanities (p. ). meyer and schroeder are careful to avoid technological determinism, positioning these research technologies within their historical and sociological contexts as they diffuse into their users’ habitus and transfer knowledge across discrete disciplines. instead, they adopt a ‘social informatics’ perspective, which stops short of full-blown latourian social constructivism: this approach reinforces the notion that researchers are not uncritical ‘users’ of technology but actors within professional and personal networks of people and technologies. […] technological frames, for social construction of technology theorists, are built up around technological artifacts as interactions among members of a relevant social group converge and move in a similar direction. (pp. , ) these complex algorithmic paradigms are not restricted to the research environment alone, but are increasingly affecting public life (for example, wall street trading), while more personal domains are at least partly controlled by algorithms (for example, amazon’s buying choices, the music service spotify’s recommended tracks, facebook advertisements). the authors employ a range of case studies and quantitative data to trace the contours of e- research over the last twenty years. humanities lag far behind: publications in sciences fields make up nearly half of the data, while social sciences are per cent and humanities just per cent. nevertheless, e-research is on an upward trajectory within the humanities: a survey of humanities scholars conducted by one of the book’s authors reported that per cent of respondents described themselves as enthusiasts or advocates of the dh, while only per cent saw themselves as sceptics (p. ). new questions are being enabled in the humanities through digital technologies: a culturomics study by harvard scholar jean- baptiste michel and his colleagues utilized the digitization of more than five million works ywcct-mandal- (about per cent of all printed books) by the google books project. speared on by the dh, culturomics is being claimed as an emergent science providing new taxons of evidence in the humanities based on treating humanities artefacts as computational data, particularly with the current focus on so-called big data (for a more detailed consideration of this, see christine l. borgman’s big data, little data, no data: scholarship in the networked world (mitp [ ])). this scientific approach is complemented by literary approaches that build on quantitative methods championed by franco moretti’s distant reading (verso [ ]) and matthew l. jockers’ macroanalysis: digital methods and literary history (uillinoisp [ ]). naturally, questions have been raised about the absence of interpretative specialization in the dh found in more traditional humanities approaches, as well as about reliability of google books data. meyer and schroeder see such scepticism more as a struggle for ‘disciplinary turf’ in the wake of an incursion by scientific methods into cultural and literary hermeneutics, and argue that traditional and computational approaches should be seen as complementary rather than oppositional (p. ). there is, in fact, more at stake than academic practice with regard to knowledge production: ‘the broader concern of whether private companies with this type of data are able to do more powerful research than academic social scientists’ (p. ). it is the search engines that now ‘shape online visibility, which, combined with competition for limited attention space at the leading edge of research […] leads to a different model of how access to knowledge and information is being shaped’ (p. ). moreover, the algorithms that google and other search engines employ remain hidden to end-users, reducing transparency. this, combined with increasing public access to research via the internet, particularly through the open access movement, means that the traditional role of scholars as the gatekeepers of knowledge is in danger of being eroded, which returns us to previous considerations about the ‘crisis’ of the humanities. these challenges are permeating not just academic discourse, ywcct-mandal- but are now being disseminated in recent works aimed at the general reader, among them pedro domingo’s the master algorithm: how the quest for the ultimate learning machine will remake our world (allen lane [ ]), andrew keen’s the internet is not the answer (atlantic books [ ]) and bruce schneier’s data and goliath: the hidden battles to collect your data and control your world (norton [ ]). the challenges and possibilities facing the humanities in the digital age occupy patrik svensson and david theo goldberg’s between humanities and the digital (mitp [ ]), a compendious collection of thirty-five essays divided into three sections: ‘the field of digital humanities’, ‘inflecting fields and disciplines’ and ‘knowledge production, learning, and infrastructure’. the editors argue that the reach of digital media proves the potential to engage a far broader range of publics, while in turn challenging humanists to become more self-reflexive about how to represent their own work in more publicly accessible ways without necessarily compromising the quality or criticality of their work. (p. ) rather interrogative and invocational than declarative, the volume’s pithy essays offer nuanced and compelling perspectives that locate the dh within the wider intellectual context. alan liu and william g. thomas iii’s essay, ‘humanities in the digital age’, suggests that humanists must take action to shape the humanities’ long-term digital future or they will cede the opportunity and have their digital infrastructure built for them. the essay is a call to arms that focuses on the role of the public scholar who follows in the tradition of petrarch and erasmus by leveraging the affordances of the digital age: ‘the coin of the realm in the digital age, we predict, will be service to society. […] the digital humanities could help create next-generation scholarly platforms that integrate public engagements seamlessly with core research and teaching’ (p. ) by contrast, ian bogost’s ‘beyond the elbow-patched playground’ reads our post-humboldtian university system as in danger of ossification, ywcct-mandal- suggesting that ‘[t]he humanities needs more courage and more contact with the world in addition to a continued commitment to removed reflection’ (p. ). taking a somewhat technologically deterministic position, he argues that humanists need to be more active in taking control: ‘the digital humanities more frequently adopt rather than invent their tools. […] as a result, digital humanities projects risk letting existing technologies dictate the terms of their work’ (p. ). more optimistically, cathy n. davidson (‘why hack needs yack (and vice versa)’) identifies ‘a paradigm shift about what constitutes “computation” and what counts as “human and social life.” it means rethinking such binaries (implicit in the two cultures divide) as production and consumption’ (p. ). as the work of scholars such as henry jenkins has shown, we now live in an increasingly participatory, connected world, which requires closer imbrications between digital practice and theory in a new collaborative modality. what is needed, according to davidson, is an ‘open, bazaar-like architecture’, which inverts the kantian/humboldtian model of the university that currently privileges hyper-specialists: ‘digital humanists can make a leadership role in championing new modes of technology invention, adaptation and dissemination within and across disciplines, in research and in the classroom’ (p. ). a recurrent trope in svensson and goldberg’s collection is the emphasis on the materiality of the digital: unlike earlier formulations of the dh, which suggested an immanent virtual world, the emphasis on materiality inflects a recent phase of dh scholarship, aligning it more closely with fields such as the history of the book. one of the key areas of enquiry for the dh in recent years has been remix culture as the characteristic creative modality for the digital age—most notably in lawrence lessig’s study-cum- manifesto, remix: making art and commerce thrive in the hybrid economy (penguin [ ]). using the film theory of sergei eisenstein and the architectural analysis of elizabeth grosz, jenna ng’s ‘the cut between us: digital remix and the expression of self’ reads ywcct-mandal- digital remix culture by way of the ‘in-between’ as the place for becoming. like eisenstein’s pioneering use of the montage, remix ‘relies on a certain friction in the space between texts for their creative energy’ (in svensson and goldberg, p. ). ng examines a range of popular mashups on social media sites like youtube, pointing out that the viewers’ understanding of these pieces emerges, not from the connections between sources, but the cuts—violent collisions and contrasts that generate ironic valency through the discourse of remix. in contrast to ng’s essay, elizabeth losh’s ‘utopian pedagogies: teaching from the margins of the digital humanities’ suggests an alternative approach to new media artefacts: it may […] be a mistake to assume that supposedly subversive remix pedagogies automatically spur practices of democratic inclusion and egalitarianism, or that the aesthetic forms generated by participatory video editing and compositing practices are necessarily unproblematic. (p. ) instead, losh proposes ‘a radical suggestion’: ‘let’s use digital humanities tools notably for remix pedagogy but also for unmix pedagogy’. for instance, students could be presented with mashups without explanation and asked to unpack all of the visual references the footage contains (p. ), either on their own or collaboratively. drawing on william morris’s pronouncement, ‘you can’t have art without resistance in the materials’, bethany nowviskie’s ‘resistance in the materials’ examines how a degree of happy resistance enables dh practitioners to craft new scholarly models by moving through disciplines by way of a productive friction akin to that outlined by ng. nowviskie identifies three ‘crucially important’ converging factors in humanities computing today: ‘the massive, rapid and inexorable conversion of the material cultural inheritance to digital forms’ (p. ); ‘tacit knowledge exchange in code-craft and digital humanities collaboration [that] contributes to a ywcct-mandal- new hermeneutic, a new way of performing thoughtful humanities interpretation’ (p. ); ‘the rise of casual and alternative academic labor’ (p. ). amy e. earhart (‘the digital humanities as a laboratory’) advocates the fostering of a ‘neutral space in which collaboration might occur’: ‘if we think about the boundary object as related to space and place, and of neutral spaces as crucial to such shared work, then the laboratory model emerges as one that could allow us to foster an equitable collaboration’ (p. ) however, like nowiskie, she points out that the current humanistic habitus limits new forms of collaborative labour, thereby disincentivizing dh practitioners because of the continued dominance of the lone-scholar models of monograph and individual authorship. at the same time, it is incumbent on humanists to acknowledge the endemic power structures and tendencies within digital culture, something which can be often overlooked in the celebrations of the emancipatory power of the digital. a powerful reading of this is supplied in jennifer gonzález’s ‘the face and the public: race, secrecy, and digital art practice’, whose examination of race, digital practice and social media argues that ‘the other of the public’ is not the private but the hidden, grounded in the unknown/unknowable as both an object of desire and fascination and a threat to public coherence, subject to a foucauldian monitory praxis: revealing secrets is one of the goals of publicity, but producing secrets is another one. power resides in what people conceal as well as what they reveal, whether as part of the hegemony or of the subaltern classes. race and other forms of cultural difference have been presented as secret unknowns that require definition, mapping, measuring, and legislating by those in power in order to render them public. […] the philosophical imperative for a homogeneous universal subject, without racial or cultural specificity, who might therefore properly participate in a neutral public sphere can be seen as a demand for subjects not only to reveal their secrets but also to ywcct-mandal- find ways to live without them, in other words, to find ways not to be disturbing. (p. ) svensson and goldberg’s collection wraps up with a ‘provocation’ by the leading theorist of technogenesis, n. katherine hayles. she suggests that we are entering a new era ushered in by the networked devices and computational media embedded ubiquitously in our everyday environments, marking the emergence of a ‘cognitive nonconscious’: automated cognition increasingly operates within deep technical infrastructures that are enmeshed and enwebbed with human cognition and human life. to rise to the challenges, opportunities, and problems this situation creates, the humanities must broaden their traditional concepts of meaning to include nonconscious cognition, with all of [the] implications and consequences nonconscious cognition poses. (p. ) the relationship between human consciousness and the cognitive nonconscious will fundamentally transform the operation and relevance of the humanities in our present digital world. once again, these preoccupations are no longer restricted to the coterie world of academic discourse, as reflected by the recent publication of a number of (quite alarmist) titles aimed at a general readership: nicholas carr’s the glass cage: where automation is taking us (bodley head [ ]), martin ford’s the rise of the robots: technology and the threat of mass unemployment (oneworld [ ]) and evgeny morozov’s to save everything, click here: technology, solutionism, and the urge to fix problems that don’t exist (penguin, [ ]). rebecca ann lind’s produsing theory in a digital world . : the intersection of audiences and production in contemporary theory (peter lang [ ]) is a considerably sleeker volume than svensson and goldberg’s, but it nonetheless offers the reader a number of stimulating provocations. the book follows up lind’s identically titled collection (less the ‘ . ’) of , which drew upon axel bruns’s term produsage—‘the collaborative and ywcct-mandal- continuous building and extending of existing content in pursuit of further improvement’ (blogs, wikipedia, second life, and beyond: from production to produsage (peter lang [ ]) p. ). bruns’s produsage has much in common with henry jenkins’s prosumption, which unites producers and consumers within the new media landscape of participatory culture, ‘as participants who interact with each other according to a new set of rules that none of us fully understands’ (convergence culture: where old and new media collide (nyup [ ] p. ). lind’s point of departure for produsage is a combinatory one that imbricates berger and luckmann’s social constructivism, bourdieu’s habitus and dreier’s theory of situated participants in social practice. the sixteen essays that make up the collection examine produsage as it manifests in a variety of digital fields, from internet governance to videogaming, from adolescent identity formation to subaltern identities within digital geopolitics. the online produser community incubated within the internet is read in heterogeneous ways by the volume’s contributors. thomas lindlof’s ‘the interpretive community redux: the once and future saga of a media studies concept’ traces a shift from vertical unidirectional model of pre-digital media production to a recursive horizontal rhizome of digital produsage. revisiting the ‘interpretive community’ theories pioneered by stanley fish and janice radway in the s, lindlof suggests we can read digital culture by focusing on ‘the dynamic interplay between types of texts, or the paths by which users move into, through, and out of the discursive space, with the attendant possibilities for growth, mutation, and/or transformation of interpretive strategies’ (p. ).web . brings both affordances and constraints, as digital networks enable people to share interpretive strategies that accelerate previous media-sharing paradigms while encouraging more writerly engagements. less optimistic about such developments are philip m. napoli and jonathan a. obar, whose ‘the mobile conversion, internet regression, and the repassification of the media ywcct-mandal- audience’ begins by tracing the shift from screen- to mobile-based network computing. the authors view this transition as ‘an evolutionary regression across some key dimensions’ (p. ), as the increasing predominance of mobile forms recalibrates the computing device away from an active tool for information creation and dissemination towards a device geared for information retrieval. the risk has consequences for digital enfranchisement: the next generation of internet users seems likely to be significantly underskilled relative to the previous users and therefore less equipped to engage in the same degree of active, sophisticated information seeking and independent content creation and dissemination as the previous generation. (p. ) once again, academic research has been flowing outwards towards the general public in various technodeterminist studies that explore the effects of digital culture on human cognition and expressivity. perhaps the most (in)famous is nicholas carr’s the shallows how the internet is changing the way we think (atlantic [ ]), but more recent studies continue this trend, among them: naomi baron’s words onscreen: the fate of reading in a digital world (oxfordup [ ]) and susan greenfield’s mind change: how digital technologies are leaving their mark on our brains (rider [ ]). less anxious than these studies, lind’s volume emphasizes that the effects of produsage on our digital lives can often accrue cumulatively rather than transformationally: as annette n. markham notes in ‘produsing ethics [for the digital near future]’, ‘although ethics certainly shape activity, they also emerge continually from everyday activities, including the actions of social code, computational algorithms, human behaviors, design, and materiality’, functions which ‘work at the epistemological level—not merely reflecting but making social realities’ (in lind, pp. , ). the dominance of social media as the current internet paradigm also offers opportunities to consider more active online engagements than those proposed by napoli and ywcct-mandal- obar. john v. pavlik’s ‘understanding the popularity of social media: flow theory, optimal experience, and public media engagement’ leverages flow theory as ‘a compelling theoretical foundation for understanding why people like to use social networking media’ (p. ). flows describe positive, purposeful mental states that lead individuals into highly immersive, focused and absorbing activities, in which the emphasis is on process rather than object. ‘two hallmarks of the flow experience, particularly deep or intense flow, are (a) feeling of spontaneous joy or possibly rapture and (b) an altered sense of time’ (p. ), yielding an almost transcendental or harmonious experience. in pavlik’s holistic model, readings of flow theory hinge ‘on the potential for individuals to use those networking tools to participate in or feel connected to something larger than themselves’ (p. ). in contrast, an area of popular curiosity and anxiety is the ‘darknet’ or ‘deep web’, which has recently been examined by alarmist publications such as jamie bartlett’s the dark net (windmill [ ]) and marc goodman’s future crimes: a journey to the dark side of technology (corgi [ ]). jeremy hunsinger’s essay, ‘produsing the hidden: darknet consummativities’, considers darknets in a more nuanced way, exploring these hidden social communities through a model of consummativity, as defined by baudrillard: needs […] are better defined as a function induced (in the individual) by the internal logic of the system: more precisely, not as a consummative force liberated by the affluent society, but as a productive force required by the functioning of the system itself, by its process of reproduction and survival. (for a critique of the political economy of the sign (telos [ ]) p. ) as a result, consummativity generates both identification and alienation in the subject’s desires/needs, such that, in hunsinger’s words, ‘the quasiobject that is produced is always partly the produser’s alienated identity’ (in lind, p. ). hunsinger’s argument ‘resists the simple construction of criminality and exceptionalism found in popular press understandings ywcct-mandal- of darknets’, focusing instead on their function as sites of knowledge sharing, information provision and economic value creation. darknets are typically formed for reasons of privacy, security and economic value, rooted in the needs and desires of their produsers. the criminality and political subversiveness of darknets, argues hunsinger, are primarily mythogenetic, serving a necessary legitimating function as knowledge-produsage spaces for their members, with ‘hiddenness’ as one of the consummativities created by darknet produsers (p. ). hunsigner points out that an underlying paradox drives many darknets, whose produsers see themselves as apart from capitalist structures, while having their needs shaped by the semiotics of capitalism. this mechanism pivots on the consumption of privacy: the limits of our political imagination are exemplified by the tendency to assume that privacy is only a right. but in our liberal society, there is an assumption that many are extremely wary of making about privacy: privacy may be a right, but it is also a consumer good. […] although privacy is projected as a public good, privacy in our neoliberal economy only has value where it is traded or consumed. (p. ) such self-selecting ‘hiddenness’ finds its inverse in the marginalized/disregarded digital subjects who feature recurrently through this collection. coverage in the volume ranges from the construction of adolescent identities in bradley w. gotham and jaime r. riccio’s chapter, to ella mcpherson’s study of the challenges faced by journalists when verifying digital human rights reporting by civilian witnesses. radhika gajjala, dinah tetteh and anca birzescu’s ‘staging the subaltern self and the subaltern other: digital labor and digital leisure in ict d’ examines information and communication technologies for development (ict d) as they cohere around postcolonial subaltern identities. in the web . context, the subaltern is produced via layers of mediation, ‘staged through online textual and visual formats, projecting an image of an empowered individual or group previously excluded or marginalized’ (p. ) examining two recent microfinance platforms, the authors ywcct-mandal- identify how different rhetorical constructions of the subaltern operate, noting that ‘web . spaces that appear to break down barriers between the poor and the not-poor are still reinscribing colonial hierarchies’ (p. ) in particular, internet architecture can be seen to ‘informationalize’ the individual human narratives of marginalized bodies through data mining and coding for/by a western audience. in cognate terms, kishona l. gray’s ‘race, gender, and virtual inequality: exploring the liberatory potential of black cyberfeminist theory’ interrogates the endemic power structures black women encounter in virtual spaces, observing that the ‘assumed white masculine body [of the internet] excludes women and people of color; the mere presence of their bodes marks them as deviant in these spaces’ (p. ). having interrogated the limitations of earlier theories of emancipatory cyberfeminism and binaristic technofeminism, gray proposes a theoretical model that is more relevant to black women’s digital lives, one filtered through the intellectualism of black liberation movements grounded in a ‘knowledge of self [that] propels one to the realization of liberation’ (p. ). looking at online phenomena such as #blacklivesmatter and mikki kendall’s iconoclastic use of social media within the feminist community, gray’s model of black cyberfeminism builds on three core concerns: social structural oppression within technology and virtual spaces, intersecting oppression experienced in virtual spaces and the distinctness of the virtual feminist community. the global permeation of social media has received increasing attention in recent years. in particular, sherry turkle’s alone together (basic books [ ]) and reclaiming conversation: the power of talk in a digital age (penguin [ ]) have offered cautionary tales to the general reader about the implications of digitalization for our everyday lives, online and offline. a more (cautiously) optimistic response was offered by nancy k. baym’s personal connections in the digital age in , now revised and updated in a second edition (polity [ ]). baum notes that new media—whether manuscript, print or digital— ywcct-mandal- have always generated public consternation over their effects on our relationships to ourselves and others. initially, ‘alien’ media affect the way we perceive the world, society and ourselves, before becoming normalized, and therefore invisible, within social systems. presently, then, digital media ‘call into question the very authenticity of our identities, relationships, and practices’ (p. ), mapping the shift from modern to postmodern times: ‘time and space are compressed, speed is accelerated, people are ever more mobile, communication is person-to-person rather than place-to-place, identities are multiple, and communication media are ubiquitous (p. ). the ‘synchronicity’ of new media and lack of (somatic) social cues online can both enhance the ‘sense of placelessness’ and make distant communicants feel closer than ever before (p. ). baym’s study eschews both technodeterminist and social constructivist models, defining her approach as the ‘social shaping of technology’, a middle way attuned to the reciprocal, mutually constitutive relationships between social agents and technological platforms: from this perspective, the consequences of technologies arise from a mix of ‘affordances’ […] and the unexpected and emergent ways that people make use of those affordances. […] rather than being deterministic, they see the consequences of technology for social life as emergent. (pp. , ) baym interrogates the belief that mediated interaction (online) is less ‘authentic’ than face-to- face connections (offline). rather than a diminishment of embodiment, mediated interactions should be read as new, eclectic modalities that combine face-to-face communication with elements of writing (text, images, multimedia): ‘instead of asking what mediation does to communication, we can also ask what people do with mediated communication’ (p. ). this writerly aspect of mediated communication is important because it acknowledges the importance of audience and address in social media (which leads us back to eyman’s account ywcct-mandal- of digital rhetoric, discussed earlier in this chapter). thus, rather than undergoing dematerialization or disembodiment, gender, sexuality and race persist in the formation of online identities and communication. baym examines the late modernist shift away from tightly bounded communities towards a networked individualism: ‘to the extent that members of different people’s social networks overlap and are internally organized, they may constitute groups, but social networks are egocentric and no two will be identical’ (p. ). networked individualism is complemented by networked collectivism, through which ‘groups of people now network throughout the internet and related mobile media, and in-person communication, creating a shared but distributed group identity’ (p. ). online relationships can challenge orthodox social behaviours and blur social boundaries (for example, cross-sex friendships, which in some cultures can be perceived as transgressive, are more common online than offline). the separation of identity from the body online also challenges western essentialism, emphasizing instead the social nature of identity: ‘the affordances of new media open up new possibilities for exploring and representing ourselves and others’ (p. ). despite the popularly perceived separation of online/offline identities, baym argues that the evidence suggests the contrary: we typically maintain continuities between our online and offline selves. at the same time, the relationship between identity and privacy does need modification in light of social media: most understandings of privacy—as an individual problem of whether or not to share information about one’s self—are ill suited to networked environments where the real problems concern control over how information flows. privacy is about controlling access to information and the integrity of the contexts in which information was shared, not secrecy. (p. ) the counterpart to privacy is the publicness fostered by social media, as ‘[c]ommunicating online to unknown and disembodied audiences is a way to build a public identity, often in ywcct-mandal- service of “self-branding”’, such that ‘[p]eople may be just as concerned with building public identities as with hiding private ones’ (p. ) however, one key limit is that most social networking systems ‘partially engineer self-presentation by providing predetermined sets of categories through which to build identities’ (p. ). such a perspective forms the essence of jaron lanier’s you are not a gadget (penguin [ ]), which argues that web . technologies curtail human expressiveness and identity, through a ‘cybernetic totalism’. the flattening out of individual creativity at the expense of the crowd (‘the hive mind’) is, for lanier, a major problem facing twenty-first-century subjectivity: the central mistake of recent digital culture is to chop up a network of individuals so finely that you end up with a mush. you then start to care about the abstraction of the network more than the real people who are networked, even though the network is by itself meaningless. only the people were ever meaningful. (p. ) do the affordances of such cybernetically totalitarian systems encourage lying or dishonesty? baym thinks not, arguing that most typical dissimulations online are those that amplify our positive traits (for example, on dating sites) or perhaps result from a lack of self-awareness: ‘sometimes being deceptive about presenting one’s ideal self more than a fictitious one’ (baym, p. ). reputation forms an important aspect of identity, but it is something bestowed by others: online there is no due process, so that people who transgress can be punished in ways far disproportionate to their transgression. (see jon ronson’s so you’ve been publicly shamed (pan [ ]) for a recent examination of reputation and notoriety online.) online relationships are multiplex or polymedial (conducted across multiple media platforms): ‘in polymedia, we do not simply choose a medium. media unite to become a single integrated structure of affordances that we exploit in order to manage emotions and relationships’ (p. ). we must choose the right media as well as the right message in this new ecology, in ywcct-mandal- which mediated communication functions as ‘a set of tools people use to connect’, each with socially orchestrated meanings imbricated with the daily realities of embodied life. as baym notes, perhaps the most significant influence of digital media on culture (and on the humanities more generally) is that ‘[d]igital media aren’t saving us or ruining us. they aren’t reinventing us. but they are changing the ways we relate to others and ourselves in countless, pervasive ways’ (p. ). it would seem that in today’s digital era, it’s the little things that count. works reviewed baym, nancy k. personal connections in the digital age. nd edn. polity. [ ] pp. viii + . pb £ . isbn . eyman, douglas. digital rhetoric: theory, method, practice. umichp. [ ] pp. . $ isbn . gardiner, eileen, and ronald g. musto. the digital humanities: a primer for students and scholars. cambridgeup. [ ] pp. . pb £ . isbn . klein, judith thompson. interdisciplining digital humanities: boundary work in an emerging field. umichp. [ ] pp. xiii + . pb $ isbn . lind, rebecca ann, ed. produsing theory in a digital world . : the intersection of audiences and production in contemporary theory. digital formations, vol. . peter lang. [ ] pp. vii + . pb $ . isbn . meyer, eric t., and ralph schroeder. knowledge machines: digital transformation of the sciences and humanities. mitp. [ ] pp. xi + . $ isbn . svensson, patrik, and david theo goldberg, eds. between humanities and the digital. mitp. [ ] pp. . $ isbn . special issue of cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities: annotating narrative levels∗ special issue of cultural analytics evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand (editors) ∗this pdf was compiled using the articles provided by cultural analytics to allow citation and convenient browsing of the entire issue. please cite individual articles as indicated on their respective title page. please cite the entire issue as follows: evelyn gius, nils reiter, and marcus willand, eds. ( ). cultural analytics: a shared task for the digital humanities: annotating narrative levels. special issue. doi. contents evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i introduction nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius introduction to annotation, narrative levels and shared tasks . . . . . . . . evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand evaluating annotation guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter description of submitted guidelines and final evaluation results . . . . . . ii annotation guidelines and reviews joshua eisenberg, mark finlayson annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . meredith a. martin review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . edward kearns annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tilmann köppe review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nora ketschik, benjamin krautter, sandra murr, yvonne zimmermann annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j. berenike herrmann review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . contents florian barth annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jan horstman review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . matthias bauer, miriam lahrsow annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . natalie m. houston review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mats wirén, adam ek and anna kasaty annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gunther martens review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adam hammond annotation guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tom mcenaney review of guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . foreword to the special issue “a shared task for the digital humanities: annotating narrative levels” evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: evelyn gius, nils reiter, and marcus willand, “foreword to the special issue ‘a shared task for the digital humanities: annotating narrative levels’,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . this volume is the first of two, and it documents activities that we have been conducting in the past years. they are best described as “organizing shared tasks with/in/for the digital humanities” and have evolved significantly since we started. research in digital humanities entails a number of unique challenges, some of which are caused by the collaboration model that digital humanities projects of- ten work in. this collaboration creates a lot of friction, but comes with huge potential: different collaboration partners can specialize in different aspects of the shared goal. while a shared goal and a common language is still needed, each party does not have to know everything about the other party’s focus area. a (proto-)typical division of labor lends itself to the digital humanities: com- puter scientists work on the technical aspects, while humanities scholars focus on the content side. still, it turns out that knowing what each party is working on does not suffice, because content and technology need to be re-integrated at some point. how exactly this integration takes place depends on the specific project design and is a matter of interface. evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics while our initiative is concerned with narrative levels in concrete terms, it does, more abstractly, also establish such an interface: when it comes to transporting knowledge about the research subject itself, annotated data serves as an inter- face between humanists and computer scientists. in addition to annotated data as interface, the shared task format itself can already be seen as an interface for scholars and researchers to interact. this interaction does not have to be direct and it does not have to take place in the same project, the same country, or even in the same decade. the initiative consists of two separate, but tightly linked shared tasks. the first one focuses on annotation guidelines for narrative levels and produces a balanced and consensual assessment of guidelines. the guideline that is best suited to the goal is then used for corpus annotation. the second shared task aims at autom- atizing the detection of narrative levels and will employ the annotated corpus in order to achieve this. the core benefit of this approach is that the resulting auto- matic detection systems incorporate the conceptual thinking that went into the guidelines in the first task. decisions on the complexity and granularity of the concepts to be detected are made by the scholars who developed the annotation guidelines, and they do not have to make compromises for pragmatic or technical reasons. consequently, fast success in terms of automatization is not guaranteed. the automatization task might be challenging for years to come, but at least the task definition is adequate for analyzing literature in the future. since this is a new format that has not been employed before in the digital hu- manities, this volume contains an extensive introduction covering the motivation and reasoning behind the first shared task in detail, a discussion of the evaluation setup and, finally, the guidelines as they were submitted, discussed and evaluated during a workshop we held. writing guidelines, however, is an iterative process. therefore, this special issue will receive an update in the form of a second volume, which will contain the improved guidelines, based on the discussion and evaluation from the first shared task. shared tasks depend entirely on their participants. initially, we could not be cer- tain at all that this activity would attract a critical mass of interested researchers and scholars. as of now, we are very happy that such a diverse crowd participated in the first shared task, and we would like to emphasize their commitment and thank them sincerely for not only having discussed narrative levels with us in a remarkably intensive way but also, in some cases, taking on transatlantic flights to participate. cultural analyticsforeword to the special issue ”a shared task for the digital humanities the participants of the first phase of the shared task are: • matthias bauer, guideline vi, english literature, tübingen university, ger- many • florian barth, guideline v, digital humanities/literary studies, stuttgart university, germany • kristina burghardt, guideline vi, english literature, tübingen university, germany • joshua eisenberg, guideline i, natural language processing, florida inter- national university, miami, u.s.a. • adam ek, guideline vii, computational linguistics, stockholm university, sweden • mark finlayson, guideline i, natural language processing, florida interna- tional university, miami, u.s.a. • adam hammond, guideline viii, english literature, university of toronto, canada • anna kasaty, guideline vii, computational linguistics, stockholm univer- sity, sweden • edward kearns, guideline ii, english, national university of ireland gal- way, ireland • nora ketschik, guideline iv, literary studies/digital humanities, stuttgart university, germany • benjamin krautter, guideline iv, (computational) literary studies, stuttgart university, germany • miriam lahrsow, guideline vi, english literature, tübingen university, germany • sandra murr, guideline iv, literary studies/digital humanities, stuttgart university, germany • ella ujhelyi, guideline vi, english literature, tübingen university, ger- many • mats wirén, guideline vii, computational linguistics, stockholm univer- sity, sweden • yvonne zimmermann, guideline iv, literary studies, stuttgart university, germany there are, next to the participants, a number of people that supported this initia- tive in various stages, for which we are very grateful. we thank jannik strötgen, who was involved in the initial steps of planning, but has left academia since. there were eight submissions, but guideline iii was withdrawn after the workshop. while it was still evaluated as the others, we therefore leave its authors anonymous. evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics we are also thankful to our advisory board, consisting of janina jacke, fotis jan- nidis, jonas kuhn, and jan christoph meister. the shared task has been—and still is—supported by the volkswagen foundation, which generously funded the workshop in hamburg and subsequent work. the centre for reflected text ana- lytics (creta) at stuttgart university provided the funding for the student anno- tators. we thank creta for the funding and hanna winter, tanja preuß, nina stark, and linda kessler for the annotation work. katharina krüger and carla sökefeld supported the realization of the workshop and did a lot of preparatory work, carla sökefeld and felicitas otte supported the writing of this introduc- tion. we would also like to thank the authors of the guideline reviews who will- ingly agreed to be part of this endeavour. and finally we would like to express our warmest thanks to andrew piper and the editorial board of cultural analyt- ics for their flexibility to publish this—at least up until now—unorthodox format as a special issue. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. part i. introduction a shared task for the digital humanities chapter : introduction to annotation, narrative levels and shared tasks nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius, “a shared task for the digital humanities chapter : introduction to annotation, narrative levels and shared tasks,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . annotation guidelines for literary phenomena are a clear desideratum within the field of text-oriented digital humanities. creating guidelines that are widely ap- plicable, however, is almost only possible in large annotation projects, which are naturally expensive. moreover, scholars interested in large-scale analyses of lit- erary texts are required to perform a lot of tasks that are outside of their core expertise, while researchers from computer science interested in method devel- opment for literary texts are required to create annotated data by themselves. shared tasks, a workshop and research format that is popular in natural language processing, are a way to address both issues at the same time. this volume doc- uments the setup and the results of the first shared task conducted within the digital humanities. the shared task started in may and is the first one that has the development of annotation guidelines as its main goal. this special issue comes in two volumes. the first one is structured as follows: in this introduction (chapter ), we will cover the goals and underlying motivations of the project, describe basic assumptions on (this kind of) annotation, give back- ground on narratological theory and on the role of narrative levels in text analy- sis and introduce our shared task procedure. chapter (“evaluating annotation nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics guidelines”) explains how the submitted annotation guidelines have been evalu- ated. this also includes a description of the metric used for inter-annotator agree- ment. chapter (“annotation guidelines overview and evaluation results”) provides a structured overview and comparison of the guidelines and presents the evaluation results. the remaining chapters document the annotation guide- lines and contain an introductory rationale for each guideline and a review. the guidelines are published as they were submitted (besides layout and minor lan- guage editing). thus, the evaluation results are based on the guidelines you find in this volume. in sum, this first volume documents the preparatory work and the results of the workshop we held to complete the first shared task. since the discussions and insights of this workshop gave rise to a large number of improvements to the guidelines, we decided to publish the revised guidelines as well. the improved guidelines, which document the final outcomes of the first shared task, will be published in the second volume of the special issue. please note that this shared task (called santa, for “systematic analysis of nar- rative levels through annotation”) will be followed by a second one, with the goal of automatic detection of narrative levels. motivation this project addresses two issues prevalent in digital humanities and computa- tional literary studies: the distribution of labor, competences, and tasks in the in- terdisciplinary research field of digital humanities and the inter-subjective man- ual and reliable automatic recognition of narrative levels in narrative texts. distribution of labor, tasks and competences given the current state of computational analysis of narrative texts digital hu- manities projects that aim at analyzing content-related aspects of such texts on a large scale need to make technical-methodological progress in order to automat- ically detect the phenomena of interest. therefore, many such projects are col- laborative projects between researchers from computer science/natural language processing and literary or cultural studies. although there is a growing number performance on narrative texts is not systematically evaluated, but can be expected to be less than what is considered the state of the art: https://nlpprogress.com cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter of tutorials, how-tos and textbooks for various digital humanities topics, the daily organization of such digital humanities projects remains challenging for a number of reasons: developing a shared language and common understanding of the subject at hand is one of the first tasks that new digital humanities projects often have to tackle. at times, computer scientists are only interested in the methodological part (with- out interpreting the results in reference to the texts under examination), while humanities scholars typically focus on conceptual issues or interpretation of the results. thus, the individual goals of partners might be different even within the same project. we believe that formats such as this adapted shared task offer unique opportuni- ties to members of the digital humanities community with both backgrounds. in such a shared task, participants can focus on what they do best. literary schol- ars can focus on the literary phenomenon that they are interested in and experi- enced with. given their disciplinary routines and text experience, they are best qualified for exploring, defining, and exemplifying the narratological concepts without worrying about the implementability of their concepts or about making their findings automatable. restricting oneself to simpler concepts just because one thinks they might be easier to detect automatically is a dead end for method- ological innovation, as the limitations of computers are often only hearsay and constantly evolving. moreover, if the conceptual complexity has been included in an annotation guideline that can be applied inter-subjectively, and a corpus with annotated concepts has been created, any computer scientist and/or ma- chine learning expert can work on the automatic detection of the concepts, even if they are not experts in narratology (because a “ground truth” is available in the annotations). similarly, as the shared task provides an empirical evaluation that can be trusted, machine learning models do not have to be transparent or explainable. when applying machine learning in a digital humanities scenario, there is often a trade-off between performance and transparency: machine learn- ing models that achieve better performance (e.g. neural networks) may be less transparent, while transparent models (e.g. decision trees) often lack in perfor- mance. in this case, because of the empirical evaluation, computer scientists can opt for the best performance. among many others, cf. susan schreibman, ray siemens and john unsworth, eds., compan- ion to digital humanities (blackwell, ), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/; ray siemens and susan schreibman, eds., a companion to digital literary studies (oxford: wiley- blackwell, ); matthew lee jockers, text analysis with r for students of literature (cham: springer, ); fotis jannidis, hubertus kohle, and malte rehbein, eds. digital humanities. eine einführung (stuttgart: metzler, ); anandi silva knuppel and maria josé afanador llach, eds., “programming historian,” accessed january , , https://programminghistorian.org. nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics the two shared tasks we are organizing focus on two different sides of annotation. the first task, which consists of guideline development, forms the basis for an independent and reliable empirical evaluation of the automatic detection systems later on. thus, a machine learning model that performed well in the second task may be safely used for new texts of the same kind as the test data (which is again transparent to scholars). in addition to allowing everyone to focus on their field of expertise, this setup also renders a decoupling of the conceptual from the technical work possible. scholars can focus on the development of annotation guidelines. this includes conceptual work, as well as a first step to operationalize scholarly concepts (to the extent of being applicable in an intersubjective manner). in this shared tasks model, the scholars do not have to be in the same project, at the same univer- sity or even on the same continent as the researchers developing the automatic detection tools (which includes technical work). this lowers entry barriers, as one does not have to work in a well-funded, interdisciplinary project in order to contribute to the overarching goals. instead, scholars and researchers can con- tribute to the shared task at their own pace and integrate this single contribution more easily into their own research agendas. moreover, this is possible without an augmentation of the workload in interdisciplinary collaborations. annotation guidelines for narrative levels the detection of narrative levels and through that the identification of coherent text parts is required for the analysis of narrative texts to facilitate subsequent, content-related literary research based on the data obtained (about plot, charac- ters, narrated world, etc.). while there is no exact statistics on this, narrative lev- els are such a common phenomenon that they are very often not even explicated in literary studies. thus, automatically detecting narrative levels is a crucial con- tribution and groundwork research in the field of computational literary studies. moreover, narrative levels can be a mediator connecting hermeneutic and auto- matic text analysis. even though the complexity of narrative levels is considered comparably low from a literary studies point of view and comparably high from a natural language processing perspective, it is potentially relevant for text analysis of all sorts. additionally, in comparison to other phenomena narrative levels are a rather little disputed phenomenon within literary studies. finally, the defini- tions of narrative levels are usually based on textual and narrative features. for example, verbs of utterance and subsequent direct speech can be textual signals for narrative levels as well as the presence of a different story world that can be identified through the analysis of space or other narrative phenomena. narrative cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter levels are therefore useful for the analysis of texts displaying a divergence between their textual structure and the structure of the narrated. in sum, we consider narrative levels a good choice for a shared task. its most important quality for our purposes is that it can bridge the gap between the the- oretical discussion of a phenomenon and the application in text mining. most of today’s text processing software is based on machine learning of various types. given their interdependence with other phenomena as well as surface and content level characteristics, machine learning is the prime technique to automat- ically detect levels in texts. machine learning, however, can only be successfully applied if training and testing data is available in high quantities. such data needs to be annotated, i.e., it is a necessity to have texts in which narrative levels are al- ready marked. these annotated texts can then be used to train models to detect levels in new, not previously annotated texts. annotation guidelines are needed not only to ensure the coherence of the annota- tions, but also to deal with unusual cases and to allow the annotation to be done by non-experts. since annotation processes are expensive and time-consuming, it is unrealistic that different theoretical approaches to one concept (e.g. narrative levels) will be used as a basis for the annotation of this concept. thus, a certain conceptual agreement within the community needs to be reached beforehand. ideally, it should be one that leads to annotations which are useful for as many scholars as possible, even the ones with a different theoretical understanding of the concept. in the case of narrative levels, this can be shown by the question of whether simple or complex level concepts should be used. on the one hand, a less complex concept might reach higher inter-annotator agreement, but on the other hand, it might also lead to annotations that are less interesting for literary scholars to work with, as more differentiated concepts are thought to cover more complex literary phenomena. in sum, annotation guidelines are a core ingredient towards automatic recogni- tion of a concept. to ensure the scholarly usefulness of the resulting automatic recognition tools, experts in narratology need to be involved in the process of guideline creation. annotation the term “annotation” is used with different meanings within the digital human- ities community. in our project, the term is used for the process of marking segments of a text to belong to a defined category. we also assume that such nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics categories are determined beforehand (ruling out exploratory or explanatory an- notation) and that their detection is based on the contents of the text and not on structure or formatting (ruling out the annotation of e.g. text structure in tei xml). this also entails that detecting these categories is not trivial and requires text understanding and a certain level of text interpretation. this notion of annotation is most similar to the linguistic notion of annotations of, for instance, coreference chains or semantic roles. there are, however, a num- ber of properties of narrative annotations that need to be taken into account for the annotation workflow: a narrative level may need to be annotated in a large portion of the entire text, while semantic role fillers are typically constrained to single noun phrases. in addition, the relevant context is typically much larger. for the linguistic annotation tasks that have been subject of shared tasks in the past, a context window of a single sentence is sufficient. annotating coreference chains is the exception here, as it is typically considered a document level task and requires full document knowledge. narrative annotations regularly consider the entire document as relevant co(n)text, thus requiring full text knowledge of the annotators. it is entirely conceivable (but not easy to implement in reality) to also consider text-external sources as relevant context (e.g., socio-historic condi- tions). this larger context has the potential to make narrative annotations more interpretative than linguistic ones. http://www.tei-c.org annotating coreference chains is the task of identifying which mentions of some entity refer to the same one (e.g., in “a house was bought by mary. peter loves her”, the pronoun “her” refers to mary). identifying semantic roles would tell us that mary is the agent of the first sentence, and “a house” is the patient or theme (i.e., the thing that has been bought). cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter annotation process the annotation process that we have in mind is iterative and tightly connected to the development of a guideline. this iterative process is depicted in figure and is clearly related to the matter cycle. in each step, we not only increase the amount of annotated texts, but the annotation guideline is improved as well. of course, changes in the annotation guideline need to be reflected: they might change how previous portions of the texts should have been annotated, which j. pustejovsky and a. stubbs, natural language annotation for machine learning (sebastopol, ca: o’reilly media, inc., ), ff. nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics should then be updated as well. the core idea in this annotation process—with the goal of producing coherent and inter-subjective annotations—is to have mul- tiple annotators annotate the same texts in parallel, at least for some of the data. this allows the inspection and comparison of annotations and thus the identifica- tion of issues in the guideline. while asking the annotators for their impressions on the annotation process is valuable, not all issues are easily noticeable by anno- tators. comparing annotations of the same texts with the same annotation guide- line quickly reveals these possible issues. this annotation workflow has been em- ployed by evelyn gius and janina jacke on narrative time phenomena and it has obvious parallels to the “hermeneutic circle” that describes a general epistemo- logical pattern in the humanities. if used in this way, the annotation workflow (and the iterative refinement of the annotation guidelines) has repercussions on the theoretical level and can be used productively for the development and refine- ments of theoretical concepts. annotation guidelines the goal of this annotation process is to produce coherent and systematic an- notations. to this end, the annotations are done with the help of annotation guidelines. annotation guidelines mediate between a specific theoretical under- standing of concepts (like that of a narrative level) and the practical annotation of the concept in texts. they have multiple purposes, all of them directed towards the explication of theoretical concepts and/or the process of annotation: . fill the gaps: theories are often not specific enough to be used directly. in order to be as abstract as possible, they typically neglect many details and leave them underspecified (e.g. how to handle dashes marking insertions). these cannot be decided individually by annotators during the annotation process and thus need to be defined beforehand. . provide examples: ideally, an annotation guideline makes it possible for non-experts in narratology to also perform annotation. to this end, exam- ples are provided, and/or replacement/insertion tests are formulated. . make text-specific adaptations: even for relatively simple phenomena in linguistics (e.g. parts of speech), existing annotation guidelines cannot be “the hermeneutic profit of annotation: on preventing and fostering disagreement in literary analysis,” international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. (october ): - . cf. janis pagel, nils reiter, ina rösiger, and sarah schulz, “a unified annotation workflow for diverse goals,” in proceedings of the workshop on annotation in digital humanities, co-located with esslli , ed. sandra kübler and heike zinsmeister (sofia, bulgaria, ) for a general-purpose workflow description. cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter expected to be all-encompassing, because the variability and creativity of human language production is enormous, and new text types are appear- ing constantly (consider part of speech tagging on twitter data). annota- tion guidelines are a means to address phenomena that are text or genre specific. . provide a log: finally, most annotation processes accumulate a lot of pro- cedural knowledge, as decisions on edge cases have to be made on a daily basis. an annotation guideline also serves the purpose of a log to docu- ment these decisions and make them traceable by other researchers. annotation analysis agreement between annotators is a major goal of this kind of annotation: two annotators, who annotate the same text with the same annotation guideline are generally expected to produce the same annotations. inspecting annotations with respect to their achieved agreement is consequently a major component of the annotation analysis step in figure . the regular discussion of annotation decisions with the actual annotators is an effective way of learning about issues in the guideline. asking annotators to ex- plain their decisions (in particular if they have been diverging or difficult) not only keeps their attention up, it also reveals misunderstandings and/or highlights areas in which the guideline can be improved. in addition, the amount of agreement between annotators can be quantified. this is known as inter-annotator agreement, and numerous metrics have been pro- posed for different kinds of annotation tasks. all metrics aim at striking a bal- ance between observed agreement and expected agreement. while the former there are exceptions, in particular regarding literary texts. in these cases, polyvalent text read- ings might lead to different annotations which constitute a case of justified disagreement. cf. evelyn gius and janina jacke, “the hermeneutic profit of annotation: on preventing and fostering dis- agreement in literary analysis” international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. , ( ), - . joseph l. fleiss, “measuring nominal scale agreement among many raters,” psychological bul- letin , no. ( ): - ; jacob cohen, “a coefficient of agreement for nominal scales,” ed- ucational and psychological measurement , no. ( ): - ; chris fournier, “evaluating text segmentation using boundary edit distance,” proceedings of the st annual meeting of the associa- tion for computational linguistics (volume : long papers) (sofia, bulgaria: association for compu- tational linguistics, ), - , http://aclweb.org/anthology/p - ; yann mathet, antoine widlöcher, and jean-philippe métivier, “the unified and holistic method gamma (�) for inter- annotator agreement measure and alignment,” computational linguistics , no. ( ): - ; see ron artstein and massimo poesio, “inter-coder agreement for computational linguistics,” computational linguistics , no. ( ) for an overview. nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics expresses how well real annotators agree, the latter expresses how much anno- tations would overlap if they were done at random. thus, the actual, observed agreement is set in relation to the difficulty of the annotation task. the reason- ing behind this is that, for instance, it is much easier to achieve agreement if there are only two categories than if there are categories. thus, the expected agreement (a.k.a. chance agreement) for two categories is higher than for cate- gories, which lowers the inter-annotator agreement if the observed agreement re- mains stable. most inter-annotator agreement metrics are in the interval [-∞: ], in which values above zero express that the annotators agree more than chance agreement. measuring inter-annotator agreement for higher level tasks properly is not as easy as it sounds. this is due to the fact that many such tasks are actually composed of multiple subtasks and require the annotators to make multiple decisions in se- quence. annotating named entities, for instance, requires annotators to first find a segment that is a named entity, and secondly, to categorize this segment into a specific named entity category, such as person or location. the inter-annotator agreement metric needs to either take both decisions into account, which makes the exact calculation complex, or employ simplifying assumptions (e.g., to ignore overlapping spans). in natural language processing, inter-annotator agreement is also often consid- ered an upper boundary for machine performance. if humans only agree to a certain extent, we cannot expect machines to do better. the subject of analysis: narrative levels the target concept in this shared task is the concept of narrative levels. narrative levels are a ubiquitous phenomenon in narratology that is well-known to read- ers (and watchers) with and without an academic interest in narrative structure. they are a central element of every narrative. in some cases they are even a funda- mental feature of a narration, as in the book arabian nights where scheherazade tells a story every night in order not to be executed; or in boccaccio’s decameron where a group of ten people having escaped from the great plague in florence to the countryside help pass the time by telling stories. even the tv show how i met your mother consists of episodes narrated by the protagonist who tells sto- ries from the past that eventually lead to his marriage. very generally speaking, a narrative level is a separable part of a story within a story-narrative. the ‘within’ in the ‘story within a story-narrative’ is typically, but not necessarily, thought of as a subordination. cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter while the question of the status of these stories within stories as narrative levels depends on the actual definition of narrative levels and is thus disputable, all examples mentioned before show that narrative levels are a fundamental part of narratives, or, more precisely, that narratives can be seen as being constructed entirely of narrative levels. this also holds for narratives where the plot is not dependent on the integration of narrative levels as in these examples. the introduction of additional narrators and their narrations is a typical aspect of the natural practise of storytelling and is therefore a frequent phenomenon in nar- ratives, regardless of their function and mediality. narrative levels are present in all narratives, in fictional texts as much as in self-narrations, journalistic writing, jokes, and many other text types. additionally, narrative levels are not restricted to written text, but can also be observed in oral storytelling as well as in moving images, again both in fictional and non-fictional forms. thus, narrative levels are highly relevant for all types of narrative analyses. in our shared tasks, we focus on narrative levels in fictional texts, since the con- cept of narrative levels was originally developed for these, and they still constitute the major area of research. in addition, computational analysis in the context of narratives so far works best for written texts. please note: the remainder of this section provides an orientation for those who are interested in the role of narrative levels in manual and computational anal- ysis and (literary) theory as well as our approach to it. the specific handling of narrative levels in the submitted guidelines and its evaluation will be discussed in chapter (“annotation guidelines overview and evaluation results”). a brief narratological background generally speaking, the major aspects of narrative levels are the narrator(s) and the horizontal and vertical embedding. the notion of narrative levels, as many other concepts in narratology, was introduced by gérard genette, one of the most famous narratologists. the phenomenon had already been described by others, but it was genette who coined the term narrative level. in narrative discourse, he discusses a passage in proust’s a la recherche du temps perdu ( - ), in which a character tells stories of their past loves to another character in an inn. for example by bertil romberg, studies in the narrative technique of the first-person novel (stockholm: almqvist & wiksell, ). gérard genette, “discours du récit,” figures iii, - . (paris, ) (english translation: gérard genette. narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y: cornell university press, ). nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics genette points out that it is not a distance in time or space that separates the nar- rated episodes from the inn, but rather ”a sort of threshold represented by the narrating itself, a difference of level” and provides the following definition: ”we will define this difference in level by saying that any event a narrative recounts is at a diegetic level immediately higher than the level at which the narrating act pro- ducing this narrative is placed”. according to this, narrative levels are produced by a narrating act, i.e., a new narrator is introduced in the narrative, recounting something as a new narrative. or, as pier puts it, “narrative levels are most accu- rately thought of as diegetic levels, the levels at which the narrating act and the narratee are situated in relation to the narrated story.” many theorists have thought of narrative levels in terms of narrative framing or narrative embedding, some of them changing the terminology for the levels on which embedding occurs while doing so. within narratology, there are several unresolved issues with the concept, ranging from terminological to categorical problems. for example, wolf schmid not only introduced a simpler nomencla- ture for the possible levels of embedding, but also claimed that embedding can occur on all levels (schmid, narratology). in contrast, in genette’s view the intro- duction of a narrator is crucial for an embedded level and thus embedding can occur only within the so-called intradiegetic level. another issue that is pointed out by pier is that “intercalation” would be the more appropriate term for de- scribing the relation between narrative levels. framing and embedding are oper- ations that involve inclusion, whereas levels are distributed vertically (pier, nar- rative levels, ). some theorists include these seemingly contradictory concepts in their narrative level concept. starting with mieke bal’s approach, a series of models was developed that added horizontal embedding (where no change genette, “discours du récit,” , emphasis in original. john pier, “narrative levels,” (revised version; uploaded april ), paragraph . the living handbook of narratology. hamburg: hamburg university. http://www.lhn.uni- hamburg.de/article/narrative-levels-revised-version-uploaded- -april- [last accessed feb ]. see also for a detailed discussion of narrative level concepts from a historical and a system- atic perspective. the following overview in the text outlines the most important aspects pier points out. additional information can be found in manfred jahn, „n . . narrative levels,” manfred jahn. narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, ( ), and william nelles „embedding,” david herman, manfred jahn, and marie-laure ryan (eds.). routledge encyclopedia of narrative theory. (london; new york: routledge, ), - . schmid replaced genette’s terms extra-, intra- and metadiegetic, by primary, secondary and ter- tiary level of embedding (cf. wolf schmid, narratology. an introduction. (berlin: de gruyter, ), - . mieke bal, narratology: introduction to the theory of narrative. (toronto: u of toronto press, ), - . among other: william nelles. frameworks: narrative levels and embedded narrative. (new york: p. lang, ), - , and marie-laure ryan. possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory. (bloomington: indiana university press, ), - . cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter of level takes place) to the genettian vertical embedding or shift between levels. therefore, horizontal embedding means that narratives are narrated by different narrators on the same level. based on its claimed background in artificial in- telligence, marie laure ryan’s account would seem to be the most relevant for the context of this project (ryan, possible worlds). ryan approaches the question of narrative levels in terms of boundaries, frames and stacks. still, her usage of terms is often not in their computational sense proper and thus does not provide a straightforward approach to operationalization and automation. it is rather her introduction of the now well-established concepts of ontological (semantic) boundaries and illocutionary (speech act) boundaries that seems promising for computational approaches and more general operationalization. there are certainly other approaches to narrative levels in narratology that could be added to this overview. but it should have become clear that narrators and concepts related to embedding are the most important aspects to consider. even though narrative levels have been debated for over years, there are still open issues connected to the concept such as its relation to frame theory or its deploy- ment in cognitive narratology (pier, narrative levels, - ). relevance of narrative levels for text analysis we consider narrative levels as highly relevant for many text analysis projects because they are constitutive for narrative texts. this constitutivity makes them virtually ubiquitous in texts with narrative portions. text analysis refers to research steps that conduct a manual or automatic analysis of textual properties in relation to a specific research goal. manual text analysis is usually a prerequisite for a hermeneutic interpretation of a literary text (and is typically not perceived as a distinct work step). automatic text analysis employs methods from natural language processing (such as the detection of grammatical structure). on top of that, more “high-level” processing steps are typically added, one of them might be the detection of narrative structures such as levels. it is the ultimate research question that governs the kind and number of processing steps that need to be conducted for automatic text analysis. as we argue here, any text analysis with a focus on plot or character (i.e., analysis of the narrated content) requires the detection of narrative levels, as do some linguistically oriented pre- processing steps. even though, in our view, this is already inherent in genette’s conception of voice that, among other, includes narrative levels and person. therefore, even a shift of addressee may be interpreted as possible level change (cf. evelyn gius, erzählen über konflikte. ein beitrag zur digitalen narratologie (berlin: de gruyter, ), - ). nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics the structure of narratives in terms of narrative levels can already be an inter- esting topic on its own. for example, one could be interested in the functions of frame stories in a certain period or the degree of nesting of narrative levels in fairytales in comparison to social novels. the way narrative levels are orga- nized could in general may be a constituting element for a literary style in a broad sense, and would be very hard to detect by existing stylometric approaches. still, the detection of narrative levels as a preparatory step for the analysis of a narrative is even more common and thus important. gaining an understanding of the narrative levels present in a narration is a necessary prerequisite for its analysis. this applies to analyses concerned with the phenomena of the fictional world and to ones looking at the textual representation of the narrative, i.e., at phenomena related to what happens in the narrative (also known as the what of narration or histoire) or the very text (also known as the how of narration or discours). for the analysis of narratives one often needs to correctly conjoin narrative parts. thus, it is necessary to have a prior understanding of the narrative levels present in a text. for example, when looking at character constellations, one should con- sider only characters in a more or less coherent space-time continuum, since in- teractions between characters are usually confined to coherent parts of the fic- tional world or story world and thus do not cross temporal or spatial borders. the identification of the narrative levels in a narrative and the analysis of their spatio-temporal features are therefore prerequisites to a proper character analy- sis. temporal or spatial coherence may also be relevant for the analysis of narrative representation. thus, an analysis of the temporal relation between fictional world (histoire) and its representation (discours) is only sensible after having identi- fied which narrative levels belong to which space-time continuum. the fictional world within a narrative is not necessarily coherent and can exhibit parts that are not connected to the main setting temporally or spatially as, for example, the world of a dream. . therefore, a reconstruction of the order of events in the fic- tional world needs to first analyze which narrative levels belong to which parts of the fictional world and then analyze the temporal order only for the connected ones. there are currently no published systems that detect narrative levels automat- ically. while there certainly is a need for text segmentation as a preparatory berenike j. herrmann, karina van dalen-oskam, and christof schöch, “revisiting style, a key concept in literary studies,” journal of literary theory , no. ( ): - . the terms historie and discours have been coined by genette (narrative discourse). cf. gius and jacke “the hermeneutic profit of annotation”, - . cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter step for subsequent processing of other phenomena, segmentation is currently mainly accomplished by using textual surface phenomena. features that can be derived directly from a text or its markup (e.g. in xml) are used as basis for segmentation (e.g., paragraphs, or, where available, chapters or other structural information encoded in the text). however, for more complex tasks the segmen- tation is more helpful the more meaningful it is. a division into chapters cannot be assumed to respect the structure of the events in the fictional world, as chapters are introduced for various reasons and some of them may have nothing to do with the plot of the narrative. even worse, a division into, say, ten equal parts obvi- ously is not related to the fictional world at all. as some segmentation is required for certain text analysis tasks, texts are often just segmented into parts of equal length, which is clearly not a usual procedure in literary studies. hence, segments should be anchored in the narrated events rather than in chapter boundaries or, even worse, completely arbitrary segments of equal length in order to maximize their value for the analysis. there are, however, some approaches to a content-related segmentation of texts in natural language processing. approaches in discourse analysis/processing or topical segmentation clearly feature related aspects to the ones needed to detect narrative levels, but a full-fledged and genuine automatic detection of narrative levels remains a desideratum. moreover, existing approaches are typically tested and developed on texts such as news or wikipedia articles. as these texts differ in key areas from literary texts (fictionality, narrativity), the approaches cannot cf. nils reiter, “towards annotating narrative segments,” kalliopi zervanou, marieke van erp, and beatrice alex eds.proceedings of the th sighum workshop on language technology for cultural heritage, social sciences, and humanities (latech), (beijing, china: association for computational linguistics, ), - . among others: omri koshorek, adir cohen, noam mor, michael rotman, and jonathan berant, “text segmentation as a supervised learning task,” proceedings of the conference of the north american chapter of the association for computational linguistics: human language technologies, volume (short papers), (association for computational linguistics, ), - , https://doi.org/ . /v /n - . goran glavaš, federico nanni, and simone paolo ponzetto, “unsupervised text segmentation using semantic relatedness graphs,” proceedings of the fifth joint conference on lexical and computational semantics, (berlin, germany: association for computational linguistics, ), - , http://anthology.aclweb.org/s - .) for an introduction cf. manfred stede, discourse processing (san rafael, california: morgan & claypool, ). anna kazantseva and stan szpakowicz, “hierarchical topical segmentation with affinity prop- agation,” proceedings of coling , the th international conference on computational linguis- tics: technical papers, (dublin, ireland: dublin city university and association for computational linguistics, ), - . http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/c - . anna kazantseva and stan szpakowicz. “topical segmentation: a study of human performance and a new measure of quality,” in proceedings of the conference of the north american chapter of the association for computa- tional linguistics: human language technologies, ( association for computational linguistics, ), - . http://aclweb.org/anthology/n - . nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics be directly applied to literary texts. as we have already argued above, a segmentation based on the textual content is especially important when aiming for an analysis of more complex phenomena as addressed in literary studies, such as character constellation, point of view or the temporal structure of the plot. these are often only indirectly connected to the textual surface of narratives and it is a clear desideratum to base automatic segmentation more heavily on the content of narrations. for an application in literary studies or story-related analysis, narrative levels are the more adequate criterion for segmentation. generally speaking, the research goals related to text analysis often differ widely with literary scholars and computer scientists, but for research in both areas, nar- rative levels are an important asset. most importantly, the analysis of narrative levels allows for a subsequent analysis of text qualities that may be structural, surface-related, or in the realm of narrative phenomena as well. due to the inte- gration of the latter, i.e., more content-related aspects of texts, a narrative level- based approach is much more adequate for text segmentation and subsequent analyses than a merely structural approach. narrative levels in the shared task for this shared task, we did not specify any theoretical background for the nar- rative level concepts, thus not providing one of the specific narratological ap- proaches discussed above, nor did we disclose our personal preference for a spe- cific approach. instead, the participants were encouraged to choose the approach they considered adequate. we provided a basic explanation as well as reading suggestions (categorized as introductory, basic, or advanced) on the homepage of the shared task, but we did not intentionally prioritize any approach. there- fore, participants could use any (or even no) narratological theory as a basis for the operationalization in their guideline. there are several reasons for this decision: a) even though there are only few well-established approaches to narrative levels in narratology and most of them overlap, there is no consensus about the narra- tive level concept. narratologists tend to have strong and diverse opinions about the nature of narrative levels, and there are good arguments that can be made for some of them have been discussed in section above, for the comprehensive list see: https: //sharedtasksinthedh.github.io/levels/ cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter most available theories. therefore, there was no way to select the most suitable concept for level annotation. b) as in many humanities’ disciplines, there is no established procedure of iden- tifying the ‘right’ theory among coexisting approaches. the idea of something being right, true, objective etc. is hardly compatible with the humanities’ disci- plinary paradigm or matrix. within the humanities paradigm, theories and in- terpretations typically exist alongside each other and may even contradict each other. this plurality is owed to the humanities and their often heavily interpre- tative analysis of ambiguous and multifaceted human artifacts. since the overall process of understanding is rather complex and its parts are not completely in- telligible, limiting the analysis of an artifact to the usage of specific theories can lead to a premature exclusion of approaches yielding relevant insights. therefore, limiting the narrative level analysis in the shared task to one approach would have meant ignoring the process through which theoretical or methodological approaches were and are developed in literary theory. c) annotation guidelines barely play a role in contemporary narratology, and annotatability is—at this moment—not a criterion regularly considered. from a narratological point of view, the pure guideline creation is likely not that interest- ing, compared to a discussion/comparison of narratological theories. however, it was clear from the beginning that the participation of narratology experts would be of utmost importance to this shared task. therefore, allowing different theo- retical “flavors” to compete would also spark the interest of narratologists who may be new to the development of annotations. against this background, allowing for all possible theories was advantageous to the research process on multiple levels. most importantly, it allowed us to stick to the humanities’ paradigm and at the same time provide a framework for the exploration and testing of theories in this first shared task on guideline creation. this ensures a higher relevance of the automation’s outcomes to their users. the shared task shared tasks in natural language processing shared tasks are an established research format within the community of natural language processing (nlp) with the core idea being that multiple participants try to solve the same task given by the organizers ( e.g. automatic prediction of nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics part of speech tags). the solutions are then evaluated on the same data set with the same metric and thus directly comparable. generally, a shared task works as follows: the organizers publish a call for participation in the task, describing the task as well as the associated data set in some detail. shortly thereafter, the organizers publish a development and/or training data set. the dataset contains gold information, i.e., the categories to be identified are already annotated. this data set is then used by the participants to develop/train systems to automatically solve the defined task. after several months of development time, the organizers publish a second data set without the annotations: the test data. the participants apply their systems to the test data set (typically within a week) and send/upload the predictions made by their systems to the organizers. the organizers then evaluate all systems’ predictions with the same evaluation script and against the same reference data. after this, a ranking of the systems can be generated, and a workshop is conducted to present the different systems and discuss the outcome. history within natural language processing, shared tasks have their roots in the message understanding conference (muc) community. in this context, the goal has been to extract snippets of information from news reports (covering incidents of terrorist attacks in south america) or naval messages. the major contributions of the shared tasks in the context of muc are categorized into three different categories by beth m. sundheim and nancy a. chinchor: the first category, progress evaluation, refers to the progress in terms of raw system performance with a clearly defined evaluation metric, which can be used to express the cur- rent state of the art, for comparison to a previous performance or to measure progress towards human performance (given the same metrics can be applied to human and machine performance). the second category, adequacy evaluation, expresses the adequacy of the evaluation metrics: “it is not possible to translate the evaluation results directly into terms that reflect the specific requirements of any particular real-life applications.” by applying evaluation metrics and sci- entific discourse about them, fostered by the muc challenges, the community cf. beth m. sundheim, “the message understanding conferences,” proceedings of the tipster text program: phase i (fredericksburg, virginia, usa: association for computational linguistics, ), , https://doi.org/ . / . . “survey of the message understanding conferences,” in human language technology: proceed- ings of a workshop held at plainsboro, new jersey (plainsboro, new jersey, ), http://aclweb.org/ anthology/h - . beth m. sundheim and nancy a. chinchor, “survey of the message understanding confer- ences,” in human language technology: proceedings of a workshop held at plainsboro, new jersey (plainsboro, new jersey, ), . cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter gains insight into potential weaknesses of the evaluation metrics. finally, the third category, diagnostic evaluation, refers to the fact that the muc challenges also generate insights into reasons for over- and underperformance of certain systems. by participating in the challenges and inspecting the prediction errors, the system developers gain insight into possible bottlenecks and can find ways for improvements of the system. all three categories have been present in shared tasks in the years following sundheim and chinchor’s publication. starting with the year , the conference on natural language learning (conll) has been the home for a series of shared tasks on various topics: chunking, clause identification, language-independent named entity recog- nition, various forms of syntactic parsing either multilingually or for specific languages and semantic representation/role labeling. other conferences and venues have taken up the shared task concept as well, for instance, the pascal recognizing textual entailment challenge, which ran for eight years until erik f. tjong kim sang and sabine buchholz, “introduction to the conll- shared task: chunking,” proceedings of fourth conference on computational natural language learning and of the second learning language in logic workshop (lisbon, portugal: acl, ). erik f. tjong kim sang and hervé déjean, “introduction to the conll- shared task: clause identification,” proceedings of the acl workshop on computational natural language learning, ( ), http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/w - . erik f. tjong kim sang and fien de meulder, “introduction to the conll- shared task: language-independent named entity recognition,” walter daelemans and miles osborne eds.proceedings of the seventh conference on natural language learning at hlt-naacl „ ( ), - , http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/w - . sabine buchholz and erwin marsi, “conll-x shared task on multilingual dependency pars- ing,” proceedings of the tenth conference on computational natural language learning (conll-x) (new york city: association for computational linguistics, ), - , http://www.aclweb.org/ anthology/w/w /w - ; joakim nivre et al., “the conll shared task on dependency parsing,” proceedings of the conll shared task session of emnlp-conll (prague: association for computational linguistics, ), - , http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/d/d /d - ; sandra kübler, “the page shared task on parsing german,” proceedings of the workshop on pars- ing german (columbus, ohio: association for computational linguistics, ), - , http://www. aclweb.org/anthology/w/w /w - ; jan hajič et al., “the conll- shared task: syntactic and semantic dependencies in multiple languages,” proceedings of the thirteenth conference on com- putational natural language learning (conll ): shared task (boulder, colorado: association for computational linguistics, ), - , http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/w - . xavier carreras and lluís màrquez, “introduction to the conll- shared task: semantic role labeling,” hwee tou ng and ellen riloff eds. hlt-naacl workshop: eighth confer- ence on computational natural language learning, (boston, massachusetts, usa: association for computational linguistics, ), - ; xavier carreras and lluı�s màrquez, “introduction to the conll- shared task: semantic role labeling,” proceedings of the ninth conference on com- putational natural language learning (conll- ) (ann arbor, michigan: association for com- putational linguistics, ), - , http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/w/w /w - ; johan bos and rodolfo delmonte, eds., semantics in text processing: step conference proceedings , research in computational semantics (london, uk: college publications, ). ido dagan, oren glickman, and bernardo magnini, “the pascal recognising textual entail- nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics . having started under the label senseval in , the semeval initiative now hosts many shared tasks every year concerning the evaluation of semantic analysis tools. for the first time, an open call was issued to propose shared tasks for the semeval roof to be organized in . no less than twelve shared tasks were offered by semeval in . carla parra escartín et al. discuss several reasons for the popularity and suc- cess of shared tasks in natural language processing: apart from fostering develop- ment in a certain field, they also allow for direct comparison between systems. a number of de facto standards have evolved in shared tasks (e.g., the widely used conll format for storing annotated data). finally, curated data sets have been created along with the shared tasks and subsequently made available: “shared tasks have proven themselves to be very effective in incentivising research in spe- cialised areas.” finally, ethical considerations about shared tasks have been pointed out by es- cartín et al., mainly due to their competitive nature. competition may lead to secretive behavior, hurt the relations of researchers with colleagues and lead to a general disregard for ethics. escartín et al. identify a number of concrete scenar- ios which could directly impact the success story of shared tasks and might be a consequence of the competition. they propose that organizers follow a certain framework to minimize the negative impact of the competitive nature of shared tasks such as declaring early and explicitly if organizers or annotators are allowed ment challenge,” j. quiñonero-candela et al. eds. machine learning challenges. lecture notes in computer science, (springer, ). adam kilgarriff and joseph rosenzweig, “framework and results for english senseval,” comput- ers and the humanities , no. (april , ): - , https://doi.org/ . /a: . affect in tweets, multilingual emoji prediction, irony detection in english tweets, character identification on multiparty dialogues, counting events and participants within highly ambigu- ous data covering a very long tail, parsing time normalizations, semantic relation extraction and classification in scientific papers, semantic extraction from cybersecurity reports using natural language processing (securenlp), hypernym discovery, capturing discriminative attributes, ma- chine comprehension using commonsense knowledge, argument reasoning comprehension task. see http://alt.qcri.org/semeval /index.php?id=tasks. “ethical considerations in nlp shared tasks,” proceedings of the first acl workshop on ethics in natural language processing (valencia, spain: association for computational linguistics, ), - , http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/w - . carla parra escartín, wessel reijers, teresa lynn, joss moorkens, andy way, and chao-hong liu, “ethical considerations in nlp shared tasks,” in proceedings of the first acl workshop on ethics in natural language processing (valencia, spain: association for computational linguistics, ), - . carla parra escartín, wessel reijers, teresa lynn, joss moorkens, andy way, and chao-hong liu,“ethical considerations in nlp shared tasks,” in proceedings of the first acl workshop on ethics in natural language processing (valencia, spain: association for computational linguistics, ), . cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter to participate and if they will publish the system results under agreed license. two linked shared tasks as the research practices, goals and not least communities in natural language processing and literary studies are clearly different, directly applying the shared task model known from natural language processing is not going to work. we therefore made several adjustments to the procedure. our project consists of two shared tasks, and this volume appears after a milestone within the first one was reached: a guideline evaluation workshop with all participants. the two tasks have different goals, data sets, and target audiences, but both focus on the phe- nomenon of narrative levels. the goal of task is the generation of annotation guidelines which are then used to annotate a large corpus to be employed as train- ing/testing data in task . the second shared task is a ‘regular’ nlp shared task, i.e., its goal is to develop systems that automatically detect narrative levels. shared task : systematic analysis of narrative texts through annotation (santa) in the first shared task, the challenges of conceptualizing and defining narrative levels, as well as manually applying them to texts, are in focus. the main task of the participants was to develop annotation guidelines for narrative levels. as discussed above, we did not specify an exact theoretical background to be used for the guidelines, but we pointed the participants to a bibliography for further readings. we also provided a “how to”-article on our web page explaining how annotation guidelines can be developed, which contained the same information as the above section on annotations. to foster the development of generic guidelines that do not make a lot of assump- tions on the text type in question, we decided early on that the guidelines should be tested on an unspecified corpus, but it was stated that it would contain literary texts of certain genres. each participant thus had to write the guideline without knowing the exact texts it would be applied to in the end. to ensure compara- bility of the guidelines, however, there needed to be some homogeneity in the corpus. we thus decided to provide the participants with a development set that they could use when writing the guidelines. the texts in the final test set were sim- ilar to the ones in the development set. this setup is inspired by the distinction nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics between development, train and test data used in machine learning. corpus considerations. the corpus was compiled to cover as many of the sug- gested level phenomena as possible. it is heterogeneous with respect to genre, publication date, and text length. however, representativity (whatever that means for literature) was not a guiding principle. all texts were made available in both english and german, some being translations from a third language. the maximum length for a text to be included in this corpus was words. since the constraint might limit the use of narrative levels, we also included longer texts to avoid this bias. we made these available in a shortened form, omit- ting passages that do not affect the overall narrative level structure in a substantial manner, according to the level definitions we suggested on our web page and our own judgement. a set of texts had been made available as a development cor- pus, to be used by the participants during guideline development. table shows the texts with some metadata. the actual annotation experiment was conducted on a set of eight texts that were previously unknown to the participants. this list can be found in table . all texts are freely available and can be accessed through our github repository. creating parallel annotations. measuring inter-annotator agreement is an es- tablished way of gaining insight into the intersubjective applicability of an anno- tation guideline. in order to measure inter-annotator agreement, the same text(s) need to be annotated by multiple people, using the same guideline. to implement this in the shared task, we asked each participating group to an- notate that same test corpus using someone else’s guideline. in addition, a group of (paid) student assistants annotated with the same guideline. in this process, each guideline was used three times on the same set of texts (see table for an overview). label description own annotations done by the guideline authors using their own guideline foreign annotations done by the guideline authors using another guideline student annotations done by a group of student assistants table . overview of the annotations timeline. the full timeline of the various events of the shared task can be seen cf. i. h. witten and eibe frank, data mining, nd ed., practical machine learning tools and techniques (elsevier, ), ff. genres: anecdote, fable, folktale, literary fairy tale, novel, novella, narration, short story. publi- cation date: the majority of the texts were written in the th and th century. text length: words maximum. https://github.com/sharedtasksinthedh cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter in table . date event october , call for participation june , submission of the guidelines june , submission of the annotations on test corpus, using own guideline july , submission of the annotations, using foreign guideline september - , workshop table . timeline workshop. as a milestone in the first shared task, all participants were invited to a workshop that took place in hamburg, germany. all but one team were physically present. the three-day event was structured as follows: the goal of the first day was for all participants to gain a better understanding of the other guidelines. this was realized in the form of brief presentations and a discussion to identify commonalities and differences. on the second day, the guidelines were evaluated in detail. to this end, a questionnaire was first presented and discussed. all questions could be answered in the form of a four point likert scale. each team was then asked to fill out the questionnaire (in digital form) for every guideline except their own. in addition, they were asked to keep notes on why they assigned which scores. we will cover the evaluation details in chapter of this volume. on the last day, the organizers presented the evaluation results as well as the inter-annotator agreement scores, and the entire group discussed the results and next steps. outlook: shared task —automatic detection of narrative levels the second shared task can be considered a “regular” nlp shared task, and is thus intended to primarily attract researchers in natural language processing. it is envisaged to take place in the summer of .the annotated corpus will be split into development, training, and testing data sets, and will be made available to the participants at certain points in time. the final evaluation will then require participants to submit their automatic predictions to the organizers, who in turn will compare the predictions to the manual annotations of the test set. this shared task is planned to be organized with the semeval community to attract a large enough number of participants. the participants are not required to be familiar with or experienced in literary studies, narratology, or digital humanities, as the task and its difficulties are encoded in the annotations. the result of the second shared task will be a comparison of automatic systems that detect narrative levels. preparations. after having completed the first, guideline-oriented shared task, the organizers will conduct an annotation phase. the goal of the annotation nils reiter, marcus willand, evelyn gius cultural analytics phase is to provide an annotated corpus which is large enough to allow for methodological experiments, including machine learning. this annotation phase will be executed using the best performing guideline of the first shared task as a starting point. it can be expected, however, that it will need updating during the annotation phase, as new phenomena are expected to arise. the final version of the guideline will be made available along with the annotated data for the second shared task. title (orig.) author title (en) genre year language(orig.) comment aesop the wolf and the lamb fable bce rosen-alfen andersen, hans-christian the elf of the rose folktale dk kjærestefolkene [toppen og bolden] andersen, hans christian the top and ball folktale dk se una notte d’inverno un viaggiatore calvino, italo if on a winter’s night a traveller novel it shortened Мститель Čechov, anton pavlovič an avenger short story ru the child’s story dickens, charles the child’s story short story en die drei federn grimm, brüder feathers folktale de das wohlfeile mittagessen hebel, johann peter the cheap meal anecdote de der geheilte patient hebel, johann peter the cured patient anecdote de hills like white elephants hemingway, ernest hills like white elephants short story en how the leopard got his spots kipling, rudyard how the leopard got his spots short story en beyond the pale kipling, rudyard beyond the pale short story en unwahrscheinliche wahrhaftigkeiten kleist, heinrich von improbable veracities anecdote de lagerlöf, selma among the climbing roses narration sv the cask of amontillado poe, edgar allen the cask of amontillado short story en frankenstein or the modern prometheus shelley, mary frankenstein or the modern prometheus novel en shortened a haunted house woolf, virginia a haunted house short story en table . overview of development corpus. title (orig.) author title (en) genre year language comment lenz büchner, georg lenz novella de shortened bыигрышный билет Čechov, anton pavlovič the lottery ticket short story ru the gift of the magi henry, o. the gift of the magi short story en kleine fabel kafka, franz a little fable fable de der blonde eckbert tieck, ludwig the white egbert literary fairy tale de shortened der schimmelreiter storm, theodor the rider of the white horse novella de shortened anekdote aus dem letzten preußischen kriege kleist, heinrich von anecdote from the last prussian war anecdote de herr arnes penningar lagerlöf, selma the treasure narration sv shortened table . overview of the test corpus. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. a shared task for the digital humanities chapter : evaluating annotation guidelines evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand, “a shared task for the digital hu- manities chapter : evaluating annotation guidelines,” journal of cultural ana- lytics. november , . doi: . / . in this section, we will discuss our idea of guideline evaluation and the underly- ing considerations. evaluating annotation guidelines in this way is a fairly new endeavor, and we have developed the evaluation setup from the ground up. al- though we do not claim our choices to be universally valid or applicable, we be- lieve that this approach to guideline evaluation is relevant for similar settings and can be adapted to projects that might have other preferences and priorities. preliminaries and challenges our goal was to take into consideration requirements and principles from the hu- manities as well as from computational linguistics/natural language processing. whichever evaluation method we would employ in the end, it needed to fulfill four basic requirements: . establish a ranking: the method needs to be able to rank the guidelines. this ranking needs to be as clear as possible and avoid ties. . be defined and explicit: the general design of shared tasks is a competition in which submissions are ranked according to an objective function. this evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics objective function needs to be defined in advance and as precisely as pos- sible, in order for participants to know beforehand what they are getting into and so that it leaves little room for challenging this evaluation. . be practical: the evaluation should be feasible to execute, within certain practical limitations. concretely, we were aiming for an evaluation method that could be conducted within a two-day workshop. . reflect our evaluation criteria: the evaluation method needs to reflect our evaluation standards, i.e., if a guideline contains aspects that are con- sidered to be positive by the organizers, that guideline should be ranked higher than a guideline without these aspects. defining positive/negative evaluation criteria was a decision that the organizers needed to make. those requirements are a consequence of aiming at creating annotation guide- lines in a shared task. in shared tasks in natural language processing, the un- derlying intention is to reproduce the gold standard as closely as possible, which can then be measured in different ways, depending on the exact task (accuracy, f- score, muc-score, …). but there is no “ground truth” conceivable for annotation guidelines. even measuring inter-annotator agreement would not necessarily be that straightforward, since there may be cases in the data in which different tex- tual readings are possible, stemming from a legitimate ambiguity of the text. in such cases, disagreements between annotators would not indicate a flaw in the guideline. in addition to these general requirements that any evaluation method for a shared task needs to fulfill, there are several challenges related to the specific nature of this one: as this shared task is an interdisciplinary endeavor, a heterogeneous set of par- ticipants was to be expected. the notion of annotation plays a different role in different disciplines, and a diverse set of best practices, rules, and traditions has been established in each field. in literary studies, for instance, annotation is typi- cally understood as note-taking while reading. in computational linguistics, an- notation is typically done in parallel, digitally, and with a high intersubjective agreement as the most important goal. the latter does not matter at all for anno- tation in (traditional) literary studies, as the disciplinary approach to text analysis is rather focused on a not necessarily reproducible overall meaning of a text. thus, participants have different previous experiences and expectations with re- gards to the annotation process. still, the evaluation we conduct in this shared task needs to be valid and functional across the different disciplines and be ben- eficial for each participant’s own discipline at the same time. the vagueness of the source concepts provides another challenge. narratology cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter represents a popular source for concepts in text-oriented dh, most likely because of its fundamental structuralist premises. furthermore, narratologists and digi- tal humanists agree on the idea that structural analyses expose interesting textual phenomena which remain hidden from purely content-related readings. how- ever, as discussed above, the systematic application of narratological theory to texts also gives room for interpretation. given these considerations, we decided early on that the evaluation model needs to cover different perspectives. in particular, it should not ignore conceptual vagueness and complexity, but rather consider solution strategies for these prob- lems. evaluation model generally, the evaluation was conducted in three different dimensions: concep- tual coverage, applicability, and usefulness. figure schematically shows where the evaluation dimensions are situated with respect to research activities in the digital humanities. it projects them onto the course of the entire work process, from narratological theory to guideline creation to annotated texts, and finally to the insights that could be drawn from applying the annotated texts to understand single literary texts or whole corpora. figure : the three evaluation dimensions connecting research areas in the digital humanities the dimension of conceptual coverage reflects how much of a theoretical ba- sis is covered by an annotation guideline. if a guideline is explicitly based on a narratological theory, it might aim to fully implement every definition, rule, and exception of the theory. another guideline based on the same theory might leave out some definitions or add others. this dimension is situated on the theoretical level, relating the guidelines to theory. applicability puts the guideline in relation to the text and reflects how well the guideline prepares annotators to do actual annotations, i. e., how well the guide- evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics line can be employed. a guideline’s applicability may for instance be increased by thoughtful examples, a clear structure, and/or a careful use of terminology. the dimension of applicability also covers the achieved coherence and systematicity in the annotations. finally, the dimension of usefulness relates the annotated text to applications and understanding. “applications”, in this case, covers subsequent analysis steps as well as large scale analyses, while “understanding” refers to a hermeneutic inter- pretation of the text, that takes the annotations into account. assuming corpora are annotated in accordance with the guideline (either manually or, in the case of large corpora, automatically), this dimension reflects how insightful they are, i.e., how “much” insight the annotations allow. usefulness thus evaluates the insights gained by examining an annotated text or corpus. the three dimensions allow a balanced evaluation of guidelines with diverse dis- ciplinary and research backgrounds, aims, and understanding of narratological concepts. focusing on only one of the dimensions will diminish the score in at least one other: a guideline addressing narratological theory exclusively might achieve a high score in the first dimension, but will be penalized in the second dimension, as mere theory is not very applicable. optimizing for applicability could lead to guidelines that specify everything or nothing as narrative level, thus not being very useful. finally, the blind optimization on usefulness will lead to guidelines that are unrelated to narratological theory. thus, the challenge that this shared task poses to the guideline authors is to strike a balance between the three dimensions. arguably, an annotation guideline does not generally need to cover all three di- mensions in order to be a useful guideline for a certain purpose. guidelines that are detached or totally unrelated to a theoretical concept, for instance, could still address a relevant issue. likewise, it is not always necessary to look at applica- tions and aim, i.e., at the usefulness of a guideline. as guidelines and/or annota- tions are also an excellent tool for text analysis, their creation might be a sufficient research goal in its own right. implementation a multi-purpose questionnaire in order to implement the three-dimensional evaluation model, we associated each dimension with a number of specific questions to be answered for each guideline. the questions represent different aspects of each dimension and cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter should be answerable directly for a guideline. section lists each question with a brief description. the questions were made available to the participants before they submitted their guidelines. in the evaluation, they were used in two ways: firstly, they provided a guide for qualitative evaluation. by following the online questionnaire we dis- tributed during the workshop and discussing each question for each guideline, we assured that the same criteria were employed in the judgement of each guide- line and that the same aspects were covered in the discussion. this is important to ensure both fairness and coherence in the evaluation. the discussion was quite extensive and thus difficult to document, but all teams described it as very help- ful. the discussion gave rise to a number of guideline improvements, which will be documented in the second volume of this special issue. secondly, the questions were answered quantitatively. each question was eval- uated on a -point likert scale, i.e., participants were asked to assign points for each guideline in each question with more points reflecting the more favorable choice. thus, if guideline a has higher score than guideline b, it is considered the better guideline. our evaluation defined four questions for the dimensions of conceptual coverage and usefulness, and two questions for the dimension of applicability. in order to weigh the dimensions equally, two more scores regarding applicability were provided through the inter-annotator agreement score (see below), scaled to lie between one and four points. in the end, each guideline was given four scores in each dimension, which were added up, first by dimension and then to a total score. each team evaluated all the other guidelines, leading to seven judgements and thus scores per question per guideline. questionnaire conceptual coverage . is the narrative level concept explicitly described? explanation: narrative levels can be described or defined. this depends on the narratology used; some of them are structuralist, others are post-structuralist. regardless of the mode, is the description/definition understandable and clear? • : i did not understand what the guideline describes as “narrative level”. • : i fully understood the concept described in the guideline. . is the narrative level concept based on existing concepts? evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics explanation: the level concepts can be self-designed, oriented on existing narra- tologies or copied from an existing level definition • : the theory relation of the used level concept is not clear. • : it is clearly mentioned whether the level concept is made up or (par- tially) based on a theory. . how comprehensive is the guideline with respect to aspects of the theory? does it omit something? explanation: if the guideline is based on a theory or multiple theories, does it include the whole theory or only parts of it? are there reasons mentioned why aspects are in-/excluded? • : the guideline does not clearly state the extension of its dependence on theory/ies. • : the guideline unambiguously states the scope of its theory-dependance. . how adequately is the narrative level concept implemented by this guideline in respect to narrative levels? explanation: narratologies differ in their complexity. firstly, you have to decide whether complexity or simplicity (in relation to x) is desirable, then you have to answer: • : the guideline is too simple or too complex for narrative levels and thus not adequate. • : the guideline’s complexity is adequate. applicability . how easy is it to apply the guideline for researchers with a narratological back- ground? explanation: the question asks for an assessment of the ease of use of the guide- line for an annotator with some narratological background. indicators can be: complexity of the concepts, length of the guideline, clarity of examples, clear structure, difficulty of finding special cases, etc. • : even as a narratology expert, i needed to read the guideline multiple times and/or read additional literature. • : the guideline is very easy to apply, and i always knew what to do. . how easy is it to apply the guideline for researchers without a narratological background? cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter explanation: the question asks for an assessment of the ease of use of the guide- line if we assume an annotator who doesn’t have a narratological background (e.g., an undergraduate student). indicators can be: complexity of the concepts, length of the guideline, use of terminology, clarity of examples, reference to ex- amples only by citation, clear structure, difficulty of finding special cases, etc. • : non-experts have no chance to use this guideline. • : the guideline is very easy to apply, and non-experts can use them straight away. ./ . inter-annotator agreement: gamma scores (see below) usefulness . thought experiment: assuming that the narrative levels defined in the annota- tion guideline can be detected automatically on a huge corpus. how helpful are these narrative levels for an interesting corpus analysis? explanation: this question focuses on the relevance of the narrative level anno- tations for textual analysis of large amounts of texts, e.g., for the analysis of devel- opments over time with regard to narrative levels or a classification of texts with regards to genre, based on narrative levels. • : the narrative levels annotations are irrelevant for corpus analysis. • : the annotations provide interesting data for corpus analysis. . how helpful are they as an input layer for subsequent corpus or single text analysis steps (that depend on narrative levels)? explanation: the analysis of some other textual phenomena depends on narra- tive levels, e.g., chronology should be analyzed within each narrative level before analyzing it for the whole text. this question asks whether the analysis of such phenomena is possible or even better when based on the narrative level annota- tions. • : the usage of the narrative levels annotations makes no difference for subsequent analyses. • : subsequent analyses are possible only because of the narrative level an- notations. . do you gain new insights about narrative levels in texts by applying the foreign guideline, compared to the application of your own guideline? explanation: in most cases annotating a text in accordance to a guideline changes the evaluation of textual phenomena in the text, e.g., the quality (or quantity) of evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics narrative levels in the text. • : it doesn’t make a difference—i get no additional insights with the foreign guideline. • : i gain a lot of new insights about narrative levels in texts based on this guideline. . does the application of this guideline influence your interpretation of a text? explanation: interpretations are normally based on the analysis of a text and thus on the observation of the presence (or absence) of certain textual phenomena. therefore, the application of the guidelines may result in annotations that are relevant for your interpretation, e.g. the detection of a narrative level of a certain type may influence your interpretation of the reliability of a narrator. • : my interpretation is independent from the annotations based on the guideline. • : my interpretation is based primarily on the annotations based on the guideline. measuring inter-annotator agreement in this shared task, we employed the metric γ (gamma) as developed by yann mathet, antoine widlöcher, and jean-philippe métivier. its final score com- bines observed disagreement with chance disagreement (γ is thus calculated us- ing disagreements, while most metrics are calculated using agreements). this is done in order to be able to compare evaluation schemes with different complexi- ties and to avoid favouring more simple schemes (if the scheme is simpler, chance agreement is higher). gamma is thus calculated as shown in equation , with δ and δe for the observed and expected disagreement respectively. chance disagreement δe. for calculating the chance disagreement, gamma takes the real annotations provided by an annotator, splits the text at a random point, and permutes the two parts. this is done repeatedly, until the disagree- ment in the permuted “text” approximates the real disagreement (in the entire population) with high confidence (above %). based on these annotations, the “the unified and holistic method gamma (γ) for inter-annotator agreement measure and alignment,” computational linguistics , no. ( ): - . cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter chance disagreement can be calculated in the same way as observed disagree- ment. observed disagreement δ . calculating the observed disagreement is based on an alignment and the pairwise comparison of the annotated segments. the align- ment encodes which annotation of annotator corresponds to which annotation of annotator and is created in such a way that the overall inter-annotator agree- ment is maximal, i.e., all possible alignments are considered. for each possible alignment, the algorithm calculates an averaged observed disagreement by com- paring the aligned segments. for two aligned segments, gamma considers both the positional and categorial disagreement. the positional disagreement expresses how different the position of two aligned segments is and is calculated as shown in equation . the functions end(x) and start(x) refer to the start and end position of the annotated segments, which is measured in token positions. figure : example calculations of positional disagreement. grey numbers show index positions, numbers in white oval shapes show the calculated disagreement (mathet, widlöcher, and métivier, ). in equation , the enumerator represents the difference between the starting and end positions of the two annotations, while the denominator incorporates the length of the respective annotations. figure shows several example situations and the resulting positional disagreement score. as can be seen, numbers be- tween zero and one indicate some overlap; if dpos > , the two annotations do not overlap. there is no upper limit on the positional disagreement. if the annota- tions differ widely in their position (e.g., are placed at the beginning and end of the text), they get a dpos -value that is roughly as high as the text is long. evelyn gius, nils reiter, marcus willand cultural analytics incorporating categorical disagreement (dcat) allows to evaluate whether differ- ent annotation categories have been selected. if, for example, annotator has assigned category a, while annotator has assigned category b, a category dis- agreement is noted. using a matrix, the difference between each pair of categories can be weighted by assigning a number between zero and one. thus, a user of gamma can express that using category a instead of b is less severe than using a instead of c. there is, however, no way to automatically determine the severity of categorical disagreement. instead, it is a preference that the user of gamma has to provide. in our evaluation, categories play a minor role and have thus been treated as equally distant: if a guideline specifies multiple categories, all pairs have been as- signed a distance of one. features’ values attached to the annotation have been suffixed to the category name, so that differences between features are treated in the same way as category disagreement. finally, equation shows how the two sub metrics are combined, using α and β to express weighting (in our setting, both are set to one: α = β = ). to measure gamma, we employed an implementation provided by the developers on their web page. the way expected disagreement is calculated here leads to issues when annotations are sparse. if a single annotation covers the entire text, which is entirely plausible for narrative level annotation, there is no way to split the text and reshuffle the annotations. to circumvent this, we calculated gamma individually for each text and on all eight texts concatenated together. the latter score was then used for the final ranking. integration of the evaluation scores the final score for each guideline was calculated as follows: . for each of the ten questions, the arithmetic mean over all answers is calcu- lated. this results in ten values, distributed over three dimensions: four ques- tions/values in the first dimension, two questions/values in the second and four questions/values in the third. . the gamma scores are scaled to the interval of [ ; ] and added twice as the scores of “virtual questions” in the second dimension. this results in four values per dimension, each in the interval [ ; ]. cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter . in each dimension, all four (mean) values are added up. this results in one score for each dimension, so guidelines can be ranked accord- ingly. as an overall score, we calculated the sum of the scores in all dimensions. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. a shared task for the digital humanities chapter : description of submitted guidelines and final evaluation results marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter, “a shared task for the digital hu- manities chapter : description of submitted guidelines and final evaluation re- sults,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . in this chapter, we give a descriptive overview of the annotation guidelines, their use of narrative level concepts, and the results of their quantitative evaluation. we will also connect some of the results to qualitative findings we uncovered during the workshop, although some references to the participants’ objectives are conjecture. finally, the chapter contains a reflection on the annotation and evaluation procedure. general observations since this shared task was targeted at diverse audiences, the submissions and the disciplinary backgrounds of their authors are as diverse as expected. table shows key properties of the research teams. marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics table . properties of the guideline authors. group size indicates the number of authors of a guideline, (s) indicates that the guideline has been developed within a seminar or lecture. the disciplinary background is based on self-designation of the participants. the participating teams also differ greatly in terms of age, gender, group size, aca- demic level, research field, and disciplinary affiliation. this diversity is reflected in the submitted guidelines. they differ strongly in shapes and sizes: they range from to pages length as well as from theoretical essays to practical how-to’s (see chapters - for the guidelines). while disciplinary differences come with diverging practical experiences and di- verging genre knowledge about annotations and guidelines as such, there is no clear cut between computer scientists and humanists. guidelines with authors from both areas aim at providing a mixture between conceptual definition and practical annotation instructions. guidelines and levels the definition of this first task given by us organizers left it to the participants to select a useful/correct/reasonable theoretical basis for their guideline. to give an overview of the main theoretical foundations of the guidelines, table shows which publications and table shows which concepts are referred to in which guideline and/or rationale. please note that different guidelines may employ dif- ferent understandings of the same narratologist or concept (e.g., focalisation). two guidelines referring to the same narratologist are not necessarily compati- ble, neither are two guidelines referring to a similar set of concepts. please also note that this summary is a descriptive one and it is not our intention to suggest that guidelines should contain references to theoretical research. references to research in narratology cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter table . narratological publications operationalized by the guidelines. the assign- ment is based on the references in the guidelines and/or rationale. as table shows, the most referenced publication was genette (narrative dis- course) with six guidelines referring to it. this is not surprising, since genette introduced the concept of narrative levels and most other theorists relate to his work in some way. other publications cited by three or more contributions that are thus comparably present in the guidelines are the introductory texts by man- fred jahn (narrative levels) and john pier (narrative levels), as well as marie- laure ryan’s account (possible worlds and others, see endnote ). while jahn and pier may have been chosen due to their introductory character—they don’t develop anything new but summarize the most prominent existing approaches— ryan is probably the most formalized approach among the suggested and may thus have been considered especially suited for the guideline development. the fact that no guideline refers to mani (computational narratology) and romberg (narrative technique of the first-person novel) is probably due to the rather marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics abstract description of computational narratology in the former and, on the con- trary, the rather lengthy discussion and focus on first-person narrators in the lat- ter. seven out of eight contributions also cited additional research (cf. endnote ). guideline i developed their own approach. even though the authors refer to certain concepts (cf. table ), there is no explicit reference to a theorist. guide- line i conceives of narrative as linguistic representation of a story and focuses on the identification of borders of narratives, introducing the notion of uninter- rupted vs. embedded vs. interruptive narrative (referring also to analepsis and prolepsis). guideline viii gives its own definition of narratives and focuses on level changes that can be identified with a test (“let me tell you a story”). references to narratological concepts cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter table . narratological concepts operationalized by the guidelines. the assignment is based on the explicit reference to them in the guidelines. table gives a first impression of the concepts that were considered relevant by the guideline authors for the identification of narrative levels. the listed con- cepts can be divided into concepts connected directly to narrative levels (such as boundary and change related concepts) and concepts that typically co-occur with narrative levels (such as focalization or anachronies, i.e. analepses and prolepses). while directly connected concepts can be used for the operationalization of nar- rative levels, co-occurring concepts often appear within narrative levels and are interesting for further analysis. this intermingling of concepts is probably con- nected to theoretical openness as it is typical for the humanities and the vagueness of the narratological concepts. some discussed differences can be explained by the diverging research objectives of the participating teams; e.g., whether the narrative level annotation is suppos- edly used for narratological concept development (guideline iv), identifying nar- ratological concepts other than levels in literary texts (as time, e.g. guideline ii) or to recognize linguistic discourse levels (guideline vii). results of the evaluation final ranking first of all, we would like to mention once again that both content (conceptual coverage, applicability, and usefulness) and method of the evaluation (question- naire, iaa) arise from the specifics of a shared task in the humanities. the multi- dimensional approach allows for an evaluation of the guidelines irrespective of their disciplinary and research background, their aims, and their understanding of narratological concepts. as we have already pointed out, the knowledge be- fore guideline writing and the aims of guideline application are crucial and lead to rather different guidelines. evaluating such diverging guidelines in a fair man- ner requires the evaluation to be multi-dimensional and objective-agnostic. this is exactly what the three evaluation dimensions are supposed to capture without valuing one disciplinary paradigm over another. below, we present the final ranking for the overall evaluation and the three di- mensions in tables to . the tables show scores and standard deviation for each question in the questionnaire, grouped by dimension. the questions can be found in chapter ii: “introduction to annotation, narrative levels and shared tasks”. marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics table . final results of the evaluation (overall scores). the highest score in each dimension is shown in bold. cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter conceptual coverage table . evaluation results for conceptual coverage (dimension ). the table shows mean and standard deviation for each question. the questions are shown in chap- ter (see above). the following reflections about the final results cover the three dimensions one af- ter another. the results shown in table (conceptual coverage) are based on four questions. guideline iv achieved the top position in this dimension. it is one of the guidelines that focuses on an in-depth description of the used narratological categories and definitions, which seems to be reflected by the positive evaluation of its conceptual coverage. on the opposite end of the spectrum is guideline i, which was ranked lowest. this coincides with the self-description and primary research interest of its authors, which is a “computational understanding of sto- marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics ries” (see guideline i, chapter of this issue). their focus on future automation plans led to a guideline without ties to a theory and subsequently to a poor rat- ing in this category. guideline i also includes dialogical text genres (as scripts of tv shows and the transcripts of court cases) which caused some confusion for those who expected a narration to be necessarily narrated by a narrator. it is possible that the large number of narratologically versed participants penalized a deviation from established narratological consensus. applicability table . evaluation results for applicability (dimension ). for the two questions, the table shows mean and standard deviation. for the inter-annotator agreement, cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter the table shows the scores used for the ranking (in the interval) as well as raw gamma scores. the questions are shown in chapter (see above). the applicability score is based on the inter-annotator agreement and two ques- tions from the questionnaire (cf. table ). the first of the two questions queried how well an expert in narratology would be able to apply the guideline to a nar- rative text; the other question asked the same for laypersons. guideline viii is the overall winner in this dimension while guideline iii scored the lowest points. for an interpretation of the results, it is worth looking at the scores for individ- ual questions and the iaa separately. the fact that guideline viii was rated best raises the question of a relation between the guideline’s relatively simple level con- cept and its applicability. the detailed results reveal that the first place is partly due to the guideline having the highest inter-annotator agreement score. it seems obvious to deduce that simplicity is related positively to applicability. however, this is not completely supported by the answers in the questionnaire for this di- mension. guideline viii gained only a lower midfield position in the question about expert applicability, but it was considered to be the most applicable guide- line for laypersons (note that this judgement was cast before the iaa scores were revealed). so, in practice, a basic level concept seems to be applicable with great congruence, but the results of the questionnaire suggest that simplicity is under- stood to come with restrictions for experts. we attribute this to the assumed incapacity of the guideline to do justice to the complexity of narrative levels. complexity and applicability thus seem to correlate negatively. however, the comparison to other guidelines raises doubts about the derivability of such a general rule. guideline v, a guideline with a relatively complex level concept and the overall winner of the evaluation, achieved second rank not only in the first dimension of conceptual coverage, but also in the applicability dimension. in this dimension, the result is based on another second rank in the iaa and a third/fourth rank in the questions. thus, the guidelines with the two best results (viii and v) in the applicability dimension are very different in nature and there seems to be no direct correlation between guideline complexity and applicability. but there are still interpretable results. as the first question refers to annotators with a narratological background, it is not surprising that the highest score was reached by guideline iv (the winning guideline of the conceptual coverage di- mension) followed by guideline v. the fact that both guidelines with best re- sults in conceptual coverage scored only average points for layperson application (question two) might be explained by the consideration that laypersons can ben- efit from clear and explicit conceptual level description, but also run the risk of being overwhelmed by complexity. marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics the low rank of guideline iii might be explained by a combination of factors. the guideline covers a broad range of narratological concepts. at the same time, it neither defines these narratological concepts in depth nor does it give exam- ples on how to apply its annotation categories. the mere description of annota- tion categories seems to lead to difficulties in their application (see the very low inter-annotator agreement). conversely, it can be said that applicable guidelines should have to demonstrate their categories by way of example. this is what the top two guidelines do in great detail. even though for the most part they only achieved average results in the questionnaire, they were elevated in the applica- bility dimension by relatively high inter-annotator agreement scores. guideline iii is not printed in this volume, as its authors withdrew their submission. cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter usefulness table . evaluation results for usefulness (dimension ). the table shows mean and standard deviation for each question. the questions are shown in chapter (see above). the top rank of guideline v in usefulness is most likely due to ) the multifold ex- amples of literary texts that illustrate the use of the elements to be annotated and ) the very clear description of the research objectives of the guideline authors. this is also the case for guideline ii, which ranked second in this dimension: guideline ii states that it is “designed for annotating analepsis, prolepsis, stream- of-consciousness, free indirect discourse, and narrative levels, with facility also for annotating instances of extended or compressed time, and for encoding the identity of the narrator” (see guideline ii, chapter ). since usefulness is the cate- gory that addresses a variety of possible cases in which the annotated texts might marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics allow further research, this result is quite interesting. it shows that expressing a specific application area in the guideline allows the evaluators to picture oppor- tunities for use more clearly, but on the other hand might be more restricting compared to a guideline that does not express a specific application area. finally, some remarks on guideline v, the overall winner guideline in the first shared task: guideline v was ranked second best in conceptual coverage and applicability (as well as inter-annotator agreement); it also reached the top posi- tion in usefulness, which in combination makes it the overall winner with some distance to the second rank. both the quantitative results from the evaluation as well as the qualitative results from the discussion suggest that guideline v defines narrative levels in quite some detail and with particular precision: the guideline distinguishes the narrative level concept from “narrative acts” and refers to other narratological concepts (such as narrator) in a way that is helpful for identifying levels. abstract examples in the form of diagrams and tables are given, illustrating systematically how narrative levels are to be understood. furthermore, concrete text examples are annotated with these concepts. last but not least, a workflow for the practical annotation is given as well as a very clear description of the aims of the annotation of each concept. observations on the evaluation process as this is the first time such a shared task takes place, we think it is important to end this introductory chapter with an assessment of the evaluation process and the shared task as a whole. this includes our version of measuring inter- annotator agreement, the questionnaire and—the very heart of our evaluation— the three dimensional model. inter-annotator agreement firstly, the role and calculation of the inter-annotator agreement should be re- flected. the agreement scores are based on a comparatively low number of an- notations done by annotators with no systematic training. therefore, their level of expertise varied: the student annotators were basically untrained (although some had experience in other annotation tasks) and had virtually no knowledge of narratological theory. the foreign annotators naturally were trained on their own guidelines and may have had problems to disengage themselves from them. both issues applied to all guidelines. nevertheless, the participants stated differ- cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter ent degrees of satisfaction with the foreign annotations based on their guidelines in the discussion. some participants did not feel adequately understood by the an- notators, which was especially the case with narratologically complex guidelines. therefore, this problem may be at least partially caused by the interdisciplinarity of the shared task. in addition, it was observed that in the case of guideline iv the annotations made by student annotators had a higher agreement with the guideline authors than the annotations made by the other groups. therefore, the question arose whether we should have taken into account the expected disciplinary competences when dis- tributing the guidelines for foreign annotation among the participants. we do not believe that this is a viable way to go, but we believe that a profound revision of the mutual annotation model between participating teams (“foreign annota- tion”) is worth considering. ultimately, this approach was born out of the need to obtain as many annotations as possible for each guideline to get data for the iaa. given appropriate funding, it makes sense not to calculate the agreement on the basis of mutual guideline annotations, but to have it done exclusively by “external”, similarly trained annotators. in fact, this is what we will do in a second annotation round, the results of which will be published in the second volume of this special issue. a further observation worth mentioning was found looking at the inter- annotator agreement scores for guideline vii, where the foreign and student annotations were more similar to each other than to the annotations by the guideline authors. this also points to the different disciplinary competences, in this case to the strong linguistic influence of this guideline. since our annotators were aware of the narratological focus of most other guidelines, they might have translated the guideline into a narratological perspective in the same way the co-annotating participant(s) did. questionnaire we also want to highlight several issues that have been raised about the ques- tionnaire itself during the workshop discussion: filling in questions in the con- ceptual coverage dimension requires a broad narratological knowledge, which not all participants possessed. the two questions in the applicability dimension were intended to test the comprehensibility of the guideline for experts and non- experts, but as participant groups were homogeneous with respect to their exper- tise, one question could only be filled in with a grain of salt. as we have seen with guideline viii, there is a clear mismatch between measuring applicability by us- marcus willand, evelyn gius, nils reiter cultural analytics ing inter-annotator agreement, and by predicting applicability in a questionnaire. this is not surprising per se, but the magnitude of the mismatch is. furthermore, it has been mentioned that clarity is such a relevant feature of guidelines that it should have been explicitly evaluated. some literary scholars voiced concerns about presenting the results of our com- plex evaluation in mere numbers. the dissatisfaction, though, did not refer to the results of the inter-annotator agreement of their own guideline, but was rather based on a general methodological skepticism, which was not shared to this ex- tent by the participants with an affinity for automation. in the usefulness dimen- sion, participants found it difficult to assign scores to guidelines they had not been working with intensively. without this practical knowledge, the answers can only be conjecture. nevertheless, despite the difficulties in filling in the ques- tionnaire, the numeric scores are relatively homogeneous across the groups (low standard deviation, see above). the three dimensional evaluation model lastly, we would like to reflect on the nucleus of the whole process, the three dimensional evaluation model. since each evaluation dimension favors charac- teristics that may be related to the disciplinary origin of the guideline authors and thus may lead to biases, the combination of the three dimensions was arranged in such a way that they cancel out those biases. for example, guideline iv, whose authors all have a background in literary studies, achieved the first position in the dimension of conceptual coverage, a midfield position in usefulness and the second to last position in applicability. guideline i, written by researchers in nat- ural language processing, was ranked last in conceptual coverage, but received average scores in the other two dimensions. this gives us reason to believe that disciplinary advantages and disadvantages are indeed offset by our evaluation ap- proach. the fact that guideline iv and viii reached inverted ranks in dimensions one and two also indicates that the evaluation dimensions neutralize disciplinary advantages. the guideline that was ranked highest overall received high scores in all dimensions, but was ranked first only in one dimension. this suggests that to succeed in general, one needs to strike a compromise between the dimensions. this is the effect we were aiming for when designing the evaluation scheme. as an outlook, for our readers both the quantitative results and the distribution of the narratological concepts might serve another purpose: they provide a struc- ture and categorization of the submitted guidelines. researchers and scholars who are interested in narrative levels and/or their annotation for whatever pur- cultural analytics a shared task for the digital humanities chapter pose can browse through the rationals, guidelines and short reviews, all published in the following. those instructive documents as well as our introduction allow for an informed decision on any guideline or the combination of multiple guide- lines, both to be used as a starting point for original, new work. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. part ii. annotation guidelines and reviews annotation guideline no. : cover sheet for narrative boundaries annotation guide joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson . . peer-reviewed by: meredith a. martin article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson, “annotation guideline no. : cover sheet for narrative boundaries annotation guide,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . . introduction . purpose of the project narratives and stories are found all over the world, in every culture, and they are used by every person every day. for computers to communicate with people in a natural and respectful manner, they need to understand stories. unfortunately, computational understanding of stories is currently in its early stages: comput- ers cannot yet identify even basic characteristics of a narrative, such as where it begins and ends. to train and test a computer’s ability to identify the begin- nings and endings of narratives (what we call here narrative boundaries) we are collecting human judgments. . what is annotation? annotation is the process of explicitly encoding information about a text that would otherwise remain implicit. for this study, annotation is the record of hu- joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics man judgments identifying where a narrative begins and ends, which are called narrative boundaries. you will be highlighting spans of text in pdf documents to explicitly mark the boundaries of each narrative. . narrative boundaries a narrative is a discourse presenting a coherent sequence of events which are causally related and purposely related, concern specific characters and times, and overall displays a level of organization beyond the commonsense coherence of the events themselves, such as that provided by a climax or other plot structure. narrative is a linguistic representation of a story. a story is a series of events effected by animate actors or characters. a story is an abstract construct, with two essential elements: plot (fabula) and characters (dramatis personae). the art of storytelling is much more complicated than merely listing events carried out by characters. there is great importance in the storyteller’s choice of which details are revealed to the reader, the order in which plot events are told, whether to embed stories within each other, and whether to interrupt the telling of one story to make space for a new one. even the choice of what details (character traits, setting, history) the author reveals to the reader is important. narrative is more concrete than story, in that narrative is made up of words, but a story is formed through the co-occurrence of characters who enact events which advance a plot forward. narratives occupy spans of text, while stories are a more complex relationship involving characters and events. throughout this document, we will say the narrative is the span of text that expresses the story, or simply narrative text. these spans can appear in multiple forms: a narrative can appear contiguously as one solid span of text, or it might be embedded in another narrative, or it might even interrupt the preceding narrative. many novels and short stories contain multiple instances of embedded and interruptive narratives, often with intricate combinations of the two phenomena. this is also true of scripts of tv shows and movies and the transcripts of court cases. the main goal of this study is to find and mark these narrative boundaries to enable us to develop, train, and test algorithms for this phenomenon. every narrative has at least two narrative boundaries: the start point—the posi- tion in text of the first character of the first word in the narration—and the end point—the position of the last character after the last word in the narration. the simplest kind of narrative is an uninterrupted one. the start point of such a nar- cultural analytics annotation guideline no. ration is the first character of the text, and the end point the last character of the text. this text’s narrative has only two boundaries. . i woke up early in the morning, checked the weather app on my phone and decided it would be a perfect day to go to the beach. i grabbed a book, a towel, and sunglasses, got in my car, and drove to the beach. i read my book, watched the waves, and took a quick swim. i dried off and drove home. it was a great day, even though i forgot to bring sun screen and got a sunburn. ( ) contains an uninterrupted narrative by a first-person narrator who tells the story of their trip to the beach. the narrator uses the first-person point of view to narrate. there are no shifts in time, and no interrupted narratives. the next three sections will define the different types of narrative boundaries. the texts that we will annotate in this study each have more than two narrative bound- aries, and contain various arrangements of these boundaries. both embedded and interruptive narrative can be found in any of the texts in this annotation study, including the tv and movie scripts, as well as the court transcripts. . embedded narratives narratives can be embedded in one another. an embedded narrative tells a story within a story. before we discuss how embedded narratives occur in text, let’s define how we refer to the relationship between the layers. the original narrative is the narrative in which the embedded narrative is told, and the original narrative contains an event (explicit or implied) that signals the telling of an embedded narrative. the embedded narrative is the narrative that is embedded within the original narrative. figure contains a narrative boundary diagram for a text that contains an em- bedded narrative. the lower bar represents the span of text the original narrative appears in, while the upper bar represents the embedded narrative. the horizon- tal axis represents the text under consideration; the graph progressing from the left to the right represents the position in the text advancing from the first word to the last. joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics figure . narrative boundary diagram for an embedded narrative. an embedded narrative occurs when there is a plot event in the original narra- tive that triggers the telling of another story in the story. the narrative that tells the second story is the embedded narrative. a typical example of this is when there is a conversation in the original narrative and in this dialogue one of the participants narrates a story. the plot event in the original narrative that signals the embedded narrative is the character telling a story. recall ( ), a story about a day at the beach. example , is an altered version of example , one with an embedded narrative inserted. the span of text that contains the embedded narrative is surrounded by a brackets with a subscript of . the narrative boundaries in example are graphically represented in the narrative boundaries diagram in figure . . i woke up early in the morning, checked my weather app on my phone and decided it would be a perfect day to go to the beach. i grabbed a book, a towel, and sunglasses, got in my car, and drove to the beach. i read my book, watched the waves, and took a quick swim. as i emerged from the water a disheveled looking pirate washed ashore, [ “aye aye! i have just been washed ashore. i was the captain of the shivering sparrow, but there was a mutiny onboard. all of my crew including my parrot turned on me, and made me walk the plank. i clung onto a piece of driftwood for three days, and now i am here. where am i?”] i didn’t believe the pirate’s story, so i ignored him and walked away. i dried off and drove home. it was a great day, even though i forgot to bring sun screen and got a sunburn. example contains a basic example of an embedded narrative. the story is al- [ ….] cultural analytics annotation guideline no. most the same as example ’s, except when the narrator gets out of the water, he encounters a pirate, who tells him a story about being abandoned at sea, clinging to a piece of wood, and washing ashore. the pirate’s embedded narrative is sur- rounded by brackets with a subscript of , and is embedded in the narrative of the original narrator. the original narrative ends the same way in example . in example ’s original narrative, the original narrator witnesses the pirate telling a story. the pirate’s narration is a plot event in the lower level. this plot event in the original narrative triggers the start of the embedded narrative. the plot events of the pirate’s story are a part of the embedded story, since they are told in the pirate’s embedded narrative. the embedded narrative contains a story with events that are separate from the events in the story from the original narrative. it is also possible for the original narrator to tell an embedded narrative in the narrative text. this type of narrative can occur via embedded flashbacks, which will be discussed in section . . . her mojito glass was empty. she signaled the bartender and asked for a wine list, and, after some deliberation, she chose a glass of napa cabernet sauvignon. tsukuru had only drunk half his highball. the ice had melted, forming droplets on the outside of his glass. the paper coaster was wet and swollen. [ “that was the first time in my life that anyone had rejected me so completely,”] tsukuru said. [ “and the ones who did it were the people i trusted the most, my four best friends in the world. i was so close to them that they had been like an extension of my own body. searching for the reason, or correcting a misunderstanding, was beyond me. i was simply, and utterly, in shock. so much so that i thought i might never recover. it felt like something inside me had snapped.”] the bartender brought over the glass of wine and replenished the bowl of nuts. once he’d left, sara turned to tsukuru. “i’ve never experienced that myself, but i think i can imagine how stunned you must have been. i understand that you couldn’t recover from it quickly. but still, after time had passed and the shock had worn off, wasn’t there something you could have done? i mean, it was so unfair. why didn’t you challenge it? i don’t see how you could stand it.” here narrative text means the text the narrator uses to narrate to the reader. narrative text does not include text in quotes or direct speech. joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics example is an excerpt from a novel (murakami, ). this excerpt contains an embedded narrative, which is surrounded by brackets with the subscript of . in the original narrative, tsukuru and sara are at a bar, on a date, and tsukuru is telling sara a story about his past. the text surrounded in brackets with the subscript of is part of the embedded narrative, since it contains tsukuru telling a story about his previous rejection. this is a narration about his past; he is ex- plaining how he felt, and why he acted a certain way. note that only the bracketed text is part of the embedded narrative. the final paragraph is not part of the em- bedded narrative because it is not a telling of the embedded story. it is sara trying to verbalize her empathy for tsukuru and asking him a clarifying question. it is important to note that the phrase “tsukuru said” in the second paragraph is not part of the embedded narrative because it is an action that occurs in the original narrative. tsukuru is having his conversation within the frame of the original narrative where he is on a date with sara. one final reminder, the entire span of text in example is part of the original nar- rative. even the text of the embedded narrative, which is surrounded by brackets with subscript of , belongs to both the original and embedded narrative; it be- longs to the original narrative because tsukuru is saying these words to sara in the bar while on his date. this is a part of the chain of events of the original narra- tive; it also belongs to the embedded narrative because the words he is saying tell a story that is separate and independent from the story in the original narrative. before we move to interruptive narratives, let’s talk about a canonical example of an embedded narrative: joseph conrad’s heart of darkness where there is a homodiegetic narrator on a boat, listening to a story told by his shipmate marlow. marlow’s story, which is told in dialogue, is the main story of the novel. the original narrator’s story is quite simple, he is just a passenger on a boat listening to marlow. the real story of heart of darkness is the story that marlow is telling the original narrator, about marlow’s experiences in africa. . interruptive narratives narratives that interrupt the original narrator’s narration are called interruptive narratives, which are different from embedded narratives. this is common in books where each chapter has a different narrator. for example, in the majority of the novel q , all the odd numbered chapters are narrated from the perspec- tive of the heroine, aomame, and the even numbered chapters are narrated from joseph conrad, heart of darkness (new york, ny: w. w. norton & company, ). haruki murakami, q (new york, ny: vintage international, ). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. the perspective of the hero, tengo. the boundaries at the end of each chapter in this novel mark interruptive narrative boundaries. for example, at the end of an odd numbered chapter, the narrator switches from the perspective of aomame to tengo, and at the end of each even numbered chapter, the narrator switches from the perspective of aomame to tengo. figure . narrative boundary diagram for the dual interruptive narrations from q . interruptive narratives can occur within chapters, or, for our purposes, within short stories, chapters of novels, or in the dialogue of a script. sometimes the person narrating will change; at other times, the original narrator is a first-person narrator, and then the narrator will suddenly shift to a third person impersonal narrator, or vice versa. if the narrator changes, there is usually an interruptive narrative boundary. sometimes there will be a section breakwhich denote the change of narrator. sec- tion breaks are visual markers that separate text. sometimes a section break is sig- naled by a series of special characters, like an asterisk (*) or a horizontal rule (a thin, horizontal line). sometimes there will just be many blank lines in a section break. note that the presence of a section break does not guarantee the presence of an interrupted narrative. for example, there can be a section break, and im- mediately after the break the narration is continued by the same narrator, from the same point in time that the narrative before the section break left off. the difference between interruptive and embedded narratives may seem subtle, but there is a difference. in an embedded narrative, a plot event occurs in the story of the original narrative, which triggers the telling of an embedded narrative. an interruptive narrative is triggered by the original narrative stopping. the trigger of an interruptive narrative is not a plot event in the original narrative, instead it is more of a meta-event, where something more structural, about how the story joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics is being told, changes. once the original narrative has stopped, the interrupting narrative begins to be told. the actual person narrating the story can changes, or the narrator remains consistent but the time in which the story is told changes. if you are questioning whether a narrative is interruptive, you should ask yourself: is the telling of the span in question a plot event in the original narrative? if it is, then the span in question is embedded. if not, then it is interruptive. let’s consider an example of a story with an interruptive narrative. below is ex- ample . it is again an altered version of examples and . the story is like example , in that the narrator goes to the beach, reads, goes for a swim, and encounters a pirate upon exiting the water. after the original narrator observes the pirate washing ashore, there is a section break signaled by three asterisks. sur- rounded by brackets with subscript is the interruptive narrative of the pirate, told in first person. the pirate telling this story is not an event in the original nar- rative, which is what happened in the embedded narrative of example . there is no event, in the original narrative of example , where the pirate tells a story. instead, there is an interruption of the original narrative, the pirate tells his story, and then the original narrator begins telling his story. figure contains a narra- tive boundary diagram for this generic interruptive narrative. . i woke up early in the morning, checked my weather app on my phone and decided it would be a perfect day to go to the beach. i grabbed a book, a towel, and sunglasses, got in my car, and drove to the beach. i read my book, watched the waves, and took a quick swim. as i emerged from the water a disheveled looking pirate washed ashore. * * * [ i have just been washed ashore. i was the captain of the shivering sparrow, but there was a mutiny onboard. all of my crew including my parrot turned on me, and made me walk the plank. i clung onto a piece of driftwood for three days, and now i am here.] * * * the pirate looked like he just went through a tragic ordeal, but he was a pirate, so i decided it was best to ignore him. i dried off and drove home. it was a great day, even though i forgot to bring sun screen and got a sunburn. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. figure . narrative boundary diagram for an interruptive narrative next we will consider another excerpt from murakami. example contains two narrative levels, one surrounded by brackets with subscript and one surrounded by brackets with subscript . the first narrative, brackets with subscript , is a continuation of the original narrative from example , when tsukuru is on a date with sara. the first narrative is interrupted by a third person narrator, who tells a story about tsukuru’s adolescence. there is a narrative break punctuating the two narratives. this is narrative is surrounded by brackets with subscript and it is an instance of an interruptive flashback, which is discussed in the next section. . [ “you can hide memories, but you can’t erase the history that produced them.” sara looked directly into his eyes. “if nothing else, you need to remember that. you can’t erase history, or change it. it would be like destroying yourself.” “why are we talking about this?” tsukuru said, half to himself, trying to sound upbeat. “i’ve never talked to anybody about this before, and never planned to.” sara smiled faintly. “maybe you needed to talk with somebody. more than you ever imagined.”] • • • [ that summer, after he returned to tokyo from nagoya, tsukuru was transfixed by the odd sensation that, physically, he was being completely transformed. colors he’d once seen appeared com- pletely different, as if they’d been covered by a special filter. he haruki murakami, colorless tsukuru tazaki and his years of pilgrimage: a novel (new york, ny: alfred a. knopf, ). joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics heard sounds that he’d never heard before, and couldn’t make out other noises that had always been familiar. when he moved, he felt clumsy and awkward, as if gravity were shifting around him. for the five months after he returned to tokyo, tsukuru lived at death’s door. he set up a tiny place to dwell, all by himself, on the rim of a dark abyss. a perilous spot, teetering on the edge, where, if he rolled over in his sleep, he might plunge into the depth of the void. yet he wasn’t afraid. all he thought about was how easy it would be to fall in.] . time shifts: flashbacks and flashforwards there are two types of time shifts in story telling: flashbacks, (also known as analepsis), and flashforwards (also known as prolepsis). both flashbacks and flash- forwards are recurrent in storytelling. a flashback occurs when the time of the events told in the narration shift from the present to a time in the past. flashbacks might occur when the narrator remembers something that happened in the past. a flashforward is similar, except the events are from the future. flashforwards, can come in the form of visions or prophecies. other times, flashforwards fore- shadow or reveal key events that will occur in the future, even though the narrator might not know that these events will occur. both flashbacks and flashforwards are popular storytelling devices in both literature and film. there are two ways flashbacks can be narrated: embedded flashbacks are embedded in the original narrative.in the original nar- rative, the narrator is narrating a story about the present, and then the narrator will shift the subject of their narration to telling a story about events that hap- pened in the past. sometimes the retelling of past events will use verbs in the past tense. the narrator is telling a story about the past from the present time, in which the events of the original narrative are unfolding. this is similar to the case where an embedded narrative is told in dialogue (as in example ), except in flashbacks the embedded narrative is told in the narrative text; the audience of the flashback is the reader, not another character in the story. we will annotate this type of flashback in the same way as narratives embedded in dialogue. interruptive flashbacks interrupt or replace the original narrative.the original narrative ends, and a new narrative of events occurring at a time before the orig- inal narrative begins. the key characteristic of the interruptive flashback, is that the narrator also moves in time. the narrator of the original narrative and the flashback do not have to be the same narrator. sometimes the person who is nar- cultural analytics annotation guideline no. rating the flashback will be a different character than the narrator of the original narrative. sometimes the point of view of the flashback’s narrator will be differ- ent than that of the original narrator. other times, the narrator of the flashback is identical to the original narrator, the only difference being the events in the flashback happened in a time before the original narrative. interruptive flash- backs break the telling of the original narrative: they are not embedded in any other narrative. we will annotate this type of flashback in the same way as an interrupted narrative. remember that the excerpt in example contains an in- terruptive flashback. the original narrative is interrupted by a new narrative, which takes place at a time before the original narrative. flashforwards can also either be embedded or interruptive. flashforwards tend to be interruptive though, since narrators typically do not know what will happen in the future, so the original narrative must be interrupted, to provide an account of events from a future time. flashbacks can be embedded into speech, but this is usually either a telling of a vision, or it can be the telling of a hypothetical future. . dreams and visions many stories contain dreams. there are two types of dreams, and they are similar to the two types of flashbacks. dreams are either embedded into the original nar- rative, or they interrupt it. embedded dreams occur when the narrator is narrat- ing about the memory of their experience of a past dream. interruptive dreams occur when the narration is occurring from within the dream: the narrator is narrating as the dream unfolds. visions are similar to dreams. a vision could be a telling of the future, like a prophecy. the events of the prophetic vision may or may not come true, but the actual telling of the vision is distinct from the original narrative. other types of visions can be sudden recollections of images or events from the past. like dreams, visions can be either embedded in the original narrative, or interruptive of the original narrative. . [ haida got quite talkative when it came to music. he went on, delineating the special characteristics of berman’s performance of liszt, but tsukuru barely listened. instead, a picture of shiro per- forming the piece, a mental image, vivid and three-dimensional, welled up in his mind. as if those beautiful moments were steadily swimming back, through a waterway, against the legitimate pressure of time.] joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics [ the yamaha grand piano in the living room of her house. reflect- ing shiro’s conscientiousness, it was always perfectly tuned. the lus- trous exterior without a single smudge or fingerprint to mar its lus- ter. the afternoon light filtering in through the window. shadows cast in the garden by the cypress trees. the lace curtain wavering in the breeze. teacups on the table. her black hair, neatly tied back, her expression intent as she gazed at the score. her ten long, lovely fingers on the keyboard. her legs, as they precisely depressed the pedals, possessed a hidden strength that seemed unimaginable in other situations. her calves were like glazed “porcelain, white and smooth. whenever she was asked to play something, this piece was the one she most often chose.”le mal du pays.” the groundless sad- ness called forth in a person’s heart by a pastoral landscape. home- sickness. melancholy.] [ as he lightly shut his eyes and gave himself up to the music, tsukuru felt his chest tighten with a disconsolate, stifling feeling, as if, before he’d realized it, he’d swallowed a hard lump of cloud. the piece ended and went on to the next track, but he said nothing, simply allowing those scenes to wash over him. haida shot him an occasional glance.”] the excerpt in example is also from murakami ( ). the original narrative is surrounded by brackets with subscript of . this narrative is about tsukuru talking to his friend haida about classical music. talking about classical music causes tsukuru to have a vision, or a day dream, from his past. in tsukuru’s vision, which is surrounded by brackets with subscript of , he sees his old friend shiro masterfully playing the piano in a very dreamy and vivid setting. this vision interrupts the story told in the original narrative. the vision is not embedded because there is no action in the original narrative that triggers the telling of the vision. the last two sentences of the first paragraph inform the reader that tsukuru is about to have a vision. these preparatory sentences are not part of the vision, since they describe events that are happening in the original narrative level, a “picture of shiro…welled up in [tsukuru’s] mind.” the actual vision is a departure from the original narrative. it describes what tsukuru sees and feels when he is watching shiro at the piano. this is not something that is happening at the time of the original narrative, it is something that tsukuru is experiencing. the vision ends when the original third person narrator begins narrating about events that are actually happening in the present, “as he lightly shut his eyes and gave himself up to the music, tsukuru felt his chest tighten with a disconsolate, stifling feeling…”. the music then continues to play, and cultural analytics annotation guideline no. haida shoots tsukuru “… an occasional glance.” these are events happening in the frame of the original narrative, and they signal the switch back to the original narrative from the interruptive vision. . annotating scripts in addition to short stories and novels, we are interested in annotation narrative boundaries from scripts. specifically, we will focus on the scripts of tv shows, and the transcripts of court proceedings. there are two types of text in a script: dialogue and action. dialogue contains the words that actors (or people) speak, and the action gives direction for what the actors do, how they do it, and what happens in the world that the script describes. scripts can either be used to tell actors what to say and how they should act, which dictates how they should be- have during a performance, or scripts can be a recording of things that happened in real life, like a transcription of the dialogue in a court case. . dialogue in the context of scripts, dialogue is a type of structured text. there are two com- ponents to dialogue: the character’snameand the character’s speech. in a script the character’s name will be stated. typically, it will be bolded. following the character’s name is the words that the character will speak. the character’s speech will not be in bold. look at example . this is an excerpt from the script of star trek: deep space - the visitor. this excerpt portrays a conversation between two characters, old jake and melanie. they are having a conversation about old jake’s writings and how melanie enjoys his writing. in this excerpt, there are four utterances in the dialogue. old jake speaks first, melanie speak speaks next, and then they each speak one more time. . [ old jake i didn’t realize people still read my books. melanie taylor, m. (writer), & livingston, d. (director). ( , july ) the visitor. [television series episode] in berman, r. (executive producer), star trek: deep space . new york, ny: cbs television distribution. joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics of course they do. a friend recommended anslem to me and i read it straight through, twice in one night. old jake twice in one night… ? melanie it made me want to read everything you’d ever written, but when i looked, all i could find were your “collected stories.” i couldn’t believe it. i’d finally found someone whose writing i really admired, and he’d only published two books.] now let’s think about the script of this conversation with respect to the narrative boundaries it contains. there are two narratives. the original narrative, where old jake and melanie are having a conversation. this narrative makes up the entire span of text in example . the span of the original narrative has been surrounded by brackets with subscript of . it is important to note that the bolded character names have also been surrounded by brackets. the character names belong to the original narrative because this is a signal that a specific character will utter the proceeding text. the declaration of who is speaking in a script is like the phrase “he said…” or “old jake said…” in a novel or short story. the character names are included in the brackets of the original narratives since they mark the beginning of a character speaking, which is an action in the original narrative. the next excerpt, example , is also from the same episode of star trek (taylor, ), and it contains an embedded narrative delivered by melanie. the embed- ded narrative is surrounded by brackets with subscript of . her narration is about her experience reading old jake’s books, and how she reacted to his writ- ing. in this embedded narrative, the bolded character names are not surrounded cultural analytics annotation guideline no. by brackets. this is because the action of melanie speaking belongs to the plot of the original narrative, and they do not belong to the plot of the narrative about melanie’s past. it is important to notice that old jake’s speech is not part of the embedded narrative: he is not adding any information to the story of melanie’s past, he’s just asking a clarifying question. . old jake i didn’t realize people still read my books. melanie of course they do. [ a friend recommended anslem to me and i read it straight through, twice in one night.] old jake twice in one night… ? melanie [ it made me want to read everything you’d ever written, but when i looked, all i could find were your “collected stories.” i couldn’t believe it. i’d finally found someone whose writing i really admired, and he’d only published two books.] . action the action describes what is happening in the world that the script depicts. typ- ically, the action is written in present tense, since it describes what is happening in the present moment. dialogue prescribes what each character says, and action joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics dictates what each character does, including the way they speak. consider exam- ple , where the action is surrounded by brackets with subscript of . typically, the action in a script will be bolded, but it is not a requirement. now we will discuss the functions of each action sequence. the first sequence describes actions that jake does before he speaks. the second action is during jake’s dialogue. it is a note for the actor playing jake to take a moment to con- sider what he is saying. if the script is being read, then this stage direction allows the reader to imagine the character considering their actions. the third action sequence describes how melanie reacts to what jake says, and how she responds to him. the fourth action sequence instructs melanie’s next like to be said softly. the final action sequence describes an action jake takes. all of five of these actions sequences describe actions that occur in the original narrative of this script. when considering the narrative boundaries for this ex- cerpt, each action sequence is a part of the original narrative. in fact, the entire span of text in example belongs to the original narrative. there are no embed- ded or interruptive narratives in this excerpt. . melanie so that i could read them again… like it was the first time. [ jake smiles, nods that he understands. as he sits down with the tray…] old jake there’s only one “first time” for everything, isn’t there? [ (considers)] and only one last time, too. you think about that when you get to be my age. that today might be the last time you… sit in a favorite chair… watch the rain fall… enjoy a cup of tea. [ melanie looks at him, then cautiously asks the question that brought her here.] cultural analytics annotation guideline no. melanie [ (softly)] can i ask you something… ? [ he nods that she go ahead… ] . structural elements of scripts structural elements are a final component of scripts that are separate from action and dialogue. they allow the readers or actors to distinguish between scenes and acts, and they give notes about the technical production for the performance, like a change of a camera angle. for our study, we will not include structural elements in our narratives. these elements are not part of the story being told, they just instruct the actors and crew when a scene begins or ends, and tell the camera operators logistics for how the scene is shot. . jake dad… ? sisko what… what happened… ? but before jake can reply, sisko’s body starts to flicker and dissolve like it did in the defiant’s engineering room… jake watches as the terrible moment repeats itself… until sisko completely de- materializes once again… off jake’s confused, pained expression we… [ fade out. end of act one deep space nine: “the visitor” - rev. / / - act two . act two fade in:] int. jake’s house (distant future) old jake sits quietly, his thoughts far away in the past. melanie watches him with great sympathy… joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics after a quiet beat… old jake i told dax about what’d happened… example is another excerpt from star trek: deep space (taylor, ), which has the structural elements surrounded by brackets with subscript of . in this example, the structural elements prescribe the camera fading out, the first act of the show ending, the second act beginning, and the camera fading back in. it is important to note that the action sequence ”int. jake’s house (distant future)” is not a structural element, because it is telling the reader that the current scene is set at jake’s house. this is equivalent to author of a novel saying where the next scene occurs, which is an essential detail of the narrative, and not structural information. following the location of the new scene, is a description of what is happening: old jake is sitting, and melanie is watching him. finally, the dialogue of the scene starts. . annotation procedure each text will be provided to you as a pdf file. first read the text without mak- ing any annotations, reading just to understand; you can print the text out if you prefer reading from paper. second, reread the story, and make a list of all the narratives. third, go back to the beginning of the story. for each of the narra- tives you found, make a copy of the original pdf file, and in the corresponding file highlight the spans of text that the current narrative is told in. for clarity, if you found five narratives, you should make five copies of the pdf, one for each narrative. then highlight the spans each narrative occupies in the correspond- ing file. to keep track of which narrative is annotated in which pdf file, please record the names of each file in the annotation metadata sheet, explained in the next subsection. note that in this annotation guide we talk about subscripted brackets surround- ing narrative levels. when annotating texts, you should use the highlight func- tion to distinguish which spans of text belong to a narrative level. additionally, it is most important to annotate the spans of text that each narrative level be- long to. the categories for narrator and type of narrative are included just to help you think about narrative levels, and these characteristics will not be used to calculating agreement of narrative levels. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . the annotation metadata sheet for each short story, you will be provided with an excel spreadsheet to fill out, in addition to the actual annotations that you will record by highlighting the pdfs. figure . a screen shot from a blank narrative boundary annotation metadata spread sheet. narrative id number this is the id of this row’s narrative. each narrative has an id number. assign the id numbers in ascending order, start at . we will use these numbers at the end of the annotation pdfs to identify what narrative boundaries are highlighted in which document. narrative name in this column, come up with a name for each narrative. the name can be a phrase or a sentence. this is mainly for helping refresh your memory while you are annotating, or when we meet for adjudications. file name for each narrative, you will create a copy of the original pdf file containing the narrative boundaries encoded as highlighted spans of text. in this column, you will write the file names of the pdf annotation files that correspond to each nar- rative joshua eisenberg and mark finlayson cultural analytics narrator each narrative is told by a narrator. in this column, please write who the narrator is. if the narrator has a name, write their name. if the narrator has no name, but annotates in first person point of view, write ” st person unnamed“. if the narrator narrates from the third person point of view, write” rd person“. see”narrative characteristics annotation guide” for more specifics on determining the point of view of a narrator. although this is not an annotation study on narrative point of view, it is sometimes useful to be aware of the changes in point of view throughout the text. embedded narrative id if the narrative is embedded in an original narrative then put the id number of the embedded narrative in this column. in example , the pirate’s narrative is embedded in the main narrative. in the row for the pirate’s narrative, we write down the id number “ ” in the column for “embedded narrative id”, because this is the id of the original narrative. if the narrative in question is not embedded in any other narratives, write “none” in the “embedded narrative id” column. if a narrative is interruptive, then the embedded narrative id is also “none”. color in this column please put the color that you used to highlight the boundaries of the corresponding narrative. if possible, please use different colors for each narrative. type of narrative put one of the following types of narrative that we have discussed in this guide: • original • embedded flashback • interruptive flashback • embedded • embedded flashforward • interruptive flashforward • interruptive • embedded dream or vision • interruptive dream/vision note that these characteristics are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and they will not be used for calculating agreements. these categories are included so that you think about what type of narratives are being used. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . tips for annotation don’t do all the annotations in one sitting. try to limit yourself to one to two hours at a time: more than that and you will become fatigued and the accuracy of your annotations will decrease. you should have this annotation guide handy while you are doing your annotations. this guide should serve as a reference and help you disambiguate tricky decisions. . adjudication procedure please do not speak to the other annotators about the specific annotations or the methods you use to make your decisions. this is because we are also trying to de- termine how clear the annotation guide and procedure are in and of themselves. we investigate this by measuring the agreement between different annotators, and if annotators talk with each other outside of the adjudication meetings about specific annotation decisions, then this results in artificially high agreement mea- sures. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. . meredith a. martin . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: meredith a. martin, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . i am reviewing the narrative boundaries annotation guide, i had several con- cerns. first, the authors are clear and concise when describing the project purpose: of training and testing a computer’s ability to identify the beginnings and end- ings of narratives (which the authors call narrative boundaries). they are also clear and concise when describing what they mean by annotation in this project: “the record of human judgments identifying where a narrative begins and ends.” when the authors arrive at the definition of narrative, however, their clarity and concision begin to unravel a bit. since there are several theories of narrative, i sug- gest that the authors include some language like “for the purposes of this study” before launching into their definitions, which are necessarily oversimplified. in the last paragraph of page two, the three forms could be elaborated more help- fully. contiguous (or, later, un-interrupted), embedded, or interrupted narra- tives become important later on, so the guide could highlight that importance by bulleting the forms of narrative it deems important, and foreshadowing how deeply and how intricately the authors will attempt to distinguish between em- bedded or interrupted. . should be “uninterrupted narrative.” i suggest they begin with “the simplest kind of narrative is an uninterrupted one. the section . , titled”narrative bound- aries,” should end with “after the last word in the narration” and then continue meredith a. martin cultural analytics with “the next three sections” etc. (i have marked this change in the document using track change). embedded narratives were clearly explained and seems like a feasible for annota- tors, though arduous. marking boundaries for interrupted flashbacks and flashforwards seemed incred- ibly complicated. interruptive narratives are the most complicated, and it seems that “time shifts” need their own heading ( ) since they are not the three main kinds of narrative but may contain the three main kinds within them. the example from . is too lengthy; i suggest adding a shorter example. what happens if there are two types of narration happening (a flashback inside a dream)? would the phrase “like i had done every morning since she left” be a flashback? the charts are useful but without multiple colors (and with only the example of murakami to go on) i think that there is, at least as the guidelines are currently presented, quite a bit of room for interpretation and error. the human annotators would need to be a very large group, indeed, with a high level of fluency. for this to be a useful exercise, i can only imagine that the study would need hundreds of annotators. television scripts might be moved to an entirely different guideline - i feel that this guideline is already too complicated. i would eliminate scripts or other kinds of narrative, but having both is too much. each section would benefit from additional examples drawn from authors other than murakami. the beach / pirate example could be useful in each section, and since the levels of narratives accumulate, keeping the beach / pirate example active throughout and adding a literary text example alongside the beach / pirate would be a welcome addition and would more easily train the annotators. or perhaps using a simpler narrative? though the guidelines are helpful i would feel baffled by multiple levels of narration. i also can’t imagine taking on this annotation task voluntarily. the procedures seem complicated. how many short stories will the annotator receive? what does it mean to say “each narrative has an id number”? this makes no sense to me. i also don’t understand “narrative name.” examples here, again from the pirate / beach story or a simpler story than iq , would be helpful. “if possible, please use different colors for each narrative”? i think the authors should assign colors. the authors could use a more robust bibliography for nar- rative theory. cultural analytics review of guideline no. . unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotation guideline no. : for annotating anachronies and narrative levels in fiction edward kearns . . peer-reviewed by: tillman köppe article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: edward kearns, “annotation guideline no. : for annotating anachronies and narrative levels in fiction,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . . rationale the following annotation guidelines were created with both the santa project and my own phd research in mind. their purpose is to provide tags for encoding narrative features related to time and perspective, as well as narrative levels. these things can interact with each other; for example, a story occurring within another story could also constitute a move backwards in time. this introduction will briefly discuss the rationale for the creation of the guidelines, the selection of the tags, and how the santa workshop has made me reflect on them and how they can be improved in the future. my research project involves the use of a newly-created xml schema to encode analepsis, prolepsis (flashbacks and flashes forward in story time, respectively), instances of stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse narration, in- stances of extended or compressed time, changes in position of the narrator, and points in the text where the narrative level changes. i annotate these features in fiction texts, and will then use that encoded text to quantitatively compare those fictions to look for patterns, clusters, similarities, differences, and possible edward kearns cultural analytics lines of influence of one genre on another. the narrative concepts represented by most of the tags have been used for centuries, allowing for comparisons be- tween fictions from many genres and time periods. in the case of my project, the two genres being compared are modernist novels, from the early twentieth century, and hypertext fictions from the late twentieth and early twenty-first cen- turies. these two genres have been compared for their shared use of narrative fragmentation, and some hypertext works allude to modernist texts; one of the aims of this project is to determine whether those comparisons are visible quan- titatively. however the more important and primary aim was simply to translate these narratological terms into xml. while the tag set was created in xml, it can be used in other formats as well. this has already been seen in the preparation for the first santa workshop, when the tag set was recreated in full in catma. the angle brackets from xml remain in these guidelines as a convenient way of designating a reference to a tag specifically rather than its corresponding narratological concept, but other- wise references to xml have been kept to a minimum in this version to maintain broader applicability. excepting some small formatting changes and alterations in phrasing, these are the guidelines as they were circulated at the beginning of the santa workshop. a particular feature of this annotation scheme is the inclusion of tags for stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse narration. the concepts and names for the tags in the set come largely from gérard genette but also other narratolo- gists such as shlomith rimmon-kenan, and indeed earlier literary criticism - as the term stream of consciousness comes from may sinclair discussing the work of dorothy richardson. stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse could be categorised, with extended and compressed time, as tags that describe how the story is being told stylistically, whereas the tags for narrator position, narrative levels, and anachronies describe more functional features of how the narrative is structured. the latter category maintains the focus on narrative features that have been used for centuries. stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse have not always been used—they have been used from the nineteenth century onwards—but they are relevant stylistic features (not least in modernist and hy- pertext fiction) because they can correspond with the structural features of a text; an analepsis can occur within stream-of-consciousness narration; a deeper nar- rative level can occur within a character’s mind. participating in the shared task has dovetailed with my work, adding a focus on narrative levels as well as narrative time. the workshop provided me with some excellent feedback on my annotation system from the other participants. that feedback, and the process of reviewing the other tag sets, has made me reflect on cultural analytics annotation guideline no. how my own schema can be improved. as my system was focused on time and stylistic features as well as narrative levels, there is scope for more nuance and detail in providing the user with options for how a narrative level is encoded; for example the ability to annotate what the function of a narrative level is, relative to the other levels. this would allow the user to describe a narrative level using more than just the integer that is part of the tag already. further narratologi- cal concepts such as narratee, focaliser, and narrative world would also allow for the user to more comprehensively describe the intricacies of the way a piece of fiction is told. narratee and focaliser describe somewhat related features of nar- rative style to the stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse tags, while annotating narrative worlds can combine with the structural focus of annotating narrative levels. incorporating these things will allow my schema to be more ver- satile in its application, more able to facilitate description of unusual cases. with an increased focus on narrative levels there will be a need for an application of an overall narrative theory to tie together all of the tags in the set, in the way that the time theories of genette bring together some of the existing tags. this rationale for this version however was to focus on time as much as narrative levels, and it serves that purpose. . introduction the purpose of this document is to explain the elements of the santa tag set and how they should be used. the tag set is based on concepts of narrative time suggested by gérard genette and other narratologists, and is designed for annotating analepsis, prolepsis, stream-of-consciousness, free indirect discourse, and narrative levels, with facility also for annotating instances of extended or compressed time, and for encoding the identity of the narrator and their position with respect to the levels of a narrative. this annotation scheme is designed for xml, but can be used independently of that, for example if one is using catma to tag text. in the schema, the ele- ments are nested inside one another in a way that allows the tags to be used in a manner that follows the way that the narrative constructs are used in fiction. for instance, analepsis and prolepsis often (but not always) occur within a character’s mind, as part of the thought-process that is captured in prose by the stream of consciousness or free indirect discourse techniques. accordingly, the analepsis and prolepsis tags here can be nested inside stream of consciousness and free in- direct discourse tags, which in turn can be nested inside tags which annotate the appropriate narrative level, if this part of the narrative contains or is contained by another story. these tags do not have to be used all together, or in that or- edward kearns cultural analytics der; there are several possible combinations. for example an analepsis tag can be used inside a narrative level tag without the need for a stream of consciousness tag; the schema is flexible to meet the narrative structure of a piece of fiction. all of this serves to allow the user to annotate changes in the temporal position of a narrative and changes in narrative levels, which can be related to one another; a character telling a story to the narrator about something that happened in the past would constitute both a move to a lower narrative level (because it is a story within a story) and an analepsis (because the telling of the story is a kind of flashback). these narrative techniques have been used for centuries, allowing for compar- isons of fiction texts across many genres and time periods. once the text is en- coded, it and the tags can be quantitatively analysed to aid those comparisons and look for patterns or discrepancies in narrative structures. the rest of this document will illustrate how the various tags should be applied to fiction. . this tag is a by-product of the annotation scheme’s initial focus on xml. it is a container for the rest of the encoded xml document. it is only opened at the beginning of the document, before any other elements, and then closed at the very end. the purpose of this tag is to allow xml documents encoded with the schema to be valid, and to act as a frame within which all the other tags, and plain text, can be placed. when using this tag set in a format that is not xml, it is not necessary to use this tag, as its function no longer applies. once the text element is used, any other element from the schema can then be used, but there is no obligation to do this, as plain text will now be valid in xml, due to the fact that is a complex type element with the mixed=“true” at- tribute enabled. all other elements in which other elements can be nested also have this attribute. . and analepsis and prolepsis are ‘flashes’ backwards and forwards in story time, re- spectively. despite the use of the term flash, they are not necessarily brief. they cultural analytics annotation guideline no. can last for many pages or even entire sections of novels. they are deviations from the main temporal progression of the story, disruptions between story time and narrative time. story time is the actual series of events that occur in the novel, and like time in the real world it is linear. narrative time can be nonlinear; it incorporates analepsis and prolepsis. the terms were coined by gérard genette, who writes: to avoid the psychological connotations of such terms as ‘anticipa- tion’ or ‘retrospection,’ which automatically evoke subjective phe- nomena, we will eliminate these terms most of the time in favor of two others that are more neutral, designating as prolepsis any nar- rative maneuver that consists of narrating or evoking in advance an event that will take place later, designating as analepsis any evocation after the fact of an event that took place earlier than the point in the story where we are at any given moment, and reserving the general term anachrony to designate all forms of discordance between the two temporal orders of story and narrative. so, an instance of analepsis or prolepsis occurs when the narrative makes an in- stantaneous jump to another point in time, deviating from the current moment of the story in order to inform the reader about something that happened before or after that moment. as such an analepsis or prolepsis tag should be opened at the point in the nar- rative where the narration jumps to another point in time, and closed when the story either returns to the moment left behind, or jumps again to another point in the story. the tags should not be used to merely annotate the regular, linear pro- gression of time forwards in a narrative, because in that case there is a more pro- portional relation between narrative time and story time. the elements should only be used where there is a clear deviation of narrative time from a particular moment in the story. example an example of how the analepsis tag can be used is in the following xml encoded segment of to the lighthouse by virginia woolf : she turned the page; there were only a few lines more, so that she would finish the story, though it was past bed-time. it was getting late. the light in the garden told her gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (cornell university press, ), - . virginia woolf, ”to the lighthouse,” project gutenberg australia, . edward kearns cultural analytics that; and the whitening of the flowers and something grey in the leaves conspired together, to rouse in her a feeling of anxiety. what it was about she could not think at first. then she remembered; paul and minta and andrew had not come back. she summoned before her again the little group on the terrace in front of the hall door, standing looking up into the sky. andrew had his net and basket. that meant he was going to catch crabs and things. that meant he would climb out on to a rock; he would be cut off. or coming back single file on one of those little paths above the cliff one of them might slip. he would roll and then crash. it was growing quite dark. here the narration moves from regular omniscient narration to stream of con- sciousness from the perspective of mrs. ramsay, with the instance of analepsis occurring within the stream of consciousness section. the analepsis tag is opened when mrs. ramsay remembers the image of paul, minta and andrew standing in the doorway earlier in the evening, and is closed when she moves on from the memory to speculation about what they might be doing, which is disconnected from narrative time because it is not a thing that we know is definitely happening, whereas the event in the analepsis tags definitely did. . (stream of consciousness) stream of consciousness is a technique used to provide ostensibly subjective nar- ration from the point of view of a character, rather than a detached omniscient ob- server. its purpose is “to unfold the experience of a single mind . . . to emphasize, not the ego as such, but the moving, shifting, growing stream of consciousness confined within the walls of a single brain.” the specific phrase is attributed to may sinclair, who coined it almost exactly one hundred years ago while writing about dorothy richardson’s novels in the egoist. sinclair says about pilgrimage that “in this series there is no drama, no situation, no set scene. nothing happens. it is just life going on and on. it is miriam henderson’s stream of consciousness going on and on.” shirley rose notes that william james had a hand in the phrase; in he does not quite put the words together in the order that sinclair later does: “consciousness . . . is nothing jointed; it flows. a ‘river’ or a ‘stream’ are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described. in talking of it here- edith rickert, “some straws in contemporary literature: fiction in england and america,” the english journal, vol. , no. ( ), - . jstor, doi: . / . may sinclair, “the novels of dorothy richardson,” the egoist, vol. , no. ( ), . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. after, let us call it the stream of thought, of consciousness, or of subjective life.” this helps to describe how the technique is used in fiction; it is the continuous reportage of thought, where one observation or memory flows into the next. it is meant to come directly from the character’s mind, without authorial interven- tion or translation into something more grammatical or contextually-informed; ironically it is one of the most contrived modes of narration used in fiction, such is its difference from the conventions of modern writing and grammar, and the effort the author must make to break from those conventions. the tag should be used to fully surround each passage where this technique is used, beginning at the moment where the narration changes from a more de- tached, descriptive narration to the intimate reporting of a character’s thoughts. we see this kind of transition often in pointed roofs by dorothy richardson, where the first sentence or two of a paragraph establishes a situation or setting in relatively objective terms, before the narration delves much deeper and provides miriam henderson’s subjective thoughts on the matter. and tags can be nested within tags. example in the following paragraph from pointed roofs, the opening sentence is an ob- jective statement about miriam’s reaction to something her sister harriett has just told her. similarly the second sentence, a description of miriam’s physical movement in the room, is objective and would be observable by anyone else. by contrast, the impressions that come in the succeeding sentences are known only to miriam, and, through her stream of consciousness, to the reader: miriam’s amazement silenced her. she stood back from the mirror. she could not look into it until harriett had gone. the phrases she had just heard rang in her head without mean- ing. but she knew she would remember all of them. she went on do- ing her hair with downcast eyes. she had seen harriett vividly, and had longed to crush her in her arms and kiss her little round cheeks and the snub of her nose. then she wanted her to be gone. pers this attribute is used to describe which character is currently providing the per- spective for the stream-of-consciousness narration. the use of this attribute is technically optional, but it is recommended when the narration in one novel is shirley rose, “the unmoving center: consciousness in dorothy richardson’s ‘pilgrimage,”’ contemporary literature, vol. , no. ( ), . jstor, doi: . / . dorothy richardson, ”pointed roofs,” in project gutenberg, . edward kearns cultural analytics taken over by different characters’ consciousnesses at different times, as in to the lighthouse, and it can of course still be used when the narrative perspective only comes from one character, as in pointed roofs. . (free indirect discourse) free indirect discourse is another technique which is used for “representing speech, thought, and perception.” . brian mchale introduces indirect discourse (id) as common narration where the narrator has a lot of control over what is being reported; they are, once again, detached and omniscient. free indirect discourse is different however; it “handles person and tense as id would . . . on the other hand, it treats deixis as dd [direct discourse] would, reflecting the character’s rather than the narrator’s position . . . manifestly, it is contextual cues more than formal features that determine, in many cases, whether or not a sentence will be interpreted as a free indirect representation of speech, thought or perception.” so, free indirect discourse shares features of more detached narration (including correct grammar), but it is coloured by the perceptions of a character, not to the radical extent of stream-of-consciousness, but in a more subtle way. as with , and tags can be nested inside tags. example the following paragraph from tender is the night by f. scott fitzgerald features objective, omniscient third-person description in its first two sentences, until the em dash, when we switch to narration that, while still grammatically correct, not breaking the sentence, and still describing externally visible features of the physi- cal world, is coloured by the assumptions and evaluations made by the character rosemary hoyt. rosemary swam back to the shore, where she threw her peignoir over her already sore shoulders and lay down again in the sun. the man with the jockey cap was now going from umbrella to umbrella carrying a bottle and little glasses in his hands; presently he and his friends grew livelier and closer together and now they were all under brian mchale, “speech representation,” in the living handbook of narratology, june , http://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/article/speech-representation. mchale, “speech representation,” . f. scott fitzgerald, ”tender is the night,” in project gutenberg australia, . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. a single assemblage of umbrellas–she gath- ered that some one was leaving and that this was a last drink on the beach. even the children knew that excitement was generating un- der that umbrella and turned toward it–and it seemed to rosemary that it all came from the man in the jockey cap. pers similarly to its use in , in the pers attribute is used to annotate which character is influencing the free-indirect-discourse narration. . this tag is used to annotate a change in narrative level, if the piece of fiction has stories within stories. the use of the degree attribute, while technically not necessary for the xml to be valid, must always be used in order for this element to have meaning. the degree attribute allows for any integer to be assigned to it, because in theory there can be as many stories within stories as the writer cares to create. in narratology the term degree is used to assign numbers to these levels of story, and it is an attribute of the element here. a first degree narrative level is “a narrative that is not embedded in any other narrative; a second-degree narrative is a narrative that is embedded in a first-degree narrative,” and so on. a tag with the attribute degree=“ ” should be opened when the top- level narrative first appears in a text, and then closed when the narration changes to a lower level. at this point a separate tag should be opened with de- gree=“ ”. if the narrative returns to the higher, framing level, the with degree=“ ” should be closed and a new with degree=“ ” should be opened. if instead a further story is created within the second-degree narrative, this will be a third-degree narrative, and should be encoded with a tag and degree=“ ” attribute. an example of several degrees of narrative level can be seen in frankenstein by mary shelley, where the novel begins with the narrative of the arctic explorer captain walton (the novel’s first-degree narrative), who meets dr frankenstein, who tells captain walton his story (so dr frankenstein’s narrative is the second- degree narrative), which includes a story told to dr frankenstein by the monster (the third-degree narrative). in theory the levels could keep going further down, allowing for fourth-degree narratives and more. and can be nested inside tags either on their own, manfred jahn, ”narrative levels,” in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, may . edward kearns cultural analytics or nested inside or tags which are in turn contained by the element. example in this excerpt from to the lighthouse, one can see how the level tags are used to encode a story within a story, as mrs. ramsay reads to her child. that is the second-degree narrative; we then return to the first degree narrative, the main story. when we do, we see a characteristic of woolf ’s prose: the switching of stream-of-consciousness perspective from one character to another in the same paragraph - in this case from mrs. ramsay to her husband - revealing what each character is thinking about the other. there is also a brief instance of analepsis as mrs. ramsay remembers something that her husband had said earlier. “the man’s heart grew heavy,” she read aloud, ”and he would not go. he said to himself, ‘it is not right,’ and yet he went. and when he came to the sea the water was quite purple and dark blue, and grey and thick, and no longer so green and yellow, but it was still quiet. and he stood there and said—” mrs. ramsay could have wished that her hus- band had not chosen that moment to stop. why had he not gone as he said to watch the children playing cricket? but he did not speak; he looked; he nodded; he approved; he went on. he slipped, seeing before him that hedge which had over and over again rounded some pause, signified some conclusion, seeing his wife and child, seeing again the urns with the trailing of red geraniums which had so often decorated processes of thought, and bore, written up among their leaves, as if they were scraps of pa- per on which one scribbles notes in the rush of reading–he slipped, seeing all this, smoothly into speculation suggested by an article in the times about the number of americans who visit shake- speare’s house every year . . . . . . . the tag is used when narrative time is extended relative to story time. for example this would occur if the reader is informed over several pages, cultural analytics annotation guideline no. which take minutes to read, about a character’s thoughts which fly through their mind in a matter of seconds. the tag should be closed when the narration returns to a more steady flow of time. . by contrast, should be used when narrative time moves much faster than story time, for example if a story leaves its normal flow of narration, where narrative time and story time are in closer proportion, and details the events that occur over the span of a number of years, before returning to its initial, regular narrative flow. . this tag and its attribute (type) describe the narrator, the person or entity telling the story, although it doesn’t describe them as an individual but instead their “rel- ative situations and functions” compared to other narrators on other levels. the terminology emanates from genette, who states that the narrator of a first- degree narrative is an extradiegetic narrator, the narrator of a second-degree nar- rative is an intradiegetic narrator (inside the diegetic story of the first narrator), and the narrator of a third-degree narrative is a metadiegetic narrator. the tag and attribute should be used only in a text where the narrator changes as the level changes, and the tag should be applied at the point in the text where this change occurs. while any string could be entered as the value for the attribute type, it is rec- ommended that the only options used are either type=“extra”, type=“intra” or type=“meta”, as appropriate for the narrator of a given section of fiction text. the narrator tag should not be used when there is only one narrative perspective, even when there are multiple narrative levels. the narrative perspective must also change. for example, it would be appropriate to use the narrator tag to an- notate heart of darkness by joseph conrad, for the first-level narrative is told by a crew member of the ship arriving in london, making him the extradiegetic gérard genette, narrative discourse, . gérard genette, narrative discourse, - . edward kearns cultural analytics narrator, outside the main story but providing the frame narrative. the second- level narrative, and the main part of the novel, is told by marlow, speaking to the first crew member, making marlow the intradiegetic narrator. this dynamic is also present in wuthering heights by emily brontë, where lockwood is the extradiegetic narrator, and nelly dean tells most of the novel to him, as the in- tradiegetic narrator, before we once again return to lockwood’s perspective for the final chapters. pale fire by vladimir nabokov may be quite a useful example, but only if one considers john shade’s poem as a kind of narrative level, making shade the intradiegetic narrator and charles kinbote the extradiegetic narrator, with his introduction and endnotes forming a higher narrative level than shade’s poem. indeed this annotation of the novel also only works if one considers shade and kinbote to be two different people, and that the whole story and shade are not fabrications of kinbote’s mind. the monster in frankenstein is an example of a metadiegetic narrator: a figure whose tale is relayed to the reader through not one but two other narrators. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. tilmann köppe . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: tillman köppe, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. november , . doi: . / . in this brief review, i will assess the theoretical soundness of the categories as explained in the “santa annotation guidelines” as well as the practical im- plementation of the theory through exemplary annotation choices. all in all, the explanations of the categories reflect what can be found in many introductory textbooks to narratology. this is what is to be expected, of course, since the annotation guidelines do not provide the space for an extended, and critical, discussion of the more recent state of research. i shall therefore confine myself to commenting on where i think that the clarity and/or consistency of the explanations can be improved, and on whether the examples provided are controversial. my comments concern ( ) analepsis and prolepsis, ( ) stream of consciousness, ( ) free indirect discourse, and ( ) level respectively. analepsis and prolepsis in the example passage from to the lighthouse, the following sentences are not treated as part of the analepsis: “that meant he was going to catch crabs and things. that meant he would climb out on to a rock; he would be cut off. or coming back single file on one of those little paths above the cliff one of them tilmann köppe cultural analytics might slip. he would roll and then crash. it was growing quite dark.” the reason given for not treating these sentences as part of the analepsis is that mrs. ram- says “speculation […] is not a thing that we know is definitely happening,” and therefore the sentences are taken to be “disconnected from narrative time.” now it is certainly true that we do not learn whether any of the things mrs. ram- say speculates about are actually happening in the story. but it seems to me that mrs. ramsay’s speculation about these things can be part of the analepsis. that is, she not merely ‘summons’ how the group looked when they left, but also what she thought at the moment when they left. in this case, the sentences quoted may be considered part of “narrative time” and hence part of the analepsis.—note that we do not have reason to doubt that mrs. ramsay speculates about these things. so treating the passage as part of the analepsis is consistent with the criterion explicitly given: the speculation is something that “we know is definitely happen- ing”. what we do not know, however, is the point in time when the speculation takes place; there are two possible interpretations both of which are consistent with the text. i’d therefore suggest using a clearer example, i.e. one that does not allow for two viable interpretations (only one of which is consistent with the pro- posed tagging of the example passage). stream of consciousness in the introductory paragraph the stream of consciousness is explained as fol- lows: it “is meant to come directly from the character’s mind, without authorial intervention or translation into something more grammatical or contextually- informed”. the example however, clearly shows several marks of “authorial in- tervention”. among these are the use of third person pronouns (“she”) and past tense. but miriam neither thinks about herself using the third person nor using past tense, presumably. moreover, in the passage that introduces the example, it is suggested that what is decisive about stream of consciousness is that what is said is neither “objective” nor “observable by anyone else”. these are criteria different from the ones introduced above (“without authorial intervention or translation into something more grammatical or contextually-informed”), and one wonders which of those is actually decisive or, in any case, how these different criteria re- late to each other. it seems to me that the passage quoted from pointed roofs is indeed such that it is about something that is not observable by anyone but the character herself; but it does show several marks of authorial intervention. ac- tually, this passage is an instance of free indirect discourse rather than stream of consciousness. cultural analytics annotating narrative levels free indirect discourse stream of consciousness is distinguished from free indirect discourse by claiming that the latter “is coloured by the perceptions of a character, not to the radical extent of stream-of-consciousness, but in a more subtle way”. it will be hard to judge whether the subjective “colouring” of a passage is “subtle” enough in order to distinguish it from stream of consciousness. the criterion could work only if one were able to compare two passages, such that one could be able to judge the relative ‘subjectivity’ of them. in standard cases, however, we do not have two passages for comparison. moreover, the passage from tender is the night is introduced as containing “evaluations”, but i can’t find any in there. level the passage quoted from to the lighthouse contains the phrase “that hedge which had over and over again rounded some pause, signified some conclusion, seeing his wife and child, seeing again the urns with the trailing of red geraniums which had so often decorated processes of thought, and bore, written up among their leaves, as if they were scraps of paper on which one scribbles notes in the rush of reading”. given that “seeing” is a factive verb (in the sense that ‘seeing that p’ implies the truth of p), this strikes me as an analepsis too. one final note: i think that it might be useful to distinguish clearly between the definition of a narratological term (such as stream of consciousness) on the one hand and the criteria which help us to decide whether the phenomenon in ques- tion is instantiated in a given narrative. the definition of a term captures the nature of the phenomenon or, to put it differently, its constitutive features. cri- teria for the application of a term, in contrast, are mere guides to its application. accordingly, if a constitutive feature of some narrative phenomenon is missing from some passage, we know that the passage does not feature that phenomenon. but if some criterion for the application of a term is not satisfied, that does not mean that the term cannot apply. (criteria, in other words, need not have the status of necessary conditions.) to give but one example, the grammatical cor- rectness of a passage may be a criterion for stream of consciousness such that the grammatical correctness of a passage counts against its being in this narrative mode. (in other words, it may be unlikely that a passage is both grammatically correct and in the stream of consciousness mode.) but the grammatical incor- rectness is not a constitutive feature of stream of consciousness. it is certainly tilmann köppe cultural analytics possible that a grammatically correct passage features this very narrative mode. annotation guideline no. : annotating narrative levels in literature nora ketschik, benjamin krautter, sandra murr, yvonne zimmermann . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: nora ketschik, benjamin krautter, sandra murr, yvonne zimmermann, “an- notation guideline no. : annotating narrative levels in literature,” journal of cultural analytics. december , . doi: . / . introduction our participation in the shared task on the analysis of narrative levels through annotation was motivated by a theoretical and practical interest in narratologi- cal phenomena of literary texts. we are a group of four literary scholars, three of whom are also working in the field of digital humanities. combining these two scientific perspectives seems to be a fruitful research approach to formalize con- cepts of narratology with a focus on intersubjectivity. therefore, a shared task dealing with narrative levels was particularly appealing to us, since narrative lev- els are both a delimited aspect of narratological categories and a complex concept of literary theory that can be of great importance for a formal text analysis and the following interpretation. when thinking about narrative levels in more detail, we noticed the necessity to first address the question of what a narrative is. narratological concepts such as the distinction of exegesis and diegesis, the position of the narrator or the act of telling a story have been the starting point of our reflections. in a first step, our guidelines clarify the concepts that are fundamental to understand narrative levels. since different narratological theories and traditions focus on different aspects and details of narrativity, it is important—from our point of view—to nora ketschik et al. cultural analytics explain the underlying theory and the ensuing concepts of the guidelines. there- fore, it was essential for us to define the characteristics and the exact scope of nar- rative levels according to our understanding. in addition, we sought to illustrate our definition with several examples in order to help annotate them adequately. automation, up until now, has not been a part of our considerations. after having analyzed and annotated several literary texts and having discussed the phenomenon at the santa workshop in hamburg ( ), more specific and detailed questions regarding our guidelines arose. on the one hand, becoming more familiar with different narratological theories, scientific disciplines and ap- proaches to annotation, we recognized that it would be beneficial for the appli- cability and the usefulness of our guidelines to rework some of their aspects, as they were written with a very specific theoretical background in mind. on the other hand, while annotating with our guidelines, we detected some elements that should be refined or clarified. however, most of these aspects remain open for discussion, and we will continue to think about them in more detail. during the workshop, our guidelines were perceived as very dense and theory- laden. thus, we seek to better connect our theoretical premises with the actual annotation guidelines in a revised version. furthermore, we aim to provide more examples for standard cases, while also trying to explain the reasoning behind the annotation in those examples in a more detailed way. we noticed that some nar- ratological terms have been utilized in different understandings by the research teams (e.g., the terms ‘narrator’ and ‘speaker’). therefore, we will aim for a better defined terminology in a revised version of our guidelines. going into greater detail, there is at least one problematic aspect in our anno- tation tagset: the letter e (short for ‘exegesis’) that we used for annotating non- narrative passages should be replaced by the letter n, since non-narrative pas- sages do not necessarily have to be linked to the exegesis. since the organizers’ explanation of the shared task focused on narrative levels, we have limited ourselves to defining and annotating these, although there are features such as the narrator, the position of the narrator, or speakers (who can become narrators in embedded narratives), which not only might help the an- notators in using our guidelines, but also could be utilized as indicators in an automatic annotation process. in a revised version of our guidelines, we will think about adding other narratological categories to our tagset, as long as they help identify narrative levels. those features might also be beneficial for subse- quent corpus analyses of literary texts. but before we approach such questions, we still have to solve sophisticated and challenging theoretical issues that require a more detailed analysis and understanding of the phenomenon. for the future, cultural analytics annotation guideline no. we will at least try to examine the following questions: how should we deal with different forms of imagination (as they appear, e.g., in anton chekhovs “the lot- tery ticket”)? what about dreams or visions? is it sufficient to characterize the narrator, or should we think about the narratee as well? which specific criteria do we need in order to distinguish between analepses (flashbacks) and embed- ded narrative levels? does it make a difference in this context, if an analepsis is completed or not, external or internal? if there is no change of narrator, how comprehensive must our criteria be for regarding presence of another set of char- acters, spatial distance and temporal distance to the subordinate narrative level? is our assumption of at least two applying indicators too arbitrary? these and other questions will form the basis for further theoretical discussions and will be integrated in our revised guidelines. submitted guidelines for the annotation of narrative levels i. theoretical introduction narrative theory—or narratology—has been one of the central concerns of inter- national literary studies since the early nineteen-sixties. narratology deals “with the general theory and practice of narrative,” especially with different types of narrators and structural elements such as narrative levels. a fundamental inter- est of narratologists lies in the organization and structure of the literary plot. to describe both, the sequence of events in time and their implementation into an or- ganized plot, gérard genette develops a systematic terminology that utilizes the terms discours and histoire in order to differentiate between what is narrated and how it is narrated. while histoire subsumes the “totality of the narrated events”, the “discours du récit” is the actual realization of the histoire in the narration, be it oral or written. for the distinction of narrative levels, genette proposes a classification of the narrator in extradiegetic, intradiegetic and metadiegetic. the extradiegetic narra- tor produces a “first narrative with its diegesis.” s/he is potentially followed by an intradiegetic narrator, a character that appears in the first narrative, who goes on to produce a second narrative, and so on. in principle, we follow genette’s idea that a new narrative level needs a sufficiently matías martínez and michael scheffel, einführung in die erzähltheorie (münchen, ), . m. h. abrams, “narrative and narratology,” in a glossary of literary terms (orlando, ), . gérard genette, narrative discourse revisited (ithaca, [ ]), - . genette, narrative discourse revisited, . genette, narrative discourse revisited, . nora ketschik et al. cultural analytics marked ”threshold between one diegesis and another.” however, genette ties a new narrative level to a new narrator. we would like to expand on this concept as, according to our understanding, literature has produced examples that show clear signs of being new narrative levels without exchanging the narrator. still, new narrative levels need to have clearly distinguishable diegeses. thus, the crossing of illocutionary boundaries alone, i.e. speech acts that introduce a new speaker, do not necessarily lead to the creation of a new narrative level. the extraction of direct speech is a separate annotating task that we will not apply within our annotation guidelines for narrative levels. in order to understand and interpret a narrative text, we assume that it is neces- sary to analyze the structure and the form of the text to gain insight into the inter- relation between form and content (e.g., emil staiger’s “gehalt-gestalt-gefüge”). herein, narrative levels have a great relevance, as there is an important depen- dency regarding different narrators and different narrative levels within a given literary text. possible research questions based on distinguishing narrative lev- els can focus on structural elements of a text, e.g., an overview of the different narrators and the stories they tell, the relationship between frame and embedded stories, or the importance of a narrative level according to its length. however, research questions can also address the content of narrative levels. since narra- tive levels can be functionally related to each other, e.g., an embedded story that serves as an explanation for the frame story, it is important to interpret charac- ters or the narrator’s distribution of information with such interdependencies in mind. furthermore, a more systematic analysis of crossovers reaching from one narrative level to another seems to be a productive goal that requires the recog- nition of narrative levels as fundamental. ii. terminology & concepts in order to get a basic grasp on the terminology that is used in our annotation guidelines (iv), we strive to explain some fundamental technical terms in a con- cise way. this should help to achieve a clearer understanding of our guidelines and the underlying literary concepts: . narrative levels: the terminology used to describe narrative levels is diverse and varies widely. our basic approach is to define any new story that occurs within a given nar- rative text as a new narrative level (see iii. for a more detailed explanation). genette, narrative discourse revisited, . silke lahn and jan christoph meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse (stuttgart, ), . marie-laure ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence and narrative theory (bloomington, indianapolis, ), - . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. narrative levels can be interlaced. within the frame story (superordinate level), several embedded stories with a different degree can occur. as an embedded story can become the frame story for another embedded story, we use the terms first-, second-, third-, … degree narrative as an alternative terminology in order to avoid ambiguities. narrative levels can also be arranged sequentially. e.g., several embedded stories that belong to the same frame story are arranged next to each other. . homodiegetic and heterodiegetic narrator: with regard to the distinction of different narrators and, consequently, the change of a narrator in a single text, it is useful to determine her/his position in relation to the story s/he tells. in principle, it must be determined whether the narrator is part of the diegetic world or not. a homodiegetic narrator is a character in the story s/he tells. in contrast, a heterodiegetic narrator is not part of the story s/he tells. . exegesis and diegesis: “[d]iegesis designates the level of the narrated world, and exegesis the level of the narrating.” consequently, a homodiegetic narrator (of a first-degree narrative) belongs to both levels: in her/his function as narrator, s/he belongs to the exege- sis, but since s/he tells a story with herself/himself being a character in it, s/he is also part of the diegesis. a heterodiegetic narrator, however, belongs only to the exegesis; the narrated world which s/he is not part of is the diegesis. . narrating and experiencing “i”/self, experiencing space: a homodiegetic narrator’s “i”/self is split into a narrating and an experiencing “i”/self. while the narrating “i”/self is located in the exegesis or on the superor- dinate level of the current narrative level, the experiencing “i”/self is located on the current narrative level as one character among others. as a heterodiegetic narrator is not part of the story s/he tells, there is no experiencing “i”/self in the story. therefore, we opt for the term “experiencing space” as an alternative. the experiencing space subsumes features of the narrative level regarding its time, manfred jahn, narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative (universität köln, ). http: //www.uni-koeln.de/% eame /pppn.htm ( / / ). gérard genette, narrative discourse. an essay in method, trans. jane e. lewin oxford, [ ]), - . didier coste and john pier, “narrative levels,” in the living handbook of narratology. ( a [ ]). http://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/article/narrative-levels-revised-version-uploaded- -april- ( / / ). genette, narrative discourse revisited, . lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, ; monika fludernik, an introduction to narratology (abingdon, ), . nora ketschik et al. cultural analytics space and characters. the distinction between narrating “i”/self and experienc- ing “i”/self or experiencing space can help to identify narrative levels (see iii. ). . projected teller role: a projected teller role, i.e. “an agent whose sole involvement with the text is its material dissemination,” always demands an additional narrative level (even if this level consists of only one sentence). the most prominent example for a projected teller role is the editor figure. iii. premises . we identify all narrative levels in a given narrative text. our basic assump- tion is that each text has at least one narrative level. . a new story within a text calls for a new narrative level. . a change of the narrator results in a change of the narrative level. however, a change of the narrative level does not necessarily have to be accompanied by a change of the narrator (cf. max frisch’s “i’m not stiller”: homodiegetic narrator, who tells a fairy tale within her/his own narration). attention: in our understanding, not every character speech is automatically a story. for this to be true, the criteria according to iii. have to be met. . what is needed for a change of narrative levels: a. in a story that is narrated by a heterodiegetic narrator there is a clear distinction between the position of the narrator and the experiencing space of the characters. b. in a story that is narrated by a homodiegetic narrator there is a clear distinction between the narrating “i”/self and the experiencing “i”/self. c. in a new story that changes its narrator (e.g., a character telling an em- bedded story), there is a new narrating “i”/self. in a new story that does not change its narrator (e.g., a homodiegetic narrator telling an embed- ded story), the narrative “i”/self remains the same. thus, for a change of narrative levels, there must be another experiencing “i”/self (experiencing space) perceptible. marie-laure ryan, “the narratorial functions,” breaking down a theoretical primitive, con- temporary narratology . , ( ): . genette’s term histoire is oftentimes translated as story. our concept of story, however, does not coincide with genette’s histoire. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. d. two of the following indicators, which point to a new experiencing space, must apply, if a new story—and thus a new narrative level—is cre- ated by the same narrator: • – the presence of another set of characters, – a spatial distance to the first/current narrative level, – a temporal distance to the first/current narrative level. how- ever, it is also possible that a character narrates a storyline that takes place simultaneously. for this to be a new narrative level, the other two indicators (set of characters, spatial distance) have to apply attention: in certain cases, the distance between the experiencing and the narrating “i”/self is seemingly removed. . embedded stories can be functionally related to their superordinate nar- rative level, their frame stories. possible functions are: a. explicative: the embedded story provides an explanation for elements of the frame story. b. actional: the embedded story is constitutive for the frame story. c. thematic: the embedded story is thematically related (analogies, corre- spondence, contrast, relationships) to the frame story. . narrative levels can be interlaced (inclusion scheme) or arranged next to each other (sequential), see fig. . analepses (flashbacks), which create only temporal distance to the current story, and mental games (“what if ”-scenarios) are not considered new narrative levels. cf. stream of consciousness in arthur schnitzler: “leutnant gustl”, lahn and meister, ein- führung in die erzähltextanalyse, . lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, - . nora ketschik et al. cultural analytics figure . interlaced and sequential arrangement of narrative levels within a liter- ary text. . the location of the narrator (exegesis) in a first-degree narrative is not an inde- pendent narrative level. aphorisms, mottos, comments, judgments, forms of ad- dress (fictitious recipient) and thoughts expressed by the narrator do not form a new narrative level. they are part of the instantaneous narrative level. this is also true for expressions of narrators in a second-, third-, … degree narrative, as long as they do not address an element of the superordinate level. regardless, it is still possible to annotate such expressions (for further details see iv. ). iv. annotation guidelines before beginning the annotation process, the annotator has to read the entire text once. following that, all narrative levels in the text are searched for as defined in the premises (iii. - ). they are annotated according to the following points: . all narrative levels are annotated with square brackets (opening bracket at the start and closing bracket at the end of a narrative level). wolf schmid, elemente der narratologie (berlin, boston, ), . the annotation may be done in another way, too (e.g., with different colors marking the belonging to a certain narrative level), depending on the annotation tool that is used. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . the narrative levels are annotated with numbers ( , , etc.) as a first and letters (a, b, c etc.) as a second differentiator. a. the numbers indicate the degree of the narrative level (inclusion scheme). e.g., level refers to a narrative level that is embedded into a superordinate level. level is a second-degree narrative or, in other words, an embedded story. max frisch’s novel “stiller” is one example: an embedded story (the fairytale of rip van winkle), is narrated by one of the novel’s characters and enclosed into the first-degree narrative or frame story (level ). b. stories that are on the same narrative level (sequential arrangement) are identified by letters (a, b, c). boccaccio’s “il decamerone” is an example of sequentially arranged stories, which contain several separate novellas on the same narrative level (series of embedded stories); see fig. (the arrangement of the individual novellas that are embedded in the frame story would correspond to the numbering a, b, c etc.) . how to use the square brackets to separate the different narrative levels: a. the brackets are marked with the number and, if applicable, a letter on both, the opening and closing brackets. e.g., [ … ] b. inclusion scheme: the superordinate narrative level (e.g., first-degree narrative) starts before the embedded level (e.g., second-degree narrative). the brackets of the superordinate level close after the brackets of the em- bedded level: [ … [ … ] … ] . c. sequential arrangement: the square bracket of the first sequentially or- dered narrative level (e.g., a) closes before opening the square bracket of the second sequentially ordered narrative level (e.g., b): [ … [ a … ] a … [ b … ] b … ] . d. punctuation is not separated from the preceding word. ( ) [ … [ “on a march in the rhine campaign”, ] began the officer, [ “i noticed, after a battle we had had with the enemy …” ] ] (heinrich von kleist: “improbable veracities”) note: each text usually has at least one narrative level and a corresponding number [ ]. letters are only used to denote a sequential arrangement and therefore not always utilized. jahn . nora ketschik et al. cultural analytics . as a rule, a narrative text starts with the first narrative level (level ) and may have other narrative levels embedded (level and so on). an exception to this rule are narrative texts with a projected teller role that requires its own narrative level. in this case, the projected teller role is annotated as a frame story (level ), although this special case might only become visible at the end of the narrative text. ( ) [ the editor believes the thing to be a just history of fact; neither is there any appearance of fiction in it: and however thinks, because all such things are dispatch’d, that the improvement of it, as well as the diversion, as to the instruction of the reader, will be the same; and as such he thinks, without farther compliment to the world, he does them a great service in the publication. the life and adventures of robinson crusoe [ i was born in the year , in the city of york, of a good family, tho’ not of that country, my father being a foreigner of bremen, who settled first at hull. … ] ] (daniel defoe: “robinson crusoe”). ( )december . [ [ how her image haunts me! waking or asleep, she fills my entire soul! soon as i close my eyes, here, in my brain, where all the nerves of vision are concentrated, her dark eyes are imprinted … ] the editor to the reader. it is a matter of extreme regret that we want original evidence of the last remarkable days of our friend; and we are, therefore, obliged to interrupt the progress of his correspondence, and to supply the deficiency by a connected narration … ] (johann wolfgang von goethe: “the sorrows of young werther”) . paratexts such as book titles, chapter headings and genre indications must not be annotated. if the narrative level remains the same, the square bracket of the narrative level is closed before a chapter heading and re- opened afterwards with the same label. gérard genette, paratexts. thresholds of interpretation (cambridge, ). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. ( ) [ by reason of these things, then, the whaling voyage was welcome; the great flood-gates of the wonder-world swung open, and in the wild conceits that swayed me to my purpose, two and two there floated into my inmost soul, endless processions of the whale, and, mid most of them all, one grand hooded phantom, like a snow hill in the air. ] chapter . the carpet-bag. [ i stuffed a shirt or two into my old carpet-bag, tucked it under my arm, and started for cape horn and the pacific. quitting the good city of old man- hatto, i duly arrived in new bedford. it was a saturday night in december. much was i disappointed upon learning that the little packet for nantucket had already sailed, and that no way of reaching that place would offer, till the following monday. ] (herman melville: “moby dick”). . headings that belong semantically and syntactically to a narrative level are exceptions to this rule. those are assigned to the particular narrative level (normally to the superordinate level). ( ) [ … [e after this, hear the true and graceful story of lau, the beautiful water nymph. [ in swabia, on the alb, near the little town of blaubeuren, close behind the old monastery, you can see beside a sheer rock face the big round basin of a wondrous spring called the blue pool … ] ] (eduard mörike: “das stuttgarter hutzelmännlein”, trans. by the authors). . narrative levels can be interrupted and thwarted by other narrative levels. e.g., in a second-degree narrative, inserts from the first-degree narrative might occur. in this case, level will be closed at the beginning of the insert and reopened after the insert with the same numbering. ( )[ the country gentleman was of the opinion that he knew how to choose well those stories that would verify his proposition.[ c “the third story,” ] c the officer continued, [ c ”took place in the war of independence of the netherlands, at the siege of antwerp by the duke of parma. the duke had blocked the schelde river by means of a bridge of ships and the antwerpers were working on their side, under the leadership of a talented italian, to explode the bridge by means of fire boats that they launched against it. in that moment, ] c gentlemen, [ c in which the vessels float down the schelde nora ketschik et al. cultural analytics to the bridge, there stands, observe well, a cadet officer on the left bank of the schelde right next to the duke of parma …” ] c go to the devil! shouted the country gentleman … ] (heinrich von kleist: “improbable veracities”) . in rare cases, a text does not allow for the annotation of narrative levels. this will be the case, for example, if the narrative levels cannot be separated logically, a phenomenon that is called metalepsis. in italo calvino’s “if on a winter’s night a traveler”, the world of the reader/narrator (exegesis) is so closely interwoven with the story (diegesis) that narrative levels can no longer be clearly distinguished from each other. in such cases, we do not annotate any narrative levels. ( ) i am the man who comes and goes between the bar and the telephone booth. or, rather: that man is called “i” and you know nothing else about him, just as this station is called only “station” and beyond it there exists nothing except the unanswered signal of a telephone ringing in a dark room of a distant city. i hang up the receiver, i await the rattling flush, down through the metallic throat, i push the glass door again, head toward the cups piled up to dry in a cloud of steam. the espresso machines in station cafés boast their kinship with the locomotives, the espresso machines of yesterday and today with the locomotives and steam engines of today and yesterday. it’s all very well for me to come and go, shift and turn: i am caught in a trap, in that nontemporal trap which all stations unfailingly set. a cloud of coal dust still hovers in the air of stations all these years after the lines have been totally electrified, and a novel that talks about trains and stations cannot help conveying this odor of smoke. for a couple of pages now you have been reading on, and this would be the time to tell you clearly whether this station where i have got off is a station of the past or a station of today; instead the sentences continue to move in vagueness, grayness, in a kind of no man’s land of experience reduced to the lowest common denominator. watch out: it is surely a method of involving you gradually, capturing you in the story before you realize it’s a trap.(italo calvino: “if on a winter’s night a traveler”). . sometimes, a narrator interrupts the story in order to comment on the story, such as to address the recipient (see iii. ). aphorisms, mottos, john pier, “metalepsis,” in the living handbook of narratology ( b [ ]). http://www.lhn. uni-hamburg.de/article/metalepsis-revised-version-uploaded- -july- ( / / ). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. comments, judgments, forms of address and thoughts expressed by the narrator are annotated as parts of the current narrative level and are not regarded as an independent narrative level. since it may be beneficial for some cases (e.g., comparing judgments of the narrator to the plot), we nev- ertheless annotate those expressions as “non-narrative”: to annotate non-narrative parts, we use square brackets followed by the letter e. this indicates that they do not form a narrative level. opening brackets are used to signal the beginning and closing brackets to signal the end of the expression. ( ) [ in the days when everybody started fair, [e best beloved ]e, the leop- ard lived in a place called the high veldt. [e ‘member ]e it wasn’t the low veldt, or the bush veldt, or the sour veldt, but …’ ] (rudyard kipling: “how the leopard got his spots”). ( ) [ … [ the old woman often went out in the morning, and did not return till evening, when i used to go out with the little dog to meet her … [e often and often as i must have repeated it, do what i will, i cannot call back again the singular name of the little dog. ]e … ] ] (ludwig tieck: “the white egbert”). ( )[ that puzzled the leopard and the ethiopian, but they set off to look for the aboriginal flora, and presently, after ever so many days, they saw a great, high, tall forest full of tree trunks all ’sclusively speckled and sprottled and spottled, dotted and splashed and slashed and hatched and cross-hatched with shadows. [e (say that quickly aloud, and you will see how very shadowy the forest must have been.) ]e … ] (rudyard kipling: “how the leopard got his spots”). unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a cre- ative commons attribution . international license. schmid, elemente der narratologie, . annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. j. berenike herrmann . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: j. berenike herrmann, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. december , . doi: . / . reviewer’s note in the following i briefly detail my comments on the submitted guidelines for the annotation of narrative levels in the “santa annotation guidelines”. the submission documents a comprehensive and thorough approach to annotat- ing narrative levels, going for a theory-driven perspective. the guidelines them- selves are well thought through. however, they should be more transparent with regard to theoretical premises and terminology, as well as more practically appli- cable through ( ) more examples and ( ) possibly an integration of the sections “premises” and “annotation guidelines.” the link to computational application should receive more explicit attention. formal remarks: it is advisable, where possible, to use “international references” (published in/translated to english). also, to use a gender-neutral language (e.g., establishing coreference to “narrator” not just by “he”). the text should be slightly revised for style and english idiomaticity. i would like to encourage the authors to be less tentative in their formulations. the shared task is not the place for discursively exploring complexity but for solving problems through straightforward guidelines - taking a positively reductive approach. [i have provided more detailed remarks in the submitted guidelines for the au- thors’ convenience]. j. berenike herrmann cultural analytics theoretical introduction within the context of the interdisciplinary scope of the shared task, the conceptu- alization should strike a better balance between brevity and a broader, but clearly delineated scope. therefore, within the limits of an annotation manual, the au- thors should briefly situate and elucidate the particular concepts within the larger field (thus not limited to genette only; and within an international frame). the terminology should be more precise, and more transparent trough examples. through this, the reader will get a first working knowledge and the particular approach taken will be motivated (“narrative”, “narrator”, and “narrative level”). terminology & concepts the authors should flag out more precisely which theory they refer to (not tacitly assuming expert knowledge of reader). so far, formulations such as “we use the terms first-, second-, third-, … degree narrative as an alternative terminology” leave open which specific theoretical frame is referred to. experiencing space the authors propose the useful term “experiencing space”. however, its defini- tion “subsumes features of the narrative level with regard to its time, its space and its characters” (p. ) is relatively vague. it should be further specified and ac- companied by annotation criteria and one or more examples. subsequently, in the part “premises” (p. : a-d) “experiencing space” appears as a good heuristic concept for annotation. it should be systematically applied in the procedure, but so far is not mentioned in b. premises the authors should define more precisely their “search” (“we search for all nar- rative levels in a given narrative text.” p. ). by close reading on a word-by-word basis? by more loosely skimming the text? are annotators allowed to use exter- nal references in this search, and if so, which (e.g., lexica—or wikipedia etc.)? the operational definition of story is “a self-contained action whose events and happenings are causally linked and cause a change of state.” (p. ) is a “story” really reducible to an “action” in your definition? what is the difference between “events” and “happenings”? as for “change of state” whose state does this refer to? the authors don’t mention actors, objects, etc. the definition of story/level is given in d (p. ). i suggest to provide it ear- lier, possibly together with that of the concept “experiencing space”. this would cultural analytics review of guideline no. solve the problem the reader confronts in c: without d, b leaves open how the authors distinguish narrating self and experiencing self practically. also, c remains unclear as to whether “a new story” (new narrator/same narrator) is iden- tical with “a new narrative level” - and thus whether a change of narrative levels needs a new narrator.) where addressing “embedding,” the authors may want to define the particular (spatial) model of levels—do they use genette, “working up,” or others that work “down”? (the authors say ”embedded stories can be functionally related to their superordinate narrative level, their frame stories. possible functions are )” (p. ). generally, the model should be maximally precise - are “interlaced” ( p. ) and “sequential” two types of “embedding”? guidelines for annotation of “non-narrative parts”, the tag e for “exegesis” may sometimes not be adequate (as the authors have pointed out themselves). non-narrative passages do not necessarily have to be linked to the exegesis. the “teller level” may be named “level ”, for conceptual, but also for practical reasons. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. cf. silke lahn and jan christoph meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse (stuttgart und weimar: j. b. metzler, ), - . annotation guideline no. : annotation guidelines for narrative levels and narrative acts florian barth . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: florian barth, “annotation guideline no. : annotation guidelines for nar- rative levels and narrative acts,” journal of cultural analytics. december , . doi: . / . rationale the annotation guidelines for narrative levels and narrative acts have been devel- oped in conjunction with my master thesis, the goal of which is to distinguish plot relevant settings from rather mentioned spaces in literary texts. for this, the determination of narrative levels is a requirement to precisely classify settings. nevertheless, the guidelines itself were developed independently from the spa- tial classification task. since the notion of narrative levels encompasses both, level and narrative, the guidelines aim at a clear separation of these concepts. therefore, they are desig- nated as narrative level and narrative act, and both terms also serve as annotation tags. the narrative level gives the vertical dimension of the tagset and can hold a limitless amount of narrative acts on a horizontal axis, even on the first level. while narratological theory of levels broadly reflects on framing or embedding techniques and their specific function, these guidelines only focus on the deter- mination of the vertical level structure of narrative acts or their horizontal suc- cession. for this, the guidelines reflect on ) nested narrators, as described by genette, ) possible types of level borders including ryan’s cross-classification of florian barth cultural analytics illocutionary and ontological boundaries, or ) techniques that cause a change of a narrative act without level switch, as peer and coste describe it for digression. to specify textual characteristics in conjunction with the latter, each tag can be appended with property values that address, for example, the identity of the nar- rator, it’s presence in the diegesis or the relation and boundary to the upper level. furthermore, the properties capture specific textual surfaces like letters or quota- tions of other literary works as well as metanarration and metafiction, which all indicate insertions of separate narrative acts on the same or a subordinate level. at last, properties give the annotator an opportunity to highlight metalepsis if there is a transgression between two or more narrative levels. overall, the guidelines are an attempt to deliver a simplistic and an easy to use set of tags with a clear hierarchical structure based on the distinction of narrative levels and narrative acts. in addition, property values include a more comprehen- sive perspective on the narratological background and also force the annotator to reflect on his annotation decision. . tagset conception narrative levels, as proposed by genette, aim to describe the relations between an embedded narrative and the diegesis, and indicate a clear hierarchical structure between these diegetic levels. genette explicitly states his intention to systemize the existing notion of embeddings, which, according to him, lacks “the thresh- old between one diegesis and another” as well as the possibility to hierarchical structure a “second diegesis […] within the first diegesis”. in these guidelines, the often co-occurring notion of embeddings and framed nar- ratives is grouped under the term narrative act. since narrative acts can not al- ways be considered in conjunction with vertical levels (e.g. william nelles points out the possibility of horizontal embeddings), we clearly separate narrative lev- els and narrative acts. gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (cornell university press, ), - ; john pier and didier coste, “narrative levels (revised version),” the living handbook of narra- tology. hamburg: hamburg university press. . gérard genette, narrative discourse revisited, translated by jane e. lewin, , . conjunctions and delimitations between embeddings and frames are addressed in section . . william nelles, frameworks: narrative levels and embedded narrative, vol. (peter lang pub incorporated, ), . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . tag: narrative levels typically, narrative levels arise “when a character in a story begins to tell a story of his or her own”, which creates a narrative act within a narrative act. the change of a speaker is the most basic characteristic of levels and obligatory in genette’s terminology, where for each narrative act on a certain level a different speaker occurs (figure ). figure . narrative levels in conjunction with speech acts as proposed by genette marie-laure ryan describes the switch of speakers as an illocutionary boundary, which can be crossed actually, when a new voice like a character reports a story on the second level within a direct speech act. additionally, utterances of charac- ters presented by the narrator as in indirect discourse (indirect speech, character manfred jahn, “narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative,” english department, university of cologne ( ). jahn, “narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative”; silke lahn and jan christoph meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse (stuttgart und weimar: j. b. metzler, ), ; in genette’s ter- minology, the narrating instance of a first level (speaker a in figure ) is “extradiegetic by definition” (genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method, ), therefore his story on level is intradiegetic. an intradiegetic speaker (b) then tells a metadiegetic story (level ), a metadiegetic speaker (c) a metametadiegetic narration (level ) and so forth. within the annotation, we only assign the level by a number, and for the speaker, we set a unique id (cf. section . “speaker: identity”). marie-laure ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory (indiana university press, ), . florian barth cultural analytics thoughts) are considered as a virtually crossed illocutionary boundary. further- more, ryan highlights that levels not only arise through the switch of speakers but also if a “new system of reality is introduced” like in alice in wonderland, where “the primary reality of an everyday world” switches to “the dream world of wonderland […] in a continuous speech act.” this is defined as the crossing of an ontological boundary. while alice in wonderland marks an actually crossed ontological boundary (the fictional characters indeed enter another form of real- ity), virtual crossing occurs in this case when the second reality “is anchored” in the primary one, e.g. if the plot of a movie is described from the perspective of the primary reality. an ontological border is also crossed virtually, when the first level narrator cites an existing fictional narrative, like the quote of rip van winkle in max frisch’s stiller. both, illocutionary and ontological boundaries, can occur combined, which leads to six possible boundaries (cf. figure ) that are considered as a requirement for a new narrative level in these guidelines. figure . boundaries between narrative levels following ryan ryan also indicates that each utterance of a new voice may create “its own seman- ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory, . ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory, . ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory, . ryan determines an actual crossed illocutionary and ontological boundary ( a in figure ) as “a fiction within a fiction” told by different speakers, e.g. the stories of the intradiegetic narrator scheherazade in the arabian nights (ibid.). instead, virtual crossing for both boundaries ( b) would refer to a description of a metafictional story from the perspective of the first level speaker but includ- ing the mention of a second level speaker (ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory, .). this rare constellation occurs in theme of the traitor and the hero by jorge luis borges, where the primary narrator tells his plan to write a story, whose narrator will be “ryan”, but the first level narrator “never speaks as ryan himself ” (ibid.). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. tic universe”, which potentially deviates from the primary reality of the narrative and therefore may establish a new narrative level. even though the theoretical assumption of a level switch through each crossing of an illocutionary boundary seems considerable, these guidelines only focus on levels, in which indeed a new narrative act is realized. . tag: narrative acts as proposed above, narrative acts cover both, embedded and framed narratives. framing is more a “presentational technique”, where the rather short frame nar- ration encloses a more ample inner tale like a painting. an example is joseph conrad’s novel heart of darkness, in which an extradiegetic narrator only intro- duces the character of marlow that tells the story of his voyage up the congo river on a second level (figure ). in contrast, embeddings can be thought of as smaller insertings “within a larger unit,” e.g. in kleist’s short story improbable veracities an officer tells three stories that appear as independent narrative acts on the second level (figure ). practically, the border between the dominance of an inner tale and a frame narrative is fluent, and these guidelines do not aim to identify framing or embedding techniques, their specific function, or a certain “main narrative” within several stacked narrative acts. figure . framing in joseph conrad’s heart of darkness ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory, - . if only the boundaries for potential narrative levels are of interest, this may lead to tasks like the detection of direct and indirect speech acts that has been done separately, cf. annelen brunner, “automatic recognition of speech, thought, and writing representation in german narrative texts,” literary and linguistic computing , no. ( ): - . inner tale refers to the term binnenerzählung in german literary discourse (lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, ); pier and coste, “narrative levels (revised version)”. lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, . cf. shlomith rimmon-kenan, narrative fiction: contemporary poetics (taylor & francis e- library, ), ; lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, - . evelyn gius, erzählen über konflikte: ein beitrag zur digitalen narratologie, vol. (walter de gruyter gmbh & co kg, ), . florian barth cultural analytics figure . multiple embeddings of independent narrative acts in kleist’s improb- able veracities as opposed to the “vertical” arrangement of narrative acts within levels, nelles describes “horizontal” embedded narrative acts, which appear at the same level. this happens, when texts by different narrators are presented next to each other without an upper frame narrator. for example, in j. m. r. lenz epistolary novel der waldbruder several letters by alternating characters are presented on the same diegetic level (figure ). figure . first five letters of the epistolary novel der waldbruder moreover, pier and coste describe digression as a form of embedding without the switch of levels. this includes excursus, e.g. if the narrator directly addresses the reader, which occurs, for example, in houellebecq’s novel extension du do- maine de la lutte, where the narrator states: . the pages that follow constitute a novel; i mean, a succession of anecdotes in which i am the hero. […] there are some authors who employ their talent in the delicate description of varying states of soul, character traits, etc. i shall not be counted among these. additionally, bernard duyfhuizen describes intercalation as a form of digres- in our terminology, we count narrative acts separately on each level. narrative act to on the second level represent the embedded stories, while narrative act on the first level marks the gathering, in which the officer tells these stories. nelles, frameworks: narrative levels and embedded narrative, ; nelles also defines the term modal embedding for dream worlds (william nelles, “embedding,” routledge encyclopedia of narra- tive theory, ). in contrast to ryan, he doesn’t see a level switch here, even though he states a shift in the ‘reality’ of the fictional world. still, for our guidelines the assumption of a subordinate level for crossing ontological boundaries seems more accurate (cf. ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory). pier and coste, “narrative levels (revised version)”. excursus also corresponds with metanarration, which is captured as property in caption . . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. sion. this includes intercalated apologues like in aesop’s fable the wolf and the lamb that closes with a moral statement: . the tyrant can always find an excuse for his tyranny. the unjust will not listen to the reasoning of the innocent. in summary, a new narrative act is indicated by a level switch (illocutionary or on- tological boundary) or by horizontal insertings (letters without framing instance; apologues). besides such formal criteria for narrative acts, eberhard lämmert indicates that a new narrative act at least diverges in time, setting or the corre- sponding characters from the previous one. . annotation scheme . inclusion and stacking of narrative acts the main focus of the annotation is to determine the relationship between verti- cal stacked or horizontal structured narrative acts, which happens by associating the narrative level. therefore, no limits of inclusion exist, narrative acts can have multiple embeddings and on each level several independent narrative acts can oc- cur. therefore, embedded narrative acts can frame stories and vice versa. ryan illustrates this by means of the arabian nights, where the framing narrative act of scheherazade and the sultan directly includes the stories of ali baba and the three ladies of baghdad told by scheherazade on level . moreover, the latter story includes several independent narrative acts on level like amina’s tale (sto- ries , , , in figure ), which also contains the young man’s tale on level (figure ). to represent the vertical structure of narrative levels, each of which can include a limitless amount of narrative acts, we use the following nested structure of tags: • level – narrative act – narrative act – … – narrative act n • level – narrative act bernard duyfhuizen, “framed narrative,” routledge encyclopedia of narrative theory, , . eberhard lämmert, bauformen des erzählens (stuttgart: metzler, ). ryan, possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory; marie-laure ryan, “stacks, frames, and boundaries,” in narrative dynamics: essays on time, plot, closure, and frames, ed. brian richardson (ohio state university press, ), . florian barth cultural analytics – narrative act – … – narrative act n • … • level n the span of the annotation can cover whole chapters but also single paragraphs, complete sentences or clauses. figure . inclusion scheme for the arabian nights by ryan cultural analytics annotation guideline no. figure . stacking of narrative levels in the arabian nights (adapted from ryan) . properties properties aim to reflect on the annotation decision and give further information about the relation of narrative acts and levels. upper level: boundary this property indicates the boundary between narrative levels following ryan (cf. figure ). as mentioned above, illocutionary and ontological boundaries can be combined. • illocutionary boundary (actual) • illocutionary boundary (virtual) • ontological (actual crossed) • ontological (virtual crossed) upper level: head of former level the annotator should indicate the narrative act of the former level, in which the current narrative act is embedded. for example, the head of amina’s tale is the three ladies of baghdad, which is narrative act on level (cf. figure ). florian barth cultural analytics speaker: identity since stacked narrative levels can have multiple narrators, we capture the identity of each speaker. this is done by alphabetic id’s for each speaker identity: • speaker entity a • speaker entity b • … • speaker entity n for example, in mary shelley’s frankenstein; or, the modern prometheus a dif- ferent narrator occurs on each level: robert walton recounts in his journal the meeting with victor frankenstein and quotes the oral narration of frankenstein, who cites the metadiegetic narration of his creature. figure . different narrators for each level in frankenstein; or, the modern prometheus in contrast, when the reporting voice remains constant between level and (e.g. if the same narrator reports a dream, which corresponds with the crossing of an ontological border), it should be annotated as the same speaker entity. we do not use genette’s terminology for speakers (extradiegetic, intradiegetic, metadiegetic) since they only capture the level of a speaker, not his identity. cf. duyfhuizen, “framed narrative,” ; another example would be theodor storm’s der schim- melreiter, cf. lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, - . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. speaker: story presence this property captures if a speaker is present in the story or not. we use the terms defined by genette: • homodiegetic (speaker is part of the diegesis) • heterodiegetic (speaker isn’t part of the diegesis) narrative: type to record the type of narrative or speech act of an intradiegetic character, we annotate the textual type of a narrative act. predefined are: • undefined (this applies to the most extradiegetic narrators on level .) • direct speech act (cf. heart of darkness in figure ) • indirect speech act (cf. the example of chekhov’s an avenger below) • quotation of a literary work (e.g. the quote of rip van winkle in max frisch’s stiller) • letter (for example, the letters in waldbruder [figure ] or frankenstein; or, the modern prometheus [figure ]). • transcribed speech (this also occurs in frankenstein; or, the modern prometheus, since walton transcribes frankenstein’s narration in his letters.) example: speaker switch within one narrative act in chekhov’s an avenger following ryan, we consider indirect utterances or thoughts of characters pre- sented by the narrator as an implication for a switch of levels (cf. above: virtually crossed illocutionary boundary in section . ). therefore, it happens that two speakers occur within a single narrative act like in an avenger. first, the thoughts of fyodor fyodorovitch sigaev are uttered within direct speech and secondly ex- pressed by the frame narrator: . [“shouldn’t i challenge him to a duel?”] [flashed through sigaev’s mind.] [“it’s doing him too much honour, though. . . . beasts like that are killed like dogs. . . .”] [his imagination pictured how he would blow out their brains, how blood would flow in streams over the rug and the parquet, how the traitress’s legs would twitch in her last agony. . . . but that was not enough for his indignant soul. the picture of blood, wailing, and horror did not satisfy him. he must think of something more terrible.] : level ; narrative act ; speaker entity florian barth cultural analytics : level ; narrative act ; speaker entity this passage is embedded within the narration of the extradiegetic narrator of level . therefore, the direct speech is assigned the property “speaker entity ”, while “speaker entity ” in the second paragraph refers back to the narrator of the first level. metanarration & metafiction both, metanarration and metafiction, address self-reflexive utterances. while metanarration covers “the narrator’s reflections on the act or process of narra- tion” (like in the example of houellebecq’s novel in section . ), metafiction rather concerns “comments on the fictionality and/or constructedness of the nar- rative.” metafiction occurs in italo calvino’s if on a winter’s night a traveler, where narrator describes the reading process in second person. each chapter contains another version of how the novel could be written (each is a separate narrative act), but none of these stories gets finished. as mentioned in section . , metanarration and metafiction are supposed to be annotated on the same level, in which they occur, but they create a new narrative act. these narrative acts can be marked by the property values “metanarration” or “metafiction”. metalepsis we capture metaleptic intrusions of the upper or the lower level. for example, if a metafictional character from level appears in a narrative act on level (by violating ontological boundaries), we add the property value “intrusion by level ” to the annotation of the narrative act on level . unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. birgit neumann and ansgar nünning, “metanarration and metafiction”, handbook of narratol- ogy, , - . cf. lahn and meister, einführung in die erzähltextanalyse, . originally, genette’s concept of metalepsis includes “any intrusion by the extradiegetic narrator into the diegetic world” (genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method, - ). for example, if two intradiegetic characters on level speak about the narrator, who writes the story (like in flann o’brians at swim-two-birds), this refers to the extradiegetic point of view of the narrator and is captured within our guidelines by setting the property value “metanarration” (see above). annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. jan horstman . . article doi: . / . journal issn: - cite: jan horstman, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. december , . doi: . / . the guideline is based on a clear and plausible distinction between narrative levels and narrative acts. narrative levels make up the vertical axis of the developed tagset, on which there can be n narrative acts on each of its levels. the narrative acts in turn form the horizontal axes of the tagset. the amount of narrative acts (n) on each level (which can be embedded, framed, juxtaposed) is principally unlimited. this general distinction takes into account the fact that a change of speaker/narrator can take place without the changing of narrative level, i.e., can happen in the same diegesis. the main theoretical foundations of the proposed tagset are gérard genette’s works on narrative levels ( : narrative discourse: an essay in method and : narrative discourse revisited) and marie-laure ryan’s framework for the actual and/or virtual forms of crossing narrative boundaries (i.e. illocutionary or ontological) as proposed in possible worlds, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory ( ). both contributions stem from classical narratology (ryan’s with a more transmedial angle to it than genette’s) and are well-established in the field. despite their respective complexity, the guideline aptly explains the theories, and - more importantly - takes them as they are without criticizing them for aspects that could be seen as inconsistent or unintuitive (for example the fact that a first level narrator for genette is “extradiegetic by definition”); a pragmatic decision which clearly puts the focus of the guideline on the operationalization of narra- tive levels as discussed in theory rather than letting it become a contribution to jan horstman cultural analytics these theoretical discussions. a point that could be stated more clearly is that the guideline decidedly tries to operationalize only selected parts of the discussed theories and e.g. does not con- sider every crossing of an illocutionary boundary as outlined by ryan as a case in which “indeed a new narrative act is realized” (p. ). at the bottom of this specific choice there seems to be a differentiation between speakers and narrators. the underlying understanding of narrativity, however, unfortunately remains rather unspecified. a very useful differentiation is established with regards to narrative acts: the guideline considers embedded and framed narratives to both be cases of several narrative acts alternating in different ways. whereas embedded narratives are considered to be shorter narratives within a larger story, framed narratives are described as a longer story that is framed by a short narrative (which e.g. narrates the situation of the telling). since there does not always have to be a definite bor- der between inner and frame narratives, the comprehensible aim of the proposed tagset is not to identify techniques or functions of embedding or framing. a further positive aspect of this guideline are the cross-categorial properties that allow the annotators to justify their decisions during the annotation process and to exemplify possible relations between narrative levels and narrative acts (i.e. the specific way of boundary crossing, the respective narrative act of the former level, the speakers’ - or narrators’? - identities, types of narrative-like direct speech acts, quotations of a literary work, letters etc., metanarration and metafiction as well as metalepsis). genette’s differentiation between homo- and heterodiegetic narra- tors occurs as properties as well; the difficulties that these supposedly binary cate- gories can bring (or even the different understandings that exist within academic discussions), however, are not reflected upon and thus these two properties could lead to irregularities in the annotation process and lower inter-annotator agree- ment. the intelligible, theory-based guideline frequently operates with examples from literary texts, which makes it much easier to capture the explained categories and in return enhances the usability of the proposed tagset. the properties in prac- tice should help to tell whether the annotation of narrative acts helps to identify narrative levels or not, and how the manifold relations between acts and levels can be used to operationalize the detection of narrative levels. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative cultural analytics annotating narrative levels commons attribution . international license. annotation guideline no. : santa collaborative annotation as a teaching tool between theory and practice matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow . . article doi: . / c. journal issn: - cite: matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow, “annotation guideline no. : santa collaborative annotation as a teaching tool between theory and practice,” journal of cultural analytics. january , . doi: . / c. preliminary remarks these guidelines were developed in our seminar “digital methods in literary studies”, which was aimed at m.a. students and advanced b.a. students. at the beginning of the seminar, students were introduced to the aims and challenges of digital annotating in general as well as to different narratological theories (includ- ing genette, ryan, nelles, and füredy). due to its narratologically challenging nature, mary shelley’s frankenstein was chosen as a text against which we could test our guidelines and which triggered their modification. in frankenstein many changes (e.g. of narrator and narratee) occur at the beginning of chapters. even though such changes can, of course, also be found in the middle of chapters, an- notators should pay special attention to the beginning of chapters, because they often coincide with a change in narrator, narratee, or narrated world. we would like to thank the organisers of santa and our anonymous reviewers for their detailed and valuable feedback. we would also like to thank our students elisabeth bleaß, berit boehling, kristina burghardt, aylin el damhougi, leonie greß, yani hu, alia luley, günay mammadova, san- drina kimberly müller, jona odza, yasemin Özalp, laila prota, jonathan schneider, sarah schnei- dewind, andra cristina sterian, lilien sztudinka, amina tschubajew, panagiotis tzatsos, ella ujhe- lyi, ningxi xie, yicong xu, and karmen zeiler for their great participation and input. matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics one problem we debated in class was how to annotate in the first place: should we only annotate the place in which the change occurs, e.g. the point between two different narrative levels, or should we annotate the whole passage belonging on one level? in the end, we decided to use a combined model, i.e. to allow both the use of paired brackets and the annotation of the point in-between two contrasting passages. the in-class discussions soon drew our attention to fundamental problems that arise when trying to transform vague or even contradictory narratological theo- ries into unambiguous, widely applicable annotation categories. the first issue was the definition of narrative itself. in particular, when does a dialogue, which is part of a narrative, become a narrative of its own? for example, is the statement “i went to the supermarket and bought some fruit” already a narrative? as a sim- ple working definition we decided to chose “a report of connected events.” this is important because, for example, ryan has an even wider definition, which leads, as we think, to obscuring matters by a proliferation of narratives. the ex- ample, however, indicates a wider problem: there needs to be a clearly defined research question before starting to define and annotate narrative levels. for ex- ample, when one wants to find out whether novels from the eighteenth century tend to have more embedded narratives than twentieth-century novels, using an- notation guidelines that are primarily based on ryan’s theory (see and below) might distort one’s results because the crossing of an illocutionary or an ontologi- cal boundary does not necessarily establish an embedded narrative. hence, even within the field of embedded narrative, there is no such thing as a ‘universally marked-up text’ that has to be annotated once and then can be re-used for many different research purposes. the discussion of frankenstein alerted us to another problem, namely the ques- tion of who, actually, is the narrator in a given passage: in the novel, walton does not hear the creature relate its own story; instead, it is filtered through frankenstein. who, then, is the narrator of the passages concerning the early life of the creature? the creature who related them to victor, victor who tells them to walton (and maybe slightly manipulates them), or walton who writes them down (and maybe does not transcribe victor’s tale verbatim)? for the sake of simplicity, we decided to go for the original source and assumed that the crea- ture is the most relevant narrator of its own tale. we also suggest to consider mediated documents (e.g. letters that are transcribed or read aloud by charac- ters) as embedded narratives. the aspect of time (e.g. whether a certain part of “narrative,” wikipedia, last modified september , , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/narrative. marie-laure ryan, “embedded narratives and tellability,” style ( ): - . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. the narrative occurs in a prolepsis) also had to be discarded since otherwise our guidelines would have become too complex. furthermore, when contemplating how to annotate two narrative levels that describe different worlds, we decided not to use separate tags for dreams, beliefs, delusions, and the like. this would have led to a proliferation of tags and would have made annotation too depen- dent on the interpretation of the text (e.g. we sometimes cannot be sure whether a character is hallucinating/dreaming or not). instead, according to our guide- lines, annotators need only indicate whether the world depicted in the narration of a lower level is factually dependent on the world depicted in the higher level or not (see below). we also agreed that it would be helpful to annotate whether a narrative on a lower level is embedded in, or framed by, the narrative of the higher level. (for the theoretical background see . below.) the problem was, again, one of drawing a clear line between framing and embedding. for exam- ple, when the narrated passage on the lower level is just as long as the narrated passage on the higher level, is the former embedded in, or framed by, the latter? hence, in our systematization of narrative levels we focused on the features that define narratives within narratives: the narrator (position) (see ), the narratee (see ) and the (in)dependence of the narrated world (see ). we furthermore determined whether the narrative within a narrative is (quantitatively) the main narrative of the whole text or not and if its is fully enclosed (see ). last but not least, we took into account if the boundary between narrative levels is strictly observed or if there are cases in which, although we may notice a separate level of narration in some respects, the boundary is transcended in others (see ). a question that came up time and again during our discussions was which aspects our guidelines should cover in the first place. we might try to only annotate features that can be identified without much prior interpretation but this would mean to exclude exactly those issues that make literary analysis so intriguing. the students also wondered whether it is possible to develop guidelines that can be used for all literary texts. when we annotated the short texts provided by the organisers of santa, we soon realised that some of the phenomena that we included in our guidelines were not to be found in these texts, whereas some features that we identified in the texts were not covered by our guidelines. hence, developing guidelines that are too specifically tailored to one text or genre will make the guidelines useless for analysing other texts, but when the guidelines are too general, they tend not to yield interesting results. during our in-class discussions, it became clear to what extent annotation de- pends on definitions and interpretations. students pointed out that, in the fu- ture, they would never rely to studies based on corpora without first considering the guidelines that were used to annotate them. even though many of them were matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics critical as to the applicability of annotation for their purposes as literary scholars, they appreciated the development and use of annotation guidelines as a tool for close reading: rather than let an ambiguous text stay ambiguous, they simply had to decide for one option in order to be able to annotate a passage and had to justify their choice with reference to the whole text or to adapt the guidelines in order to address and document the ambiguity. likewise, they had to precisely identify the location of changes (e.g. of level or narratee) in the text. students also liked the idea of creating guidelines that were to be used by others as it provided a welcome contrast to writing term papers that no one but their lecturer would read. however, they would have appreciated to get the guidelines and annotated texts of all other participants and to receive feedback on their own guidelines (either by the organisers or by the participants who used them to annotate). the biggest problem was that it was not really clear which research question the guidelines were designed to tackle. depending on this, we could have shifted the focus of our guidelines by adding or omitting certain categories. overall, our students enjoyed the santa competition because it enabled them to practice their close reading skills as well as to learn and critically evaluate a new method of conducting literary studies. . change of narrative levels (genette) theoretical explanation change of narrative levels, a threshold between the one and the other: according to genette, strictly speaking only a second narrative (metadiegetic level) within the first one (the intradiegetic one). . an actual change of narrator an actual change of narrator (one of the narrated characters tells a story etc.); cf. ryan’s illocutionary boundary: a different speaker . no change of narrator no change of narrator definition of the three possible narrative levels: . level within the global text at which the telling of the narrator-characters story occurs . the level at which the primary narrators discourse occurs gérard genette, narrative discourse, trans. jane e. lewin (oxford: blackwell, ). ryan, “embedded narratives and tellability.” cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . the level outside of the narrative act situated outside the primary narra- tor’s discourse categories, attributes, values category definition of category attribute possible values narrative_leve l to indicate which narrative of the three described above is presented number etc. level_change to define if there is a change of narrative level value yes no narrator_chang e to define whether a change in narrator is happening as well value yes no examples . level change: [in the first sentence, the narrator is walton, who is writing a letter to his sister. in the second sentence below, the narrator is the creature, who is telling his story to frankenstein, who, in turn, is telling it to walton.] so strange an accident has happened to us, that i can- not forbear recording it, although it is very probable that you will see me before these papers can come to your possession. […] it is with considerable difficulty that i remember the original æra of my being: all the events of that period appear confused and indistinct. . narrative levels: [in this example, we have walton’s narrative on level , frankenstein’s embed- ded narrative on level , and the creatures’ narrative, which is embedded in frankenstein’s, on level .] this manuscript will doubtless afford you the greatest pleasure: but to me, who know him, and who hear it from his own lips, with what interest and sympathy shall i read it in some future day! […] i am by birth a genevese; and my family is one of the most distinguished of that republic. my ancestors had been for many years’ counsellors and syndics; and my father had filled several public situations with honour and reputation. […] i lay on my straw, but i unless otherwise indicated, all examples are drawn from frankenstein. invented examples are marked with inv. after the number of the example, e.g.: ( , inv.) . matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics could not sleep. i thought of the occurrences of the day. what chiefly struck me was the gentle manners of these people; and i longed to join them, but dared not. . narrator change: [in this example, the sentence marks a change of narrator from frankenstein to the creature.] it is with considerable difficulty that i remem- ber the original æra of my being: all the events of that period appear confused and indistinct. [in this example, we have marked that the narrator stays the same in a new chap- ter.] chapter viii thus spoke my prophetic soul, as, torn by remorse, horror, and despair, i beheld those i loved spend vain sorrows upon the graves of william and justine, the first hapless victims of my unhallowed arts. chapter ix nothing is more painful to the human mind, than, after the feelings have been worked up by a quick succession of events, the dead calmness of inaction and certainty which follows, and deprives the soul both of hope and fear. . narrator’s position and part in the narrative (genette) theoretical explanation . the narrator is either part of the narration or not, i.e. s/he is: . . heterodiegetic narrator . . homodiegetic narrator . . . autodiegetic narrator (special case of . . ) . narrator can also be identified according to their position with respect to the narrative levels: . . extradiegetic narrator . . intradiegetic narrator gérard genette, narrative discourse. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . narrator participation . . homodiegetic narrator : the narrator is part of the actual narration . . heterodiegetic narrator: the narrator is not part of the actual narration . . autodiegetic narrator: the narrator is part of the narration and is also the protagonist of the story . narrator position . . extradiegetic narrator: extradiegetic narrative level = level at which in- tradiegetic events are described; literary act. an extradiegetic narrator does not appear as narrator within a diegesis. . . intradiegetic narrator: intradiegetic events are described within the first level of the narrative. there is also an intradiegetic narrator: s/he is already a character in a narrative that is not his/her own. categories, attributes, values example ( ) (beginning of chapter of frankenstein) < narrator participation “homodiegetic narrator” > on my return, i found the following letter from my father: < narrator position “intradiegetic narrator” > ”my dear victor, ”you have probably waited impatiently for a letter to fix the date of your return to us; and i was at first tempted to write only a few lines, merely mentioning the day on which i should expect you. but that would be a cruel kindness, and i dare not do it. what would be your surprise, my son, when you expected a happy and glad welcome, to behold, on the contrary, tears and wretchedness? matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics . narratee (nelles) theoretical explanation we have included this category since sometimes narrative levels are only to be distinguished by a change of narratee. in other words, the narrator may remain the same, and the narrated world (see below) may remain the same but the person to whom the story is told may become a different one. (e.g. when the autodiegetic narrator of the first-level narrative tells a story to a specific person within that narrative.) . change of narratee . no change of narratee categories, attributes, values category attribute possible values change_narratee value yes/no . change of narrated worlds theoretical explanation we have included this category since it is a key to providing significant informa- tion about the relation of the different narratives to each other: do they depend on each other or are they fictions within fictions? just as fictional texts are counter- factually independent of the actual world, second-level narratives may be coun- terfactually independent of the world of the first-level narrative. examples are inserted narratives (as in the decamerone or the canterbury tales). ryan describes in her theory the crossing of boundaries, either illocutionary or ontological. an ontological crossing of boundaries refers to a change of reality. these kinds of reality shifts affect the narratological structure and are therefore important for our guidelines. a shift of reality occurs when narratives refer to two different worlds that are not dependent on each other. our category of narrated worlds is similar but not identical with ryan’s “ontolog- ical boundary,” which is, however, not strictly logical and therefore impractica- william nelles, frameworks: narrative levels and embedded narrative (new york: lang, ). matthias bauer and sigrid beck, “on the meaning of fictional texts,” in approaches to mean- ing: composition, values, and interpretation, ed. daniel gutzmann, jan köpping and cécile meier (leiden: brill, ), - . ryan, “embedded narratives and tellability.” cultural analytics annotation guideline no. ble. in the case of narrated dreams it may sometimes be difficult to decide if there is a change of worlds, but even though in dream worlds different physical laws might apply, the dream world is dependent on the narrative world, either due to influence of the experiences of the dreamer or due to their prophetic character. this is why we recommend tagging dreams, as a rule, as “same world”. categories, attributes, values category attribute possible values change_reality value yes no example [even though both the narrator and the narratee change here, the narrated world does not change.] ( ) this manuscript will doubtless afford you the greatest pleasure: but to me, who know him, and who hear it from his own lips, with what interest and sympathy shall i read it in some future day! […] i am by birth a genevese; and my family is one of the most distinguished of that republic. my ancestors had been for many years counsellors and syndics; and my father had filled several public situations with honour and reputation. . the nature of the level-change structure . embedding vs framing narrative theoretical explanation . description of the theory: the initial idea of using this tag to mark a level- change is framing of embedding. embedding can be thought of as insert- ing or placing something within a larger unit, thus the main story is the embedding one. framing is generally regarded as a presentational tech- nique: the frame tale is of limited length and varying significance, serv- ing to render the ampler inset or inner tale (binnenerzählung) accessible matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics and/or to authenticate it, imbuing it with a “narratorial illusionism,” par- ticularly in simulations of oral storytelling, in which case the main story is the embedded one. however, there is no strict definition distinguish- ing how large a lower should be when it is called the embedding story, and similarly, how long a higher level should be when the lower level is called a framing story. besides, if one identifies framing or embedding by finding which level the main story belongs to, the result could depend largely on interpretation. here, we provide an alternative by giving the number of words in each level which can be used to compare the length of levels without using the ambiguous term “framing” and “embedding”. . whenever there is a level change in the text, which should be tagged fol- lowing the instruction in “( ) change of narrative levels (genette)”, read the following guidelines to add the information of level length. when counting the words of “level n”, first count the number of words “ln” between the tag and the first end of tag after it (so that you do not count any other parallel level n that does not belong to the same narrative). if there is no “level n+ ” within “level n”, l=ln. if there is “level n+ ” within “level n”, count the number of words “lma”, “lmb”, “lmc”, etc. between each pair of beginning tag and the its corresponding end tag respectively. lm=lma+lmb+lmc… l=ln-lm put the tag after the corresponding level tag categories, attributes, values category attribute possible values narrative_level words [counted number of the words in arabic letters] ansgar nünning, “on metanarrative: towards a definition, a typology and an outline of the functions of metanarrative commentary,” in the dynamics of narrative form: studies in anglo- american narratology, ed. john pier (berlin: de gruyter, ), - . . john pier, “narrative levels,” in the living handbook of narratology, last revised octo- ber , . http://www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/article/narrative-levels-revised-version-uploaded- - april- . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. example ( , inv.) dear mary, i had a conversation with a strange boy about frogs yester- day. i have much interest in frogs. . opened vs closed narratives theoretical explanation both framing and embedding mentioned in . can have three kinds of structures concerning if they are complete: opened and closed, opened but never closed, and closed but never opened. categories, attributes, values category attribute possible values narrative_levelchang e completion complete never closed never opened when to use which value . . opened and closed. when there is text between and , and there is text between and , the structure is opened and closed. put the tag before . . opened but never closed when there is text between and , but there is no text between and , the structure is opened and closed. put the tag before . . closed but never opened matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics when there is no text between and , but there is text between and , the structure is closed but never opened. put the tag after examples [in example , both the beginning and the end of the embedded narrative are marked and present in the text.] ( ) yesterday the stranger said to me, ‘you may easily perceive, captain walton, that i have suffered great and unparalleled misfortunes.’ […] i am by birth a genevese; my family is one of the most distinguished of that public. […] you have heard this strange and terrific story, margaret; and do you not feel your blood congealed with horror, like that which even now curdles mine? [in example , the switch from the frame narrative to the embedded narrative is included, but we never switch back to the frame narrative.] ( , inv.) dear sister, i confronted a strange person yesterday and heard a thrill story from him. i created a monster who has already killed several people. [in example , the switch back from the embedded narrative to the frame nar- rative is included, but the text began with the embedded rather than the frame narrative.] ( , inv.) a flying elephant is playing with a pink monkey. mom, i had an interesting dream last night. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. . the nature of the boundary between the levels (füredy) theoretical explanation this category is optional and should only be applied if there is at least one met- alepsis ( . ) that can be clearly identified in a text. . strictly observed strict boundary between narrative levels. () explanation: this category is applied when the boundary between narrative levels are respected. strictly put: it is applied when a metalepsis ( . ) does not occur and therefore can not be applied. . metalepsis explanation: a metalepsis is identified according to genette’s terminology. therefore, this category is only applied in instances were a transition between narrative levels can be identified and only if the following condition is fulfilled: any intrusion by a narrator or narratee from outside of the particular narrative level that transgresses its internal logic. this can occur when an author (or his reader) introduces himself into the fictive action of the narrative, or when a char- acter in a narrative intrudes into the narrative level of the author (or reader). such intrusions disturb the distinction between levels. . pseudo-diegetic narration (cf. genette: second-level narrative told as first- level narrative) “a narrative second in origin but which, lacking a diegetic relay, is narrated as though it were diegetic” categories, attributes, values category attribute possible values boundary transgression no metalepsis pseudo viveca füredy, “a structural model of phenomena with embedding in literature and other arts,” poetics today ( ): - . genette, narrative discourse. genette, narrative discourse. pier, “narrative levels.” matthias bauer and miriam lahrsow< cultural analytics examples ( ) this is a passage with a strict boundary. ( ) this is the passage with the metalep- sis. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. natalie m. houston . . article doi: . / c. journal issn: - cite: natalie m. houston, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. january , . doi: . / c. the framing of guideline vi within the pedagogical situation of a class on “dig- ital methods in literary studies” is helpful in pointing out some of the ways in which the theory and practice of annotation can serve students of literature, as well as eventually contributing to computational analysis. above all, annotation necessitates firm decisions, as the authors describe: ”rather than let an ambigu- ous text stay ambiguous, they simply had to decide for one option in order to be able to annotate a passage and had to justify their choice with reference to the whole text or to adapt the guidelines in order to address and document the ambiguity” ( ). this remark highlights the challenge in developing annotation guidelines so that they can be used consistently by different communities of users without modifications. the authors note several points of debate within the class that are relevant to the overall shared task and its evaluation: the feasibility of de- veloping annotation guidelines that could be applied to a wide range of literary texts; the involved levels of textual interpretation that some kinds of annotation require; and the effect of prior study or knowledge on an annotator’s ability to dis- cern or interpret narrative levels. as the shared task proceeds, it may be necessary to specify the applicability of the annotation guidelines to works from particular genres, time periods, or languages. this guideline usefully deploys key concepts from narratological theory, includ- ing genette’s outline of narrative levels and types of narrators, ryan’s focus on the illocutionary and ontological boundaries, and nelles’s notion of the narratee. natalie m. houston< cultural analytics translating these theories into an outline of annotation choices is useful. but the textual examples that are provided are not sufficiently explained, and so do not adequately serve to guide a user’s potential application of these categories to an- other text. although shelley’s frankenstein is a well-known novel, it presents several levels of narratological complexity that ought to be better explained if it is to be used as an exemplar. to readers who have not spent weeks immersed in the task of annotating frankenstein, many of these examples of level change or narrator change will not be clear. in particular, the following aspects of this guideline could be revised for greater clarity and applicability: ( ) the authors state that they decided to annotate “the point between two differ- ent narrative levels,” yet the examples show the use of paired tags around sections of the narrative, which seems to contradict this statement. ( ) some of the examples are drawn from frankenstein, and others appear to be invented examples. the sources and selection of example texts should be clearly identified and explained. ( ) the examples are presented together as a block paragraph that often suggests they are taken sequentially from the novel, when in fact they are not. (i.e., # narrator change presents extracts from chapter and then chapter ). what are the closing tags closing? this formatting error can lead a reader unfamiliar with shelley’s novel to think all this text comes from one sequence in the novel. ( ) most of the examples taken from frankenstein are drawn from the opening lines of chapters or letters presented within chapters. no discussion is offered in the guideline about whether or how particular attention ought to be paid to chapter or section boundaries in the literary text. this guideline also raises a theoretical point that ought to be considered in the shared task. the authors raise the question about the mediation of embedded narratives when they discuss whether the creature should be considered the nar- rator of its own story, which is doubly mediated by other narrators in the novel frankenstein. many nineteenth-century novels, such as the moonstone and drac- ula, deliberately exploit textual mediation by presenting documents or letters that are ostensibly transcribed or read aloud by other characters. whether such me- diations constitute a form of narrative level or not should be considered in the annotation guidelines. cultural analytics review of guideline no. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotation guideline no. : guidelines for annotation of narrative structure mats wirén, adam ek and anna kasaty . . article doi: . / c. journal issn: - cite: mats wirén, adam ek and anna kasaty, “annotation guideline no. : guidelines for annotation of narrative structure,” journal of cultural analytics. january , . doi: . / c. rationale background analysis of narrative structure can be said to answer the question “who tells what, and how?”. the first part of the question thus concerns aspects such as who is narrating, whether it is a character in the story or not, and if it is a first-person or third-person narrator. the second part is related to the story and its basic elements: characters and events, and how the sequence of events forms a plot. the third part concerns how the narrative text is constructed: ordering of the events, the perspective from which the story is seen, how much information the narrator has access to, etc. the key part of our annotation scheme is related to the “who?”, in other words, keeping track of who is doing the telling (showing, speaking), and to whom. to this end, our annotation scheme is grounded in the basic levels of narrative trans- mission: author-reader (highest level), narrator-narratee (intermediate level) and manfred jahn, “n . the narratological framework”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http://www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). compare also the classification of “narration” (which is about the “who?”), “story” (“what?”) and “text” (“how”?) in shlomith rimmon-kenan, narrative fiction: contemporary poetics (new york: routledge, ). mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics character-character (lowest level). typically, works of literary fiction consist of alternations between the second and third of these levels: narration and fictional dialogue. as for narration, we annotate voice, which corresponds to the narrator’s relationship to the story, and specifically whether the narrator is ever present in the story or not. the most detailed part of our annotation concerns the dialogue, however, for which we keep track of turns, lines, speakers and addressees. our annotation of the “what?” is rather rudimentary. we have a notion of scene which is meant to capture a coherent set of events and characters at a particu- lar time and place, but no means of ordering sequences of scenes timewise or causally, and hence no notion of plot. also, only characters that take part in fic- tional dialogue become part of the annotation. our annotation of the “how?” is also relatively rudimentary. we annotate focal- isation, that is, the perspective from which the narrative is seen and specifically how much information the narrator has access to. furthermore, we annotate nar- rative levels in the sense of stories within stories by using embeddings within the intermediate level of narrative transmission. our emphasis of the “who?” no doubt reflects the fact that we have approached the problem of narrative structure from linguistics. in particular, given the appar- ent resemblances between fictional dialogue and everyday conversation, it makes sense to apply linguistic models in the analysis of the former. suitable models that have been mentioned in the literature include speech-act theory and conver- sation analysis, but computational methods for the study of dialogue may also be useful. in contrast, the language of higher narrative-transmission levels can only “create an illusion, an effect, a semblance of mimesis,” which means that the role of linguistic analysis is less straightforward. in developing our annotation scheme, we have used the following criteria as guid- ing principles: • simplicity and readability. we have opted for a simple annotation scheme whose result should be easy to read together with the original texts. to this end, we use embedded (in-line) annotation in the original text. • hierarchical tagset. to increase inter-annotator agreement, we use a hier- archical tagset with mutually exclusive tag categories in the same layers. manfred jahn, “n . . narrative levels”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http: //www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). as pointed out by aino koivisto and elise nykänen, “introduction: approaches to fictional di- alogue”, in international journal of literary linguistics , no. ( ), http://www.ijll.uni-mainz.de/ index.php/ijll/article/view/ (accessed september , ). shlomith rimmon-kenan, narrative fiction: contemporary poetics (new york: routledge, ), . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. • minimal interpretation. ideally, we would like an annotation which repre- sents as objectively as possible the basic events, the characters involved and the discourse levels through which the narrative is transmitted, without un- due subjective interpretation. this is arguably the most difficult principle to attain, however. • relation to linguistic annotation. we assume that a machine-learning model for predicting narrative structure will be based on annotation of both the narrative and linguistic structures of the text. the latter might build on what is produced by a standard automatic linguistic-analysis pipeline, involving, for example, sentence segmentation, tokenisation, part-of-speech tagging, named-entity recognition, syntactic parsing and co-reference resolution. in contrast to narrative annotation, we consider linguistic annotation to be a means and not a goal in itself, and therefore do not include discussion of this here. overview of annotation layers our tagset is hierarchically structured in four annotation layers, ordered by an inclusion relation. the top layer encodes voice, using the tags and that correspond to whether the narrator is present in the story or not, respectively. these are the opening tags; the corresponding closing tags are written with a slash, and (and similarly for other tags throughout). the second layer encodes focalisation, that is, the perspective from which the narrative is seen and how much information the narrator has access to. it includes the tags , and , correspond- ing to unrestricted, internal and external focalisation, respectively. the fact that the annotation of focalisation is included in that of voice means that a change of voice requires resetting focalisation, even though the value of the focalisation may not change. a focalisation includes one or more scenes in the third layer, , each of which is a coherent set of events at a particular interval in time and place, with a more or less constant set of characters. a scene typically consists of alter- nations between narration and dialogue, annotated using and , but may also contain . in addition, these types of discourses may be embedded in each other (to be detailed below). for example, stanford corenlp (for english), https://stanfordnlp.github.io/corenlp/ (ac- cessed september , ); efselab (for swedish), https://github.com/robertostling/efselab (accessed september , ). mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics a characters’ discourse, , consists of one or more turns, each of which is associated with one speaker (or a chorus of several speakers) and one or more addressees (who may vary). thus, whereas the speaker (or set of speakers) is immutable throughout a turn, this does not necessarily hold for the addressee(s). finally, each turn consists of one or more lines, each of which is associated with one speaker (or a chorus of several speakers) and one addressee (or a set of addressees). in addition, a line consists of one or more utterances, that is, sentences or fragments typically distinguished by full stops in the text. utterances are not part of the annotation, however. note that only lines are tagged with speaker(s) and addressee(s), and that there is no notion of opening or closing tags in this case. note also that we make a difference between addressees and listeners: addressees are the recipients of lines, whereas listeners overhear lines without being recipients. we only annotate addressees. in sum, a characters’ discourse is a sequence of turns uninterrupted by narrator’s discourses (unless they are embedded). a description of the layers and discourse levels is shown in table . layer tag description , narrator’s presence in the story (yes, no) , , perspective of the narrator (unrestricted, internal, external) coherent set of events and characters at particular interval of time and place . narrative transmission: highest level . narrative transmission: intermediate level . narrative transmission: lowest level . . turn: one or several lines . . line: one or several utterances. tagged only with speaker(s) and addressee(s) table . hierarchical structure of the annotation scheme. we use a deliberately simple criterion for delimiting the scope of a narrator’s discourse, namely, letting each paragraph that begins with narration correspond to one narrator’s discourse by enclosing it with opening and closing tags ( and ). as for dialogue, each turn is often put in a paragraph of its own in fictional works. but when we have a sequence of turns, whether each line is in a paragraph of its own or not, we let the entire sequence be enclosed by the corresponding opening and closing tags, that is, and . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. discourse levels introduction we assume that a text in its entirety can be divided into occurrences of the fol- lowing three discourse levels: • highest level: transmission from the author to a (typically) imagined, but explicitly referred reader of the work (for an example, see section trans- mission across levels). we refer to this as author’s discourse. • intermediate level: transmission from a narrator to a narratee. the latter can be visible or invisible, but is distinct from (the imagined) reader of the work. we refer to this as narrator’s discourse. • lowest level: transmission between characters in the story in the form of dialogue, whether direct or indirect discourse. we refer to this as charac- ters’ discourse. the dialogue is typically spoken, but we also take soliloquy and interior monologue to be possible types of characters’ discourse. assuming that transmission between author and reader is the exception in fic- tion, a narrative typically consists of passages alternating between the two lower levels. to annotate discourses in the three levels, we use opening and closing tags indicating both the type of speaker and addressee at the respective level, namely, , and . for convenience, and when there is no ambiguity, we may abbreviate as and as . an example text with alternating narrator’s and characters’ discourses is shown in example ( ). (note that this author uses neither dashes nor quotation marks, but only paragraph breaks, to indicate turns.) ( ) melissa had her camera on the table and occasionally lifted it to take a photograph, laughing self-deprecatingly about being a ‘work addict’. she manfred jahn, “n . . narrative communication”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narra- tive, http://www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). manfred jahn, “n ”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http://www.uni-koeln.de/ ˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). for a listing of different representations of speech, see shlomith rimmon-kenan, narrative fic- tion: contemporary poetics (new york: routledge, ). as stated in lubomír doležel, narrative modes in czech literature (toronto: university of toronto press, ), quoted in manfred jahn, “n . ”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narra- tive, http://www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ): “every narrative text t is a concatenation and alternation of [narrator’s discourse] and [characters’ discourse]”. from sally rooney, conversations with friends (london: faber & faber, ), - . mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics lit a cigarette and tipped the ash into a kitschy-looking glass ashtray. the house didn’t smell of smoke at all and i wondered if she usually smoked in there or not. i made some new friends, she said. her husband was in the kitchen doorway. he held up his hand to acknowledge us and the dog started yelping and whining and running around in circles. this is frances, said melissa. and this is bobbi. they’re poets. he took a bottle of beer out of the fridge and opened it on the countertop. come and sit with us, melissa said. yeah, i’d love to, he said, but i should try and get some sleep before this flight. example ( ) shows how ( ) would be annotated for narrator’s and characters’ discourses. the latter includes turns, whereas lines are introduced further below. vertical space corresponds to alternations of discourse level for readability. ( ) melissa had her camera on the table and occasionally lifted it to take a photo- graph, laughing self-deprecatingly about being a ‘work addict’. she lit a cigarette and tipped the ash into a kitschy-looking glass ashtray. the house didn’t smell of smoke at all and i wondered if she usually smoked in there or not. i made some new friends, she said. her husband was in the kitchen doorway. he held up his hand to acknowledge us and the dog started yelping and whining and running around in circles. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. this is frances, said melissa. and this is bobbi. they’re poets. he took a bottle of beer out of the fridge and opened it on the countertop. come and sit with us, melissa said. yeah, i’d love to, he said, but i should try and get some sleep before this flight. characters’ discourses whereas narrator’s discourses capture narrations in the text, characters’ dis- courses corresponds to fictional dialogues between characters. a characters’ discourse consists of one or more turns, each of which consists of one or more lines as defined above. a characters’ discourse is thus a sequence of turns uninterrupted by narrator’s discourses. to represent transmission between characters, we annotate each line with its speaker and addressee, as in example ( ). specifically, we assume that a turn has a single speaker, but that different lines within a turn may have different ad- dressees. also, a speaker may address more than one character simultaneously, which means that one line can have several addressees. we only annotate the intended recipient(s) of the utterance as addressees, whereas listeners who only overhear a line are not annotated. ( ) we’re all on the same side here, derek said. from sally rooney, conversations with friends (london: faber & faber, ), . mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics nick, you’re an oppressive white male, you back me up. i actually quite agree with bobbi, said nick. oppressive though i certainly am. the first turn is divided into two lines since there is a change in addressees. the second turn consists of one line which consists of two utterances. note that we do not have opening and closing tags that surround lines, but just a speaker—addressee tag at the end of each line. the scope of the speaker— addressee tag is the current line. what we refer to as a line consists of a line proper, which is what is actually spoken by the character, and optionally a speech-verb construction, which indicates who the speaker (and possibly the addressee) is. example ( ) shows a line proper with the direct speech of the officer, whereas example ( ) shows the speech-verb construction that identifies the speaker. ( ) “that was the first story,” ( ) “said the officer,” we have chosen to include the speech-verb construction in the line tag to avoid cluttering the annotation, and because these constructions follow a predictable pattern. in the case where a line has multiple addressees and (some of) these are not iden- tifiable, this is annotated using the keyword several. this is shown in example ( ): ( ) “that was the first story,” said the officer, from heinrich von kleist, improbable veracities, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed septem- ber , ). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. as he took a pinch of snuff and became silent. example ( ) also shows how a narrative construction within a line is represented as an embedded narrator’s discourse (further detailed below). in contrast, if there are multiple identifiable addressees, these are listed within parentheses as exemplified below: ( ) ‘four reales.’ ‘we want two anis del toro.’ ‘with water?’ […] a line may also have multiple speakers talking in chorus. this is annotated with a parenthesised expression as in example ( ), analogously with multiple addressees. ( ) ‘now watch,’ said the zebra and the giraffe. ‘this is the way it’s done. one–two– three! and where’s your breakfast?’ <(zebra, giraffe)–leopard> from ernest hemingway, hills like white elephants, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed september , ). from rudyard kipling, how the leopard got his spots, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed september , ). mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics embeddings characters’ discourse embedded in characters’ discourse discourse levels can be embedded into each other. in particular, when a charac- ter is quoting or recounting a dialogue with someone else, this is represented by embedding that characters’ discourse into the present one. this is annotated as an additional opening of characters inside the present characters’ discourse, as in example ( ). ( ) did you ever get that thing with the car sorted? nick said to evelyn. no, derek won’t let me talk to the dealership, she said. he’s ‘taking care of it’. similarly: ( ) i think your wife is a little on edge today, said bobbi. from sally rooney, conversations with friends (london: faber & faber, ), . from rooney, sally, conversations with friends (london: faber & faber, ), . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. she was not impressed with my linen-folding technique earlier. also, she told me she didn’t want me ‘making any snide remarks about rich people’ when valerie gets here. quote. narrator’s discourse embedded in characters’ discourse elements of narrator’s discourse may be interspersed, typically in a fragmentary way, inside lines in a characters’ discourse without breaking the flow of the di- alogue. we represent this by an embedding of the narrator’s discourse in the present characters’ discourse. example ( ) illustrates this, where the line “ ‘it tastes like liquorice,’ the girl said” is followed by the narrator’s description, “and put the glass down”, which is thus embedded within the characters’ discourse. ( ) ‘four reales.’ ‘we want two anis del toro.’ ‘with water?’ from ernest hemingway, hills like white elephants, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed september , ). mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics ‘do you want it with water?’ ‘i don’t know,’ the girl said. ‘is it good with water?’ ‘it’s all right.’ ‘you want them with water?’ asked the woman. ” ‘yes, with water.’ ‘it tastes like liquorice,’ the girl said and put the glass down. ‘that’s the way with everything.’ note that, in accordance with what was said at the end of the introduction section, an embedding is a change of discourse level within another level. this means that if a paragraph begins with dialogues and ends with a narration, the narration is embedded in the character discourse. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. characters’ discourse embedded in narrator’s discourse we represent indirect discourse - broadly speaking, dialogue rendered narratively - by embedding a characters’ discourse into the present narrator’s discourse. ex- ample ( ) shows two subsequent characters’ discourses being embedded in one narrator’s discourse, which is in turn followed by another characters’ discourse. ( ) the car had been sitting in the sun all morning and we had to roll the windows down before we could even get in. inside it smelled like dust and heated plastic. i sat in the back and bobbi leaned her little face out the passenger window like a terrier. nick switched on the radio and bobbi withdrew her face from the window and said, do you not have a cd player? can we listen to music? nick said: sure, okay. bobbi started looking through the cds then and saying whether she thought they were his or melissa’s. manfred jahn, “n . ”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http://www.uni-koeln. de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). from sally rooney, conversations with friends (london: faber & faber, ), . mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics who likes animal collective, you or melissa? she said. i think we both like them. but who bought the cd? i don’t remember, he said. you know, we share those things, i don’t remember whose is whose. in sum, by embedding the characters’ discourse in a narrator’s discourse, we rep- resent the fact that it’s being rendered indirectly through the narration, and not directly as in a (non-embedded) characters’ discourse appearing at the (top) level of alternating narrator’s and characters’ discourses. the reason that we still rep- resent this using an (embedded) characters’ discourse is that we want to capture all transmission between the characters, whether it occurs directly at the lowest discourse level or is rendered indirectly at the intermediate level. narrator’s discourse embedded in narrator’s discourse a narrator’s discourse embedded in a narrator’s discourse corresponds to what has been called narrative level, in other words, a story within a story. example ( ) shows a story imagined by the character within the main story. ( ) genette, gérard, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, ), ; jahn, manfred, narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http://www.uni-koeln.de/ ˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). from anton chekov, the avenger, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed september , ). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. the shopman, swaying gracefully and tripping to and fro on his little feet, still smiling and chattering, displayed before him a heap of revolvers. the most inviting and impressive of all was the smith and wesson’s. sigaev picked up a pistol of that pattern, gazed blankly at it, and sank into brood- ing. his imagination pictured how he would blow out their brains, how blood would flow in streams over the rug and the parquet, how the traitress’s legs would twitch in her last agony…. but that was not enough for his indignant soul. the picture of blood, wailing, and horror did not satisfy him. he must think of something more terrible. in the example ( ), the narrator addresses the reader and tells something about the main story. ( ) i am the man who comes and goes between the bar and the telephone booth. or, rather: that man is called “i” and you know nothing else about him, just as this station is called only “station” and beyond it there exists nothing except the unanswered signal of a telephone ringing in a dark room of a distant city. i hang up the receiver, i await the rattling flush, down through the metallic throat, i push the glass door again, head toward the cups piled up to dry in a cloud of steam. from italo calvino, if on a winter’s night a traveler, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed september , ). mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics an example of multiple embeddings there may be multiple layers of discourse level embeddings. the following exam- ple illustrates this. in example ( ), the narrator’s discourse has an embedded characters’ discourse, which in turn has an embedded narrator’s discourse. ( ) but it wasn’t that you woke us. oh, no. ‘they’re looking for it; they’re drawing the curtain,’ one might say, and so read on a page or two. […] transmission across levels transmission typically occurs within a single discourse level, but it may also cut across levels, a phenomenon referred to as metalepsis. for example, the narrator may explicitly address the (supposed) reader. we annotate this by including the addressee explicitly (here reader) in the discourse level tag () as in example ( ). ( ) from virginia woolf, a haunted house, https://www.gutenberg.org/ (accessed september , ). manfred jahn, narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http://www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame / pppn (accessed september , ). gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, ). cultural analytics annotation guideline no. you are about to begin reading italo calvino’s new novel, if on a winter’s night a traveler. relax. concentrate. dispel every other thought. let the world around you fade. best to close the door; the tv is always on in the next room. […] we do not worry about the ontological status of an explicitly addressed reader, for example, whether it is an implied reader or an identifiable physical person. we distinguish this from the case when a narratee is addressed, typically using second-person pronouns, but no explicit reference to a reader or an act of reading is being made, as in example ( ). ( ) if you really want to hear about it, the first thing you’ll probably want to know is where i was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were occupied and all before they had me, and all that david copperfield kind of crap, but i don’t feel like going into it, if you want to know the truth. […] here, it might be tempting to think of “you” as an imagined reader, but it might just as well be an (imagined, third-person) listener to whom holden caulfield is telling his story. in the absence of information linking “you” with a reader, we assume the latter possibility. is thus the short form for . scenes to represent the basic progression of events in a narrative, we use a notion of scenes, inspired from film. we take a scene to be a coherent set of events at a particular interval in time and place, with a more or less constant set of characters. furthermore, we take a scene to be the minimal unit in this respect, anticipating that we will later be able to use scenes as primitives in higher-level structures, such as plot. consider example ( ) about the protagonist of a novel (frances) who is seeing her father. ( ) after dinner i told my mother i would visit him. she kneaded my shoulder and told me she thought it was a good idea. it’s a great idea, she said. good woman. from j. d. salinger, the catcher in the rye (boston: little, brown and company, ), where this is a frequent phenomenon. from sally rooney, conversations with friends (london: faber & faber, ), - . mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics i walked through town with my hands in my jacket pockets. the sun was setting and i wondered what would be on television. i could feel a headache developing, like it was coming down from the sky directly into my brain. i tried stamping my feet as loudly as i could to distract myself from bad thoughts, but people gave me curious looks and i felt cowed. i knew that was weak of me. bobbi was never cowed by strangers. my father lived in a little terraced house near the petrol station. i rang the doorbell and put my hands back in my pockets. nothing happened. i rang again and then i tried the handle, which felt greasy. the door opened up and i stepped in. dad? i said. hello? […] i’m off, i said. you’re away, are you? that bin needs taking out. see you again, my father said. our basic criterion for dividing a narrative into scenes is to think about it in terms of a faithful rendering as a film or a play. in the example above, we would obtain three scenes: the first one includes frances and her mother at her mother’s place talking to each other, the second is frances’s walking on her own to her father’s place, and the third one includes frances and her father’s meeting at her father’s place (further developed in the story). we would thus annotate the passage above as in example ( ). ( ) after dinner i told my mother i would visit him. she kneaded my shoulder and told me she thought it was a good idea. it’s a great idea, she said. good woman. cultural analytics annotation guideline no. i walked through town with my hands in my jacket pockets. the sun was setting and i wondered what would be on television. i could feel a headache developing, like it was coming down from the sky directly into my brain. i tried stamping my feet as loudly as i could to distract myself from bad thoughts, but people gave me curious looks and i felt cowed. i knew that was weak of me. bobbi was never cowed by strangers. my father lived in a little terraced house near the petrol station. i rang the door- bell and put my hands back in my pockets. nothing happened. i rang again and then i tried the handle, which felt greasy. the door opened up and i stepped in. dad? i said. hello? […] […] i’m off, i said. you’re away, are you? mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics that bin needs taking out. see you again, my father said. in this example, there are three scenes. the first scene covers the first and elements. the second scene covers the second element, and the third scene covers the third element and the second and third elements. narrative situation this section describes two notions related to the position and perspective of the narrator. we refer collectively to these as narrative situation. voice the notion of voice concerns the narrator’s relationship to the story, and more specifically whether the narrator is ever present in the story or not. if the nar- rator appears in the story at some point, we say that we have a homodiegetic nar- rative. such narrators usually refer to themselves in the first person, but there are exceptions to this, such as caesar’s de bello gallico in which the narrator refers to himself in the third person. in contrast, if the narrator is never present in the story, we say that we have a heterodiegetic narrative. such narrators usually refer to themselves in the third person, but again there are exceptions. we annotate this binary distinction using for a homodiegetic nar- rator and for a heterodiegetic narrator, with corresponding closing tags and , respectively. focalisation we take focalisation to correspond to the perspective from which the narrative is seen, and specifically how much information the narrator has access to; alterna- inspired by gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell uni- versity press, ), , but we do not use the term in the full meaning developed there. gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, ), chapter . cultural analytics annotation guideline no. tively, in what ways this information is restricted. we distinguish the following types: • zero or unrestricted the story is narrated from a fully unrestricted or om- niscient perspective. this often involves helicopter views of the story that no single character would be capable of, but it could also involve taking the perspectives or looking into the souls of the individual characters. the narrator knows more than any of the characters, symbolised by narrator > character. we annotate this as with a corresponding closing tag . • internal the story is narrated from the inside perspective of a character in the story, limited by the perception and feelings of that character. the narrator knows only as much as this character, symbolised by narrator = character. we annotate this as with a corresponding clos- ing tag . • external the story is narrated from a perspective outside of the characters in the story, like using a camera, but without an omniscient perspective, as in . typically, the main components of such narratives are dialogues and narrations in the form of neutral descriptions of events. the narrator knows less than any of the characters, symbolised by narra- tor < character. we annotate this as with a corresponding closing tag . definitions we end with a list of definitions of some of our central terminology. author’s discourse: the highest level of transmission in a narrative, from the author to a (typically) imagined, but explicitly referred reader of a story. consists of text. gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, ), . as put by tzvetan todorov, “les catégories du récit littéraire”, in communications, ( ): - , cited in gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, ), . as put by tzvetan todorov, “les catégories du récit littéraire”, in communications, ( ): - . as put by tzvetan todorov, “les catégories du récit littéraire”, in communications, ( ): - . mats wirén et al.< cultural analytics characters’ discourse: the lowest level of transmission in a narrative, from char- acter to character. consists of one or more turns. dialogue: the text corresponding to a characters’ discourse. this is not limited to spoken dialogue, but could also be soliloquy, interior monologue, thoughts, etc. layer: this refers to the overall annotation, which is ordered by an inclusion relation in four hierarchical layers. level: this refers to the type of narrative transmission in the fourth annotation layer. we distinguish between the highest level (author’s discourse), the inter- mediate level (narrator’s discourse) and the lowest level (characters’ discourse). narration: the text corresponding to a narrator’s discourse. narrator: the teller of the narrative; the person who articulates (“speaks”) the narrative. narrator’s discourse: the intermediate level of transmission in a narrative, from narrator to narratee. consists of text. narrative: anything that tells or presents a story. narrative situation: a collective name for voice and focalisation. story: a sequence of events involving characters. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. quoted from manfred jahn, “n . ”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http:// www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). quoted from manfred jahn, “n . ”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http:// www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). note that our use of the term does not capture the full meaning of that used by gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca, n.y.: cornell university press, ), . quoted from manfred jahn, “n . ”, in narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative, http:// www.uni-koeln.de/˜ame /pppn (accessed september , ). annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. gunther martens . . article doi: . / c. journal issn: - cite: gunther martens, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. january , . doi: . / c. the guideline under review builds on the acquired knowledge of the field of nar- rative theory. its main references are to classical structuralist narratology, both in terms of definitions (todorov, genette, dolezel) and by way of its guiding prin- ciples, which strive for simplicity, hierarchy, minimal interpretation and a strict focus on the annotation of text-intrinsic, linguistic aspects of narrative. most recent attempts to do “computational narratology” have been similarly “struc- turalist” in outlook, albeit with a stronger focus on aspects of story grammar: the basis constituents of the story are to some extent hard-coded into the language of any story, and are thus more easily formalized. the present guideline goes well beyond this restriction to story grammar. in fact, the guideline promises to tackle aspects of narrative transmission from the highest level (author) to the lowest (character), but also demarcation of scenes at the level of plot, as well as focalisation. thus, the guideline can be said to be very wide in scope. the shared task to which this guideline responds focuses on identifying and reaching consensus on the demarcation of narrative levels. in standard narrato- logical parlance, shifts in level correlate to shifts in the information distribution from one narrative agent to another. in keeping with film terminology, these acts, including of the act of taking charge of the narration itself, are taken to be acts of framing constitutive of distinctive levels: “we will define this difference in level by saying that any event a narrative recounts is at a diegetic level immediately higher than the level at which the narrating act producing gunther martens cultural analytics this narrative is placed.” in genette’s view, narrative levels lead to an intricate nesting or embedding effect of speakers and viewers. while the more comprehensive approach of the guideline will be more palatable to scholars trained in literary theory, it is to some extent undecided as to what it takes “levels” to mean. though the guideline addresses a broad set of narrative features, it is ultimately geared towards annotating the most conspicuous shifts in narrative levels: the turn-taking in dialogues between characters and switches in voice from narrator to character and vice versa. this is certainly the part of the guideline most easily to be operationalized. it should be pointed out that the guideline chose to restrict its interaction with the shared task corpus to a minimum: only three of the texts are briefly cited, and the bulk of the examples stems from sally rooney’s novel conversations with friends. it is stated that: “the main components of such narratives are dialogues”, which may help to explain why the annotation schema is more focused on reported speech than on reported thought. while the current guideline takes its cue mainly from the tried-and-trusted toolkit of (textual) narrative theory, it is also informed by digital humanities. this can be seen when aspects of the paratext (genette’s short-hand notation for any extra-textual element that frames texts and guides their reception) are taken into account, for instance when the typographic make-up of chapters, paragraphs and quotation is considered as a machine-readable index of narrative levels. likewise, aspects of the guideline go beyond structuralism when it under- takes to consider narratees and addressees. this extension of the narratological toolbox is in keeping with recent redefinitions of style in the area of digital humanities, as epitomized by the following definition: in digital humanities, ›style‹ is seen as anything that can be measured in the linguistic form of a text, such as vocabulary, punc- tuation marks, sentence length, word length, the use of character strings. the adoption of this line of reasoning becomes evident when the guideline draws on the layout of the texts: “alternations between discourse levels are usually sig- nalled by paragraph breaks.” it is certainly necessary and helpful to consider such material underpinnings of narrative structure. yet, there is a wide variety in na- tional and historical print cultures to be considered in this regard, so these appar- ently stable markers of narrative level should be handled with care and flexibility. gérard genette, narrative discourse: an essay in method (ithaca: cornell university press, ), . j. berenike herrmann, karina van dalen-oskam, and christof schöch, “revisiting style, a key concept in literary studies,” journal of literary theory , no. ( ): - . cultural analytics review of guideline no. the guideline claims that it seeks to make the annotation amenable to machine learning so as to “predict narrative structure”. while this is certainly a laudable ambition, it remains to be seen whether the guideline’s heuristic focus actually al- lows for this. the current guideline is rather hybrid in nature. on the one hand, it caters to the hermeneutic strengths of human annotators. especially the attempt to annotate the addressee(s) of specific utterances presupposes a lot of interpre- tation, as it hinges on implication and logical deduction rather than on actual mentions. likewise, the guidelines for annotating focalisation strike me as unde- cided. the main reference here is todorov, which is somewhat dated in view of the lengthy debates on various conceptualisations of focalisation and the question of its transferability to specific media. focalisation is restricted to “perspective of the narrator”. it would seem that even more semantics would be required to demarcate other types of focalisation. the ambition to cover these areas may run counter to the manual’s declared adherence to structuralist tenets, as both rely on interpretation and semantics. co-reference resolution of unstructured tex- tual data (like fictional narratives) is notoriously difficult. currently, automatic event detection on the basis of machine learning has proven most successful with regard to text genres that involve a lot of referential anchoring (e.g. news arti- cles). the current state-of-the-art allows machine learning to predict structure “in the wild” only over a limited span of semi-structured text. annotating the intricacies of implied audiences presupposes an even more extensive degree of co-reference resolution. i would like to take issue with another specific decision: the guideline argues in favour of handling tags as cleanly as possible, in order to provide a visual analogy to levels that it demarcates. for instance, it encloses the markers that attribute discourse to specific characters within the tags that demarcate that very content. these attributive markers typically involve verba dicendi in the so-called inquit- formulae. the main rationale for “includ[ing] the speech-verb construction in the line tag” is “to avoid cluttering the annotation”. i am not convinced that this is a workable decision. this might seem to be an issue of lesser importance with regard to texts that keep this attributive marking to an absolute minimum, as is the case in the samples from the contemporary novel. yet, if the focus of the shared task is indeed on identifying levels in a wide range of narrative texts, this decision is counterproductive. it undermines the attempt to identify levels and, ”r/programmerhumor - when do we want what?,” reddit, accessed june , . tommaso caselli and oana inel, “crowdsourcing storylines: harnessing the crowd for causal relation annotation,” in proceedings of the workshop events and stories in the news , , - . markus krug et al., “rule-based coreference resolution in german historic novels.,” in clfl@ naacl-hlt, , - ; s. malec et al., ”landing propp in interaction space: first steps toward scalable open domain narrative analysis with predication-based semantic indexing,” in diva, . gunther martens cultural analytics especially to extricate from sentences chunks that allow machines to identify pat- terns indicative of shifts in level. while the concatenation of discourse with dis- course markers is in line with a fairly recent trend in postclassical narratology, as i discussed elsewhere, it would seem that these tags are kept to a minimum for the sake of human readability. chunking at higher-order levels such as scenes is not necessarily the way to go when aiming for machine readability. in order to annotate narrative levels, it is mandatory to provide tagging at the micro-level of words rather than of sentences, paragraphs or even scenes. this will inevitably lead to a cluttered view to the human eye, but such a nesting of annotations is much more likely to lead to transfer learning. much more meta-information is needed with regard to the framing verbs. these tags could then be linked with ex- isting tag-sets that deliberately aim to target and/or attenuate contextual ambigu- ity, such as propbank and framenet. similar efforts are under way. a brief look at www.redewiedergabe.net might suffice to illustrate what such micro-coding may afford in terms of the detection of narrative levels. it is certainly laudable that the guidelines undertakes to emulate the structuralist annotation of complex aspects of narrative levels. it remains to be seen whether the textualist and bottom-up focus of this guideline warrants for a basis represen- tative enough to provide a gold standard in order to extrapolate from. granted, this is a dilemma that currently most attempts at doing computational narratol- ogy with roots in literary narrative theory are facing. while the adherence of the guideline to structuralist tenets can be lauded for its principled nature, there is much to be learned from the extension of the narratological toolkit in the di- rection of multimodality and paralinguistics. while references to time and co- reference can be resolved with a high degree of confidence in formulaic genres like news articles or scientific articles, especially co-reference resolution in ellip- tic fictional texts like virginia woolf ’s can probably only be solved by looking at interactions of readers and other users with the text (e.g. through eye tracking or the study of adaption in other media ). notwithstanding the many concep- tual challenges of doing transmedia comparisons, one may profit from compar- gunther martens, “narrative and stylistic agency: the case of overt narration,” in point of view, perspective, and focalization. modeling mediation in narrative, ed. peter hühn, wolf schmid, and jörg schönert, narratologia (berlin: de gruyter, ), - . annelen brunner et al., ”das redewiedergabe-korpus. eine neue ressource,” in digital human- ities: multimedial & multimodal. . tagung des verbands digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum e.v. (dhd ), ed. patrick sahle (frankfurt am main, ), - . geert brône and bert oben, eye-tracking in interaction: studies on the role of eye gaze in dia- logue (amsterdam: john benjamins, ). alexander dunst, jochen laubrock, and janina wildfeuer, empirical comics research: digital, multimodal, and cognitive methods (london: routledge, ). cultural analytics review of guideline no. ing with retellings and film adaptations to gauge more safely which words are imagined as spoken by what character (and to what music). the powers of machine learning can be harnessed more productively through learning from transfer and actual reception. hence, i am under the impression that a purely text-based, bottom-up approach will not suffice to reach the declared goal of prediction. narratology has already taken advantage of ongoing research in the fields of multimodality and paralin- guistics. also annotation schemata should go beyond purely text-intrinsic for- malism and accommodate for drawing on the ways in which users process and interact with complex narratives. this may involve annotating for semantic properties in tandem with strictly formal properties. this is a dilemma faced by all of those seeking to reconcile with cultural analytics. high-profile advances in the study of large amounts of narrative text, however, have been achieved without any reference to narratology or to (at least a customary understanding of) narra- tive aspects of the texts at hand ( e.g. authorship attribution in the cases of j.k. rowling and elena ferrante). these experiments do away with the nitty-gritty of conventional narratological analysis at the advantage of ruthless, yet highly prin- cipled reductions of complexity in order to make hidden patterns visible. at the same time, it should be clear that narratology’s toolkit has a lot in store to bring to the table of cultural analytics. annotating for narrative structures of reported speech and variations in ontological modalities may help to reveal that appar- ently unstructured text is far more structured and/or narrative than has often been taken for granted. narratologists should also be aware that a mere trans- position of these tried-and-trusted methods onto large amounts of unlabelled data necessitates compromise and conceptual tweaking. hence, this annotation guideline is a productive invitation to a much-needed continuation of the dia- logue between narratology and digital humanities. fritz breithaupt et al., ”fact vs. affect in the telephone game: all levels of surprise are retold with high accuracy, even independently of facts,” frontiers in psychology (november , ). katalin bálint and andrás bálint kovács, “focalization, attachment, and film viewers’ re- sponses to film characters: experimental design with qualitative data collection.,” in making sense of cinema: empirical studies into film spectators and spectatorship, ed. carrielynn d. reinhard and christopher j. olson (bloomsbury publishing usa, ), - . joakim tillman, ”solo instruments and internal focalization in dario marianelli’s pride & prej- udice and atonement,” in contemporary film music: investigating cinema narratives and composi- tion, ed. lindsay coleman and joakim tillman (london: palgrave macmillan uk, ), - . susanna salem, thomas weskott, and anke holler, “on the processing of free indirect dis- course,” linguistic foundations of narration in spoken and sign languages ( ): . gunther martens cultural analytics unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotation guideline no. : annotation guidelines for narrative levels adam hammond . . article doi: . / c. journal issn: - cite: adam hammond, “annotation guideline no. : annotation guidelines for narrative levels,” journal of cultural analytics. january , . doi: . / c. . rationale i first became aware of the santa project at the digital humanities conference in montreal in the summer of . i had just been assigned a -student second- year undergraduate digital humanities undergraduate english literature class, set to begin in january , and i was looking for a group annotation project for my students. in previous iterations of the course, i had carried out several anno- tation projects focused on the narrative phenomenon of free indirect discourse (fid) in texts by virginia woolf and james joyce. what made these projects successful, from my perspective, was that fid is a complex phenomenon (by def- inition, a passage in which it is difficult or impossible to say for certain whether a character or narrator is speaking certain words) which is however relatively easy to represent in machine language (for instance, with the tei element and a few value-attribute pairs). the challenge in the assignment, in other words, was literary rather than technical: while it was easy to learn the tei tagging, it the syllabus for this class, eng , “the digital text,” is available at http://www. adamhammond.com/eng s / see adam hammond, julian brooke, graeme hirst, “modeling modernist dialogism: close reading with big data,” reading modernism with machines: digital humanities and modernist liter- ature, eds. shawna ross and james o’sullivan (palgrave macmillan, ): - and julian brooke, adam hammond, graeme hirst, “using models of lexical style to quantify free indirect discourse in modernist fiction,” digital scholarship in the humanities . (june ): - . adam hammond cultural analytics was hard to say for certain whether a passage from to the lighthouse was in di- rect discourse or fid, or to identify who exactly was speaking. to my mind, this made the assignment a meaningful one for my students, teaching them a technical skill while also bringing them into closer contact with the sometimes- irresolvable complexities of literary language. listening to the santa presentation at dh , it struck me that the phe- nomenon of narrative levels would make for a similarly meaningful annotation project. on the one hand, narrative levels could be represented fairly easily with a single xml element and through xml’s nesting structure (its “ordered hierarchy of content objects”). on the other hand, definitions of what a narrative is, and what a “narrative level” might be, were sufficiently complex that the annotation even of a relatively simple text would present an interpretive challenge to my students. by the time that i had begun planning my course, the santa group had published a more detailed set of instructions on their website, including suggestions for theoretical readings on narrative levels. they organized these readings in three levels: introductory, basics, and advanced. reading through these texts, i was struck by three things. first, that the concept of narrative levels, relatively intuitive at first glance, becomes more complex the more one looks at it. second, that there was significant disagreement among narratologists concerning even basic categories (such as the distinction between a “narrative level” and a “narrative frame”). third, that many of my second-year undergraduate students would be deeply confused even by the recommended texts at the simplest, “introductory,” level. in light of this, i decided to keep my definitions as simple as possible — as close as possible to the level of the “intuitive,” and free from explicit discussion of the theo- retical disagreements that preoccupy narratologists who study the phenomenon. since my motivation in preparing annotation projects is to find tasks that are sim- ple technically but make my students reflect deeply about literary phenomena, i would keep my tagging scheme as simple as possible and restrict my definitions to the points on which all narratologists basically agree. this led to the very short guidelines that you see here — the shortest, by some margin, in this group. al- though it could be argued that their brevity might lead to unnecessary disagree- ment among annotators — that by offloading so much of the literary work to my students, i was deliberately reducing the likelihood that the guidelines would produce annotations with useable levels of inter-annotator agreement — my sus- picion from the beginning was that any greater detail would in fact simply con- fuse my student annotators and reduce inter-annotator agreement. (analysis of the first round of santa annotation schemes confirms this suspicion to some see https://sharedtasksinthedh.github.io/levels/ cultural analytics annotation guideline no. extent.) my guidelines depend on annotators’ mastering three relatively simple concepts. the first is the concept of a narrative, which i define, drawing on porter abbott’s cambridge introduction to narrative, as “a representation of a story (an event or series of events) by a narrator.” the next is the notion that a given text can contain more than one narrative, and that narratives can be embedded within one another. i provide a rule of my own devising for helping students to de- cide whether they have a reached a moment at which one narrative is embedded within another: if they could plausibly insert the phrase “let me tell you a story” (a phrase which captures both sides of my simple definition of a narrative, the narrator [“me”] and the story itself) at the beginning of the proposed embedded narrative, then they should mark the beginning of a new narrative. the third con- cept is that of degrees of embeddedness, borrowing terminology from shlomith rimmon-kenan via manfred jahn. in my original guidelines, the annotation is described in terms of xml tags, which makes the discussion of embedding some- what simpler, in that i can simply import xml’s model of embedding and make the assumption that narrative levels also form an “ordered hierarchy of content objects.” a further benefit of this simple annotation scheme is that it serves to focus the eventual computational task. though annotations produced according my guide- lines could not be used to train machine learning models in all narrative phenom- ena related to narrative levels, they could help to keep attention focused on three crucial and related tasks: identifying moments where one narrative yields to an- other; identifying the speaker of each; and placing these narratives in hierarchical relation to one another. i carried out my annotation project as follows. first, i assigned henry james’s the turn of the screw, and presented a two-hour lecture focused in large part on how james’s complicated framing structure serves to complicate (rather than resolve) the text’s many “narrative gaps.” the next week, in another two-hour h. porter abbott, the cambridge introduction to narrative, nd edn. (cambridge: cambridge up, ). abbott defines a narrative as “the representation of a story (an event or series of events)” ( ). he excludes the necessity of a narrator from his definition of a narrative on the basis that this would exclude most drama and film. since i was working exclusively with prose fiction, this exclusion was not necessary for my own schema. manfred jahn, “n . . narrative levels,” narratology: a guide to the theory of narrative (english department, university of cologne, ), http://www.uni-koeln.de/~ame /pppn.htm#n . the actual guidelines distributed to students — which describe the annotation project in terms of xml — are available at http://www.adamhammond.com/wp-content/uploads/ / / narrative-frames-annotation-guidelines.pdf the main difference between these guidelines and the tool-agnostic version included here are the necessary addition of the “open” attribute, which is a less elegant method than the method described in note below. adam hammond cultural analytics lecture, i introduced the students to xml and to the project itself. in this lec- ture, i provided slightly more detail than i provide in the guidelines themselves. for example, i showed students genette’s speech bubble doodle and discussed its implications. i introduced box diagrams for representing narratives within narratives, for instance in the thousand and one nights, as follows: i also provided corresponding diagrams emphasizing the stratified levels of nar- rative — the “degrees” of narrative — in such box diagrams: i provided additional diagrams for hamlet, the taming of the shrew, and the turn of the screw. for the latter text, i emphasized that there were multiple valid ways of interpreting the text’s structure: for instance, the governess’s tale could be the slides for this lecture are available at http://www.adamhammond.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /eng _narrative_levels_lecture.pdf cultural analytics annotation guideline no. envisioned as a third-degree narrative embedded within douglas’s and the outer narrator’s, or could be seen as embedded only within that of the outer narrator; further, certain stories that the governess tells mrs. grose could be marked as separate narratives, though one could argue that they are simply part of the gov- erness’s narrative, not independent of it. i also used turn of the screw to introduce the notion of “open frames.” i next explained “mise-en-abyme” or recursive narratives. i concluded the lecture by explaining the process students would use to annotate their assigned stories. i next posted an instructional video explain- ing the annotation procedure, which students accomplished with the sublime text editor. in practice, the project seems to have been a success in the context of undergraduate pedagogy. in the annotations received in the project, there were only three coding errors — evidence that, as desired, the technical challenge was minimal. although we have yet to perform detailed investigation of inter- annotator agreement among my students, informal evaluations performed in the context of grading students’ work revealed that disagreement occurred primarily in instances where literary interpretations might reasonably differ — evidence that the literary questions asked of students were meaningful ones. going for- ward and revising these guidelines for use beyond my classroom, i would add more explicit and theoretically-grounded definitions and include diagrams like those depicted above. . overview a set of narrative texts are to be annotated for narrative levels. any span of text containing a narrative is to be marked with the nframe category marker. for the purpose of our task, a narrative is defined as a representation of a story (an event or series of events) by a narrator. the texts in our annotation set may contain a single narrative (and thus a single nframe category) or may contain multiple narratives embedded within one another (nframe categories within nframe cat- egories). if you come to a point in a text where you are uncertain whether to indicate a shift in narrative levels, imagine inserting the phrase “let me tell you a story” right after the proposed division point. if the phrase fits, you should in my original guidelines, these open frames indicated by a deliberate xml error — withholding an end-tag — which is not practical but which i believe perfectly captures a reader’s feeling at the end of a story like the turn of the screw, where it is as if the author had made a coding error, omitting crucial information that allows us to properly process the conclusion of the story. the instructional video is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dseeulcyfsu the texts i assigned to students were mostly those proposed by the project, though i made several sub- stitutions based on various factors, including stereotyped representations of racialized characters in certain supplied texts. for instance, i replaced rudyard kipling’s “beyond the pale” and “how the leopard got its spots” with wallace thurman’s “cordelia the crude” and an abridged version of zora neale hurtson’s their eyes were watching god. adam hammond cultural analytics likely mark a new narrative level. the nframe category has two necessary and one optional attribute. • level attribute the level attribute is used to express the degree of embedding of a narrative. if the narrative is not embedded within any others, it is a top-level or first-degree narra- tive and should be given the attribute value of “a”. a narrative embedded within an “a”-level narrative — a narrative within a narrative, or second-degree narrative — is given the attribute value of “b”. a narrative embedded within a “b”-level narrative — a narrative within a narrative within a narrative, or third-degree nar- rative — is given the attribute value “c”, and so on. note that a text may contain multiple narratives at each level. for instance, the thousand and one nights con- tains hundreds (in some tellings, exactly , ) of “b”-level narratives — some of which contain “c”-level narratives of their own. • narr attribute • open attribute the narr attribute keeps track of the narrator who conveys the narrative. we will represent these with numbers. the first narrator you encounter should be numbered “ ”, the second “ ”, the third “ ,” and so on. if the narrator of a “b”- level narrative is the same as the narrator of the “a” level, both are numbered “ ”. if the narrator of a “b”-level narrative is different from the narrator at the “a” level, the first is numbered “ ” and the second “ .” and so on. some writers choose deliberately to leave frames “open.” for example, in henry james’s the turn of the screw, the governess’s “c”-level tale is framed within a christmas fireside storytelling session by two narrators, the “a”-level “i” and the “b”-level douglas. yet after the governess finishes her tale, james does not return to the “a” or “b” levels to explicitly close them. instead, they are left hanging. indicate “open” by setting the “open” attribute to “true” (if not indicated, it will be assumed that the frame is “closed”). . sample annotations a simple text containing only one narrative might be annotated as followed, using xml markup as an example: it was a dark and stormy night. the wind blew and the wolf howled. the wind blew open my window and the wolf entered. the wolf bit me and i died.a text containing a single “b”-level narrative might be annotated as follows. (since the narrator of the “b”-level narrative is different cultural analytics annotation guideline no. from that of the “a”-level narrative, it is given the narrator attribute of “ ”.) it was a dark and stormy night. the wind blew and the wolf howled. the wind blew open my window and the wolf entered. the wolf opened his mouth and spoke. "once upon a time, when i was but a young pup, a wizard appeared before me and predicted my fate. he told me that one day, i would leap through a window and eat a man whole. after enduring many hardships, i have come to enact my fate." he bit me and i died.a text containing two “b”-level narratives and a single “c”-level narrative might be tagged as follows. (since the narrator of the second “b”-level narrative is the same as the “a”-level narrative, they share the narrator attribute of “ ”.) it was a dark and stormy night. the wind blew and the wolf howled. the wind blew open my window and the wolf entered. the wolf opened his mouth and spoke. "once upon a time, when i was but a young pup, a wizard appeared before me and predicted my fate. the wizard told me, 'i was born in the east. my father was a plumber and my mother an auto mechanic. from a young age, it was clear that i had little talent for either profession, so i set off for the wizard academy. my expert wizardry has brought me here to you. you, dear wolf, will some day leap through a window and eat a man whole.' and so here i am. after enduring many hardships, i have come to eat you." before he had a chance to eat me, i tried to distract him with a story. "once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo...". but he found the story boring and so he bit me and i died. • special case: “open frames” in the following example, the “a”-level narrative is not explicitly closed by nar- rator (presumably because he has been eaten and is unable to write) and thus the attribute “open” attribute has been set to “true” it was a dark and adam hammond cultural analytics stormy night. the wind blew and the wolf howled. the wind blew open my window and the wolf entered. the wolf opened his mouth and spoke. "once upon a time, when i was but a young pup, a wizard appeared before me and predicted my fate. he told me that one day, i would leap through a window and eat a man whole. after enduring many hardships, i have come to enact my fate. " • special case: “mise-en-abyme” narratives some narratives, especially popular with postmodern writers, paradoxically embed a story within itself. this paradoxical situation can be represented by showing a series of “a”-level narratives embedded within one another: it was a dark and stormy night. the band of robbers huddled together around the fire. when he had finished eating, the first bandit said, "let me tell you a story. it was a dark and stormy night and a band of robbers huddled together around the fire. when he had finished eating, the first bandit said: 'let me tell you a story. it was a dark and stormy night and...' " . other notes if a shift in narrative level occurs around a chapter break and you’re unsure whether to put your nframe category marker before or after the chapter header, put it after. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. tom mcenaney . . article doi: . / c. journal issn: - cite: tom mcenaney, “annotating narrative levels: review of guideline no. ,” journal of cultural analytics. january , . doi: . / c. “let me tell you a story.” the proposed guidelines suggest that this phrase serve as the heuristic that readers supply at the beginning of any possible embedded narrative to identify a shift in narrative frames or levels. (the difference between “frame” and “level,” although perhaps confusing in the history of narratology, does not seem like an important distinction at this stage of the project.) this simple phrase, the author suggests, can replace a field of narrative theory they feel would “simply confuse my student annotators.” however simple the phrase might seem, however, it, in fact, conceals a number of key narratological issues: focalization, temporal indices, diction / register, person, fictional paratexts, du- ration, and, no doubt, others. the question for the guidelines is whether one can leapfrog the particularity of these issues if students use the above phrase to annotate texts with xml tags and produce operational scripts that identify the nested narratives. as it currently stands, students seem capable of learning the basic idea of nested narratives and tagging changes in narrative frames, but there are no real results to confirm the project’s success, as the author reports they are not yet able to confirm any inter-annotation agreement. how does one “identif[y] moments where one narrative yields to another”? we might have an intuitive sense of this change, or we might see obvious di- acritical markers (new sets of quotation marks, for instance), but teaching the machine would seem to require more specific categories. certain classic narra- tological keywords (“story” vs “discourse”) and debates (“narrate or describe?”) tom mcenaney< cultural analytics might play a part in teaching what is at stake in these narrative shifts, but they do not seem necessary to identify changes in narrative footing. on the other hand, the key categories mentioned in the first paragraph seem useful for writing a program that would include a robust sense of narrative theory. for instance, a reader might notice a change in person (first, second, third, singular or plural), or a character name. or a reader might realize that while the previous narrative was told in the present tense, the next strip of discourse appears in the imperfect. additionally, there might not be any change in person or tense, but a new regis- ter might take over the text. all of these concepts might fall under the umbrella term of “focalization,” and, if the author of the proposed guidelines does indeed have a sturdy model for sorting moments of free indirect discourse, as they sug- gest in the proposal, perhaps that script could address these issues. but what if a change in person and / or tense and / or register occurs for only a sentence or two in the course of a dialogue between two characters. is this a new narrative? duration, the number of words that pertain to a shift in person and / or tense, seems like a relevant concept to help in classification, as well. lastly, how would such a classifier independently account for fictional paratexts such as epistolary introductions, fictional prefaces, or other frames that might not differ in person, diction, or tense? can we limit the search to just one or a few of these key cate- gories and still write a script that successfully identifies the transition from one narrative frame to another? operationalizing these issues would seem necessary in order to fulfill the author’s proposal to find a “use beyond the classroom” for these guidelines. on the other hand, the guidelines do seem useful as a pedagogical assignment to draw attention to issues of focalization and other key features of narrative for stu- dents confused by the jargon of narrative theory or unconvinced or unexcited by non-operational hand annotation (i.e. circling moments where they’ve identified a change in narrative frame). moreover, the proposed assignment seems like an excellent introduction to the very idea and process of operationalizing literary concepts. in a classic of popular narratology, umberto eco’s six walks in the narrative woods (delivered as the - norton lectures at harvard), eco repeatedly turns to the th century french writer gérard de nerval’s sylvie to explain his theory of nested narratives, the differences between an “author,” “model author” and “narrator,” and the temporal problems that arise alongside or at an intersec- tion with these categories. citing bal, barthes, booth, chatman, cohn, genette, greimas, ricoeur, todorov, and white, eco concludes that “a text is a lazy ma- chine that demands the reader do part of its work.” can the proposed guidelines make a more active and flexible machine? a machine that will easily identify cultural analytics review of guideline no. shifts in narrative levels or frames? and will the results help readers to attend to the meaningfulness of these changes in perspective, acting alongside one ma- chine reading another? the proposal’s success will depend on whether it can answer these questions positively. unless otherwise specified, all work in this journal is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. foreword introduction introduction to annotation, narrative levels and shared tasks evaluating annotation guidelines description of submitted guidelines and final evaluation results annotation guidelines and reviews annotation guideline review of guideline annotation guideline review of guideline annotation guideline review of guideline annotation guideline review of guideline annotation guideline review of guideline annotation guideline review of guideline annotation guideline review of guideline op-llcj .. uc berkeley uc berkeley previously published works title what ever happened to project bamboo? permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ jq tm author dombrowski, quinn publication date - - peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ jq tm https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ what ever happened to project bamboo? ............................................................................................................................................................ quinn dombrowski research it, uc berkeley, berkeley, ca , usa ....................................................................................................................................... abstract this paper charts the origins, trajectory, development, challenges, and conclusion of project bamboo, a humanities cyberinfrastructure initiative funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation between and . bamboo aimed to en- hance arts and humanities research through the development of infrastructure and support for shared technology services. its planning phase brought together scholars, librarians, and it staff from a wide range of institutions, in order to gain insight into the scholarly practices bamboo would support, and to build a com- munity of future developers and users for bamboo’s technical deliverables. from its inception, bamboo struggled to define itself clearly and in a way that resonated with scholars, librarians, and it staff alike. the early emphasis on a service- oriented architecture approach to supporting humanities research failed to con- nect with scholars, and the scope of bamboo’s ambitions expanded to include scholarly networking, sharing ideas and solutions, and demonstrating how digital tools and methodologies can be applied to research questions. funding con- straints for bamboo’s implementation phase led to the near-elimination of these community-oriented aspects of the project, but the lack of a shared vision that could supersede the individual interests of partner institutions re- sulted in a scope around which it was difficult to articulate a clear narrative. when project bamboo ended in , it had failed to realize its most ambitious goals; this article explores the reasons for this, including technical approaches, communication difficulties, and challenges common to projects that bring to- gether teams from different professional communities. ................................................................................................................................................................................. introduction project bamboo was a humanities cyberinfrastruc- ture initiative funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation between and , in order to en- hance arts and humanities research through the de- velopment of infrastructure and support for shared technology services. in , the mellon foundation funded a joint proposal for uc berkeley and the university of chicago to conduct a planning process that would gather feedback from scholars, librar- ians, and it staff from a wide range of institutions, and build a community of future developers and users for bamboo’s technical deliverables. where project staff anticipated attendees representing institutions, over ultimately participated, representing more than institutions. this article charts the origins, trajectory, devel- opment, challenges, and conclusion of project bamboo, from its initial funding through the months immediately following its conclusion. the article is an expansion of the author’s presentation at digital humanities , with the goal of provid- ing background and context for further discussion within the digital humanities community about les- sons that can be learned from this project. correspondence: hearst avenue, suite , berkeley, ca , usa. e-mail: quinnd@berkeley.edu literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , . � the author . published by oxford university press on behalf of eadh. all rights reserved. for permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com doi: . /llc/fqu advance access published on june . . paper paper material for this article has been drawn from a number of sources, most prominently the public bamboo wikis, supplemented by the author’s own memory, that of colleagues, and email records. while this article largely deals with the facts of project bamboo, a layer of interpretation is inevit- able, particularly as pertains to the factors contri- buting to the project’s failure to realize its most ambitious goals. the conclusions drawn are the au- thor’s own, and neither a product of consensus among the participants nor an official statement on behalf of project bamboo, the university of chicago, uc berkeley, or the mellon foundation. origins in the mid- s, discussions about cyberinfrastruc- ture emerged in higher education it circles, includ- ing educause and the coalition for networked infrastructure. future bamboo project co-director chad kainz, then the senior director of academic technologies within the university of chicago’s central it unit, saw a role for cyberinfrastructure, and what would come to be known as cloud com- puting, in addressing the following issues he had encountered while supporting digital humanities projects: ( ) at least two-thirds of the time spent on typical humanities technology projects was spent on developing the technology rather than focus- ing on the scholarship, ( ) many of the projects centered on either ‘yet another database’ or ‘yet another website’, and ( ) the technologies that were ultimately created for the projects in question were developed before, but for different contexts, thus ‘re- inventing the wheel’. (kainz, ) at the educause seminar on academic computing, kainz discussed support for digital humanities with chris mackie, at that time an associate program officer for the research in information technology (rit) program at the mellon foundation. for mackie, the issues that kainz identified also led to frustrations for funding agencies: foundation funds were being directed to- ward the development of software that would likely not be reused and the creation and presentation of data that could spread no further than a single web site or database, rather than substantively furthering humanities scholarship. mackie encouraged kainz to partner with david greenbaum, the uc berkeley director of data services and future bamboo co-director, to initiate a mellon-funded project that would address these issues. based on feedback from mackie, kainz and greenbaum revised an initial technology development proposal into a community-driven technology planning project. bamboo planning project proposal the bamboo planning project proposal identified five key communities whose participation was seen as crucial for the project’s success: humanities researchers, computer science researchers, informa- tion scientists, librarians, and campus technolo- gists. anticipating—if understating—the root of many of the challenges that would arise in the work- shops, the proposal noted that ‘[e]ach community has distinctive practices, lingo, assumptions, and concerns; and clearly there is much diversity within each community as well’ (project bamboo, , p. ). the proposal drew extensively on infor- mation and examples shared by representatives of these five communities at uc berkeley who at- tended an all-day focus group at the townsend center for the humanities in november . perspectives from university of chicago faculty and staff also contributed to the view of the then- current landscape of digital humanities depicted in the proposal. while both uc berkeley and the university of chicago are leading research institu- tions with strong programs in the humanities and a number of longstanding digital humanities projects (e.g. artfl at the university of chicago, and the sino-tibetan etymological dictionary and thesaurus at uc berkeley), these projects were more the exception than the norm, and faculty members at these institutions were not highly involved in the leadership of large digital humanities what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , paper , . paper . ' (cni) chicago's , / `` '' `` '' `` '' s project's . organizations, in . as such, while the depiction of the digital humanities landscape in the proposal may have been accurate for some faculty members at research institutions, it reflected neither the ex- periences and concerns of many noteworthy digital humanists, nor those of scholars at small liberal arts schools, though both groups participated in bamboo’s workshops. this omission, while difficult to avoid at such an early stage, opened the project up to criticism. in the context of the bamboo planning project, the role of the humanities scholar was to share in- formation about methods, practices, and workflows, paying particular attention to ‘pain points’ and areas where current tools and services were inad- equate. technologists and librarians would then construct a proposal for the development of new services and underlying infrastructure to support scholarship in the humanities. the bamboo plan- ning proposal did not significantly treat the possi- bility that humanists might focus on needs that could not meaningfully be addressed through the development of technology. the proposal specified the two models that the infrastructure and scholarly services would draw from: large enterprise soa practices for scalability, management, cost-effectiveness, and long-term sta- bility on one hand, and mash-ups, which emphasize ease, flexibility, and fast innovation on the other (project bamboo, , pp. – ). the bamboo planning proposal charted a direct path from the expression of scholarly practices within and across disciplines (in the first workshop) to systematizing those practices into defined schol- arly workflows that could be used ‘to derive com- monalities and unique requirements related to practices, functions, barriers, needs, and existing and potential transformations at the disciplinary level’, to developing ‘a community-endorsed tech- nology services roadmap for scholarship’, along with organizational, staffing, and partnership models to support those services. it anticipated that ‘arts and humanities scholars [would] begin to shape technology options by questioning impacts of potential technological choices, clarifying misin- terpreted goals and ultimately co-determining a roadmap of goals to pursue, tools to provide, platforms on which to run, and architecture to use’ (project bamboo, , p. ). soa would play an increasingly prominent role as the work- shops progressed. between the workshops, participants would pro- pose pilot projects that would be undertaken by bamboo program staff. these pilot projects would ‘be based on industry-accepted practice and open standards for a services-oriented architecture’ and would ‘present . . . a tangible expression of how ser- vices can function . . . facilitate understanding and critique . . . our process, as well as clarify our seman- tics and goals’ (project bamboo, , p. ). according to the plan, by the end of the bamboo planning project, the initial group of partici- pants from institutions would be narrowed down to participants from the institutions that would move ahead with implementing a robust, scalable web services framework and a set of services that aligned with scholarly practice in the humanities, as defined by participating scholars. in reality, this plan changed dramatically when faced with the interests and priorities of actual humanities scholars. bamboo planning workshops one of the hallmark traits of the bamboo planning workshops was their flexibility—on more than one occasion, plans and agendas that had been painstak- ingly prepared over weeks were discarded and com- pletely rewritten after a frustrating morning session. this began with the first iteration of workshop (held in berkeley, – april ). after high- level presentations on bamboo, its approach, and its methodology, participants were asked to name abstracted scholarly practices (as verbþdirect object), provide a description, identify applicable domains, cluster those practices, and then repeat the process for emerging scholarly practices, while scribes filled in an excel spreadsheet template with different tabs for each exercise. faculty participants were particularly turned off by the technical jargon in the presentations (including ‘services’, as com- monly understood by it staff), and the program staff’s pushing for immediately abstracting q. dombrowski literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , . `` '' service-oriented architecture ( ) - , service-oriented architecture . ... .. … ... --- , `` '' verbþdirect object ‘scholarly practices’ instead of facilitating a conversation about what scholars do. the spreadsheet was emblematic of the disconnect between the plan for workshop and what scholars believed was needed, as it was unable to capture the narrative of their discussions. by the second day of the workshop, the exercises took on a less rigidly structured form, and this informed the process used with greater success in the subsequent three iterations of workshop . at the time, the incident at the first workshop was largely interpreted as a tactical misstep, rather than the beginnings of a challenge to the entire premise and planned approach of project bamboo. after the completion of the workshop series ( april– july ), work continued as defined in the proposal: program staff aggregated the notes taken during the workshop meetings, and distilled from that material a set of ‘themes of scholarly prac- tice’ to present at workshop ( – october ). program staff also prepared and presented an introduction to soa in the context of bamboo, intended to link the themes of scholarly practice to the planning for future technical development that would be the focus of subsequent workshops. this approach to workshop backfired. while developing the themes of scholarly practice, pro- gram staff had created accounts for over work- shop participants on the project wiki, anticipating that they would actively contribute to the process of theme distillation. the minimal uptake (six con- tributors, each making a few edits) was interpreted as a consequence of humanists being unaccustomed to using a wiki for scholarly discussions, com- pounded by the unintuitive interface of the confluence wiki platform. in person, however, it quickly became clear that what scholars found unin- tuitive was the program staff’s approach of present- ing their livelihood back to them as a set of ‘scholarly practices’. already frustrated by the seem- ingly purposeless decontextualization and misrepre- sentation of scholarship in the humanities, many workshop attendees were not disposed to attempt to make sense of the technical language and the ‘wedding cake’ diagram used to present the soa component of the project. in heated q&a sessions, some participants went so far as to challenge the legitimacy of a cyberinfrastructure initiative for the humanities led by it staff rather than by humanists themselves. during workshop , it became clear that ‘com- munity design’ could not simply mean that the community would deliberate the details of a web services framework. the community had spoken and made it clear that continuing to emphasize soa would alienate the very members of the com- munity bamboo was intended to benefit most: the scholars themselves. while a web services frame- work would continue to play an important role in the project, it was represented in only one or two of the six working groups established at workshop . the other groups focused on topics drawn from the themes of scholarly practice, with the exception of ‘stories’ (later renamed ‘scholarly narratives’), a last-minute addition to address concerns about the decontextualization inherent in the process of iden- tifying themes of scholarly practice. participants were allowed to choose the working group in which they would participate, but the program staff strove to balance group membership, so that it staff were not the only participants in shared services, librarians were not the only participants in the tools & content partners, etc. professional homogeneity within working groups would have made the discussions easier, but mixing up the membership was seen as a productive step toward developing a single community that bridged profes- sional divides, with a shared vision informed by a diverse range of perspectives. after workshop , working groups focused on specific needs, opportunities, and challenges for bamboo in relation to their working group topic. working group findings were presented and discussed at workshop ( – january ), along with a straw proposal outline and straw con- sortial model. the straw proposal outline intro- duced the idea that the bamboo implementation project would be a – year endeavor that would need to be split into two phases. the straw proposal outline did not attempt to prioritize the foci of the different working groups, treating them all as part of the first phase ( – ). the resulting highly am- bitious scope drew criticism from workshop at- tendees, who also noted the lack of specifics about what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , `` '' felt . -- , `` '' - , services-oriented architecture ' staff's `` '' `` '' service-oriented architecture `` '' , `` '' `` '' weren't weren't s - , . - - what exactly bamboo would do, and the lack of defined criteria for success. at workshop ( – april ), the bamboo staff presented a more detailed articulation of a ‘bamboo program document’, which outlined the – year vision and defined the activities to be carried out in the first development phase. the major activities for bamboo were divided into three areas, with the first two major areas slated for im- plementation in the first phase : ( ) the forum (a) scholarly network (b) scholarly narratives (c) recipes (workflows) (d) tools and content guide (e) other educational and curricular materials (f) bamboo community environment(s) ( ) the cloud (a) services atlas (b) bamboo exchange (c) shared services lifecycle (d) tool and application alignment partnerships (e) content interoperability partnerships ( ) bamboo labs (a) diversity, innovation, and labs (b) ecosystem of projects and initiatives (c) structure (explore, plan, and build) (d) liaisons (e) governance while the workshop discussion draft of the pro- gram document had already benefited from two rounds of asynchronous feedback from participants, concerns remained about the lack of specificity in each of these areas. however, this did not hinder participants from expressing their enthusiasm for the areas of work proposed for the first phase of development. grouped by institution, participants voted on each sub-area of the ‘forum’ and the ‘cloud’, to indicate interest (none/low/medium/ high/potential leadership). every topic except tools and content guide had at least one potential leader, and content interoperability (ci) partnerships, services atlas, and scholarly network all received a significant number of ‘high’ votes. workshop ( – june ) featured presen- tations of demonstrator projects and discussions of the draft bamboo implementation proposal in- tended to be submitted to the mellon foundation that fall. the proposal, as discussed at the workshop, had the following major areas of work : ( ) scholarly networking—comprising the earlier scholarly networking and bamboo exchange from the program document. ( ) bamboo atlas—comprising scholarly narratives, recipes (workflow), tool and content guide, educational and curricular materials, and services atlas from the pro- gram document. ( ) bamboo services platform—the major area of technical development for the project, com- prising tool and application alignment partnerships, ci partnerships, and shared services lifecycle from the program document. at workshop , the participants (comprising % arts and humanities faculty, % technologists, and % ‘content partners’, primarily librarians and archivists) were asked to vote (yes/no/abstain) on these areas of work. participants overwhelmingly voted yes on all three, while a handful of ab- stainers continued to voice strong concerns about scope, particularly with regards to the bamboo atlas. bamboo implementation proposal during the summer and fall of , the bamboo program staff engaged in an iterative feedback pro- cess with chris mackie from the mellon foundation on the proposal that developed out of workshop . the program staff intended to submit the proposal to the mellon foundation by the end of , for consideration at the mellon board meeting in march , with work beginning shortly thereafter. instead, an organizational restructuring at the mellon foundation in december brought bamboo proposal development to a halt. in this restructuring, the mellon foundation merged the rit program that funded bamboo into the q. dombrowski literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , . - , `` '' , - . `` '' `` '' . `` '' - , , , , , -- -- . -- content interoperability ed of `` '' , , *** scholarly communication program, and the pro- gram officers with whom bamboo had been work- ing closely left the foundation. over the next months, bamboo program staff worked with donald waters and helen cullyer, the program officer and associate program officer in the scholarly communication program at the mellon foundation, on an implementation proposal for bamboo that aligned with a different set of con- straints and priorities than those provided by the former rit program. the mellon foundation’s ear- lier investment of $ . million dollars in bamboo’s planning phase had left the project team anticipat- ing a larger investment in the project’s development. this proved not to be the case, and the pool of resources available to bamboo contracted further in the wake of the global economic crisis, as it and/or library groups at potential partner institu- tions faced steep cuts, leaving fewer staff, less cash, and a stronger mandate for directing what resources remained toward projects with immediate local impact, rather than contributing to a consortium in potentia with long-term potential. scope reduc- tion, which bamboo had resisted, became unavoid- able, and the priorities of the scholarly communication program shaped the outcome. rather than reducing the scope of all areas of bamboo equally, the ‘bamboo commons’ area (consisting of the earlier scholarly networking, scholarly narratives, recipes/workflow, tool and content guide, educational and curricular materials, and service atlas) was eliminated almost entirely, with only a machine-oriented ‘tool and ser- vice information registry’ remaining. the resulting bamboo implementation proposal more closely resembled the one suggested by the soa-oriented planning project proposal than the document dis- cussed at workshop . even as the project’s scope contracted through the elimination of almost all of the community-oriented aspects, it expanded in other ways. two new areas of work that had previ- ously received minimal attention were ‘work spaces’—virtual research environments intended to provide basic content management capabilities and/ or access to the tools on the services platform—and planning and design work for corpora space, ‘applications that will allow scholars to work on dispersed digital corpora using a broad range of powerful research tools and services’ (project bamboo, , p. ). corpora space was to be built on top of the bamboo infrastructure during a subsequent technical development phase. in the bamboo implementation proposal, uc berkeley alone served as managing partner, with nine other universities contributing to the project: australian national university, indiana university, northwestern, tufts, university of chicago, univer- sity of illinois—urbana-champaign, university of maryland, oxford, and university of wisconsin— madison. the university of chicago pi for the bamboo planning proposal, vice president and cio greg jackson, left that institution in august , followed by chad kainz, bamboo planning project co-director, a year later. none of the chi- cago-based staff who were actively involved in the management of the planning process reprised those roles in the implementation phase. in addition, uc berkeley hired a new project manager, and had to develop new relationships with staff at the univer- sities of wisconsin and maryland who took on areas of the project that chicago had previously managed. these staffing changes led to a loss of the project’s organizational memory, which had particularly negative consequences for the message and tone of the project’s communication with scholarly communities. bamboo technology project it remains difficult to articulate succinctly what project bamboo was, without either resorting to barely informative generalities (‘humanities cyberin- frastructure, particularly for working with textual corpora’) or a list of the areas of work. the project struggled to identify a coherent vision that neatly encapsulated all the work being done in the name of bamboo, or to clearly describe what future state the work would collectively realize. the lack of a shared vision was compounded by the staffing model for the different areas. most institutions focused on one area or subarea, giving them little exposure to the work going on elsewhere in the pro- ject. unlike the planning project working groups, what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , . six s `` '' `` '' `` '' -- -- -- -- a year later . - where membership represented a mix of scholars, technologists, and librarians, the different areas of the bamboo technology project were each staffed by the ‘usual suspects’—technologists focusing on shared services and work spaces, librarians focusing on interoperability, and scholars focusing on corpora space. this arrangement helped lead to a sense of mutual mistrust among the different groups —not atypical in project development, but corrosive nonetheless. effective communication with scholarly and pro- fessional communities was never one of project bamboo’s greatest strengths. even during the plan- ning project, most activity took place on a public wiki whose complex organization was a barrier to access. the news feed on the project web site had always been updated sporadically, but the complete lack of updates to the public web site between august and april —a period including the first months of the month technology project—fueled confusion and doubt about what, if anything, bamboo was doing. once periodic com- munication resumed in april with the launch of a new rebranded web site, the lack of a clear shared vision became more apparent, as did the challenges of having such a widely distributed pro- ject team; some areas of the project received much more visibility than others. outside observers’ com- bined uncertainty and lack of agreement about what bamboo was doing were detrimental to the project’s reputation, to the point where it became a source of concern for the project staff and mellon foundation alike. nonetheless, a considerable amount of technical development and planning work took place under the auspices of the bamboo implementation project between and . major accomplishments included the following: � development of identity and access management (iam) services, which also made possible ac- count linking (e.g. of a user’s university and google accounts). � development of a ci hub that normalized texts using the bamboo book model. � development of utility and scholarly services, and their deployment along with iam services on a centrally hosted bamboo services platform. � investigation of hubzero, alfresco ecm, and the opensocial api as platforms for ‘work spaces’ or research environments for scholars that could be integrated with the bamboo services platform. � partnering with the long-running digital research tools (dirt) wiki to develop bamboo dirt (http://dirt.projectbamboo.org), which would serve as bamboo’s ‘shared tools and services information registry’. � the corpora space design process, where huma- nities scholars and tool developers conceptua- lized a set of applications that would allow scholars to work on dispersed digital corpora using a broad range of powerful research tools and services. the end of project bamboo between december and december , the uc berkeley bamboo program staff drafted two nearly complete proposals for a second development phase. the first, written in partnership with teams at the university of wisconsin and the university of maryland, directly followed from the corpora space planning process. the proposal was abandoned in june , after it became clear that insufficient re- sources would be available. when the mellon foundation’s technical review of bamboo empha- sized bamboo’s place as an infrastructure project (rather than an application development project), berkeley started over on a new proposal in that spirit. the new version, developed with a team from tufts, focused on extending the infrastructure and demonstrating its utility through a ‘classical philology reference implementation’. on december , days before the anticipated final submission, the mellon foundation declined to move ahead with inviting the bamboo proposal, citing the project’s track record of failing to define itself or achieve adoption for its code, the fact that it had not retained its partners, as well as dissatisfac- tion with the proposal itself. the mellon foundation requested that the team bring the pro- ject to a close, with an eye toward making the pro- ject’s legacy visible to and usable by others. q. dombrowski literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , `` '' , w six , , - project's , content interoperability ( ) , - `` '' dirt ( ) http://dirt.projectbamboo.org `` '' - `` '' , s between january and march , the remaining bamboo staff worked with partners to develop and publish a documentation wiki that would serve as a sort of ‘reliquary’ for the project, alongside the code repository, issue tracker, the archived web site, email lists, and social media accounts. respecting the mellon foundation’s preferences, the bamboo staff never publicly announced that bamboo was over. word simply spread informally and un- evenly beyond the notification of project partners, until the day when the web site was replaced by the reliquary. bamboo’s afterlife some of the components of bamboo are still in use in other contexts. . perseids the perseids project at the perseus digital library (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/) integrates a variety of open-source tools and services to provide a platform for collaborative editing and annotation of classical texts and related objects. an instance of the bamboo services platform is deployed as part of perseids to provide access to the tufts morphology and annotation services, and the supporting cache and notification services developed at berkeley. under new funding from the mellon foundation, perseids developers will be exploring approaches, including those offered by bamboo iam compo- nents, for enabling the platform to better support cross-project and cross-institution collaboration. in addition, the perseus digital library is currently exploring the viability of the bamboo iam infra- structure to support a centralized user model for the perseus ecosystem of distributed applications and services. . cifer designs and technologies for account linking (part of bamboo’s iam work) have become the acknowl- edged basis of several items on the development roadmap for community identity framework for education and research (cifer, http://www.cifer project.org/), a collaborative effort across a large number of research institutions and consortia to provide an ‘agile, comprehensive, federation- and cloud-ready iam solution suite’. . dirt directory in october , the mellon foundation funded a proposal for additional work on bamboo dirt, which would be rebranded as the dirt directory. this new project included the development of an api that will facilitate data sharing with other digital humanities directories and community sites, includ- ing dhcommons (http://dhcommons.org) and the commons-in-a-box (http://commonsinabox.org/) platform, which powers sites such as the mla commons (http://commons.mla.org/). the dirt directory continues to thrive as a community- driven project. conclusion project bamboo began with the ambitious dream of advancing arts and humanities research through the development of shared technology services. conscious of the challenges for humanities cyberin- frastructure identified in the our cultural commonwealth report (unsworth et al., ) (e.g. ephemerality, copyright, and conservative academic culture), the bamboo program staff identified those issues as out-of-scope for bamboo after workshop , but they continued to impact the project none- theless (e.g. copyright as the fundamental motivat- ing force behind iam work). prior work on social science infrastructure devel- opment suggests that bamboo’s mode of engage- ment—bringing together people from the scholarly, technology, and library communities after bamboo had a conceptual and technical trajec- tory, while nonetheless expecting ‘participatory design’—would be a source of tension. indeed, the wide range of responses to the initial technology- oriented proposal put bamboo in a bind. technologists and some librarians tended to see it as important and necessary, while many scholars felt that their needs lay elsewhere entirely. changing scholars’ minds would not be quick; as noted in what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , `` '' and . http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ cifer ( http://www.ciferproject.org/ http://www.ciferproject.org/ http://dhcommons.org http://commonsinabox.org/ http://commons.mla.org/ . , `` '' ribes and baker ( ), ‘conceptual innovation is an extended process: one cannot simply make claims about the importance of . . . [e.g. cyberinfras- tructure] and expect immediate meaningful com- munity uptake’. accommodating the interests of all three groups would necessarily mean a broader scope, but additional supporters could bring with them additional resources to make such a scope possible. it also seemed more promising than the alternative of creating a new group of like-minded technologists and librarians who would move forward with an soa-focused devel- opment effort without focusing on scholarly out- reach and adoption. in retrospect, doing so may have led the project to greater technical success, but it is arguable whether taking such an approach from the start was even a real option, given bamboo’s public commitment to a ‘community design process’. from the early planning workshops to the mellon foundation’s rejection of the project’s final proposal attempt, bamboo was dogged by its reluc- tance and/or inability to concretely define itself. in the early days, avoiding a concrete definition was motivated by a desire for the project to remain flex- ible and responsive to its community. the tendency toward generality persisted long after it had ceased being adaptive, even after it became a source of criticism. an infrastructure project like bamboo could be expected to name the tools and corpora it would integrate as a way to be more concrete, but it became apparent that very few of the tools in use by digital humanists at that time were being refac- tored to fit the model bamboo was architected to support (i.e. scholarly web services running on nonprofessionally managed servers). if ‘true infra- structures only begin to form when locally con- structed, centrally controlled systems are linked into networks and internetworks governed by dis- tributed control and coordination processes’ (edwards et al., ), the shortage of locally con- structed systems with wide scholarly uptake that were technically compatible with bamboo was prob- lematic. the work done in the bamboo technology project was pitched as laying the infrastructure for top-to-bottom support for working with textual corpora. bamboo would support a complete scholarly workflow, from accessing and ingesting texts from repositories, to analyzing and curating them using scholarly web services, all within an en- vironment that facilitated collaboration. this vision was complicated by the decision to include integra- tion with three different research environment sys- tems, each with a distinct approach and feature set. this choice was partly pragmatic (allowing partners to focus on whatever platform their institution had already invested in ), partly in keeping with bamboo’s philosophy (the infrastructure was in- tended to be flexible, not tied to any one user- facing platform). flexibility and scalability were part of the early value proposition for bamboo, and they remained influential considerations in the architecture and development of the infrastructure. however, the in- frastructure was architected in such a way that made it difficult to complete and release stand-alone com- ponents that could be tested and used while other parts were incomplete. as a result, it was nearly impossible to create demonstrator projects that scholars or digital humanities developers could try out and that potential funders could evaluate. demonstrator projects could have effectively and concretely shown that bamboo was producing something useful, or provided an opportunity for feedback at a stage where it could have been incor- porated productively. the technical team and the scholarly team had very different perspectives on what was needed, which led to frustration and com- munication failures from both sides. consequently, the technical team relied on hypothetical scholarly use cases. given the emphasis placed on the import- ance of communication between technical and nontechnical communication in literature on cyber- infrastructure development (e.g. freeman, ), addressing this communication breakdown should have been a higher priority. the extensive develop- ment time required for infrastructure components, without opportunities to confirm that the compo- nents successfully fulfilled real needs, may have proven even more problematic had bamboo continued. the resources allocated to bamboo were signifi- cantly smaller than amounts provided to similarly scoped infrastructure projects in the sciences. q. dombrowski literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , ' `` '' s - . - - bamboo’s struggle to produce value within these constraints was made more challenging by a failure to differentiate needs essential to the humanities, and those unique to the humanities. it is crucial in the long run for scholars to be able to work with texts in access-restricted repositories, but the pre- requisite iam infrastructure represents a common need across all universities. seeing that existing con- sortia dedicated to working on this problem would not have a solution ready in time for bamboo to adopt, it might have been wiser for bamboo to re- define its initial scope to only include free-access textual repositories, allowing it to demonstrate suc- cess by sidestepping the encumbrance of copyright as identified by our cultural commonwealth. while bamboo’s iam work did make significant technical contributions, it came at the cost of diverting lim- ited resources from other areas of the project, and became a ‘reverse salient’ (edwards et al., ) for the entire bamboo infrastructure. deferring decision on bamboo’s sustainability plan and operational model until the second phase of development was consequential on multiple fronts. from a technical angle, it risked path de- pendency problems: the best technology choices for a centrally run enterprise-level platform may have made it considerably harder for individual uni- versities to run the platform under a different model. from the social perspective, postponing de- cisions about what ‘membership’ would mean, how much it would cost, and what it would provide made it difficult for institutions to assess whether they would be ‘winners’ or ‘losers’ (edwards et al., ) if bamboo succeeded. while bamboo pro- gram staff saw bamboo as freeing up local staff to provide more hands-on consulting about the appli- cation of scholarly tools (rather than spending time configuring and managing locally run tools and en- vironments), some groups were concerned that uni- versity administration might see those staff as redundant in the face of bamboo, and lay them off rather than transition them to new kinds of fac- ulty support. particularly for liberal arts colleges that had participated in the planning project, there was no way to engage with bamboo to increase one’s chances of ending up a ‘winner’, other than joining an occasional invite-only ‘community’ conference call. given the expansive scope of bamboo’s other deliverables, it was unrealistic for bamboo program staff to have additionally taken on the work of establishing a sustainability plan during the first phase of technical development. still, defer- ring or constraining the scope of some of the tech- nical work (e.g. reducing the number of work space platforms) in order to redirect resources toward determining a viable operational and membership model before the second phase of development might have made more institutions willing to invest in bamboo. perhaps, the greatest impediment to bamboo’s success was the lack of a shared vision among project leaders, development teams, and communi- cations staff. in the beginning, bamboo had multi- university cross-professional teams whose members faced challenges in communication and culture but helped one another understand bamboo’s goals in more nuanced ways. during the development phase, teams were formed on the basis of profession and institution, each one working according to their own status quo, with little connection to a bigger picture. the bamboo planning project asked partici- pants ‘what’s in it for you?’—an important consid- eration often overlooked in consortial efforts. without a shared vision to counterbalance the pull of self-interest, a complex multi-faceted project like bamboo becomes little more than a funding um- brella for individual initiatives. as the likelihood of those initiatives intersecting in a coherent way decreases, project messaging becomes muddled, and the resulting decrease in public confidence and comprehension can jeopardize a project’s con- tinued existence. brett bobley, director and cio of the office of digital humanities at the national endowment for the humanities, offered his own interpretation of and eulogy for bamboo at digital humanities , which may serve as a fitting conclusion here. he suggested that, if nothing else, bamboo brought together scholars, librarians, and technologists at a crucial moment for the emergence of digital huma- nities. the conversations that ensued may not have been what the bamboo program staff expected, but they led to relationships, ideas, and plans that have blossomed in the years that followed (e.g. dirt and what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , - `` '' - `` '' `` '' `` '' - `` '' `` '' s `` '' -- , the tapas project), even as bamboo itself struggled to find a path forward. references dombrowski, q. and denbo, s. ( ). tei and project bamboo. journal of the text encoding initiative, . http://jtei.revues.org/ (accessed november ). kainz, c. ( ). the engine that started project bamboo, friday sushi http://fridaysushi.com/ / / /the- engine-that-started-project-bamboo (accessed november ). edwards, p., jackson, s., bowker, g., and knobel, c. ( ). understanding infrastructure: dynamics, ten- sions, and design report from ‘‘history & theory of infrastructure: lessons for new scientific cyberinfrastructures,’’ designing cyberinfrastructure for collaboration and innovation. http://cyberinfras tructure.groups.si.umich.edu//understandinginfrastruc ture_finalreport jan .pdf (accessed april ). freeman, p. ( ). is ‘designing’ cyberinfrastructure – or, even, defining it – possible? designing cyberinfrastructure for collaboration and innovation http://cyberinfrastructure.groups.si.umich.edu//oecd- freeman-v - .pdf (accessed april ). project bamboo. ( ), bamboo planning project: an arts and humanities community planning project to develop shared technology services for research. grant proposal to the andrew w. mellon foundation. http://dx.doi.org/ . /h j (accessed november ). project bamboo. ( ), bamboo technology proposal (public). grant proposal to the andrew w. mellon foundation. http://dx.doi.org/ . /h d b (ac- cessed november ). ribes, d. and baker, k. ( ). modes of social science engagement in community infrastructure design. in steinfield, c., pentland, b. t., ackerman, m., and contractor, n. (eds), communities and technologies . london: springer, pp. – . terras, m. ( ). bamboozle, melissa terras’ blog http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/ / /bambooo zle.html (accessed november ). unsworth, j., courant, p., fraser, s. et al. ( ). our cultural commonwealth: the report of the american council of learned societies commission on cyberinfrastructure for humanities and social sciences. american council of learned societies. http://www. acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/cyber.htm (accessed april ). notes despite later impressions to the contrary, early participation in bamboo was open to any interested college or university (http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/colleges- universities), museum or library (http://web.archive. org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/ museums-libraries), or organization, society, or agency (http://web.archive.org/web/ /http:// projectbamboo.org/organizations-societies-agencies) that could pay for their own travel and lodging. the university and library-oriented calls for participation mentioned the possibility of ‘limited travel support’ that could be arranged on a case-by-case basis; in prac- tice, bamboo covered lodging for participating teams during the nights of the workshops. as of november , archived versions of the bamboo planning project wiki (http://dx.doi.org/ . / h rn sk) and bamboo technology project wiki (http://dx.doi.org/ . /h mw f ) are hosted at uc berkeley. project bamboo was one of the first initiatives the author was involved in when employed by the academic technologies group of central it at the university of chicago, shortly after leaving a ph.d. pro- gram in the humanities and while concurrently pursu- ing an mlis degree. the author was a member of bamboo’s core program staff throughout the planning process; while she was minimally engaged in the early stages of bamboo’s implementation phase, by she was involved in both development and planning, and in she again joined the program staff at uc berkeley, where she is still employed. later prose would reduce this number to three by col- lapsing the distinction between information scientists and librarians and eliminating computer science re- searchers. the latter group was barely represented in the attendees of workshop , let alone subsequent workshops. one representative example, from a blog post entitled ‘bamboozle’ (which also exemplifies the unfor- tunate wordplay on the project’s name that persisted throughout its duration): . . .an interesting proposal to sort out what needs to be done to aid scholars in using computa- tional power and tools in their research. but there is very little evidence that they have done their homework to what efforts have gone into this before, and no mention of the digital huma- nities community/communities (such as alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho); q. dombrowski literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , , among others http://jtei.revues.org/ http://fridaysushi.com/ / / /the-engine-that-started-project-bamboo http://fridaysushi.com/ / / /the-engine-that-started-project-bamboo http://cyberinfrastructure.groups.si.umich.edu//understandinginfrastructure_finalreport jan .pdf http://cyberinfrastructure.groups.si.umich.edu//understandinginfrastructure_finalreport jan .pdf http://cyberinfrastructure.groups.si.umich.edu//understandinginfrastructure_finalreport jan .pdf http://cyberinfrastructure.groups.si.umich.edu//oecd-freeman-v - .pdf http://cyberinfrastructure.groups.si.umich.edu//oecd-freeman-v - .pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /h j http://dx.doi.org/ . /h j http://dx.doi.org/ . /h d b http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/ / /bambooozle.html http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/ / /bambooozle.html http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/cyber.htm http://www.acls.org/cyberinfrastructure/cyber.htm http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/colleges-universities http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/colleges-universities http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/colleges-universities http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/museums-libraries http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/museums-libraries http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/museums-libraries http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/organizations-societies-agencies http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/organizations-societies-agencies `` '' http://dx.doi.org/ . /h rn sk http://dx.doi.org/ . /h rn sk http://dx.doi.org/ . /h mw f `` '' they've association for literary and linguistic computing (allc); association for computers and the humanities (ach); society for digital humanities/société pour l’étude des médias inter- actifs (sdh/semi); text encoding initiative (tei)) and the hundreds of scholars already tread- ing this path or trying to deal with the concerns raised in the proposal (terras, ). scholarly practice as defined by bamboo: ‘for example, authoring might be considered a scholarly practice that is comprised of many component tasks; these tasks may include a literature review, documenting citations, acquiring peer review, etc.’ (project bamboo, , p. ). the stated goal of workshop was to ratify the findings of a report on scholarly practice written based on feed- back from the first workshop, and ‘aggregate the initial list of component tasks required to complete these practices along with desired automation capabilities’ (project bamboo, , p. ). as a requirement for attending the second workshop, each institution had to send ‘at least one arts and humanities scholar and one enterprise-level technologist with, if possible, either serious interest in or experience with services-oriented architecture (soa)’ (project bamboo, , p. ). in workshop , ‘a professional soa consultant will train participants to leverage our task lists by converting them to services. we will then attempt to describe scholarly practices as a sequence of identified service capabilities (in comparison, at the end of the previous workshop scholarly practices were described as a set of component tasks)’ (project bamboo, , p. ). in workshop , participants would ‘assign some type of initial grouping of scholarly practices, and prioritiza- tion as to the order in which services should be de- veloped’ (project bamboo, , p. ), and begin discussing organizational issues for a bamboo consor- tium and requirements for being a partner institution in the next phase; these topics would also serve as the focus for the th and final workshop. at workshops b (chicago, – may), c (paris, – june), and d (princeton, – july), there were six exercises: ( ) initial impressions: what do you hope bamboo will accomplish? what questions do you have re- garding bamboo? we are gathering together repre- sentatives from a range of backgrounds—scholars, libraries, it staff, presses, and funding agencies— around the theme of how technology can better serve arts and humanities research. based on what you have heard at the table and read from the proposal, what one or two questions, observa- tions, and hopes would your table like to share with the group? ( ) exploring scholarly practice: as a researcher, librar- ian, it professional, computer scientists, etc., during a really good day, term, research cycle, etc. what productive things do you do in relation to humanities research? ( ) common and uncommon: what are common themes that have emerged from your exploration of scholarly practices? based on your discussion of scholarly practices, what are two themes that piqued the curiosity of those at your table, or are uncommon? what makes these themes common and uncommon? ( ) unpacking a commonality: what discrete practices are involved in this theme? what outstanding issues need to be addressed in regards to this theme? ( ) unpacking the uncommon: for whom/which dis- ciplines or areas of study is this theme helpful? what discrete practices are involved in this theme? what outstanding issues need to be ad- dressed in regards to this theme? ( ) identify future scholarly practices/magic wand: when you look at new-hires or up-and-coming graduate students, what practices do they use that are different from yours? if you had a magic wand, what would make your day, term, research cycle, etc. more productive in relation to research? see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h h pbv for a list of the themes that were identified. education (professional development of faculty and staff around digital tools and methodologies for teach- ing and research), institutional support (identifying service models and articulating the scope and value proposition of bamboo), scholarly networking (eval- uating existing social networking and virtual research environment platforms for potential adoption by bamboo), shared services (comprising much of the original soa vision), and tools & content partners (identifying models and standards for tool and con- tent discovery and integration). see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h cc xm for more information about working groups, and links to the wiki pages of indi- vidual working groups. the agenda and notes for workshop are available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /h p w k. slides from the implementation proposal presentation and notes on the discussion that followed are available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /h x k . what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , two three four fifth - - - -- -- : d http://dx.doi.org/ . /h h pbv http://dx.doi.org/ . /h cc xm http://dx.doi.org/ . /h cc xm http://dx.doi.org/ . /h p w k http://dx.doi.org/ . /h x k slides from the consortial model presentation and notes on the discussion that followed are available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /h cvt. these criticisms emerged in the discussion of the pro- posal: ‘focused on value proposition; really needs to start saying what it is. need to be more specific con- crete things on the table. lots of things involving text processing. for this to have clearly perceived value— need to start saying what those things are. also some consensus that just from social perspective begins to be important to go back home after receiving funding to go to these things, ‘‘here’s what we’re going to do’’ ’ (table ); ‘finiteness of resources, and realities of what have to be accomplished. have to tell stories about people who could put resources in. need more finite sense of what is involved. a little con- cerned that we haven’t had that focusing-in phase.’ (table ); ‘need to iterate - if bamboo is ambitious, will fail over and over. will succeed only if there’s a sustainability model that will allow for tweaking and redesigning’ (table ). see http://dx.doi.org/ . / h x k . all released versions of the bamboo program document are available here: http://dx.doi.org/ . /h vd wcj. for full descriptions of each of these areas, see http:// dx.doi.org/ . /h qn n . notes are available on the discussions about the forum (http://dx.doi.org/ . /h kw cxg), cloud (http://dx.doi.org/ . /h g n g), and labs (http://dx.doi.org/ . /h bg kw ). see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h q v r for full re- sults and discussion notes. notes on these presentations are available at http://dx. doi.org/ . /h z fd. a larger list of demon- strators is available in the demonstrator report: http://dx.doi.org/ . /h z kz . dombrowski and denbo ( ) includes a discussion of some of the challenges that the ‘nyx/barlach bibliography’ project encountered when attempting to demonstrate a service for processing tei. all versions of the draft implementation proposal are available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /h td v . version . was discussed at workshop . a more thorough description of the areas of work in version . of the draft bamboo implementation proposal can be found here: http://dx.doi.org/ . /h pn ht. there was originally a fourth area of work, ‘bamboo community’—a repackaging of ‘bamboo community environments’ from the pro- gram document. participants largely agreed that this should not be treated as an area of work, but a component of the larger section on community and governance. as a result, this section was not put up for a vote. in response to feedback from workshop , the scholarly networking area of work was merged with the bamboo atlas, and this combined entity was renamed the ‘bamboo commons’. see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h jw bs for full results. ‘direction of bamboo atlas is fine, but i have big reservations about the scope, both as it was described in original document and fear discussions haven’t nar- rowed scope at all’; ‘[w]hen you’re reading texts or doing markup, when you find a place that doesn’t make sense, it’s a place of interest but also a place where if you slice/dice differently, problem goes away. atlas is a confusing chunk—what’s in it, what does it do, trying to tease it out, etc. not clear exactly what the atlas does; pieces of it that one has associated with it are useful. not trying to eliminate what it’s doing. but might make it cleaner to take pieces of atlas (esp. ones that have to do with bamboo users) and move to scholarly networking, and rename the whole thing.’ http://dx.doi.org/ . /h jw bs this was reported publicly in the chronicle of higher education: http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/ in-potential-blow-to-open-source-software-mellon- foundation-closes-grant-program/ . on january, the following message was posted to the ‘news’ section of the project bamboo web site: on january , the chronicle of higher education published on its blog an article regard- ing recent changes at the mellon foundation and in particular, the closure of the rit program. although the planning project had been sup- ported by rit, the changes have had a minimal impact on bamboo. at the end of december, both the university of california, berkeley, and the university of chicago were contacted by the foundation, and bamboo was smoothly migrated into the scholarly communications program. in short, the transition has gone well, and we look forward to working with scholarly communications into the future. (http://web. archive.org/web/ /http://project- bamboo.org/news?page¼ ) this frequently manifested itself in the concern that the scholars would be unable to design sufficiently scalable applications, and that the technologists q. dombrowski literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , http://dx.doi.org/ . /h cvt `` , here's we're haven't — there's http://dx.doi.org/ . /h x k http://dx.doi.org/ . /h x k http://dx.doi.org/ . /h vd wcj http://dx.doi.org/ . /h vd wcj http://dx.doi.org/ . /h qn n http://dx.doi.org/ . /h qn n http://dx.doi.org/ . /h kw cxg http://dx.doi.org/ . /h g n g http://dx.doi.org/ . /h bg kw http://dx.doi.org/ . /h q v r http://dx.doi.org/ . /h z fd http://dx.doi.org/ . /h z fd http://dx.doi.org/ . /h z kz `` '' http://dx.doi.org/ . /h td v http://dx.doi.org/ . /h pn ht http://dx.doi.org/ . /h pn ht `` '' `` '' `` '' http://dx.doi.org/ . /h jw bs haven't you're doesn't it's what's it's http://dx.doi.org/ . /h jw bs http://dx.doi.org/ . /h jw bs http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/in-potential-blow-to-open-source-software-mellon-foundation-closes-grant-program/ http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/in-potential-blow-to-open-source-software-mellon-foundation-closes-grant-program/ http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/in-potential-blow-to-open-source-software-mellon-foundation-closes-grant-program/ th `` '' , research in information technology ( ) http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/news?page= http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/news?page= http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/news?page= http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://projectbamboo.org/news?page= would spend inordinate amounts of resources on sys- tems with minimal scholarly utility. these concerns were never raised through official channels, but had a real presence in informal conversations among members of each professional group. this topic often arose over the course of the planning project workshops. some examples: ‘sees huge gulf between librarians/faculty and technologists; so here is an opportunity to communicate with each other’ (ex , b-b); ‘hope bamboo moves beyond the usual conversation between humanities scholars and digital technology, i.e. ‘‘what do you want?’’, ‘‘what can you do?’’ also troubled by formula of service, that digital technology folk and librarians are there just to ‘‘ser- vice’’ the humanities faculty; should be a partnership of equals, both have research goals they want to pursue’ (ex , b-d); ‘libraries, publishing and faculty are not talking. it in the background. efficiency and effectiveness are not entirely a huma- nities priority.’ (ex , b-e); ‘humanities and it people have different definitions of effectiveness v efficiency? humanities has ‘‘productive inefficiency’’ ’. (ex , b-e) see http://quinndombrowski.com/pro- jects/project-bamboo/data/building-partnerships-be- tween-it-professionals-and-humanists for more quotes from the planning project workshops that refer to this phenomenon. for further information about bamboo’s iam work, see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h f gd. for more information about the architecture and im- plementation of the ci hub, see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h g jrp. see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h q t c for a de- scription of the bamboo book model, including its implementation through a cmis binding. the bamboo book model is also discussed in dombrowski and denbo ( ). see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h z for a list of service apis that were developed by bamboo. by proxying access through the bamboo services platform, remotely running scholarly services could take advantage of iam and utility services (e.g. result set caching and notification) hosted on the platform. see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h x jtn for more about the architecture, development, and invocation of centrally hosted bamboo services. see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h sf t b for details about the type and extent of integration accomplished for each platform. see http://dx.doi.org/ . /h np c for informa- tion about the design process. during this transition period, the author received an email from a bamboo planning project partici- pant inquiring after upcoming opportunities for his liberal arts institution to become more involved. even a few months after the project bamboo web site was replaced, at digital humanities , the author fielded multiple questions about the status of bamboo. an ‘advocacy’ working group was discussed at work- shop (http://dx.doi.org/ . /h rf rzj), but participants were concerned that it failed to make a clear distinction between the self-promotion necessary for bamboo’s adoption and advocacy with regards to larger issues facing digital humanities, such as those laid out in our cultural commonwealth. ultimately, a working group was not formed around this topic after workshop ; the key issues for bamboo in this area were reframed as ‘principles for leadership’, and expli- citly put on hold (http://dx.doi.org/ . / h ms qnj). the bamboo program staff members were aware that a good deal of scholarly functionality was only available as desktop software (e.g. juxta), or systems that required complex installation (e.g. philologic), in . they anticipated that software development in digital humanities would evolve toward a web services model, following trends in enterprise soft- ware development. some tools have moved in this direction: juxta released a web service in (http://www.juxtasoftware.org/on-the-juxta-beta-relea se-and-taking-collation-online/), and philologic in- cludes web services (http://dx.doi.org/ . / h h zx ). however, as of , scholarly tools are still not expected to be delivered as web services, and a great deal of work is done using stand-alone web ap- plications such as voyant tools (http://voyant-tools. org/), or locally run packages such as mallet (http://mallet.cs.umass.edu/). the modest duration of these institutional commit- ments came into conflict with the longer development, deployment, and support timelines for a large cyber- infrastructure initiative. while the level of bamboo infrastructure integration for hubzero came closest to achieving the vision of the ‘work space’, by , the university of wisconsin, madison, was moving away from supporting hubzero. work was underway to port the integration code to drupal—which had been selected as the ‘work space’ platform for the second phase of technical development—when bamboo was shut down. what ever happened to project bamboo? literary and linguistic computing, vol. , no. , http://quinndombrowski.com/projects/project-bamboo/data/building-partnerships-between-it-professionals-and-humanists http://quinndombrowski.com/projects/project-bamboo/data/building-partnerships-between-it-professionals-and-humanists http://quinndombrowski.com/projects/project-bamboo/data/building-partnerships-between-it-professionals-and-humanists http://dx.doi.org/ . /h f gd http://dx.doi.org/ . /h g jrp http://dx.doi.org/ . /h g jrp http://dx.doi.org/ . /h q t c http://dx.doi.org/ . /h z - , , etc. http://dx.doi.org/ . /h x jtn http://dx.doi.org/ . /h sf t b http://dx.doi.org/ . /h np c http://dx.doi.org/ . /h rf rzj `` '' http://dx.doi.org/ . /h ms qnj http://dx.doi.org/ . /h ms qnj s http://www.juxtasoftware.org/on-the-juxta-beta-release-and-taking-collation-online/ http://www.juxtasoftware.org/on-the-juxta-beta-release-and-taking-collation-online/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /h h zx http://dx.doi.org/ . /h h zx http://voyant-tools.org/ http://voyant-tools.org/ - http://mallet.cs.umass.edu/ `` '' -- , `` '' -- hello everyone welcome to the second session of this webinar entitle digital humanities new approach to research and teaching of the medieval mediterranean i would like to to say thanks again to the society of the medieval mediterranean for sponsoring this webinar. in this session focus on digital teaching we have the privilege to count with the presence of panelists who are expert, who are specialized in this file okay just like previous session i will introduce them in order of appearance so and then we have then we will speak and then we have time for enough time for question okay for attendees to make questions to the speakers so our first panelist is jamie wood okay okay jamie that we have now in a video okay is associate professor of history at the university of lincoln he's especially interested in digital pedagogies and to create and share the results of the independent work with others both within and beyond the academy okay so thank you for stay here jamie and the next speaker will be charles west i tried to put down yep just hi charles. charles is reader in medieval history at the university of sheffield his focus on the advantages of wikipedia for teaching at the higher education specifically, in medieval history so thank you for staying here charles. our next speaker is okay okay try to okay lynn ramey is professor of french at vanderbilt university and faculty director of the digital humanities centre she's working to create a video game engine that will allow a video game engine sorry that will allow users to play as medieval travellers so quite interesting our next finalist thank you lynn for for staying here as well our next panellist is dr robert houghton i will try to put them into the screen you are not we don't have you in this okay robert i don't know because jamie is fixed in the screen i think i tried to fix it now i don't know if you could see jamie, i don't know if you see robert in the screen would you say me . yeah i can see robert yeah okay okay as i say robert houghton is interested in video games too he's a new lecturer in early medieval history at the university of winchester his work considers the representation of of the middle ages in modern games and the ways in which these games can be used for teaching and research okay and finally we have here ainoa his lecturer in manuscript studies and history of the church at the university of salamanca in spain see are in charge of the website literavisigotica.com about iberian peninsula manuscript studies focus focuses sorry on visigothic script so thank you all of you for staying here today and now we will start i am going to make sorry i'm going to make a quick introduction uh to how this webinar works i remind you that each speaker will take about minutes and then we will we'll go on to the q and a questions okay for about minutes so i would like to encourage attendees all of you attendees that you are here we know to write their comments or questions in the q a portal that you have at the bottom of the screen okay so are you ready let's start okay so we will begin with our first first panelist that is jamie i am going to try to okay thank you for disconnect the video okay thank you lynn okay so jamie will give leave a paper about making digital history so i hand over to you jamie thank you. okay thank you um hopefully everyone can see me and yep i’m going to try and share my screen in right now you see my screen yeah yeah excellent i will start the slideshow um okay um as nerea said i’m um associate professor in history at the university of lincoln in a medieval historian and i work particularly on the late antiquing early medieval period in the iberian peninsula but for the past few years i’ve been involved in various digital history digital history teaching projects at the university of lincoln and collaborating with people elsewhere so i’m going to sort of talk to you a little bit about some of those and then the main part of the talk will be about one of one particular project i’ve been doing over the last couple of years um there's no pretence here to being systematic this doesn't this diagram doesn't represent any kind of theory of teaching and learning it simply represents my um what i’ve worked on really um and i was trying to for an introduction i wanted to kind of try and summarize some of the kind of try and tie that together and really what what my approach to digital history teaching particularly in teaching medieval things um because that's my specialism has been to focus on active engagement active student engagement not passive engagement um so there are a number of different ways in which i i’ve tried to work with this over the years um to encourage students to learn about navigating the internet for themselves rather than telling them not to do it which was the approach when i first started teaching warning people off wikipedia hasn't worked engaging students actively and creatively with wikipedia like charles is going to talk about has i think has a lot more benefits to it and i am particularly interested in approaches that encourage students right from the start of their degrees and this extends beyond digital approaches getting students to ask their own questions rather than focusing on answering the questions that we want to ask them um i’ve also been interested in the different ways in which students learn through play and that's whether they learn through play within the classroom through possibly creating kind of games within the classroom or what they learn through um playing computer games so i’m particularly interested to hear robert’s talk as well um and really through all this what i’m very interested in and unpicking and what i think is particularly powerful for students is this idea of making that they by making things objects digitally or making meaning for themselves by doing things actively this is one of the this is a really powerful way of activating student learning and engagement and interest in our subject um the the project i’m going to talk about now is one that's about reading and really thinking about how we one of the how we kind of teach students to read really and thinking about how we can encourage them to be more active in their approach to reading online in particular uh through actively commenting and through asking again asking questions of their own based on their reading rather than answering my questions about the reading i already know what answers i’ve got to my questions i don't really need the students to tell me them it's if i’m being perfectly frank um so the the project that i’ve been doing for the last couple of years um is called act is kind of decided to call its active online reading and it really stemmed from a problem that i've faced ever since i began teaching at university over years ago now is how to get students to engage actively with their reading i used to be perplexed that students would come to class and seem not to have done the reading or not really to have processed it at all or to have like a minimal grasp of what they'd read and i used it when i first started i used to think it was because they weren't doing the reading what i over time have come to understand is that most many students not all students but most students do do the reading or try to do it the issue is that there isn't an that reading isn't activated they're not encouraged to process that reading or at least in the way that i was doing it they weren't encouraged to process it so over the last couple of years what over several years but particularly of the last couple of years i've been working on a project that's about encouraging students to engage actively with their reading and to think critically and ask questions about reading as they're doing it and the way i’ve done this is by using an online tool called talis elevate which is which i'll show you on the next screen which is a tool that enables students to collectively individually and collectively to annotate the readings and to share them with one another to share them with me but the approach i’m going to talk about does not rely on using talis elevate it simply relies on having a shared online space in which students can comment collect can comment on reading and share their thoughts with one another um what it's enabled me to do is to gain an insight into how students interact with readings and for the students it enables them to create generate a shared bank of knowledge that they can work on together and come back to when they're doing assignments so overall what i’ve been trying to do over the last few years is promote more active engagement in reading by the students and that just simply means getting the students to think it's not about doing anything fancy creating online objects or anything like that it's simply getting them to do some very basic level processing while they're engaging um the context in which i’ve done this although we've been experimenting with it across um my department at lincoln is in a third year module that's my own research-based module um and i’ve been doing it for the last two years so the first year we've seen we had one group of students about and last year we had we doubled the numbers so there were about students what i require the students to do every week is relatively simple a key point about it though is that it is assessed so it carries a grade so that really motivates the students to engage they're required to post two or three online comments on the weekly readings that they're doing that's all they have to do and what you have here is a a screenshot of talis elevate that shows you what it looks like when the students are doing their annotations they highlight text they add an annotation they can respond to each other's comments but it simply looks like a kind of pdf a pdf viewer in a way and as i said it doesn't require the use of this specific tool talis elevate it could be any kind of forum for sharing readings online students can can complete this activity i ask them to do things like point out points of interest ask questions that this raises for them and think about things like how the materials relate to one another how the different weeks relate to one another how it relates to other modules they've done so it's just getting them to think about the reading not asking them specific questions i use this then to structure the seminars and as i said it creates a shared bank of knowledge for the students which they can come back to later and they seem to really appreciate this we've seen quite high levels of engagement with this activity and so in the first year over the course of the semester we had over comments in the second year we doubled that they were double the number of students and you can see from the two graphs that the class was on a thursday because that's when most of the comments happened the middle graph and the one on the right what you can see is that attainment sort of engagement peaked around about around assessment time but that it was fairly high throughout except right at the very end and i found that most students engaged with this activity some students didn't but many students don't engage with whatever activity you asked them to do some of them really got deeply engaged with it and found it very useful they took a lot of private notes as well so they were using it as a kind of way of taking notes to support their own individual learning as well as collectively um how do i encourage this engagement basically, i frame the whole activity as being relatively low engagement they need to do a little bit and often they don't have to do a great deal but there is a benefit from this engagement so i kind of make her um make a make a positive out of an instrument a potentially instrumental approach to to their learning a question i’ve got asked several times when i’ve given versions of this talk before is does this activity or activities like it engage different kinds of students and i think that what i found is that to some extent certain students who don't say anything in class really prefer this this approach and the feedback that i’ve got from students reflects that so it's quite good for engaging certain certain groups of students that don't normally engage but what i’ve also found is it continues to engage those students who are quite vocal usually students who are vocal in class will be vocal in an online space too so they're willing to still to share their thoughts so it doesn't alienate strong students what we would traditionally consider to be strong students who contribute a lot in class but it brings along other groups of students the final thing that i want to emphasize uh is that i could treat this as entirely as a student space i don't intervene when they're commenting at all obviously if they posted something inappropriate i would say something but they don't they haven't done that so far and so it's not about me going in there and interacting with them it's not about me going in there and asking questions it's about the students engaging with the material themselves then i can see that and i use that to structure what we do in class that's where my intervention comes when i’m thinking about what we're doing in class um here are a few just a couple of comments from students um one of the benefits that they pick out is that it gives requiring this low level of active engagement means that every student has who's engaged can kind of develop a baseline of knowledge for when they come to class it enables them to learn from each other and kind of clarify understanding if they if they need to if they've not quite understood something and the second quotation at least the first part of the second quotation really gets to this idea of a sort of safe space for some students who feel perhaps feel a little bit more um reticent about speaking out in class um and then the second point is really what one of the key things i want them to learn which is engaging directly with a specific piece of text which is i’ve often found quite difficult to get students to understand that's the craft of that's one of the key points of the craft of doing the topic is picking out specific pieces of evidence and and using that to back up your argument this is quite a good way of doing that because highlighting the text and adding a comment requires the students to do that um i think yeah i’m at about minutes so i’m gonna i’ve got two slides left um i i think right okay so the first one is what i did was i kind of did a did an overview of the um types of comments that i saw students making on the readings and as you saw i had a very large number of comments to kind of look at so this is kind of impressionistic i haven't done the stats and i think it reflects some of the ways in which students engage with texts um if they're not given direction so this is what happened when i didn't tell the students what to do what was that what i started to see was quite quite a lot of students would make comments that were of a sort of commentary nature they would they kind of um say what this paraphrase what the text said um then some students would take that to the next level and do some kind of analysis they try and say well what does this mean how does this relate to other things we've looked at they try to kind of take it to a next level as i said i was asking i was specifically asking the students to pose their own questions so quite a lot of students posed questions broadening out from the text um one of the things that i did notice was there wasn't a great deal of discussion there hasn't been a great deal of discussion between the students what you tend to happen is that students will cluster their comments around um a particular area that they seem to be finding of interest rather than um actually discussing it and i think that's quite interesting again i wasn't directing them to do that but but this was quite i think it it speaks to a certain reticence to engage directly with one another and then there's a certain level at which students cry to try to create connections between the module between the different sessions on the module less common are are those sorts of what i think are more interactive uh discursive connections between students i think directly discussing things answering one another's questions question questioning one another's questions and i haven't seen as much of that and i think that's probably because of the way i framed the activity but i think by looking at these these comments what i start to see is the different ways in which students actually engage with the text and i think that's useful for thinking as i go forward about how i might start to direct them to develop different skills in the future okay just some reflections and conclusions um the first block of is really about what i think the benefits are of this active approach to reading i think um by asking students to do a frequent micro level engagement with the text just little things and often it requires them to pro to learn how to process the reading rather than expecting them to do it just because i’ve said it um so i think that's that's vital that's the active part of this i think in terms of sort of selling it to the students the key thing is really this framing that i i frame this as it's low input it's low risk you're sharing small pieces you you're sharing with the others but it's not sharing everything it's not the same as being in a seminar but that there's reward attached to it so the framing is quite important um and i think that that process of kind of actively querying the text is really important for getting the students to understand what it is we do when we're being historians or being medieval historians and i don't think often a lot of attention is paid to that we assume that the students can read actively um and and this is one approach that i found works quite well for it for for doing that in terms of making digital history what my overall sort of final points are i think this approach complements it doesn't replace traditional methods i think in fact, one of the strengths of it is that it's developing disciplinary skills at the same time showing students how to use different types of tools and so it complements it it complements what we do already but it develops different skills and capabilities for the students and it encourages them to be active it encourages them to be purposive it encourages them to take to decide what they're going to do and actually actually do it rather than being told what to do and i think there's a great benefit from the kind of collective aspect here too and by getting the students to work together they're able to achieve a lot more than if they work independently and that's one again one of the ways in which i try and sell the idea of sharing your thoughts to the students so they're just a few insights from my experience um and the the final thing is that i have to get leave and soon to go and put my daughter to bed um my little daughter and so i’m not going to be able to around for questions but if anyone does have any questions i’m more than happy to answer them via email or for you to pass them to nerea and i will answer them um afterwards if there are any in the chat now i’ll have a very a quick look and try and answer them too okay so thank you um very much i'll stop sharing yes jamie, indeed, there are one question for you so if you want to ask now and then we will pass to another speaker okay yeah that's fine. it is a question from david natal who are wondering how did you mark the talis elevate activity how did you differentiate between two to one and two to two for instance also percent good video world market as hul i assume that is not the case at lincoln so what we we have a specific rubric for students participation in class we've always had that and what i've used this as an opportunity to do what colleagues have used this an opportunity to do alongside me is to develop a rubric that allows us to assess the student's engagement and work outside of the class so this is this means we've got a model now for assessing what the work that students are doing online which is going to prove really useful over the next few months possibly years um so it for the kind of participation element some of it is simply for doing the task the students will receive a grade but there's also a kind of um element of the grade that is for the kind of level of intellectual engagement with the activity um and we've kind of tried to um like to think about whatwhat would be a - piece of work in the uk means something that's graded between and percent at first-class grade is above so we we've tried to kind of balance that by by using this participation rubric that now has an online element um if anyone would like to have access to that i’m more than happy to share that with them and does that answer the question i think i think that this okay because we have in the qa yeah okay the rest of question for jamie uh must be by email i send you later your email okay because if not we don't have enough time for continue with this webinar so dominique i will give you the email of jamie okay later okay thank you everyone okay thank you jamie bye-bye bye okay now we go with our second speaker charles who will talk about wikipedia and the st century middle ages. now charles is your turn thank you for stay here so whenever you want . thank you very much everybody i hope you can all hear me all right um it's great to be joining you and i’m honoured to be in such illustrious company um i often start talks like this one with what sounds like a mini advertisement for wikipedia um it gets billions of views um every month from across the world it's the most comprehensive in encyclopaedia ever have existed even bigger than um evina steinova's isidoro seville's etymologies it's the world's main source of historical knowledge reaching people without access to libraries and making knowledge accessible to anybody without an internet connect with only an internet connection and this i think very appealing these days um in these days of paywalls and high subscriptions and things like that um worth pointing out by the way that wikipedia’s traffic um went up very considerably during lockdown because everywhere else is closed so so where are you going to find things out from i’d also point out it's durable it's a digital humanities project which is now over years old and still going strong it's open for everybody to edit and improve so it's democratic and it's transparent i’m sure you all know this already but every wikipedia page has a history of its own which anyone can check so you can find out for yourself who added which bits to which page when um wikipedia these days is um slight exaggeration perhaps but it's as close to the truth as the internet gets right so i think that makes it pretty important i’m not actually as much of a techno optimist however as that spiel might make me sound um wikipedia does have problems too in its demographics most of its editors are white middle-aged men um and with its growing internal complexity um you know you can practically watch as it becomes increasingly complicated for novices to navigate when they when they make their edits and that's got big implications for what's featured and though wikipedia itself is a not-for-profit company it nevertheless underpins in important ways the very much-for-profit strategies of huge companies like amazon and google both of whom regularly make substantial donations to wikipedia and use its data in their algorithms precisely because it's neutral and trustworthy so when you edit wikipedia you're adding value to google uh you're making jeff that's also a little bit richer um you are feeding the silicon valley leviathan. however we have to deal with the world as it is not as we would like it to be and the point remains that wikipedia is now the main way in which the world finds out about the past and the main way in which um the ideas and and statements about history get fact checked and that seems unlikely to change any time soon so getting your students to contribute to wikipedia is a way of teaching them about about public history it's way of giving them some practical digital humanities experience and its way of improving the world's access to history in general and medieval history in particular so making sure that the middle ages has the profile on the internet that we all know it deserves okay this might sound like it sounds all very well in principle how does it sound in how does it work in practice so i’ve been getting students here in sheffield to edit wikipedia for a few years now mostly at ma level though this year i’m planning to have a go with some final year undergraduates as well inspired by colleagues who've done this with great results i give the students a few pointers and then they take some free online training uh provided by the brilliant wiki wiki media um which is a charity which supports wikipedia and that just gives them the basics um you can find my old module guide online if you just search for teaching with wikipedia and my name is it's on google so you can have a look exactly how i do it now together my students and over the last few years have edited about wikipedia pages that doesn't sound that many um and in ways not that many but together we have nevertheless improved the site's coverage of the middle ages and let me give you a couple of examples one student created a new page on um on the carolingian pilgrim bernard he's a monk who made a journey to jerusalem in the s bernie is an interesting figure um he is not hugely famous and his wikipedia page now gets about one or two views a day um in wikipedia terms that's peanuts right i mean it's that's super niche um but it adds up so over the past few years this student's work has now been viewed and read more than a thousand times you know that's rather more than can be said for most assignments and essays and as an added benefit it's also created a useful resource for students on other modules which i teach and interesting actually since it was created the page has been further edited by six other anonymous wikipedia’s so it's really become a kind of collaborative project most students on this wikipedia model i’ve been teaching actually though edit already existing pages rather than starting new ones and here the impact is a bit harder to kind of quantify or to measure but let me give you another example here of the anglo-saxon council of hartford um which is fairly obscure well anyway now since it's been agreed by specialists that this council took place in the year but until wikipedia relied on pre- scholarship and put the date at so the student added in the correct date to the page and has also a section on why the dating has been changed and actually interestingly in discussion with me the student pointed out that before her edits a surprising number of recently published books and articles had strangely used the antiquated six seventh through day for the council of hartford um who knows where those uh those scholars got their information from now again the council department isn't a particularly high-profile page um but it gets about four visits a day and you know that's a lot again relative to most assignments um no powerpoint for me it's just it's just me chatting um and those four visitors a day who are now looking at this page are now getting more accurate information than they would otherwise i don't want to make this um seem to um a rosy this experiment um um because there have been some some some bumps in the in in the road um how in a second so um one year a student had all her edits overturned okay by a zealous editor another year another student had a lengthy battle with an editor which resulted in an unsatisfactory compromise some changes have seemed to be potentially to make wikipedia pages more detailed but also more confusing i mean writing a clear encyclopaedia entry is hard and wikipedia entry pages often become sprawling messes but because i assess the course through a reflexive essay and not on the edits themselves these problems just become more ingredients for students to reflect on okay with all this in mind i think there's lots for to encourage you to get your students editing wikipedia um pedagogically it ticks all kinds of boxes some of which jamie’s just been talking about it frames students as active producers not passive consumers it provides them with genuine experience of real-world collaboration it gives them practice in writing a non-academic register it enables them to put their expertise to practical use and it shows them the value of that expertise beyond the ivory tower and as students on the class tell me they love the way in which this course enables them to make some kind of tangible difference in the world which is not something you can usually say about medieval history options immensely valuable though we know they are and here's my tip if you can assess students on their reflections and not just on their edits well that provides a safety net in case things go wrong but also it develops student’s awareness of an important dimension of st century knowledge production and dissemination and how historical knowledge changes over time um i mean that's something all students know in history seems to know right in theory but it's different when they when they watch it happen and contribute to it happening seeing how wikipedia pages morph from a base provided by the encyclopaedia britannica or the catholic encyclopaedia which together provide the substrate for most articles on medieval european history it's really instructive by the way someone at some point should really do a study on how those two early th century encyclopedias have shaped the way medical history is presented so these are all really positive reasons i think to uh introduce wikipedia editing editing into your teaching as a way of equipping your students with valuable skills and of incrementally improving the encyclopedia but i want to end on a more sombre note as we've learned in recent years medieval history is often appropriated by malevolent political forces and let me give you a rather troubling example of that well academics were writing their articles in their books for a small and specialist audience a number of mostly anonymous wikipedia editors slowly but surely slanted the wikipedia page on the frankish ruler charles martel to present his life as leading up to the battle of poitiers or battle of tour as part of a wider framing of medieval history as a clash between christianity and islam and the wikipedia page on martel came gradually to reflect at least in part the ideology of the christchurch murderer who wrote martel's name on the barrel of a gun when he shot innocent people in new zealand over a weekend in march i borrowed paul fouracre’s book on merivingen frankie and i re-edited the martel wikipedia page not to cut the battle of poitiers outs altogether but to set the battle in a wider context as part of martel's activities not their culmination. i’m not a merovingian specialist but i was reasonably satisfied that the end result fairly represented up-to-date views on martel but of course it wasn't the end result because since then since march what is basically alt-right ideology has been coming back to the martel wikipedia page bit by drip bit drip by drip. i don't think these edits are part of an orchestrated campaign but then again they might be and i think this is quite a serious issue the page of martel currently states and this is a quote most notably martel decisively defeated a muslim invasion of aquitaine at the battle of tor this victory is seen as a crucial historic act of preservation of western culture. over a thousand people a day are now reading this wikipedia page on martel the battle of poitiers which presents views that no serious specialist with countenance today now this isn't a criticism of wikipedia it's not wikipedia’s fault that this is a bad page um anyone can edit it but there are only so many hours in the day right and as individuals we can't spend all our time in wikipedia edit walls when we have you know online teaching to prepare for so that's why i think ultimately the most important outcome of my uh m.a teaching on wikipedia isn't the or so pages that have been edited to date but the also critically aware critically educated history students who've now been trained in how to edit wikipedia pages and who might at some point down the line make more contributions themselves to the sisyphean task of keeping wikipedia as the main source of global historical knowledge up to date on track and up to speed right or at least or at least they might at least understand from their own experience how claims to truth are stakes and negotiated on the platform and in some ways, this really isn't about making the world a better place it's just about stopping it from becoming a worse one and that like most things is best done collaboratively thank you very much. oh, charles fantastic thank you very much for this amazing paper .and now i encourage all the attendees to type your question in the q a portal and at the end of the webinar charles could answer you to all of your question, i think that you have a lot of questions because it's a very interesting topic as well as jaime´s topic okay. so now we have our third panellist yeah i have the microphone that is uh lyn who talked about digital resources for teaching the medieval mediterranean so lynn when you want thank you okay thank you um yeah and and thank you charles that was really interesting and it it uh actually comes in nicely with this uh discussion of various resources um one of my projects is to work on the global middle ages project which tries to bring in different views of the middle ages from around the world and the main goal for that is actually, to get a better understanding of what it was what the middle ages was and what it uh meant to the to the world and not just to the west and um so for this talk i’m really focusing on the mediterranean but i want to get the point across that um through digital and online resources we can really teach a lot more um of the global middle ages in a variety of classroom settings and different disciplines than we than we ever could before so this is a pretty basic uh talk on where to find things so, for primary sources primary data and sources now it's really just a question of finding the the computing power and the time to process the information rather than waiting for interlibrary loans or acquiring funds to visit archives or doing any of those things it's really open to the public in ways that it never has been before so digital maps d models video, audio ,online archives ,and these are just some of the resources that we can give our students to give them this really i guess nuanced picture of the world from to about so i'm going to go through a series of those and and talk about just some examples of experiencing the past through these visualizations and immersive environments um which can be d it can be virtual it can be augmented reality um and to kind of how we can help our students how can we help ourselves really come closer to seeing and experiencing the past as it might have been experienced and seen by those who lived it. there are as always with all of these technologies and negatives and one of the things is accessing these resources, sometimes they are a little hard to find and there's not good ways to to locate the ones that you want for your class so i am going to talk a little bit about where to look because as we know you can look on google and google scholar and find a ton of print resources um it's harder to find platforms and it's harder to find articles that really talk about um aggregating digital medieval resources and uh let's let's try to look at those and see if we can find some that we can use in the classroom so um while you might encounter broken links or outdated materials these aggregation platforms and articles if you can go to those um let me actually show you it's this one um every time i touch sorry every time i touch my mouse it goes the next one uh yeah so you can find uh through these aggregated um resources you can find uh some of these scholars that are working on things so i would just suggest if you go to one of these sites and you find that um the links are broken or whatever just go ahead and contact the people who put it up and see what they've been working on lately because it is true that these digital projects go out of style um they no longer work on the platforms that they were developed for very quickly but that doesn't mean that the people who develop them aren't still working in that area um and in the archival resources that i that i’m talking about you can still access for the most part the data and that's that's pretty key for sustainability now if you're trying to find if you're teaching the medieval mediterranean and you're trying to locate sources about non-western cultures um that that's a lot harder i would say uh we would like to at least at the global middle ages platform we really look for things authored by scholars from my diverse set of backgrounds so i can give an example and that's the the medieval academy of america’s curated medieval digital resources it gives it's a good resource and it provides short descriptions and links to these databases and digital projects but there aren't very many non-western resources at all um so that's what the global middle ages platform really focuses on so i would suggest that you you know maybe start at the global middle ages um platform so i put that at the bottom of the screen here um talking about these different portals i do think the medieval academy of america is a good one um but you know look for ones that may maybe bring in different points of view than what what your students may be used to getting okay so one of the resources that we like to to suggest are virtual and augmented reality just for the sense that students first of all enjoy it and they also get that sense of being there these have become really inexpensive to use in the classroom both in terms of technology and in terms of content so some of it at the very lowest entry point you can use on a smartphone and a cardboard app you know the little you can buy the little viewers a holder for your phone which only costs about eight dollars so even most classrooms can afford to get that and that's either at the you know with children so k- in the us or at the university level can can work with this and you can get much better viewers with access to more much more complex applications and they're still not that expensive so the the you know it's two hundred dollars for an oculus go you can spend on up to a thousand six hundred dollars for the htc vive or or others but you really don't need that in the classroom um then you just go through the online stores for these devices and buy these applications and use them uh with your students uh steem the gaming platform steam if you're familiar with that you can find um ar and vr content there as well um you just it's a little bit harder sometimes to find for instance the museum pieces and that's what i would suggest is that museum pieces are museum museums are a great source for this educational ar and vr content some now some museums however really want you to be on site to do this um but there are others like this one um on the screen now the live the past from the national archaeological museum in spain is i’ve played with it on the go and it's a lot of um fun and it's well done so if you can get your students i’ve put my students in that little environment and they kind of got the sense of of what it was like in medieval muslim spain um and it's available for oculus rift quest go or gear vr or you can and you can do it in spanish or english a guide shows them kind of the village square back as it was the exterior of the mosque and then inside a home i just think it brings to life for the students what they can what was not really i guess it seems so far away to students sometimes that the doing this is a different a different thing for them um you can also freely explore the area and uh the same is true um for hiverlab churches of famaugusta and i think that's on my next one yeah this is um this is based on art and michael walsh's work it's really well documented so this is like a little um i guess a research piece in and of itself so you can have students um talk about these resources and photographs of these churches that you know he explains how they use texture maps to place over the digital frameworks for these buildings so you could either have the students talk about the process of creating these sorts of things or you could have them talk about the the objects themselves or the churches themselves and just whatever interests them i think you can you can go there with virtual plasentia and i had that before i’m going to go back to that um i’m not sure why i had that out of order but uh that's on the bottom right there that uh virtual plasentia you can find that at the globalmiddleages.org and it's uh roger martinez davila's work on um on plasencia and it's really interesting uh to play through this it's kind of gamified too which makes it fun but also he's got a crowd source site for working on manuscripts and all sorts of things that your students may find really interesting next i want to talk a little bit about d maps let's see and online and interactive mapping um which is another thing that i think a resource that students enjoy and that you can get a lot out of too as a as a teacher um so what we try to do is is use these online maps to have students orient themselves spatially in the areas that they're being studied so this this uh helps them learn better but it also just gives them a sense of where are we talking about what are we talking about during what times so one site i like to use is the map hosted at the university of california davis which allows students to explore the map based on topics like trade routes or religions or wind and ocean currents so it just depends on what their interests are it's very flexible for that um mapping mandible i think i’ve got um so that's the uc davis site sorry that i put the link for there but also here are a few more sites uh mapping mandible lets users see the world as viewed through the eyes of the th century john of mandeville who supposedly travels from from england to the east and it maps these onto a reproduction of the hereford map students enjoy that they enjoy looking at the old maps and they also try to link it up with the modern-day um as a classroom project one thing i’ve had students do is to you know be inspired by these scholarly maps and then make their own maps of the works that they're studying just using google maps which is a very simple thing you go for instructions you can just look into my google maps so just google my google maps and you'll find out how to add your own maps and have students work in groups to add data you can add pictures you can add all sorts of resources to share okay databases and archives where can you find these things that they're harder to find than you might think but again look in the um aggregated resources portals if you can but i just wanted to talk about one syriaca.org which i find really um i guess a good example of all that it's a multinational uh group of people working on um resources that come from all over the world um and that's what i i find inspiring about this you could set the students to looking at um for instance the catalogs of saints the handbooks of the authors writing in syriac the database of hagiographical literature and um they could do a project for instance you know locating translations of the stories of john the baptist or comparing differences and and all the different tales of john the baptist um and talking about time and place and composition you know what was going on at the time that these things were written um so this could really be something fun for younger students but it could go all the way up to the you know phd level where people could use this as a resource for their work um otherwise i think you know cultural resources we like to kind of think about i think i'm gonna get uh that's actually my uh thing it's a soundscape of a medieval city in the abbasid caliphate so i don't know if you can hear it but if you go to this it's it's oddly um i guess appealing to people to put together the soundscape and you can in the different channels that are there you can pick um what you want to have to have as the sound so um i like to use that a lot with my students um they really do enjoy uh kind of like what's what's the sound of animals the marketplace um being called to prayer uh what was it like to be there and it kind of peaks a different sense for students so these digital resources i think they just kind of bring the past and the present of these faraway lands to our doorsteps i like to think that they allow students to experience the past and other cultures in ways that are more diverse and bring them to a different understanding really of what's going on in in the history of other parts of the world so fortunately you don't have to create these you can have students create them but you can also simply guide students in the directions of these online resources and let them discover and bring to the classroom what they um find interesting um so that's it um thank you thank you very much lynn i can't wait to share all of these databases and and resources to my students because we began the course so thank you very much i have learned a lot and now i encourage everyone again to write all your questions that you have for lynn or for charles in the q and a portal you could write it now and then at the end of the webinar both could ask your questions okay so now. yes i have yes okay so now we have our next panelist who is robert houghton who talked about the investiture contest a game for teaching and research so robert okay you are in you have to okay okay thank you you are brilliant i'm not i think thank you very much thanks thanks very much for having me um and thanks to all of the speakers this has been fascinating um so much so well i should open by saying that my project is much more embryonic it's much less fully formed than the three that we've heard about to this point um let's see if i can get screen shared there is that working for everybody yeah brilliant marvelous so what i’m talking about today is a game that i’ve been producing a game that i’ve been using for teaching and for the last year or so now i've started life as a board game i’m moving it into a digital format currently but as i say very embryonic especially with the with the digital one from it i’ve included my details here if you want a copy of the the board game then please drop me an email but the rules are ridiculously simple but i’ll get on to explain that in a moment so what i’m going to do today then is talk about three things very briefly swiftly so first of all i want to talk a bit about how games can be used for teaching and indeed for historical research they want to go on and talk a bit about the board game i produced to look at the investiture contest and how i’ve used that for teaching in this past year and finally i’m going to go on and talk about how i'm planning to use this game um this academic year and how what are my plans for developing computer games for teaching in the future. so to start with there are plenty of examples of games being used for teaching um within the pre-university classroom especially but increasingly within the university classroom we're also starting to see a few examples of games being used for research purposes very importantly very broadly speaking and there are three primary ways in which we can use games to engage with history please you can use games through three ways in which games represent history so first of all games can represent history they can represent the past through their use of data for the use of landscapes as in on the top image here top left image here how they reconstruct built landscapes how they reconstruct material cultures and how they use historical figures so many of the things that lynn was talking about in our paper this can be an incredibly useful way in which we can get students interested in a period of history it's where we can introduce them to some of the key themes of that period periods and the key ideas about the past and that's great but i think there's some more interesting ways in which games can be used to approach history and games can represent historical arguments and in fact i would make the case that any historical game make some kind of history of life and they do this primarily through their rules through the game mechanics so for example if you've got a game that's primarily about trade and the example i’ve got here is a patrician series where you travel around the baltic sea selling, buying and selling goods and essentially becoming a more wealthy and powerful merchant so games which use economic structures like this they're representing a model of these structures and these structures are built on historical theory they're built on a particular argument about how these structures functioned how this limited aspect of the medieval world in this case um functioned how it worked and what i think is particularly interesting is that the players of these games are able to interrogate these arguments through play by engaging with the game, they engage they're required to engage with the game's mechanics and in turn they engage with the arguments which these mechanics represent and by playing the game perhaps both most obviously and they can interrogate these arguments by looking for deviations for historical norm so, the bottom left hand corner here we can see that or charlemagne has conquered the entirety of europe if this is something that happens routinely through game play this suggests that the argument that the game's mechanics do not perhaps fit the reality as well as they could it suggests that they need to become more nuanced to be a better fit for historical theory and ultimately it's possible to engage with history through games as a form of historical debate and this can be done by modifying games by changing the rules of the game, the players change the argument that it's making and by having a bit of back and forth here by providing mods encounter mods we can see more more developed arguments emerging through play so this is already interesting this is something that i’ve seen done a few times and in a few ways with computer games but there are there are several key issues when using computer games for these educational purposes and there are various issues but most most importantly for me um are the free issues of transparency cost and skill set so computer games first of all, they're woefully opaque they hide the vast majority of their mechanics from the players indeed they have to do this because otherwise the game can become impossible to play if you met with just a wall of data when you're trying to run your empire then things are much less interesting it can be completely impossible to play these games. another issue is the sheer cost of computer games and especially more complex games and also the fact that the skill set required to produce computer games is very often very far removed from the skills the skills held by most historians and at the start of this project about a year ago i came up with a temporary solution i thought for all three of these issues and that's to move over to using physical gains for educational purposes this very neatly gets around the issue of transparency the players are the ones parsing rules they're the ones who have to understand how all the mechanics function you can't hide the rules from the player in the same way that you're obliged to when you're creating a computer game at the same time these games are cheaper to produce and easier to modify it's generally much easier to get your head around the rule set of a typical board game than it is for a computer game there's also severe limitations placed on how complex board games can be which in this case is an advantage i used all of this to produce a board game titled the investiture contest which surprisingly enough was about investigative contest so this is a conflict notionally between the pope and emperor in the second half of the th century going into the early th century and the idea has traditionally been this is a conflict about investiture so who gets to select bishops and by extension who gets to control episcopal lands in reality the situation was much more complex but that tends to get skimmed over in most popular history so possibly something to have watch out for on on wikipedia and in creating this game why sorry i created this game for use in a couple of modules so first of all an m.a course this is a postgraduate course on church society and conflict and a bachelor's undergraduate course on the middle ages in computer games and i used the game within both of these modules in the past year and with some somewhat different results because we've got students coming in with very different experiences of the material covered and of how games can address the past and the game itself the game itself is ridiculously simple um it's two pages of rules most of which are almost which concern the objectives held by each of the players so it's a game for up to six players each player represents one of six key figures within the investiture contest so the pope the pope and pope gregory the seven antipope clemente ii, the emperor henry iv the archbishops of ravenna and milan, matilda of tuscany and rudolf of bavaria the object of the game is to exert influence over northern italy and secure the various objectives held by each player and these objectives are set up such that players will come into conflict at different points throughout the game i drew up these rules based on the other branch of my research so my day job is working on on the investiture contest or working on northern italy more generally between the uh and the th and the th centuries and what i’ve been working on recently is looking at the relationship networks within northern italy during the investiture contest and looking at how the conflict seems to be much more complex how we don't just have a simple conflict between the pope and the emperor but there are various key figures who are emotionally on both sides of the conflict but who are pursuing their own goals who have their own objectives which very often are at odds with those of the pope or the emperor it's a nice convenient time to my existing research and this this has been relatively effective so the students played through the game a couple of times the playthrough typically takes about minutes after you've got the rules down and this helps to inform their understanding of the investiture contest but what's most interesting for me is that after we've played through the game a couple of times i’ll have the students modify it i’ll have them change the rules and by extension change the arguments that the game makes so something that the master students came up with um they decided that henry the player representing the emperor was losing too frequently it was too hard for the emperor to make progress so they gave him various advantages they changed his objectives to make them more viable for him to achieve basically making the argument that the emperor was more powerful was able to exert more control over this region than the initial rules suggested um and uh another example of a of a more representing debate here was another group um changed the way choose the way influence could be exerted so in particular they started you they brought in mechanics to represent the use of paper letters so the public will be able to be able to exert influence from a greater distance than any other player so they're sticking with the core of the game here but they're nuancing the argument that it represents by tweaking the mechanics so this is really interesting um that's some generally positive although a little bit varied feedback from students generally this went down generally the game went down well it's possibly just because it's the novelty of of the thing it's possibly because one class was dedicated to the use of medieval history in in games more generally so the class has greater appreciation of it um but it was nevertheless really it was really interesting to see how students engaged with the game and how they engage with the investiture contest in very different ways from how they normally would do in a typical class there were however a couple of problems with this approach so the first one of these was resources available to run the game so the way i'd set this up it required a large number of colored counters and a handful of pawns which is fine that was easy to get hold of i believe the entire thing cost me about five pounds that's fine where it got problematic though was when students wanted to start modding the games so the modifications students wanted to make on the day were very much restricted to the materials i brought with me so i brought along dice i bought long decks of cards but students still wanted to introduce new maps they wanted to introduce new mechanics that i hadn't foreseen but i hadn't got the resources for that's always going to be an issue with physical games you're restricted by what you've actually got available on the day the other issue which is perhaps more more specific to the times we're living in is that using board games relies on the personal presence of of the class this game can't realistically be run remotely and it can't realistically be wrong whilst maintaining social distancing i did play briefly with trying to print the map out on on an a piece of paper and having a complex system involving well sticks to move pieces around but that's not practical remotely and the solution that i’m working on for this and why these ties in to go to a session on digital approaches to teaching is i’m moving over to a digital format i’m using a piece of software called tabletop simulator which is produced by the worryingly named berserk games and tabletop simulator provides a lot of potential for me it allows the creation so it allows the creation of more or less any imaginable resources any imaginable boards and you can just upload images uses tabletops you can import all manner of counters to use within your games and it can represent incredibly complex games i should note that i was directed to this by um the genius um sorry cavallo from the university of sao paulo who's been working using tabletop simulator on his game the triumphs of turlough which is a game looking at well that's an irish group of irish clans resisting the english and this is doing this as a way of depicting his historical research so this is what i’m in the process of doing for this year i’m adapting the game the investiture contest game for computer games through tabletop simulator and the first step is to recreate the game to recreate the board game as it is so players can move their counters around they can move the pawns around they can place counters as and when they need to and they're able to interact with the rules moving beyond this i’m looking at the possibility of coding of the hard coding rules within the game so restricting the actions that players take automating some actions this could be particularly useful if you want to use dice if you want to bring a random element into the game if you want to make sure that players don't have to get bogged down looking at individual minor rules if they're if you want them to concentrate on one particular aspect of the rule set you can automate a lot of the rules looking longer term i’m very interested in the potential of creating more complex games with students so this wouldn't work in the format that i’m currently using because restrict we're restricted to one three-hour class for using these games um, the more i think this is potentially something that i'd like to do over the course of an entire module start off getting some students um with some sort of getting students some basic coding knowledge and then developing from there perhaps modifying uh existing game to broad to save time and to give better offer to give to give them nice and looking results let's say so all i’d say about this approach is that it requires playing the players have knowledge of the period that they're working on that you're working on which is absolutely fine something to be expected when taking any approach for history but it also requires a degree of ludic literacy from the players and that's something a bit harder to come by just to wrap things up then the three points i’d like to make so first of all i think games have a huge potential as research and teaching tools i think that there are clearly severe difficulties in implementation but i’m increasingly convinced that many of these difficulties can be overcome either for the use of board games or through the development of coding skills so i’ll put my details back up there thank you very much for having me thank you very much robert for this interesting talk and for sharing your research with us. now we will pass the word to our last speaker of today of this webinar as well that is ainoa castro correa that is going to give a paper about the scribe of age playing with th to th iberia manuscripts so ainoa when you want okay okay thank you let's see if it works uh can we share my screen okay yes yes yeah okay and yeah great thank you okay uh so first of all i would like to still my thanks to the coordination committee for putting this webinar together and especially to nerea for inviting me to take part on it i would rather not carry on by stressing how trying the situation we are all living is especially in spain unfortunately already it is i will just say that initiatives like this one help us overcome the news of this a bit and for that thank you and thanks also to the other speakers and the silent participants although many of you expected to see me in the previous session because of my recently awarded erc project people and writing cheers to me. i’m not going to talk about digital research but digital teaching the paper i have prepared to share with you today entitled the scribe of ages playing with th to th century every year manuscripts is a direct product of this uncertain times although the result of the work i’m going to talk to you about albeit it seems especially tailored to our current context in teaching is not we for i’m the voice of a team have been thinking and working on it for some time now so years ago when i began teaching palaeography at university i became aware of the problems the students faced when dealing with it i was trained in an online university where as students we had around six months to go through a long list of basic bibliographic references a thick manual and many exercises so the in-person classes with all their peculiarities were new to me on the one hand students are shown a set of materials written in latin for the most part of the medieval period manuscripts they had not seen before that were barely aware they existed and in a language they do not master since it's no longer mandatory in higher education in spain as it was before they are fearful for they immediately feel palaeography is going to be harder than expected on the other hand, they are supposed to manage the art of transcription in a short period of time something they did not even know it was a thing and besides they need to understand manuscripts sprits and how they work from my point of view being able to read what a manuscript is about through its text and to transcribe it correctly is an important part of understanding and passing a palaeography course but is not and should not be or shown us the main goal of it we have very few weeks to teach students everything about manuscripts here in salamanca has three weeks six classes to teach the medieval part and yes i managed to do it so we should focus on history of britain culture on the people who wrote the manuscripts the people who read them the manuscripts themselves and their context if one understands how writing works through the ages it will be easier to learn how to deal with it and understand the meaning of written sources if we as teachers manage to get students hooked on manuscripts they will find the time in the future to learn the language and how to read it we cannot just expect from them to do all in three weeks mandatory class. so i began looking for a way to focus on manuscript culture during my teaching classes without leaving aside the aspects students should master but i had no time to teach mainly transcription and then i turned to the digital world many of you might be aware of the online transcription tools available like tiphen and of some of the projects that bring together people to join forces on transcribing a corpus like the general historia project some might even know about software being tested for automatic transcription like transcribus these tools were a start for what i had in mind but did not fit with the teacher requirements are also some online games to help with the tricky parts of our field although they exclude iberian manuscript material do not allow changing the sources use, so no adaptation and the user needs to know the basics to be able to play them if i wanted to give online palaeographical inspired gaming a try ask students to complement their training by playing it needed to be really useful and adapted to our national teaching program and to do that we needed to start from scratch yes, we needed our own video game and that is exactly what we did from my point of view as i see it now that we are almost ready to release a full functional version of our game the project had two fundamental and tricky aspects to cover freaky aspect one our idea require a team and an institution crazy enough to want to do and fund this luckily that was not so very difficult as it seemed at first in the slide you can read who the members of the team are my thanks to all of them i would like to stress the importance of not only having team members from academia able to provide context to the sources selected as base for our game but of people who know how video games should be made that's an important thing and i’m not only referring to the technical part but to the inherent components of a gif of a video game as i guess will be the case for many of you i’m not into the topic as a player but have never considered the flow of actions that were taking place in a game aimed at achieving a specific goal set for the player for the debate on this will be long just to say gamification put tasks in the form of games online with the sole purpose of teaching the player something is not the same as a video game in which the player does not have the specific purpose of learning but of achieving a goal if you want to do something like this add to the team someone who knows how to do it, it will make your life much easier tricky aspect too one cannot develop a video game without a very clear and specific idea from which to build it we wanted for the students to have time to let their brain adapt to the different writing systems that were used in every peninsula and their historical context and their own pace recognize that these were not the same in all areas of the peninsula at the same time for them to learn how radiations work and be able to decipher them and then to face the transcription with some confidence we focus first on the manuscript sources we were going to work with as you can see in the slide we selected one codex for each century one which was representative and not that through its incorporation it was easier for us as teachers to summarize the program we needed to cover we focused then on how to present the manuscripts and how to play with them our game has as it is now eight levels one for each codex with three exercises or sub levels to cover in each part by the player one on the alphabet another on the abbreviations and a final one on transcription we also added secret levels with additional information on written supports and materials and i think now is that moment when you are no longer listening to me and want to see the game so let me show you what the what is it about uh one thing i’m not going to talk to you uh through the video for it will i think it will take me more time to explain what is going on that for you to realize how it works by yourself, so i will be happy to answer any questions you might have at the end um [music] so now the results um last year i designed a slightly different class for my medieval paleography students in our six classes together we talk and discuss written production, the different scripts their context, how manuscripts were made ,how people live with them, and what writing meant to people that instead of doing just transcriptional allos. that this kind of annoying um while as mandatory assignment they had to play our game being each student's score achieve in it the qualification they will get together with the final test just to say they were thrilled they began playing while in between classes the challenge was what they challenged each and over they passed it to the roommates and soon we had students from physics to classics playing we were very careful with the contents of the video game and to my standards anyone who manages to finish it has accomplished a fairly good level of palaeography each stage i don't know i just saw it but each one is a different type of script a different manuscript a different context so it's quite um full of information um. some students finish the game in a couple of days and some got a higher score than mine so that's something i need to think about. our game fits within the gamification type as it is now and we are aware of that but it will soon be a proper video game with all its requirements checked so it will be like a civilization or something like that it would be really cool. we are working in the history behind the game and our robot that you saw before that's the avatar of the player and the the story is that he was a scribe that went to the future and then went back to the middle ages to search for clues for finding a saint or something like that so our robot this robot will be faced with a challenge of collecting clues in the form of items that we will help him or her so the student or the player in solving the final problem and finishing the game there will be a villain that will annoy our character through the game with new tasks on manuscript the different and here in the slide you can see him so this is our own version of titivilus the demon set to work on behalf of lucifer to induce the scribes to miss spellings that's a very hard rock version of it there will be more steps of the game available to the player with more manuscripts and context we will change how scores work and allow the player to use his or her points to improve their robot and there's a student i had last year who wanted to buy a kitten for the robots so that's anyway and we will have an internet to allow teachers to supervise how students are doing not just the scoring and many more things and finally our video game is free and will always be free for everyone to use and is easily adapted to other countries specifics to other manuscripts scripts and languages. we hope it will be made open by the end of the year and we love to see it being used everywhere it has shown itself to be a great resource for teaching especially when you do not have when you do not have as much time as needed and students really like experience so that's all and thank you very much for your time and attention. thanks ainoa for sharing with us this interesting video game that you have designed. and now is the time for questions so please all the people that have any question to make to all the panellists could do it now we have some you can do it in the q and a portal so it's your moment to question everything that you want okay. not everything, everything of the field of course so we have some questions coming for example we have a question for robert from dominique huavenhovan that say thanks a lot for this is inspiring presentation are you planning to make the digital version of your game publicly available at some point ? um yeah no i'm think thanks to me it's yeah absolutely um so my understanding of it is i'll be able to just release it for free across um the tabletop simulator a home page so it's it's because it's out of my control but yes it will absolutely be released thank you okay thank you robert it's another question for you that is more or less the same say that do you plan to launch the game online where would this be a gaming website your institution site or in other words what is in your opinion a good game publication and strategy? it is a question from susana zernankova um i'll be honest with you i have no idea how to go about publishing this effectively um the plan well certainly with the digital game be accessible through tabletop simulator i’ve got no intentions whatsoever for charging at all for that um the tabletop version the physical version or all the rules the map for the various other bits and pieces should be getting made available through the university of winchester um portal after converts um but yeah they should be available shortly um if you want them then drop me an email and i’ll send them over thanks thank you robert. whereas people attendees are thinking about their questions i would like to ask to say some comments to charrles, charles um i was amazingly surprised by your speech because as you know a lot of researchers and academics say that wikipedia is not useful for for teaching and for researching but i always use it, i mean i think that it's very useful to use it because at the end is very global and you have a lot of information available that you don't have in another way no and i would like to ask you that you know a lot of wikipedia um what percentage do you think that uh are incorrect information in wikipedia? do you know that is i mean i think that uh people who working in in who who update content to wikipedia normally are people to really have a base for do that you know that you are you have a lot of experience in that do you could say something about that, what is the percentage of people who do you think that make things wrong in wikipedia? for all people are afraid for using it i don't know if i explain myself properly. um yeah i think nerea and thank you for admitting that you use wikipedia this is kind of confession time here but i think i mean in practice i think most people do right i mean just to check things or to you know um remind yourself of things you already know um just like you would use an encyclopaedia right i mean it is at its core it's just an encyclopaedia um and just as you might look at an encyclopaedia to look something up um that's great i mean i think in some ways the problem with wikipedia in terms of accuracy is exactly the problem with these encyclopaedias um in that often most often the problem is just it's very out of date right because as i mentioned briefly the main source of most wikipedia articles the middle ages is old out of copyright encyclopaedias all right so people have been copping out britain britannica especially from or whatever um and putting that up and those who've been kind of um if you've added bits and bobs but the kind of structure for most articles is actually um is it early th century few of them so i mean is that wrong um i mean it's not factual often it's usually it's not factually wrong but it is interpretively um out of date is what i’d say okay thank you charles for for answering my question and whereas attendees please ask any question that you have now because we are we have minutes for ending the session so it is your moment and whereas i have the option to ask myself so i have a question as well for lynn lynn i think that what you are sharing with us is very interesting because one problem that i have when i try to teach content to my students is that a lot of resources have copyright and i can't be able to use them in a legally way in a legal way so what do you think that institutions could do or that we as a teachers of of a higher level could do to try to express uh or convince another colleagues to the importance of open their resource that we have ,to make it in open access yeah that's a good point um uh i guess for most of the digital resources that i i was looking at anyway they are available um and i think in terms of trying to convince our own colleagues to make their things more available it just seems obvious to me that you would you would want more people to you know do you really want five people to read your article you know which is basically the reality of the situation or would you would you like for it to be available to a lot of different people so most of these databases i know there are some granting agencies that require you to make it open source if um open source and open access to the data if you use that that grant so that's a that's a good approach but i just think more probably awareness and more encouragement from colleagues will be very helpful um when it comes to using things in class that are under copyright i try to i try to buy a couple of copies let's say it's a video game which i like to use in class um i think they're great and uh if you um yeah i’ve used for instance assassin's creed so you you buy that you want the students to play it or play little parts of it and um you know i just get maybe five copies and put it on the lab computers and have students use it there or i’ve also had a situation where and i know you're not supposed to do this but uh you have a stream account and you just give you know say it's an account for your class and you may maybe have five of them and you tell the students okay yeah you can only play one person at a time but you this group of students you know you all use the same account so that's kind of how i handle it um and it seems to work pretty well i'm sure there's people who would object but that's what i do. thank you very much for sharing your your method is very important for i think that all the early scholars or researchers that like me that are learning of you, so thank you very much for sharing this and um uh i want to say that if between us or between you between speaker have any question to all to all the speakers you could ask then okay so i think that we don't have more question in the q a um on a q a portal so ainoa a have a question for you okay okay we have a few question in the q and a thanks people a have a question for ainoa is from paula that said i would like to play the game but can you tell me where i can find the useful materials? yes so you can send me an emal you can send me an email and i will give you access so now the app is online so anyone can play and in fact the university of bristol is going to use it this this term so like it's going to be massive because we'll be there the music students that are going to test it but anyway so it's usable for everyone if you want to try it just let me know and i will i will give you the password that you will need to to get access to it but the other way you can just play so it's just send to me an email i will send it to you okay thank you i know are there more questions if not we are going to end this this webinar okay i´ve got question okay um actually to to ainoa anywhere again i noticed that you gathered data on the gender aspects of your game and like of of and how men and women um reacted to it differently um yes why why did he was why did you do that and did it surprise you what you found? well it i think well it was surprising i think to me because uh well i cannot see it now but i think that for male students the playability of the game was boring so they thought it was too easy whereas for female students they thought it was not easy so and not hard but just enough the slightly hard for for for them to realize how to play it and if you look at the results for the aesthetics part the female students like it more than the male students so you know it's just i think i did it just for fun i wasn't expecting to get some significant results but i think you know when you design a video game you need to know the audience um for which you are designing it so for us i think it is important to be aware of what our students will be looking for so i may need to do a slightly harder version for more advanced students and a livelier prettier one for other ones so they get engaged and they don't lose that enthusiasm for playing the game thank you ainoa can i just ask um a quick one for the the same question i guess similar question to robert did you do you find that that there's a kind of a breakdown in the students um i guess engagement with the game yeah i’m sorry about one on gender basis you mean sorry yeah um yeah it's strangely not um so with the with the middle ages and computer games class the student body skews very heavily male so typically we're talking about percent of the class is male then typically with most of most of our modules is female um and i’m doing various things to try and mitigate that but generally speaking though within the masters module will not expect when the game's just an ancillary part of the course um it's been going down about as well with male and female students so uh this i think i think this i think will be building what i was saying um it's male and female men and women are almost conditioned to like different things in games i think and i think the tabletop game kind of takes off the edge of all the first person shooter fast action that men have been told this is what you will play because it's manly um and maybe i don't know there's definitely something in there but i’m very glad that it's nice and flat thank you thank you tobert and there are a lot of people that are interested in having your email contact, i think that is for ask your question after so if you don't have any problem i will send it by mail okay your email direction okay thank you okay thank you to all for stay here is if there is not more question i think that we are going to the end of this ah sorry charles have question for aino too uh charles says nerea i’ve already asked it nerea i've asked it already that was yes that was the question i asked oh okay okay yeah so thank you very much to all for a stay today here with me and i'm afraid that is the end of our our time so we have to close right now this webinar okay thank you very very much for coming it was a great pleasure to have you here and all the panellists for accepting invitation and for attendance for stay with us thanks to uh to all and of course thank you to the society for the medieval mediterranean to make this webinar possible and become reality through this this prize um i will remind to you that uh the recording will be available soon the recording of this webinar i contact you by email and i will say where the recording will be available okay so you can rewatch it or to recommend to someone or spread it in general, spread medieval history please that is very important okay and all the best i hope to see you soon and that you learn as much as i have learned thank you very much for all and bye thank you. microsoft word - montemagni_methodsxiii_new_figures_withref.doc the space of tuscan dialectal variation. a correlation study simonetta montemagni istituto di linguistica computazionale – cnr via g. moruzzi , pisa – italy simonetta.montemagni@ilc.cnr.it abstract the paper illustrates the results of a correlation study focusing on linguistic variation in an italian region, tuscany. by exploiting a multi-level representation scheme of dialectal data, the study analyses attested patterns of phonetic and morpho-lexical variation with the aim of testing the degree of correlation between a) phonetic and morpho-lexical variation, and b) linguistic variation and geographic distance. the correlation analysis was performed by combining two complementary approaches proposed in dialectometric literature, namely by computing both global and place-specific correlation measures and by inspecting their spatial distribution. achieved results demonstrate that phonetic and morpho-lexical variations in tuscany seem to follow a different pattern than encountered in previous studies. keywords dialectometry, phonetic variation, lexical variation, language-space correlation, correlation among different linguistic levels . introduction it is a well-known fact that different types of features contribute to the linguistic distance between any two locations, which can differ for instance with respect to the word used to denote the same object or the phonetic realisation of a particular word. yet, the correlation between different feature types in defining patterns of dialectal variation represents an area of research still unexplored. in traditional dialectology, there is no obvious way to approach this matter beyond fairly superficial and impressionistic observations. the situation changes if the same research question is addressed in the framework of dialectometric studies, where it is possible to measure dialectal distances with respect to distinct linguistic levels and to compute whether and to what extent observed distances correlate. another related question concerns the influence of geography on linguistic variation. answering this question can help to shed light on whether observed correlations among linguistic levels should instead be interpreted as a separate effect of the underlying geography. over the last years, both gröningen and salzurg schools of dialectometry have been engaged in providing answers to these questions from different perspectives and working with different data from various languages. concerning the former, it is worth mentioning the contributions by nerbonne ( ), gooskens and heeringa ( ) and spruit et al. (in press); the latter is represented by the “correlative dialectometry” studies of goebl ( , ). in both cases, this appears to be a promising line of research. the main goal of this study is to gain insight into the nature of linguistic variation by investigating the degree to which a) patterns of dialectal variation computed with respect to different linguistic levels correlate in the language varieties spoken in tuscany (a region which has a special status in the complex puzzle of linguistic variation in italy), and b) linguistic patterns of variation correlate with geographic distance. the study was performed on the corpus of dialectal data atlante lessicale toscano (‘lexical atlas of tuscany’, henceforth alt), by combining complementary approaches proposed in the international journal of h um anities and a rts c om puting, ( – ) , e dinburgh u niversity press, pp. – dialectometric literature: two dialectometric software packages have been used, namely rug/l developed by p. kleiweg and vdm by e. haimerl. the starting point is represented by the results of a dialectometric study focusing on phonetic and lexical variation in tuscany (montemagni ). by exploiting a multi-level representation scheme of dialectal data, the linguistic distances among the investigated locations were measured with respect to different linguistic levels. correlational analyses were then performed on the resulting distance matrices in order to estimate the degree of association between the different levels and to evaluate the role played by geography in explaining observed correlations. . the data source . the atlante lessicale toscano alt is a regional linguistic atlas focusing on dialectal variation throughout tuscany, a region where both tuscan and non- tuscan dialects are spoken; the latter is the case of dialects in the north, namely lunigiana and small areas of the apennines (so-called romagna toscana), which rather belong to the group of gallo-italian dialects. alt interviews were carried out in localities of tuscany, with , informants selected with respect to a number of parameters ranging from age and socio-economic status to education and culture. the interviews were conducted by a group of trained fieldworkers who employed a questionnaire of target items, designed to elicit variation mainly in vocabulary, semantics and phonetics. a dialectal corpus with these features lends itself to investigations concerning geographic or horizontal (diatopic) variation as well as social or vertical (diastratic) variation: in this study we will focus on the diatopic dimension of linguistic variation. alt, originally published in the year (giacomelli et al. ) as a cd-rom, is now available as an on-line resource, alt-web . . alt-web representation of dialectal data in alt, all dialectal items were phonetically transcribed. in order to ensure a proper treatment of these data, an articulated encoding schema was devised in alt-web in which all dialectal items are assigned different levels of representation: a first level rendering the original phonetic transcription as recorded by fieldworkers; other levels containing representations encoded in standard italian orthography. in this multi-level representation scheme, dialectal data are encoded in layers of progressively decreasing detail going from phonetic transcription to different levels of orthographic representations eventually abstracting away from details of the speakers’ phonetic realisation. for the specific concerns of this study, we will focus on the following representation levels: phonetic transcription (henceforth, pt) and normalised representation (henceforth, nr) where the latter is the representation level meant to abstract away from within-tuscany vital phonetic variation. at the nr level a wide range of phonetic variants is assigned the same normalised form: e.g. words such as [skja"ttsata], [skja"ttsata], [skja"ttsada], [skja"ttsada], [stja"ttsata], [stja"ttsata], [stja"ttsada], [stja"ttsada], [stsa"sseda] etc. (denoting a traditional type of bread, flat and crispy, seasoned on top with salt and oil) are all assigned the same normalised form, schiacciata. note that at this level neutralisation is only concerned with phonetic variants resulting from productive phonetic processes: this is the case, for instance, of variants involving spirantization or voicing of plosives like /t/, as in [skja"ttsata] and [skja"ttsada]. on the contrary, there are word forms like ["ka¥¥o] and ["ga¥¥o] (meaning ‘rennet’) which are assigned distinct nrs, caglio and gaglio respectively: this follows from the fact that the [k] vs [g] alternation in word-initial context represents a no longer productive phonetic process in tuscany. it should also be noted that the nr level does not deal with morphological variation (neither inflectional nor derivational). this entails that words such as [skja"ttsata] (singular) and [skja"ttsate] (plural) as well as [skjattsa"tina] (diminutive) are all assigned different nfs. currently, nr is the most abstract representation level in alt-web. . induction of patterns of phonetic and lexical variation . building the experimental data sets the representation scheme illustrated in section . proved to be particularly suitable for dialectometric analyses of dialectal data at various linguistic description levels. first, patterns of phonetic and lexical variation could be studied with respect to different representation levels, providing orthogonal perspectives on the same set of dialectal data. in particular, the study of phonetic variation was based on pts, whereas nrs were used as a basis for the investigation on lexical variation. second, the alignment of the representation levels was used to automatically extract all attested phonetic variants of the same normalised word form (henceforth, nf). in practice, the various phonetic realisations of the same lexical unit were identified by selecting all phonetically transcribed dialectal items sharing the same nf. since the alt-web nr level does not abstract away from either morphological variation or no longer productive phonetic processes, we can be quite sure that phonetic distances calculated against phonetic variants of the same nf testify vital phonetic processes only, without influence from any other linguistic description level (e.g. morphology). the experimental data used for the study of phonetic variation was thus formed by the normalised forms attested in the alt corpus, each associated with the set of its phonetically transcribed variants; this is exemplified in the first two columns of table for the normalised form schiacciata. for the study of lexical variation we instead used alt onomasiological questions (i.e. those looking for the attested lexicalisations of the same concept) with their associated normalised answers; this is exemplified in the last two columns of table in which the nfs collected as answers to the question n. ‘schiacciata’ are reported. nf = schiacciata question = n. ‘schiacciata’ (traditional type of bread, flat and crispy, seasoned on top with salt and oil) vergemoli [sca"ttsata] vergemoli focaccia, focaccina, schiacciata pieve fosciana [sca"ttsada] pieve fosciana focaccia, schiacciata san pellegrino in alpe [sca"ttsata], [st∆a"ttsata] barga focaccia brandeglio [sca"ttsata], [st∆a"ttsata] san pellegrino in alpe focaccia, pattona, schiacciata prunetta [stja"ttsata] brandeglio focaccia, schiaccia, schiacciata orsigna [skja"ttsata], [sca"ttsata], [stja"ttsata] rivoreta focaccia spedaletto [stja"ttsata] popiglio schiaccia castello di sambuca [sca"ttsada] prunetta schiacciata barberino di mugello [skja"ttsata], [stja"ttsata] orsigna cofaccia, schiaccia, schiacciata … … … … table – excerpts from the experimental data sets used for the study of phonetic and lexical variation. . measuring linguistic distances in tuscany . . methodology the linguistic distances across the locations of the alt geographic network were calculated with the levenshtein distance measure (henceforth, ld), a string-distance measure originally used by kessler ( ) as a means of calculating the distance between the phonetic realisations of corresponding words in different dialects. kessler showed that with ld it is possible to “reliably group a language into its dialect areas, starting from nothing more than phonetic transcriptions as commonly found in linguistic surveys” (kessler, : ). the ld between two strings is given by the minimum number of operations needed to transform one string into the other; the transformation is performed through basic operations (namely the deletion or the insertion of a string character, or the substitution of one character for another), each of which is associated a cost. with ld, comparing two dialectal varieties results in the mean distance of all performed word-pair comparisons. the use of ld in calculating the linguistic distance between language varieties was further extended and improved by nerbonne et al. ( ) and heeringa ( ) who worked on different languages and with different representation types (i.e. phone- based, feature-based and acoustic representations). in these dialectal studies based on ld, the standard measure was also refined to cope with dialectology-specific issues, dealing with: a) the normalisation of the distance measure with respect to the length of compared words (nerbonne et al. ); b) the treatment of multiple responses (nerbonne and kleiweg ). in the present study, we use ld to calculate linguistic distances between the alt locations: the distance between each location pair is obtained by averaging the lds calculated for individual word pairs, be they phonetic realisations of the same nf or lexicalisations of a given concept (see section . ). missing dialectal items are ignored due to their uncertain origin. in what follows, we will focus on issues specific to the measure of linguistic distances with the alt data. . . measuring phonetic distances using ld, the phonetic distance between two linguistic varieties a and b is computed by comparing the phonetic variants of nfs in a with the phonetic variants of the same nf set in b. the phonetic realisation of a given word can be represented in different ways giving rise to different approaches to the measure of phonetic distance, respectively denominated by kessler ( ) “phone string comparison” and “feature string comparison”. in the former, ld operates on sequences of phonetic symbols, whereas in the latter comparison is carried out with respect to feature-based representations. both approaches were experimented with in the study of phonetic variation in tuscany; due to the almost equivalent results achieved in the two experiments, in what follows we will focus on the distance matrix calculated on the basis of phone-based representations. the experimental data set included only nfs having at least two phonetic variants attested in at least two locations. a collection of , nfs was thus selected, with associated , phonetic variants types: within this nf set, geographical coverage ranges between and and phonetic variability between and . the resulting phonetic distance matrice was built on the basis of the , phonetic variants attested as instantiations of the selected nfs. in order to assess the reliability of the data set, we calculated the coefficient cronbach α (heeringa : - ) which was . . this means that this data set provides a reliable basis for an analysis of phonetic differences based on ld. the distance between the phonetic variants of the same nf in different locations was calculated on the basis of the raw ld, without any type of normalisation by the length of compared transcriptions: in this way, all sound differences add the same weight to the overall distance and are not inversely proportional to the word length as in the case of normalised distances. this choice is in line with the heeringa et al. ( ) findings which notice that raw ld represents a better approximation of phonetic differences among dialects as perceived by dialect speakers than results based on normalised ld. . . measuring lexical distances whereas a study of phonetic variation based on phonetically transcribed data could only be conducted with ld, this choice is not to be taken for granted in the case of lexical distances. in fact, in the pioneering research by seguy ( ) and goebl ( ) the comparison between any two sites is perfomed starting from the proportion of shared answers to a given questionnaire item and of those which differ. yet, it is often the case that answers elicited from informants are different forms of the same lexical item: typically, they are inflectional or derivational variants of the same lemma. moreover, they can also include diacronically (e.g. etymologically) related words. by adopting a binary notion of lexical distance, related but different lexical items are treated as completely unrelated answers. to overcome this problem, in their study of lexical variation in lamsas nerbonne and kleiweg ( ) applied ld to measure also the lexical distance of the answers on the basis of the encouraging results previously obtained in the study of phonetic variation. with ld, related lexical items are no longer treated as irrelated answers and their partial similarity is taken into account. we felt that the use of ld for measuring lexical distances was also appropriate in the alt case. this choice appears even more crucial if we consider the type of representation of dialectal data we are dealing with. although we are using previously normalised dialectal forms, we have seen that this representation level does not abstract away from morphological variation or from no longer productive phonetic processes. to keep with the schiacciata example, the questionnaire item meant to gather lexicalisations of the concept of this traditional type of bread includes answers both in the singular and in the plural forms (e.g. schiacciatina vs schiacciatine), gender variants (e.g. schiaccino-masculine vs schiaccina-feminine), as well as derivationally related variants such as schiaccia, schiaccina and schiacciata or multi-word expressions like schiacciata unta (lit. schiacciata with oil) or schiacciata al sale (lit. salted schiacciata). at the nr level, all these forms still represent distinct answers. by resorting to ld, their relatedness can be accounted for in the measure of lexical distance. the present study of lexical variation in tuscany is based on the entire set of alt onomasiological questions (see section . ), namely questionnaire items which gathered a total of , normalised answer types geographically distributed into , tokens. in this case, the coefficient cronbach α was . , showing that this was a sufficient basis for a reliable analysis. lexical distances were measured using ld operating on nfs. given the features peculiar to the nr level, the resulting measure of lexical distance has to be seen as reflecting patterns of morphological variation as well, especially for what concerns derivation. for this reason, from now on we will refer to the distances computed against nfs as “morpho-lexical distances”. differently from the phonetic distance computation, here it makes sense to normalise ld so that it is independent from the length of compared words (as suggested in nerbonne et al. ). this choice follows from the fact that in the study of lexical variation words are to be considered as the linguistic units with respect to which the distance computation is performed. . linguistic and geographic distances: within and between correlations . methodology following heeringa and nerbonne ( ), the phonetic and morpho-lexical distance matrices were explored with complementary techniques, namely agglomerative hierarchical clustering and multidimensional scaling: the results of this study are reported in montemagni ( ). here it suffices to say that the iconic profiles of phonetic and morpho-lexical variation are visually quite different. besides the borders identifying non-tuscan dialects from lunigiana and romagna toscana, proposed phonetic and morpho-lexical dialectal subdivisions do not overlap. this fact needs further investigation aimed at exploring the reasons underlying this state of affairs. in particular, two research questions need to be addressed: a) whether and to what extent observed patterns of phonetic and morpho-lexical variation are associated with one another; b) whether and to what extent phonetic and morpho-lexical distances correlate with geographic distance. in particular, if this turns out to be the case, we need to investigate whether they correlate with geography in the same way. following nerbonne ( ), goebl ( ), gooskens ( ), gooskens and heeringa ( ) and spruit et al. (in press), the correlation between the distances observed at different linguistic levels on the one hand and between linguistic and geographic distances on the other hand is calculated in terms of the pearson’s correlation coefficient. two approaches can be recognised in the dialectometric correlation literature: . the correlation is measured with respect to the whole place x place matrix, thus providing a global measure of whether and to what extent the distance matrices are correlated: this is the approach followed in the gröningen school of dialectometry; . the correlation is calculated separately for each of the investigated locations giving rise to place-specific measures which can then be visualised on a map highlighting the areas characterised by similar correlation patterns; this corresponds to the “correlative dialectometry” by goebl ( ). interestingly enough, the two approaches complement each other nicely, providing at the same time global and place- specific correlation measures; in this study of tuscan dialectal variation, both approaches are experimented with. for the specific concerns of this study, we will focus on tuscan dialects only, i.e. on the out of the alt locations where tuscan dialects are spoken. . correlation between phonetic and morpho-lexical distances by focussing on tuscan dialects only, the global correlation between phonetic and morpho-lexical distances turns out to be . , with only % of explained variance. this situation is not reflected in the analyses of tuscan dialects by the main scholar of tuscan dialectology - giannelli ( ) - whose proposed subdivision seems to result from the combination of phonetic, phonemic, morpho-syntactic and lexical features. this global correlation value suggests that within tuscan-speaking localities it can often be the case that two dialects differ at the level of phonetic features but still have a common vocabulary, or the other way around. in order to check whether and most importantly where this is the case, following the correlative dialectometry approach by goebl ( ) phonetic/morpho-lexical correlation scores have been calculated separately for each of the investigated locations and then projected on a map: the result is shown in figure . figure – choropleth map of the correlation values between phonetic proximity values and morpho-lexical proximity values. proximity = -distance. algorithm of visualisation: minmwmax ( -tuple). software: vdm. following goebl ( ), the distance values (dist) obtained with ld were converted into proximity values (prox) with the formula dist + prox = . for each site, obtained phonetic and morpho-lexical proximity values were correlated showing a variability range from . to . : in the map, the correlation values are organised into intervals according to the minmwmax visualisation algorithm (goebl ), where intervals - and - gather correlation values respectively below and above the arithmetic mean. the resulting spatial distribution is quite interesting: the darker zones of the map (intervals and ) indicate those areas in which phonetic variation is in lock-step with morpo-lexical variation. this happens to be the case in the area around florence (identified in the map by the white polygon), expanding in all directions, in particular west and south. this “harmony” between phonetic and morpho-lexical variation progressively fades in the areas corresponding to intervals from to . it is interesting to note that these results are in line with the dialectometric study of the italian ais atlas by goebl ( : ) who records relatively low phonetics-vocabulary correlation values in the peripheral areas of tuscany. . correlation between linguistic and geographical distances before drawing any conclusion, we need to take into account a third factor, geography. how much of the observed linguistic variation can be accounted for by the underlying geography? in previous dialectometric correlation studies, geography has been shown to correlate strongly with variation at different linguistic levels within the same language (heeringa and nerbonne , spruit at al. in press). this appears to hold true, with some significant differences due to the underlying geography (see below), also for other languages such as norwegian (gooskens ). let us consider whether this is the case for tuscany as well. table reports observed correlations for the tuscan-speaking localities between geographical distances on the one hand and phonetic and morpho-lexical distances on the other hand; note that all computed correlation coefficients are significant with p= . . the results show that the differences observed at the morpho-lexical level are more strongly associated with geographic distances (r= . ) than variation at the phonetic level (r= . ). the percentages in the rightmost column indicate the amount of variation at the specified linguistic level which can be explained with geographical distance. interestingly enough, it turned out that only . % of phonetic variation can be explained with geographical distance. correlation (r) explained variance (r * ) geography vs phonetic distances . . % geography vs morpho-lexical distances . % table – global correlation between geographic and linguistic distances. tuscany presents quite a peculiar situation concerning the correlation of linguistic variation with geography, which differs in two different respects from what has been observed in the dialectometric literature so far. consider first the association between phonetic and geographic variation: different correlations were observed in the literature, going from r= . in the case of dutch (nerbonne et al. ) to a significantly lower value, i.e. r= . , in the case of norwegian (gooskens ). gooskens ( ) explains such a different correlation as the impact of geography on dialect variation in norway, where the central mountain range prevented direct travel until recently: she found out that in norway travel time is correlated more strongly with linguistic distance than linear geographic distance. consider now the second peculiar aspect of tuscan dialectal variation with respect to geography. spruit et al. (in press) report the correlation observed for dutch between distances at different linguistic levels and geography: such a correlation appears to be quite high and constant across all levels taken into account, namely pronunciation (r= . ), syntax (r= . ) and lexicon (r= . ). the authors take these results to confirm the fundamental postulate in dialectology that language varieties are structured geographically (nerbonne and kleiweg ). this does not appear to be the case in tuscany where significantly different correlations are recorded across distinct levels of linguistic description; because of this, the low phonetics/geography correlation observed in tuscany cannot be explained in terms of the underlying geography. following the correlative dialectometry approach of goebl, the correlation between linguistic proximity values and geographic proximity values was computed for each site. the results are summarised in figure , with the left map focussing on the spatial distribution of phonetic vs geographic proximity correlation and the right one on morpho-lexical vs geographic proximity correlation. by comparing the variability range in the two maps, it can be observed that the situation differs significantly. whereas in the case of the phonetics/geography correlation it goes from - . to . , in the case of morpho- lexical variation the correlation values are higher and characterised by a narrower variation span (oscillating from . to . ). interestingly, the phonetics-geography variation range of intervals - ( . - . ) covers approximatively the variation span of intervals - ( . - . ) in the case of the morpho-lexical/geography correlation. the spatial distribution of phonetics/geography correlation values (figure , left map) follows a pattern similar to what has been observed in figure . again, the darker zones of the map (intervals and ), marking those areas in which phonetic and geographic proximity are “in tune”, are located in the area around florence, expanding south-west down to the coast; the surrounding areas, corresponding to intervals from to , are characterised by progressively lower correlation scores. again, these results are in line with goebl ( : - ), whose linguistics vs geography correlation maps (namely maps , and ) characterise tuscany as having low correlation scores, especially in the northern part. figure – choropleth maps of the correlation values between phonetic (left) and morpho-lexical (right) proximity values and geographic proximity values. algorithm of visualisation: minmwmax ( -tuple). software: vdm. . discussion the tuscan situation can be summarised as follows. phonetic and morpho-lexical variation patterns do not correlate strongly (r= . ); the correlation between phonetic and geographic distances is much lower (r= . ), differing significantly from the correlation between morpho-lexical distances and geography which appears to be considerably higher (r= . ). due to this combined evidence, we cannot explain the low correlation between phonetic and geographical distances in terms of the underlying geography of tuscany as hypothesized in the case of norway. rather, the different correlation with respect to geography seems to suggest that phonetic and morpho-lexical variation in tuscany is regulated by distinct patterns of linguistic diffusion. morpho-lexical variation in tuscany appears to conform to the dialectological postulate that “geographically proximate varieties tend to be more similar than distant ones” (nerbonne and kleiweg ). on the contrary: tuscan phonetic variation presents itself as an exception to the above mentioned dialectological postulate, since phonetic distances are not fully cumulative and there are geographically remote areas which appear to be linguistically similar (montemagni ). tuscan phonetic variation can thus be seen as resulting from a different pattern of linguistic diffusion: we hypothesise that it is the result of “the displacement of a formerly widespread linguistic feature by an innovation” (chambers and trudgill : ). in order to test this hypothesis, a closer look at phonetic variation is necessary, especially for what concerns the linguistic properties playing a major role in determining identified patterns of phonetic variation. current research in this direction shows that among the linguistic features playing a major role in determining identified phonetic variation patterns there appears to be spirantization phenomena (so-called “tuscan gorgia”). tuscan gorgia is accepted as being a local and innovative (presumably dating back to the middle ages) natural phonetic phenomenon (consonantal weakening) spreading from the culturally influential center of florence in all directions, especially southward and westward. interestingly enough, the spatial distribution of tuscan gorgia is very close to distribution of the darker zones in figures and , i.e. the areas where phonetic variation appears to correlate more strongly with morpho-lexical variation (figure ) and geographic proximity (figure , left map). the converse is also true: surrounding areas, corresponding to the zones not affected by tuscan gorgia, show in both cases low correlation values; this means that in these areas phonetic variation is no longer aligned with neither morpho-lexical variation nor geography. . conclusions the paper reports the results of a correlation study focusing on phonetic and morpho-lexical variation in tuscany. the study was performed on the data extracted from the entire alt corpus. phonetic and morpho-lexical distances among tuscan language varieties were calculated using ld against different representation types (pt and nr respectively). the resulting distance matrices were analysed in order to test the degree of correlation between observed patterns of phonetic and morpho- lexical variation on the one hand, and between linguistic variation and geographic distances on the other hand. the correlation analysis, restricted to the tuscan dialects area, was performed by combining the two different but complementary approaches proposed in the dialectometric literature, namely by computing both global and place-specific correlation measures and by inspecting their spatial distribution. differently from the results of previous correlation studies, phonetic and morpho-lexical variation in tuscany does not appear to conform to the same pattern: whereas the latter can be taken to confirm the postulate that language varieties are structured geographically, the former rather suggests that a different pattern of linguistic variation is at work, characterised by the spread of phonetic features from a core locality to neighbouring ones and by the existence of linguistically related but geographically remote areas. the contribution of this study is twofold. from the point of view of tuscan dialectology, it helps gain insight into the nature of diatopic variation at different linguistic description levels, a topic which to our knowledge has never been investigated so far. from a more general dialectometric perspective, one of the innovative contributions of this study consists of identifying radically different patterns of linguistic variation for different description levels with respect to the same area. obviously, these results need further investigation in different directions. firstly, it would be interesting to widen the range of linguistic levels taken into account to assess whether there are levels which are more closely associated than others. first experiments in this direction suggest that morphological and lexical variation are more strongly associated than phonetic variation appears to be with them. secondly, one could extend this correlation study by considering socio-economical factors playing a role in the linguistic variation process as well. through this, identified variation patterns could result from the complex interaction of geographic and social factors. note that alt could be conveniently exploited for this purpose due to the simultaneous diatopic and diastratic characterisation of its data. last but not least, it would be interesting to apply the adopted correlation methodology to study the relationship between patterns of linguistic variation and genetic or demographic variation, hopefully leading to a deeper understanding of the role of population movements in determining dialect diversity. acknowledgements i would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions to improve this paper. i would like to thank john nerbonne for his precious suggestions on previous versions of this work, and peter kleiweg for his support in the use of the rug/l software. i would also like to thank hans goebl for the stimulating comments on the results of the correlational analyses illustrated in this paper, and slavomir sobota with edgar haimerl for their support with the vdm software. finally, thanks are also due to eva maria vecchi who reviewed the manuscript. . references [ ] j.k.chambers, p.trudgill ( ), dialectology, nd edition (cambridge). 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[ ] m.r. spruit, w. heeringa, j. nerbonne (in press), ‘associations among linguistic levels’, lingua (special issue on syntactic databases), available at http://marco.info/pro/pub/shn dh.pdf. according to the main scholar of tuscan dialectology (giannelli ), tuscan dialects are neither northern nor southern dialects: this follows from their status as the source of italian as well as from their representing a compromise between northern and central-southern dialects. their linguistic characterisation is not so easy, since there appear to be very few features – if any at all – which are common to all and only tuscan dialects. if elements of unity are hard to find, those of differentiation are present at the different levels of linguistic description. the rug/l package can be downloaded from http://www.let.rug.nl/kleiweg/l /; the visual dialectometry (vdm) is a freely available software package documented at http://ald.sbg.ac.at/dm/engl/default.htm. http://serverdbt.ilc.cnr.it/altweb/ the alt transcription system is a geographically specialised version of the carta dei dialetti italiani (cdi) (grassi et al. ). in what follows, for the reader’s convenience phonetically transcribed data are reported in ipa notation. for more details on the representation scheme adopted in alt-web, see cucurullo et al. . used software: rug/l . in principle, they could be due to the fact that interviewers did not ask the corresponding question or did not get a useful reply from informants. two experiments were conducted, operating respectively on atomic and feature-based representations. feature-based representations of phonetic variants were automatically generated with a software module in the rug/l package on the basis of a system of features, identified starting from the alt phonetic transcription system. the adopted feature-based representation distinguishes vowel-specific features (i.e. height, advancement, length and roundedness) as well as consonantal features covering place of articulation (e.g. bilabial, dental, alveolar, velar, etc.), manner of articulation (e.g. stop, lateral, fricative, lateral, etc.) and presence/absence of voice; other features are concerned with prosodic properties such as stress and the vowel/consonant distinction. for more details, see montemagni . the distances resulting from the two experiments were compared with the pearson’s correlation coefficient which turned out to be r= . . this shows that when working with large data sets feature- and phone-based representations do not lead to significantly different results: if on the one hand feature-based representations do not lead to much improved analyses, on the other hand the rough measure working on phone-based representation appears to be reliable. a potential problem of this approach is to treat as lexically related accidentally close variants. however, the occurrence of cases like this one within the set of answers to the same questionnaire item is extremely rare. in principle, a viable alternative could have been resorting to lemmatisation: as nerbonne and kleiweg ( ) point out, the application of ld for measuring lexical distance provides “only a rough estimate of what more correctly lemmatizing ought to to”. in practice, we believe that in the case of alt data lemmatisation is not an easy solution at all, especially for what concerns derivationally related words: the question is if and when word forms such as schiaccina or schiaccetta should be lemmatised as instances of the base lemma schiaccia or if they represent lemmata in their own right. lemmatisation criteria for dialectal data of this type are not easy to find and involve careful examination of the geographic distribution of words as well as of paradigmatic relations holding within the lexicon of a given locality. therefore, recourse to ld in the alt case should not be seen as a second best but rather as a way to overcome inherent lemmatisation problems which are not easily solvable. the geographical distances have been calculated using the “ll dst” programme included in the rug/l software package. following kondrak ( ) and prokic ( ), extraction of regular sound correspondences from aligned word pairs was carried out. we focused on the aligned phonetic variants of normalised forms selected on the basis of extra-linguistic criteria, namely geographical coverage and variation range. the experimental data set includes , phonetic variants types corresponding to , tokens. attested phonetic variants were aligned using rug/l : alignments were induced by enforcing the syllabicity constraint. in the case of multiple alignments, only the first one was considered. from all aligned word pairs both matching and non-matching phonetic segments were extracted for a total of , , segment pairs. a coarse-grained classification of non-matching phonetic segments ( , , ) shows that consonants play a major role in tuscan phonetic variation, covering the % of non-matching phonetic segments. a finer-grained classification of non- matching phonetic segments involving consonants demonstrates that a significant part of them (i.e. %) corresponds to spirantization phenomena, partitioned as follows: % spirantization of plosives (/k t p/ > [h f t]) and % weakening of palatal affricates (e.g. /st/ > [s]). these percentages grow further if we focus on tuscan dialects only. we also measured the correlation between overall phonetic distances and phonetic distances focussing on non-matching phonetic segments involving spirantization of plosives which turned out to be rather high, with r= . . hia_ .. introduction: digital history in african studies jennifer hart abstract: this brief introduction to a special section on digital history in african studies situates three articles on recent digital humanities initiatives among african historians within the broader histories of the use of digital methodologies in the study of africa. in particular, it highlights the way that africanist digital scholarship sits at the intersection of digital historical representation, community engagement, and academic research. while africanist digital history builds on the work of a much broader digital humanities community, historians of africa also draw on their disci- pline’s long history of methodological innovation to raise important questions about thepotential contributions and limitationsofdigital technologies inacademic research. résumé: cette courte introduction à cette section spéciale porte sur la place de l’histoire numérique dans les études africaines et situe les trois articles parmi les initiatives récentes en humanités numériques adoptées par les historiens de l’afrique qui utilisent des méthodologies numériques pour l’étude de l’afrique. cette intro- duction souligne tout particulièrement la façon dont le travail scientifique numérique sur l’afrique se situe à l’intersection de la représentation historique et numérique, de l’engagement des communautés étudiées et de la recherche universitaire. alors que l’histoire numérique africaniste s’appuie sur le travail d’une communauté des huma- nités numériques beaucoup plus large, les historiens de l’afrique s’appuient égale- ment sur la longue histoire d’innovation méthodologique de leur discipline pour soulever des questions importantes sur les contributions et les limites potentielles des technologies numériques dans la recherche universitaire. history in africa, volume ( ), pp. – jennifer hart is an associate professor of history at wayne state university, where she teaches courses in african history, world history, digital humanities, and history communication. she directs the public digital humanities project, accra wala, and she is the author of ghana on the go: african mobility in the age of motor transportation (bloomington in: indiana university press ). an active public scholar, hart also writes on her own blog (www.ghanaonthego.com), as well as africa is a country, the metropole, global urban history project, and clio and the contemporary. © african studies association, doi: . /hia. . terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hia. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://www.ghanaonthego.com https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core anchored by the early advances of the trans-atlantic slave trade database (now voyages), much of the application of digital tools to historical research in and about africa has been dominated by the creation and analysis of digital archives. and, of that, a disproportionate amount of the scholarship has addressed the methodological questions associated with the study of the trans-atlantic slave trade. importantly, these archival projects placed afri- canists at the center of dh debates about data sourcing, representation, analysis, and access. particularly in light of persistent challenges to processing and preserv- ing archival materials on the continent, digital archiving projects are likely to increase in number in the foreseeable future, and forthcoming issues of this journal will once again take up questions of digital archives. the papers presented here, however, feature projects that explore other pos- sibilities of digital scholarship. in particular, many historians have also begun embracing the possibilities of the digital not merely to archive but also to create what theimer calls “digital historical representations.” while these projects often include some form of archiving, they also take a step beyond the digitized archive, using digital sources to create inter- active historical experiences and make historical arguments. in doing so, these scholars are part of a long tradition in africanist scholarship, which embraces new methodological practices to rethink what it means to “do history.” some of these projects use existing digital technologies – from “mining” social media to blogging to historical mapping – to bring new voices and perspectives into the popular and scholarly conversation about the african past. others use their projects as platforms for new kinds of sensory and voyages: the trans-atlantic slave trade database, https://www.slavevoyages. org/about/about, accessed july . most recently in this journal, see: henry b. lovejoy, paul e. lovejoy, walter hawthorne, edward a. alpers, mariana candido and matthew s. hopper, “redefin- ing african regions for linking open-source data,” history in africa ( ), – . see also, for example: paul lovejoy, “the upper guinea coast and the trans-atlantic slave trade database,” african economic history ( ), – ; g. ugo nwokeji and david eltis, “the roots of the african diaspora: methodological considerations in the analysis of names in the liberated african registers of sierra leone and havana,” history in africa ( ), – . kate theimer, “a distinction worth exploring: ‘archives’ and ‘digital historical representations,’” journal of digital humanities – ( ), http:// journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ – /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and- digital-historical-representations/, accessed july . the voyages project itself also demonstrates a move in this direction, with new forms of data visualization integrated into the update. see: henry louis gates’ introduction to voyages . on the website: https://www.slavevoyages.org/ history in africa terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hia. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.slavevoyages.org/about/about https://www.slavevoyages.org/about/about http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and-digital-historical-representations/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and-digital-historical-representations/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and-digital-historical-representations/ https://www.slavevoyages.org/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core spatial analysis in historical scholarship, and, in the process, are often creat- ing new kinds of technology and software that make their analysis possible. still others are dedicated to rethinking how we teach african history, both inside and outside of the continent. at a time when the economist argues, “mobile phones are transforming africa,” these digital projects provide a new way for scholars to engage with a broad-based public. public-facing projects not only encourage citizens to consume material on their sites, but, in many cases, they also actively encourage people to participate in building their content and analysis. these projects are all informed by the methodological, technological, and ethical considerations raised by earlier digital scholarship, as well as the debates about decolonization and intersectionality that are reshaping both african studies and digital humanities. by engaging in public scholarship, these digital history projects help rethink long-standing concerns among africanist scholars about the politics of knowledge production and the repatriation of scholarly materials. these projects are often highly collabo- rative and involve partnerships within and outside of the continent. however, they also raise new kinds of concerns about access, privilege, and represen- tation. the high costs of these projects mean that they are often funded through us and european institutions, replicating a model of research support on the continent more broadly. but digital projects also require “mobile phones are transforming africa,” the economist ( december ), https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/ / / /mobile-phones- are-transforming-africa, accessed july . see, for example: roopika risam, new digital worlds: postcolonial digital human- ities in theory, praxis, and pedagogy (chicago: northwestern university press, ); elizabeth losh and jacqueline wernimont (eds.), bodies of information: intersectional feminism and the digital humanities (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ); dorothy kim and jesse stommel (eds.), disrupting the digital humanities (new york: punctum press, ); matthew k. gold and lauren f. klein (eds.), debates in the digital humanities (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ); jean allman, “kwame nkrumah, african studies, and the politics of knowledge production in the black star of africa,” international journal of african historical studies – ( ), – ; paul tiyambe zeleza, “african studies and universities since independence,” transition ( ), – ; mahmood mamdani, “between the public intellectual and the scholar: decolonization and some post-independence initiatives in african higher education,” inter-asia cultural studies – ( ), – ; the rhodes must fall movement, rhodes must fall: the struggle to decolonize the racist heart of empire (london: zed books, ); achille mbembe, “decolonizing knowl- edge and the question of the archive” (africa is a country: e-book, ), https:// africaisacountry.atavist.com/decolonizing-knowledge-and-the-question-of-the-archive, accessed july ; francis b. nyamnjoh, “decolonizing the university in africa,” oxford research encyclopedia, politics (oxford: oxford university press, ), https:// oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore– -e– , accessed july . introduction: digital history in african studies terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hia. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/ / / /mobile-phones-are-transforming-africa https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/ / / /mobile-phones-are-transforming-africa https://africaisacountry.atavist.com/decolonizing-knowledge-and-the-question-of-the-archive https://africaisacountry.atavist.com/decolonizing-knowledge-and-the-question-of-the-archive https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore -e https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore -e https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore -e https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core server space and hosting, as well as ongoing web maintenance to stay active – support that often requires additional investment and support. while south african universities have been building their own digital humanities infrastructure over the last several years, digital humanities centers are currently heavily concentrated in the us and europe. new centers opening in nigeria face ongoing funding and resource challenges, which inhibit digital scholarship. even as digital scholarship on and in africa expands, it often seems disconnected from both the scholarly commitments and digital communities of those on and off of the continent. as the digital humanities con- ference’s “focus on africa” made clear, conversations about dh in africa are still unduly focused on the kinds of capacity building that leads to the development of dh centers, institutes, and programs, while ignoring more fundamental questions of representation, inclusion, and access. what does it mean to develop digital humanities programs on a continent where internet costs are higher and speeds are slower than global averages? what does digital humanities look like in countries where individuals are far more likely to access the internet via mobile phones than broadband hookups? as the projects presented here make clear, these conditions do not preclude the development of digital humanities projects in african contexts. they do, however, raise questions about the biases of funding structures, the limita- tions of institution-building, and the importance of community engagement and partnerships. these papers, then, are not intended to represent the breadth and complexity of the field of africanist digital history, if we could call it such. it is, however, instructive to think about what they do represent. these projects are three examples of an emerging form of engagement in the digital humanities among africanists; they are new forms of digital historical representation, community engagement, and academic research that blur the boundaries between public history, digital humanities, and more tradi- tional forms of historical scholarship. two of these three projects have been developed outside of major digital humanities centers, driven by the research and pedagogical interests of individual faculty members and graduate stu- dents. they are part of an emerging conversation about public-facing see, for example, the list of member organizations of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho), http://adho.org/about “focus on africa,” dh , https://dh .adho.org/programme/focus-on- africa/, accessed july . yomi kazeem, quartz ( september ), https://qz.com/africa/ / africa-has-the-most-expensive-internet-in-the-world/, accessed july . “supporting wireless broadband in africa,” international finance corporation: world bank group, https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/news_ext_content/ifc_ external_corporate_site/news+and+events/news/wireless-broadband-africa, accessed july . history in africa terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hia. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://adho.org/about https://dh .adho.org/programme/focus-on-africa/ https://dh .adho.org/programme/focus-on-africa/ https://qz.com/africa/ /africa-has-the-most-expensive-internet-in-the-world/ https://qz.com/africa/ /africa-has-the-most-expensive-internet-in-the-world/ https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/news_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/news+and+events/news/wireless-broadband-africa https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/news_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/news+and+events/news/wireless-broadband-africa https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core scholarship and applied history as much as they are about digital humani- ties. and, importantly, they provide us with accessible and thoughtful models for how to use digital tools to produce knowledge, disseminate research, analyze data, preserve historical materials, and engage the public, which could be incorporated into many different classrooms and research agendas. if these papers are not intended to constitute a representative sample of the field, it is also important to think about what is left out and how this is shaped by the networks and institutional definitions that have come to dominate digital humanities broadly and digital history specifically. some of the most interesting and publicly-engaged projects on the continent have been created and are operating outside of academic networks, driven by the efforts of young africans to document, learn from, and celebrate the past. in ghana, for example, the nana project encourages individuals to become citizen historians by collecting oral histories from community elders in order to preserve and expand knowledge of the nation’s recent history. other projects like accra we dey are not explicitly historical but they do draw heavily on history to raise awareness of the cultural and historical richness of accra’s indigenous ga community. these kinds of projects often blur the boundaries between commercial and academic, entrepreneurial and phil- anthropic, private projects and public interest. they often rely heavily on social media, and they are connected to broader networks within their respective countries and throughout the diaspora. and yet, they remain largely excluded from institutionalized academic conversations and networks in the digital humanities. in thinking about what these three papers include and what they exclude, then, we can see the emergence of what might be a critical agenda for digital history in african studies. what does such a field look like? what kinds of questions should we be asking ourselves in order to ensure that digital scholarship is used in such a way that we can expand access rather than limit it? what kinds of issues are raised when digital scholarship is practiced in an african context that might otherwise be overlooked in broader digital humanities conversations and networks? what happens when historical questions are separated out from inherently interdisciplinary projects? and where/how can we write about the methodological considerations at the core of this broad range of africanist digital scholarship that include non- academic practitioners and engage both african studies and digital human- ities audiences? trevor r. getz, lindsay ehrisman and tony yeboah, “‘we should have maintained this unity, then there would be more development:’ lessons from a pop-up museum of the fante confederation,” history in africa ( ), – . introduction: digital history in african studies terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hia. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core references allman, jean, “kwame nkrumah, african studies, and the politics of knowledge production in the black star of africa,” international journal of african historical studies – ( ), – . getz, trevor r., lindsay ehrisman and tony yeboah, “‘we should have maintained this unity, then there would be more development:’ lessons from a pop-up museum of the fante confederation,” history in africa ( ), – . gold, matthew k., and lauren f. klein (eds.), debates in the digital humanities (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ). kazeem, yomi, quartz ( september ), https://qz.com/africa/ /africa- has-the-most-expensive-internet-in-the-world/, accessed july . kim, dorothy, and jesse stommel (eds.), disrupting the digital humanities (new york: punctum press, ). losh, elizabeth, and jacqueline wernimont (eds.), bodies of information: intersectional feminism and the digital humanities (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ). lovejoy, henry b., paul e. lovejoy, walter hawthorne, edward a. alpers, mariana candido and matthew s. hopper, “redefining african regions for linking open-source data,” history in africa ( ), – . lovejoy, paul, “the upper guinea coast and the trans-atlantic slave trade database,” african economic history ( ), – mamdani, mahmood, “between the public intellectual and the scholar: decoloniza- tion and some post-independence initiatives in african higher education,” inter- asia cultural studies – ( ), – . mbembe, achille, “decolonizing knowledge and the question of the archive” (africa is a country: e-book, ), https://africaisacountry.atavist.com/decolonizing- knowledge-and-the-question-of-the-archive, accessed july . nwokeji, g. ugo, and david eltis, “the roots of the african diaspora: methodological considerations in the analysis of names in the liberated african registers of sierra leone and havana,” history in africa ( ), – . nyamnjoh, francis b., “decolonizing the university in africa,” oxford research ency- clopedia, politics (oxford: oxford university press, ), https://oxfordre.com/ politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore– -e– , accessed july . risam, roopika, new digital worlds: postcolonial digital humanities in theory, praxis, and pedagogy (chicago: northwestern university press, ). theimer, kate, “a distinction worth exploring: ‘archives’ and ‘digital historical representations,’” journal of digital humanities – ( ), http:// journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ – /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and- digital-historical-representations/, accessed july . the rhodes must fall movement, rhodes must fall: the struggle to decolonize the racist heart of empire (london: zed books, ). tiyambe zeleza, paul, “african studies and universities since independence,” tran- sition ( ), – . history in africa terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hia. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://qz.com/africa/ /africa-has-the-most-expensive-internet-in-the-world/ https://qz.com/africa/ /africa-has-the-most-expensive-internet-in-the-world/ https://africaisacountry.atavist.com/decolonizing-knowledge-and-the-question-of-the-archive https://africaisacountry.atavist.com/decolonizing-knowledge-and-the-question-of-the-archive https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore -e https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore -e https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/ . /acrefore/ . . /acrefore -e http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and-digital-historical-representations/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and-digital-historical-representations/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /a-distinction-worth-exploring-archives-and-digital-historical-representations/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hia. . https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction: digital history in african studies review: on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance reviews in digital humanities review: on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance ann marie blackmon , carolina collins university of texas at austin published on: feb , license: creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / reviews in digital humanities review: on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance project on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance project directors amanda henley, university of north carolina matthew jansen, university of north carolina project url https://unc-libraries-data.github.io/onthebooks/ project reviewers ann marie blackmon, university of texas at austin carolina collins, university of texas at austin project overview amanda henley and matthew jansen on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance is a collections as data and machine learning project inspired by a k- teacher who contacted a librarian in search of a comprehensive listing of all north carolina jim crow laws. the project created text corpora of north carolina session laws and used machine learning techniques to discover jim crow laws passed between reconstruction and the civil rights movement ( - ). a website provides searchable access to the jim crow laws and contextualizes them with an essay and a collection of k- learning resources. this project relied on the python programming language and open source software, and a github site hosts the scripts written for the project. documented examples from the workflow are provided in jupyter notebooks. our workflow is detailed in the white paper, and generally follows these simplified steps: acquisition, adjustment and manipulation of digitized images, ocr, corpus segmentation, analysis of the corpora using supervised machine learning, xml generation, and corpus creation. the project team, consultants, and collaborators consist of librarians, scholars, and information professionals providing a wide range of expertise, including: text analysis, coding, visualization, digital scholarship, metadata, legal information, web design, software development, project management, k- education, ocr, history, and african american studies. the first phase of the project ( / – / ) was part of collections as data part to whole (funded by andrew w. mellon foundation). phase two will conclude may and is funded through the association of research libraries. https://guides.lib.unc.edu/amandahenley https://guides.lib.unc.edu/mattjansen https://unc-libraries-data.github.io/onthebooks/ https://www.linkedin.com/in/ann-marie-blackmon-a / https://www.linkedin.com/public-profile/in/caroline-collins-ba ?challengeid=aqfp_ b hpewaaaxd umnpqwycebwtokentpr zg q p kpmqkfqjuoaskfogvr fnbcbipolrqktlbupvqqy a_gxvqnrw&submissionid= f f - e - - e - d a e https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/concern/scholarly_works/fq r?locale=en https://onthebooks.lib.unc.edu/about/ reviews in digital humanities review: on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance we envision multiple audiences for this project: information professionals interested in creating collections as data, legal scholars interested in north carolina laws, anyone interested in learning more about jim crow laws, and k- educators interested in teaching about jim crow laws. the project has been presented widely to librarians, digital humanists, and k- teachers. we are hopeful that the promotion of the project will engage a broad audience. the initial products of this project were released august , . in days, the jim crow text corpus was downloaded times, the white paper was downloaded times, and we were informed that an undergraduate student is using on the books products for their undergraduate honor’s thesis. an essay about the project was published in black perspectives by team member william sturkey. on a larger philosophical level, on the books acknowledges the implicit bias of algorithms and aims to use them to purposely expose racism. safiya noble’s algorithms of oppression (nyu press, ) has revealed how algorithms are implicitly biased by the people who code them, arguing that google’s search algorithms reinforce racism. can we, as information professionals, counter this bias? if we acknowledge there are algorithms of oppression, could there also be algorithms of resistance? on the books successfully developed algorithmic approaches to discover racist laws, but we are also clear about the limits of the algorithmic approach: the identification of jim crow laws can be subjective, and the true force of jim crow existed and persists f ar beyond algorithmic detection. project review ann marie blackmon and carolina collins on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance identifies and offers access to jim crow era laws passed in north carolina from to that discriminated against both african americans and indigenous people. seeking to answer the question, “can text mining and machine learning identify racist language in legal documents?” on the books successfully illustrates how laws and codes written after the civil war but before the civil rights movement contain racist rhetoric and word choice. this rhetoric detrimentally influenced the lives of black people during this hundred-year period in american history. it also explores how optical character recognition (ocr), algorithms, and machine learning technologies used to analyze the jim crow law corpus express bias and racism in their operation. a cross-section of unc libraries employees with diverse backgrounds involving data analysis, data visualization, content development, text analysis, and statistics and disciplinary scholars collaborated to ensure the project both served its various audiences and met existing standards. on the books uses python and open source software to identify and transform digitized images of laws passed by the north carolina legislature over a hundred-year period that have been made available by the internet archive. algorithms run against the internet archive generated two plain-text corpuses: https://www.aaihs.org/on-the-books-machine-learning-jim-crow/ https://www.aaihs.org/on-the-books-machine-learning-jim-crow/ reviews in digital humanities review: on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance ) all north carolina session laws from - and ) jim crow laws enacted by north carolina. as acknowledged by project members, shortcomings of the identifying algorithm ultimately preclude a completely comprehensive survey of jim crow laws, though jim crow laws are represented in the jim crow-specific text corpus. the algorithm also encountered issues with the inclusion of some f alse positives in the corpus. from there, the corpus was transformed through optical character recognition to turn digitized images into machine-readable text. on the books then systematically mined each corpus using topic modeling and supervised classification to determine racist wording in official laws cast by north carolina and to increase the searchability of the text corpora. clarification on where human intervention was required beyond the supervised classification would assist those interested in deploying the same algorithm and workflow. digital humanities researchers will find that publication of the project’s python tutorials through jupiter notebooks will be particularly useful. published via the project’s github repository, researchers can easily fork on the books for their own research or classroom use. beyond the github repository, the project provides access to a white paper on the project, a timeline, primary and secondary source materials, and lessons that allow teachers to relay information about the jim crow laws to students. contextual essays also make the content accessible to researchers and others interested in exploring jim crow laws passed in north carolina. some of the materials, like the lessons, timeline, and “the laws in context” page, serve to contextualize the jim crow laws by discussing their historical precedent and impact on african american and native communities. of special note is on the books’ collaboration with the unc department of history and carolina k- ’s director and manager, which resulted in outstanding resources for k- curricula. as such, on the books engages audiences of varying ages and backgrounds to identify and make accessible heretofore disregarded and silenced histories through technological means. user-centered design practices in digital humanities – experiences from dariah and cendari abi technik ; ( ): – fachbeitrag klaus thoden, juliane stiller, natasa bulatovic, hanna-lena meiners, nadia boukhelifa user-centered design practices in digital humanities – experiences from dariah and cendari doi . /abitech- - abstract: user experience and usability (ux) form a key part of research and best practice for product and software development. in this paper, the topic is addressed from the perspective of the digital humanities (dh) and approach- es undertaken in two dh infrastructure projects, dari- ah and cendari are presented. both projects addressed aspects of ux, focusing on the usage of a single software tool, as well as on an integrated research workflow using several tools and devices. the article lists the main factors, gleaned from research undertaken in the projects, that in- fluence usability practices in the dh, and provides possi- ble recommendations on how to approach them. keywords: digital humanities, usability, participatory de- sign nutzerorientierte entwicklungsmethoden in den digitalen geisteswissenschaften – erfahrungen aus den infrastrukturprojekten dariah und cendari zusammenfassung: user experience und usability sind wichtige bestandteile der forschung und praxis in der produkt- und softwareentwicklung. in diesem artikel nähern sich die autoren dem thema aus der perspektive der digitalen geisteswissenschaften. es werden die er- fahrungen aus zwei infrastrukturprojekten, dariah und cendari, näher beschrieben und handlungsanweisun- gen abgeleitet. in den projekten wurden usability-studien durchgeführt und nutzerorientierte methoden eingesetzt, bei denen es einerseits um die nutzung von unabhängi- gen tools, andererseits um einen integrierten forschungs- kreislauf mit verschiedenen tools ging. aufgrund der in den projekten gesammelten erfahrung und durchgeführ- ten forschung werden faktoren aufgelistet, die die ent- wicklungsmethoden in bezug auf usability in den digita- len geisteswissenschaften beeinflussen. schlüsselwörter: digitale geisteswissenschaften, usabili- ty, nutzerstudien introduction in the digital humanities (dh), one focus of research centers on the development and advancement of meth- ods and respective tools that can support them. burdick et al. understand data curation and data analysis as well as editing and modeling as the tasks most relevant to the dh. using digital tools and services for these tasks is at the core of dh practice. there is an interest in convincing tra- ditional scholars to adopt digital methods and tools and in demonstrating the potential of computing for the human- ities. creating a positive user experience can increase the adoption and usage of tools and therefore, over the past decade, requests have increased for development in line with results from user-centered research methods. in light of the numerous sources that claim a lack of usability studies for the dh or that developed tools are not intuitive or difficult to use and thus fail user expec- tations , building digital tools with better usability seems difficult to put into practice. schreibman and hanlon state that only percent of tool developers actually con- duct usability tests. but what are the reasons for this, giv- burdick, anne; johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, et al.: digital_ humanities. cambridge, mass. . f. gibbs, fred; trevor owens: “building better digital humanities tools: toward broader audiences and user-centered designs.” in: digital humanities quarterly , ( ). http://www.digitalhuman ities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. jänicke, stefan, greta franzini, m. cheema, et al.: “on close and distant reading in digital humanities: a survey and future chal- lenges’.” in: proc. of eurovis—stars. ( ): – . gibbs and owens . schreibman, susan, ann m. hanlon: “determining value for dig- ital humanities tools: report on a survey of tool developers.” in: digital humanities quarterly , ( ). http://www.digitalhuman ities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities fachbeitrag en the abundant literature on usability and on how to de- velop for good user experience? the theoretical path to a better and great user experience is well laid out. what are the factors that contribute to such a gap, or is the current status of usability in dh tools better than we think? this paper intends to explore the practice of usability in the dh and the perceived lack thereof. the goal is to find consensus on what good user experience and usabil- ity means in the digital humanities, what practices this might entail and what factors influence these practices. the authors report on experiences from two infrastruc- ture projects in the dh – cendari and dariah – both of which have invested considerable resources in research and best practice for usability. based on these two cases, they will derive the requirements and needs for a funda- mental usability practice in the domain of dh. in the next section, definitions will be given for user experience and usability from various domains, and dis- tilled into a working definition for this paper. section introduces approaches to user experience in the dh. in section , there will be a reflection on the experiences, opportunities and problems from dariah and cendari. the paper concludes with answers to the questions about the presence of a kind of “reality gap,” which manifests itself in the discrepancy between developing a highly ac- cepted theoretical tool and the in practice often poor user experience. usability and user experience – methods to increase user satisfaction user experience, usability and interface design play a tre- mendous role for dh tools, services and infrastructures because, as kirschenbaum puts it, “the interface becomes the first and in most respects the exclusive experience of the project for its end users” . emphasis on usability and user experience in the development process of tools and infrastructure components should be self-explanatory. the terms user experience and usability are closely re- lated and often also used synonymously. in the iso stan- dard - , usability is defined as the “[e]xtent to which kirschenbaum, matthew g.: “so the colors cover the wires: inter- face, aesthetics, and usability.” in: a companion to digital human- ities. edited by susan schreibman, ray siemens, john unsworth. – . blackwell publishing ltd., . http://onlinelibrary.wiley. com/doi/ . / .ch /summary. kirschenbaum , . a system, product or service can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use.” usability is often used as a generic term under which several methods, re- quirements and definitions are subsumed. the term “user experience” (ux) is considered to be even broader with the goal to optimize human performance and user satis- faction . in most software development processes, usabil- ity considerations are an integral part of a successful product delivery. the methods implemented target the improvement of interface design but also successful hu- man-computer interactions. in his book usable usability , reiss distinguishes two components of usability. the first component is to see whether the intended functionality is working as it should. he calls this “ease of use.” the second component, “elegance and clarity”, deals with the expectations users have with regard to certain functional- ities. both components incorporate elements of interface design and human-computer interaction focusing on de- livering a product or service that has user-centered design at its core. this is an approach the authors would like to adopt for the remainder of this paper: a useable tool, workflow or service that supports the scholar in obtaining results, in line with the method used, while being trans- parent about the provenance of these results. to deliver usable software products and tools, several processes and methods are defined and ideally integrated into the development process. for projects where the re- quirements of several stakeholders need to be reconciled, participatory design studies have proved successful – an approach that is particularly interesting for the digital humanities. participatory design has been adopted by many disciplines where stakeholders cooperate to ensure that the final product meets everyone’s requirements. for interactive software design, the aim is to benefit from dif- ferent expertise: designers know about the technology and users know their data, their workflow and its context. in a similar vein, muller describes participatory design bevans, nigel: “what is the difference between the purpose of us- ability and user experience evaluation methods?” uxem’ work- shop, interact , uppsala, sweden . http://nigelbevan. com/cart.htm. reiss, eric l.: usable usability: simple steps for making stuff bet- ter. john wiley & sons, . http://www.books x .com/marc.asp? bookid= . muller, michael j.: “participatory design: the third space in hci.” in: the human-computer interaction handbook. edited by julie j. jacko, andrew sears. hillsdale, nj, usa: lawrence er- lbaum associates, . – . http://dl.acm.org/citation. cfm?id= . . bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : fachbeitrag k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities as belonging to the in-between domain of end-users and technology developers, which is characterized by re- ciprocal learning and the creation of new ideas through negotiation, co-creation and polyvocal dialogues across and through differences. participatory design was also the chosen method for user-centered development within cendari. to conclude, we can define two different strands regarding user-centered design practices: first, tools that are developed along usability guidelines, and second, the provision of factors and criteria to evaluate the results of usability practices. in the domain of dh, there seems to be no coherent understanding of these two strands. approaching user experience in digital humanities usability and positive user experiences are important in increasing the acceptance of digital solutions for the hu- manities. this view is also supported by several surveys that were conducted in the project dariah-de and was also the major outcome of usability studies in textgrid . due to the diversity of the dh and the tools developed to serve a wide range of users with varying degrees of technical knowledge and experience, usability and user experience is particularly challenging. serving tech-savvy users and at the same time convincing other scholars to adopt digital tools will only be possible if the initial hur- dles for using these tools are low. in addition to the diver- sity of the user groups in the dh, the research areas and objects are also very heterogeneous which, with regard to development, complicates the definition of standards gnadt, timo, juliane stiller, klaus thoden, et al.: finale version erfolgskriterien. dariah-de, r . . , göttingen . https://wiki. de.dariah.eu/download/attachments/ /r _erfolgskriter- ien_konsortium.pdf; stiller, juliane, klaus thoden, oona leganovic, et al.: nutzungsverhalten in den digital humanities. dariah-de r . . /m . . göttingen . https://wiki.de.dariah.eu/download/at tachments/ /report . . -final .pdf; bulatovic, natasa, timo gnadt, matteo romanello, et al.: “usability in digital humanities – evaluating user interfaces, infrastructural components and the use of mobile devices during research process.” in: research and advanced technology for digital libraries. edited by norbert fuhr, lászló kovács, thomas risse, et al. – . cham a. http://link. springer.com/ . / - - - - _ . kaden, ben, simone rieger: “usability in forschungsinfrastruk- turen für die geisteswissenschaften: erfahrungen und einsichten aus textgrid iii.” in: textgrid: von der community – für die communi- ty: eine virtuelle forschungsumgebung für die geisteswissenschaften. edited by heike neuroth, andrea rapp, sibylle söring. – .glück- stadt, . or the following of standard procedures. the diverse re- search areas and objects, which may be very new and are often unexplored, constitute a further barrier to a reliance on experience and accepted methods and practices. this diversity could lead to missing feedback for de- veloped prototypes and a lack of user requirement anal- ysis, which could be the root cause for unused tools. prototypes and final products can be assessed, however, using the heuristics of nielsen or shneiderman et al. . usability tests have been undertaken for the dh where these heuristics were consulted for walkthroughs and for evaluation by experts . one finding was that usabil- ity problems do not always stem from the particular task that a tool should solve but are often very generic prob- lems. this is in line with the findings of burghardt who distinguishes generic and very domain-specific usability problems for his research objects: linguistic annotation tools. within dariah-de, several tools and services were reviewed and tested, revealing similar problems related to usability and user experience. although these shortcom- ings may be quite general, they can have a huge impact on the satisfaction of users and what they experience when interacting with a tool. the following problems occurred across products and services: a) ambiguous and incon- sistent vocabulary, b) disregard of graphical conventions, c) intransparency of the system status, d) missing docu- mentation, e) missing strategies to avoid mistakes, f) dis- regard of convention for workflows, e.g. search . having strategies in place to avoid these common mistakes would already make dh-tools and services much more usable. an approach often taken for usability is the user study for specific tools, services or infrastructure components. here, user experience and usability aspects may play a role in investigating user satisfaction with developed features and components. one example is monk, a web- based text-mining software. in an extensive study, web analytics data and user interviews were analyzed to gain knowledge about the usage of the application . there was an overall satisfaction with the tool offered but it was ob- nielsen, jakob: heuristics for user interface design. . http://www.nngroup.com/articles/ten-usability-heuristics/ shneiderman, ben, catherine plaisant, maxine cohen, et al: de- signing the user interface: strategies for effective human-computer interaction. harlow . stiller et al. . burghardt, manuel: “annotationsergonomie: design-empfehlun- gen für linguistische annotationswerkzeuge.” in: information – wis- senschaft & praxis ( ) ( ). doi: . /iwp- - . bulatovic et al. (a). green, harriett e.: “under the workbench: an analysis of the use and preservation of monk text mining research software.” in: liter- ary and linguistic computing ( ) ( ): – . bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities fachbeitrag served that the functionalities were geared more towards easy access and approachability than towards offering a flexible tool for the expert user . here, one can see that researchers are more willing to go to considerable lengths to learn a tool when it provides expert functionalities and enables flexible adaptation to their specific needs. tools such as monk have been praised for their ability to teach and their provision of gateway entry into learning more about text mining and its capabilities. other studies have been surveyed and scholars interviewed to gain insights into other barriers and hurdles that hinder the use of such tools. gibbs and owens identified the lack of integration of users into the design process as well as missing doc- umentation as factors for the low acceptance of tools. in particular, technically challenging tools for visualization and text mining should have usable interfaces and con- cise documentation with examples of use cases . techni- cal documentation as well as procedural documentation is essential to ensure the reuse of data and the results of projects. this would help interested parties to understand the scope and goal of online projects . research has now started to move away from case studies targeted at the requirements of specific dh-tools and instead search for a more generalized approach to usability and user experiences in the dh. for example, burghardt has developed usability patterns for linguistic annotation tools, arguing that the specificity of the tools requires specific solutions for design and interaction pat- terns. to the authors’ knowledge, burghardt’s approach to usability engineering in the dh is unique. participatory design, as one approach to unify the perspectives of several stakeholders, is applied in several infrastructure and tool development projects. warwick provides explanations for the neglect of participatory de- sign in humanities projects: green, . gibbs and owens, . gibbs and owens, . warwick, claire, melissa terras, isabel galina, et al.: evaluating digital humanities resources: the lairah project checklist and the internet shakespeare editions project. london, . http://elpub. scix.net/data/works/att/ _elpub .content.pdf. burghardt, manuel: engineering annotation usability – toward usability patterns for linguistic annotation tools. universität regens- burg . http://epub.uni-regensburg.de/ /. warwick, claire: “studying users in digital humanities.” in: digital humanities in practice. edited by claire warwick, melissa ter- ras, juliane nyhan. – . london, . http://www.facetpublishing. co.uk/title.php?id= . it was often assumed that the resources created in digital human- ities would be used by humanities scholars, who were not techni- cally gifted or, perhaps, even luddites. thus, there was little point asking them what they needed, because they would not know, or their opinion about how a resource functioned, because they would not care. it was also assumed that technical experts were the people who knew what digital resources should look like, what they should do and how they should work. if developers decided that a tool or resource was a good one, then their opinion was the one that counted, since they understood the details of program- ming, databases, xml and website building. the plan, then, was to provide good resources for users, tell them what to do and wait for them to adopt digital humanities methods. (p. ) many of these assumptions have been challenged and a number of recent projects have shown that involving dh users in the design process is beneficial in learning about users and their requirements . for example, heuwing and womser-hacker describe user-centered methods applied in the project “children and their world” to ag- gregate the requirements for a catalog that can guide the system design. the authors underline the necessity of communication and understanding in dh projects, which often consist of teams from different community practices. here, one problem is that tools are developed by computer linguists who may lack knowledge of the domain of the re- spective scholar using the tool. bridging the gap between the scholar, who can often anticipate the functionalities of a tool but might not know how to build it, and the scien- tist, who develops the tool but may lack insights into the methods applied or the workflow to be mapped in the dig- ital environment, might be the key to resolving this con- flict. in a more recent article, the authors again underline the benefits of user-centered methods in getting different stakeholders closer together in the development process mattern, eleanor, wei jeng, daqing he, et al.: “using participa- tory design and visual narrative inquiry to investigate researchers? data challenges and recommendations for library research data services.” in: program: electronic library and information systems ( ) ( ): – ; wessels, bridgette, keira borrill, louise sorensen, et al: understanding design for the digital humanities. studies in the digital humanities. sheffield, . hri online publications. http://www.hrionline.ac.uk/openbook/chapter/understanding-de sign-for-the-digital-humanities; visconti, amanda: infinite ulyss- es. . http://www.infiniteulysses.com/; heuwing, ben, christa womser-hacker: „zwischen beobachtung und partizipation – nu- tzerzentrierte methoden für eine bedarfsanalyse in der digitalen geschichtswissenschaft.” in: information – wissenschaft & praxis ( – ) ( ): – . doi: . /iwp- - . heuwing and womser-hacker, . http://welt-der-kinder.gei.de/. bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : fachbeitrag k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities and in guiding successful communication practice among different domain experts . experiences from two infra- structure projects: dariah and cendari this section reflects on the experiences made and prob- lems faced in the two infrastructure projects cendari and dariah, and the opportunities they both offered. the work in dariah focused mainly on the evaluation of existing tools and services, as well as their integration into a digital workflow and the iterative monitoring of devel- opment processes with regard to usability. cendari es- tablished and conducted user-centered research with the goal of reflecting user requirements at an early stage in the design process. . dariah dariah is one of the landmark projects within the esfri framework of the european union and one of the research infrastructures for the arts and humanities. according to the eu, the term “research infrastructure” refers to “facilities, resources and related services used by the scientific community to conduct top-level research in their respective fields, ranging from social sciences to astronomy, genomics to nanotechnologies.” the german partner dariah-de is financed by the federal ministry of education and research (bmbf) and is now in its third funding period. this period will end in early with the goal to provide a stable and fully developed infrastructure. one of the work packages in dariah-de deals with the usability of digital tools and infrastructure components. one main aim of this work package in the previous funding period was to accompany the development of heuwing, ben, thomas mandl, christa womser-hacker: methods for user-centered design and evaluation of text analysis tools in a digital history project. in: proceedings of asis&t. . https://www. asist.org/files/meetings/am /proceedings/submissions/papers/ paper.pdf. digital research infrastructure for the arts and humanities, http://www.dariah.eu/. european strategy forum on research infrastructures, https:// ec.europa.eu/research/infrastructures/index_en.cfm?pg=esfri. https://ec.europa.eu/research/infrastructures/index_en.cfm? pg=what. https://de.dariah.eu/. tools and services and iteratively give feedback to support the development process. for this purpose, stand-alone applications as well as digital workflows were tested. in the case of evaluating stand-alone applications for instance, some well-established methods were used: heuristic evaluation and thinking aloud tests . both methods do not need a large setup and are fairly feasible. we are aware that more extensive tests will always yield better results, but testing with a small group and con- fronting future users with software products will already gain valuable insights. as a first step, the application in question was evaluated heuristically by two usability ex- perts using the guidelines set up by nielsen . using such a standardized set of guidelines helps to establish a com- mon measure by which to evaluate different projects. as an additional step, the tools were checked against the spe- cific dariah-de guidelines, which were primarily devel- oped for the tools built for that infrastructure . secondly, a thinking aloud test was performed in which a subject was asked to fulfill common tasks concerning the tool in question. during that test, the subject is observed by one or two persons who take notes during the experiment and also remind the subject to continue to think aloud while completing the individual tasks. ideally, a recording of both the audio data and the computer screen are made to better analyze the experiment. to understand if the interchangeable use of tools and devices during the research workflow is possible and ac- ceptable for researchers, an exemplary digital workflow was identified, designed and studied. the workflow com- prised several steps that were performed on various de- vices such as desktop, laptop, digital camera, tablet and custom displays (see figure ). first, existing collections of tombstone images were integrated into a research data management (rdm) system (based on the imeji soft- ware). next, using a specialized app on a smart device, new nearby locations with tombstones were identified. in stiller, juliane; klaus thoden, dennis zielke: usability in den digital humanities am beispiel des laudatio repositoriums. leipzig, . http://www.dhd .de/abstracts/vorträge- .html nielsen . lewis, clayton, john rieman: task-centered user interface de- sign. a practical introduction. . http://grouplab.cpsc.ucalgary. ca/saul/hci_topics/tcsd-book/contents.html. nielsen . romanello, matteo, juliane stiller, klaus thoden: usability cri- teria for external requests of collaboration. dariah-de r . . /r . . göttingen, . https://wiki.de.dariah.eu/download/attach ments/ /r . . - . _final.pdf. https://imeji.org/. see “orte jüdischer geschichte” (places of jewish history), http:// app-juedische-orte.de.dariah.eu/. bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities fachbeitrag a subsequent excursion in the field, using another special- ized app installed on a digital camera, a smart phone and a tablet, researchers took images of those tombstones. these images were automatically uploaded to the rdm system by the app. the uploaded images were further en- riched with domain-specific metadata by using the rdm system web application on a desktop computer. as a final step, the image collections were visualized both on desk- top computers and on a so-called hyperwall display (an array of four k screens). depending on the task, to scholars were involved in this study. it showed that beyond the usability of one specific tool, the ease of transition between tools and de- vices is an important factor contributing to the overall user experience because researchers in the humanities often use several tools, potentially on different devices, during their research activities. this could necessitate data con- version and switching between devices in order to perform a particular research task. since researchers commonly work with different devices, also in an everyday context, both multi-device and multi-tool interactions were consid- ered to be acceptable. one observation was that original user expectations change depending on the research questions pursued. we further observed the expectations of the users from the mo- bile and web application tools and how these reflect in the complexity of mobile apps intended for smaller displays, and the applications intended for use on bigger displays (e.g. web applications used on a desktop). in most cases, mobile apps have fewer features and thus a smaller set of interactions are expected to be learned and performed. conversely, many desktop or web applications are much more feature-rich and seem to be designed under the as- sumption that the user will eventually spend some time see labcam app, http://labcam.mpdl.mpg.de/. learning the tool. this is congruent with the expectations that researchers had regarding the devices: for capturing data in the field, it was deemed sufficient to let the device acquire data automatically and to assign only basic key- words. the proper documentation of the field work would later be performed on a desktop computer. on the imple- mentation side, this may mean having to develop different user interfaces for one single backend (the database): a finger-friendly mobile version with reduced functionality plus a desktop application providing the complete func- tionality. for the visualization of data, it was found that the high-resolution large displays are not always optimal since not all applications tested support such high reso- lution . to conclude, diverse factors influence the user experience in a complex digital workflow spanning sever- al tools and devices, depending on the task they perform and the intent and context of use. this requires multiple approaches in addressing actual user needs. tool devel- opment and efforts need not be underestimated, especial- ly when such tools are part of a larger infrastructure and ecosystem. . cendari cendari (collaborative european digital archive infra- structure) was a -year european commission-fund- ed project with the aim to integrate digital archives and resources for the pilot areas of medieval culture and the first world war. the project brought together computer scientists and developers on one side, and historians and existing historical research infrastructures (archives, li- bulatovic (a) and (b). http://www.cendari.eu/. fig. : exemplary digital research workflow bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : fachbeitrag k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities braries and other digital projects) on the other. cendari intended to improve conditions for historical sciences in europe through active reflection and using the impact of the digital age to respond to scientific and archival prac- tice. the development of a virtual research environment was therefore planned with the aim to support researchers in their work with different tools and features that can fa- cilitate their research. in order to discern the actual needs and expectations of possible end user or researchers, so-called “participa- tory design workshops” were planned within cendari. the main goal was to determine the major requirements for a future environment, while avoiding the development of features and components that would find little interest among the end users. so the idea itself was a very simple one: why not ask researchers and stakeholders at different institutions what they think a good and usable virtual re- search environment needs in order to achieve or support defined research goals, or open up research questions in specific research areas. as simple as this may seem, the method of participatory design is not as widely used as one might expect. to understand the difficulties this meth- od involves, in the following we will take a closer look at the method and how it was used in the cendari context. in cendari, three participatory design workshops were organized with three different user groups: histori- ans, medievalists, as well as archivists and librarians. par- ticipants held brainstorming sessions about the function- alities of their ideal virtual research environment. with the help of the workshop facilitators, they then produced paper and video prototypes illustrating the desired func- tionalities. based on these prototypes and discussions with the participants, the main results of the participa- tory design sessions were threefold: a delineation of the historians’ research workflow, a detailed list of functional requirements and some high-level recommendations to cendari. first, cendari described a broad framework of how early stage research is conducted. in this workflow, they describe non-linear steps. the iterative nature of the re- search workflow was also noted in the literature . these steps were: research preparation, source selection, plan- ning of visits to archives and libraries, archive and library visits, note-taking, transcription, research refinement and one should not consider a contradictory construction despite talk of two ‘sides’. boukhelifa, nadia, emmanouil giannisakis, evanthia dimara, et al.: “supporting historical research through user-centered visual analytics.” in: eurovis workshop on visual analytics (eurova). . doi: . /eurova. . mattern et al. . annotation, knowledge organization and restructuring, refinement and writing, continuation and expansion, and collaboration support. second, it was clear from the video prototypes produced during the participatory ses- sions that there were shared functionalities between the different user groups. in particular, networking, search, note-taking and visualization were the most popular fea- tures participants demanded for an ideal virtual research environment. third, there were three high-level recom- mendations to the project: to take into account existing workflows, e.g. paper and digital, and accepted practices such as sharing notes and research material, to envisage methods that encourage participants to share or release research data, and to work closely with researchers by de- veloping early prototypes and test beds. the cendari functional requirements described above were “translated” into functional descriptions, which were evaluated by technical experts and then formed the backbone for software development. an in- teresting aspect of the development was the creation of use cases and user stories from selected system functions. these were intended to bring researchers and technical experts together by working on real research questions, and to help demonstrate the developed system function- alities in a coherent way. in addition to these benefits, there were also some problems with this method of developing a new environ- ment. one major issue was the diversity of requirements extracted from the use cases and user stories. of course, there was accordance regarding some required basic func- tions like searching and browsing, but there were also great differences in the details. in relation to their respec- tive research questions and areas, researchers came up with highly specific demands that would have required very much time for individual development. this problem could have originated in the selected case studies “first world war” and “medieval studies”. both research areas deal with numerous and varied research questions and involve different disciplines. at the same time, demands that were placed on the tools and components were in part delusive and could not be fulfilled. this and other prob- lems led to many lessons being learned within the proj- ect, which will have great value for future projects dealing with similar challenges. we will take closer look at the les- sons learned in the following section. besides the infrastructure and the virtual research environment contributed by cendari, the project also highlighted successful strategies for developing dh tools and areas where additional efforts are needed. in this re- gard, there were three key lessons learned concerning tool design, implementation and adoption that may be gener- bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities fachbeitrag alized to the domain of dh. concerning the design of dh tools, participatory design applied to dh problems was found to be a successful methodology in gathering user requirements and in bringing researchers and developers together. however, due to the many user groups involved in cendari (historians, archivists and librarians) and their diverse user requirements, decisions had to be made with regard to implementation. a “one system does it all” approach was not feasible. therefore the strategy was to give priority to common needs amongst the different user groups (e.g. note-taking). this allowed a variety of user scenarios and stories to be implemented but may not have addressed the specific needs of a specialized user group. finally, besides user-centered design, cendari also high- lighted the factors that may impact the adoption of a tool, such as data privacy. cendari’s recommendation was to keep historians’ notes private by default and tagged enti- ties public by default. this was seen as being helpful to “spread […] historical knowledge with little risk of disclos- ing historians’ work” . another factor was user percep- tion of the cost/benefit of structuring and enriching their research data. cendari’s strategy was to demonstrate to users how their annotations can be effectively exploited, for example through visualization and faceted search. reflections and recommenda- tions for usability practices in the dh contrary to common perceptions expressed in the litera- ture, as demonstrated with dariah and cendari, there are many projects in the dh that do address usability and that integrate user-centered design methods. neverthe- less, the resulting tools are often not easy to use or are not self-explanatory. although usability guidelines and heuristics exist, many dh-tools fail to even comply with the simplest rules. in the following, reflections gleaned from our experiences within the infrastructure projects cendari and dariah are presented. three aspects were identified that influence usability practices in the dh: (a) heterogeneous research methods and data, (b) lack of in- for example, persons, places, events or organizations identified by users during their research and annotated in their notes. boukhelifa et al. . adopting good engineering practices such as continuous testing, integration and builds, is a prerequisite for any software develop- ment. this aspect is well known and will not be addressed further here. tegration of stakeholders in development processes, (c) project-driven development. under each of these aspects, recommendations are given for raising the awareness of usability, both in its theoretical understanding and in its implementation during the development of dh tools. . heterogeneous research methods and data one of the biggest challenges in the dh are the diverse research methods executed and the countless research objects in different formats. it is important to note that in the dh, scholars often experiment with new methods or employ old methods on new quantitative data. general- izing usability guidelines for this domain is therefore very challenging. . . adhere to standards research data can come from various sources and in vari- ous formats. tool development should therefore adhere to standards and openness. for example, preference should be given to a tool that exposes a well-described rest inter- face over a tool where a direct database is the only means of access. developing test data sets and providing users with sample data to test and play with the tool should be common practice. when aggregating heterogeneous data, it is difficult to find a common relevant denominator to an- swer upcoming and as yet ill-defined research questions. the proper representation of such data is a challenging task. it is better to start with a minimal set of attributes and then to iterate as more is learned about each data type. it is preferable that the rest interfaces are designed more generic and the user interfaces more specific. . . choose the right methods and techniques in essence, every research project tends to deliver novel features and methods. software tools that are used should support such novelty and implement the necessary mech- anisms. we are often already aware of some features that should certainly be implemented by the tool, such as the creation and curation of resources, searching, browsing, and so forth. instead of implementing everything from scratch, one ought to try and find an open source tool that can be applied to the research domain and that provides the required functionality. the focus should be on an im- plementation of any missing features, either in the tool, as bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : fachbeitrag k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities an add-on or through the integration of an existing service that supports them. if necessary, several tools should be used. the development of all features and methods from scratch should, as far as possible, be avoided. . lack of integration of stakeholders in the development process in the dh, different stakeholders often have conflicting ideas about the success of a developed tool and the sig- nificance of usability in achieving success. on the one hand, there are service providers and funders of digital tools who want to increase user acceptance and usage of tools. a high number of users could mean more and bet- ter networking scenarios within the specific research area and better statistical and heuristic analyses of the tool and its components. there is also the need to justify funding and to explain the additional benefits of developed tools and digital methods. on the other hand, there are scholars who are often considered to be mere users, having little in- fluence on the design and development process. a deeper involvement of the scholars can lead to them being trail- blazers of new methods and tools in the humanities and thus further advancing the field. . . assemble a cross-functional team that works closely together it is vital for the whole development team to understand the scholars’ needs, their vocabulary and research prac- tices. conversely, scholars should also have the chance to understand the reasons for limitations on the implemen- tation side. a potential solution could be to build a team that comprises all parties involved, works closely together and shares their respective experiences as early as possi- ble. the methods described above are examples of exactly such practice. the involvement of researchers in tool de- velopment is necessary from the very beginning. if possi- ble, the team should be situated in the same location. . . understand the users’ needs and the project goals innovative projects – especially large international proj- ects – are often based in different locations. there is there- fore a high risk of misunderstanding the goals and the re- quirements of the project due to a lack of communication, especially when it comes to diversity of scenarios that need to be supported. developing a common “language of understanding” is not an easy task. communicate often and communicate openly. start with the features of high- risk first. it is necessary to practice agile and innovative methods to help understand different aspects of future solutions and new developments and priorities . . project-driven development tool development in the dh is often driven by projects with strictly limited resources. these research projects often aim at developing tools that support new methods justifying the funding for further development of the field. a sustainable development of tools with a long-term per- spective is often not the primary goal of such projects and usability considerations are often seen as the finishing touch – also in heavily funded projects. even when fund- ing is available to study the user experience, time or re- sources are lacking for an implementation of the results. . . document everything – people might move on irrelevant of the duration of the research project, in many cases there are difficulties in hiring people. there are a few variations of this phenomenon: positions cannot be filled in time, people find other positions to pursue their research during a research project, newly hired people master completely different technology than the one al- ready used in the project, and so on. not only do these slow down the whole development process, it directly affects the user experience aspects of the project. due to insufficient documentation of the work already done, ad- ditional time is required to understand the needs of the re- searchers who already expect a working solution, to adapt to changing goals, to introduce new members to the work- ing environment, and so forth. in order to reduce the neg- ative effects of such changes, one ought to use common components and apply common standards, keep the code clean, maintain a sufficient level of documentation and preserve project artifacts (e.g. design workshops, brain- storming outcomes, notes and meeting memos). hohmann, luke: innovation games: creating breakthrough products through collaborative play. addison-wesley profession- al, . http://proquest.tech.safaribooksonline.de/ ; luchs, michael g., scott swan, abbie griffin: design thinking. john wiley & sons, . http://proquest.tech.safaribooksonline. de/ . bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : k. thoden et al., user-centered design practices in digital humanities fachbeitrag . . take small steps and iterate it is important to decide carefully about the prioritization of the user experience related development. for example, writing a one-time script to upload data may have little impact on the user experience in comparison to a web ap- plication for data entry or data annotation. in order to test what is acceptable before any implementation, one should practice at an early stage agile and innovative methods to address user experience by using several low-fidelity pro- totypes. one should not try to model everything upfront. instead, one can make many smaller-sized implementa- tion iterations, thus reducing the risk of a larger part of the work being left unfinished. concluding remarks juxtaposing the different aspects that influence practices and methods of usability in the dh has shown that the reasons for disregarding user experience can be manifold. although there is awareness in projects of the importance of usability, results from studies are rarely taken into ac- count during development. to increase user experience, however, one can start with very simple things when de- veloping tools: even little usability is better than none. and it can easily be achieved by providing sample data or good documentation, which helps users in becoming familiar with the tool. with this presentation of user-cen- tered design practices and the recommendations above in this article, it is hoped to narrow the gap between usability in theory and usability in practice. check some tools and resources for prototypes and mockups available at https://balsamiq.com/products/mockups/, http://www. axure.com/, https://www.build.me. autoreninformationen klaus thoden max-planck-institut für wissenschaftsgeschichte boltzmannstraße berlin kthoden@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de orcid.org/ - - - juliane stiller berlin school of library and information science humboldt-universität zu berlin dorotheenstraße berlin juliane.stiller@ibi.hu-berlin.de orcid.org/ - - - natasa bulatovic max planck digital library (mpdl) amalienstraße münchen bulatovic@o mail.de hanna-lena meiners university of göttingen göttingen state and university library papendiek göttingen meiners@sub.uni-goettingen.de orcid.org/ - - - nadia boukhelifa umr gmpa agroparistech inra université paris-saclay nadia.boukhelifa@inra.fr orcid.org/ - - - bereitgestellt von | humboldt-universität zu berlin angemeldet heruntergeladen am | . . : king’s research portal doi: . / document version peer reviewed version link to publication record in king's research portal citation for published version (apa): spence, p. ( ). the academic book and its digital dilemmas. convergence (london), ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / citing this paper please note that where the full-text provided on king's research portal is the author accepted manuscript or post-print version this may differ from the final published version. if citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. and where the final published version is provided on the research portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections. general rights copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the research portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognize and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. •users may download and print one copy of any publication from the research portal for the 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convergence: the international journal of research into new media technologies author pre-print version, after peer review, copyright notice copyright rests with the journal convergence: the international journal of research into new media technologies journal volume number and issue number still pending at time of submission. copyright © . reprinted by permission of sage publications. doi: . / journals.sagepub.com/home/con abstract the future of the academic book has been under debate for many years now, with academic institutional dynamics boosting output, while actual demand has moved in the opposite direction, leading to a reduced market which has felt like it is in crisis for some time. while journals have experienced widespread migration to digital, scholarly monographs in print form have been resilient and digital alternatives have faced significant problems of acceptance, particularly in the arts and humanities. focusing in particular on the arts and humanities, this article asks how, and under what conditions, the digitally mediated long-form academic publication might hold a viable future. it examines digital disruption and innovation within humanities publishing, contrasts different models, and outlines some of the key challenges facing scholarly publishing in the humanities. this article examines how non-traditional entities, such as digital humanities research projects, have performed digital publishing roles and reviews possible implications for scholarly book publishing’s relationship to the wider research process. it concludes by looking at how digital or hybrid long-form publications might become more firmly established within the scholarly publishing landscape. introduction in his article “scholarship: beyond the paper” in nature a few years ago, jason priem argued that “we are witnessing the transition to … another scholarly communication system – one that will harness the technology of the web to vastly improve dissemination” ( : ). while such arguments are not new, and impassioned claims about the transformative powers of digital technology in publishing have often proven to be premature or unrealistic, it seems clear that our relationship to scholarly publication is susceptible to change at every level of its existence, from conception to final reception, and beyond, as a result of digital mediation. whereas academic journals have experienced many changes already, predictions of the imminent demise of print in academic publishing have proven to be misplaced, particularly in the arts & humanities (and to some extent in the social sciences), where the print monograph continues to hold significant cultural and symbolic value. discussions about the future of the academic book face a series of contradictory dynamics: the enduring cultural value of the book for some scholarly sectors, which however currently rests on an economic model that seems untenable; the preference for print for some kinds of reading versus the enormous potential in digital discovery and annotation; and the concerns of many publishers, keen to engage with digital agendas and yet anxious to avoid the pitfalls experienced by the music industry. in any case, there seems to be little doubt that further (and substantial) change is coming. in her exploration of the impact of digital on the academic market, frania hall calls the monograph “the scholarly publisher’s next challenge” ( : ). the enduring importance of deep, reflective reading currently better suited to reading in print form and fears about the effect of digital migration have deferred major transformations, but sooner or later the scholarly monograph is likely to undergo a much closer engagement with (and transformation through) digital social mediation, data-driven dynamics and network effects. focusing in particular on the arts and humanities (although many of its arguments are applicable to scholarly book publishing in other fields), this article asks how, and under what conditions, the digitally mediated long-form academic publication might hold a viable future. it examines digital disruption and innovation within humanities publishing, contrasts different models, and outlines some of the key challenges facing scholarly publishing in the humanities. debating the future of the academic book academic publishing was already “at the crossroads” in , notes thompson, by which time a steady increase in outputs, fuelled by the pressure to publish (to get onto, or move up, the academic ladder), stood in stark contrast to the actual market for academic books ( : ). thompson points to important regional differences, for example between the u.s. markets, dominated by university presses whose mission was often underwritten by their institutions, and uk-based academic publishing, where the larger university presses like oup and cup had achieved greater market diversification, had greater global reach, and thus were less financially vulnerable to the immediate effects of a downturn in book sales. nevertheless, the reality was that the field as a whole was “thinning out” ( : ), and everyone now operated in a restricted economic space, where digitally mediated innovation seemed tempting, but had so far been largely elusive. in recent years there have been numerous reports, publications and initiatives examining the current state and future of the academic book. these have been especially visible in, although not limited to, regions of the world where scholarly publishing is highly developed in commercial or infrastructural terms, such as the united kingdom or north america, and in many countries these debates are part of processes of reflection dating back decades. special issues in academic journals on publishing have examined this from different perspectives: as part of wider reviews of the scholarly publishing landscape; through calls to rethink the university press; with a particular focus on digital publishing for the humanities and social sciences; and as calls to ‘disrupt’ the existing scholarly landscape as a whole. a series of initiatives in the united states, many of them funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation, have attempted to address the particular challenges facing university presses there, from policy and infrastructural perspectives, as described by anthony watkinson in his report on ‘the academic book in north america’ for the academic book of the future project ( ). many of these have produced reports and have left traces in scholarly journals, offering various proposals on how to address what is widely seen as a ‘crisis’ in scholarly book publishing and covering a wide range of issues including business models, open access, infrastructure and the relationship of university presses to their local library and faculty (brown et al., ; elliott, ). more recently, the uk’s arts & humanities research council, in collaboration with the british library, invited “collaborative proposals to explore the academic book of the future in the context of open access publishing and the digital revolution”. the result of this was the two-year ‘academic book of the future’ project, led by dr samantha rayner at university college london (ucl) and colleagues at ucl and king’s college london, which initiated a community coalition and a series of activities that formally ended in september . of particular note is the academic book week, which has evolved into a self-sustaining event beyond the life of the project. special issue of nature exploring transformations in scientific publishing https://www.nature.com/news/the-future-of-publishing-a-new-page- . special issue of the journal of electronic publishing, volume issue , on ‘reimagining the university press’ (fall ) or special issue of learned publishing, volume , on ‘the university press redux’. special issue of the journal of scholarly publishing, volume issue on ‘digital publishing for the humanities and social sciences’. special issue of the journal of electronic publishing, volume issue , on ‘disrupting the humanities: towards posthumanities’. http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/funding/opportunities/archived-opportunities/academicbookofthefuture/ https://academicbookfuture.org/ https://acbookweek.com/ https://www.nature.com/news/the-future-of-publishing-a-new-page- . http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/funding/opportunities/archived-opportunities/academicbookofthefuture/ https://academicbookfuture.org/ https://acbookweek.com/ while by no means uniform in their conclusions, the body of evidence emerging from these initiatives points consistently towards a number of factors affecting the future of scholarly book publishing: . contradictions around supply and demand for scholarly books (in the u.s. and uk at least – monograph output in the humanities has increased in recent years, while actual sales per title have dropped) . continuing anxiety around open access (with national and international dynamics complicating things further) . divergent attitudes towards new digital media and ecologies, and their implications for credit and promotion . an ongoing sense that the future of the academic book is “at a major crossroad” and “uncertain” (in the words of an ahrc press release about the academic book of the future project) but without widespread consensus on what the problems, or at least the solutions, really are digital culture and technology (henceforth ‘digital’) are not the only factor here, but they have introduced new opportunities or challenges, and accentuated many of the difficulties which already existed. digital mediations in his examination of the state of digital scholarship, and its affordances or limitations, weller explores how digital technology is transforming scholarly communications as a whole, underlining some dynamics of digital culture which profoundly influence the future of the academic book in digital form ( ). the combined effect of the transition from information scarcity to information abundance, debates about copyright and networked interactions, or user-generated, mobile and mutable content - to name just a few factors - has fundamentally altered many areas of human life in the last twenty years or so, and these provide a context with which discussions of academic book publishing have still not fully engaged, in particular in those areas (such as the humanities) where wider engagement with digital practices is still undergoing negotiation. for some, the globally networked, digital and open cultures which have emerged as a result of the world wide web seem to point to a target of sorts for scholarly publishing, whereby geographic, institutional and social divides can be resolved through digital infrastructures which, moreover, enable scholarship to be more fully integrated with wider knowledge structures, thus facilitating wider public engagement: “[d]igital humanities scholarship .. promises to expand the constituency of serious scholarship and engage in a dialogue with the world at large” (burdick et al., : ). these digital http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/newsevents/news/the-academic-book-of-the-future / http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/newsevents/news/the-academic-book-of-the-future / transformations are both facilitated and complicated by processes of disintermediation, globalization and media convergence (phillips, : xiii-xiv) and by competing dynamics between popular and commercial interests in the digital space, or between ‘open’ and proprietorial ‘walled garden’ approaches to digital infrastructure. publishing as a whole has seen many instances of digital innovation, from “interactive digital products experimenting with narrative structures”, innovative funding/pricing models, aggregation models or user-generated content, to new entrants in publishing (hall, ). geolocation, virtual reality, linked data, data-driven analysis and artificial intelligence are just some of the many opportunities for content, but how can these work for the scholarly monograph? while scholarly publishing has arguably experimented ‘digitally’ more than other sectors like trade publishing, in part due to anxiety over its future, many argue that scholarly monographs are the least amenable to digital transformation, at least with regards to content (thompson, : - ). some argue for the ongoing primacy of print in scholarly book publishing – which will “draw on digital capabilities” but in a “subordinate”, non-“disrupter” role (esposito, ), while others argue that ‘digital’ holds the key to understanding the future, and that our thinking on this subject should “rip off the physical covers of the ‘book’ and move swiftly into the digital realm” (pinter, : ). one barrier to engagement is the fact that the stakeholders and participants in scholarly publishing are highly heterogeneous, representing often radically different starting points, which influence the variety in responses to digital transformation. ‘print first’ or ‘digital first’? in l’édition électronique, dacos and mounier broadly divide visions of digital publishing into two: one strand which understands it as a simple substitution from print to screen, with no fundamental change in the overall concept or apparatus of publishing (they maintain that this position was hard to maintain, even in ); and another, which views digital publishing as part of a “new era” of knowledge production, a “revolution” in text comparable to the arrival of the printing press and its effects on humanity. tellingly, the latter view contemplates “the disappearance of the book as we know it” (dacos and mounier, : - , my translation). applying this division to long-form digital publications we have: those which effectively follow print models to produce what are, basically, digital remediations of the printed book and those whose processes, functionality, forms and/or formats are fundamentally different, because they are conceived for digital. the division is not watertight, since each “digital book” may draw on traditional or disruptive models to differing degrees, but, as a general principle, it is a useful point of comparison in the current landscape. the first model – long-form publications simulating the print book, with, at best, modest application of digital affordances - dominates the digital output of long-form academic publications at present. electronic text has existed in publishing since the s, and publishers (and publishing) played a key role in the development of electronic markup standards such as xml, but digital innovations have generally been received with caution, and even where there is dual print-digital workflow, the conceptual models for publication, design parameters, publishing systems, editing flows, supporting infrastructures and wider expectations of the scholarly community are still largely predicated on the print model by default. the current general consensus around what constitutes an ebook, moreover, is a far more limited, and print-centric, view than that which circulated in its early history (and which pointed to an altogether more ambitious concept of ‘electronic book’). these less ambitious, to use mrva-montoya’s phrase, ‘tradigital’ books (mrva-montoya, ), in pdf or epub format have been easier to produce because they do not fundamentally undermine existing models, and as a result, they represent a limited engagement with digital modes and affordances. in a similar vein, prescott, in asking if we are “doomed to a world of pdfs?”, expresses concern that “the future publishing landscape is a bleak one” and argues that the scholarly environment it is supposed to serve is “less media rich” now than it was a few decades ago (prescott, ). even the epub format, which is (by default) flowable and in theory allows for rich, interactive publications – more like websites than books– is, argues mcguire, constrained by the application of drm and device/platform-specific restrictions ( : - ) which, in their current implementations, severely limit digitally mediated interactivity across books. we are still far from the modular, highly structured, dynamically interactive, ‘crowd collaborative’, social and networked views of the academic book which digital culture and technology might allow for. to re-appropriate language used by craig mod, the first vision responds to the question “how do we change books to make them digital?”, whereas the second asks “how does digital change books?” (mod, : ). the first model presupposes moderate change to the current landscape; the publisher model adapts to ‘digital’, but otherwise stays broadly the same; the second model consists of a much more radical transformation in models for scholarly dissemination. at present, academic book publishing has largely stayed with the first model for a number of reasons. the enduring attachment of many scholars to physical books and preference for reading print is a key factor, although this will probably change as reading technology improves, wider reading habits evolve, and viable and alternative models of the ‘book’ emerge in digital form. while publishers are increasingly starting to look at digital-first systems and workflows to produce both digital and physical books, a paradigmatic shift which challenges the assumption that a ‘print-like’ object will be developed first (or perhaps even at all) means that changes in author perceptions are likely to take longer. for now, at least, authors and editors “have relatively little experience in enriching their texts to take advantage of the opportunities opened up by digital technologies” (jubb, : ), although again this is likely to evolve. similarly, scholarship monographs, particularly in the humanities and social sciences, are likely to remain broadly ‘linear’ in the short term, even if complementary non-linear modes are slowly emerging over time. in spite of all these caveats, a digital transformation in academic book production seems inevitable. bhaskar argues that the arrival of the “digital network means, over the long term, that there can be no such thing as business as usual” for publishing as a whole (bhaskar, : ) and looking at the study habits and practices of our students today (as opposed to the habits and practices of those teaching them), it seems highly improbable that, in ten or twenty years, the scholarly media ecology will remain unchanged. how might a digital long-form publication which could truly rival the printed academic book emerge? at present, we are very much at the stage of experimentation. there are many challenges of technical sustainability and preservation, education and training, not to mention effective business models and integration into the wider fabric of scholarly communications. but perhaps the most serious challenge is to explore how the digital long-form publication might become an effective vehicle for scholarly argument and interpretation to rival the print monograph. i now turn to a research field within the humanities which has a track record in research into new models and frameworks for digital publication. the digital humanities and scholarly publishing the ‘digital humanities’ is a transdisciplinary field with a history of experimentation with, and critique of, the interactions between computational tools and methods, digital culture and the humanities (often straying into the social sciences) stretching back over years. digital humanists have been involved in numerous publishing-related initiatives, including: the academic book of the future project (where the host departments in the two co-coordinating institutions both have long-standing history in ‘dh’ ); many of the mellon-funded north american initiatives mentioned earlier; various digital publishing tools and frameworks, whether general purpose (scalar and manifold ), function/technology-specific (tapas ) or field-specific (papyri.info and perseids ); markup frameworks (xml and tei ); and the production of multiple digital editions, resources, databases and other forms which either qualify as, or occupy the same intellectual space as, long-form publications. disclaimer: i work for one of them http://scalar.usc.edu/scalar/ http://manifold.umn.edu/ http://tapasproject.org/ http://papyri.info/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://www.w .org/xml/ http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml http://scalar.usc.edu/scalar/ http://manifold.umn.edu/ http://tapasproject.org/ http://papyri.info/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://www.w .org/xml/ http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml in spite of this activity, scholarly book publishing has not featured particularly prominently as a topic (except as a by-product of other scholarly activities, such as editing) in many of the better known digital humanities publications. to take just one example, in the first edition of the landmark ‘blackwell companion to digital humanities’ (schreibman et al., ), books and publishing do feature, but generally in relation to some other topics such as electronic markup (renear, ) or electronic scholarly editing (smith, ). on one level this is hardly surprising; the field’s proximity to these themes is clear from the copious literature which it has produced on markup and scholarly editing as significant areas of both study and practice. later volumes, including the substantially revised second edition of the blackwell companion (schreibman et al., ), come closer to addressing the current state (and future) of publishing, although they still tend to address the issue within wider discussions about subjects such as scholarly communications or digital scholarship. in spite of this general preference for focussing on wider scholarly frameworks over publishing, and thus on ‘digital resources’ rather than ‘digital publications’, researchers in the digital humanities have often addressed issues relating to publishing, and how they fit into wider discussions about the future of the academic book. what follows is a short review of four common themes within the ‘dh’ view on publishing. • modelling and publishing. in their review of ‘digital publishing [as] seen from the digital humanities’, blanke, pierazzo and stokes locate publishing close to another of dh’s historic areas of strength, namely ‘modelling’. for them, publishing “needs to be understood as a range of modelling activities that aim to develop and communicate interpretations” - perhaps symbolically, one of their subheadings is “[n]ot publishing but modelling” ( : ). the implied venue for this kind of modelling activity is the non-narrative-based publication of digitised content, most commonly published in scholarly editions or archive- based publications, but the article raises important wider questions about what we consider to be “faithful reproduction” and proposes that we free ourselves from “skeumorphic representations” of non-digital content in a digital environment, which apply to all kinds of publication (blanke et al., : , ). • process versus product. in a very different vein, in her chapter ‘scholarly publishing in the digital age’ kathleen fitzpatrick reflects on her experience with media commons, - which she also used for the preparation of her monograph ‘planned obsolescence’ (fitzpatrick, ), - as an experiment in networked scholarly publishing which aimed to facilitate social editing, community creation, public engagement and peer review. the richer interactions between peers which this editing/publishing model enables places the focus less on the final outcomes of research publishing (“the product”) and more on “the process” (fitzpatrick, : - ), which draws attention to publishing as part of a wider research ecosystem. • scholarly research infrastructure. digital humanities research has often been involved in “building” scholarly infrastructure – both for critical interpretation and as a community-building exercise – resulting in publishing functions which are embedded within wider scholarly research systems. this is evident, for example, in crane et al.’s early call to build “the infrastructure for ephilology”. the digital resource/publication argued for in that case: can be disseminated to anyone, anywhere, at any time; is hypertextual, facilitating connection between scholarly narrative and supporting evidence; can be dynamically remixed for different people/uses; is capable of learning by itself through “documents that learn from each other”, using machine generated information from external datasets; is able to “learn from their human readers” by analysing their digital habits; and is customisable to individual users and their settings (crane et al., ). many of these attributes may become desirable for scholarly publications of the future, but does this describe a digital resource, or a publication, or potentially both? as publication, in this scenario, increasingly merges into a larger research infrastructure, it becomes more important to establish clear dividing lines between research and publication, a topic i will return to later. • re-thinking the academy. finally, it is not uncommon to see the digital humanities invoked to support more radical re-alignments of the scholarly landscape – for cathy davison, “dh is … about realigning traditional relationships between disciplines, between authors and readers, between scholars and a general public, and, in other ways, re-envisioning the borders and missions of twenty-first century education” (davidson, : ). that gives some sense of how the digital humanities views publishing; in what ways does it actually perform publishing functions or roles? with a few notable exceptions (fitzpatrick, ), this does not generally involve discussions about publishing mission or sustainability. digital humanists are frequently involved in “building” resources, and as such these typically have many of the following attributes: they are experimental; they combine text with other media in dynamic interplay; they involve interdisciplinary, multi-author, inter-institutional collaboration; they are networked; they are closely connected to communities of practice (not just digital humanities, but also, say, epigraphers, or early modernists); they encourage curation, open access and sharing; they may be conceived with public engagement in mind. i do not for a moment intend to suggest here that digital innovation is limited to the digital humanities. there are many new media, digital arts and electronic literature experiences in relation to publishing which deserve a fuller treatment, but which i do not analyse in detail here for reasons of space. it is clear from all of this, that in many ways, the digital humanities are already deeply involved in some publishing practices, including those which produce long-form publications, but also that their role is poorly defined precisely because of their range, a point i will expand on later. i will now outline the key challenges i believe we need to address in order to connect the different visions around digitally-mediated long-form publishing in the humanities. projections of the digitally mediated academic book what projections exist for digital futures of the book, and what criteria are used to describe them? kapaniaris et al. present a spectrum based on degrees of interaction, ranging from ebooks in pdf form at one end, to books apps at the other ( ). a report by an emory working group to the mellon foundation on ‘the future of the monograph in the digital era …’ presents a print/digital continuum from traditional print-based books to digital only and identifies four models: (a) print monographs, (b) digital long- form publications “with a strong resemblance to print monographs”, (c) significantly enhanced long-form publications in digital form and (d) long-form publications which are conceived, and can only realistically operate, digitally (elliott, ). enhancements, in this definition, might include images, sound, or references to other content and complex navigational structures. key criteria for dividing categories might be whether or not the work is linear or non-linear, and whether it is ‘stable’ or ‘updateable’. at the more interactive end of the spectrum, it not always clear how to distinguish between a digitally enhanced ebook and other text-based electronic resources, and even where that distinction is clear, the “complex relationship” which the university press system (and indeed scholarly publishing as a whole) “maintains … to the plethora of electronic research and reference databases that are ever-more essential to supporting scholarship” (lynch, ) is often an obstacle to differentiation between scholarly ‘publications’ and supporting ‘resources’. there is also some overlap here with debate regarding the future of other scholarly forms, such as the journal article, and it may be necessary to take a wider view across the full range of possible scholarly outputs. for example, breure et al. suggest a similar taxonomy based on a spectrum which distinguishes between: text-driven and image- driven interfaces; linear and non-linear dynamics; and limited multimedia support or visual narratives sustained by full immersion/interactivity connected to research datasets (breure et al., ). this may be equally to relevant to books and journals, and everything in-between. one key outcome of the andrew w. mellon foundation’s strategic investment in long- form scholarly publishing, which began in , has been the development of a set of features to describe the “monograph of the future” (understood to be digital and open access) which are ambitious in scope and which very much favour an ‘enhanced’ view of the academic book. in this formulation, the academic book should be: “fully interactive and searchable online” with primary and other sources; portable across reader applications; able to support usage metrics which protect user privacy; be updated, managed and preserved digitally; economically sustainable and amenable to device- neutral user annotations, while meeting scholarly standards of rigour, able to function within existing systems of professional recognition and marketable as an object belonging directly to its reader (waters, ). this is an ambitious ‘wish-list’, implemented in part across a number of its funded research projects, and still in need of further testing and debate, but it provides important material for thought on how to develop new publishing models and infrastructure, and whether they are most effectively instantiated at institutional, national, commercial or disciplinary levels. how is the book changing as a ‘system’ for creating and disseminating knowledge? in order to understand that properly, we need to better understand how digitally mediated academic long-form publications work, or might work, and how they affect knowledge production ‘systems’. writing from a book design perspective, craig mod argues that we need to contemplate the book, not as a fixed object, but as a combination of systems: a pre-artefact system (conception, authoring and editing); the system of the artefact itself (‘the published book’ itself); and a post-artefact system (“the space in which we engage with the artefact”). digital culture disrupts all of these systems: the pre-artefact system is no longer limited to interactions between author and editor and may include other forms of co-creation and ‘community’ editing; the book itself can be manifested in multiple forms, each with a different set of affordances; and the post-artefact system may include “digital marginalia”, namely comments, notes and interactions between an (in our case scholarly) community around a piece of writing (mod, : - ) and, in this sense, ‘digital’ functions as “scaffolding between the pre- and post-artefact systems” (mod, ). despite the challenges, and while there is significant variation across disciplines and geographies, scholarly communications have been, and continue to be, transformed by digital culture and technology. thanks to social media effects, public/private and formal/informal boundaries are no longer as clear as they used to be. research objects increasingly circulate in digital form or through digital channels and “[i]n the web era, scholarship leaves footprints” (priem, : ). our expectations about how we gather information (speed, access, broader interpretations of what constitute ‘valid’ sources) and then process/disseminate it (the sharing economy, collective intelligence and online publication modes) have been dramatically changed by digital culture. the pervasive influence of social media on dissemination in today’s society, where the smartphone often constitutes the primary mode of access to information (and for companies, a crucial means to accessing information on user/reader behaviour) is another element altering the knowledge landscape, creating new structures and signifiers of symbolic value. these factors have so far still not had a major impact on scholarly outputs, but it is very unlikely these outputs will remain unaffected in future. research ecologies in some disciplines, for example in the arts and humanities, still depend very much on ‘print’ era models, but this is increasingly being contested (kelly, ), even if the path of progression is by no means clear yet. given all of this, we might expect more mutual overlap in debates about the future of ‘research’ and ‘publishing’ respectively: many of the discussions around research ecosystems and infrastructure seem to treat publishing as an afterthought, or merely as a ‘digital button’ to press to produce output, while much of the debate around the future of publishing takes little account of evolving scholarly communication cycles and research ecosystems. we need to better understand the ‘digital book’ (or its alternatives) as intellectual systems, but also how they fit into wider knowledge and research systems, including those which operate beyond the academy. long-form publications, networked scholarship and new knowledge objects digital publications have often raised interesting questions, but they do not, as yet, constitute coherent and readily identifiable modes of scholarly expression and as such, their location in existing scholarly communication circuits remains under-articulated. one early attempt to articulate a ‘digital’ future for scholarly content was darnton’s pyramid, which envisaged knowledge being represented in different layers, including (top to bottom): ( ) a concise view of a topic; ( ) supporting argument arranged in chunked and non-sequential form; ( ) documentation and it accompanying analysis; ( ) theoretical discussion; ( ) pedagogical materials; and ( ) interactions between authors and readers (darnton, ). early visions of this type were sometimes criticised as being utopian or techno- deterministic in character. nevertheless, increasing evidence of a ‘networked research cycle’ (weller, : ) in some areas of academia suggests changes in the research process that will start to effect greater changes in how publications are conceived and produced. this implies, as i have noted, a change in focus from ‘product’ to ‘process’, but this greater connection between research and publication ecosystems, points towards two effects. on the one hand, it theoretically makes it possible to produce publications faster, and with a greater connection between analysis and evidence (data; models; visualisations), while, in some cases, it makes it harder to see the distinction between ongoing research and stable research outputs. brown et al. believe that publishing will look “very different” in the future, and now that the online mediation of journals is well established, they “believe the next stage will be the creation of new formats … ultimately allowing scholars to work in deeply integrated electronic research and publishing environments that will enable real-time dissemination, collaboration, dynamically-updated content, and usage of new media.” (brown et al., : ). but these new formats are unlikely to evolve merely on the grounds of technological possibility and affordance; if they do develop in any significant way, they will likely grow from scholarly need, grounded in changes in the way that we produce knowledge. one thing which stands out from many of the reports produced about the future of the book is that, while there is abundant literature on practical aspects (such as open access or business models), and a good understanding of how academics structures (validation/promotion systems or research evaluation programmes) drive expectations about format, there are relatively few studies regarding how digital publication actually facilitates or encourages new forms of knowledge production. in his ‘theses on the epistemology of the digital’, alan liu explores how ‘the digital’ affects our understanding of what knowledge consists of, and how it potentially transforms its systems of production and dissemination. it introduces new knowledge objects (such as ‘algorithm’, ‘multimedia’ and ‘data’) and challenges the preference for “acts of rhetoric and narrative” in some (often humanities-based) disciplines (liu, ). it also increasingly encourages us to question whether a monograph, or even a book in the more general sense, is always the best way to communicate a given argument. by this logic, if we stop looking at digital books as, necessarily, simple digital mediations of a print original and take full advantage of the communicative capacity of the digital medium, we are better placed to find critical arguments which can only be made digitally and which make better use of the digital space as a site of creativity, co-creation and generative knowledge. how well are we currently placed to commit to such challenges? where i work, in the humanities, there are different opinions regarding the level of engagement of researchers with the theoretical or practical aspects of digital culture and technology. whereas some argue that today’s humanities reseachers are “well versed in modern digital practices” (deegan, : ), others argue that, by their inability to engage with digital innovation nearly as fluidly as they typically engage with print monographs, “the arts and humanities are not embracing the culture of transformation that these fields pretend to embody” (o’sullivan, : ). smiljana antonijević’s wide-reaching ethnographic study of scholars across institutions in the us and europe seemed to indicate that there remain both anxieties and practical barriers to full engagement of humanities with the affordances of ‘the digital’, although generational differences exist (antonijević, : - ). beyond the digital humanities, we can observe little evidence of humanities researcher involvement, or interest, in the design of the research and publication tools which they adopt, with the very real danger that “humanities scholars will develop the same consumer relationship to digital content that they have had to print” (prescott, : - ). this is part of a wider problem, in the humanities, linked to the fact that digital resources carry less prestige, which sets up a certain circular dynamic where digital resources are used to support research, but are then under-cited because of the preference for print (hitchcock, ). finally, it also takes us back to challenges which derive from the growing density of the media landscape and difficulties in delimiting new forms of publication within a broader, digitally mediated research ecosystem. as we have seen, digital publishing blurs boundaries, and (at least potentially) replaces a finite set of publication types with a seemingly fluid spectrum populated with multiple ‘publication points’. distinctions between ongoing research and stable outputs, or between ‘digital resource’ and ‘digital publication’ are not always clear in this scenario, and some digital practitioners have been reluctant to sacrifice the flexibility in definition which the digital medium provides, but in many ways they would be better served by making clearer formal distinctions. the acts of maintaining dynamic digital resources and providing snapshots for evaluation/accreditation are not mutually exclusive, as those of us who have submitted digital outputs to the uk’s research excellence framework can attest. there is a wider set of questions around digital resources, and their ‘equivalence’ to the academic book which is beyond the scope of this article, but issues such as preservation, stability of record and how to integrate knowledge objects such as evidentiary datasets or dynamic visualizations within digital long-form publications (either embedded or as external ‘appendices’) will be a key part of that discussion. rearticulating publishing forms definitions and categorisations of academic books are often illustrative of the competing claims and pressures on them. there are no universal definitions for the academic book, but deegan’s description of the book as a “long-form publication, a monograph, the result of in-depth academic research … making an original contribution” is a good starting point, and traditional distinctions with the shorter journal article (which is often more limited in scope) still stand, although as she points out, they are “becoming increasingly blurred” ( ) and the emerging mini-monograph format (palgrave pivot and stanford briefs) adds to erosion of the boundaries between forms. her inclusion of an approximate word length for the monograph ( - , words) is, of course, a print legacy, and we might question whether parameters of length (or indeed structure, format and use of non-textual media) will always be so significant, but for now, no other models constitute scalable alternatives in the scholarly mainstream. in part, this is a reflection of cultural status: monographs “are deeply woven into the way that academic think of themselves as scholars” (deegan : ), but this assumption, and the print model which accompanies it, is increasingly disputed – pinter, for example, argues that, in future the book will be defined more by its function than any other feature and that we will move beyond the “sunken investments in existing scaffolding” to engage with evolving new media ecologies (pinter, : ). many terms exist to describe digitally mediated forms of the long-form publication, including ‘enhanced ebook’, ‘enhanced monograph’, ‘networked book’ or ‘book apps’. digital terms are also notoriously fluid: originally the term ‘ebook’ covered more ambitious visions of the book in electronic form, but it has been largely appropriated, as a result of commercial usage, to represent remediated print content in epub or pdf formats with relatively limited functionality. there is also an important point to make about the formulation of terms. print-based terms at least loosely describe, or stand in as signifiers for, their scholarly purpose – the monograph, a single authored piece of research; the edited collection, bringing together different writing about a given theme; or the scholarly edition, providing a critical interpretation of a given work- whereas terms used for new digital long-form publications types merely imply something about the format or functionality – it is ‘enhanced’ or ‘networked’ (we are rarely told to what purpose) – or in the case of ‘book app’, they offer information about its delivery platform. what is more, at its core the language used for these ‘new’ forms is resolutely tied to print – the terms used simultaneously seek to appropriate the cultural baggage of the print book and to liberate themselves from it at the same time – which help to explain the conceptual challenges in making them viable alternatives to the printed book in the short term. digital forces us to think about distinctions in form, content, platform or device which are either not relevant or not negotiable for the printed book and it is unlikely that we will see stable terms emerge in the short term to describe these new instances of the ‘book’ (or its partial replacement). nevertheless, until stable terms for new scholarly publishing concepts arise, it may remain harder for them to gain traction beyond the margins, and so this requires attention. as we have already seen, a vast array of terminology for digital outputs exists, and these have been fuelled in part by the nature of digital affordances themselves (which may influence new ‘fashions’ in digital research), but also in large part by the pressure to present new forms as being ‘innovative’. i would also contend that the terms used so far for long-form digital publications and/or other research outcomes have generally had more to do with cultural and political context than any substantive element related to functionality or cultural representation. the cultural baggage of common words such as ‘archive’, ‘edition’ or ‘database’ varies according to sector and locale. some have argued for the symbolic force of the ‘database’ (manovich, ) while the concept of ‘archive’ has considerable currency in many areas of the humanities, although their relation to publication seems unclear. in see also (drucker, ) for earlier terms such as “expanded book”, the “hyper-book” or “the book emulator”. ken price is unusual in giving serious attention to “the genres we are now working in” as he explores various terms in relation to his experience on the whitman project (price, ). their projection of possible new cultural forms which might be generated by the digital humanities, burdick et al. suggest new terms such as ‘augmented editions’, ‘animated archive’ or ‘database documentaries’ ( : , , ); these have the virtue that they provide meaning to otherwise overused and ambiguous terms, but the question is whether or not these, or the many other terms currently in circulation, will have the coherence and consensus to be adopted more broadly. to some extent, stable terms will emerge organically over time and it would be counter-productive to overly force the issue, but greater discussion among the various constituencies of scholarly publishing would surely be beneficial for all. a crucial aspect of this conversation will be to find greater alignment between the terminology used at different stages of the scholarly communications cycle, in particular around validation and promotion processes. so, whereas ‘enhanced monograph’ seems to be used by various academics and people involved in discussions about the future of publishing, it does not appear, for example, anywhere in the extensive list of admissible output collection formats used in the last uk research evaluation framework exercise (ref ), where we see, under the list of admissible ‘digital artefacts’, the terms ‘software’, ‘website content’, ‘digital or visual media’ and ‘research datasets and databases’. moreover, a clear boundary still does not really exist between, on the one hand, innovative / experimental forms and, on the other, stable forms worthy of inclusion as outputs equivalent to the journal article or monograph. while the experimentative, ‘laboratory’ function of much work typically carried out in the digital humanities will continue to be important in pushing the boundaries of scholarly communications (and a fundamental part of the research agenda of that field), we also need to establish clearer genres, descriptors and/or labels around digital publications across the spectrum (from ‘short form’ to ‘long’ form) so that they can be evaluated fairly. in ‘imagining a university press system to support scholarship in the digital age’ lynch argues for greater standardization and for ‘templates’ ( ), which would fix particular genres, facilitating scholarly validation, circulation and credit systems. thomas iii actually goes on to tentatively propose terminology we might use to this purpose: interactive scholarly works (isws), which by his definition are more “tightly defined” digital outputs combining archives, tools and argument; digital projects or thematic research collections (trcs) , which cover more “capacious” outputs drawing together heterogeneous tools, models and datasets in open-ended, multi-author research collaborations; and digital narratives, which are born-digital works of highly structured and interpretative scholarly narrative (thomas iii, : - ). while we might argue about the precise division or nomenclature, the need for clearer categorisation of digital works - for formal publishing and evaluation purposes - and a more consistent terminology, seems clear. this is, moreover, a conversation which needs to include a wide range of actors, and to be multi-disciplinary and global in http://www.ref.ac.uk/about/guidance/submittingresearchoutputs/ after caroline palmer’s proposed use of the term (palmer, ). http://www.ref.ac.uk/about/guidance/submittingresearchoutputs/ outlook. it is also to be hoped that discussions around terms which affect both academic standing and career advancement will become less national and more global over time. while these differences in terminology exist, digital alternatives to the book will continue to be undermined by difficulties in formal academic validation. making ‘print’ and ‘digital’ work together part of the answer may lie in gaining a better understanding of how print and digital work together. how does scholarship function differently in the digital environment – what is lost, what is gained, and how does this influence choices about digital and print channels? we are only just starting to understand the answer to these questions, but we need to identify which aspects of scholarly communication are better served by digital or print, and how they might fit together better in future. the recent recovery of print versus ebook sales in trade publishing suggests a broader 'cooling' of public attitudes towards ‘digital’ reading after a period of high expectations (and sometimes hyperbole) for digital formats, and in scholarly publishing, numerous sources seems to confirm that print publications hold enduring significance for academic researchers (wolff-eisenberg et al., ), especially in areas like the humanities and social sciences where narrative-based argument is at the core (deegan, ). academic books are a key feature of the publishing landscape, particularly in the humanities and social sciences, for a number of reasons, which include their cultural symbolism, ability to communicate a coherent and sustained narrative, phenomenological resonances/power, readability, and finally, underlying academic credit and promotion mechanisms (deegan, ). by contrast, ‘digital’ mediations of the book have faced significant problems of acceptance for a number of reasons, and so are generally limited to ebook remediations of print monographs, special cases (such as digital scholarly editions) or new media experiments. that said, - and while early enthusiasm (and at times proselytism) regarding the potential of digital technology to transform academic book publishing has waned as the practical limitations have become more apparent -, the major challenges of sustainability in current models of supply and demand (jubb, : ), along with wider questions about how ‘the academy’ should re- adjust to new modes of knowledge production, mean that it nonetheless seems inevitable that ‘digital’ will play a significant part in re-thinking its future. dunleavy, speaking from a social sciences perspective, has argued for a ‘new renaissance’ of books based on emerging realities such as the digital reading list, which favours chunkable content which can easily be downloaded, annotated or added (by students) and which can be added to at the last minute, on demand (by lecturers). highlighting the growing awareness that it may not be practical to continue marketing books as single entities, he argues that the book may be better thought of as part of a https://www.theguardian.com/books/ /mar/ /ebook-sales-continue-to-fall-nielsen-survey-uk- book-sales https://www.theguardian.com/books/ /mar/ /ebook-sales-continue-to-fall-nielsen-survey-uk-book-sales https://www.theguardian.com/books/ /mar/ /ebook-sales-continue-to-fall-nielsen-survey-uk-book-sales large high quality library which can be navigated, rather in the way that we navigate journal collections (dunleavy, ). in this scenario, print and digital need to work together as part of a seamless experience, allowing users to experience content as they prefer, on paper or on screen. it is to be expected, then, that ‘digital’ and ‘print’ may be seen as less oppositional in future. the recent reader survey by the oxford university studies in the enlightenment confirmed what we already know from various sources: that readers “seek portability and immediate accessibility of scholarly resources” and yet do not generally favour ‘digital only’ access. rather, they prefer hybrid print-digital access, according to the kind of activity they are carrying out. we are still far from having stable and sustainable business models for hybrid long-form publications, but from a scholarly perspective the requirement is clearly there. conclusions in earlier times, digital publishing was sometimes presented as making publishing simpler in some way: whether through the immediacy and potential global reach of posting content to the web or through the promise of ‘single-source publishing’ which often accompanied the early proposition of xml for editing/publishing. far from simplifying publishing, digital culture and technology have made it far more complex in many respects, with new content types, more technical formats, competing workflows and hugely divergent business models. there are clearly many advantages for moving content into digital first workflows, and this may become more common in future even in scholarly book publishing, but the adoption barriers are significant, and the increasing use of mobile and tablets has only complicated things further (mcilroy, ). this is likely to make more adventurous long-form digital publications harder to sustain in business terms, in the short term, and yet from a scholarly perspective, this shift towards a richer range of outputs has already started, and it is something which needs to be understood properly and integrated into the current publishing landscape. as the recent study of arts and humanities outputs submitted to the uk’s research evaluation exercise showed, monographs carry great weight, but there is also greater variation in research outputs, with the suggestion that scholars (in the arts and humanities) are more likely to see digital media as “central to their research output and scholarly experience” (tanner, : ), even beyond more obviously receptive fields such as art and design, the performing arts, communication studies, new media studies or library and information management. we are also at a stage of intense contradiction in terms of geographic scope, where on the one hand, the effects of a global network facilitate stronger connections between scholars around the world, while on the other hand digital media effects exacerbate historic geo-economic and social divides. while some aspects of academic publishing display global characteristics, debates about the future of the academic book are still largely operating along national lines, as the example of debates in the u.s. and the uk demonstrate, tied to local funding landscapes and systems of credit and evaluation. a book published digitally is, in theory, open to wider and more democratic dissemination systems, but in practice its fate is often firmly tied to national systems for academic validation, localised (and often inconsistent) licensing dynamics and unevenly stacked international knowledge flows. as inefuku has argued, “[t]rue democratization and globalization of knowledge cannot exist without a critical examination of the systems that contribute to the production of scholarship”, and initiatives to develop global publishing platforms need to involve global south perspectives from the start (inefuku, ). redefining scholarly publishing so that it is genuinely inclusive, collaborative and based on true reciprocity will be an important part of the academic book of the future. various pieces of research, including the recent academic book of the future project, have demonstrated the enduring appeal and importance of the long form narrative- based scholarly monograph, while highlighting the ongoing challenges facing the academic book. in many fields, the academic book has been replaced by databases or side-lined as the currency of the journal article, dominant in the sciences, has grown, and some might argue that the digital mediation of the academic book has reached its limits. i have argued here that, while change may be slow, such a position is untenable in view of changing media expectations and habits. it is crucial, however, to gain greater common understanding of the motivation and dynamics which bind together (and sometimes separate) different actors in the scholarly book communication circuit, and of the way that relationships are changing. there are a number of different stakeholders involved in scholarly publishing – including academics (as authors and consumers), librarians, publishers, digital media companies, digital practitioners and wider publics – and discussion regarding the future of scholarly publishing “has too often failed to transcend the self-interest of individual groups of stakeholders” (anthony cond of liverpool university press, quoted in samantha rayner's preface to deegan, : ). there does, nevertheless, appear to be a sense now that roles are changing, with, for example, publishers “shifting their position in the value chain, and redefining themselves as they go, into training and assessment, information systems, networked bibliographic data, and learning services” (goldsworthy, ). along with this, there is a growing awareness in some quarters that partnerships are going to be crucial in bridging the gaps which exist between different stakeholders. this includes the digital humanities. the digital humanities already plays a semi-informal role as “exploratory laboratory” for publishing along the lines proposed by svensson for its role in relation to the humanities more generally (svensson, ), but if this role were more consistently negotiated with (and recognised by) other stakeholders (such as other humanities academics, publishers and libraries) it would benefit all involved. initiatives such as the recent call for novel publications “blending cutting-edge technology with high quality scholarship” by the king’s digital lab and stanford university press will help to redefine complex narrative argument within a digital or hybrid setting. it is perhaps understandable that a field which is constantly in transition - in part due to changes in digital culture and technology, and in part due to its fluid/unstable status within the academy – should strive to make a wide set of claims influencing everything from policy to innovation, but i would like to argue here that both digital humanities and publishing sectors would mutually benefit from greater analysis and clarity about the field’s actual (and potential) contributions to debates about the future of publishing in the humanities. william g. thomas iii points out that the field has produced “innovative and sophisticated hybrid works of scholarship, blending archives, tools, commentaries, data collections and visualizations”, but that many of these outputs have faced serious problem in terms of recognition, credit and absorption into the wider scholarly fabric (thomas iii, : ). these gaps in understanding about the nature and status of new digital outputs constitute as much a problem for the humanities as a whole (and indeed scholarly publishing) as it does for the digital humanities. but what if these outputs were viewed (and recognised) more fully as part of the process of exploration in the ongoing transformation of scholarly publishing in the humanities? i have proposed here a vision of the academic book in the humanities which is globally inclusive, shaped by actual scholarly needs (rather than by the histories of print or web technologies), re-articulated for current media landscapes, more closely aligned to emerging research ecosystems and with greater integration of needs of the different stakeholders. it is possible to imagine digital long-form arts and humanities publications developing in a number of different ways in future. firstly, and although i have not had space to contemplate it properly here, the concept of ‘publishing the archive’ will increasingly be important, especially around chunked book content. this seems likely to manifest itself in how established publishers find new ways to make digital assets which are currently ‘book-bound’ available as part of self-managed or aggregated online platforms. nor have i addressed content managed by galleries, libraries and museums, which naturally connects to many areas in the humanities thematically. secondly, new ‘digital’ forms will develop and stabilise which will contain their own network-native systems of knowledge formation, academic certification and filtering. these will take a lot longer to emerge, because they depend on a level of critical digital literacy, and consensus around media effects, in the humanities which it will take time to develop. the third route will involve moving beyond digital simulation of print monographs, or concepts of ‘enhanced’ monographs, to hybrid publications which aim to take full advantage of the affordance https://www.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/blog/call-expressions-interest-your-novel-idea-publication/ https://www.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/blog/call-expressions-interest-your-novel-idea-publication/ of each medium. this mixed ecology provides many challenges – not least how we apportion different roles and functionality to the ‘print’ and ‘digital’ manifestations of a particular ‘book’ - but also many opportunities in fully integrating complex scholarly argument into a potentially more connective, participatory and visually expressive medium. references antonijević, s. 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(eds.) companion to digital humanities. blackwell companions to literature and culture. hardcover oxford: blackwell publishing professional. pp. – . available from: http://www.digitalhumanities.org/companion/. svensson, p. ( ) the landscape of digital humanities. digital humanities quarterly ( ). available from: http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html (accessed august ). tanner, s. ( ) an analysis of the arts and humanities submitted research outputs to the ref with a focus on academic books. available from: https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/an-analysis-of-the-arts-and-humanities- submitted-research-outputs-to-the-ref -with-a-focus-on-academic-books( cfc - e - d - b b- e )/export.html (accessed september ). thomas iii, w. g. ( ) ‘the promise of the digital humanities and the contested nature of digital scholarship’, in susan schreibman et al. (eds.) a new companion to digital humanities. nd revised edition edition chichester, west sussex, uk: wiley-blackwell. pp. – . thompson, j. b. ( ) books in the digital age: the transformation of academic and higher education publishing in britain and the united states. cambridge, u.k.; malden, mass.: polity press. thompson, j. b. ( ) merchants of culture: the publishing business in the twenty-first century. new york, new york: plume. waters, d. j. ( ) monograph publishing in the digital age. shared experiences. available from: https://mellon.org/resources/shared-experiences-blog/monograph-publishing-digital- age/ (accessed august ). available from: https://mellon.org/resources/shared- experiences-blog/monograph-publishing-digital-age/ (accessed august ). watkinson, a. ( ) the academic book in north america: report on attitudes and initiatives among publishers, libraries, and scholars. available from: https://academicbookfuture.org/academic-book-north-america-watkinson/ (accessed august ). available from: https://academicbookfuture.org/academic-book-north-america- watkinson/ (accessed august ). weller, m. ( ) the digital scholar: how technology is transforming scholarly practice. london: bloomsbury. wolff-eisenberg, c. et al. ( ) ithaka s+r us faculty survey . available from: http://www.sr.ithaka.org/publications/ithaka-sr-us-faculty-survey- / (accessed august ). available from: http://www.sr.ithaka.org/publications/ithaka-sr-us-faculty-survey- / (accessed august ). author biography paul spence is a senior lecturer in digital humanities at king's college london. his research currently focuses on digitally mediated knowledge creation, digital publishing, global perspectives on digital scholarship and the potential interplay between modern languages and digital culture. he was joint creator of the multi-platform publishing framework xmod (since renamed as kiln http://kcl-ddh.github.io/kiln/), and now leads the 'digital mediations' strand on the language acts and world-making project (https://languageacts.org/). http://kcl-ddh.github.io/kiln/ https://languageacts.org/ notes from the field: student perspectives on digital pedagogy research how to cite: colligan, colette and kandice sharren. . “notes from the field: student perspectives on digital pedagogy.” digital studies/ le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / dscn. published: december peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / colligan, colette and kandice sharren. . “notes from the field: student perspectives on digital pedagogy.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research notes from the field: student perspectives on digital pedagogy colette colligan and kandice sharren simon fraser university, ca corresponding author: kandice sharren (ksharren@sfu.ca) this special collection on digital pedagogy features essays by student researchers within the digital pedagogy network (dpn). dpn is an informal interdisciplinary training network formed to foster the transfer of digital humanities (dh) knowledge and skills and to build connections between simon fraser university (sfu) and university of victoria (uvic) faculty, students, librarians, educational partners, and the public. central to the network has been the participation and experience of students, who have shared their digitally-focused work in a series of showcases and symposia that have alternated between sfu and uvic. what emerged during these events were student perspectives on current pedagogical practices in digital humanities, both inside and outside the classroom, as well as for the degree and beyond. our special collection builds on these perspectives, featuring student authors addressing issues that over the past five years have been central to their dh learning and training. these student perspectives gather into four topic clusters, namely ) collaboration with galleries, libraries, archives, & museums (glam); ) digital doctorates; ) major research projects; and ) transforming dh pedagogy. keywords: digital humanities (dh); digital pedagogy; glam institutions; digital projects; student labour; digital activism cette collection spéciale portant sur la pédagogie numérique consiste en des dissertations écrites par des chercheurs-étudiants dans le cadre du digital pedagogy network (dpn – réseau de pédagogie numérique). le dpn est un réseau informel d’entraînement interdisciplinaire créé pour favoriser le transfert de connaissances et d’habilités liées aux humanités numériques et pour développer des liens entre les effectifs, les étudiants, les bibliothécaires, les partenaires éducatifs de l’université simon fraser (sfu) et l’université de victoria (uvic) et le public. la participation et les expériences d’étudiants, qui ont partagé leur travail concernant la numérique dans une série de présentations et symposiums qui ont alterné entre sfu et uvic, ont joué un rôle primordial dans ce réseau. ce qui est ressorti durant ces évènements étaient les perspectives d’étudiants envers les pratiques https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:ksharren@sfu.ca colligan and sharren: notes from the fieldart. , page of pédagogiques actuelles dans les humanités numériques, tant à l’intérieur qu’à l’extérieur des salles de classe, pour les programmes universitaires et au-delà. notre collection spéciale tire parti de ces perspectives, incluant des auteurs-étudiants qui abordent les enjeux essentiels à leurs études et entraînement dans les humanités numériques. ces perspectives d’étudiants présentent quatre thèmes regroupés, notamment ) la collaboration avec des institutions glam ; ) des doctorats numériques ; ) des projets de recherche majeurs ; et ) la transformation de la pédagogie des humanités numériques. mots-clés: humanités numériques (hn) ; pédagogie numérique ; institutions glam ; projets numériques ; labeur d’étudiants ; activisme numérique this special collection on digital pedagogy features essays by student researchers within the digital pedagogy network (dpn). dpn is an informal interdisciplinary training network formed to foster the transfer of digital humanities (dh) knowledge and skills and to build connections between simon fraser university (sfu) and university of victoria (uvic) faculty, students, librarians, educational partners, and the public. central to the network has been the participation and experience of students, who have shared their digitally-focused work in a series of showcases and symposia that have alternated between sfu and uvic. what emerged during these events were student perspectives on current pedagogical practices in digital humanities, both inside and outside the classroom, as well as for the degree and beyond. our special collection builds on these perspectives, featuring student authors addressing issues that over the past five years have been central to their dh learning and training and driving change in the field. these student perspectives gather into four topic clusters, namely ) collaboration with glam institutions; ) digital doctorates; ) major research projects; and ) transforming dh pedagogy. across these four clusters, familiar discussions within digital humanities emerge, including those on collaboration (deegan and mccarty ), new skills and training (ramsay and rockwell ), innovative forms of dissemination (jagoda ), and the distribution of labour (anderson et al. .; boyles et al. ; logsdon et al. ; siemens ). this special collection’s colligan and sharren: notes from the field art. , page of experiential approach to digital pedagogy, in which students are provided with opportunities to guide their own learning through hands-on opportunities, foregrounds the complementary nature of in-class and extracurricular learning, as well as the variety of roles students inhabit in dh at various levels of study. the authors of the following essays are not just students enrolled in a degree program, but are collaborators, research assistants, mentors, project managers, and leaders of their own research projects. their on-the-ground perspectives reveal the excitement that comes from having a sense of agency in their education and developing practical skills and professional connections, as well as a critical sense of the problems that can accompany the emergence of new structures and relationships. each of our four topic clusters gathers these student perspectives and includes a response from another member of the network, among them faculty, librarians, and other students. as with our face-to-face events, our aim with this special issue is to foster dialogue among various actors working with digital humanities approaches and methods. by centering student perspectives, informed by concrete practical experience as well as critical approaches, this collection works to advance discussions of digital pedagogy in recent years. these have included practical guides (battershill and ross ), technical how-tos (the programming historian ), assignment and keyword repositories (davis et al. ), as well metalevel critical discussions on the state of digital pedagogy (gold and klein ; anderson et al. ; stommel et al. ). we start from the position that pedagogical situations offer a place to create a scholarly community that welcomes a broad range of participants. at the same time, they offer a place to explore and address larger structural concerns in dh about interdisciplinary and intersectoral collaborations, contingent labour, and institutional limitations. digital humanities is a field that is grappling with how to create sustainable projects using limited resources, how to navigate relationships with different stakeholders, how to create a more accessible and inclusive scholarly community, and how to bring in political and cultural critique. our collection reveals how students are engaging through practice and critique with the state of the art in digital pedagogy, and, in turn, advancing the field of dh. if pedagogy is a principal colligan and sharren: notes from the fieldart. , page of concern of dh, as matthew k. gold and lauren f. klein note in the introduction to debates in digital humanities , then students at all levels need to be central in any such discussions. our first cluster, “collaborating with glam institutions,” features three essays by students reflecting back on their experiences collaborating with glams (short for galleries, libraries, archives, and museums). the collaborative digital curation and exhibits at the heart of these essays exemplify how digital pedagogy can connect students, faculty, and glam professionals working at the intersection of dh, archival fieldwork, and public humanities. christina hilburger, donna langille, and melissa nelson open this cluster describing their work on a digital exhibit for the redpath museum to earn credit for their mcgill information studies course in digital curation. alessandra bordini, a masters in publishing graduate from simon fraser university, follows by discussing her involvement, first as a student research assistant and then as a project manager, digitizing and describing a collection of incunabula by the printer-publisher aldus manutius held at sfu special collections. finally, josie ann greenhill describes her experiences as an undergraduate student at uvic undertaking an extracurricular digital exhibit of pre-raphaelite books in collaboration with uvic special collections and the electronic textual cultures lab. each essay foregrounds a different student experience (undergraduate and graduate), disciplinary perspective (information studies, publishing, and art history), and academic purpose (an assignment, a research project, and a practicum). lisa goddard and rebecca dowson, academic librarians from uvic and sfu respectively, summarize these perspectives through the lens of an emerging form of librarianship in which librarians take a more active role in teaching and research. together these essays highlight the importance of collaborating with glam institutions to create public-facing digital scholarly resources. they confirm the pedagogy of building as a way of knowing, described, for example, by stephen ramsey and geoffrey rockwell. one epistemological gain from making these resources is an enhanced sense of the full digital life cycle of cultural artifacts as they move from creation to dissemination. greenhill describes how digital curation colligan and sharren: notes from the field art. , page of brings new attention to unique cultural materials, as well as the collection bias and cultural mediation that their curation brings. bordini gains new appreciation for the analytical power of descriptive metadata in making the social processes of book production from the past discoverable to new publics. hilburger, langille, and nelson turn their attention to digital preservation, not the usual concern of student projects. their insights into the processes of digital cultural production and transmission importantly result in an enhanced sense of student agency. the authors of these essays emphasize how their collaboration with glams enabled them to become decision makers and problem solvers in digital curation, while directing their own digital skill development and participating in scholarly production in ways that hold more meaning than the typical student assignment. these reflections reveal the variety of models of student-glam collaborations currently in practice as well as evolving student roles in public-facing digital scholarship. such descriptions on learning-in-action, however, also expose the need for critical inquiry into the configurations and effects of these collaborations. as new roles for students, faculty, and glam personnel are rapidly being reconfigured, and arguably democratized, they also introduce the potential for ill-defined and unsustainable roles. if student agency is prioritized in these collaborations, more thought must be paid to how student agency continues and evolves over the lifespan of digital projects. hilburger, langille, and nelson as well as greenhill cast reflective glances back on finite projects that had clear endings, but bordini’s role has evolved from that of student researcher to project manager, highlighting the need to plan for changing student roles over the lifespan of a collaborative digital project, as well as labour practices more generally. the discourse of the “mutual benefit” derived from dh collaborations between student researchers and cultural institutions potentially masks the use of free student labour and other unfair labour practices that may detract from the achievements of these collaborations. collaborating with glam institutions is not the only way for students to gain practical experience with digital methods. our second cluster, “digital doctorates,” addresses curriculum design from the perspectives of ma and phd students whose colligan and sharren: notes from the fieldart. , page of capstone projects and dissertations integrate digital research methods. by asking how digital humanities projects might be accounted for in graduate programs, these essays explore the rewards, as well as the risks, of integrating digital research into degree requirements. randa el khatib opens the cluster with an argument in favour of a digital dissertation, which draws on the portfolio format common to science phds, which consists of six peer-reviewed articles or book chapters that draw on her research into the geospatial elements of milton’s epic poem paradise lost. reese alexandra irwin uses her experience developing a diplomatic digital edition of the first print edition of jane austen’s unfinished novella sanditon to consider the institutional and administrative complications of integrating digital research into graduate programs. in her essay, she contends that the library is essential to supporting graduate student digital projects, but that to be effective it must be treated as a pedagogical partner by the student’s home department. while both el khatib and irwin discuss digital projects that are central to their graduate work, caroline winter discusses a satellite project; her digital edition of mary shelley’s gothic tales complements a monograph- style doctoral dissertation. for winter, the satellite project is an opportunity for graduate students to develop digital skills, explore different modes of research, and experience being part of a strong community of practice; however, participating in a satellite project can also increase the time to completion, putting students at risk of running out of funding. the different strategies that these authors outline for incorporating dh projects into their graduate research rely on personal initiative, as well as supervisory and institutional support. in her response, michelle levy weighs the risks of the various approaches to digital projects outlined in these essays and concludes that the institutions that house these students must offer greater support by adapting to the changing and increasingly digital landscape of humanities disciplines. however, beyond practical questions about how best to support independent digital research in the context of a graduate program, this cluster also asks how supervisors, institutions, and hiring committees assess this research, which often takes non-traditional forms. cumulatively, then, this cluster focuses on student research projects to demonstrate colligan and sharren: notes from the field art. , page of their potential to expand learning and outreach, and also to present tactics for working with weaknesses in institutional support and assessment. but not all student engagement with digital research is part of a curriculum, as our third cluster shows. with the increasing frequency of large-scale digital humanities projects, research assistant work has taken on a new form for graduate students in the humanities, often involving large teams. our third cluster, which addresses student labour on “major research projects,” consists of two essays addressing how these kinds of projects offer the opportunity for students to take on new roles. anna mukamal, a past project manager for the modernist archives publishing project (mapp) and phd student at stanford university, begins this cluster by exploring the benefits for students for working on projects that collaborate across institutions. mapp, a critical digital archive focused on early twentieth-century publishing history, involves a number of different processes and initiatives, and, as project manager, mukamal was tasked with facilitating them. mukamal’s experience speaks to the professional and intellectual opportunities that come from working with a network of scholars based in institutions across north america and the uk, especially the rewards of intergenerational mentorship. kate moffatt and kandice sharren follow mukamal, focusing on the role of unseen labour in major dh projects, in terms of both the amount of effort that goes into metadata collection and the affective labour that goes into managing a team, through reference to their work as editors of the women’s print history project (wphp), a bibliographical database that seeks to account for women’s involvement in print between and . moffatt and sharren address the limitations of the records they use to recover the mostly forgotten women who owned printing and bookselling firms, exploring how collective forms of knowledge production, whether disseminated through eighteenth-century print or twenty-first century databases, privilege some actors and types of labour over others. in her response, mapp co-principal investigator claire battershill reflects on the need for the directors of major digital projects to take into consideration the ways in which their project structures interact with existing social and institutional hierarchies. colligan and sharren: notes from the fieldart. , page of the key theme in this cluster is how student labour is used in large-scale digital projects, particularly for students whose work may be adjacent to their research interests but does not necessarily advance their degrees. as christina boyles et al. have argued, dh initiatives involving large teams can rely on the labour of early career researchers in temporary positions who are called on to perform administrative duties and support the work of faculty in ways that may detract from their ability to pursue their own research agendas. graduate student research assistants experience this precarity in heightened ways; often, the positions they occupy are informal, less clearly defined, and dependent upon intermittent funding. although work on major digital projects can fund graduate degrees and provide the opportunities to develop skills and networks that are otherwise not part of their programs, it also runs the risk of distracting graduate students from their degree requirements. in the case of this cluster, all of the authors are involved in projects with feminist aims, both in terms of the data they make available and the structures of the projects themselves. as feminist projects, they outline a strategy for robust documentation practices that capture the full spectrum of labour that goes into projects such as mapp and the wphp and make the significance of that labour visible to those outside of the project. our final cluster closes with two essays by students and faculty collaborators seeking to transform the field of digital humanities by rethinking pedagogical practices and spaces. nadine boulay discusses the design and development of a teaching resource game that shows the experience of transgender, non-binary, and gender nonconforming youth. underlying the development of this game environment is a carefully articulated theory of intersectionality “wherein categories such as race, gender identity, sexuality, and class cannot be understood as separate axes, but as mutually-constituting and interconnected.” ashley morford, arun jacob, and kush patel similarly focus on the importance of pedagogical spaces for developing an anti-colonial dh pedagogy and transmitting this work via citational practices and networks. they emphasize the significance of uvic’s digital humanities summer institute, as well as other digital spaces, as sites for developing and teaching a theory colligan and sharren: notes from the field art. , page of of inclusive and activist digital pedagogy that is explicitly intersectional and socially inclusive. each essay reveals the importance of pedagogy in bringing social justice to the digital humanities. by integrating anti-colonial and intersectional practices into digital pedagogy, they help drive the field of dh toward social innovation. taken together, these essays demonstrate that transforming dh into a politically engaged, socially just, and inclusive field involves ongoing critical attention to pedagogical spaces and practices. kimberly o’donnell responds to these papers as a graduate student and digital fellow at simon fraser university, offering her own perspective on the importance of bringing cultural critique and intersectional approaches to digital pedagogy. covid- struck just as we finished writing this introduction. amidst widespread disruptions and shifts to online and remote teaching, what has emerged is the extent to which face-to-face interactions and engagement with material objects remains, in many cases, an essential component of digital pedagogy, whether students are digitizing and curating exhibits of holdings in a glam institution, working with librarians to develop a digital project, building a research team for a major project, or developing and facilitating workshops. while one of the frequently cited goals of dh is to make materials and knowledge accessible to a wider range of people via digital technologies, the digital turn does not mean that all dh work can be completed digitally. indeed, the fundamentally collaborative and material nature of many of the projects and initiatives described in the following essays reveal that much of dh scholarship is fundamentally rooted in immediate social and geographical relationships -- relationships that have been rapidly overturned during the pandemic. after all, this collection emerged from the in-person symposia and showcases we held in victoria and vancouver to celebrate student achievement and foster connections. digital pedagogy often focuses on questions of tools and methods, but our present situation reminds us that we must attend to the social and cultural processes that condition their use. the student-centered experiential and critical insights advanced in the chapters that follow do just that, by bringing attention to issues of colligan and sharren: notes from the fieldart. , page of collaboration, degree requirements, research training, and social justice activism in dh – all the more pressing during our present public health and social crises. our hope is that this special issue will help students, faculty, librarians, and academic administrators critically navigate this new pedagogical landscape amidst powerful pressures to go rapidly digital and adapt online. acknowledgements we would like to acknowledge lisa goddard, michelle levy, rebecca dowson, alyssa arbuckle, claire battershill, matt huculak, deanna reder, stephen ross, jentery sayers, and raymond siemens, who helped create the digital pedagogy network, with the support of a social sciences and humanities research council connections grant. michelle levy has additionally played an important role in conceptualizing this special issue for digital studies, along with its three co-editors, colette colligan, kimberly o’donnell, and kandice sharren. finally, we wish to thank the participants at our dpn events for their thoughtful contributions as well as the anonymous peer reviewers for their feedback on the essays gathered in this issue. competing interests the authors have no competing interests to declare. author note authors are listed alphabetically. references anderson, katrina, lindsey bannister, janey dodd, deanna fong, michelle levy, and lindsey seatter. . “student labour and training in digital humanities.” digital humanities quarterly ( ): – . accessed june , . https://scholar. google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt= % c &q=anderson% c+katrina% c+linds ey+bannister% c+janey+dodd% c+deanna+fong% c+michelle+levy% c+a nd+lindsey+seatter.+ .+“student+labour+and+training+in+digital+hum anities.”+digital+humanities+quarterly+ +% % .+&btng= battershill, claire, and shawna ross. . using digital humanities in the classroom a practical introduction for teachers, lecturers, and students. london: bloomsbury. https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt= % c &q=anderson% c+katrina% c+lindsey+bannister% c+janey+dodd% c+deanna+fong% c+michelle+levy% c+and+lindsey+seatter.+ .+�student+labour+and+training+in+digital+humanities.�+digital+humanities+quarterly+ +% % .+&btng= https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt= % c &q=anderson% c+katrina% c+lindsey+bannister% c+janey+dodd% c+deanna+fong% c+michelle+levy% c+and+lindsey+seatter.+ .+�student+labour+and+training+in+digital+humanities.�+digital+humanities+quarterly+ +% % .+&btng= https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt= % c &q=anderson% c+katrina% c+lindsey+bannister% c+janey+dodd% c+deanna+fong% c+michelle+levy% c+and+lindsey+seatter.+ .+�student+labour+and+training+in+digital+humanities.�+digital+humanities+quarterly+ +% % .+&btng= https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt= % c &q=anderson% c+katrina% c+lindsey+bannister% c+janey+dodd% c+deanna+fong% c+michelle+levy% c+and+lindsey+seatter.+ .+�student+labour+and+training+in+digital+humanities.�+digital+humanities+quarterly+ +% % .+&btng= https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt= % c &q=anderson% c+katrina% c+lindsey+bannister% c+janey+dodd% c+deanna+fong% c+michelle+levy% c+and+lindsey+seatter.+ .+�student+labour+and+training+in+digital+humanities.�+digital+humanities+quarterly+ +% % .+&btng= colligan and sharren: notes from the field art. , page of boyles, christina, anne cong-huyen, carrie johnston, jim mcgrath, and amanda phillips. . “precarious labor and the digital humanities.” american quarterly ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /aq. . davis, rebecca frost, matthew k. gold, katherine d. harrys, and jentery sayers, eds. . digital pedagogy in the humanities. . modern language association. accessed june . https://digitalpedagogy.hcommons.org/. deegan, marilyn, and willard mccarty, eds. . collaborative research in the digital humanities. abingdon; new york: routledge. gold, matthew k., and lauren f. klein. . “digital humanities: the expanded field.” in debates in digital humanities , edited by matthew k. gold and lauren f. klein, ix–xvi. minnesota: university of minnesota press. jagoda, patrick. . “gaming the humanities: digital humanities, new media, and practice-based research.” differences: a journal of feminist cultural studies ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / - logsdon, alexis, amy mars, and heather tompkins. . “claiming expertise from betwixt and between: digital humanities librarians, emotional labor, and genre theory.” college & undergraduate libraries ( – ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / . . ramsay, stephen, and geoffrey rockwell. . “developing things: notes toward an epistemology of building in the digital humanities.” debates in the digital humanities, edited by matthew k. gold, – . minnesota: university of minnesota press. doi: https://doi.org/ . /minnesota/ . . siemens, lynne. . ‘“it’s a team if you use ‘reply all’”: an exploration of research teams in digital humanities environments.” literary and linguistic computing ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqp stommel, jesse, chris friend, and sean michael morris. . critical digital pedagogy: a collection. hybrid pedagogy inc. accessed september . https:// cdpcollection.pressbooks.com/ the programming historian. . “ the programming historian.”accessed june . https://programminghistorian.org/en/. https://doi.org/ . /aq. . https://digitalpedagogy.hcommons.org/ https://doi.org/ . / - https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /minnesota/ . . https://doi.org/ . /minnesota/ . . https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqp https://cdpcollection.pressbooks.com/ https://cdpcollection.pressbooks.com/ https://programminghistorian.org/en/ colligan and sharren: notes from the fieldart. , page of how to cite this article: colligan, colette and kandice sharren. . “notes from the field: student perspectives on digital pedagogy.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: may accepted: june published: december copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / acknowledgements competing interests author note references born-digital archives editorial born-digital archives thorsten ries , & gábor palkó published online: march # springer nature switzerland ag the first special issue of international journal of digital humanities (ijdh) is about born-digital archives, their preservation and research perspectives involving born- digital primary records in the humanities. this is not only a result of the collaboration between the journal’s editor-in-chief, gábor palkó, co-director of the centre for digital humanities at the eötvös university, who is interested in the practice and theory of digital archives, and the editor of this volume, thorsten ries, who conducts research on born-digital dossiers génétiques with digital forensic methods at ghent university. it is also meant to be a programmatic call to intensify cross-sectoral collaboration between galleries, libraries, archives, and museums (glam institutions), digital preservation projects, and humanities research working with digital primary sources. the born-digital historical record of the present age poses great challenges for archival science, librarianship, museology, and information science on the one hand, and to humanities research on the other, next to offering exciting opportunities. personal digital archives, legal, governmental, institutional, scientific, public, and non-governmental organisations’ documentation records or datasets, public repositories of digital publications, web archives, and social media archives are incredibly rich, diverse and multi-faceted treasure troves for historians, political scientists, sociologists, philologists, literary scholars, art historians, digital humanists, and researchers from other humanities disciplines. the effort of long-term preservation, curator- and custo- dianship for these records and the development of setups, applications and application programming interfaces (api) to make them available for research has been subject of multiple large, successful international projects in archival science, librarianship, and information science. landmark projects such as the archiving of the digital collections of salman rushdie at emory university library (rockmore ; waugh and russey international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x * thorsten ries thorsten.ries@ugent.be; t.ries@sussex.ac.uk * gábor palkó palko.gabor@btk.elte.hu ghent university, ghent, belgium university of sussex, brighton, uk eötvös loránd university, budapest, hungary http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -x&domain=pdf mailto:palko.gabor@btk.elte.hu mailto:t.ries@sussex.ac.uk mailto:palko.gabor@btk.elte.hu roke ); hanif kureishi at the british library (foss ), friedrich kittler at the german literature archive marbach / neckar (enge and kramski ), franz josef czernin at the austrian national library (catalogue Önb, accessed ) and the thomas kling archive at stiftung insel hombroich (ries , ), to name but a few, as well as national (e.g. uk, germany, the netherlands, belgium, etc.) and international repositories and web archives (internet archive, etc.) with sophisticated frontends such as resaw (research infrastructure for the study of archived web materials), shine uk web archive and wayback machine, are just some of the most visible results of this broad development of born-digital archiving. memory institu- tions, international archival, and information science projects are very active on addressing fundamental issues of born-digital archiving such as developing workflows for identification, selection, triage and bibliographic documentation. management of the sheer data volumes and curatorship that caters for the fragility and obsolescence of legacy hardware, software and formats of complex, context-dependent digital records are ongoing challenges. key research and development areas in this interdisciplinary sector are the development of preservation formats and workflows that ensure authen- ticity, fixity, physical as well as logical stability and accessibility by forensic imaging, virtualisation, emulation, migration and the development of environments, tools and api‘s for secure, controlled access to the archive for researchers. currently, archival and information science, memory institutions, and archiving projects are working towards interoperable standards and making standardised workflows, protocols, expert resources, tools and infrastructure for born-digital curation available to archives, libraries, memory institutions, and projects of all sizes and all levels. the early beginnings of born-digital archiving practice and applications of digital forensic meth- odology in libraries and archives are mostly associated with the names of individual archivists, librarians, archival and information scientists, and humanists such as susan thomas, kirschenbaum ( , , a, b); kirschenbaumet al. ( , ); jeremy leighton john ( ); duranti ( ); duranti and endicott-popovsky ( ) and doug reside ( a, b, ). since then, we have seen an enormous growth of these efforts in archival research, development and professional practice, which today are orchestrated by large, national and international, often high-level projects such as interpares and interpares trust (international research on permanent authentic records in electronic systems, canada, europe, international, since , th phase), digital presevation coalition, dpc (europe, uk, international, -today), para- digm (personal archives accessible in digital media, europe, uk, – ), caspar (cultural, artistic and scientific knowledge for preservation, access and retrieval) and digital preservation europe, dpe (europe, – ), planets (preservation and long-term access through networked services, europe, – ), nestor (kompetenznetzwerk langzeitarchivierung, germany, – , – , since self-sustained), premis (preservation metadata: implementa- tion strategies, usa, since ), the clir and oclc research initiatives (council on library and information resources, online computer library center, incorporated, usa, international, : clir report, „demystifying born digital“), vimm (virtual multimodal museum, europe, cyprus, – ) and the computational archival science working group (international, since ). national repositories for born-digital publications, research infrastructures, and web archives are mostly hosted and run by the national library system of individual countries, and complemented by ries, palkó supranational humanities research infrastructures such as dariah (digital research infrastructure for the arts and humanities) and clarin (common language re- sources and technology infrastructure) in the european context. on a meso-level, however, there seems to be less institutions and projects that are enabling born-digital preservation, curation, and research at the level of smaller archives and individual researchers. we would like to highlight packed (centre of expertise in digital heritage, belgium, since ), the dcc (digital curation centre, uk, -today), the bitcurator project (usa, – , now bitcurator nlp) and bitcurator access (usa, – ). it is encouraging to see that, at least every now and then, memory institutions reach out to humanities research in order to collaboratively identify in which digital formats, with which metadata and by which access tools born-digital records might be most useful for researchers and encourage them to find out about the possibilities. excellent examples are the hands-on exhibition of salman rushdie‘s emulated computer at emory libraries (rockmore ), the pilot of born-digital reading room at the british library featuring materials from the hanif kureishi archive (foss ), the workshop on born-digital archives access at wellcome collection (sloyan ), the inclusion of both humanities researchers and representatives of memory institutions responsible for web-archiving in the resaw network (winters a), and the personal digital archiving conference series (e.g. pda conferences at stanford university libraries, at houston, tx). this interdisciplinary and intersectoral collaboration between archival and humanities research, methodological development and practice is of crucial importance and the humanities certainly need to take matthew kirschenbaum’s imperative to heart: digital archivists need digital humanities researchers and subject experts to use born-digital collections. nothing is more important. if humanities researchers don’t demand access to born-digital materials then it will be harder to get those materials processed in a timely fashion, and we know that with the born-digital every day counts. (kirschenbaum , ) despite the fact that kirschenbaum rather stated the obvious when he defined that „the concept of a primary record can no longer be assumed to be coterminous with that of a physical object“ and that „electronic texts, files, feeds and transmissions of all sorts are also indisputably primary records“ relevant to historical research (kirschenbaum b, : ), humanities researchers still seem to be rather reluctant when it comes to include born-digital primary sources into their research. there is probably no simple answer to the question why this is the case. if we look at personal digital archives, legal and ethical considerations concerning the protection of privacy and personal rights of the data subjects and of third parties as well as copyright are probably the most important reasons for the hesitation of humanities researchers (carroll et al. ; baker ). jane winters argues that “web archives, and other kinds of born-digital data, do bring the possibility of, and perhaps even necessitate, a radical reframing of humanities research – through their scale, their heterogeneity, their complexity, their fragility”, which might not be sufficiently accessible with “the tools and methods available to us at present” (winters b). further concerns about born-digital archives, especially web-archives, might have to do with inherent biases and misrep- resentations introduced through a focus on “significant and/or traumatic events, [...] born-digital archives personal interest and enthusiasm or a serendipitous partnership” that comes with individual archiving efforts, triggered by events or specific research interests (winters b). born-digital primary sources (and archives), according to winters, are different from analogue ones in many ways, and she further makes the point that historians still need to embrace the fact “that a digit[al] manuscript is an object in its own right, with its own context of production” (winters a). for this delayed development among historians, she identifies disciplinary and sectoral boundaries as reasons, next to the methodological issues: one explanation is that while digital history has embraced a range of historical sub-disciplines, and borrowed readily from subjects like archaeology and histor- ical geography, it has largely failed to take account of developments in two crucial areas: library, archive and information studies; and digital preservation. libraries and archives have necessarily been at the forefront of web archives research and practice. [...] (winters b) this diagnose is indeed consequential. the gap between the progress in born-digital preservation development and archival science research, on the one hand, and (digital) humanities research on the other, needs to be closed, first and foremost in order to enable glam institutions, institutional networks and infrastructures to develop their born-digital collections in meaningful ways, improve preservation formats, curation workflows, repositories, services, and access for researchers. this can only be achieved by cross-sectoral and interdisciplinary collaboration to support active research on born- digital collections. this is precisely what this first special issue of international journal of digital humanities seeks to encourage. the necessary collaboration will benefit from the new european general data protection regulation (gdpr) guidelines, as these regulations provide an excellent basis for glam institutions and researchers to establish trust relationships with archive depositors and creators. this will, moreover, encourage them to enable research by having their materials preserved, archived, and made available to research in a secure, controlled, and authentic way with security procedures that empowers them as data subjects. kirschenbaum and winters urge those in the field of humanities to embrace the born-digital historical record as an object and primary source in its own right – a claim which, of course, has precursors in media history and theory, historical bibliography, textual scholarship, and digital humanities (see dahlström ; manovich ; gitelman ). this implies the critical appraisal of the born-digital primary record’s specific historical materiality, along the lines of philological and forensic disciplines such as diplomatics, palaeography, philology, and analytical bibliography. since kirschenbaum’s mechanisms. new media and the forensic imagination ( ) and duranti’s introduction of the concept of digital diplomatics (duranti ); duranti and endicott-popovsky ( ), digital forensic methods and tools, especially bitstream- preserving imaging (also known as forensic imaging), became a standard practice in memory institutions for the preservation of digital storage media and born-digital records. kirschenbaum’s seminal definition of formal and forensic digital materiality ( , – , see also ries , – ) – a selective focus on one dichotomic dimension in the spectrum of digital materiality (for an overview, see drucker ) – conceptually enabled an analytical perspective on the materiality of the physical ries, palkó characteristics of storage media and the bitstream of the historical born-digital record that reveals its digital history, embedded as latent forensic artefacts, recoverable data, and traces of processing and user interaction. while his work on digital materiality is certainly indebted to new bibliography (lebrave ) and oriented towards a relative physical stability of the forensic record, his more recent theoretical considerations of the born-digital archive seem to rather reflect issues of the instability, context-depen- dency, authenticity, and intangibility of the born-digital historical record as a logical digital object within formal materiality (kirschenbaum , b). but this also means that this data is fundamentally unstable in the sense that they rest upon the foundations of other data, what is quite literally in the trade known as metadata, in order to be legible under the appropriate computational regiments, which i have previously termed as formal materiality in my own work. (kirschenbaum b, : ) in the terms i put forth in mechanisms, each access engenders a new logical entity that is forensically individuated at the level of its physical representation on some storage medium. access is thus duplication, duplication is preservation, and preservation is creation — and recreation. that is the catechism of the .txtual condition, [...]. (kirschenbaum , ) as questions of stability, authenticity, and technological context-dependency (on different concepts of authenticity relating to context, see rogers , ) and materiality of the born-digital historical record become even more complex for preser- vation and research tasks, the role of archival custodian- and curatorship, digital signing (blanchette ), digital forensic methodology, and context-preservation of complete operating systems by emulation or virtualisation and even computer hardware (kirschenbaum et al. ) becomes even more prominent. in the light of inevitable ageing and obsolescence of hard- and software, bitrot, fading network contexts, and online services going offline, memory institutions already today have to decide accord- ing to which standards and criteria to select relevant materials. they have to decide which aspects of digital objects and their contexts are relevant to future research and have to be preserved in order to achieve an authentically preserved record, and what would be acceptable loss. is it just the text or the content of a document that has to be preserved, metadata in the document or in the surrounding operating system, contextual material in file folders, the materiality of the complete operating system or file server – as „dead“ system in a forensic, fixed, bit-precise image or emulated at runtime –, or is the hardware or network context an important aspect to be preserved? or is the experience of contemporary interaction a main factor that needs documentation? some of the contributions to this special issue of ijdh revolve around these key questions of born-digital archives. the archival and digital forensic perspective sheds light on the specific historicity of the born-digital record. digital historicity does not only become apparent when one interacts with still functional legacy hard- and software in computing musea, experienc- ing the look and feel of historic operating systems and applications, the today unusual feel of thick cables, old port connectors and adapters, motherboards, controllers and storage media. the forensic materiality of the born-digital record, preserved in the form born-digital archives of forensic images and other forensic formats, bears a highly specific signature of historical computing that can best be understood from the vantage point of jean- francois blanchette‘s a material history of bits ( ). he remarkably takes the perspective of a historian who analyses historical hard- and software architectures, such as the processing and networking stack, principles such as layering and modularity of operating systems and applications, read as historical documents of design decisions taken by hard- and software engineers, programmers, and tech companies in their pursuit to overcome the physical constraints of computing by architecture abstraction and error-correction mechanisms to maintain an ‘illusion of immateriality’ (kirschenbaum , p. ). blanchette stresses that maintaining the illusion of immateriality of resources, and hiding their physical limitations and characteristics to programmers and users is in itself a resource-intensive, critical and error-prone task that is mostly implemented at the cost of technical ‘efficiency trade-offs’. this purported independence from matter would have two distinct and important consequences: (a) digital information can be reproduced and distributed at neg- ligible cost and high speed, and thus, is immune to the economics and logistics of analogue media; (b) digital information can be accessed, used, or reproduced without the noise, corruption, and degradation that necessarily results from the handling of material carriers of information. [...] yet, this abstraction from the material can never fully succeed. rather, it stands in dialectical tension with the evolution of these material resources and with the efficiency trade-offs their abstraction requires. (blanchette , p. ) blanchette especially names the efficiency trade-offs implied by modularity, the effi- ciency cost of necessary garbage collection and error correction at runtime as ‘design trade-offs inherent in abstracting from physical resources are rarely acknowledged in the computing literature’ (blanchette , p. ). while some might want to nuance blanchette’s argument and note that modularity as a foundational principle of system architecture, code organisation, and programming language implementation is a neces- sity to ensure maintainability, manageability and extensibility of almost any larger system rather than be regarded as a performance penalty (which it can be), most will agree that overcoming the quirks of physical materiality is a resource-intensive task: the digital abstraction can be maintained in spite of this “noise” because, as kirschenbaum notes, through error-correction codes, buffering, and other tech- niques, computers can self-efface the static—scratches on a record, smudges on paper—that typically signals the materiality of media: […] these mechanisms, formally described in information theory, are used throughout networked com- puting systems: the impact of media irregularities on hard drive platters can be mitigated through the use of error-correction codes; the unpredictability of network bandwidth can be mitigated through the use of buffering, ensuring smooth delivery of latency-sensitive content [...]. it is this ability to ceaselessly clean up after its own noise that so powerfully enables computers to seemingly sever their dependency on physical processes that underlie processing, storage, and connectivity. yet the physical characteristics of a resource (be it computation, storage, or networking) cannot simply be transcended, and noise can only be ries, palkó conquered at the expense of other resources. [...] error-correcting codes, widely used to protect against transmission interference, result in both data expansion (and thus, reduced capacity) and increased processing load. [...] once again, then, independence from the material can only be obtained at the costs of certain trade- offs. (blanchette , p. ) blanchette’s reasoning could serve as a foundation for a historical theory of digital forensics, an explanatory framework for many digital forensic phenomena, and the specific historicity of forensic digital materiality. many phenomena that digital forensic tools and methods analyse are ultimately rooted in the mitigation of material constraints of hard- and software. deleted data can be recovered because effective deletion through overwriting is a very resource-expensive task that would slow down a computer, which is why effective deletion does not take place by default. often deleted data and documents “survive” on a system because of bugs, file system corruption, and system crashes: in chkdsk error correction or hibernation files created by the operating system, in temporary and auto-recovery files not deleted because of system crashes. temporary files are created on hard drives especially when a runtime environment runs out of physical ram and has to swap memory with the storage medium. on some operating systems, automatic system snapshots are being created (e.g. vss shadow copy partitions) in order to mitigate the risk of data loss through system instability. files and file fragments are preserved in the so-called “drive slack” of data clusters because modern storage media are organised in blocks, which speeds up the process of data lookup and the navigation of large storage spaces on storage media with physical moving parts, such as conventional hard drives: it is the physical block size on the storage medium that determines where exactly a file is cut off. fastsave artefacts in microsoft word documents and in temporary files are a result of a saving mechanism that was implemented to mitigate the relatively slow operation of early hard drives, at the cost of deleted text passages still present in documents and temporary files (ries , ). this incomplete list names just a few of the effects, mechanisms and design decisions that digital forensics is about and which are based on the computing- historical perspective that blanchette describes. the digital forensic record, in turn, is deeply informed by designs that are specific for different types of hardware, versions of operating systems and application software, giving it a highly specific historicity that is accessible and readable through the forensic traces of digital processing. the latent digital forensic features of the born-digital historical record are not only of interest for philologists who search for hidden draft versions of a text. they are also relevant for historians and archivists who have to determine whether a historical record is authentic or might have been manipulated. furthermore, they are relevant to the historian who investigates the history of the digitisation of society using original archived computing systems. when we speak about the born-digital record, there is another aspect to be kept in mind, an aspect that is not in the foreground in this volume, but hopefully will be scrutinized in more detail during further issues of ijdh. as blanchette rightly empha- sizes, the historicity of born-digital phenomena is rooted in the material constraints of hard- and software, it is embedded in an infrastructure context without which it cannot be understood. the infrastructure of the digital archive, which serves as an interface between the researcher and their subject of research, requires attention in itself, born-digital archives regardless of the fact that the research is based on born-digital or digitised materials. michel de certeau has pointed out in his seminal work the writing of history (de certeau ; palkó ) that the computer, as an archive, forms a new apparatus for research and as such will fundamentally change the way historical documents will be formed. the materiality of the archive as medium of knowledge formation is one of the main research questions media archaeology focuses on (ernst ; parikka ). parikka sheds light on the interdependence of problems current archiving practices face in a born-digital culture, and on the theoretical challenges of understanding how a digital archive as an apparatus forms our documents of the past and present. the theoretical problems of recent media archaeologies of technical media and software along with a rethinking of the archive, go hand in hand with the practical challenges faced by cultural heritage institutions and professionals: how do you archive processes and culture which is based on both technical processes (soft- ware and networks) and social ones (participation and collaboration, as in massive online role-playing platforms as cultural forms). (parikka , ) the analyses of the institutional archiving practices have always been complicated for their medial and material mechanisms tend to stay in the shadow (groys ; palkó ). however, the analyses of the apparatus of the digital archive, which includes born-digital, processual, network- or environment-based material, is even more com- plicated. although a lot has been done in the last decade to provide a stable digital object by forensic imaging on the level of forensic materiality, the actual documents extracted from a forensic image depend highly on the technical infrastructure (e. g. the chosen software and workflow), and requires technical skills that are normally not part of a humanities scholar’s qualification. the same is true for the growing importance and complexity of searching the digital medium. as both digitized and born-digital records are available in a quantity impossible to fathom through the methodology of close reading, records relevant for a research question will mostly be gathered by using query services. digital archives normally radically limit the possibility to use custom search tools and query languages, they only provide predefined and simplified options. a lot has been done by national institutions and international projects both on technical, institutional, and discursive level to augment the traditionally analogue field of scientifically relevant material to the born-digital. trusted formats, standards, meth- odologies, and services are available for glam institutions and researchers as well, but it remains an open question how the complexity of handling born-digital primary records and the thus established digital archives will be manageable for the humanists of the twenty-first century. the current special issue of international journal of digital humanities features articles by international researchers from the libraries and archives sector, as well as from the (digital) humanities that address born-digital archives on several levels, ranging from the digital forensic perspective on individual records (archival methodology: digital forensics), via personal digital archives and born-digital cultural heritage archives (digital culture and literature archives), web archives (web archives), to born-digital archiving in large digital infrastructures (born-digital archives and infrastructures). corinne rogers (university of british columbia, vancouver, canada) strikes the connection between digital forensics and born-digital archival science and ries, palkó practice with a historical introduction to how digital forensics became a viable tool for digital curatorship. bénédicte vauthier (bern university, switzerland), after her studies on robert juan- cantavella’s born-digital dossier génétique of his novel el dorado (vauthier , ), traces the inherent connection between anglo-american textual scholarship and analytical bibliographyon the one hand and the introduction of digital forensic meth- odology to archival science on the other, in an effort to find an explanation why european textual scholarship and philology seems to lag behind in this field. vauthier also presents the results of her survey among spanish-speaking writers about their digital self-archiving practice and their willingness to deposit their digital archives at memory institutions and make them available for research. nicholas schiller and dene grigar (washington state university, vancouver, canada) provide an insight into their work at the electronic literature lab (ell) at washington state university vancouver on the process of archiving electronic literature, specifically about documenting the interactive experience with sarah smith’s king of space in the ‘traversal’ format. schiller and grigar’s discussion and example show some of the important challenges of electronic literature archiving and the solutions practiced at ell. libi striegl and lori emerson (university of colorado boulder, usa) describe their archival and ‘anarchival’ experience- and practice-based approach to research and research creation at the media archaeology lab (mal) at the university of colorado at boulder. as an example, they document the project on mesh-networked one laptop per child xo laptops at mal. the one laptop per child initiative with its tailored technological ecosystem is an important educational inclusion project worth documenting, its use of mesh networks and hardware design introduced an innovative approach to local networking, network capacity sharing and solutions for operation under technologically difficult circumstances and infrastructure. in the web archives section of the current issue, trevor owens, editor of owens a, b, and grace h. thomas (library of congress, usa) trace the history and functional changes of the spacer gif and the resulting challenges for web archiving. eveline vlassenroot (ghent university, belgium), sally chambers (ghent university, belgium), emmanuel di pretoro (haute École bruxelles-brabant, brussels, belgium), friedel geeraert (royal library and state archives of belgium, brussels, belgium), gerald haesendonck (ghent university, belgium), alejandra michel (namur univer- sity, belgium) and peter mechant (ghent university, belgium) discuss national and international web archives as a data resource for digital scholars in europe. in the born-digital archives and infrastructures section, tibor kálmán (gwdg göttingen, germany), matej Ďurčo (austrian academy of the sciences, austria), frank fischer (higher school of economics, moscow, russia), nicolas larrousse (huma- num, paris, france), claudio leone (state and university library göttingen, germa- ny), karlheinz mörth (austrian academy of the sciences, austria) and carsten thiel (state and university library göttingen, germany) map the challenges, approaches and solutions of born-digital archiving and access, especially for born-digital research datasets, learning materials, services and software in 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( a). humanities and the born digital: moving from a difficult past to a promising future? keynote at dhbenelux , amsterdam. june. winters, j. ( b). web archives and (digital) history: a troubled past and a promising future? in n. brügger & i. milligan (eds.), sage handbook of web history (pp. – ). newcastle: sage. born-digital archives http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/multimedia/documents/preservingexe_report_final .pdf http://www.trevorowens.org/ / /historic-iphones-personal-digi-tal-media-devices-in-the-collection/ https://doi.org/ . /subbdigitalia. . . https://doi.org/ . /subbdigitalia. . . http://www.nypl.org/blog/ / / /no-day-today-look-jonathan-larsons-word-files http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/digital-life-salman-rushdie https://doi.org/ . /m .figshare. .v born-digital archives references mergedfile review: international students of history association annual conference – maribor, april authors: eric jeswein/tamara pataki doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /ghsj. . source: global histories, vol. , no. (may ), pp. – issn: - x copyright © eric jeswein/tamara pataki license url: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / publisher information: ‘global histories: a student journal’ is an open-access bi-annual journal founded in by students of the m.a. program global history at freie universität berlin and humboldt-universität zu berlin. ‘global histories’ is published by an editorial board of global history students in association with the freie universität berlin. freie universität berlin global histories: a student journal friedrich-meinecke-institut koserstraße berlin contact information: for more information, please consult our website www.globalhistories.com or contact the editor at: admin@globalhistories.com. http://dx.doi.org/ . /ghsj. . https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.globalhistories.com/ mailto:admin@globalhistories.com annual conference of the international students of history association (isha) maribor, april reviewed by eric jeswein and tamara pataki eric jeswein is a b.a. student of history and area studies at the humboldt universität zu ber- lin and elected member of the council of isha as well as the editor for the “carnival” journal. he is a member of isha since . his interests lie with historiography and theory of history. tamara pataki is a m.a. student of history at the freie universität berlin, where she also completed her b.a. degree of history and political science. she is the secretary of the interna- tional board of isha and an active member of the organization since . she is interested in historical methodology and political history, especially in the political systems and transforma- tions of central and eastern european states. this year’s annual conference of isha, the international students of history association, on “modernization of history” was a special one, as it was jointly organized by two sections across the border from each other. the conference was held in maribor, slovenia, but major contributions were made by the isha sec- tion of graz, austria and their respective universities. this april we gathered to join the debate on “digital humanities,” a broadly defined field, which encom- passes both object and method of historical research, to discuss emerging ways of research and presenting historical material. the conference was a representa- tion of the blurring field of digital humanities, as it covered a wide range of ap- proaches and topics. this reached from discussing ‘new’ media, such as youtube, to interdisciplinary research methods, such as combining geographical data and historical research in a new form. apart from the opening keynote lecture, and the final discussion, the partici- pants mostly exchanged their ideas in smaller groups. the keynote lecture opened the seminar with a presentation on historical films and their conveyance of history which led to debate on movies as an educational tool and source for historical research. we mainly debated upon which methodology films can be evaluated and, to be frank, if historical exactitude is the most pressing concern and goal of historical film making. the debate on entertainment media providing a matching or competing depiction of history continued in smaller groups. participants dis- cussed the role of youtube, internet blogs, and computer games in altering the views of the past. other workshops took a different approach on “digital humani- ties” by looking at their integration in traditional places of historical representa- tion and asked questions on how new technologies can be applied in, for example, museums or in schools. a very different discussion opened the effects of digita- lization on enhancing interdisciplinary cooperation in a workshop on “maps” as sources. this workshop was a result of cooperation with egea, the european geography association, and two geography students provided input and moder- ated the discussions on ways and biases of projecting geo-information on a flat surface of a paper. similarly, another workshop discussed the role of informatics and computing in evaluating historical sources. these very different issues were channeled together in a final discussion, where all workshops presented their ideas so that we could create a general picture of the “digital humanities,” which remains a vague buzz-word. instead of going into a broader discussion on the definition of the term, we tried to tackle the field by re- flecting on the debates other scholars opened before us. this was probably not the best approach possible, as these discussions are often hampered by mainly going back into debates on definitions, such as what ‘digital’ even means and what tools and methods it contains. we have seen that computing technologies can success- fully be integrated into concepts of museums or teaching in schools, but argued, whether new methodologies can lead to entirely new research questions or ‘only’ offer some new ways of answering them. unfortunately, the concept of the conference did not allow much space for ple- nary discussions. most debates stayed among the small groups, which meant that we could not reflect much on general outcomes. this is arguably a structural weak- ness of isha conferences. the conferences offer mostly a place for small group work and a lively debate on a small scale, but often fall short on synthesizing the individual workshops into a larger whole. another issue was that apart from the workshops the academic program of the conference was rather slim, isha con- ferences usually accompany workshops with other formats, such as roundtable discussions and more lectures and plenary debates, but this year’s annual confer- ence came short on these. it should also be remarked, that the annual conference is a place for isha to debate its internal affairs and elect its new officials for the coming term. the general assembly is always the place to continue the ongoing discussion in isha about how to raise the academic standards of its events mak- ing the organization (the largest of its kind in europe) still accessible for students of all countries and academic levels. here we debated the role of isha as a rep- resentative body for students of history in europe and how we could make the organization and its work more visible. in summary, the annual conference of isha proved to be an event of fruitful discussions. we explored possibilities and directions of the emerging field “digital humanities,” but only reached a conclusion about its nature as a sup- portive matter for historical research and also leading to new research questions. the conference itself was a the first of its kind as it was co-hosted by two isha sections and proved a high level of international cooperation from the students of isha. still, there was room for more discussion, especially on the larger scale, global histories volume iv may eric jeswein and tamara pataki and the variety of events was not as strong as other seminars and conferences of the organization. global histories volume iv may review: isha annual conference una revista signaficativa para los estudios de semiÓtica en espaÑa open digital humanities journals: revista de humanidades digitales. a framework for the construction of an academic field clara martínez cantón (uned) gimena del río riande (conicet, argentina) romina de león (conicet, argentina) ernesto priani saisó (unam, méxico) why a(nother) digital humanities journal? dh, languages and open access open access in dh golden open access (hybrid journals) • digital philology: a journal of medieval cultures • digital scholarship in the humanities • international journal of humanities and arts computing (ijhac) • journal of computing and cultural heritage • language resources and evaluation (formerly: computers and the humanities ( - ). • new review of hypermedia and multimedia diamond open acces (no apc’s) • digital humanities quarterly • digital medievalist • digital studies / le champ numÉrique • humanist studies and the digital age • journal of data mining and digital humanities • journal of open humanities data • journal of the text encoding initiative (jtei) • zeitschrift fÜr digitale geisteswissenschaften (zfdg) • computational linguistics • digital classics online • journal of the japanese association for digital humanities languages in dh journals revista de humanidades digitales defining a new journal a spanish journal, a language inclusive journal: revista de humanidades digitales ◉ spanish ◉ english ◉ portuguese ◉ italian ◉ french editorial team ◉ gimena del río riande (conicet, argentina) ◉ clara martínez cantón (uned) ◉ romina de león (conicet, argentina) ◉ ernesto priani saisó (unam, méxico) editorial oa policies ◉ immediate and free open access with no commercial purposes editorial oa policies ◉ immediate and free open access with no commercial purposes ◉ journal management through open access journals (ojs) ◉ open editorial policees ◉ creative commons licenses ◉ preservation with lockss ◉ adhered to cope's ethical standards ◉ authors preserve their copyright wide range of publications rhd accepts: ◉ academic articles ◉ data articles ◉ reviews ◉ publications in other experimental formats (interviews and other formats that include audio, video or interactive material, etc.) challenges open access, profesionalization, continuity, indexation professionalization of the researcher as an editor ◉ building and developing of the website ◉ publication process of new issues ◉ peer-review management ◉ indixation ◉ proofreading and editing articles ◉ advertising (social networks, lists, etc.) professionalization of the researcher as an editor professionalization of the researcher as an editor ◉ ensuring the continuity of the publication ◉ bridging the gap in disciplinary and linguistic geographic asymmetries in the publication of scientific journals where to find us http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/rhd/index http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/rhd/index any question? for further communications: rhd@linhd.uned.es ¡thank you! mailto:rhd@linhd.uned.es 'posthumanities: the dark side of "the dark side of the digital"' hall, g. and adema, j. post-print deposited in curve october original citation: hall, g. and adema, j. ( ) 'posthumanities: the dark side of "the dark side of the digital"'. journal of electronic publishing, volume in press http://www.journalofelectronicpublishing.org/ michigan publishing creative commons license copyright © and moral rights are retained by the author(s) and/ or other copyright owners. a copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. this item cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder(s). the content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. curve is the institutional repository for coventry university http://curve.coventry.ac.uk/open http://curve.coventry.ac.uk/open http://www.journalofelectronicpublishing.org/ http://curve.coventry.ac.uk/open disrupting the humanities: towards posthumanities posthumanities: the dark side of “the dark side of the digital” janneke adema and gary hall disruptive humanities in what is posthumanism? cary wolfe insists “the nature of thought itself must change if it is to be posthumanist.” our argument, made manifest by this special issue of the journal of electronic publishing, is that it is not only our ways of thinking about the world that must change if they are to be posthumanist, or at least not simply humanist; our ways of being and doing in the world must change too. in particular, we view the challenge to humanism and the human brought about by the emergence of artificial intelligence, augmented reality, robotics, bioscience, pre-emptive, cognitive, and contextual computing, as providing us with an opportunity to reinvent, radically, the ways in which we work, act, and think as theorists. in this respect, if “posthumanism names a historical moment in which the decentering of the human by its imbrication in technical, medical, informatics, and economic networks is increasingly impossible to ignore,” then it generates an opportunity to raise the kind of questions for the humanities we really should have raised long before now, but haven’t because our humanist ideas, not just of historical change and progression (i.e. from human to posthuman, to what comes after the human), but of the rational, liberal, human subject, and the associated concepts of the author, the journal, and copyright that we have inherited with it, continue to have so much power and authority. our use of disruption in this context thus goes beyond the usual definitions of the term. this includes those characterizations of technological disruption associated with clayton christensen and his colleagues at the harvard business school, and with the rhetoric of silicon valley. it is not our intention to try to sustain and develop the current system for creating, performing and circulating humanities research and scholarship, its methodologies, aesthetics, and institutions, by emphasizing the potential of disruptive technologies to generate innovations that are capable of facilitating the production of a new “digital” humanities, or even “posthuman humanities studies.” as the title of this special issue indicates, rather than helping the humanities refresh themselves with what joseph schumpeter describes as waves of “creative destruction” (say, by developing new computational methods for discovering, reading, analyzing, comparing, annotating, and publishing humanities texts), our interest is in affirmatively disrupting the humanities by seeing the threat to humanism and the human associated with the emergence of these new “posthuman” technologies as offering us a chance to experiment with the invention of posthumanities systems for the creation, performance and circulation of knowledge and research. it is for this reason that we have adopted the term “affirmative disruption” in some of our work: to emphasize this difference. the word affirmative is being used here in the sense in which roberto esposito writes of an “affirmative biopolitics” in relation to the thought of michel foucault--an affirmative biopolitics being “one that is not defined negatively with respect to the dispositifs of modern power/knowledge but is rather situated along the line of tension that traverses and displaces them.” digital humanities of course, some would say these are just the kind of questions concerning the creative transformation the humanities are undergoing as a result of innovations in technology that are being addressed by another dh: not disruptive humanities but digital humanities. here, the process of transitioning from the gutenberg galaxy of reading and writing print texts that are published intermittently in codex book and journal form, to the zuckerberg galaxy of fast- paced, high-volume, networked flows of digital writing, photography, film, video, sound, data, and hybrid combinations thereof, is held as having made the need to update our ways of working as scholars and researchers hard to ignore for many in the humanities. from this point of view there is no going back to the so-called “traditional humanities.” regardless of whether or not “digital humanities” is ‘“a term of tactical convenience,”’ digital humanities just are the humanities as they are practiced in the st century, and as they will be practiced more and more in the future. the requirement to come to terms with the implications of this perceived transition in media paradigm, from print to electronic, gutenberg to zuckerberg, is one of the reasons many of those associated with digital humanities insist humanists must take advantage of the opportunities that are provided by new technologies to be much more engaged, practically and theoretically, with the media that is used to store, analyze, and present the human record. hence the emphasis placed on the importance of being able to actually make things rather than just critique them: on being able to write software code; generate interactive electronic literature, databases, and historical maps; and build online journals, libraries, archives and d simulations. hence, too, the link some have drawn between digital humanities and the “material turn” that has occurred in the humanities of the st century. as alan liu writes: “in the digital humanities, the ‘epistemology of building’--realized through the building of digital projects, hardware diy projects, media archaeology labs, etc., and theorized with the aid of such broader intellectual movements as the ‘new materialism’--is, as they say, a thing.” for us, however, digital humanities--at least as they are commonly understood--are apt to stay too much within the boundaries and limits of the humanities. this is especially the case with regard to their adherence to preconceived ideas of both the “humanistic” and the “human” (not to mention theory and practice, the textual and material, negative critique and positive making). witness--to provide just one of many possible examples--the way for burdick, drucker, lunenfeld, presner, and schnapp, in their book digital_humanities, explicating “what it means to be human in the networked information age”, and “demonstrating the value of … fundamental humanistic values… is an essential part of advocacy” for digital humanities as a field, and precisely what digital humanities are about. as a result, digital humanities all too often do indeed involve bringing computing science technologies and methodologies to bear on a humanism and humanities corpora which are relatively unchanged. admittedly there are claims that, in their assertion that “technical and managerial expertise” of the kind needed to build digital projects simply is “humanist knowledge,” and “general disdain for scholarship as it had hitherto been defined” in the humanities (i.e., in terms of the importance of painstaking reading, writing, interpretation, analysis, and, above all, critique), digital humanities position themselves as a challenge to “the very definition of the humanities” (especially when interpretation and critique are understood as political activities), and as “an entirely new conception of the humanities.” we’ll come back shortly to say more about this political critique of digital humanities as symptomatic of the neoliberal university’s emphasis on producing more marketable, instrumental, and utilitarian scholarship that is designed to meet the needs of business and industry. suffice it to say for now that, as far as we are concerned, digital humanities tend not to be nearly challenging or new enough when it comes to the humanities and humanism. granted, they may involve extending the humanities to incorporate techniques and approaches from other fields: computing science, information studies, business, design, computational linguistics; but also the social sciences, and especially their emphasis on quantitative and empirical methods. without doubt, the promotion by certain areas of digital humanities of collaborative, openly shared, “project- based learning and lab-based research” over the kind of critical reading and writing that is carried out by lone scholars in private studies and offices can be included in this expansion. yet, ultimately, such developments do not fundamentally transform either the humanities or humanism. far too often digital humanities are taken up with using digital tools and methodologies adapted from these other fields to answer humanistic research questions-- whether they are those of history, philosophy, the classics, languages or linguistics--more efficiently and effectively. doing so may provide insights into such questions it would not be possible to arrive at, or even on occasion conceive of, without the use of computers. however, it means insufficient appreciation is shown for how digital technologies do not provide just a new way of storing, analyzing or presenting the human record but are involved- -as we want to emphasize with this issue--in the decentering of the human, and with it the very idea of the human record. even those humanists associated with digital humanities who do criticize the latter for adopting too many of the ideas, approaches and methodologies of the computing sciences, of business, and of industry, tend to do so very much from a humanities perspective. while they may make a case for the continuing importance of a theoretically-informed humanities to digital humanities, they almost invariably make this case on the basis of a humanities understood within a fairly conventional framework, emphasizing the latter’s main methodological strong points: a concern with meaning, ambiguity, complexity, and historical context, as well as with the close, careful reading, interpretation, analysis, and critique of texts, for example. it is this version of the humanities that is then used to push back against the dominant models of the quantitative and empirical approach of the so-called “computational turn” to data-driven and industry-centered research in the humanities. the result, as the very term suggests, is that all too frequently a difference is maintained in digital humanities between computing and the digital on the one hand, and the humanistic and human on the other. even as the two sides of this relationship are brought together, their respective identities remain, at bottom, untroubled. moreover, this applies almost as much to the digital side of the equation as it does to the humanities. yet the very idea of digital humanities can be considered somewhat odd given the degree to which digital and non-digital are intertwined nowadays. witness the way some have characterised our current era as being not so much digital as “post-digital.” from this viewpoint, digital is almost an irrelevant attribute when nearly all media--and this includes printed paper texts, which are rarely written, read, or published today without the use of software such as microsoft word and adobe indesign--result from complex processes of “becoming with” digital information processing; as indeed do things as diverse as our entertainment, transport, banking, fuel, food, and fresh water-supply systems. likewise “digital humanities” is something of a misnomer, given the traditional humanities has long been concerned with technologies of mediation in general, and the digital in particular. (the latter has been the case with regard to critical theory since at least the publication of jean-francois lyotard’s the postmodern condition: a report on knowledge in , as we have shown elsewhere when arguing that, strictly speaking, “there are no digital humanities”). for us, then, digital humanities are more concerned with trying to make an already understood humanities and humanism fit for purpose in the “networked information age,” as burdick et al put it, than with perceiving the rise to prominence of new digital technologies as presenting us with an opportunity to reexamine and reinvent our ideas of the humanities and the human--and of the digital too. so digital humanities may experiment with notions of the author and the book--as kathleen fitzpatrick did with her monograph planned obsolescence, which she initially published on a wordpress blog that used the commentpress plugin to allow others to add comments alongside the main body of her text. but they do not challenge them to any radical extent. thus fitzpatrick very much retained authorial control of planned obsolescence, continuing to be the clearly identifiable, original human author of this book, which it was then possible for her to publish as a conventional, linearly organized, bound and printed paper, codex, academic monograph on a copyrighted, “all rights reserved” basis. consequently, what we are interested in is using the disruption of the humanities associated with the development of new technologies as an opportunity to affirmatively rethink the humanities, the digital, and the human. what we want to show is that, when it comes to the very idea of the human that underpins the humanities--together with some of the core humanities concepts that have been inherited with it, such as the unified, sovereign subject, the proprietorial author, writing, the codex book, the journal, the fixed and finished object, originality, and copyright--both digital humanities, and many critiques of digital humanities, are not without their blind spots, any more than are the traditional humanities. accordingly, this issue explores, not so much the extent to which it is possible for digital humanities to push back against the computational turn in the humanities by creatively transforming methodological approaches, tools, and practices drawn from computing science and some of the fields affiliated with it (business, management, design, industry). rather it explores the extent to which it is possible for digital humanities--or at least certain tendencies within them--to be pushed more in the other direction: towards creatively transforming the humanities and the human to produce something we are calling “posthumanities.” posthuman humanities at the same time, we don’t want to be too hard on digital humanities. even the most apparently radical of posthumanist and antihumanist theorists, including new materialists, media archaeologists, and object-oriented philosophers, encounter many of the same problems. they may endeavour to decenter humanism and the human from their traditional place at the heart of western thought by privileging the non-human, the object, and the planetary-wide crisis of life itself articulated by the concept of the anthropocene. but the main way such theorists do so is by writing big, mansplaining books, containing original ideas and ontologies attributed to them as individual named human authors, very much to the exclusion of all other human and nonhuman actors and elements, on a copyright, all rights reserved basis. to put this briefly, and in the most obvious of terms: animals cannot own copyright, as we know from the case of naruto, the six year old crested macaque monkey that took a famous “selfie” photograph of itself. so these theorists may be writing about the posthuman, and even on occasion the posthumanities; about the importance of extending our understanding of media to take in nonhuman communication processes such as those associated with dolphins, drones, fossils, clouds, sunlight; about how the task of critical theory in the anthropocene era is to advance beyond the idea of “humans as subjects and world as object”- -an idea on which “both our exploitation and our sentimental and nostaglic view on the world” is based--in order to offer a trenchant critique of ideas of human exceptionalism. but if they are claiming copyright, even to the extent of publishing under a creative commons license, then they are not actually transgressing the boundary that separates the human from the nonhuman at all, to borrow the language of donna haraway from “a cyborg manifesto.” they are precisely foreclosing an understanding of the “entangled,” “relational,” “processual” nature of identity: of the human’s co-constitutive psychological, social and biological relation to a multitude of nonhumans, objects and non-anthropomorphic elements and energies. instead, these theorists are presenting their writing as very much the original creation of an exceptional and individualised, proprietorial human subject. (and it is worth emphasizing that cary wolfe is no exception in this respect, certainly in terms of his book what is posthumanism? with which we opened, and the posthumanities book series he edits for university of minnesota press.) it is a set of circumstances that provides one explanation as to why the fields of posthumanism, new materialism, media archaeology, object-oriented philosophy, and the anthropocene have all developed “star systems” (even if they do still have some distance to travel before they rival that of critical theory in the s and s). for theorists of the posthuman and the nonhuman, then--for all some may argue that language and semiotics is not enough, that we now need to pay much more attention to objects and to the material--we can see that the theoretical ideas contained in the texts they write are distinct from the practical forms these texts take, their material qualities and properties. thus their ways of being and doing as theorists, far from displacing humanism and the human, remain resolutely humanist--and not all that interested in the actual material nature and agency of their texts, ironically enough. as a result, not only is much (although we want to stress not all) of the “material turn” that has taken place in the humanities of the st century a reactionary “material foundationalism,” as dennis bruining puts it, something he connects to a longing for an “underlying foundation” or ‘“truth;” it is also a form of what wendy brown calls anti-political moralism. too often what it is to be political here is understood in advance of intellectual questioning. it is a moralism that prevents such zombie materialists from engaging rigorously and critically: either with the manner in which their own arguments are almost invariably performed using the very language and writing they are supposed to be moving us on from; or with the materiality of their own ways of working, acting, and thinking as theorists. we have in mind here the materials--or, better, the very matter--of the ink, paper, pens, word processors, desktop computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones, cables, wires, and electrical charges with which they communicate; of the books and journals they publish; as well as that of the institutions of critical theory in which they work: the library, the publishing house, and the university (the latter of course including the seminar, lecture, conference, and symposium). but we are also thinking of the financial investments these materials require, the energy and resources they use, the labor and infrastructure they involve, and their impact on the environment. consequently, what we want to explore in our work is how we can operate differently with regard to our ways of being and doing in the world as theorists. we want to push both the humanities and ourselves to the point where we begin to assume responsibility for some of the implications theories of the posthuman and the nonhuman have for the humanist model of the unified subject, and the associated conceptions of the author, the journal, and copyright, that are all too often adopted unquestioningly by default. in other words, we want to experiment with how we can change, not just the way we think about the world--“the nature of thought itself,” as wolfe has it--but how we can change the ways in which we create, perform and circulate knowledge and ideas too. critical/political humanities yet if our approach to the future of the humanities is heterodox to that of the majority of digital humanists and posthumanists, it is also different from that of those critics who have drawn attention to this obscure, “dark side” of research and scholarship when it comes to the digital. for these “so-called dark side critiques” are far from immune to difficulties of this kind. on the contrary, they have something of an anti-political, moralistic side of their own. from what we have said already, this is perhaps most obviously the case with regard to those critics who present placing an emphasis on the hidden material reality that makes the digital possible as an “indisputable good.” in the words of the dark side of the digital conference at the university of wisconsin-milwaukee (uwm), this material reality includes the “environmental destruction from disposing the hazardous waste of still functioning but outmoded media devices, or mining for the precious metals that the continued production of these new devices require.” but our point about the “dark side of the ‘dark side critiques’” also applies to the related aspect of this critique that insists the digital must be understood in terms of questions of power, exploitation, and social inequality that likewise “often remain obscure to global media users.” in keeping with this view, richard grusin, director of c , uwm’s center for st century studies, where the dark side of the digital conference took place, draws a connection between the “emergence of digital humanities” and the “intensification of the economic crisis in the humanities in higher education.” it is no coincidence, to his mind, “that the digital humanities has emerged as ‘the next big thing’ at the very same moment in the first decades of the twenty-first century that the neoliberalization and corporatization of higher education has intensified.” in particular, their institutional success is due to a “comparatively prosperous information technology funding climate,” and to the perceived ability of digital humanities to “provide liberal arts majors with digital skills that can be turned into productive jobs,” thus helping (unlike the interpretative humanities) to train students for careers that currently exist or that will exist in the future. for grusin, then, digital humanities are very much a “manifestation of cutbacks in public funding for higher education.” in these hard times they are held by those “foundations, corporations, and university administrations” responsible for providing resources to be far more relevant to society, industry and the workplace than the traditional humanities with their emphasis on “analyzing literature or developing critiques of culture.” he thus goes along with claims that the contemporary turn to the digital in the humanities, at least since the financial crisis of , “constitutes a turn away from issues of race, class, gender, and sexuality, an escape from the messiness of the traditional humanities to the safety of scripting, code, or interface design.” instead of feminist, queer and other forms of theory, the emphasis within digital humanities is on more productive and marketable skills--not least in the search for the external government and commercial funding that is deemed so important by university managers and administrators in an era of “radical funding cuts in public support for education in europe, australia, and the united states,” and “diminished and diminishing funding streams devoted to the humanities.” perceived in this light digital humanities appear as part of a neoliberal assault on the humanities and humanities departments in general, and on literary, critical and cultural theory in particular, precisely because of their shift away from politics and critique. this is certainly the view of three other critics of the digital, daniel allington, sarah brouillette, and david golumbia. for them, digital humanities are involved in “the displacement of politically progressive humanities scholarship and activism in favor of the manufacture of digital tools and archives;” and this is so even if digital humanists design these tools and archives with a view to furthering access and criticism. much like grusin, they see this situation coming about because, “as the burden of paying for university is increasingly shifted to students, and university staffing is increasingly temporary, the acquisition of marketable skills, and the ability to justify those skills as integral to the market-oriented evolution of knowledge and education, becomes all but essential. ” as far as for allington et al are concerned, the success of digital humanities in the neoliberal university is therefore explained to a significant degree “by its designed-in potential to drive social, cultural, and political critique from the humanities as a whole.” as such, they present digital humanities as playing a “leading role in the corporatist restructuring of the humanities.” yet, as we say, the problem with such critiques of the otherwise obscure or dark side of the digital and of digital humanities is that they themselves have a dark side that remains unexplored and unaccounted for. this is apparent from the way such critiques do not pay sufficient attention to: a) politics their insistence that the digital must be understood in terms of questions of power, exploitation, and social inequality, and/or the hidden material phenomena that make the digital possible, means that what politics is, what it is to be political here, is decided in advance of intellectual questioning, in fairly obvious (some might even say clichéd) terms. witness the emphasis in such critiques: on power, exploitation, ideology, identity, difference, class, gender, sexuality, feminism, and race; on economics (the market logic of neoliberalism, declines in family income, increases in tuition fees, student debt); on labor conditions (bureaucratic control, exploitation, precarity, temporary, fixed-term, part-time, hourly paid, and zero-hour contracts); on activism; on environmental destruction. so grusin presents digital humanities as being quite clearly connected to the larger economic “crisis in the humanities,” which most academics on the left in turn blame on the “corporatization of the academy and the neoliberal insistence that the value of higher education must be measured chiefly if not solely in economic terms.” he emphasizes “the way in which the institutional structure of digital humanities threatens to intensify (both within dh itself and among the humanities more broadly) the proliferation of temporary, insecure labor that is rampant not only in the academy but throughout twenty-first-century capitalism.” for him, the “neoliberal instrumentalism” and emphasis on managerial and technical expertise he associates with digital humanities--especially the “distinction between making things and doing more traditional scholarly work” of the kind associated with theory and critique--thus “reproduces within the academy … the precaritization of labor that marks the dark side of information capitalism in the twenty-first century.” it is a similar anti-intellectual political moralism that enables allington, brouillette, and golumbia to position digital humanities as standing in opposition, not to the close reading of the traditional humanities, but rather to “the insistence that academic work should be critical, and that there is, after all, no work and no way to be in the world that is not political. ” from this perspective, they align the anti-interpretative tendency of digital humanities with what they depict as “a variety of other postcritical methodologies, such as versions of speculative realism and object-oriented ontology, and the explicitly ‘postcritical’ literary theory advocated by scholars such as university of virginia english professor rita felski, which tend to challenge, avoid, or disavow scholarly endeavor that is overtly critical of existing social relations.” yet are all these “postcritical” methodologies--including those of digital humanities--really endeavoring not to be political? always and everywhere, in every situation and circumstance? or is it possible that at least some of them are political in a manner that may indeed be involved in challenging preconceived ideas of what it is to be political, which means they are not so easy to recognize as such when viewed through an anti-political, moralistic lens? even if, after careful intellectual examination, the conclusion reached in particular cases is that these methodologies are not to be considered either overtly or covertly political (at least not in any interesting or progressive way), the fact remains, what politics is, what it is to be political here, is not being opened up to rigorous inquiry, by allington et al or by grusin, but is rather excluded from their critiques of the digital and digital humanities as a result of having been decided in advance. b) theory such critiques position digital humanities as part of a neoliberal assault on the humanities in general, and literary, critical, and cultural theory in particular, because of their perceived shift away from social, cultural, and political critique. yet for all the importance that is attached to supporting “socially engaged literary study,” “‘french literary theory,’” and “queer and feminist theory,” critiques of this nature can themselves be said to represent a turn away from literary, critical, and cultural theory. for theory, not least in the shape of the writings of jacques derrida, jean-françois lyotard, philippe lacoue-labarthe, jean-luc nancy, judith butler, and chantal mouffe, is one of the main places where our premises and assumptions regarding what politics is and what it is to be political are subject to rigorous intellectual questioning and critique. let us take as an example perhaps the most obviously political of these (mostly french) theorists. according to mouffe’s philosophy of hegemony and antagonism--which has been an acknowledged influence on both syriza in greece and podemus in spain--the political is a decision that is always “taken in an undecidable terrain,” because social relations are not fixed or natural, the result of objective and immutable economic or historical processes and practices. they are the product of continual, precarious, hegemonic, politico-economic articulations: that is, of contingent, pragmatic yet temporary decisions involving power, conflict and violence. indeed, mouffe distinguishes between: “the political”—referring to the dimension of antagonism, inherent to human societies—and “politics”—or the ensemble of practices and institutions that attempt to establish an order, to organise human coexistence in the context of the conflicts generated by “the political.” what the distinction highlights is, firstly, that the political cannot be reduced to a given place in society, and is not limited to specific institutions, but is, rather, itself a constitutive dimension of social order. and, secondly, that such order is the result of power relations and always contingent, given that it is riddled with antagonism. this means that a perfectly reconciled and harmonious society without power relations can never be achieved. so--interestingly for a neo-marxist political theorist--the “emancipatory ideal cannot be formulated in terms of a realization of any form of ‘communism,’” according to mouffe. however, this state of affairs does bring with it the advantage that there is the potential for these articulations to be disarticulated, transformed, and rearticulated as a result of struggle between the agonistic adversaries and a new form of hegemony established. what is so important about mouffe’s theory of politics and the political for the argument we are making here? quite simply, it’s the way it shows that criticising the digital and digital humanities, and defending social, cultural, and political critique, on the basis of a politics that is decided in advance is clearly not to take a decision in an undecidable terrain. this is why such critiques of the hidden, dark side of the digital and of digital humanities can themselves be regarded as constituting an avoidance or disavowal of literary, critical and cultural theory: because they do not subject to rigorous intellectual critique the very question of politics and the political that theory helps to keep open-ended. hopefully, this explains why we are convinced that what is needed is to invent ways of being and doing as theorists that are capable of taking contingent, pragmatic yet temporary decisions with regard to the digital and digital humanities in an undecidable terrain. just as important, however, is the need to do so with regard to the humanities and the human too (making sure not to remain blind to the materials that make socially, culturally, and politically engaged theory and criticism possible, as this is an aspect of research that is all too often left in the dark by critiques of the digital.) this is why we have described what we are doing with the research projects with which we, together with a range of colleagues (e.g., sigi jöttkandt, david ottina, joanna zylinska, clare birchall, adnan hadzi) are involved, as affirmatively disrupting the humanities in order to create a space for the invention of radically different--but not dialectically opposed--posthumanities systems for the creation, performance, circulation and ownership of theory. (we are referring to projects such as open humanities press, media gifts, the liquid books series, centre for disruptive media, open reflections, photomediations: an open book and after.video.) so it is posthumanities as in the posthuman and posthumanism with which we began, but also as in posthuman posthumanities. if we wanted to stay with theory, and with mouffe, one way of situating these projects as political in this context would be to borrow from her conceptual language. we could then argue that they constitute a plurality of forms of intervention that, as in her account of the artistic strategy of alfredo jaar, respond to “specific issues in specific places” across a “multiplicity of sites:” not only the (neo)liberal university, but the worlds of art, business, publishing, and the media. from this point of view, these projects do so in order to disarticulate the existing playing field and its manufactured “common sense” (including its ideas of “disruption”), and to foster instead a variety of agonistic spaces that “contribute to the development of counter-hegemonic moves.” this is why a range of different projects are needed: because the “counter-hegemonic struggle is a process involving a multiplicity of ruptures.” the above is not the only way these projects can be understood as political, of course. but it is one way. we should also emphasize that we are not endeavouring to radically reconfigure everything at the same time and to the same extent with our work--as if we have invented a new posthumanities manner of doing things that is somehow able to deal with all of the issues we have touched on here at once. instead, we are working in line with derrida’s theory of the quasi-transcendental, whereby the process of questioning some concepts and practices requires by necessity that each time others are left unquestioned. having said that, as derrida points out, we cannot “tamper” with one thing, such as the form of the book, “without disturbing everything else.” so if we want to perform the book differently, in a way that does indeed take on board the lessons of posthumanist theory--to the effect it constitutes a heterogeneous assemblage of humans, plants, technologies and other inorganic elements-- then we need to reconsider all those ideas we have inherited with the book, such as those of the proprietorial author, the fixed and finished object, originality, copyright, and their accompanying practices of reading, writing, interpretation, analysis, and critique, and the extent to which we still need them, at least in their current forms. if some of our other research projects have focused on the book, fixity, gestures of reading/writing, critique and copyright, as well as the archive, the university, open education, and academic social networks, disrupting the humanities: towards posthumanities addresses the seminar and seminar series, the talk, “paper,” or presentation, and the journal issue, as well as the individualistic nature of most humanities research and the idea of it being oriented toward the production of a finished, bound, static object. this special issue of jep does so by showcasing a number of experiments designed to affirmatively disrupt our established humanities systems for the creation, performance and circulation of knowledge and research. these include how we do research in the humanities (our methodologies), how we represent and mediate research (our aesthetics), and how we communicate, distribute, disseminate and circulate it (our publishing and educational institutions). at the same time, disrupting the humanities: towards posthumanities endeavours to itself act as a critical and creative intervention that disarticulates the existing “common sense”--e.g., regarding what a journal publication is and can be--and in this way contributes to the development of a transformative, posthumanities, “counter-hegemony.” it does so not least through the experimental form of electronic publishing its contents exemplify, consisting as they do of specially edited and annotated hybrid video pieces, based on recorded talks from a series of events held at coventry university’s centre for disruptive media. experimental publishing when we took the decision to record the disrupting the humanities seminar series (including audience responses, questions, and social media engagement), and to publish the annotated video recordings of the presentations--or, perhaps better, performances--that make up this special issue, one of our aims was to make these multi-media texts freely available to those who were not able to attend the actual event. but we also sought to draw attention to the way in which, in our current system of scholarly communication, it is generally only the final publication that is made publicly available (frequently behind paywalls), and not the research process itself. this situation is indicative of a vision of academic research as having as one of its main goals the creation, by a single human individual or group of human individuals, of a finished and bound static object. the reason for this particular goal has to do, in large part, with the established modes of applying intellectual property laws and asserting copyright. put simply, it is not possible to own a distinctive process of making something. it is only possible to own the finished thing. as a result, legal policy and precedent is inclined to focus on objects rather than on processes. value is located in the discrete, finished, static object (e.g., the published edition of a journal or book), not on the processes by which it is made. as far as we are concerned, however, these disrupting the humanities events--which took the form of three half-day seminars--were themselves very much “experimental publishing projects,” showcasing a variety of research-in-progress. our intention in making the “papers” from the seminars available online in a connected and networked fashion, then, was to place much more emphasis on the processes of knowledge production--and, in this particular case, on the http://disruptivemedia.org.uk/wiki/experimental-publication-platform/ presentations as an important part of creating, sharing, engaging, and building on research and ideas in a collaborative setting. making the papers available in this way also contained an implicit challenge to the way academic events have traditionally been set up to mirror the final publication phase of the research process, with single (human) authors reading out texts accompanied by powerpoint/keynote slides. another of our aims with this series of seminars was therefore to experiment with rethinking the “common sense” manner in which conferences, symposia and seminars are conducted--within the centre for disruptive media at coventry university, but also within the humanities more broadly. the idea was to challenge the time- and location- bound format of the seminar, as well as the self-contained and individualistic nature of the seminar paper, its creation and performance. at the same time, we wanted to erode some of the barriers between a “conference” and “seminar”, and a “publication.” this is why we devised the annotated-video format for the video-recordings--as a means of turning these events into rich collections of resources that can be continually re-used and re-assembled. our thinking in this respect has been influenced by the experiments sybille peters has conducted into breaking down what she calls “the research/presentation divide.” this divide is often not clear-cut in art research and practice. an example would be a situation in which the performance of artistic research is part of that same research. peters acknowledges, however, that “from the viewpoint of scientific tradition, research itself and the public presentation of its outcomes are two different things--research first, presentation second.” the conference or seminar paper is thus not part of the process of knowledge production; it is merely a form of knowledge presentation. things are different in the performing arts, though: “here, research is deeply intertwined with presentation: artistic research is part of the process of preparing a public presentation. and vice versa the presentation itself is a main part of the research process, a test-scenario.” one of our main concerns in creating this special issue of jep was therefore with the material and performative aspects of a seminar paper, including the setting in which it takes place. we wanted to try to take on and assume, as theorists, some of the implications of the idea that a presentation is not simply a representation of the text-on-paper (or text-on-laptop) argument presented by the author. it is rather a complex, relational and processual meshwork of humans, nonhumans, objects and non-anthropomorphic elements--presenter, event organizers, facilitators, audience, technologies, media, cultural practices, institutions, materials, matter-- all of which contribute to the presentation or seminar paper as it comes into being. the questions we were seeking to raise in this respect were as follows: is it possible to envision the seminar as both part of the research process (instead of merely a re-presentation of the research), and as a form of publication where its collective, collaborative aspect as networked processual event involving a heterogeneous assemblage of actants can be highlighted (in contrast to the kind of single-authored product or series of products that is more usually supposed to emerge out of such settings)? would doing so require radically reinventing how we design and run conferences and seminars, both online and off? can research seminars become what peters characterizes as “an interactive setting of collective knowledge production”? for instance, to put this in what are still quite limited and basic terms, do scholars always need to present newly written (and unpublished) material? as with jazz musicians, might it not be possible to revisit and perform differently older material, or to juxtapose already published and disseminated work with new research? could we even arrive at a situation where a researcher can spend their whole career giving the “same,” endlessly up-dated, and so never fixed and finalised, paper? to pursue this line of thought still further, should more emphasis be placed on the critical engagement that occurs around and as part of a presentation (e.g., the analysis, feedback, comments, and other co-constitutive and collaborative aspects of knowledge production and transmission)? hybrid video reader if sybille peters was one inspiration behind the creation of this special issue, another was the team behind the th video vortex conference. they made a “hybrid video reader” to document their conference as it took place. to achieve this they used interlace, an open source software program developed by robert ochshorn. as oliver lerone schultz of the video vortex team describes it, the hybrid video reader is “an annotated timeline of the https://openreflections.files.wordpress.com/ / /screen-shot- - - -at- - - .png conference,” where “the interface attempts to supply the user with as much cultural context and [as many] scholarly resources as possible, using embedded footnotes as well as online and offline references, thus creating an amalgam of both digital and analog ‘reading’ cultures.” the team’s aim was to go beyond representation--to the point where, through their involvement in the editing process, they could create a new, networked knowledge environment. in this sense they were experimenting with the possibilities generated by digital technology to document and not so much represent as extend conferences, adding a further layer of connections to both the research presentations and research process. and, to be sure, part of what we have tried to achieve with the disrupting the humanities videos and journal issue is a networked knowledge environment of this nature. realisation along with showing the research processes by breaking down some of the barriers between the presentation of a paper in the disrupting the humanities seminar series and its “final” publication, we also sought to highlight the collaborative nature of the research process. doing so involved, not only curating this special issue and writing this opening essay together, but also making connections with previously published research, the themes and topics of which intra-act with disrupting the humanities and its papers. to make these connections we provided space for resources on a specially designed wiki that accompanied the seminars. the speakers uploaded textual and multimodal resources to this wiki. but we also created separate pages where anyone could upload and embed links and references to materials relating to the seminars. in editing the videos we tried to further emphasise these connections. in this way we experimented with ways of breaking down some of the barriers between the presentations and the (extended) “real-time” and online or “virtual” audience. https://openreflections.files.wordpress.com/ / /screen-shot- - - -at- - - .png with this process in mind, we also assigned space in the final edit for audience responses and for links to other works. another decision we took with a view to disarticulating the common sense of view of scholarship and research in the humanities as being primarily individualistic, and to rearticulate it instead as being much more co-constitutive and collaborative, involving a heterogeneous assemblage of actants, was to heavily annotate the videos. we did this by integrating audience reactions that were collected via the twitter hashtag that was in use during the seminars. inserting screenshots, images, references, links, video and audio materials relating to the various projects, concepts, persons and ideas mentioned during the presentations provided a further layer of annotation. in doing so we were in a sense mimicking the actions of participants looking up ideas, concepts, persons and projects on the web during a presentation. the idea was partly to demonstrate what audience members might potentially do when using a laptop computer or smart phone to interact with a paper. but we were also looking to establish clearer connections between the presentations and the various online and offline resources and environments they refer to. we were very keen to work with students on the editing process, both as a means of further interrogating academic hierarchies, and because students make up a large part of the audience at our events. having their perspective on those aspects of the talks that could benefit from further explanation or embellishment was extremely helpful. we are therefore grateful to coventry university media production students konrad maselko, johnathan aldrich, and sharifah mian, who were heavily involved in the conceptualising, planning, recording, and editing of these videos form the start. as a result they can be considered active collaborators on the papers and, indeed, on this issue of jep. we are also grateful to george otelea who helped us to create a remix video of the various papers to accompany this introduction, and to showcase both the content and the particular way of editing we have implemented here. http://vimeo.com/user http://vimeo.com/user https://vimeo.com/user as our title suggests, disrupting the humanities: towards posthumanities explores how we can affirmatively disrupt the humanist legacy of the humanities in order to push them towards becoming posthumanities. it does so by showcasing a number of experiments with alternatives to our established humanist scholarly norms, values, practices and institutions. as we say, the papers in this special issue thus provide examples relating to: the ways we do research (our methodologies); the ways we represent, mediate, and perform research (our aesthetics): and the ways we communicate, distribute, disseminate and circulate research (our publishing and educational institutions). we have structured this issue accordingly, into three distinct, corresponding parts (although we consider the actual relation between the creation, the performance, and the circulation of research to be very much entangled and non-linear). part one: creating posthumanities: disrupting humanities methodologies the texts in creating posthumanities, part one of this issue of the journal of electronic publishing, focus on some of the new methodologies that are currently involved in questioning the common sense disciplinary forms, methods and practices of the humanities. they examine how these emergent methodologies are exploring ways of moving the humanities beyond the humanist emphasis on the individualised human author, writing, the book, originality, intellectual property, and the fixed and finished object. in doing so the contributions gathered together in this section provide a space for thinking further about the distributed and heterogeneous assemblage of humans, nonhumans, objects and non- anthropomorphic elements that, from a posthumanist point of view, are involved in the https://openreflections.files.wordpress.com/ / /screen-shot- - - -at- - - .png creation, circulation and performance of humanities research and scholarship. in particular, creating posthumanities asks who, or what, produces knowledge and can know? in order to address this question part one examines the use of networked digital media by scholars, and what they mean for how we carry out research. how do laptops, mobile phones, tablets, instagram, twitter and other devices and platforms constitute and mediate our means of production and communication? and if knowledge and research are the result of complex processes involving both human and non-human objects and actants, what does this mean for politics and ethics—and for theory? in short, how can we perform knowledge-making practices differently, to the point where we actually begin to take on board (rather than take for granted, repress or ignore) some of the lessons of theories of the posthuman for how we work, act, and think? in “reading diffractive reading: were and when does diffraction happen?,” iris van der tuin investigates diffraction—which involves reading texts through one another, rather than trying to represent or reflect them--as an inherently posthumanities methodology. she asks, how we can adopt different methodologies when we are so saturated with humanist assumptions? what will the methodological implications of a diffractive methodology be for what we do as scholars, and for our own scholarship? van der tuin points out how diffractive reading has always been part of the humanities--it has just not been theorised. by looking at the work of the philosopher suzanne k. langer--which is itself diffractive, reworking as it does the ideas of whitehead, cassirer and bergson--she provides a case for how diffraction constitutes a radical methodology for any possible posthumanities. through a reading of langer’s scholarship, van der tuin shows how it is in the nature of what--building on the work of rosi braidotti--she calls the cartographical method to affirm that one’s relations to, and the objective relations between, philosophers are fundamentally open, and even embrace the traces of unread texts. in “deep time environments: art and the materiality of life beyond the human,” monika bakke analyses selected works by the artists katie paterson, oliver kellhammer, and adam brown. situated between and across art and science, these works explore the temporal dimensions of life beyond the human. bakke describes how the specific method of research employed by each of these artists resonates with posthumanist inquiries into deep-time perspectives of life. as bakke argues, these artists are not representing life and new beginnings, they are re-enacting them, questioning the present. they are therefore performative: these works intervene in life, and in doing so with the nonhuman past. they thus enable us to experience the world beyond our own species. as bakke makes clear, performative posthumanist methods of this kind can help us to reconsider our understanding of subjectivity as well as our ways of belonging to both inhuman forces and tentative materialities. lesley gourlay meanwhile draws on the posthumanism of n. katherine hayles and the actor- network theory of bruno latour to examine the agentive role of nonhuman objects in higher education textual practices. gourlay’s analysis of the embodied reading practices of postgraduate students and their interactions with technology in “posthuman texts: nonhuman actors, mediators and technologies of inscription,” complicates the simplistic binaries between tool and user on which many humanist responses to technology are based. instead, she argues for the need to focus on the emergent materiality and situated nature of our textualities. in a complex interplay between print and digital, gourlay insists that textual objects are not neutral intermediaries but agentic, meaning-making mediators that are an important part of textual production. in this respect a posthuman reconceptualization of authorship--where authorship is radically distributed between an assemblage of humans, objects and their environments--serves to destabilise those humanist ideologies such as that concerning the individual human author that continue to underpin research and scholarship, and with that the humanities and the university at large. niamh moore’s “’humanist’ methods in a ‘more-than-human’ world?” explores how oral history can be reconceptualised as a radical methodology in a posthumanist setting. moore provides examples from the ethnographic oral history research she conducted with female environmental activists taking part in a peace camp against deforestation in clayoquot sound, british columbia, canada. building on sarah whatmore’s work while also drawing inspiration from critical posthumanism, moore explains that it is not always useful to separate so-called “humanist,” text-based and oral methods, from more sensory and experimental practices. indeed, humanist methods might themselves already be experimental. accordingly, she argues for a post-anthropocentric move away from human-centrism in humanism, and from humanist notions of agency. moore describes how her research has instead brought to the fore non-linear, continuous experiences of self in which nature becomes an internal, collective social experience, illustrating a more than human self; a becoming worldly. part two: performing posthumanities: disrupting humanities aesthetics part two of this special issue takes as its focus questions of form as they relate to practices of knowledge production in the humanities. the increasing use of digital tools and interfaces to represent scholarly materials has once again drawn our attention to the importance of aesthetics in the humanities, and especially to questions of design and poetics. digital media technologies have brought with them new possibilities for both extracting and presenting data, for example. they are also enabling researchers and theorists to publish their work in many different forms and formats: from blogs, through social media, to multimodal platforms such as scalar and inflexions. what does this mean for the ways in which research, and theory, is experienced? are there forms of expression that are better suited to our current systems of communication than writing and printing on paper, or even on screens? what is the relation here between aesthetic expression and knowledge? in this respect, imagining how creativity, reasoning, interpretation, and aesthetics are intrinsically entwined form the starting point for a critique of what is still one of the major oppositions structuring research and scholarship in the humanities: that between more rationalistic, conceptual, and objectifying tendencies in knowledge production and representation on the one hand; and, on the other, the role played by subjectivity, artfulness, feeling, and experience in both the practice of research and in its communication and dissemination. new data visualisation tools have been important in triggering this critique. digital humanists are increasingly adopting these tools in their work, from simple data visualisations and infographics such as wordle, to sophisticated gis maps. they are now creating interactive visualizations and dynamic maps of large cultural data sets to find new patterns--and, potentially, to generate new theoretical questions. many of the traditional boundaries that frame the humanities are therefore disappearing, as visualizations assume the appearance of aesthetic statements about the world, and even forms of art. in offering scholars alternative methods for representing information, these tools are pushing us to think seriously about the aesthetics of information or “infosthetics.” but what are the consequences of all this for our traditional ways of reading, analysing, interpreting, and critiquing information and data in the humanities? how are we to understand the role of design and aesthetics in the formation of knowledge? and what is gained or lost at the hands of these new ways of producing, extracting, and representing data? many digital humanists are studying how such developments relate to the humanities in particular, as a field with a long history of resistance to more visual forms of knowledge production and representation. as johanna drucker shows, when it comes to visualization what comes to the fore is an underlying fear for the subjective, the intuitive, and the speculative. as far as the representation of knowledge is concerned, it is the logical and systematic that are favoured. for drucker, this might be useful for the sciences, but it is less so for more intuitive and interpretative fields such as the humanities. this conservatism on the part of the humanities is intrinsically bound-up with its textual condition--what jessica pressman calls its “aesthetics of bookishness.” here the book is understood not only as a technology, a medium, or an interface; it also as an influential aesthetic form, evident from the ongoing focus on textuality and the book-bound reading object. yet locating the materiality of the book at the centre of intellectual inquiry by means of post-digital or hybrid forms of publishing does not necessarily imply nostalgia for print. explorations of bookishness can also be a form of cultural critique. placing more emphasis on the active agency and performativity of the printed book provides a way of exploring our changing digital world and of thinking beyond the dichotomies of print versus digital. as alessandro ludovico argues, in our post-digital print culture, ink-on-paper publishing is being used as a new form of avant-garde social networking; one that, thanks to its analog nature, is not so easily controlled by the digital data-gathering that is such a feature of life in the zuckerberg galaxy. at the same time the multimodality of the digital medium has generated an increasing awareness among humanists that scholarly content is not separate from its material instantiation or presentation. as a consequence, there is a felt need to emphasise how a medium’s materiality or particular form influences its meaning and use. from this point of view, if we pay more attention to the performative aspects of materiality, of media, and of design, we might be better able to understand how interfaces are not merely representing our information and data, but are creating and interpreting it too. likewise, design is not only about turning cognitive materials into attractive and useful visual displays. as n. katherine hayles insists, interpretation is always at work in acts of medial translation--i.e., from print to digital. the important point to consider in this respect is how such interpretation is being represented and performed. and how the meaning of information is altered through its conditions of use, reading, and interpretation. in what ways can we work to ensure that, throughout the research process, we focus on the medial forms, formats, and graphic spaces through which we communicate and perform scholarship, and not just on the discourses, agencies, and institutions that help shape our scholarly practices? this “contextual” discussion, focusing as it does on the materiality of humanities scholarship and its modes of production, is not separate from a discussion of the content of our work. nor should it be. one response proposed is to extend our visual epistemologies by stimulating training in visual representation, interface critique, design tools, and methodologies. to this end tara mcpherson insists that as scholars we should be much more interested in the actual design, visualisation, and performance of our materials. the issue here, for us, concerns how can we become more involved in designing writing and other forms of communication so that they are better able to accommodate visual materials, and thus allow new relationships between visual materials and analysis, and data and interpretation, with a view to creating a new poetics of scholarship? for example, is it possible to develop less text-based and more image- based--and yet just as intellectually rigorous--forms of research and publication that take into account a plurality of different actors and actants? erin manning’s “ten propositions for research-creation” provides a useful bridge between the concern with methodology in the first part of this issue of journal of electronic publishing, and the focus on aesthetics in this second part. an element of a larger project titled “against method,” manning argues that in order to create new forms of knowledge we need to embrace the non-linguistic. with this in mind, she explores art-based research, or research-creation, by looking at how theory is itself a practice and at how making is a thinking in its own right. research-creation here is not about objects but about processes; it is about activating relational fields of thinking and doing. where methods for curating life close down research-creation, what we need are techniques for living. as far as manning is concerned we therefore do not need new methods at all. instead, we need to explore means of valuing the process of how research creation makes a difference with a view to creating alter- economies. the important question for her in this respect is how do we evaluate and value non-linguistic practices? in “ink after print: literary interface criticism,” soren pold uses interface criticism to emphasise the materiality of how we perform our media. where cultural and technological structures want interfaces to be invisible, transparent and interface-less, pold shows how they are always ideological constructs. as an aesthetic experience an interface is therefore not a surface. rather it is embedded in the experience: it constructs how we can interact with media. pold looks at writing interfaces in particular and how they have affected what is written and published. he offers examples from, among other places, his ink after print project. this is a platform-based intervention in which readers “play” the textual machine through an affective interface. by means of this project, exploring as it does concepts relating to interface criticism, post-digital literature, and affective interaction, pold shows how we can begin to create an alternative critical interface, one that is generative and performative. johanna drucker’s contribution to this issue is “diagrammatic form and performative materiality.” in it, drucker examines how critical constructs such as the ideogram have shaped and structured both aesthetic artefacts and instruments of knowledge production. she thus uses the concept of the diagrammatic to rethink aspects of aesthetics, humanities, and modernity, and to explore the principle of performative materiality, which she sees as offering an alternative poetics. for her, a diagram has dynamic and generative qualities in contrast to the pictorial representations of information visualisations. by focusing on the diagrammatic organisation of the codex book, and by zooming in on modernist and contemporary examples in particular, drucker explores how the history of modernism might be reconfigured according to a diagrammatic paradigm. the semantic value of the graphical organisation here is an important element of the way meaning is produced in a performative engagement with that form. accordingly, she argues that the diagrammatic aspects of composition can expand our understanding of the possibilities of poetic form as well as the changing conditions of the identity of documents and texts. in “the post-digital publishing archive: an inventory of speculative strategies,” silvio lorusso presents p—dpa-net, an online platform that collects projects and artworks at the intersection of publishing and digital technology. lorusso focuses specifically on post-digital hybrid works. as he argues, such contemporary printed matter both derives from, and is dependent on, digital ecosystems. p—dpa adopts the “post-digital” label as a homage to the book, while at the same time taking advantage of the fluidity of the term. in a context where the aesthetic of bookishness resembles print and websites of the early s, lorusso applies a “post-digital perspective” to publishing in order to bypass commercial innovation and to focus instead on the potential of underground electronic publishing. in this respect he favours a paradigm shift, from an object-oriented focus to a system-oriented one. from this point of view, materiality as the physical outcome or the final representation of a work is not enough: the “post-digital attitude” extends from the examined works to the archive itself, as the material acknowledgment of the influence of digital networks. part three: circulating the posthumanities: disrupting humanities institutions the ways in which knowledge and research is disseminated and communicated in the humanities have changed significantly with the rise of digital technologies. what, then, does this entail for their delivery both to peers and to students? when it comes to experimenting with new ways of producing and sharing our ongoing scholarship, what are some of the options that digital media provide? and how do they enable us to challenge, and even transform, the existing publishing practices and pedagogical institutions? at the moment there is a marked lack of interest from established (commercial) presses in experimentation, in specialised work, and in publishing books in particular on an open access basis. at the same time most experiments with open online education--the proliferation of open educational resources, moocs, ted talks, and commercial platforms for massive online learning included--have not altered university education to any dramatic extent; nor have they offered pedagogies that reach much beyond hierarchical forms of online broadcasting aimed at individual learners. circulating the humanities, part three of this issue, investigates how digital technologies offer researchers and theorists a way to engage critically and creatively with some of the humanist aspects of publishing (e.g., the author, originality, copyright) and teaching (the lecturer, the university, the structured text-based curriculum). it showcases experiments with how they can be more actively involved in rethinking the relationships that currently exist between authors, publishers, distributors, universities, libraries and readers. in doing so the texts in part three provide a number of examples of how the dominant humanities institutions can be disrupted in an affirmative way by exploring the creation of new institutions and organisations. this includes trying out more multimodal, speculative, and open forms of research and publishing. can we redesign our systems of teaching, learning, and communication in a way consistent with posthuman theory, so that they do not presuppose a rational, language-based, individualistic, humanist subject as its author or reader, for example? the experiments showcased in part three also include a number of scholarly initiatives that are endeavouring to transform publishing by setting up academic-led organisations that are involved in the disarticulation and rearticulation of established print-based practices and institutions. in an educational setting such examples include initiatives that are endeavouring to breach the boundaries between art practice and scholarly research by focusing on developments in practice-based research in an academic context and on trials with open art education. in other words, the question the texts in this part of the issue address is how can we establish new structures and new institutions that problematize the divisions that still exist in the humanities between artistic practices and scholarly research, between lecturer and student, and between the delimited learning space of the classroom and the “outside”’ world of knowledge and expertise? sarah kember tackles the problem of such binaries directly in “at risk? the humanities and the future of academic publishing.” through a critical reading of johanna drucker’s “pixel dust,” kember warns of the dangers of crisis models as they relate to fixed notions of scholarship, publishing, and ted-type thinking, seeing them as generating conservative reactions based on simplified temporalities. for her, such notions preserve a traditional idea of scholarship embedded in print, the elite university, and the normative figure of the scholar. by means of her experiments in creative writing kember explores a number of exciting alternatives. these include: the create project, which is focused on rethinking copyright; fembot, a collective interrogating gender differences in scholarly practice; and the new goldsmiths press. all of these initiatives are “opening out” from writing and scholarship in the context of digital publishing. in this way kember endeavors to look again at the ethics, practices, and relations underpinning publishing, breaking down binaries such as open and closed, (fixed, static) object and process. as she states, there are no quick tech-only solutions in publishing; therefore, we need to stay with the trouble. in “samizdat lessons: three dimensions of the politics of self-publishing,” endre dányi also addresses the ethics of publishing. for dányi, such an ethics involves the way scientific knowledge is produced and distributed in particular. to this end he argues that we can better understand current developments in academic publishing by actively participating in them: by setting up a scholar-led open access press such as mattering press, for example, which dányi initiated with a group of other academics. dányi relates the politics of (academic) self- publishing to illegal or samizdat publishing in s and s communist hungary, based on what he calls the three dimensions of self-publishing: materiality, experimentation, and openness--which together can be captured under the term mattering. mattering, both for him and for mattering press, involves making visible how texts come about, and includes making visible as much of the work that goes into the making of texts as possible. this is both an ethical and a political intervention. mattering as an ethical component, he argues, requiring care. it is a process with no clear boundaries; rather, mattering is open-ended. care is a matter of time. in “disrupting scholarship” craig saper explores both alternative forms of publishing and alternative models of academic infrastructure. to his mind, there has been a conservative move in digital humanities, evident in its focus on visualizing, mapping, and charting, all of which work to preserve a fixed notion of the humanities. the question is this: what could the humanities be if it were not engaged in the fixing of meanings? multimodal scholarship has been an important development in this respect, saper argues. he is particularly interested in how reading will change to adapt to new forms of multimodal publication and, vice versa, how publishing will respond to such new reading practices. saper provides examples in the form of his own experiments with publishing books that are precisely about the reading process, and his attempt to set up a university press for multimodal works and community- based scholarship at the university of maryland baltimore county. in these experiments, saper stresses, the publication process itself is to be seen as part of the process of writing. it is thus important to think about knowledge in relationship to the objects of study, where these objects are models for the form of the publication, based on their own sensibility: infrastructure here becomes poetry. karen newman’s contribution addresses her work as a curator who researches creative business models in the arts. in “the west midlands as an 'electronic super highway': bom and the emergence of new art infrastructures,” newman focuses specifically on the emergence of new creative economic spaces that align themselves with progressive business models. she uses the case study of the new art and technology fablab, birmingham open media (bom), and its position in the uk within the west midlands, the former “workshop of the world,” having played a leading role in the invention of new technologies in manufacturing and industry. newman discusses the potential of the maker movement (e.g., hacker spaces, fablabs) to generate alternative creative economies, as well as bom’s own model for applied art and technology research, providing as it does a space for artists, technologists, and researchers to collaborate. finally, mark amerika performs “glitch ontology,” which is an excerpt from his “museum of glitch aesthetics.” as part of this performance, the glitch-ontology manifesto is sampled into the hybrid conference. amerika looks at greg ulmer’s concept of heuretics, and how theory is assimilated in the humanities in two different ways: as critical interpretation, and as artistic experimentation. this makes any potential posthumanities inherently practice-based, amerika states. he therefore argues for humanities scholars and researchers to adopt the figure of applied remixologist in order to creatively hack the institutional context in which they find themselves. in this respect, digital humanities has always been disrupted humanities, for amerika; digital is just the latest iteration of this approach. we need to reposition ourselves as hybridized, activist, practice-based researchers who model different versions of how to do the humanities. in this sense, creative practice provides a valuable alternative to more engrained scholarly practices and their all-too predictable outcomes, such as the scholarly monograph, amerika proclaims. witness the growing interest on the part of many universities in creative research and pedagogy, evidenced by the new practice-based program in intermedia at the university of boulder – colorado, which amerika has helped to set up. cary wolfe, what is posthumanism? (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ), xvi. ibid., xv. this is the basis of wolfe’s critique of the theoretical model of historical progression he associates with n. katherine’s hayles’s account of the posthuman in how we became posthuman (wolfe, what is posthumanism?, xvii). rosi braidotti, the posthuman (london: polity, ), . for an engagement with the humanism of braidotti’s account of the posthuman, see gary hall, “what are the digital posthumanities?,” pirate philosophy: for a digital posthumanities (cambridge, ma: mit press, ). roberto esposito, the third person: politics of life and philosophy of the impersonal (london: polity, ), . for more, see gary hall, the uberfication of the university (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ), from where this account of affirmative disruption is largely taken; and pauline van mourik broekman, gary hall, ted byfield, shaun hides and simon worthington, open education: a study in disruption (london: rowman and littlefield international, ). we notice that bernard stiegler has only just recently advocated a similar approach be adopted with regard to disruption in his use of the term “good disruption” (bernard stiegler: “l’accélération de l’innovation court-circuite tout ce qui contribue à l’élaboration de la civilization”, interview by amaelle guiton, libération, july , , http://www.liberation.fr/debats/ / / /bernard-stiegler-l-acceleration-de-l-innovation- court-circuite-tout-ce-qui-contribue-a-l-elaboration_ , posted on the nettime mailing by felix stalder, september , ). matthew kirschenbaum, “what is ‘digital humanities,’ and why are they saying such terrible things about it?,” differences: a journal of feminist cultural studies, volume , number ( ): . alan liu, “theses on the epistemology of the digital: advice for the cambridge centre for digital knowledge”, alan liu (blog), , http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/theses-on-the- epistemology-of-the-digital-page/) moreover, this can be shown to be so whether digital humanities are analysed in terms of their “material conduct,” as ‘“actually existing projects,”’ or as a ‘“discursive construction”’ (kirschenbaum, “what is ‘digital humanities,’” ). anne burdick, johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, todd presner, and jeffrey schnapp, digital_humanities (cambridge, ma: mit press, ), , . this is just one of many possible examples, as we say. since then, wendy hui kyong chun has proclaimed that ‘“dh projects have extended and renewed the humanities and revealed that the kinds of critical thinking (close textual analysis) that the humanities have always been engaged in is and has always been central to crafting technology and society”’ (wendy hui kyong chun, “the dark side of digital humanities—part ,” center for st century studies, january , , http://www.c uwm.com/ / / /the-dark-side-of-the-digital -humanities-part- /). more recently, one of the commentators on daniel allington, sarah brouillette, and david golumbia’s “neoliberal tools,” has put it like this: digital humanities “provide new insights into humanistic research questions, often at scales never before approachable” (sj , comment on daniel allington, sarah brouillette, and david golumbia, “neoliberal tools (and archives): a political history of digital humanities”, la review of books, may , , https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives- political-history-digital-humanities/). to provide one last example--what is merely the most http://www.liberation.fr/debats/ / / /bernard-stiegler-l-acceleration-de-l-innovation-court-circuite-tout-ce-qui-contribue-a-l-elaboration_ http://www.liberation.fr/debats/ / / /bernard-stiegler-l-acceleration-de-l-innovation-court-circuite-tout-ce-qui-contribue-a-l-elaboration_ http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/theses-on-the-epistemology-of-the-digital-page/ http://liu.english.ucsb.edu/theses-on-the-epistemology-of-the-digital-page/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ recent of those we have come across--william pascoe of the centre for st century humanities at the university of newcastle in australia has argued that the justification for digital humanities is not “whether it is useful to industry. its justification should be that it is useful to humanities. humanities are valuable not just because they are useful but because we are human” (william pascoe, “the politics of digital humanities,” discussion paper posted on academia.edu, july , , https://www.academia.edu/ /the_politics_of_digital_humanities). allington, brouillette, and golumbia, “neoliberal tools (and archives),” https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital- humanities/. ibid. florian cramer, “post-digital writing,” electronic book review, december , , http://electronicbookreview.com/thread/electropoetics/postal; republished in florian cramer, anti-media: ephemera on speculative arts (amsterdam: institute of network cultures, ). for more, see silvio lorusso, “the post-digital publishing archive: an inventory of speculative strategies” in this issue. donna haraway, when species meet (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ), . jean-françois lyotard ( ), the postmodern condition: a report on knowledge (manchester: manchester university press, ). for more, see hall, “there are no digital humanities,” pirate philosophy. this book analyses a number of specific, “actually existing,” digital humanities projects: most closely and extensively, the cultural analytics of lev manovich and the software studies initiative. http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/mcpress/plannedobsolescence. kathleen fitzpatrick, planned obsolescence: publishing, technology, and the future of the academy (new york: new york university press, ). victoria richards, “monkey selfie: judge rules macaque who took grinning photograph of himself 'cannot own copyright,’” independent, january , , http://www.independent.co.uk/news/weird-news/monkey-selfie-judge-rules-macaque-who- took-grinning-photograph-of-himself-cannot-own-copyright-a .html. although she does not focus on its implications for theorists of the posthuman, anna munster nevertheless provides an interesting reading this case in a paper given at goldsmiths college, university of london, june , , under the title of “techno-animalities – the case of the monkey selfie.” we are also aware an orangutan in argentina called sandra has been declared by the courts there to have legal rights (bill chapel, “orangutan declared to have legal rights in argentina,” the two-way: breaking news from npr, december , , http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/ / / / /orangutan-declared-to-have- legal-rights-in-argentina). see, for example, rosi braidotti, “the contested posthumanities”, in conflicting humanities, eds rosi braidotti and paul gilroy (london: bloomsbury academic, ), which in this respect can be seen as another instance of braidotti’s posthuman humanities https://www.academia.edu/ /the_politics_of_digital_humanities https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/mcpress/plannedobsolescence http://www.independent.co.uk/news/weird-news/monkey-selfie-judge-rules-macaque-who-took-grinning-photograph-of-himself-cannot-own-copyright-a .html http://www.independent.co.uk/news/weird-news/monkey-selfie-judge-rules-macaque-who-took-grinning-photograph-of-himself-cannot-own-copyright-a .html http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/ / / / /orangutan-declared-to-have-legal-rights-in-argentina http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/ / / / /orangutan-declared-to-have-legal-rights-in-argentina approach. conflicting humanities, like this issue of the journal of electronic publishing, is based on a series of presentations. john durham peters, the marvelous clouds: toward a philosophy of elemental media (chicago and london: university of chicago press, ). sean cubitt, “how to connect everyone with everything,” sean’s blog, august , , http://seancubitt.blogspot.co.uk/ / /how-to-connect-everyone-with-everything.html. for the operation of a celebrity star system in digital humanities, see matthew kirschenbaum, “the (dh) stars come out in la,” matthew g. kirschenbaum (blog), january , , http://mkirschenbaum.wordpress.com/ / / /the-dh-stars-come-out- in-la- /. it is perhaps worth emphasizing at this point none of this is to suggest that, while books in the gutenberg galaxy were produced by individualised named human authors, they are now produced by complex meshworks of humans, animals, plants, technologies and other inorganic elements. books, we can say, have always been produced relationally and processually. it is just that modernity and industrialization did not recognise this, privileging seemingly individualistic, fixed, and private modes of production and reception instead. (this is why, for us, bruno latour has always been modern.) with the perceived transition out of modernity and the industrialisation of the gutenberg galaxy, however, and the ensuing disruption of the human and the humanities associated with the development of new computational, biomedical, and robotics technologies, we have an opportunity to recognise this state of affairs, and so perform books differently. and not just books, but all those ideas and values we have inherited with the book, such as privacy, fixity and the finished object, as well as the rational, liberal, individual human subject. this is what we mean by posthumanities (and why we are so interested in the posthuman and posthumanism). it is also why we argue posthumanities cannot be simply opposed to the humanities--or digital humanities, for that matter. dennis bruining, “a somatechnics of moralism: new materialism or material foundationalism,” somatechnics, . ( ). wendy brown, politics out of history (london and princeton nj: princeton university press, ). kirschenbaum, “what is ‘digital humanities,’” . bruining, “a somatechnics of moralism”. call for papers, the dark side of the digital, center for st century studies conference, university of wisconsin-milwaukee, may , , http://www.c uwm.com/digitaldarkside/. matthew kirschenbaum identifies as a major influence on dark side critiques and their “rhetoric of contempt” evgeny morozov, “the caustic technology critic whose first book was titled the net delusion: the dark side of internet freedom ( ). morozov, as much as the dark sides of star wars or pink floyd, furnishes the referential framing for the current debate” (kirschenbaum, “what is ‘digital humanities,’” ). yet when it comes to the humanities’ “material turn,” the dark side argument can be seen to have other precursors. among them is jussi parikka and tony sampson, eds the spam book: on viruses, porn and http://seancubitt.blogspot.co.uk/ / /how-to-connect-everyone-with-everything.html http://mkirschenbaum.wordpress.com/ / / /the-dh-stars-come-out-in-la- / http://mkirschenbaum.wordpress.com/ / / /the-dh-stars-come-out-in-la- / http://www.c uwm.com/digitaldarkside/ other anomalies from the dark side of digital culture (hampton press, ), which appeared in , two years earlier than the morozov’s the net delusion. ibid. richard grusin, “the dark side of digital humanities: dispatches from two recent mla conventions,” differences: a journal of feminist cultural studies, volume , number ( ): . both this essay, and this issue of differences in which kirschenbaum’s “what is ‘digital humanities’” was also published, emerged out of the roundtable grusin organized at the modern language association convention under the same title, “the dark side of the digital humanities” (http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ ). grusin, “the dark side of digital humanities,” . ibid., , . ibid., . ibid., , . ibid, ; referring to adeline koh and risam roopika, “open thread: the digital humanities as a historical ‘refuge’ from race/class/gender/sexuality/disability?,” postcolonial digital humanities (blog), may , , http://dhpoco.org/blog/ / / /open-thread-the-digital-humanities -as-a-historical-refuge-from-raceclassgendersexualitydisability/. grusin, “the dark side of digital humanities,” , . allington, brouillette, and golumbia, “neoliberal tools (and archives),” https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital- humanities/. ibid. ibid. grusin, “the dark side of digital humanities,” . ibid., . and lest it is assumed that we are not interested in working conditions and the precarity of labor, see hall, the uberfication of the university. allington, brouillette, and golumbia, “neoliberal tools (and archives),” https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital- humanities/. ibid. interestingly, a similar argument could be developed with regard to kirschenbaum’s defense of those who “do” digital humanities as having “been educated in the same critical traditions (indeed, sometimes in the same graduate programs) as their opponents” and as also being “politically committed and politically engaged” (kirschenbaum, “what is ‘digital http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/neoliberal-tools-archives-political-history-digital-humanities/ humanities,’” ). ibid.; grusin, “the dark side of digital humanities,” . chantal mouffe, the democratic paradox (london: verso, ), . chantal mouffe, in Íñnigo errejón and chantal mouffe, podemos: in the name of the people (london: lawrence & wishart, ), . chantal mouffe, agonistics: thinking the world politically (london: verso, ), xi. http://openhumanitiespress.org http://garyhall.squarespace.com/about/ http://www.openhumanitiespress.org/books/series/liquid-books/ http://www.livingbooksaboutlife.org http://www.photomediationsopenbook.net http://after.video/assemblages mouffe, agonistics, - . mouffe, in errejón and mouffe, podemos, . jacques derrida, “outwork, prefacing,” dissemination (london: athlone press, ), . janneke adema and gary hall, ‘the political nature of the book: on artists’ books and radical open access,” new formations, number (summer ), special issue on materialities of the text. the liquid books series, eds clare birchall and gary hall (http://liquidbooks.pbwiki.com); the living books about life series, eds clare birchall, gary hall, and joanna zylinska (http://www.livingbooksaboutlife.org). janneke adema and kamila kuc, “unruly gestures: a creative meditation on reading/writing practices in our post-digital condition,” in shifting layers: new perspectives in media archaeology across digital media and audiovisual arts, eds miriam de rosa and ludovica fales (mimesis international, forthcoming ). hall, pirate philosophy; gary hall, “pirate philosophy version . ,” available at the time of this writing at aaaaarg.org (http://aaaaarg.fail/thing/ c c a ed bac ). gary hall, digitize this book!: the politics of new media, or why we need open access now (minneapolis and london: university of minnesota press, ). hall, the uberfication of the university. van mourik broekman et al, open education. janneke adema and gary hall, really, we're helping to build this . . . business: the academia.edu files (london: open humanities press, ). https://vimeo.com/ . sybille peters, “between presentation and research: the lecture as performance”, die performance der lecture im netz. ein blog über online-vorträge von sibylle peters, february th, . available at: http://petersblog.wissenschaftskommunikation.info, http://openhumanitiespress.org/ http://garyhall.squarespace.com/about/ http://www.openhumanitiespress.org/books/series/liquid-books/ http://www.livingbooksaboutlife.org/ http://www.photomediationsopenbook.net/ http://after.video/assemblages https://vimeo.com/ http://petersblog.wissenschaftskommunikation.info/ http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://petersblog.wissenschaftskommunikation.i nfo/ / / /between-presentation-and-research-the-lecture-as-performance/. we are aware that grusin, for one, is highly critical of collaboration: i would similarly encourage digital humanists not automatically to valorize collaborative over individual projects, or openly shared work over work done in private. it is crucial for the humanities to preserve the opportunity for students and scholars to work slowly, privately, and independently of the pressures of socially networked media to constantly update others on what one has just written or thought—if for no other reason than that the unquestioned emphasis on collaboration, openness, and sharing is aggressively marketed and sold by tech media companies to sell more devices and services and by corporate social media companies to generate massive data sets to be mined for purposes of commerce and security. (grusin, “the dark side of digital humanities,” ) however, for a different take on collaboration, much closer to our own, see florian schneider, “collaboration: the dark side of the multitude,” sarai reader : turbulence, eds monica narula, shuddhabrata sengupta, ravi sundaram, jeebesh bagchi, and geert lovink (delhi: the sarai programme, centre for the study of developing societies, ), http://fls.kein.org/view/ . see the storify collections of the conference tweets: https://storify.com/openreflections/disruptivemedia https://storify.com/openreflections/aesthetics-of-the-humanities haraway, when species meet. http://scalar.usc.edu/ http://www.senselab.ca/inflexions/ johanna drucker, “humanities approaches to graphical display,” digital humanities quarterly , no. ( ), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. jessica pressman, the aesthetic of bookishness in twenty-first-century literature,tamichigan quarterly review xlviii, no. (fall ), http://hdl.handle.net/ /spo.act . . . alessandro ludovico, post-digital print: the mutation of publishing since (eindhoven: onomatopee, ). n. katherine hayles, “translating media: why we should rethink textuality,” the yale journal of criticism , no. ( ): – . tara mcpherson, “designing for difference,” differences. a journal of feminist cultural studies , no. (january , ): – . see van mourik broekman et al, open education for more. johanna drucker, “pixel dust: illusions of innovation in scholarly publishing,” la review of books, january , , https://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/pixel-dust-illusions- innovation-scholarly-publishing/. http://web.archive.org/web/ /http:/petersblog.wissenschaftskommunikation.info/ / / /between-presentation-and-research-the-lecture-as-performance/ http://web.archive.org/web/ /http:/petersblog.wissenschaftskommunikation.info/ / / /between-presentation-and-research-the-lecture-as-performance/ http://fls.kein.org/view/ https://storify.com/openreflections/disruptivemedia https://storify.com/openreflections/aesthetics-of-the-humanities http://scalar.usc.edu/ http://www.senselab.ca/inflexions/ http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://hdl.handle.net/ /spo.act . . http://www.create.ac.uk/ http://fembotcollective.org/ http://www.gold.ac.uk/goldsmiths-press/ donna haraway, “when species meet: staying with the trouble,” environment and planning d: society and space , no. (february , ): – . http://www.create.ac.uk/ http://fembotcollective.org/ http://www.gold.ac.uk/goldsmiths-press/ halldisruptcover halldisrupt doi: . /jac.v . this is an electronic reprint of the original article. this reprint may differ from the original in pagination and typographic detail. powered by tcpdf (www.tcpdf.org) this material is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, and duplication or sale of all or part of any of the repository collections is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for your research use or educational purposes in electronic or print form. you must obtain permission for any other use. electronic or print copies may not be offered, whether for sale or otherwise to anyone who is not an authorised user. naukkarinen, ossi; bragge, johanna aesthetics in the age of digital humanities published in: journal of aesthetics and culture doi: . /jac.v . published: / / document version publisher's pdf, also known as version of record published under the following license: cc by please cite the original version: naukkarinen, o., & bragge, j. 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[ ]. https://doi.org/ . /jac.v . https://doi.org/ . /jac.v . https://doi.org/ . /jac.v . full terms & conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=zjac download by: [aalto-yliopiston kirjasto] date: april , at: : journal of aesthetics & culture issn: (print) - (online) journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/zjac aesthetics in the age of digital humanities ossi naukkarinen & johanna bragge to cite this article: ossi naukkarinen & johanna bragge ( ) aesthetics in the age of digital humanities, journal of aesthetics & culture, : , , doi: . /jac.v . to link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/ . /jac.v . © o. naukkarinen & j. bragge published online: jan . submit your article to this journal article views: view related articles view crossmark data http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=zjac http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/zjac http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi= . /jac.v . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jac.v . http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=zjac &show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=zjac &show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/ . /jac.v . http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/ . /jac.v . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /jac.v . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /jac.v . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - aesthetics in the age of digital humanities ossi naukkarinen and johanna bragge * department of art, aalto university school of arts, design and architecture, helsinki, finland; department of information and service economy, aalto university school of business, helsinki, finland abstract one of the most difficult but yet unavoidable tasks for every academic field is to define its own nature and demarcate its area. this article addresses the question of how current computational text-mining approaches can be used as tools for clarifying what aesthetics is when such approaches are combined with philosophical analyses of the field. we suggest that conjoining the two points of view leads to a fuller picture than excluding one or the other, and that such a picture is useful for the self-understanding of the discipline. our analysis suggests that text-mining tools can find sources, relations, and trends in a new way, but it also reveals that the databases that such tools use are presently seriously limited. however, computational approaches that are still in their infancy in aesthetics will most likely gradually affect our understanding about the ontological status of the discipline and its instantiations. ossi naukkarinen, phd, is head of research and vice dean at the aalto university school of art, design and architecture, finland. he has pub- lished books and articles on various themes in aesthetics, including envir- onmental art, everyday aesthetics, and mobile aesthetics, in journals such as contemporary aesthetics, aisthesis, and nordic journal of aesthetics. his publications have also been translated into spanish, slovenian, italian and chinese. johanna bragge holds a phd in management science from the helsinki school of economics and works as senior university lecturer of informa- tion systems science at aalto univer- sity school of business. her research interests include research profiling with text-mining tools, e-collaboration, ser- vice co-creation, and crowdsourcing. her research has been published, among others, in the journal of the ais, ieee transactions on professional communication, expert systems with applications, futures, group decision and negotiation, and journal of business research. keywords: aesthetics; bibliometrics; computing; digital humanities; text-mining; web of science traditionally, well-informed conceptions about the field of aesthetics have been formed by studying it for a long time and carefully*by reading and writing books and articles, teaching and following lectures, and taking part in academic discussions in conferences and learned societies. this is still quite a normal and reasonable approach, and knowledge attained through it cannot be achieved in any other way. the more one studies, the broader and more detailed a picture one has. however, there is no universally accepted defi- nition of aesthetics. we can probably agree that aesthetics has something to do with the arts, beauty, and other aesthetic values, as well as with art criticism in the broadest possible sense. as soon as one goes any further, philosophical ponderings and disagreements arise. what kinds of studies of the arts actually belong to the field of aesthetics, and what kinds are outside it? where are the differences between art history and aesthetics? *correspondence to: johanna bragge, department of information and service economy, aalto university school of business, runeberginkatu � , fi- helsinki, finland. email: johanna.bragge@aalto.fi journal of aesthetics & culture vol. , # o. naukkarinen & j. bragge. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: journal of aesthetics & culture, vol. , http://dx.doi.org/ . /jac.v . (page number not for citation purpose) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.aestheticsandculture.net/index.php/jac/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jac.v . is aesthetics always a philosophical discipline, and what does that mean? should we include non- academic publications such as memoirs or exhibi- tion reviews in the field if they deal with the same themes as academic aesthetics papers? what are the latest trends and which themes are fading away? such questions are acutely relevant when one designs, for example, an introductory book or course for undergraduate students. forming a comprehensive interpretation of any academic field is becoming more and more demanding all the time, because the number of publications, scholars, and institutions becomes higher each year. one simply cannot master all the different languages and traditions in which aes- thetic issues are addressed, and a single scholar can never get a hold of everything published in his or her field. in fact, he or she cannot even access a tiny fraction of it, since in general the growth rate of traditional scientific publishing has been increasing for the last years, and the number of publications using new channels such as open-access journals is growing rapidly. the latest studies show that the growth of global scientific publication output has been exponential between and . the same trend can also be seen in the research of aesthetics, as presented in figure . in the data set we analyzed from the web of science (wos) for this article, the rate of growth has been steady and surging since the turn of the millennium. how can we make sense of aesthetics in this situation? well-informed understanding of one’s field is still expected of professionals, after all; one is not supposed to focus on some narrow area only, without the ability to link one’s specialty to a wider field. like in many other contexts, that is the reason why it is reasonable to make use of the computa- tional tools that we have nowadays. so far, aesthe- ticians have not been very active in using these for clarifying the nature of their own field. our aim is to open up some possibilities and thus take aes- thetics closer to the so-called digital humanities. furthermore, we want to show that using such tools is not as easy and straightforward as one could assume, but it requires specialized skills. the big picture computational analyses always need data to be analyzed with the help of algorithms that define what the computational processes will do and present to us. for this essay, we have used the publication data provided by wos. thomson reuters’ wos database is the ‘‘gold standard’’ by which many governments in coun- tries such as the usa, the uk, and australia evaluate their national r&d performance. it was also the first database that started indexing the cited references of publications, as early as the s, thus allowing various (co-)citation analyses to be conducted, based on eugene garfield’s original idea from . wos is also used as standard by researchers for bibliometric studies, as the pub- lications it indexes are stringently pre-inspected for quality, and the data it provides is consistently organized in the database. to summarize, as wos is one of the best known, largest, and most in- fluential academic databases, it is interesting to see first what kind of image it offers of aesthetics. it is a known issue that arts and humanities (a&h) research is not as well covered in wos as natural sciences*the indexing of a&h started much later, in *although the situation has been improving lately. we will return to some of the problems related to wos and other similar databases, such as elsevier’s scopus, soon. in any case, as wos is arguably one of the most important academic databases, aestheticians cannot afford to ignore it. at least, we have to understand how it functions. if the picture seems to be distorted, we have to understand why, and try to find better tools and databases. in the present situation, where such databases have a huge impact on our aca- demic communities, we cannot just omit them. the data we consult does not tell us anything as such, and we cannot even start searching for relevant information without making active selec- tions. when we created a picture of aesthetics figure . increase in research articles in aesthetics in the web of science. o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) using wos, we had to narrow down our approach, as will be explained soon. in addition, we chose three software tools to represent and organize the core results: vantagepoint, vosviewer, and leximancer. vantagepoint is a professional text- mining tool for discovering and organizing infor- mation in search results from literature or patent databases. besides advanced data cleaning func- tions, it makes it possible to quickly find answers to the questions of who, what, when, and where, helping the researcher to clarify relationships and find patterns. the second tool, vosviewer, also analyzes bibliometric literature data, but its core focus is on visualizing the bibliometric networks, composed, for example, of journals, authors or key terms appearing in abstracts, based on co- citation, bibliometric coupling or co-occurrence relations. leximancer is an automated content analysis tool that can be used to find prominent themes and concepts from any kind of textual data, whether bibliometric or otherwise. we used it to analyze the full texts of the british journal of aesthetics in -year periods. the time span we analyzed was � . the a&h citation index starts at , and at the time of conducting the study, we were halfway through . in addition, the span covers exactly years, and thus allows long-term trend analyses to be conducted, for example, by -year periods. if one simply types ‘‘aesthetics’’ in the basic search field of wos, which searches for the term in titles, abstracts, and keywords, the search results ( , publications as of august , ) largely, at around %, feature publications other than a&h ones, such as life sciences and biomedicine from the other citation indexes. figure shows the division by scientific domain, as well as by more detailed research area in the a&h domain. this, in fact, is interesting as such: unlike we philosophers of aesthetics might believe, a large group of people addressing aesthetic issues seems to be operating outside our circles, even if our and their discourses seldom meet. if this is the case in academic contexts such as wos and other similar databases, what is the situation outside academia? we will briefly return to this question at the end of this essay, but, all in all, the issue of how ‘‘our’’ and ‘‘their’’ aesthetics are related would actually deserve a study of its own. this time, however, we wanted to keep the focus closer to what we think is the humanistic tradition of aesthetics. for this, we restricted the search to only the a&h citation index. even that database initially seemed too large, as the same ‘‘aesthetics’’ search brought up many seemingly irrelevant re- search areas, such as radiology, nuclear medicine, and medical imaging. however, we looked into some of those and found that they can actually figure . aesthetics publications by scientific domain (in capital letters; a&h �arts & humanities) and research area in the web of science. aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) include interesting publications. for instance, they showed that the radiologic aesthetics of human body parts or organs have inspired many artists to create works of art, indicating that radiology is perhaps becoming a more common approach in the field of contemporary art. thus, we decided to include all results from the a&h index that had ‘‘aesthetics’’ in the title, abstract or keywords. in addition, we included all publica- tions from journals that are specific to aesthetics. the aesthetics journals that are indexed in a&h by wos include the following: british journal of aesthetics (bja), journal of aesthetics and art criticism (jaac), journal of aesthetic education (jae), inter- national review of the aesthetics and sociology of music (irasm), revue d’esthétique, psychology of aesthetics creativity and the arts, estetika � the central european journal of aesthetics, and zeitschrift für ästhetik und allgemeine kunstwissenschaft. had we chosen to focus on more specifically defined research areas in a&h, it would have required more active definition, and there is no single solution for that. this means that comput- ing is necessarily combined with a philosophical analysis of what aesthetics is. for example, it is quite reasonable to state that aesthetic issues are most probably dealt with in publications listed under research areas such as art, literature, and philosophy, because aesthetics is often related to the themes of art, criticism, and beauty and is emphatically philosophical in nature. on the other hand, if one chose some other set of fields, the search results would be somewhat different. if one assumes a more baumgartian stance, under- standing aesthetics as something close to ‘‘a science of sensitive knowing’’ (scientia cognitionis sensitivae), one would probably include more publications and fields closer to psychology; and emphasizing evolutionary, neuroscientific, or environmental branches of aesthetics could lead to including more fields of natural sciences. this means that one’s pre-understanding necessarily guides what one finds from the data that is available. it is evident that there is no single, objective, and neutral way of selecting the relevant fields when doing a more focused analysis. the aesthetics search in a&h index, including the eight domain journals mentioned above, re- sulted in , publications (as of june , ). as our purpose is to illustrate especially academic research in aesthetics, we refined the results to include only full-length journal and conference articles, thus excluding, for example, book reviews, letters, and notes. this choice was guided by the category options wos offers, and our final search result was , articles. the results based on our selections show, first, that even if there are some self-evident forums of aesthetics, such as bja, jaac, and jae, issues related to aesthetics are addressed in surprisingly many sources, some of which were previously unknown to us. in total, there were altogether , different journals or other sources listed as publishing aesthetics articles. this means that we might need to broaden our own understanding of the field, of its publication channels, and of who is actually working in it. of course, this data analysis only suggests some possibilities and opens questions, and we have to study the phenomenon better by other means, including plenty of good old-fashioned reading. we have to find out whether the publications based on our search really are relevant to aesthetics, and whether the text-mining tools produce truthful results when making more detailed analyses. in any case, the point is that we would not have seen the new possibilities in the same way without the data analysis, and at least some of the new sources will probably turn out to be important. on the other hand, it is striking that many journals that we think are relevant and interesting for the field are missing (not indexed) in wos: journal of aesthetics & culture, the italian aisthesis, the us-based contemporary aesthetics, journal of aesthetics and phenomenology, and the nordic jour- nal of aesthetics, for example, not forgetting some of the perhaps lesser-known publications, such as the journal of aesthetics and protest, aisthesis* international journal of art and aesthetics in man- agement and organisational life, and korean journal of aesthetics. this is due to the very strict indexing principles of wos. it is evident that one cannot blindly trust the computed results, but one needs to be aware of the database restrictions. the data also shows that % of the articles are single-authored and reveals who are the most active and prominent scholars in the field. there are no big surprises. the top authors who have published most articles are all internationally familiar names. the top are, respectively, noël carroll, richard shusterman, peter kivy, robert stecker, stephen davies, jerrold levinson, o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) harold osborne, stanislav tuksar, malcolm bud, and joseph margolis (all men!)*the only surprise perhaps being stanislav tuksar, the croatian music scholar. we had more or less assumed a list of this kind, but now we have evidence for our belief, and we can also see in more detail how much and where these scholars have actually published, and how many citations they have received for the articles (see table ). this, in turn, gives others a reference point: if someone wants to be active and visible in aesthetics, where and how often should one present one’s ideas? in this data set, carrol has articles and margolis , the other top authors something between this, and by far the most important publication forums are the journal of aesthetic education, journal of aesthetics and art criticism and british journal of aesthetics � except for tuksar, who has mostly published in the international review of the aesthetics and sociology of music, for which he is editor-in-chief. so, it might be a good idea to aim at these journals and publish at least some articles, which is naturally not that easy. the list of top cited authors, which is collected from the reference lists of our final sample of , articles, looks a little different, due to the fact that classics of philosophy, such as immanuel kant, are still commonly cited in the field. however, all but one of the top- authors also appear among the top- cited authors. table presents the top most cited authors, based on the number of publications in which they have been cited. the table also divides the number of citing publications temporally into four decades. it is interesting to see that most of the top cited authors have an ascending trend in citations, but there are also some whose curve is descending. the top authors appearing in table have been shown in bold in table for easier detection; robert stecker and harold osborne are not shown as they are at places and , respectively. in addition, stani- slav tuksar’s rank is , with sample pub- lications in which he is cited. bibliometric studies typically analyze and vis- ualize author networks via their co-authorship relations, revealing ‘‘scholarly communities.’’ how- ever, in the case of aesthetics and in the humanities in general, co-authorship analyses are not sensible, as our data shows that % of the articles are single-authored. to discover relations, one can instead conduct other types of network analyses, for example by cross-correlating authors with the help of commonly used title words or through the authors they refer to in their articles. figures and illustrate two examples of such cross- correlation analyses. the most prolific authors are placed on the map based on the authors they cite table . top- authors rank author number of articles percentage published in bja, jae or jaac total cites for the articles avg. cites for the articles author’s h-index for the articles a rank in top cited authors list carroll, noël . shusterman, richard . kivy, peter . stecker, robert . davies, stephen . levinson, jerrold . osborne, harold . tuksar, stanislav . budd, malcolm . margolis, joseph . a hirsch’s h-index: an author has index h, if h of his np papers have at least h citations each, and the other (np � h) papers have less than h citations each. aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) table . top most cited authors in the , aesthetics articles, by decade rank number of publications in which author is cited � � � � kant immanuel adorno theodor w. benjamin walter goodman nelson danto arthur hegel g. w. f. barthes roland beardsley monroe c. foucault michel derrida jacques levinson jerrold wittgenstein ludwig carroll noël walton kendall l. dewey john heidegger martin nietzsche friedrich gombrich ernst wollheim richard aristotle dickie george deleuze guilles kivy peter bourdieu pierre scruton roger freud sigmund plato hume david langer suzanne schiller friedrich jameson fredric lyotard jean-françois gadamer hans-georg davies stephen eagleton terry arnheim rudolph eco umberto merleau-ponty maurice marx karl dahlhaus carl margolis joseph goethe johann wolfgang von collingwood robin sartre jean-paul budd malcolm habermas jürgen shusterman richard eliot thomas s. currie gregory baudelaire charles top authors from table are indicated in bold font. o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) (figure ) or on the title words they use (figure ). the correlations are shown as links between author nodes: the thicker the link lines, the greater the correlation between any two authors (see legends in the upper left hand corners). one can also study the basis of the correlation using the tool online: when hovering the mouse above any author node, the tool will present information showing cross-correlation map authors (cleaned) (top autho... cited authors (cleaned) (clea... links >= , shown > . ( ) . – . ( ) . – . ( ) < . ( ) zangwill, nickzangwill, nick young, joyoung, jo winner, ellenwinner, ellen tuksar, stanislavtuksar, stanislav supicic, isupicic, i stecker, robertstecker, robert sparshott, fesparshott, fe smith, rasmith, ra silvia, paul jsilvia, paul j silvers, asilvers, a shusterman, richardshusterman, richard sharpe, rasharpe, ra saito, yurikosaito, yuriko robinson, jmrobinson, jm ridley, aaronridley, aaron richardson, jarichardson, ja osborne, hosborne, h novitz, dnovitz, d noguez, dnoguez, d mcfee, grahammcfee, graham matravers, derekmatravers, derek margolis, josephmargolis, joseph livingston, paisleylivingston, paisley levinson, jerroldlevinson, jerrold leder, helmutleder, helmut leddy, tleddy, t kivy, peterkivy, peter kieran, matthewkieran, matthew kaufman, james ckaufman, james c hlobil, tomashlobil, tomas guyer, pdguyer, pd graham, ggraham, g godlovitch, sgodlovitch, s eaton, mmeaton, mm duran, janeduran, jane dufrenne, mdufrenne, m dodd, juliandodd, julian dilworth, johndilworth, john diffey, tjdiffey, tj dickie, gdickie, g davies, stephendavies, stephen davies, daviddavies, david currie, gregorycurrie, gregory crowther, paulcrowther, paul charles, dcharles, d carroll, noelcarroll, noel carrier, dcarrier, d carlson, allencarlson, allen budd, malcolmbudd, malcolm best, dnbest, dn berleant, arnoldberleant, arnold arnheim, rarnheim, r andrijauskas, antanasandrijauskas, antanas alperson, philipalperson, philip figure . cross-correlation map of top- authors vs. cited authors (top ). jerrold levinson’s label appears underneath that of s. davies, and nick zangwill’s label underneath m. budd. aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) the values for the cross-correlated field. to take rather an easy example, the tool shows that joseph margolis most often cites (besides his own works) nelson goodman, arthur c. danto, jacques derrida, willard van orman quine, and donald davidson; for a knowledgeable reader, this kind of infor- mation immediately says something about his approach. cross-correlation map authors (cleaned) (top autho... title (nlp) (phrases) (cleane... links >= , shown > . ( ) . – . ( ) . – . ( ) < . ( ) zangwill, nickzangwill, nick young, joyoung, jo winner, ellenwinner, ellen tuksar, stanislavtuksar, stanislav supicic, isupicic, i stecker, robertstecker, robert sparshott, fesparshott, fe smith, rasmith, ra silvia, paul jsilvia, paul j silvers, asilvers, a shusterman, richardshusterman, richard sharpe, rasharpe, ra saito, yurikosaito, yuriko robinson, jmrobinson, jm ridley, aaronridley, aaron richardson, jarichardson, ja osborne, hosborne, h novitz, dnovitz, d noguez, dnoguez, d mcfee, grahammcfee, graham matravers, derekmatravers, derek margolis, josephmargolis, joseph livingston, paisleylivingston, paisley levinson, jerroldlevinson, jerrold leder, helmutleder, helmut leddy, tleddy, t kivy, peterkivy, peter kieran, matthewkieran, matthew kaufman, james ckaufman, james c hlobil, tomashlobil, tomas guyer, pdguyer, pd graham, ggraham, g godlovitch, sgodlovitch, s eaton, mmeaton, mm duran, janeduran, jane dufrenne, mdufrenne, m dodd, juliandodd, julian dilworth, johndilworth, john diffey, tjdiffey, tj dickie, gdickie, g davies, stephendavies, stephen davies, daviddavies, david currie, gregorycurrie, gregory crowther, paulcrowther, paul charles, dcharles, d carroll, noelcarroll, noel carrier, dcarrier, d carlson, allencarlson, allen budd, malcolmbudd, malcolm best, dnbest, dn berleant, arnoldberleant, arnold arnheim, rarnheim, r andrijauskas, antanasandrijauskas, antanas alperson, philipalperson, philip figure . cross-correlation map of top- authors’ vs. title phrases (all; processed with natural language processing nlp). ivo supicic’s label appears underneath that of philip alperson. o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) if the data shows that two or more authors are closely related and we had not realized that before, now we have a reason to examine how they are related. this, again, requires consultation of the actual publications, but the text-mining tool has given us a reason to do that, as it gives an indication of the nature of the relationships. without the tool, we would never have detected all such relations. robert stecker, for example, seems to be very well connected in many directions; how exactly and what this indicates is a matter for further analysis. on the other hand, it is interesting that the pictures do not show a stronger relation between authors such as arnold berleant and yuriko saito, even if we know from other sources that they have often addressed related topics and closely co-operated in other ways, for example, in the e-journal contemporary aesthetics; again, the results must be read critically. one interesting result is the heat map (figure ) of the most common themes, as seen through the frequency and co-occurrence of the terms used in titles and abstracts (when stop words such as ‘‘and,’’ ‘‘it,’’ etc. are excluded). the warmer the color, and the larger the font size, the more often the terms appear in the sample. for example, the term ‘‘politic’’ appears in the hot red area and in medium-large font, and the data behind it indicates that the term appears in the title or abstract of publications (counted only once if it appears in both). the proximity of terms indicates that they often appear in the same titles or abstracts. the map helps us to quickly see the most usual themes or issues addressed in aesthetics. again, the map requires interpretation and fur- ther study. as it shows that, for example, ‘‘politic’’ is a frequently used term in the field, this might mean that if one wants to be a credible aesthetician, one has to pay close attention to it (and its variations political, politics, etc.), even if one had not been very interested in it before. without data analysis, one would not have as good an idea of how common it is, and one would not have an equally good reason to study what kinds of issues are addressed and who is active under its umbrella. its hits can be compared with the other large topics appearing on the map: music , , philosophy , , beauty , poetry , and performance hits. furthermore, the map indicates how widespread interest is in the sub-fields in which i or someone else is specialized. this helps in relating sub-fields to each other, and provides one approach to the question of how to make sense of the relative weight of sub-fields within the whole field. it is interesting that some relatively new but possibly trending sub- fields, such as ‘‘everyday aesthetics,’’ do not (yet) figure . co-occurrence map of terms in titles and abstracts (all publication types included). aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) manifest in the previous maps and analyses at all. this might be related to the fact that databases include plenty of old materials, and new themes are necessarily less visible in comparison. however, the tools enable searches for such topics of interest within various data fields, such as authors’ key- words, title words/phrases, or abstract words/ phrases. one can see that title phrases related to everyday aesthetics are currently occupying the following places in the ranked title word list cover- ing the whole time range of � : everyday life (rank with publications), everyday aesthetics (rank with publications), and everyday aesthetic experience (rank with publication from ). figure presents a co-citation analysis of jour- nals, as visualized using vosviewer. two journals are said to be co-cited if there is a third journal that cites both journals. the larger the number of journals by which two journals are co-cited, the stronger the co-citation relation between the two journals is. for figure , all journals with at least citations ( ) are included in the analysis, even if, due to reasons of clarity, only some of the journal titles are visible. one can see three ‘‘hot’’ areas on the heat map, illustrated by warmer red and yellow colors. the largest concentration is around the core of aesthetics, and this is featured by citations to jaac, bja, and jae. the second center, on the left, is about communication research, and the third relates to publications on psychological issues. it is also interesting to see how the field has changed over time. the bubble chart produced using vantagepoint (figure ) shows the temporal development of the top- words or phrases derived via statistical natural language processing (nlp) from the titles of the publications, pre- sented in alphabetical order. note that the search word ‘‘aesthetics’’ was removed from the figure, as it appears in most titles. from the figure, we can immediately see that aesthetics articles are most often related to arts (in general) and then to music. moreover, political and ethical topics have visibly increased their prominence during the last few years. with these types of figures, we can also easily detect when certain terms first emerged in the titles during the -year sample period, espe- cially regarding the less common terms and so- called emerging terms (not shown in the figure). it is possible to analyze the temporal devel- opment in time sequences longer than a year, too. table presents the same top- title phrases in table/numerical format across four decades. all such general results are worth paying atten- tion to when trying to figure out what aesthetics is and how it has changed. of course, one must know the field rather well already in advance, because otherwise one cannot focus one’s search and pay attention to relevant further questions, which are often more or less philosophical in nature. for example, if the analysis suggests a relation between two authors, it is by no means simple and straightforward to say what kind of figure . co-citation analysis of journals (all publication types included). o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) relation that is. only if one has enough under- standing of the field, can one ponder different alternatives. in addition, while such tools represent the results as frequency lists, figures, and temporal matrices, as soon as one learns to understand them, they are a very effective way of conveying information; one can see by a single glance much more than by reading a longish text. to our minds, information graphics in the form of science maps and research landscapes have been an under-used possibility in aesthetics. however, it is fairly easy to produce very informative images that could also be used in introductory books and other presentations. figure . bubble chart of top- title words or phrases. table . temporal development of top- title words/phrases # records in total for decade rank # records title word or phrase � � � � art music politics ethics philosophy beauty history literature nature poetry image role aesthetic experience criticism painting ‘‘aesthetics’’ as the search word is removed from the table from the first row, as well as common research words such as ‘‘note,’’ ‘‘reply,’’ and ‘‘reflections.’’ aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) a case study inside the large amount of data, there are more straightforward cases, and it is wise to focus more closely on them. for example, we can tentatively assume that everything that has been published in the british journal of aesthetics are cases of aesthetics. we can accept that without trying to define what aesthetics is. instead, we can simply see what there is and take that as one landscape of aesthetics. as we know that bja is one of the main forums of discussion in the field (see previous section), the picture it offers is probably highly relevant more generally, too. one could naturally try to read every volume of bja published since , but even if that might not be completely impossible, it would be an extremely time-consuming job. furthermore, it is doubtful whether the reader could ever attain similar results to a computer, even if she read the material several times. computers can do their tricks quickly, and as we have the titles, abstracts, keywords, and other bibliometric data ready at hand, the text-mining tools and algorithms can reveal patterns, trends, relationships, and emerging topics from the data. the advanced text-mining tools are, in practice, analogous to statistical soft- ware designed for numerical data. using vosviewer, we can show that bja looks like this. the map in figure is based on the title words from all bja publications; words appearing at least five times are included; not all are visible. bja has its own profile compared to the field at large. in addition, as the data set for bja is smaller, we can drill deeper and use automated content analysis tools such as leximancer to detect major themes and concepts based on the full texts, not only on titles, abstracts, and key words. in figure , we illustrate the full-text analyses for three separate time periods ( � , � , � ). we had access to pdf docu- ments from onwards, but the maps do not cover the period of � and the january issue, as those pdfs were secured and not readable by the text-mining tool. in the maps, each concept (grey node) is defined by a list of statistically weighted words from the full texts, the comparison of which enables the depiction of associations (closeness and links) between the concepts. node size indicates the frequency of a concept’s appearance. to aid inter- pretation, the concepts cluster into higher-level themes (colored circles) when the map is gener- ated, and the themes are automatically named according to the largest concept node they include. colors are heat-mapped to indicate importance, with the most prominent cluster appearing in red, the next most prominent in brownish orange, and figure . co-occurrence map of bja title words. o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) so on, according to the color organization system that leximancer deploys. note that the figures portray only the most prominent node names for reasons of visibility. it is easy to see that there are some themes, such as ‘‘art’’ and ‘‘work,’’ that remain over decades, but others, such as ‘‘poetry,’’ gain more interest in certain periods. on the other hand, themes such as ‘‘fashion’’ and ‘‘man’’ seem somewhat dubious and force one to dig deeper to see in what sense and way the concepts have been used. the tool enables the analyst to drill down to all text excerpts in which a certain word or word pair appears, to aid in the interpretation. in principle, it would be fairly easy to make comparisons using leximancer, or the other tools used here, between bja and other journals, such as the journal of aesthetics and art criticism (or any other digital data set). this would take some time, but the basic principles would not change. problems to solve analyzing aesthetics through wos and bja offers some useful insights, as we have seen, but there are limitations as well. we already mentioned that many important sources are missing from wos. missing sources include journals, too, but the most evident lack is monographs, which are still very important in aesthetics, as well as in other fields of the huma- nities. this data does not tell us what the most referred books are, what themes those books address, and how they form groups. most prob- ably, such data sets will gradually be provided, figure . (a) bja full-text analysis from to . the themes, in order of importance, are art, object, aesthetic, work, sense, trust, text, and man. (b) bja full-text analysis from to . the themes, in order of importance, are aesthetic, art, work, account, different, judgment, actual, and fashion. (c) bja full-text analysis from to . the themes, in order of importance, are aesthetic, art, philosophy, fact, pleasure, poetry, and picture. aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) while more and more books are being digitized, but, for the time being, they are not common. of course, even now, normal library databases have some information on books (titles, authors, publishers, short descriptions, key words), but that is far from a potential set of full-text databases offering cross-referential information. thus, pre- sent-day possibilities offered by wos and other similar databases for analyzing the field of aes- thetics are seriously limited. for example, authors such as arthur c. danto and yuriko saito have important articles, but their books are probably at least as influential, which cannot be seen very easily through wos. one possibility is to look for the cited reference information of the article data downloaded from wos. however, that data is utterly messy, as the information is not uniformly entered into the database (meaning that the same book might have several instantiations with slightly differing indexing), and it is much more challen- ging and time-consuming to clean that data than the core bibliometric data of the main articles. nevertheless, the analyst can gain preliminary insights even from the messy data, although reporting any strict statistics would be highly questionable. wos is also dominated by publications and authors writing in english. in the data set that we analyzed, more than % of the publications are written in english, % in french, and the other % in other languages. bja, naturally, is all in english. however, it is not reasonable to think that aesthetic issues would only be addressed in english, especially because many of them are highly dependent on culture and language. in the future, we need digital databases that better cover several languages. there are active communities of aes- thetics using german, polish, slovenian, finnish, swedish, japanese, chinese, spanish, turkish, and several other languages. finnish, for example, does not exist in the data set at all. how can we make different languages and cultures visible and comparable? at the moment, there are no good databases for that. moreover, some of the typical bibliometric ana- lyses are clearly designed for the natural sciences, where many practices are somewhat different than in the humanities. for example, the tools offer co- authorship views, because it is typical in the sciences to publish in groups. in the humanities, in turn, it is still common to publish alone. as mentioned, in our data set, some % of the publications are single-authored, which is times more than in many fields of the sciences and . times more than in the social sciences in general. thomson reuters’ sciencewatch presents interesting field- specific statistics on single-authorship and how it has consistently decreased from to : from % to %, considering all scientific articles indexed by wos. the number of single-authored articles has, as such, remained rather stable, around , per year, during the years, but the number of multi-authored papers has exploded at the same time, from , to . million. for aesthetics, it might also be interesting to analyze pictures and sounds, but these text-mining tools cannot handle them; they are completely language-based. there are computational tools in domains other than text-mining that can be used to analyze pictures and sounds, but space does not allow us to present them here. another issue related to the visual communica- tion of text-mining results is that many tools that are available simply provide certain standard vi- sualization options without too much explaining why they are of the kind that they are. studies in information graphics, however, have again and again shown that there are no neutral ways of visualizing data and that different solutions in choosing colors, columns, links, lines, arrows and other visual means lead to completely different un- derstandings of the questions addressed, and there are numerous alternatives that can be developed. this is why visual options provided should be explicated in detail, which is not always the case. in the context of aesthetics, of course, also the aes- thetic quality of visual presentations would be a theme worth explicating but in this article we simply wanted to give examples of the means avail- able and not take a stand on their aesthetic worth. figures and , for example, would probably benefit from better graphic design, both aestheti- cally and otherwise. all in all, data visualization is a very potential option also for aesthetics but it must be developed much further from the level that has been exemplified in this article. yet another kind of problem is that wos and other academic databases are not free, but only affiliated academic people have easy access to them. this is not an open and democratic situation. moreover, there are license restrictions even for users with a user’s license: systematic downloading o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) of bibliometric data or full texts is not allowed in large quantities. some journals have also used a secure pdf format during some years, so that it is practically impossible to make full-text analyses of those materials. at best, one has to ask for special permission for that. the most difficult nut to crack is to see what should be seen as data for making sense of aesthetics at large. which sources should be included? wos does not clearly cover everything, even if it is a very big data set, and neither do other databases. moreover, even if aesthetic issues were dealt with in the sources analyzed, included in wos or elsewhere, the word ‘‘aesthetics’’ is not always used. how can we find such cases, then? what are the best search terms and what do they actually bring up? the word ‘‘art,’’ for example, can lead us to sociological and economic studies of the arts, as well as to essays on ‘‘art of war’’*such sources potentially being irrelevant to aesthetics. in addition, in the case of bja, can we really trust that everything in it represents aesthetics? this, in particular, requires philosophical clarity: how do we interpret terms, concepts, and cate- gories, as well as their limits, borders, and changes? it is far from self-evident which expressions can refer to the field of ‘‘aesthetic issues’’ and how* which should have been clear at least since frank sibley’s classical analyses of aesthetic concepts. that is exactly why there is no automatic and simple way of using and analyzing databases, but search processes must be combinations of advanced computational methods and deep philo- sophical understanding of the field in question. answers will eventually get better as we become more experienced. in the end, we will end up discussing the ontology of aesthetics: how does it exist? as books and articles, for sure. but also in other ways? does it have non-linguistic manifestations and how can we detect them? at least they do not exist in databases such as wos, which leads us to say something about other possibilities related to computational approaches. further possibilities standard academic databases are limited in many ways, as we saw. another option for making sense of academic aesthetics is to use online resources. space does not allow us to explore this in more detail here, but the options available include google scholar and google books ngram viewer, as well as wikipedia and its categories, which are gradually being formed by its users. in so-called altmetrics, all in all, the goal is to find alternative metrics for understanding academic activities. altmetrics is a subset of scientometrics, and it denotes ‘‘the study and use of scholarly impact measures based on activity in online tools and environments.’’ although traditional scientometrics is heavily focused on citations for recording the impact of academic research, the outstanding rise of social media has exposed several new channels for tracking the impact. altmetrics is an interesting development currently taking its early steps, as it illuminates the impact of scholarly studies on the general public rather than just the academic community. these metrics can be categorized in five general classes, listed in increasing order of importance: viewed, down- loaded/saved, discussed, recommended, and cited. altmetrics utilizes, for example, microblogs, on- line reference managers such as mendeley, blogs, social networking platforms, repositories like github, domain-specific data from arxiv, access measures on publishers sites like plos, and user ratings on books, for example, from goodreads. although alternative metrics currently present one of the most popular research topics in sciento- metrics, it also has some problems, as listed by john mingers and loet leydesdorff: ‘‘ ) altmetrics can be gamed by ‘buying’ likes or tweets; ) there is little by way of theory about how and why altmetrics are generated (this is also true of tradi- tional citations); ) a high score may not mean that the paper is especially good, just on a controversial or fashionable topic; and ) because social media is relatively new it will under-represent older papers.’’ if we operate in altmetrics, we have to*again* ask which ‘‘hits’’ are actually cases of aesthetics, which are only somehow (loosely) related, and which are something else. we have to consider our search principles very carefully, when navigating the whole open internet. what kinds of terms will bring up relevant data? are we looking for philosophical texts that are close to academic aesthetics but for some reasons excluded from the traditional academic publications, such as blog texts on tom leddy’s aesthetics today (aesthetic- stoday.blogspot.com) and video presentations, or aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) perhaps tweets? do we include pictures? artists’ activities? or networks and groups of things rather than individual cases? whatever we are looking for, we need to have suitable tools, and in the present situation the tools are more and more often computational. at the moment, there are no dominant, well-established tools in altmetrics, but a buzz of competing and developing ones. still, aestheticians should follow what happens in that area. new tools appear all the time, and one can find several articles that review their features. it is possible that the computational digital world is changing our way of seeing what is a ‘‘work’’ or ‘‘piece’’ or ‘‘case’’ of aesthetics. we are not neces- sarily focusing on clear-cut cases, objects, events or authors, but relational networks or ‘‘clouds’’ of phenomena, even if this might not be so evident to us. the situation is probably more or less parallel with the one that david joselit describes in his book after art, which addresses the situation of contemporary visual arts and architecture. accord- ing to him, it is not that easy or even possible to see a clear difference between original artworks and all kinds of digital derivatives of and references to them; the internet and the dominant search procedures guide us to see the network they form together. in his words: ‘‘as i have argued, what now matters is not the production of new content but its retrieval, in intelligible patterns through acts of reframing, capturing, reiterating, and documenting. what counts, in other words, is how widely and easily images connect: not only to messages, but to other social currencies like capital, real estate, politics, and so on.’’ likewise in aesthetics, there might be more or less clear cases, related ones, derivatives, and so on; and what may count on many occasions is how they interact and form bigger, ever changing wholes. in such wholes, some nodes tend to attract more attention than others. however, on the internet, even such nodes are not single, clear-cut objects but relational networks within larger networks supporting them. it is not a single article or book that becomes visible alone, but everything that is attached to it in the digital network or cloud. by this logic, the article or author who attracts most connections (references) easily seems to be the most important. and in fact, often such articles and authors indeed are very important, because con- nections and relations are based on the fact that readers or other users find them useful and want to tell others about them. one aspect of this situation is the importance of searchability, that is, how easily something can be searched and found in the digital net. computa- tional tools can only search and find objects and relations that are ‘‘visible’’ to them, which, again, is defined by the algorithms they are programmed to follow. often, such tools do not find single, clear- cut cases, even if they were very interesting and important in some other ways. very often, also, users of such tools do not really have to understand in detail how the tools function. we can use them without knowing exactly what they do and do not do. this, however, must make us extra careful when assessing what they actually find and show us, and why. strong visibility in such searches does not necessarily mean that a scholar or a book is automatically better, more valuable or important than something that has a lower ‘‘searchability rate’’ (in this particular data set) and that has not yet been found. the value of scholars and publica- tions is something we still have to evaluate by more complex, peer-review processes, too. we could also leave the academic world behind and try to see what aesthetics is elsewhere. then, we have an even more complex field to navigate. the simple test of googling ‘‘aesthetics’’ and comparing the image search with the text search shows that the former relates ‘‘aesthetics’’ to beautiful (white) women and body-builder men, the latter to philosophical definitions of the term ‘‘aesthetics,’’ among literally millions of other things. how are these two interrelated? in any case, non-academic cases of aesthetics, on the internet and elsewhere, by far outnumber anything academic aestheticians can ever even imagine pro- ducing. aesthetic values and issues are actively noticed and dealt with by various actors and in numerous ways, and academic, philosophical ap- proaches are a tiny minority in the broad field. the top actors in academic aesthetics found in wos are unknown to the wider public. it is healthy to remember this. this theme, of course, would require a study of its own. conclusions when one nowadays wishes to understand one’s own discipline, aesthetics or otherwise, it is wise to make use of the latest computational tools o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) and combine them with the more traditional understanding of the field. there are several tools available, and the best, most comprehensive results will be achieved if one does not settle for one or two, but compares several points of view with each other. all of these provide a slightly different picture of aesthetics. this, in itself, is an interesting result and worth presenting to students and readers of introductory books, for example. and it becomes even more interesting when one tries to argue which of them are more accurate, which less. why am i for some of them? if the field is this big, why do i tend to focus on some of its parts? the full picture can never be achieved, but making use of computational tools is one current route that we simply must follow, even if there are many problems to solve. they will not substitute philosophical analyses, but will complement them and actually make them even more necessary. computational approaches also force us to con- sider what is nowadays the ontological status of the field. where and how does it exist? a short answer is, we think, that aesthetics is a social information network that is constantly growing and changing. what this means, in more detail, must be answered in another article. notes . peder olesen larsen and markus von ins, ‘‘the rate of growth in scientific publication and the decline in coverage provided by science citation index,’’ scientometrics ( ): � . . lutz bornmann and rüdiger mutz, ‘‘growth rates of modern science: a bibliometric analysis based on the number of publications and cited refer- ences,’’ journal of the association for information science and technology ( ): � . . however, aesthetics and computational approaches have been combined in other ways. for example, computational methods have been used for analyzing and even creating art works and other aesthetically interesting objects, and aesthetic features of such computational procedures have also been studied. in both areas, the mit press and the journal leonardo have been active for a long time. see, for example, paul a. fishwick, ed., aesthetic computing (cambridge, ma: the mit press, ). a recent, more specific example is an article on using computer vision to find beauty in low-attention photos stored on flickr: rossano schifanella, miriam redi, and luca aiello, ‘‘an image is worth more than a thousand favor- ites: surfacing the hidden beauty of flickr pictures’’ (proceedings of the ninth international aaai con- ference on web and social media icwsm, oxford, uk, may � , ). . a many-sided description of the fast-growing field of the digital humanities is debates in the digital humanities, both as a book edited by matthew k. gold (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ), a book series starting in , and as an open-access online platform at http://dhdebates.gc. cuny.edu/about (accessed september , ). for a bibliometric review, see loet leydesdorff and alkim salah, ‘‘maps on the basis of the arts & humanities citation index: the journals leonardo and art journal versus ‘digital humanities’ as a topic,’’ journal of the american society for information science and technology, ( ): � . . alan porter and scott cunningham, tech mining. exploiting new technologies for competitive advantage (hoboken, nj: wiley, ), . . eugene garfield, ‘‘citation indexes for science: a new dimension in documentation through association of ideas,’’ science ( ): � . . loet leydesdorff, björn hammarfelt, and alkim salah, ‘‘the structure of the arts & humanities citation index: a mapping on the basis of aggre- gated citations among , journals,’’ journal of the american society for information science and tech- nology ( ): � ; and björn hammarfelt, ‘‘using altmetrics for assessing research im- pact in the humanities,’’ scientometrics ( ): � . . more information on the software is provided on their websites: vantagepoint http://www.thevantage point.com, vosviewer http://www.vosviewer.com and leximancer http://www.leximancer.com. see also porter and cunningham, tech mining; nees jan van eck and ludo waltman, ‘‘visualizing bibliometric networks,’’ in measuring scholarly im- pact: methods and practice, eds. ying ding, ronald rousseau, and dietmar wolfram (cham: springer, ), � ; and david thomas, ‘‘searching for significance in unstructured data: text mining with leximancer,’’ european educational research journal ( ): � . . the categorization of research areas into scientific domains is done based on information provided by wos at https://images.webofknowledge.com/wokrs b /help/wos/hp_research_areas_easca.html (accessed june , ). . the list includes only one female author, suzanne langer. this gender imbalance and its reasons would deserve a study of its own. . a multi-dimensional scaling algorithm proprietary to vantagepoint determines the location of each author on the map. the x- and y-axes of the maps have no specific meaning. the algorithm simply tries to reduce an n-dimensional representation to two dimensions, seeking to maintain authors with a high degree of similarity (correlation) in close proximity to each other. generally speaking, authors who are aesthetics in the age of digital humanities (page number not for citation purpose) http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/about http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/about http://www.thevantagepoint.com http://www.thevantagepoint.com http://www.vosviewer.com http://www.leximancer.com https://images.webofknowledge.com/wokrs b /help/wos/hp_research_areas_easca.html https://images.webofknowledge.com/wokrs b /help/wos/hp_research_areas_easca.html close to each other are more similar than those that are farther apart. however, the presence or absence of a line (and the thickness of the line) between any two authors is a more appropriate measure of proximity, since it implies a relatively high correlation between them. . note that this term map and subsequent vosviewer maps are constructed with the larger search data set of , texts, including articles and all other publication types from wos a&hci. this is because the refining of publication types took place only in vantagepoint after the raw data was down- loaded from wos. with vosviewer, it is not possible to refine the raw data like that. a threshold of was used when constructing the map for figure . this means that terms that appear in at least titles or abstracts are included in the co-occurrence map, and only some of the approx. qualified terms are visible, to avoid clutter. . eck and waltman, ‘‘visualizing bibliometric networks.’’ . on nlp, see christopher d. manning and hinrich schütze, foundations of statistical natural language processing (cambridge, ma: the mit press, ). . thomas, ‘‘searching for significance in unstruc- tured data.’’ . christopher king, ‘‘single-author papers: a waning share of output, but still providing the tools for progress’’, sciencewatch, thomson reuters, september http://sciencewatch.com/articles/ single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still- providing-tools-progress (accessed august , ). . see, for example, schifanella, redi, and aiello, ‘‘an image is worth more than a thousand favorites.’’ see also the software culture cam at culturecam.eu. . for example, katy börner, atlas of science*visua- lizing what we know (cambridge, ma: the mit press, ); sandra rendgen et al., information graphics (cologne: taschen, ); edward r. tufte, the visual display of quantitative information, nd ed. (cheshire, ct: graphics press, ). . anne-will harzing, ‘‘a preliminary test of google scholar as a source for citation data: a long- itudinal study of nobel prize winners,’’ scientometrics ( ): � ; and anne-wil harzing, publish or perish, , software available at http:// www.harzing.com/pop.htm (accessed september , ). . lutz bornmann, ‘‘alternative metrics in sciento- metrics: a meta-analysis of research into three altmetrics,’’ scientometrics ( ): � . . jason priem, ‘‘altmetrics,’’ in beyond bibliometrics: harnessing multidimensional indicators of scholarly impact. eds. blaise cronin and cassidy r. sugimoto (london: mit press, ), � , specifically on . . john mingers and loet leydesdorff, ‘‘a review of theory and practice in scientometrics,’’ european journal of operational research ( ): � . . ibid. . jennifer lin and martin fenner, ‘‘altmetrics in evolution: defining and redefining the ontology of article-level metrics,’’ information standards quarterly ( ): � . . bornmann, ‘‘alternative metrics in scientometrics.’’ . ibid. . mingers and leydesdorff, ‘‘a review of theory and practice in scientometrics,’’ . . manuel jesus cobo, et al., ‘‘science mapping software tools: review, analysis and cooperative study among tools,’’ journal of the american society for information science and technology ( ): � ; yunyun yang, et al., ‘‘text mining and visualization tools�impressions of emerging capabilities,’’ world patent information ( ): � ; stefanie haustein et al., ‘‘coverage and adoption of altmetrics sources in the bibliometric community’’, scientometrics ( ): � ; and katrin weller, ‘‘social media and altmetrics: an overview of current alternative approaches to measuring scholarly impact’’, in incentives and performance: governance of knowledge-intensive or- ganizations, eds. isabell m. welpe et al. (cham: springer, ), � . . david joselit, after art (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ), � . . more generally speaking, joselit’s analysis is related to various network points of view that have been devel- oped in philosophy and social sciences over the last decades by theorists as various as michel foucault, gilles deleuze, bruno latour, luc boltanski, manuel castells, duncan watts, and mark granovetter, among many others. . ivan zupic and tomaz cater, ‘‘bibliometric methods in management and organization,’’ organizational research methods ( ): � . . casey haskins offers one interpretation of this network in his article ‘‘aesthetics as an intellectual network,’’ the journal of aesthetics and art criticism ( ): � . o. naukkarinen & j. bragge (page number not for citation purpose) http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://sciencewatch.com/articles/single-author-papers-waning-share-output-still-providing-tools-progress http://www.harzing.com/pop.htm http://www.harzing.com/pop.htm volume issue / the researcher as storyteller u s i n g d i g i ta l t o o l s f o r s e a r c h a n d s t o r y t e l l i n g w i t h a u d i o - v i s u a l m at e r i a l s berber hagedoorn university of groningen research centre for media and journalism studies oude kijk in ‘t jatstraat ek groningen the netherlands b.hagedoorn@rug.nl sabrina sauer university of groningen research centre for media and journalism studies oude kijk in ‘t jatstraat ek groningen the netherlands s.c.sauer@rug.nl abstract: this article offers a first exploratory critique of digital tools' socio-technical affordances in terms of support for narrative creation by media researchers. more specifically, we reflect on narrative creation processes of research, writing and story composition by media studies and humanities scholars, as well as media professionals, working with crossmedia and audio-visual sources, and the pivotal ways in which digital tools inform these processes of search and storytelling. our study proposes to add to the existing body of user-centred digital humanities research by presenting the insights of a cross-disciplinary user study. this involves, broadly speaking, researchers studying audio-visual materials in a co-creative design process, set to fine-tune and further develop a digital tool (technically based on linked open data) that supports audio-visual research through exploratory search. this article focuses on how researchers – in both academic and professional research settings – use digital search technologies in their daily work practices to discover and explore (crossmedia, digital) audio-visual archival sources, especially when studying mediated and historical events. we focus on three user types, ( ) media studies researchers; ( ) humanities researchers that use digitized audio-visual materials as a source for research, and ( ) media professionals who need to retrieve materials for audio-visual text productions, including journalists, television/image researchers, documentalists, documentary filmmakers, digital storytellers, and media innovation experts. our study primarily provides insights into the search, retrieval and narrative creation practices of these user groups. a user study such as this which combines different qualitative methods (focus groups with co-creative design sessions, research diaries, questionnaires), first, affords fine-grained insights. second, it demonstrates the relevance of closely considering practices and mechanisms conditioning narrative creation, including self-reflexive approaches. third and finally, it informs conclusions about the role of digital tools in meaning-creation processes when working with audio-visual sources, and where interaction is pivotal. keywords: narratives, narrative creation, storytelling, exploratory search, media research, working with audio- visual sources (av), user studies, digital humanities, archives, affordances of digital search tools, linked open data mailto:b.hagedoorn@rug.nl mailto:s.c.sauer@rug.nl b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller this article presents results of an exploratory digital humanities study focused on researchers working with digitized audio-visual (av) sources, particularly regarding cases of mediated and historical events. in this article, we reflect on narrative creation processes, specifically research, writing and story composition by media studies and humanities scholars as well as media professionals, and the pivotal ways in which digital tools inform these processes of search and storytelling around crossmedia av sources. whilst our study is concerned with supporting media research from beginning to end, we take a particular interest in exploratory search for supporting the first – exploratory and initial – stages of doing research, because during the initiation of a search researchers “may be in most need of support”. we argue that this is especially prevalent for researchers working with av and crossmedia sources, due to the complex, dynamic and multifaceted nature of this data type. sonja de leeuw has discussed the history and challenges for european television history since the dawn of its archival turn in the opening article of view, arguing that “institutions and digital libraries are challenged to meet the needs of users, to construct new interfaces not only in-house but also through online platforms. this requires fresh conceptual thinking about topical relations and medium-specific curatorial approaches as well as user-led navigation and the production of meaning” (our emphasis). in this article we study how contemporary digital tools and platforms of cultural heritage institutions adapt and react to this challenge, in interaction with curatorial approaches and user perspectives. here, we pay particular attention to research with av sources via audio-visual archival institutions, and the impact on narrative creation around mediated events. this article analyses and questions the ‘translation’ of av data on different platforms into the narratives that we, as researchers working with av sources, can tell – and by doing so, informs on the conclusions about the role of digital tools in meaning-creation processes. the study’s theoretical and methodological starting point is that narratives should be viewed in terms of their socio-technical context. digital tools – used to search for, annotate, and analyse events – frame and afford the narratives that both media scholars and professionals as researchers can form around their research question. in their work, researchers study and integrate cultural and political meanings connected to media events. they delve into how said meanings – often disruptive, and long-term – are reproduced and made sense of via television and connected media platforms. in turn, we have studied how researchers search for narratives (cases) surrounding ‘disruptive’ events (such as natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and ‘breaking news’ marathons of disaster and terror) from a cultural-historical perspective, drawing upon archival and linked data materials from the netherlands institute of sound and vision and the digital search database and tool media suite (clariah). special attention is paid here to the functionalities of dive+, a linked data event-based browser, based on the simple event data model, where users can browse and explore different heritage collections simultaneously, which supports the creation of browsing narratives. o u t l i n e a n d m e t h o d this study integrates the research areas media studies, information studies and science and technology studies. it connects research and search practices to data quality enhancement, to realize a cross-disciplinary project that nick couldry, andreas hepp and friedrich krotz, media events in a global age, routledge, ; elihu katz and tamar liebes, ‘’no more peace!’: how disaster, terror and war have upstaged media events,’ international journal of communication , , - ; daniel dayan and elihu katz, media events: the live broadcasting of history, harvard university press, . gary marchionini, ‘exploratory search: from finding to understanding,’ communications of the acm , , , - . gary marchionini and ryen white, ‘find what you need, understand what you find,’ international journal of human-computer interaction, , , , - . sonja de leeuw, ‘european television history online: history and challenges,’ view: journal of european history and culture , , , - . marie-laure ryan, ed, narrative across media: the languages of storytelling, u of nebraska press, . elihu katz and tamar liebes, ‘’no more peace!’: how disaster, terror and war have upstaged media events,’ international journal of communication , , - ; césar jiménez-martínez, ‘integrative disruption: the rescue of the chilean miners as a live media event,’ in andrew fox (ed.) global perspectives on media events in contemporary society, igi publishers, , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller seeks both technical and academic innovation. this study therefore takes a cross-disciplinary digital hermeneutics approach. by integrating digital technology for interpretation support, we provide insight into the roles of narratives in digital hermeneutics – the encounter of hermeneutics and web technology – and how events (and in what form) help interpretation. our theoretical and methodological framework connects ideas about user studies in digital humanities to our own user-centred design and mixed methodology: a co-creative design approach that includes focus groups, research diaries, and questionnaires with open questions, to learn about the role of narrative creation and exploratory search in media research practices. furthermore, the framework brings prior work on media events and narratives into focus, in relation to our research on understanding user-technology interactions. our analysis is focused on how researchers use and reflect on the use of exploratory search tools, and how exploratory search informs narrative creation practices. the collected data provides insights into how researchers search and explore digital audio-visual archives to form narratives. through user studies, we were able to focus on, first, how researchers construct navigation paths via exploratory search, and, second, evaluate the role of narratives in learning about historical mediated events and doing research into these events. in this process, dive+ (see § and video ) was also compared to other online search tools, such as google explore. ultimately, studying working with av can provide specific insights into the different perspectives that define the course and framing of mediated events, and our study offers a critique of digital tools’ socio-technical affordances in terms of support for search, retrieval and narrative creation by researchers working with av materials. video . dive+: explorative search for digital humanities digital humanities centres on humanities questions that are raised by and answered with digital tools. at the same time, the dh-field interrogates the value and limitations of digital methods in humanities’ disciplines. while it is important to understand how digital technologies can offer new venues for humanities research, it is equally essential to understand and interpret the ‘user side’ and sociology of digital humanities. our overarching research question is concerned with how media researchers (scholars and professionals) appropriate search tools to ask and answer new questions, and apply digital methods when working with av sources. to answer this question, we relate it to a concrete search practice and digital tool, and ask the sub question: how does exploratory search support researchers to study (disruptive) media events across media, and how these events are instilled with specific cultural or political meanings? chiel van den akker, susan legêne, marieke van erp, lora aroyo, roxane segers, lourens van der meij, jacco van ossenbruggen, guus schreiber, bob wielinga, johan oomen, geertje jacobs, ‘digital hermeneutics: agora and the online understanding of cultural heritage categories and subject descriptors,’ websci , koblenz, germany, . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fi mpiu rjo http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller as a result, we can consider the implications on how researchers interpret and negotiate av sources and affordances of digital tools, in their own research practices. user studies observe technology use in practice, and can therefore show how users appropriate technologies. user studies can serve to evaluate technologies in ui/ux testing (i.e. user interface design and user experience testing) and pre-conceived use cases. they may also help us understand how technologies are increasingly becoming part of disciplinary practices. whilst previous user research in digital humanities concentrates on assessing how and why digital humanities benefits from studies into user needs and behaviour – on user requirement research and on participatory design research – our article proposes to add to this body of research by presenting insights of a cross-disciplinary user study that involves researchers studying av materials, in an iterative co-creative design process set to fine-tune and further develop a digital tool that supports audio-visual research through exploratory search. we employed a user-centred design methodology to analyse researchers’ engagement when using exploratory search, and more specifically, how users and technologies co-construct meaning and meaning-making practices. we studied how media researchers use digital search technologies in their daily work practices, to discover and explore digital av archival material. our study includes three user types: ( ) media studies researchers, who are generally more experienced in working with av sources; ( ) humanities researchers that use av materials as a source for research or are interested in doing so, with varying degrees of expertise; and ( ) media professionals who need to retrieve av materials for audio-visual text productions, such as television programmes, journalistic productions or other creative endeavours. in group and we met with both university students (advanced levels) and lecturers. humanities researchers (group ) include scholars with academic backgrounds such as history, international studies, digital humanities, communication studies, languages and culture studies, whilst media professionals (group ) include journalists, television/image researchers, documentalists, documentary filmmakers, digital storytellers, and media innovation experts. these user types are the foreseen end users of dive+ and the overarching media suite tool and database, because they create audio-visual narratives for their respective work purposes. we set up co-creative design sessions (see § ) with researchers in both academic as well as professional settings, across different cities and institutions in the netherlands (group : participants; group : participants; group : participants) to observe and reflect on how they interact with search tools to explore, access and retrieve digitized av material for narrative creation, and in some cases, creative re-use of this material in new audio-visual productions. from this micro-analysis, we extrapolate insights at the meso level: to relate insights gained about user interactions with one exploratory search tool (dive+) to more overarching ideas about user-technology interactions, and what such interactions imply about the role of digital tools in humanities and media studies. leslie haddon, ‘domestication analysis, objects of study, and the centrality of technologies in everyday life,’ canadian journal of communication , , ; nelly oudshoorn and trevor pinch, how users matter: the co-construction of users and technology, mit press, . claire warwick, ‘studying users in digital humanities,’ digital humanities in practice, facet publishing, , pp. - . james stewart and robin williams, ‘the wrong trousers? beyond the design fallacy: social learning and the user,’ in debra howcroft and eileen m. trauth (eds.) handbook of critical information systems research: theory and application, edward elgar, , pp. - . claire warwick, ‘studying users in digital humanities,’ digital humanities in practice, facet publishing, , pp. - . harriet e. green and patricia lampron, ‘user engagement with digital archives for research and teaching: a case study of emblematica online,’ portal: libraries and the academy, , , , - . max kemman and martijn kleppe, ‘user required? on the value of user research in the digital humanities,’ selected papers from the clarin conference, october - , , soesterberg, the netherlands , linköping university electronic press, . elisabeth b.-n. sanders and pieter jan stappers, ‘co-creation and the new landscapes of design,’ co-design, , , , - . s.m. zabed ahmed, cliff mcknight and charles oppenheim, ‘a user-centred design and evaluation of ir interfaces,’ journal of librarianship and information science, , , , - . http://www.cjc-online.ca/index.php/journal/article/view/ / https://preprint.press.jhu.edu/portal/sites/ajm/files/ . green.pdf https://preprint.press.jhu.edu/portal/sites/ajm/files/ . green.pdf b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller d i v e + this research study is clariah-centric, from the perspective of dive+. the latter is integrated in the national clariah (common lab research infrastructure for the arts and humanities) research infrastructure in the netherlands – as part of the clariah media suite – and is aimed at providing researchers with access to digitized audio-visual data as well as tools for research and analysis. dive+ is an event-centric linked data digital collection browser, which offers intuitive or exploratory browsing and exploration of media events at different levels of detail. it connects media objects (images or movies retrieved from cultural datasets), places (geographical or descriptive), actors (people or organizations) and concepts that are depicted or associated with particular collection objects, to contextualize search paths into overarching narratives and timelines. this tool is the result of collaboration between computer scientists, humanities scholars, cultural heritage professionals and interaction designers. figure . dive+ supports creation, saving and sharing of explored connections between objects, persons and places in the form of so-called search narratives. events are a central part of this data enrichment: giving context to objects in collections by linking them in events. dive+ builds on the results of dive by expanding this digital hermeneutics approach for interaction, interpretation and exploration of digital heritage via different and linked online collections, providing a basis for interpretation support in media suite version , the dive+ categories have been updated to media objects, people, locations, and concepts. dive+ is a research project funded by the nlesc and is a collaborative effort of vrije universiteit amsterdam (lora aroyo, victor de boer, oana inel, chiel van den akker, susan legêne), netherlands institute for sound and vision (jaap blom, liliana melgar, johan oomen), frontwise (werner helmich), university of groningen (berber hagedoorn, sabrina sauer) and the netherlands escience centre (carlos martinez ortiz). it is also supported by clariah and nwo. it was the winning submission of the lodlam challenge grand prize (international summit for linked open data in libraries, archives and museums) in recognition of how dive+ demonstrates social, cultural and technical impact of linked data. victor de boer, oana inel, lora aroyo, chiel van den akker, susan legêne, carlos martinez, werner helmich, berber hagedoorn, sabrina sauer, jaap blom, liliana melgar and johan oomen, ‘dive+: exploring linked integrated data,’ europeana insight, september , https://pro. europeana.eu/page/issue- -lodlam#dive-exploring-integrated-linked-media. https://mediasuite.clariah.nl/ https://www.beeldengeluid.nl/en/knowledge/projects/dive https://www.esciencecenter.nl/ https://www.esciencecenter.nl/ https://www.clariah.nl/ https://www.clariah.nl/ https://www.nwo.nl/ https://www.nwo.nl/ https://www.beeldengeluid.nl/en/knowledge/blog/dive-receives-grand-prize-lodlam-summit-venice https://pro.europeana.eu/page/issue- -lodlam#dive-exploring-integrated-linked-media https://pro.europeana.eu/page/issue- -lodlam#dive-exploring-integrated-linked-media b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller in the searching and browsing of heritage objects, with semantic information from existing collections plus open linked data vocabularies. this browser offers events-driven exploration of digital heritage material, where events are prominent building blocks in the creation of narrative backbones and links a variety of different media sources and collections. whilst dive+ is continually updated, including through crowdsourcing, at the time of our research the browser contains entities from delpher (scanned radio bulletins from kb/national library of the netherlands), amsterdam museum, tropenmuseum and the netherlands institute for sound and vision (news broadcasts of the open images collection). our research study aids in answering the question how such a browser – technically based on linked open data, supporting event-centric exploration or context analysis – can support a scholar/researcher from beginning to end, and therefore this study helps to improve dive+ (as part of the overarching media suite) as a browser. to do so, our research study draws upon the exploration of narratives (narrative centric approach) instead of other types of search (for instance more traditional or document centric approaches, such as faceted search). moreover, this study addresses the purpose and usefulness of narratives for scholarly research. figure . dive+ linked data sources and vocabularies: establishing explorable links through shared vocabularies. e x p l o r a t o r y s e a r c h : a b a s i s f o r t o o l c r i t i c i s m a n d r e s e a r c h i n g ‘ d i s r u p t i v e ’ m e d i a e v e n t s users’ ideas and practices with exploratory search and retrieval technologies can not only shape av narratives and productions, but can also enhance the development of exploratory search tools. our study contributes to ideas about dive+ project homepage, beeld en geluid, http://diveproject.beeldengeluid.nl. victor de boer, liliana melgar, oana inel, carlos martinez ortiz, lora aroyo and johan oomen, ‘enriching media collections for event- based exploration,’ th metadata and semantics research conference (mtsr ), tallinn, estonia. best paper award; victor de boer, johan oomen, oana inel, lora aroyo, elco van staveren, werner helmich and dennis de beurs, ‘dive into the event-based browsing of linked historical media,’ web semantics: science, services and agents on the world wide web, , , , - . https://www.beeldengeluid.nl/en/knowledge/projects/dive http://www.victordeboer.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /enriching-deboer- -mtsr .pdf http://www.victordeboer.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /enriching-deboer- -mtsr .pdf https://papers.ssrn.com/sol /papers.cfm?abstract_id= http://www.websemanticsjournal.org/index.php/ps/article/view/ / b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller tool criticism in digital humanities research. according to david berry, the first wave of digital humanities focused on digitization and realizing technological infrastructures, whilst the second wave was generative, creating environments and tools to interact with data that is born digitally. the third wave, which berry refers to in terms of a third layer, should concentrate on “the underlying computationality of the forms held within a computational medium (...) to look at the digital component of the digital humanities in the light of its medium specificity, as a way of thinking about how media changes produce epistemic changes”. we advocate a research approach as a part of which questions such as why specific data is collected, for what purpose, and within what context – the so-called politics of archiving – are addressed from a critical (humanities) perspective. in line with berry, we aim to understand (research) culture through digital technology, and even more specifically, the ways in which digital tools facilitate everyday research practices. we interrogate the underlying assumptions about how media researchers explore av materials online. this is in line with berry’s argument that one should understand culture through the use of (and through working with) digital technology; with a focus on how people use software in their everyday practices. moreover, a reflection on the use of a digital search tool designed to afford both exploration and narrative creation, allows us to draw user-validated conclusions about how this particular tool reshapes an understanding of what it means to explore and create narratives via digital tools. it may well turn out that the ways in which the tool designers translated ideas about exploring and narrativizing digital material, do not match how the foreseen users understand exploration and narratives. we argue that exploratory search is crucial for humanities researchers who draw upon audio-visual materials in their research. recognizing relevant multi-platform sources and bringing these to attention – in an iterative fashion – greatly supports scholars in their research. supporting researchers’ explorations is especially relevant in the case of scholars studying complex mediated and/or historical events. in the first place, because audio-visual, online and digital sources are in abundance, scattered across different platforms and changing daily in our contemporary landscape. second, disruptive media events are difficult to interpret due to the challenges of grasping the immediate story. a media event is an event with a specific narrative that gives the event its meaning, and is in contemporary societies increasingly recognized as non-planned or disruptive. disruptive media events, such as the sudden rise of populist politicians, terrorist attacks or environmental disasters, are shocking and unexpected, making them especially difficult to interpret. one can even argue that in today’s crossmedia landscape, disruption has become a marker of the way in which news narratives are continually told, circulated and shared across media, formatted as breaking news. this leads to problems for researchers who analyse how narratives construct different political, economic or cultural meanings around such events. previous research argues that media events should always be viewed in relation to their wider political and socio-cultural contexts. events, as they unfold in the media, may correspond to long-term social phenomena, and the way in which such events are constructed has particular connotations. specific actors (newscasters, governments, institutions, political interest groups) use media events to build narratives in line with their own political, economic or cultural purposes – examples are stories of empathy, fear and change in relation to international media events. we argue that researchers, in turn, also build event narratives, and can therefore said to be storytellers. yet, disruptive media events, such as live broadcasting marathons of disaster, terror, and war, have not yet been researched in the context of exploratory search strategies. david m. berry, ‘introduction: understanding the digital humanities,’ in understanding digital humanities, david m. berry (ed.), palgrave macmillan uk, , pp. - . ibid, p. . ibid, p. . ibid, p. . elihu katz and tamar liebes, ‘no more peace!’: how disaster, terror and war have upstaged media events,’ international journal of communication , , - . ingrid volkmer, news in public memory. an international study of media memories across generations, peter lang, ; daniel dayan and elihu katz, media events: the live broadcasting of history, harvard university press, . césar jiménez-martínez, ‘integrative disruption: the rescue of the chilean miners as a live media event,’ in andrew fox (ed.) global perspectives on media events in contemporary society, igi publishers, , pp. - . http://dx.doi.org/ . / _ b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller searching for stories, shapes stories. prior research underlines the importance of visualizing, constructing and storing of narratives during information navigation to contextualize retrieved materials. our own research study further illuminates the role of media researchers as storytellers, and their processes of selection and interpretation when working with audio-visual sources and learning about mediated events, especially regarding search, retrieval and narrative creation. c o - c r e a t i v e u s e r s e s s i o n s our case study approach combines grounded theory – that fosters an understanding of how researchers interpret and create narratives – with usability methodologies, such as work task evaluations. first of all, this allows us to draw conclusions about how search tools and digital technologies co-construct the researcher’s professional practice. second, the data helps us probe the question how the kind of digitality of search and retrieval shapes the practice of media research, and, in extension of this, creative and storytelling processes. the research takes an interdisciplinary approach: it combines insights from media studies, as well as from information studies and science and technology studies and integrates ideas about narrative creation, search practices, and overarching notions about how users and technologies co-construct meaning. therefore, the presented research does not necessarily focus on how digital humanities’ tools have an impact on researchers’ practices, but rather analyses how researchers make use of search tools. in our user study, we collected qualitative data to answer our main question; in keeping with our user-centred approach, we (a) observed how users used the search browser by giving users search tasks ; (b) asked users specific written and verbal feedback about their user experience (questionnaires with open questions and research diaries) , and (c) collected user perspectives on the role of digital search technologies in humanities research in the shape of user-generated posters. the user study observes media researchers as they use dive+ to explore media events, across three stages: ( ) research question formulation; ( ) dive+ use; and ( ) comparative user evaluations of the dive+ browser, compared to other online search tools such as google explore, resulting in specific search narratives. while interacting with the search browser, users were observed, and asked to provide feedback on their search experience, talking aloud about their search journeys. they were subsequently asked to export the navigation paths that were generated in the dive+ browser and provide written or verbal feedback on their experiences in terms of how dive+ supports narrative creation about historical events. this feedback was, then, discussed during a focus group session, in which we asked participants to reflect on their experiences. sabrina sauer, ‘audiovisual narrative creation and creative retrieval: how searching for a story shapes the story,’ journal of science and technology of the arts, , , , - . berber hagedoorn and sabrina sauer, ‘getting the bigger picture: an evaluation of media exploratory search and narrative creation,’ dhbenelux conference, paper, utrecht university, utrecht, july ; chiel van den akker, susan legêne, marieke van erp, lora aroyo, roxane segers, lourens van der meij, jacco van ossenbruggen, guus schreiber, bob wielinga, johan oomen, geertje jacobs, ‘digital hermeneutics: agora and the online understanding of cultural heritage categories and subject descriptors,’ websci , koblenz, germany, ; maartje kruijt, supporting exploratory search with features, visualizations, and interface design: a theoretical framework, ma thesis, university of amsterdam, ; sonja de leeuw, ‘european television history online: history and challenges,’ view: journal of european history and culture , , , - . wiebe bijker, thomas hughes and trevor pinch, the social construction of technological systems. new directions in the sociology and history of technology, mit press, . barbara wildemuth and luanne freund, ‘assigning search tasks designed to elicit exploratory search behaviors,’ in proceedings of the symposium on human-computer interaction and information retrieval, acm, , p. . elaine g. toms and wendy duff, ‘’i spent , hours sifting through one large box’: diaries as information behavior of the archives user: lessons learned’, journal of the american society for information science and technology, , , , - . http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ . /asi. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ . /asi. b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller s e a r c h t a s k s users were introduced to the dive+ search browser, the overarching media suite, as well as google explore and selected online audio-visual repositories, and subsequently asked to perform a search task. search tasks are “goal-oriented activities carried out using search systems”. we developed exploratory search tasks in line with recommendations for task design. this means we tailored tasks to research situations. an example task given to the users of the dive+ browser was: example task : imagine that a media company is going to produce programmes about jakarta, beatrix (former queen and now princess of the netherlands), islam, or watersnoodramp ( north sea flood). your goal is to propose an interesting angle for one of the programmes. figure . image of heavily damaged house during north sea flood in zeeland, the netherlands. source: commons wikimedia. for an exploratory search task such as described in example task , with a specific focus on the keyword watersnoodramp (referring to the north sea flood, a natural disaster in the netherlands with casualties), this could result in an exploration path and search narrative as visualized in video . barbara wildemuth, luanne freund and elaine g. toms, ‘untangling search task complexity and difficulty in the context of interactive information retrieval studies,’ journal of documentation , , , - . pia borlund, ‘a study of the use of simulated work task situations in interactive information retrieval evaluation: a meta-evaluation,’ journal of documentation , , , - . https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/ . /jd- - - https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/ . /jd- - - https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/ . /jd- - - b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller video . exploration path : using dive+ (media suite) to search for watersnoodramp (north sea flood). another example task given to users to research a long-term media event was: example task : try looking for sources about the representation of the social acceptance of migrants, refugees and migration as a long-term event, and its impact on (dutch) society. what research questions are sparked by what you find? how do the search affordances of the online repository/ies shape your research question and your understanding of the topic? reflect on your own role as a storyteller, and how you think the tool you are using influences this role. for an exploratory search task such as described in example task , with a specific focus on the keyword vluchteling (refugee), this could result in a navigation path and search journey such as visualized in video . video . exploration path : using dive+ (media suite) to search for ‘vluchteling’ (‘refugee’). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pxwzejoe a https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s edn umgae&feature=youtu.be&hd= b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller t h e r e s e a r c h j o u r n e y research into mediated events represented on multiple media platforms (including crossmedia or multi-platform audio- visual texts) can then take the following general steps when circling around a research question and specifying your research topic. this process of the research journey follows, in an iterative fashion, the steps of explore – refine – analyse – tool criticism – write – disseminate. these are presented below in a model for grounded analysis, which answers to our discussed need for hermeneutic approaches in digital humanities, to closely consider practices and mechanisms conditioning narrative creation and for researchers to include a self-reflexive approach. explore refine analyse tool criticism write disseminate figure . the research journey: explore – refine – analyse – tool criticism – write – disseminate. . s t e p . e x p l o r e exploring the topic to acquire contextual information about the topic (exploratory search, context acquisition): a) searching for videos; b) access academic databases to explore topics, read historical overviews and articles; c) searching for av-material using faceted search to search for names, date, genre (news, documentary, current events programmes), and by broadcaster d) visiting archives physically to read newspapers on the days of the event, and the weeks/months after. making a decision about which collections/archives are of interest to search, has ramifications: are these collections accessible, in terms of ( ) their location: does the researcher need to visit the collection/archive in person, is there a digital point of access; ( ) materiality of the collection: is the collection retrievable, and in what material form (physical objects, or digitized, or digital) and ( ) contextualization, such as accessible metadata and other forms of contextualization that gives research value to the collection items. b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller . s t e p . r e f i n e refining ideas about the topic by sorting and relating sources. there are different ways to connect materials on paper (a researcher may use a mind map to draw out how sources relate) to primarily piece together: a) sequence of events; b) the different sources that are found (is it a primary source, is it a secondary source); c) draw out storylines: what do the sequences of events (described by the different sources) show in terms of a narrative, what is the story that is being told? is this a description of events. is it an interpretation of said facts? in other words, how are the disruptive events translated into a story (short or long-term narrative)? when searching in collections, the researcher can refine search for instance by title and keywords of the event or implicated persons (to see whether data is available about the event) ( ) as close to the event in time and ( ) media content that discusses the event (for example, political talk shows more distant to the event than directly after) to collect discourses surrounding the event for analysis. for each collection, the researcher should apply and source criticism. these include questions such as what media objects, subjects, places, and actors are part of the event, or what information is available to be able to study the event? and what is the position of the retrieved object in context of the larger collection it belongs to? researchers therefore critically reflect on the role of provenance, novelty, and diversity of objects and collections. . s t e p . a n a l y s e after selecting a corpus, the researcher analyses this corpus to gain insight into processes of construction and manipulation of meanings: analysing selected materials, looking specifically at how each item tells a story, or trying to piece together what is happening or has happened, per: a) type(s) of material and medium: television broadcasts, radio broadcasts, online articles (when archived), news- paper articles, interviews, scholarly articles; b) narrative discourse(s): how is the story about the event being told, what are the central keywords used in the descriptions – because this helps creating insight into the discourse(s) surrounding the event; c) what stories/narratives are told about the event? how are media trying to understand what is happening? and what do these narratives signify in terms of how we interpret media events? d) integrating findings. . s t e p , a n d . t o o l c r i t i c i s m , w r i t i n g , a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n finally, the researcher integrates findings and writes these up. during the writing process, including recording findings for dissemination, the researcher also demonstrates tool criticism – also in relation to the aforementioned step of source criticism – explicitly reflecting on and demonstrating awareness of: a) how the archive and search tools used, constrain or shape the outcome of the research process. during the writing process, the researcher therefore also needs to have access to or be able to gather information about the selection and interpretation process of the used tool and repository/database; b) how the research and dissemination practices of the researcher (contextualization, re-mix, re-use) could possible add to further contextualization of cultural heritage objects; b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller c) and finally, during the writing up of findings for dissemination, the researcher can pay particular attention to how the research gives insight into how media create lucid narratives about events that are inherently complex and chaotic, as well as scattered. this form of grounded analysis leaves room for scholars to discover unexpected insights, new narratives and discourses. discovering a multitude of narratives around the event can also be just as interesting, as it grants insight into the multi-interpretability of past events. a n a l y s i s o f s e a r c h p r a c t i c e s a n d t o o l c r i t i c i s m . u s i n g e x p l o r a t o r y s e a r c h d u r i n g r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n f o r m u l a t i o n exploratory search tools are not used very often. media studies researchers did indicate enjoyment at the freedom that exploratory search offered them, especially in terms of how it triggered research questions. for instance, media studies students with advanced experience in working with audio-visual sources and digital search tools (ba level research seminar) seemed to associate a clear research question with rigorous and intent heavy search, and exploratory search is regarded as more free flowing, aiding them in learning about facts that they would not have learned about when using more traditional sources. exploratory search in this way can help with further focusing or defining the scope of one’s research, and even with developing a research question: “exploratory search can result in new perspectives and approaches which in turn benefit the initial research” – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] humanities researchers further indicated how the randomness of source selection opened up chances for researchers to find sources that other methods might not reveal. in particular, collections that offer the possibility to search linked data (related entities) from a singular entry point, were considered to have the potential to illustrate context more than a historical account might provide. contextual understanding is also central: respondents identify quite often that exploratory search does not necessarily add to the actual research project, but to the understanding of the topic they are researching. on the one hand, this seems to be valued quite highly, but on the other hand, it does not seem to be a priority during research in general, as a group of media studies researchers concluded after collecting user perspectives on the role of digital search technologies in humanities research in the shape of user-generated posters: “overall, we do believe that exploratory search is useful but perhaps to create a general understanding of the topic you are researching, rather than to find specific information that could answer your research question” – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] . s e r e n d i p i t y exploratory search then seems to function more as a creative stimulus. makri et al. have argued that digital information environments need to support serendipity strategies to allow users to “make mental space or draw on previous experiences”. in this context, the co-creative design sessions practically point to how exploratory berber hagedoorn and sabrina sauer, ‘getting the bigger picture: an evaluation of media exploratory search and narrative creation,’ dhbenelux conference, paper, utrecht university, utrecht, july . stephann makri, ann blandford, mel woods, sarah sharples and deborah maxwell, ‘making my own luck’: serendipity strategies and how to support them in digital information environments,’ journal of the association for information science and technology, , , , - . b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller search during research question formulation and information retrieval offers potential for serendipitous browsing. serendipitous search encounters are generally characterized as fortuitous accidental findings that are the outcome of a creative act, which is either afforded by the personality type of the seeker (e.g. ‘super encounters’ have prepared minds and are open to recognize serendipitous findings) or by triggers embedded in the search system. our user studies bring into view what organization and management theorist miguel pina e cunha has described as: “[w]hile unexpected sources of knowledge are by definition impossible to locate (...) serendipitous discoveries may result from intentional exploratory search processes”. however, although finding new, unexpected narratives is important – in terms of new discoveries (!) – discovering insights serendipitously is not a goal in itself. rather, eliciting serendipity is part of the skillset of a researcher, implicitly. . a n g l e s f o r c r e a t i v e c o n t e n t in this process, for media professionals specifically, the research question is translated into searching for an angle on a topic: from macro (the bigger idea or angle) to micro. the ‘angle’ is something that depends on the perceived audience of the programme or text the professionals are creating. for instance, an informative programme for a young target audience requires a different take on the watersnoodramp (north sea flood) disruptive event, then a documentary for adults would. exploration is guided by expectations about the audience and the researcher’s own domain knowledge: how much does the professional personally know about, and how much are they personally interested in, the topic? how much exploration is afforded, also in terms of time and budget? exploration is impacted by the professionals’ poetics, meaning the practices, conditions and unwritten rules of thumb guiding the selection and interpretation processes of media professionals with different genres, programmes (for instance television history programming) and target audiences, which in turn guide practices of creative retrieval as well. the institution of the archive, and the documentalists working there, need to be included here as agents of historical knowledge, as they also reveal such particular aims, strategies and conditions regarding the providing of access, contextualization and circulation of av sources. our user studies further reveal how media professionals (journalists, television/image researchers, documentalists, documentary filmmakers, digital storytellers, and media innovation experts) often search wikipedia and youtube to find inspiration for an angle, while newspapers (in databases) are reviewed for more detailed information about and around a topic. previously made productions are also revisited: what was already made and searched for regarding the topic? professionals’ search also includes various search tricks: the use of words that will lead to interesting material (such as the search term curiosa, which is a term that only expert users of the archive system would think of). offering a browser that invites users to find inspiring and interesting material for a new angle on a topic becomes relevant for av narratives that need original content, such as documentaries or the news. sometimes the sheer elaine g. toms, ‘serendipitous information retrieval,’ delos workshop: information seeking, searching and querying in digital libraries, n.p., . sanda erdelez, ‘information encountering: it’s more than just bumping into information,’ bulletin of the american society for information science, feb/march, , - . miguel pina e cunha, ‘serendipity: why some organizations are luckier than others,’ feunl working paper series, lisbon, . berber hagedoorn, ‘collective cultural memory as a tv guide: ‘living’ history and nostalgia on the digital television platform,’ acta universitatis sapientiae, series film and media studies , ‘histories, identities, media,’ , - . pp. ; berber hagedoorn, ‘de poëtica van het verbeelden van geschiedenis op broadcast televisie,’ journal for media history/tijdschrift voor mediageschiedenis , , , - ; berber hagedoorn, doing history, creating memory: representing the past in documentary and archive-based television programmes within a multi-platform landscape, doctoral dissertation, faculty of humanities, utrecht university, the netherlands, : pp. - . sabrina sauer and maarten de rijke, ‘seeking serendipity: a living lab approach to understanding creative retrieval in broadcast media production,’ in proceedings of the th international acm sigir conference on research and development in information retrieval, acm, , - . berber hagedoorn and bas agterberg, ‘the end of the television archive as we know it? the national archive as an agent of historical knowledge in the convergence era,’ media and communication, , , , - . https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/ . /bult. https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/ausfm/ / /article-p .xml http://www.tmgonline.nl/index.php/tmg/article/view/ http://www.tmgonline.nl/index.php/tmg/article/view/ https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/ https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/ b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller amount of material is daunting, however, the media professionals feel that this needs to be browsed through. digital tools offering better support for this, is something that is met with certain enthusiasm. . m a k i n g m e a n i n g , c r e a t i n g l u c i d n a r r a t i v e s all three user groups demonstrate deeper reflections about how the tools that they used for (re)search and retrieval, inherently provide narrative elements. on an individual level, this is regarded as crucial in relation to the subjectivity of research. users reflected further on how they – meaning the user as a researcher – are not the only influential factor regarding their produced research narrative, rather their tools and their own use of these tools also impacts the way in which their research is shaped and narrated: meaning is attributed to the way one searches and conducts research – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] the meaning is formed by the search tools you use and the way that you search – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] real connections still have to be made in an old and traditional way... in the mind of the researcher – humanities researcher [respondent no. ] subsequently, the resulting search or narrative path, which represents a mediated event as a (more or less) lucid narrative, is also not regarded as neutral: “narrative is a framing tool that helps shape information” – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] (our emphasis). our research study offers practical examples of how exploratory search can, then, support interpretation and narrative creation of events, through the visualization of the navigation path. “exploratory research lets you see connections and thus shows you the meaning of av content” – media studies researcher [respondent no. ]. “when av content is put together and looked at as a set, it can become a part of a narrative with a variety of meanings” – media studies researcher [respondent no. ]. figure . narrative creation in dive+: exploration path searching for keyword ‘vluchteling’ (‘refugee’) [screenshot from video above]. b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller . t r u s t v e r s u s h i d d e n a g e n d a s on an institutional and cultural-historical level, prior media research has argued how the transmission and portrayal of any event is necessarily dependent on the attitude or demeanour of the broadcasting institution. the large-scale comparative research of the european television history network has demonstrated how “[n]o event is value-free and neither is its mediation or interpretation. historically, and across cultures and borders, values change”. however, this seems problematic when investigating and generating narratives in an exploratory search tool such as dive+. this is the case because currently, despite the fact that exploratory search and the visualization of the search path in dive+ can support narrative creation, researchers do not grasp how the tool mediates an attitude or demeanour. based on our studies, we argue that trust in the search engine, browser and archive, is usually based on prior experience. prior experience regarding search and retrieval determine the user’s expectations, their skills (for example in investigating signposts, such as the about page, for clues on the politics of archiving) and therefore their attitude towards retrieving dependable search results. as a respondent describes: “even a database has a hidden agenda (...) can i trust the algorithm?” – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis). it is also relevant to note how in dive+, a search for watersnoodramp leads to material that is dated before the time of the flood. this is interesting to the user, because it triggers curiosity about what the browser suggests. the results encountered through exploratory search are regarded as directionless in the sense that their usefulness depends on the researcher, and the project. the direction and value of the results are thus heavily dependent on the way in which they are used. in relation to our previous point that researchers currently do not grasp how the tool mediates attitude or demeanour, when it is difficult to gauge where materials and entities come from, this makes it problematic for the user to assess the usefulness of the source. in addition, crossmedia audio-visual sources are changing daily, and hence sometimes brings forward a different result due to removal of data from the database. improvements for the dive+ browser are then specifically directed towards how more transparency about entities and relations should be added: there [in another search tool] the data-triples were shown, the entities, the relation between them, these were explicitly shown. and that already gave me more inspiration ... where does this relation stem from, you could find out very quickly, by directly clicking on it ... and it was revealed that the birth place is ghent (...) it’s not immediately clear at a glance what the link is between the entities when you look at your search results – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) the experience was ok, but the interface is very cluttered. there is too much visible on the screen – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) . n e e d - t o - h a v e s o r n i c e - t o - h a v e s ? media professionals describe fine-grained selection functionalities as the ‘need-to-haves’, especially to easily refine search results beyond entity categories: clear, well-defined search fields and more filter options, including per medium to make a distinction between text, audio and video in search results. respondents argue that when such need-to- haves are lacking, the functionalities offered for exploring and linking are only ‘nice-to-haves’. professionals especially request more direct insights into in-depth relationships, stating that this is now deemed too shallow: you will quickly find relations (connections) based on general search terms, but unfortunately, i did not find the depth of the relation between beatrix and woningnood [housing shortage] – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) paddy scannell, radio, television & modern life. a phenomenological approach, blackwell publishing, . jonathan bignell and andreas fickers, a european television history, wiley-blackwell, . b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller very broad results, it’s often unclear why something is shown. you see few other relations between the results except the keyword jakarta. i had expected a concept such as the independence act’ – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) the dataset on the background is missing critical mass to deliver sufficient results – media professional [respondent no. ] professionals argue that their expressed need to give users more control over search filters, stems directly from the fact that in their professional practice, they are used to using search interfaces with many, many search fields. “the useful thing about many search fields is that you can focus very nicely on where you start and end in the definition of the field” – media professional [respondent no. ]. prior experience, again, is thus a key factor impacting the interpretation and selection experience. a n a l y s i s o f s e a r c h n a r r a t i v e s : t h e s t e e p l e a r n i n g c u r v e . e x p l o r a t i o n r o u t e s a n d m e t a - s t r u c t u r e s a s n a r r a t i v e s the search engines most often used for exploratory search by our respondents were dive+ and google explore, the google trends explore functionality. while dive+ is designed for working with audio-visual sources, the lay- out of google explore was deemed more user friendly and easier to navigate by our users. the learning curve of using dive+ made it less attractive for use from the outset, compared to google explore. this was made especially clear in our studies by respondent commentary about the difficulty in assessing both how connections between entities are established by the tool, as well as the unclear depth of the relation between entities (see also the commentary made above by respondent no. regarding that they did not find the depth of a particular relation). across all user groups, respondents expressed how the dive+ platform and exploratory search can help in guiding the user, and even aid in raising new research questions. platform functionalities and affordances can help steer or guide the researcher and at the same time can push to formulate new questions. first, exploratory search is considered by our users to demand narrow research questions. “the added value is that you can determine (...) what your topic is going to be about based on the available research data” – media studies researcher [respondent no. ]. second, exploratory search is regarded as iterative. for example, one respondent (media studies researcher, respondent no. ) described the process of exploratory search in dive/dive+ as constant revisioning of the research question based on the retrieved results. here, a search narrative is defined as a route which indicates different phases. this underscores the learning curve of exploratory search, and different phases of narrative creation for the researcher: narrative creation as an exploration route. the users’ responses show that narratives in general, and in particular research narratives, are not a fixed entity but fluid. the attached meanings are ever-changing, based on the conditions in which discourses are encountered and constructed via individuals or events. it is noteworthy that both exploratory search and narratives are classified by respondents as non-fixed. narratives are seen as to be composed of other narratives, in the sense that texts are constructed from other texts: [narrative is] a way of framing information and events, that makes certain elements strange and normalizes others, creating something like a story – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller during the process of collecting data, the narrative might change, for media researchers might find information that changes their research question and primary focus – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] importantly, users indicate here how the practice of telling narratives is, as we saw earlier for the practice of searching, based in prior experiences, and narratives are shaped by prior experiences. research itself was not considered as a narrative by all respondents. for humanities researchers especially, research was strongly considered as not a narrative: “i believe that the narrative metaphor does not really apply to my research, because i do not produce sequential data, but rather a meta-structure, which cannot be told as a story” – humanities researcher [respondent no. ] (our emphasis). media professionals were most critical whether the dive+ search path resulted in a narrative: the list of narratives is very helpful, but does not really yield a story. more like a storage of the search process – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) i mainly found general information and a further search for a relationship with an event did not offer a satisfactory outcome – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) subsequently, visualization of more in-depth relationships is requested by users as an improvement of the exploratory search browser. . m e d i a u s e r s a s s t o r y t e l l e r s i n c o n t r o l ? professionals also found that not every click should be saved in the exploration path, which not only points to giving the user more control over search functionalities like filters, as discussed above, but also more control over the lucid narrative that is generated (in the form of the exploration or search path), which can be exported offline and saved on the researcher’s own desktop: ideally this functionality [saving the search log] will not simply save my entire click history, but will retain only relevant results– media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) it would be more useful if dive[+] did not save everything itself, but only on the request of the user – media professional [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) media researchers (scholars and professionals) are, in fact, storytellers. our research outlines how researchers build narratives, and makes the role of the researcher and digital search tools in the construction of narratives explicit. this highlights the interpretative aspects of research, and research is always being interpreted in certain (social) contexts. practices of search, research and retrieval, too, frame a certain version of reality through the construction of a narrative. the researcher is framing the narrative by choosing which sources to use and not to use – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) media researchers acquire information from multiple searches and piece this information together in order to find similarities, patterns, and discrepancies. these are then put together in a storytelling format – media studies researcher [respondent no. ] (our emphasis) b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller such skills, on the one hand, seem to be something that people in modern societies are more and more used to, as well as actively developing: in our current association society , individuals function as experienced as a kind of information hunters and gatherers that collect information from different platforms or databases in logical narratives for themselves. on the other hand, our research also indicates how these skills, as well as awareness of how such skills contribute to understanding for both learning and doing research, can be better supported. . t o w a r d s s y n t h e s i s across all user groups, user explorations underline the difficulty for users to create narratives about media events, due to the fact that there is a learning curve when it comes to understanding how to inspect collections for metadata, how to compare collections, and even how to explore collections. the features and interface of dive+, especially, offers a steep learning curve. each of the tools in the media suite supports users in a particular way, but it is a challenge for users to synthesize found source materials into an overarching narrative. the ideal place for this synthesis would be the media suite’s workspace functionality, where a user can create a workspace for a particular (shared) project and to collect and inspect bookmarked materials. r e f l e c t i o n : t h e r e s e a r c h e r i n a s p l i t p o s i t i o n in this study, we have argued how narrative creation occurs during the encounter and interaction of digital search apparatuses’ attitudes, with those of the researcher. we have also pointed out differences between research fields in terms of prior skills in search and retrieval, and the expectations regarding search and retrieval that arise during the research journey. as we learned in our study, researchers themselves can also be made more aware of how, through their own search and research practices, they build narratives around events, and how this impacts the meaning making process. offering researchers the ability to explore and create lucid narratives about media events, including bringing relevant (multi-media and multi-platform) av sources to their attention, therefore greatly supports their interpretative work. we argue that this is especially prevalent in the first exploratory search stage of typical media and humanities research. exploratory search is crucial for researchers who draw upon media materials in their research, because audio-visual, online and digital sources are in abundance, scattered across different platforms, and change daily in the contemporary landscape. supporting researchers’ explorations becomes even more important when scholars study marcel broersma, ‘de associatie maatschappij: journalistiek stijl en de onthechte nieuwsconsument,’ inaugural lecture, chair journalistic culture and media, march . henry jenkins, ‘confronting the challenges of a participatory culture (part six),’ confessions of an aca-fan: the official weblog of henry jenkins, october . we have therefore, based on our studies, improved the dive+ browser with support for audiovisual annotation (also video or media annotation), especially the option for users to manually add annotation to and in-between their exploratory search path(s). marc bron, jasmijn van gorp and maarten de rijke, ‘media studies research in the data-driven age: how research questions evolve,’ journal of the association for information science and technology, , , , - ; chiel van den akker, susan legêne, marieke van erp, lora aroyo, roxane segers, lourens van der meij, jacco van ossenbruggen, guus schreiber, bob wielinga, johan oomen, geertje jacobs, ‘digital hermeneutics: agora and the online understanding of cultural heritage categories and subject descriptors,’ websci , koblenz, germany, . https://www.rug.nl/staff/m.j.broersma/oratie_marcelbroersma_ .pdf http://henryjenkins.org/blog/ / /confronting_the_challenges_of_ .html http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller disruptive media events via audio-visual sources, due to the complexity of the narrative and the audio-visual text’s representation – including re-presentation in digital heritage and memory institutions. in today’s association society, we then find the media researcher in what could be described as a split position. on the one hand, there are important new opportunities and new types of questions that can be asked, which encourages the (re)use of television archives and european audio-visual heritage, promoting engagement with cultural memory on national and international levels. the increased access and more direct availability of high-quality material, with connected metadata and contextualization makes and keeps av material valuable for research. digital tools offer significant research opportunities to identify useful data faster and over a longer research period. this also includes important multimedia and crossmedia perspectives, such as searching and linking various data sets from different collections via a singular entry point. on the other hand, there are also new challenges and new types of questions that should be asked. one challenge is that practices of crossmedia and transmedia storytelling, for instance television programme websites and social media platforms with relevant contextual information are highly susceptible to change. often there is no structural archiving of such contextual information, regarding online (web-archiving), printed and digital production documentation for a complete memory of production. furthermore, media literacy remains a considerable issue for the skill sets of both digital natives and non-digital natives. new critical questions to be asked concern the so- called politics of archiving. audio-visual sources represent a construction and selection of our reality, and their (un) availability in a database is again a selection: curators adding a further interpretative layer. in short, in the digital age, more people are part of the selection processes of the media representations we reuse and encounter as researchers. exploratory search can support researchers’ explorations of difficult to interpret disruptive media events, potentially offering serendipitous browsing and discovery of event narratives, helping users to better assess the quality of sources. however, this serendipitous browsing needs to be anchored to situated search practice of the researcher – thus, creating a tool that affords both exploration and anchoring of narratives. however, such opportunities of linked open data do require a shift in search cultures. it is therefore relevant to deconstruct how exploratory search and digital tools afford narrative creation, giving insight into the constructed quality and key perspectives that define the course and framing of mediated events. but also, how they shape narratives due to technological affordances and constraints. creating narratives whilst exploring adds understanding plus creative insights to research and learning through audio-visual materials. this process also highlights the constructed nature of narratives in general, making users aware of their own storytelling practices. based on gained experiences, respondents often expect to find exactly what they were looking for, but this is not what exploratory search offers: users thus had to open themselves up to new search learning curves and expectation management. across all user groups, exploratory search was understood as a kind of loose concept, or as research without a direction. if searching – especially in the early phases of research – produced unexpected results, it could already be regarded as exploratory, and successfully serendipitous. moreover, the respondents stressed the importance of a ‘refine step’ in the research journey, when both research questions and search queries are revisited, repeated and revised. opportunities of linked open data, then, seem to require a shift in search attitude or even search cultures. moreover, as results are interlinked across data types, platforms and databases, free association is supported by exploratory search. links which redirect users from a certain source to another were also often associated with exploratory search, and its functionality to make interconnections more visible. once users were able to recognize the value of the lack of directionality and of meandering av that exploratory search offers, they loosened their expectations of finding what they wanted to find, and rather started to focus on the value of what they happened to find whilst roaming the archive – allowing for unexpected insights into topics. b. hagedoorn and s. sauer, the researcher as storyteller we have used different methods to gain insight into users’ search behaviour, contributing to an understanding of users’ “non-purposive information practices” , as well as to the development of digital tools. reflecting on tool usage with researchers grounds the research in the professional, daily practice of the end user, and strives to embrace the complexity of digital humanities projects: balancing humanities’ and computer science concerns. digitization has changed work practices of media scholars and media professionals, and in their research practices they increasingly use digital archives to create media texts. this means that retrieving audio-visual material requires an in-depth knowledge of how to find sources digitally. our studies show how in interaction we can perhaps learn most, and more effectively, about this. a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s this research was supported by the netherlands institute for sound and vision in the context of berber hagedoorn as sound and vision researcher in residence in - and the netherlands organisation for scientific research (nwo) under project number ci- - as part of the medianow project. this research was also made possible by the clariah-core project financed by nwo, with the research pilot narrativizing disruption. the authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions, and hanne stegeman for her research assistance during data categorization. b i o g r a p h i e s berber hagedoorn (b.hagedoorn@rug.nl) is assistant professor media studies at the university of groningen. her research interests revolve around audiovisual culture, creative reuse and storytelling across screens. she received the europeana research grant award for digital humanities research into europe’s cultural heritage. hagedoorn is the vice-chair of ecrea’s television studies section (european communication research and education association) and organizes cooperation for european research and education into television’s history and its future as a multi-platform storytelling practice. she has extensive experience in media and culture studies and digital humanities through large-scale european and dutch best practice projects on digital heritage and cultural memory representation, including europeana, videoactive, euscreen and clariah. hagedoorn has published in amongst others continuum, journal for media history/tijdschrift voor mediageschiedenis, media and communication and see also https://berberhagedoorn.wordpress.com. sabrina sauer (s.c.sauer@rug.nl) is assistant professor media studies at the university of groningen, research centre for media and journalism studies. she has a background in media studies and science and technology studies, and studied as an actor prior to writing her dissertation about user-technology improvisations as a source for ict innovation. her current research focuses on data-driven creative processes, the agency of users and technological artefacts, exploratory search and algorithm development, and serendipity. apart from that, she is keenly interested in digital humanities, and questions around digital materiality. sauer has published in amongst others journal of science and technology of the arts. edin tabak, information cosmopolitics: an actor-network theory approach to information practices, chandos publishing, . edin tabak, ‘a hybrid model for managing dh projects,’ dh quarterly, , , . view journal of european television history and culture vol. , , doi: . / - . .jethc publisher: netherlands institute for sound and vision in collaboration with utrecht university, university of luxembourg and royal holloway university of london. copyright: the text of this article has been published under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial-no derivative works . netherlands license. this license does not apply to the media referenced in the article, which is subject to the individual rights owner’s terms. https://www.clariah.nl/ https://www.clariah.nl/projecten/research-pilots/nardis mailto:b.hagedoorn@rug.nl https://berberhagedoorn.wordpress.com� mailto:s.c.sauer@rug.nl http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /nl/deed.en_gb http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . .jethc _hlk _hlk experimental assessment of the quality of ergonomic indicators for dynamic systems computed using a digital human model hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on oct hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. experimental assessment of the quality of ergonomic indicators for dynamic systems computed using a digital human model pauline maurice, vincent padois, yvan measson, philippe bidaud to cite this version: pauline maurice, vincent padois, yvan measson, philippe bidaud. experimental assessment of the quality of ergonomic indicators for dynamic systems computed using a digital human model. interna- tional journal of human factors modelling and simulation, inderscience, , ( ), pp. - . � . /ijhfms. . �. �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics experimental assessment of the quality of ergonomic indicators for dynamic systems computed using a digital human model p. maurice* a,b, v. padois a, y. measson b, and p. bidaud a,c a sorbonne universités, upmc univ paris , cnrs, umr , institut des systèmes intelligents et de robotique (isir), f- , paris, france b cea, list, interactive robotics laboratory, gif-sur-yvette, f- , france c onera, palaiseau, france abstract the growing number of musculoskeletal disorders in industry could be addressed by the use of collaborative robots, which allow the joint manipulation of objects by both a robot and a person. designing these robots requires to assess the ergonomic benefit they offer. current methods use a posteriori assessment, i.e. observation of a worker performing the task, and require a physical mock-up of the robot. moreover, they exclude dynamic phenomena because their measurements require heavy instrumentation. however, collaborative robots are not static objects, but dynamic systems which motion influences and is influenced by the physical interaction with the worker. plus, the worker him/herself is also a dynamic system, on which dynamic phenomena have ergonomic consequences, even without the presence of a collaborative robot. in order to perform more thorough assessments of the ergonomic performances of dynamic systems, it is proposed to use a dynamic digital human model (dhm) for the evaluation, associated with a dedicated ergonomic metric. this paper presents preliminary results on three ergonomic indicators formulated to meet the requirements of ergonomic evaluations of dynamic systems. they evaluate respectively the position of the worker, his physical effort and the energy spent during the task. the same manual task is performed by seven human subjects under different time, load and geometric constraints. each performance is recorded and replayed with a dynamic dhm in a dynamic simulation framework, in order to calculate the values of the indicators. all three indicators are strongly affected by the geometric parameters in a way that is consistent with ergonomic guidelines. besides, a linear correlation between the values of the indicators and the strenuousness perceived by the subjects is observed. moreover, the results show that the relevance of an indicator is strongly affected by the task features, especially its duration. future work will be directed towards automatic selection of relevant indicators for a given task. keywords: ergonomics, digital human model, dynamic motion simulation, motion capture and replay. . introduction though working conditions have improved in de- veloped countries, work-related musculoskeletal dis- orders (msds) remain a major health problem. in , msds represented % of the occupational diseases and affected over % of industrial workers in europe (schneider and irastorza, ). in the us, the total cost of msd has been estimated around $ to billion per year (national research council and institute of medicine, ). hence decreasing msd is a high-stakes socioeconomic issue. the causes of msds are often multi-factorial and include different kinds of factors: personal, organi- zational, psychosocial and biomechanical (schneider and irastorza, ). however, the major risk factors are often biomechanical: most msds at least partly result from strenuous biomechanical demands caused by physical work (luttmann et al., ). replacing men by robots to accomplish hard tasks might then be considered an option to decrease the prevalence of msds. but despite the growing robotization in industry, many tasks cannot be fully automatized because of their unpredictability or their technicality. a solution is to assist the worker with a collabora- tive robot, rather than replacing him. a collaborative robot enables the joint manipulation of objects with the worker and thereby provides a variety of benefits, such as strength amplification, inertia masking and guidance via virtual surfaces and path (colgate et al., ). to ensure that the use of these devices do de- crease the risk of msds, an ergonomic assessment of the robot-worker system must be performed through- out the design process. standard ergonomic methods are based on the observation of a worker performing *corresponding author. email: maurice(at)isir.upmc.fr p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics the task (li and buckle, ), and require a physical mock-up of the robot. given that this assessment aims at guiding the design of the robot, it means a new prototype every time a mechanical parameter of the robot is changed, which is a significant limitation in terms of cost and time. besides, these evaluations usually exclude dynamic phenomena that yet affect the risk of msds, because their measurements require heavy instrumentation of the worker. an alternative is to carry out the assessment within a digital world, where modifications are simpler, and many physical quantities can be accessed at lower cost. several tools exist that offer the possibility to perform ergonomic evaluations of a workplace in a virtual environment by simulating the worker with a digital human model (dhm): e.g. delmia , jack (raschke, ), ramsis (seidl, ), sammie (porter et al., ). the manikin is animated through motion capture data, direct or inverse kinematics, or pre- defined postures and behaviors. various ergonomic assessment methods are included in these software products. the first class of methods estimates the level of risk depending on the exposure to the main msd factors. the most widely known are rula (rapid upper limb assessment), reba (rapid en- tire body assessment), owas (owako working posture analysis system), the ocra index (occu- pational repetitive action), or the osha checklist (li and buckle, ; david, ). the second class of methods consists of equations or tables that give psycho-physiological limits not to exceed in order to minimize the msd risk during manual handling operations. the most famous are the niosh equation (waters et al., ) and the snook and ciriello tables (snook and ciriello, ), which determine a maximum acceptable load weight depending on the task features. though a wide variety of methods are available, they are not suitable for the design of collaborative robots. such robots must be optimized considering the whole activity and the whole human body. but the tasks which may be addressed by these robots are various and often complex, whereas the existing assessment methods are specific either to a type of activity and/or to a body part. so the evaluation of the entire activity will very likely require the use of several methods, the results of which are mostly not homogeneous and therefore cannot be compared. moreover, what might be the main drawback of these observational methods is that they are static, meaning that dynamic phenomena are not taken into account. yet it has been established that fast motions increase the risk of msds - even when there is no interaction with a robot - because of the efforts they generate in biolog- ical tissues. in collaborative robotics, evaluating the dynamic stages of the activity is even more important because, though designed to be so, the robot is never perfectly backdrivable. some phenomena can be hard to compensate, even with a dedicated control law. in this case manipulating the robot requires extra efforts from the worker. for instance, collaborative robots providing strength amplification usually are powerful thus heavy: they are highly inertial so leaving dy- namic stages out of the assessment can lead to an underestimation of the risk. beyond these methods associated with macroscopic human body modelling, some dhm tools provide very accurate biomechanical models including mus- cles, tendons, and bones, e.g. anybody (damsgaard et al., ), opensim (delp et al., ). they can calculate quantities such as muscle force or tendon length, which are closely linked to msd (luttmann et al., ), and sometimes even include dynamic ef- fects. but such models usually require to tune biome- chanical parameters, which cannot be properly done without subject specific knowledge of the human body. besides, these tools provide a measurement for each muscle, tendon, etc. in order to represent the whole body situation these local scores have to be combined in a way that is left to the user to determine. this last criticism also applies to simpler models which provide local measurements such as forces in joints. the work presented in this paper aims at devel- oping a dhm-based ergonomic assessment method fitted for collaborative robots design. this requires the development of both a dedicated ergonomic met- ric (what to measure) and a measuring tool (how to measure) which are suitable for evaluating the ergonomic performances of dynamic systems. note that though this work targets collaborative robots, its scope is broader and actually addresses the more general issue of assessing ergonomic performances in dynamic situations. this paper focuses on the for- mulation of ergonomic indicators and their use with a dynamic dhm. in section three indicators are defined in order to meet the requirements of collab- orative robotics. an experimental validation is con- ducted to ensure that they are ergonomically consis- tent: the influence of various work conditions on the indicators values is studied. the protocol is described in section . the results are presented in section and discussed in section . section concludes on the relevance of these indicators and the associated dhm and proposes some perspectives about their use within a global assessment method. . definition of indicators ergonomic indicators should account for the main msd risk factors which are strong postural demands, high intensity forces, long exposure duration and highly repetitive exertions. the repetitiveness as well as the effect of static work (i.e. maintaining a posture www. ds.com/fr/products/delmia p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics without moving) are omitted in this work. indeed, though repetitiveness and postural change can easily be extracted from the simulation, their biomechanical impacts on the human body are hard to quantify precisely. it requires to understand how these time- frequency factors affect the human physical capaci- ties, which is closely related to the open problem of fatigue modeling and is out of scope here. it should nevertheless be noted that the purpose here is not the assessmentof theabsolute level ofrisk for the worker, but the comparison of assistive devices which are not expected to dramatically affect the work rate. the instantaneous postural risk includes two phe- nomena: the proximity to joint limits and the effort needed to maintain the posture. in reality muscular effort is not due solely to gravity, but also to the dynamic forces associated with the motion, and to the external force caused by the interaction with an object. the former are hardly ever taken into account in existing methods, while the accuracy with which the latter is considered varies much from a method to another. in order to accurately evaluate the effect of an external force on the musculoskeletal system, the repartition of the effort among the whole muscu- loskeletal system - which depends on the posture - must be computed. in this work a dhm is used to simulate the worker, so unlike with a real human, the actuation forces (joint torques or muscle forces, de- pending on the level of detail of the model) can easily be accessed without requiring heavy instrumentation. a simple rigid-body model with hinge joints actu- ation is chosen (because as stated previously very detailed models are quite difficult to use), so these forces correspond to joint torques. since the dhm is animated within a dynamic simulation, the joint torques result from the inverse dynamical model of the manikin. they include all three effects: gravity, dynamics, and external force. despite their various origins, these three phenomena all have the same consequence on the musculoskeletal system, so they are considered together in the risk assessment. on the contrary, the effect of the proximity to joint limits is of a different kind. though the combination of several msd factors increases the risk, the way they interact is not well-established. so it is preferred here to evaluate them separately rather than trying to mix them together. since disorders may appear as soon as the demands exceed the worker’s capacities, a way to estimate the risk is to compare each demand with its limit value. since dhm ergonomic assessments - like most er- gonomic studies - are at a population level and not at a personal level, average capacities for joint range of motion and maximal joint torques are used (holzbaur et al., ; chaffin et al., ). the influence of joint angles and velocities on maximal joint torques is currently omitted, though models of this phenomenon can be found in the literature (chaffin et al., ). however the influence of force-induced fatigue is included. instead of being constant throughout the task, the torque capacity of joint i (i representing successively each hinge joint of the human body model) is affected by the force exertion according to the following evolution law (ma et al., ): τmaxi (t) = τ max i ( ) e −k ∫ t τi(u) τmax i ( ) du ( ) where k is a fatigue rate assigned to min− , τmaxi ( ) is the nominal torque capacity of joint i (before any effort), and τmaxi (t) and τi(t) are respec- tively the torque capacity and the torque exerted by joint i at time t. for both the joint angles and torques, the resulting normalized demands on every joint are added to form a score representing the whole body situation. this instantaneous score is time-integrated to provide a score representing the whole activity, taking into ac- count the duration factor. the resulting indicators are iq for the joint positions and iτ for the joint torques: iq = n n∑ i= ∫ t ( qi(t) − qneutrali qmaxi − q neutral i ) dt ( ) iτ = n n∑ i= ∫ t ( τi(t) τmaxi (t) ) dt ( ) where n is the total number of joints in the body model, t is the duration of the task, qi(t) and τi(t) are the angle and the torque of joint i at time t, qmaxi is the joint angle capacity (joint limit), qneutrali is the neutral position of the joint, and τmaxi (t) is the joint torque capacity at time t defined in equation . the joints neutral positions qneutrali are defined accord- ing to the reba comfort zones, by taking the joint angles associated with a minimum score in the reba evaluation. the resulting posture is standing upright, arms along the torso, elbows flexed at °. this so- called (in this work) ”neutral ergonomic posture” is defined by considering only the stress due to the proximity to joint limits: the effort needed to maintain the posture is not taken into account, since such effort is accounted for in the torque indicator. in the literature, fatigue caused by physical work is often determined through metabolic energy expendi- ture (garg et al., ). metabolic energy expenditure computation is included in some dhm software (e.g. jack, ema (fritzsche et al., )), but it is restricted to specific tasks for which tables are available (or it requires a very detailed biomechanical model of the human body). here, the torque indicator iτ (eq. ) note that this rigid-body model necessarily leaves aside the effects of additional msds factors such as temperature and vibra- tions. p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics already indirectly represents energy consumption, in particular in static postures. in order to directly take into account the energy consumption during motion, another indicator based on joint power is added: ip = n n∑ i= ∫ t | q̇i(t) τi(t) | dt ( ) where q̇i(t) is the velocity of joint i at time t. though it does not strictly correspond to metabolic energy expenditure, the association of iτ and ip gives an idea of the macroscopic energetic consumption. . validation of indicators an experimental validation is carried out to ensure that the above-defined indicators correctly account for the relative exposure level to msd risks in dy- namic situations (i.e. in tasks including motion). hu- man subjects perform a manual task in various con- ditions while their movements and external forces are recorded. each case is replayed with a dynamic dhm, in order to compute the corresponding indi- cators values. their variations are qualitatively in- vestigated to highlight their dependence on the task conditions. . . experimental protocol a) task description: a generic manual task is performed . a seated subject moves a tool along a displayed path while pushing on the work surface with it. the tool is a g and cm long handle held with the whole right hand. the path is a cm square. two sides are replaced respectively with a sinusoidal line and a sawtooth line, to accentuate the joints dy- namics (see fig. ). its size is chosen so that the task demands wide joint clearance yet remains feasible by a seated subject. performing the task means following the entire path once. the subject is instructed not to use his left arm nor his legs. b) parameters: four parameters vary throughout the experiment: the orientation of the work surface, the position of the seat relative to the work area, the allotted time and the magnitude of the force to be applied. table : values of the parameters describing the position of the seat. h stands for horizontal and v for vertical: they refer to the orientation of the work plane. height distance orientation low: cm (h) close: cm ° right (v) close: cm medium: cm (h) far: cm ° left (v) far: cm high: cm ° (face on) the work surface is either horizontal or vertical. the various positions of the worker’s seat are described in fig. and table . the close and medium values are chosen to match ergonomic guidelines for seated work (chaffin et al., ). all combinations are tested except horizontal - close - high because the legs do not fit under or in front of the table, and ° right is only done for close - medium for reachability reasons. from the right work plane distance height from above orientation work plane distance from the left work plane distance height from behind work plane orientation height path path pathpath figure : definition of the parameters describing the posi- tion of the worker’s seat for the horizontal (top) and vertical (bottom) work planes. the distance parameter is measured from the center of the subject’s seat to the border of the path closest to the subject. the allotted time and the magnitude of the force define three varieties of the original task, described in table as neutral, force and velocity. the force magnitude in the ”force” task is slightly lower than the maximal force capacity, calculated for this par- ticular movement according to (afnor, ). the subject is provided with an audio feedback of the exerted force: low-pitched, high-pitched or no sound when the force is respectively too weak, too strong or within the imposed range. the allotted time is displayed through a progress bar on a screen, and the subjects are instructed to move the tool as regularly it should be noted that the present experiment does not include interaction with a robot or other dynamic systems. however, as mentioned in section , the proposed method addresses any situ- ation including dynamic phenomena, starting with tasks requiring motion of the worker. p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics as possible along the path. all three tasks - neutral, force and velocity - are performed in random order for both orientations of the work plane and for each seat position. breaks are regularly allowed to prevent fatigue. the task (following the path once) is short enough and the breaks long enough so that force capacities are fully recovered at the beginning of each new task (i.e. the fatigue model of eq. is used only within one task but not across tasks). table : values of the time and force constraints. task allotted mean hand force kind time velocity magnitude neutral s . m.s− none velocity s . m.s− none force s . m.s− n ± . n c) subjects: seven healthy subjects ( males and females) ranging from to years old perform the experiment for the horizontal work plane, and three of them also for the vertical work plane. table describes their physical features. their movements are recorded with a codamotion motion capture device. the subjects are equipped with markers on their torso, right arm and hand, and on the tool. the seat is set on a force platform to measure the ground contact forces. the contact forces with the work surface are measured through a force sensor embedded in the tool. during the experiment, the subjects give each gesture a mark between and , depending on how strenu- ous the task is perceived. table : physical features of the human subjects: stature and body mass index (bmi). stature (m) min max mean std dev horizontal plane . . . . vertical plane . . . . bmi (kg.m− ) min max mean std dev horizontal plane . . . . vertical plane . . . . . . indicators calculation a) simulation framework: once recorded and fil- tered, the data are imported in the xde simulation framework developed by cea-list . it allows for dynamic simulation and provides a dhm (see fig. ) which can be animated through several customizable ways. the model consists of joints and degrees of freedom. each dof is a hinge joint controlled by a sole actuator. this hinge joint representation is a simplified model, therefore the joint torques of the model do not strictly correspond to the efforts in real human joints (for instance, the dynamics of muscles activation is not rendered). however, it should be noted that the proposed indicators are not dependent on the human body model used for the simulation: they can equally be used with a more detailed model if available. the human model is automatically scaled according to the stature and mass of the subject. each body segment is further manually modified to match the subject morphology. figure : left: a human subject performs the task while his motion is recorded. right: the motion is replayed with a virtual manikin within a dynamic simulation framework. b) manikin control: the motion is replayed by solving an optimization problem to determine the actuation variables (joint accelerations, joint torques and ground contact forces) which allow to follow the markers trajectories at best, while respecting physical and biomechanical constraints. the lqp controller framework developed by salini (salini et al., ) is used. mathematical formulation of the problem is given in equation . argmin x ∑ i ωiti(x) s.t.   m(q)ν̇ + c(q, ν) + g(q) = s τ − ∑ j j t cj (q)wcj gx ⪯ h ( ) where τ is the joint torques, wc the contact forces, q the generalized coordinates of the system (i.e. vector of joint positions), ν the generalized velocity con- catenating the floating-base twist and the joint ve- locities q̇, and x = (τ t , wct , ν̇t )t . the equality constraint is the equation of motion: m is the inertia matrix of the system, c the vector of centrifugal and coriolis forces, g the vector of gravity forces, s the actuation selection matrix, and jtc the jacobian of contacts. the inequality constraint includes the bounds on the joint positions, velocities, and torques (all formulated with the problem variables τ and q̈), and the contact existence conditions for each contact point, according to the coulomb friction model: ccj wcj ≤ ∀j jcj (q)ν̇ + j̇cj (ν, q)ν = ∀j ( ) www.codamotion.com www.kalisteo.fr/lsi/en/aucune/a-propos-de-xde p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics where cj is the jth contact point, ccj the corre- sponding linearized friction cone, and wcj the contact wrench. note that the values of the contact forces in- suring the balance of the system (here the interaction between the seat and the dhm’s thighs) do not need to be known beforehand: they are automatically com- puted in the optimization, in order to be compatible with the system dynamics and the effort exerted by the hand on the tool (which needs to be given as an input of the optimization) . the objective function is a weighted sum of tasks ti - defined as functions of the optimization vari- ables - representing the squared error between a de- sired acceleration or wrench and the system acceler- ation/wrench (ωi are the weighting coefficients). the solution is then a compromise between the different tasks, based on their relative importance. the follow- ing tasks are defined (tasks can be defined both in joint and in operational spaces): • operational space acceleration task ∥ẍi − ẍ∗i ∥ = ∥jiν̇ + j̇iν − ẍ ∗ i ∥ • joint space acceleration task ∥q̈ − q̈∗∥ • operational space wrench task ∥wi − w∗i ∥ • joint torque task ∥τ − τ ∗∥ where ẍi is the cartesian acceleration of body i, and wi the wrench associated with body i. the superscript ∗ refers to the desired acceleration/force, which are defined by a proportional derivative control. for in- stance, the desired operational acceleration is: ẍ∗i = ẍ goal i + k xi v (ẋ goal i − ẋi) + k xi p (x goal i − xi) ( ) where kxip and k xi v are the proportional and deriva- tive gains for the considered task (they are parameters set by the user). the superscript goal refers to the tar- get value for the body or joint. though the tasks need to be described in terms of the optimization variables (joint accelerations, joint torques and contact forces) for the problem to be solved, position or velocity can also be controlled with the proposed task model. for instance, an operational space position task (put body i at a given cartesian position, with null velocity and acceleration) is defined by setting ẍgoal and ẋgoal to zero. similarly, the desired joint acceleration is: q̈∗ = q̈goal + kqv(q̇ goal − q̇) + kqp(q goal − x) ( ) where kpp and k p v are the proportional and derivative gains for the considered task. in this work, the operational space acceleration tasks are defined from the markers trajectories. the weights are chosen accordingly to the technique by demircan (demircan et al., ), though here weighted instead of hierarchical control is used. the markers associated with limbs extremities and the pelvis are given the biggest weight, then the weight decreases when the body is further away from the extremities. contrarily to inverse dynamics methods, the contact forces with the seat are not imposed here, but result from the optimization problem. so the only cartesian force task is the contact force with the tool. the desired value is given by the force sensor mea- surement. low weight joint position tasks are added for the body parts that are not controlled through the markers positions, so that there is no unwanted motion. finally there is a joint force task which aims at minimizing the joint torques to prevent useless effort. its weight is very small since it must not hinder the other tasks. . results the following results depict the variations of the indicators depending on the task features. values are averaged on all subjects since the indicators are not meant to be subject specific. for the sake of clarity, the values in each figure are normalized by the min- imum and maximum values of the addressed case. note that unless explicitly stated, the duration of the task is not normalized for the computation of the indicators. . . position indicator a linear correlation is observed between the posi- tion indicator values and the strenuousness perceived by the subjects when considering tasks of similar duration. the pearson’s correlation coefficients are respectively . (p= . ), . (p< . ) and . (p< . ) for the neutral, force and velocity tasks con- sidered separately, and . (p< . ) for the neutral and the force tasks considered together. however this coefficient drops to . (p< . ) when the velocity task, which is approximately times shorter than the others, is added. this suggests that the proposed position indicator is only relevant to compare tasks of similar duration. comparison within a same task: • seat distance and orientation: the indicator is higher (t-test, p= . ) when the subject sits further away from the work area (see fig. ), because he has to deviate much from the ”neutral ergonomic posture” to reach the path. what actually matters is the distance from the path to the right hand, which handles the tool. this explains why the left orienta- tion seems better than the face one (see fig. ), and why the right orientation, though associated with a close position, is roughly equivalent to the far cases. • seatheight: in close position, thebest seatheight according to the indicator is the medium one when the work plane is horizontal, and the high one when it is vertical. these results are ergonomically consistent: in the horizontal case, the medium height was cho- p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics sen in accordance with ergonomic guidelines; in the vertical case, the high height requires less work with the arm raised, a position discouraged by ergonomic guidelines. • work plane orientation: for a same position of the seat, the indicator values are significantly higher (t-test, p< . ) in the vertical case than in the hori- zontal one (see fig. ). the center of the path is set higher in the vertical case, so it requires the subject to work with the arm raised. besides the imposed tool orientation (axis normal to the work plane) and whole hand grasp lead to unusual arm angles when the work plane is vertical (elbow higher than shoulder). seat distance and orientation seat height work plane orientation fr - fc cl - fc cl - rg cl - lf fr - lf lw md hg lw md hg verticalhorizontal lf : left fc : face rg : right fr : far cl : close lw : low md : medium hg : high min max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . strenuousness figure : variations of iq depending on the position of the subject’s seat and the work plane orientation (neutral task). the numbers correspond to the strenuousness perceived (between and ) by the subjects. fr - fc cl - fc cl - rg cl - lf fr - lf lw md hg lw md hg min max lw md hg artificial velocity neutral force seat distance and orientation seat height task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lf : left fc : face rg : right fr : far cl : close lw : low md : medium hg : high strenuousness figure : variations of iq depending on the position of the subject’s seat and the kind of task: neutral, force or artificial velocity (vertical work plane). the numbers cor- respond to the perceived strenuousness. the strenuousness is not displayed for the artificial velocity task since this task has not been performed by human subjects, therefore its strenuousness has not been evaluated (and normalizing the perceived strenuousness would be meaningless). comparison between different tasks: as stated be- fore, the position indicator does not seem suitable to compare tasks which duration differ significantly. therefore, in this section, the durations of the tasks are artificially equalled so that the results of the three tasks can be compared. to this purpose, an artificial velocity task is created by replaying the whole gesture with the dhm six times consecutively (the real veloc- ity tasks is six times shorter than the neutral and force tasks). note that this artificial velocity tasks is an approximation since the simulated gesture is identical the six times, whereas a real subject would probably show variations in his/her gesture. the artificial ve- locity task results in the smallest values of the position indicator (see fig. ). actually, the allotted time for one loop on the path is so short that the path has to be smoothed, thus requiring less extreme joints angles. on the other hand the difference between the neutral and force tasks is not statistically significant. despite the force exertion, the subjects do not modify their posture much, either because it is already strongly constrained by the imposed hand trajectory and seat position, or because the demanded external force is small enough not to require any change in the posture. . . torque indicator a good correlation between the torque indicator values and the perceived strenuousness is observed within a same task (pearson’s coefficient equals re- spectively . (p< . ), . (p< . ), and . (p< . ) for the neutral, force, and velocity tasks) or when the neutral and force tasks are considered together (pearson’s coefficient equals . (p< . )). but the correlation coefficient drops to . (p< . ) when all three tasks are considered together. simi- larly to the position indicator, the proposed torque indicator is not suitable to compare tasks of different durations. comparison within a same task: the torque indica- tor is highly affected by the position of the subject rel- ative to the work area, because of the effect of gravity on his body segments (see fig. ). the further away the seat is from the work plane, the more the subject must deviate from an upright position, needing higher joint torques to maintain this posture. min max lf : left fc : face rg : right fr : far cl : close lw : low md : medium hg : high horizontal work plane seat height seat distance and orientation lw md hg fr - fc cl - fc cl - rg cl - lf fr - lf force task neutral task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lw md seat distance and orientation hg fr - fc cl - fc cl - rg cl - lf fr - lf seat height force task vertical work plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . neutral task figure : variations of iτ depending on the external force and the seat position. left: horizontal work plane. right: vertical work plane. the numbers correspond to the per- ceived strenuousness. comparison between different tasks: in this sec- tion, the artificial velocity task (where the motion is replayed six times consecutively with the dhm) is considered instead of the real velocity task, in order to compare tasks of similar durations. indeed, as men- p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics tioned above, the torque indicator seems suitable only to compare tasks of similar durations. • external force: when the work plane is vertical the torque indicator of the force task is significantly higher (p= . ) than the one of the neutral task, whereas they are not significantly different (p= . ) in the horizontal case. this can be explained by the fact that in the horizontal case, gravity helps pushing downwards on the workplane. in the neutral task subjects need to exert an upward torque to counter the effect of gravity and maintain their arm, whereas in the force task, the arm weight is useful to ease the downward pushing effort and therefore does not need to be compensated in the same way. this phe- nomenon does not exist for the vertical workplane, since the direction of gravity and of the pushing force are orthogonal. fr - fc cl - fc cl - rg cl - lf fr - lf lw md hg lw md hg min max lw md hg artificial velocity neutral force seat distance and orientation seat height task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lf : left fc : face rg : right fr : far cl : close lw : low md : medium hg : high strenuousness figure : variations of iτ depending on the seat position for all three tasks velocity, neutral and force (vertical work plane). the numbers correspond to the perceived strenuous- ness. the strenuousness is not displayed for the artificial velocity task since this task has not been performed by human subjects, therefore its strenuousness has not been evaluated (and normalizing the perceived strenuousness would be meaningless). • speed of motion: the torque indicator of the ar- tificial velocity task is significantly higher (p= . ) than the one of the neutral task, because the faster dy- namics of the movement induces higher joint torques (see fig. ). however, according to the torque in- dicator, this increase in the joint torques is not as important as the one due to the external load in the force task. . . power indicator contrarily to the two previous indicators, the correla- tion between the power indicator and the strenuous- ness is fairly good when all three tasks are considered together (pearson’s coefficient equals . (p= . )), and does not improve when each task is considered separately (pearson’s coefficients equal respectively . (p= . ), . (p= . ) and . (p= . ) for the neutral, force and velocity tasks). this suggests that the power indicator is suitable to compare tasks of different duration. comparison between different tasks: in this sec- tion, the real velocity task (where the motion is re- played only once) is considered, since there is no need to equal the tasks durations with the power indicator. • speed of motion: though the velocity task lasts much less than the two others, its power indicator is only slightly lower (see fig. ). this is explained by the fact that the joint velocities are much higher in the velocity task,resulting in a much higher instantaneous joint power compared to the neutral and force tasks. the kinetic energy spent during the whole task is therefore about the same in all three tasks, but in the velocity task it results from a high power during a short time, whereas in the neutral and force tasks, it results from a lower power during a longer time. • external force: contrarily to the torque indica- tor (see fig. left), the power indicator of the force task is often lower than the one of the neutral task, especially when the seat is far. this result is quite unexpected because a same allotted time and a very similar posture (see section . .) should lead to same joint velocities for both tasks, and therefore iτ and ip should have similar variations. this difference is probably due to the fact that the allotted time is not strictly respected (note that the task duration is not normalized in the indicators com- putation). because the time constraint is not displayed on the path itself, the subject tends to move slightly slower in the force task to better control the force magnitude (especially when his/her posture makes it hard to control). the joint velocities are then slightly smaller, and so is the joint power, given that the joint torques are not very different in the neutral and force tasks for the horizontal plane (see section . .). fr - fc cl - fc cl - rg cl - lf fr - lf lw md hg lw md hg min max lw md hg velocity neutral force seat distance and orientation seat height task lf : left fc : face rg : right fr : far cl : close lw : low md : medium hg : high strenuousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure : variations of ip depending on the seat position for all three tasks velocity, neutral and force (horizontal work plane only). the numbers correspond to the perceived strenuousness. . discussion according to the previous results, the proposed indi- cators account quite correctly for the way a task is performed. their main variations are ergonomically, or at least physically, consistent, and the few unex- pected results seem to come from ill-adapted choices in the task definition (external force magnitude and direction, display of the time constraint) rather than p. maurice, ergonomic indicators for collaborative robotics from the indicators themselves. however, all the indicators are not equivalent de- pending on the task features (i.e. on what is com- pared). according to the correlation with the stren- uousness, the position and torque indicators do not seem suitable to compare tasks of different durations. on the contrary, this remark does not apply to the power indicator. on the other hand, when consid- ering tasks of similar duration, the position and the torque indicators generally account more accurately for the strenuousness perceived by the worker than the power indicator. therefore, previously to carrying out a comparison, it is necessary to select the relevant, i.e. the most discriminating, indicators for the given conditions. in most cases there may be several relevant indica- tors. when addressing the position of the seat, the variations of the position and the torque indicators are mainly similar (the closer, the better) and they both show a good correlation with the strenuousness, so one could be tempted to keep only one of them for their study. however these indicators are not redun- dant and sometimes bring antagonistic conclusions: for the best seat distance (close - left), the best seat height is the high one according to the position indi- cator whereas it is the low one according to the torque indicator (see fig. and right). this opposition may explain the disagreement between subjects’ prefer- ence - i.e. perceived strenuousness - (low seat) and the position indicator recommendations (high seat) in the close cases. indeed, the strenuousness sum- marizes different kinds of demands (posture, static effort, dynamic effort...) in one value and is therefore an ”aggregated” indicator. whereas the ergonomic indicators proposed in this work consider different kinds of demands separately. more generally, the design of a workstation - or a collaborative robot - usually results from trade-offs. so this work does not mix several kinds of demands within a sole indica- tor, because considering antagonistic effects within a same task is easier this way. several indicators can be used in a multi-criteria optimization in order to design a robot which is as good as possible regarding every msd risk factors. finally, it should be noted that the indicators pro- posed in this work leave out some important phenom- ena related to msd. in particular the co-contraction of antagonistic muscles, which occurs mainly in tasks requiring high precision (gribble et al., ), is not modelled. consequences of this omission can be observed in the linear relation between the strenuous- ness and the torque indicator: the y-intercept is bigger in the force task ( . ) than in the neutral task ( . ). the increase in the joint torques during the force task is underestimated in the simulation because it only takes into account the external load (the manikin is not preoccupied with precision), whereas the human subjects must accurately control the force they apply on the work plane, which requires an additional effort due to co-contraction. the omission of the co-contraction phenomenon is not due to the indicator formula, but to the repre- sentation of the human body, in which each joint is controlled by a unique actuator. however this phe- nomenon could be modelled without changing the body model, by using a variable impedance in the manikin control (i.e. adapting the gains kp and kd in equations and ). a higher stiffness allows a more accurate gesture and corresponds to a higher effort. but this has not been implemented since it requires a control law performing trade-offs between the precision and the exertion, which is out of scope here. nevertheless, the indicators proposed in this work are not intended for medical purpose (e.g. real exposure level to msd risk factors) but for guiding the design of assistive devices, so this evaluation, though incomplete, is still a first step in the right direction. . conclusion three ergonomic indicators adapted to the needs of collaborative robotics have been proposed. they con- sider the position and the effort of the worker, and the energy he spends performing a task. an experimental validation has been carried out on seven subjects, in order to study the influence of several task features (geometric, force and time constraints) on the indi- cators values. the subjects’ movements have been recorded with a motion capture system, and replayed with a dynamic dhm to compute the indicators. the indicators show a linear correlation with the strenu- ousnessperceived by the subjects, and their variations are consistent with ergonomic guidelines and physi- cal considerations. those results suggest that the proposed indicators could be used to compare collaborative robots in the design process. however, each indicator provides different information, so their relevance is highly dependant on the task considered. further work will be directed towards the development of a method for selecting the relevant set of indicators depending on the task features, in order to perform a multi-objective optimization. references afnor , . 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konstantin belousov [ − − − ], and svetlana chuprina [ − − − ] perm state university, bukireva str. , , perm, russia kostya.ryabinin@gmail.com, belousovki@gmail.com, chuprinas@inbox.ru abstract. this paper is devoted to the development of the web application for the visual analytics of the interconnected data within digital humanities research highly adaptable to the specifics of application domain and personal analytics preferences. the circular graph is proposed as a visual model to depict the in- terconnected data in a comprehensive way. the graph rendering software is or- ganized according to the model-driven architecture utilizing ontology engineer- ing methods and means, which ensure configuration flexibility and modification ease. the functioning scenarios of the application’s visualization component can be changed without its source code modifications, just by editing the underlying ontology that describes data processing and rendering mechanisms. extraction, transformation, loading and rendering of the data are configured in the intuitive way by data flow diagrams with the help of a high-level graphical editor. the described features are demonstrated on the real-world examples from the digital humanities application domain. keywords: visual analytics, circular graph, data filtering, data comparison, ontology engineering, digital humanities. introduction many tasks in digital humanities (dh) research involve the processing of the linked data, wherein the graph theory appears to be a powerful methodological and technolog- ical base for solving associated problems. taking into account the specifics of dh, the considered data are normally quite big, but their handling requires human attendance and cannot be fully automated. one of the key means to help dh specialists to fulfill their everyday work is scientific visualization and visual analytics (va) that allows to present related data in an observable interpretation-ready form. our goal is to develop an ergonomic and flexible tool for graph-based visualization of interconnected data copyright © for this paper by its authors. use permitted under creative commons li- cense attribution . international (cc by . ). ? the reported study is supported by ministry of science and higher education of the russian federation, state assignment no. fsnf- - . k. ryabinin et al. that allows comprehensive va within dh research. the new high-level component for circular graphs’ visualization is presented to tackle data filtering problems and improve the cognitive power of visual analytics. ontology-driven data extraction, transformation and loading (etl) mechanism is proposed to enable obtaining the data from different sources and process them in a flexible way. the software developed is demonstrated by solving the problems from applied linguistics domain. background and related work va is no doubt a powerful methodology to conduct research in a field of dh, but, as indicated in [ ], nowadays there is a noticeable talent gap between the va scholars and digital humanists. while dh and va have a huge potential of coevolution, the research results presented in the literature are typically valuable either only for dh, or only for va, and rarely for both simultaneously [ ]. this is because dh projects often lack researchers with deep computer science skills, and consequently have to rely on the ex- isting general-purpose visualization tools, instead of driving the actual software devel- opment. but in that case, some tasks remain unsolved because of traditional software limitations [ , ]. w. huang et al. tackle this problem by proposing a so-called user- centered approach to the process of visualization making (graph-based visualization in particular). this approach ensures the creation of cognitive graphics tools, which devel- opment comprises design and evaluation stages [ ]. on the design stage, “the designer applies design principles and chooses the visualization best supporting perception and cognition”, and on the evaluation stage “visualization is evaluated to understand how cognitive processes are affected” [ ]. similar, but slightly less formal approach is proposed by s. jänicke, who describes an “ideal” va+dh project as a close collaboration between the computer scientists and digital humanists, where each visualization feature proposed is immediately tested and validated in terms of its viability for dh research and then either approved for further development or rejected [ ]. working on our va tools, we have chosen this exact strategy. for graph visualization, the gephi system is traditionally used [ ]. being feature- rich, this system, however, provides instruments for layout the graphs of free structure, while we found out, that sometimes the circular graphs [ ] are more comprehensive by depicting data sets. moreover, as stated in [ ], it is often desirable to have the graph visualization tools in a web application, without installing additional software. an important point of graph visualization is the data preparation stage. to ensure the intuitive and flexible data preparation process we suggest to declare its steps by data flow diagrams (dfds) [ ]. a lot of popular visualization software use such an approach, for example, blender, maya, substance designer, etc., so it proved its effi- ciency in terms of data processing and rendering pipeline declaration. we use model-driven architecture based on the ontology engineering methods [ ] to achieve the configuration flexibility and adaptation of the software to the specifics of the application domain without source code modification. we construct the ontologies within visual editor ontolis [ ]. graph-based visual analytics in digital humanities... our previous research work was dedicated to the development of ontology-driven scientific visualization and va system called scivi [ ]. this system is portable across all the popular platforms (windows, gnu/linux, macos, ios, android). it is orga- nized as a client-server application, having both thick (native, written in c++ using qt framework) and thin (browser-based, written in typescript and javascript, utilizing html and css ) clients. the behavior of this system is fully controlled by underly- ing ontologies, which allow deep reconfigurations of scivi, extension of its etl and data rendering capabilities, whereby leveraging adaptation to the completely new vi- sualization and analytics tasks without changing the source code of its core. faced the problems in a field of dh during the case study of verbal and nonverbal behavior of so- cial network users, we built the graph va toolset upon the scivi [ ]. tried out different graph layouts, we focused on the circular one because of its good readability [ ]. we implemented a graph visualization scivi component (called scivi::cgraph) as a web application in typescript utilizing pixijs rendering engine. the graph nodes are uniformly distributed on a circle and the edges are drawn as quadratic bézier curves with the control point in the circle’s center. different slices of data can be displayed on the same graph using a scale of states that allows fast switching between them. data slices can be organized in a hierarchy, therefore this scale supports multiple levels. examples of different graphs can be found online: https://graph.semograph. org/cgraph/. scivi tools have been integrated into semograph information system [ ]. semo- graph is aimed to solve different dh tasks involving methods of computational linguis- tics by supporting a wide range of operations on the textual content, including tagging, classification of terms, building semantic relations, etc. the integration with scivi al- lowed to utilize advanced visualization features including the rendering of graphs. etl mechanism the conceptual scheme of the data processing within the scivi system is shown in fig. . currently, csv format is used to transfer data from semograph into scivi, since export to this format is natively supported by semograph. however, it is easy to switch to any other data representation since the etl mechanism of scivi is very flexible. this mechanism is implemented within the scivi data processing module and driven by the ontological knowledge base. underlying ontologies describe different data formats and data interpretation rules, as well as available data preprocessing filters and data visu- alization techniques. thanks to this, changing or extending these ontologies is enough to alter scivi behavior adapting it to the new va tasks. but the changing of ontolo- gies requires knowledge engineering skills, thereby is unwanted for the end-users and is dedicated to the system administrator. the end-users are provided with a more high-level steering instrument: data flow editor. this scivi module (based on the rete javascript framework) implements a https://scivi.tools https://www.pixijs.com https://rete.js.org/ https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/ https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/ https://scivi.tools https://www.pixijs.com https://rete.js.org/ k. ryabinin et al. fig. . data processing pipeline within scivi. graphical user interface (gui) to compose a data processing algorithm from the high- level building blocks utilizing dfds. the example of dfd describing the extraction of data from an arbitrary csv file is shown in fig. . fig. . dfd defining etl and data visualization in scivi. each node in the dfd represents a particular step in data obtaining, processing or visualization. for example, “csv table” defines file reading; “get range” allows to specify the subset of values within the csv table; “make nodes” sets up the composi- tion of the graph nodes internal representation; “make graph data” corresponds to the stage of interconnecting the graph nodes with weighted edges; “circular graph” defines the data rendering using scivi::cgraph visualization component. links between dfd nodes depict the data flow and their color is bound to the type of transmitting data. the set of available dfd nodes’ types correspond to the set of operations on the data available in scivi. it is constructed automatically according to the underlying ontology and presented to the user as a toolbar palette. each data processing operation has its graph-based visual analytics in digital humanities... own description that may be altered or extended to change the actual behavior of the entire system. for example, the ontology fragment describing “csv table” is shown in fig. . fig. . fragment of scivi ontology describing csv table reader. it can be seen, that “csv table” node is treated as a data source, has csv file as a setting parameter and table of values as an output. the actual implementation of this data reader is described by the “csv table worker” concept in the ontology. this concept has an internal attribute (not drawn in the figure, since the figure shows concepts and relations only) with a link to the javascript code fragment that implements csv reading with help of papaparse library. an important part of “csv table” description is “clientsideworker” concept. it identifies that the reading and parsing takes place within the browser (on the client side), without sending the data to the scivi server. although the scivi architecture allows server-side processing, currently the amounts of data we faced in our tasks were small enough to be handled locally. visual analytics component scivi::cgraph va component accepts the data in json representation. once the user has created the dfd for the particular task and started the visualization, this component renders the graph and provides its own gui allowing different interactions with that graph, including zooming, panning, nodes and edges selection, data filtering, etc. the most important distinctive features of scivi::cgraph are described below. . multilevel ring scale in case, when a classification of graph nodes is defined, scivi::cgraph draws a special ring scale around the graph to visually highlight the given nodes’ classes. the number https://www.papaparse.com https://www.papaparse.com k. ryabinin et al. of rings in this scale is potentially unlimited, so the nodes’ classifier can have multiple levels. a special tree view in a sidebar of the graph allows to explore the classifier and switch the visibility of nodes belonging to individual classes. colors of the ring sectors, which depict the classes, can be assigned manually, but also set automatically based on the special heuristic algorithm that maps the classifier’s hierarchy to the hsv color model in a way the neighbor ring sectors have distant colors to be visually distinguish- able. to evaluate different hypotheses, the user can change the order of scale rings by drag and drop, command the graph to sort the nodes accordingly and set the color of nodes to the color of any ring sector they belong to. these interactions help to find out, which order of hierarchy levels is the most meaningful one in terms of structuring the interconnected data. fig. shows the results of the correlation analysis of topics extracted from stories told by informants as self-presentation [ ]. the sample of informants is bal- anced by sex, age, and education level. graph nodes depict self-presentation texts, edge thickness represent correlations coefficients (all correlations are positive; all coefficients below . are filtered out). social (education level: secondary, higher) and demographic (sex, age group) parameters are shown on the ring scale groping the nodes accordingly. the groups are nested according to the order of the rings. a b c fig. . correlation of topics in self-presentations, grouped by age (a), education (b), and sex (c). the aim is to find out, which parameter dominates by grouping the informants to- gether. related to dh it means to find, which social / demographic informant groups consolidate more by talking about themselves. related to the graph theory it means to find, which layout of nodes provides their better clustering. the proposed mechanism of the ring scale reordering allows quick checking of different variants and inspecting them visually. while fig. a (topmost grouping by age) and b (topmost grouping by edu- cation level) look messy, fig. c reveals significant dense “community”, corresponding to the stories told by females (at the same time, there is almost no correlation between the interactive graph is available online: https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/ aboutmyself/index.html https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/aboutmyself/index.html https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/aboutmyself/index.html graph-based visual analytics in digital humanities... males’ stories). further interpretation of this material is outside of this paper’s scope, but the corresponding milestone of related dh research is considered to be reached. it is worth noting, that it took less than a minute to find this solution using scivi::cgraph. . equalizing filter sometimes the noisy data on a single graph may have a non-uniform distribution of the noise strength. in this case, filtering the entire data set with the single threshold appears to be meaningless and threshold adaptivity is required. we often face this problem in multipartite graphs comprising interconnected data of different nature, or data, which parts were differently preprocessed. to tackle this problem, we propose a so-called equalizing filter that can have individual parameters for selected groups of nodes and edges (resembling the sound equalizer that can differently affect selected parts of the spectrum). currently, the equalizing filter within scivi::cgraph operates as a set of range- based cutoff functions tied to the ring scale. by default, there is one global cutoff func- tion (affecting the entire graph), but, if needed, the user can add auxiliary local ones for any sector of the ring scale. if a node or an edge is affected by multiple cutoff func- tions (global one and multiple local ones according to the hierarchy of the ring scale), their ranges are intersected to build the resulting filter. node or edge is filtered out if its weight lays outside the functions’ range intersection. the practical use case of the equalizing filter is demonstrated in fig. . fig. . relationships between the verbal behavior of social network users and their psychological characteristics. k. ryabinin et al. this figure represents the filtered data of the relationships between the verbal be- havior of social network users (snus) and their psychological characteristics. the psy- chological parameters are obtained by two questionaries (personality features and self- esteem) [ ] fulfilled by the sample of snus. the verbal behavior is revealed with the help of the linguistic analysis from the comments written by these users in social networks. the filtering is individual for each psychological parameter because each of them has its own statistical features (minimum, maximum, average, standard deviation). this approach allows leaving only the dominant indicators for each psychological pa- rameter. fig. demonstrates, that after equalizing the indicators, it can be revealed that the snus of the female gender, who use obscene words in the public social network space, are characterized by low self-esteem, low conscientiousness, low agreeableness, high neuroticism, middle openness, and low extraversion. . graph state calculator to visually compare the structure of data slices displayed in the graph, we implemented a special graph state calculator. it allows to perform a sequence of basic set operations on the graph states: union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference. fig. demonstrates the states of “moscow” geoconcept. in this research, under the term “geoconcept” we understand a set of collective opinions about a geographical object. these opinions can be revealed from the associations people come up with [ ]. graph nodes represent the semantic categories of associations (extracted according to the special classifier within semograph system), edges identify the co-presence of linked categories in the analyzed associates (derived from a group of informants). the actual structure of geoconcept presented as a set of association categories depends on the region. in this experiment we collected datasets: in perm (fig. a), biysk (fig. b) and orenburg. the state scale (drawn below the graph) provides quick navigation be- tween these data sets and makes it possible to visually compare them. however, to make this comparison more elaborated and meaningful, set operations can help. as an exam- ple, fig. c shows the intersection of perm and biysk data sets, allowing to view their common parts. thus, the graph state calculator provides a good basis for conducting comparative dh studies and facilitates the process of interpreting research results. conclusion thanks to the features discussed, scivi::cgraph allows advanced interactive va of interconnected data in dh. according to the feedback from the dh researchers of perm state university, this tool outperforms traditional graph analysis software like gephi in the tasks, which require special analytics features. like scivi va system, the interactive graph is available online: https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/ psycho_reduced/index.html the interactive graph is available online: https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/ geoconcepts_reduced/index.html https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/psycho_reduced/index.html https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/psycho_reduced/index.html https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/geoconcepts_reduced/index.html https://graph.semograph.org/cgraph/geoconcepts_reduced/index.html graph-based visual analytics in digital humanities... a b c fig. . states of “moscow” geoconcept as viewed in perm (a) and biysk (b) along with their intersection (c). scivi::cgraph is an open-source project licensed under the terms of gplv : https: //github.com/scivi-tools/scivi.graph. scivi::cgraph is being iteratively developed in close collaboration with dh spe- cialists and each new feature is immediately evaluated in real-world research projects (in exact accordance with the cooperation model described in [ ]). for example, scivi::cgraph was used by exploring the egocentric field of speaker in the macedonian language [ ], in the study of social network users’ speech within the research project of perm state university supported by ministry of education and sci- ence of the russian federation, state assignment no. . . / . [ ], and by the semiotic analysis of geomental maps [ ]. also, scivi::cgraph was utilized in the sir- ius education center within the project “images of large russian cities in the linguistic consciousness of senior schoolchildren” [ ]. taking into account the needs of conducted dh research, we plan to extend our scientific visualization system scivi with new feature-rich visualization components for free structure graphs, graphs with volumetric d layout and graphs pinned to geo- graphic maps. we would like to thank alexey gorodilov, elena erofeeva and ekaterina khudyakova for fruitful discussions on the papers topic. references . linguists of perm university became curators of scientific research at the educa- tional center ”sirius”. http://www.psu.ru/ ( ), http://www.psu.ru/news/ lingvisty-permskogo-universiteta-stali-kuratorami-nauchnogo- issledovaniya-v-obrazovatelnom-tsentre-sirius, last accessed aug . ageev, a.: a triangle-free circle graph with chromatic number . discrete 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research digital humanities doctoral seminar usmb - august & - september dr. maria papadopoulou - prof. christophe roche firstname.lastname@univ-savoie.fr summary this doctoral seminar is an introduction to digital humanities defined as the application of methods and tools from information and communication technologies to areas of arts, humanities and social sciences. rather than a simple application of computer tools, digital humanities offer a multidisciplinary perspective that has recently led to rethinking certain practices, e.g., in the acquisition and representation of knowledge in the field, and opened up new perspectives for the disciplines concerned. in the framework of this training, the focus will be on the digital representation of cultural objects in the form of linked and open data accessible by means of standards of the semantic web. to validate the acquired knowledge, the seminar includes a full day of hands-on practice on how to query and to structure data in cultural heritage collections. available dates august - ☐ september - ☐ prerequisites no prerequisites other than basic digital literacy. workload contact hours ( hours + hours morning and afternoon session) over days, of which: - digital humanities: hours - ontology & knowledge representation: hours - lod & semantic web: hours aims the aim of this course is to teach the concepts, skills, technologies and tools underlying the digital humanities in the era of linked open data. it will introduce students/researchers to the standards of the semantic web or web of (structured) data, especially those necessary to building ontologies for the humanities. learning outcomes at the end of the course the students/researchers should be able to: . understand the relationship between ontology and digital humanities . understand and use ontologies in the context of digital humanities . understand and discuss fundamental concepts, advantages and limits of ontologies for digital humanities . reflect critically about the concept of ontological modelling, and the state of the art of research at the intersections of ontology and digital humanities. . explain the possibilities of digital tools for ontological modelling in the areas of the humanities and cultural heritage. . perform hands-on modelling with cmap tools, protégé and tedi. . present their own model of ontologies on knowledge areas related to the topics of the course. suitable for - students/researchers who wish to advance their knowledge of innovative, interdisciplinary applications in the domain of the humanities, including methods from symbolic artificial intelligence (ontology, knowledge representation) - students/researchers in the humanities (anthropology, archeology, history, languages, linguistics, literature, music, philosophy, etc.), - students/researchers in cultural heritage studies (material culture, built environment, intangible cultural heritage), museum studies, - all interested in digital tools for humanities and cultural heritage, - all interested in conceptualization, classification, standardization and knowledge representation teaching method & materials ▪ tutorials and practical sessions ▪ slides provided by the lecturers resources seminar slides, worksheets required software one or more of the following tools will be used, subject to the students’/researchers’ background and particular interests: for graph diagrams with arcs and nodes, we will use cmaptools: http://cmap.ihmc.us/ a very easy to use open source tool developed at the florida institute for human and machine cognition, usa. downloadable from https://cmap.ihmc.us/products/ for rdfs and owl ontologies, we will use protégé . . , an open source tool developed at stanford university, usa. downloadable from: http://protege.stanford.edu/download/download.html. for ontoterminology building we will use tedi . , a software application developed by c. roche at the university of savoie-mont blanc. a demo version will be made available for the use of those who attend. https://cmap.ihmc.us/products/ http://protege.stanford.edu/download/download.html programme st day: digital humanities & knowledge graphs : am - : am: introduction to digital humanities, lod & sw the first half-day is an introduction to digital humanities, linked and open data, and the semantic web. we will see, in particular, the different definitions and the history of digital humanities. this introduction will be illustrated with several examples from fields as different as virtual reality (virtual museum visits), computer processing (nlp) of text corpora, image processing, content management (cultural object databases), etc. since the web has become the most important medium for publishing cultural heritage contents, we will introduce the basic notions of linked open data and the semantic web. we will end this first half-day with kerameikos, a linked and open data project representing and linking different collections of ancient greek vases. : pm - : pm: knowledge graphs the second half-day will be devoted to the representation of cultural data so that they can be shared and accessed on the web. knowledge graph is a special kind of database which stores knowledge in a machine-readable format and provides a means for information to be collected, structured, shared, searched and utilised. we will see the w c languages for data representation (rdf standards). we will also learn how to query such knowledge bases from the web (sparql language). participants will query the knowledge graphs of dbpedia, national library of france and condillac research group. nd day: ontology & practical works : am - : am: ontology the w c recommendations for knowledge graph building are intended to be as broad as possible (rdf, skos, owl). the specific knowledge of a domain will be represented as ontologies in knowledge engineering. an ontology defines the specific concepts and relationships of the domain that will be used to represent and organise the cultural objects. this will be followed up with hands-on ontology building practice in three available software platforms for building domain ontologies: cmaptools (florida institute for human & machine cognition), protégé (stanford center for biomedical informatics research), tedi (condillac- listic, usmb). : pm - : pm: the case of ancient greek kraters the last half-day session is dedicated to an implementation of the notions, principles and tools for the construction of knowledge graphs within the framework of digital humanities. we will use as example the ontology of kraters, (‘’krater’’ is a term that denotes the vessels used for the mixing of the wine with water in the greco-roman world.) https://www.w .org/standards/semanticweb/ http://kerameikos.org/ https://www.w .org/rdf/ https://www.w .org/tr/rdf-sparql-query/ http://o dh.com/projects https://data.bnf.fr/en/ http://o dh.com/projects https://www.w .org/ / /skos/ https://www.w .org/ / /skos/ https://www.w .org/standards/semanticweb/ontology https://cmap.ihmc.us/ https://protege.stanford.edu/ http://ontoterminology.com/tedi http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/tools/pottery/shapes/kraters.htm journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com http://jrmdc.com special issue digital humanities in ancient jewish, christian and arabic traditions guest editors: claire clivaz, paul dilley, david hamidović, mladen popović, caroline t. schroeder and joseph verheyden about the editors: claire clivaz (author of this introduction) is head of digital enhanced learning at the sib. she leads her researches in an interdisciplinary way at the crossroads of new testament studies and digital humanities, analyzing digital transformations of knowledge. she leads the development of etalks, a multimedia publication tool (etalk.vital-it.ch), and a swiss national fund on the arabic manuscripts of the pauline letters (wp.unil.ch/nt-arabe/ and tarsian.vital-it.ch), and she participates with six other european partners in an erasmus+ strategic partnership in digital humanities (dariah.eu/teach). she is a member of several scientific committees (adho steering downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com committee, eadh steering committee, igntp, humanistica, etc.) and editorial boards (nts, digital religion de gruyter, etc.). she is co-leading a series with david hamidovic by brill (“digital biblical studies”), and also co-leads research groups in dh (sbl, eabs). paul dilley (ph.d. , yale university) is an assistant professor of ancient mediterranean religions at the university of iowa, and a member of the public digital humanities initiative. he has published widely on early christian asceticism/monasticism, manichaeism, and apocryphal literature. david hamidović (ph.d. , sorbonne university) is full professor in the chair of “jewish apocryphal literature and history of judaism in antiquity” at the university de lausanne (switzerland). he has published monographs and articles on ancient judaism and digital humanities. mladen popović is professor for hebrew bible, ancient judaism and the dead sea scrolls at the university of groningen in the netherlands. he runs an erc project on digital palaeography and the dead sea scrolls, combining quantitative approaches from artificial intelligence and qualitative approaches from the humanities to shed new light on ancient jewish scribal culture and textual communities. mladen popović is also director of the university’s qumran institute, which hosts research that integrates the study of ancient judaism and the dead sea scrolls within the ancient mediterranean and near eastern world at large. caroline t. schroeder is professor of religious studies at the university of the pacific, where she was also director of the humanities center from to . her research concerns asceticism and monasticism in early christianity, with a particular focus on egypt. her full biography is included in her contribution to this issue. joseph verheyden (dr. theol. , leuven) studied theology, philosophy and oriental languages and culture at the university of leuven. he is currently professor downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com of new testament studies in the faculty of theology and religious studies at the university of leuven. his research interests include the synoptic gospels, apocryphal literature, and the reception of the nt in the early church. he is a member of sbl, snts, cba, and several other international scholarly associations. he is on the board of several international journals and is the editor in chief of the journals ephemerides theologicae lovaniense and the journal of eastern christian studies, and of the series bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium, biblical tools and studies, and eastern christian studies. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com digital humanities in ancient jewish, christian and arabic traditions: introduction to the special issue claire clivaz, swiss institute of bioinformatics, vital-it contact: claire.clivaz@sib.swiss to cite this article: clivaz, c., . digital humanities in ancient jewish, christian and arabic traditions: introduction to the special issue. journal of religion, media and digital culture ( ), pp. -‐‑ . online. available at: . this special jrmdc number brings together articles based on eight papers presented at the digital humanities (dh) consultation of the annual meeting of the society of biblical literature (sbl), titled digital humanities in biblical studies, early jewish and christian studies - . our editorial board has been the steering committee of these consultations, which have now been confirmed as a section for the - annual meetings . these eight articles focus on digital humanities (dh) in ancient jewish, christian and arabic traditions. the first part of this introduction focuses on general considerations concerning the encounter between digital culture and biblical and religious studies, and introduces the first article by caroline schroeder. the second part of this introduction maps a number of key issues across the digital humanities which appear in the seven specific case studies presented in the other articles in this issue. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com . dh in biblical and religious studies: what is at stake? the first article in this issue has been written by a member of our editorial board, caroline t. schroeder, a leading figure of the digital turn in religious studies, as evidenced by the project coptic scriptorium that she is co-leading together with amir zeldes (http://copticscriptorium.org/). schroeder’s article, titled “the digital humanities as cultural capital: implications for biblical and religious studies”, represents a tour-de-force overview of the digital turn in our fields. defining and characterizing the dh is a recurrent and open-ended task, so such an overview aims at what is essentially a moving target. scholarly discourse reflecting on and evaluating the digital turn in biblical and religious studies has only just begun to develop, as attested to by the creation of two new book series in . the first of these series is published by de gruyter, titled introduction to digital humanities: religion (idh) . the second series is published by brill, titled digital biblical studies (dbs). these two book series reflect some of the major trends in dh and religious studies at this moment, so they merit careful consideration here. idh religion will be a series of about twelve introductions addressing specific areas of study at the intersection of digital humanities and the study of religions, suitable for students as well as scholars of religion who may not be familiar with the digital humanities. the scope of the series is wide in terms of methodological approaches (sociology, philology, literary studies, cultural studies, etc.), and the editorial board includes scholars from religious studies and theology. the dbs series by brill (www.brill.com/dbs) is born from our own research groups at sbl and eabs (european association of biblical studies). the associated editorial and scientific boards again include scholars from religious studies and theology, even though the title of the series clearly refers to the bible. the series aims to publish the latest research focusing on the junction of digital humanities, biblical studies, ancient judaism, and early christianity. the primary areas of focus are the digital editions of ancient manuscripts, and the evolution of research on big data and close reading. several ancient languages are included in the scope of the series, including ancient greek, hebrew, latin, arabic, coptic, and syriac. the focus here is downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com clearly on texts and textuality, which have been the center of jewish and christian studies for centuries, while archeology and art history were considered side disciplines. data visualization and the resulting digital storm will surely contribute to progressively transforming this aspect of the series. the encounter between textual studies and cultural or visual studies will also be a challenge for de gruyter’s idh series, whose editorial board includes sally promey, director of the inspirational center for the study of material and visual cultures of religion (http://mavcor.yale.edu/). how will the series accommodate such approaches alongside the traditional philological and codicological study of religious texts? this relatively new question will probably remain an issue for several decades in religious studies. as has been argued since (clivaz a; clivaz ), digital culture leads us into an increasingly multimodal culture with plural literacies on a daily basis: humanities, often assimilated to the scholarly traditions focused on letters and cultural heritages (historical fields and textual studies), are facing today important upheavals notably related to the growing use of information and communication technologies. […] culture – that was absolutely bound to the writing, the book and its institutions (universities, libraries, archives, churches, associations) – is reshaped out of the book (new forms of oral, visual and written cultures), and out of the institutions that were relatively controlling it (clivaz and vinck , ). in digital culture, one can speak of ’unbound humanities’, or in french, ‘les humanités délivrées’, a wordplay that can be translated as ‘liberated humanities’ or as ‘out of the book humanities’. to go ‘out of the book’ is particularly challenging for biblical and religious studies, which have been so eager to promote the idea of “religions of the book” since the middle of the th century. the concept was however, born quite late, coming from printed culture (clivaz b, ). in this special issue of jrmdc, we present an approach focused on textual studies, since all the authors belong to this sphere. however, in a pre-digital world, this volume could easily have been considered interdisciplinary, from the point of view of the philological fields represented by our authors. ancient religious textuality is the downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com common denominator of all the articles, but the parallel births of the idh and dbs series demonstrate that in the next few years biblical and religious studies will have to deal with methodologically mixed issues far beyond textual worlds. from this viewpoint, the overview article by schroeder that begins this issue has to be understood as “the digital humanities as cultural capital: implications for [textual] biblical and religious studies”, demonstrating the expansion of textual studies to include “multimodal layered worlds, worlds of empowerment, engagement, and interactivity” (schroeder this issue). in this article, schroeder focuses on two major questions: what does it mean for biblical studies to be marginal to the digital humanities when dh is a field positioning itself as transformative for the humanities and is increasingly regarded as influential in academia? how can our expertise in biblical studies influence and shape digital humanities for the better? paradoxically, the particular skills and needs of a marginal field within a marginal field can be a strong motor in the digital humanities. schroeder uses the text encoding initiative (tei) in her research on coptic studies, but “the marginal status of coptic studies and other subfields within biblical and religious studies is expressed within the text encoding initiative (tei) guidelines themselves” (schroeder this issue; see also clivaz and hamidović ). as schroeder points out: we in religious and biblical studies know that the push for uniformity, even if well-intentioned, has political consequences. it effectively marginalizes those who do not conform the tei community is self-aware regarding this issue, though i would argue more work could still be done to interrogate how standards function in digital humanities—work that biblical and religious studies scholars know much about doing. and so we hope together with her that “marginalia can change canon”, in the digital humanities as well as in biblical and religious studies. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com this first general background section cannot be concluded without proposing a general definition of digital humanities. despite so much having been said on this particular point, it is useful to recall a simple definition presented on the ucl website: digital humanities is an important multidisciplinary field, undertaking research at the intersection of digital technologies and humanities. it aims to produce applications and models that make possible new kinds of research, both in the humanities disciplines and in computer science and its allied technologies. it also studies the impact of these techniques on cultural heritage, memory institutions, libraries, archives and digital culture (ucl n.d.). to this definition, one can add that every year dh is increasingly becoming a qualification of “humanities” rather than a separated field. we are decisively heading towards the “digitized humanities”, as proposed in the title of a harvard magazine article, which suggests that: scholars traditionally begin projects by figuring out what the good research questions are in a given field, and connecting with others interested in the same topics; they then gather and organize data; then analyze it; and finally, disseminate their findings through teaching or publication. scholarship in a digital environment raises questions about every aspect of this process. for example, in gathering and organizing data. (shaw , ) when we look at the seven other articles of this special jrmdc issue, we find clear illustrations of this phenomenon. there are three general dh issues that one can identify in these articles: the reshaping of knowledge by digital listing and cataloging; the tension between the quest for coherence and resisting asymmetry; and the work of markup as an epistemological challenge. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com . from seven case studies to general dh problematics . reshuffling the world by digital lists david allen michelson’s article, “mixed up by time and chance? using digital media to ‘re-orient’ the syriac religious literature of late antiquity”, masterfully illustrates a generic epistemological challenge in dh: when data are digitally listed and mixed-up, categorizations used in the printed culture are overcome and new forms of knowledge appear. this general idea was presented in (clivaz a, - ; clivaz forthcoming), based on umberto eco’s book the infinity of the list ( ). eco begins by remembering the poetic function of the list since homer as a privileged way to express something that exceeds “our capacities of control” (eco , ). eco traces this “list effect” in joyce’s and borges’ poetics, as well as in the foucauldian heterotopia: eco claims that “the list becomes a way of reshuffling the world, [an] invitation to accumulate properties in order to bring out new relationships between distant things, and in any case to cast doubt on those accepted by common sense” (eco , ). in a unique but powerful paragraph on the internet, he draws attention to the digital list: finally, we come to the mother of all lists, infinite by definition because it is in constant evolution, the world wide web, which is both web and labyrinth, not an ordered tree, and which of all vertigos promises us the most mystical, almost totally virtual one, and really offers us a catalogue of information that makes us feel wealthy and omnipotent, the only snag being that we don’t know which of its elements refers to data from the real world and which does not, no longer with any distinction between truth and error. (eco , ) umberto eco was surely not inclined to jump into the digital era, and remained a philosopher rooted in print culture, where the publication of expertise in books gives one the impression of a clear line between printed truths and floating errors. yet everything he describes as the “list effect” in the infinity of the list can be verified as such by the example of the “mother of all lists”, the web. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com michelson clearly demonstrates and analyzes this concept in his article. working on the british library’s collection of approximately syriac manuscripts, michelson explains how two important th century scholars, wright and cureton, have shaped their cataloging work with narratives of civilizational and theological superiority. from a cultural studies perspective, michelson underlines that “in british possession, the manuscripts became a treasure and trophy to the triumph of nation, church and crown [….] neither cureton nor wright was inclined to find rationality in the existing organization or binding of the manuscripts by the monks” (michelson this issue). lucidly facing this scholarly heritage, the digital collaboration syriaca.org: the syriac reference portal (http://syriaca.org/) will differ from earlier scholarship by creating “linked open data in a graph database, the use of non- hierarchical visualization tools, attention to database design so as to enable fluid or even conflicting perspectives, and engagement with the diverse audience needs which arise from traditional cultural materials” (michelson this issue). hierarchy between authors and genre effects will be avoided or at least significantly diminished. other examples of “reshuffling the world” (eco , ) by digital lists are shown in this special issue in the articles by jan krans and jeanne-nicole mellon saint-laurent. mellon saint-laurent presents the gateway to the syriac saints, a database project developed by the portal syriaca.org, and argues that the digital project illuminates how much “hagiographers created relationships among saints to promote their communities […]. it is precisely this interconnected nature of syriac hagiography that makes it so amenable to tei encoding and linked data” (mellon saint-laurent this issue) krans, for his part, proposes a new inquiry into jakob wettstein’s work, which has never been considered beyond the usual limits of literary genres. wettstein is well-known for his th century new testament edition, but all the implications of his work will only be revealed when the digital world finally allows for the consideration of all his written production, including letters, documents and so forth. krans shows that “wettstein’s life and work, notably his great new testament edition, form an ideal candidate for a dh project, with both state-of-the art and pilot aspects” (krans this issue). one can only hope that this proposal can someday be tested. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com . between aspiration to coherence and resisting asymmetry when new methodologies or tools are developed, scholarly enthusiasm is always needed. it is obvious that if the authors of these eight articles were not digitally enthusiastic, they would not have written their texts. however, caroline t. schroeder prudently concludes her article with a note of caution: please do not misconstrue my argument as claiming that the digital humanities can ‘save’ an imperiled biblical studies or religious studies […]. rather, i argue that digital humanities needs our critical engagement. (schroeder this issue) this critical engagement appears absolutely crucial when facing a computing world that may otherwise emerge as a case of “smoke and mirrors”. such an attitude does not mean, of course, that scholars should express no enthusiasm at all, but rather that such feeling should be critically checked. james libby gives us an example of critical enthusiasm in his article “proposing some new ecliptics in new testament studies enabled by digital humanities-based methods”, in which he considers “digital humanities as a voice speaking into the fractures of contemporary nt studies” (libby this issue). libby advocates for a “serendipitous, coherentist designs”, beyond what he sees as a “fragmentation in nt studies” (libby this issue). such a declaration reminds one of mark allan powell’s reaction to the s emergence of narrative criticism in biblical studies, which was often promoted as overcoming of the ‘spiritual drought’ of historical approaches: “narrative criticism stands in a close relationship to the believing community […]. the presence of mythological and supernatural elements, which has troubled modern interpreters for decades, ceases to be a problem” (powell , ). such desires for a more coherent and less disruptive reading of the nt can, of course, be mapped within specific christian theological contexts, but there is no doubt that emic and etic approaches will be increasingly mixed in the digital future of religious and biblical studies. however, more generally speaking, such aspirations downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com echo the fact that the digital trend can raise expectations of a simpler, well organized and fully searchable universe. gayatri chakravorty spivak, a famous post-colonial literary scholar, is afraid that cultural specificities and derridean asymmetry could be forgotten amongst the globalized approaches of “cultural heritage” projects (caruth , - ; clivaz a, ; dilley forthcoming). even the use of encoding has to be critically engaged with, as schroeder reminds us: yet, the orthodox hermeneutics of encoding are more gadamerean than derridean, maintaining a faith in a text object with its own semantic integrity, where meaning is produced in dialogue and in relationship with the encoding itself as well as the encoding community. (schroeder this issue) textual objectivity, even if it is a very sensitive topic in religious and biblical studies, is a parameter that remains inscribed in and continues to influence the entire history of literary studies. we all have to revise our expectations and standards inherited from printed culture in order to determine what we should consider as a text and how we study it. the method of stylometry surely has the potential to raise the biggest expectations, but it also has limits depending on what we try to get from it. one of the major dh figures in stylometry, jan k. rybicki, offered a powerful talk at the second eadh day in march , the summary of which is available online: “advocatus diaboli : lost in distant reading?” (rybicki ). in a humorous tone, noticing that “all began so well”, he points to the great achievements in stylometry : “we can show you pretty and colorful tree diagrams or networks, and they seem to be growing bigger every year. don’t get me wrong: i am still very proud of how th[e] cluster analysis tree[s].” he courageously faces the hottest open question on the topic: distant reading threatens to lose any possibility of being reunited and combined with close reading when the corpora we analyze become big data, or at least a literary/humanist version of big data […]. unless we find new ways of marrying distant with close, of reading our big (or biggish) data, it might find itself in a stalemate. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com dh is now being provoked into answering rybicki and his insistent questions. as for our immediate fields of enquiry, it is perhaps worth creating a space for enthusiasm about stylometry, as david wrisley does. wrisley’s article “modelling the transmission of al-mubashir ibn fatik's mukhtar al-hikam in medieval europe” represents a fine stylometric study in his field. wrisley includes texts in castillian, latin and french to check the reception of this medieval arabic text from a trans-linguistic and supra-national approach. he summarizes his article as putting “medium-scale stylometry into practice in the field of comparative literature and translation studies for the exploration of large text collections, and [suggesting] how quantitative methods could be deployed in translingual corpus-level literary research” (wrisley this issue). he remains nevertheless conscious of the limitations of the approach, acknowledging that stylometry could in some cases lead to “unchanging results”, and this seems indeed to be the case: a computational modeling approach to examining the place of a translation of a work from arabic in the discursive community of the french court has confirmed what was suggested by literary historians, namely that tignonville sits within a network of early french humanism (wrisley this issue). rybicki is leading dh research towards new epistemological questions for stylometry, but it is crucial to let religious studies scholars like wrisley test such analysis enthusiastically, even if the initial results do not seem at first glance to change the face of the world. testing belongs absolutely to the digitization of humanities, where each document remains a specific human production. welcoming enthusiasm could even lead to welcome surprises. james libby, coming from a computing and biblical background, leads a fine algorithmic analysis of a famous qumran fragment, q , which has been sometimes claimed to be a new testament fragment, an opinion not shared by libby. he concludes that: downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com regardless of the final identification of q , at least two broader findings are clear. first, the worked exercise has uncovered serious inadequacies in the de facto method of identifying fragmentary texts. second, the new databases, algorithms and software tools enabled by the digital humanities have yielded new identifications that are superior stichometrically and orthographically compared to the de facto approach currently being used (libby this issue). unexpected new developments seem to be on libby’s agenda, as he points out at the end of his article. indeed, by contacting the israel antiquities authority to get a copyright for the present jrmdc article, we have learned that about new photos of the fragment are available, with substantial new information to boot. libby has been invited to travel to israel to study and discuss the new photos there, with plans to write another article. between the unescapable aspiration to coherence and the valorization of the resisting asymmetry, the scholarly community has to move forward by practicing a communal discernment of the digitally moving frontiers between reality and unreality. on such matters, this peircean statement remains inspiring: the very origin of the conception of reality shows that this conception essentially involves the notion of a community, without definite limits, and capable of an indefinite increase of knowledge. and so those two series of cognitions – the real and the unreal – consist of those which, at a time sufficiently future, the community will always continue to reaffirm; and of those which, under the same conditions, will ever after be denied (houser , ). such an approach is a good way to answer umberto eco’s fears: to see the “mother of all lists” promising us “of all vertigos the most mystical, almost totally virtual one”, but “with any distinction between truth and error” ( , ). in digital times, it is not the cover of the book that will draw the frontier between truth and error anymore; the digital community is now in charge of maintaining the distinction between real and unreal. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com . markup as epistemological challenge our final topic, the work of mark-up, designates digital editions as a crucial point for all scholars involved in textual studies, whether they are in religious and biblical fields or not. several articles in our volume evoke mark-up – mainly tei – but two are particularly focused on this aspect and represent linguistic fields less present in tei projects: hebrew and arabic. the three authors of “some initial reflections on xml markup for an image-based electronic edition of the brooklyn museum aramaic papyri”, chip dobbs-allsopp, christopher hooker and gregory murray, present: a collaborative project of the brooklyn museum, princeton theological seminary, and west semitic research, the digital brooklyn museum aramaic papyri (dbmap) [that] is to be both an image-based electronic scholarly edition of the important collection of aramaic papyri from elephantine housed at the brooklyn museum and an archival resource to support ongoing research on these papyri and the public dissemination of knowledge about them (dobbs-allsopp, hooker and murray this issue). they test and attempt to apply all tei possibilities to their specific language and document, and note in conclusion that: what we have just reviewed in terms of xml markup seems to us revolutionary, either technically or theoretically. the surprise remains the general absence of a scholarly discussion of such issues in the field. in part we suspect this is because most of the digital-based text projects in the field to date have been dominantly entrepreneurial in motivation and orientation and not conceived as research or scholarship (dobbs-allsopp, hooker and murray this issue). the question is absolutely urgent and important: as long as encoding is considered an ‘infrastructure task’ – whether or not it is related to the entrepreneurial world – and downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com stays disassociated from research thinking and needs, we will be hardly able to speak about digitized humanities. in textual studies we claim to be language specialists, and yet we usually continue to consider neither code as real writing, nor encoding as a language. much has to be done here, and critical code studies has tried to make scholars sensitive to this aspect. in , the computist neal stephenson wrote an essay that should now belong to all dh students’ curricula: in the beginning… was the command line. the os unix is clearly presented as a language, including an oral tradition: windows and macos are products, contrived by engineers in the service of specific companies. unix, by contrast, is not so much a ‘product’ as it is a painstakingly complied oral history of the hacker subculture. it is our gilgamesh epic […] unix is known, loved, and understood by so many hackers that it can be re-created from scratch whenever someone needs it [...] unix has slowly accreted around a simple kernel and acquired a kind of complexity and asymmetry that is organic, like the roots of a tree, or the branchings of a coronary artery (stephenson , l. - ). so the floor is ours, open to us, the humanist scholars: why are we studying so many cultures and languages, but not this one? the “infrastructure-research based” continent is our next terra incognita to be explored. thus i hope to see more research projects in dh daring to cross these boundaries. last but not least, giuliano lancioni and n. peter joosse lead us in the discovery of a fascinating arabic project, “the arabic diatessaron project: digitalizing, encoding, lemmatization”. this is an international research project in digital humanities that aims to collect, digitalize and encode all known manuscripts of the arabic diatessaron (see diatessaron.org). the authors note that previous critical editions ( and ) have contributed to hiding the transmission history, rather than giving access to it. instead, the authors took advantage of the possibility offered by digital encoding to make all variants on the same basis available to users [.…] from the point of view of user downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com experience, the lack of a ‘preferred reading’ makes switching from one reading to another extremely simple: the user just selects a different reading or a set of different readings to compare, and the system performs a quick query that provides relevant information to the user (which normally the editors would have provided) (lancioni and joosse this issue). even if such remarks sound rather like pragmatic choices born from the history of a specific case, they show quite clearly how a digital encoded edition can totally transform the notion and the tasks of the critical edition. the homer multi-text project valorized the history of reading rather than a lost urtext, and furthermore considers the text first and mainly as a document, and has opened ways to go further in such a direction (clivaz b, ). let’s see how future editorial projects in biblical and religious studies will continue to shape digital editing tasks (touati ). notes for - , the composition of the steering committee is claire clivaz (chair), david hamidović (co-chair), paul dilley, james mcgrath, jeanne-nicole saint- laurent mellon and joseph verheyden. many thanks to paul dilley and tim hutchings for their english proof-reading of this introduction. general series on dh of course exist already; a new one has just published its first title, routledge research in digital humanities, but the definition of the series is not published on the website at the moment of writing this introduction (https://www.routledge.com/products/ #series). there is still no website open for idh, in preparation under the lead of alissa jones- nelson; editorial contracts have been signed and the editorial board includes claire clivaz, charles m. ess, gregory p. grieve, kristian petersen and sally m. promey. the wikipedia definition for stylometry is a useful starting point: “stylometry is the application of the study of linguistic style, usually to written language, but it has successfully been applied to music and to fine-art paintings as well. stylometry is often used to attribute authorship to anonymous or disputed documents. it has legal as downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com well as academic and literary applications, ranging from the question of the authorship of shakespeare’s works to forensic linguistics” (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stylometry). bibliography caruth, c., . interview with gayatri chakravorty spivak. aesthetic education and globalization, pmla ( ), pp. - . clivaz, c., a. common era . . mapping the digital era from antiquity and modernity. in: clivaz, c., j. meizoz, f. vallotton, j. verheyden, and b. bertho, eds., . reading tomorrow. from ancient manuscripts to the digital era / lire demain. des manuscrits antiques à l’ère digitale. lausanne: ppur, pp. - . —— b. homer and the new testament as “multitexts” in the digital age? scholarly and research communication ( ), pp. - . [online] available at [accessed april ]. doi: . /lcn. . . - . —— . new testament in a digital culture: a biblaridion (little book) lost in the web? jrmdc ( ), pp. - . [online] available at [accessed april ]. —— forthcoming. categories of ancient christian texts and writing materials: ‘taking once again a fresh starting point’. in: clivaz, c., p. dilley, and d. hamidović, eds., with a. thromas. ancient worlds in digital culture (digital biblical studies ). leiden : brill. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com —— and d. hamidović, . critical editions in the digital age. in ryan m.-l., l. emerson and b. robertson, eds. the johns hopkins guide to digital media and textuality. baltimore: johns hopkins university press, pp. - . —— and d. vinck, . introduction. des humanités délivrées pour une littératie plurielle. les cahiers du numérique , pp. - . dilley, p, forthcoming. “digital philology between alexandria and babel”. in: clivaz, c., p. dilley, and d. hamidović, eds., with a. thromas. ancient worlds in digital culture (digital biblical studies ). leiden : brill. eco, u. . the infinity of lists. a. mcewen, trans. new york : rizzoli. houser, n. et al., . the essential peirce. selected philosophical writings, vol. , bloomington/indianapolis: indiana university press. powell, m.-a., . what is narrative criticism? (guides to biblical scholarship). minneapolis: fortress press. rybicki, j., . advocatus diaboli : lost in distant reading? presentation at nd european association of digital humanities symposium, march - , leipzig, germany. [online] available at [accessed april ] shaw, j., . humanities, digitized: reconceiving the study of culture. harvard magazine may-june, pp. - and - . [online] available at [accessed april ] stephenson, n., . at the beginning… was the command line. new york: harper collins ebooks. kindle edition. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media and digital culture volume , issue ( ) https://jrmdc.com touati, c., . pourquoi éditer un manuscrit unique? l’édition critique des écrits apocryphes: de l’arbre au mycélium, pp. - . [online] available at [accessed april ] ucl, n.d. ma/msc in digital humanities. ucl.ac.uk. [online] available at: [accessed april ] downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access journal of religion, media & digital culture (jrmdc) special issue digital humanities in ancient jewish, christian and arabic traditions about the editors: digital humanities in ancient jewish, christian and arabic traditions: introduction to the special issue to cite this article: . dh in biblical and religious studies: what is at stake? . from seven case studies to general dh problematics . reshuffling the world by digital lists . between aspiration to coherence and resisting asymmetry . markup as epistemological challenge notes bibliography crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach browse explore more content repository ijdh shahrol .pdf ( . kb) crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach citedownload ( . kb)shareembed journal contribution posted on . . , : by shahrol mohamaddan, keith case human movement in a crowd can be considered as complex and unpredictable, and accordingly large scale video observation studies based on a conceptual behaviour framework were used to characterise individual movements and behaviours. the conceptual behaviours were free movement (moving through and move-stop-move), same direction movement (queuing and competitive) and opposite direction movement (avoiding and passing through). movement in crowds was modelled and simulated using an agent-based method using the gaming software dark basic professional. the agents (individuals) were given parameters of personal objective, visual perception, speed of movement, personal space and avoidance angle or distance within different crowd densities. two case studies including a multi-mode transportation system layout and a bottleneck / non-bottleneck evacuation are presented. categories mechanical engineering not elsewhere classified keywords agent-based modellingcrowd simulationobservational study history school mechanical, electrical and manufacturing engineering published in international journal of the digital human volume issue pages - ( ) citation mohamaddan, s. and case, k., . crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach. international journal of the digital human, ( ), pp. - . publisher © inderscience version am (accepted manuscript) publisher statement this work is made available according to the conditions of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international (cc by-nc-nd . ) licence. full details of this licence are available at: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / acceptance date / / publication date - - notes this paper was accepted for publication in the journal international journal of the digital human and the definitive published version is available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijdh. . doi https://doi.org/ . /ijdh. . issn - publisher version http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijdh. . language en administrator link https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/account/articles/ licence cc by-nc-nd . exports select an optionrefworksbibtexref. managerendnotedatacitenlmdc categories mechanical engineering not elsewhere classified keywords agent-based modellingcrowd simulationobservational study licence cc by-nc-nd . exports select an optionrefworksbibtexref. managerendnotedatacitenlmdc hide footeraboutfeaturestoolsblogambassadorscontactfaqprivacy policycookie policyt&csaccessibility statementdisclaimersitemap figshare. credit for all your research. inpho for all: why apis matter inpho for all: why apis matter jaimie murdock, indiana university colin allen, indiana university abstract the unique convergence of humanities scholars, computer scientists, librarians, and information scientists in digital humanities projects highlights the collaborative opportunities such research entails. unfortunately, the relatively limited human resources committed to many digital humanities projects have led to unwieldy initial implementations and underutilization of semantic web technology, creating a sea of isolated projects with data that cannot be integrated. furthermore, the use of standards for one particular purpose may not suit other kinds of scholarly activities, impeding collaboration in the digital humanities. by designing and utilizing an application platform interface (api), projects can reduce these barriers, while simultaneously reducing internal support costs and easing the transition to new development teams. our experience developing an api for the indiana philosophy ontology (inpho) project highlights these benefits. introduction the unique convergence of humanities scholars, computer scientists, librarians, and information scientists in digital humanities projects highlights the collaborative opportunities such research entails. the digital humanities aspire to create, maintain, and deploy high integrity metadata that are derived from the activities and feedback of domain experts in the humanities, to support scholarly activities which meet the high standards of academic peer review. unfortunately, the relatively limited human resources committed to many digital projects for the humanities have led to unwieldy initial implementations and underutilization of semantic web technology, with the result that most projects in this burgeoning field are standalone projects whose data cannot easily be integrated with others. in addition to the barriers arising from idiosyncratic implementations, the difficulties of integrating data from multiple sources are compounded by the use of standards that serve one particular purpose well but do not facilitate other kinds of scholarly activities, often making the combination of resources from different projects laborious and expensive. thus, much of the potential for collaboration in the digital humanities still remains to be unlocked. even humanities scholars who are not programmers should care about the ad hoc nature of application integration, because so much of their time involves laboriously transferring what they learn in one digital context to what they do in another. for example, the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (sep) and philpapers are the two most widely used online resources for philosophers. but if a philpapers user wishes to know which sep entries cite an item listed in the philpapers bibliography (or elsewhere online), the citation’s information must be manually copied and pasted from philpapers into the sep search engine in order to perform the search. in the other direction, philpapers now provides a service to the sep whereby a link in each sep entry leads to a page at philpapers showing the items from the entry’s bibliography as represented in philpapers. however, the idiosyncratic formats of both the sep and philpapers mean that there is no corresponding journal of the chicago colloquium on digital humanities and computer science volume number ( ) source url: http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu/ published by: the division of the humanities at the university of chicago this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . unported license http://plato.stanford.edu http://philpapers.org http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://plato.stanford.edu http://plato.stanford.edu http://philpapers.org http://philpapers.org service in the other direction, that there is only a partial correspondence between items in the sep bibliography and philpapers, and that this special purpose software cannot be easily be redeployed by other developers of online resources for philosophers. without easy access to preferred representations, the social and semantic web cannot be quickly adapted to the needs of researchers in the humanities. , and while the needs and goals of librarians have been important drivers of standards in the digital humanities, this represents just one aspect of the potential of the digital humanities to facilitate scholarly research. humanities scholars need access to the data in many different representational formats: from html for the ordinary end user to fully integrated xml specifications and raw data dumps for the information scientist, and to lightweight json stores for the web programmer. the indiana philosophy ontology project the indiana philosophy ontology project (inpho) aims to overcome barriers to broader collaboration by providing a simple, lightweight api (application programming interface) capable of serving a wide variety of data formats. apis allow programmers to focus on the ‘what’ of computing rather than the ‘how.’ so, for instance, it is an api that allows programmers to tell the computer’s operating system to respond to a mouse click by opening a “window” on the screen, without the programmer having to worry about the graphics needed to produce a rectangle of a certain size, border, color, etc. similarly, programmers can exploit databases on another server through an api without having to know what the underlying database model is on the remote server. apis give power to programmers by allowing them to stand on the shoulders of others. at the inpho project, we have a vision of seamless integration among digital philosophy applications, and our api is a deliberate first step towards realizing that vision. the inpho is a dynamic computational ontology which models philosophy using statistical methods applied to the entire sep corpus, as well as machine reasoning methods applied to feedback from experts in the field, particularly the editors and authors of sep entries. our approach begins with a small amount of manual ontology construction and the development of an initial philosophical lexicon through collaboration with domain experts. we then build on this foundation through an iterative three-step process to create a taxonomic representation of philosophy. first, statistical inference over the sep is used to generate hypotheses about the relations among various topics, including the relative journal of the chicago colloquium on digital humanities and computer science page volume number ( ) source url: http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu/ published by: the division of the humanities at the university of chicago this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . unported license leonard richardson and sam ruby, restful web services (o’reilly media, inc.: ). sinuhé arroyo, rubén lara, juan miguel gómez, david berka, ying ding, and dieter fensel, “semantic aspects of web services,” in practical handbook of internet computing, ed. munindar p. singh (baton rouge: chapman hall and crc press, ), pages – – – . http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu the sep contains over , entries comprising more than million words, maintained by over volunteer subject editors, and accessed through more than , entry downloads per week. detailed in cameron buckner, mathias niepert, and colin allen, “from encyclopedia to ontology: toward a dynamic representation of the discipline of philosophy,” synthese ( ). special issue on representing philosophy, in press. http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - . http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - generality of pairs of terms. these hypotheses are then evaluated by domain experts through simple questions that do not require any knowledge of ontology design on the part of the experts. finally, the expert responses are combined with the statistical measures as a knowledge base for a machine reasoning program, which uses answer set programming to output a taxonomic view of the discipline that synthesizes the sometimes inconsistent data obtained by querying experts. this resulting representation can then be used to generate tools that assist the authors, editors, and browsers of the sep, such as a cross-reference suggestion engine, access to bibliographic content, context-aware semantic search, and interfaces for exploring the relations among concepts, among philosophical thinkers, and between concepts and thinkers. inpho does not assume that a single, correct view of the discipline is possible, but rather takes the pragmatic approach that some representation is better than no representation at all. even if other projects do not agree with our final taxonomic projections, our statistical data and expert evaluations may still be useful. by exposing our data through the api at all three steps of the process outlined above, we encourage other projects to discover alternative ways to construct meaningful and useful representations of the discipline. furthermore, by exposing our data in this way, others may explore try alternative methods for generating representations of the discipline. design considerations the use of apis by other projects requires our accountability and necessitates permanent availability. the high cost of redesign under these conditions implies that we have one chance to get the access-layer right. , to do this, we used one of the most venerable and pervasive technologies —the hypertext transfer protocol (http) that is the foundation of the world wide web—to enable ease of use by scholars, programmers, and scientists through nearly any interface. each entity in the inpho knowledge base is exposed as a resource with a unique uniform resource identifier (uri) which is accessed using the http methods, providing a consistent interface for data retrieval and manipulation. this is known as the representational state transfer (rest) paradigm of web services, pioneered by http inventor roy fielding. the inpho data can be explored via human- journal of the chicago colloquium on digital humanities and computer science page volume number ( ) source url: http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu/ published by: the division of the humanities at the university of chicago this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . unported license mathias niepert, cameron buckner, and colin allen, “a dynamic ontology for a dynamic reference work,” in proceedings of the th acm/ieee joint conference on digital libraries ( ), – . mathias niepert, cameron buckner, and colin allen, “answer set programming on expert feedback to populate and extend dynamic ontologies,” in proceedings of the st international flairs conference (coconut grove, florida: aaai press, ), – . buckner et al., “from encyclopedia to ontology.” joshua bloch, “how to design a good api and why it matters,” in oopsla ’ : companion to the st acm sigplan symposium on object-oriented programming systems, languages, and applications (new york: acm, ), – . toby segaran, colin evans, and jamie taylor, programming the semantic web. o’reilly media, inc., . roy fielding, j. gettys, j. mogul, h. frystyk, l. masinter, p. leach, and tim berners-lee, “hypertext transfer protocol - http/ . . rfc ,” network working group, june, , accessed february , , http://www.w .org/protocols/ rfc /rfc .html. roy fielding, architectural styles and the design of network-based software architectures, phd thesis, university of california, irvine ( ). http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.w .org/protocols/rfc /rfc .html http://www.w .org/protocols/rfc /rfc .html http://www.w .org/protocols/rfc /rfc .html http://www.w .org/protocols/rfc /rfc .html friendly html or in machine-friendly json, selected by simply adding either .html or .json to the uri of each resource. this approach has many advantages over previous attempts at integration. for example, data dumps provided using industry-standard web ontology language files (idiosyncratically referred to as owl files) reveal only certain types of relations and do not allow for read-write access to the underlying knowledge base. while owl remains an important format for exchange of data, to limit oneself to that format would place significant limits on collaborative efforts, such as inpho’s partnership with noesis to power their domain-specific search engine. the noesis project currently has no need to receive inpho’s entire ontology file when seeking to query specific pieces of information about a journal, a philosophical concept, or a thinker from the inpho database. instead, noesis programmers may use inpho’s restful api to easily select only those entities and partitions of the inpho which are relevant to the current query. other projects are likely to have similar requirements—a project tracing the history of a specific philosopher could initially pull selected data only from the thinker database, but could easily branch out to other portions of the database as connections between that thinker and specific concepts become relevant to an end-user’s online searching and browsing behavior. at the same time, this approach to data sharing protects data providers from the overexposure that may result from making large data dumps available to all comers, while easing the processing load for data consumers who might otherwise have to parse masses of unwanted data. the design of the api also satisfies crane’s rubric for digital humanities infrastructure: ) by providing a unique uri, we have created canonical named entities for each concept within the ontology. these entities are aliased within our knowledge base with alternative spellings or abbreviations, increasing the likelihood of identifying objects correctly. this technology is being used by the noesis project’s journal search. ) our machine learning and data mining techniques create a co-occurrence graph which is exposed through the api as a dynamic cataloging service for philosophical concepts. ) structured user contributions are invited through secure write access to improve the quality of the knowledge base. evaluations will be solicited throughout the sep editorial process. ) these are then used to provide custom, personalized data and tools for researchers, such as the sep cross-reference engine. the design also satisfies the computer science community, by providing a concrete example of a semantic web portal, as envisioned by stollberg et al. benefits our experience shows the development of an api is not just an exercise in enhancing collaboration with other projects, but can alleviate internal management concerns about sustainability and efficiency. due to the nature of academia, turnover happens regularly on a three to five year cycle as students working as programmers and researchers on the project progress from matriculation to graduation. new project members must be quickly integrated with our development process and journal of the chicago colloquium on digital humanities and computer science page volume number ( ) source url: http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu/ published by: the division of the humanities at the university of chicago this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . unported license http://noesis.evansville.edu crane et al., “the humanities in a global e-infrastructure.” michael stollberg, holger lausen, rubén lara, ying ding, sung-kook han, and dieter fensel, “towards semantic web portals,” in proceedings of the www workshop on application design, development and implementation issues in the semantic web, eds. christoph bussler, stefan decker, daniel schwabe, and oscar pastor. (new york: ). http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://jdhcs.uchicago.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://noesis.evansville.edu http://noesis.evansville.edu fluent in our existing code base. our initial architecture consisted of a decentralized, uncoupled multitude of quick scripts and interfaces, driven by the necessity of having a proof of concept. this led to difficulty in turnover, and highlighted a need for maintainable, documented code. additionally, this loosely coupled architecture was resistant to scalability. many of our scripts required a sequence of coupled events and were often executed by hand. as evaluations continued to trickle in, parts of our database became inconsistent leading to integrity issues and requiring manual cleanup during the ontology extension process. with all data access occurring at a single point, it demands were reduced, as maintenance of sql data connections and secure data access tunnels was replaced with the maintenance of the website. by porting out internal tools to use the same api calls, we can use our internal code as public examples. conclusions while there exist other apis for humanities computing, these have usually been developed by groups seeking to provide easy access to large cultural collections such as those held by libraries and museums. to our knowledge, we are the first project to have developed an api for access to information about the dynamically changing concepts, people, and institutions defining an academic discipline, and to create a mechanism for partner projects to contribute to our database, bridging the gap between social and semantic web. we are certainly the first to do this for the field of philosophy. the lessons learned in carrying out this project will, we hope, encourage other scholarly communities to pursue similar projects to make the conceptual structure and human capital of their field readily accessible for applications that have not yet been dreamt of, and will enable such projects to avoid some of the early problems with design that arose from an application-centric view of the web, as opposed to the service-oriented semantic web. bibliography arroyo, sinuhé, rubén lara, juan miguel gómez, david berka, ying ding, and dieter fensel. “semantic aspects of web services.” in practical handbook of internet computing, edited by munindar p. singh, – – – . baton rouge: chapman hall and crc press, . bloch, joshua. “how to design a good api and why it matters.” in oopsla ’ : companion to the st acm sigplan symposium on object-oriented programming systems, languages, and applications, – . new york: acm, . buckner, cameron, mathias niepert, and colin allen. “from encyclopedia to ontology: toward a dynamic representation of the discipline of philosophy.” synthese ( ). special issue on representing philosophy, in press. http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - 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- by what means shall we determine what we teach? - in what ways shall we teach it? - toward what purpose? in addition to these questions, we are mindful of henry a. giroux’s argument that “to invoke the importance of pedagogy is to raise questions not simply about how students learn but also about how educators (in the broad sense of the term) construct the ideological and political positions from which they speak” ( ). consequently, we will encourage submissions to the volume that address these wider concerns. references breunig, mary ( ). 'radical pedagogy as praxis'. radical pedagogy. http://radicalpeda gogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.ht ml. giroux, henry a. ( ). 'rethinking the boundaries of educational discourse: modernism, postmodernism, and feminism'. margins in the classroom: teaching literature. myrsiades, kostas, myrsiades, linda s. (eds.). minneapolis: university of minnesota press, pp. - . http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html digital humanities schreibman, susan, siemens, ray, unsworth, john (eds.) ( ). a companion to digital humanities. malden: blackwell. jessop, martyn ( ). 'teaching, learning and research in final year humanities computing student projects'. literary and linguistic computing. . ( ): - . mccarty, willard, kirschenbaum , matthew ( ). 'institutional models for humanities computing'. literary and linguistic computing. . ( ): - . unsworth et al. ( ). our cultural commonwealth: the report of the american council of learned societies commission on cyberinfrastructure for the humanities and social sciences. new york: american council of learned societies. powerpoint-präsentation amir moghaddass esfehani campus library adho dh workshop "towards multilingualism in digital humanities: achievements, failures and good practices in dh projects with non-latin scripts" no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? • ocr • metadata • tools & apis no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani dirty ocr: layout & text no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani ㊅ @ 問靈你’身栎物肩 “ ，？ \ ^ , 安 ~ ，與i 神的蓋自神你也^重孤确触&何^)! 魂何耶原耶。荷本狗' 耶。造等答白，我的'曰，小愁的物眞子答爲承是魂也。地如 ~萬此 ^ # ^ |+之教之神也。人 precision = , recall = , f-measure = , error rate = , % „discovery“ of a chinese ice age no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani 夾襖綿冰 „discovery“ of a chinese ice age no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani 夾 + 冰 + 綿 + 襖來 + 永 + 秀 +澳 | | | | metadata 嚴如熤 yan ruyi: 苗防備覽: [ 卷] miao fang bei lan [ juan]. 紹義堂, daoguang [china, ]. https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:bvb: -bsb - no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani descriptive structural rigths technical ocr mdz > opac > deac > ddb > zvdd > europeana marc rdf iiif retrieval marc rdf mets/ mods iiif cortex edm edmmets/ mods marc non-latin script chinese text project: ocr no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani sturgeon, donald ( ): large-scale optical character recognition of pre- modern chinese texts. international journal of buddhist thought and culture ( ), p. - . https://digitalsinology.org/zh/wiki/fil e:ctext-ocr.png chinese text project / markus: tools & apis no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani text reuse regex ner (markus) no text – no mining. and what about dirty ocr? adho . . amir moghaddass esfehani thank you! amir moghaddass esfehani campus library freie universität berlin amir.moghaddass@fu-berlin.de no text – no mining. �and what about dirty ocr? no text – no mining. �and what about dirty ocr? dirty ocr: layout & text „discovery“ of a chinese ice age „discovery“ of a chinese ice age metadata chinese text project: ocr chinese text project / markus: tools & apis foliennummer originally developed by rachel arteaga in collaboration with rebecca kilpatrick, andrew archer, and peter gallo. for project information, see spartrees.wordpress.com. teacher notes: digital humanities lesson plan originally designed for: th – th grades · computer lab · nonfiction · digital narrative mapping note: this lesson plan supports instruction for ccss ri. and ccr anchor standards for reading thank you for participating in this pilot project! these materials are entirely open access. you are encouraged to share, adapt, and revise them as you see fit. note that the digital humanities (dh) definition provided on the lesson handout is all you and your students should need to get started. however, more information is available on the project website in the form of a one page, accessible overview: http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ storymap requires a google account. note: because i wrote the handout to cover grades - , you may want to make changes to the expectations of each grade. the most efficient way to do that would be to expect the th graders, for example, to include locations instead of , etc. lesson rationale and student learning goals:  review and reinforce learning goals emphasized by teacher in previous class discussions  use the story maps as new objects for reading and discussion  provide a shared platform and visualization method for students to use for presentations of different books across grade levels and individual interests digital humanities tool: storymap: http://storymap.knightlab.com/ http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ http://storymap.knightlab.com/ introduction to digital humanities: digital narrative mapping the digital humanities (dh, for short) help us study subjects related to human culture, like english and history, by using computer programs. for example, we can use computers to help us read nonfiction. this handout will give you instructions for using a dh tool to map out the locations and movement in a book. the tool is called storymap. digital narrative mapping first, we need to define our terms. digital mapping is a way to visualize the places in a book (setting) and the movement or journeys taken by the characters. in a nonfiction book, mapping the setting and connecting the places can help us better understand the structure of the story the writer is trying to tell. it can also help us to think about space and time in a story. storymap lets you make a digital map with links and pictures, and share it. preparing to make your storymap first, you’ll want to take some notes on the book you are reading. what is the setting of the book? choose three locations that are important to the book – countries, states, cities, landmarks – and write them down. . . . making your storymap . go to the storymap homepage: http://storymap.knightlab.com/ . you will be prompted for a google account. ask your instructor for details. . what type of story do you want to create? click map . name your map using the title of your nonfiction book and your initials for your instructor to identify you . a new screen will appear with many features. on the left side, click “add slide” three times . click on each slide and in the “headline” field type in the name of a location (repeat three times!) . on each slide, move the red map pin to the location matching that slide . on each slide, beneath the headline, write what happens in your book at that location . on each slide, add a link to a trusted source that gives more information about the location. you can also upload images from your computer to show more visual information about the location. . now click the tab at the top that says “preview” – you can see your storymap all in one place, with details . remember to save your work using the “save” button in the top left hand side . to share your work, click the “share” button in the top right hand side and copy the link . show your storymap to your peers and instructor. does it help you better understand the book? why or why not? does the map give you a different way of thinking about space and time in the book? questions for discussion: conclusion:  now that you have read the book yourself, and used a computer program to help you read it in new ways, what do you think are the advantages of both strategies? what is best about reading the story yourself – perhaps this is something that the computer can’t offer – and what is best about using the tool? in other words, what are the strengths and weaknesses of both?  if you could make a computer program that could change the way we read, what would it do? http://storymap.knightlab.com/ teacher notes: digital humanities lesson plan originally designed for: th grade · computer lab · reading fiction · sentiment analysis note: this lesson plan supports instruction for ccss rl. and ccr anchor standards for reading thank you for participating in this pilot project! these materials are entirely open access. you are encouraged to share, adapt, and revise them as you see fit. note that the digital humanities (dh) definition provided on the lesson handout is all you and your students should need to get started. however, more information is available on the project website in the form of a one page, accessible overview: http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ the digital humanities tool used in this lesson plan is a demo page on the stanford natural language processing (nlp) group page. it allows a reader to type or paste a small excerpt of a text into the browser, then it gives a text analysis of the mood of the excerpt based on the range of words it contains. in other words, this tool attempts to assess the emotional content of a text. it uses five classes of sentiment: very negative, negative, neutral, positive, and very positive. the sentence “i am so happy today!” is read by the tool as “very positive,” while the sentence “i am so sad today!” is interpreted as negative, and so on. of course, literary texts are much more complicated, and this is where things become interesting. lesson rationale and student learning goals:  review and reinforce learning goals emphasized by teacher in previous class discussions  use the sentiment analysis charts as new objects for reading and discussion  connect prior reading comprehension and discussion of texts to the sentiment analysis charts primary text available online: of mice and men by john steinbeck http://www.kgbsd.org/cms/lib /ak /centricity/domain/ /of_mice_and_men_- _full_text.pdf digital humanities tool: sentiment analysis by stanford natural language processing (nlp) group http://nlp.stanford.edu: /sentiment/rntndemo.html http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ http://www.kgbsd.org/cms/lib /ak /centricity/domain/ /of_mice_and_men_-_full_text.pdf http://www.kgbsd.org/cms/lib /ak /centricity/domain/ /of_mice_and_men_-_full_text.pdf http://nlp.stanford.edu: /sentiment/rntndemo.html introduction to digital humanities: sentiment analysis the digital humanities (dh, for short) help us study subjects related to human culture, like english and history, by using computer programs. for example, we can use computers to help us read fiction. this handout will give you instructions for using a dh tool to make charts of the emotions of a story. the tool is called sentiment analysis. sentiment analysis first, we need to define our terms. sentiment analysis is a tool that asks the computer to read words and tell us what type of emotions they express. this tool can only tell us if these emotions are more positive or negative. you can use the stanford sentiment analysis tool to determine whether the emotions in the story are mostly positive or mostly negative. before you start, answer this question: based on your reading of the entire novella of mice and men by john steinbeck, would you say that the book expresses mostly positive emotions or mostly negative ones? why? in your answer, use evidence from the book. . go to the stanford sentiment analysis demo page: http://nlp.stanford.edu: /sentiment/rntndemo.html . copy and paste this excerpt from the beginning of the novella into the screen: for a moment the place was lifeless, and then two men emerged from the path and came into the opening by the green pool. . click “submit” . notice that the sentiment charts that pop up in the next screen give a color to each word. if there is no color, then the program thinks that the word is “neutral” or without emotion. the more blue the color, the more positive the emotions the word makes us feel. the more red, the more negative emotions. the highest colored circle on the chart is what the program thinks of the whole phrase. so, the phrase above is light red, or somewhat negative, overall. do you agree? . if you disagree with the program’s results, and you want to change a word’s color, click on the circle above the word. change the color to the one you think is more accurate. then click on the check mark to save it. for example, you might think that “lifeless” is very negative. make it dark red, and save your work! . once you have changed the colors to match your interpretation of the emotions of the sentence, print the page (just the first page, because the comments below are not important to your work) or save the page as a pdf. if you don’t save your work by printing or creating a pdf, it will be lost. . go back to the original link. copy and paste this excerpt from the end of the novella into the screen: george shivered and looked at the gun, and then he threw it from him, back up on the bank, near the pile of old ashes. . click “submit” . repeat the instructions above, then discuss! questions for discussion:  do you think that the overall feeling of the story was mostly positive or mostly negative?  do these sentences from the story express mostly positive or negative emotions? why?  which parts of the sentiment charts did you think were accurate? which did you change? why? questions for discussion: conclusion:  now that you have read the book yourself, and used a computer program to help you read it in new ways, what do you think are the advantages of both strategies? what is best about reading the story yourself – perhaps this is something that the computer can’t offer – and what is best about using the tool?  if you could make a computer program that could change the way we read books, what would it do? http://nlp.stanford.edu: /sentiment/rntndemo.html teacher notes: digital humanities lesson plan originally designed for: th grade · chromebooks · short stories · google ngrams note: this lesson plan supports instruction for ccss rl. and ccr anchor standards for reading thank you for participating in this pilot project! these materials are entirely open access. you are encouraged to share, adapt, and revise them as you see fit. note that the digital humanities (dh) definition provided on the lesson handout is all you and your students should need to get started. however, more information is available on the project website in the form of a one page, accessible overview: http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ the digital humanities tool used in this lesson plan is introductory, and you may have already heard about or used it yourself. google ngrams produces a timeline charting the frequency of any words you choose during any time period you choose based on the vast digital library google has created. this tool may seem simple, even “just for fun” – and it is fun – but, it also echoes the most advanced scholarship in digital humanities today. the learning goals for this lesson plan help the students move from the fun part to the rigorous analysis part of what is made possible by dh. lesson rationale:  review and reinforce learning goals emphasized by teacher in previous class discussions o angelou: making predictions and inferences  introduce students to the term “digital humanities,” and to ngrams  use the timeline charts as new objects for analysis and discussion  connect prior reading comprehension and discussion of texts to the charts student learning goals:  learn the term “digital humanities” and understand ngrams as part of the field  use ngrams to produce timeline charts and note the quantitative aspect of the tool  gain a new perspective on and deeper comprehension of the assigned primary texts primary text available online: “new directions” by maya angelou http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_elementsoflit- /collection% /new% directions.htm digital humanities tool: ngrams: https://books.google.com/ngrams http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_elementsoflit- /collection% /new% directions.htm https://books.google.com/ngrams introduction to digital humanities: google ngrams the digital humanities (dh, for short) help us study subjects related to human culture, like english and history, by using computer programs. for example, we can use computers to help us read short stories. this handout will give you instructions for using a dh tool online to make timeline charts. the tool is google ngrams. google ngrams first, we need to define our terms. an “ngram” is a continuous unit of language. this means that it can be a word, a phrase, a single letter, and so on. instead of calling these units “words,” we have the word “ngram” to show that the unit might be less or more than a whole word. when you search for these units in the google ngram viewer, it creates a timeline chart based on all of the many thousands of books in its digital library. you can make timeline charts using the prominent words from the story as your ngrams: . go to https://books.google.com/ngrams . delete the examples in the google search box after the words “graph these comma-separated phrases:” . type in your words there. for “new directions,” you might choose a list like this one: pie,cotton,mill,road,workers,lumber,gin,path,fresh,marriage . in the boxes for “between” and “and” choose two years for your starting and ending points. google ngram viewer tracks words from anytime between and . for “new directions,” you might choose - , because based on the first line of the story, the story takes place in . . the word “corpus” simply means a big library full of books. in this case, that library is the digital library that google has made and shared with us. you will notice that the drop down menu shows that there is a corpus available for many other languages than english. you can search terms in these languages as well. . when you change the “smoothing” number, you can see that there will be more jagged lines the smaller the number is, and smoother lines the larger the number is. this is basically the same effect of “rounding up” numbers from their decimals. you’ve done this in your math classes, for example, when you round up from . to a smooth . . the best way to save your timeline is to print it out. otherwise, when you clear the fields, you start again. questions for discussion:  which words are used most frequently during the time span you chose? in other words, which words are attached to the top lines on the chart? which are the least frequently used? so, the bottom lines?  are there any words that are used more often earlier in the century, and less often later? what do you think this means?  some people have used google ngram viewer to track two different words that have a similar meaning. in the example list above, the words “road” and “path” are similar. are they used at the same rate? do they overlap? what do you think this means?  think about the language used in the story. using your own knowledge of the world, did the story sound like it was set in the year , over years ago? would using the ngram viewer help us to know that, for example, if maya angelou had not told us the year? questions for discussion: conclusion:  now that you have read the stories yourself, and used a computer program to help you read them in new ways, what do you think are the advantages of both strategies? what is best about reading the story yourself – perhaps this is something that the computer can’t offer – and what is best about using the tools? in other words, what are the strengths and weaknesses of both?  if you could make a computer program that could change the way we read stories, what would it do? https://books.google.com/ngrams teacher notes: digital humanities lesson plan originally designed for: th grade · chromebooks · short stories · wordle word clouds note: this lesson plan supports instruction of ccss rl. , rl. , and rl. thank you for participating in this pilot project! these materials are entirely open access. you are encouraged to share, adapt, and revise them as you see fit. note that the digital humanities (dh) definition provided on the lesson handout is all you and your students should need to get started. however, more information is available on the project website in the form of a one page, accessible overview: http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ the digital humanities tool used in this lesson plan is introductory, and you may have already heard about or used it yourself. wordle makes word clouds instantly from any text that you copy and paste into your web browser. this tool may seem simple, even “just for fun” – and it is fun – but, it also echoes the most advanced scholarship in digital humanities today. the learning goals for this lesson plan help the students move from the fun part to the rigorous analysis part of what is made possible by dh. lesson rationale:  review and reinforce learning goals emphasized by teacher in previous class discussions o angelou: making predictions and inferences  introduce students to the term “digital humanities,” and to word clouds  use the word clouds as new objects for analysis and discussion  connect prior reading comprehension and discussion of texts to the word clouds student learning goals:  learn the term “digital humanities” and understand word clouds as part of the field  create word clouds and see the quantitative aspect of their design  gain a new perspective on and deeper comprehension of the assigned primary texts primary text available online: “new directions” by maya angelou http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_elementsoflit- /collection% /new% directions.htm digital humanities tool: wordle: http://www.wordle.net/ note: tech requirement: wordle requires a java plug-in. http://spartrees.wordpress.com/digital-humanities/ http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_elementsoflit- /collection% /new% directions.htm http://www.wordle.net/ introduction to digital humanities: word clouds the digital humanities (dh, for short) help us study subjects related to human culture, like english and history, by using computer programs. for example, we can use computers to help us read short stories. this handout will give you instructions for using a dh tool online to make word clouds. the tool is wordle. before we get started, let’s do a quick memory exercise. without looking at the story you read for class, take one minute to write down the words or concepts you remember most strongly from it. we will return to this after you make your word clouds. “new directions” by maya angelou words i remember most: important ideas from the story i remember most: making word clouds go to www.wordle.net and answer the following question based on what you see on the first page. when you have an answer, share it with the class. what is a word cloud? ____________________________________________________________ . go to www.wordle.net and click “create” . open a new tab or window in your web browser. go to the online copy of “new directions” http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_elementsoflit- /collection% /new% directions.htm and highlight all of the text on the page (except for the words “click here to navigate…etc.”). after you have highlighted the text, either right click your mouse and select “copy” or hit ctrl+c on your keyboard. . go back to the wordle “create” page that you opened. in the box, right click and select “paste” or hit ctrl+v on your keyboard. . click “go” on the wordle “create” page . a word cloud should appear . you can use the language, font, layout, and color tabs in the top left hand side of the screen to change the way the word cloud looks . if you want to remove a word from the cloud, right click on the word (for example, the word “the” is sometimes very prominent and distracting, and you might want to remove it) . show your word cloud to your peers and teacher! what do you notice about it? . the best way to save your word cloud is to print it. otherwise, you will have to start again. . to make a word cloud for a different story, copy and paste it into another wordle “create” page. questions for discussion:  which words are most prominent? in other words, which words stand out to you visually? write them down here:  do these words match up with the words you wrote down for the memory exercise?  wordle shows the words used the most often in a story. how does this help us understand the story?  in class, you looked for significant details in “the washerwoman.” does the word cloud give you different answers to which details are significant in the story? the same answers?  in class, you practiced making predictions and inferences while reading “new directions.” do you think that your predictions would have changed if you had seen the word cloud before reading the story? questions for discussion: conclusion:  now that you have read the stories yourself, and used a computer program to help you read them in new ways, what do you think are the advantages of both strategies? what is best about reading the story yourself – perhaps this is something that the computer can’t offer – and what is best about using the tools? in other words, what are the strengths and weaknesses of both?  if you could make a computer program that could change the way we read stories, what would it do? http://www.wordle.net/ http://www.wordle.net/ http://www.nexuslearning.net/books/holt_elementsoflit- /collection% /new% directions.htm simulation-based evaluation of ease of wayfinding using digital human and as-is environment models international journal of geo-information article simulation-based evaluation of ease of wayfinding using digital human and as-is environment models tsubasa maruyama ,*, satoshi kanai , hiroaki date and mitsunori tada national institute of advanced industrial science and technology, tokyo - , japan; m.tada@aist.go.jp graduate school of information science and technology, hokkaido university, sapporo - , japan; kanai@ssi.ist.hokudai.ac.jp (s.k.); hdate@ssi.ist.hokudai.ac.jp (h.d.) * correspondence: tbs-maruyama@aist.go.jp; tel.: + - - - received: june ; accepted: august ; published: august abstract: as recommended by the international standards, iso , ease of wayfinding must be ensured by installing signage at all key decision points on walkways such as forks because signage greatly influences the way in which people unfamiliar with an environment navigate through it. therefore, we aimed to develop a new system for evaluating the ease of wayfinding, which could detect spots that cause disorientation, i.e., “disorientation spots”, based on simulated three-dimensional ( d) interactions between wayfinding behaviors and signage location, visibility, legibility, noticeability, and continuity. first, an environment model reflecting detailed d geometry and textures of the environment, i.e., “as-is environment model”, is generated automatically using d laser-scanning and structure-from-motion (sfm). then, a set of signage entities is created by the user. thereafter, a d wayfinding simulation is performed in the as-is environment model using a digital human model (dhm), and disorientation spots are detected. the proposed system was tested in a virtual maze and a real two-story indoor environment. it was further validated through a comparison of the disorientation spots detected by the simulation with those of six young subjects. the comparison results revealed that the proposed system could detect disorientation spots, where the subjects lost their way, in the test environment. keywords: wayfinding; digital human model; signage; laser-scanning; structure-from-motion; accessibility evaluation . introduction it is increasingly important in our rapidly aging society [ ] to perform accessibility evaluations for enhancing the ease and safety of access to indoor and outdoor environments for all people, including the elderly and the disabled. under international standards [ ], “accessibility” is defined as “provision of buildings or parts of buildings for people, regardless of disability, age or gender, to be able to gain access to them, into them, to use them and exit from them.” as recommended in the iso/iec guide [ ], accessibility must be assessed considering both the physical and cognitive abilities of individuals. from the physical viewpoint, for example, tripping risks in an environment [ ] must be assessed to ensure the environment is safe to walk in, as conducted in our previous study [ ]. by contrast, from the cognitive aspect, ease of wayfinding [ ] must be assessed to enable people to gain access to destinations in unfamiliar environments. wayfinding is a basic cognitive response of people trying to find their way to destinations in an unfamiliar environment based on perceived information and their own background knowledge [ ]. visual signage influences the way in which people unfamiliar with an indoor environment navigate through it [ ]. as shown in table , visual signage can be classified into positional, directional, routing, and identification signage depending on the type of navigation information on the signage. as recommended in the guidelines [ ], these four types of signage must be arranged appropriately isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , ; doi: . /ijgi www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijgi http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of at key decision points considering the relationship between the navigation information on signage and the path structure of the environment. in addition, as mentioned in the literature [ ], ease of wayfinding must be evaluated considering not only signage continuity, visibility, and legibility but also signage noticeability. table . signage type and navigation information. signage type navigation information positional signage next goal position to be reached to arrive at a destination (e.g., map) directional signage next walking direction to take to reach a destination (e.g., right or left) routing signage walking route to be taken to reach a destination (e.g., route drawn on map or indicated by textual information) identification signage name of current place currently, ease of wayfinding is evaluated using four approaches: real field testing [ ], virtual field testing [ , ], cad model analysis [ ], and wayfinding simulation [ – ]. in real field tests [ ], a certain number of human subjects are asked to perform experimental wayfinding tasks in a real environment. by contrast, in virtual field tests [ , ], subjects are asked to perform wayfinding tasks in a virtual environment using virtual reality devices. in these real or virtual field tests [ – ], ease of wayfinding is evaluated by analyzing subjects’ responses to a questionnaire and their wayfinding results, e.g., walking route, gaze duration, and gaze direction. however, in these tests, prolonged wayfinding experiments involving a variety of wayfinding tasks must be conducted by various human subjects of different ages, genders, body dimensions, and visual capabilities. thus, field tests are not necessarily efficient and low-cost approaches. in cad model analysis [ ], signage continuity is evaluated by analyzing the relationships among various pieces of user-specified navigation information indicated by signage. however, this approach cannot evaluate ease of wayfinding in terms of signage visibility, legibility, and noticeability because three-dimensional ( d) interactions between individuals and signage are not considered. recently, a variety of wayfinding simulations has been proposed [ – ]. such simulation-based approaches have made it possible to evaluate the ease of wayfinding by simulating the wayfinding of the pedestrian model. however, these simulations consider only a part of signage factors such as signage location, continuity, visibility, legibility, and noticeability. in addition, these simulations involve only simplified as-planned environment models that do not model the detailed environmental geometry, including obstacles on the walkway, and realistic environmental textures. for reliable evaluation, an environment model must be created to reflect the as-is situation of the environment because detailed d geometry and realistic textures affect the wayfinding of individuals [ , ]. given the above background, the purpose of this study is to develop a new system for evaluating ease of wayfinding. the system makes it possible to detect spots that cause disorientation, i.e., “disorientation spots”, based on simulated d interactions among realistic wayfinding behaviors, as-is environment model, and realistic signage system. in this study, the as-is environment model represents an environment model that reflects a given environment as-is, i.e., detailed d geometry including obstacles and realistic textures. a schematic of the proposed system is shown in figure . to achieve this goal, we draw on the results of our previous studies, in which algorithms of as-is environment modeling [ ], walking simulation of a digital human model (dhm) in that environment model [ ], and basic wayfinding simulation of the dhm [ ] were developed. as shown in figure , first, the as-is environment model consisting of the walk surface points ws, navigation graph gn , and textured d environmental geometry gi is automatically generated from d laser-scanned point clouds [ ] and a set of photographs of the environment [ ]. then, a set of signage entities is created by the user by manually assigning signage information. then, a wayfinding simulation scenario is specified manually by the user. thereafter, the dhm commences its wayfinding in accordance with the navigation information indicated by the arranged signage, while isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of estimating signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility based on imitated visual perception. as a result, disorientation spots are detected. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of while estimating signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility based on imitated visual perception. as a result, disorientation spots are detected. figure . overview of system for evaluating ease of wayfinding. the proposed system is demonstrated in a virtual maze and a real two-story indoor environment. the system is further validated by comparing the disorientation spots detected by the simulation with those obtained in a test involving six young subjects in the two-story indoor environment. the rest of this paper is organized as follows. section introduces the related literature and clarifies the contributions of this study. section presents a brief introduction of the previously developed as-is environment modeling system [ , ]. in section , an overview of signage entity creation is described. in section , the algorithm for the simulation in which dhm performs wayfinding is introduced. finally, in section , the system is demonstrated and validated. . related work this study is related primarily to wayfinding simulation research. a variety of simulation algorithms aiming to evaluate the ease of wayfinding have been studied. chen et al. [ ] proposed a wayfinding simulation algorithm based on architectural information such as egress width, height, contrast intensity, and room illumination in a d as-planned environment model. furthermore, morrow et al. [ ] proposed an environmental visibility evaluation system using d pedestrian model. in the study, environmental visibilities from figure . overview of system for evaluating ease of wayfinding. the proposed system is demonstrated in a virtual maze and a real two-story indoor environment. the system is further validated by comparing the disorientation spots detected by the simulation with those obtained in a test involving six young subjects in the two-story indoor environment. the rest of this paper is organized as follows. section introduces the related literature and clarifies the contributions of this study. section presents a brief introduction of the previously developed as-is environment modeling system [ , ]. in section , an overview of signage entity creation is described. in section , the algorithm for the simulation in which dhm performs wayfinding is introduced. finally, in section , the system is demonstrated and validated. . related work this study is related primarily to wayfinding simulation research. a variety of simulation algorithms aiming to evaluate the ease of wayfinding have been studied. chen et al. [ ] proposed a wayfinding simulation algorithm based on architectural information such as egress width, height, contrast intensity, and room illumination in a d as-planned environment model. furthermore, morrow et al. [ ] proposed an environmental visibility evaluation system using d pedestrian model. in the study, environmental visibilities from pedestrian models were evaluated to assist facility managers in designing architectural layout and signage placement. however, these isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of studies [ , ] are not applicable to the evaluation of ease of wayfinding based on signage system because the pedestrian models used in them were not modeled to incorporate the surrounding signage in the simulation. hajibabai et al. [ ] proposed a wayfinding simulation using directional signage in an as-planned d environment model for emergency evacuation during a fire. the d pedestrian model used in the study could make decisions about its walking route based on perceived signage and fire propagation. however, in that study, signage visibility and legibility were estimated by oversimplified human visual perception, and signage noticeability was not considered. in addition, performing a precise d wayfinding simulation using a d as-is environment model using their framework is infeasible. recently, signage-based d wayfinding simulation has been advancing. brunnhuber et al. [ ] and becker-asano et al. [ ] proposed schemes for wayfinding simulation using directional and identification signage in a d as-planned environment model. in these simulations, the next walking direction of the pedestrian models was determined autonomously based on the navigation information on the perceived signage. signage perception was realized by estimating signage visibility and legibility based on the imitated visual perception of the pedestrian model. however, signage noticeability was not considered in these simulations, although it has a significant effect on the wayfinding of people in unfamiliar environments [ ]. more recently, advanced approaches for estimating suitable signage locations have been proposed. zhang et al. [ ] proposed a system for planning the placement of directional signage for evaluation. in their system, a minimum number of signage and appropriate signage locations were determined automatically by simulating interactions between the pedestrian models and the signage system. in addition, motamedi et al. [ ] proposed a system for optimizing the arrangement of directional and identification signage in building information model (bim)-enabled environments. their system estimated optimal signage arrangement based on signage visibility and legibility for a d pedestrian model walking in a bim-based environment model. however, as in cases of other previous simulations, signage noticeability was not considered in these studies [ , ]. in addition, the system [ ] was validated with an oversimplified environment model imitating a large rectangular space having an egress, and the feasibility of its use in realistic and complex as-is environments was not validated. by contrast, in the system [ ], the walking route of the pedestrian model was not changed based on the navigation information indicated by perceived signage, so evaluation based on signage continuity was basically infeasible. furthermore, these simulations [ – ] treated only one or two types of signage—directional and/or identification. thus, these simulations cannot be applied to actual signage systems including all signage types in table . moreover, with the exception of the simulation proposed by motamedi et al. [ ], simplified as-planned environment models were used in the previous wayfinding simulations. therefore, to realize a reliable evaluation of ease of wayfinding, simulation users and/or facility managers are urged to create detailed and realistic as-planned environment models, including small obstacles and environmental textures based on measurements of the environment. unlike the simulations developed in these previous studies [ – ], the proposed system can evaluate the ease of wayfinding by simulating d interactions among realistic wayfinding behaviors, as-is environment model, and realistic signage system. specifically, the contributions of the present study are as follows: . dhm can make a decision based on the surrounding signage perceived by its imitated visual perception in consideration of signage location, continuity, visibility, noticeability, and legibility. . as-is environment model including detailed environmental geometry and realistic textures, can be generated automatically using d laser-scanning and sfm. . proposed system can simulate the wayfinding of the dhm by discriminating among four types of signage, namely, positional, directional, routing, and identification signage. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of . proposed system is validated through a comparison of disorientation spots between simulations and measurements obtained from young subjects. . automatic d as-is environment modeling in the proposed system, first, an as-is environment model is generated automatically. as shown in figure , the model comprises walk surface points ws, a navigation graph gn , and textured d environmental geometry gi . ws represents a set of laser-scanned point clouds on walkable surfaces such as floors, slopes, and stair-treads. specifically, ws is used to estimate the footprints of the dhm during the simulation. gn generated from ws represents the environmental pathways that the dhm would navigate through during the simulation. the graph gn = 〈v, e, c, t, es〉 comprises a set of graph nodes v and a set of edges e. each node vk ∈ v represents free space in the environment, and has a position vector t(vk) and cylinder attribute c(vk), whose radius r(vk) and height hv represent the distance to the wall and walkable step height, respectively. each edge ek, representing the connectivity of free spaces, is generated between two adjacent nodes with a common region. es = {esk} represents a set of stair edges connecting two graph nodes at the end of stairs. ws and gn can be generated automatically using our method [ ]. by contrast, gi represents a d mesh model with high-quality textures, and it is used to estimate signage visibility and noticeability during simulation. gi can be created automatically using sfm with a set of photographs of the environment [ ]. detailed algorithms and demonstrations are given in our previous studies [ – ]. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of . proposed system is validated through a comparison of disorientation spots between simulations and measurements obtained from young subjects. . automatic d as-is environment modeling in the proposed system, first, an as-is environment model is generated automatically. as shown in figure , the model comprises walk surface points , a navigation graph , and textured d environmental geometry . represents a set of laser-scanned point clouds on walkable surfaces such as floors, slopes, and stair-treads. specifically, is used to estimate the footprints of the dhm during the simulation. generated from represents the environmental pathways that the dhm would navigate through during the simulation. the graph = 〈 , , , , 〉 comprises a set of graph nodes and a set of edges . each node ∈ represents free space in the environment, and has a position vector ( ) and cylinder attribute ( ), whose radius ( ) and height ℎ represent the distance to the wall and walkable step height, respectively. each edge , representing the connectivity of free spaces, is generated between two adjacent nodes with a common region. = { } represents a set of stair edges connecting two graph nodes at the end of stairs. and can be generated automatically using our method [ ]. by contrast, represents a d mesh model with high-quality textures, and it is used to estimate signage visibility and noticeability during simulation. can be created automatically using sfm with a set of photographs of the environment [ ]. detailed algorithms and demonstrations are given in our previous studies [ – ]. (a) (b) (c) figure . d as-is environment model: (a) walk surface points ; (b) navigation graph ; (c) textured environmental geometry . . creation of signage entity in the proposed scheme, the signage system is modeled as a set of signage entities = { }. each signage entity = [ , ] consists of a d textured mesh model of the signage and a set of signage information entities = { , } ( ∈ [ , ] ), where represents the number of signage information items included in . when modeling the existing signage, is constructed using sfm; otherwise, is created using d cad software. , is created by manually assigning the geometric, navigation, and legibility properties in table . the details are given below. . . geometric property the geometric property includes the description region , center position , unit normal vector , width , and transformation matrix t . as shown in figure a, = [ , ] consists of two diagonal points of the rectangular description region on , in which the signage information is written. , , and are estimated from . t represents a transformation matrix from the local coordinate system of , to the coordinate system of , where is defined to satisfy three conditions: ( ) the origin of is located on , ( ) y-axis of is aligned with , and ( ) z-axis of is aligned with the z-axis of . under this definition, t is calculated automatically from and . figure . d as-is environment model: (a) walk surface points ws; (b) navigation graph gn ; (c) textured environmental geometry gi . . creation of signage entity in the proposed scheme, the signage system is modeled as a set of signage entities s = {si}. each signage entity si = [gi, ii] consists of a d textured mesh model gi of the signage and a set of signage information entities ii = {ii,j} (j ∈ [ , ni]), where ni represents the number of signage information items included in si. when modeling the existing signage, gi is constructed using sfm; otherwise, gi is created using d cad software. ii,j is created by manually assigning the geometric, navigation, and legibility properties in table . the details are given below. . . geometric property the geometric property includes the description region rg, center position pg, unit normal vector ng, width wg, and transformation matrix tg i . as shown in figure a, rg = [pto p, pbottom] consists of two diagonal points of the rectangular description region on gi, in which the signage information is written. pg, ng, and wg are estimated from rg. tg i represents a transformation matrix from the local coordinate system xi of ii,j to the coordinate system xg of gi, where xi is defined to satisfy three conditions: ( ) the origin of xi is located on pg, ( ) y-axis of xi is aligned with ng, and ( ) z-axis of xi is aligned with the z-axis of xg . under this definition, tg i is calculated automatically from pg and ng. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of table . signage information entity. property attribute assignment method geometric property description region rg = [pto p, pbottom] assigned by user by picking two diagonal points center position pg estimated from rgunit normal vector ng width wg transformation matrix tg i estimated from pg and ng navigation property type of signage tn ∈ {′positional′, ′directional′, ′routing′, ′identi f ication′} assigned by user based on the signage designname of indicated place dn navigation information ni legibility property maximum viewing distance dl measured from human subjects center point of d vca pl estimated from dlradius of d vca rl isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of table . signage information entity. property attribute assignment method geometric property description region = [ , ] assigned by user by picking two diagonal points center position estimated from unit normal vector width transformation matrix t estimated from and navigation property type of signage ∈{ , ′ , ′ , ′ ′} assigned by user based on the signage design name of indicated place navigation information legibility property maximum viewing distance measured from human subjects center point of d vca estimated from radius of d vca (a) (b) (c) figure . overview of signage information: (a) geometric property; (b) navigation property; (c) legibility property. . . navigation property the navigation property includes the type of signage , name of indicated place , and navigation information . as listed and shown in table and figure b, respectively, is destination a (a) positional sign ( is ) (b) directional sign ( is ) (c) routing sign ( is ) destination a destination a to destination a (a) (b) (c) figure . overview of signage information: (a) geometric property; (b) navigation property; (c) legibility property. . . navigation property the navigation property includes the type of signage tn, name of indicated place dn, and navigation information ni . as listed and shown in table and figure b, respectively, ni is assigned by the user in accordance with tn. the user must specify a next goal position pn, next walking direction dn, and a set of passing points pn for positional, directional, and routing signage, respectively. pn and pn are specified w.r.t. the coordinate system xw of the textured environmental geometry gi . by contrast, dn is specified w.r.t. xi of ii,j. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of table . assignment of navigation information depending on signage type. signage type navigation information ni to achieve a destination referenced coordinate system positional signage next goal position pn xw of gi directional signage next walking direction dn xi of ii,j routing signage a set of passing points pn = {pk} xw of gi identification signage name of current place cn none . . legibility property the legibility property includes the center point pl w.r.t. xi of ii,j and radius rl of the d visibility catchment area (vca). as shown in figure c, the d vca of signage represents a sphere in which people can recognize the information written in the signage. the vca was defined originally as a d circle by fillipidis et al. [ ] and xie et al. [ ]. in this study, the d vca is calculated such that the great circle of the sphere on the horizontal plane corresponds to the d vca circle proposed by xie et al. [ ]. specifically, pl and rl are calculated using the following equation: rl = wg sin ϕl pl = pg + ng( wg tan ϕl ) ϕl = tan − ( wg dl ), ( ) where dl represents the maximum viewing distance between the signage and the subject standing at a place, in which the subject can recognize the information on the signage. by measuring dl from the subjects, the legible space of the signage is calculated as the d vca using equation ( ). . system for evaluation of ease of wayfinding as shown in figure , the wayfinding simulation using the dhm is performed in accordance with the user-specified wayfinding scenario, including dhm properties h = [m, θh , θv , nt], start position ps, initial walking direction di , name of destination d, and signage locations and orientations ts = {ti}, where m, θh , θv , nt, and ti represent motion-capture (mocap) data for flat walking obtained from the gait database [ ], horizontal and vertical angles of view frustum, threshold value of signage noticeability, and transformation matrix from xg to xw , respectively. before the simulation, the locations and the orientations of each signage entity si ∈ s are determined by assigning ti ∈ ts. then, a dhm having the same body dimensions as the subject of m is generated. as shown in figure , the dhm has degrees of freedom and a link mechanism corresponding to that of m. the imitated eye position peye of the dhm is estimated as the midpoint between the top of the head and the neck. finally, the wayfinding simulation is performed by repeating the algorithms described in the following subsections. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of figure . link mechanism of dhm. . . signage perception based on imitated visual perception in the proposed system, signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility are estimated to determine whether a signage is found and its information is recognized by the dhm. the details are described in the following subsections. . . . signage visibility estimation signage visibility represents whether a signage is included in the view frustum of the dhm defined by and . as shown in figure , it is estimated simply by scanning the eyesight of the dhm. first, the eyesight of the dhm is obtained using opengl by rendering an image from the camera model located at the dhm eye position . at the same time, as shown in the figure, the textured d environmental geometry and the textured d mesh model of each signage ∈ are rendered with a single color instead of their original textures. finally, if the color of appears in the rendered image, is considered “visible” signage and inserted into a set of visible signage entities = { }. (a) (b) figure . signage visibility estimation: (a) view frustum of dhm; (b) image rendered using opengl. . . . signage noticeability estimation as people overlook objects in their eyesight, it is not always true that the dhm can find a signage when is visible ∈ . therefore, signage noticeability representing whether the dhm can notice ∈ must be estimated. figure . link mechanism of dhm. . . signage perception based on imitated visual perception in the proposed system, signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility are estimated to determine whether a signage is found and its information is recognized by the dhm. the details are described in the following subsections. . . . signage visibility estimation signage visibility represents whether a signage is included in the view frustum of the dhm defined by θh and θv . as shown in figure , it is estimated simply by scanning the eyesight of the dhm. first, the eyesight of the dhm is obtained using opengl by rendering an image from the camera model located at the dhm eye position peye. at the same time, as shown in the figure, the textured d environmental geometry gi and the textured d mesh model gi of each signage si ∈ s are rendered with a single color instead of their original textures. finally, if the color of gi appears in the rendered image, si is considered “visible” signage and inserted into a set of visible signage entities svis = {sk}. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of figure . link mechanism of dhm. . . signage perception based on imitated visual perception in the proposed system, signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility are estimated to determine whether a signage is found and its information is recognized by the dhm. the details are described in the following subsections. . . . signage visibility estimation signage visibility represents whether a signage is included in the view frustum of the dhm defined by and . as shown in figure , it is estimated simply by scanning the eyesight of the dhm. first, the eyesight of the dhm is obtained using opengl by rendering an image from the camera model located at the dhm eye position . at the same time, as shown in the figure, the textured d environmental geometry and the textured d mesh model of each signage ∈ are rendered with a single color instead of their original textures. finally, if the color of appears in the rendered image, is considered “visible” signage and inserted into a set of visible signage entities = { }. (a) (b) figure . signage visibility estimation: (a) view frustum of dhm; (b) image rendered using opengl. . . . signage noticeability estimation as people overlook objects in their eyesight, it is not always true that the dhm can find a signage when is visible ∈ . therefore, signage noticeability representing whether the dhm can notice ∈ must be estimated. figure . signage visibility estimation: (a) view frustum of dhm; (b) image rendered using opengl. . . . signage noticeability estimation as people overlook objects in their eyesight, it is not always true that the dhm can find a signage si when si is visible si ∈ svis. therefore, signage noticeability representing whether the dhm can notice si ∈ svis must be estimated. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of in the proposed system, signage noticeability is estimated using the saliency estimation algorithm proposed by itti et al. [ ] based on the visual search mechanism of real humans [ ]. in this algorithm, a gaussian pyramid is first generated from an image rendered by the camera model at peye. then, feature maps representing contrasts of intensity, color differences, and orientations are obtained from each image. by integrating and normalizing the feature maps, a saliency map ms = {m(x, y)} is generated, where m(x, y) ∈ [ , ] represents the degree of saliency at a pixel (x, y). in the map, m(x, y) increases at the pixel, in which contrasts of intensity, color differences, and orientations are higher than those of other pixels. finally, as shown in figure , the propose system estimates the noticeability ni of visible signage si ∈ svis using the following equation: ni = max (x,y)∈pi m(x, y), ( ) where m(x, y) and pi represent the degree of saliency at pixel (x, y) in ms and a set of pixels, in which the signage geometry gi is rendered. if ni is greater than the noticeability threshold nt of the user-specified wayfinding scenario, si is considered “found” signage, and inserted into a set of found signage entities s f ound = {sk} (s f ound ⊆ svis). isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of in the proposed system, signage noticeability is estimated using the saliency estimation algorithm proposed by itti et al. [ ] based on the visual search mechanism of real humans [ ]. in this algorithm, a gaussian pyramid is first generated from an image rendered by the camera model at . then, feature maps representing contrasts of intensity, color differences, and orientations are obtained from each image. by integrating and normalizing the feature maps, a saliency map = { ( , )} is generated, where ( , ) ∈ [ , ] represents the degree of saliency at a pixel ( , ). in the map, ( , ) increases at the pixel, in which contrasts of intensity, color differences, and orientations are higher than those of other pixels. finally, as shown in figure , the propose system estimates the noticeability of visible signage ∈ using the following equation: = max( , )∈ ( , ), ( ) where ( , ) and represent the degree of saliency at pixel ( , ) in and a set of pixels, in which the signage geometry is rendered. if is greater than the noticeability threshold of the user-specified wayfinding scenario, is considered “found” signage, and inserted into a set of found signage entities = { } ( ⊆ ). figure . signage noticeability estimation. . . . signage legibility estimation signage legibility represents whether the dhm can recognize signage information of found signage ∈ , i.e., whether the dhm can read the textual or graphical information written on the signage. it is estimated using the d vca of signage information , of . if is included in the d vca of , , , is considered “recognized” signage information. in the proposed system, it is assumed that the dhm can correctly interpret , only when and , are found (i.e., ∈ ) and recognized, respectively. note that the signage noticeability, , does not influence the signage legibility estimation. . . wayfinding decision-making based on signage perception based on the estimated signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility, the wayfinding state of the dhm is changed dynamically in accordance with the state transition chart shown in figure a. as shown in the figure, when the simulation is performed, the dhm is set to start walking in the direction (state sw in figure a). then, as shown in figure b, when a signage is found by the dhm, i.e., is inserted to , the dhm is set to walk toward the center position of , of (state sw ) to read the information on . thereafter, the other signage does not influence the state transition until the state is changed to the look-around state (sw ) even if is found by the dhm. when , of becomes legible, the name of indicated place of , is compared with the name of destination of the wayfinding scenario. if , the state is changed to sw to find other signage related to ; else, the state is changed in accordance with the type of recognized signage information . if represents positional, directional, or routing signage, the state is changed to the motion planning state (sw ). by contrast, if represents an identification signage, the state is changed to the success state (sw ). in this state, the simulation is deemed complete because this state is the final state. figure . signage noticeability estimation. . . . signage legibility estimation signage legibility represents whether the dhm can recognize signage information of found signage si ∈ s f ound, i.e., whether the dhm can read the textual or graphical information written on the signage. it is estimated using the d vca of signage information ii,j of si. if peye is included in the d vca of ii,j, ii,j is considered “recognized” signage information. in the proposed system, it is assumed that the dhm can correctly interpret ii,j only when si and ii,j are found (i.e., si ∈ s f ound) and recognized, respectively. note that the signage noticeability, ni, does not influence the signage legibility estimation. . . wayfinding decision-making based on signage perception based on the estimated signage visibility, noticeability, and legibility, the wayfinding state of the dhm is changed dynamically in accordance with the state transition chart shown in figure a. as shown in the figure, when the simulation is performed, the dhm is set to start walking in the direction di (state sw in figure a). then, as shown in figure b, when a signage si is found by the dhm, i.e., si is inserted to s f ound, the dhm is set to walk toward the center position pg of ii, j of si (state sw ) to read the information on si. thereafter, the other signage sj does not influence the state transition until the state is changed to the look-around state (sw ) even if sj is found by the dhm. when ii, j of si becomes legible, the name of indicated place dn of ii, j is compared with the name of destination d of the wayfinding scenario. if dn = d, the state is changed to sw to find other signage related to d; else, the state is changed in accordance with the type of recognized signage information tn. if tn represents positional, directional, or routing signage, the state is changed to the motion planning state (sw ). by contrast, if tn represents an identification signage, the state is isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of changed to the success state (sw ). in this state, the simulation is deemed complete because this state is the final state. during the wayfinding simulation, the dhm basically repeats the states sw , sw , sw , and sw . as shown in figure c, when the dhm recognizes ii, j, it is set to walk toward the temporal destination of the dhm, i.e., subgoal position psub (sw and sw ). then, as shown in figure d, when the dhm arrives at psub, it is asked to observe the surrounding environment (i.e., look-around) by rotating the neck joint horizontally within its range of motion (sw ). when the dhm finds new signage in this state, the state changes back to sw . by contrast, when the dhm cannot find any signage, the current dhm position is treated as a “disorientation spot” (sw ). the state sw is considered the failed state. note that the state can be changed to sw from sw only when tn represents a directional signage, as described in section . . . isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of during the wayfinding simulation, the dhm basically repeats the states sw , sw , sw , and sw . as shown in figure c, when the dhm recognizes , , it is set to walk toward the temporal destination of the dhm, i.e., subgoal position (sw and sw ). then, as shown in figure d, when the dhm arrives at , it is asked to observe the surrounding environment (i.e., look-around) by rotating the neck joint horizontally within its range of motion (sw ). when the dhm finds new signage in this state, the state changes back to sw . by contrast, when the dhm cannot find any signage, the current dhm position is treated as a “disorientation spot” (sw ). the state sw is considered the failed state. note that the state can be changed to sw from sw only when represents a directional signage, as described in section . . . (a) (b) (c) (d) figure . wayfinding decision-making based on signage perception: (a) wayfinding state transition; (b) walking toward signage; (c) walking toward subgoal position; (d) look-around. . . signage-based motion planning . . . updating subgoal position of dhm in the signage-based motion planning state (sw ), first, the subgoal position is determined automatically depending on the type of recognized signage information and its navigation information . when = ′ ′, is determined as the next goal position of to make the dhm walk toward a location indicated by the recognized signage information , . when = ′ ′, as shown in figure , a queue of fork points = { } is extracted by the following steps. ( ) a graph node ( ∈ ) just under the pelvis position of the dhm is extracted from the navigation graph . then, is inserted into a set of graph nodes , where , is found walking trajectory look-around figure . wayfinding decision-making based on signage perception: (a) wayfinding state transition; (b) walking toward signage; (c) walking toward subgoal position; (d) look-around. . . signage-based motion planning . . . updating subgoal position of dhm in the signage-based motion planning state (sw ), first, the subgoal position psub is determined automatically depending on the type of recognized signage information tn and its navigation information ni . when tn =′ positional′, psub is determined as the next goal position pn of ni to make the dhm walk toward a location indicated by the recognized signage information ii, j. when tn =′ directional′, as shown in figure , a queue of fork points f = {pm} is extracted by the following steps. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of ( ) a graph node vc (vc ∈ v) just under the pelvis position pp of the dhm is extracted from the navigation graph gn . then, vc is inserted into a set of graph nodes v′p, where v ′ p represents graph nodes on a feasible walking path when the dhm walks in accordance with the next walking direction dn indicated by ii, j. ( ) vc and dn of ii, j are assigned to the variables vt and dt, respectively. ( ) a graph node vp located in the direction of dt is extracted using the following equation: p = argmax k∈nt dk·dt dk = t(vk)− t(vt) ‖t(vk)− t(vt)‖ , ( ) where nt represents a set of indices of graph node vk (vk /∈ v′p) connected to vt by a graph edge. using this equation, vp is determined as a graph node with the minimum angle difference between dt and a graph edge connecting vk and vt. ( ) if nt = ∅, vp is inserted into v′p, and dk and vp are assigned to vt and dt, respectively. ( ) if |nt| ≥ ∨ nt = ∅, t(vp) is pushed into f because t(vp) is considered a center position at the fork way or at the terminal of the walkway. ( ) steps ( )–( ) are repeated, until nt = ∅, i.e., until a graph node representing the terminal of the walkway is found. when the wayfinding state is changed to sw or sw in figure a, a first fork point is taken from f and assigned to psub. this algorithm enables the proposed system to detect multiple disorientation spots, i.e., fork points with no visible and noticeable signage after perceiving directional signage. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of represents graph nodes on a feasible walking path when the dhm walks in accordance with the next walking direction indicated by , . ( ) and of , are assigned to the variables and , respectively. ( ) a graph node located in the direction of is extracted using the following equation: = arg max∈ ∙ = ( ) ( )‖ ( ) ( )‖, ( ) where represents a set of indices of graph node ( ∉ ) connected to by a graph edge. using this equation, is determined as a graph node with the minimum angle difference between and a graph edge connecting and . ( ) if ∅, is inserted into , and and are assigned to and , respectively. ( ) if | | ∨ = ∅ , is pushed into because is considered a center position at the fork way or at the terminal of the walkway. ( ) steps ( )–( ) are repeated, until = ∅, i.e., until a graph node representing the terminal of the walkway is found. when the wayfinding state is changed to sw or sw in figure a, a first fork point is taken from and assigned to . this algorithm enables the proposed system to detect multiple disorientation spots, i.e., fork points with no visible and noticeable signage after perceiving directional signage. figure . extraction of fork points from navigation graph. when = ′ ′, is determined as the last elements of a set of passing points of indicated by , . then, the walking path of the dhm is estimated such that it passes the graph nodes at ∈ in section . . . . . . walking path selection and walking trajectory generation as shown in figure , after determining the subgoal position , the walking path = { } ( ∈ ) of the dhm is determined automatically by the following function: = path( , ), ( ) where path( , ) represents a function to select a set of graph nodes between two nodes located at and using the dijkstra method from . when the wayfinding state is changed to sw with the visible signage ∈ , ( ) and are assigned to and , where and represent a graph node just under the dhm pelvis position and the center position of , of , respectively. by contrast, when the state is changed to sw , and are determined depending on the type of recognized signage information . when = ′ ′ or = ′ ′ , ( ) and are assigned to and , respectively. by contrast, when = ′ ′ , is determined as figure . extraction of fork points from navigation graph. when tn =′ routing′, psub is determined as the last elements of a set of passing points pn of ni indicated by ii, j. then, the walking path vp of the dhm is estimated such that it passes the graph nodes at pk ∈ pn in section . . . . . . walking path selection and walking trajectory generation as shown in figure , after determining the subgoal position psub, the walking path vp = {vi} (vi ∈ v) of the dhm is determined automatically by the following function: vp = path(pa, pb), ( ) where path(pa, pb) represents a function to select a set of graph nodes vp between two nodes located at pa and pb using the dijkstra method from gn . when the wayfinding state is changed to sw with the visible signage si ∈ svis, t(vc) and pg are assigned to pa and pb, where vc and pg represent a graph node just under the dhm pelvis position pp and the center position pg of ii, j of si, respectively. by contrast, when the state is changed isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of to sw , pa and pb are determined depending on the type of recognized signage information tn. when tn =′ positional′ or tn =′ directional′, t(vc) and psub are assigned to pa and pb, respectively. by contrast, when tn =′ routing′, vp is determined as vp = ∪ k<|pn| k= path(pk, pk+ ), where pk ∈ pn is a passing point representing a walking route indicated by ni of ii, j. after determining vp, the walking trajectory vt = 〈pi〉 is generated automatically by our previously developed optimization algorithm [ ], where vt represents a sequence of sparsely discretized target pelvis positions of the dhm. this optimization algorithm is designed to make vt more natural and smooth, while avoiding contact with walls. the details are described in [ ]. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of = ⋃ path( , )| | , where ∈ is a passing point representing a walking route indicated by of , . after determining , the walking trajectory = 〈 〉 is generated automatically by our previously developed optimization algorithm [ ], where represents a sequence of sparsely discretized target pelvis positions of the dhm. this optimization algorithm is designed to make more natural and smooth, while avoiding contact with walls. the details are described in [ ]. figure . examples of walking path selection and walking trajectory generation. . . mocap-based adaptive walking motion generation finally, the walking motion of the dhm is generated as it follows using our mocap-based adaptive walking motion generation algorithm [ ]. in the algorithm, realistic articulated walking movements of the dhm are generated based on mocap data for flat walking. the details and demonstrations are introduced in [ ]. . results and validations the proposed system was developed using visual studio professional edition with c++. the system was applied to a virtual maze and a real two-story indoor environment. in addition, it was validated by comparing the disorientation spots between the simulation and measurements obtained from young subjects. videos of as-is environment modeling and wayfinding simulation results, i.e., figures – , are available in the supplementary video file. . . evaluation of ease of wayfinding in virtual maze the proposed system was first applied to a virtual maze with a set of signage entities = { , , , , }, to test its basic performance. figure shows the constructed environment model of the virtual maze. in the figure, textured environmental geometry was constructed manually using cad software [ ], and the set of walk surface points and navigation graph were constructed from a set of vertices of . note that the proposed system could perform not only in the as-is environment model but in the given d model of the environment, e.g., cad data of the environment, by converting the model to dense point clouds. tables and show the wayfinding scenario and the user-assigned parameters of each signage information , , respectively. as shown in table , all four types of signage were used. figure . examples of walking path selection and walking trajectory generation. . . mocap-based adaptive walking motion generation finally, the walking motion of the dhm is generated as it follows vt using our mocap-based adaptive walking motion generation algorithm [ ]. in the algorithm, realistic articulated walking movements of the dhm are generated based on mocap data m for flat walking. the details and demonstrations are introduced in [ ]. . results and validations the proposed system was developed using visual studio professional edition with c++. the system was applied to a virtual maze and a real two-story indoor environment. in addition, it was validated by comparing the disorientation spots between the simulation and measurements obtained from young subjects. videos of as-is environment modeling and wayfinding simulation results, i.e., figures – , are available in the supplementary video file. . . evaluation of ease of wayfinding in virtual maze the proposed system was first applied to a virtual maze with a set of signage entities s = {s , s , s , s , s }, to test its basic performance. figure shows the constructed environment model of the virtual maze. in the figure, textured environmental geometry gi was constructed manually using cad software [ ], and the set of walk surface points ws and navigation graph gn were constructed from a set of vertices of gi . note that the proposed system could perform not only in the as-is environment model but in the given d model of the environment, e.g., cad data of the environment, by converting the model to dense point clouds. tables and show the wayfinding scenario and the user-assigned parameters of each signage information ii,j, respectively. as shown in table , all four types of signage were used. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of (a) (b) (c) (d) figure . environment model of virtual maze: (a) textured environmental geometry (#vertices: , , , #faces: , , ); (b) walk surface points ; (c) navigation graph ; (d) wayfinding scenario. the results are available in the supplementary video file. table . user-specified wayfinding scenario. parameters specified values mocap data for flat walking of mocap data of a young male subject (age: years, height: . m) horizontal angle of view frustum of deg vertical angle of view frustum of deg noticeability threshold ∈ [ , ] of . start position shown in figure d initial walking direction name of destination “goal“ signage locations and orientations shown in figure d and were specified based on the handbook [ ]. was specified as a small value for validation. table . user-assigned parameters of signage information. parameters sign sign sign sign sign type of signage ‘positional’ ‘directional‘ ‘directional‘ ‘routing‘ ‘identification‘ name of indicated place “goal“ navigation information shown in figure d “goal“ maximum viewing distance . m . m . m was specified as a tentative value without human measurements. figure . environment model of virtual maze: (a) textured environmental geometry gi (#vertices: , , , #faces: , , ); (b) walk surface points ws; (c) navigation graph gn ; (d) wayfinding scenario. the results are available in the supplementary video file. table . user-specified wayfinding scenario. parameters specified values mocap data for flat walking m of h mocap data of a young male subject (age: years, height: . m) horizontal angle of view frustum θh of h deg vertical angle of view frustum θv of h deg noticeability threshold nt ∈ [ , ] of h . start position ps shown in figure d initial walking direction di name of destination d “goal“ signage locations and orientations ts shown in figure d θh and θv were specified based on the handbook [ ]. nt was specified as a small value for validation. table . user-assigned parameters of signage information. parameters sign s sign s sign s sign s sign s type of signage tn ‘positional’ ‘directional’ ‘directional’ ‘routing’ ‘identification’ name of indicated place dn “goal” navigation information ni shown in figure d “goal” maximum viewing distance dl . m . m . m dl was specified as a tentative value without human measurements. figure shows the evaluation results of ease of wayfinding. as shown in figure a, when the simulation was performed, the dhm found and recognized s and i , , respectively. in consequence, the dhm was set to walk toward the next goal positon pn indicated by i , . then, when the dhm arrived at pn, s and i , were found and recognized by the dhm (figure b), respectively. a feasible isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of walking path v′p and a set of fork points f of i , were then extracted. then, the dhm was set to walk toward the first fork point p ∈ f of i , . after that, the dhm found and recognized s and i , at p ∈ f, respectively. then, as shown in figure c, v ′ p and f of i , were extracted. at the same time, the dhm was set to walk toward p ∈ f of i , . however, as shown in figure d, the dhm could not find any new signage when it arrived at p ∈ f of i , . therefore, this spot was detected as a disorientation spot. as recommended by international standards [ ], a facility manager must provide signage at all key decision points such as forks. therefore, from this standpoint, the detection of this disorientation spot can be considered reasonable. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of figure shows the evaluation results of ease of wayfinding. as shown in figure a, when the simulation was performed, the dhm found and recognized and , , respectively. in consequence, the dhm was set to walk toward the next goal positon indicated by , . then, when the dhm arrived at , and , were found and recognized by the dhm (figure b), respectively. a feasible walking path and a set of fork points of , were then extracted. then, the dhm was set to walk toward the first fork point ∈ of , . after that, the dhm found and recognized and , at ∈ , respectively. then, as shown in figure c, and of , were extracted. at the same time, the dhm was set to walk toward ∈ of , . however, as shown in figure d, the dhm could not find any new signage when it arrived at ∈ of , . therefore, this spot was detected as a disorientation spot. as recommended by international standards [ ], a facility manager must provide signage at all key decision points such as forks. therefore, from this standpoint, the detection of this disorientation spot can be considered reasonable. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) figure . evaluation results of ease of wayfinding in virtual maze (red lines: graph edges, blue lines: graph edges on , cyan lines: , yellow lines: walking trajectory of dhm, purple lines: graph edges on ): (a) wayfinding in accordance with ; (b) wayfinding in accordance with ; (c) wayfinding in accordance with ; (d) detecting disorientation spot; (e) wayfinding in accordance with ; (f) simulation was completed. the results are available in the supplementary video file. figure . evaluation results of ease of wayfinding in virtual maze (red lines: graph edges, blue lines: graph edges on vp, cyan lines: vt , yellow lines: walking trajectory of dhm, purple lines: graph edges on v′p): (a) wayfinding in accordance with s ; (b) wayfinding in accordance with s ; (c) wayfinding in accordance with s ; (d) detecting disorientation spot; (e) wayfinding in accordance with s ; (f) simulation was completed. the results are available in the supplementary video file. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of thereafter, as shown in figure e, the dhm was set to walk toward p ∈ f indicated by i , to evaluate the ease of wayfinding after passing the detected disorientation spot. in consequence, the dhm found and recognized s and i , at p ∈ f of i , , respectively. then, the dhm was set to walk toward p ∈ pn of i , following vp generated on passing points pi ∈ pn of i , . finally, as shown in figure f, the dhm found and recognized s and i , , respectively, where s was an identification signage pertaining to the destination d. in consequence, the wayfinding simulation was completed. based on the above results, from the standpoints of system performance, the following conclusions were obtained. • the proposed system could detect disorientation spots resulting from the lack of signage or poor location of signage in the environment model. • the proposed system could simulate the wayfinding of the dhm by discriminating among four types of signage, namely, positional, directional, routing, and identification. . . evaluation results of ease of wayfinding in real two-story indoor environment the proposed system was further applied to a real two-story indoor environment with a set of signage entities s = {s , s , s , s }. figure shows the constructed as-is environment model. in figure , the laser-scanned point clouds were acquired from the environment by a terrestrial laser scanner [ ]. the textured environmental geometry gi was constructed from , photos of the environment using commercial sfm software, contextcapture [ ], where the photos were extracted from the video data captured using a digital single-lens reflex camera [ ]. as shown in figure c, the model contains a few distorted regions, which can be attributed to the performance limitations of the sfm software. however, most of the model could be generated successfully. in the simulation, the dhm properties h of the wayfinding scenario was identical to that in table . the starting position ps, initial walking direction di , and signage locations and orientations ts are shown in figure d,e. the maximum viewing distance dl of each signage was specified as dl = . m for each signage information ii,j, as determined by measurement of dl of s using six subjects ranging in age from to years. a positional signage s , two types of directional signage s and s , and an identification signage s were arranged in the environment to simulate the situation in which people tried to find a conference room using only the signage in the unfamiliar indoor environment. figure shows the evaluation results of ease of wayfinding. as shown in figure a, when the simulation was performed, s and i , were found and recognized by the dhm, respectively. since the next goal position pn indicated by i , was specified on the end of the caracole on the second floor, the dhm was set to ascend the caracole. when the dhm arrived at pn of i , , the dhm was asked to observe the surrounding environment to find new signage. however, as shown in figure b, the dhm could not find s although s was visible. this was because the estimated signage noticeability n = . of s at the spot was less than the user-specified threshold, nt = . . thus, this spot was detected as a disorientation spot because s was overlooked. following the above results, in figure c, the signage design of s , i.e., texture on gi, was improved to enhance its noticeability. as a result, the ease of wayfinding was improved to enable the dhm to find s at the detected disorientation spot. this improvement was caused by the fact that n of s from the dhm standing at the disorientation spot detected previously increased to an adequately large value, n = . . after the dhm recognized i , , the dhm was set to walk toward the first fork point p indicated by i , . however, as shown in figure c, when the dhm arrived at p of i , , the wayfinding state had fallen into sw , i.e., gotten lost, since the dhm could not find any new signage at p . this was because any signage could not be seen by the dhm at p . therefore, this spot was also detected as a disorientation spot owing to the lack of signage. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) figure . as-is environment model of two-story indoor environment: (a) laser-scanned point clouds (#points: , , ); (b) navigation graph ; (c) textured environmental geometry (#vertices: , , #faces: , , ); (d) wayfinding scenario on first floor [ ]; (e) wayfinding scenario on second floor [ ]. the results are available in the supplementary video file. figure . as-is environment model of two-story indoor environment: (a) laser-scanned point clouds (#points: , , ); (b) navigation graph gn ; (c) textured environmental geometry gi (#vertices: , , #faces: , , ); (d) wayfinding scenario on first floor [ ]; (e) wayfinding scenario on second floor [ ]. the results are available in the supplementary video file. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of (a) (b) (c) (d) figure . evaluation results of ease of wayfinding in two-story indoor environment (yellow lines: walking trajectory of dhm): (a) wayfinding simulation on first floor; (b) detection of disorientation spot resulting from overlooking the signage ; (c) design improvement of and detection of disorientation spot resulting from lack of signage; (d) ease of wayfinding improved completely by changing the design of and adding . the results are available in the supplementary video file. figure . evaluation results of ease of wayfinding in two-story indoor environment (yellow lines: walking trajectory of dhm): (a) wayfinding simulation on first floor; (b) detection of disorientation spot resulting from overlooking the signage s ; (c) design improvement of s and detection of disorientation spot resulting from lack of signage; (d) ease of wayfinding improved completely by changing the design of s and adding s . the results are available in the supplementary video file. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of by contrast, in figure d, a new positional signage s was arranged around the detected disorientation spot. as a result, as shown in the figure, the wayfinding simulation of the dhm was completed successfully. as described above, the proposed system enabled the user to validate the ease of wayfinding in the environment interactively by considering the wayfinding of the dhm, as-is environment model, and arranged signage system. from the standpoint of system performance, the following conclusions were obtained. • the proposed system could detect disorientation spots resulting from the lack of signage and overlooking signage. • the proposed system could simulate the wayfinding of the dhm even in the realistic and complex as-is environment model. • the proposed system could quickly re-evaluate rearranged signage based on the simulation. . . efficiency of environment modeling and simulation table shows the elapsed time of the as-is environment modeling and simulation. as shown in the table, the times for d environment modeling from laser-scanned point clouds were less than one minute in both environments. by contrast, owing to the performance limitation of the sfm software [ ], construction of the textured environmental geometry gi required approximately one week. table . time required for environment modeling and simulation. (cpu: intel(r) core(tm) i - k . ghz, ram: gb, gpu: geforce gtx ). process time required in case of virtual maze time required in case of two-story indoor environment automatic construction of ws and gn from laser-scanned point clouds . s (#points: , ) . s (#points: , , ) automatic construction of gi using sfm software [ ] approximately week (#photos: , ) (resolution: × ) signage visibility, legibility, and noticeability estimation less than . s signage-based motion planning less than . s one-step walking motion generation with frames interpolation . s . s number of downsampled points used for environment modeling. elapsed time of signage visibility, legibility, and noticeability evaluation was not included. furthermore, the time required for signage visibility, legibility, and noticeability estimation was less than . s. in addition, the times required for one-step walking motion generation were . s and . s in the virtual maze and the two-story indoor environment, respectively. therefore, it was confirmed that the proposed system could simulate the dhm wayfinding efficiently. note that the time required for walking motion generation in the two-story indoor environment was longer owing to the high computational load of rendering the environment model. . . experimental validation of system for evaluating ease of wayfinding . . . overview of wayfinding experiment the simulation results on ease of wayfinding presented in section . were validated by the wayfinding experiment using six young subjects. in the validation, two signage systems imitating s = {s , s , s , s } and s ∪ s were arranged in the real environment, where s and s represent the set of signage entities used in the simulation in figure a,b and the added signage in the simulation in figure d, respectively. in the wayfinding experiment, first, the name of destination was revealed to the subjects at the start position ps. then, the subjects were asked to find their way to the destination isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of using the arranged signage system. during this process, wayfinding events such as finding signage and recognizing signage information were recorded by the thinking-aloud method [ ], where the subjects were asked to walk while continuously thinking out loud. verbal information from the subjects was recorded by handheld voice recorders. at the same time, videos of the walking trajectories of the subjects were captured by the observer. finally, when the subjects arrived at the destination, the experiment was deemed complete. note that all subjects have regularly used the environment, but the locations of arranged signage and the destination were not revealed to them. in addition, in the simulation results in section . , the maximum viewing distance dl was specified by measuring dl from those six subjects. in the experiments, first, the wayfinding behaviors of three young subjects (y –y ) were measured using the signage system imitating s. after that, the behaviors of the other three young subjects (y –y ) were measured using the signage system imitating s ∪ s . . . . comparison of wayfinding results between dhm and subjects figure shows the comparison of wayfinding results between the dhm and the subjects. as shown in figure a, a disorientation spot was found during the experiment by three subjects (y –y ), which corresponded to the disorientation spot detected by the simulation. thus, it was confirmed that the proposed ease of wayfinding simulation could detect disorientation spot, where the subjects actually lost their way owing to the lack of signage. isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of in figure d, respectively. in the wayfinding experiment, first, the name of destination was revealed to the subjects at the start position . then, the subjects were asked to find their way to the destination using the arranged signage system. during this process, wayfinding events such as finding signage and recognizing signage information were recorded by the thinking-aloud method [ ], where the subjects were asked to walk while continuously thinking out loud. verbal information from the subjects was recorded by handheld voice recorders. at the same time, videos of the walking trajectories of the subjects were captured by the observer. finally, when the subjects arrived at the destination, the experiment was deemed complete. note that all subjects have regularly used the environment, but the locations of arranged signage and the destination were not revealed to them. in addition, in the simulation results in section . , the maximum viewing distance was specified by measuring from those six subjects. in the experiments, first, the wayfinding behaviors of three young subjects (y –y ) were measured using the signage system imitating . after that, the behaviors of the other three young subjects (y –y ) were measured using the signage system imitating ∪ . . . . comparison of wayfinding results between dhm and subjects figure shows the comparison of wayfinding results between the dhm and the subjects. as shown in figure a, a disorientation spot was found during the experiment by three subjects (y –y ), which corresponded to the disorientation spot detected by the simulation. thus, it was confirmed that the proposed ease of wayfinding simulation could detect disorientation spot, where the subjects actually lost their way owing to the lack of signage. (a) (b) figure . comparison of wayfinding results between simulation and human measurements: (a) comparison using = { , , , }; (b) comparison using ∪ . figure . comparison of wayfinding results between simulation and human measurements:(a) comparison using s = {s , s , s , s }; (b) comparison using s ∪ s . isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of by contrast, as shown in figure b, two subjects, y and y , arrived at the destination when the signage system imitating s ∪ s was arranged. however, a disorientation spot was found during the experiment by subject y . this was explained by the fact that the subject y overlooked the signage imitating s . as shown in figure a, this disorientation spot was also detected in the simulation because the dhm could not find s owing to the low noticeability of s . therefore, it was further confirmed that the proposed system could detect disorientation spot, where subjects actually lost their way owing to overlooking signage. . conclusions in this study, we developed a simulation-based system for evaluating ease of wayfinding using a dhm in an as-is environment model. the proposed system was demonstrated using a virtual maze and a real two-story indoor environment. the following conclusions were drawn from our results: • our system makes it possible to evaluate the ease of wayfinding by simulating the d interactions among the realistic wayfinding behaviors of a dhm, as-is environment model, and realistic signage system. • under the user-specified wayfinding scenario, the system simulates the wayfinding of the dhm by evaluating signage locations, continuity, visibility, legibility, and noticeability based on the imitated visual perception of the dhm. • realistic signage system, including four types of signage, namely, positional, directional, routing, and identification, can be discriminated in the wayfinding simulation. • disorientation spots owing to the lack of signage and overlooking signage can be identified only by conducting the simulation. • rearranged signage plans can be re-evaluated quickly by carrying out the simulation alone. our system was further validated by comparison of disorientation spots between simulations and measurements obtained from six young subjects. from this validation, it was confirmed that the proposed system has a possibility of detecting disorientation spots, where people lose their way owing to the lack of signage or overlooking signage. to validate the performance of the proposed system in detail, wayfinding experiments with a greater number of subjects in various as-is environments, including outdoor environments, must be conducted using more complex wayfinding scenarios in a future work. furthermore, in sections . and . , the noticeability threshold nt was specified without reference to measurements of human visual capabilities. however, in practice, nt must be specified as the minimum value estimated by the dominant users of the environment in consideration of their visual capabilities. therefore, a method for determining a suitable value of nt using a statistical database related to human visual capabilities [ ] will be developed in a future work. the textured environmental geometry gi of the two-story indoor environment included a few distorted regions owing to performance limitations of the sfm software and poor textures on the walls. in the proposed system, gi was used for signage noticeability estimation. from the standpoint of evaluating ease of wayfinding, the system must detect the disorientation spot, where low signage noticeability is expected. in general, the signage noticeability decreases in areas where wall surfaces around the signage are complex and textural, i.e., saliency of signage design is relatively low compared to its surroundings. fortunately, in such areas, gi can be well reconstructed owing to the nature of the sfm algorithm. therefore, the proposed system can detect disorientation spots resulting from overlooking signage, even if a part of gi is distorted. furthermore, as mentioned in the literature [ ], the presence of crowds influences the ease of wayfinding. thus, crowd simulation technologies must be introduced into the proposed simulation framework. in addition, in the proposed system, the walking trajectory of the dhm was generated using a previously developed optimization algorithm [ ]. however, as observed in figure , the walking trajectories of individual human subjects vary. in our future work, such variabilities will isprs int. j. geo-inf. , , of be considered by introducing monte carlo simulation into the proposed system, i.e., generating a variety of dhm walking trajectories using the algorithm [ ] with resampled parameters related to the trajectory generation. supplementary materials: the following is available online at www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s , video s : evaluationresults.mp . acknowledgments: this work was supported by jsps kakenhi grant no. j and jsps grant-in-aid for challenging exploratory research under project no. . author contributions: tsubasa maruyama proposed the original idea of this paper; tsubasa maruyama developed the entire system and performed the experiments; satoshi kanai, hiroaki date, and mitsunori tada improved the idea of the paper; tsubasa maruyama wrote the paper. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . world health organization. who global report on falls prevention in older age. available online: http://www.who.int/ageing/publications/falls_prevention march.pdf (accessed on june ). . international organization for standardization. iso : building construction—accessibility and usability of the built environment. available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/ .html (accessed on december ). . international organization for standardization/international electrotechnical commission. iso/iec guide second edition: guide for addressing accessibility in standards. available online: http://www.iec.ch/ webstore/freepubs/isoiecguide % bed . % den.pdf (accessed on december ). . rubenstein, l.z. falls in older people: epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for prevention. available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ (accessed on june ). . maruyama, t.; kanai, s.; date, h. tripping risk evaluation system based on human behavior simulation in laser-scanned d as-is environments. j. comput. des. eng. , under review. . churchill, a.; dada, e.; de barros, a.g.; wirasinghe, s.c. quantifying and validating measures of airport terminal wayfinding. j. air transp. manag. , , – . 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[crossref] . database of sensory characteristics of older persons with disabilities. available online: http://scdb.db.aist. go.jp/ (accessed on june ). © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). https://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-geo_ .pdf https://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-geo_ .pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.trpro. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ssci. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.aei. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ass.v n p https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jcde. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / https://www.dh.aist.go.jp/database/gait / https://www.dh.aist.go.jp/database/gait / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) - https://www.freecadweb.org/ http://www.faro.com/products/ d-surveying/laserscanner-faro-focus/overview http://www.faro.com/products/ d-surveying/laserscanner-faro-focus/overview https://www.bentley.com/en/products/brands/contextcapture https://www.bentley.com/en/products/brands/contextcapture http://www.nikon-image.com/products/slr/lineup/d / http://www.ist.hokudai.ac.jp/facilities/ http://www.ist.hokudai.ac.jp/facilities/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://scdb.db.aist.go.jp/ http://scdb.db.aist.go.jp/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. introduction related work automatic d as-is environment modeling creation of signage entity geometric property navigation property legibility property system for evaluation of ease of wayfinding signage perception based on imitated visual perception signage visibility estimation signage noticeability estimation signage legibility estimation wayfinding decision-making based on signage perception signage-based motion planning updating subgoal position of dhm walking path selection and walking trajectory generation mocap-based adaptive walking motion generation results and validations evaluation of ease of wayfinding in virtual maze evaluation results of ease of wayfinding in real two-story indoor environment efficiency of environment modeling and simulation experimental validation of system for evaluating ease of wayfinding overview of wayfinding experiment comparison of wayfinding results between dhm and subjects conclusions the lusophony digital humanities and what they (we) are doing from the south: textual corpus analysis and fair principles to tackle hegemony digital humanities , ottawa. ricardo m. pimenta, ibict, brazil, orcid: https://orcid.org/ - - - priscila r. carvalho, ibict-ufrj, brazil, orcid: https://orcid.org/ - - - josir c. gomes, ibict-ufrj, brazil, orcid: https://orcid.org/ - - - introduction the year witnessed a significant growth of research groups and laboratories dedicated to digital humanities in brazil, however, without producing for this international community. nowadays, the digital humanities are beginning to gain greater public interest in brazil and other countries in south america. in this perspective, our research would like to discuss what is produced in the lusophone-speaking digital humanities in south america. the difficulty in diagnosing such production is evident because the global information regime has surrendered to the socio-technical and cultural monopoly mediated by google, amazon, facebook, apple, and microsoft, major technological players (fiormonte & sordi ). in the case of the portuguese-speaking world, it is noticeable the language barrier often puts the debate and dialogue-less in evidence. in addition, english literature as it is evidently english-speaking escapes from the larger question of problematization in the face of critical thinking, which is decolonization. methodology the present work came from the research data of gomes et. al. ( ) that retrieved digital humanities academic papers, thesis, and books written in the portuguese language from google scholar. despite google scholar’s public access, it does not apparently provide consistent means that meet fair principles - findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable (wilkinson et. al ), due to concentration and opacity of information retrieved, that it may be visible but not operable. this empirical study analyzed abstracts which composed the textual corpus through text mining techniques with iramuteq - interface "r" for multidimensional analysis of texts and questionnaires (marchand & ratinaud ). results of iramuteq figure : similitude by iramuteq https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - the result of the similitude analysis, based on the graph theory, unveiled possible thematic convergences of the portuguese language production in the digital humanities. the graph showed a central cluster represented by the term digital, which has a semantic attraction with the following terms: conceito, texto, meio, ferramenta, linguagem, and interação. in addition, this cluster has two subclusters identified by artigo and processo, as well it links other opposing clusters: novo, estudo, and pesquisa. on the top right, the cluster novo has two subclusters, social and nao. in the first subcluster, the term social presented a possible connection between the highlighted terms: comunicacao, informacao, social, and rede. the second subcluster demonstrated a balance between the terms: internet, possivel and acesso. on the bottom left, the cluster estudo exposed the term analisar in evidence, and it links to the cluster pesquisa which is on the extremity of the graph. from this analysis, it can infer the term set reflects actions, products, secondary research objects, and methods, besides the problems and challenges of non-internet access in south america. figure : word cloud by iramuteq the word cloud allowed the quick visualization and identification of the main keywords of the textual corpus: digital, analisar, pesquisa, novo, comunicacao, pesquisa, tecnologia and nao. furthermore, this result reinforced the perception of the similitude analysis. conclusions the usual bibliometric retrieval based on web of science and scopus databases does not show the plethora of academic papers produced on global south. from a decolonizing perspective, this study shows that scraping google scholar data could bring a broader result if you want to analyse portuguese scientific production. in addition, the use of zenodo allowed the research result to have a visibility to the public outside brazil allowing that south america production could integrate lusophone digital humanities in the global context, thus representing an important and necessary techno political action for researchers from that language community. references fiormente, d., sordi, p. ( ). “digital humanities of the south and gafam. for a geopolitics of digital knowledge”. liinc em revista, rio de janeiro, ( ), pp. - . gomes, j., castro, f., pimenta, r. ( ). “google scholar como fonte de medição da produção científica lusófona”. latmetrics - anais do i congresso de altmetria e ciência aberta na américa latina. dataset accessible: https://zenodo.org/record/ marchand, p., ratinaud, p. ( ). “l'analyse de similitude appliquée aux corpus textuels: les primaires socialistes pour l'élection présidentielle française”. actes des les journées internationales d'analyse statistique des données textuelles, pp. - . wilkinson, m. d., m. dumontier, i. j. aalbersberg, g. appleton, m. axton, a. baak, n. blomberg, et al. ( ). “the fair guiding principles for scientific data management and stewardship.” scientific data ( ): . doi: . /sdata. . . https://zenodo.org/record/ doi: . /rlt.v . research article different views on digital scholarship: separate worlds or cohesive research field? juliana e. raffaghelli, stefania cucchiara, flavio manganello and donatella persico* institute for educational technology, national research council of italy, genova, italy (received april ; final version received november ) this article presents a systematic review of the literature on digital scholarship, aimed at better understanding the collocation of this research area at the crossroad of several disciplines and strands of research. the authors analysed articles in order to draw a picture of research in this area. in the first phase, the articles were classified, and relevant quantitative and qualitative data were analysed. results showed that three clear strands of research do exist: digital libraries, networked scholarship and digital humanities. moreover, researchers involved in this research area tackle the problems related to technological uptake in the scholar’s profession from different points of view, and define the field in different � often complementary � ways, thus generating the perception of a research area still in need of a unifying vision. in the second phase, authors searched for evidence of the disciplinary contributions and interdisciplinary cohesion of research carried out in this area through the use of bibliometric maps. results suggest that the area of digital scholarship, still in its infancy, is advancing in a rather fragmented way, shaping itself around the above-mentioned strands, each with its own research agenda. however, results from the cross-citation analysis suggest that the networked scholar- ship strand is more cohesive than the others in terms of cross-citations. keywords: digital scholarship; digital humanities; networked scholarship; digital libraries; systematic review . introduction the digital era is challenging all knowledge workers to develop new skills and literacies to work effectively within digital spaces (goodfellow ). the academic profession is no exception (borgman ; pearce et al. ; weller ), as digital technology offers unprecedented affordances to improve both research and teaching performance. the concept of digital scholarship emerged early in early in the st century (andersen and trinkle ; ayers ) and, according to wikipedia, refers to the use of information and communication technology to achieve scholarly and research goals. among the scholars’ activities that take advantage of technological affordances are: collecting evidence, carrying out investigations and research, publishing and dissemi- nating results and preserving and making available outcomes. however, a fly-through the landscape of digital scholarship reveals that, although the term has become quite *corresponding author. email: persico@itd.cnr.it research in learning technology vol. , research in learning technology . # j.e. raffaghelli et al. research in learning technology is the journal of the association for learning technology (alt), a uk-based professional and scholarly society and membership organisation. alt is registered charity number . http://www.alt.ac.uk/. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license. citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . (page number not for citation purpose) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . popular, it does not seem to have a widely agreed definition across the research disciplines that have contributed to its evolution. according to borgman ( ), for example, the concept of digital scholarship is tightly connected to the discourse about cyber infrastructures supporting new forms of doing research and science, namely eresearch and escience, which involves the progressive digitisation of institutional infrastructures and impacts on scholars’ practices in dealing with information and communication processes. borgman’s work, in fact, is deeply rooted in the field of information science whose primary aim is to improve the way libraries curate digital content and support scholarly work of all subject areas. this field of work also deals with the way scholars use the libraries’ digital facilities to increase their reputation (andersen ; holliman ; quigley et al. ; zhao ). at the same time, an important role in this field of research has been played by social science scholars who work at the crossroads between the humanities and digital technologies, thus identifying a new field of research, the digital humanities (terras, nyhan, and vanhoutte ), which is also strictly related to digital scholarship. as these authors point out, ‘digital humanities as a term (. . .) provides a big tent for all digital scholarship in the humanities’ (p. ). these scholars have worked intensely to define the borders of this field of research (unsworth ), which embraces both the theory and the practices concerning the new forms of representation of cultural heritage, including history, arts and literature, through the digital medium (bentkowska-kafel ; gardiner and musto ; kaltenbrunner ). more- over, the term ‘digital humanities’ encompasses the area of debate about changing research methods and required professionalism in the humanities and the inter- disciplinary dialogue with digital technologies (klein ). under the influence of the ideas of open science and open access (den besten, david, and schroeder ; suber ), the interest in the concept of digital scholarship has spread to social science researchers interested in investigating the complexities of the technological uptake by institutions and users as a cultural and social phenomenon. socio-technical studies played a highly important role in this case by expanding the focus of digital scholarship research in a direction different from those described above (borgman , p. ). this strand of research relates to academics’ professional learning and identity in the digital era and is tightly connected to educational technology research. its focus is on the ways scholars thrive to do (practices) and to be (identity) in the changing context of higher education, which pushes them � sometimes in rather conflictive and contradictory ways � to keep pace with innovations in digital, open and networked contexts (goodfellow ). the conundrum of opening up science and education is hereby faced through the exploration of professional learning by open, digital and networked scholars, that not only adopt technologies as a means but also reflect on the nature and ethics of research, through their deontological position, and create new scenarios of practice (costa ; scanlon ; veletsianos and kimmons b). this approach aligns with socio-technical studies going beyond technological determinism (pearce et al. ). for this group of researchers, the research problems of digital scholarship are connected with the adoption of social media to do and share research, social scholarship (greenhow and gleason ; manca and ranieri ; veletsianos ), with emerging forms of reputation based on general and bespoke media tools (nicholas, herman, and jamali ; weller ); with fluid processes of collaborative research entailing interdisciplinary dialogue, teaching and dissemination (veletsianos and j.e. raffaghelli et al. (page number not for citation purpose) citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . kimmons a); and with a vision of open science that engages public audiences in the making of science, by extending the forms of participation along with the research process (grand et al. ). the whole debate is connected to the need for improving scholars’ literacy to participate in digital, networked and open contexts of scholarship (goodfellow and lea ; veletsianos and kimmons b). the work of this group of researchers is rooted in the model by boyer ( ) of the academic profession and suggests that boyer’s four dimensions (discovering, integration, application and teaching) are being enhanced and transformed by openness and networking, thus creating new professional ways of collaboration across geographical and institutional frontiers based on the affordances provided by web . (greenhow and gleason ; nicholas, herman, and jamali ; weller ). the above picture lets us appreciate that digital scholarship is a complex research area, guided by different research aims, rooted in several conceptual and methodological bases, and informed by diverse disciplinary traditions. moreover, it appears that the concept of digital scholarship is rather fuzzy, embracing different concerns and using a variety of research methods, professional practices and scholars’ identities. this blurred picture stimulated the authors of this article to analyse the literature on the topic in order to identify more clearly the different areas of research involved and better understand their relative importance, the reciprocal influences, the common concerns and the specificities, in terms of the problems tackled, the topics dealt with and, more generally, the interplay of the disciplines involved. to this end, a systematic review of the literature on digital scholarship has been carried out, complemented with bibliometric maps aimed to reveal and investigate the main views on digital scholarship, the keywords used and the extent to which they build upon each other’s results. the research aim is to explore whether, and to what extent, the emerging landscape depicts a unitary and cohesive research topic, or a fragmented disciplinary vision. as a result, our study should contribute to inform the evolution of this research topic, clarifying the areas where there is a need for better convergence of research problems and questions, and of connected constructs and methodological approaches. . methodological approach set out as a classic systematic literature review (petticrew and roberts ), this study encompassed an initial identification of a significant sample of publications concerning the field of digital scholarship, followed by the construction of a database where such publications are classified according to relevant categories. then, bibliometric maps have been used to identify the relationships between the papers and to spot existing agglomerates, corresponding to different strands of research. both the systematic review and the bibliometric maps were adopted to explore the relationships between the three strands of research identified, namely digital libraries, networked scholarship and digital humanities. we searched for juxtapositions in the classification of research areas, the research aims, the methodological approaches adopted, the citations between contributing authors and the concepts emerging as mostly used (keywords) to achieve a better picture of digital scholarship as a research topic. in the following subsections, we will describe the sample, the data collection process and the methods adopted for the data analysis. research in learning technology citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . (page number not for citation purpose) http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . . . sample selection the sample analysed comprised papers of relevant scholarly literature published during the period january �march . the sample, derived from the initial exploration of six specialised databases, namely web of science (wos; % of all papers were found in this database), scopus ( % of papers), the directory of open access journals (doaj; %), educational resources information centre (eric; %), editlib digital library ( %) and google scholar ( %), was arrived at through a search for the term ‘digital scholarship’ in the title, the abstract and the keywords. the search yielded papers, which were filtered by eliminating ( ) duplicated papers, due to overlaps between databases; ( ) papers with full text in languages other than english, ( ) pieces of work other than research papers (reports, position papers, magazine articles, etc.) and ( ) proceedings papers. technically, the authors searched for pieces of work representing consolidated research, thereby highlighting phenomena as well as conceptualisations that have passed a rigorous process of evaluation. this process led to the sample of journal papers indexed by at least one of the above-mentioned databases. the complete information of every article is documented in annex � references used for the review. . . data collection process and analysis . . . first phase: classification of articles according to the systematic review approach, the next step consisted in defining the structure of a database destined to host the relevant information about the papers. the database records were structured as reported in table , according to a procedure previously used elsewhere by raffaghelli, cucchiara, and persico ( ). table shows the dimensions that the researchers deemed relevant for the analysis of the field of digital scholarship. while the way the first three data fields of each record were filled in does not require further discussion, since researchers only had to report the data as found in the paper or in database sources, fields and require some additional explanations. field , corresponding to the dimension ‘view on digital scholarship’, refers to the three main perspectives on digital scholarship research described in the introduction of this paper. the first one was ‘networked scholarship’ and included all the papers that adopted social networks and other informal methods to disseminate research and teaching, as well as those that dealt with open science and open educational resources. the second one was ‘digital libraries’ and included papers analysing the digital infrastructures and their affordances, and the stake- holders’ policies with regard to them. the third category was ‘digital humanities’ and included papers on new research methods to capture or represent research objects within the humanities. although these three categories are consistent with the trends outlined in the analysis of the literature, in principle, some papers may simultaneously belong to two or even all three of the above-mentioned categories. for this reason, four hybrid categories were also created. however, there were no papers that were found to lie at the crossroad between the three categories. as for the ‘research approach’, the sub-field ‘research topic’ was an open field, and it was processed through a ‘thematic analysis’ procedure (guest, macqueen, and namey ), a widely used qualitative research method based on an inductive j.e. raffaghelli et al. (page number not for citation purpose) citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . approach. the full text of the articles under analysis was explored by two researchers according to the following procedure: ( ) the research topics were extracted by one researcher who created ‘subcategories’ in a first round of classification of articles (free codification); ( ) the results of phase ( ) were shared between the two researchers (member-checking); ( ) both researchers independently coded five papers table . database fields and values assigned. data field data sub-field assigned values type of data � article article title title as published text/as found in identification source journal title paper author(s) author(s) name and surname publication date year key words keywords as published abstract full abstract as published � scientific database wos https://apps. webofknowledge. com/ ‘the article is indexed in the database’ true/false ( / ) value/as found scopus http://www.scopus. com/ eric http://eric.ed.gov/ doaj https://doaj.org/ editlib http://www.editlib. org/ google scholar https://scholar. google.it/ � research area on the scientific database research area on scientific database classification of research as extracted from the scientific database text/as found � view on ds classification of research taking into consideration the research area as well as the theoretical approach: a. ns b. dh c. dl d. ns/dl e. ns/dh f. dl/dh g. dl/dh/ds text-label/ upon researcher’s interpretation � research approach research topic the topic of research, if declared. text/upon researcher’s interpretation research aim the guiding research purpose text/upon researcher’s interpretation dh, digital humanities; dl, digital libraries; ds, digital scholarship; ns, networked scholarship. research in learning technology citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . (page number not for citation purpose) https://apps.webofknowledge.com/ https://apps.webofknowledge.com/ https://apps.webofknowledge.com/ http://www.scopus.com/ http://www.scopus.com/ http://eric.ed.gov/ https://doaj.org/ http://www.editlib.org/ http://www.editlib.org/ https://scholar.google.it/ https://scholar.google.it/ http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . using the agreed-upon sub-categories and the inter-rater analysis was carried out; and ( ) both researchers proceeded with the classification by adopting the existing sub-categories as themes covering one or more free codes, which in this case represent the research topics. in order to deal with possible biases in the researchers’ judgement of database fields and , the classification of the papers consisted three steps: the first step of joint ‘training’ was followed by the second step where both researchers classified independently the same five articles ( % of the whole sample) and the third step where the inter-rater agreement between the two raters was calculated. the inter-rater’s percentage of agreement was %. cohen’s kappa coefficient was also calculated, obtaining a value of . , which can be considered a high level of agreement (hayes and krippendorff ). controversial cases were then discussed till a consensus was reached. . . . second phase: bibliometric maps production and analysis while the first phase of this study was meant to allow the authors to identify the main areas of investigation, the focus of the studies on digital scholarship and the type of research carried out, the second phase was based on bibliometric maps and aimed at investigating the relationships amongst the disciplinary perspectives. bibliometric maps are a form of representation of scientific networks (van eck and waltman ) used in scientometrics as a means to understand connections between researchers and their work. they are based on three main elements: statistical analysis of written publications (often including text and data mining); different methods of visualisation (distance-based, graph-based and timeline-based) and digital tools supporting analysis and visualisation. bibliometric maps are graphs consisting of nodes and edges; while the nodes may represent publications, journals, researchers or keywords, the edges represent relationships between the nodes. according to the type of nodes, the focus of analysis and the emerging map are different. the most frequent types of relationship studied through bibliometric maps are: citations among papers (to explore connections between publications), co-authorship relations (to explore connections inside a network of researchers) and keyword co-occurrences (providing information about the distribution of topics) (van eck et al. ). some forms of visualisation explore static relationships, highlighting groups (clusters) of nodes that are ‘closer’, while others explore their evolution in time. in this research, bibliometric maps were used to analyse the sample of papers in order to: ( ) study the keywords characterising the field and differentiating agglomerates of papers and their relationships (i.e. central/peripheral, related/not related). the operational hypothesis guiding this analysis was that the three main groups of keywords, respectively, connected to the three digital scholarship views would emerge as clusters within the semantic universe connected to the construct of digital scholarship, and ( ) study the relationships between bibliographic items in terms of citations. the operational hypothesis here was that the distinction between the three ‘views’ on digital scholarship would be reflected by intense cross-citations within clusters of papers and few cross-citations between papers of different clusters. j.e. raffaghelli et al. (page number not for citation purpose) citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . after a careful analysis of existing tools for bibliometric maps analysis and visualisation, the authors selected two software tools to carry out this phase of the study: vosviewer, for the analysis and visualisation of keywords, and citnetexplorer for the analysis and visualisation of cross-citations. in the case of the cross-citations bibmap, the original sample consisting of the papers studied in the first phase was integrated by three books (borgman ; boyer ; weller ), since they were highly cited by the papers. furthermore, these books were perceived to be relevant to define the background and hence the relationships between the views. . results . . first phase: ‘characterising disciplinary contributions to digital scholarship’ this section presents the results of the first phase of work, the systematic review. figure shows that digital scholarship appears to be a fairly recent field of research, dating back to (although rooted in previous literature on scholarship), featuring a significant increase in papers on scientific productivity in the years and (the yearly number of papers almost doubled between and and doubled again in ); this highlights a fast emerging field of research. in addition, the papers are well distributed amongst several journals belonging to different subject areas, which confirm the relevance of the topic for different disciplines. figure shows the distribution of research topics as they emerged from the ‘thematic analysis’ procedure described in the methodological approach section. we note the prevalence ( %) of the group of papers dealing with the issue of (academic) professional practices tightly connected to educational research; these papers deal with research in the field of higher education and focus on digital scholarship as a problem of professional learning and innovation. this is followed by a number of papers ( %) concerning the themes of ‘openness, democratisation of education’ and the ‘participatory culture’ of the web. less represented is the topic of ‘digital identity, interaction, social networks (sns) and social media’. besides, ‘e-publishing and serie articles on ds per year figure . evolution of scientific production in the field ( is excluded because data were collected only for the first semester). research in learning technology citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . (page number not for citation purpose) http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . library services’ ( %), as well as ‘digital art and history’ ( %) deserve interest. the least represented topics are ‘e-science and information and communition technol- ogies (ict)’ and ‘multimedia and innovation’ ( %). during this process of analysis, the researchers observed co-occurrences of keywords between papers dealing with the topics: ‘‘professional practices, educa- tional practices’’; ‘‘openness and democratisation, participatory culture’’; and ‘‘digital identity, interaction, sns and social media’’. these three topics together, respresent % of the sample. besides, the topics of ‘‘e-publishing, library services’’ shared several keywords with ‘‘e-science and ict, multimedia, innovation’’, representing together % of the sample. lastly, the topic of digital art and history appeared to be a stand-alone category. the above situation relating to research areas as well as research topics revealed that the expected three main views were present in the sample: the view of digital scholarship as a networked process of collaboration on the open web connected to the ; % ; % ; % ; % ; % ; % ; % e-science and ict, multimedia, innovation identity, interaction, sns and social media professional practices, educational practices e-publishing, library services openess and democratization, participatory culture figure . topics of research. dl/ns ( ; % ) ns ( ; % ) dh ( ; % ) h/ns ( ; % ) dl ( ; % ) dh/dl/ns ( ) dh/dl ( ; %) figure . views on digital scholarship. j.e. raffaghelli et al. (page number not for citation purpose) citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . scholars’ endeavour to transform their own practices with a new deontology of scholarship; the view of digital infrastructures (libraries) leading researchers to adopt new affordances to do their work and hence requiring professional interventions to organise new, complex technological contexts; and the view of digital humanities as a strand of research focused on technological settings and objects supporting research in the humanities, but also transforming it. it was observed that most papers falling in the research area of ‘social sciences’ belonged to the first group; that in the case of the second group, the papers could be placed amongst the two research areas ‘information sciences’ and ‘computer sciences’; and in the third case, the papers were distributed between ‘computer sciences’ and ‘humanities’, showing the separations in the disciplines contributing to the ‘views on digital scholarship’. figure illustrates the distribution of papers per ‘view’, including papers with overlapping or ‘mixed’ visions. according to figure , most papers in our sample are distributed between the dominant visions of networked scholarship ( %) and digital libraries ( %), with less presence of the digital humanities ( %). only % of the examined papers are ‘hybrids’ and simultaneously belong to two visions. no paper belongs to the interception of the three visions. the set of papers belonging to the field of digital humanities, besides being smaller, is also more isolated than the other two ( % of overlapping with the other two). . . second phase: ‘exploring disciplinary relationships within digital scholarship’ . . . the map of keywords co-occurrences the map of co-occurrences of keywords is a representation based on the number of occurrences of keywords within the ‘corpus’ of terms extracted from all the titles, keywords and abstracts of the articles within the sample. the software vosviewer extracts all the ‘noun-phrases’ from the corpus; therefore, the terms are organised by topics automatically generated by the software, namely the keywords. in this case, from the original corpus, the software extracted , relevant keywords from a sample of , terms. a total number of nodes emerged; however, only ( %) of these keywords are considered by the software for representational purposes. moreover, the authors removed irrelevant or ambiguous keywords from the representation such as too general terms (e.g. issue, author, purpose, role, publishing, scholar, academic, survey) or terms which conditioned the visualisation of a cluster, such as teaching, publication, implication, challenge and collaboration. the final representation, composed of keywords/nodes, is shown in figure ), where three bigger clusters and two smaller clusters are identifiable. table introduces the details of keywords for each cluster, while in the second column, we have associated each cluster with the relevant perspective. cluster (in red at the top of figure ), contains eight nodes, with ‘library’ as its main node, and was connected semantically with the view of digital libraries research, focusing on the role of infrastructures allowing new ways of scientific production, the problem of preserving and using content, and the role of libraries and librarians in scientific information. on the right-hand side in figure (in green), cluster , with the central word ‘network’, contains eight nodes. this cluster appears to be semantically connected with the perspective of ‘networked (and open) scholarship’ seen as scholars’ endeavour to embrace the social web with all its affordances to promote new practices (such as opening up education and research) in line with a new deontology of public engagement. cluster (in purple), in between research in learning technology citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . (page number not for citation purpose) http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . clusters and , features ‘openness’ as the main node, relates to the issue of open access to content and to open scholarship as professional practice. hence, this small cluster brings some evidence of the existence of contaminations between the digital libraries and the networked scholarship perspectives. the third biggest cluster, cluster (in blue), at the bottom-right of the map, is composed by seven nodes, and its main nodes are ‘humanities’ and ‘collaboration’. we can assume that this cluster aligns with the perspective of digital humanities, dealing with how researchers interact with new digitised objects within the humanities as well as how the field evolves as an interdisciplinary field, between computer science and the humanities. cluster (in yellow), a small cluster whose main node is ‘history’; is tightly connected with the digital humanities perspective. in figure , this cluster is rather isolated, and specifically there are no nodes that can be attributed to the view networked scholarship/digital humanities, which seems to be in line with the very small overlapping between these two perspectives already shown in figure . the clusters described above can be clearly put in relation with the ‘views’ on digital scholarship identified in the first phase of the study. one question that could be raised is whether the mere existence of clusters , and as separate clusters reflects little mutual awareness deriving from the respective disciplinary viewpoints; and whether the connections observed (cluster and ) can be regarded as a sort figure . bibliometric map of keywords (colours are attributed to nodes by vosviewer to highlight clusters). table . clusters of keywords and connected perspectives on digital scholarship. cluster keywords connected perspective -red access, digital age, librarian, library, literacy, open access, tool, web dl -green digital scholar, engagement, habitus, network, participatory web, scholarly practice, social medium, twitter ns -blue collaboration, digital humanity, humanities, humanity, infrastructural inversion, social science, visualisation dh/dl -yellow digital art history, digitalisation, discipline, history dh -purple education, open scholarship, openness ns/dl dh, digital humanities; dl, digital libraries; ds, digital scholarship; ns, networked scholarship. j.e. raffaghelli et al. (page number not for citation purpose) citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . of starting point for interdisciplinary analysis of the topic of digital scholarship. clearly, the keywords map is not informative enough to answer this question, while the cross-citation bibmap described in the next section can shed more light on it. . . . cross-citations bibliometric map across-citation bibliometric map was built to understand the relationships between cited and citing papers, that is, to understand whether the authors built upon the work of each other. more in general, this type of map allowed us to focus on the extent to which each research strand is aware of the work of the others. the software used for this purpose (citnetexplorer) visualises the relevant publications of our sample as well as their citational relationships across a time span. in our case, the time span ( � ) is the one covered by our sample, consisting of papers plus three highly cited books (borgman ; boyer ; weller ). figure shows the bi-dimensional representation of the citation network per year, organised in clusters of publications based on their citational relationships. in figure , a cluster is identified and its nodes highlighted. the parameter ‘minimum number of citation links’ was set at , which means that documents receiving less than three citations from other documents of the sample are not visualised in the map. this is a low value in typical bibliometric problems, but adequate for this small set of documents; in any case, the situation observed is typical of very specific research fields, as well as of the application of bibliometric indicators in the humanities and in educational research (hammarfelt ). in figure , it is possible to observe one main cluster of publications, and some isolated nodes. the main cluster corresponds to papers belonging to the networked scholarship group, which are at the centre of the cluster (i.e. labelle, weller, veletsianos, costa, goodfellow), but it also includes publications belonging to ‘hybrid’ categories (i.e. wolski & richardson, pasquini, holliman from digital libraries/ figure . bibliometric map of cross-citations. multiple papers with the same first author can be distinguished by the year, that is, the position along the y axes. no couples of papers/books with the same first author in the same year are present in the sample. research in learning technology citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . (page number not for citation purpose) http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . networked scholarship; najmi from digital humanities/networked scholarship ). in this cluster, the only publication which was classified as digital humanities is that by kaltenbrunner. however, it is crucial to highlight that all of these articles cite two core books in the cluster: boyer ( ) and borgman ( ). while the first author pioneered the debate on the need for revolutionising the academic profession in the very early nineties, the second has become a crucial landmark in the research about the changing cyber infrastructures supporting (and questioning) scholarship. boyer’s work is particularly considered as a model to understand academics’ professional practices. instead, borgman’s book is a pillar of the debate about the scholarly communication paradigms that the academics have to face. indeed, an analysis performed removing these two books shows a cluster of authors mainly belonging to the networked scholarship view ( ), and the rest of publications completely scattered and isolated. another important book for the scientific community exploring the topic of digital scholarship is weller ( ) that can be seen at the centre of the cluster, with less cross-citations due to the fact that it is more recent than the other two. besides, there are very few cross-citations (lateral lines) between authors within the network. this emerges from the identification of the core publications ( in total); these are publications that have at least a certain minimum number of citation relations with other core publications, taking into account that incoming and outgoing citation relations are treated identically. the publications identified mainly coincide with the networked scholarship perspective identified in the prior phase. with regard to the isolated publications ( ), the situation is mixed between digital libraries and digital humanities, which means that there are little citations between these perspectives, and the work considering the construct of digital scholarship in these two areas is not cohesive. to wrap up this part of the analysis, one could have expected a citation map clearly showing the three clusters networked scholarship, digital libraries and digital humanities consisting of publications reciprocally citing each other inside each view and with fewer citations across clusters. this does not seem to be the case. however, this analysis brings to light issues that are consistent with the prior analysis. the first is the low number of cross-citations, supporting the idea that the field of research is rather fragmented, which highlights that most contributions do not take into account the three disciplinary perspectives. the exception to the above consideration is provided by the publications belonging to the networked scholarship perspective, that is, those that explore academic professional practices and scholars. the existence of this cluster seems to confirm that scholars who study networked scholarship are actually more ‘networked’ than the others, and the identity of this field of research should and perhaps could be built on their shoulders. however, the weak connection with the other perspectives allows us to suppose that this group could be rather unaware of the contributions coming from the other two perspectives, their problems and their research agenda; as a result, we can conclude that interdisciplinary collaboration in this area is not strong enough. . discussion and conclusions this study was aimed at exploring and mapping a set of selected papers on digital scholarship. most of these articles aimed to define the concept and to study related phenomena (‘in the wild’), that is, the academics’ practices and the supporting infrastructures in a digital, open and networked context of activity. at first sight, j.e. raffaghelli et al. (page number not for citation purpose) citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . the authors observed the coexistence of several interpretations of the term, each reflecting different disciplinary research perspectives on the construct. consequently, the whole study was set up to investigate digital scholarship by identifying the main research strands involved and their relationships, including common epistemological roots, reciprocal awareness, as well as key topics and concerns of the strands and their overlapping. the results of the study show not only the fragmentation of research efforts across three main disciplinary strands of research but also a relatively low degree of cohesion inside each strand, which might be due to the early stage of development of this research field (even if the first paper dates back to , the field actually took off around ). the three main strands, networked scholarship, digital libraries and digital humanities, seem to differ as to the disciplinary background (respectively, social sciences, information sciences and humanities). in spite of the isolation observed, our exploration revealed some partial overlapping through the thematic analysis of keywords, as well as the bibliometric maps of keywords. this probably indicates that research problems and discourses are connected to some extent. in fact, networked scholarship is connected with some of the assumptions of digital libraries, while digital humanities seems loosely connected to digital libraries and networked scholarship. the authors could not classify any paper at the intercep- tion of the three. the cross-citation map shows a rather fragmented panorama, rooted in some previous seminal books, with more citations between publications of the ‘networked scholarship’ strand and a few cross-citations between publications of the other two. besides, there are a few citations between strands and very few citations between digital libraries and digital humanities. in this regard, the cross-citation map was not completely convergent with the researchers’ manual classification and the thematic analysis: the isolation observed was even higher than expected. the above considerations confirm that the construct of digital scholarship encompasses three strands of research with a rather clear focus and raises the question of whether there is a lack of reciprocal awareness, possibly preventing scholars to build on prior efforts, towards an interdisciplinary collaboration. the division between the disciplinary fields contributing to the topic of digital scholarship hereby presented is not new in the literature and has been pointed at by several authors (goodfellow ; quan-haase, suarez, and brown ; scanlon ). however, this analysis contributes to the discourse by highlighting both the forms of fragmentation assumed by the literature and the existing attempts to overcome this fragmentation. above all, the problem of coexistence of different digital scholarship definitions and the field conceptual fragmentation causes an entropic situation hindering further empirical research. for example, it makes it difficult to identify what is innovative and to put forward recommendations for practice (e.g. proposals for the training of scholars) and for policy-making (e.g. prioritising efforts of investment in scholars’ career development, in supporting infrastructures and in the evaluation systems based on scientific productivity). another important issue relates to the values attached to the research undertaken across the three ‘views’ of digital scholarship. while many studies, particularly within the networked scholarship perspective, focus on the positive ethical value of open scholarship, based on avant-garde practices and pioneering scholars, other studies bring to light the lack of participation of scholars to innovative practices, emphasising the limited concern about the need for changing the practices of research in learning technology citation: research in learning technology , : - http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . 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(page number not for citation purpose) http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.compedu. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.compedu. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /rusc.v i . http://dx.doi.org/ . /publications http://dx.doi.org/ . /publications http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://www.researchinlearningtechnology.net/index.php/rlt/article/view/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /rlt.v . review: the anti-eviction mapping project reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: the anti-eviction mapping project tanya clement university of texas at austin published on: feb , doi: . / e f f. a b fa license: creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: the anti-eviction mapping project project the anti-eviction mapping project project collective the anti-eviction mapping project collective project url https://www.antievictionmap.com project reviewer tanya clement, university of texas at austin project overview erin mcelroy the anti-eviction mapping project (aemp) is a data visualization, critical cartography, digital humanities, and media arts collective that documents gentrification struggles and creates tools for housing justice. as a volunteer-based collective with chapters in the san francisco bay area, los angeles, and new york city, and with community partners worldwide, we produce counter-mapping and media work in collaboration with a number of tenant organizations, arts collectives, students, scholars, and tenants fighting eviction. while our work is multif aceted and interdisciplinary, overall, it seeks to help produce a future of housing and racial justice, one in which tenants can live in their homes without fear of real estate speculation, unaffordable rents, loss of culture and community, racist policing, and eviction. as such, we produce maps, software, media, visualizations, reports, murals, zines, books, oral histories, and analyses that can be used by the public to advocate for the right to remain housed and in community. the aemp is comprised of roughly volunteers, all of whom come from different backgrounds: housing organizing to mural making, software development to the humanities and social sciences. we hold all-chapter meetings monthly to work on project infrastructure and internal political education, as well as numerous weekly meetings for specific projects. while several of us have academic backgrounds and publish peer-reviewed articles on the aemp, most project members do not. thus, our primary audience is not academic but rather community-based. some of our academic and public scholarship work on the aemp can be found on our website, and more is forthcoming, for instance, in our forthcoming atlas manuscript in counterpoints: a san francisco bay area atlas of displacement and resistance (pm press). https://antievictionmap.com/about https://www.antievictionmap.com/ https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/english/faculty/tc https://www.pmpress.org/index.php?l=product_detail&p= reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: the anti-eviction mapping project the aemp has received funding from a number of grantors to cover our operating expenses and fund specific projects. funders include the san francisco foundation, the creative work fund, the sf arts commission, the marin headlands for the arts, the kala arts institute, alternative exposure, and more. we have also received funding from academic institutions that some of us are part of, as well as from giving talks and running fundraising campaigns. we have received awards from tenant organizations and coalitions, as well as from the american association of geographers, the american studies association, the blum center for poverty, the yerba buena center for the arts, the east bay express, art.net, and beyond. our work has been featured in hundreds of news articles since our founding in , and we have been invited to present our work in dozens of forums, exhibitions, colloquia, and classrooms. we have also partnered with over a dozen university classes as community partners, working with students and f aculty to design and implement curricula related to counter- mapping, gentrification, oral history work, and more. the aemp was formed in the san francisco bay area in amidst the dawn of the tech boom . , in which technocapitalist and real estate interests coalesced in novel ways, resulting in new waves of gentrification, eviction, and racial dispossession. as housing organizers, our goal was simply to create maps and tools that we and our fellow organizers and neighbors could use to help organize against evictions. our first map documented the location of san francisco evictions and the evictors behind them. we also created a look-up tool so that tenants could look up an address and determine if evictions had previously taken place there, with the idea of helping tenants boycott evictors. while this might sound simple enough, cities rarely, if ever, make eviction data public, and certainly not data on evictors or the parcel and business connected to them. since creating this early work, we have continued to work on our ability to make evictor data available. our current evictorbook project, for instance, contains a homemade lookup tool that joins eviction data, parcel ownership data, and corporate entity data. in addition to creating tools such as evictorbook, the aemp engages in oral history and media work. we launched our narratives of displacement and resistance oral history project in with the aim of complicating otherwise flat renditions of gentrification. this project geolocates deep neighborhood histories, stories of gentrification, and strategies for resistance upon eviction data. we combined the launch of this narrative work with our first mural in clarion alley in san francisco, which includes a call-the-wall feature so that passersby can also hear stories of displacement and resistance. we also transcribed some of these stories to create our first zine, we are here, which also includes our own writing and contributions from community members and was distributed during our mural release. since then, our narrative work has expanded in scope and scale. our tenants in common project in los angeles includes photography to better narrate and humanize those f acing displacement and houselessness. our -page black exodus project zine was created in collaboration with a number of black artists and organizations in san francisco to specifically focus on black histories of displacement http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/ellis.html http://antievictionmappingproject.net/pledge/ http://evictorbook.com/ http://www.antievictionmappingproject.net/narratives.html https://antievictionmap.com/mural-in-clarion-alley-narratives https://antievictionmap.com/we-are-here-zine https://www.tenantsincommon.org/ https://antievictionmap.com/dislocationblack-exodus https://antievictionmap.com/dislocationblack-exodus reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: the anti-eviction mapping project and resistance. meanwhile, our narrative work has grown to include filmmaking, most recently with our tenants rise up film, an homage to tenant organizing in oakland, san mateo, and san jose, which we recently livestreamed during a community event and panel discussion. this regional approach to mapping and narrating the bay area has also been expressed in multimedia reports, such as our interactive alameda county eviction report, produced in collaboration with tenants together. in this report, we also engaged in community power mapping, seeking to shift the frame from only mapping displacement to more explicitly mapping sites of community power. the need for tools to connect tenants to knowledge about rights, protections, and organizing efforts during the global pandemic is more important than ever. tools such as the aemp’s covid- housing protection legislation and housing justice action map, for instance, provide renters and tenant organizers with crucial data tools to fight displacement globally and are created for and in partnership with organizers and community groups that represent the people they are intended to serve. this map also has been built with internationalization in mind, so it appears in the language of users’ browsers, thereby making it more accessible. we are also collecting tenant stories to include in the map, in partnership with tenants together and hope. as part of our practice, the aemp covid- map project team has actively committed to producing not only a product that supports emancipatory change, but also a process that represents these same values. to this end, the aemp is now working on divesting from proprietary, unethical, invasive mapping and gis services and systems, and adopting new infrastructure based on principles of freedom, decentralization, and adaptability. the aemp team sees this as an opportunity to create a new model of digital infrastructure for social justice counter- mapping based on what we currently know about our own experiences and those of our partners, researcher collaborations, and volunteers. therefore, we are now actively developing free and open source software solutions for our work and for similar projects. project review tanya clement as a social justice and public interest technology project, the anti-eviction mapping project (aemp) seeks to help the public advocate for the right to remain in housing and in community. it is driven by the research question, “what might it mean to theorize the abolition of private property, or reparations and repatriation for those dispossessed?” the aemp’s + volunteers work to achieve this goal by producing easily-accessible, interdisciplinary and transmedia content. as a digital humanities and an american studies project, aemp seeks to document dispossession and resistance on gentrifying landscapes in a desire to interrogate notions of technology as inherently racist. the aemp articulates a standpoint that considers long-standing legacies and entanglements in https://www.facebook.com/watch/live/?v= &ref=watch_permalink https://www.facebook.com/watch/live/?v= &ref=watch_permalink https://www.tenantstogether.org/ http://covid .antievictionmap.com/ https://hope.xyz/tenantexperienceoralhistoryproject reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: the anti-eviction mapping project american studies with colonization, racial capitalism, and liberalism as well as the ethical dimensions of data gathering, sharing, and analysis. in digital humanities f ashion, the project also invites visitors to consider specific racial histories of technological developments (such as redlining and “landlord tech” as surveillance) as well as the long-standing endurance of anti-racist technological practices that can come from collaborative crowdsourcing, counter-mapping, shared data and experience, art and storytelling work, archiving, and digital representation. collaborators include digital humanities activists and scholars as well as tenant organizations, arts collectives, and tenants fighting eviction with whom the aemp collaborates. the aemp “handbook” takes quite seriously the digital humanities "collaborators' bill of rights” to form ethical collaborations by foregrounding the importance of “mutual aid” ( ) among project peers who, “in a spirit of cooperation and equity,” are “self-managed, self-organized, self-determined, and self-governed in a humane, person–to-person way with dignity and respect” ( ). the aemp both documents gentrification struggles, including making evictor data public and legible, and develops tools for housing justice. the website includes reports and zines including items such as the (dis)location/black exodus zine, a multi-platform publication and workshop series; the annual reports of the san francisco-based eviction defense collaborative ( - ); and a report of the prevalence of vacation rentals through airbnb in san francisco. the aemp also includes multi-media materials — film, reports, zines, and scholarly articles — as well as tools such as the evictorbook project, which the aemp has developed as a lookup tool that associates eviction data, parcel ownership data, and corporate entity data. the aemp also encourages critical data evaluation and collaborations by providing links to their covid- housing protection legislation and housing justice action map. both allow visitors to add data to maps such as one that shows “lost and endangered art/community spaces” in the san francisco bay area. by using and developing free and open source software solutions in their pursuit to make evictor data accessible and interactive for both scholars and the public, the aemp actively uses technology to put theories for empowering the dispossessed into practice. the primary audiences for the aemp are academics and communities all over california, as well as in new york city and brazil. a testament to their broad range and success is represented in the constituencies supported by the many agencies who have chosen to fund the project and by the impressive and deep local, national, and international press coverage the project has received since . coverage by media outlets includes the atlantic, newsweek, the new yorker, the telegraph, nbc, cbs, and npr. notably, the aemp has a forthcoming atlas manuscript. they also link to articles in a diverse range of scholarly journals and presses in american studies, city planning, and geography, such as acme, american quarterly, antipode, berkeley planning journal, and city. future work might move these http://mcpress.media-commons.org/offthetracks/part-one-models-for-collaboration-career-paths-acquiring-institutional-support-and-transformation-in-the-field/a-collaboration/collaborators%e % % -bill-of-rights/ http://evictorbook.com/ http://covid .antievictionmap.com/ https://antievictionmap.com/art- https://antievictionmap.com/pressmedia reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: the anti-eviction mapping project writings from behind subscription firewalls. the aemp might also expand the “take action” activities, including the above-mentioned geolocation tools where community members can report on what they see in their neighborhoods and beyond. this may be the author’s version of a work that was submitted/accepted for publication in the following source: paul, gunther & wischniewski, sascha ( ) standardisation of digital human models. ergonomics, ( ), pp. - . this file was downloaded from: https://eprints.qut.edu.au/ / c© copyright taylor & francis this is a preprint of an article submitted for consideration in the [ergonomics] c© vol is doi: . / . . [copyright taylor & francis]; [ergonomics] is available online at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/ . / . . notice: please note that this document may not be the version of record (i.e. published version) of the work. author manuscript versions (as sub- mitted for peer review or as accepted for publication after peer review) can be identified by an absence of publisher branding and/or typeset appear- ance. if there is any doubt, please refer to the published source. https://doi.org/ . / . . https://eprints.qut.edu.au/view/person/paul,_gunther.html https://eprints.qut.edu.au/ / https://doi.org/ . / . . short communication standardization of digital human models gunther paula,* and sascha wischniewskib aschool of public health and social work, queensland university of technology, victoria park road, kelvin grove qld , australia. tel: + , fax: + , email: gunther.paul@qut.edu.au bfederal institute for occupational safety and health (baua), friedrich-henkel-weg - , dortmund, germany. tel: + , fax: + , email: wischniewski.sascha@baua.bund.de * corresponding author. standardization of digital human models abstract. digital human models (dhm) have evolved as useful tools for ergonomic workplace design and product development, and found in various industries and educa- tion. dhm systems which dominate the market were developed for specific purposes and differ significantly, which is not only reflected in non-compatible results of dhm simulations, but also provoking misunderstanding of how dhm simulations relate to real world problems. while dhm developers are restricted by uncertainty about the user need and lack of model data related standards, users are confined to one specific product and cannot exchange results, or upgrade to another dhm system, as their pre- vious results would be rendered worthless. furthermore, origin and validity of anthro- pometric and biomechanical data is not transparent to the user. the lack of standardiza- tion in dhm systems has become a major roadblock in further system development, af- fecting all stakeholders in the dhm industry. evidently a framework for standardizing digital human models is necessary to overcome current obstructions. keywords: digital human model, standardization, computer manikin, body template, virtual human practitioner summary. this short communication addresses a standardization issue for digital human models, which has been addressed at the international ergonomics association technical committee for human simulation and virtual environments. it is the outcome of a workshop at the dhm symposium in lyon, which concluded steps towards dhm standardization that need to be taken. . introduction digital human models are of great importance in research and industry: they enable scientists to carry out computer‐aided studies on human postures and motions with the option to easily vary anthropometric as well as biomechanical parameters of virtual surrogates (chaffin ). while multi‐body, biomechanical (e.g. christensen et al. ), finite element (fem) (e.g. siefert et al. ), and human segmental models (e.g. zhuang et al. ) are considered dhm in this framework, psychophysical or cognitive models (bellet et al. ), lumped‐ parameter and biodynamic models (griffin ) will be considered out of scope. the simulation approach increases the amount of possible analyses, while at the same time decreasing effort, time and cost due to omission of physical experiments with real subjects. in practice digital human models help to improve design and usability of products and work sys‐ tems in early stages of product and process design. again, effort, time and cost are optimized due to the more efficient organization of iterative product and production process design phases. it is for this reason that a number of different, commercially available models with heterogeneous properties, capabilities, underlying algorithms, anthropometric and biome‐ chanical data sets and even more scientific models for varying purposes have been developed in the past. a review of posters and full papers presented at the first international sympo‐ sium on digital human modeling of the international ergonomics association, held in lyon july , reveals more than different full or partial models of the human body (e. g. hand‐arm system, foot‐leg system). the large variability of existing digital human models, affecting for example naming of segments or joints, definition of global and local coordinate systems and degrees of freedom (dof) of joint and segment motion as well as the embeded anthropometric and biomechnical data, makes it difficult to disseminate and compare results or exchange research ideas. such may be due to the implementation of different algorithms, body and kinematic models, an‐ thropometric assumptions or location of reference points. furthermore, this makes it difficult to transfer validated research concepts into commercially distributed dhm software systems, which would broaden their basis for different usage. this lack of standardization in dhm systems has become a major roadblock in further system development, equally affecting all stakeholders in the dhm industry. it is evident that a framework for standardizing digital human models is necessary to overcome current obstruc‐ tions. therefore the iea technical committee on human simulation and virtual environments has formed a sub‐committee for dhm standardization (wg s) in july . this paper summarizes the outcome of the first meeting of the wg s, including previ‐ ous work, existing standards and guidelines, further requirements towards dhm standardiza‐ tion which were identified and the structure of required future activities. . previous work the sub‐committee refers to previous, unpublished work done under the society of automo‐ tive engineers (sae) g‐ committee (human modeling and technology). the sae g‐ com‐ mittee defined human modeling technology purpose as to improve design quality in relation to human factors, support definition of design requirements, demonstrate physical interaction between human and system, and identify risks and cost associated with man‐in‐the‐loop (sae international ). although it was recommended to expand on this work, the sae g‐ committee had difficulty defining standards for digital human models, as they concluded that doing so would impact a supplier’s proprietary approach to building a manikin. hence the g‐ workgroup went no further than a project comparing the anthropometric accuracy of various man models. however, there is an apparent broad need in the wider digital human modeling com‐ munity to better understand the model assumptions of specific dhm manikins, exchange or transfer information between dhm systems or dhm users, interpret dhm study results, justify dhm system selection or investment and support dhm development. . standards and guidelines the international organization for standardization (iso) provides a basic standard for com‐ puter manikins including joint degrees of freedom in iso , as well as the detailed stan‐ dards iso , iso and iso relating to human body measurements and their storage in databases. iso/iec "specifies a systematic method for representing human‐ oids in a network‐enabled d graphics and multimedia environment". besides, iso tc /sc /wg (posture related to whole‐body vibration) is drafting standard iso tr on “mechanical vibration – description and determination of seated postures with reference to whole‐body vibration” in the related domain of biodynamic modelling, with reference to coherent measurement and modelling. apart from international standards, the international society of biomechanics devel‐ oped standards for the human body coordinate system (wu and cavanagh ) as well as for joint coordinate systems (wu et al. , wu et al. ). furthermore, file formats are important for the exchange of data. different quasi standards exist like for instance asf/amc (acclaim ), bvh (meredith and maddock ), gms (luciani et al. ), c d (motion lab systems ), collada (collada working group ) or x d (iso , iso , iso ), which are in parts driven by the gaming and movie industry in conjunction with motion capturing. currently the german engineering association (vdi) is working on a comprehensive standard on human representation in the digital factory to provide an overview on current dhm practi‐ cal and theoretical issues to be published as part of the vdi guideline (zuelch ). . dhm standard considerations from the above presented review of existing standards and guidelines, it becomes obvious that many approaches already exist to build upon for a dhm standard. despite this advantage, proper integration of those existing standards and guidelines into a new dhm standard re‐ quires thorough consideration. the wg s raised additional questions, which were transferred into the following course of action: . . review of past and current efforts before starting a new dhm standardization process, it is important to evaluate past as well as current efforts. looking at past initiatives and their results builds the basis and enables a les‐ sons learnt process. considering current efforts helps to avoid duplication of work. examples for past and current efforts collected and structured so far, are briefly summarized in section and . . . establish current needs of users and vendors once the review has been completed, current needs of users as well as software vendors have to be analyzed and established. in view of associated developmental work and future imple‐ mentation of the standard, a categorization into fundamental, important and useful issues should be pursued. user needs should be divided into academic and practical needs. scientists may re‐ quire different standardization features than product and process engineers when using dhm systems. identifying software vendor needs is another challenging task, since the question may arise if standardization supports a software vendor’s business model. . . scope of standardization the most critical question to answer remains the standardization targets. fundamentally im‐ portant is a standard human anatomic structure, with defined global and local coordinate sys‐ tems, consistent naming and numbering of limb segments or joints, with their corresponding uniform degrees of freedom. further on, consideration is required for a dhm standard procedure and parametric model of linking anthropometric databases (iso ) to a defined dhm human structure, in order to create proportions representative for a selected population. moreover, it has to be assured that available anthropometric data (iso ) can be used to calibrate the digital hu‐ man model to be used as either an individual or boundary manikin. additionally, a standard data format would significantly facilitate the exchange of re‐ search results. a dhm standard data model should encompass an input section, containing information of model structure description, parameterization of the structure components (e. g. limb size, range of motion), anthropometric assumptions, hard points and kinematic drivers; as well as an output section, documenting the nature and results of simulations per‐ formed by a dhm. beyond these intrinsic parameters of a dhm standard, further extrinsic parameters encompassing all interaction between the user and one or several dhm have to be considered. thus a dhm standard should present an exemplary procedure on how to integrate the virtual ergonomic process into today’s product and production design processes, in order to assure ergonomically valid results. a future standard has to define classes of accuracy for digi‐ tal human models: how closely does a manikin need to match the human to produce adequate analysis for the application pursued? finally, a standard test/ protocol should be worked out to allow comparisons between dhm performance and their compliance with the standard. out of scope for the working group but crucial to the success of dhm systems in terms of validity are the collection, processing and accurate usage of anthropometric, physiologic and biomechanical data (van sint jan ). current dhm systems contain different data sets and algorithms which are of limited transparency to the user. iso standards ( , , ) and their further enhancements target to ensure consistent data collection in terms of methodology, sample size as well as data management and analysis. their consideration needs to be mandatory for a dhm standard. . future work the presented aspects have been clustered and assigned to small working groups, which will develop drafts to be discussed at the regular plenary meetings. wg s plenary meetings are held in conjunction with tc hs & ve annual meetings. the wg s is structured as a self‐organized network within the tc hs & ve. the tc uses a linkedin social network platform as the main communication channel for exchanging ideas. wg s working sites have been established under the standards australia hub and an informa‐ tion share system managed by the german federal institute for occupational safety and health (baua) provided by the german federal office of administration. the iea tc hs & ve and its wg s sub‐committee are open for new members to join and invite participation beyond iea membership. . references acclaim advanced technologies group, . internal technical memo # [online]. avail‐ able from http://www.darwin d.com/gamedev/acclaim.zip [accessed mar ]. bellet, t., et al., . a computational model for car drivers situation awareness simula‐ tion: cosmodrive. in: proceedings of the first international symposium on digital human modeling, . .‐ . . , lyon, france. collada working group, . collada tm digital asset and fx exchange schema [online]. available from: https://collada.org/mediawiki/index.php/collada [accessed mar ]. chaffin, d.b., . improving digital human modelling for proactive ergonomics in design. ergonomics, ( ), ‐ . griffin, m.j., . the validation of biodynamic models. clin biomech, (suppl ), ‐ . international organization for standardization, iso : basic human body measurements for technological design. international organization for standardization, iso tr : mechanical vibration – de‐ scription and determination of seated postures with reference to whole‐body vibration. under development. international organization for standardization, iso : general requirements for estab‐ lishing anthropometric databases. international organization for standardization, iso : ergonomics – computer mani‐ kins and body templates. international organization for standardization, iso/iec – information technology ‐ computer graphics and image processing – extensible d (x d). international organization for standardization, iso/iec – information technology – computer graphics, image processing and environmental data representation – extensible d (x d) encodings. international organization for standardization, iso/iec ‐ information technology – computer graphics and image processing – extensible d (x d) language bindings. international organization for standardization, iso : ‐d scanning methodologies for internationally compatible anthropometric databases. international organization for standardization, iso/iec : humanoid animation (h‐ anim). luciani, a., et al., . a basic gesture and motion format for virtual reality multisensory applications. in proceedings of the st international conference on computer graphics theory and applications, setubal (portugal), march . meredith, m. and maddock, s., . motion capture file formats explained, department of computer science technical report cs‐ ‐ [online]. available from: http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/intranet/research/resmes/cs .pdf [accessed mar ]. motion lab systems, . the c d file format user guide [online]. available from: http://www.c d.org/pdf/c dformat_ug.pdf [accessed mar ]. sae international, . g‐ human modeling technology [online]. available from: http://www.sae.org/standardsdev/aerospace/g .htm [accessed mar ]. siefert, a., et al., . virtual optimisation of car passenger seats: simulation of static and dynamic effects on driver’s seating comfort. int j ind ergon, ( / ), ‐ . christensen, s.t., siebertz, k., damsgaard, m., de zee, m., rasmussen, j. and paul, g., . human seat modeling using inverse dynamic musculo‐skeletal models. digital human mod‐ eling for design and engineering, society of automotive engineers, montreal, canada, ‐ june, . van sint jan, s., . introducing anatomical and physiological accuracy in computerized anthropometry for increasing the clinical usefulness of modeling systems. critical reviews in physical and rehabilitation medicine, ( ), – . wu, g. and cavanagh, p.r., . isb recommendation for standardization in the reporting of kinematic data. j. biomech, ( ), ‐ . wu, g., et al., . standardization committee of the international society of biomechan‐ ics, isb recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate system of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion – part : ankle, hip, and spine. j. biomech, ( ), ‐ . wu, g., et al., . international society of biomechanics, isb recommendation on defini‐ tions of joint coordinate system of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion – part : shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand. j. biomech, ( ), ‐ . zhuang, z., benson, s. and viscusi, d., . digital ‐d headforms with facial features rep‐ resentative of the current us workforce. ergonomics, ( ), ‐ . zuelch, g., . features and limitations of digital human models – a new german guide‐ line. work: a journal of prevention, assessment and rehabilitation, (suppl ), ‐ . maps on the basis of the arts & humanities citation index: the journals leonardo and art journal versus “digital humanities” as a topic maps on the basis of the arts & humanities citation index: the journals leonardo and art journal versus “digital humanities” as a topic jasist (forthcoming) loet leydesdorff a and alkim almila akdag salah b abstract the possibilities of using the arts & humanities citation index (a&hci) for journal mapping have not been sufficiently recognized because of the absence of a journal citations report (jcr) for this database. a quasi-jcr for the a&hci ( ) was constructed from the data contained in the web-of-science and is used for the evaluation of two journals as examples: leonardo and art journal. the maps on the basis of the aggregated journal-journal citations within this domain can be compared with maps including references to journals in the science citation index and social science citation index. art journals are cited by (social) science journals more than by other art journals, but these journals draw upon one another in terms of their own references. this cultural impact in terms of being cited is not found when documents with a topic such as “digital humanities” are analyzed. this community of practice functions more as an intellectual organizer than a journal. keywords: humanities, journal, citation, topic, map, animation. a amsterdam school of communications research (ascor), university of amsterdam; kloveniersburgwal , cx amsterdam, the netherlands; loet@leydesdorff.net ; http://www.leydesdorff.net b virtual knowledge studio of the netherlands royal academy of arts and sciences, cruquiusweg , amsterdam, the netherlands. mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net http://www.leydesdorff.net/ . introduction in recent decades, the bibliometric study of the sciences and the social sciences has gained more legitimacy than similar efforts to explore the humanities. however, linmans (forthcoming) recently has argued that the humanities do not need to remain the weakest link in the scientometric enterprise. arts & humanities citation index (a&hci) has been available since , and since scopus and google scholar provide alternatives which enable us to study the arts and humanities bibliometrically. one major drawback of using the a&hci for scientometric purposes has hitherto been the absence of a journal citation report (jcr) for this database. jcrs are prepared annually from the science citation index (sci) and the social science citation index (ssci) by aggregating unique citations at the journal level on an annual basis. these indices enable the institute of scientific information (isi) of thomsonreuters to compute scientometric indicators such as impact factors. jcrs provide scientometricians with an opportunity to develop journal maps using the matrix of aggregated journal-journal citations. the obvious differences in the citation behavior of scholars in the arts and humanities can be considered as another drawback for applying citation analysis. citation practices are not well established in the arts and humanities; humanities scholars rely on various media (e.g., works of art and poems) which may also be covered by the scholarly databases. jcrs for the science citation index and the social science citation index have been published by the institute of scientific information (isi) since and , respectively (garfield, , ). document types other than journal articles (e.g., books, book reviews, monographs, etc.) should be taken into account as important channels of communication in the humanities (garfield, a; hicks & wang, ; nederhof, ; nederhof & van raan, ). furthermore, sources in the humanities are often written by authors who gain in importance over the years. as garfield ( , at p. ) formulated: “the masters are continually discussed.” this “different pace of theoretical development” (nederhof, , at p. ) results in a longer cited half-life of publications. however, differences in publication and citation practices (including cited half-lives) are pervasive among all disciplines (leydesdorff, , at p. ). disciplines, for example, are known to vary in terms of publication portfolio types and therefore citation patterns (cronin et al., ). in a recent study of coverage of the social sciences and humanities in the bibliometric databases, archambault et al. ( ) furthermore noted that a topic in the humanities or social sciences may be developed in a specific language (e.g., french) and consequently develop a semantics that is grounded in this language. in such cases, the results may be of interest mainly to local expertise. these authors also emphasized that research questions in such (sub)disciplines may not be communicable internationally, and thus perhaps less suitable for international collaboration. such cultural factors may render research in these areas a challenge to bibliometrics, especially since the databases have often been criticized for their lack of national coverage and their overrepresentation of formal publications in the english language (e.g., van leeuwen et al., ). despite all these shortcomings, recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in indexing and analyzing humanities research using bibliometrics (e.g., hicks & wang, ; linmans, forthcoming). from the perspective of institutional management, administrators are under pressure to assess different faculties and departments with comparable indicators (e.g., aksnes & sivertsen, ; butler, ). is the construction of scientometric indicators and bibliometric maps using a&hci a feasible and desirable project? in , the american academy of arts and sciences received a three-year grant of $ , for developing a model set of humanities indicators. the results of this project were presented early in , and are available at http://www.amacad.org/news/hrcoannounced.aspx. seventy-four indicators are organized into more than tables and charts. however, this data was based on a survey among scholars from the humanities; the respondents argued that indicators should focus on what “users want” instead of what the existing databases have to offer. the final chapter of the report contains some information about academic publishing in the humanities, but any mentioning of citation analysis or the availability of relevant databases such as scopus and the a&hci remain conspicuously absent from this report. on the other side of the atlantic ocean, activities to “measure the humanities” bibliometrically have been coordinated by the european science foundation (esf). the esf was established in as an association of ( +) member organizations in more information about this data is available at http://www.humanitiesindicators.org/content/hrcoivd.aspx#topiv ). http://www.amacad.org/news/hrcoannounced.aspx http://www.humanitiesindicators.org/content/hrcoivd.aspx#topiv european nations. in , the esf funded jointly with the european commission a project entitled “humanities in the european research area” (hera). as a follow-up, a project for developing a “european reference index for the humanities” (erih) was funded in . after the publication of “initial lists” ranking journals in the humanities in terms of a, b, and c-categories, the erih consortium announced the publication of revised lists of journals in . the authors of the proposal emphasized that the distinction among the categories a, b and c was not meant to indicate quality, but to reflect factors such as the disciplinary scope and audience of a journal. the same journal can occur on several lists, but may be categorized differently depending on its importance in each discipline. nevertheless, a denunciation of the erih project as “dangerous” appeared in an open letter signed by more than editors of journals devoted to the history of science, technology, and medicine. these editors also demanded to have their journals removed from what they nevertheless considered as a ranking (howard, ). the letter was published in the first issue of these journals, among which were leading periodicals such as centaurus, perspectives on science, isis, annals of science, and the british journal for the history of science. anticipating the release of the final lists by the erih project, elsevier’s scopus announced on june , that it would include in its database all (approximately http://www.esf.org/research-areas/humanities/research-infrastructures-including-erih/erih-initial-lists.html this editorial can be found, for example, at http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=hrv n _ed.pdf. http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=hrv n _ed.pdf , ) journals mentioned on these lists. this will bring the scopus coverage of the arts and humanities to more than , journal titles. the a&hci currently carries approximately , journal titles. the argument of the isi is that they focus on exclusively high-quality journals. garfield ( b, at p. f.) explained that for the sake of preserving high quality, the journals in the science citation index and social science citation index are “selectively screened for relevant articles in these and other fields such as history and philosophy of science, anthropology, law, economic, sociology, etc. also, about multi-authored serials, monographs, or ‘books’ are covered in a&hci.” the number of journals mentioned by garfield ( b, at p. ) as fully covered source journals was , at the time. in another context, one of us was involved in comparing the scopus and isi databases for in terms of mapping results (leydesdorff, moya-anagón, and guerrero-bote, ). the scopus database claimed to cover more journals in the social sciences and humanities even before the recent extension, but we concluded in that context that the a&hci has hitherto provided at least an equivalent resource for mapping the humanities. in this study we extend this analysis by specifying the possibilities offered by a&hci in its current shape in greater detail. http://info.scopus.com/ah/ see the factsheet of the producer of the database at http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/science/science_products/a-z/arts_humanities_citation_index. a list of all , journals ever included in the a&hci can be found at http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?pc=h. for example: “actually scopus includes all of the social sciences titles in thomson scientific social sciences citation index®, as well as an additional few hundred titles.” at http://info.scopus.com/detail/what/julie_arnheim.asp (retrieved on august , ). the references to source items in the isi databases are standardized more than in the scopus database. furthermore, the isi databases reach back into the historical record by including all citations archived, while the cited references in scopus go back only to . source information in the scopus database older http://info.scopus.com/ah/ http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/science/science_products/a-z/arts_humanities_citation_index http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?pc=h http://info.scopus.com/detail/what/julie_arnheim.asp what is specific about journals covered by a&hci as potentially different from the sci and ssci? do the data legitimate the decision of the isi hitherto to refrain from producing a jcr for this database? how would a jcr of a&hci inform us about these journals differently from the existing jcrs for the sci and ssci? bollen et al. ( ) found a relatively higher representation of a&h journals in clickstream data than would be expected from citation patterns alone. is the impact of a&h perhaps underestimated when focusing on the (s)sci or a&hci, separately? in order to address these question, we decided to generate a quasi-jcr for a&hci for a single year ( ) using the data at the web of science (wos) and to pursue the analysis for two comparable art journals (leonardo and the art journal) during the full period of their coverage both within this specific domain and by combining the three databases at the wos interface. the results of our explorations led us to a third question—in addition to the analysis of the quasi-jcr for the a&hci and the more fine-grained analysis of two art journals—namely, whether practices are perhaps more important in the a&h domain than research fields (disciplines?). we explore this question using “digital humanities” as a topic both within a&hci and at the level of the three databases combined. than is not organized systematically and cannot be used for bibliometric analysis (ove kähler at scopus, personal communication, august ). however, the purpose of this paper is not to compare the two databases, but to explore the different mapping options and limitations provided by the a&hci in its current form. the various routines can be used with scopus data, mutatis mutandis. however, the user should be aware that the cited references in scopus data are formatted differently. . methods and materials one can use the citations in any set of documents downloaded from the a&hci (or a combination among the three databases of the isi) for bibliographic coupling (kessler, ) or co-citation analysis (marshakova, ; small, ) using freely available software such as bibexcel or bibjourn. (a historiogram of the data can additionally be obtained using histcite™. ) the download contains all the cited references in the set; the cited references contain journal names (in an abbreviated format) as a subfield. furthermore, the recent reorganization of the isi interface makes it possible to retrieve and download all citing documents at the so-called citation report of the original set. the citing documents contain again the abbreviated journal names in the cited references and thus allow one to perform a journal co-citation analysis of the set under study. in other words, the download of all articles in a journal in a specific year generates a set containing all information about journals cited and co-cited by this journal (“citing”) in that year. the “cited” pattern of the journal among other journals can comprehensively be obtained by downloading all citing documents and by repeating the analysis of the cited references in this latter set. we use the program bibjourn since it enables us to aggregate journal abbreviations in the cited references across a set of documents. the analysis can thus be pursued at the level of journals. however, the same technique can be applied to bibexcel is freely available at http://www .umu.se/inforsk/bibexcel/. bibjourn is freely available at http://www.leydesdorff.net/software/bibjourn/index.htm. histcite is available at http://www.histcite.com/ . http://www .umu.se/inforsk/bibexcel/ http://www.leydesdorff.net/software/bibjourn/index.htm http://www.histcite.com/ any set downloaded from the isi databases. such a set under study can be considered as a quasi-journal composed of documents which cite journals and which are co-cited with other journals in the references of the citing documents. one can expect long tails in the distributions of journal citations. bibjourn allows for limiting the analysis, for example, to the top % of the citation distribution (as is default in our journal-journal routines; cf. leydesdorff & cozzens, ; leydesdorff, ). in the humanities, however, we found . % more appropriate because of the wide range of citations that can already be included at the top- % level. the consequent visualizations were generated by using the algorithm of kamada & kawai ( ) in pajek. citation patterns are normalized using the cosine (ahlgren et al., ). the size of the nodes in the figures is proportionate to the logarithm of the frequency of the citations in each network environment. in the case of using the quasi-jcr of the a&hci—to be discussed below in more detail—the horizontal sizes are additionally adjusted to the frequency diminished with self-citations. line-widths are proportionate to the strength of the association. a threshold of cosine > . can be used to enhance the visibility of structure in the network; this will be indicated in the legends to the figures (egghe & leydesdorff, ). the nodes are colored using the k-core algorithm as available in pajek unless indicated differently. pajek is freeware for the analysis and visualization of social networks available at http://vlado.fmf.uni- lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/. http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/ http://vlado.fmf.uni-lj.si/pub/networks/pajek/ . journals in the humanities leonardo, the journal of the society for the arts, sciences, and technology, published quarterly since , can be considered as a leading journal for readers interested in the applications of contemporary science and technology to the arts (salah & salah, ). this journal is not confined to the domain of the humanities, and addresses anyone following art movements which incorporate new developments in science and technology into art production. thus, both the author profiles and audiences of the journal are oriented toward interdisciplinary exchanges. in previous reports about the a&hci, garfield ( a, b) showed that leonardo was among the top-cited a&hci journals during the early s. we downloaded the , documents of the volumes ( issues) of the journal since (on june , ). since the retrieved documents did not contain citation information for the period - , the analysis was limited to publications since ( , documents). this set contains , cited references. as noted, using bibjourn.exe the journal names in these references can be used to construct a matrix of documents versus cited journals for each year since . the resulting matrices ( - ) were used as input to an animation using the dynamic routine created for this purpose in visone (leydesdorff & schank, ). this animation (using cosine > . as a threshold) was brought online at http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/citing/index.htm. the dynamic version of visone is available at http://www.leydesdorff.net/visone . http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/citing/index.htm http://www.leydesdorff.net/visone additionally, we use the sets of documents in each year to generate the citing sets. these documents are processed with the same methods, and the resulting animation is available at http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/cited/index.htm. the two animations cover all journals included which are connected to the large component in the respective set (cited or citing) at the level of cosine ≥ . in any of the years. stress is minimized both within each year and between years using a dynamic lay-outer based on multidimensional scaling (leydesdorff & schank, ). in order to facilitate the mental map, the common nodes and links between years are kept as stable as possible during the transitions between years. furthermore, we added substantive commentary to the animations in order to facilitate the interpretation. http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/cited/index.htm number of documents in leonardo ( ) cited references ( ) number of citing documents ( ) cited references in citing documents ( ) ratio ( )/( ) . . . . . . , , . . . . . , . , . , . , , . , , . , , . , , . , , . . , . , . , . , . , , . , . . , . , , . , . , . , . , . , . , . n , , , , table : data used for the analysis of leonardo table provides the numbers of documents and references, citing and cited, for the years - . the rightmost column reveals that in some years (e.g., - ) the numbers of cited references in journals citing articles published in leonardo were very high. this is caused by the inclusion of bibliographies. for example, “the one hundred tenth critical bibliography of the history of science and its cultural influences,” published as a special issue of isis (neu, ), contained , references. in our opinion, this huge effect of bibliographies can be considered as a potential source of distortion in the citation patterns in the arts and humanities (although this effect may also occur in the sci and ssci). for reasons of comparison, we selected a second journal from the a&hci, namely art journal. this journal dates back to , and is one of the most important journals of the college art association, an organization that can be considered the principal professional agency of the arts, art history, and art criticism in the united states. unlike leonardo, we expect this journal’s referencing and being cited patterns to be more confined within the domain of the a&hci, that is, less apparent at relevant interfaces between the arts & humanities and the sciences and social sciences. we limit the static comparison to the most recent year available at the time of this study, that is, to . in this year, art journal published papers containing references. during this same year, it was cited times in papers (august , ). like most publications in the arts and humanities, both art journal’s and leonardo’s citation counts are relatively low and irregular. of the , items in art journal (in all years), , ( . %) were never cited. these numbers are , out of , publications ( . %) for leonardo. let us therefore proceed with caution when we refer to a citation pattern of a journal in the arts and humanities. in the arts and humanities, one focuses on the tips of icebergs of possible references even more so than in the (social) sciences, since publication in the arts and humanities cannot be considered as an endogenous mechanism for generating and supporting a research front. even if one cannot consider these maps as valid tools for evaluation purposes, they may nevertheless inform us about unexpected characteristics of these journals and reveal unforeseen aspects of the fields that support them. . generation of a journal citation report for the a&hci in order to obtain a more general insight into the a&hci, we constructed a journal citation report by aggregating similarly the complete set for this one year at the journal level (leydesdorff, ). this set contained , records, of which , could be retrieved, including , , cited references based on , source journals. as noted, these journals cover approximately + sources introduced selectively into a&hci in addition to the , sources that are fully covered by the a&hci. ball & tunger ( ) reported that the percentages of never cited papers older than five years in physics, mathematics, and computer science are of the order of , , and percent, respectively, in the isi database (cf. aksnes & sivertsen, , at p. ). thomson reuters lists , journals titles under the a&hci at http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi- bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?pc=h. however only , of these journal names matched records in the download for the year . http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?pc=h http://science.thomsonreuters.com/cgi-bin/jrnlst/jlresults.cgi?pc=h a citation to an isi source publication (in all three indices) has a standardized format as follows: “authorname initials, year, journal abbreviation, volume number, pagenumber”. volume number and pagenumber, however, may be missing while a correct journal abbreviation is still available. of the , , cited references in the a&hci for , , , ( . %) contain the first three subfields of the cited reference, that is, the author-name field, the year, and the source journal or book title. these cited references were used for further processing. only , journal-journal citation relations (in , unique journal-journal relations) could be identified among the , journals retrieved from the a&hci database in . this is less than % of the total number of cited references ( , , ), providing us with only a faint representation of the citation relations within this isi domain. the other % of the references are to so-called “non-source publication,” that is, references that are not counted as part of the a&hci domain. journal names in only , of these references ( %) match with the , journals included in the sci and ssci, but not in the a&hci. only . % of the remaining “source” materials in the a&hci belong to the category which the isi considers as citable issues (articles, reviews, letters, or proceedings papers), while the single category of “book reviews” takes up . %. in the science citation index , . % of the items are citable issues. the high percentage of book reviews supports lewison’s ( ) suggestion to use book reviews as a proxy for the impact of books. garfield ( b) reported on significantly similar figures for the a&hci in (table ). the stability of this distribution (ρ = . ; p < . ) during more than years is most remarkable. a&hci % garfield ( b) % book review , . , . article , . , . editorial mater , . , . poetry , . , . art exhibit rev , . , . letter , . , . film review , . , . news item , . . record review , . , . proceedings paper , . . biographical-item , . , . review , . , . music performan , . , . fiction, creative . , . dance performance . . theater review . , . correction . . music score rev . . tv review, radio . . bibliography . . meeting abstract . . reprint . . excerpt . . script . . software review . . music score . . database review . . hardware review . . total , . , . table : document types in the a&hci in and . we structured the database on the model of the jcrs of the isi’s other two databases. the data thus could be used directly as input to journal mapping routines already available from previous research (leydesdorff & cozzens, ; leydesdorff, ). these procedures allow us to generate citation-matrices both in the cited and the citing direction, using single journals as seed journals or pre-selected journal lists. furthermore, we can vary citation thresholds. although journal names are nowadays standardized in the isi databases, a further complication arose because journal name abbreviations in the citing documents are different from journal name abbreviations in the cited references when the abbreviation contains more than characters. for example, the journal contemporary french and francophone studies is abbreviated as contemp fr francoph stud in the citing document, but as cont french francoph as a cited journal among the references. in order to counteract this problem, we ran a routine that assumes that if the first three words of a journal abbreviation begin with the same two characters, the journals would be considered as identical. for example, in the above example this key would be “co-fr- fr”. the routine might introduce a bit of statistical error, but improves the number of unique journal-journal relations to , (+ . %) and the total number of citation relations to , (+ . %). the low numbers of standardized citations from source journals may have made the isi hesitant to produce a jcr for the a&hci. the matrix is extremely sparse: , of the , unique citation relations ( . %) contain a value lower than five. for this reason, no thresholds will be used in the further analysis of matrices using this data unless otherwise specified. at http://www.leydesdorff.net/ah /cited/index.htm and in the case of journal names with only two words, only four characters were used. the above mentioned number of , matches with journals included in the (s)sci (but not in the a&hci) was counted after this correction. http://www.leydesdorff.net/ah /cited/index.htm http://www.leydesdorff.net/ah /citing/index.htm cosine-normalized citation matrices without citation thresholds in collecting the data for all , source journals to the a&hci are brought online in pajek format. . digital humanities journals may aggregate articles from different intellectual traditions (e.g., library and information sciences), but they are not by definition the most relevant units of analysis for the evaluation. new developments may take place within and/or across journals (cf. bensman, , at pp. ff.; griffith et al., ; small, ). if the journal is not primarily a unit of intellectual organization in the arts and humanities, but mainly a channel of cultural dissemination, may intellectual exchange then be organized topically? we shall turn to the topic of “digital humanities” and show the possibilities of the proposed methods of mapping when applied either to a set extracted from the a&hci itself or in combination with the two other databases at the wos interface. the “digital humanities,” previously known as “humanities computing,” can be considered as a community of practice (agyris and schön ). the topic itself is defined and applied differently by practitioners with a variety of disciplinary backgrounds. for example, it can be considered as a tool or methodology enabling humanities research, teaching, presentation, and preservation methods. academic see wiliam mccarty’s ( ) essay “humanities computing” for an evaluation of the term and a conceptualization of the workflow among different disciplines and their methodologies in digital humanities research. http://www.leydesdorff.net/ah /citing/index.htm departments that make use of digital humanities laboratories typically include technical practitioners as well as traditionally trained scholars. such departments tend to be heavily involved in collaborative and interdisciplinary research projects with colleagues in other departments. number of documents cited references number of citing documents cited references in citing documents a&hci , wos , table : data about “digital humanities” (since ) despite the proclaimed priority of this topic as the part of an envisaged cyber- infrastructure relevant for the humanities (e.g., at http://www.neh.gov/odh/grantopportunities/tabid/ /default.aspx), the search string ‘ts=(“digital humanities” or “humanities computing”)’ in the wos generated only two documents in the a&hci and two more in the other two databases. for this reason, we extended in this case the search to all years (since ). this provided us with and documents, respectively (on september , ; table ). we use the aggregated cited references in and citations to these documents for the mapping. this definition of “digital humanities” is based partly on the one at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digital_humanities, retrieved on september , . the search tag “ts” stands for topical search. this search retrieves documents with matches in title words, abstract words or keywords attributed to the document. a search with the search terms in the title (“ti”) retrieved in this case and documents, respectively. http://www.neh.gov/odh/grantopportunities/tabid/ /default.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digital_humanities . results . the journal leonardo the animations—at http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/cited/index.htm and http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/citing/index.htm, respectively—locate leonardo as an interdisciplinary journal connected to the sciences, social sciences, and the arts throughout the time span covered. note that the journal started its publication with an interdisciplinary intention and orientation. this interdisciplinarity in its citation environment did not change over the years in terms of either its referenced knowledge base (“citing”) or its (“cited”) impact environment. however, the citation patterns are not dense and are therefore volatile from year to year. http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/cited/index.htm http://www.leydesdorff.net/journals/leonardo/citing/index.htm figure : journals cited by articles in leonardo in ; no citation threshold within the set; cosine > . . figure shows the results of the co-citations of journals cited in references of the articles published in leonardo during . figure provides the corresponding co-citation map using articles which cited leonardo in . while articles in leonardo cite the sciences and the social sciences in addition to its citations to journals and books in the humanities, the journal is mainly cited in domains other than the arts and humanities given the threshold of using only journals which contribute . % to the aggregate of the references. five more journals were cited, but not co-cited with any of the journals in the set. factor : physics; . % factor : neuro; . % factor : perception; . % figure : cosine relations among , references in articles citing leonardo during ; only journals which contribute more than . % to the total number of citations; no citation threshold within the set; cosine > . ; colors of nodes correspond to the highest factor loadings in a varimax-rotated three-factor solution. figure shows an unexpected finding: among the journals which contain documents citing leonardo in ( , times), only contribute more than . % (that is, more than times) to its being cited pattern, and these journals are mainly in the domain of the sciences and the social sciences. three journal groups are relevant in this citation impact environment: physics, neuroscience, and perception research. these three factors explain . % of the variance. (the nodes are colored in accordance to their highest loadings in the varimax-rotated three-factor solution.) leonardo itself is positioned at the edge between the latter two specialties. the presence of science journals in this being-cited environment of leonardo is not stable over the years, but in all years science journals are visible in relatively large clusters. among the science journal citing leonardo from year to year, science, nature, and scientific american dominate the animation. another cluster contains journals with a focus on computer graphics since the mid- s. a third, relatively stable cluster is provided by journals in cognitive science that enter the picture at the beginning of the s, with strong connections to a psychology cluster. through studies on vision and perception, journals in neuroscience, cognitive science, psychology, and computer graphics are related to this citation environment. art journals form another important group in the animations of the citation patterns of leonardo. this group is more or less equally divided into journals focusing on aesthetics, art theory, and contemporary art news. upon closer inspection of the animations, one can distinguish that theoretically oriented journals are more persistently visible in the animation based on articles citing leonardo, while journals reporting on the latest state of the art market cite leonardo more than they are cited in leonardo’s publications. core journals of the arts and art history such as art news, studio international, art forum, art bulletin, and art journal are consistently included. after the turn of the century, leonardo has increasingly lost citations from the art world in favor of citations from journals in the sciences. in (figure ), science journals are prevailing in its citation impact environment. in earlier years, however, some core-books by gombrich ( ), arnheim ( and ), and goodman ( ) were also heavily cited. these art historians are renowned for their interest in psychology and linguistics, and hence their presence as references in the citation networks strengthened leonardo’s citation relations with journals in these disciplines. b. leonardo in the quasi-jcr data of the a&hci using the quasi-jcr of the a&hci, one focuses exclusively on the source journals included in the a&hci, whereas all cited references were included in the analysis when using the wos interface. within the more restricted domain of the a&hci, however, only journals were cited by articles in leonardo during ; of these form a citation network at the level of cosine > . , as shown in figure . factor : social sciences, . % facor : art journals, . % factor : music . % factor : language . % figure : journal map of journals in the a&hci cited by publications in leonardo ; no citation threshold; cosine ≥ . . leonardo is positioned in this representation among other art journals such as art bulletin, artforum international, the burlington magazine, and art america. the journal’s interdisciplinary position is no longer visible given this domain of exclusively the a&hci. however, journals in the history and philosophy of science (e.g., isis, social studies of science) form a circle at a first distance (k = ). three more journals were not connected to the largest component at the level of cosine ≥ . . the factor analysis distinguishes four factors which are designated with their respective percentages of explained variance in figure . the social sciences, linguistics, and computer music are distinguishable as separate groups. (we return to the zeitschrift für kunstgeschichte which is visible on the left side of the picture, in a section below.) we can conclude that the art world itself is a relatively closed group in terms of referencing, revealing only weak links to the sciences and linguistics group. the comparison of figures and shows that leonardo draws citing upon a varied knowledge base, but is more central to its environment when the three databases are combined (figure ). the citing environment in the a&hci (figure ), however, enables us to delineate a cluster of neighboring journals that provide an intellectually organized knowledge base referenced by publications in leonardo. figure : journals in the citation impact environment of leonardo in the a&hci ; no citation thresholds; cosine > . . the citation impact environment of leonardo in the restricted domain of the a&hci (figure ) is almost barren in comparison to figure , where three strong clusters in the science literature were visible. here, leonardo is mainly embedded in a cluster of art journals. the rest of the network can be considered as an environment to this cluster: the remaining journals are loosely connected to one another and to the main component. among them, a few cognitive science journals and a computer graphics journal catch the eye. other than these journals, figures and share no resemblances at all, as figure did not contain a single art journal. this discrepancy in leonardo’s citation impact as assumed by using the wos or the quasi-jcr of the a&hci as relevant environments raises the question of whether this diffusion pattern is specific for leonardo or more generally the case for art journals. c. art journal the editors of leonardo stated the objective of creating an interdisciplinary publication venue. our findings show that the journal has indeed generated an interdisciplinary citation impact environment. in the citing dimension we were able to identify a group to which the journal can be attributed, but only after confining the analysis to the a&hci domain. would such a pattern be the norm for journals in the arts and humanities? might other art journals also have a more general impact on the basis of cultural values, that is, beyond lines of intellectual organization, while drawing their references (that is, citing) from a specific knowledge base? let us compare the citation patterns of leonardo with a second art journal. art bulletin is the first journal that comes to mind for such a comparison. this leading art journal has been published since by the college art association, the main organization of art historians in the usa. art bulletin had higher rankings than leonardo in garfield’s ( b) most-cited journal lists of a&hci; in , it had citations in this database as against for leonardo. however, as a long-standing journal dedicated to publishing the latest research in the history of art and architecture, the publication scope and audience of art bulletin is not close enough to leonardo for a fair comparison. art bulletin is devoted to scholarly discussions and emphasizes theory and methodology of art history, while leonardo is focused on contemporary art, and covers art events and related news in addition to discussions of theory and methods. for this reason, we chose to use another publication of the college art association, namely art journal. this journal publishes (since ) articles related to contemporary art, and in that sense its audience and constituency is akin to that of leonardo. in the quasi-jcr of the a&hci , art journal is cited times by articles in journals. one hundred sixty-two journals, however, cite papers from art journal during in the larger domain of the combined sci, ssci, and a&hci; of these journals are related to the main component above the level of cosine > . . in other words, art journal like leonardo is overwhelmingly cited outside the domain of the arts and the humanities. the journals in this larger environment range from physics to advertising research, but most references are to “non-source” journals such as the ny times, newsweek, and the washington post. in other words, even more than in the case of leonardo, the citation impact of art journal shows a large network of influence, and a large imbalance between being cited and citing. the impact of journals in the arts is not confined to the arts & humanities as scholarly discourses in journals, but reaches a much wider set including the sciences, the social sciences, and the larger public. using the restricted set of the a&hci it is possible to select a set of journals which are associated to art journal and to one another as a core, with relations among each two of them at the level of cosine > . . both leonardo and the art bulletin are part of this core set (figure ). figure : journals cited by art journal in the a&hci domain in ; no citation threshold; cosine > . . in summary, the patterns of citations in the citing and cited dimensions are different for these art journals. although they draw on a wider environment, it is possible to find core groups among the journals in the a&hci in terms of how the authors in these journals provide references when constructing their arguments. these journals, however, are not cited primarily in these restricted environments, but in the larger environment, perhaps not so much for intellectual as for cultural and instrumental reasons. the predominant rationale of references to these journals is different from that which governs the sciences and the social sciences, where intellectual organization can explain the patterns of citation. given this conclusion, one might indeed be hesitant to assess journals and research covered by the a&hci in terms of scientometric indicators which use field-specific parameters. these journals may have functions completely different from the specialty structures that prevail in the sciences and social sciences. thus, the journals and the constituting articles can be evaluated also in terms of these wider cultural influences. the database and citations are organized not only on socio-cognitive grounds, but also on the basis of cultural patterns. . languages as cultural organizers the priority of cultural patterns of diffusion brings us back to archambault et al.’s ( ) argument that these alternative paths of cultural dissemination might be local, regional, or national. let us pause for a moment with this possibility. table first shows the language distribution among the , items retrieved for the purpose of the construction of a quasi-jcr of the a&hci . frequency percent english , . french , . german , . italian , . spanish , . russian , . czech . dutch . croatian . chinese . polish . lithuanian . slovene . turkish . slovak . portuguese . swedish . other . total , . table : language distribution of the items contained in the a&hci . the shares for the major european languages are higher than in the science citation index (see a comparable table for the sci and scopus in leydesdorff et al., , table ). it is noteworthy that there are no contributions in chinese, and that only four documents are in japanese. however, our investigations left us nevertheless with the impression that the citation patterns were not organized primarily along linguistic lines. for example, figure shows the cited impact environment for the journal zeitschrift für kunstgeschichte in the quasi-jcr. the journal is cited in by articles in journals of the a&hci. figure is based on the matrix of citations among these journals. unlike the zeitschrift für soziologie (see figures and in leydesdorff et al., ), this journal is cited in other art journals at the international level: german journals are interfaced with journals in other european languages. figure : network of journals citing articles in the zeitschrift fuer kunstgeschichte in the a&hci ; no citation threshold; cosine > . . although art history and therefore the zeitschrift für kunstgeschichte are deeply embedded in german scholarly traditions, this journal’s citation pattern is more internationalized than that of comparable journals in the social sciences. art journals may be embedded internationally more than social science journals because cultural transmission within the west increasingly transcends the boundaries of nations. two more journals did not relate at the level of cosine ≥ . . . digital humanities if journals in the arts and humanities serve functions other than intellectual organization, this begs for the question of whether other mechanisms of organization and intervention such as professional communities can replace journals in providing the function of intellectual focus and exchange. let us for this purpose explore the initiatives in what is nowadays mostly called “digital humanities,” but was previously known as “humanities computing.” digital humanities can be considered as a focus or topic that was first generated by new possibilities to apply computational analysis methods to large collections, as well as to archive works of arts and literature in a digital format. depending on the research environment, digital humanities can be envisioned as a methodology, a tool, or a research initiative to investigate how knowledge is produced with new media technologies, while at the same time making use of these technologies in humanities research itself. as noted, one can also consider digital humanities as a community of practice. see raben ( ) “humanities computing years later,” hockney ( ) “the history of humanities computing” for an overview of the praxis, and mccarty ( ), unsworth ( ), busa ( ) and piez ( ) for discussions on how digital humanities should be applied. figure : journal co-citation patterns of documents citing documents about “digital humanities” in ; threshold . %; cosine ≥ . . figures provides the citation impact environment for the documents downloaded under “digital humanities” or “humanities computing” from the isi’s web of science on september , . the figure shows that these documents are cited in a limited domain of two or three groups of journals, namely, new specialist journals with a focus on computer usage in the humanities, and a group of library and information science journals addressing the digitalization of archives and libraries. these documents cite from a wider range of disciplines including journals. six factors explain . % of the variance in this matrix. the first three factors ( . %) can be designated, respectively, as library & information science ( . %), the application of computers in linguistics ( . %), computers and literature, including markup languages ( . %). factor can be considered as a strong component of + journals. this core group is made visible in figure . figure : k-core group of journals bibliographically coupled in documents about “digital humanities”; threshold . %; cosine > . . the majority of the journals in this core group have a long publication history that goes back to the first decade of “humanities computing.” journals like academic computing, humanities computing, or calica journal were important publication venues for scholars combining computational methods with humanities research, long before “digital humanities” was formulated as a topic. in addition to such determining journals for the digital humanities, one encounters journals such as byte, a computer art journal with a publication history of years, or macworld, a magazine with articles about the latest technological achievements of apple industries. these journals are cited not only because of the scholarly activities they report, but also because of the need to share information about the latest technologies, or about how these technologies can be applied in settings beyond those for which they were originally designed (such as using early computers to create art). unlike the humanities journals that we investigated in previous sections, “digital humanities” as a topic does not provide us with a wide-spread pattern in its citation impact environment. its citing and cited patterns resemble rather more those of the (social) sciences, in the sense that the impact is limited to a few groups of scholarly journals. among these groups computational linguistics and text analysis are central. interestingly enough, information visualization—a topic that is currently one of the main occupations in laboratories developing digital humanities—is represented neither in the citing nor the cited maps. in summary, the investigation of this dataset retrieved from the wos reveals that the topic does not mirror the citation patterns of journals in the humanities, but is more akin to that in the other sciences. in terms of citation flows, furthermore, the topic is not so much diffused into humanities as one would expect, but equally related to disciplines such as linguistics and computer science. in our opinion, the numbers of documents for the whole period - were astonishingly low. as noted, digital humanities can be considered as a community of practice(s) more than a specialty. following the advent of the internet, digital humanities scholars made use of this new venue both for doing research and for publishing and sharing information. however, the dataset collected from the wos represents only the formal literature and therefore disregards most communications that appear in online journals, discussion forums, blogs, mailing lists, etc. to map this larger knowledge base of the digital humanities, a dataset including these venues (e.g., google scholar) could be considered, but such an elaboration would reach beyond the scope of this study. conclusions and discussion given the absence of a jcr for the a&hci, we reconstructed journals in terms of the citing and being-cited patterns using the user interface of the isi databases at the web of science. additionally, we aggregated the complete set of documents attributed to the a&hci for the construction of a quasi-jcr in . our first interest was in the position in their citation networks of typical art journals like leonardo and art journal. although these two journals address different audiences, namely an interdisciplinary one in the case of leonardo and one more focused on expertise in the arts in the case of art journal, we found similar patterns in both cases. the two journals are widely cited beyond their “disciplinary” background. we proposed to consider this cultural dissemination as different from the intellectual organization that prevails in the sciences and the social sciences. using the restricted set of the quasi-jcr for the a&hci , it is possible to retrieve a cluster of journals in both cases that use references from other art journals in a comparable way. thus, one could say that these journals belong to an intellectually coherent group in their reference patterns, but not in their citation patterns. since evaluation studies measure impact by being cited, this raises questions for the evaluation of these journals using scientometric indicators (e.g., impact factors). impact in the arts may mean something different from the sciences and the social sciences. our results suggest that the being-cited patterns in these cases do not indicate the provision of a knowledge base for new knowledge contributions at a research front, but may mean a source of cultural inspiration and influence. this would also explain the slower pace of “progress” in the humanities. we showed that the being-cited pattern of a community of practice (the “digitial humanities”) was more focused in this domain than that of these journals. the concern among scholars and journal editors in the arts and humanities about the administrative tendency to evaluate the arts and humanities using indicators like those applied in the sciences and the social sciences should thus be taken seriously. references: agyris, c., & schön, d. 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( ). language biases in the coverage of the science citation index and its consequences for international comparisons of national research performance. scientometrics, ( ), - . http://staff.cch.kcl.ac.uk/% ewmccarty/essays/mccarty,% what% is% humanities% computing.pdf http://staff.cch.kcl.ac.uk/% ewmccarty/essays/mccarty,% what% is% humanities% computing.pdf http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / .html% ( microsoft word - -장성록.doc journal of the ergonomics society of korea vol. , no. pp. - , october http://dx.doi.org/ . /jesk. . . . application of digital human modeling for design of yacht dong-joon kim , chan gil ko , yujeong lee , seong rok chang department of naval architecture and marine system engineering, pukyong national university, busan, - department of safety engineering, pukyong national university, busan, - abstract objective: in this study, virtual reality was adopted to consider ergonomic factors in yacht design. virtual human which is the same actual human was created in virtual environment using digital human modeling which has been used in the manufacturing communities to design better workplaces and maximize the safety of workers. background: during the past years yachting has expanded from being, generally speaking, a minority sport - too expensive for the large majority of people - into a major recreational activity practiced by millions all over the world. many new yacht designs have appeared and number of professional, as well as amateur designers has increased steadily. but they had not considered ergonomic factors in yacht design. method: worker's posture, traffic line and workload had been analyzed in sailing yacht. after the caution level was evaluated, we pointed out clues which had high workload and interference. to reduce workload, we applied ergonomic principles for improving working conditions and environments in digital human model. results: we found the space problems and workload of postures. conclusion: ( ) unnatural posture of crews was sustained. ( ) workload that occurs in the human body was overloaded. ( ) crew's work space was very narrow. application: this study will be applied the new ergonomic design of yacht. keywords: digital human modeling, sailing yacht, ergonomic design, posture analysis, workload . introduction 국민 생활의 질적 향상과 소득 증가에 따라 여가 활동 및 레저에 대한 욕구가 높아지고, 특히 주 일제 근무를 통한 주말 여가의 인식 변화로 해양레저가 급속하게 활성화 되고 있다(ban et al., ). 지난 년 동안 요트는 전 세계 수백 명의 주요 여가 활동으로 확장되어 왔고, 아메리카 컵 이나 다른 세계적인 요트 대회를 통하여 요트에 대한 관심 이 증가되어 왔다(larsson et al., ). 이처럼 해양레저 활동에 대한 국민적인 관심이 증대되면서 우리 정부에서는 년 해양레저장비의 세계시장 점유율 % 달성을 목표 로 하는 해양레저장비 산업의 경쟁력 강화사업을 추진하고 있다(park, ). 삼면이 바다로 둘러싸인 우리나라는 해양레저 활동을 하 기에 최적의 조건을 갖추고 있고, 고부가가치 산업으로 새로 운 지역특화를 꾀할 수 있는 장점이 있다(park, ). 국 내의 해양관광활동에서 레저보트는 현재 도입기이며 완만한 성장세를 보이고 있고, 여건이 갖춰지면 급격히 성장할 것으 로 예상된다. 국내에서도 매년 지속적으로 증가하고 있는 각 종 해양레저 선박들의 수입량과 최근 급격히 증가하고 있는 각 지자체들의 마리나 설치 계획으로 미루어 보아 국내 해양 corresponding author: seong rok chang. department of safety engineering, pukyong national university, busan - . mobile: + - - - , e-mail: srchang@pknu.ac.kr copyright@ by ergonomics society of korea(pissn: - eissn: - ). all right reserved. ○cc this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. http://www.esk.or.kr dong‐joon kim · chan gil ko · yujeong lee · seong rok chang j ergon soc korea 레저 선박 시장은 향후 크게 성장할 것으로 예상된다(lee, ). 우리나라의 선박 제조 기술은 조선기술에 바탕을 두어 매 우 우수하지만 요트 제조 기술은 호주 및 유럽과 비교했을 때 디자인과 설계 분야에서 뒤쳐지는 것으로 평가되고 있 다. 현재는 디자인과 내부인테리어 등에 대하여 대부분 호 주나 유럽에서 년이 넘은 설계도와 디자인을 사들여 그대 로 제작하거나 일부 변형하는 제작법을 적용하고 있다(choi, ). 국내의 중·소형 조선소가 높은 상품성을 가진 독자 적인 모델 개발과 해양레저 선박의 부가가치를 창출하기 위 해서는 요트의 최적배치 설계 및 인테리어 설계가 필요하다. 이를 위해서 조선공학, 인간공학, 감성공학 및 디자인 기술 등이 접목된 융합 기술이 요구된다. 세일링 요트 선실의 경 우 우리가 일상적으로 경험하는 주거 공간에 비해 형태가 정형화 되어있지 않고, 한정된 공간 안에 주거시설, 취사시 설, 휴식시설 등이 모두 포함되어야 하므로 공간이 전체적으 로 협소하다. 협소한 공간 내부에 배치된 의장품들은 요트 이용자들의 부자연스러운 자세를 유발시켜 사용자의 불편함 과 부상을 초래할 수 있기 때문에 사용자의 편의와 안전을 위해 의장 설계 시 인간공학적인 고려가 필요하다(kim et al., ). digital human modeling이란 기존의 modeling & simulation 기술을 이용하여 구축된 가상의 작업환경에 실 제 작업자의 작업을 동일하게 행하는 가상의 인체를 형성하 는 것이다. digital human modeling을 통해 작업자의 작업 수행 능력을 예측할 수 있으며, d mock-up에 실제 작업 자와 동일한 가상의 작업자를 적용하여 인간공학적인 분석 이 가능하다. 또한 설계 전에 부적절한 배치로 인한 사용자 의 부자연스런 자세를 선 검증할 수 있어 제작 후 평가를 위해 소모되는 비용을 절감할 수 있어 경제적인 효과가 있다 (kim et al., ; chang, ; kim et al., ). 본 연구에서는 요트를 운항하는 크루의 작업 자세 중 대 표적인 작업을 선정하여 d digital mock-up과 digital human을 형성하였다. 또한 digital human modeling의 인간공학적 분석 기법을 이용하여 형성된 자세와 작업 부하 를 평가하였고, 이에 대하여 개선 대상 작업에 대한 인간공 학적 개선안을 제안하였다. . method . subjects 세일링 요트를 운항하기 위해서는 최소 명의 크루들이 필요하고 크루의 역할이 분담되어 있다. 요트의 크기에 따라 크루의 역할과 인원수는 유동적이며, 일반적으로 bowman, skipper, grinder, trimmer 등으로 분류할 수 있다. bowman은 요트 전방에서 장애물이나 너울 등을 감시하 는 견시 임무와 헤드 세일을 정돈하는 역할을 하고, grinder 는 윈치를 이용하여 jip 세일을 컨트롤 하는 역할을 한다. trimmer은 메인 세일을 조종하고, skipper는 요트 전체를 책임지는 선장으로서 필요한 지시를 내리고 요트 후미에 앉 아서 휠 또는 틸러를 조종한다. 본 연구에서는 세일링 요트 운항 시에 크루 명의 움직임을 촬영하고 전문가의 회의를 통하여 가장 많이 취하는 자세를 선정하여 digital human을 이용하여 모델링하고 분석하였다. . method 요트의 digital human modeling을 위해서 먼저 rhino d 를 이용하여 요트를 figure 과 같이 설계하였다. rhino d 설계도를 figure 와 같이 digital human modeling을 위한 jack program으로 불러 들여서 요트의 형상을 재현하였다. 다음 단계로 figure 과 같이 한국인 인체치수 통계치를 이용하여 human model을 생성하였다. jack program은 평 균적인 human model 이외도 극단치인 %tile과 %tile 인 human model을 생성할 수 있으며, 키, 몸무게 및 체형 등을 입력하여 실제 작업자와 동일한 digital human을 생성 할 수도 있다. digital human modeling를 이용하여 작업자 의 작업 부하를 분석하는 방법으로는 jack program에서 제 공하는 인간공학 분석방법을 사용하였다. jack program에서 제공하는 인간공학 분석방법은 다음과 같다. owas, rula는 작업자의 부자연스러운 자세, low back analysis는 허리 부하, static strength prediction figure . yacht design by rhino d vol. , no. . . . application of digital human modeling for design of yacht 과 forcesolver는 각 지체의 관절에 부가되는 모멘트, fatigue analysis는 필요한 휴식시간, metabolic energy expenditure는 작업의 에너지 소비율, predetermined time standards는 작업시간, niosh lifting equation은 들기 작업의 한계, manual material handling는 들기/내리기, 밀기/당기기, 운반 작업에 대한 평가를 하는 분석방법이다 (siemens product lifecycle management software inc., ). 이와 같은 가지 인간공학 분석방법 중 작업의 형 태와 특성에 따라서 적용 가능한 분석방법을 사용하여 평가 하였다. . results . posture and human modeling 비디오 촬영과 전문가 회의를 통해서 요트에서 크루가 수 행하는 작업의 자세를 도출하였다. 크루의 작업 자세는 크게 bowman의 전방 주시 자세, skipper의 휠 타입과 틸러 타 입의 조종간을 조종하는 자세, grinder의 헤드 세일 방향 전 환 및 윈치를 돌리는 자세, trimmer의 메인 세일 게양과 조 종 자세 등 가지로 분류하였다. 이에 대하여 세일링 요트 전문가와의 인터뷰를 바탕으로 각 크루가 가장 많이 취하는 자세를 figure 와 같이 bowman의 전방 주시, skipper의 휠 조종, grinder의 윈치 조종, trimmer의 돛 게양 자세를 선택하였다. 그리고 선택된 가지 작업 자세를 figure 와 같이 digital human으로 모델링을 실시하였다. figure [a], figure [a]와 같이 bowman은 요트의 선수에서 전방을 주시하면서 skipper에게 암초나 너울 등 의 정보를 알려주는 역할을 하고, skipper는 figure [b], figure [b]와 같이 요트 선미에서 조타장치를 조종한다. 또한, grinder는 figure [c], figure [c]와 같이 헤드 세 일의 방향 전환을 위해 로프를 빠르게 당기고 윈치에 감아 서 윈치를 돌려 로프를 고정시킨다. 마지막으로 trimmer는 figure [d], figure [d]와 같이 세일링 시작 전 메인 세일 을 펼치기 위해 메인 세일에 연결된 로프를 당겨 게양하는 작업이다. (a) bowman (b) skipper (c) grinder (d) trimmer figure . working posture of crews figure . the design file in jack program figure . human model dong‐joon kim · chan gil ko · yujeong lee · seong rok chang j ergon soc korea . ergonomic assessment 앞서 분류한 가지 자세를 digital human으로 modeling 하고, 작업 자세의 위험성을 평가하는 task analysis toolkit 으로 인간공학적 평가를 실시하였다 크루의 작업 자세를 task analysis toolkit의 인간공학적 인 분석 기법 중 owas, rula, lower back analysis 로 분석한 결과 값은 table 과 같다. owas 분석 결과 bowman의 전방 주시 작업과 skipper의 휠 조종 작업의 경 우 각각 action category(ac)가 과 로 비교적 낮은 수 준으로 분석되었다. 반면에 grinder의 윈치 돌리는 작업과 trimmer의 돛 게양 작업은 두 작업 모두 ac가 으로 분 석되었다. 이는 근골격계 질환에 직접적인 해를 끼치므로 가 능한 빨리 작업 자세를 교정해야 한다는 것을 의미한다. 두 작업 모두 윈치의 높이가 낮아 다리를 굽히거나 쪼그려 앉아 상체를 굽힌 상태로 로프를 당기거나 윈치를 돌리기 때문에 다리 부위에 코드가 , 로 나와 부하가 높은 것으로 평가되 었다. rula 분석 결과 bowman과 skipper의 경우 각각 action lever(al)이 로 계속적인 추적관찰이 요구되는 것으로 분석되었고, grinder의 경우 al이 으로 계속적 인 관찰과 빠른 작업개선이 요구된다고 분석되었다. 또한 trimmer의 경우 al이 로 정밀조사와 즉각적인 개선이 요 구되는 것으로 분석되어 작업 중에서 부하가 가장 높은 것으 로 평가되었다. 이는 상완 각도와 목, 상체의 굽힘 자세에 의 한 것으로 볼 수 있다. lower back analysis의 분석 결과 bowman과 skipper 작업 자세에서의 허리 부하가 각각 , n과 , n으로 분석되어 최대 권장 부하인 , n 보다 낮게 나타나 위험 도가 낮은 것으로 평가되었다. 하지만 grinder와 trimmer 작업 자세에서의 허리 부하는 각각 , n과 , n으로 분석되어 최대 권장 부하보다 높은 값을 나타나 개선이 필요 한 것으로 평가되었다. fatigue analysis, metabolic energy expenditure, forcesolver 및 static strength prediction 분석 결과 bowman의 전방 주시 자세와 skipper의 휠 조종 자세는 모 두 위험도가 낮은 것으로 평가되었다. grinder의 경우 fatigue analysis, metabolic energy expenditure, forcesolve, static strength prediction, manual material handling 분석을 적용하였고, 그 결과 static strength prediction의 결과에서 위험도가 높은 것으 로 분석되었다. 크루의 자세 분석 결과를 종합하면 trimmer의 평가 결 과 owas(ac ), rula(al ), lower back analysis ( , n), static strength prediction의 총 개의 평가 결 과에서 위험도가 높은 것으로 분석되어 위험한 작업으로 평 가되었다. 또한 grinder의 윈치를 돌리는 자세도 총 개의 평가 owas(ac ), rula(al ), lower back analysis ( , n), static strength prediction에서 위험도가 높게 분석되어 trimmer와 마찬가지로 위험한 작업으로 평가되었 다. skipper와 bowman의 작업 자세 경우에는 다른 두 자 세에 비하여 상대적으로 위험도가 낮은 것으로 평가되었다. . improvement 분석된 결과를 토대로 크루의 자세 중 개선 대상 자세를 (a) bowman (b) skipper (c) grinder (d) trimmer figure . human modeling of working posture of crews table . the result of working posture analysis of crews (owas, rula, lower back analysis) bowman skipper grinder trimmer code owas ac grand score rula al lower back analysis , n , n , n , n vol. , no. . . . application of digital human modeling for design of yacht 구분하면 grinder와 trimmer의 작업이 가지 분석에서 위 험도가 높은 것으로 평가되어 개선이 필요한 것으로 확인되 었다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 grinder와 trimmer의 작업에 대해 개선안을 제안하였다 grinder의 owas 분석 코드를 보면 허리 , 팔 , 다리 , 하중/힘 가 나왔고 ac는 , 근골격계 질환에 직접적인 영향 을 미치고, 가능한 빨리 작업 자세를 개선하는 것이 필요하 다고 평가되었다. 분석 결과 문제요인으로는 허리와 두 다 리의 굽힘 발생을 요인으로 볼 수 있다. 그러므로 허리와 다 리의 굽힘을 줄일 수 있는 개선이 필요하다. figure [c]의 grinder의 작업 자세를 모델링한 것을 보면 윈치의 높이가 낮아 허리와 다리의 굽힘이 발생한다. 윈치가 있는 턱의 높 이를 전체적으로 올리고 윈치 중심 양 옆으로 발과 무릎이 들어갈 수 있도록 공간을 제공하는 것이 요구된다. 또한, 윈 치가 위치하고 있는 부분의 의자를 제거하여 윈치를 가까이 서 돌릴 수 있도록 개선을 하면 허리와 다리의 굽힘 그리고 팔을 뻗는 자세로 인한 부하를 줄일 수 있을 것으로 판단된 다. rula 분석 결과로는 상완과 전완의 굴절, 팔 뻗음, 어 깨 들림 및 ~ kg 사이의 반복적인 부하가 발생하며 al 즉, 계속적인 관찰과 빠른 작업 개선이 요구된다고 평가되 었다. 상완 및 전완의 팔 뻗음과, 어깨 들림을 줄이기 위해 서 핸들의 길이를 줄이면 팔을 뻗는 동작을 제거할 수 있을 것이라고 판단된다. lower back analysis의 분석 결과로는 , n의 부하가 허리에 발생하였고, 이는 허리의 굽힘과 비틀림으로 인한 것이다. owas 감소를 위해 윈치의 높이를 올리면 허리의 굽힘을 줄일 수 있고 비틀림도 일어나지 않아 부하가 감소될 것이라 판단된다. static strength prediction 의 결과 엉덩이와 무릎 그리고 발목에 위험도가 높은 것으로 나타났다. 윈치를 높여서 서서 작업을 하게 되면 발목과 무 릎, 엉덩이가 곧게 펴지게 되어 관절 부하가 감소하여 위험 도가 낮아질 것으로 판단된다. grinder에 대한 인간공학적 평가를 종합적으로 검토하면 허리와 두 다리의 굽힘이 위험 작업으로 평가된 주요 원인으 로 분석되었다. 이를 개선하기 위해 윈치 높이의 조정, 서서 하는 작업의 작업 장소 개선, 핸들 길이의 조정 등 개선방법 을 제안하였다. 이를 통해 관절의 부하가 감소되었으며, 팔 뻗는 동작을 제거하였다. 개선 후의 작업 평가는 table 에서 보는 바와 같다. owas 평가 결과 ac 에서 로, rula 평가의 경우 al이 에서 로 개선 효과가 나타났다. 또한 low back analysis의 경우 허리 부담이 약 % 줄 어든 것으로 분석되었다. trimmer의 owas 결과 코드를 보면 허리 , 팔 , 다리 , 하중/힘 이 나왔고 ac는 , 근골격계에 매우 심각한 해 를 끼치고 즉각적인 작업 자세의 개선하는 것이 필요하다고 평가되었다. 분석 결과 문제요인으로는 허리와 다리의 굽힘 이 발생하는 것을 요인으로 볼 수 있으므로 허리와 다리의 굽힘을 줄일 수 있는 방향으로 개선이 필요하다. rula 분 석 결과 상완과 전완, 손목, 목, 상체의 굽힘 및 신전이 발생 하고 kg 이상의 반복적인 부하가 발생한다고 평가되어 al , 정밀조사와 즉각적인 개선이 요구된다고 평가되었다. 상지 쪽의 전체적인 굽힘 및 신전을 줄이는 개선이 필요하다. lower back analysis 분석 결과 , n의 부하가 허리에 발생하였고 이는 허리의 굽힘과 비틀림에 의해 발생된 것이 므로 이러한 굽힘과 비틀림을 줄이면 부하가 감소될 것으로 판단된다. static strength prediction의 결과 엉덩이와 무릎 그리고 발목에 위험도가 높은 것으로 나타났다. 이는 윈치의 높이를 조정하면 위험도가 감소할 것으로 판단된다. trimmer에 대한 인간공학적 평가를 종합적으로 검토하 면 허리, 다리, 상완/전완, 손목/목, 상체 굽힘 및 신전 등이 위험 작업으로 평가된 주요 원인으로 분석되었다. 이를 개선 하기 위해 윈치의 높이를 cm 낮추고 로프를 윈치에 걸어 서 당기는 형태로 개선하거나, 윈치 대신 도르레를 사용하는 형식으로 개선하였다. 개선 후의 작업 평가는 table 에서 보는 바와 같다. owas 평가 결과 ac 에서 로, rula 평가의 경우 al이 에서 로 개선 효과가 나타났다. 또한 low back analysis의 경우 허리 부담이 약 % 줄어든 것으로 분석되었다. . conclusion and discussion 본 연구는 세일링 요트의 인간공학적인 설계를 제안하기 위하여 digital human modeling을 요트에 적용한 연구로 써 요트 운항 시 크루의 주요 임무에서 발생하는 자세들을 digital human modeling하여 각 자세에 대한 위험성을 확 인하였다. 이를 통해 각 크루의 자세 별로 나타나는 문제요 인을 도출할 수 있었고 이 문제요인을 바탕으로 인간공학적 인 개선방안을 제안하였다. 세일링 요트는 크기와 설계 형태 별로 운항 중 크루가 행 table . the result of improved working posture analysis of crews(owas, rula, lower back analysis) grinder trimmer code owas ac grand score rula al lower back analysis , n , n dong‐joon kim · chan gil ko · yujeong lee · seong rok chang j ergon soc korea 하는 자세가 다양하게 변화하는 특성이 있다. 배의 크기에 따라 적게는 ~ 명, 많게는 명의 크루가 함께 운항하기 때문에 다른 다양한 자세에 대해서도 추가적인 분석이 이루 어 져야 할 것이며 이러한 자세에 대해서도 modeling을 통 한 분석 및 평가를 하여 개선방안 도출이 필요할 것이다. 하지만 이러한 개선방안은 인간공학적인 아이디어만을 적 용한 것이므로 실제 요트 설계에 적용하기 어려울 것으로 사료된다. 따라서 구조적인 개선안에 대해서는 조선공학 전 문가, 요트 전문가와의 협의를 통하여 적용 가능한 개선안을 찾는 것이 필요할 것이다. references ban, s.h. & kim, s.h., "prospect and status of marine leisure and yacht industry in korea", journal of korean society of naval architecture & ocean engineering, vol. , no. , pp. - , . chang, s.r., "a study for prevention of musculoskeletal disorders using digital human simulation in the shipbuilding industry", journal of the korean society of safety, vol. , no. , pp. - , . choi, c.h., jang, p.s. & seo, m.s., "digital design process of marin leisure boat using human sensibility evaluation", journal of the ergonomics society of korea, vol. , no. , pp. - , august . kim, d.j., park, j.y., min, k.c. & chang, s.r., "formulation of human modeling and simulation in the shipbuilding industry", journal of the korean society of safety, vol. , no. , pp. - , . kim, d.j., park, j.y., kim, h.w. & chang, s.r., "a study for improvement of work using digital human modeling", journal of the korean society of safety, vol. , no. , pp. - , . kim, d.j., oh, h.s., lee, y.j., cho, k.y. & chang, s.r., "application of ergonomic factors in sailing yacht design", the korean society of ocean engineers, . larsson, l. and eliasson, r.e. "principles of yacht design", rd ed., mcgraw-hill, . lee, s.w., "a study on the establishment of basic plan and improvement of system for promoting the marine tourism", ministry of land, pp. - , . park, s.h., "problem and status of yacht industry in korea", journal of the korean society of marine environment & safety, vol. , no. , pp. - , park, s.h., "a study for present condition analysis and activation of marine leisure industry", environment and economics assessment section of korea institute of ocean science & technology, . siemens product lifecycle management software inc. "jack . release notes and installation guide", . author listings dong-joon kim: djkim@ pknu.ac.kr highest degree: phd, department of naval architecture, seoul national university position title: professor, department of naval architecture and marine system engineering, pukyong national university areas of interest: computer aided ship design, leisure boat design chan gil ko: kcg @hanmail.net highest degree: bachelor, department of safety engineering, pukyong national university position title: master's course, department of safety engineering, pukyong national university areas of interest: human modeling, risk assessment yujeong lee: yj_lee@pknu.ac.kr highest degree: phd, department of safety engineering, pukyong national university position title: lecturer, department of safety engineering, pukyong national university areas of interest: ergonomics, assessment of work ability, job stress seong rok chang: srchang@ pknu.ac.kr highest degree: phd, department of industrial engineering, seoul national university position title: professor, department of safety engineering, pukyong national university areas of interest: assessment of work ability, work physiology, digital human modeling, human error reduction, risk management date received : - - date revised : - - date accepted : - - eang yu · · digital evaluation of sitting posture comfort in human-vehicle system under industry . framework tao qing , ，jinsheng kang* ，sun wenlei ，li zhaobo , huo xiao school of mechanical engineering, xinjiang university, urumqi, china center for post-doctoral studies of mechanical engineering, urumqi, china colle of engineering, design and physical sciences, brunel university london, uxbridge, ub ph, uk abstract: most of the previous studies on the vibration ride comfort of the human-vehicle system were focused only on one or two aspects of the investigation. this paper proposed a hybrid approach which integrates all kinds of investigation methods in real environment and virtual environment. the real experimental environment includes the wbv (whole body vibration) test, questionnaires for human subjective sensation and motion capture. the virtual experimental environment includes the theoretical calculation on simplified -dof human body vibration model, the vibration simulation and analysis within adams/ vibration tm module, and the digital human biomechanics and occupational health analysis in jack software. while the real experimental environment provided realistic and accurate test results, it also serves as core and validation for the virtual experimental environment. the virtual experimental environment takes full advantages of current available vibration simulation and digital human modelling software, and makes it possible to evaluate the sitting posture comfort in a human-vehicle system with various human anthropometric parameters. how this digital evaluation system for car seat comfort design is fitted in the industry . framework is also proposed. key words: parameter identification, vibration characteristic, sitting posture comfort, human-vehicle system, human body model, digital design, digital evaluation, industry . . introduction the process of designing a new vehicle involves satisfying a large number of requirements and following multiple guidelines. among the various vehicle design parameters, the most critical parameter that has a direct effect on users is the level of “comfort”. the application of ergonomic methodologies to vehicle design processes is becoming increasingly important. seated postures have been regarded as potentially unhealthy factors for several musculoskeletal disorders especially in the car [ ] . an occupational epidemiological study by gyi [ ] showed that people exposed to over h of driving per day were more than twice as likely to suffer from low back pain compared to those with over h of sedentary work per day, and the vibration from road can lead to higher risk of musculoskeletal disorders. sitting comfort needs could be divided into sitting comfort and discomfort. several studies have suggested that comfort and discomfort be treated as complementary but independent entities [ ] . similarly, hancock and pepe [ ] showed that discomfort and comfort are at different stages of needs, the latter being placed at a higher stage than the former. in other studies, comfort was not measured and only a discomfort scale was used with supplemental objective measures such as electromyography (emg), ________________________________________________ * corresponding author. e-mail: jinsheng.kang@brunel.ac.uk supported by national natural science foundation of china (grant no. ), and xinjiang provincial natural science foundation of china (grant no. c ), and xinjiang university phd start-up funds. center of pressure (cop), or interface pressure [ ] . driving postures are related to both comfort and discomfort. in a study by hanson et al. [ ] , participants described their preferred driving posture using adjectives. zhang’s findings [ ] suggest that the driving posture indeed is related to both comfort and discomfort. from this, it can again be argued that subjective responses to driving postures should be rated in terms of comfort and discomfort using two separate scales. as addressed above, designing a car seat is a challenging task that must meet multiple requirements; within a confined space where vibration is generally present. comfort is a complex construct influenced by several factors, except subjective responses the other important impact is vibration. at the stage of developing a seat system, prediction of vibration responses at the human body–seat interface by computer simulations is required. in order to carry out such computer simulations, a dynamic model on the human body is needed ， which is an effective tool to describe the simulation for ergonomics design. it also plays an important role in the prediction of the human body vibration characteristics and the impact of vibration on the human body. it was known that the vibration behavior of a human body on seat was affected by not only vibration environment [ - ] but also the sitting posture [ ] . as early as in , m. robert and others built an six degrees of freedom nonlinear vibration model of human body [ ] . in , w. qassem put forward a description on human body vertical vibration and horizontal vibration as an degrees of freedom vibration model [ ] . in , magnusson et al created some recommendations on how to design a driver’s · · cab to reduce the exposure of whole body vibration and other risk factors having a negative effect on the health [ ] . in , pÉ boileau and s rakheja proposed an degrees of freedom human body vertical vibration model [ ] based on sth (seat-to-head transmissibility) and dpm (driving-point mechanical impedance). in , hyeong kim reported a body vertical vibration model based on sth and am (apparent mass and apparent quality) [ ] . in , e zhang studied the different vibration parameters of the human body vibration characteristics [ ] . recently, reddy p s et al proposed a -dof human body model to include the left and right lower and upper arms, as well as neck in the human-vehicle vibration model [ ] . ten subjects were tested in whole body vibration with five frequencies in vertical direction, and a hybrid polaris spectra system was used to obtain the seat to head transmissibility [ ] . rantaharju t et al compared five different assessment methods for whole body vibration and shocks, and their impacts on the interpretation on the experimental results [ ] . most of the previous studies on the vibration ride comfort of the human-vehicle system were focused only on one or two aspects of the investigation. some of the research concentrated on human’s perception [ , , ] , while others emphasized on the sitting posture [ , ] , and many different human body vibration models were proposed and human whole body vibration test conducted [ - ] . with the rapid development of computational power, simulation software and vr (virtual reality) technology, it is possible to integrate all the simulation and modelling aspects together, backed up with a limited number of human whole body vibration test and questionnaire results as validation, to provide a simulation method for rapidly evaluating the sitting posture body comfort of human-vehicle systems. this paper describes the pioneer research along this line, in which a limited number of human subjects whole body vibration test together with questionnaire were conducted, a simplified -dof human body vibration model was established, human body vibrations were simulated on adams software platform and sitting postures were evaluated via digital human and joint angles. the application of the proposed method under industry . framework is also discussed in this paper. methods . vibration comfort questionaire during a long-term drive in a dynamic environment, the driver will be exposed to whole body vibrations. the frequency range considered in the iso standard is . – hz for health, comfort and perception, . – . hz for motion sickness. when measuring vibration, the primary quantity of vibration magnitude should be acceleration. the measurement should be done according to a coordinate system originating at a point from which vibration is considered to enter the human body. the principal basic xyz coordinate systems are shown in the iso : - standard. the root-mean-square value of the frequency-weighted acceleration were obtained according to the iso : - standard, and they were compared with human subjective sensation acquired from the questionnaire during whole body vibration test, and are summarized in table . table . comparison table of acceleration, human subjective sensation -- vehicle riding comfort acceleration comfort level less than . m/s not uncomfortable . to . m/s a little uncomfortable . to m/s fairly uncomfortable . to . m/s uncomfortable . to . m/s very uncomfortable greater than m/s extremely uncomfortable . simplified -dof human body vibration model human body can be treated as various degree of freedom vibration systems [ - ] . the reason for us to use this simplified -dof vertical human body vibration model is that this model can capture the most important features of human’s perception and response to vibration in a human-vehicle system, while the model itself is simple to implement in a remote portable or distributed environment in industry . framework. human body is a flexible organization, and therefore the vibration responses will be similar to an elastic system. the lumped mass, torsion spring, damper, and multibody dynamics were used to model the human body vibration response characteristics. human body was divided into five parts, which were head, torso, lower torso (including hip), the left leg and right leg. the vibration of the thigh will be passed through the whole body parts to the head. the vibration of the head is the most important factor that affects the comfort and produces visual impairment. to predict the vibration responses of the human body in a human-vehicle system under the dynamic environment, this simplified -dof vertical vibration model was developed and shown in fig. . this is a mechanical vibration response equivalent model of a sitting posture of human body, it will treat each part of human body as the mass, stiffness, damping and so forth similar to mechanical components. as shown in fig. , the kinetic parameters of the model are as follows: where m , m , m , m , m are the mass of human head, torso, lower torso (including hip), the left leg and right leg; k , k , k , k , k are the stiffness of corresponding part of the human body; c , c , c , c , c are the damping of each part of the human body; z , z , z , z , z are the displacement of center of gravity that each part of the human body; k , c are the stiffness and the damping of seat; z is the input displacement excitation. · · （torso)m (head)m c k （lower torso)m c k m m car body c c k k c c k k seat k c z z z z z z z fig. . -dof human body vibration model according to newton's second law, the vibration differential equation of this -dof human posture model is as follows:            qbzkzczm   ( ) where [m], [k], [c] and [b] is mass matrix, stiffness matrix, damping matrix and incentive matrix of the human-vehicle system respectively; {z} is the output vector,{z}=[z ,z ,z ,z ,z ] t ; {q} is the excitation vector, {q}=[z ,z ] t . for the convenience of the simplified model and calculation, assume that the mass, stiffness and damping of the human right leg and left leg are equal, that is m =m , k =k , c =c . from eq. ( ), conduct the fourier transformation,                     jqbjzkjzcjjzm  ( ) variable  denotes the angular frequency. then:         jz j jq        so，               jqbkcjmjz  ( ) finally, the available human response of transfer function is:                      j bkcjmh ( ) the eq. ( ) is the general formula of the transfer function of the human body. it is a column vector. for -dof human vibration model shown in fig. , it is as below:              t hhhhhh  ,,,, ( ) where h ( ), h ( ), h ( ), h ( ), h ( ) are the transfer function of the car body to human head, car body to torso, the car body to lower torso, the car body to the left leg, the car body to the right leg that each part of human body respectively. for the transfer function of car body to human head h ( ), expression is as follows:         jz jz h  ( ) the transfer function of acceleration expression is as follows:         jz jz js    ( ) . whole body vibration (wbv) experiment setup the vibration experiment on human body was conducted on the vibration equipment manufactured in suzhou sushi test instrument co., ltd, china. the test seat was a pure rigid steel seat. there were participants, and they were undergraduate and postgraduate students of xinjiang university with a male to female ratio of : , and aged from to years old. their mean stature was . cm, and average weight was . kg. all the participants were in good health and without skeletal and muscular disorders. before the experiment, participants completed the general information part of the questionnaire. during the experiment they were asked to answer the questionnaire to indicate their different comfort level under the different frequency bands. the principle of experiment is shown in fig. . the vibration table produces the fixed frequency vibration vibrator according to the experimental requirements. through the six acceleration sensors, the vibration signals on the human’s body were recorded and saved by the oscilloscope. charge amplifier signal collector computer data analysis power amplifier vibration table sensor sensor fig. system diagram of whole body vibration test file://///acfs /user/appdata/ç³ · · the parameter selections of human body vibration experiment were as follows: frequency bands as the experimental frequencies were chosen, they were , . , , . , , , , , , , , hz respectively. the strength of vibration was in accordance with the standards iso , and the measurement time was min for each frequency under the working condition. . vibration simulation in adams software the virtual vibration test was conducted on adams/vibration tm , a plug-in module for msc. adams software. the center of the virtual vibration table was set up as the input channel, and the input signal applied was . g ( . ⨉ . m/s ). the output channel were set on the center of mass of the head, torso, lower torso, and the lower extremities of the virtual human. we set up the acceleration output channel. carrying out the analysis in the frequency range ~ hz, in vibration analysis within adams/vibration tm module, each body part’s acceleration frequency response characteristics was obtained in the virtual human-vehicle system. data analysis and results for the wbv test, the measured piezoelectric signals of acceleration were transferred into matlab software to go through the filtering process and conduct spectral analysis by the a/d conversion, then the frequency response function of human body were obtained. the obtained human response transfer rates   i js  from the wbv test under different vibration frequencies were shown in fig. . . . . . . . . . . . . . se a t to h e a d t ra n sm is si b ili ty frequency (hz) female male all fig. curve of seat to head transmissibility from experiment fig. is the vibration transfer function curve of seat to head transmissibility, which was plotted by origin software according to the experiment data. fig. showed the averaged results of wbv test on all subjects. although the whole body vibration response are different between different subjects, the difference was small, with most of the resonance peak occurred at about hz. meanwhile, the human body comfort level dropped significantly at around the - hz. the questionnaire results showed that the results of the wbv test and the subjective sensation from questionnaires were coinciding. for the theoratical calculation of the simplified -dof human body vibration model, the whole process of identifying human body dynamic characteristics was accomplished in matlab optimization toolbox. in this process, the constants for each part of the human body were referred to gb/t - which is a chinese national standard of adult human body inertia parameters. the constants of stiffness and damping in each part of human body were ≤ci≤ ns/m (i= , , , , , ); k , k , k , k ≥ kn/m; ≤k , k ≤ kn/m. fig shows the theoretical calculation curve obtained from the -dof human body vibration model, in contrast with the wbv experiment obtained transfer function curve. the trends of the two curves are basically the same, with resonance peaks appeared at about hz. fig. the comparison of the two curves of the transmissibility from experiment and theoretical calculation carrying out the laplace transform on equation ( ), the transfer function of acceleration for each part of human body was analyzed in frequency domain. in this analysis, the frequency range was set from to hz, using matlab to solve the bode diagram command bode, the transfer function bode diagram for all parts of the human body displacement, velocity and acceleration were obtained. the resonance frequency of four parts of the human body were different, the resonant frequency of the head, torso and lower torso (including hip) were around hz, and the resonance frequency of the left and right lower limb were around hz. the human body acceleration frequency response characteristics of the simulated virtual human-vehicle vibration system obtained from adams/vibration software were basically identical to the result obtained from -dof human body vibration theoretical calculation model. the resonance frequencies, for the head, torso, and lower torso were concentrated in hz, and lower limbs were at around hz. the adams simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . s e a t to h e a d t ra n s m is s ib il it y frequency (hz) the experimental results the theoretical results · · further confirmed that the -dof human body vibration model and the human body vibration characteristic analysis we made were accountable. application of digital human model in sitting posture comfort evaluation . the digital human model the application of digital human (virtual human/manikin) is a new trend in industry and design practice for ergonomics evaluation. for example, jack and ramsis are the two mainstream software widely used in automobile industry. these software have the capability to evaluate the human sitting posture from biomechanics perspective for comfort and fatigue assessment. they can be easily connected to motion capture system so that realistic human sitting posture inside a vehicle can be streamed in. another advantage is that virtual human’s gender, height, weight and any anthropometric parameter can be set conveniently, so that the ergonomics evaluation can be conducted on a wider population. unfortunately, these virtual human software do not have the capability to do the vibration simulation. in our previous research, we have obtained some useful sitting posture data [ ] . in these experiments, the hardware used to capture the body motion of participants was the motion analysis eagle digital system (fig. ). this is an optical motion capture system, consisting of digital cameras, the eagle hub, to which all cameras are connected and uplinks to a computer terminal. all the hardware components are controlled by evart real time software. it is within this software where all data is recorded, processed and displayed, and where post processing takes place. fig shows the generated skeleton model which then be exported to jack software for occupational health analysis. fig. motion capture system camera setup the analysis of the data was accomplished using a self-developed program in matlab. a total of joint angles were evaluated in relation to the sitting posture and body motion tasks. the definition of joint angles was made with reference to g. andreoniet et al [ ] , and with reference to other joint angle definition conventions as well. using a self-developed program in matlab, the joint angle were calculated, and compared with the occupational health analysis, like fatigue etc. in jack software. fig. sitting posture skeleton model generated . sitting posture knowledge base although motion capture system provided a mean to capture human body posture and motion in a realistic way, it is not possible to do motion capture for the wide population with all different anthropometric parameters. a realistic way would be to collect some motion capture data on sitting posture from typical and extreme sized subjects, and conduct biomechanics and occupational health analysis. through interpolation and extrapolation, the sitting posture knowledge base for all population with all different anthropometric parameters can be established, with corresponding biomechanics and occupational health analysis values as index. this constitutes part of the knowledge base for the digital evaluation of sitting posture comfort in human-vehicle system. . hybrid system for sitting posture evaluation similarly to the motion capture techniques, human subjects wbv (whole body vibration) test could not be applied to a wide population. actually, all the reported wbv experiment were conducted on a very limited number of human subjects, from several to one or two dozens of. the limited number of wbv test results can be interpolated and extrapolated, with the guideline from the theoretical calculation model of human body vibration. these data, together with the human subjective perception obtained from questionnaires, constitute another part of the knowledge base for the digital evaluation of sitting posture comfort in human-vehicle system. fig. shows the proposed hybrid system for sitting posture comfort evaluation, which consists of two experimental environments: real and virtual. the real experimental environment includes the wbv (whole body vibration) test, questionnaires for human subjective sensation and motion capture. the virtual experimental · · environment includes the theoretical calculation on simplified -dof human body vibration model, the vibration simulation and analysis within adams/ vibration tm module, and the digital human biomechanics and occupational health analysis in jack software. while the real experimental environment provided realistic and accurate test results, it also serves as core and validation for the virtual experimental environment. the virtual experimental environment takes full advantages of current available vibration simulation and digital human modelling software, and makes it possible to evaluate the sitting posture comfort in a human-vehicle system with various human anthropometric parameters. human model car seat model the human- computer interaction whole body vibration motion capture system posture evaluation comfort evaluation vibration evaluation real environment evaluation virtual environment evaluation car seat parameters optimization car seat d i ss a ti s f ac t i on satisfaction s at i s fa c ti o n questionnaire fig. hybrid system for sitting posture evaluation discussion on how the system being fitted in industry . framework industry . represented the trend and direction of fourth industrial revolution. it was recognized there are four key components and six design principles within industry . framework [ ] . it seems that they are all related to digital evaluation, and digital evaluation can contribute to the implementation of the four key components and six design principles in industry . , as indicated in table . table contribution of digital evaluation to industry . industry . components & design principles digital evaluation could contribute to its implementation cyber-physical systems internet of things smart factory internet of services √ √ √ √ interoperability √ virtualization decentralization real-time capability service orientation modularity √ √ √ √ √ for example, cyber-physical systems means higher level of integration and combination of physical and computational elements and processes, in which digital evaluation will be inevitable. virtualization, decentralization, real-time capability and modularity will all need digital evaluation to be integrated into the digital design and digital manufacturing circle under internet of things, internet of services and smart factory environment, to deliver best product and service to customer. fig shows how the current digital evaluation of car seat comfort is fitted in the industry . framework. currently all the car component and assembly design are carried out in cad software, like solidworks, nx, or catia etc.. the car dynamic simulation can be conducted in adams – car, adams – chassis environment. the identified vibration parameters of car body and car seat from these dynamic simulations will be the input to the car sitting comfort evaluation, which contains both computer simulation and the knowledge of human perception on riding comfort obtained under real human vibration test. after the sitting comfort evaluation, the results can be fed to the design of car, and also the manufacturing process simulation can be performed, for example, under siemens factorycad, factoryflow, plant simulation, realnc, etc.. these processes will be within the cyber-physical systems and smart factory environment, in which the integrated simulation and synthesis, remote visualization for human and collaborative diagnostics and decision making are considered to be the core elements at cognition level [ ] . the interaction with customers can be achieved through internet of things and internet of services. service orientation will be offered both internally and across company borders, based on customer specific · · requirements [ ] . fig how the digital evaluation of car seat comfort is fitted in the industry . framework conclusion the communication, integration and synthesis between different simulated and physical systems are considered to be one of the core aspects in the implementation of industry . [ . ] . most of the previous research on sitting posture comfort in human-vehicle system were concentrated on one or two experimental methods. this paper explored an integrated approach for digital evaluation of sitting posture comfort in human-vehicle system which takes advantages from all experimental methods in real environment and virtual environments. in real environment, wbv (whole body vibration) test, questionnaires for human subjective sensation and motion capture were conducted on a limited number of subjects; while in the virtual environment, the vibration simulation and digital human biomechanics and occupational health analysis can be extended to unlimited number of manikins with all possible anthropometric parameters. the role of the experiments conducted in real environment is to validate the simulation in virtual environment. the role of the simulation in virtual environment is to generate quick assessment results in digital evaluation of sitting posture comfort in human-vehicle system for potential customers with various anthropometric parameters. finally, how this digital evaluation system for car seat comfort design is fitted in the industry . framework is proposed, and open for discussion. references [ ] rajput, b., abboud, r.j., . the inadequate effect of automobile seating on foot posture and callus development. ergonomics ( ), – . [ ] gyi, d.e., . driver discomfort: prevalence, prediction and prevention. loughborough university, uk. [ ] zhang, l., helander, m., drury, c., . identifying factors of comfort and discomfort. human factors ( ), – . [ ] hancock, p.a., pepe, a.a., . hedonomics: the power of positive and pleasurable ergonomics. ergonomics in design ( ), – . [ ] fenety, p.a., putnam, c., walker, j.m., . in-chair movement: validity, reliability and implications for measuring sitting discomfort. applied ergonomics ( ), – . [ ] hanson, l., sperling, l., akselsson, r., . preferred car driving posture using -d information. international journal of vehicle design ( / ), – . [ ] m.j.griffin. handbook of human vibration, academic press, london, . [ ] s.rakheja,r.g.dong,s.patra,p.-eboileau,p.marcotte,c.warren,biod ynamics of the human body under whole-body vibration: synthesis of the reported data, international journal of industrial ergonomics ( ) – . 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[ ] rantaharju t, mansfield n j, ala-hiiro j m et al. predicting the health risks related to whole-body vibration and shock: a comparison of alternative assessment methods for high-acceleration events in vehicles [j]. ergonomics, , ( ): - . · · [ ] tao qing, jinsheng kang，stephan orphanides, jie hong, sun wenlei, application of jack on evaluation of a split seat chair, proceedings of the th international conference on automation and computing (icac), ieee, , - . [ ] g. andreoniet, giorgio c. santambrogio. method for the analysis of posture and interface pressure of car drivers. journal of applied ergonomics, , vol. , - . [ ] hermann m, pentek t, otto b, : design principles for industrie . scenarios: a literature review. [ ] jay lee, behrad bagheri, hung-an kao. a cyber-physical systems architecture for industry . -based manufacturing systems[j]. manufacturing letters, , vol. , - . biographical notes tao qing, born in , is currently an associate professor at xinjiang university, china. he received his msc degree from huazhong university of science and technology, china, in , and received his phd degree from xinjiang university, china, in . his research interests include mechanical design and industrial design. tel: + - - ; e-mail: xjutao@qq.com jinsheng kang, born in , is currently a senior lecturer at brunel university london, uk. he received his phd degree from bournemouth university, uk in . his research interests include human modelling and simulation, cad, industrial design. tel: + - - ; e-mail: jinsheng.kang@brunel.ac.uk sun wenlei, born in , is currently a professor at xinjiang university, china. he received his phd degree from huazhong university of science and technology, china, in . his research interests include mechanical design, cad, advanced manufacturing. tel: + - - ; e-mail: sunwenxj@ .com li zhaobo, born in , is currently an msc candidate at school of mechanic engineering, xinjiang university, china. e-mail: liangshanlzb@ .com huo xiao, born in , is currently an msc candidate at school of mechanic engineering, xinjiang university, china. e-mail: @qq.com http://www.snom.mb.tu-dortmund.de/cms/de/forschung/arbeitsberichte/design-principles-for-industrie- _ -scenarios.pdf http://www.snom.mb.tu-dortmund.de/cms/de/forschung/arbeitsberichte/design-principles-for-industrie- _ -scenarios.pdf mailto:sunwenxj@ .com history, interactive technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions all rights reserved © the canadian historical association / la société historique du canada, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : journal of the canadian historical association revue de la société historique du canada history, interactive technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions stephen brier volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the canadian historical association / la société historique du canada issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article brier, s. ( ). history, interactive technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions. journal of the canadian historical association / revue de la société historique du canada, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article tiré du discours liminaire présenté à la réunion annuelle de la société historique du canada en , cet article présente un aperçu de l’état de la technologie numérique et de son influence sur la publication et l’enseignement dans le monde universitaire contemporain. s’intéressant plus particulièrement au développement fulgurant des sciences humaines numériques au cours des dernières années, cet article analyse l’impact de l’adoption d’une panoplie de technologies numériques (incluant le libre accès, l’évaluation par les pairs en ligne, l’utilisation de bases de données et d’imagerie mentale en sciences humaines, la multiplication des revues électroniques ainsi que l’utilisation des blogues et wikis comme outils pédagogiques) sur l’évaluation par les pairs, sur la recherche scientifique et la publication universitaire, ainsi que sur l’enseignement. Étudiant la production numérique et les travaux de l’american social history project de cuny, qu’il a participé à créer, et le programme doctoral en interactive technology and pedagogy, qu’il a dirigé à la faculté des études supérieures de cuny, l’auteur discute de divers projets de numérisation et de différentes approches conçus pour améliorer la qualité de l’enseignement dans les salles de cours collégiales et universitaires. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/jcha/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/jcha/ -v -n -jcha / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/jcha/  history, interactive technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions stephen brier abstract based on a keynote presentation at the canadian historical association conference, this paper surveys the state of digital technology and its impact on academic publication and teaching in the contempo- rary university. focusing on the dramatic rise of the digital humanities in the last few years, the paper examines alternative forms of peer review, academic scholarship and publication, and classroom teaching as they have been reshaped by the adoption of a variety of digital technologies and formats, including open-access, online peer reviewing, use of data- bases and visualization techniques in humanities work, online journal publication, and the use of blogs and wikis as teaching tools. examining the digital production and education work of the american social history project at cuny, which he co-founded, and the interactive technology and pedagogy doctoral certificate program that he heads at the cuny graduate center, the author discusses a range of digital pro- jects and approaches designed to improve the quality of teaching and learning in college classrooms. résumé tiré du discours liminaire présenté à la réunion annuelle de la société historique du canada en , cet article présente un aperçu de l’état de la technologie numérique et de son influence sur la publication et l’en- seignement dans le monde universitaire contemporain. s’inté res sant plus particulièrement au développement fulgurant des sciences humaines numériques au cours des dernières années, cet article analyse l’impact de l’adoption d’une panoplie de technologies numériques (incluant le libre accès, l’évaluation par les pairs en ligne, l’utilisation de bases de données et d’imagerie mentale en sciences humaines, la multiplication des revues journal of the cha new series, vol. , no. revue de la shc nouvelle série, vol. , no électroniques ainsi que l’utilisation des blogues et wikis comme outils pédagogiques) sur l’évaluation par les pairs, sur la recherche scientifique et la publication universitaire, ainsi que sur l’enseignement. Étudiant la production numérique et les travaux de l’american social history project de cuny, qu’il a participé à créer, et le programme doctoral en interactive technology and pedagogy, qu’il a dirigé à la faculté des études supérieures de cuny, l’auteur discute de divers projets de numérisation et de différentes approches conçus pour améliorer la qualité de l’ensei- gnement dans les salles de cours collégiales et universitaires. the canadian historical association’s call for papers for its “crossroads: scholarship in an uncertain world” conference included two questions that particularly resonated with me: will technologi- cal change, spell the end of, traditional forms of teaching and scholarship? are we currently standing at a key juncture in historical scholarship? i will attempt to address both of these anxiety-tinged questions in this paper and offer some possible answers to each. many university faculty members remain puzzled about the ways digital technologies of one sort of another are transforming (or perhaps have already transformed) our teaching and our academic scholarship. as academics, our individual and collective reactions to these prospective and actual technological transformations run the gamut from breathless techno-enthusiasm to brooding techno-pho- bia, with academic administrators tending to clump on the enthusiastic end of the spectrum and faculty members (usually those who can best be described as aging baby boomers) at the opposite extreme. i’m sure most of us in universities have encountered (or even personally embody) various individual examples at each of the extremes as well as many positions in between. this is not surprising, given the fact that since the early s (coincident with the emergence of the world wide web) we’ve expe- rienced successive waves of enthusiasm for the next “big thing” in academic technology. we’ve gone from “cai” (computer assisted instruction) using desktop computers and cd-roms in the early s, to accessing a variety of teaching resources online in the mid- and late- s, to distance and fully online learning beginning  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. around the same time, to “hybridity” (a mix of distance and face-to- face classroom instruction), student e-portfolios, the widespread student use (and concomitant faculty hesitation about) smartphones and tablets, and the recent meteoric rise of moocs (massive open online courses). what is interesting about these successive waves of academic technology is that most of them have been narrowly focused on the teaching side of what we do, where they are often embraced by administrators and opposed by faculty members as a method to lower the labor costs of teaching (often linked to the dra- matic increase in use across the university system of contingent labor). this is akin to (or is perhaps a muted academic version of) the titanic battles across time between managers and workers over how technology will be implemented in workplaces and who will reap the material if not educational benefits of that implementation. as a labor historian and proud member of the professional staff congress, the city university of new york’s aft chapter, i would never discount this aspect of the academic class struggle, if i can be indulged the use of that hyperbolic phrase in this particular context. i will address issues of digital technology’s potential impact on the shape and structure of university teaching later in this paper, but i think it is important first to reflect on the other side of the acade- mic equation: what role might technology play in helping us rethink academic research and academic publication? at any number of recent academic conferences (i’d name the annual gatherings of the modern language association, the organization of american historians and the american historical association, and the american studies association as good examples of the current trend) and in myriad academic and professional publications, scholars in a variety of disciplines have proffered meditations and reflections on, as well as jeremiads and manifestos about, the academy’s “technolog- ical turn.” this discussion has increasingly focused lately on the digital humanities (dh), the academic technology à la mode. seemingly limited by its very name to traditional humanities disci- plines, dh as a field in fact encompasses a much broader swath of traditional academic disciplines, including the performing and fine arts and the interpretive social sciences. its central premise is that digital technologies of a variety of sorts can be employed by scholars  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions to re-imagine and enhance traditional academic work and publish- ing, as such technologies already have in the quantitative social sciences and especially in the physical and theoretical sciences and mathematics. some digital humanities enthusiasts go so far as to argue that embracing dh is almost imperative if the contemporary university, or at least the humanities wing of it, is to survive. i am not quite that much of a dh true believer, but i don’t minimize its cur- rent impact or its potential transformative importance, either. though a decidedly amorphous phrase, the digital humanities is readily bandied about not only inside colleges and universities and at academic conferences, but also in the scholarly and mainstream press. in the past three years, the chronicle of higher education, our industry newspaper, has published articles on dh, as well as entries in the new and popular “profhacker” blog that the chronicle launched a few years ago to make the publication more relevant to the up-and-coming academic generation. the new york times has featured dozens of articles and analyses over the past months on the subject, including a recent dyspeptic three-part attack by stanley fish in his regular blog, prompted by the publication of a new dh collection, debates in the digital humanities, which stirred professor fish’s vitriol. stanford literary scholar franco moretti’s graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for literary history is an especially thoughtful exam- ple of how dh scholarship is posing new research questions and developing new research methodologies. in his foundational dh text (originally published in three parts in in new left review), moretti argued that we can learn previously undiscovered things (what he calls “emerging qualities”) about the scope and nature of eighteenth and nineteenth century english prose fiction writing (his scholarly field), by employing what he calls “distant reading” techniques. distant reading uses quantitative, spatial and morphological data about the number, frequency, geographical spread and genre and sub-genre forms of the entire corpus of these british novels (as compared to the typical close reading most literary scholars do of a small number of canonical works in the field) to draw broader conclusions about those works and the larger histori- cal, cultural, and geographical contexts out of which such novels  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. emerge. i won’t try to summarize moretti’s conclusions here (his analysis, which has strong historical materialist overtones, is too rich and nuanced to do that easily), but i will suggest that this provoca- tive slim book is a must read for historians as well as literary theorists, largely because moretti challenges us to think in fully interdiscipli- nary and entirely new ways about analytical questions and methodological approaches that we rarely consider in history, given our typical commitment to siloed disciplinary boundaries and heavy reliance on traditional research methodologies. beyond making us rethink the very nature and forms of acade- mic scholarship, as moretti has done, dh has also managed to raise important questions about traditional forms of academic publication and peer review. few can argue that the ways we have managed to publish most academic scholarship over the past century — in print periodicals and journals and academic monographs published largely by university presses — can be sustained at anything close to previ- ous levels. the economics of academic publishing, as well as evaporating university and public library budgets for new purchases, make it less and less likely that traditional print venues for scholar- ship can keep up with the expanding volume of academic output that needs to be published, as well as to meet the professional needs of current and future generations of scholars who must publish their work to secure jobs, get promoted, and, ultimately, secure tenure (assuming that now venerable academic protection system manages to survive the rapid changes that are sweeping universities world- wide). with respect to digital technology’s impact on academic pub- lishing, the speed and reach of the mellon foundation-funded jstor project, founded in , which made more than one thou- sand traditional print academic journals available online, was but the first step in the transformation of academic publishing in the digital age. i imagine there are very few scholars working in the contem- porary university who haven’t benefited from the convenience and rapid search capability that online journal publishing through jstor has facilitated. the availability of online academic journals has made that scholarship much more accessible and immediately useable to a larger number of academics.  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions the number of digital journals that entirely abjure the traditional codex form of publication in favor of exclusive online publication has also grown dramatically in the past few years. pioneered by our col- leagues in the physical and theoretical sciences and mathematics, solely online publication of academic journals, edited and produced by academics themselves (rather than farmed out to academic presses for production if not editing, as is more typical of many humanities journals), has finally begun to spread to humanities and social science disciplines. perhaps the most dramatic and radical example of online publication of scholarship, digital humanities now (dh now), was conceived and launched in by daniel cohen, a leading dh proponent, as “an experiment in ways to identify, evaluate, and dis- tribute scholarship on the open web through a weekly publication,” to quote the site’s “about” page. cohen, who serves as the executive director of the roy rosenzweig center for history and new media at george mason university in northern virginia, is dh now’s edi- tor-in-chief. musing with colleagues about the ridiculously long lead-times that typically define the entire academic journal submis- sion-peer review-editing-publication process, cohen noted that he and his associates could probably monitor social media such as twitter (he actively and regularly tweets for and with the dh cognoscenti) to determine what was crucially important in dh with- out having to wait several years to read the newest published dh scholarship, as traditional scholars typically do. dh now, according to its self-description, “showcases the scholarship and news of inter- est to the digital humanities community, through a process of aggregation, discovery, curation, and review” by monitoring thou- sands of key dh twitter feeds, websites, and blogs and using a kind of “crowd sourcing” by hundreds of well-known dh practitioners (what dh now calls “community editors-at-large”) to highlight the “trending” (to use a twitterism) subjects and ideas that animate the dh universe. publishing lead-time is essentially cut down in dh now from months and years to days and weeks. realizing a few years into the experiment that much of dh now’s efforts had become somewhat ephemeral (the problem with the standard blog format in which dh now is presented — in wordpress — is that older mate- rial falls, literally and figuratively, to the bottom of the blog), cohen  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. decided to launch the quarterly journal of the digital humanities in , which publishes in a more formal, open-access online journal a curated group of the “best” (read “most important”) dh articles and blog posts. leaving aside the sheer daring of dh now’s conception and digital execution, fully online academic journals in fact have several distinct advantages over old-fashioned printed ones, including: the ability to incorporate into scholarly writing not only large numbers of images but also multimedia elements such as audio and video; the ability to have academics collaborate more easily and engage one another in open-ended conversation about scholarly ideas and issues raised in online journals, thanks to the availability of such online tools as blogs and wikis; the flexibility to change and correct errors of omission or commission even after “final” editing and initial online publication; and, perhaps most compellingly, the realization of tremendous savings in terms of printing and mailing costs. the journal of interactive technology and pedagogy (jitp), a fully online interdisciplinary journal developed by an editorial col- lective of faculty and doctoral students that i helped launch in at the cuny graduate center, well illustrates these possibilities and advantages. the journal grows out of the work of the doctoral cer- tificate program in interactive technology and pedagogy that i founded at the cuny graduate center a decade ago (and that i will describe in greater detail in my discussion below about teaching). jitp has allowed my colleagues and me to conceive, solicit articles for, review, and, finally, publish our premier issue in a much shorter time frame and for a very small amount of out-of-pocket expenses (not counting, of course, our extraordinary self-exploitation as unpaid edi- tors, designers, and administrators!). in addition to traditional long-form articles, many of which include multimedia elements, our new journal also has several short form sections, including “assignments,” “tool tips,” and “teaching fails,” which allow the journal to publish on a rolling basis relevant short pieces about teach- ing and curricula as they are submitted, rather than have to wait for the publication of the next formal issue. because these short sections are structured as blogs, they are designed to encourage readers to respond immediately with comments, queries, and criticisms of the  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions short submissions as soon as they appear online. we fully expect authors of short and long-form pieces to rapidly respond to blog inquiries and suggestions in turn, thus encouraging the kind of crit- ical intellectual exchange that the “letter to the editor” format used by most print journals never quite manages to realize. this kind of functionality could be available to any scholarly journal, regardless of academic discipline, if that publication had a regular online presence above and beyond its fixed jstor version. finally, with respect to the vexed issue of peer review, there is growing sentiment that the double-blind system traditionally used in humanities and social science publishing does not really accomplish what it has always claimed for itself, which is an impartial and unbi- ased estimate by experts in the field of a book or article manuscript’s intellectual worthiness for publication. the cloak of anonymity; intolerable delays in the review, revision and publication processes (some authors complain that it is can be three years or more from the time they originally submit a piece until it appears in print); the potential for favoritism or self-serving decisions on the part of anony- mous peer reviewers; and, most tellingly, the entirely opaque quality of the peer review process, all have contributed to an increasingly dysfunctional peer review system for print journals and monographs that restricts rather than encourages new scholarly approaches and narrows the channels for academic publication rather than expands them. as with online publication of scholarship, digital humanists have helped define new forms of peer review that take advantage of digital tools to make the peer review process faster, more collaborative and more transparent. let me offer but one example: a book published in entitled planned obsolescence: publishing, technology and the future of the academy, in which kathleen fitzpatrick, formerly a professor of media studies at pomona college and now director of scholarly communication at the modern language association, makes a provocative argument that the academy’s very future depends on our willingness to embrace new digital and collectively generated forms of peer review and academic publication. fitzpatrick argues persua- sively that only if the university can accomplish a dramatic shift away from what she calls “the production and dissemination of individual  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. [academic] products to imagining ... a system focused more broadly on facilitating the processes of scholarly work,” will we be able to rescue academic peer review and publishing from itself. the publisher, nyu press, put its money where fitzpatrick’s mouth was. dozens of peer reviewers (myself included) read and commented collectively online on the media commons site (using a special piece of “horizontal” blogging software called commentpress, developed by the institute for the future of the book) on draft chapters of planned obsolescence prior the manuscript’s simultaneous publication as a print and e-book. it should be noted that nyu press also sent the book out for traditional external reviews as well. while these traditional outside reviews were useful, fitzpatrick and nyu press both have credited the collaborative online peer review process with demonstrably strengthening the final manuscript. my jitp colleagues and i are building on such criticisms and insights about the peer review process by developing a new feature that appeared in the second issue of our journal, which we are call- ing “behind the seams.” this feature is designed to reveal from beginning to end the actual creative and editorial processes by which both long-form and short-form scholarly articles are written and sub- mitted, received and assigned for internal and external review (all of our authors and reviewers are named), edited (assuming the article is accepted for publication), suggested edits responded to by the author(s), and, finally, copy edited and produced for online publica- tion. in its inaugural form, the “behind the seams” feature included an embedded online audio conversation (with accompanying tran- scription) between one of the long-form article authors, brian beaton, and the two issue editors, benjamin miller and joseph ugoretz, about the writing, review, and editorial process. we ulti- mately plan to include in each jitp issue embedded video interviews (and transcriptions) with authors conducted by issue editors, linked to relevant sections of the final published articles. because the acad- emic publishing process remains opaque to many academics, especially younger scholars, we are hopeful that this “behind the seams” feature will begin to demystify the editorial and publication processes while at the same time opening them to more collegial forms of intellectual engagement and collaborative work.  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions i have suggested to several historian colleagues who are journal editors that similar peer review and online publishing alternatives might be incorporated into the editorial and publication processes of traditional history journals. i am pleased that at least one such tradi- tionally printed history journal has recently begun experimenting with alternative online approaches to peer-to-peer conversations and debates. in november , lawcha announced “laboronline,” a new blog that, according to the lawcha website “will deepen and extend the content of lawcha’s flagship journal, labor: studies in working-class history of the americas.” with these kinds of possible transformations of scholarship in mind, i want to turn now to the second question from the cha’s “crossroads: scholarship in an uncertain world” call for papers: are we currently standing at a key juncture in historical scholarship? to respond to this overarching question i will pose several interrelated questions — how might technology affect the ways historians con- duct our research work, teach history to our students, and, finally, how might it shape the ways we present our work to the broader pub- lic? — and relate those questions to my own experience as a historian. it’s easy, especially for historians, given our particular scholarly ori- entation and heavy reliance on traditional research methodologies, to sit back and dismiss new-fangled technological approaches as irrelevant to what historians typically do or what many of us think historians should be doing: discovering and evaluating troves of text-based doc- uments on a specific (and, hopefully, previously unexamined) historical subject or episode, writing scholarly articles, monographs and/or syntheses that use those text documents in new or unusual ways, and then publishing our work in print journals or as mono- graphs. as someone who has toiled in that particular vineyard for almost four decades i am not immune to the charms and intellectual satisfactions inherent in that familiar and almost ritualistic research, writing, and publication process. but i am also keenly aware of how much digital technologies have expanded my repertoire as a histori- cal researcher and made me a better and more successful historian. let me illustrate this point by describing a traditionally pub- lished history article i recently completed with an italian colleague, which illustrates the ways in which digital tools have redefined and  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. expanded the boundaries and possibilities of conducting traditional historical research work. that project was a transnational study that dealt with labour militancy and inter-ethnic unionism, focusing on new italian immigrant workers in the western united states coal industry at the turn of the twentieth century and the role they played in a six month-long united mine workers of america strike, which involved tens of thousands of miners, the largest number of whom were italians. among the important sources that emerged in our research work for this article were several obscure local united states newspapers that helped us place one of the key italian leaders of the miners’ strike into a different and wholly unexpected historical and organizational context in the years after the strike. these local newspapers would have remained entirely unknown to us (and, we imagine, to most other historians as well) without the power of new online search methods to uncover previously hidden historical infor- mation and resources. in this instance, the recent release of the library of congress’s “chronicling america” online database of hun- dreds of digitized local american newspapers published between and allowed us to search for and find this key italian leader of the – united mine workers’ strike when he became a roving organizer in for the western federation of miners and the industrial workers of the world in the northern california gold fields, two years after the western coal strike had ended in defeat and he had disappeared from the known historical record. it would have been virtually impossible for any historian to find this previously unknown phase of our historical subject’s life and career as a radical union organizer without access to this amazing online digital resource. i heartily recommend this digital resource to anyone doing any kind of united states historical research in this critical -year period. technology offers many such possibilities for enhancing what we do as historians, beyond making our research results better and easier to obtain. i have spent the largest part of my career as a pub- lic historian trying to determine how various forms of technology can enhance our ability to communicate and disseminate historical ideas and information in classrooms and for public audiences alike. i think it might be instructive to trace the arc of my wholly atypical  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions career in the academy (at least for someone from my generation) to illustrate how i acted on that commitment to learn and deploy a vari- ety of technologies to produce and disseminate public history of and to ordinary people, as well as to suggest how much more common the pursuit of alternatives to traditional academic employment has become in the present moment. following completion of research work on my doctorate in labour history at ucla, i moved to new york city in to accept a job in public television researching and making historical films. i reasoned at that point, in my then quite nascent academic career, that while it was still possible to secure a tra- ditional academic job, i wanted to “do” history in non-academic ways and that film-making gave me better entrée to present the past to broader public audiences than would a traditional academic his- tory position. besides learning how to make films in new york in those years, i also had the great, good fortune to meet herbert gutman, the late labour and social historian who did so much to reshape our thinking about how united states history should be written, taught, and presented to the public. following a series of successful neh-sponsored summer seminars for labour leaders that i co-directed with herb, we decided in to found the american social history project (ashp) at the city university of new york (hereafter cuny), where herb was a distinguished professor of his- tory. we began assembling a large and dedicated staff of historians, film-makers, multimedia producers, artists, and educators to design and create books, films, videos, and (after ) a variety of digital media to put american working people’s experience at the centre of the united states historical narrative. among the project’s most important accomplishments was its “who built america?” (wba?) multimedia history curriculum, which included a two-volume text- book (one of the co-authors of the first edition of the wba? textbook was canada’s own bryan palmer), ten documentary videos (a cutting-edge technology in the s and s when we con- ceived and produced them) on topics and events in working-class history, as well as an accompanying set of viewer guides that were widely used to reshape the teaching of united states history in col- lege and high school history classrooms and in adult and worker education programs in new york city and across the country. the  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. wba? multimedia curriculum also included the nation’s first fully digital publication in united states history, the award-winning cd- rom, who built america? from the centennial celebration of to the great war of , conceived and developed by the late roy rosenzweig, joshua brown, and me, and published by the voyager company in , followed eight years later by a second cd-rom, wba? from the great war of to the dawn of the atomic age in . a hallmark of the wba? multimedia curriculum and of all of ashp’s digital history work in general has been the project’s quarter- century-long commitment to using digital technologies to enhance the quality of teaching and learning of history at the high school and undergraduate levels. the two wba? cd-roms and other digital projects that ashp developed after (including history matters: the u.s. survey course on the web, our website produced in collabora- tion with the center for history and new media [hereafter chnm] at george mason university that makes a range of primary and sec- ondary historical materials available to teachers and students ) are built on two beliefs that digital technologies can and should be used to improve the teaching and learning of history by offering a wide array of textual, visual, sound, and moving image source materials that are largely inaccessible to those who might best benefit from such access; and that such multimedia materials can be used to drive “inquiry- based learning using primary sources,” to employ randy bass’ important insight. working closely and collaboratively with teachers across the country in a series of grant-supported projects, ashp staff (led, since , by my long-time comrade and colleague, josh brown) helped pioneer a set of active learning strategies to improve history teaching, emphasizing, for example, the uses of primary source docu- ments and visual source materials to encourage students’ deep immersion in historical thinking and history making. two recent ashp digital education projects, which combine cutting-edge digital technology and techniques with engaging active learning and constructivist pedagogy, are worth noting in a bit more detail: the lost museum and herb: social history for every classroom (named, not surprisingly, after the late herb gutman). the lost museum is a self-navigable, three-dimensional re-creation of  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions http://www.lostmuseum.cuny.edu/home.html p.t. barnum’s american museum in downtown manhattan, the most visited cultural attraction in the nineteenth-century in the united states. the lost museum website was developed over an eight- year period from to as a teaching and learning resource, allowing individual exploration of a virtual recreation of barnum’s famous museum and using movement in and around that -d space as a means of gaining understanding about the era’s larger controver- sies over race, gender, reform, immigration, sectionalism, and popular culture. as with all ashp multimedia projects, the digital presentation is supplemented by an extensive archive of primary tex- tual and visual historical source materials and teaching tools — gathered in a special “lost museum classroom” section of the web- site and developed in collaboration with our chnm colleagues — that are designed for students and teachers at a variety of educational levels to deepen their historical understanding. that same approach also defines the ashp’s recent online historical database project, herb: social history for every classroom. herb is a fully searchable database of more than , united states history textual and visual primary source documents and classroom activities that look at the ways ordinary people both influenced and were in turn influ- enced by the economic, social, and political transformations from colonial settlement to the present. growing out of ashp’s two decades-long collaboration with high school social studies teachers and college history faculty members, the source material and teach- ing activities on the site are now available to individual students and teachers anywhere in the country and around the world. such diverse primary historical and pedagogical resources, pre- sented in the “herb” and “lost museum” websites, are developed with a fundamental principle that has animated all of ashp’s edu- cational work in using technology to teach history: primary historical materials, in whatever format they appear online, cannot simply be provided to users, especially to non-experts, without clear contextu- alizing introductions and indications of how and why such material can and should be used to introduce and engage significant histori- cal issues and debates. i believe that this a significant problem with much of what now passes for online educational content: it lacks clear contextual framing and pedagogical intent, a problem that can  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. http://herb.ashp.cuny.edu only be solved if and when historians become actively involved in the conceptualization and development of online historical materials. ashp continued to affirm its ongoing commitment to making its work available to the broad public via the web, as evidenced by the september digital archive, which was also co-conceived and co-developed in and with our colleagues at the center for history and new media. to complete this project, we historians had to learn the methodologies and processes of archiving and preservation, a set of skills historians used to happily leave to librar- ians and archivists. the september digital archive, which ended up including over , digital items — including images, videos, audio recordings, emails, flyers, and a range of other image and tex- tual materials contributed from all over the world — remains one of the most popular sites online to find and use historical information about the / attacks. in , the library of congress accessioned it as the first fully digital collection it had ever accepted. over the course of the last decade, the september digital archive has been widely used by teachers to introduce the emotionally and politically charged september attacks and their aftermath to subsequent generations of college and high school students. soon after stepping down as the founding director of ashp in to take on wider administrative duties at the cuny graduate center, i was asked by the graduate center’s president if i would conceive and launch a new program for doctoral students who, regardless of academic discipline, would be taught how to use digital technologies in their academic teaching and research, such as the ones we had developed at ashp and that i have just described. working collaboratively with a group of doctoral faculty and stu- dents i conceived and have coordinated since its founding in the interactive technology and pedagogy certificate program (itp) at the graduate center, which is an interdisciplinary program that provides doctoral students from a range of academic disciplines with opportunities to reflect on the broader theories behind and peda- gogical implications of digital technology usage in the academy. the program features a strong theoretical orientation to technology’s role historically in transforming the ways we work and play, hands-on instruction in and use of a variety of digital technology tools, as well  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions as ongoing conversations about the pedagogical implications and possibilities inherent in using digital tools to enhance the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom. since so many graduate center doctoral students are employed as instructors at various cuny campuses (which number in all), with sole responsibility for teaching large introductory survey courses to undergraduates in their particular academic disciplines, the uses of digital technology to improve pedagogy is of particular interest to our graduate students and to cuny in general. our itp students are helping reshape the pedagogy of many cuny undergraduate classrooms, using blogs, wikis, websites, digital cameras, and other digital technologies and pedagogical strategies, to engage cuny undergraduates as more active makers of knowledge, not merely as passive consumers of it. more than doctoral students from the humanities, social sci- ences, mathematics, and the sciences have enrolled in the itp program over the past decade and two dozen have now received the itp certificate upon completion and the awarding of their doctorate degrees. a number of itp graduates have been able to parlay their skills in digital technology and pedagogy into both traditional acad- emic positions in universities and colleges around the country, as well as internationally, in non-traditional digital humanities/digital pedagogy “alt-ac” positions and post-docs. when i teach the initial core course in our itp certificate pro- gram (which i do each fall semester), i always require new students to read phillip k. dick’s legendary science fiction novel do androids dream of electric sheep? and to screen blade runner, the film classic directed by ridley scott, which is based on the dick novel. the first day of class, following a vigorous discussion of the book and film, i always ask my students why they think i assigned these two science fiction pieces in a course on interactive technology and pedagogy in the university. in the conversation that follows, which inevitably engages questions about verbal and visual forms, one or more students usually figure out that both the book and film are really about dystopia and how human beings struggle to find meaning and purpose in their lives at moments when technol- ogy calls into question the very essence of what it means to be human (a topic we go on to discuss in the context of the writings of donna  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. haraway and katherine hayles). at that point i always try to his- toricize that insight to encompass the broader human impact of technological change, trying to make my students understand that nothing about the imposition of new technologies is pre-ordained or inexorable, that human beings had agency in the past and still have it in the present to oppose, resist, and shape technology to meet our own needs and desires. we go on from those initial classes to read e.p. thompson, wolfgang schivelbusch, and chapter in volume of marx’s capital, along with much else, with an eye to under- standing the material, social, and historical conditions under which technology has shaped human existence across time. only when they understand those historical processes do i think itp students are ready to engage with questions of how to assess the impact of digital technologies on the ways we teach and learn in the contemporary university and begin to understand how to use these technologies — including blogs and wikis, as well as various open source software programs — in constructive and positive ways to transform how we do academic research and pass on that intellectual knowledge to the next generation of scholars. much as it did for the luddites and the skilled iron puddlers of the nineteenth century, technology is posing fundamental challenges to our academic way of life. rather than resist technological change blindly, we still have the option to shape in positive ways technol- ogy’s impact on the history profession and the university as a whole. but we can do this only if we are willing to understand how digital technologies work and how we can best use them to create more democratic and participatory classrooms and a more open and engaged scholarship. *** stephen brier is a u.s labor and social historian who co- founded the american social history project at cuny in , which he headed for almost two decades. he currently is a professor in the urban education phd program at the cuny graduate center, where he is also the founder and coordinator of the interactive technology and pedagogy doctoral certificate program,  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions the co-founder of the m.a. in liberal studies digital humanities track, and serves as the school’s senior academic technology officer. stephen brier est un historien américain spécialisé en histoire sociale et en histoire des travailleurs. il a participé à la fondation du american social history project à cuny en , projet qu’il a ensuite dirigé pendant près de deux décennies. il est présentement professeur au programme doctoral en éducation urbaine à la faculté des études supérieures de cuny, où il a créé et coordonné le pro- gramme de certificat doctoral en pédadogie et technologie interactive ainsi que participé à la mise sur pied de la maîtrise en liberal studies digital humanities. il est également le senior academic technology officer de l’institution. endnotes: matthew k. gold, ed., debates in the digital humanities (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ) is the best recent collection that defines the extraordinary breadth of the digital humanities. full disclosure: i contributed a piece to gold: stephen brier, “where’s the pedagogy? the role of teaching and learning in the digital humanities,” – . franco moretti, graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for literary history (new york: verso, ). the number of jstor digitized journals is taken from its homepage: www.jstor.org . see dan cohen, “introducing digital humanities now” at: www.dancohen.org/ / / /introducing-digital-humanities-now/ . general information about digital humanities now is at: www.digitalhumanitiesnow.org/ and www.digitalhumanitiesnow.org/about/ , which includes information about what is published and what they call their “layers of evaluation,” which determine what is included in the weekly digest of dh news. the journal of digital humanities at: www.journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ . the journal of interactive technology and pedagogy, www.jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/ . in addition to jitp, doctoral students and faculty members at my home college now collaboratively publish no fewer than half-a-dozen online journals in  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. http://www.jstor.org http://www.dancohen.org/ / / /introducing-digital-humanities-now/ http://www.digitalhumanitiesnow.org/ http://www.digitalhumanitiesnow.org/about/ http://www.journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ http://www.jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/ diverse fields from sociology and hispanic and luso-brazilian languages and literature to urban education and linguistics, including theory, research and action in urban education, www.nml.cuny.edu/traue/ and the virtual poetry project, www.nml.cuny.edu/poetryproject/vpp/index.php/vpp/index . information about the interactive technology and pedagogy doctoral certificate program can be found at: www.web.gc.cuny.edu/itp/ . kathleen fitzpatrick, planned obsolescence: publishing, technology and the future of the academy (new york: new york university press, ). ibid., . www.mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/mcpress/plannedobsolescence/ three-texts/commentpress/ . commentpress can be found at the institute for the future of the book’s website at: www.futureofthebook.org/commentpress/ . see the “behind the seams” feature in issue # at www.jitp.commons.gc. cuny.edu/behind-the-seams/ . see www.lawcha.org/wordpress/committee-portal/labor-online/ . stephen brier and ferdinando fasce, “italian militants and migrants and the language of solidarity in the early twentieth-century western coal fields,” labor: studies in working class history of the americas, , no. (summer ): – . www.chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/ . particularly impressive is the search tool that delivers highlighted instances of the designated search terms on the physical image of the selected newspaper pages. in the age of the digital humanities, many scholars with ph.d.s have been forced by the academic jobs crisis to find and sustain scholarly careers outside of traditional tenure track academic employment. these individuals have formed something of an alternative movement within and proximate to the universities, complete with its own name (“alt-acad- emy,” which speaks for and supports those engaged in alternative academic employment). informally led by bethany nowviskie, director of digital research and scholarship at the university of virginia library, the “alt-ac” movement publishes an open-access, online journal, #alt.academy, at www.mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/ . a good overall description of alt-ac can be found in julie flanders’ personal reflection, “time, labor and ‘alternate careers’ in digital humanities knowledge work,” in debates in the digital humanities, – . information about the american social history project and all of  technology and pedagogy: past successes and future directions http://www.nml.cuny.edu/traue/ http://www.nml.cuny.edu/poetryproject/vpp/index.php/vpp/index http://www.web.gc.cuny.edu/itp/ http://www.mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/mcpress/plannedobsolescence/ http://www.futureofthebook.org/commentpress/ http://www.lawcha.org/wordpress/committee-portal/labor-online/ http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/mcpress/plannedobsolescence/three-texts/commentpress/ http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/mcpress/plannedobsolescence/three-texts/commentpress/ http://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/behind-the-seams/ http://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/behind-the-seams/ http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/alt-ac/ its productions, print as well as multimedia, can be found at www.ashp.cuny.edu/ . “history matters,” www.historymatters.gmu.edu/ . see randy bass, “engines of inquiry: teaching, technology, and learner-centered approaches to culture and history,” engines of inquiry: a practical guide for using technology in teaching american culture (washington d.c.: american studies association, american studies crossroads project, ), . bass notes two other important pedagogical approaches in addition to “inquiry-based learning using pri- mary sources”: “bridging reading and writing through online interaction”; and “making study work public in new media formats, encouraging constructivist pedagogies.” the main site of “the lost museum”— www.lostmuseum.cuny.edu/home.html — features -d animation (which requires installation of a current version of adobe’s flash player) of the three floors of barnum’s museum. “herb: social history for every classroom” www.herb.ashp.cuny.edu/ . “september digital archive,” www. digitalarchive.org . for background on the evolution of the project, see steve brier and joshua brown, “the september digital archive,” radical history review, (fall ), – . for reflections on how to use the september digital archive to teach undergraduates, see claire potter, “because it is gone now: teaching the september digital archive” oah magazine of history , no. ( ), – . for a survey of various digital pedagogy projects across the -campus cuny system, see stephen brier, in debates in the digital humanities, – .  journal of the cha / revue de la s.h.c. http://www.ashp.cuny.edu/ http://www.historymatters.gmu.edu/ http://www.lostmuseum.cuny.edu/home.html http://www.herb.ashp.cuny.edu/ http://www. digitalarchive.org preprocessing greek papyri for linguistic annotation hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- v submitted on jun hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. preprocessing greek papyri for linguistic annotation marja vierros, erik henriksson to cite this version: marja vierros, erik henriksson. preprocessing greek papyri for linguistic annotation. journal of data mining and digital humanities, episciences.org, , special issue on computer-aided processing of intertextuality in ancient languages. �hal- v � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- v https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal preprocessing greek papyri for linguistic annotation marja vierros *, erik henriksson , university of helsinki, finland *corresponding author: marja vierros marja.vierros@helsinki.fi abstract greek documentary papyri form an important direct source for ancient greek. it has been exploited surprisingly little in greek linguistics due to a lack of good tools for searching linguistic structures. this article presents a new tool and digital platform, “sematia”, which enables transforming the digital texts available in tei epidoc xml format to a format which can be morphologically and syntactically annotated (treebanked), and where the user can add new metadata concerning the text type, writer and handwriting of each act of writing. an important aspect in this process is to take into account the original surviving writing vs. the standardization of language and supplements made by the editors. this is performed by creating two different layers of the same text. the platform is in its early development phase. ongoing and future developments, such as tagging linguistic variation phenomena as well as queries performed within sematia, are discussed at the end of the article. keywords greek; papyri; linguistic annotation; treebank; dependency grammar; tei epidoc xml; mysql; python; javascript introduction greek papyri from egypt have preserved bigger and smaller entities of greek as it was written by ancient speakers from ca. bce to ce. there are different registers and styles found within a variety of different text types; the vernacular becomes visible in private letters and the official phraseology in contracts. therefore, the papyrological corpus forms an important direct source for greek linguists. the documentary papyrological corpus is freely available in digital form in the [papyrological navigator] (pn) platform, which also allows users to search both text strings and metadata (such as date and provenance). the search possibilities do not, however, easily yield to querying linguistic structures or variation in spelling or morphosyntax. partly for this reason, the papyrological corpus has been left without much attention within the majority of linguistic research of ancient greek. a research project of author (“sematia: linguistic annotation of the greek documentary papyri – detecting and determining contact-induced, dialectal and stylistic variation” funded by the academy of finland) sought methods to make better use of the papyri for purposes of linguistic research. in this first phase we needed a way to preprocess the papyri into a form which could be linguistically annotated. the sematia tool presented in this article results from this project but the tool is still being further developed. a new research project [“act of the scribe: transmitting linguistic knowledge and scribal practices in graeco- roman antiquity”] where author is currently a researcher, is concentrating on scribes, their level of competence and their linguistic skills. we study the mechanisms of the language production in order to separate the technical effects from the linguistic and cognitive processes. this enables us to pinpoint the scribe’s part in language change. we have added the possibility for implementing new metadata especially for the purposes of that project in sematia. we approach the texts by dividing them by the “acts of writing” in order to distinguish each writer within one text. sometimes a text is a product of one writer only, but journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal in many cases two or more different people have written in one document, attested by the change of handwriting. i background in this section, we will first briefly describe the digital papyrological corpus used in this project, as well as the nature of a papyrus text, in order to illustrate the basic requirements for preprocessing the data. then, we summarize the linguistic annotation process in . , essential for the later discussion on how we plan to utilize treebanks in this project. lastly, in order to motivate the way in which we address the texts, we shortly discuss what we mean by linguistic variation in . . . the papyrological corpus in digital form the platform papyrological navigator (pn) is the most important digital tool for papyrologists and anyone using papyri, potsherds and wooden tablets as primary sources for their studies of the ancient world. it is an umbrella platform under which several databases with different scopes are linked together. its history goes back to , when a papyrological text corpus in digital form was formed at packard humanities institute, resulting in a cd- rom (phi # duke databank of documentary papyri). a more detailed history is given in the information page at pn. at the moment the duke databank text corpus is open source and available online via the papyrological navigator and the texts have been migrated into [tei epidoc xml] form. new publications are added to the corpus, old entries can be corrected and new data added via the papyrological editor by the papyrological community (the workflow is curated by an editorial team). thus, the corpus is kept in an up-to-date, reliable state. currently, it hosts ca. , greek texts, , latin texts and , coptic texts. a word count is not available and texts vary from very short to extremely long. the pn also includes a search interface, where the texts, metadata, translations and images can be searched using different parameters. . . the nature of a papyrus text and its realization in tei epidoc xml papyri, like inscriptions, are seldom preserved in perfect condition. this results in gaps (lacunae) within the text. the ink may have faded in places, or the handwriting might be difficult to read, with the result that the editor cannot always be certain how to read each letter. moreover, many texts contain a large number of abbreviations, because they come from the pens of professional scribes working with texts of an administrative nature. these features are marked in the paper editions according to the editorial conventions called the leiden system, commonly agreed upon in . for example, a lacuna is marked with square brackets, abbreviations are expanded within parentheses and uncertain letters have a dot under them. for a full list, see [schubert , – ]. the epidoc xml marks the same phenomena in tei compatible tags within the text, e.g. for the lacunae, for the uncertain letters. the display in the pn shows the text in a traditional leiden system layout (with the apparatus criticus below the text), but the text is stored in the github repository in the xml form. example . the first two lines of p.petra in pn display layout (a) and in epidoc xml (b): (a) journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal (b) γνῶσιςγνο͂σις ὧνὁ͂ν ἀπώλε σαἀπόλεσα ἐγώἐγὸ Ἐπιφάνιος although example exhibits no gaps or uncertain letters, it shows another feature that is highly relevant to our project and to linguists in general, namely, editorial corrections. within the tag, the tag informs which form the ancient writer really wrote on the papyrus and what the editor thinks is the regular or standard form which was meant. a linguist is usually interested in the forms that the writer originally wrote, since they give us information on language change, phonology and the vernacular. however, with regard to our project it is highly important that the edited text contains the assumed standard forms, too. using that information, the lemmatization and comparison between the original and standard forms are much easier to perform. of course, we may be hesitant in several cases about what, in fact, is the standard we should be comparing with and if we agree with the editor’s interpretation of what was sought after by the original writer. for discussions on this topic, see [colvin ] and briefly [vierros , ]. . treebanks for ancient greek literature, two (constantly growing) linguistically annotated treebank corpora exist, as mentioned by [haug ]: the ancient greek dependency treebank (currently ca. , tokens of homer, hesiod, tragedies) and the proiel treebank (currently ca. , tokens of the new testament, herodotus and later greek), see also [universal dependencies]. these treebanks follow the dependency grammar originally used for czech in the prague dependency treebank outlined in [hajič ]. the suitability of treebanks for historical linguistic research as well as dependency grammar for ancient greek has been recently discussed by [haug ]. the most reasonable solution, in our opinion, was to follow the same framework of annotation also with the papyrological material. in this way we can utilize best practices and an annotation infrastructure in those projects as well as gain maximal synergy between the corpora of literary and documentary texts. in the annotation process each word is supplied with a tag including its lemma, postag (i.e. string containing the part-of-speech and morphological analysis of the form), syntactic role and a reference to the head word. the analysis is performed according to the guidelines for the annotation of ancient greek (see [bamman and crane ] and [celano ] for versions . and . , respectively). the annotation tool we have used is an editor called [arethusa] in the [perseids] platform. arethusa first divides the text into sentences at certain punctuation (full stop, colon) and performs the tokenization, i.e. gives each sentence and each word within the sentence an id number. it employs the [morpheus] tool in providing each word with a lemma and with morphological analysis. this means that lemmatizing and morphological analysis are performed semi-automatically in the arethusa editor; the human annotator must evaluate the correctness of the analyses where several options are possible in the case of homonyms and add forms in cases where the tool does not recognize the lemma (e.g. many egyptian names in the papyri). the syntactic roles and dependencies have to be journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal analysed by the human annotator and implemented manually because a syntactic parser for ancient greek is still a desideratum; the first attempts have been reported by [mambrini and passarotti ]. example . treebanked sentence in xml format. the “postag” is a nine-place string marking each lemma with ) part of speech ) person ) number ) tense ) mood ) voice ) gender ) case ) the degree of comparison, using certain agreed letters and numerals, e.g. “n” stands for nominative and “g” for genitive within the th place of the string, marking “case”. . linguistic variation the documentary papyri include many different types of linguistic variation, which often cannot be found in the literary texts preserved via the manuscript tradition. variation means the existence of competing linguistic forms either within one single speech community or a language as a whole. when we witness a change in a language, it is normally preceded by a great deal of synchronic variation, that is, many variants compete until one of them becomes popular and consistent. studying the variants as such not only tells us a great deal about language change and the processes leading to it, but also about the community; where the people come from, and with whom they have interacted (contact induced variation). some of the variants in papyri can be categorized as “scribal errors”, a category which is not always treated consistently. it may include mere slips of the pen, but sometimes even a difference of one letter may be an important phonological variant signalling changes in pronunciation. for example, the genitive singular of the word “wheat” (standard: πυροῦ) is written in two different nonstandard ways in the potsherds from narmouthis (the potsherds, ostraca, are included in the papyrological corpus): πουροῦ (ogn i, and ) and ποιροῦ (ogn i and ). the latter (ποιροῦ) attests the merging of /y/ and /oi/ that was an internal development in greek in the roman period, but the former (πουροῦ) shows more the transfer of egyptian, which did not have the front vowel /y/, and often the /u/ and /y/ were confused by egyptians writing greek, see [dahlgren, and ]. in addition to spelling variants, we wish to present a couple of examples of morphosyntactic variation in order to make our treatment of the papyri more understandable. first, the phrase initial inflection strategy. greek is an inflecting language where morphological case agreement is essential. certain examples of case incongruence were earlier considered mainly “bad greek”, but shown by [vierros ] to present a pragmatic strategy for certain scribes; they only inflected the phrase initial words and left the rest of the words belonging to the same phrase in the nominative case. it also reflected the native language, egyptian, of the writers, as it did not have case inflection. also, the relative pronouns of the same writers were inflected according to the wrong head, thus evidencing contact-induced transfer from egyptian. journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal a different type of dilemma is presented by some spellings that prevent us from making direct assumptions on what form the ancient writer aimed for. [leiwo ] discusses, for example, how the phrase καλῶς ποιήσεις (a way of saying “please”, “you do well…”) is used; i.e. which form of a verb can act as its complement. usually, an aorist participle complement denotes what is being asked. however, in the ostraca from mons claudianus, a form πέµψε is used (o. claud. ii , – ). in this particular case, it is difficult to say how it should be interpreted: straight up, πέµψε, would be the aorist indicative rd person singular form of the verb “to send” and this is how the automatic morphological tool would classify it. in the sentence it cannot be a rd person form since the phrase is directive. we could interpret it at least in two different ways. it could be an aorist imperative nd person singular, πέµψον, because unstressed /e/ and /o/ could be confused, especially by egyptian native speakers, and the final /n/ could easily be dropped out. this is how the editors wish to regularize it. however, also the infinitive form, πέµψαι would be a phonologically possible interpretation here because the <αι> and <ε> are often confused in the papyri. all the forms discussed above were probably pronounced in the same way: /pémpsəә/. the annotator may wish to mark up both options, the infinitive and the imperative, because the question here is whether the infinitive form was an accepted variant with this directive phrase or not. ii preprocessing the papyri in this section, we first present the idea of layering as a solution to preprocessing the papyrological data. second, . contains the detailed description of how each xml tag is treated in the selection or deselection of elements for each layer. the technical side of building the platform and tool, for which author was in charge, is described in . . . layers in sematia as mentioned in . . , the xml tags in the papyrus texts code important information. the tags are located inside the text and between words and letters. similarly, the choices and apparatus entries for one word follow each other. in the treebank editor, a word is the basic element it tries to identify automatically. the epidoc xml texts cannot therefore be uploaded to the treebank editor as such, because the tags break up the words and the apparatus choices would all be included side by side if we only removed the tags. for the study of linguistic variation, we need first and foremost to know what the ancient author really wrote (and what is extant of what he wrote). however, the standard variant is useful to have for the sake of comparison. moreover, the fragmentary nature of many texts makes the syntactic structure discontinuous, and therefore the editor’s supplements may help in having a solid syntactic tree of a sentence, which is otherwise broken. for these reasons, it seemed justified that we should create two different layers of the same text, each of which will be treebanked separately. first, the original layer contains only what has been preserved in the papyrus and in the form the ancient writer wrote them. for abbreviated words, for example, only the part that was written is taken into the original layer to prevent us annotating case inflection that the ancient writer did not produce. the standard layer, on the other hand, includes all the editorial work: the expanded abbreviations, supplements, as well as the standardized forms of misspelled words are all accepted. in this way, we get two different treebanks of one act of writing, and comparison can be made between them to see where the morphology differs. since treebanking does not allow us to mark all features relating to linguistic variation, we decided to add a third layer, where a new variation mark-up is added to the treebank xml. this very much concerns phonology and spelling, but can also benefit morphosyntactic journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal analyses. moreover, different editors are not always consistent in what spellings they standardize. the variation layer is discussed in chapter iv (future developments). an important division of one document is performed before the layering. the change of handwriting, , indicates a different person penning the letters. thus, each act of writing gets its own layers and eventually treebanks. also, the new metadata we enter (discussed in iii), concerns each act of writing. one caveat may be mentioned, although the present article is not the correct place to take the discussion very far. the original layer, in fact, contains some editorial work too, i.e., it does not present a so-called diplomatic transcript. the writing on the papyrus is usually without word divisions (in scriptio continua) and does not contain diacritical marks (accents, breathings, or iota subscripts). the word divisions and diacritics are part of the editor’s interpretation and make the text readable. we have not moved towards a diplomatic transcript in the original layer for the sake of readability as well as to facilitate the automatic lemmatization and morphological analysis. if the annotator disagrees with some word divisions or diacritics, s/he has the possibility to make a change in the text in the arethusa tool. however, in that case the interpretation should be well supported and the same correction should be suggested to the papyrological navigator. . how tags were treated this chapter consists of a full discussion of how the tei epidoc xml tags are treated when creating the original vs. the standard layer (for a quick glance, the same information is collected in table at the end of this section). it was important to keep the word count, i.e., keep the tokenization the same in both layers, so that the word-for-word comparison is possible between the layers by using the word-ids. we use “dummy” elements to replace the parts not included in the layers on account of tokenization. another reason for using dummy elements is to help the annotator to notice the missing parts of the text. the annotator will clearly see that something is missing either between the words or at the end of an abbreviation when s/he sees the dummy element. for this reason, the dummy element is written in capital letters. . . editorial corrections: , , , and the element usually contains two alternatives. first, gives the standardized, regularized version, and is thus selected for the standard layer. on the other hand, consists of what was originally written on the papyrus, and is naturally elected for the original layer. e.g. from γνῶσιςγνο͂σις we choose γνῶσις for the standard layer and γνο͂σις for the original layer. sometimes the editor may have suggested two different possibilities for regularizations, or another scholar may have suggested a new interpretation. in those cases, the platform allows the user to choose one of the options to the text which will be annotated (see below . . ). pure scribal mistakes are sometimes coded with the pair and . then, from e.g. τιµὴντµµὴν journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal we choose what is marked corrected with for the standard layer, i.e. τιµὴν, and what is marked with for the original layer, i.e. τµµὴν. . . abbreviations: , words are abbreviated in different ways in the papyri. sometimes only the end of the word is left unwritten (and it usually has some sort of abbreviation mark at the break up point). in tei epidoc xml, the tag surrounds the whole word which is abbreviated in its expanded form and, within the tag, the part which was left unwritten is surrounded by the tag. for example, when the word στερεοῦ is abbreviated by leaving out the ending οῦ, it is written στερε(οῦ) according to the leiden system, but in epidoc xml it is marked: στερεοῦ in this case, we take the whole word in expanded form into the standard layer (στερεοῦ) and for the original layer we choose only what was written on the papyrus, i.e. στερε, now added with the dummy for abbreviation: a. thus in the original layer we get στερεa. the annotator now immediately sees that the scribe has not written the ending of the word, and can annotate the word for lemma and other factors that are visible, but not, in this instance, by its morphological case. some words have been abbreviated only with a certain abbreviation mark. one of the most common is the sign  for ἔτος, “year”. in this case the word is most often opened up in the genitive and marked within the parentheses in the leiden system: (ἔτους). the markup is: ἔτους the whole word in expanded form, ἔτους, is chosen for the standard layer and for the original layer it is substituted with the marker a. the annotator may be confident enough to lemmatize the word for ἔτος, but otherwise the morphological analysis should be left open. . . supplements and omissions: , when there is a hole in the papyrus, it may be possible for the editor to make an educated assessment about what probably was written in the gap and restore it. especially if the gap was short (only a few letters) or if the missing part is in a formulaic part of a text, the parallel documents help in restoring the text. when text is restored in the lacuna, it is written inside square brackets in the leiden system, and in tei epidoc xml it is marked with the tag with the reason attribute “lost”. the markup can go over word boundaries. for example: µ[ε]λίχρως = µελίχρως ὄντ[ος ἐ]ν = ὄντος ἐν we choose the restorations for the standard layer without brackets, that is, we get µελίχρως and in the latter example two words: ὄντος ἐν. this way, the linguistic annotation tool correctly recognizes these words. for the original layer, however, the supplements are not taken in, since we cannot be sure if the editor has been right; the ancient writer could have written a nonstandard variant even in a short space. the supplement receives the dummy marker su in the original layer: µsuλίχρως and, in the case of two words, both get their own marker: ὄντsu suν. especially when there are several words in a lacuna, it is important that journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal each word (and punctuation mark) is counted in the same way in both layers in order to keep the tokenization the same. another type of supplement is when the editor of the papyrus thinks that the ancient writer has not, by mistake, written something we would expect. the editor can add what was omitted using angle brackets in the leiden system; in epidoc xml it is rendered with the supplied tag with the reason attribute “omitted”: ἀπ<ε>γραψάµην = ἀπεγραψάµην again, we choose the supplement for the standard layer as the editor suggests: ἀπεγραψάµην. for the original layer the supplement is replaced with the dummy marker om, i.e. ἀπomγραψάµην. the opposite case is , which indicates text which the original writer wrote, but the editor considers superfluous. this surplus text is replaced with the marker sr in the standard layer but included as such in the original layer. . . no supplements in lacuna: when there is a lacuna in the papyrus in which the editor has not been able to suggest a supplement, this is replaced with the dummy element g both in the standard and in the original layers. the reason is that, also when annotating the standard layer, the annotator should see if the sentence is not whole. . . uncertain letters: the ‘conscience’ of a papyrologist, the underdot, signals that a letter is only partially preserved or so faded that the editor cannot be certain beyond a doubt which letter the ancient writer wrote. he makes an assumption based on the ink traces he sees, writes the letter he assumes has been written in the papyrus, but puts a dot under the letter in the edition. in epidoc xml those letters are marked with the tag : Ἀλεξάνδρο̣υ = Ἀλεξάνδρου in the standard layer it was an easy decision to include the uncertain letters in the same way as the supplemented letters. however, it was difficult to decide how to address the problem in the original layer, since we need the letter without markers interfering with the word recognition in the annotating environment. we decided to take the uncertain letters into the original layer in the same way as into the standard one. this may result in sometimes annotating a word which will later be read as another word. however, that may happen even in cases where the editor has not used underdots. moreover, the annotator need not annotate the word at all if s/he does not trust the reading. the annotator has the possibility to change the text in the annotating framework, as mentioned previously in . . . . the apparatus: in the same way as above with ( . . ), the apparatus criticus entries can include several options on what the editor or other scholars suggest for the readings. tags are, e.g., or . we have again decided to give the power of decision to the user; s/he can choose the best alternative to be included in the text which will be uploaded to the annotation tool. journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal original layer standard layer : / text within text within : / text within text within text within text within dummy element: a text within dummy element: su text within the tag dummy element: om text within the tag text within the tag dummy element: sr dummy element: g dummy element: g text within text within user in sematia chooses user in sematia chooses table . the treatment of tei epidoc xml tags in the original vs. standard layer in sematia. . technical realisation in this section, we describe the technical realization of “sematia” as a web-based tool for creating, managing and querying the original and standard layers of epidoc xml texts. we begin by sketching the overall data structure of sematia, and go on to discuss how the system automatically extracts metadata and creates the two layers from imported documents. we then describe sematia’s integration with the perseids api, and finally, how the annotated layers can be queried in sematia. sematia is hosted on a university of helsinki server at https://sematia.hum.helsinki.fi and is publicly available to everyone with a google account, which is required for logging in. alternatively, the tool can also be installed locally (but without the database) from the open source code available at https://github.com/ezhenrik/sematia/. the back-end of sematia was developed with python and mysql, and the client-side interface with html and javascript. . . database from the perspective of scribal production of papyri, the elements in epidoc xml files are crucial, as they divide the document into parts penned by different persons (see also section . above). in sematia, these “hands” each get their own linguistic layers (original and standard), as well as metadata (discussed in detail in iii). moreover, the documents imported to sematia can be described with metadata about composition date and provenance. this results in the following database schema (fields are in parentheses): • document (id, user_id, xml, html, date, provenance) • hand (id, document_id, no, [metadata fields]) • layer (id, hand_id, type, treebankxml, settings) • user (id, name) • user document (id, user_id, document_id) in this schema, each “layer” record is linked to a single “hand”, which, in turn, is a child of a “document” record that belongs to the “user” who imported the document to sematia. the document table contains fields for the source xml, the html-conversion (see . . below) as well as date and provenance metadata. to avoid duplicating any data, no actual text is stored in the hand table; its only purpose is to serve as metadata storage for each act of writing. lastly, the layer table has fields for the layer type, treebank annotation xml (see . . ) and user settings for manually chosen variants (see . . , item ). journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal . . importing documents in order to minimize the effort to create the layers in sematia, we have automatized the workflow wherever possible. thus, when the user imports a document (by entering the document uri into the system), sematia first parses the xml and calculates the number of elements in the document, which mark the boundaries of different acts of writing. a corresponding number of hand records is then created, as well as the standard and original layer records for each hand. initially, these records are created as empty templates, to be filled in the stages described below. since the actual layering happens within the browser using javascript code (see . . below), the xml tree is next converted to an html string that can be manipulated using the document object model (dom) interface. the following template is used in the conversion: element nodes: text nodes: [text] the converted html string is then saved to the database. . . document metadata next, sematia tries to populate the metadata fields of the new document record automatically via pn’s apache solr api available at http://papyri.info/solr/select/?q=id:[document id]. at the time of writing this, sematia is configured to fetch date and provenance metadata from this public api, in case these data are available for the imported document. as regards pn’s date metadata, sematia includes a mapper which converts the diverse formattings (e.g. “ii spc”, “ii/iiispc”, ad ”) to a machine-readable form (“ - ”, “ - ” and “ - ”, respectively). there is also an interface in sematia for editing the metadata fields manually. . . creating the layers the layering process is described in the following steps. the layer is created client-side in the browser from the html conversion of the imported document, using the jquery javascript library. . the user chooses the layer and hand she wishes to work on, for example, standard layer of the st “hand” of petra . . . on a new page, the html conversion of the document (e.g. petra . ) that contains the selected hand is loaded into the dom tree. . the elements outside the selected hand (e.g. elements within hand and , if hand was selected) are hidden and marked for exclusion from layering. the motivation for loading the whole document first and hiding irrelevant sections later is the fact that elements in epidoc xml documents may appear on different levels of the xml hierarchy. due to this discrepancy, loading only the elements between two tags would risk creating invalid structures in the dom. . general formatting is applied, e.g. elements (line break) that have the attribute break=”no” are removed in order to prevent unintended word breaks. some css- styling is also applied in order to highlight different elements to the user (see item ). . the layer is enabled according to the rules discussed in . , by marking each element with a data-attribute either for exclusion or with the replaced value. for example, if the layer type is original, to each element is added an attribute with the segment journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal “a”. the element is a special case as it may contain several words as well as punctuation marks. in the original layer, we want to replace each word and punctuation with “su” or “om” (depending on the value of the “reason” attribute) to maintain the same word count in all layers. likewise, we had to make sure that the tokenization would work the same way in both sematia’s layering tool and arethusa’s treebanking service. for these reasons, the regular expressions used to split up words in sematia follow arethusa’s tokenization rules as closely as possible. for example, arethusa has been configured to deal with crasis (e.g. κἀγώ, “i too”) by treating the merged words as separate. in sematia, a similar mechanism is currently under development. . in some cases, the editor of the papyrus has provided multiple readings for the same text part, contained in or elements in the xml. only one of the readings should end up in the layer, making it necessary for the user to choose the preferred interpretation manually. this feature was implemented by adding a click event listener to the elements that may have multiple readings, which allows the user to make the choice simply by clicking on the preferred variant. the manual edits are saved to the database and automatically enabled whenever the user returns to view or edit the layer. . finally, the layer is created by collecting the new values in the act of writing that the user is working on. the resulting text is loaded into a panel next to the html version. . . perseids api integration sematia uses the [perseids] project api (https://sosol.perseids.org/sosol/api/v ) to handle the treebank annotation of the layers. we opted for a strong integration with the perseids project, since it is home to the syntactic annotation framework we use, [arethusa]. moreover, the perseids platform offers a centralized review process for the annotations, which helps us to control the quality of the treebanks uploaded to sematia. the integration works out roughly as follows: first, a layer is created in sematia according to the steps described in the previous section. next, sematia prepares the layer into a treebank annotation template using perseids’ tokenization and transformation tools (https://github.com/perseids-project/perseids-client-apps), which is then posted to perseids for annotation. when the annotation is finished, it is placed in a review queue, where it can be approved, sent back to the annotator for revision or rejected by one of sematia’s administrators. finally, after the approval, perseids sends the treebank back to sematia via a public github repository dedicated to sematia’s finalized treebank annotations (https://github.com/ezhenrik/sematia-tb). . . queries sematia also includes a preliminary set of tools (https://sematia.hum.helsinki.fi/tools) for exporting the treebanked layers as a single .zip archive, listing frequencies of tokens in the treebanks, visualizing the data as a hierarchical document cluster, as well as for searching for occurrences of morpho-syntactic features or text segments in the treebanked layers. using the search functionality, users can limit the results with metadata filters (e.g. document date) and combine them with regular expressions targeting individual fields of the treebanks (e.g. syntactic relation), which makes it possible to create highly specific queries on the data. for example, if one wishes to find instances where a participial verb form acts as the subject, the relation field is filled as sbj and the postag field as ^....p. the search tools are currently in a very preliminary stage, but the future development of sematia will be focused on extending this particular area. journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal iii metadata . . metadata in existing databases the metadata which concern the actual papyrus document can be found via the papyrological navigator from several different databases, e.g the heidelberger gesamtverzeichnis der griechischen papyrusurkunden Ägyptens (hgv) has collected information on the date and provenance of the text, the original title and the subject matter (in german); similarly, the trismegistos portal adds the metadata of people involved and places mentioned, to mention a few aspects. for the needs of the project “act of the scribe” we wish to add metadata that would help in the identification of the writers as well as the linguistic register. in addition to that, the date and provenance is extracted automatically for each document from the pn, as discussed in . . . . . metadata to be added the new metadata always concern one act of writing; that is, all writers in one papyrus get their own metadata field. it is divided into four sections: handwriting, writer and author, text type, and addressee. . . handwriting the printed editions of papyri quite often have some sort of description of the handwriting, at least for the main hand of the text. moreover, later research may have identified the hand as the same as in some other text, or made some other observations on it. however, if the current user of sematia has seen the original text or a photograph of it, s/he can add his/her own custom evaluation to the handwriting. we included four subfields for describing handwriting. the first two, “description in the edition” and “custom description”, are free text fields serving mainly the user as a reference. the third field is a drop-down list for the level of professionalism with four possibilities to choose from: not known, professional, non- professional and practised letterhand. the first is applicable when there is no description or a photograph or possibility to check the original. the last option is something between the professional and non-professional; a person who is accustomed to writing, but has obviously not received scribal training. the fourth subfield is reserved for entering a list of texts where the same handwriting is found. this list is stored as a json string in the database and may be used in the future for connecting the acts of writing by the same person in queries. . . writer and author in our project, we are interested in distinguishing the linguistic acts of the actual writer (usually a scribe who has received more or less education) from those of the author of the text, who may have dictated the text or given written and/or oral instructions. moreover, in official contracts there may be a scribal official ‘responsible’ for the text, e.g. a notary who may even sign the document with his own name, but is not the actual writer of the document, like the agoranomoi from pathyris discussed by [vierros ]. for these reasons, we have three categories which can be filled in, if the information is available, but left blank, if not: “actual writer”, “scribal official” and “author”. for each one, there are three fields to be filled in: name, title and [trismegistos] person id number. later, when the corpus has a sufficient amount of texts, this information can be used, for example, for connecting people with similar titles to the similar use of language, or even finding texts that have been written/authored by the same person. journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal . . text type and addressee the genre of the text naturally has an influence on the language used. a private letter belongs to a different register than a notarial contract. the addressee has a similar impact. the text is more formal if written to a superior than if written to a peer or subordinate. therefore, it is important to gather this metadata when possible. we have added a drop-down list for the text type trying to cover the basic text types found in the papyri but also limiting the list to quite general categories (e.g. “contract” with certain subfields, “letter” with certain subfields, among others). for the addressee, we wanted a general description selected from a drop-down list: “official”, “private” or “not known/applicable”. the first two options get subfields with the subfields “superordinate”, “peer” and “subordinate”. in addition, there are fields for the addressee’s name, title and trismegistos person id number. iv ongoing and future developments . variation layer research on linguistic variation, discussed above in . , is the driving force on building the sematia corpus. quite a number of such phenomena can be queried by comparing the original and standard layers. for example, if we are interested in morphological case agreement, the standard layer includes the grammatically ‘correct’ versions and the original has the variant forms. a search comparing, e.g., the case coding included in the postag of each word, reveals when a word has been written in an unexpected case (and similar comparisons can be made for mood, person, tempus, etc.). the biggest missing block of linguistic information concerns phonology, since spelling is not taken into account in the existing treebank templates. this issue is to some extent addressed in the new database of text irregularities within the [trismegistos] platform compiled by [depauw and stolk ]. their data concerns the whole duke databank of documentary papyri and is collected phoneme by phoneme and based on the editorial corrections (i.e. the tags within the element, cf. . . ). however, the editorial corrections are not always present in the ddbdp (for example certain editors have not necessarily thought it worthwhile to regularize all confusions of spellings between ι and ει) and it is not always clear if some confusion by a writer concerned the phoneme or the morpheme, i.e. whether the variation had phonological or morphological basis. for these occasions and for the greater accuracy in studying the linguistic variation, we plan to add a variation layer in sematia. the treebank xml of the original layer would be duplicated and a new variation tag added for those words where variation exists. the variation tagset in all its depth is still under consideration. we could have a tag for variation, , and define it with different type attributes for phonology, morphology, and syntax. the types could be further defined with different values, e.g. for the immediate context, if that seems to play a role (in phonology at least). also, a certain variation could be defined with two or more options, for example suggesting that we are fairly certain that a feature is either phonological confusion (e.g. of αι instead of ε) or a morphological one (e.g. confusion of aorist infinitive or imperative endings) or both at the same time. . queries several tools for querying treebanked data already exist. both ancient greek treebank corpora can be queried with, e.g. [sets treebank search], [pml tree query engine] or [xquery/basex] (see also [universal dependencies]). moreover, the proiel corpus is available in iness query interface. they employ somewhat different query languages, but all support detailed and complicated linguistic queries from the treebanked data. as mentioned in . . , all the available treebanked data can be exported, either all layers as one .zip archive or journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal the original layers and the standard layers separated as their own sets. some quering possibilities have already been integrated in the platform itself (see . . ), but they are still in a testing and developing stage. the important feature is to allow comparative queries between the original and standard layers. for example, one can search for instances where the original layer has a dative case (postag field: ^.......d), but the standard layer has a genitive case (postag field: ^.......g). the searches can also be performed on or limited by our new metadata. conclusion in this article, we have described a process in which individual texts from the corpus of documentary greek papyri can be preprocessed for the purposes of linguistic annotation. the annotation follows the same framework as other corpora of ancient greek texts. for the first time we can automatically separate the original text written by the ancient writer from the editorial interpretation. the original layer can be studied in its own right as well as compared with the standardized version. we have not disregarded the results of the hard editorial work devoted to these texts in the previous centuries, as they form the parallel layer of the text. the layers enable the comparison of linguistic variants abundant in the papyri to the scholarly standard forms. the tool is currently optimized for retrieving the texts from the papyrological navigator, but there is no impediment to modify it to be used for other texts which are encoded in epidoc xml, such as many epigraphic corpora. references for the abbreviations of papyrological editions, see checklist of editions of greek, latin, demotic, and coptic papyri, ostraca, and tablets, of which the updated version is found online: http://papyri.info/docs/checklist. “act of the scribe: transmitting linguistic knowledge and scribal practices in graeco-roman antiquity” http://blogs.helsinki.fi/actofscribe/. arethusa: available via perseids sign in: http://sosol.perseids.org/sosol/signin. bamman, d. and crane, g. guidelines for the syntactic annotation of the ancient greek dependency treebank ( . ). the perseus project, tufts university . http://nlp.perseus.tufts.edu/syntax/treebank/greekguidelines.pdf. bamman, d. and crane, g. the ancient greek and latin dependency treebanks. language technology for cultural heritage, ser. foundations of human language processing and technology. springer (berlin–heidelberg), : – . bamman, d., mambrini, f. and crane, g. an ownership model of annotation: the ancient greek dependency treebank. proceedings of the th workshop on treebanks and linguistic theories (tlt ). ; . http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/~ababeu/tlt .pdf. celano, giuseppe g. a. guidelines for the annotation of the ancient greek dependency treebank . . . https://github.com/perseusdl/treebank_data/edit/master/agdt /guidelines colvin, s. the greek koine and the logic of a standard language. standard languages and language standards: greek, past and present. ashgate (farnham), : - . dahlgren, s. outcome of long-term language contact: transfer of egyptian phonological features onto greek in graeco- roman egypt. university of helsinki, doctoral dissertation. . http://urn.fi/urn:isbn:isbn - - - - . dahlgren, s. towards a definition of an egyptian greek variety. papers in historical phonology. ; : – . http://journals.ed.ac.uk/pihph/article/view/ . depauw, m. and stolk, j. linguistic variation in greek papyri: towards a new tool for quantitative study. greek, roman, and byzantine studies. ; : - . hajič, j. building a syntactically annotated corpus: the prague dependency treebank. issues of valency and meaning. studies in honor of jarmila panevov. charles university press (prague), : - . haug, d.t.t. computational linguistics and greek. encyclopedia of ancient greek language and linguistics. brill online, (first appeared ; last online update november ). haug. d.t.t. treebanks in historical linguistic research. perspectives on historical syntax. john benjamins, : - . haug, d.t.t., eckhoff, h. m., majer, m., welo, e. breaking down and putting back together: analysis and synthesis of new testament greek. journal of greek linguistics. ; : - . iness (norwegian infrastructure for the exploration of syntax and semantics): http://iness.uib.no. leiwo, m. imperatives and other directives in the greek letters from mons claudianus. the language of the papyri. oxford university press (oxford), : - . mambrini, f. and passarotti, m. will a parser overtake achilles? first experiments on parsing the ancient greek dependency treebank. proceedings of the th workshop on treebanks and linguistic theories (tlt ). colibri ; . morpheus: https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/morpheus. journal of data mining and digital humanities http://jdmdh.episciences.org issn -‐ , an open-‐access journal nltk http://www.nltk.org/. papyrological navigator: http://papyri.info/. perseids: http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/. pml tree-query engine: http://lindat.mff.cuni.cz/services/pmltq/#!/home. schubert, p. editing a papyrus. the oxford handbook of papyrology. oxford university press (new york), : - . sematia: http://sematia.hum.helsinki.fi/. sets treebank search: http://bionlp-www.utu.fi/dep_search tei epidoc xml: http://sourceforge.net/p/epidoc/wiki/home/. trismegistos portal: http://www.trismegistos.org/. trimegistos text irregularities: http://www.trismegistos.org/textirregularities/ universal dependencies: http://universaldependencies.org/. vierros, m. bilingual notaries in hellenistic egypt. a study of greek as a second language. kvab (brussel), . [xquery / basex] http://docs.basex.org/wiki/startup. [pdf] exploring informed virtual sites through michel foucault's heterotopias | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: exploring informed virtual sites through michel foucault's heterotopias @article{rousseaux exploringiv, title={exploring informed virtual sites through michel foucault's heterotopias}, author={f. rousseaux and i. thouvenin}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } f. rousseaux, i. thouvenin published computer science, sociology int. j. humanit. arts comput. this papers starts with some mysterious contribution by michel foucault ( ) about heterotopias as special epistemological sites. with a recent case-study – an immersive virtual reality art project dealing with some ancient abbey reconstruction and managed by a french engineering school – we analyse the successive attempts to satisfy the system users by extending foucault's heterotopology, which appears to be useful and creative for the virtual reality research communities. view via publisher hal.archives-ouvertes.fr save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables virtual reality michel hénon gesture recognition immersion (virtual reality) virtual world digital electronics google art project archive comefrom linear algebra citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency vr ethnography: a pilot study on the use of virtual reality 'go-along' interviews in google street view p. kostakos, paula alavesa, jonas oppenlaender, s. hosio computer science mum view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed observing the impact of locative media on the public space of contemporary cities e. weng sociology view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed dark tourism as psychogeography: an initial exploration richard morten, p. stone, david jarratt sociology save alert research feed archaeology of the voice : exploring oral history, locative media, audio walks, and sound art as site-specific displacement activities s. bradley engineering pdf view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed primary sources of information, digitization processes and dispositive analysis marion lamé art, computer science aiucd ' view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed techniques de production, d'exploration et d'analyse d'environnements archéologiques virtuels. (production, exploration and analysis techniques of virtual archaeological environments) jean-baptiste barreau computer science, art pdf save alert research feed representation of places in etel adnan’s in the heart of the heart of another country and of cities & women (letters to fawwaz) l. keyrouz history pdf save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency relations that constitute technology and media that make a difference: toward a social pragmatic theory of technicization w. rammert sociology save alert research feed user embodiment in collaborative virtual environments s. benford, j. bowers, lennart e. fahlén, c. greenhalgh, d. snowdon computer science chi ' pdf save alert research feed knowledge integration in early design stages for collaboration on a virtual mock up i. thouvenin, d. lenne, a. guénand, s. aubry computer science proceedings of the ninth international conference on computer supported cooperative work in design, . save alert research feed technology and perception: the contribution of sensory substitution systems c. lenay, s. canu, p. villon engineering proceedings second international conference on cognitive technology humanizing the information age save alert research feed surround-screen projection-based virtual reality: the design and implementation of the cave c. cruz-neira, d. sandin, t. defanti computer science siggraph ' , pdf save alert research feed introduction to virtual reality j. vince computer science springer london save alert research feed the effect of using large, high-resolution stereoscopic displays for flow visualization jian jhen chen, a. forsberg, m. kostandov, d. j. willis, d. laidlaw computer science siggraph ' pdf save alert research feed Écoumène : introduction à l'étude des milieux humains a. berque philosophy view excerpt, references background save alert research feed six degree-of-freedom haptic rendering using voxel sampling w. a. mcneely, kevin d. puterbaugh, james j. troy computer science siggraph ' pdf save alert research feed the knowledge level a. newell computer science artif. intell. , pdf view excerpt, references background save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract figures and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue big humanities data workshop at ieee big data search d-lib: home | about d-lib | current issue | archive | indexes | calendar | author guidelines | subscribe | contact d-lib d-lib magazine january/february volume , number / table of contents big humanities data workshop at ieee big data tobias blanke göttingen centre for digital humanities department of digital humanities, kings college london tobias.blanke@kcl.ac.uk mark hedges king's college london mark.hedges@kcl.ac.uk richard marciano university of north carolina at chapel hill richard_marciano@unc.edu doi: . /january -blanke printer-friendly version abstract the "big humanities data" workshop took place on october , at the ieee international conference on big data (ieee bigdata ), in santa clara, california. this was a day-long workshop featuring papers and a closing panel on the future of big data in the humanities. a diverse community of humanists and technologists, spanning academia, research centers, supercomputer centers, corporations, citizen groups, and cultural institutes gathered around the theme of "big data" in the humanities, arts and culture, and the challenges and possibilities that such increased scale brings for scholarship in these areas. the use of computational methods in the humanities is growing rapidly, driven both by the increasing quantities of born-digital primary sources (such as emails, social media) and by the large-scale digitisation of libraries and archival material, and this has resulted in a range of interesting applications and case studies. introduction big data is an increasingly ubiquitous term used to describe data sets whose large size precludes their being curated or processed by commonly-available tools within a tolerable timespan. what constitutes "big" is of course a moving target as hardware and software technologies evolve. moreover, "big data" is not just a matter of sheer volume as measured in terabytes or petabytes; other characteristics of data can affect the complexity of its curation and processing and lead to analogous requirements for new methods and tools for effective analysis, an idea that is captured by gartner's " vs" definition of big data as "high volume, high velocity, and/or high variety information assets" (gartner, ). thus relatively small, but complex, data sets can constitute "big data", as can aggregations of large quantitative of data sets that are individually small. equally, while much big data work involves the use of various analytical techniques to identify relationships and patterns within large aggregations of data, and make predictions or other inferences based on these datasets, it equally falls under the umbrella of big data to identify the — perhaps very small — pieces of evidence relevant to a research question within a much larger body of information. according to its proponents, big data has the potential for transforming not only academic research but also healthcare, business, and society. the ieee international conference on big data (ieee bigdata ), which took place - october in santa clara, california, usa, was the first in a series of annual conferences that aim to provide a showcase for disseminating and a forum for discussing the latest research in big data and its applications. the conference included sessions on theoretical and foundational issues, standards, infrastructure and software environments, big data management and curation, methods for search, analysis and visualisation, security and privacy issues, as well as applications in a variety of fields both academic and industrial. [image from the santa clara photo gallery.] the conference also included a range of workshops with in-depth discussion addressing a range of specific topics. in particular, the workshop on big data and the humanities addressed applications of "big data" in the humanities, arts and culture, and the challenges and possibilities that such increased scale brings for scholarship in these areas. the use of computational methods in the humanities is growing rapidly, driven both by the increasing quantities of born-digital primary sources (such as emails, social media) and by the large-scale digitisation of libraries and archival material, and this has resulted in a range of interesting applications and case studies. at the same time, the interpretative issues around the use of such "hard" computational methods for answering subjective questions in the humanities, highlight a number of questions and concerns that have been raised regarding the uses of "big data" approaches in general. program and attendance the event was a day-long workshop featuring a total of papers ( long papers, digging into data challenge project papers, and short papers) and a closing panel on the future of big data in the humanities, which involved workshop participants and funding agency representatives from the us national endowment for the humanities (neh) and the uk arts & humanities research council (ahrc). the organizers were regrettably only able to accommodate a third of the paper submissions as the selection was very competitive. details on the sessions including slides and papers and the full list of authors and co-authors are available from the workshop program. while held in california, the workshop achieved a remarkable balance of international speakers from north america and europe. of the talks delivered, were by speakers from the us, from the uk, from france, and from canada. the speakers themselves represented broad diversity in their affiliations between humanists (english, archaeology, digital humanities, history, film studies, philosophy, libraries, archives) and technologists (information science, media studies, computer science). a closer look at the papers' co-authors reveals widespread collaboration between these two groups with participant backgrounds spanning academia, research centers, supercomputer centers, corporations, citizen groups, and cultural institutes. this was one of the most well-attended workshops at the ieee bigdata conference with some participants, attesting to the interest and vitality of this growing field of big humanities data. long papers finding and clustering reprinted passages in nineteenth-century newspapers, presented by david smith from northeastern university, usa. algorithms are developed for detecting clusters of reused passages in ocr-ed old newspapers. geographic and network analysis are performed. classifying humanities collections by genre, presented by ted underwood from the university of illinois, urbana-champaign, usa. this work focuses on mining large digital libraries and dividing them by genre, taking into account time-varying genres and structurally heterogeneous volumes. analyzing and visualizing public sentiment regarding the royal birth of using the uk twitter, presented by blesson varghese from the university of st. andrews, uk. a framework for the analysis and visualization of public sentiment is developed. machine-learning and dictionary-based approaches are contrasted. a prototype system for the extraction and analysis of the visual features of digitized printed texts, presented by neal audenaert from texas a&m and natalie houston from the university of houston, usa. this work describes visualpage, a prototype system for the extraction and analysis of the visual features of digitized printed texts, such as page layout. use of entity resolution for processing large collections, presented by maria esteva from the university of texas at austin, usa. techniques are proposed to assist curators in making data management decisions for organizing and improving the quality of large unstructured humanities data collections. [image from richard marciano's iphone: maria esteva, u. of texas at austin (tacc), usa.] developing a generic workspace for big data processing in the humanities, presented by benedikt von st. veith from the juelich supercomputing centre, germany, usa. cyberinfrastructure for the humanities is proposed where hadoop and pig are merged with data grid solutions based on irods. the curious identity of michael field and the semantic web, presented by john simpson, university of alberta, canada. a working example is proposed where semantic web ontologies reveal a lack of nuances in dealing with the complex relationships between names and people. [image from richard marciano's iphone: john simpson, u. of alberta, canada.] the google cultural institute platform, presented by mark yoshitake from the google cultural institute, france. a large-scale system for ingesting, archiving, organizing, and interacting with digital cultural assets is discussed. digging into data challenge papers visualizing news reporting on the influenza pandemic, presented by kathleen kerr from virginia tech, usa. the vaccination discourses of - are studied and big data methodological understanding of data mining algorithms is conducted. building a visual analytical tool for processing human rights audio-video interviews, presented by lu xiao and yan luo from the university of western ontario, canada. the clock-based keyphrase map (ckm) prototype is proposed. this tool combines text mining and information visualization techniques using time-series data. processing human rights violation reports, presented by ben miller from georgia state university, usa. a framework to process human rights violation reports is proposed in which narratives that traverse document boundaries are generated. short papers bibliographic records generated by libraries as humanities big data, presented by andrew prescott, from king's college london, uk. this paper examines how bibliographic records generated by libraries represent a homogeneous form of humanities big data akin to certain type of scientific content. experimenting with nosql technologies for holocaust research, presented by tobias blanke, king's college london, uk. graph databases are considered for the modeling of the heterogeneous data found in holocaust research. geoparsing and georeferencing of lake district historical texts, presented by paul rayson from lancaster university, uk. identifying place names in historical texts is pursued. tools are developed to visualize these names on maps. crowdsourcing of urban renewal data, presented by richard marciano, unc chapel hill, usa. an open-source collaborative mapping environment prototype is being developed to support "citizen-led crowdsourcing" using archival content. big data myths, challenges, and lessons, presented by amalia levi, university of maryland, usa. a number of myths of humanities scholarship are proposed. transnational humanities research is discussed and resulting challenges of big data humanities research. emotion extraction from th century english books, presented by alberto acerbi, university of bristol, uk. three independent emotion detection tools are applied to an million corpus of digitized books available in the google books ngram corpus. closing panel the workshop ended with a panel bringing together some of the presenters with representatives from funding bodies and leaders of research initiatives. the panel addressed some of the broader questions that big data poses for the humanities and related disciplines. first, there is the question of what humanities scholars will make of born-digital culture and the new material for humanities research that it provides. the panel gave a good indication of future challenges created by this born-digital culture; interestingly, the panel seemed less concerned by the volume and velocity of this data and more about questions of data quality and provenance. data summarisation technologies and visualisations may generate the impression that the quality of individual data items is no longer as important; humanities scholars, however, are often interested in minute differences and in drilling down into data sets. [from richard marciano's iphone (left to right): tobias blanke, king's college london, uk; christie walker, manager from ahrc's "history, thought and systems of belief" theme, uk; william seales, google cultural institute, u. of wisconsin-madison, usa; ted underwood, u. of illinois, urbana-champaign, usa; barry smith, ahrc theme fellow for the "science and culture" theme, uk; brett bobley, neh office of digital humanities, usa; (empty chair due to us government shutdown); andrew prescott, ahrc theme fellow for the "digital transformations" theme, uk.] there are also research questions for the humanities that go beyond simply how to use big data in humanities research, for example questions about what big data means for the human condition. anderson's quest for an 'end of theory' comes to mind here. the claim about the 'end of theory' was meant as a provocation by anderson; however, it became quickly adopted across disciplines, and it would be valuable to investigate further, together with doctoral students, the extent and implications of these changes (anderson, ). rather than spelling the 'end of theory', much of the disruptive power of big data for traditional fields of enquiry does not stem from giving up on theory altogether but from exploring new ways of looking at existing problems, and from using new theories. as well as these epistemological questions, there are fundamental practical questions raised by big data about how humans want to live together. the first one is related to those who are excluded from the wonderful digital world of big data. who are the "big data poor" (boyd & crawford, ), who are not represented in current streams of big data because they are not regarded as interesting to the big datafication efforts? the second practical question raised by the panel was related to edward snowden, who disclosed national security agency internet surveillance programs in . how can we ensure that we can be forgotten in the world of big data at least if we want to? how can we measure what big data algorithms do to us and how they represent us? governments are big data organisations themselves, and trust in them as honest brokers of big data has been damaged. government agencies are among the largest big data collectors of all. indeed, they seem to be involved in collecting for the sake of collecting, otherwise some of their activities cannot be explained, as it is doubtful that some of the collected data, as described by snowden, can actually lead to any meaningful analysis. looking forward the organisers do not intend this workshop to be a one-off event, but regard it rather as both the first in a series of workshops and as part of a broader cluster of activities around big data and the humanities. plans are already underway for a follow-on workshop at ieee bigdata , which will be held in washington dc in october . the workshop organisers have also set up the big humanities data space, a site that they plan to use for providing updates on a number of shared workshops, projects, and awards that explore the development of algorithms and infrastructure for big data for the humanities. this summary only scratches the surface of the presentations and of the discussions that followed; full papers from the workshop are available in the proceedings of the parent conference in ieee xplore. the next workshop will be announced via the big humanities website in the coming months, and we encourage interested parties to consider submitting a paper on their research, as well as to contact us with information about other activities, to help us in building up an international community that brings the insights and interests of humanists to the world of big data. references [ ] laney, douglas. ( ) "the importance of 'big data': a definition". gartner, inc.. [ ] anderson, chris. ( ) "the end of theory: the data deluge makes the scientific method obsolete". wired magazine, : . [ ] boyd, danah m., & crawford, kate. ( ). critical questions for big data: provocations for a cultural, technological, and scholarly platform. information, communication and society, ( ), - . http://doi.org/ . / x. . about the authors tobias blanke is the director of the ma in digital asset and media management. his academic background is in philosophy and computer science, with a phd from the free university of berlin on the concept of evil in german philosophy and a phd from the university of glasgow in computing science on the theoretical evaluation of xml retrieval using situation theory. tobias has authored numerous papers and books in a range of fields on the intersection of humanities research and computer science. his work has won several prizes at major international conferences including best paper awards. since , he has been a visiting professor at the göttingen centre for digital humanities. mark hedges is director of the centre for e-research, within the department of digital humanities at king's college london. his original academic background was in mathematics and philosophy, and he gained a phd in mathematics at university college london, before starting a -year career in the software industry. dr. hedges now works on a variety of projects related to digital libraries and archives, research infrastructures, and digital preservation, as well as teaching on ma programs at king's, and directing the ma program in digital curation. richard marciano is a professor at the school of information and library science at the university of north carolina at chapel hill (unc) and directs the sustainable archives & leveraging technologies (salt) lab. he is collaborating on a number of "big data" and digital humanities projects. he holds a bs in avionics and electrical engineering, and an m.s. and ph.d. in computer science, and has worked as a postdoc in computational geography. he conducted interdisciplinary research at the san diego supercomputer center at uc san diego for over a decade, working with teams of scholars in sciences, social sciences, and humanities. copyright © tobias blanke, mark hedges and richard marciano [pdf] thomas gray, samuel taylor coleridge and geographical information systems: a literary gis of two lake district tours | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: thomas gray, samuel taylor coleridge and geographical information systems: a literary gis of two lake district tours @article{gregory thomasgs, title={thomas gray, samuel taylor coleridge and geographical information systems: a literary gis of two lake district tours}, author={i. gregory and d. cooper}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } i. gregory, d. cooper published computer science, history int. j. humanit. arts comput. there have been growing calls to develop the use of geographical information systems (gis) across the humanities. for this shift to take place, two things must be demonstrated: first, that it is technically possible to create a useful gis of textual material, the main medium through which humanities research is conducted; and, secondly that such a database can be used to enhance our understanding of disciplines within the humanities. this paper reports on a pilot project that created a gis of… expand view via publisher e-space.mmu.ac.uk save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations methods citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables geographic information system internet embedded system citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency mapping the english lake district: a literary gis d. cooper, i. gregory sociology pdf view excerpt, cites methods save alert research feed crossing boundaries: using gis in literary studies, history and beyond i. gregory, a. baron, d. cooper, andrew hardie, patricia murrieta-flores, paul rayson geography pdf save alert research feed geographic information systems and historical research: an appraisal luís espinha da silveira history, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. save alert research feed gis and literary history: advancing digital humanities research through the spatial analysis of historical travel writing and topographical literature patricia murrieta-flores, christopher donaldson, i. gregory history, computer science digit. humanit. q. pdf save alert research feed text, images and statistics: integrating data and approaches using geospatial computing i. gregory computer science th ieee international conference on e-science workshops pdf view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed towards the spatial analysis of vague and imaginary places : evolving the spatial humanities through medieval romance patricia murrieta-flores, naomi howell pdf save alert research feed critical literary cartography: text, maps and a coleridge notebook d. cooper geography pdf save alert research feed mapping travelers' cultural and environmental perceptions: thomas nuttall and henry rowe schoolcraft in arkansas, - andrew j. milson history save alert research feed exploring literary landscapes: from texts to spatiotemporal analysis through collaborative work and gis daniel alves, a. i. queiroz sociology, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. pdf save alert research feed employment of geoinformation technologies in historical researches experience of kazan (volga region) federal university d. mustafina, o. luneva, l. k. karimova geography pdf view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed ... ... references geography, timing, and technology: a gis-based analysis of pennsylvania's iron industry, – anne knowles, r. healey economics the journal of economic history pdf save alert research feed related papers abstract figures and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue text mining at an institution with limited financial resources search d-lib: home | about d-lib | current issue | archive | indexes | calendar | author guidelines | subscribe | contact d-lib d-lib magazine july/august volume , number / table of contents text mining at an institution with limited financial resources drew e. vandecreek northern illinois university libraries drew@niu.edu doi: . /july -vandecreek printer-friendly version (this opinion piece presents the opinions of the authors. it does not necessarily reflect the views of d-lib magazine, its publisher, the corporation for national research initiatives, or the d-lib alliance.) abstract the digital humanities are now coming to the attention of a growing number of scholars and librarians, including many at medium-sized and small institutions that lack significant financial resources. should these individuals seek to explore text mining, one of the digital humanities core activities, they are likely to confront the fact that their library cannot afford the typical expensive database products that contain large volumes of materials suitable for analysis. in this opinion piece, i suggest that vendors would benefit from increasing their customer base by offering potential users the opportunity to purchase discrete portions of data sets individually. this approach may prove practicable for libraries able to muster relatively modest sums for the purchase of single items. it also may represent a new source of revenue for vendors, or at least an opportunity to build trust and goodwill in the digital humanities community. the problem the digital humanities' increasing prominence in academic life, marked by such things as the advertisements seeking applications for new positions and calls for papers, has brought it to the attention of a large number of humanities scholars, librarians and administrators not employed at the larger institutions that have heretofore often led the field's development. many have expressed an interest in the field. these individuals often do not have access to as many financial resources as the field's leaders often enjoy. this shortfall makes itself apparent in any number of ways: the lack of a technical infrastructure robust enough to support many types of digital humanities work; a lack of information technology professionals that understand, appreciate and can support the work; and an inability to attend professional development workshops at other institutions. another potential problem to be faced by this new group of practitioners at non-elite institutions with limited resources will arise when they undertake text mining, one of the digital humanities' core activities, and confront the expense of acquiring a corpus of data to mine. in this article i discuss the problem, and propose a partial solution which, while far from ideal, could allow these practitioners to begin. text mining: the cost of getting started i attended the university of michigan's "beyond ctrl+f: text mining across the disciplines " workshop on february , . i want to thank the university of michigan libraries for organizing and hosting the event. i enjoyed it. it must have taken a great deal of work. when the workshop first came to my attention, i noticed that participants could attend at no charge. this was too good to be true. working at a state university in the bankrupt state of illinois, i of course have access to no financial support for professional development activities. i happily drove to ann arbor and stayed overnight at my own expense, then took part in the workshop. without the free-admission policy, i might not have gone to the event. the workshop began with a session devoted to "finding your corpus." this seemed reasonable. no one can perform text mining until they have some text. the session featured representatives of several vendors of subscription products providing access to large amounts of textual materials: proquest, jstor, gale, alexander street press (full disclosure — i edited an online product for alexander street press and have cashed their checks) and several others. it dawned on me that the no-charge policy resulted, of course, from these vendors' sponsorship of the event. as sponsors, they enjoyed the opportunity to pitch their products to members of a captive audience who had expressed an interest in text mining. vendor representatives described how scholars and students might use their products for text-mining projects. they presented an impressive set of resources, but they did emphasize that library users were not simply to bring up one of their databases and begin to download the very large bodies of text they wanted to use. vendors of online library resources typically offer their products for subscription with the proviso that library patrons not use them too much. from a vendor's point of view, a database user might download a very large amount of text and then turn around and put it on the web for free use. thus, they monitor their product's use, and terminate access if they detect that a patron is downloading too much material. vendor representatives at the ctrl+f event explained that their policies direct prospective text miners to use their products to discover potentially suitable text materials, then submit a request for a specific corpus, which they will then prepare and deliver for an extra fee in the range of $ -$ , . this made something very apparent to me: text mining is in many cases only practicable at its intended scale at institutions commanding the financial resources necessary to ) subscribe to these products, and ) go on to pay the additional fee. of course open access entities like hathitrust make text materials available at the scale required for text mining activities at no cost, but it is important to recognize that vendors of subscription-based products like those discussed at the ctrl+f event also represent a major source of text materials that scholars will likely find very attractive. i noticed that a significant number of scholars employed at institutions well outside the vendors' target audience of university libraries with budgets allowing them to purchase or subscribe to high-cost digital resources in the humanities attended the "beyond ctrl+f" event. those with whom i conversed often emphasized that they were happy to attend such an introductory-level event hosted by a major institution of high reputation. it offered an opportunity to get oriented in the field, to get started in the work. i suspect that a number of these individuals must have reached the same conclusion that i did: "i can only do this if i can find text available at no charge. i must direct my research toward questions that can be answered by reference to free-use data alone." my experience i attended the ctrl+f event as a digital humanities professional responsible for the encouragement and support of activities like text mining at my university. i am also a scholar of nineteenth and early twentieth century american intellectual and political history. i am interested in language and rhetoric in american political development. more specifically, i am interested in how americans have talked about the federal government. what did they have to say about its scope of activity? how might americans have understood what it did, or did not do? what language did they use to argue for more, or less, government involvement in the american economy and society? did their language reflect the influence of major intellectual traditions like liberalism and republicanism in political thought, or perhaps romanticism and sensibility in literature and culture? i turned to speeches and debates in congress as a good source of arguments for and against specific state activities. this led me to the congressional record, a very large set of text that is available in a searchable text format from several sources. the library of congress' a century of lawmaking for a new nation web site provides free access to full-text versions of the congressional record beginning with the year . i needed access to full-text versions of the record from the nineteenth century. this led me to proquest congressional, a subscription product providing a variety of congressional materials. unfortunately, my university library's subscription to proquest congressional did not include materials from the congressional record before . when our acquisitions department contacted proquest to inquire about the matter they learned that we might purchase the back file materials for the nineteenth-century congressional record for a one-time payment of approximately $ , . this was an all-or-nothing proposition: purchase the entire back file, or purchase nothing. proquest's price was a complete non-starter at my financially strapped university. i asked librarians at several institutions with large library budgets if they might acquire materials for me, in effect providing an inter-library loan, but found that vendors' contracts restrict use to individuals defined as members of an individual institution's user community. i attempted to resolve my problem by asking vendors if they would sell me my preferred chunk of data by itself (the congressional record, - ), rather than an entire database product or back file, at a more reasonable price. proquest declined to negotiate, but hein online (another vendor of digitized government documents) agreed. i bought, at my own expense, the text of the congressional record for the period - for a price i could accept. i now have it available for research. upon completing this transaction, i discovered that the university of north texas libraries, which present a digitized version of the entire congressional record, would provide me with their uncorrected text data at no charge. i thank the university of north texas libraries for the use of their data, and recommend them to other students and scholars. their collections include a large amount of digitized texas newspapers, as well as records of the federal communication commission. however, like other not-for-profit providers of text data, north texas offered uncorrected copy. with two versions of the same data in hand, i may have an opportunity to compare the results they produce in text-mining work. in any event, corrected text is clearly more useful than uncorrected materials. the vendors' perspective as i pondered the situation, i tried to take proquest's point of view. i understand that most library vendors are private concerns and need to make a profit for their investors. their representatives sell that product in order to earn a living. nevertheless, the congressional record is a government publication available at no charge in libraries and other depositories of federal materials. how could proquest charge so much for the use of it? i imagined that from proquest's perspective, they are not selling access to a government publication in the public domain. they are selling access to a value-added version of it: a digitized, full-text searchable version of the materials available in an online format. their costs include funds devoted to the initial digitization of materials originally published in an analog format; the markup and other technical work required to prepare the text for use with a search engine; the storage and preservation of the materials on a technical infrastructure requiring maintenance and upgrades; and the online service of the digital materials themselves, again on an infrastructure requiring maintenance and regular upgrades. of these costs, those devoted to digitization itself deserve specific discussion. many librarians and humanities scholars have taken some part in the digitization of materials at some point in their career. experience with the process reveals that the various software products that convert type-set, analog materials to a digital format are far from foolproof. they often produce enough errors to compromise the materials' usefulness, at least to some degree. this is especially true of older materials, in which ink has often faded and pages have yellowed with age. in my experience nineteenth-century materials digitized from an analog format usually have a very high error rate. i examined a small sample of proquest's congressional record materials, which they courteously provided me. it contained a very small amount of scanning errors, significantly fewer than those found in the portion of the unt data that i reviewed, and about the same as the hein materials. i tentatively determined that in my case vendors provide access to better text than that available for free. if a researcher were to attempt to bring the open source data up to the quality of the proquest materials, s/he would have to find a way to fix many of the errors in it, most likely by using a script that finds and replaces common scanning errors in a document. in my experience most humanities scholars and students cannot write search and replace scripts, nor do they know how to find them online, ready to use, and implement them in ways that many technologists and programmers do. i certainly do not. most libraries and medium-sized and smaller institutions with limited resources lack access to this type of technical expertise. thus, when hein and proquest charge fees for materials in the public domain, they charge for access to more accurate digitized text. a measure of progress my experience with hein online led me to draw a parallel to another experience i had with a vendor in a somewhat similar, but not identical, situation. in the past several years i have taken part in the activities of the digital powrr project, an imls-funded activity that produced a study of digital preservation challenges and potential solutions at medium-sized and smaller colleges and universities lacking large financial resources. our study included the review of a number of applications and tools available for use in digital preservation activities. among them we found a comprehensive, all-in-one product called preservica. they made no pricing information available online. we had to call for a quote. when we contacted a preservica sales representative to ask if they might make the product available to our study for testing at little or no cost, they immediately rejected us, explaining that preservica is a version of a digital preservation product that the company originally sold to large corporations such as banks. they have now begun to market it to other very large institutions with need to preserve digital materials that have suitable budgets, ranging from universities to state and national governments. apparently, medium-sized and smaller institutions with little money did not represent an attractive market segment. the digital powrr project published a white paper resulting from the study, "from theory to action: good enough digital preservation for under-resourced cultural heritage institutions". it recommended that institutions unable to afford a product like preservica adopt a one-step-at-a-time approach to digital preservation activities using sets of open-source tools in combinations suited to their particular needs. another thing occurred in the process of conducting the study. through a frank and open exchange of views with members of the digital powrr team, preservica executives became aware that they were leaving money on the table by adopting a call-for-quote stance and pricing their product at a level that put it well out of reach of smaller, less prosperous institutions. we urged them to adopt a more transparent pricing policy and become aware of this other market, which the response to our study has shown is vast. there are only so many institutions with the resources necessary to buy preservica at their initial price level. what happens when they all have acquired or constructed a satisfactory digital preservation application? where does the company find growth then? preservica executives changed their position, instituting a transparent, online pricing policy and devising versions of their product priced to suit more modest budgets. i want to suggest that vendors of large sets of humanities text materials do the same. my recommendation i suggest that vendors of library database products recognize that they can contribute to future scholarship, ease a major, obvious inequity in the field and, perhaps, find a new source of revenue by making chunks of text data available for sale on an à la carte basis. in many cases, this would require them to offer libraries that do not subscribe to their products a free trial-period use so that researchers might identify materials of interest. it would also require the additional administrative work involved in processing a number of transactions involving lesser amounts of funds than those to which they are accustomed. i understand that vendors will raise these objections, but i believe they should investigate this potential sales model in a systematic fashion and determine if they can earn profits with it. i submit that vendors would not need to understand this approach as a charity measure. i suspect that purveyors of large, online humanities text databases may well confront a situation similar to that which the digital powrr team perceived in preservica's case. once they have sold their products to the limited number of institutions able to afford them, where do they find growth? of course they can grow by introducing new products, but do they not want to find revenue growth in legacy products as well? representatives of a number of vendors may reply to this observation by noting that they price their products on the basis of an institution's number of full-time enrolled students, or offer access to a limited number of simultaneous logins, measures that can help a smaller institution. this is not enough. it may prove to be a benefit to smaller institutions to some degree, but it is only a partial measure. it certainly does not help cases like mine — a large institution lacking the budget level to buy even these versions of products — and there are many such institutions. if vendors do not recognize and respond to the market made up of medium-sized and smaller institutions of lesser financial means, i fear that they will make a powerful contribution to the perpetuation of the existing situation: students and scholars at the wealthiest colleges and universities can do text mining work with access to very large collections of suitable materials, while others may never find their corpus. those vendors will also, in my estimation, leave money on the table. even if they cannot earn any profit from this type of sale, it may be worthwhile for them to sell materials at a modest loss in order to earn the trust and goodwill of the scholars, librarians, and other practitioners populating the digital humanities. i ask vendors to consider the above proposition, and digital humanists and librarians at institutions of all sizes and financial conditions to raise these issues associated with access to their materials with vendors' sales representatives. acknowledgements the author thanks jim millhorn of northern illinois university libraries and alix keener of the university of michigan libraries for help in gathering information for this article. about the author drew e. vandecreek is director of digital scholarship and co-director of the digital convergence lab at northern illinois university libraries. he holds a ph.d. in american history from the university of virginia. he has secured funding for and directed the development of a number on online resources exploring nineteenth-century american history, available from the university libraries digital collections. copyright ® drew e. vandecreek s jer .. erratum from history book to digital humanities database: the basic annals of the shiji - erratum bin li, yaxin li, qian yang, yaqi wang and rui chen doi: https://doi.org/ . /jch. . , published online by cambridge university press: august the author names of this article ( ) should appear as follows: bin li, yaxin li, qian yang, yaqi wang and rui chen references ( ) li, b., li, y., yang, q., wang, y., & chen, r. ( ). from history book to digital humanities database: the basic annals of the shiji. journal of chinese history, ( ), – . cambridge university press. j. kim, v. patil, j. chun, h. park, s. seo, and y. kim (n.d.) mrs advances, - , doi: . /adv. . ( ). © cambridge university press cite this article: li b, li y, yang q, wang y, chen r ( ). from history book to digital humanities database: the basic annals of the shiji - erratum. journal of chinese history , . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . journal of chinese history ( ), , doi: . /jch. . h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog?doi= . /jch. . &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms from history book to digital humanities database: the basic annals of the shiji - erratum references abstracts pmla . ( ), published by the modern language association of america yasser elhariry, abdelwahab meddeb, sufi poets, and the new franco- phone lyric his is the irst work of criticism to read abdelwahab meddeb as a poet. self- consciously indeterminate from phi losophica l and poetic perspectives, meddeb’s poetry is indebted to european, especially french, high poetic mod- ernism; to the french literary turn to the united states; and to the author’s desire to be read in the lineage of the major sui poets of classical arabic litera- ture. turning his back on the hegemony of postcolonial literary prose with the chapbook tombeau d’ibn arabi, meddeb generates a new francophone lyric infused with the sui traditions of al- andalus, north africa, and the near and middle easts. his new lyric rewrites itself as a sui consciousness in search of what lies beyond its knowledge of its current state, and his tonguing of the new francophone lyric leads us to a long overdue analytical paradigm. (ye) anne dwyer, standstill as extinction: viktor shklovsky’s poetics and poli- tics of movement in the s and s in the russian formalist theorist viktor shklovsky returned to the ussr ater a year of exile. like his entire cohort of “fellow travelers,” he accommo- dated himself to the new soviet regime. he did so in the language of travel and other kinds of movement. in the s and s, nomadism—a prominent motif in works by shk lovsky from a sentimental journey through marco polo—emerges as his central igure for accommodation to oicial culture. his association occurs through the submerged double meaning of his signature term ostranenie—at once defamiliarization and reterritorialization. his dual- ity of ostranenie has implications for our broader understanding of the way mobility is active in cultural production and intertwined with structures of power. in the soviet case, ostranenie underscores that nomadic movement is essential to the operation of cultural agents, whose relative freedom becomes a mechanism of state authority and control. (ad) jonathan scott enderle, common knowledge: epistemology and the be- ginnings of copyright law literary critics’ engagement with copyright law has oten emphasized onto- logical questions about the relation between idealized texts and their material embodiments. his essay turns toward a diferent set of questions—about the role of texts in the communication of knowledge. developing an alternative intellectual genealogy of copyright law grounded in the eighteenth- century contest between innatism and empiricism, i argue that jurists like william blackstone and poets like edward young drew on locke’s theories of ideas to articulate a new understanding of writing as uncommunicative expression. innatists understood texts as tools that could enable transparent communica- tion through a shared stock of innate ideas, but by denying the existence of abstracts . ] innate ideas empiricists called the possibility of communication into question. and in their arguments for perpetual copyright protection, eighteenth- century jurists and pamphleteers pushed empiricism to its extreme, linking literary and economic value to the least communicative aspects of a text. (jse) gillian silverman, neurodiversity and the revision of book history he ield of neurodiversity ofers new ways to think about the history of the book and the history of reading. because autistic individuals—especially those marked by “classical” symptoms—oten report a strong reliance on physical objects and a pronounced tendency toward sensory engagement, their interests coincide with those of book historians and reception critics who investigate the embodied reading experience and the material aspects of the book. indeed, the textual practices of autistic individuals can resemble those of bibliophiles, who oten enjoy touching and smelling books. but autistic textual engagement oc- casionally takes singular forms, thereby pushing historians of the book into surprising new territory. for example, many classical autists attest to an in- tense intimacy and intercorporeity with the material book. in so doing they create opportunities for relecting on the interdependence of the human and nonhuman worlds. (gs) andrew kopec, the digital humanities, inc.: literary criticism and the fate of a profession he popularization of the digital humanities and the return to formalism are overdetermined by the perceived crises in the humanities. on the one hand, the new formalism harks back to a professionalizing strategy begun by the new critics with john crowe ransom’s “criticism, inc.,” drawing strength from close reading’s original polemic against industrialism. on the other hand, the digital humanities reimagine professional labor in ways that seemingly ap- proximate postindustrial norms. hese contradictory but inextricably related visions of professional futures restage a conlict between literature and data, reading and making, that has been misrecognized as a conlict between litera- ture and history. approaching these tensions by way of historicist critique can illuminate the extent to which the debate between literature and data will de- ine critical practice in the twenty- irst century. (ak) abstracts [ p m l a digital humanities edinburgh research explorer legal deposit web archives and the digital humanities citation for published version: gooding, p, terras, m & berube, l , 'legal deposit web archives and the digital humanities: a universe of lost opportunity?', digital humanities annual conference, mexico city, mexico, / / - / / pp. . link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: publisher's pdf, also known as version of record general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/legal-deposit-web-archives-and-the-digital-humanities( f b d- - - a - a bda e b).html u u legal deposit web archives and the digital humanities: a universe of lost opportunity? paul gooding p.gooding@uea.ac.uk university of east anglia, united kingdom melissa terras m.terras@ed.ac.uk university of edinburgh, united kingdom linda berube l.berube@uea.ac.uk university of east anglia, united kingdom introduction legal deposit libraries have archived the web for over a decade. several nations, supported by legal deposit regu- lations, have introduced comprehensive national domain web crawling, an essential part of the national library re- mit to collect, preserve and make accessible a nation’s intellectual and cultural heritage (brazier, ). scholars have traditionally been the chief beneficiaries of legal de- posit collections: in the case of web archives, the poten- tial for research extends to contemporary materials, and to digital humanities text and data mining approaches. to date, however, little work has evaluated whether legal deposit regulations support computational approaches to research using national web archive data (brügger, ; hockx-yu, ; black, ). this paper examines the impact of electronic legal deposit (eld) in the united kingdom, particularly how the regulations influence innovative scholarship using the legal deposit uk web archive. as the first major case u u study to analyse the implementation of eld, it will ad- dress the following key research questions: • is legal deposit, a concept defined and refined for print materials, the most suitable vehicle for suppor- ting dh research using web archives? • how does the current framing of eld affect digital in- novation in the uk library sector? • how does the current information ecology, including not for-profit archives, influence the relationship between dh researchers and legal deposit libraries? research context the british library began harvesting the uk web domain under legal deposit in . the uk web archive had, by , grown to tb. however, uk legal deposit regu- lations, based on a centuries-old model of reading room access to deposited materials, affect the archive’s signi- ficant potential for research: in practice, researchers can only access the full range of uk websites within the walls of selected institutions. dh scholars, though, require ac- cess to textual corpora and metadata in addition to inter- faces for discovery and reading (gooding, ). winters argues that “it is the portability of data, its separability from an easy-to-use but necessarily limiting interface, which underpins much of the exciting work in the digital humanities” ( : ). restricted deposit library ac- cess requires researchers to look elsewhere for portable web data: by undertaking their own web crawls, or by utili- sing datasets from common crawl (http://commoncrawl. org/) and the internet archive (https://archive.org). both organisations provide vital services to researchers, and both innovate in areas that would traditionally fall under the deposit libraries’ purview. they support their mission by exploring the boundaries of copyright, including ex- ceptions for non-commercial text and data mining (in- tellectual property office, ). this contrast between risk-enabled independent organisations and deposit libraries, described by interviewees as risk averse, cha- llenges library/dh collaboration models such as bl labs (http://labs.bl.uk) and library of congress labs (https:// labs.loc.gov). methodology this paper analyses the impact of the uk regulatory en- vironment upon dh reuse of the legal deposit uk web archive. it presents a quantitative analysis of information seeking behaviour, supported by insights from inter- views with uk legal deposit library practitioners. quanti- tative datasets consisted of google analytics reports, and web logs of uk web archive usage, which were analysed in spss and excel. these datasets allowed us to identify broad patterns of information-seeking behaviour. practitioner interviews were hand-coded to three le- vels in nvivo: initial coding, to provide the foundations for higher level analysis; focused coding, to further refine the data; and axial coding, using the convergence of ideas as a basis for exploring the research questions (hahn, ). this analysis will inform two further research phases: a broader quantitative analysis of uk eld collections; and qualitative analysis of the ways that the research com- munity, and dh researchers, use eld collections. conclusion this paper provides a vital case study of how legal deposit regulations can influence library/dh collabora- tion. it argues that uk eld regulations use a print-era view of national collections to interpret digital preserva- tion and access. a lack of media specificity, combined with a more cautious approach to text and data mining than allowed under uk copyright, restricts dh research: first, by limiting opportunities for innovative computatio- nal research; and second by excluding lab-based library/ dh collaborative models. as web preservation activities become concentrated in a small group of key organisa- tions, current regulations disadvantage libraries in com- parison to not-for-profits, whose vital work is supported by an ability to take risks denied to legal deposit libraries. the uk’s approach to national domain web archiving re- presents a lost opportunity for computational scholar- ship, requiring us to rethink legal deposit in light of the differing affordances of born-digital archives. references black, m. l. 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epistemic infrastructures: digital humanities in/as instrumentalist context james w. malazita visualizing the feminist controversy in england, - laura c mandell megan pearson rebecca kempe steve dezort zx spectrum, or decentering digital media platform studies approach as a tool to investigate the cultural differences through computing systems in their interactions with creativity and expression piotr marecki michał bukowski robert straky ciências sociais computacionais no brasil juliana marques celso castro distributions of function words across narrative time in , novels david william mcclure scott enderle challenges in enabling mixed media scholarly research with multi-media data in a sustainable infrastructure roeland ordelman carlos martínez ortíz liliana melgar estrada marijn koolen jaap blom willem melder jasmijn van gorp victor de boer themistoklis karavellas lora aroyo thomas poell norah karrouche eva baaren johannes wassenaar julia noordegraaf oana inel el campo del arte en san luis potosí, méxico: - . análisis de redes sociales y capital social josé antonio motilla the search for entropy: latin america’s contribution to digital art practice tirtha prasad mukhopadhyay reynaldo thompson ego-networks: building data for feminist archival recovery emily christina murphy searching for concepts in large text corpora: the case of principles in the enlightenment stephen osadetz kyle courtney claire demarco cole crawford christine fernsebner eslao achieving machine-readable mayan text via unicode: blending “old world” script-encoding with novel digital approaches carlos pallan gayol deborah anderson whose signal is it anyway? a case study on musil for short texts in authorship attribution simone rebora j. berenike herrmann gerhard lauer massimo salgaro creating and implementing an ontology of documents and texts peter robinson detection and measurement of digital imbalances on a local scale related to the mechanism for production and distribution of cultural information nuria rodríguez-ortega #simematan será por atea: procesamiento ciberactivista de la religión como parte del canon heteropatriarcal en méxico michelle vyoleta romero gallardo edición literaria electrónica y lectura smart dolores romero-lópez alicia reina-navarro lucía cotarelo-esteban josé luis bueren-gómez-acebo para la(s) historia(s) de las mujeres en digital: pertinencias, usabilidades, interoperabilidades amelia sanz from print to digital: a web-edition of giacomo leopardi’s idilli desmond schmidt paola italia milena giuffrida simone nieddu designing digital collections for social relevance susan schreibman the digitization of “oriental” manuscripts: resisting the reinscribing of canon and colonialism caroline t. schroeder a deep gazetteer of time periods ryan shaw adam rabinowitz patrick golden feminismo y tecnología: software libre y cultura hacker como medio para la apropiación tecnológica martha irene soria guzmán interpreting difference among transcripts michael sperberg-mcqueen claus huitfeldt modelling multigraphism: the digital representation of multiple scripts and alphabets peter anthony stokes chinese text project a dynamic digital library of pre-modern chinese donald sturgeon handwritten text recognition, keyword indexing dominique stutzmann christopher kermorvant enrique vidal sukalpa chanda sébastien hamel joan puigcerver pérez lambert schomaker alejandro h. toselli estudio exploratorio sobre los territorios de la biopirateria de las medicinas tradicionales en internet : el caso de america latina luis torres-yepez khaldoun zreik in search of the drowned in the words of the saved: mining and anthologizing oral history interviews of holocaust survivors gabor toth litviz: visualizing literary data by means of text voronoi tolga uslu alexander mehler dirk meyer lo que se vale y no se vale preguntar: el potencial pedagógico de las humanidades digitales para la enseñanza sobre la experiencia mexicano-americana en el midwest de estados unidos isabel velázquez jennifer isasi marcus vinícius barbosa solving the problem of the “gender offenders”: using criminal network analysis to optimize openness in male dominated collaborative networks deb verhoeven katarzyna musial stuart palmer sarah taylor lachlan simpson vejune zemaityte shaukat abidi “fortitude flanked with melody:” experiments in music composition and performance with digital scores raffaele viglianti joseph arkfeld on alignment of medieval poetry stefan jänicke david joseph wrisley short papers archivos digitales, cultura participativa y nuevos alfabetismos: la catalogación colaborativa del archivo histórico regional de boyacá (colombia) maria jose afanador-llach andres lombana the programming historian en español: estrategias y retos para la construcción de una comunidad global de hd maria jose afanador-llach la sala de la reina isabel en el museo del prado, - : la realidad aumentada en d como método de investigación, producto y vehículo pedagógico eugenia v afinoguenova chris larkee giuseppe mazzone pierre géal a digital edition of leonhard euler’s correspondence with christian goldbach sepideh alassi tobias schweizer martin mattmüller lukas rosenthaler helmut harbrecht bridging the divide: supporting minority and historic scripts in fonts: problems and recommendations deborah anderson conexiones digitales afrolatinoamericanas. el análisis digital de la colección manuel zapata olivella eduard arriaga dal digital cultural heritage alla digital culture. evoluzioni nelle digital humanities nicola barbuti ludovica marinucci mesurer merce cunningham : une expérimentation en «theatre analytics» clarisse bardiot is digital humanities adjuncting infrastructurally significant? kathi inman berens transposição didática e atuais recursos pedagógicos: convergências para o diálogo educativo ana maria bosse juliana bergmann hurricane memorial: the united states’ racialized response to disaster relief christina boyles backoff lemmatization as a philological method patrick j. burns las humanidades digitales y el patrimonio arqueológico maya: resultados preliminares de un esfuerzo interinstitucional de documentación y difusión arianna campiani nicola lercari cartonera publishers database, documenting grassroots publishing initiatives paloma celis carbajal integrating latent dirichlet allocation and poisson graphical model: a deep dive into the writings of chen duxiu, co-founder of the chinese communist party anne shen chao qiwei li zhandong liu sensory ethnography and storytelling with the sounds of voices: methods, ethics and accessibility kelsey marie chatlosh seinfeld at the nexus of the universe: using imdb data and social network theory to create a digital humanities project cindy conaway diane shichtman exploring big and boutique data through laboring-class poets online cole daniel crawford organizing communities of practice for shared standards for d data preservation lynn cunningham hannah scates-kettler legacy no longer: designing sustainable systems for website development karin dalziel jessica dussault gregory tunink histonets, turning historical maps into digital networks javier de la rosa pérez scott bailey clayton nall ashley jester jack reed drew winget alfabetización digital, prácticas y posibilidades de las humanidades digitales en américa latina y el caribe gimena del rio riande paola ricaurte quijano virginia brussa listening for religion on a digital platform amy derogatis words that have made history, or modeling the dynamics of linguistic changes maciej eder locative media for queer histories: scaling up “go queer” maureen engel analyzing social networks of xml plays: exploring shakespeare’s genres lawrence evalyn susan gauch manisha shukla resolving the polynymy of place: or how to create a gazetteer of colonized landscapes katherine mary faull diane katherine jakacki audiences, evidence, and living documents: motivating factors in digital humanities monograph publishing katrina fenlon megan senseney maria bonn janet swatscheno christopher r. maden mitologias do fascínio tecnológico andre azevedo da fonseca latin@ voices in the midwest: ohio habla podcast elena foulis spotting the character: how to collect elements of characterisation in literary texts? ioana galleron fatiha idmhand cécile meynard pierre-yves buard julia roger anne goloubkoff archivos abiertos y públicos para el postconflicto colombiano stefania gallini humanidades digitales en cuba: avances y perspectivas maytee garcía vázquez sulema rodriguez roche ania hernández quintana corpus jurídico hispano indiano digital: análisis de una cultura jurisdiccional víctor gayol expanding the research environment for ancient documents (read) to any writing system andrew glass the latin american comics archive: an online platform for the research and teaching of digitized and encoded spanish-language comic books through scholar/student collaboration felipe gomez scott weingart daniel evans rikk mulligan verba volant, scripta manent: an open source platform for collecting data to train ocr models for manuscript studies samuel grieggs bingyu shen hildegund muller christine ascik erik ellis mihow mckenny nikolas churik emily mahan walter scheirer indagando la cultura impresa del siglo xviii novohispano: una base de datos inédita víctor julián cid carmona silvia eunice gutiérrez de la torre guadelupe elisa cihuaxty acosta samperio puesta en mapa: la literatura de méxico a través de sus traducciones silvia eunice gutiérrez de la torre jorge mendoza romero amaury gutiérrez acosta flexibility and feedback in digital standards-making: unicode and the rise of emojis s. e. hackney the digital ghost hunt: a new approach to coding education through immersive theatre elliott hall exploration of sentiments and genre in spanish american novels ulrike edith gerda henny-krahmer digitizing paratexts kate holterhoff a corpus approach to manuscript abbreviations (cama) alpo honkapohja on natural disasters in chinese standard histories hong-ting su jieh hsiang nungyao lin reed london and the promise of critical infrastructure diane katherine jakacki susan irene brown james cummings kimberly martin large-scale accuracy benchmark results for juola’s authorship verification protocols patrick juola adapting a spelling normalization tool designed for english to th century dutch ivan kisjes wijckmans tessa differential reading by image-based change detection and prospect for human-machine collaboration for differential transcription asanobu kitamoto hiroshi horii misato horii chikahiko suzuki kazuaki yamamoto kumiko fujizane the history and context of the digital humanities in russia inna kizhner melissa terras lev manovich boris orekhov anastasia bonch-osmolovskaya maxim rumyantsev urban art in a digital context: a computer-based evaluation of street art and graffiti writing sabine lang björn ommer ¿metodologías en crisis? tesis . a través de la etnografía de lo digital domingo manuel lechón gómez hashtags contra el acoso: the dynamics of gender violence discourse on twitter rhian elizabeth lewis novas faces da arte política: ações coletivas e ativismos em realidade aumentada daniela torres lima sandra van ginhoven critical data literacy in the humanities classroom brandon t. locke ontological challenges in editing historic editions of the encyclopedia britannica peter m logan distinctions between conceptual domains in the bilingual poetry of pablo picasso enrique mallen luis meneses a formação de professores/pesquisadores de história no contexto da cibercultura: história digital, humanidades digitais e as novas perspectivas de ensino no brasil. patrícia marcondes de barros presentation of web site on the banking and financial history of spain and latin america carlos marichal spatial disaggregation of historical census data leveraging multiple sources of ancillary data joão miguel monteiro bruno emanuel martins patricia murrieta-flores joão moura pires the poetry of the lancashire cotton famine ( - ): tracing poetic responses to economic disaster ruth mather read workbench – corpus collaboration and textbase avatars ian mccrabb preserving and visualizing queer representation in video games cody jay mejeur segmentación, modelado y visualización de fuentes históricas para el estudio del perdón en el nuevo reino de granada del siglo xviii jairo antonio melo flórez part deux: exploring the signs of abandonment of online digital humanities projects luis meneses jonathan martin richard furuta ray siemens a people’s history? developing digital humanities projects with the public susan michelle merriam peer learning and collaborative networks: on the use of loop pedals by women vocal artists in mexico aurelio meza next generation digital humanities: a response to the need for empowering undergraduate researchers taylor elyse mills la creación del repositorio digital del patrimonio cultural de méxico ernesto miranda vania ramírez towards linked data of bible quotations in jewish texts oren mishali benny kimelfeld towards a metric for paraphrastic modification maria moritz johannes hellrich sven buechel temporal entity random indexing annalina caputo gary munnelly seamus lawless incipitsearch - interlinking musicological repositories anna neovesky frederic von vlahovits ocr’ing and classifying jean desmet’s business archive: methodological implications and new directions for media historical research christian gosvig olesen ivan kisjes the st volume — how the digitised index for the collected works of leo tolstoy adds a new angle for research boris v. orekhov frank fischer adjusting lera for the comparison of arabic manuscripts of _kalīla wa-dimna_ beatrice gründler marcus pöckelmann afterlives of digitization lily cho julienne pascoe rapid bricolage implementing digital humanities william dudley pascoe the time-us project. creating gold data to understand the gender gap in the french textile trades ( th– th century) eric de la clergerie manuela martini marie puren charles riondet alix chagué modeling linked cultural events: design and application kaspar beelen ivan kisjes julia noordegraaf harm nijboer thunnis van oort claartje rasterhoff bridging divides for conservation in the amazon: digital technologies & the calha norte portal hannah mabel reardon measured unrest in the poetry of the black arts movement ethan reed does “late style” exist? new stylometric approaches to variation in single-author corpora jonathan pearce reeve keeping d data alive: developments in the mayacitybuilder project heather richards-rissetto rachel optiz fabrizio galeazzi finding data in a literary corpus: a curatorial approach brad rittenhouse sudeep agarwal mapping and making community: collaborative dh approaches, experiential learning, and citizens’ media in cali, colombia katey roden pavel shlossberg the diachronic spanish sonnet corpus (disco): tei and linked open data encoding, data distribution and metrical findings pablo ruiz fabo helena bermúdez sabel clara martínez cantón elena gonzález-blanco borja navarro colorado polysystem theory and macroanalysis. a case study of sienkiewicz in italian jan rybicki katarzyna biernacka-licznar monika woźniak interrogating the roots of american settler colonialism: experiments in network analysis and text mining ashley sanders garcia ¿existe correlación entre importancia y centralidad? evaluación de personajes con redes sociales en obras teatrales de la edad de plata? teresa santa maría elena martínez carro concepción jiménez josé calvo tello cultural awareness & mapping pedagogical tool: a digital representation of gloria anzaldúa’s frontier theory rosita scerbo corpus linguistics for multidisciplinary research: coptic scriptorium as case study caroline t. schroeder extracting and aligning artist names in digitized art historical archives benoit seguin lia costiner isabella di lenardo frédéric kaplan a design process model for inquiry-driven, collaboration-first scholarly communications sara b. sikes métodos digitales para el estudio de la fotografía compartida. una aproximación distante a tres ciudades iberoamericanas en instagram gabriela elisa sued revitalizing wikipedia/dbpedia open data by gamification -sparql and api experiment for edutainment in digital humanities go sugimoto the purpose of education: a large-scale text analysis of university mission statements danica savonick lisa tagliaferri digital humanities integration and management challenges in advanced imaging across institutions and technologies nondestructive imaging of egyptian mummy papyrus cartonnage michael b. toth melissa terras adam gibson cerys jones towards a digital dissolution: the challenges of mapping revolutionary change in pre-modern europe charlotte tupman james clark richard holding an archaeology of americana: recovering the hemispheric origins of sabin’s bibliotheca americana to contest the database’s (national) limits mary lindsay van tine tweets of a native son: james baldwin, #blacklivesmatter, and networks of textual recirculation melanie walsh abundance and access: early modern political letters in contemporary and digital archives elizabeth williamson balanceándonos entre la aserción de la identidad y el mantenimiento del anonimato: usos sociales de la criptografía en la red gunnar eyal wolf iszaevich a white-box model for detecting author nationality by linguistic differences in spanish novels albin zehe daniel schlör ulrike henny-krahmer martin becker andreas hotho media preservation between the analog and digital: recovering and recreating the rio videowall gregory zinman the (digital) space between: notes on art history and machine vision learning benjamin zweig posters world of the khwe bushmen: accessing khwe cultural heritage data by means of a digital ontology based on owlnotator giuseppe abrami gertrude boden lisa gleiß design on view: imagining culture as a digital outcome ersin altin introducing polo: exploring topic models as database and hypertext rafael alvarado the spatial humanities kit matt applegate jamie cohen the magnifying glass and the kaleidoscope. analysing scale in digital history and historiography florentina armaselu encoding the oldest western music allyn waller toni armstrong nicholas guarracino julia spiegel hannah nguyen marika fox creating a digital edition of ancient mongolian historical documents biligsaikhan batjargal garmaabazar khaltarkhuu akira maeda shedding light on indigenous knowledge concepts and world perception through visual analysis alejandro benito amelie dorn roberto therón eveline wandl-vogt antonio losada the cligs textbox josé calvo tello ulrike henny-krahmer christof schöch katrin betz cite exchange format (cex): simple, plain-text interchange of heterogenous datasets christopher william blackwell thomas köntges neel smith digitizing whiteness: systemic inequality in community digital archives monica kristin blair how to create a website and which questions you have to answer first peggy bockwinkel michael czechowski la aptitud para encontrar patrones y la producción de cine suave (soft cinema) diego bonilla women’s faces and women’s rights: a contextual analysis of faces appearing in time magazine kathleen patricia janet brennan vincent berardi aisha cornejo carl bennett john harlan ana jofre decolonialism and formal ontology: self-critical conceptual modelling practice george bruseker anais guillem rules against the machine: building bridges from text to metadata josé calvo tello prospectiva de la arquitectura en el siglo xxi. la arquitectura en entornos digitales luis david cardona jiménez visualizando dados bibliográficos: o uso do vosviewer como ferramenta de análise bibliométrica de palavras-chave na produção das humanidades digitais renan marinho de castro ricardo medeiros pimenta mapping the movida: re-imagining counterculture in post-franco spain ( - ) vanessa ceia intellectual history and computing: modeling and simulating the world of the korean yangban javier cha more than “nice to have”: tei-to-linked data conversion constance crompton michelle schwartz animating text newcastle university james cummings tiago sousa garcia una investigación a explotar : los cristianos de alá, siglos xvi y xvii marianne delacourt véronique fabre the iowa canon of greek and latin authors and works paul dilley digital storytelling: engaging our community and the humanities ruben duran charlotte hamilton text mining methods to solve organic chemistry problems, or topic modeling applied to chemical molecules maciej eder jan winkowski michał woźniak rafał l. górski bartosz grzybowski studying performing arts across borders: towards a european performing arts dataverse (epad) thunnis van oort ivan kisjes the archive as collaborative learning space natalia ermolaev mark saccomano tensiones entre el archivo de escritor físico y el digital: hacia una aproximación teórica leonardo ariel escobar using linked open data to enrich concept searching in large text corpora christine fernsebner eslao stephen osadetz pontes into the curriculum: introducing dh pedagogy through global partnerships pamela espinosa de los monteros joshua sadvari maria scheid milpaís: una wiki semántica para recuperar, compartir y construir colaborativamente las relaciones entre plantas, seres humanos, comunidades y entornos maría juana espinosa menéndez camilo martinez cataloging history: revisualizing the new york crystal palace steven lubar emily esten steffani gomez brian croxall patrick rashleigh crowdsourcing community wellness: coding a mobile app for health and education katherine mary faull michael thompson jacob mendelowitz caroline whitman shaunna barnhart bad brujas only: digital presence, embodied protest, and online witchcraft amanda kelan figueroa ravon ruffin la geopólitica de las humanidades digitales: un caso de estudio de dh montreal josé pino-díaz domenico fiormonte using topic modelling to explore authors’ research fields in a corpus of historical scientific english stefan fischer jörg knappen elke teich stranger genres: computationally classifying reprinted nineteenth century newspaper texts jonathan d. fitzgerald ryan cordell humanities commons: collaboration and collective action for the common good kathleen fitzpatrick making dh-course together dinara gagarina standing in between. digital archive of manuel mosquera garcés. maria paula garcia mosquera research environment for ancient documents (read) andrew glass stephen white ian mccrabb manifold scholarship: hybrid publishing in a print/digital era matthew k. gold jojo karlin zach davis legal deposit web archives and the digital humanities: a universe of lost opportunity? paul gooding melissa terras linda berube crafting history: using a linked data approach to support the development of historical narratives of critical events karen f. gracy prosopografía de la revolución mexicana: actualización de la obra de françoise xavier guerra martha lucía granados-riveros diego montesinos developing digital methods to map museum “soft power” natalia grincheva brecht beats shakespeare! a card-game intervention revolving around the network analysis of european drama angelika hechtl frank fischer anika schultz christopher kittel elisa beshero-bondar steffen martus peer trilcke jana wolf ingo börner daniil skorinkin tatiana orlova carsten milling christine ivanovic visualizando una aproximación narratológica sobre la producción y utilización de los recursos online de museos de arte. maría isabel hidalgo urbaneja transatlantic knowledge production and conveyance in community-engaged public history: german history in documents and images/deutsche geschichte in dokumenten und bildern matthew hiebert simone lässig a tool to visualize data on scientific performance in the czech republic radim hladík augmenting the university: using augmented reality to excavate university spaces christian howard monica blair spyros simotas ankita chakrabarti torie clark tanner greene an easy-to-use data analysis and visualization tool for studying chinese buddhist literature jen-jou hung ‘this, reader, is no fiction’: examining the rhetorical uses of direct address across the nineteenth- and twentieth-century novel gabrielle kirilloff reimagining elizabeth palmer peabody’s lost “mural charts” alexandra beall courtney allen angela vujic lauren f. klein tome: a topic modeling tool for document discovery and exploration adam hayward nikita bawa morgan orangi caroline foster lauren f. klein bridging digital humanities internal and open source software projects through reusable building blocks rebecca sutton koeser benjamin w hicks building bridges across heritage silos kalliopi kontiza catherine jones joseph padfield ioanna lykourentzou voces y caras: hispanic communities of north florida constanza m. lópez baquero empatía digital: en los pixeles del otro carolina laverde atlas de la narrativa mexicana del siglo xx y la representación visualizada de méxico en su literatura. avance de proyecto nora marisa león-real méndez huviz: from _orlando_ to cwrc… and beyond! kim martin abi lemak susan brown chelsea miya jana smith-elford endangered data week: digital humanities and civic data literacy brandon t. locke herramienta web para la identificación de la técnica de manufactura en fotografías históricas gustavo lozano san juan propuesta interdisciplinaria de un juego serio para la divulgación de conocimiento histórico. caso de estudio: la divulgación del saber histórico sobre la vida conventual de los carmelitas descalzos del ex-convento del desierto de los leones leticia luna tlatelpa fabián gutiérrez gómez edné balmori feliciano garcía garcía dr. luis rodriguez morales digital d modelling in the humanities sander münster question, create, reflect: a holistic and critical approach to teaching digital humanities kristen mapes matthew handelman “smog poem”. example of data dramatization piotr marecki leszek onak anja, ¿dónde están los encabalgamientos? clara martinez-canton pablo ruiz-fabo elena gonzález-blanco combining string matching and cost minimization algorithms for automatically geocoding tabular itineraries rui santos bruno emanuel martins patricia murrieta-flores how we became digital? recent history of digital humanities in poland maciej maryl hacia la traducción automática de las lenguas indígenas de méxico jesús manuel mager hois ivan vladimir meza ruiz towards a digital history of the spanish invasion of indigenous peru jeremy m. mikecz style revolution: journal des dames et des modes jodi ann mikesell avery schroeder anne higonnet alex gil anakaren aguero sarah bigler meghan collins emily cormack zoë dostal barthelemy glama brontë hebdon the two moby dicks: the split signatures of melville’s novel chelsea miya devochdelia: el diccionario etimolójico de las voces chilenas derivadas de lenguas indíjenas americanas de rodolfo lenz en versión digital francisco mondaca unsustainable digital cultural collections jo ana morfin la automatización y “digitalización” del centro de documentación histórica “lic. rafael montejano y aguiñaga” de la universidad autónoma de san luis potosí, mediante la autogestión y software libre josé antonio motilla ismael huerta a comprehensive image-based digital edition using cex: a fragment of the gospel of matthew janey capers newland emmett baumgarten de’sean markley jeffrey rein brienna dipietro anna sylvester brandon elmy summey hedden using zenodo as a discovery and publishing platform daniel paul o’donnell natalia manola paolo manghi dot porter paul esau carey viejou roberto rosselli del turco spatioscholar: annotating photogrammetric models burcak ozludil altin augustus wendell decolonising collections information – disrupting settler colonial power in information management in response to canada’s truth & reconciliation commission and the united nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples laura phillips an ontological model for inferring psychological profiles and narrative roles of characters mattia egloff antonio lieto davide picca a graphical user interface for lda topic modeling steffen pielström severin simmler thorsten vitt fotis jannidis eliminar barreras para construir puentes a travès de la web semántica: isidore, un buscador trilingüe para las ciencias humanas y sociales sthephane pouyllau laurent capelli adeline joffres desseigne adrien gautier hélène ssk by example. make your arts and humanities research go standard marie puren laurent romary lionel tadjou charles riondet dorian seillier monroe work today: unearthing the geography of us lynching violence rj ramey educational bridges: understanding conservation dynamics in the amazon through the calha norte portal hannah mabel reardon building a community driven corpus of historical newspapers claudia resch dario kampkaspar daniela fasching vanessa hannesschläger daniel schopper expanding communities of practice: the digital humanities research institute model lisa rhody hannah aizenmann kelsey chatlosh kristen hackett jojo karlin javier otero peña rachel rakov patrick smyth patrick sweeney stephen zweibel hispanic th connect: una nueva plataforma para la investigación digital en español rubria rocha laura mandell lorenzetti digital elvis andrés rojas rodríguez jose nicolas jaramillo liévano traditional humanities research and interactive mapping: towards a user-friendly story of two worlds collide vasileios routsis digital humanities storytelling heritage lab mariana ruiz gonzalez renteria angélica amezcua digital humanities under your fingertips: tone perfect as a pedagogical tool in mandarin chinese second language studies and an adaptable catherine youngkyung ryu codicological study of pre high tang documents from dunhuang : an approach using scientific analysis data shouji sakamoto léon-bavi vilmont yasuhiko watanabe connecting gaming communities and corporations to their history: the gen con program database matt shoemaker resolving south asian orthographic indeterminacy in colonial-era archives amardeep singh brâncuși’s metadata: turning a graduate humanities course curriculum digital stephen craig sturgeon a style comparative study of japanese pictorial manuscripts by “cut, paste and share” on iiif curation viewer chikahiko suzuki akira takagishi asanobu kitamoto complex networks of desire: fireweed, fuse, border/lines felicity tayler tomasz neugebauer locating place names at scale: using natural language processing to identify geographical information in text lauren tilton taylor arnold courtney rivard ríos: una construcción transmedia de memoria histórica sobre el conflicto armado en colombia elder manuel tobar panchoaga building a bridge to next generation dh services in libraries with a campus needs assessment harriett green eleanor dickson daniel g. tracy sarah christensen melanie emerson joann jacoby chromatic structure and family resemblance in large art collections — exemplary quantification and visualizations loan t tran kelly park poshen lee jevin west maximilian schich ethical constraints in digital humanities and computational social science anagha uppal bridging the gap: digital humanities and the arabic-islamic corpus dafne erica van kuppevelt e.g. patrick bos a. melle lyklema umar ryad christian r. lange janneke van der zwaan off-line sstrategies for on-line publications: preparing the shelley-godwin archive for off-line use raffaele viglianti academy of finland research programme “digital humanities” (digihum) risto pekka vilkko modeling the genealogy of imagetexts: studying images and texts in conjunction using computational methods melvin wevers thomas smits leonardo impett history for everyone/historia para todos: ancient history encyclopedia james blake wiener gimena del rio riande princeton prosody archive: rebuilding the collection and user interface meredith martin meagan wilson mary naydan elexis: yet another research 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trans-atlantic platform digging into data challenge experience elizabeth tran crystal sissons nicolas parker mika oehling herramientas para los usuarios: colecciones y anotaciones digitales amelia sanz alckmar dos santos ana fernández-pampillón oscar garcía-rama joaquin gayoso maría goicoechea dolores romero josé luis sierra where is the open in dh? wouter schallier gimena del rio riande april m. hathcock daniel o’donnell indexing multilingual content with the oral history metadata synchronizer (ohms) teague schneiter brendan coates sig endorsed distant viewing with deep learning: an introduction to analyzing large corpora of images taylor baillie arnold lauren craig tilton the re-creation of harry potter: tracing style and content across novels, movie scripts and fanfiction marco büchler greta franzini mike kestemont enrique manjavacas archiving small twitter datasets for text analysis: a workshop for beginners ernesto priego bridging justice based practices for archives + critical dh t-kay sangwand caitlin christian-lamb purdom lindblad _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback _ref _ref _ref _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback _goback __ddelink__ _ __ddelink__ _ __ddelink__ _ __ddelink__ _ __ddelink__ _ __ddelink__ _ _goback _goback _goback the-cex-format corpus-building-software-brucheion-and-t microservices-based-on-cex-citemicroserv exploring-cex-collections-through-topic- browsing-integrated-text-data-libraries- screenshots-of-cex-capable-applications _goback _goback _goback _goback _ lxckkdn q _pxa rw cijp _ yf qndwmruy _goback docs-internal-guid-d d - - de - a docs-internal-guid-d d - - -dc docs-internal-guid-d d - -ece -b docs-internal-guid-d d - -c -b _goback _goback _goback _goback _ref _ref _ref _goback _goback _goback _hlk _goback _goback howtododpos_preprint this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. how to do digital philosophy of science charles h. pence department of philosophy and religious studies louisiana state university baton rouge, la, usa charles@charlespence.net https://charlespence.net grant ramsey institute of philosophy ku leuven leuven, belgium grant@theramseylab.org http://www.theramseylab.org abstract philosophy of science is beginning to be expanded via the introduction of new digital resources—both data and tools for its analysis. the data comprise digitized published books and journal articles, as well as heretofore unpublished and recently digitized material, such as images, archival text, notebooks, meeting notes, and programs. this growing bounty of data would be of little use, however, without quality tools with which to analyze it. fortunately, the growth in available data is matched by the extensive development of automated analysis tools. for the beginner, this wide variety of data sources and tools can be overwhelming. in this essay, we survey the state of digital work in the philosophy of science, showing what kinds of questions can be answered and how one can go about answering them. this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. . introduction. our understanding of science is being broadened by the digitization and automated analysis of the various outputs of the scientific process, such as scientific literature, archival data, and networks of collaboration and correspondence. these technological changes are laying the foundation for new types of problems and solutions in the philosophy of science. the purpose of this article is to provide an overview and guide to some of the novel capabilities of digital philosophy of science. to best understand the reasons why digital philosophy of science lets us ask a new class of questions, let’s consider how it differs from more traditional approaches. for example, consider how we might draw conclusions about articles in the journal nature. it has published over , articles since its founding in , meaning that one would have to read ten articles a day for one hundred years to work through the complete archives of this journal alone. of course, the standard response in the philosophy of science is to favor depth over breadth, and closely read a much smaller number of articles. while there is certainly much we can learn about science in this way, some broad questions about the nature and history of science—questions, for example, about how theories arise and become established in the literature as a whole—would remain unanswerable without a way to glean information from hundreds of thousands or even millions of journal articles. much the same argument holds for scientific images, or information about the collaboration, communication, training, or citation connections between researchers. the question, then, is to what degree we can learn from the vast scientific literature without having to read every article closely—to instead do what is called distant reading (moretti ). with distant reading, we input a large body of literature into a computer, and use it to do the “reading” for us, extracting large-scale patterns that would be invisible or impractical to find otherwise. in the philosophy of science in particular, this process has been aided by a this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. number of large digitization efforts targeted at the outputs of the scientific process. one crowning achievement of these efforts is the nearly complete digitization of the academic journal literature. this content is thus now accessible in ways that it has never been before. digital approaches to the philosophy of science contrast with traditional methods involving close reading—intently reading a narrow body of literature within a focal area. with close reading, a philosopher will have an impressive command over a limited domain. he or she closely reads a select set of documents from the scientific literature, or analyzes the experimental, training, or collaborative records of a small group of researchers to attempt to extract the structure of a scientific theory, or to understand the meaning of its terms. we should stress that the close reading-based traditional philosophy of science and distant reading-based digital philosophy of science are not in competition. instead, they are complementary. if, for example, a researcher wants to know how the meaning of a particular term has changed over time, he or she could use automated textual analysis tools to locate instances of the term, find hot spots in which the term is used frequently, quickly see which words it is associated with, and how these word associations have changed over time. in conjunction with digital analysis, performing close reading of key texts will be invaluable. the close reading may then spur further digital inquiries, and so on. thus, traditional and digital philosophy of science work in tandem, each supporting the other. the remainder of this article will canvass a number of significant issues that must be dealt with in order to develop a digital philosophy of science research program. we hope that this overview will be helpful to researchers who are interested in moving forward with digital tools but are not certain where or how to begin. this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. . getting started. because digital philosophy of science is a relatively new field, not only is there no set of standard tools, it is often unclear what sorts of questions can be answered by the extant tools. thus, let’s begin by considering some of the new kinds of questions one can address. one of the most significant advantages of distant reading comes from the ability to engage with corpora significantly larger than those usually treated by philosophers and historians of science. for example, murdock, allen, and dedeo ( ) were able to analyze large-scale patterns in darwin’s reading by accessing the full text of every book that we know him to have read over a period of decades. these kinds of analyses simply would not be possible without the aid of technology. answering research questions that leverage broad (yet still circumscribed; see section ) sets of data are thus likely to be a fruitful use of digital tools. for example, one could track concepts over the entire print run of a journal, the collections of books published in the biodiversity heritage library (gwinn and rinaldo ), or the pubmed open access subset of contemporary biomedical journal articles (roberts ). these kinds of investigations allow us to explore the conceptual landscape of a field through distant reading, by offering (at least in some cases) an exhaustive analysis of an area. another advantage comes from the ability of analytical algorithms to parse texts in ways that even well trained close readers cannot. for example, fine-grained patterns of language usage, such as the shift in a term from a noun use to a verb use, or a shift from referring to science as a one-person activity to a group activity, could be traced in the literature with a level of exhaustiveness, objectivity, and care that would simply be impossible for a single reader. automated tools can analyze sentence structure, word order, or parts-of-speech usage in a way that would try the patience of any scholar (manning et al. ). this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. the ability of digital tools to increase the breadth of a research question is also important. if one has a hypothesis drawn from a particular domain (maximization or optimality inferences in biology, for example), this hypothesis could be tested in other, separate domains (economics, psychology, sociology) with only a modest further investment of resources. while digital tools can aid in answering existing research questions, these tools also open the possibility of framing new questions without a clear analogue in the pre-digital world. for instance, work by manfred laubichler and colleagues applies dynamic network analysis to our understanding of scientific conceptual development (miller et al. ). the questions they ask arise in conjunction with the digital tools, and in dialogue with digital humanities researchers in other disciplines. . choosing the right tools. now that we have a sense of the advantages of digital analysis, let’s consider the currently available tools and corpora of data relevant to the philosophy of science. to begin, we should draw attention to the central repository of digital humanities tools, known as the dirt directory, accessible at (for more on its construction and predecessors, see dombrowski ). there are nearly as many digital humanities tools as there are digital humanities researchers, and the landscape of contemporary software changes rapidly. for nearly any kind of analysis, the directory will include some tool which performs it—the most important question will be whether the data available can efficiently be converted into the format required by that tool. . . basic tools. there are a number of tools that may be used immediately by researchers, as they do not require that one collate a set of documents of interest in advance. this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. perhaps the most famous of these is the google ngram corpus (brants and franz ; michel et al. ), accessible at . this corpus contains the entirety of the scanned google books project, current as of , with frequency data for single words as well as pairs and longer sequences (so called bigrams, trigrams, and, more generally, n-grams). obviously, the ngrams project does not exclusively contain scientific or philosophical content, and hence a number of queries that might interest philosophers of science will simply not be meaningful when queried against the ngram viewer. for example, the scientific usage of the term “evolution” will be completely masked by the broader cultural use of the term, and hence philosophers interested in the use of this term are unlikely to be able to uncover interesting data. there are also a number of worries about the statistical representativeness of the google ngram corpus, even when judged as a measure of broader cultural usage or popularity (morse- gagné ; pechenick, danforth, and dodds ). much more precise search and analysis may be performed by using jstor’s data for research project (burns et al. ), available at . this tool allows users to perform searches and analyses against the entire corpus of jstor journals. researchers may search for articles by journal, publication date, author, subject, and more, allowing for careful control over the set of articles to be analyzed. these articles may then be queried for word frequencies (and ngram frequencies), as well as automatically extracted “key terms,” which are words common in the selected articles but uncommon in the corpus as a whole (computed using the tf-idf score). the frequency scores from jstor dfr may also be used as an input to a variety of the tools described below. this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. . . gathering a corpus. the more advanced tools are set apart primarily by not coming with a pre-loaded corpus of material to study. this means that the challenge of obtaining data falls to individual researchers. as mentioned above, we find ourselves in a particularly fertile period for data availability in the philosophy of science. much of the journal literature, in some cases back into the nineteenth century, is available online in pdf or html form. comprehensive online projects are available that focus on the works, life, and correspondence of figures like darwin (secord ; van whye ), newton (iliffe and mandelbrote ), poincaré (walter, nabonnand, and rollet ), einstein (mendelsson ), and others (pouyllau et al. ; beccaloni ; mills ). a number of discipline-specific archives have also been constructed, such as the embryo project encyclopedia, an open access, digital repository covering the history of embryology and developmental biology (maienschein et al. ). to this may be added the digital collections now increasingly available from a wide variety of museums and libraries. with an appropriate collection of data obtained for a researcher’s private use, it becomes possible to leverage a much wider variety of analytical tools. (these data must also be carefully curated and safely preserved; we will return to the question of data management in the next section.) a researcher gathering a corpus must consider how and to what extent the data should be annotated. minimal annotation—for example, leaving content as plain text with only bibliographic data for tracking—allows for the rapid creation of a large corpus, and lowers the future burden of maintaining and updating the annotations. but more significant annotation— such as marking up textual data in a format like that described by the text encoding initiative (ide and véronis )—allows for more complex, fine-grained, and accurate analyses. this annotation can take a variety of forms. for textual data, tei allows users to indicate the locations this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. of various parts of the document (pages, paragraphs, chapters, indexes, figures, or tables), or the various kinds of references made by a piece of text (dates, citations, abbreviations, names of persons or institutions, etc.). this process of cross-referencing documents may be aided by the use of external ontologies—in the sense (not the one common in philosophy) of collections of standardized verbs and concepts that allow for the same term to refer unambiguously across multiple documents. in philosophy, the indiana philosophy ontology project, or inpho (buckner, niepert, and allen ), available at , allows standardized reference to concepts such as “sociobiology,” or to particular philosophers. a number of such ontologies also appear in other areas of the sciences, and a document may be marked up with multiple ontologies to add further semantic richness. with a heavily annotated document, significantly more complex analysis may be applied, as the computer now “knows” where particular concepts are mentioned, how they are used, and how they relate to other ideas. while the use of such methods is relatively untested in philosophy, the biomedical field has made significant strides in this direction in recent years— for example, analysis of the usage of gene and chemical concepts in the scientific literature has actually enabled the extraction of novel relationships (previously unpublished by researchers, but discernible from the body of literature as a whole), and even the generation of novel hypotheses about future drug development (a. m. cohen and hersh ). the question of the representativeness of one’s sample of data is also a significant one with which researchers must engage. as we noted above, even in the largest corpora, such as google’s ngram collection, there are still problems with the statistical significance of the sample (morse-gagné ), with biases in temporal availability of data (more data tends to be available this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. closer to the present, as the relevant outputs were “born digital”; michel et al. ) and systematic sources of error such as that introduced by optical character recognition (hoover ). these concerns are somewhat alleviated when using a curated corpus known to be complete (such as databases of historical correspondence), but even in these instances, researchers must remain constantly vigilant against statistical bias. . advanced tools. with a corpus in place, there is a variety of options for users interested in performing analyses impossible with the basic tools described above. first, there are a number of tools designed to aid researchers in presenting their material as an easily navigable, searchable, categorized public resource—a public digital archive or museum. the most popular of these is omeka (d. cohen ), available at . omeka is a free, open-source software product that allows users to construct online archives and museum exhibitions, to add catalog information and metadata to digital items, and to attractively present all of this material to the public at large. deploying a website such as this is a nice way to garner some immediate, public-facing payoff from the difficult work of obtaining and curating a digital collection. one alluring feature of large digital data sets is the possibility of analyzing the networks found within them—whether these are networks of collaboration drawn from experimental archives or lab notebooks, networks of correspondence drawn from digitized letters, or citation networks extracted from the journal literature. such network analysis can often allow us to see patterns in the overall structure of a field that would be otherwise difficult to discern. one of the most user-friendly network analysis tools available is gephi (bastian, heymann, and jacomy ), available at . gephi allows users to import graphs in a number of this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. formats (including ones as simple as csv spreadsheet data), and to perform a variety of analyses and visualizations. the network may be broken into clusters (using a standard measure known as modularity; blondel et al. ), the degree of connectivity of individual nodes may be easily explored, and the results can then be rendered graphically for presentation. if the data to be analyzed is text, a popular choice is voyant tools (sinclair and rockwell ), available at . once a corpus of text is uploaded to voyant, the user is immediately presented with a wide variety of options: a word cloud, a cross-corpus reader, a tool for tracking word trends through the text, and a short snippet concordance are among the immediately available tools, and a variety of other, more complex analyses and attractive visualizations may be performed using plugins. voyant may also be used to save online corpora for future use, which facilitates classroom usage of textual analysis. another challenging problem likely to be faced by philosophers of science interested in the scientific literature is the analysis of a large number of journal articles, a kind of analysis not often performed in traditional digital humanities, which often focuses on book-length source material. to solve these problems, one of us has created a software package, rletters (pence ), available at . (one public installation of this software, containing a corpus of journals in evolutionary biology, is available at , and described in (ramsey and pence ).) this is a web application, backed by a search engine and database, which may be deployed by anyone wishing to analyze a corpus of academic journal articles. it includes a variety of analysis methods (sharing many of those described for voyant), including an especially powerful word frequency analyzer. finally, should all of these tools fall short, the statistical computing language r (r core team , available at ) has become a very popular base for this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. constructing novel analyses in the digital humanities (jockers ). r combines a comprehensive set of standard statistical analyses (such as principal component analysis and dendrogram or tree clustering) with an extensive collection of user-contributed packages which may be utilized to perform complex tasks such as querying google scholar or web of science. this power comes at the cost of significant complexity, however, as r operates like a programming language rather than a graphical application. . . copyright issues. one of the most common pitfalls that users are likely to encounter when building corpora of digital data is copyright and licensing issues. while much material pertaining to figures like newton or darwin is available in the public domain, a confusing legal landscape besets all work created after (the date of “public domain” for published works in the united states). a number of recent court decisions (most significantly authors guild v. hathitrust; bayer ) have begun to clear the legal landscape in the united states, indicating that scholarly textual analysis and other sorts of digital-humanities work are likely to fall under the u.s. “fair use” provision. this, however, does nothing to simplify obtaining copyrighted materials, nor does it help scholars in other countries, many of which lack an analogue to fair use. it also may well be cold comfort to litigation-sensitive universities. increasingly, however, publishers are recognizing the demand for digital analyses of their materials. elsevier has deployed a text and data mining policy that applies to all of their journals, and will allow researchers to access and analyze articles as part of any institutional subscription (elsevier ). under the auspices of jstor’s dfr project, researchers may request access to full-text articles, if their university subscribes to the appropriate jstor collections. we also have had some degree of personal success negotiating access contracts for closed-access journal this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. articles with their publishers, including with nature publishing group, who were very receptive to the possibilities opened by digital analyses. we anticipate that this trend toward increased ease of access will only continue. . data. the academic process relies on the ability of other researchers to access, verify, and reproduce the results of analyses such as these. we will next consider how to publish and archive data, and how make public the tools and techniques used to achieve the results. . . data management. philosophers are not, as a rule, accustomed to producing large amounts of data as part of our research. when using digital tools, we find ourselves faced with many of the same questions our scientific colleagues have dealt with for some time—how do we document, store, and preserve the data that our research generates? we cannot offer comprehensive answers to these questions here; we raise them only to emphasize that problems of metadata, documentation, and archiving have been discussed extensively in other contexts and should not be neglected. early engagement with these resources will prevent significant problems from arising in the long term (york ; michener ). . . reproducibility. if digital analyses are to serve as elements of the permanent research record along with journal articles, then we must take care to make those analyses reproducible in the future. this is a multifaceted problem that has, in recent years, received significant attention from the scientific community (munafò et al. ). for most digital philosophy projects, there are three key components to reproducibility. this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. first, software must be reproducible—that is, easily installed and run by those with the relevant technical expertise. to that end, the development and use of open source software is laudable, as is using a readily accessible distribution platform such as github. second, corpora must be reproducible. this can be a difficult challenge, particularly if one has negotiated access to a body of copyrighted materials for analysis. it is often possible to negotiate access not just for an individual researcher or research team, but also for any researchers accessing a public resource (ramsey and pence successfully negotiated such contracts for evotext). we encourage researchers to think very seriously about this challenge as they develop corpora. finally, the original forms of data must be—and remain—available. open data repositories such as figshare (figshare team ; kraker et al. ) or zenodo (cern ) will accept raw data and make it citable. researchers should also take care to upload data into these repositories in formats that are likely to remain readable indefinitely into the future, such as comma-separated value (csv) format for spreadsheets, or plain unicode text or xml for textual data. . integrating digital results into philosophy of science. the digital tools are powerful and they have great potential for the philosophy of science. but digital results do not automatically translate into philosophical results. we therefore must consider how to integrate them with broader answers to philosophical questions. . justifying digital results. a recurring problem with digital humanities results consists in how we can be certain that we have obtained genuine information supporting the conclusions this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. we hope to draw. we can in part resolve this by proceeding in an “hypothesis-first” manner— forming clear hypotheses prior to performing analyses. all datasets are apt to contain chance patterns, and we should not be led astray by these patterns by basing our conclusions upon them. and when we formulate hypotheses, we should attempt to be open to a range of possible conclusions, since approaching a statistical analysis system with an answer to one’s question already in mind tends to result in the cherry-picking of tools and methods to produce the desired result (ioannidis ). that said, it can be difficult, even having carefully formulated and tested an hypothesis, to be certain that one has in fact demonstrated it conclusively. many analyses in the digital humanities lack statistical validation, and have only a history of successful use as evidence in their favor (see, e.g., the discussion of validation in koppel, schler, and argamon ). others require collaboration between experts in philosophy and statistics, computer science, or even electrical engineering (miller et al. ). an important step in developing a digital research program, therefore, is to consider how to assess whether a project has succeeded or failed. this may involve validating the methods, producing standard kinds of analysis outputs, or, as we now consider, using digital research methods only as a first step in a broader program of philosophical research. . digital humanities as research generator. because digital tools give us significantly increased breadth and depth, we have found that they are useful not just as research tools in and of themselves, but as a compass, directing us toward questions that would be answered by traditional methods in philosophy of science. for example, pence has recently combined existing work on an episode in the history of biology (pence ) with digital tools (ramsey and pence this is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form is published in philosophy of science. please quote only the published version of the paper. ), to produce a more general hypothesis about debates over paradigm change, which is now ripe for a non-digital analysis (pence in preparation). we anticipate that this workflow will, in fact, be quite common. as a digital tool shows us a provocative but not fully theorized result, this can provide us with an excellent working hypothesis, case study, or set of sample data for developing a philosophical thesis. . conclusion. as scholars interested in studying the natural sciences, we cannot ignore the availability of digital data that might assist us in our research. it was once the case that the body of scientific literature was modest in size and represented only a narrow distillation of and reflection upon the world. now the literature has become so massive, complex, and diverse that it constitutes a world unto itself, one poised for scientific and philosophical analysis. adding to this all of the digital traces of work not heretofore published—archival images, notebooks, and so on—we are confronted with an overwhelming, but incredibly rich, world of information. philosophers are beginning to see how this information can bear on questions in the philosophy of science, and can inspire new ones. but the profusion of sources and formats of data, on top of the assortment of available tools, some of which 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e-issn: - | issn: - | depósito legal: m- - recibido el _ _ | aceptado el _ _ el rol del docente universitario y su implicaciÓn ante las humanidades digitales the role of the teacher degree and his involvement with the digital humanities daniel rodrigo-cano | patricia de-casas-moreno | ignacio aguaded | daniel.rodrigo@alu.uhu.es | patricia@grupocomunicar.com | ignacio@aguaded.es | universidad de sevilla | universidad antonio de nebrija | universidad de huelva resumen. la convergencia tecnológica está provocando cambios vertiginosos en el contexto comunicativo y, sobre todo, educativo. en este sentido, la presente investigación trata de analizar una doble vertiente: por un lado, identificar las habi- lidades del docente universitario ante las humanidades digitales para el aprendizaje social y, por otro lado, identificar las herramientas más utilizadas, así como las motivaciones que llevan al éxito en las metodologías colaborativas en la web . . a raíz de lo expuesto, la investigación está enfocada a través de una metodología cuanti-cualitativa con la recolección de cuestionarios conformados por alum- nos y el desarrollo de un focus group con un total de docentes pertenecientes a las universidades de cádiz, sevilla y huelva. entre los resultados más destacados encontramos que el uso de las nuevas tecnologías en el aula está cobrando un papel notorio —tanto desde el punto de vista del alumno como del profesor— para impartir la enseñanza de forma colaborativa y conseguir desarrollar una correcta actitud crítica frente al contexto actual. por lo tanto, es importante establecer que, en momentos de humanidades digitales, el docente debe procurar empoderar a los alumnos universitarios con el fin de que estos adquieran capacidades como introducir discursos críticos. palabras clave: humanidades digitales; enseñanza- aprendizaje; tic; educomunicación; trabajo colaborativo; web . . para citar este artículo: rodrigo-cano, d; de-casas-moreno, p. y aguaded, i. ( ). el rol del docente universitario y su implicación ante las humanidades digitales. index.comunicación, ( ), - . | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional abstract. the technological convergence is leading to rapid change in the commu- nicative context and, above all, education. in this sense, the present investiga- tion tries to analyze a twofold: on the one hand, identify the skills of university professors to the digital humanities for social learning and, on the other hand, recognize the good university practices, to identify the most widely used tools, as well as the motivations that lead to success in the collaborative methodologies in web . . following this, the research is focused through a qualitative-quantitative methodology with the collection of questionnaires made up of students and the development of a focus groups with a total of teachers belonging to the university of cadiz, seville and huelva. in this sense, it can be noted, among the most outstanding results, that the use of new technologies in the classroom is taking a visible role, both from the point of view of the student and the professor for teaching in a collaborative manner and to develop a critical attitude to the current context. therefore, it is important to establish that, in times of digital humanities teachers must seek to empower the university students so that they acquire skills how to enter critical discourses. keywords: digital humanities; teaching-learning; ict, edu; collaborative work; web . . . introducción las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (tic) están provocando grandes cambios en la sociedad del conocimiento y, por tanto, en el contexto universitario, donde el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje permite la formación a lo largo de la vida a través de herramientas conectadas a internet, a las redes sociales y a las huellas digitales, que genera cada alumno y cada docente. las conexiones a internet en la universidad española se realizan a través de la tecnología wifi, a la que acceden el por ciento de los alumnos como los propios docentes, que generan casi nueve millones de conexiones al año. además, estos alumnos son usuarios habituales de la plataforma de enseñanza virtual de cada universidad con un por ciento, mientras que por parte del profesorado se puede contabilizar el por ciento en el año (llorens et al., ). hay que resaltar que el contexto educomunicativo de hoy en día se identifica por la convergencia tecnológica y el término de ubicuidad (burbules, ), es decir, estar conectado en cualquier momento y a través de cualquier dispositivo móvil (mojarro, rodrigo-cano y etchegaray-centeno, ). en este sentido, este modelo de interacción ha modificado las formas de enseñanza-aprendizaje, consiguiendo cerrar brechas y revolucionando el contexto educativo (garcía et al., ). por otra parte, la huella digital permite un análisis profundo del proce- so enseñanza-aprendizaje a través del learning analytics, definido como el index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | proceso de análisis de un gran número de datos (big data), que permite esta- blecer sistemas de apoyo al aprendizaje (scheffel, et al., ; papamitsiou y economides, ; freitas et al., ). sin duda, el impulso tecnológico se hace evidente y expone a la sociedad a grandes y nuevos retos, construyendo nuestra huella digital o nuevas identidades dentro del marco comunicacional. debido al incesante uso de las nuevas tecnologías, hay que establecer una conciencia crítica dentro de la dimensión cultural con el objetivo de mejorar las habilidades y competencias del ser humano en materia digital (gértrudix, borges y garcía, ). en los hogares españoles, el servicio de telefonía móvil está presente en un , por ciento de los mismos (urueña, prieto, seco, ballestero, castro y cadenas, ) y se ha convertido en una tecnología habitual de consumo de internet. así, siete de cada diez niños de a años disponen de teléfono móvil y más del por ciento han usado internet en los últimos tres meses (urueña, seco, castro y cadenas, ). sin duda, los smartphones permiten que los alumnos universitarios obtengan, al alcance de su mano, las principa- les herramientas seleccionadas para el aprendizaje como por ejemplo, youtu- be, el buscador de google, google drive o twitter (hart, ). estos hechos, junto a la inmediatez de acceso a información desde cualquier momento y en cualquier lugar, están facilitando que el proceso enseñanza-aprendizaje personalizado y localizado continúe más allá de las aulas (economides, ; burbules, ; vázquez-cano y sevillano-garcía, ). en suma, todos estos cambios, inciden directamente en la función docen- te, e implica que los educadores se alejen del rol de ser transmisores únicos de conocimiento para convertirse en orientadores, así como plantear problemas y situaciones adecuados para que los alumnos puedan resolverlos, aplicando habilidades para la búsqueda de información complementaria, la comunica- ción de ideas a sus compañeros o al profesor, la selección de la mejor solución a un problema o la valoración de la decisión adoptada (del-moral y villalus- tre, ; espinosa, ; figueras-maz, ferrés y mateu, ). . humanidades digitales: experiencias y proyectos en tiempos de la web . , redes sociales, internet, big data, postverdad y algo- ritmos, entre otros términos vinculados, es necesario instaurar un pensamiento filosófico, pero sobre todo ético, a través de las humanidades digitales. Éstas son entendidas como un conjunto de disciplinas humanísticas que, junto con el uso de tecnologías, pretenden crear nuevos paradigmas disruptivos con el fin de incluir críticamente el pensamiento humanista en la construcción digital y tecno- lógica de nuestra sociedad (rodríguez-ortega, ). en esta línea de estudio, | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional además de la ética, es necesario que las humanidades digitales incluyan algunos conceptos como la interdisciplinariedad, la transdisciplinariedad, la multidisci- plinariedad, las fuentes abiertas (open source), los recursos abiertos, las licencias abiertas, la promoción de licencias como creative commons, la redefinición de las comunidades de investigación y sus límites, el reequilibrio en las relaciones entre docentes y alumnos, y el compromiso e impacto social, muy en la línea de la ética hacker propuesta por himanen ( ). según piscitelli ( ), se trata de una deriva cultural en la que conviven tecnología y cultura, provocando la necesidad de estudiar e investigar sobre la cultura digital con el fin de crear vínculos a través de la reproducción cultural, que se realiza a través del uso de las tic, moodle o los mooc (romero-frías, ). por otro lado, es importante valorar la evolución de las tic, ya que permi- ten la participación social y democrática, así como el empoderamiento del ciudadano (biesta, ). a raíz de esta afirmación, surgen las tecnologías para el empoderamiento y la participación (tep), posibilitando el proceso a las múltiples conversaciones con los iguales en el aula con el fin de ser capa- ces de presionar a políticas, marcas y el establishment hacia una democracia . . al fin y al cabo, el objetivo no es otro que el de lograr implicar a los ciuda- danos. en palabras de gozálvez y contreras-pulido ( : ), se trata de «empoderar a la ciudadanía, lo que significa reforzar la libertad, la autonomía crítica y la participación de los ciudadanos en cuestiones políticas, sociales, económicas, ecológicas e interculturales a partir del buen uso de los medios y la tecnología comunicativa». en otro orden de cosas, hay que destacar el entorno de prácticas culturales y digitales, que se experimentan en los ámbitos tecnológicos como las tric (tecnologías+relación+información+comunicación) (gabelas, marta-lazo, y aranda, ; gabelas, marta-lazo y gonzález-aldea, ; marta-lazo, hergueta-covacho y gabelas, ; garrido-lora, busquet y munté-ramos, ). este nuevo concepto y enfoque educomunicativo exhibe una realidad en la que sólo el por ciento de la población mundial posee bajas habilida- des tecnológicas (kankaraš et al., ), es decir, que no pueden utilizar de forma eficaz la tecnología de la que disponen por lo que se debe promover un nuevo modelo de aprendizaje, donde prevalezca la interacción, la creatividad y el pensamiento crítico. por lo tanto, un correcto modelo educomunicativo debe atender a las siguientes premisas (marcelo, yot, murillo y mayor, ; marta-lazo y gabelas, ): → actividades asimilativas, que busquen promover la comprensión del alum- nado acerca de determinados conceptos o ideas. el profesor debe presen- index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | tar esta tarea, basándose en recursos como las presentaciones multimedia, vídeos, documentos de textos digitales, audios, fotografías, etc. → actividades de gestión de la información, que requieren que el alumnado tenga que buscar, contrastar, sintetizar o realizar un análisis de una determi- nada información, utilizando para ello navegadores web, programas infor- máticos específicos, etc. → actividades comunicativas, en las que se solicita a los alumnos tareas de presentación de información, discusiones, debates, puestas en común, etc., usando herramientas de comunicación online síncronas o asíncronas. → actividades productivas, con las que se le pide al alumnado que diseñe, elabore o cree algún producto manejando tecnologías digitales (paquete ofimático, otro software específico, etc.). → actividades experienciales, intentando ubicar a los alumnos en un ambien- te cercano al ejercicio profesional futuro, bien de forma real o simulada. → actividades evaluativas, su principal objetivo es la evaluación del alumna- do por medio de tecnologías digitales (e-rúbricas, portafolios, etc.). . características del docente . el papel del docente en la actualidad sufre un desarrollo constante, ya que estos deben exponerse a una formación continua por la inclusión de las nuevas tecno- logías. en este sentido, para identificar las habilidades del educador . , hay que analizar una serie de características importantes. por un lado, debe poseer un dominio de la materia o disciplina a impartir. sin duda, no se puede instruir a los alumnos sin tener una serie de conocimientos y competencias básicas. en este sentido, la comunicación será́ la base de la enseñanza. además, conocer al grupo de estudiantes es un hecho importante, si se pretende sintonizar con ellos, así como conocer y experimentar técnicas de dinámica con diferente finalidad (presentación, fomentar la interacción, debatir, colaborar, simular…) (gutiérrez- porlán, román-garcía y sánchez-vera, ). según ibermón ( ), es necesario saber elaborar un guion de la sesión distribuyendo el tiempo y atendiendo a los objetivos que se persigan, el tipo de actividades que se propongan, la curva de fatiga del alumnado, etc. (reflexión en la acción). asimismo, hay que tener preparado un sistema para evaluar tanto al alumnado como su propia intervención (reflexión sobre la | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional acción). otros de los atributos que debe tener un buen docente es el de producir conocimientos científicos, favorecer estrategias de aprendizaje y desarrollo de competencias, generar una actitud de respeto, conseguir desa- rrollar la capacidad de escucha, establecer una buena comunicación, prepa- rar las clases de manera adecuada, ser una persona justa y paciente con inte- rés por los alumnos y con capacidad de planificar el proceso de enseñanza y el de aprendizaje, ser capaz de seleccionar y presentar los contenidos disciplinares, ofrecer informaciones y explicaciones comprensibles, poseer un buen grado de alfabetización tecnológica y el manejo didáctico de las tic, saber gestionar las metodologías de trabajo didáctico y las tareas de aprendizaje, ser capaz de relacionarse constructivamente con los alumnos, reflexionar e investigar sobre la enseñanza, e implicarse institucionalmente (fernández-borrero y gonzález-losada, ). en muchas de estas carac- terísticas se pone de manifiesto la presencia de las tic, por lo que, para el docente . serán necesarias competencias digitales, entendiendo estas como experto en contenidos pedagógicos emergentes, práctico-reflexivo aumentado, experto en entornos de aprendizaje enriquecidos, sensible al uso de la tecnología desde la perspectiva del compromiso social, generador y gestor de prácticas pedagógicas emergentes y capaz de usar las tic para expandir su relación con la familia y el entorno del estudiante (castañeda, esteve y adell, ). por otro lado, el nuevo educador . debe ser válido para diseñar la guía docente de acuerdo con las necesidades, el contexto y el perfil profesional, todo ello, en coordinación con otros profesionales. también debe desarrollar el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, propiciando oportunidades de formación tanto individual como grupal; tutorizar el proceso de instrucción del alumno, contribuyendo con acciones que le permitan una mayor autonomía; evaluar el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje; aportar activamente a la mejora de la docencia y participar activamente en la dinámica académico-organizativa de la institución (mas-torrelló, ). según espinosa ( ), un buen docente, hoy en día, debe llevar a cabo tareas de índole interpersonal, metodológica, comunicativa, de planificación, de gestión de la docencia, de trabajo en equipo y de innovación. los profeso- res asignan la máxima importancia a la competencia de comunicación, segui- da de la interpersonal y metodológica, quedando relegado a un segundo plano la planificación y gestión, la innovación y, por último, el trabajo en equipo. por su parte, gargallo y otros ( ) señalan que su papel debe ser el de una persona que consiga establecer relaciones entre los conceptos; fomentar el aprendizaje significativo; enseñar a aprender a aprender; motivador; conectar index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | la teoría con la práctica; fomentar la participación; y utilizar metodologías variadas y complementarias, en función de las necesidades. en definitiva, y con esta visión, se puede concluir que un buen docente es aquel que tiene vocación por la enseñanza con un buen dominio de la mate- ria que imparte, adaptándola al nivel y la aplicación demandada. además, se tratará de una persona comprensible, favorecedora del diálogo y que se actua- liza constantemente, no sólo en los conocimientos propios de la materia, sino en metodologías, tecnologías y actitudes personales adecuadas. . metodología la presente investigación trata de analizar una doble vertiente: por un lado, iden- tificar las habilidades del docente universitario ante las humanidades digitales para el aprendizaje social y, por otro lado, reconocer las buenas prácticas univer- sitarias, que permitan identificar las herramientas más utilizadas, así como las motivaciones que llevan al éxito a través del uso de metodologías colaborativas en la web . . para ello, este estudio se ha abordado desde un enfoque mixto (cuanti-cualitativo) con el fin de comprender las experiencias, percepciones y expectativas de docentes universitarios respecto a la integración de las tecnolo- gías de la información y comunicación (tic) dentro de las aulas, lo que permite identificar las humanidades digitales que presentan estos docentes. para realizar el estudio se ha partido de una muestra de . alumnos matriculados en las universidades de cádiz, huelva y sevilla. a raíz de este cómputo, se determina una muestra aleatoria de un total de estudiantes durante el curso - . en este sentido, para conseguir esta muestra se ha atendido a todos aquellos alumnos contactados a través de los docentes de las universidades seleccionadas por el uso del mailing. estas respuestas parten de un margen de error del cinco por ciento y un nivel de confianza del por ciento. además, el instrumento generó un registro de las respuestas obtenidas, que fueron exportadas al programa estadístico spss . , desde el que se analizaron e interpretaron los resultados. esta encuesta se elaboró a través de la herramienta de formularios de google, que permite el envío masivo y la recepción de datos online de forma agrupada y visual, basada en el cues- tionario social software survey used with unpaced undergrad (anderson, poellhuber y mckerlich, ) en los ítems de la dimensión preferencia de aprendizaje. a este cuestionario se le incluyeron cuestiones relacionadas con la identificación, el uso y la frecuencia de las tic, experiencia y las frecuen- cias de uso con herramientas de la web . . el cuestionario final contenía ítems, aunque en este artículo analizamos las elaboradas a partir de anderson, poellhuber y mckerlich ( ), concre- | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional tamente las cuestiones «¿las redes sociales favorecen la colaboración en el trabajo por parte del profesorado?» y «¿las redes sociales favorecen el contac- to y la colaboración entre el alumnado y el profesorado?». la herramienta se ha conformado a través de una escala tipo likert con cuatro respuestas posibles de ‘totalmente en desacuerdo’ ( ) a ‘muy de acuerdo’ ( ) evitando tendencias centrales. en el análisis de la fiabilidad de estas preguntas se utili- zó el coeficiente de alfa de cronbach, que obtuvo , en ambas preguntas, consiguiendo un alto grado de fiabilidad en el instrumento. para el análisis cualitativo, en esta investigación, se utilizó la técnica de focus group o grupo de discusión. se trata de una técnica adecuada para obtener información valiosa e ilustradora, que permite la exploración y el descubrimiento. además, se convierte en un encuentro orientado a estimular los procesos de comunicación y, por tanto, deben ser flexibles y dinámicos (taylor y bogdan, ). para ello, el papel del dinamizador es fundamental y debe estar predispuesto a aprender (morgan, ). los grupos focales, dada su densidad para la construcción multicriterial y por sus potenciales partici- pativos y de autoconocimiento grupal, posibilitaron convertir colectivos de discusión en dispositivos dinámicos de autorreflexión (espina, ). en este caso, las líneas de debate que se desarrollaron en el focus group fueron: identificar las metodologías colaborativas en la web . que faciliten el aprendizaje universitario; identificar las habilidades del docente . para el aprendizaje social; metodologías colaborativas en la web . de éxito en el aula universitaria. por lo tanto, se realizaron tres focus group, uno por cada universidad de estudio, entre los meses de febrero y marzo de , dentro del curso universitario - , con una duración de minutos aproxi- madamente en todos ellos. en la universidad de sevilla y en la universidad de cádiz participaron siete docentes respectivamente y en la universidad de huelva participaron seis docentes. . resultados . . resultados de la encuesta los datos de la encuesta realizada para esta investigación permiten realizar una descripción socio-demográfica de los estudiantes universitarios, consi- guiendo los siguientes valores: las respuestas recogidas han sido en mayor número de mujeres ( por ciento), con una moda de edad de años y una media de , años (desviación típica de , ). la residencia habitual de los encuestados está relacionada con una gran ciudad ( por ciento) y, preferen- temente, se encuentran contextualizados en el hogar familiar ( por ciento) frente a las que comparten piso ( por ciento). asimismo, hay que destacar index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | según los datos extraídos que una gran mayoría de alumnado no dispone de beca ( por ciento). por otro lado, en cuanto a la exposición de los resultados de la encuesta, hay que destacar que las redes sociales se han convertido en herramientas que permiten las relaciones entre docentes y alumnos. en este sentido, la estadísti- ca descriptiva llevada a cabo arroja los siguientes resultados según las dimen- siones delimitadas para el estudio. en relación al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen la colaboración en el trabajo por parte del profesorado» se ha conse- guido una media de , (con valores de a ) y una desviación típica (dt) de , . por su parte, con datos similares, el ítem «las redes sociales favorecen el contacto y la colaboración entre el alumnado y el profesorado» ha obtenido un media de , y una dt de , . con los resultados obtenidos, se puede destacar que el , por ciento de los alumnos indican estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con el uso de las redes sociales por parte del profesorado como metodología de colaboración (tabla ). tabla . porcentaje de respuesta al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen la colaboración en el trabajo por parte del profesorado». frecuencia porcentaje porcentaje válido totalmente en desacuerdo , , en desacuerdo , , de acuerdo , , muy de acuerdo , , total , , fuente: elaboración propia. en este ítem de «las redes sociales favorecen la colaboración en el trabajo por parte del profesorado» se pueden destacar, en función de la universidad a la que pertenecen y el sexo, los siguientes resultados. en cuanto a la universidad de cádiz, indican que están de acuerdo con esta afirmación junto con los que indican estar muy de acuerdo. en total, alumnos de la universidad de cádiz muestran estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con este ítem, mientras que sólo indican estar en desacuerdo o totalmente en desacuerdo (tabla ). sin embargo, son los alumnos de la universidad de huelva los que se muestran más de acuerdo con este ítem, atendiendo que por encima del por ciento indican estar de acuerdo ( ) o muy de acuerdo ( ) frente a los participantes que están en desacuerdo o totalmente en desacuerdo. por su parte, la universi- dad de sevilla tan sólo el por ciento ( respuestas) se muestran de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con el ítem «las redes sociales favorecen la colaboración | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional en el trabajo por parte del profesorado». es en esta universidad de sevilla en la que se producen más discrepancias, superando las respuestas en el apartado ‘totalmente en desacuerdo’ a las respuestas de ‘muy de acuerdo’. tabla . tasa de respuestas por universidad y sexo al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen la colaboración en el trabajo por parte del profesorado». universidad total total desacuerdo desacuerdo de acuerdo muy de acuerdo uca sexo hombre mujer total uhu sexo hombre mujer total us sexo hombre mujer total fuente: elaboración propia. si atendemos al sexo de las personas participantes en la encuesta (tabla ), se puede destacar que en la universidad de cádiz están de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo mujeres sobre un total de , representándose en el por ciento del total, frente a las respuestas de los hombres ( , por ciento). en la universidad de huelva prácticamente no hay diferencias entre el sexo y en ambos casos están de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo tanto los alumnos ( , por ciento) como las alumnas ( por ciento). es en la universidad de sevilla en la que las diferencias entre los hombres y las mujeres se hace más evidente, así mientras hombres, de respuestas totales, han respondido estar de acuer- do o muy de acuerdo con este ítem son mujeres, de respuestas totales, las que han mostrado estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con esta afirmación, lo que indica que hay puntos porcentuales entre las mujeres ( por ciento) y los hombres ( por ciento). de la misma forma, respecto al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen el contacto y la colaboración entre el alumnado y el profesorado» (tabla ), los alumnos han respondido en ocasiones que están de acuerdo ( ) o muy de acuerdo ( ), lo que representa un por ciento de las respuestas. index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | tabla . porcentaje de respuesta al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen el contacto y la colaboración entre el alumnado y el profesorado». frecuencia porcentaje porcentaje válido totalmente en desacuerdo , , en desacuerdo , , de acuerdo , , muy de acuerdo , , total , , fuente: elaboración propia. respecto al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen el contacto y la colabora- ción entre el alumnado y el profesorado» (tabla ), atendiendo a las univer- sidades de referencia se puede destacar los resultados de la universidad de huelva, en la que de respuestas están de acuerdo ( ) o muy de acuerdo ( ) con el ítem, lo que representa el por ciento del total de las respuestas respondidas desde esta universidad. en el caso de la universidad de cádiz con un total de respuestas, de las mismas son entre de acuerdo ( ) y muy de acuerdo ( ), lo que representa un por ciento. tan sólo en la univer- sidad de sevilla los alumnos que han respondido a la encuesta muestran más dudas sobre si las redes sociales favorecen el contacto y la colaboración entre el alumnado y el profesorado; sólo de las respuestas han indicado estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo, lo que constituye un , por ciento. tabla . tasa de respuestas por universidad y sexo al ítem «las redes sociales favorecen el contacto y la colaboración entre el alumnado y el profesorado». universidad total total desacuerdo desacuerdo de acuerdo muy de acuerdo uca sexo hombre mujer total uhu sexo hombre mujer total us sexo hombre mujer total fuente: elaboración propia. | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional existen diferencias en las respuestas que tanto alumnos como alumnas han respondido a la encuesta; así, mientras en la universidad de cádiz ( por ciento) mujeres indicaron estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con este ítem, sólo hombres indicaron lo mismo ( por ciento). en las otras dos universidades analizadas se observa que la tendencia es inversa, tanto en la universidad de huelva como en la de sevilla son los hombres los que indi- can estar más de acuerdo con esta afirmación que las mujeres. mientras en la universidad de huelva de los alumnos que respondieron a la encuesta indicaron estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo (un por ciento), las de mujeres también indicaron estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo ( por cien- to). y en la universidad de sevilla de las mujeres ( por ciento) que respondieron a la encuesta muestran estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con esta afirmación, mientras que de hombres ( por ciento) indican estar de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con este ítem (tabla ). en suma, para los alumnos de las universidades de este estudio las redes sociales son herramientas que favorecen el contacto y la colaboración entre el alumnado. además, estos instrumentos se han alzado como las nuevas meto- dologías de enseñanza-aprendizaje en el currículo educativo, cuyas nuevas formas favorecen el desarrollo crítico. sin duda, el nuevo ecosistema comu- nicativo ofrece al nuevo estudiante un escenario interdisciplinar donde el docente ayuda y forma a través de las competencias digitales oportunas para favorecer las humanidades digitales de todos los componentes. . . opiniones y actitudes de la muestra a través del ‘focus group’ los cambios en las metodologías, la integración de las tic y las incertidumbres de un mundo cambiante exigen preguntarse si el docente requiere nuevas habilidades o identificar cuáles son las que se asociarían con el docente universitario para el siglo xxi. de este modo, los participantes han identificado las siguientes habilida- des: el docente debe asumir la horizontalidad pero no la simetría; debe aportar otro rol, otro conocimiento y definir el contexto; y, por último, el profesor no es el único que tiene el conocimiento y la verdad absoluta. sin embargo, también han apunta- do a otras ideas como: red-arquía (concepto contrario a la jerarquía) o apren-red (como juego de palabras para denotar el aprendizaje en red). frente a lo expuesto, es importante señalar que se requiere de una serie de características para la nueva docencia: «otras formas de dar la clase; se trata de retar y desafiar a los alumnos; aprender a aprender; ser autodidacta». los docentes tienen claro que se enfrentan a nuevas situaciones, indicando que: «en mi opinión las rrss han revolucionado las clases». index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | coincidiendo con lo que han indicado los docentes en las entrevistas, las tic han revolucionado la educación, el educador se ha convertido en auto- didacta en muchas ocasiones, buscando aplicaciones y herramientas para la interactuación y la motivación, reclamando que: pedagogía, didáctica, comunicación y herramientas tic: «docente clave en el proceso para el uso adecuado de las tic» y «el docente tiene que tener herramientas y estrategias para utilizarlas adecuadamente como cualquier otra herramienta». ante los cambios inminentes, que identifican una universidad distinta y más abierta, el docente tiene que adaptarse a los nuevos tiempos y, por ello, es necesa- rio ser investigador, que no escritor de artículos. asimismo, es importante la inter- colaboración entre docentes para lograr metodologías colaborativas. por tanto, como ellos mismos han indicado, los docentes se han de adaptar al cambio. ante estos cambios los informantes ya indican que: «la dificultad es que venimos de un mundo, con una estructura jerárquica, organizada, disciplinada, de arriba-abajo y nos encontramos en un mundo que no sólo lo combate si no que se opone radicalmente». reconocer las buenas prácticas universitarias en el uso de herramientas para las metodologías colaborativas en la web . es uno de los objetivos de esa investigación. ante este objetivo los informantes de los focus group indicaron aspectos relevantes para el proceso enseñanza-aprendizaje en la universidad. la forma de trabajo influye en las herramientas a utilizar, por eso requieren nuevas formas de enseñanza: «trabajo por proyectos»; «trabajo por problemas»; «trabajo en colaboración» o trabajar en temas de actuali- dad o significativos para los alumnos. otras soluciones propuestas están rela- cionadas con trabajar a través del humor, como viñetas o la muy utilizada «clase invertida» (flipped classroom). asimismo, los docentes reconocen estas buenas prácticas con las tic porque les reportan beneficios como: «el uso habitual de la plataforma mejora el proceso y facilita el mismo, tanto alumnos como docentes, pero requiere un proceso formativo»; «la accesibilidad, la capacidad de almacenamiento y la inmediatez son las grandes ventajas. en una palabra, agilidad»; «capacidad de difusión y de compartir conocimiento»; «las rrss permiten la conexión directa y la interacción entre los alumnos y el docente». | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional sin embargo, indican algunos inconvenientes como los problemas psico- lógicos (miedo) sobre el uso y puesta en marcha de las tic. nos cuesta reinventarnos; no conocemos las estructuras de los proce- sos de la comunicación y me parece necesaria una alfabetización digital. en consecuencia, advierten que internet no incide directamente en el cambio metodológico y que hay que repensar el uso de metodologías que busquen vincular la participación. con todo esto, parece evidente que es cues- tión personal del docente establecer buenas prácticas. de este modo, algunas frases reconocen una necesidad de romper algunas normas: «interactividad entre el docente y los alumnos»; «transgredo el carte- lito de prohibido el teléfono móvil»; «todo el mundo al mismo nivel y utilizando las redes»; «deberíamos poner el objetivo en otro sitio, que sería aprender a aprender». en definitiva, de la misma forma que los docentes en las entrevistas habían identificado algunas herramientas de la web . para el desarrollo de buenas prácticas, en los focus group identificaron facebook, blog, youtube y, como novedad, han indicado la tecnología móvil whatsapp; y, por supuesto, la plataforma virtual. esta selección está determinada por el uso y aplicación de las nuevas tecnologías como método de enseñanza-aprendizaje a través del trabajo cola- borativo entre el alumno y el docente. en esta ocasión se puede afirmar que, tanto las respuestas de los estudiantes, como las de profesores, se acercan y convergen hacia el uso de las mismas tecnologías. . discusión y conclusiones las redes sociales se descubren como herramientas que, en opinión de los alum- nos de las universidades de este estudio, favorecen la colaboración y el contacto entre el alumnado y el profesorado. este tipo de tecnologías deberían posibilitar el desarrollo de tutorías online como herramientas de comunicación, dado que es una de las acciones más habituales entre un grupo importante de docentes que utiliza las tecnologías en el aula universitaria como demuestra el estudio de marcelo, yot, y mayor-ruiz ( ). aún sin estrategias formales, se encuentran docentes que utilizan de forma habitual tecnologías como el correo electrónico, presentaciones multimedia o la plataforma virtual (cerezo, sánchez-santillán, puerto, y núñez, ) de forma significativa, si entendemos el trabajo del index.comunicaci�n el rol del docente universitario y su... | rodrigo cano, de casas moreno, aguaded | docente, como orientador y gestor de la información de relevancia (sancho-gil y hernández-hernández, ). la docencia universitaria se ha caracterizado por dos extremos. por un lado, la transmisión del conocimiento como parte del docente hacia los alum- nos en un mensaje unidireccional que genera un aprendizaje pasivo. en este sentido, el docente no tiene en cuenta las características del alumnado, ni el contexto. en el otro extremo, podríamos situar las estrategias colaborativas en las que se introducen, tanto el trabajo en pequeños grupos como el debate con todo el grupo clase. además, se pueden encontrar zonas intermedias como en la clase expositiva, que permita la interacción y que pretenda la implicación del grupo clase. este modelo de clase requiere del docente un alto componente comunicativo (ibermón, ), incluyendo la investigación y uso de las tic para el desarrollo de actividades de forma limitada y para acciones concretas (flavin, ). además, las tic deben estar al servicio de metodologías que ya se estaban implementando y no para transformarlas (ng’ambi, ). en el momento actual, el docente universitario ante las humanidades digi- tales debe decidir el rol de las tecnologías en el aula. para ello, el profesor universitario requiere, entre otras capacidades: tendencia hacia el trabajo cola- borativo y en equipos docentes; y la presencia generalizada de las tic en la educación (prendes, martínez y gutiérrez, ). en todo caso, para cual- quiera de estas formas de enseñanza descritas es necesario atender al contexto educativo y al de los alumnos. a lo largo del siglo xxi se han incorporado a las aulas universitarias la denominada generación ‘google’, ‘net’ o ‘eins- tein’ (aguaded y cabero, : ) caracteriza por: «carecer de conciencia sobre sus necesidades de información por lo que no saben satisfacerlas autó- nomamente, acceden a internet y dominan su mecánica, pero no saben usarla de manera significativa, dedican poco tiempo a evaluar críticamente el mate- rial en línea, no saben identificar lo relevante y fiable, pero tampoco reciben instrucción en la escuela al respecto, y suelen leer como promedio sólo entre el por ciento y el por ciento del total del contenido de una web» (igle- sias-onofrio y rodrigo-cano, : ). sin embargo, en las aulas no están ellos solos, sino que comparten las aulas y los docentes, con los inmigrantes digitales y visitantes de la red, junto con los aprendices del nuevo milenio, la instant message generation, net generation, nativos digitales, alfabetos digitales, alfabetos tecnológicos, estudiantes residentes, prosumidores y los prosumidores mediáticos (sevillano, quicios y gonzález, ). en suma, es importante establecer que en momentos de humanidades digitales el docente debe procurar empoderar a los alumnos universitarios con el fin de que estos adquieran capacidades como introducir discursos | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional críticos, que cuestionen el funcionamiento del sistema; que actúen bajo principios de horizontalidad, intercambio de mensajes de igual a igual y en ausencia de jerarquización; en definitiva, que sean capaces de comunicar desde una posición de libertad, en lo que aparici y garcía-marín ( ) han descrito como emirecs. . bibliografía aguaded, i. y cabero, j. 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( ). mejorar la enseñanza y el aprendizaje en la universidad. cuadernos de docencia universitaria, , - . http://dx.doi.org/ . /bjet. http://goo.gl/ dk a http://dx.doi.org/ . /a.v i . http://dx.doi.org/ . /a.v i . http://dx.doi.org/ . /c - - https://doi.org/ . /c - - http://goo.gl/z nndn | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional iglesias-onofrio, m. y rodrigo-cano, d. ( ). la web . en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje: una experiencia de innovación docente universitaria. cuestiones pedagógicas, , - . kankaraš, m.; montt, g.; paccagnella, m.; quintini, g. y thorn, w. ( ). skills matter: further results from the survey of adult skills. oecd skills studies. oecd publishing. doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . / -en llorens, f.; fernández, a.; canay, j. r.; fernández, s.; rodeiro, d.; ruzo, e. y sampalo, f. j. ( ): descripción de las tic, en gómez, j. 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( ). las tic en los hogares españoles, estudio de demanda y uso de servicios de telecomunicaciones y sociedad de la información. recuperado desde: https://goo.gl/x sz s urueña, a.; seco, j. a.; castro, r. y cadenas, s. ( ). perfil sociode- mográfico de los internautas, análisis de datos ine . recuperado desde: https://goo.gl/ab kx vázquez-cano, e. y sevillano-garcía, m. l. ( ). lugares y espacios para el uso educativo y ubicuo de los dispositivos digitales móviles en la educación superior. edutec, . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /edutec. . . para citar este artículo: rodrigo-cano, d; de-casas-moreno, p. y aguaded, i. ( ). el rol del docente universitario y su implicación ante las humanidades digitales. index.comunicación, ( ), - . http://dx.doi.org/ . /red/ / http://dx.doi.org/ . /red/ / http://dx.doi.org/ . /c - - https://goo.gl/x sz s https://goo.gl/ab kx http://dx.doi.org/ . /edutec. . . indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection justin parrott new york university in abu dhabi published on: feb , doi: . / e f f.d a reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection project indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection project director edward curtis iv, iupui project url http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/collections/iwdc project reviewer justin parrott, new york university in abu dhabi project over view edward curtis iv description the indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection documents the life of an african american muslim community that has been part of indianapolis since the s. established as “muhammad’s mosque” on indiana avenue, the community was first aligned with the teachings of nation of islam leader elijah muhammad and then after , with elijah muhammad’s son and heir, warith deen muhammad, better known as w. deen mohammed. now called the nur allah (light of god) islamic center, this congregation has become known in central indiana for its commitment to civic engagement and interf aith activities. the collection documents its members’ involvement in public life while also shedding light on the congregation’s religious activities. the project is the result of a partnership between iupui and the nur allah islamic center. one of its contributions to digital humanities is its careful methodology of and best practices in community- based research. embarking on the project over a year ago, our first priority was to make sure that nur- allah’s members were the ones deciding what would go into the archive. the whole point of the project was for the community to tell the story of its own muslim american journey, to shares its struggles and celebrate its successes. team edward curtis, an expert on islam in america and author or editor of books on the topic, initially proposed and offered funding for the project. a committee of community members, led by imam michael saahir, then worked closely with jenny johnson and her team at iupui’s center for digital https://edward-curtis.com/ http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/collections/iwdc http://library.nyu.edu/people/justin-parrott/ reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection scholarship to collect, scan, and label all items in the archive. the most important voice in the process was that of community members, who were making the decisions of what was valuable to preserve and share. iupui’s digital librarians made clear from the beginning that this was the community’s project, not theirs. after initial meetings at the library, the nur-allah islamic community hosted a community forum at the mosque with library staff. members wanted to know who would be in charge of labeling the items—that is, who would provide the metadata. in all cases, it was explained, the donor would. in practice, this meant that those who donated hundreds of items ended up spending significant time working in the library with iupui staff. the community also wanted to know how long it would take the library to make digital scans of their valuable items, and we established a process for making sure that items would be scanned quickly and then returned to their owner. a committee of several community members was formed, and frequently met to take stock of our progress and to gather and deliver items for digitization. we talked for a long time about what we should name the archive. we also openly discussed the challenge of sharing sensitive information, and sometimes went item by item as we figured out the ethical implications of our actions. it helped that the iupui library and one of our members, judge david shaheed, brought a lot of experience and wisdom to the table. audience and contribution the primary audience is first muslim americans interested in their own history and second scholars of islam in america. other audiences include scholars of american studies, u.s. history, black studies, islamic studies, and indiana history. the primary contribution is to make available the voices of muslim americans who are ( ) entirely missing from existing archives and ( ) almost silent in scholarship. existing scholarship on african americans muslims, especially on w. d. mohammed’s community, often focuses on chicago, los angeles, atlanta, washington, dc, and boston. indianapolis is absent. the existence of this archive complements the efforts underway to make available in digital form the primary sources needed to understand the activities of members, rather than movement leaders. these include the work of scholars such zaheer ali of the brooklyn historical society, who is directing “muslims in brooklyn”; abbas barzegar of the council of american-islamic relations, who has launched the “after malcolm” digital project to document muslim american history after , with the ali vural ak center at george mason university; kayla wheeler of grand valley state university and zaid adhami of williams college, who are working to preserve muslim history in the boston area; and harold morales in baltimore and katie merriman in harlem, new york. only recently have such sources been digitized and made available on the web, and this archive is one of the largest, if not the largest, yet published. https://aftermalcolm.com/about-the-project/ reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection project review justin parrott the newly digitized indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection is a significant contribution to a growing body of ‘community-based research’ projects. in partnership with the nur allah islamic center, formerly known as “muhammad’s mosque,” librarians from iupui’s center for digital scholarship f acilitated collecting, scanning, labeling, and providing access for , items (at the time of this publication) selected by community members. the result is a unique digital repository of letters, pictures, fliers, newspaper clippings, mosque newsletters, and other objects that tell the story of this f aith-based community that has been active in indianapolis since the s. imam w. d. muhammad (d. ), also spelled mohammed, was the son and heir of elijah muhammad, the first leader of the black nationalist movement nation of islam (noi). after the death of his f ather in , the imam steered the community he inherited away from the radical political orientation of the noi and towards a more mainstream, spiritually-driven form of sunni islam. “my f ather was a great social reformer. but when i came in, all i cared about was the soul,” the imam reportedly said.[ ] items in the digital archive range from to the near present. researchers of black muslims and islam in america can now access a number of primary sources that document the community. the earliest documents from the noi-era include photos and letter by members, including elijah muhammad himself. perhaps the most interesting set of objects is the masjid muhammad newsletter, which has been preserved from to . these newsletters provide a f ascinating look at the community’s activity during this critical phase of transition as imam w. d. took over leadership. several items record the community’s current activities, including the annual parents appreciation banquet, martin luther king jr. tributes, and interf aith events. background f amiliarity with the community and its history is necessary to make sense of some of the items as there is limited contextualization. the project is hosted using oclc’s contentdm as a sub-collection alongside several other iupui collections. this is an industry-standard and high-quality content management system (cms) in the field of digital humanities. the interf ace is f airly easy to use, but users will need to become accustomed to the particulars of the navigation scheme. returning to the main browsing page from an item via the breadcrumb feature, for instance, requires two clicks through a landing page, which may not be intuitive to some users. these minor issues do not detract from the general value of the project. as a community-based research project, metadata was supplied by the donors themselves. text-based items have been transcribed for full-text searching. these search terms are highlighted on the digital reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. indianapolis imam warith deen muhammad community collection image itself, an excellent feature. dates are not standardized by year, which renders the left-side hyperlink f aceting less effective. this can make research a little challenging, as it is more difficult to narrow searches by time period or find keywords consistently applied across the collection. moving forward, the project team could assist community members with best metadata practices in relation to the cms, using previous iupui projects as an example. it is essential to maintain the autonomy of the community’s intellectual content and purpose, of course, but librarians can suggest ways to improve the formatting of metadata for the cms. overall, the imam w. d. collection achieves its stated goal of supporting muslim american voices and enriching the digital landscape of resources about islam in america. it compliments other archives through its specific focus on indianapolis’ community-members, whereas other projects have focused on movement leaders in other locations. the collection will also be of interest, by interdisciplinary extension, to researchers of u.s. history, indiana history, and african american studies. [ ] don terry, "w. deen mohammed: a leap of f aith." chicago tribune, oct. , . accessed feb. , : www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi- -mohammedprofile-story.html file:///users/guiliano/downloads/www.chicagotribune.com/news/chi- -mohammedprofile-story.html [pdf] unfolding the landscape drawing method of rakuchū rakugai zu screen paintings in a gis environment | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: unfolding the landscape drawing method of rakuchū rakugai zu screen paintings in a gis environment @article{tsukamoto unfoldingtl, title={unfolding the landscape drawing method of rakuchū rakugai zu screen paintings in a gis environment}, author={akihiro tsukamoto}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } akihiro tsukamoto published geography, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. in this paper, i propose a new methodology for analysing landscape drawing methods using a gis. the subject of my analysis is the genre of japanese screen paintings known as rakuchū rakugai zu, created between the th and th centuries. rakuchū rakugai zu provide bird's-eye views of the then-capital city of kyoto, including buildings, natural features, and human activities. the methodology introduced here uses gis spatial analysis functions to scan the painting surface onto a survey… expand view via publisher cga-download.hmdc.harvard.edu save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables geographic information system spatial analysis associative entity one citation citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency extracting spatial data from historic artwork of hobart and its region m. farag-miller geography pdf save alert research feed related papers abstract figures and topics citations related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue digital humanities the importance of pedagogy: towards a companion to teaching digital humanities hirsch, brett d. brett.hirsch@gmail.com university of western australia timney, meagan mbtimney.etcl@gmail.com university of victoria the need to “encourage digital scholarship” was one of eight key recommendations in our cultural commonwealth: the report of the american council of learned societies commission on cyberinfrastructure for the humanities and social sciences (unsworth et al). as the report suggested, “if more than a few are to pioneer new digital pathways, more formal venues and opportunities for training and encouragement are needed” ( ). in other words, human infrastructure is as crucial as cyberinfrastructure for the future of scholarship in the humanities and social sciences. while the commission’s recommendation pertains to the training of faculty and early career researchers, we argue that the need extends to graduate and undergraduate students. despite the importance of pedagogy to the development and long-term sustainability of digital humanities, as yet very little critical literature has been published. both the companion to digital humanities ( ) and the companion to digital literary studies ( ), seminal reference works in their own right, focus primarily on the theories, principles, and research practices associated with digital humanities, and not pedagogical issues. there is much work to be done. this poster presentation will begin by contextualizing the need for a critical discussion of pedagogical issues associated with digital humanities. this discussion will be framed by a brief survey of existing undergraduate and graduate programs and courses in digital humanities (or with a digital humanities component), drawing on the “institutional models” outlined by mccarty and kirschenbaum ( ). the growth in the number of undergraduate and graduate programs and courses offered reflects both an increasing desire on the part of students to learn about sorts of “transferable skills” and “applied computing” that digital humanities offers (jessop ), and the desire of practitioners to consolidate and validate their research and methods. we propose a volume, teaching digital humanities: principles, practices, and politics, to capitalize on the growing prominence of digital humanities within university curricula and infrastructure, as well as in the broader professional community. we plan to structure the volume according to the four critical questions educators should consider as emphasized recently by mary bruenig, namely: - what knowledge is of most worth? - by what means shall we determine what we teach? - in what ways shall we teach it? - toward what purpose? in addition to these questions, we are mindful of henry a. giroux’s argument that “to invoke the importance of pedagogy is to raise questions not simply about how students learn but also about how educators (in the broad sense of the term) construct the ideological and political positions from which they speak” ( ). consequently, we will encourage submissions to the volume that address these wider concerns. references breunig, mary ( ). 'radical pedagogy as praxis'. radical pedagogy. http://radicalpeda gogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.ht ml. giroux, henry a. ( ). 'rethinking the boundaries of educational discourse: modernism, postmodernism, and feminism'. margins in the classroom: teaching literature. myrsiades, kostas, myrsiades, linda s. (eds.). minneapolis: university of minnesota press, pp. - . http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html digital humanities schreibman, susan, siemens, ray, unsworth, john (eds.) ( ). a companion to digital humanities. malden: blackwell. jessop, martyn ( ). 'teaching, learning and research in final year humanities computing student projects'. literary and linguistic computing. . ( ): - . mccarty, willard, kirschenbaum , matthew ( ). 'institutional models for humanities computing'. literary and linguistic computing. . ( ): - . unsworth et al. ( ). our cultural commonwealth: the report of the american council of learned societies commission on cyberinfrastructure for the humanities and social sciences. new york: american council of learned societies. micro dh: digital humanities at the small scale salem state university from the selectedworks of roopika risam august , micro dh: digital humanities at the small scale roopika risam, salem state university susan edwards, salem state university available at: https://works.bepress.com/roopika-risam/ / https://digitalcommons.salemstate.edu https://works.bepress.com/roopika-risam/ https://works.bepress.com/roopika-risam/ / micro dh: digital humanities at the small scale roopika risam rrisam@salemstate.edu salem state university, united states of america susan edwards sedwards@salemstate.edu salem state university, united states of america digital humanities practices are often understood in terms of significant scale: big data, large data sets, digital humanities centers (terras et al. ; kow- alczyk et al. ; borgman ; kretzschmar ). this emphasis leads to the perception that projects cannot be completed without substantial access to financial resources, data, and labor (pres- cott ; hockey ; evans and rees ). while this can be the case, such presumptions serve as a deterrent to the development of an inclusive digital humanities community with representation across academic hierarchies (student, librarian, faculty), types of institutions (public, private, regional), and geographies (global north, global south). in re- sponse, how can digital humanities scholars find val- ue in work undertaken at a small scale? this question is at the heart of this paper theorizing the practices of micro digital humanities by reporting on initiatives at salem state university. these practices include the embrace of minimal computing, small data sets, local archives, and freely available platforms for creating small-scale digital humanities projects while working with undergraduate students. the work of the minimal computing working group has articulated a vision for minimal forms of digital humanities praxis (minimal computing work- ing group ). jentery sayers ( ) has identified key components of minimal computing, including minimal design, maximum justice, and minimal tech- nical language. these principles privilege access and openness for stakeholders across economic and tech- nical barriers. more importantly, they are precepts that envision how digital humanities practices might be available to those who work outside of macro structures that have historically shaped digital hu- manities. this has been important at salem state, a regional, public university undergoing an unprece- dented budget crisis due to funding cuts from the state legislature. however, we have faculty and librar- ians who are committed to using digital humanities to cultivate digital and st century literacies in our stu- dents. as a result, we have conceptualized a micro digital humanities approach inspired by minimal computing. micro dh validates scholarly output that does not require digital humanities centers, big data, large data sets, and access to high-performance com- puting. as an intervention in local digital humanities, it places high value on working with available re- sources, however small. at salem state, we have embraced micro digital humanities through our work with undergraduates. this talk explores these practices in depth, as a model for claiming the legitimacy of small-scale digital hu- manities. it considers how we have drawn on minimal university resources and existing institutional struc- tures to build a digital humanities community. first, the focus of our work is our university’s ar- chives and special collections, a diverse and free but untapped source of material. this choice emphasizes the primacy of local resources in micro digital human- ities. although salem is known for its history of the salem witch trials and literature of nathaniel haw- thorne, our archives focus on the common person’s experience in salem from the mid- th century to present. this includes a rich history of immigration and activism. it exemplifies the power of micro digital humanities for the diversifying the historical record by giving voice to the ordinary and everyday. through our work, we shed light on the hidden histories that shape salem today. we undertake this work in service of our under- graduate students. micro digital humanities is an ap- proach that cuts across hierarchies in academic labor, bringing faculty, librarians, and students together to create small projects. salem state is the most diverse state university in massachusetts ( % students of color, % first-generation college students) and draws a primarily regional, working-class student population. both the students and the university have few resources, but we work with what we have. to serve this population, we developed the digital schol- ars program, piloted through a small grant from the university. we designed the program to answer the call of the university’s strategic plan to foster student success through research opportunities. students ap- ply to become digital scholars, and those who are selected are mentored through the process of creating a small-scale digital humanities project over the course of a semester. because they receive course credit rather than payment, we do not believe that we can, ethically, ask students to work on projects for us. instead, the pro- gram is student-centered and student-led through a scaled down approach emphasizing the creation of micro projects. we select collections for the students to explore related to the history of salem state then lead them through the experience of creating a digital humanities project from start to stopping point. the process includes making discoveries in the archives, identifying research questions that suit their inter- ests, curating materials, envisioning project design, selecting platforms, and creating a final product - and all the iterative dimensions this process entails. stu- dents also have access to professional development workshops and opportunities to engage with guest speakers who are themselves digital humanities prac- titioners. projects our students have undertaken in- clude recovering the history of lgbtq activism at the university, revealing the colonialist gaze of salem res- idents who traveled to india in the s, creating historical models of the university’s oldest campus building, and connecting contemporary student activ- ism around black lives matter to the history of anti- racist activism at the university in the s. these projects have helped students engage in a range of practices: digitizing texts, tei, omeka, d modeling, quantitative textual analysis, data visualization, and oral history. in the spirit of micro digital humanities, we only use freely available resources or open source software we can host ourselves. this is a response to our lack of financial resources but is also a result of our focus on students; we do not want to force them to use proprietary technologies they may not be able to afford to access outside of a university or on their own. we situate this work as a practice of micro digital humanities, cutting across hierarchies to shift stu- dents from the position of consumer of digital media and technologies to the role of producer. this re- quires setting aside our preferences for what projects based on the collections should look like and recog- nizing that students will be working at a small scale. however, we view these small projects as pieces of a bigger puzzle that illuminates life in salem. to bring these projects together, we developed an umbrella digital humanities project called digital salem, a por- tal that aggregates student projects by collection. us- ers visiting digital salem are offered multiple ports of entry into the history, culture, and literature of salem. there, the small student projects add up as they con- tribute to a rich, varied resource on salem. this expe- rience has suggested how a micro digital humanities can be designed with emphasis connecting small pro- jects as modular pieces that work together to form a bigger picture. these micro digital humanities practices have been the foundation of the digital humanities com- munity at the university. they have brought together faculty, librarians, and students to facilitate student research at a teaching-intensive university. further, they offer a model for developing digital humanities at scales appropriate to institutional contexts and strategic planning. perhaps more importantly, they offer a vision of digital humanities with learning curves and barriers to entry that do not require affili- ation with centers, access to expensive technologies, or substantial resources. this, we argue, is essential to the development of an inclusive digital humanities community. bibliography borgman, c. ( ). the digital future is now: a call to action for the humanities. digital humanities quarterly . . http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. accessed october , . evans, l. and rees, s. ( ). an interpretation of digital humanities. in d. berry (ed.), understanding digital humanities (pp. - ). london: springer. hockey, s. ( ). digital humanities in the age of the in- ternet: reaching out to other communities. in w. mccarty & m. deegan (eds.), collaborative research in digital humanities (pp. - ). london: routledge. kowalczyk, s. t., sun, y., peng, z., plale, b., todd, a., au- vil, l., willis, c., zeng, j., pathirage, m., liyanage, s., ruan, g., & downie, j. s. ( ). big data at scale for digital humanities: an architecture for the hathitrust research center. in w. hu & n. kaabouch (eds.), big da- ta management, technologies, and applications (pp. - ). hershey, pa: igi global. doi: . / - - - - .ch kretzschmar, w.a. ( ). large-scale humanities com- puting projects: snakes eating tails, or every end is a new beginning? digital humanities quarterly . . http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. accessed october , . minimal computing working group. ( ). about. min- imal computing. http://go- dh.github.io/mincomp/about/. accessed october , . prescott, a. ( ). beyond the digital humanities center: the administrative landscapes of digital humanities. in s. schreibman, r. siemens & j. unsworth (eds.) a new companion to digital humanities (pp. - ). malden, ma: wiley. sayers, j. ( ). minimal definitions. minimal computing. http://go- dh.github.io/mincomp/thoughts/ / / /minimal -definitions/. accessed october , . terras, m., baker, j., hetherington, j., beavan, d., welsh, a., o'neill, h., finley, w., duke-williams, o., far- quhar, a. ( ). enabling complex analysis of large- scale digital collections: humanities research, high performance computing, and transforming access to british library digital collections. in digital humanities : conference abstracts (pp. - ). jagiellonian university & pedagogical university, kraków. salem state university from the selectedworks of roopika risam august , micro dh: digital humanities at the small scale microsoft word - . risam-microdh- .docx durham research online deposited in dro: september version of attached �le: accepted version peer-review status of attached �le: peer-reviewed citation for published item: warwick, c. and terras, m. and huntington, p. and pappa, n. ( ) 'if you build it will they come? the lairah study : quantifying the use of online resources in the arts and humanities through statistical analysis of user log data.', literary and linguistic computing., ( ). pp. - . further information on publisher's website: http://dx.doi.org/ . /llc/fqm publisher's copyright statement: this is a pre-copyedited, author-produced pdf of an article accepted for publication in literary and linguistic computing following peer review. the de�nitive publisher-authenticated version claire warwick, melissa terras, paul huntington, and nikoleta pappa ( ) 'if you build it will they come? the lairah study : quantifying the use of online resources in the arts and humanities through statistical analysis of user log data.', literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - is available online at:http://dx.doi.org/ . /llc/fqm . additional information: this article appears in: selected papers from digital humanities , paris-sorbonne, � july . use policy the full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-pro�t purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in dro • the full-text is not changed in any way the full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. please consult the full dro policy for further details. durham university library, stockton road, durham dh ly, united kingdom tel : + ( ) | fax : + ( ) https://dro.dur.ac.uk https://www.dur.ac.uk http://dx.doi.org/ . /llc/fqm http://dro.dur.ac.uk/ / https://dro.dur.ac.uk/policies/usepolicy.pdf https://dro.dur.ac.uk if you build it will they come? the lairah study: quantifying the use of online resources in the arts and humanities through statistical analysis of user log data claire warwick, melissa terras, paul huntington and nikoleta pappa school of library, archive and information studies, university college london c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk abstract there are now many online, digital resources in the humanities, and their creation is funded by various governmental, academic, and philanthropic sources. what happens to these resources after completion is very poorly understood. no systematic survey of digital resource usage in the humanities has ever been undertaken – and the factors for use and non-use of digital resources are unknown. the lairah (log analysis of internet resources in the arts and humanities) project is a month long study into the factors which determine long term use and neglect of digital resources in the arts and humanities. using quantitative deep log analysis techniques to understand real time user behaviour, and qualitative user workshops to gain an understanding of user approaches to digital resources in the arts and humanities, the study identifies factors which may predispose a digital resource to become used or neglected in the long term. this paper provides an overview of the techniques used in the lairah project, and presents some preliminary results which may be of use to both the creators of digital resources in the humanities, and the funders of these projects, to ensure that significant intellectual effort and time, and financial resources, are not wasted in the creation of projects which are then neglected by the user community. . introduction digital humanities may be a relatively young discipline but it is a very productive one. in its short history scholars have produced thousands of digital resources which if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . have been funded by governments, philanthropic bodies and universities. in the uk alone, over digital humanities projects have been funded by the arts and humanities research council (ahrc) since . yet what happens to such resources after completion is very poorly understood. (warwick, b) anecdotal evidence suggests that some projects become well known but others have been relatively quickly forgotten. this must be regrettable since the non-use of a resource represents a waste not only of the considerable intellectual effort and time expended in its production, but potentially considerable amounts of funding. however, no systematic survey of digital resource usage in the humanities has been undertaken, and the characteristics of a project that might predispose it for sustained use have never been studied. for example, does the presence in an academic department of the resource creator, or enthusiast, who promotes the use of digital resources, ensure continued use? do projects in certain subject areas tend to be especially widely used? are certain types of material, for example text or images, more popular? is a project more likely to be used if it has communicated with the user community during its design phase? this paper presents the early results of a study carried out by the lairah (log analysis of internet resources in the arts and humanities) project (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/research/circah/lairah/) which is based at ucl’s school of library archive and information studies. we are undertaking a fifteen month study to discover what influences the long-term sustainability and use of digital resources in the humanities through the analysis and evaluation of real-time use. the lairah project is funded by the ahrc’s ict strategy projects scheme, which reports to the ahrc’s strategic review of all ict related activity. thus our work is highly significant, since its conclusions will inform the future of funding for digital humanities in the uk for the foreseeable future. this paper describes the qualitative and quantitative methods used to analyse use of digital resources in the humanities during the lairah project, and provides preliminary results. these give recommendations for both those about to create a digital resource in the humanities, and institutions which may fund those projects, to ensure that the resulting resource will be as widely used as possible. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . . previous work in the area although useful recent work on humanities scholars has been done by barrett, ( ), talja and maula ( ), greene ( ) herman ( ) and ellis and oldman, ( ) this tends to be on the areas of either information seeking practices or information needs of humanities scholars. seminal work done by stone ( ) and watson boone, ( ) showed that humanities users need a wide range of resources, in terms of their age and type. this is still true in a digital environment, where humanities users continue to need printed materials, or even manuscripts as well as electronic resources, which by their nature may imply a much greater age of materials than those used by scientists as the most recent survey of humanities user needs showed. (british academy, ) however, only bates ( ) has systematically analysed the kind of activities carried out by humanist scholars in digital environments, and this work was carried out on the dialog system, which predated the web. thus, while extremely valuable, it is now somewhat dated. bates’ work and that of dalton and charnigo ( ) and whitmire ( ) has shown that those humanities scholars who use digital resources tend to be demanding of the quality of resources and are capable of constructing complex search strategies, given appropriate training. we are not aware, however, of any literature that has used quantitative methods, particularly deep log analysis, to measure the levels of use of digital humanities resources. our research presented below is also innovative in that it attempts to investigate not just which resources users need, or how they search them, but their detailed opinions about such resources, such as the qualities that they appreciate and factors that may inhibit use. we have therefore combined by qualitative and quantitative research methods, to provide as full a picture as possible of this complex area. . methods we chose to use deep log analysis as a metric to assess use levels of digital resources in the arts and humanities. this is a technique that has been used if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . extensively by the ucl slais’ ciber research centre in other areas such as health information and commercial publishing, (for example huntington, et al. ) but has never been applied to digital humanities - as far as we are aware. this analysis allowed us to identify patterns in usage of digital resources in the humanities, and allowed us to present users with a selection of used and non-used resources. by using quantitative techniques such as deep log analysis, and qualitative workshop techniques, our knowledge of which resources were useful or ignored, and why they were used or neglected, was increased. . deep log analysis all digital information platforms have a facility by which logs are generated that provides an automatic, real-time record of use. they represent the digital information footprints of the users and by analysing them using deep log techniques it is possible to track their information seeking behaviour. when enhanced, logs can tell us about the kinds of people that use the services. the attraction of logs is that they provide abundant and fairly robust evidence of use. logs record use by everyone who engages with the system - there is no need to take a sample, thus it is possible to monitor the behaviour of millions of people, around the world. they not only have an unparalleled size and reach, but are a direct and immediately available record of what people have done: not what they say they might, or would, do; not what they were prompted to say, not what they thought they did. the data are unfiltered and represent both the users’ behaviour and complement important contextual data obtained by engaging with real users and exploring their experiences and concerns. server log data are records of actual web pages viewed. these records occur as a result of requests made by the clients’ computer and provide a record of pages delivered from the web server to the clients’ computer. the client however is not identified by name or demographics in this process. however, the server does record the internet address of the clients’ computer. these addresses follow an internet protocol (ip number) and relate to registered domain name server (dns) information. the dns information gives information such as organisation name, organisation type (i.e. academic or commercial) and country registration. neither the dns address if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . information nor the ip number records information that can be used to identify the actual user. to preserve anonymity further the logs that we analysed were purged of any personalisation data. the following gives an example of the ahds log file: .xxx.xxx.xx - - [ /feb/ : : : + ] "get /deposit/depintro.htm http/ . " "http://ahds.ac.uk/copyrightfaq.htm" ( .xxx.xxx.xx) is the ip (internet protocol) address. (x indicates the presence of a number which has been removed for anonymisation purposes) this is an anonymous machine-to-machine address number used by computers to correctly send and receive data over the internet. ( /feb/ : : : + ) is a date stamp and records the date and time of the file sent in response to the client’s request. (get /deposit/depintro.htm) records the file sent to the client and the directories where the file is stored on the server. (http/ . ) is the record of the hypertext version communication between server and client. ( ) is the status field and states if the request was correct and a file was sent and ( ) records the size in bytes of the file sent. (http://ahds.ac.uk/copyrightfaq.htm) is the referrer log and states the address of the last site visited by the client. we used the logs from the three main portals for digital humanities in the uk, the ahds central servers, the humbul humanities hub and artifact . in the case of the former we were able to analyse a year’s worth of data. however, in the case of artifact much less was available, due to the fact that they did not have the technical support to maintain their own logs. the data from artifact become available when it merged with humbul, but we had only three months worth and it appeared relatively late in the project’s life. for the purposes of this paper therefore, we will concentrate on results gained from the humbul and ahds logs. ideally we would have liked to use individual logs from the servers of digital humanities projects. however the project has a limited scope of fifteen months to allow us to report to the ahrc’s strategy review. gathering together log data even from the three service providers was a time consuming process, to do so from individual projects would have been unworkable given our deadline. however this is something that we would like to do in future work, given available funding. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . log data is however not a complete method in itself. we therefore chose to adopt another method successfully used by ciber and mounted a questionnaire on the ahds, and humbul websites, and on that of the repah project, in which we asked about use patterns of resources. . qualitative methods the use of quantitative methods, primarily analysis of the log data, enabled us to identity a small sample of projects which could be studied in greater depth. we also studied the few projects that had been mentioned by respondents to questionnaires hosted by us and by the ihr peer review project. (see below for details of this) we also asked those who work for the ahds subject centres for their opinions about which five projects (per centre) were most frequently used and which five most neglected, based on the records of requests for data that they receive. we selected a sample of twenty five projects with varying levels of use, and conducted interviews about them. the interview data is too extensive to be reported in this paper, will be discussed elsewhere. . neglected resources workshop . . choice of resources we were also wished to investigate the reasons why some projects appeared not to have been well used. collecting data about the reasons for neglect of resources is much more challenging, and thus we held a workshop whose aim was to present users with a mixture of used and neglected resources to determine if there were any factors that users could identify that might explain the neglect of digital resources. adams and blandford ( ) have shown that those who do not use digital resources because they are unaware of their existence may express satisfaction with and wish to have access to such resources, once introduced to them. we therefore wished to test the if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . hypothesis that neglect is caused by factors other than inherent weaknesses in the resource itself, such as a simple lack of knowledge about resources our definition of neglect was that, from the evidence of the log data and what the ahds subject centres told us, users did not appear to be making links to or requests for such a resource, as opposed to well used resources, which were being accessed repeatedly. we used a mixture of used and neglected resources, since we did not wish users to be prejudiced against the quality of resources that were presented as neglected. for the same reason we did not tell participants which resources were which, and chose resources about similar themes, including such areas as warfare and census data, which log data indicates were popular areas (see discussion below) the following list was therefore selected. neglected projects:  art and industry in the eighteenth century  collected poems of wilfred owen  correlates of war project : international and civil war data, -  exeter cathedral keystones and carvings  other educated persons accessed projects  gis of the ancient parishes of england and wales, -  imperial war museum concise art collection  toronto dictionary of old english corpus  channel tunnel rail link archive  designing shakespeare  english monastic archives if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . . . recruitment of participants a group of participants was recruited to represent a cross section of humanities scholarship. most had indicated interest in undertaking further research on questionnaires for various ict strategy projects, or were these scholars’ students or colleagues. representatives of the ahds subject centres and other digital humanities professionals were also invited. we wanted participants to be reasonably comfortable with the use of digital resources, to help ensure that a negative reaction to a project was not caused by a lack of confidence in using online resources. . . conduct of the workshop each participant had between five and ten minutes to investigate the resource and note their views of it. this is a relatively short period. however recent research has indicated that users tend to make up their mind about whether they will use web-based resources in a remarkably short time (lindgaard et al. ). nicholas et al (forthcoming) have also discovered that most visitors bounce out of websites very quickly after entering them .thus we wanted participants to make judgements relatively quickly, as they might, if they discovered a resource for the first time, from a web search, library page or subject portal, and had to decide whether to pursue their interest any further. participants were given a sheet to indicate their views of each project, on which we asked the users, whether they had used the resource before; their views on its quality and possible usefulness in their research; and whether they would recommend it to a colleague or student. as a result of the wide subject coverage some resources were not suitable for all participants. it was also possible that a resource might be broadly suitable but not exactly right for their work (for example a literary resource but of the wrong historical period). in this case we asked for participants’ opinions on the kind of resource, even if the exact example was not perfectly suited to them. finally we asked whether participants thought a resource was used or neglected, and for their reasons for their conclusion. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . . results . findings from the log data the first finding emerged from the log research before we even began analysis of the data. we found that it is surprisingly difficult to extract log data even from large government-funded repositories. as outlined above, artifact had insufficient technical help to collect more than basic reports until their merger with humbul. we were allowed access to ahds central server logs without difficulty. however, given the distributed nature of the service, logs are also held by the centres themselves, and so the data from these logs took longer to access and organise, and at the time of writing is still being analysed. the humbul logs proved difficult and time-consuming to access, partly because of the presence of personalisation features in humbul which caused concerns that individual users might be identifiable. it was therefore necessary to enter into a lengthy period of negotiation to determine how this data could be removed. we had not anticipated such problems and they undoubtedly delayed both our research and that of repah. . names and subjects the log data from the ahds central site showed which links were being followed on the site itself, and it was possible to generate a list of pages that visitors used, which indicated which resources they were looking for, although in some cases more than one resource which might be found as a result of a query. in the case of the humbul logs it is possible to identify which resource the user was interested in, and whether they followed links from a summary page about the resources, to its own website. certain names and themes recurred in the log data. warfare, for example was a common theme, as was census data and terms relevant to family history. place names such as exeter, canterbury, gloucester, were noticeable in the ahds data, as were terms suffrage and suffragette. witchcraft and magic produced a large number of links through the humbul pages; % visits to www.arts.ed.ac.uk (edinburgh university), % of visits to greenwich university’s web page. other popular areas if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . from the humbul logs concerned popular subjects such as medieval monasticism, the english language and french film stars. a project on jeremy bentham , based at ucl was especially well used, both in global terms and in relation to the ucl-based projects. this is understandable given his fame as a philosopher, and his well known link to ucl’s foundation. information provided by the ahds service providers helped underline this phenomenon. pads (the performing arts data service) told us that designing shakespeare is one of their most used projects. vads (the visual arts data service) told us that the imperial war museum concise art collection was often requested, as was the london college of fashion archive . war, fashion and shakespeare are all very popular subjects of study. the list of well used and neglected projects provided by ahds history demonstrated an interesting contrast. the great britain historical database: census data: occupational statistics was, unsurprisingly, well used but a similar project, entitled enumerator returns for county antrim was neglected. this suggests that not only the subject but the name of the resource is significant. the latter project may not have been found because, when searching, the more intuitive term to use is ‘census data’ and not ‘enumerator returns’. a project archived by vads called ‘other educated persons’ is also neglected, from which title it is almost impossible to infer the content of the resource. it concerns art in the east end of london, but the search terms used to retrieve information on this area would be unlikely to include the words “other educated persons”. however, information from the service providers at times contradicted the evidence of the logs. literature languages and linguistics felt that a collection of wilfred owen's poetry was little used. yet the ahds logs showed the term ‘wilfred’ relatively high on the list of pages viewed. visual arts felt that the exeter cathedral keystones and carvings project was seldom used, nevertheless the term ‘exeter’ was significant in the list of pages visited. (although we cannot be certain that this refers to the same project) . names and resource description if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . regardless of the usefulness of the subject matter the issue of naming and description of a resource is important, if potential users are to understand what it may be used for. in the arts and humanities, print publications often have witty, unusual and eye- catching titles, partly to attract the readers’ attention and pique curiosity as to their contents. in the case of a book or article title, there is usually an elucidation of meaning after a colon so for example ‘if you build it will they come?’ is explained by the rest of our article title, which allows readers to comprehend its subject matter. however, in the case of digital resources an unimaginative but accurate description is more advisable. while humanities scholars have complex models of information processing in the world of print, these are not yet as easily transferred to the digital realm. (buchanan et al. , blandford et al. forthcoming). thus users find it easier to guess the contents of print publications, given their greater experience of them, but find it much harder to guess the contents, purpose and scope of digital resources. therefore if a user is browsing a digital collection and finds a resource whose title does not accurately describe it, they may become confused, and discouraged, and may not explore any further. (see the results of the workshop, described below). we must therefore be aware of the need to provide signposts for humanities users of digital resources, the most obvious of which is the project title. . the importance of information resources the respondents to the questionnaire were enthusiastic about the usefulness of digital resources. our respondents were regular users, % of whom used the web every day, and % for more than four hours per day. % identified themselves as extensive users of digital resources, % either agreed or strongly agreed that they could not do their work without digital resources. figure . use of digital resources if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . figure . impact of digital resources % of them agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that digital resources had changed the way that they did their research. figure. . digital resources and research in order not to influence users too much we decided not to offer a definition of digital resources. instead we asked them to list their three favourite resources. we found that most users perceive digital resources not to be specialist research resources for humanities scholarship, but generic information resources. this is supported by previous work carried out by sparke jones and the ucis project (british academy, , rimmer et al. ) a wide range of resources were mentioned, but the most popular was the university library web site, which % of the users identified as the most important resource. google, in comparison gained % of the votes. figure. most useful digital resources. many different resources are classified as ‘other’ in fig . figure . the vast majority of them are what might be termed information resources or gateways, such as libraries, archives and subject portals, whether these are publicly funded or commercial. for example, the british library , the national library of scotland , the national archives , jstor , the ahds or humbul, sosig , literature online , the e-dnb . specialist subject centres like palatine were also mentioned, and privately constructed information portals such as voice of the shuttle and the orb , as well as subject-based digital libraries such as perseus . it therefore appears that most of our users regard digital resources primarily as a way to access information, which in the analogue world might be compared to the library or archive, rather than specialist research resources which we might compare to a monograph or a literary text for primary study. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . it is significant that most resources fall into the ‘other’ category, which suggests that there is a very wide range of resources being used, and very little agreement as to which are most useful. this underlines the diversity of humanities research. thus in the case of content as well as interface it is naïve to suppose that one size will fit all, unless we are discussing generic resources like library catalogues. it is therefore inevitable that only a few digital resources available will be suitable for any given scholar- as is the case for example with print journals, where a medieval economic historian would be most unlikely to read the journal of american studies. it may therefore be that for the foreseeable future generic resources suit the needs of the majority of humanities scholars, because the specialist resources have not yet been created. this finding is supported by our log data especially from humbul, where we found numerous links to information sites. from the logs we generated a list of the forty top level domains that were accessed. table . top resource sites accessed via humbul uri site number percentage www.bbc.co.uk www.wsu.edu www.geocities.com www.nd.edu ads.ahds.ac.uk www.bl.uk www.arts.ed.ac.uk www.pbs.org www.emule.com . . . . . . . . . if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . memory.loc.gov www.fordham.edu www.shef.ac.uk www.channel .com www.newadvent.org www.llgc.org.uk www.spartacus.school www.luminarium.org etext.lib.virginia.e uk.cambridge.org www.ucl.ac.uk www.iwm.org.uk www.loc.gov ccat.sas.upenn.edu www.gre.ac.uk www.archives.gov.on. www .oup.co.uk www.archives.gov www.accd.edu www.nationalarchives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . www.georgetown.edu www.hti.umich.edu www.sas.ac.uk www.kb.nl etext.virginia.edu www.bu.edu www.stoa.org history.hanover.edu raven.cc.ku.edu learningcurve.pro.go www. thc.us . . . . . . . . . . . . % half of the domains listed above are for sites of libraries, archives, e-text collections, portals or publishers. we then extracted details of the sub directories belonging to the uk universities in this list: in order of popularity, edinburgh, sheffield, ucl, greenwich and the school of advanced study (university of london). information resources were again high on the list of resources linked to. almost all of the school of advanced study pages were for the web pages of subject research centres, such as the warburg institute, and the commonwealth institute. three of the most popular resources at edinburgh ( % altogether) were the centre for the history of the book (second) the dictionary of the older scots tongue – (fifth) and the edinburgh journal of gadda studies. (the last two sites do not give access to the resource, but information about it). at sheffield six such resources were present in the log data, assemblage (an archaeology journal), which was the second most popular resource, the association for low country studies, capra- an archaeology journal, the if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . centre for the study of the english cultural tradition, the international band dessinee society and the hegel society of great britain. the questionnaire recipients identified only three uk funded research projects: the old bailey online , the parip project , and the powys digital history project . there were also two further usa funded research project, the childes corpora website and the perseus digital library- both of which are information aggregation and reference sites, and the photographic exhibitions in britain site, which is, perhaps oddly, canadian funded although it is archived by vads. the same question, asked by the ihr ict strategy programme study on peer review obtained similar results; in this case the old bailey online was the only publicly funded project mentioned. this does not mean that respondents never use specialist digital resources, since we only asked about the three most commonly used, but they obviously do not use such resources as frequently as information aggregators, portals and libraries, whether digital or physical. . creation versus reuse most of the pages viewed on the ahds website, and those highest in the frequency list, concerned deposit and creation such as ‘how to deposit’, staff contact details, and information about issues such as copyright. however, this is contradicted by the views of those who use digital resources, since our questionnaire data indicates that only a minority of users ( %) believed that data archiving was central to their research. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . is data archiving once your research is complete central to your work? . % . % . % . % . % . % =central =peripheral =not applicable figure. . data archiving as part of research it is possible therefore that there is a scholarly bifurcation between those who create specialist digital resources as part of their research, but do not tend to reuse those of others, and those who prefer to use more generic information resources, but are less concerned with deposit and archiving. . academic versus commercial users analysis of the logs showed whether users visited from an academic domain or from a commercial isp. this must be treated with some caution, since if an academic user is accessing resources from home and not using a proxy server, they will be counted as using a commercial isp. nevertheless, we found that academic users tended to be more persistent in their information seeking patterns. while those using an isp and commercial users were most likely to view just one page in a session ( % and % did so) academic users were least likely to do so, although % of them only viewed one page, academics were recorded as having longer sessions; % had sessions lasting over minutes compared to % of commercial session users and % isp based sessions. academic users tended to persist in their search. they were least likely simply to use an external search engine, and tended to use a combination of the if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . on site search facility, navigation menus and browsing. as a result they tended not only to access the summary information about a resource, but to make a link to the resources itself: % of those who used a combination of methods (which academics were more likely to do) linked to a resource, as opposed to % of those who used a search engine. . workshop findings . . recruitment our first significant finding was the relative difficulty of recruiting participants. we contacted people who were either known to the research group as users of digital resources, or those who had replied to surveys indicating an interest in further research. while digital humanities professionals were eager to take part university lecturers were harder to recruit. we initially tried to recruit a mixture of humanities computing professionals and traditional academics, and to keep a balance between subject specialists. however, this proved impossible. many of the academics did not reply to our (repeated) email invitations, and in a notable case reacted with hostility and a demand for payment. we therefore accepted all those who were interested enough to volunteer. this meant a potential lack of subject balance, with a population skewed towards historians and archaeologists, graduate students and humanities computing professionals. this problem may have been caused by a simple lack of time on the part of busy academics. however, it may also be evidence of a lack of interest, or perhaps confidence, in the use of digital resources amongst the mainstream academic profession. had the subject matter been of genuine interest it is likely that more academics would have been keen to participate. there was also a marked contrast with the response from those whom interviewed about their research projects, who in most cases replied swiftly and made time to talk to our researchers. the latter were to some extent digital enthusiasts, since they had directed the development of a digital research project. this supports the impression of a divide between the enthusiastically digital (who appear to be a minority) and the majority of the academic profession. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . pleasure this is worrying, since there is a danger that digital humanities may therefore become ghettoised rather than further integrated into scholarship. . . lack of confidence many participants, especially those from a more traditional humanities background showed a marked reluctance to commit themselves as to the quality and usefulness of resources, especially in areas in which they were not subject specialists. although we made it clear that all findings would be anonymised and that we particularly wanted to know their views about whether and why a resource was used, some still preferred to say they did not know, or not to provide further comments. this suggests a lack of confidence in expressing views about digital resources; especially in areas where participants were not specialist, or resources they had not so far encountered. one participant even argued that it was wrong of us to offer opinions or judge the work of others in this way. yet it is likely that s/he will do so when reviewing a book in a scholarly journal, examining a phd or refereeing articles for publication. however, these activities are a familiar part of the analogue scholarly world and it appears that digital resources are still too remote from the experience of the majority of humanities academics for them to feel confident in their opinions of them. this may be explicable by reference to the wundt curve, which is a concept from psychology which seeks to model the relationship between familiarity and pleasure. (saunders and gero, ). figure . the wundt curve if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . fig. . the wundt curve this theory argues when something is very unfamiliar we tend to dislike it because of the cognitive effort necessary to comprehend the concept or enjoy something like an unusual art work or musical composition. however, if we are too familiar with something we do not enjoy it because there is too little cognitive effort involved, and thus the concept or object becomes banal. ideally there should be enough cognitive difficulty to stimulate the brain without overstretch or boredom. it is arguable therefore that for most humanities academics, specialist digital humanities research resources are too unfamiliar, and thus this causes them to feel uncomfortable and unwilling either to use them or to express opinions about them. whereas informational material, journals and subjects centres, even if accessed by a web page, are sufficiently familiar that they are more easily comprehensible, and place the user at a more optimal point on the curve. to test this hypothesis we ran the workshop again with a group of ma students from ucl slais, all of whom are familiar with digital humanities resources. we will report in the findings in detail elsewhere, but they were more confident in offering opinions of the resources, as compared with the first group. . . critical judgement pleasure low complexity high complexity if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . participants were highly critical of the resources offered, and none met with universal enthusiasm or approval. even in cases where a resource might be useful for their work, participants provided informed critiques of its strengths and weaknesses. participants tended to assume that a resource was not used, and thus identified half of the used resources as neglected. this was perhaps the opposite result from what we had expected, since we had assumed that if shown resources of good quality, they might recognise them as potentially useable, even if not for their personal research. problems noted by the participants concerned content, interface and ease of use. they recognised, and indeed required high quality resources, and tended to find resources that do not live up to this standard disappointing. this may particularly be because, as the questionnaire data showed, many of the resources that participants used most regularly are commercially produced, and thus the content and interface are usually of a high standard. on the evidence of this sample, users seem unwilling to allow for any lesser standards, even if they know a resource is not commercially produced. there were exceptions to this, for example in the case of other educated persons. participants tolerated the rather old-fashioned interface and limited scope of the resource as it was clear that it was a masters student’s project of a relatively early date which would have been quite radical for its time in terms of its subject matter and functionality. they therefore saw it almost as a historical object that should be preserved for its own sake, and not necessarily as something that might be reused. . . names names proved to be significant to workshop participants, especially as a way of providing clues to the resource’s purpose and provenance. for example, some participants were uncertain about the contents of the channel tunnel rail link archive. although it is a collection of records of archaeological digs along the route of the rail link for the channel tunnel, some of the participants assumed it might be about railway engineering. they therefore concluded that it might not be used, because its purpose was not obvious. participants also commented favourably on naming, in the case, for example, of the imperial war museum concise art collection. its name described the resources if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . accurately and the imperial war museum also provided the reassurance of a trusted brand, reassuring them about the quality of the resources. this was one of the main reasons that they identified the concise art collection as well used, and confirms previous findings about the importance of trusted brands on the internet, such as the bbc for provision of news. (bbc, ) a participant who was a digital humanities professional objected to this emphasis on names as a descriptor, and insisted that metadata such as that provided by the ahds would give users ample information about the purpose of the resource. nevertheless, other participants observed that if a name was confusing, they might not be motivated to look at any further details. the participants also commented on subject matter as a potential reason for neglect. they suggested that the exeter cathedral carvings project, for example, might not be well used because the subject might only be of interest to a minority of scholars. conversely they were reasonably confident that the designing shakespeare project would be used because of its popular subject matter. nevertheless they also expressed concern that resources that were well regarded and used in a small community should not therefore be seen as inferior to those that were relatively superficially used by a larger community. . . metadata and citation several participants raised doubts about the quality of the content, for example their only reservation about the monastic archives project was that it is still incomplete. this caused some participants to worry about how reliable searches of it might be. however, they welcomed the fact that the team had been clear about the state of their data. participants were worried nevertheless that there was insufficient evidence about the provenance of the data for several resources. one participant who was an archivist worried that in many cases it was difficult to identify where original data had come from, and the methodology for selection and digitisation. s/he would have welcomed more information of the kind that in print is provided by citations and bibliographies. . . access problems if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . participants found that anything that made it hard to access a resource was unwelcome and could deter them from using it. they also found that interfaces that helped them to manipulate the data were welcome. judging by the metadata, the datasets in history were all thought to be little used because it is so difficult to access the actual resources. we did not ask users to access the data in the workshop, but some more expert users tried, and found that the process of gaining permission to use resources, applying for passwords and downloading the data was difficult and time consuming, and thus a deterrent to use. as a result the gis of the ancient parishes of england and wales was thought to be neglected, although it is one of the most popular resources held by ahds history . in contrast participants liked the interface to the monastic archives project, because the initial screen was simple and easy to use, and its subject matter obvious. the next page contained multiple search boxes to aid users to search the database. thus the process of accessing and interrogating historical data was made as simple as possible. one historian argued that the downloaded data from the rejected datasets could be interrogated in a more complex way than that which is allowed by the front-end to the monastic archives. however, it was necessary to be an expert user to do so. . . interfaces the interfaces to the material were very varied. in general we tried to link to the view of a resource that a users would be presented with if accessing it through the ahds. however as one participant noted, the same, or very similar data can be viewed differently if searched for directly though google. for example we chose the wilfred owen poetry collection because we knew it to be a popular subject matter- concerning warfare, and by a widely known writer. however, the form in which it was presented was unattractive and limited. one of the reasons for lack of use may be that there is no information about which edition of the poems has been used, which is important to academic users. however, another reason for neglect may be that there is an attractive, usable electronic edition of wilfred owen’s poems which can be accessed via http://www.hcu.ox.ac.uk/jtap/ . this also provides information about the edition used, and manuscript sources, as well as being part of a much larger multimedia if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . archive on owen. it is therefore likely that this resource is being used in preference to the ahds editions because of its superior content and functionality. given that one of the most attractive and useful interfaces, belonging to the imperial war museum concise art collection, was designed by the ahds visual arts data service and not the project itself; we discussed who should be responsible for interfaces. projects themselves might not have access to the design expertise possessed by ahds centres, and one of the ahds representatives expressed the view that allowing projects to design their own interfaces could create potential problems when resources were deposited, and for potential users, because of variations in functionality and ease of use. however s/he felt that the ahds centres themselves did not have sufficient expertise about the project contents to design interfaces to them, and that one size could not be expected to fit all. the ideal arrangement would therefore be for projects to work much more closely with the ahds to design interfaces, which has happened in the case of some archaeological projects, who have paid ads (archaeology data service) to design an interface for them. vads staff also stressed their willingness to work more closely with project creators, but told us that they typically have little contact with resource creators between the initial proposal being approved and the final deposit of the resource. . . importance of the material respondents made clear that the factors described above might deter them from using a resource if they were unfamiliar with it, and not certain of its value to their work. however, they stressed that if they already know that such a resource would be vital to them, or if it were the only such resource available they would be likely to use it despite the potential problems or disadvantages. for example, linguistic corpora are vital to linguists and thus the participants thought that the york toronto corpus would be widely used, because of the nature of the resource. they pointed out that the interface was not especially attractive, but that it had the functionality necessary to make it usable, and thus there would be no real obstacle to a linguist who wanted to use it. . conclusions and recommendations if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . . log availability many of our conclusions are relevant to both the findings of the log data and the workshop. however our first conclusion relates to the importance of log data itself. our research shows that log data is potentially a valuable research resource, however, it is often undervalued and not maintained or made available. we recommend as a result that publicly funded centres and research projects should be under an obligation to maintain log data for an agreed minimum period, for example three years. sufficient funding should also be made available to hire technical support to maintain the log data and make it available to publicly funded research projects, subject to a written agreement with the research centre or project. if necessary there should be the provision for a confidentiality clause, specifying that individuals may not be identified in published research output. this would remove the need for complex anonymisation of log data. . nomenclature the importance of naming and description of projects emerged from both the logs and the workshop, and appears to be a significant factor in determining whether a resource is used. it may seem obvious that resources addressing popular subject matter tend to be used more than those on more obscure subjects; however it is potentially significant in terms of future research funding. there are also undoubtedly excellent projects whose subject matter is highly specialist and not well known outside the immediate research community. yet they may be vital to the work of that research field. when deciding on issues of funding, this kind of use must be weighed against the likelihood that a resource on a popular subject is more likely to be re-used although its use might be broad and shallow. for example we do not know whether the witchcraft resources are being used by fans of buffy the vampire slayer rather than for research on seventeenth century popular culture. there is also a danger of a kind of ‘electronic canon’ being formed, (as warwick predicted in ) where less well-known authors or subjects are marginalised by yet more census data and shakespeare. (warwick, a) funding bodies must therefore make decisions about if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . the value of study of more recherché topics. in effect they must develop the sense of collection building that has hitherto been the concern of librarians in the print world. it is equally important that we recognise the value of experimental research, where a resource is created to test a technical or intellectual issue in knowledge representation. this kind of conceptual research is valuable, and it may be that no reuse can be envisaged. however, when bidding for money to produce digital resources those who propose their creation may suggest that they will be widely used, in order to justify the level of funding sought. to draw a clear distinction between material intended for a wide audience and that created to solve a research question it might be possible to ask for more evidence of usage, or to make it clear that for ‘pure research’ projects re- use should not necessarily be a prerequisite for funding. the actual name of a resource also emerged as vital and potential resource creators must be aware of the importance of what they decide to call their resource, since it may have a profound effect on its future use or neglect. although metadata can help to describe a resource it appears that non- expert users may not progress as far as accessing this. it is also important to stress the importance of organisations like universities, museums, libraries and archives brand names that users trust to produce good quality resources. . information resources the preference amongst users for information resources over specialist research resources has various consequences. in terms of funding priorities it suggests projects which collect together large collections of information resources for reference, whether generic or subject based are likely to be well used. our findings also demonstrate the importance of traditional scholarly structures in humanities research and the use of the web for information about journals and academic conferences. this confirms barrett’s ( ) findings that humanities users still need traditional, generic resources and value personal knowledge repositories and face to face meeting as highly as digital resources. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . it also underlines the importance of physical information resources such as libraries, archives and research centres. access to research centres, such as those at the school of advanced study is obviously still very significant in the research of humanities scholars. however, more attempts might be made to integrate their physical function with that of a digital mission, following the example of the ihr (institute of historical research) in london and the hri (humanities research institute) in sheffield. university libraries are the primary point of access for digital resources for many users, and national and specialist libraries and archives are also highly valued. digital resources have also not replaced the library as an important research resource. if anything their function as information gateways have increased their importance. it is therefore vital that they should be funded appropriately and that funding for digital resources should not therefore be diverted from library and archive budgets. in a separate study (pappa et al, ) we have tried to find specialist digital resources for humanities research, beginning with either the departmental home page or the university library. we found it relatively hard to find such resources, even for an expert information seeker. this might help to explain why so many of the resources being used are information collections, as it may be that these are the kind of resources that librarians, as information specialists themselves, consider most valuable, and therefore create links from the library web page to them. thus the users tend to follow the links provided. if these do not include specialist digital humanities resources users may not look further for them, since they trust the judgement of librarians. it is therefore important that librarians should be aware of specialist digital research resources and to provide links from the library site. this may require more specialist training for subject librarians, which suggests that modules on electronic publishing and digital resources in the humanities should be available to library school students, as is the case at ucl slais. for mid-career professionals it might be possible to pride training in collaboration with organisations like the ahrc methods network a body set up to help disseminate information about the use of digital resources in the uk higher education research community. . critiques of digital resources if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . humanities scholars are capable of providing detailed, informed critiques of digital resources. they demand the highest possible quality, both in terms of content and interface and may be relatively easily deterred from using digital resources if they are not convinced of their value. they therefore assumed that more resources were neglected than was actually the case, and this was generally a judgement made as a result of their concerns about resource quality. this may be because users have become accustomed to the kind of high quality content and interfaces that is provided by commercial publishers or organisations like large libraries and archives, and are disappointed when resources produced by academic teams do not appear to match such standards. this has important implications for the creators of specialist digital resources, since it is clear that to the majority of users, inherent scholarly value is not generally a compensation for a digital resource that is produced to lower standards than those used by commercial organisations. in terms of content, users require as much information as possible about the quality and provenance of a resource and whether or not it is comprehensive in coverage. users may find it difficult to comprehend the extent and coverage of digital resources since they lack the clues that we are used to in the physical world. scholars can browse a library shelf or journal issues and quickly determine the approximate extent of the resources available, and thus be sure that they do not miss anything important, but this is much for difficult in the case of digital resources. this concern was also found by bates ( ) when she interviewed scholars using the getty project resources, and has also been noted by duff et al ( ) and dalton and charnigo ( ) when studying historians. it is clearly therefore a long standing problem which is far from being solved. however it is relatively easy for producers to provide information about the source of the material and how it was selected. it is therefore important that producers of electronic resources should make clear the source of their data and their methodology for digitising and marking it up, and that this should be easily accessible from the web page of the actual resource as well as with data deposited with the ahds. the extent of the resource should also be indicated, especially if it is selective or incomplete. an excellent example of this is the powys digital history project where this kind of documentation is available directly from their website and written in easily understood, non-technical language. if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . for most users, ease of access is vital and the more hindrances placed in the path of a potential user the more likely it is that they will give up and not access the resource. a front end which makes data more easily manipulable is also very welcome. users are clearly aware than one of the great assets of digital resources is to enable users to manipulate data in different ways. if this potential is limited, or relies on the use of separate software, scholars may be deterred from using the resource. producers of digital resources must be aware of how easily deterred a user may be from using any given resource. thus unless necessitated by copyright regulations, registration screens or similar hindrances to access should be avoided if at all possible. resources should be designed to help users manipulate data directly from the web interface, to avoid users having to download and use it with separate software. . interfaces if an interface compares badly to the kind of professional front end that scholars are accustomed to from commercial products, this immediately creates an adverse impression on potential users. however, at present it appears that the issue of the design of interfaces to digital humanities material is managed in a somewhat random fashion. if a project is lucky enough to benefit from a good designer then the interface may be very good, however it seems as if many projects do not take this aspect of their work as seriously as the design of the back-end materials themselves. yet if the interface makes it hard to access such material, a great deal of effort in its creation may be wasted. one participant at the second workshop likened this to producing an expensive car but neglecting to provide a steering wheel, thus rendering it impossible to drive. to remedy this situation, project creators must be aware of the importance of good interface design and spend sufficient time on developing and testing interfaces, perhaps bringing in expert advice. this activity must also be cost appropriately in terms of time and funding. another interesting possibility is to encourage much more collaboration with the ahds in interface construction, although at present there is insufficient funding to allow this to be done on a significant scale. . summary if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . we have seen that in some cases, when scholars are aware that a resource is vital for their work, or they cannot access information without digital resources, they are willing to be extremely persistent and grapple with difficult interfaces and barriers to access to get the data that they need. the log data shows that users from academic domains tended to be more persistent and use different search strategies to reach their goals. this is important, since it suggests that academics are keen to find and potentially to use certain resources. nevertheless, we would argue that the kind of scholar who is likely to know they need such a resource and persist until they find it is the kind of early adopter who is already using specialist digital resources. if funding bodies wish to increase the take-up of resources then they need to urge producers to take into account the kind of barriers to adoption that are described above, since these are likely to be off-putting to the less determined user, who is likely to represent the majority of humanities scholars. as we have shown, where resources fit the needs of the research community, as in the case of information aggregation sites, scholars will enthusiastically adopt digital resource use. however at present too many digital resources require users either to struggle with unfriendly interfaces or to be technical experts even to begin to use them. it is also important to realise that humanities users are highly critical of the quality of research resources themselves, thus content must not only be of excellent quality, but must advertise this fact, by making clear what kind of material it contains and how this has been selected. if producers of digital resources can satisfy these entirely reasonable scholarly requirements in their building of resources, encouraged by the appropriate requirements specified by research councils, then we may be far more optimistic that the users will adopt digital resources for humanities research. . references adams, a. & blandford, a. 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( b) ‘english literature, electronic text and computer analysis: an unlikely combination?’ proceedings of the association for computers and the humanities- association for literary and linguistic computing, conference, university of virginia, june - . watson-boone, r. ( ) ‘the information needs and habits of humanities scholars.’ reference quarterly, , - http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/research/circah/lairah/. all urls were last accessed / / . http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/ http://www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/research/ciber/ http://ahds.ac.uk/ http://www.humbul.ac.uk/. humbul and artifact have now merged to become intute arts and humanities - http://www.intute.ac.uk/artsandhumanities/ http://www.artifact.ac.uk/ the repah project (http://repah.dmu.ac.uk/) is another of the ict strategy projects, which is examining user requirements for subject portals. they are using the same three portals, and thus we are undertaking the log analysis of the data on their behalf. http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=hist- - http://www.ota.ox.ac.uk/ text http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=hist- - http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=va-eckc- if you build it will they come? the lairah study. warwick et al, . http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=va-oep- http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=hist- - http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=va-iwm- http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=lll- - http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=arch- - http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=pa- - http://www.ucl.ac.uk/history/englishmonasticarchives/ http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/ http://ahds.ac.uk/performingarts/index.htm http://ahds.ac.uk/visualarts/index.htm http://www.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/collection.htm?uri=va-lcfca- http://www.bl.uk/ http://www.nls.uk/ http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ http://www.jstor.org/ http://www.sosig.ac.uk/. sosig has now become intute social sciences – http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/ http://lion.chadwyck.com/marketing/index.jsp http://www.oxforddnb.com/ http://www.lancs.ac.uk/palatine/ http://vos.ucsb.edu/ http://www.the-orb.net/ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/ http://www.bris.ac.uk/parip/introduction.htm http://history.powys.org.uk/history/intro/entry.html http://childes.psy.cmu.edu/ http://ahds.ac.uk/history/index.htm http://www.history.ac.uk/ http://www.shef.ac.uk/hri/ http://www.methodsnetwork.ac.uk/ pm -- si -- session .ppt session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria large project planning, funding, and management session : basics of project management session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria eight basic principles of project management •  no major project is ever installed on time, within budget, with the same staff that started it. yours will not be the first. •  projects progress rapidly until they become percent complete; they then remain percent complete forever. •  one advantage of fuzzy project objectives is that they let you avoid the embarrassment of estimating the corresponding costs. •  when things are going well, something will go wrong. –  when things just can't get any worse, they will. –  when things appear to be going better, you have overlooked something. •  if project content is allowed to change freely, the rate of change will exceed the rate of progress. •  no system is ever completely debugged; attempts to debug a new system inevitably introduce new bugs that are even harder to find. •  a carelessly planned project will take three times longer to complete than you expected; a carefully planned project will only take twice as long. •  project teams detest progress reports, because these reports vividly manifest their lack of progress. http://www.ucolick.org/~de/humour/projects.html session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria introduction •  introduction – participants and their projects –  yourselves –  your projects –  questions you would like answered session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria agenda of course •  session – basics of project management •  session – project teams and groups/ project start •  session / – project planning and model •  session – project change, reporting and managing change session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria overview – session •  definition of project management •  general model of project management •  building the project plan session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria plan the work – now work the plan session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria definition of project management –  project management is a set of principles, methods, tools and techniques for the effective management of objectives-oriented work in the context of a specific and unique organizational environment. session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria successful project management objectives •  specified performance criteria •  be within cost •  be on schedule session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria definition of a project •  key components –  not regular operations –  specific purpose or contract –  coordination of multiple tasks and resources –  specific cost, time and technical constraints –  not regularly repeated –  definite life cycle –  cross organizational boundaries and dissimilar skills –  relatively new or unknown undertakings –  uncertainty session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria necessary skills •  negotiation •  communication •  team •  analytical •  evaluation session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria examples •  new product or service •  change in structure or staffing •  building construction •  new business procedure session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria model •  problem identification •  solution alternatives generation •  solution selection •  implementation planning •  execution •  progress analysis •  project completion session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project plan •  tool for coordinating work •  objectives –  determine and portray scope of work –  identify personnel and capital resources –  schedule work –  determine budget session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project plan •  essential questions to ask –  what (technical objectives) –  how (work breakdown structure) –  who (resource commitment and utilization plan) –  when (schedule) –  how much (budget) session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project plan •  benefits –  effective communication –  final check –  baseline established –  reduces need for narrative reporting session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria thought work •  project team – who/what skills •  problem definition session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria large project planning, funding and management session : project teams and groups/ project start session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria overview – session •  team formation and development •  project start/documentation session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project team •  researcher/primary investigator •  project manager •  project members session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria role of project manager •  day to day management of project •  establishment of project structure •  negotiation of written agreements •  monitoring work •  reporting progress •  training and developing staff •  developing a sense of team session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project team formation •  who should be a part of it? •  questions to consider –  would i want this individual working for me –  would i want this individual as one of my peers –  would i want to work for this individual –  consideration of availability, personal style, goals session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria components of an effective team •  performance •  member satisfaction •  team learning •  outsider satisfaction session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria skills/responsibilities •  what skills are needed? –  skills inventory matrix •  who will be responsible for what? –  responsibility matrix •  assessing competence –  balance between skills and “good guy” session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria building an effective team •  team definition –  small set of individuals who work interdependently and are jointly accountable for performance goals •  stages –  forming –  storming –  norming –  performing session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria team effectiveness model •  evaluation •  components –  organization and team environment •  reward systems, communication systems, physical space, organizational environment and leadership –  team design •  task characteristics, size, composition –  team process •  development, norms, roles, cohesiveness session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria team charter •  description of how the team will work together •  components –  team purpose –  ground rules for behaviour –  assign roles and responsibilities session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria starting point for team development •  team formation –  introduction –  team building exercises –  operating agreements •  team planning –  review task/ expectations –  set objectives –  assign roles/ responsibilities –  create workplan session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria important considerations for diverse, far flung teams •  communication •  trust/accountability session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project start •  identification of need/problem –  what is the issue to be addressed –  questions •  why do you want the project done •  why now •  what are the risks •  what are the costs •  by what standard, will you measure results session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project documentation •  key components –  problem/opportunity statement –  scope definition –  completion criteria –  assumptions –  impact statement –  risks –  resource requirements session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria thought work •  what is the work that needs to be done for the project? session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria large project planning, funding and management session / : project planning and models session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria overview – session / •  planning the work –  tools session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria model the work •  work breakdown structure •  network •  critical path analysis •  schedule session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria work breakdown structure •  determines all work efforts •  checklist of every activity •  use to assign responsibility session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria work breakdown structure •  complete and accurate? –  is it broken down to a level of detail that guarantees control –  do the work efforts begin with an active verb –  does each activity result in a deliverable –  is someone accountable for completing the project on time, within budget and at an acceptable level of quality session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria network •  sequence of tasks –  all tasks from the wbs must appear •  show visually the relationships of work activities to each other •  only one start and one end •  communication tool session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria critical path analysis •  longest sequence of tasks from start to finish •  any delay on this path will delay entire project session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria schedule •  place data from wbs, network, critical path analysis on a time scale •  know as gantt chart •  basic chart –  time –  tasks •  include other information session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria other areas to include •  resource utilization chart •  budget •  risk assessment and contingency planning session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria balance the plan •  balance limited resources –  within project –  against other projects –  against nonproject efforts •  can the project be achieved given the other deadlines that are present session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria approve and publish •  document includes: –  target completion date –  target cost –  target resource utilization –  target asset utilization –  objectives session / instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria approve and publish •  serves as agreement among: –  project manager –  project client –  senior management –  functional managers •  serves as basis for negotiating changes •  signed and distributed session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria large project planning, funding and management session : project control, reporting and managing change session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria overview – session •  tracking progress •  managing project change •  project control/reporting •  project review •  software tools/internet resources session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria tracking progress •  planned versus actual –  gantt chart –  budget –  etc. •  do you make changes? session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria managing project change/project control •  key objectives –  determine what manager can/cannot control –  process for submitting change –  evaluating impact on project baseline –  documentation session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria types of changes •  scope changes •  base changes session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria scope changes •  additions, modifications or deletions made to the end project or service •  examples –  requirement changes –  design changes –  technological changes –  business changes –  personnel changes session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria baseline changes •  baseline is the yardstick for measuring performance •  examples –  project specifications –  applicable standards –  schedule target –  cost target –  resource and asset utilization session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria when is change needed? •  tracked against actual performance •  change may be required when not meeting plans •  guidelines for change session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project control •  key questions to ask –  where are we –  where do we want to be –  how do we get there –  are we getting there session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria transition from planning to control •  five step model –  update status –  analyze impact –  act on variances –  publish revisions –  inform management session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria . update status •  sources of data •  information for management in status reports •  responsibilities for status reports •  reporting techniques session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria . analyze impact •  compare actual against planned •  determine causes of differences •  prepare analysis for future session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria . act on variances •  choices –  do nothing –  make modifications –  negotiate trade offs session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria . publish •  format of status reports –  where are we today –  where will we be at the next report –  what is our budget position –  what items jeopardize project completion –  who deserves recognition session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria . inform management •  information items –  major accomplishments since last review –  schedule status (actual vs plan) –  financial status (actual vs plan) –  major issues and action plans –  plans for next period –  special topics with sense of urgency –  review of action items and next meeting session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria . inform management •  questions to answer –  foreseeable future problems –  adequate resources –  dissatisfaction among staff –  dealing with recurring problems –  lacking anything to do the job –  any changes to be addressed session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria project review upon completion •  attainment of objectives •  effectiveness of agreement •  effectives of project plan, project organization and management systems •  deficiencies and problems experiences –  any issues outstanding •  lessons learned and suggested improvements tools •  what is needed given the project and team members’ needs, geographical distribution, legal frameworks and other factors? •  “low tech” –  white board, flip charts, markers, calendar, post- it notes •  “higher tech” (too many to talk about) –  online calendars (google/outlook calendar) –  online gantt charts (google doc templates, dotproject) –  online project spaces (basecamp, asana) –  folder/file sharing (dropbox, evernote) –  many, many, many apps for iphone, ipad, etc issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria session instructor – lynne siemens session instructor – lynne siemens issues in large project planning and management, university of victoria, back to the beginning •  have we answered/discussed your questions from the start of the workshop? –  any outstanding issues? project management . concept . define problem and state purpose . generate solution alternatives . for selected alternatives: • suitability assessment • risk analysis • identify consequences . plan for implementation . signoff notebook . execute plan yes . above factors all ok? yes . is plan ok to all stakeholders . is plan ok? . definition ok? no yes no no no . outcome acceptable? yes no . post-mortem analysis . project is complete adapted from project planning, scheduling and control: a hands-on guide to bringing projects in on time and on budget by james p. lewis, page of project agreement this document represents a mutual commitment of time and resources between the xxx and the yyy funding for the fiscal period… date project title project number faculty project lead contact information project manager contact information project start date project end date implementation date summary of project deliverables project detail the attached project schedule, a – g provides a detailed outline of the project rationale and description, deliverables, milestone dates, and specific roles and responsibilities of the project team. accountability  it is the responsibility of the school to ensure project faculty are provided sufficient release time to complete the project in a timely manner.  it is the responsibility of the partners to ensure sufficient project support staffs (technical, administrative, and non-teaching faculty) are available to complete the project in a timely manner. a report on project progress will be submitted to the school and xxx deans, on request. quality assurance  project faculty leads are responsible for ensuring that work performed conforms to standards within their professional area of practice, and within the requirements of the school’s program area.  copyright clearance, where applicable, is the responsibility of the project lead and the school.  the xxx is responsible for ensuring sound principles of curriculum and instructional design, and, is responsible for providing appropriate standards of editing, graphic and media design support, as applicable.  zz is responsible for ensuring the work performed by the technical staff conforms to accepted professional standards. project cancellation either party may request suspension or cancellation of the project work with days notice, in writing. a. project description/rationale page of rationale description b. project deliverables and accountabilities design project plan community of practice development needs analysis resources implementation setting up initial contact with instructors monitoring and guiding discussions/chat showcase article in various sources share mentoring/training other department heads on using communities of practice to encourage international ties with the institution sharing research ideas and results c. scope and other relevant information this project will encompass the following: • access to course outlines and curriculum materials • forum for discussion • resources • the sharing learning materials • the adaptation of materials to the needs of students • development of teachers’ own local, technology-specific teaching materials • consultations with appropriate groups • access to related internet links recommended by the communication department this project will not involve any formal training of instructors. d. stakeholders level of involvement (awareness, provides input, team member, etc.) school team member page of xxx team member, provides input other projects (e.g. faculty resources) provides venue students provide input e. project team roles and responsibilities owner and sponsor advocate of project. has ultimate responsibility for the project, including its priority, funding, achievement of the business objectives, and resolution of critical issues. member of core team. project lead responsible for the overall content, design, development, implementation, showcasing, and sharing (including mentoring) of the project project manager overall project management, coordination, evaluation, teaching and learning practices, academic reviews. technical advisor technical training, advising on the technical capabilities and usability issues of the technology grassroots coordinator responsible for overall coordination of the grassroots projects; manages the grassroots community of practice; ensures the currency of the grassroots component of the yyy initiative website; arranges orientation for grassroots project leads academic portfolio manager allocates adequate funding and resources for academic projects; guides technical aspect of the project wcs portfolio manager allocates adequate funding and resources for the technology component of the project users/client uses, tests learning approaches and the enabling technologies f. milestones and accountabilities design set up cop (with appropriate rooms) and create project plan target date development communicate with teachers to determine needs, and gather resources from xxx instructors (course outlines, materials, links, etc. target date page of implementation teachers enter and participate in cop target date showcase writing an article target date share mentoring colleagues with similar international goals target date ongoing g. projected resource requirements (days) position/person year year total project lead project manager idc technical advisor project and documentation specialist video team total days for project page of [shade in the appropriate times] f. timeline tasks notes sept oct nov dec jan- mar april design ( days)  decide on tool  training: conceptual + hands-on  ongoing consultation (outcomes, methodology, website integration) development ( days)  populate (launch) implementation ( days)  training/support/facilitation for teachers  manage the process  collect & tabulate user feedback  archiving showcase ( days)  organize and draft article  publish article  archive share ( days)  feedback/mentor project initiation checklist for small projects project name project initiation checklist prepared by: date prepared: revision number: reference identify the source of the request and how it came. project objective expressed as to, in a way that, so that construct background briefly describe how this project came about project scope what business functions are in and out of scope? what locations are in and out of scope? (attach a scoping diagram for clarity) what are the project interfaces? what business procedures are required? what production operations procedures are required? will an acceptance test plan and testing be required? will systems analysis be required, if so what’s needed? what training is required? what documentation is required? what are the critical requirements? constraints what is the maximum cost of the project? what is the latest project completion date? what are the interproject dependencies? current issues briefly describe any issues that will need to be addressed prior to or during the project organization project sponsor who agrees to this project setup? who will signoff the requirements? who will remove obstacles? who will accept the finished product? project lead who will execute the project initiation (e.g., project manager or business analyst) resources & responsibilities what additional resources will be required? what are they expected to do? schedule start date when will the project start? end date when will it end? estimate how many effort hours? how many elapsed hours? what assumptions are you making? final product what is the end product? project approach what are the milestones? interim products what are the products of the milestones? project initiation checklist of april project initiation checklist for small projects business case project justification why do this project? what happens if we don’t do it? why do it now? how critical will the impact of the project be? risks what could go wrong? (both systems-related and user-related) countermeasures how will you avoid this? costs list all hardware, software, network, staff, facilities and other costs project initiation approvals requested date: client requester: date: department manager: date: project manager: date: manager: date: http://dijest.com/tools/pmworkbench/pmtemplates/pitempl/pichk.doc project initiation checklist of april program development planning – implementation – evaluation interdisciplinary research project charter author: stan ruecker project name: date: principle policy we are interested in disseminating the results of this project as widely as possible, with credit to us for doing it. project members may use any of it as examples in presentations, papers, interviews, and other media opportunities. they may post any of it to their web sites. wherever possible, they should mention the names of the other project members who were directly involved, as well as the name of the project. the project team will maintain a collaborative project web site, which will contain links to all the presentations and publications of the group. for presentations or papers where this work is the main topic, all team members who worked directly on this subproject should be co-authors. any member can elect at any time not to be listed, but may not veto publication. for presentations or papers that spin off from this work, only those members directly involved need to be listed as co-authors. the others should be mentioned if possible in the acknowledgments, credits, or article citations. team members should discuss possible publication venues before submitting abstracts or articles. we intend this work to move forward at a steady pace, given due awareness of the vagaries of life. project members will make every effort to attend meetings as arranged and to keep in regular contact by email or other electronic means. frequent absence may result in being warned, then cautioned, then asked to leave the team. project members will jointly establish and attempt to meet self- imposed deadlines, in part through providing the project administrator with lists of commitments, so that reminders will be sent out as a matter of routine. in the event the task is overdue by a considerable amount of time (for instance, whichever is lesser–two months, or double the original timeframe), other members may at their discretion notify the offender that the task will be re-assigned, without prejudice to the constitution of the team or the public credit of any member. project phases will be arranged so as to minimize the need for sequential completion of one phase before another can begin: wherever possible, phases will run in parallel, with communication occurring between people as they work on each phase, rather than waiting to communicate until the end. we would prefer for this work to be funded. project members will watch for and notify each other of funding opportunities and participate wherever possible in the writing of appropriate grant proposals. we understand that the work we do on this project may have future phases. modifications and additions may be made to further the project by other members. in addition to pdfs or other formats for presentation, project members will keep safe and distribute regularly all native files generated for the project: source code, photoshop, illustrator, flash, indesign, and any other data files or source files. these files will be unflattened and editable. where copyright restrictions do not apply, fonts should also be included in shared files. as projects progress to new phases, each team member will have the right of first choice over whether or not to continue with the project. insofar as ethics clearances allow, data backup will be provided through central project servers. local projects should also make provisions for regular backup of all project files, including versions of files in progress. we wish to communicate in such a way as to preserve professional dignity. we will strive to maintain a tone of mutual respect whenever we write or meet, and to forgive lapses if they occur. we will attempt to keep communications transparent, for example, by copying everyone involved in any given discussion, and by directly addressing with each other any questions or concerns that may arise. we would like to foster goodwill among all the participants. in making financial decisions, we will attempt to allocate resources in ways that indicate commitment to each of the people on the team. members will also watch for and notify each other of opportunities for commercialization and licensing. any commercial agreements or plans will be made so as to include and equally benefit all members of the group. we will strive to be a group working toward different parts of a larger, coherent and important whole – one that promises to exceed the sum of its parts. signed this day at ____________________________ location __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name simulated environment for theatre: research project charter – draft adapted from charters by stan ruecker and paul hjartarson date: october principle policies research team collaboration we will work collaboratively, because we believe that our collaborative efforts are greater than the sum of their parts. we will strive for a model of integrated collaboration (as distinct from principal/incidental hierarchy or turn-taking). we look forward to articulating the model as we proceed. all contributors (full researchers, research associates, and research assistants) are team members. team members will be invited based on their relevant research and technical expertise. we will strive to keep our administrative structure as simple and as “horizontal” (that is, as non-hierarchal) as the needs of the project permit. we will strive for transparency in decision-making and communication. we will strive to keep project administration as malleable and flexible as possible to enable us to respond effectively and efficiently to the many changes development brings. we strive to describe team members’ roles according to their substantive contributions to the project. team roles are typically defined as follows (but remain flexible and available for discussion). • principal investigator: administrative and conceptual lead for the purposes of individual funding proposals and grants. usually a faculty member or eligible member of an accredited institution. no financial compensation, except in the case of commercialization of research results. • researcher: co-applicant on grant proposals; long-term, independent conceptual, practical, and administrative contributor to the research project as a whole; leader of an area of core project activity; leads authorship of presentations and papers in his/her field(s) of expertise; contributes to authorship in other areas as requested by the team; responsible for administering sub-grants at home institution; responsible for recruiting and supervising research associates and assistants in his/her field. usually a faculty member or holder of a relevant terminal degree. no financial compensation, except in the case of commercialization of research results. • research associate: developing an independent research and practical contribution to the project as a whole in association with project researchers; long-term conceptual and practical contributor to the project; may lead authorship of presentations and papers in his/her area of expertise; may assist in training and/or supervising research assistants in his/her field. usually holds a relevant advanced degree. may receive financial compensation, as well as fees and/or royalties related to commercialization of research results. • research assistant: performs research and/or practical tasks as assigned by researchers and research associates. usually enrolled in a relevant degree program. may receive financial compensation, as well as fees and/or royalties related to commercialization of research results. we place a high priority on fostering the development of emerging scholars in all areas (including in the acquisition of collaborative skills). all team members are invited to participate in conceptual design meetings. (some administrative meetings are conducted in-camera among researchers only.) junior team members are encouraged to stay with the project in the long term, where possible, and to progress through its ranks. junior team members are offered robust supervision (including iterative design processes and collaborative authorship). junior team members will be funded to attend and present at project- related conferences whenever possible. we wish to communicate in such a way as to preserve professional dignity. we will strive to maintain a tone of mutual respect whenever we write or meet, and to forgive lapses if they occur. we will attempt to keep communications transparent, for example, by copying everyone involved in any given discussion, and by directly addressing with each other any questions or concerns that may arise. we intend this work to move forward at a steady pace, given due awareness of the vagaries of life. project members will make every effort to attend meetings as arranged and to keep in regular contact by email or other electronic means. frequent absence may result in being warned, then cautioned, then asked to leave the team. project members will jointly establish and attempt to meet self- imposed deadlines, in part through providing the project administrator with lists of commitments, so that reminders will be sent out as a matter of routine. in the event that a task is overdue by a considerable amount of time (one that threatens to render the project’s business unworkable), other members may at their discretion notify the offender that the task will be re-assigned, without prejudice to the constitution of the team or the public credit of any member. project phases will be arranged so as to minimize the need for sequential completion of one phase before another can begin: wherever possible, phases will run in parallel, with communication occurring between people as they work on each phase, rather than waiting to communicate until the end. dissemination and authorship acknowledgment we would like our project to be documented for our own and future researchers’ reference and benefit, and to assist with future funding opportunities. documentation is meant as a support; therefore, documentation responsibilities will be kept to a minimum amount possible (so that the work can be done) while ensuring that a sense of the project’s development is recorded (so we can see where the project has been). we will document our work as it arises from the rhythms of the project. forms of documentation include meeting notes; development “tickets”; white papers; copies of presentations; publications, and course materials developed; and so on. a task is not completed until the documentation is shared. all documents, including working documents, generated by the group are always accessible to current group members. in addition to pdfs or other formats for presentation, project members will keep safe and distribute regularly all native files generated for the project: source code, photoshop, illustrator, flash, indesign, and any other data files or source files. these files will be unflattened and editable. where copyright restrictions do not apply, fonts should also be included in shared files. insofar as ethics clearances allow, data backup will be provided through central project servers. local projects should also make provisions for regular backup of all project files, including versions of files in progress. we are interested in disseminating the results of this project as widely as possible, in a manner that reflects the interdisciplinary nature of our work, with credit to all contributors. all team members are credited as authors of all project products. the set system itself is authored by pi (or pis, when more than one grant is current); researchers and research associates (alphabetically) with research assistants (alphabetically). white paper, presentation, and publication authorship contributions fall into the following categories: • lead author: responsible for the bulk of the conceptualization, research, and drafting of the research product. there may be more than one lead author of a paper. • co-author: responsible for a secondary contribution to conceptualization, research, and drafting of the research product; for example: preparation of figures, drafting short passages of text, design and/or implementation of the element of the project under discussion. • contributing author: responsible for collaborative foundational project work and, optionally, comments on and/or minor edits to the research product. • research assistants: follow the above after the word “with”. • corporate author: under certain circumstances - for example, when a disciplinary journal cannot accommodate a full list of authors, or where “spin-off” research (see below) is being published – a corporate author may be cited as follows: the simulated environment for theatre project. • sequence is normally: lead (alphabetical); co (alphabetical); contributing (alphabetical); “with” research assistants. project members may use any of our work as examples in presentations, papers, interviews, and other media opportunities. they may post any of it to their web sites. wherever possible, they should mention the names of the other project members who were directly involved, as well as the name of the project. the project team will maintain a collaborative project web site, which will contain links to all the presentations and publications of the group. all participants will be listed on the project website, including dates and roles; the website provides an ongoing record of contributors and contributions. any member can elect at any time not to be listed as an author, but may not veto publication. team members should discuss possible publication venues before submitting abstracts or articles. our open-source research products ? funding and compensation the normal tri-council policies apply to our financial compensation structure. faculty in accredited institutions are not eligible for compensation, except in the case of commercialization of research products. professional consultants, technical assistants, research associates, and research assistants are eligible for compensation, according to the guidelines articulated at administering institutions. we would prefer for this work to be funded. project members will watch for and notify each other of funding opportunities and participate wherever possible in the writing of appropriate grant proposals. project members will assist in record-keeping and reporting the use of funds as appropriate. we will strive for equitable distribution of research funds to all contributing researchers. researchers will be consulted about the appropriate distribution of funds. funds will be distributed based on the tasks to be completed under each researcher’s supervision. consideration will be given to meaningful funding (for tenure and promotion purposes) at each institution. commercialization members will also watch for and notify each other of opportunities for commercialization and licensing. any commercial agreements or plans will be made so as to include and appropriately benefit all members of the group (even members who are no longer active at the time of commercialization). we may consider a model whereby proceeds of commercialization are folded back into the project budget and/or the research budgets of individual faculty project researchers and research associates. continuity we embrace the fact that some of our project’s contributions to knowledge may be unexpected and tangential. spin-off research is research inspired by, but not directly related to our project. (such as, for example, our cambridge model and our research on the canadian theatrical canon). the products of spin-off research may be used in set project activities if they become relevant, provided proper acknowledgement is given to non-set contributors. spin-off research will be funded to the extent that project resources allow. eligible expenses include research assistants’ and associates’ wages, travel expenses, and research and dissemination costs. in the dissemination of spin-off research, only those project members directly involved need to be listed as authors. the others should be mentioned if possible in the acknowledgments, credits, or article citations, or as corporate authors. we hope that the work we do on this project may have future phases. modifications and additions may be made to further the project by any member. we anticipate two broad categories of project development: collaborations with other projects: • involve work contributing to our current project goals or • involve an exchange of intellectual property with another research project or • involve the development of new intellectual property in collaboration (for a description of which, see above) with another project new phases of the current project: • are defined collaboratively by the current research team • extend and adapt the current project’s goals • as the project progresses to new phases, each team member will have the right of first refusal over whether or not to continue with the project. project development does not: • involve the initiation of entirely new goals • refer to work building on our current published research products, which could be undertaken by any researcher outside our team involvement of students in research students are engaged as paid research assistants only, and do not contribute coursework to project research. signed this day at ____________________________ location __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name __________________________________________ signature name draft emic ua project charter first (ryerson conference) iteration (revised november , ) trust cluster principles and policies collaboration principle # : we will work collaboratively, that is, we want and need to learn from one another. principle # : as a dh “collaboratory” in a university setting, we place a high priority on fostering graduate student development in all areas (including in the acquisition of collaborative skills). principle # : collaborators are people who sign the charter, that is, membership in emic ua is defined by an individual’s acceptance of the principles, policies and practices of the collaboratory. policy: research assistants are encouraged to sign the project charter when they begin their work with emic ua and thus become collaborators. they are also encouraged to expand their participation in the collaboratory beyond simply putting in their hours. policy: research assistants are eligible for emic ua and emic dal funding to attend demic and temic and to present conference papers as part of one or more of the project groups. principle # : we will strive to keep the administrative structure of the collaboratory as simple and as “horizontal (that is, as non-‐hierarchal) as the needs of the project permit. (the principle here is the less bureaucracy the better. the untested assumption is that, mentoring apart, collaboration thrives in the absence of hierarchy.) policy: given the developmental nature of the work emic ua is undertaking, the administrative structure of the collaboratory should be kept not only simple and non-‐hierarchical but as malleable and flexible as possible to enable us to respond effectively and efficiently to the many changes development brings. principle # : we will work within schedules and to deadlines arrived at collaboratively. principle # : all collaborators have the right of first refusal on ensuing stages of the project. credit principle # : all work undertaken to advance emic ua projects is equally deserving of credit. (giving credit speaks to the ethos of the project itself). policy: emic ua will be credited as an organizational author on all publications; we will additionally use author listings, notes, and acknowledgements as differing levels for attributing credit on our work. policy: all participants will be listed on the project website, including dates and roles; the website provides an ongoing record of contributors and contributions. principle # : we recognize the need for credit as a part of academic advancement. (this follows from our commitment to mentoring and to our support for the completion of academic programs as part of emic ua project work.) documentation principle # : collaboration is rooted in good, clear documentation, both as a means of understanding one other’s work and as a means of distributing credit. principle # : documentation is necessary not only for the purpose of informing other group members and continuing workflow but in support of grant applications and reports. principle # : we will document our work as it arises from the rhythms of the project. (documentation will be geared around project planning, dissemination and reporting.) principle # : a task is not completed until the documentation is shared. the primary site for documentation is the wiki. principle # : documentation is meant as a support; therefore, documentation responsibilities will be kept to a minimum amount possible (so that the work can be done) while ensuring that a sense of the project’s development is recorded (so we can see where the project has been). principle # : all documents, including working documents, generated by the group are always accessible to current group members. communication principle # : we will strive for transparency in decision-‐making and communication. principle # : we will strive to disseminate our work as widely as possible, and we will strive to reflect the interdisciplinary nature of our work in the way we disseminate it. principle # : we will strive to produce open source code & style sheets whenever possible network logic diagram start end a b c d e f project network diagram with scheduled dates design - - system test - - code query - . code update - - code entries - - write manual - - unit test - - unit test - - unit test - - gantt chart jan feb march april task duration month month . month month . month month gantt chart with milestones jan feb march april task duration month month . month month . month month due date project timeline project plan approval project plan approval project description project code date from department return by: your signature below indicates that you agree with the plan submitted so far as your interests are concerned. approving individual signed date functional managers directors project manager outside stakeholders comments lewis ( ) project planning, scheduling and control: a hands-on guide to bringing in on time and on budget, probus publishing company. gantt chart jan feb march april task duration month actual month actual . month actual month actual . month actual month actual gantt chart with milestones gantt chart jan feb march april task duration month actual month actual . month actual month actual . month actual month actual due date budget control wbs element budget actual cost cost variance $ % pre pilot planning . % draft checklists . % curriculum design - - . % mid-term evaluation - - . % implementation support . % manual of practice . % roll out plan . % totals . % adapted from figure - , page a guide to the project management body of knowledge, pmi institute, change control log (adapted from project management: how to plan and manage successful projects by joan knutson and ira bitz, amacom, .) change control number date submitted description of change department telephone extension date required status change control form (adapted from project management: how to plan and manage successful projects by joan knutson and ira bitz, amacom, .) part – requester name: date: description of change: benefits: part – change controller change number: date received: part – change control committee disposition: (cancel or continue) date: signatures: project manager: part – investigation team assigned to: date: impact: part – approval committee disposition: (cancel or continue) date: priority: signatures: department manager: project manager: other: change control http://dijest.com/tools/pmworkbench/pmtemplates/pctempl/ccform .doc change request form request no: request date: request title: status: originator's name: phone/emai l/mailstop: sponsor's name: priority: assigned to: response date: request description justification alternative solutions . . . change request form of april change control impact assessment impacts option option option functional scope schedule effort cost recommendation authorization action: authorized by: date: change request form of april http://dijest.com/tools/pmworkbench/pmtemplates/pctempl/pbagenda.doc prototype project board progress review meeting mm/dd/yy : pm to : pm building , monterey meeting called by: project sponsor facilitator: project manager type of meeting: progress control attendees: project board members and project manager please read: please bring: agenda . status & achievements (highlights of progress for schedule and major deliverables completed) project manager : - : pm . upcoming milestones & adjustments (focus on the scheduled milestones before the next meeting, and any planned schedule adjustments) project manager : - : pm . cost & staffing review ( review of costs to date, compared to plan. review staffing changes executed, planned, or shortages) project manager : - : pm . change requests (review and decide on formal change requests) project board : - : pm . major issue resolution (review and decide on project board-level issues blocking the project) project board : - : pm . business case review (compare current plan for the project to client and business commitments and benefits) project sponsor : - : pm . teaming & meeting management ( verify calendars for future board meetings! discuss and resolve teaming or process issues for the project board) project manager : - : pm additional information special notes: project board progress review meeting mm/dd/yy : pm to : pm building , monterey meeting called by: facilitator: type of meeting: attendees: please read: please bring: agenda status & achievements project manager : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: upcoming milestones & adjustments project manager : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: cost & staffing review project manager : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: change requests project board : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: major issue resolution project board : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: business case review project sponsor : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: teaming & meeting management project manager : - : pm discussion: conclusions: action items: person responsible: deadline: additional information special notes: monthly project status report general information: agency name: date: contact name: phone: project id: for the period beginning: and ending: name of the project: project start date: current phase: key questions ) has the project scope of work changed? yes/no ) will upcoming target dates be missed? yes/no ) does the team have resource constraints? yes/no ) are there issues that require management attention? yes/no if any of the above questions is answered "yes", please provide an explanation of the "yes" answer. key milestones for the overall project revised on : milestone original date revised date actual date milestones planned for this month and accomplished this month: milestone original date revised date actual date accomplishments planned for this month and not completed: milestone/item/accomplishment original date revised date ) ) ) ) for each item listed above, provide a corresponding explanation of the effect of this missed item on other target dates and provide the plan to recover from this missed item. items planned for next month: milestone original date revised date (use a chart like the following to show actual expenditures compared to planned levels. break the costs into other categories as appropriate.) year-to-date costs ( ) fiscal year __ actual costs to date estimate to complete total estimated costs total planned budget personnel services prof. & outside service other expenditures * total costs (use a chart like the following if this project spans more than one fiscal year.) year-to-date costs ( ) grand total for project actual costs to date estimate to complete total estimated costs total planned budget personnel services prof. & outside service other expenditures * total costs * other expenditures include hardware, software, travel, training, support, etc. attach the current risk list. attach the current issues/action item list (for the significant items that need management attention) http://www.dir.state.tx.us/eod/qa/monitor/status.htm checklist for managing projects • a clear, concise statement defining the project has been prepared and reviewed by knowledgeable parties for consensus. • performance criteria have been developed. these criteria are measurable and specific. • a work breakdown structure has been developed to a level sufficient to prepare accurate estimates of costs, resources, and working times for all project activities. • a statement of project scope that clearly defines the limits of what will and will not be done has been developed. • tangible deliverables have been identified for specific milestones to permit progress measurements. • where risks have been identified, contingency plans have been prepared to deal with them. • the project plan has been prepared with participation and/or input from individuals who must implement it. • the project notebook has been signed off by stakeholders and copies distributed to contributors. • a control system has been established using variance analysis to assess progress. • individuals have been selected for assignment to the project. • the project has been planned to a manageable level of detail. • a post-mortem has been done at each milestone of the project as well as a final one for the overall project and placed in the project notebook. • the controlling project notebook has been placed in a central file for use in future project planning. • limits have been established to determine when the project plan will be revised. • checklists have been prepared for major segments of the project so that nothing is overlooked. adapted from project planning, scheduling & control: a hands-on guide to brining projects in on time and on budget, james p. lewis, probus publishing company, chicago, handouts.pdf team -- handouts .pdf large project planning, funding and management agenda project team role of project manager project team formation components of an effective team skills/responsibilities building an effective team team effectiveness model team charter starting point for team development important considerations for diverse, far flung teams project start project documentation thought work team member competence checklist.pdf checklist . . assessing team member competence. area of competence skills skill level ( = low, = medium, = high) experience experience level ( = low, = medium, = high) area of competence skills skill level ( = low, = medium, = high) experience experience level ( = low, = medium, = high) scoring skills team norms.pdf table . . team norms. team norms category norms document storage.pdf table . . documentation and storage guidelines. new team member orientation.pdf checklist . . new team member orientation. first meeting checklist.pdf checklist . . outcomes for first team meeting. outcomes second meeting checklist.pdf checklist . . outcomes for second team meeting. outcomes project initiation checklist.pdf project name pm -- si -- session .pdf large project planning, funding and management overview – session project team role of project manager project team formation components of an effective team skills/responsibilities building an effective team team effectiveness model team charter starting point for team development important considerations for diverse, far flung teams project start project documentation thought work project planning and models.pdf large project planning, funding and management agenda model the work work breakdown structure work breakdown structure network critical path analysis schedule other areas to include balance the plan approve and publish approve and publish gantt charg.pdf sheet pm -- si -- session .pdf large project planning, funding and management overview – session / model the work work breakdown structure work breakdown structure network critical path analysis schedule other areas to include balance the plan approve and publish approve and publish project control, reporting and managing change.pdf large project planning, funding and management agenda tracking progress managing project change/project control types of changes scope changes baseline changes when is change needed? project control transition from planning to control . update status . analyze impact . act on variances . publish . inform management . inform management project review upon completion other gantt chart .pdf sheet budget control.pdf budget control checklist for managing projects.pdf checklist for managing projects change control log.pdf change control log (adapted from project management: how to plan and manage successful projects by joan knutson and ira bitz, amacom, .) change control form (adapted from project management: how to plan and manage successful projects by joan knutson and ira bitz, amacom, .) change request form.pdf http://dijest.com/tools/pmworkbench/pmtemplates/pctempl/ccform .doc change request form request description justification alternative solutions impact assessment impacts option option option recommendation authorization monthly project status report.pdf monthly project status report key questions internet resources .pdf project management -- internet resources project management – books pm -- si -- session .pdf large project planning, funding and management overview – session tracking progress managing project change/project control types of changes scope changes baseline changes when is change needed? project control transition from planning to control . update status . analyze impact . act on variances . publish . inform management . inform management project review upon completion other back to the beginning language technology for digital humanities: introduction to the special issue e d i t o r i a l language technology for digital humanities: introduction to the special issue erhard hinrichs • marie hinrichs • sandra kübler • thorsten trippel published online: november � springer nature b.v. the use of digital resources and tools across humanities disciplines is steadily increasing, giving rise to new research paradigms and associated methods that are commonly subsumed under the term digital humanities. digital humanities does not constitute a new discipline in itself, but rather a new approach to humanities research that cuts across different existing humanities disciplines. while digital humanities extends well beyond language-based research, textual resources and spoken language materials play a central role in most humanities disciplines. in order to showcase the use of language tools and resources in digital humanities research, the lt dh (language technology for digital humanities) workshop was held at coling in osaka, japan. discussions focused mainly on the following topics: – case studies of using language technology and/or language resources with the goal of finding new answers to existing research questions in a particular humanities discipline or addressing entirely new research questions. & marie hinrichs marie.hinrichs@uni-tuebingen.de erhard hinrichs erhard.hinrichs@uni-tuebingen.de sandra kübler skuebler@indiana.edu thorsten trippel thorsten.trippel@uni-tuebingen.de seminar für sprachwissenschaft, university of tübingen, tübingen, germany department of linguistics, indiana university, bloomington, in, usa lang resources & evaluation ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /s - - - – case studies of expanding the functionality of existing language processing tools in order to be able to address research questions in digital humanities. – the design of new language processing tools as well as annotation tools for spoken and written language, showcasing their use in digital humanities research. – domain adaptation of rule-based, statistical, or machine-learning models for language processing tools in digital humanities research. – challenges posed for language processing tools when used on diachronic data, language variation data, or literary texts. – showcasing the use of language processing tools in humanities disciplines such as anthropology, gender studies, history, literary studies, philosophy, political science, and theology. the motivation for this special issue was to provide a means for presenting work in these areas in greater detail. submission was open to anyone working at the interface of computational linguistics, digital humanities, and social science disciplines. furthermore, all participants of the lt dh workshop were invited to submit extended versions of their work. the collection of articles accepted for publication in this special issue covers a wide range of topics relevant to researchers in the digital humanities. our main objective for this introduction is to relate the individual contributions to larger, on- going research themes in digital humanities and to highlight the role of natural language tools and resources in each article. the articles can be grouped into three thematic clusters: text analysis, corpus building, and corpus annotation. the order in which the articles appear follows this grouping, starting with the largest cluster of six articles that address the use of language technology for different aspects of text analysis: – computational text analysis within the humanities: how to combine working practices from the contributing fields? by jonas kuhn. – dialogue analysis: a case study on the new testament by chak yan yeung and john lee. – vector space explorations of literary language by andreas van cranenburgh, karina van dalen-oskam, and joris van zundert. – geoparsing historical and contemporary literary text set in the city of edinburgh by beatrice alex, claire grover, richard tobin, and jon oberlander. – token-based spelling variant detection in middle low german texts by fabian barteld, chris biemann, and heike zinsmeister. – beyond lexical frequencies: using r for text analysis in the digital humanities by taylor arnold, nicolas ballier, paula lissón, and lauren tilton. the cluster of articles on text analysis begins with a position paper, followed by three use-cases in religious studies, linguistics, and literature, and ends with two articles about nlp tool building. the position paper by kuhn compares and contrasts the traditional hermeneutics paradigm for humanities research with recent e. hinrichs et al. data-driven, computational approaches. on the basis of his own research experience, kuhn proposes a new methodological framework that tries to bridge these two research paradigms. the article ends with two experimental scenarios that illustrate the use of this new integrative framework. the two scenarios are taken from the domains of corpus linguistics and literary studies. the contribution by yeung and lee presents an automated approach for analyzing dialogues in the new testament. the authors have developed a machine learning approach for identifying dialogues in three steps: first, they identify speakers and listeners, then they detect chains of quotes with alternating speakers/ listeners, and finally they determine the boundaries of complete dialogues. they use automatic pos tagging, dependency parsing, and named entity recognition to create features for the machine learner. based on these extracted dialogues, yeung and lee present a quantitative analysis of the dialogues. the article by van cranenburgh, van dalen-oskam, and van zundert investigates to what extent machine learning (ml) approaches can successfully predict the degree of literariness of a novel. more specifically, the authors utilize two types of unsupervised ml models that are widely used in natural language processing: a topic model and a neural vector space model which are trained on different text passages of – pages in length. they show how different notions of semantic complexity can be derived from these models and investigate how well these complexity measures correlate with the literacy ratings of dutch novels that were collected by an on-line survey. data-driven analysis of literary text is also the topic of the article contributed by alex, grover, tobin, and oberlander. the authors adapt the edinburgh geobrowser, an nlp tool for automatic enrichment of textual materials with geographical information, for use with historical literary texts set in the city of edinburgh. the tool allows fine-grained annotation of street names, monuments, and other landmarks. the quality of the automatic annotation is evaluated against a gold standard. the tool has a modular architecture and is therefore easily adapted to other geographical locations. a recurrent theme in the digitization and use of historical text corpora concerns wide-spread spelling variation for the same lemma. barteld, biemann, and zinsmeister offer a new computational approach to dealing with this issue for middle low german texts. contrary to most studies that deal with the phenomenon of spelling variation, the authors of the present article do not attempt to convert different spelling variants to a single, normalized form. rather, their spelling variant detection approach generates all potential spelling variants for a given lemma and filters the set of potential variants by systematically inspecting the linguistic contexts of the spelling variants that occur in the text. due to its focus on data analysis and visualization, its large number of processing packages, and an active user community, the statistical computing language r is well suited to text analysis tasks and is gaining popularity in digital humanities. the article by arnold, ballier, lissón, and tilton presents a collection of r packages, built around a common text interchange format, to be used in digital humanities workflows. they demonstrate the power and usefulness of the ecosystem, which includes nlp tools, in a digital humanities project. language technology for digital humanities... the second thematic cluster of articles on corpus building begins with an article about a spoken-language corpus, followed by two articles presenting text corpora for arabic and hebrew. the articles are as follows: – digitising swiss german—how to process and study a polycentric spoken language by yves scherrer, tanja samardžić, and elvira glaser. – studying the history of the arabic language: language technology and a large-scale historical corpus by yonatan belinkov, alexander magidow, alberto barrón-cedeño, avi shmidman, and maxim romanov. – historical corpora meet the digital humanities: the jerusalem corpus of emergent modern hebrew by aynat rubinstein. the contribution by scherrer, samardžić, and glaser reports on the creation of archimob, a spoken language corpus of swiss german variants. the corpus is based on transcribed spoken text of historical narratives. in the creation of the corpus, it was necessary to adjust tools and training material, originally developed for standard german, to improve the results on the language variants in the corpus. these tools include automatic speech recognition, spelling normalization, and pos tagging. the article concludes with three case studies, showcasing the usefulness of the corpus for a range of digital humanities questions. the lessons learned in creating the archimob corpus can be generalized to other languages. belinkov, magidow, barrón-cedeño, shmidman, and romanov describe the creation of a large scale diachronic corpus of written arabic, automatically annotated for sentence boundaries, morphological segments, lemmas, pos tags, and constituent syntax. they then develop a computational methodology to cluster the diachronic texts into periods. in a final analysis of the results of their periodization algorithm on the corpus, belinkov et al. not only confirm the established periodization of standard arabic into classical and modern standard arabic, but they also find evidence for a more differentiated periodization. rubinstein describes the process of creating an open-access corpus of emergent modern hebrew, which includes extensive metadata and linguistic annotations. throughout the process, care was taken to follow best practices and to comply with standards in the digital humanities. his article shows how the use of nlp tools, in combination with crowd sourcing and collaboration with external partners, made the construction of the resource possible. use-cases are presented to demonstrate the use of the corpus in diachronic linguistic research. the third thematic cluster on annotation starts with two articles about pos tagging, and ends with a project note on wsd. the articles are as follows: – from to million annotated words— part-of-speech tagging for middle high german by sarah schulz and nora ketschik. – exploiting languages proximity for part-of-speech tagging of three french regional languages by pierre magistry, anne-laure ligozat, and sophie rosset. e. hinrichs et al. – approaching terminological ambiguity in cross-disciplinary communication as a word sense induction task. a pilot study. by julie mennes, ted pedersen, and els lefever. the article by schulz and ketschik addresses issues similar to the ones addressed by barteld et al.: schulz and ketschik investigate approaches to pos tagging for middle high german given the non-standard spelling. their investigation addresses questions of the amount of training data, and methods for integrating information from a lexical database and another corpus, annotated for pos, but using a different tagset. additionally, they investigate domain adaptation in order to improve the performance of their pos tagger on their region-specific corpora. magistry, ligozat, and rosset also address the issue of pos tagging, but they investigate methods for pos tagging the regional languages alsatian, occitan, and picard. for these languages, no resources exist, thus magistry et al. leverage resources from the related, high-resourced languages german, catalan, and french using delexicalization and transposition of highly frequent words. linguistic enrichment and disambiguation of text corpora is by no means limited to morphological and syntactic information. mennes, pedersen, and lefever present a pilot study for sense clustering of ambiguous terms. the authors point out that such ambiguities can make communication difficult among researchers from different scientific disciplines in cross-disciplinary investigations, including in digital humanities. mennes et al. conduct a pilot study for automatically inducing different sense clusters for ambiguous terms. their study is based on the nlp software package sense clusters, previously developed by pedersen. we hope that this brief preview of each article will prove useful for navigating through this special issue and will stimulate readers to consult the individual contributions. we would like to take this opportunity to thank all authors for their contributions to this issue, and all referees who kindly agreed to review the submitted manuscripts for their in-depth comments and helpful suggestions. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. language technology for digital humanities... language technology for digital humanities: introduction to the special issue a digital humanities reading list: part , cooperation between libraries and research communities liber’s digital humanities & digital cultural heritage working group is gathering literature for libraries with an interest in digital humanities. four teams, each with a specific focus, have assembled a list of must-read papers, articles and reports. the recommendations in this article (the second in the series) have been assembled by the team in charge of cooperation and relationship between libraries and research communities, led by liam o’dwyer of dublin city university. https://libereurope.eu/working-group/digital-humanities-digital-cultural-heritage/ https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://libereurope.eu/blog/dt_team/liam-odwyer/ https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://libereurope.eu/blog/dt_team/liam-odwyer/ the second theme: cooperation between libraries & research communities as digital humanities (dh) evolves, the role of libraries and librarians working in the field continues to develop. a core factor in realising the opportunities that dh presents for libraries – and that libraries present for dh – is the level and nature of cooperation between libraries and their research communities. how do libraries find their dh research communities? how do we let ‘them’ find ‘us’? how are these connections best facilitated and fostered? a significant body of literature focuses on this aspect of dh librarianship and this post results from an appropriately collaborative attempt to list must-reads. . the digital in the humanities: an interview with bethany nowviskie in melissa dinsman’s interview , nowviskie identifies the field of library and information science (lis) as being of most benefit to dh. expertise in digitisation, data curation, digital stewardship, metadata, discovery and data visualisation and analysis are called out as key offerings. these are augmented by the established liaison and consultative roles of libraries. . communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship: a review article, john cox in his consideration of academic libraries’ approaches to dh, cox notes the importance of language and terminology in broadcasting skillsets, for example in job titles and team names. it may be more apt for the library to present itself as partner or collaborator as opposed to service or support provider. cox calls for a focused communications strategy to embed libraries in digital scholarship and create new perceptions of their role as enabling partners, one “that focuses on inserting the library into digital scholarship communities, mirroring their experimental mindset, and projecting a confident, ‘can-do’ outlook” . . no half measures: overcoming common challenges to doing digital humanities in the library, miriam posner and digital humanities in the library isn’t a service, trevor munoz posner also acknowledges the importance of language and framing. she concurs with trevor munoz who argues that support may be unsuited to dh where projects typically need collaborators rather than supporters. in her piece, posner identifies recurring challenges and opportunities for libraries working in dh and https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/digital-humanities-interview-bethany-nowviskie/ https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/bitstream/handle/ / /communicating% new% library% roles% to% enable% digital% scholarship% nral% final% draft% prepublication.pdf?sequence= &isallowed=y http://miriamposner.com/posnerjla.pdf http://trevormunoz.com/notebook/ / / /doing-dh-in-the-library.html investigates common factors of success and failure. among her conclusions are the importance of institutional commitment and openness to new models and workflows. . evolving in common: creating mutually supportive relationships between libraries and the digital humanities, micah vandegrift & stewart varner in this piece vandegrift and varner use texts by lisa spiro, matthew kirschenbaum, stephen ramsay and bethany nowviskie to present and discuss a variety of perspectives on the subject of library engagement in dh. they emphasise the need for deep collaboration and echo the importance of acting as equal partner and overcoming any reluctance or “timidity” in this regard. the potential of library as space is signaled as particularly pertinent for dh activity and relationship building . building capacity for digital humanities, ecar working group the ecar working group paper outlines categories to assess institutions in terms of capacity and readiness for dh and suggests practical approaches and next steps. different structural approaches to facilitate dh collaboration are explored – centralised, hub and spoke, mesh and consortial. they stress the importance of local context in their consideration of how to best foster dh growth. the ecar recommendation of a tailored approach recurs frequently in this literature, responding to the local dh environment, available resources and strategic goals. performing a needs assessment or environmental scan is repeatedly advocated as an appropriate first step to inform how a library should engage with its researchers. . research libraries & digital humanities tools, rluk rluk’s report on the role of research libraries in the creation, archiving, curation, and preservation of tools for the digital humanities documents the outcomes of a survey of uk research libraries, presenting a broad range of models used and approaches taken. it reinforces views found elsewhere here, such as the cautioning against a one-size-fits-all approach and the shifting role of libraries from service provider to active participant. . digital humanities in the library / of the library, caitlin christian-lamb, sarah potvin & thomas padilla acrl’s special issue digital humanities in the library / of the library contains many articles broaching the topic of research http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/islandora/object/fsu: /datastream/pdf/view https://library.educause.edu/~/media/files/library/ / /ewg .pdf https://web.archive.org/http://www.rluk.ac.uk/news/rluk-report-the-role-of-research-libraries-in-the-creation-archiving-curation-and-preservation-of-tools-for-the-digital-humanities/ https://web.archive.org/http://www.rluk.ac.uk/news/rluk-report-the-role-of-research-libraries-in-the-creation-archiving-curation-and-preservation-of-tools-for-the-digital-humanities/ https://web.archive.org/http://www.rluk.ac.uk/news/rluk-report-the-role-of-research-libraries-in-the-creation-archiving-curation-and-preservation-of-tools-for-the-digital-humanities/ https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /introduction/ https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /introduction/ cooperation. do dh librarians need to be in the library?: librarianship in academic units by locke and mapes explores how models of embedded librarianship within a faculty can help position the librarian as an active partner. other articles discuss the task of bringing library dh labour to light. when metadata becomes outreach focuses on the importance of communicating library skills, where metadata can become “ the heartbeat making dh projects usable, robust, preservable, sustainable, and scalable”. in another piece, by huculack and goddard, a tension is identified between priorities – the scholar focusing on theory/prototype/output and the librarian on practice/preservation/standardisation. . the reciprocal benefits of library researcher-in-residence programs , virginia wilson this paper looks at how use of library research-in-residence programs can enhance the research culture of the library and help foster a collaborative culture between library and faculty. . digital humanities: what can libraries offer? shun han rebekah wong wong undertakes a quantitative analysis of authorship in dh journals to investigate library involvement in the field. she present libraries as central to dh realizing its potential while acknowledging complexity and challenges of relationship building. . special report: digital humanities in libraries, stewart varner and patricia hswe varner and hswe’s survey and report of digital humanities in libraries reflects uncertainty in how to best respond to the expanding scope of activity in the field. many themes and recommendations recur: an engaged, agile, responsive approach, leveraging of existing library strengths. .the research librarian of the future: data scientist and co-investigator lse’s the research librarian of the future looks at emerging roles and opportunities for liaison librarians. meeting emerging research requirements (e.g. around data) can drive collaboration, another example of the agile approach – looking for researchers’ knowledge gaps and where they overlap with library strengths. the need for a strategic approach, supporting upskilling and committing resources, is highlighted. http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /do-dh-librarians-need-to-be-in-the-library/ https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /do-dh-librarians-need-to-be-in-the-library/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /when-metadata-becomes-outreach/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /when-metadata-becomes-outreach/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /when-metadata-becomes-outreach/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /a-case-for-care-and-repair/ https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/eblip/index.php/eblip/article/view/ / notes https://preprint.press.jhu.edu/portal/sites/ajm/files/ . wong.pdf https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/record/uuid: a ad - - bce- c - c f f https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/record/uuid: a ad - - bce- c - c f f http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/ / / /the-research-librarian-of-the-future-data-scientist-and-co-investigator/ it is somewhat reassuring that across these writings there are recurring themes, and interesting to see how they relate and intersect. library skills and functions are a natural fit for dh, yet a reframing of roles can help communicate their relevance to the field. dh offers great potential as an area of growth but strategic alignment and commitment of resourcing are essential for that potential to be realised. while it may no longer be new , dh remains decidedly different in the challenges and opportunities it poses for libraries – and particularly how libraries and researchers collaborate. posner acknowledges the reality of much dh scholarship as “eccentric, unpredictable, bespoke, and prone to failure. it will not match up neatly with a library’s existing workflows”. these truths, however unpalatable to the dh-enthused librarian, indicate that libraries need to adjust and experiment to succeed here. as posner again puts it, “dh is not, and cannot be, business as usual for a library” for further reading there are of course many more comprehensive listings than this post covers. in the course of our discussions, the following were mentioned: ● miriam posner’s digital humanities and the library ● the acrl’s dh+lib list of relevant readings on dh+libraries http://miriamposner.com/blog/digital-humanities-and-the-library/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/dh /readings/ big data and digital humanities jochen tiepmar abstract in academic discourse, the term big data is often used incorrectly or not considered in relevant use cases. this paper investigates the term big data in the context of text oriented digital humanities and in the process shows that it is not necessarily an issue of big data sets. the goal is to provide a starting point or a guideline for researchers in the humanities to relate their work to the concept of big data. it may even show the reader that they might be working on a task that can be considered as big data even though the data set itself is comparatively small. as such, this paper should not be seen as a concrete solution to specific problems but as a general overview that is based on several years of practical research experience. this paper also argues that interoperability is one of the most prominent big data issues in text oriented digital humanities. jochen tiepmar leipzig university, institute for computer science, � jtiepmar@informatik.uni-leipzig.de archives of data science, series a (online first) doi . /ksp/ / kit scientific publishing issn - vol. , no. , mailto:jtiepmar@informatik.uni-leipzig.de jochen tiepmar introduction defining the term big data is not trivial. the most obvious defining factor is the size of a data set, but this property can not be applied universally and depends on the domain context as well as data type specific properties or measurements. for instance, text volume can be measured as number of tokens/documents or byte. while a token or document count can often result in impressive and seemingly large numbers, the corresponding bytes are often not in an area that can be considered as large. yet certain text mining analyses – like citation analysis – and use case specific circumstances – like a real time requirement – may result in workflows that are already too calculation expensive for technically small data sets. ibm suggests the vs, data specific properties to help describe the big data relevance of a problem. these vs are volume, veracity, velocity and variety. . volume volume is the most obvious aspect of big data and describes the size of a data set. the bigger a data set is, the more effort is required to process, share or store it. especially medical applications like analysis of mri images and simulations like weather models or particle systems can create and require large amounts of data. the increasing amount of digital and sometimes publicly available sensory information that is collected – for a vast number of examples, see works about smart cities or internet of things – will probably increase the need for solutions for size-related problems. usually, a data set is not characterized as a big data problem if smaller than at least terabyte, and since current standard database systems and hard drives are able to store and manage several terabytes of data without any major issues, most big data volume problems deal with memory and not disk space. information that is stored in memory can be accessed faster than that in disk drives, but it is lost when the system is shut down. therefore, disk space is usually used to store, manage, and archive data sets while memory is usually used for more dynamic, analytical tasks. memory is currently also more expensive – and, therefore, more limited – than disk space, which means that the memory requirements that big data and digital humanities qualify as a big data problem are usually lower than disk-space requirements. an arbitrarily chosen estimated border value could be gigabytes. in the context of text-oriented digital humanities, volume can also be used to refer to more information-related aspects like the number of tokens, sentences, or documents, as it is usually done for text corpora. information-related size statistics can quickly result in seemingly big and impressive numbers while the required disk space stays relatively small. in the context of this analysis, volume with a capitalized letter v refers to disk or memory space. table illustrates this relationship for some of the biggest data sets (deutsches textarchiv (dta), geyken et al ( ); textgrid, neuroth et al ( )) that were collected in the context of this work. the disk space is calculated based on the uncompressed data set that is available for download and usually includes additional markup, which implies that the actual text data volume is usually smaller. the number of documents and tokens is calculated based on the data set. the document number is the number of individual files, and the tokens were delimited by the characters ="<.>()[]{},:;, tab, newline, and whitespace. textgrid provides multiple documents as part of one xml file, namely the with several tei documents. these documents were separated into individual files. the token and document count can differ from the official project statistics, because they include the xml markup. this is intentional, since the point is to illustrate the relation between the number of words in a set of files and their hard disk space and, for this comparison, it is more correct to include the markup as tokens as it also influences the file sizes. table : text corpus statistics vs. hard disk space. text corpus documents tokens disk space dta , , , . gb textgrid , , , . gb pbc , , . gb as table shows, the required disk space for text data is quite small even for comparatively big data sets. problematic file sizes can usually only occur for parallel bible corpus (pbc), mayer and cysouw ( ) jochen tiepmar text data sets that include optical scans of the document pages, which shall not be considered as text data but as image data. the english wikipedia can be considered as one of the largest online text collections. yet, according to its own statistics, as of february , the size of the xml file containing only the current pages, no user or talk pages, was , , , bytes uncompressed ( gb). it can be stated that storing and managing text data is not a volume problem with respect to disk size. the data size is also not problematic with respect to setups that are designed to work in memory. at the time of writing, the current prices for gb ram based on amazon.com range from . e to , . e, which might be too expensive to consider this as standard hardware, but this is probably far from problematic for a project that is designed with the requirement of managing a wikipedia-size text collection in memory. it must be emphasized that this is not a phenomenon that occurs because the amount of data is still small, and, therefore, can be expected to change in the near future. instead, it can be considered as a constant characteristic of the practical use of text data. data sets in this context correspond to individual document collections that tend to include documents that share a certain set of properties like a specific author, language, time period, or any kind of thematic relation. das deutsche textarchiv only includes german literature covering a relatively limited time frame, and the parallel bible corpus only includes bible translations. even if a data set includes a wide array of parameter configurations it can always be distinguished from other data sets by its specific properties. it is highly unlikely that the trend for this kind of data is headed toward centralization. this characteristic is especially important in text analysis because, in order to research specific effects, it is important to eliminate the impact of unrelated variables. a token frequency trend analysis usually requires a monolingual text corpus to avoid effects like the german feminine noun article die being counted as the english verb to die. even in more inclusive use cases like a global digital library, it can be counter-productive not to limit the content to books and include – for instance – twitter data or collected forum discussions. therefore, it can be stated that the relatively small disk or memory size required to manage only the text data is and will not be a big data-related problem because of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikipdia:size_of_wikipedia#size_of_the_english _wikipedia_database hyperx fury ddr hx c fbk / ram kit gb ( x gb) mhz ddr cl dimm kingston kvr r d k / ram gb (ddr ecc reg cl dimm kit, -pin) big data and digital humanities the purpose and characteristics of this kind of data. it is unlikely that the size of document collections is an issue that cannot be solved using present-day standard hardware. if text content is considered primary data, then external annotations and annotated text content can be considered secondary data. annotated text content can include information about part-of-speech tags, named entities, editorial notes, and much more. external annotations can include citation links or linked resources like audio or image snippets to specific text passages. secondary data does not have to be associated with the original text and can also occur as word frequency tables, topic models, co-occurrence & collocation data, or in the form of any other analytical result format. secondary data in the context of text is usually the result of automated analytical processes or manual editing. especially, the amount of information that is added by automated analytical processes can significantly increase the volume of a data set. the amount of this kind of data depends on the analytical processes that are done and the results that are produced. a representative overview of this kind of data would require an unreasonable amount of work, and provide little to no value because the results for the individual projects would be project-specific and could not be compared. the wortschatz project (quasthoff and richter ( )) at leipzig university generates a lot of annotation data and word statistics based on several sentence lists collected from online resources. the sentence lists can be considered the primary data, while everything else – including indices for the primary data – can be considered secondary data. table shows the relation between the volumes of primary and secondary data based on the three samples deu_mixed_ , deu_news_ and deu_newscrawl_ . the information was compiled based on information given by a server administrator with direct access to the databases. table : primary vs secondary data volume (wortschatz). data set primary data (bytes) secondary data (bytes) deu_mixed_ , , , , , , deu_news_ , , , , , , deu_newscrawl_ , , , , , , jochen tiepmar the values in the table are not comparable to each other because each data set includes different sets of database tables. this is not an issue because the purpose is only to illustrate that secondary data tends to be of more volume than primary data. combined with the trend for increased interoperability and research in- frastructures that may store and provide annotations that would have been considered as temporary data in project-specific workflows, it may even be possible that exponential volume growth occurs in the near future because of further annotations that are based on or caused by existing annotations. it can be stated that secondary data itself can qualify as a volume problem because text annotation can increase the amount of meta information that is attached to any piece of text data without limit, and therefore, the volume can be inflated indefinitely. estimating whether or not this would result in big data sized document collections would be speculation. yet, this work proposes that it is unlikely that future document collections will include every piece of annotated information in their documents because it makes the documents harder to read, and the information may even be contradictory to each other. it is more likely and reasonable that text passage references are used to link annotation results to text passages and between external services. . variety variety is about the different types and formats of data sets. types include more broad differentiations like audio, video, or sensory data and also different file types for each media type like mp , wav, and flac for audio files. since the context of this work is text-oriented digital humanities, the types of data are already relatively limited but still include many file types – like tex, txt, xml, doc, csv, pdf, and many more – with specific characteristics. other layers of complexity in variety are differences in markup formats for a specific file type – like different xml schemas – and a vast number of workflows and access methods for data. this indicates that the big data issue variety is similar to the increasing need for interoperability that is described in section and is very relevant in the context of text-oriented digital humanities. big data and digital humanities . velocity velocity describes the processing speed and is especially significant because it has a direct impact on the end-user experience while the other issues are generally only problematic for the service provider. for instance, a navigation system that calculates the best route based on sensory information about the current traffic would not be usable if this calculation requires several hours of processing time. more academic use cases are workflows that include a lot of experimental parameter permutation or the creation of domain-specific training data sets for neural networks and machine learning. a very common way to increase the processing speed of a workflow or algorithm is to parallelize it by dividing it into subsets of problems that are independently solved by different threads or computers in a network cluster and then combining their results. parallelization of algorithms is an issue that is far from trivial and in some cases may be counter-productive or even impossible to implement because certain workflows can not be divided into independent sub problems. specific tasks in the text-oriented digital humanities – for example, citation analysis – can be parallelized and provide interesting research questions with regard to velocity. . veracity veracity refers to the quality and trustworthiness of data and is especially relevant in the context of sensory data where it can be a complex problem to distinguish between a correctly measured anomaly and a malfunction of a sensor. this can result in reduced efficiency and in financial losses as described in dienst and beseler ( ). optical character recognition (ocr) can be considered as a complex veracity-related problem in the context of text-oriented digital humanities. this observation is supported by the conclusions of chaudhuri et al ( ). nuances that distinguish certain letters can be hard to interpret correctly by a computer. since ocr often has to work with documents that were not created digitally, problems like handwriting and unwanted image artefacts have to be considered. even a comparatively high accuracy of % implies that every th character was guessed wrongly, which correlates to six mistakes in this sentence. jochen tiepmar . the big vs and digital humanities a problem can be more or less characterized as big data the more or less complex it is as regards to one or many of the big data vs. this especially implies that a problem does not necessarily have to include particularly large sets of data to be considered big data. the different aspects can be related to or influence each other. a relatively small data set that needs to be processed exceptionally fast is also a big data problem and veracity can become decreasingly or increasingly important with increasing volume, depending on the use case. a larger data set can decrease the impact of individual errors but also increase their absolute number in case of a systemic problem. this work argues that the following relations between the vs and the digital humanities can be observed: • volume is an issue that does exist with regard to secondary data but generally not as prominent as in other data related contexts and domains. • velocity and veracity can be problematic in specific tasks in citation analysis (time effectiveness) and digital humanities like ocr (veracity). • variety can be mapped to interoperability, a well known and universal issue in the digital humanities. the following section illustrates, why interoperability or variety is an especially complex issue in such a broad field of the digital humanities. interoperability (variety) interoperability in the context of this work means the ability to interchange or reuse tools and data sets between different (research) projects. the oxford dictionary defines interoperability as “the ability of computer systems or software to exchange and make use of information” (oxford dictionary ( )). three technical aspects are relevant to the exchange of functions and data sets: tools & workflows must understand the data, data types & markup must be understandable by the tools, and data availability & access must be provided. big data and digital humanities . tools & workflow variety many projects in the text-oriented digital humanities can be characterized as specialized solutions that are not generally applicable to other research projects as e.g. perseus (smith et al ( )), das deutsche textarchiv (geyken et al ( )), and the parallel bible corpus (mayer and cysouw ( )). they use existing or newly created technologies to provide project-specific solutions for their project-specific data sets, including the use of publicly available tools like source code repositories (perseus) as well as hand-crafted solutions (das deutsche textarchiv, parallel bible corpus). tool reuse can be complicated because of domain-specific circumstances. for instance, it is not unusual to use a whitespace-based word tokenizer in latin-based languages, which cannot be applied to chinese texts. there may also be the case that individual tasks in a workflow are considered to be solved more easily using an improvised script instead of investing the effort to evaluate already existing solutions. the result is a set of workflows that consist of an increasingly bigger set of hand-crafted project-specific programs. the general consequence is a heterogeneity of technical solutions which makes it even harder for future researchers to find the tool combinations that are potentially useful for a given research problem. this issue is well-known in the digital humanities community as evidenced by the increasing popularity of digital infrastructures and archival projects like clarin (hinrichs and krauwer ( )) and das digitale archiv nrw (thaller ( )). with the increasing familiarity, acceptance, generality, and usability of existing tools and frameworks, this variety of (potentially redundant) workflows will probably decrease over time. source code repositories like github are already an established technical basis for collaborative text-editing workflows and mentions of natural language processing tools like the part-of-speech tagger from the stanford natural language group (commonly referred to as the stanford tagger, manning et al ( )) rarely require further explanation. yet, due to domain and context-specific requirements and also the fact that tool implementers are often motivated to try out and provide new solutions with their individual set of advantages and disadvantages, this workflow variety will probably evolve but never completely disappear, for examples, see the justifications for the toolkits that are offered by almost every natural language see https://github.com/perseusdl or https://github.com/tillgrallert/digital-muqtabas. jochen tiepmar processing group. it is unlikely that a complicated field like the text-oriented digital humanities with its vast variety of research questions and potentially incompatible parameter configurations can be covered by a comprehensive “jack of all trades”-kind of solution. it can also be argued that this would not be a desirable scenario since a variety of solutions can be expected to be more flexible and promote improvements by innovation. even established tools and workflows can be expected to change over time due to updates and technical improvements or complete paradigm shifts like the currently emerging trend for workflow parallelization. . data type & markup variety it can be counter-productive not to use established text-markup formats because the specification of a project-specific and competent format requires significantly more effort than the reuse of an existing one. additionally, since formats like tei/xml and docbook already provide comprehensive sets of domain-specific features, it is hard to find acceptance and curiosity for new text markup formats in the research and tool development communities. it is more likely that future researchers will be trained in established markup formats and use or extend these for their purposes as, for example, described in kalvesmaki ( ). tool compatibility increases the value of a published data set, and therefore, it can be expected that this aspect will develop toward more interoperable data sets in established formats without further external intervention. . data availability & access variety access to data sets in the text-oriented digital humanities is generally provided through project-specific websites and solutions, including zipped data dumps (e.g. textgrid (neuroth et al ( )), german political speeches (barbaresi ( ))), source code repositories (e.g. digital muqtabas (grallert ( )), perseus), and website-specific catalogues or search forms (e.g. das deutsche textarchive, parallel bible corpus). there does not exist a widely accepted solution for a universal interface for text data. the argument can be made that such a solution could not already be implemented because an application- big data and digital humanities independent reference & retrieval system for text data did not exist. text data retrieval systems like archives or website catalogues are not designed to be reusable because they are not meant to provide the basis for other systems but instead, a context-specific way to retrieve data. for example, the search catalogue that serves the data from the parallel bible corpus is not designed to be also able to serve the data from das deutsche textarchiv. therefore, the data references can be expected to be not compatible with other projects. application-independent reference systems like isbn (griffiths ( )) or doi (paskin ( )) provide reusable identifiers for text resources but do not serve data in any way. they refer to the electronic resource as a whole, which typically correlates to one file or document while the canonical text service (cts) protocol (smith ( )) extends this principle to individual text passages. this aspect has good potential for improvement. text referencing and retrieval systems can be combined to provide access to data in an application-independent way as it is already done for complete resources as soon as a reference system like isbn is integrated into a data archive. adapting this principle to text passages and combining it with a retrieval web service – as it is done with the cts implementation described in tiepmar ( ) – can significantly increase interoperability across projects. conclusion in summary, it can be stated that big data is a complex issue, especially when it is considered in a broad domain like digital humanities, even if it is restricted to the text oriented areas of this field. this paper argues that the trivial assumption that big data requires large data sets is not necessarily correct in this context and that other aspects and especially the issue of interoperability may be more relevant. it also shows that focusing only on volume related data aspects may result in ignorance against a significant number of potentially interesting use cases. interoperability is further divided into three aspects and it is shown that one of them - data availability & access - shows huge potential for significant improvements. this paper lists numerous practically relevant research problems that can be considered as big data without requiring large data sets and in the process provides useful starting points and arguments for interested researchers that want to work in this area. acknowledgements part of this work was funded by the german federal ministry of education and research within the project scads dresden/leipzig (bmbf is b). jochen tiepmar references barbaresi a ( ) german political speeches – corpus and visualization ( nd release). in: poster session of the german linguistic society, special interest group on computational linguistics (dgfs-cl), german linguistic society, special interest group on computational linguistics (dgfs) / open archive of human and society sciences (hal), frankfurt (germany) / paris (france), url https://halshs. archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs- chaudhuri a, mandaviya k, badelia p, ghosh sk ( ) optical character recognition systems for different languages with soft computing. springer international publish- ing, cham (switzerland). doi . / - - - - dienst s, beseler j ( ) automatic anomaly detection in offshore wind scada data. in: win europe summit conference , university of leipzig / global tech i offshore wind gmbh, 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( )the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho), url http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/ vol/ / /index.html thaller m ( ) das digitale archiv nrw in der praxis – eine softwarelösung zur digi- talen langzeitarchivierung. kölner beiträge zu einer geisteswissenschaftlichen fachin- formatik, band ,verlag dr. kovač, hamburg tiepmar j ( ) implementation and evaluation of the canonical text services protocol as part of a research infrastructure in the digital humanities. phd thesis, leipzig university / leipzig university library, leipzig, url http://nbn-resolving. de/urn:nbn:de:bsz: -qucosa - http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec /index.html http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec /index.html https://doi.org/ . /ijdc.v i . https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/interoperability https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/interoperability http://www.doi.org/overview/ doi-elis-paskin.pdf http://babylonia.ch/de/archiv/anni-precedenti/ /nummer- - /projekt-deutscher-wortschatz/ http://babylonia.ch/de/archiv/anni-precedenti/ /nummer- - /projekt-deutscher-wortschatz/ https://doi.org/ . /llc/ . . http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / /index.html http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / /index.html http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz: -qucosa - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz: -qucosa - big data and digital humanities introduction volume variety velocity veracity the big vs and digital humanities interoperability (variety) tools & workflow variety data type & markup variety data availability & access variety conclusion accuracy and immersion improvement of hybrid motion capture based real time virtual validation available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). selection and peer-review under responsibility of the international scientific committee of “ th cirp design conference” in the person of the conference chairs giovanni moroni and tullio tolio doi: . /j.procir. . . procedia cirp ( ) – sciencedirect th cirp design conference accuracy and immersion improvement of hybrid motion capture based real time virtual validation jochen böniga*, christian fischera, holger weckenda, florian döbereinera, jörg frankea ainstitute for factory automation and production systems, friedrich-alexander-university of erlangen-nuremberg, egerland straße - , erlangen, germany * corresponding author. tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - . e-mail address: boenig@faps.uni-erlangen.de abstract using a digital human model for dynamic analysis is due to the high modelling complexity in digital environments not very prevalent. the movement of the worker is either unrealistic, or time-consuming to realize. therefore, the need for research is a time saving possibility to explore virtual validation by a human model taking advantage of a nonetheless realistic movement design. to achieve this goal, we use an experimental setup including both a hybrid motion capture system and an interface for the connection to digital validation software. the motion capturing in connection along with the validation software allows real time modelling respectively tracking and therefore a realistic movement of the human model. to get good results while applying the motion capturing approach in mixed reality situations, it is necessary to have an exact registration between the real and virtual environment. hence, the experimental setup must be designed for both. the key challenge here is to superimpose the cad data with the real objects used for haptic feedback and better immersion. to realize an optimal registration we use a laser tracker solution. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. selection and peer-review under responsibility of the international scientific committee of “ th cirp design conference” in the person of the conference chairs giovanni moroni and tullio tolio. keywords: assembly; simulation; mixed reality . introduction virtual validation of manual assembly operations is not very common as a result of the high amount of time spent on gener- ating transient human model simulation [ ]. for generating a one minute of an animation of a digital human model with standard human model software tools typically minutes of teaching are needed [ ]. there is a high interested in alternative input devices for op- timizing the manipulation of the digital human model. for ex- ample this is done by motion capturing, data gloves and haptic devices. the manipulation improvement should be mostly fo- cused on body posture, hand posture, animation of the human model movement and the generation of libraries. the level of realism is especially important for animations. [ ] by connecting digital human models via motion capturing to a user, it is possible to control the avatar in real time [ ]. the resulting challenge is to interact with the virtual envi- ronment. at this juncture, immersion is the key performance indicator for virtual validation systems using motion capturing. on the one hand, stereoscopic visualization must be imple- mented to enable visual immersion. the visualization of the vir- tual environment generates the effect of being part of the sce- nario. especially for virtual assembly experiments, it is neces- sary to display the digital scenario right in front of the actor using a first person view. on the other hand, haptic feedback is needed to help the actor in the capture volume to interact with the virtual environment. indeed virtual scenarios are the aim, for some applications however, it is necessary to interact in a mixed reality environment. hence, physical mock-ups (pmu) are located in the capture volume (cv). these pmu need to be superimposed by digital mock-ups (dmu). in early stages of the production engineering process only dmu are available. in this case the haptic feedback is difficult to generate, but not im- possible. nevertheless, in both cases it is indispensable to have © elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). selection and peer-review under responsibility of the international scientifi c committee of “ th cirp design conference” in the person of the conference chairs giovanni moroni and tullio tolio jochen bönig et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – a high accuracy between the worker’s real motions and the re- sulting action in the virtual environment. only high accuracy systems generate results that are meaningful enough to use them for assembly validation and ergonomic analysis. to encounter the challenge of interaction with high accuracy we present different approaches. to ensure visual immersion we make use of a head mounted display (hmd) and implement it in the experimental setup. to guarantee high accuracy regis- tration of avatar and worker at any time we present a kinect camera based software. in mixed reality situations, we apply a laser tracker to correlate real and virtual objects. in virtual situ- ations, the interaction is supported by collision detection using the voxel method [ ]. further, we describe some advantages, which result from implementing functions for interaction, e.g. attach and detach of movable objects, using python scripting. . experimental setup the combination of mixed reality and optical motion cap- turing often leads to static or dynamic occlusion. unfortu- nately, the detection of targets by cameras is sometimes blocked by the pmu during manual assembly. hence, we de- cided to use a hybrid system. the system utilizes in general the more accurate optical as master system and, during occlusion, an inertial sensor system. we placed eight infrared cameras sur- rounding the capture volume on a two-floor item profile sys- tem. the cameras are divided in two sync groups and connected to the controller, see fig. . the deviation in two groups is re- quired, so that the cameras’ flashes are not mutually disturbing each other. the controller triggers the ir signals for the sync groups with microseconds delay for avoidance. fig. experimental setup of the hybrid motion capture system the item system allows a situation-dependent repositioning of the cameras and is fixed in a x x m cube, see fig. right. in addition the cube is being rigged with a vertical profile strut- ting carrying the wlan antenna which is responsible for re- ceiving the inertial data. furthermore, a microsoft kinect cam- era is placed within the cube. hence, it is possible for the oper- ator outside of the cv to observe the actor. another function- ality of the kinect camera is the attachment support, during su- perimposing digital human model and actor, and this will be discussed later in the paper. the actor wears a hybrid target suit for motion capturing, a cyber-glove for tracking the hand-fin- ger system and a hmd for a stereoscopic view to the virtual environment. supplementary a moveable setup, see fig. left, is realized for tracking workers directly at their specific working environ- ment, e.g. in a running production line or manufacturing cell. due to the sequential demands on high computing power of single applications, the it is separated in the three platforms: controller, client and server. the main task of the controller is collecting and computing the tracking data to readable coor- dinates and sending them to the dtrack software on the server. the server is mainly blocked for physics computation and col- lision detection. on the client, the digital factory software delmia v and the interface software haption rtid (real time interface for delmia) runs. the distributed architecture communicates over ethernet in two separated cables. for the real-time application, including the coupling of cyber-glove and motion capturing data the haption rtid software is em- ployed. with the delmia v human model, motion data can be analyzed. the output signal for desktop monitor, hmd and d projector is controlled and computed by delmia v . fig. mobile (left) and stationary (right) experimental setup in cad data an operator and an actor control the system. the operator sits outside of the cube and controls the software during simu- lation. the actor wears the hybrid target suit and takes the as- sembly task inside the cube. . immersion to generate visual immersion we use a hmd. it enables us to stereoscopically visualize the virtual environment for the acting worker [ ]. the worker does not need to suffer the limi- tations of desktop screens any more. haptic immersion for vir- tual interaction is generated via collision detection and force feedback. therefore, the interactive physics simulation inter- face (ipsi) from haption is used. ipsi supports the solid-state physics including unilateral and bilateral conditions. owing to the application of the collision detection library vps (voxmap pointshell) of boeing [ ] it is possible to handle complex surfaces. the collision detection works with the voxel method, which discretizes the room into a d mesh. whenever two ob- jects share the same mesh element, the indicator for collision will be exactly given. employing the voxel method, collision detection can be visualized in real-time, depending on the ele- ment size of the mesh. for manual assembly simulation, colli- jochen bönig et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – sion detection is very helpful, especially for virtual investiga- tions. feasibility studies for placing a power electronics unit in an engine compartment are a good example for the need of col- lision detection [ ]. the collision detection prevents penetra- tion of active parts and visualizes the detection with vectors, see fig. . for the interaction with cad data, parts and prod- ucts must be activated for moving and/or collision detection. by initializing only the necessary parts it is possible to interact in real time as computation power by meshing and detecting them is saved. fig. visual feedback of collision detection via vectors in the digital factory according to [ ] for a better performance, the software modules for collision detection are transferred to the server hardware. for more immersion a sensible force feedback system is ad- ditionally initiated. via rtid and ipsi scripting it is possible to activate force feedback, e.g. of a game pad. this is useful because the actor does not see every collision during the virtual assembly process. as result of the first person view, it is not possible to see collisions of legs with objects like the car body. in our setup, we used an xbox controller to test the force feedback caused by collision. to be able to move objects in a virtual environment we also use the game pad. python based scripts like attach and detach can be activated by the game pad buttons. it is also possible to run the scripts from the operator position. however, it is more comfortable and immersive to have it done by the actor himself. the example of grabbing an electric screwdriver is shown in fig. . in mixed reality situations, real objects are available in the cv, too. the pmu in the cv do not need to be fully developed hardware prototypes and thus functional models are sufficient, e.g. a tailgate model [ ]. this generates more immersion given that haptic feedback is more realistic. movable objects availa- ble as pmu, can be moved and tracked for the assembly. there- fore, it is necessary to bring pmu and dmu in correlation. we tested the immersion improvement by the above dis- cussed features implemented in the software. the consensus of opinion is an immersive virtual environment for virtual assem- bly simulation. the first positive aspect is the first person view via hmd. stationary display based systems, e.g. powerwall or monitor systems, lead to an incorrect head position of the rec- orded digital human model during assembly. this leads to com- plications in performing the process. the virtual scene, stereoscopically displayed by the closed view hmd, enables higher immersion opposite to a see through hmd. the second important benefit is the force feed- back during collision between avatar and object or object and object . the visual feedback via the displayed vectors during collision helps to realize the consequences, but the force feed- back is more immersion improving and helps for detecting col- lision that are not in the field of view. fig. ipsi scripting for virtual assembly simulation . registration to enable an accurate interaction, it is required to superim- pose the digital avatar with the worker in the cv and the pmu with the virtual assembly environment. . . avatar and worker the exact calibration of the avatar and the actor is important to generate high quality motion data. the preparation of ar- rangements like exact anthropometric data for the avatar and the precise adaption of the target coordinates are important. the calibrated targets are clearly recognizable displayed by a local coordinate systems and the corresponding target id. the worker takes the exact pose of the avatar and brings the coor- dinate cloud of the targets in conformity. the operator supports the precise alignment of the actor. he puts the camera view to the single limbs of the avatar and helps the actor during positioning. subsequently the operator at- taches the real actor to the virtual avatar. the calibration of the avatar must be done for each simulation and is a critical and time-consuming part. to improve the procedure an automatic calibration is developed. it is composed of the application soft- ware fapsholger with python based connection to microsoft kinect. the kinect matches the skeleton position of the actor with the defined posture of the avatar for calibration. when the jochen bönig et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – actor is in the correct position a python script activates the at- tachment. figure shows the graphical user interface of fap- sholger and delmia v . the correct position depends on matching points. the correlation is visualized numerically and additional with colored squares. another benefit in comparison to standard attachment is the correct head position, because the optical position check of feet and hands hoodwinks to looking down during registration. fig. auto-calibration software fapsholger . . pmu and dmu the exact overlay of d cad models to the real objects is called registration [ ]. deviations lead to a shifted representa- tion and is named random error. this kind of errors is caused by the tracking system or faulty calibration. errors caused by tracking system can be easily avoided by exact room calibra- tion. the remaining source of errors is the object calibration. one possibility to correlate the real object with the dmu is called live registration, see fig. . fig. live registration of an electric screwdriver the avatar attached to the actor is used to superimpose the pmu by moving it to the dmu position displayed on the hmd. this type of calibration is only useful for small objects. to po- sition a vehicle body in this manner is difficult to achieve. the accuracy of live registration depends additionally on the avatar calibration. registration using the avatar is a unidirectional process, too. hence, the only possibility to reposition the pmu is during simulation. the second occasion of registration is supported by laser tracking and enables higher accuracy. to achieve an exact cor- relation between real and virtual environment it is necessary to generate a global coordinate system (gcs) via laser tracking, see fig. . fig. laser tracking for accuracy improvement of real and virtual environ- ment referencing to gcs a structured mesh is mustered to the ground of the capture volume (cv), tracked by the laser and transferred to the cad system. this kind of preparation can also be done referring to local coordinate systems, for example a structured mesh on a moveable table. the positioning of pmu can be achieved using the mesh on the ground while the dmu is being placed via the correlating virtual mesh in the cad sys- tem. if it is not possible to use the grid for positioning objects by reason of their physical behavior or in case of an even higher accuracy, a direct laser tracking of the object is also feasible. therefore, the laser tracker must be referenced to the gcs by using six permanently attached target nests. after referencing the laser tracker to the gcs, measured points on the object sur- face can be generated. the measured point cloud, transferred via step format to the digital environment, forms the bound- ary condition for virtually positioning the object, see fig. . fig. correlation between real und virtual setup supported by laser tracking in our case, a demonstrator vehicle is put in the cv. the d- cad model of the vehicle is scanned via kinect camera and has small geometry deviations in consequence of the dis- cretely-timed but composed scans. since the front of the vehi- cle is critical to the assembly simulation, it is recommended to use the laser tracker for generating measure points of the rele- vant car parts for positioning. placing the car by using the grid on the ground is difficult to handle and not as accurate as the jochen bönig et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – direct laser tracker variants. additionally the discrepancy be- tween cad model and real car could lead to further deviation, given that the tires must be used as reference and not the rele- vant surface of the front bumper. . results a virtual assembly validation system is presented, that com- bines advantages from different single systems, like virtual re- ality (vr) and cad systems. the field of application reaches from virtual to mixed reality assembly validation. based on cad data the validation system has the advantage to use only one data structure. sophisticated data preparation is no longer required. detected errors and ergonomic findings during simu- lation can easily be corrected or optimized in the cad system. in early stages of the production-engineering process, the vir- tual analysis helps to optimize a production oriented design and allows first ergonomic statements by using standard analyzing tools implemented in delmia v , e.g. rula, lift-lower, push-pull and carry analysis. the validity of the ergonomic analysis is comparable to professional ergonomic analysis, as the motion of the digital human model is realistic in place and time. by supporting the haptic feedback trough mixed reality situations, the results get even more realistic. the assembly simulation can easily be optimized by using standard utensils like shelves, tables, and other assembly tools. simple pmu can be used combined with exact dmu for better interaction. the assembly process of a power electronic unit is tested with this system in a virtual case as well as in a mixed reality case, see fig. . fig. mixed reality situation in different kind of views in both scenarios, we get realistic results attributable to the accuracy and immersion improvement described in this paper. the occlusion problem in mixed reality situations is solved with the hybrid motion capturing system, see fig. . we pictured out, that the purely optical system does not rep- resent the realistic human arm position. the cameras do not de- tect the hand target anymore, whereby the arm posture of the last detected position is displayed. the hybrid system provides the correct data and thus a realistic picture of the human pos- ture. now we are able to investigate different kind of assembly problems in real time and with realistic results referring to the motion of the digital human model. fig. comparison between optic and hybrid motion capturing we considered in our case study different assembly posi- tions of a power electronic unit in a car front. therefore it was necessary to optimize the system in the presented way, to be able to generate realistic and comparable results referring to varied worker and object positions. in this case study the car body is integrated as pmu and dmu. the interfering contour inside the front body exists only as dmu, because it is expen- sive and time consuming to produce as pmu, especially for varied scenarios. . conclusion in this study, the accuracy and immersion improvement of motion capture based virtual assembly validation is introduced. delmia v is the basis system for manual assembly simula- tion. this has several basic advantages over standard vr sys- tems. one key benefit is the direct use of cad data for simu- lation. elaborate data conversion of updates is waived for the virtual assembly analysis. using the digital human model of delmia as avatar enables collision detection of actor and dmu. another advantage is the tool delmia itself. the dif- ferent workbenches of the digital factory software are combin- able with the human simulation, e.g. the manipulation of flexi- ble parts is possible in the electrical harness design respec- tively simulation workbench of delmia v . we are also able to simulate the human-machine interaction by using the robot- ics workbench fused with the human model. the disadvantage of the cad based software is the interac- tion with the virtual environment, especially the control of the simulation by the human model. this challenge is largely solved by the discussed approaches. the hmd allows a first person stereoscopic view, which is essential for interacting. ipsi facilitates the collision detection and thus the prevention of penetration. with the python-scripting interface, it is possi- ble to integrate useful functions, e.g. easy-to-use attach and de- tach of objects, for manipulating the virtual scenario. the registration of avatar and worker is a crucial point, be- cause the better the superimposing of real and virtual worker the more accurate and immersive the assembly simulation. hence, the fapsholger software is developed to enable per- manent high accuracy for avatar calibration with the benefit of time saving. in mixed reality situations, the registration of real and virtual objects is supported by laser tracking. in the first place the real and virtual areas are correlated referring to a global coordinate jochen bönig et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – system. second, a reference grid is generated for the cad sys- tem as well as for the cv. using the grid pmu and dmu are placed referring to the correlating grid nodes in a very fast way. more accurate positioning is possible by using the laser tracker directly for position detection of the pmu referring to the global coordinate system. after generating measurement points, these points are transferred to the virtual environment and used for aligning the dmu. testing and optimizing the interaction and using other func- tions of delmia v in combination with motion capture based virtual validation will be presented in future work. inno- vative hardware developed e.g. by the gaming industry can be integrated for improvement. the myo gesture control arm- band of thalmic labs [ ] for example uses the electrical activity of arm muscles to wirelessly control electronic devices. integrating myo instead of the gaming controller has the ad- vantage of interacting freehanded. in addition, further useful features for assembly investigations or workplace design can be integrated by ipsi scripting. acknowledgements this research and development project was funded by the german federal ministry of education and research (bmbf) within the grant n . the authors are deeply grateful for this support and are responsible for the contents of this publi- cation. furthermore, the authors are grateful to dr. jerome per- ret from haption for his software support. references [ ] bönig, j., fischer, c., marquardt, v., matzka, s., franke, j. methodical integration of assembly specific influences concerning high-voltage components into the virtual validation process. in: franke, j. (ed.) proceedings of the nd international electric drives production conference, , pp. – . [ ] hoffmann, h., dangelmaier, m., schirra, r.: effiziente produktionsplanung in der virtuellen realität mit menschmodellen und motion capturing. in: spath, d. (ed.) technologiemanagement in der praxis. forschen und anwenden, , pp. – . [ ] mühlstedt, j. entwicklung eines modells dynamisch-muskulärer arbeitsbeanspruchungen auf basis digitaler menschmodelle. universitätsverlag chemnitz, . [ ] bönig, j., fischer, c., brossog, m., bittner, m., fuchs, m., weckend, h., franke, j. virtual validation of the manual assembly of a power electronic unit via motion capturing connected with a simulation tool using a human model. in: abramovici, m., stark, r. (eds.) smart product engineering. proceedings of the rd cirp design conference, , pp. – . [ ] murray, j. voxmap pointshell. high performance volume sampling software, . 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[ ] nuwer, r. armband adds a twitch to gesture control. new scientist , elsevier, . the prague spring archive at the university of texas at austin full terms & conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=wjwl journal of web librarianship issn: - (print) - (online) journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjwl the prague spring archive at the university of texas at austin ian goodale to cite this article: ian goodale ( ) the prague spring archive at the university of texas at austin, journal of web librarianship, : - , - , doi: . / . . to link to this article: https://doi.org/ . / . . published online: nov . submit your article to this journal article views: view related articles view crossmark data http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=wjwl http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjwl http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi= . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=wjwl &show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/action/authorsubmission?journalcode=wjwl &show=instructions http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/ . / . . http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/mlt/ . / . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - article the prague spring archive at the university of texas at austin ian goodale ut libraries, the university of texas at austin, austin, texas, usa article history received march accepted august abstract there is a noted lack of primary historical documents related to the prague spring, one of the key moments in the cold war, available online. as such, there is a need for an online resource that presents these primary documents in their entirety, allowing researchers and the public to engage with these materials in a user-friendly, open access format. the prague spring archive, a new project at the university of texas at austin, fills this gap. this article addresses the development, promotion, and future steps of the project. keywords digital archives; digital humanities; digital scholarship; east european studies; global studies; metadata; slavic studies background the prague spring archive project is a collaboration between the university of texas at austin libraries and the center for russian, east european, and eurasian studies at ut austin, using documents from the lyndon b. johnson presidential library. the project makes important primary documents on the prague spring openly accessible, allowing greater opportunities for public and academic access to the documents through an online portal created in scalar, an online publishing platform from the alliance for networking visual culture. the university of texas at austin has the nation’s fifth largest academic library, with over million volumes and library locations (the lyndon b. johnson presidential library n.d.). the university also has over colleges and schools served by these libraries, with more than , teaching faculty and over , students from more than degree programs. the perry-casta~neda library is the main library within the university of texas system, and contains major holdings in a variety of subject areas, including humanities and social sciences. the center for russian, east european, and eurasian studies (creees) was established at the university of texas at austin in and now includes over faculty members from over different departments and administrative units across campus (the university of texas at austin n.d.). creees is committed to contact ian goodale iangoodale@utexas.edu european studies and digital scholarship librarian, the university of texas at austin, e. st st., pcl . l, austin, tx , usa. color versions of one or more of the figures in this article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/wjwl. © ian goodale journal of web librarianship , vol. , nos. – , – https://doi.org/ . / . . https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . / . . &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - mailto:iangoodale@utexas.edu http://www.tandfonline.com/wjwl https://doi.org/ . / . . reaching out to the campus community, as well as the broader region, to provide access to speakers from russia, eastern europe, and eurasia, and activities that will promote interest in the region. as part of the largest university in the state of texas, the center has a special responsibility to support continued international development and to educate students who can play a fundamental role in an inter- national community in which russia, eastern europe, and eurasia are critical players. situated on the university of texas at austin campus, the lyndon b. johnson presidential library houses million pages of historical documents, , pho- tos, and , hours of recordings from lyndon b. johnson’s political career, including about hours of his recorded telephone conversations (the lyndon b. johnson presidential library n.d.). some collections (both textual and audiovi- sual) have been digitized for the web, but many more are only available for research in person at the library. the lbj presidential library is part of a system of presidential libraries administered by the national archives and records administration. scalar was chosen for the project due to its reputation as a platform for scholarly publishing in a digital format. the platform’s tools allowed for the easy replication of the experience of navigating through a physical archive in the digital format, maintaining the archive’s original structural integrity. it also allowed for the seamless integration of additional features exclusive to (figure ) the digital portal for the archive. key documents and figures are curated and highlighted to aid research, an interactive timeline (figure ) was created to introduce the basic structure of the prague spring crisis to those unfamiliar with its history, and images from the lyndon b. johnson library’s photo- graphic archive are paired with other site content to provide a visual reference for figures and events mentioned in the archival documents. educational activi- ties for high school students are in development to further outreach with the archival materials, including activities that could easily integrate into curricula on the cold war. for researchers who would like to explore what is available in the physical collections of the lbj presidential library, the finding aid for the entire archival collection is also available on the site. the prague spring was a period of political liberalization in communist czechoslovakia that marked a significant point of resistance against the soviet regime, and which was eventually suppressed by an invasion of warsaw pact forces. it is important to researchers examining the cold war as an example of an eastern bloc country undergoing a process of peaceful revolution from within, as well as case study in militaristic suppression of such revolution by the soviet union. the crisis would foreshadow the eventual fall of the soviet union, and the documents in the project have still broader appeal as examples of how the united states government developed political strategy in response to both the initial liberalization and the soviet union’s harsh repression. the declassified primary documents we have digitized reveal u.s. attitudes toward communist journal of web librarianship governments, its attempts to further u.s. interests in east europe, and its approaches to public relations and diplomacy in the face of a perceived commu- nist threat. work on the project first began in . with funding from a u.s. department of education title vi national resource centers grant and the texas chair in czech studies, digitization work on an initial selection of archival boxes was com- pleted by undergraduate students from the creees and msis graduate students working at the university of texas libraries. digitization work is ongoing, with new materials being photographed, processed, and added to texas scholarworks, the institutional repository at the university of texas austin, by msis graduate student nicole marino and the author, the european studies and digital scholar- ship librarian. to help maintain the archival integrity of the materials in their digitized format, extensive metadata was created to accompany the documents within the texas scholarworks repository. the metadata allows researchers working with the mate- rials within texas scholarworks to easily search the documents, and can be down- loaded by anyone through the repository. the metadata was prepared using excel spreadsheets to assist with batch uploads to the repository, with rows correspond- ing to individual documents and rows corresponding to various dublin core meta- data elements that would become searchable once online. these dublin core elements included the title, date created, a number of subject fields with library of congress standardized subject headings, a description, the type of the docu- ment (e.g., “correspondence”), its creator, and the language of the document. the project team also included non-dublin core filename identifiers, which were used by staff in the digitization department and the institutional repository to link the uploaded files to their respective metadata. full-text of the documents will soon be added in xml format to accompany the archival pdfs, increasing search- ability and providing an additional resource for working with the documents— making digital humanities practices such as text mining or sentiment analysis eas- ier to accomplish, for example. the xml files are generated through the optical character recognition (ocr) program docworks, and are monitored for accuracy and edited as needed by msis graduate students working with the university of texas libraries. promoting the archive a variety of strategies were used to facilitate discovery of the archive online. the author sent e-mails to listservs read widely by scholars and librarians in subject areas relevant to the project, which succeeded in raising its profile. after publicizing the project in this way, the author was contacted by researchers who invited him to publish an additional write-up in two aca- demic newsletters, czech language news and aseees newsnet, which further broadened the audience for the project. links to the project were also added i. goodale to libguides administered by librarians at a number of institutions in the united states and canada, expanding the reach of the project. this has enabled the project to be advertised in ways the author has not directly deployed, which has further allowed the project to be broadcast to a wider audience. it has also allowed the project team to build relationships with scholars working in relevant fields, as well as librarian colleagues. the author contributed write-ups to raise the project’s profile on his home cam- pus as well. mary neuburger, the director of the creees, spoke with joan neu- burger, the director of the not even past (nep) website, about publicizing the project there. to that end, mary and the author collaborated on an article describ- ing the project’s timeline, scope, and goals for the future that was featured on the nep site. in addition, the author wrote a description of an important document from the archival collection that was likewise published on the nep website. this write-up gave historical context for the document, providing background on the importance of the collection as a whole, while simultaneously foregrounding the project and further increasing interest in its materials. the author also contributed a write-up for the university of texas libraries’ website. this helped raise the profile of the project on campus, and provided the communications staff at the perry-casta~neda library with information that could figure . the homepage of the prague spring archive. journal of web librarianship be used to advertise the project elsewhere. through this connection with the com- munications staff, the project was later featured on the library journal’s info- docket, which in turn led to further coverage on mit’s hcd insights page. in addition, the author added links to the portal to his libguides, integrating the resource into his own outreach to students. the author was active in promoting the project on social media. the author promoted the project using his professional twitter account, providing links to the project and tagging appropriate parties in his tweets. by mentioning scalar, the author was able to garner attention from the official account of the platform, which retweeted the link to the project and further broadened the reach of the project. the author also worked with a faculty member to post about the project on a face- book group for slavic digital humanities, which further broadened the reach of the project. this outreach on twitter led to contact and discussions of future collabora- tion with socialism realised, an online project aimed at providing an under- standing of people’s daily lives under communist governments, whose administrators reached out to the author after seeing one of his tweets. the pub- licity generated online also enabled the author to more easily make the case for figure . an interactive timeline of the events preceding, during, and following the prague spring. this particular slide includes an embedded video of dub�cek pledging czechoslovak independence. i. goodale collaboration with baylor university’s keston center, whose staff agreed to digitize relevant archival materials for the project team as a way to supple- ment the prague spring archive’s online collection of documents. the team plans to link to these newly digitized materials, which will be hosted by bay- lor, from the prague spring archive’s online portal, which will benefit both institutions in increasing access to their collections and broadening their impact with researchers looking for primary source materials online. the project’s online presence and mention in other outlets also led to the project team being contacted by staff from the national czech and slovak museum, who are planning to use a document from the collection in an upcom- ing curriculum for public school students in iowa. this will lead not only to direct use of the materials by students studying east european history, but also to a general broadening of the project’s audience by expanding its profile outside of academia. furthermore, the team hopes to develop its own educational mate- rials for use by public school educators in the future, which will be made avail- able freely on the project’s online portal and similarly increase its reach. mary neuburger will use the project again in a future iteration of her graduate semi- nar, as well, which will introduce the materials to yet another new class of gradu- ate students and researchers on campus. figure . a page highlighting key documents from box , folder in the prague spring archive, with text contributed by graduate students. journal of web librarianship building the archive librarians have been increasingly involved in digital humanities projects that serve both a pedagogical purpose and a research purpose (varner ). this project was a conscious attempt to increase the active participation of the libraries at the university of texas at austin with such projects on campus, and to build relationships with departments and nearby cultural heritage insti- tutions in the process. this type of relationship building has been identified as a key value for cultural heritage institutions working on digital projects in the past (rizzo ), and is something that the project team wanted to cultivate as a way to strengthen its ties to other institutions, simultaneously enhancing the prague spring archive and helping other institutions. as a result of this effort, the prague spring site has been an important aspect of embedded librarianship at the university of texas libraries. the author worked with graduate students in a graduate seminar taught by mary neuburger, ree : russian, east european, and eurasian civilizations and cultures, to have the students contribute text for incorporation into the online portal, visiting mul- tiple class sessions to teach about the project and serve as a contact for digital scholarship and metadata-related questions the students might have. the stu- dents also selected key documents from archival folders to be highlighted on the portal (figure ), and provided input on the site’s design and features throughout its development. professors mary neuburger and vlad beronja contributed their input on design and content, helping to write descriptions of archival materials and select key documents to profile. the finished portal was then presented to the class for additional feedback, and more content from future iterations of the class will be added shortly. this collaborative approach has been used in digital archives projects in the past (norcia ). students use the materials as an integral part of the graduate seminar, going through metadata created by librarians and graduate student research assistants at the library and selecting their documents. this assignment was created to serve multiple purposes, as it increases their familiarity with the prague spring events, contributes to the development of content for the online archive, and enables them to gain familiarity with metadata standards and expe- rience working on a digital project. this increased their information literacy while giving them experience working with primary archival sources, and allowed them to gain experience navigating the materials in the university of texas’s institutional repository, as well. this likewise served to strengthen the libraries’ relationship with the community of scholars and students on campus while simultaneously introducing new graduate students to possible areas of interest for their research. students will use the archive’s materials for assignments in future classes, work- ing with professors and librarians to contribute content to the site and identify documents of interest to their personal research in the archive. the project team i. goodale hopes that through publicizing and promoting the archive, the materials it contains will be of use not only to students, but to researchers with interest in these docu- ments who will be able to easily access the materials without traveling to the physi- cal archives in austin. the author also carried out the entirety of the web design component of the project as a way to expedite and simplify the process of the portal’s crea- tion. the author was able to incorporate his skills in photoshop, html and css, and web design to create an attractive, easy-to-use portal that could be effectively tested with users for further refinement. early prototypes of the site were shown to students in a graduate seminar for feedback, which was incor- porated into its final iteration. faculty input from mary and vlad was also helpful and incorporated into the website’s final design. an important debate in the field of digital humanities is the way its utiliza- tion of technologies noted for their ease of access and participation relates to the idea of democratizing the humanities (hunter ). scalar was chosen in part due to its ease of access and possibilities for open collaboration between graduate students and librarians, so the possibilities for democratiza- tion and equal participation in digital humanities work was an important consideration for the project team during the project’s conception. the devel- opment plan for the project was intentionally constructed as a collaborative process, with a division of labor that best suited the strengths of all the proj- ect’s collaborators. msis graduate students worked on creating metadata that conformed to an agreed upon set of standards, which ensured that metadata created for the project’s items remained as uniform as possible. maintaining a solid, standardized language and format for the project’s metadata was a key aspect of the team’s approach to creating effective metadata for the proj- ect, as by keeping it uniform we were able to ensure that the project remained uniformly accessible. digitization work was carried out by a small number of graduate students who were trained by staff in the digital stew- ardship department of the libraries. effective project management ensured the quality of the content being captured and processed while simultaneously streamlining and equitably dividing labor. graduate students in the depart- ment of russian and east european studies helped identify key documents and provide text that was later adapted for inclusion on the website. collaboration with the institutional repository on the project has also been a key aspect of institutional support for the project. the author has worked closely with both the digitization department of the libraries and the man- agers of the repository to ensure the successful completion of the backend of the project, and they have helped spread the word about the work to others, which has further broadened the project’s audience. the repository provides a stable, institution-specific solution to document hosting that the prague spring archive portal can easily interface with, and is a key aspect of institu- tional support for the online archive. journal of web librarianship interface design the author wrote custom html to alter the appearance of elements in the project’s pages, allowing him to take advantage of scalar’s extensive options for customiza- tion. the author altered the positioning of navigational elements on the page, creat- ing a custom interface separate from scalar’s built-in navigational options. the author’s custom series of clickable images, with text overlaid on historical photo- graphs available either in the public domain or under a creative commons license, both increased the visual appeal of the homepage and provided users with a readily comprehensible, visual interface with which to navigate the site. this increased usability, allowing users to utilize built-in navigation menus (accessible by clicking a thumbnail in the corner of the screen) or the site’s custom buttons, available directly on the homepage, to navigate the site according their preference. the author used photoshop to create customized header images for each page, utilizing images in the public domain or available under a creative commons license as material that could be edited as necessary. to improve the appearance of the banners within scalar’s interface, images were cropped, brightness and contrast were altered, text was added, and sections of the images were separated into their own layer within photoshop. this separation allowed for the altering of these sec- tions to improve the appearance of the text placed over them, namely by lightening and altering the contrast on these sections to make the text appear more clearly. the clickable images used as navigation buttons on the homepage were created in photoshop using a similar process. enhancing searchability adding full-text of the documents in xml format will increase accessibility of the documents by making their full text searchable in the university of texas’s insti- tutional repository. the work of generating these xml files is still underway, and is being obtained by running digitized copies of the documents through the ocr program docworks. a graduate student is manually correcting the ocr text gen- erated by the program, then exporting the clean xml files to a local server, where they will live until they can be uploaded to the online repository. once in the repository, they will be linked to the archival pdfs of their respective documents and directly accessible through their respective documents’ pages. the author felt it was important to use a free, open source tool like scalar for the project, as supporting such tools by using them for large, institutionally-sup- ported projects both strengthens their profiles and serves his institution’s com- mitment to supporting open information in digital scholarship. the project team seeks, by utilizing such technologies, to open the physical archive and make its information freely, easily accessible to all, regardless of whether they are able to visit the physical repository where the actual archival documents reside. as such, the team hopes to join a community of librarians, scholars, and researchers who seize the opportunities digital humanities and open access i. goodale provide for making knowledge freely available to as broad an audience as possi- ble (suber ). future directions the project was somewhat experimental, but inspired the project team to continue both its own development and to explore future directions for digital initiatives within the university of texas libraries. one of the key aspects of the project’s suc- cess was the implementation of collaborative workflows combined with having one person hone in on specific elements of the project (e.g., the author took control of web design and metadata creation, while msis candidate nicole marino per- formed digitization work). it was vital to keep work on the project collaborative, while allowing individuals to explore their individual strengths and successfully apply themselves to areas on which they could singularly focus. this approach will continue to be implemented in this project as it develops, and will be applied in other projects at the libraries as well. one unsuccessful strategy implemented early on in the project’s lifespan was the division of metadata creation among different graduate students. despite the stan- dardized format of the metadata, individual differences in writing styles for the item descriptions and titles resulted in metadata that required some correction to make fully uniform. for this reason, the author plans to either create the metadata on his own or to have one student under his direct supervision create the metadata to the project’s specifications in the future. this project stands out due to its collaborative nature across institutions; its inte- gration of instruction and work between professors, librarians, and graduate stu- dents; and its appeal to scholars working in a variety of areas. the work undertaken by the graduate students not only contributed content to the site, but was designed to increase their familiarity and literacy with metadata formats and working directly with primary documents. the subject of information literacy was considered espe- cially important due to the seminar being comprised entirely of first-year graduate students, whose work directly impacted the content of the online portal. this project also stands out in that while it was conceived of and worked on pri- marily by slavists, its scope is broad enough to be of interest to researchers working in a variety of other areas, such as history or political science. while many digital projects have been carried out in the humanities, the team sees the prague spring archive as both a humanities project and one that while multidisciplinary, also fits into the growing number of slavic digital humanities projects being undertaken by research libraries (trehub ). while these projects represent a significant step forward in the development of digital projects in the slavic field, only one other project specifically addresses primary documents from the cold war (lawrence ), and none focus on the prague spring. while projects such as the wil- son center archive reference documents from u.s. sources related to the cold war, none make a specific corpus of such primary sources available online as journal of web librarianship this project does (remnek ). thus, the prague spring archive project represents an addition to an existing lineage of diverse slavic digital humani- ties projects (digital humanities in the slavic field ), as well as a unique contribution to the field. about the author ian goodale is the european studies and digital scholarship librarian at the university of texas at austin. he is a member of the collection development subcommittee within the asso- ciation for slavic, east european and eurasian studies' (aseees) committee on libraries and information resources. he is interested in the intersections of librarianship, digital humanities, archives, and ux/ui design. orcid ian goodale http://orcid.org/ - - - references austin, the university of texas at. n.d. facts and figures. accessed march , . https:// www.utexas.edu/about/facts-and-figures. digital humanities in the slavic field. . digital humanities in the slavic field. accessed july . http://www.slavic-dh.org/directory/. hunter, a. . the digital humanities and democracy. canadian journal of communication . lawrence, m. a. . cold war international history project digital archive. journal of ameri- can history : – . doi: . /jahist/jat . norcia, m. a. . out of the ivory tower endlessly rocking: collaborating across disciplines and professions to promote student learning in the digital archive. pedagogy : – . remnek, m. b. . access to east european and eurasian culture: publishing, acquisitions, dig- itization, metadata. binghamton, ny: haworth information press. rizzo, m. . history at work, history as work: public history’s new frontier. american quar- terly : – . doi: . /aq. . . suber, p. . open access. cambridge, ma: mit press. the lyndon b. johnson presidential library. n.d. about. accessed march , . https:// www.lbjlibrary.org/page/library-museum/. the university of texas at austin. n.d. the center for russian, east european, and eurasian studies. accessed march , . https://www.liberalarts.utexas.edu/slavic/creees/about- creees.php. the university of texas libraries. n.d. about the libraries. accessed march , . https:// www.lib.utexas.edu/about. trehub, a. . slavic studies and slavic librarianship’ revisited: notes of a former slavic librarian. slavic & east european information resources . varner, s. . library instruction for digital humanities pedagogy in undergraduate classes. in laying the foundation: digital humanities in academic libraries, ed. john w. white and heather gilbert, . west lafayette, in: purdue university press. i. goodale http://orcid.org/ - - - https://www.utexas.edu/about/facts-and-figures https://www.utexas.edu/about/facts-and-figures http://www.slavic-dh.org/directory/ https://doi.org/ . /jahist/jat https://doi.org/ . /aq. . https://www.lbjlibrary.org/page/library-museum/ https://www.lbjlibrary.org/page/library-museum/ https://www.liberalarts.utexas.edu/slavic/creees/about-creees.php https://www.liberalarts.utexas.edu/slavic/creees/about-creees.php https://www.lib.utexas.edu/about https://www.lib.utexas.edu/about abstract background promoting the archive building the archive interface design enhancing searchability future directions about the author references realizing lessons of the last years: a manifesto for data provisioning & aggregation services for the digital humanities (a position paper) search d-lib: home | about d-lib | current issue | archive | indexes | calendar | author guidelines | subscribe | contact d-lib d-lib magazine july/august volume , number / table of contents realizing lessons of the last years: a manifesto for data provisioning & aggregation services for the digital humanities (a position paper) dominic oldman, british museum, london martin doerr, forth-ics, crete gerald de jong, delving bv barry norton, british museum, london thomas wikman, swedish national archives point of contact: dominic oldman, doint@oldman.me.uk doi: . /july -oldman printer-friendly version abstract the cidoc conceptual reference model (cidoc crm), is a semantically rich ontology that delivers data harmonisation based on empirically analysed contextual relationships rather than relying on a traditional fixed field/value approach, overly generalised relationships or an artificial set of core metadata. it recognises that cultural data is a living growing resource and cannot be commoditised or squeezed into artificial pre-conceived boxes. rather, it is diverse and variable containing perspectives that incorporate different institutional histories, disciplines and objectives. the cidoc crm retains these perspectives yet provides the opportunity for computational reasoning across large numbers of heterogeneous sources from different organisations, and creates an environment for engaging and thought-provoking exploration through its network of relationships. the core ontology supports the whole cultural heritage community including museums, libraries and archives and provides a growing set of specialist extensions. the increased use of aggregation services and the growing use of the cidoc crm has necessitated a new initiative to develop a data provisioning reference model targeted at solving fundamental infrastructure problems ignored by data integration initiatives to date. if data provisioning and aggregation are designed to support the reuse of data in research as well as general end user activities then any weaknesses in the model that aggregators implement will have profound effects on the future of data centred digital humanities work. while the cidoc crm solves the problem of quality and delivering semantically rich data integration, this achievement can still be undermined by a lack of properly managed processes and working relationships between data providers and aggregators. these relationships hold the key to sustainability and longevity because done properly they encourage the provider to align their systems, knowing that the effort will provide long lasting benefits and value. equally, end user projects will be encouraged to cease perpetuating the patchwork of short-life digital resources that can never be aligned and which condemn the digital humanities to a pseudo and predominantly lower quality discipline. introduction this paper addresses the complex issues of large scale cultural heritage data integration crucial for progressing digital humanities research and essential to establishing a new scholarly and social relevance for cultural heritage institutions often criticised for being, "increasingly captive by the economic imperatives of the marketplace and their own internally driven agendas ." it includes a discussion on the essential processes and necessary organisational relationships, data quality issues, and the need for wider tangible benefits. these benefits should extend beyond end user reuse services and include the capability to directly benefit the organisations that provide the data, providing a true test of quality and value. all these components are interdependent and directly affect the ability of any such initiative to provide a long term and sustainable infrastructure on which evidence producers, information curators and evidence interpreters can rely on, invest in and further develop. many cultural data aggregation projects have failed to address these foundational elements contributing instead to a landscape that is still fragmented, technology driven and lacking the necessary engagement from humanities scholars and institutions. therefore this paper proposes a new reference model of data provision and aggregation services aiming to foster a more attractive and effective practice of cultural heritage data integration from a technological, managerial and scientific point of view. this paper is based on results and conclusions from recent work of the cidoc crm special interest group (crm sig), a working group of cidoc, the international committee for documentation of the international council of museums (icom). the group has been developing the cidoc conceptual reference model (doerr, ; crofts et al., ) and been providing advice for integration of cultural heritage data over the past years. over this period the adoption of the cidoc crm has significantly increased, supported by enabling technology such as rdf stores and systems like solrtm , with graph databases providing further potential . these systems have become mature and powerful enough to deal with the real complexity and scale of global cultural data. consequently, this means that issues of sustainable management of integrated resources are more urgent that ever before, and consequently the group is calling for a collaborative community effort to develop a new reference model of data provision and aggregation, which is based on a completely different epistemological paradigm compared to the well-known oais (open archival information service) reference model (consultative committee for space data systems, ). therefore, this paper reflects positions developed within the crm sig and by others on three important aspects of developing integrated cultural heritage systems and associated data provisioning processes. these positions in summary are: cultural heritage data provided by different organisations cannot be properly integrated using data models based wholly or partly on a fixed set of data fields and values, and even less so on 'core metadata'. additionally, integration based on artificial and/or overly generalised relationships (divorced from local practice and knowledge) simply create superficial aggregations of data that remain effectively siloed since all useful meaning is available only from the primary source. this approach creates highly limited resources unable to reveal the significance of the source information, support meaningful harmonisation of data or support more sophisticated use cases. it is restricted to simple query and retrieval by 'finding aids' criteria. the same level of quality in data representation is required for public engagement as it is for research and education. the proposition that general audiences do not need the same level of quality and the ability to travel through different datasets using semantic relationships is a fiction and is damaging to the establishment of new and enduring audiences. thirdly, data provisioning for integrated systems must be based on a distributed system of processes in which data providers are an integral part, and not on a simple and mechanical view of information system aggregation, regardless of the complexity of the chosen data models. this more distributed approach requires a new reference model for the sector. this position contrasts with many past and existing systems that are largely centralised and where the expertise and practice of providers is divorced. the effects of these issues have been clearly demonstrated by numerous projects over the last years and continue to affect the value and sustainability of new aggregation projects, and therefore the projects that reuse the aggregated data. this paper is therefore particularly aimed at new aggregation projects that plan to allocate resources to data provisioning and aggregation and that wish to achieve sustainability and stability, but also informs existing aggregators interested in enhancing their services. background during the last two decades many projects have attempted to address a growing requirement for integrated cultural heritage data systems. by integrating and thereby enriching museum, library and archive datasets, quality digital research and education can be supported making the fullest use of the combined knowledge accumulated and encoded by cultural heritage organisations over the last years — much of this effort having been paid for by the public purse and by other humanities funding organisations. as a result the potential exists to restore the significance and relevance of these institutions in a wider and collaborative context revitalising the cultural heritage sector in a digital environment. the ability to harmonise cultural heritage data such that individual organisational perspectives and language is retained, yet at the same time allowing these heterogeneous datasets to be computationally 'reasoned' over as a larger integrated resource, is one that has the potential to propel humanities research to a level that would attract more interest and increased investment. additionally, the realisation of this vision provides the academy with a serious and coherent infrastructural resource that encodes knowledge suitable as a basis for advanced research and crucially, from a digital humanities perspective, based upon cross disciplinary practices. as such it would operate to reduce the intellectual gap that has opened up between the academy and the cultural heritage sector. even though industrial and enterprise level information integration has a successful year history (wiederhold, ; gruber, ; lu et al., .; bayardo et al., ; calvanese, giacomo, lenzerini, et al., ), to date very few projects, if any, attempting to deliver such an integrated vision for the cultural heritage sector have been able to preserve both meaning and provide a sustainable infrastructure under which organisations could realistically align their own internal infrastructures and processes. systems have lacked the necessary benefits and services that would encourage longer-term commitment, failed to develop the correct set of processes needed to support long-term data provisioning relationships, and neglected to align their services with the essential objectives of their providers. the situation reflects a wider problem of a structurally fragmented digital humanities landscape and an ever-widening intellectual gap with cultural heritage institutions, reflected rather than resolved by aggregation initiatives. this is despite the existence of very clear evidence (lessons learnt during the execution of these previous projects) for the reasons behind this failure. the three main lessons that this paper identifies are: the nature of cultural heritage data (museum collection data, archives, bibliographic materials but also more specialist scientific and research datasets) is such that it cannot be treated in the same way as warehouse data, administrational information or even library catalogues. it contains vast ranges of variability reflecting the different types of historical objects with their different characteristics, and therefore is also influenced by different scholarly disciplines and perspectives. different institutional objectives, geography and institutional history also affect the data. there are no 'core' data. however, many project managers use these characteristics to claim that such complexity cannot be managed, or conversely that such rich data does not exist, or that it is impossible to create an adequate common data representation. these positions hinder research and development and limit engagement possibilities. there is a frequent lack of understanding that cultural heritage data cannot be carved up into individual products to be shipped around, stored and individually 'consumed', like a sort of emotion stimulant coming to "fruition" . heritage data is rather the insight of research about relationships between a past reality and current evidence in the form of curated objects. therefore it is only meaningful as long as the provenance and the connection to the material evidence in the hands of the curators are preserved. the different entities that exist within it are fundamentally related to each other providing mutually dependent context. heritage data is subject to continuous revision by the curators and private and professional researchers, and must reliably be related to previous or alternative opinions in order to be a true source of knowledge. consequently, the majority of the data in current aggregation services, sourced from cultural heritage organisations, cannot be cited scientifically. sustaining aggregations using data sources from vastly different owning organisations requires an infrastructure that facilitates relationships with the local experts and evidence keepers to ensure the correct representation of data (such that it is useful to the community but also to the providing organisations themselves), and also takes into account the changing nature of on-going data provision. changes can occur at either end of data provisioning relationships and therefore a system must be able to respond to likely changes, taking into account the levels of resources available to providers necessary to maintain the relationship throughout. aggregations must also include processes for directly improving the quality of data (i.e. using the enriched integrated resources created by data harmonisation) and feeding this back to institutional experts. these three issues are inextricably linked. understanding the meaning of cultural heritage data and the practices of the owners of the data or of material evidence are essential in maintaining long term aggregation services. longevity requires that data must be encoded in a way to provide benefits for all parties; the users of resulting services, the aggregators and the providers. due to the same functional needs such principles are self-evident for instance, for the biodiversity community, expressed as the "principle of typification" for zoology in (iczn, ) and its application in the collaboration of gbif (global biodiversity information facility) within natural history museums, but they are not evident for the wider cultural heritage sector. this may be because, in contrast to cultural heritage information, misinterpretation of biodiversity data can have immense economic impact, for instance, with pest species. by not addressing these problems only short-lived projects can result that, in the end, consume far more resources than resolving these issues would require. the historical problem consider this statement from : "those engaged in the somewhat arcane task of developing data value standards for museums, especially the companies that delivered collections management software, have long had to re-present the data, re-encode it, in order for it to do the jobs that museums want it to perform. it's still essentially impossible to bring data from existing museum automation systems into a common view for use for noncollections management purposes as the experience of the museum educational site licensing (mesl) and rama (remote access to museum archives) projects have demonstrated. soon most museums will face the equally important question of how they can afford to re-use their own multimedia data in new products, and they will find that the standards we have promoted in the past are inadequate to the task." (bearman, ) both the projects cited in the quote are testament to the fact that managing data and operational relationships with cultural heritage organisations in support of collaborative networks is a complicated undertaking and requires a range of different skills. some of the issues have been clarified and resolved by the passage of time and we now have a better understanding of what benefits are practically realistic and desirable when forming new data collaborations. yet new projects seem intent on replicating flawed approaches and repeating the mistakes of the past. the continuing problem consider this opinion from the jisc discovery summit from the expert panel. "...developers are impatient and just want to get access to the data and do interesting things, and on the other side of the equation we have curators reasonably enough concerned about how that data is going to be used or misinterpreted or used incorrectly. i think that this is actually a difficult area because the conceptual reference models are generally more popular with the curators than with the developers [...it is not] clear to me ... how we solve the problem of engaging the people who want to do the development...through that mechanism, but nonetheless as this great experiment that we are living through at the moment with opening up data and seeing what can be done [...]unfolds, if we find that the risks are starting to become too great and the value is so poor because the data is being misused or used incorrectly or inappropriately, if that risk is a risk to society in general and not just to the curators...then we are going to have to find those kind of solutions." (jisc, ) this suggests a continuing problem and that digital representation of cultural heritage information is still determined by those who understand it least. it also suggests that cultural heritage experts have yet to engage with the issue of digital representation and continue to leave it to technologists. nevertheless, why would a software developer believe that representing the semantics and contextual relationships between data is not as interesting (let alone crucially important) as representing data without them, and why do they determine independently the mode of representation in any event? given the enormous costs involved in aggregating european data such a risk assessment suggested above, might reasonably be conducted up front, since the infrastructural changes needed to resolve the realisation of this risk would be almost impossible to implement. the delegates of the summit agreed by a large majority that their number one concern was quality of metadata and contextual metadata, contrary to the view of some of the panel members — emphasising the gap between providers, users and aggregators. ironically, it is those who advocate technology and possess the skills to use computers who seem most reluctant to explore the computer's potential for representing knowledge in more intelligent ways. as computer scientists regularly used to say, 'garbage in, garbage out' (gigo) . the value and meaning of the data should not be secondary or be determined by an intellectually divorced technological process. position — the nature of cultural heritage data the rama project, funded in the s by the european commission, serves as a case study demonstrating how squeezing data into fixed models results in systems that ultimately provide no significant progress in advancing cultural heritage or scholarly humanities functions. yet large amounts of scarce resources are invested in similar initiatives that can only provide additional peripherally useful digital references. the most recent and prominent example is the europeana project , which although technologically different to rama, retains some of the same underlying philosophy. the rama project proceeded on the premise that data integration could only be achieved if experts were prepared to accept a, "world where different contents could be moulded into identical forms", and not if, "one thinks that each system of representation should keep its own characteristics regarding form as well as contents" (delouis, ). this is a view that is still widely ingrained in the heads of many cultural heritage technologists. while more aggregations, like europeana, have made some use of knowledge representation principles and event based concepts they continue to use them in highly generalised forms and with fixed, core field modelling. this is clearly wrong from both a scholarly and educational perspective (as well as for subsequent engagement opportunities) and therefore results in wasteful technical implementations. yet academics seem unable to deviate (or fail to understand) from this traditional view of data aggregation. the cidoc crm, which commenced development in the latter part of the 's post the failure of rama and mesl, is a direct answer to the "impossible" problem identified by bearman and others. the answer, realised by several experts, was to stop the technically led pre-occupation with fixed values and fields which inevitable vary both internally and between organisations, and instead think about the relationships between things and the real world context of the data. this not only places emphasis on the meaning of the data but also places objects, to a certain degree, back into their historical context. "increasingly it seems that we should have concerned ourselves with the relationships...between the objects." (bearman, ) this fundamentally different approach concentrates on generalisations not determined by high committee but is instead based on many years of empirical analysis. it is concerned with contextual relationships that are mostly implicit but prominent in various disciplinary forms of digital documentation and associated research questions, and that cultural heritage experts in all fields are able to agree on. from this analysis a notion of context has been emerging which concentrates on interrelated events and activities connected to hierarchies of part-whole relationships of things, events and people, and things subject to chains of derivation and modification. this is radically different from seeking the most prominent values by which people are supposed to seek for individual objects. this approach is highly significant for the digital humanities (see unsworth ( )) because it inevitably requires a collaborative shift of responsibilities from technologists to the experts who understand the data. it therefore also requires more engagement from museums and cultural heritage experts. however, the widening gap between the academy and resource-poor memory institutions means that a solution requires clearly identified incentives to encourage this transfer of responsibility. it entails the alignment of different strategies and the ability to provide more relevant and useful services with inbuilt longevity. it must carry an inherent capacity to improve the quality of data and deliver all benefits cost effectively. given this, the alignment needs to start at the infrastructure level. the technical reasons why applications of the cidoc crm can be much more flexible, individual and closer to reality than traditional integration schemata, and yet allow for effective global access, are as follows. firstly, the crm extensively exploits generalization/specialization of relationships. even though it was clearly demonstrated in the mid 's that this distinct feature of knowledge representation models is mandatory for effective information integration (calvanese, giacomo, lenzerini, et al., ), it has scarcely been used in other schemata for cultural data integration . it ultimately enables querying and access to all data with unlimited schema specializations but by fewer implicit relationships , and removes the need to mandate fixed data field schemas for aggregation. this is also substantially different from adding 'application profiles' to core fields (e.g. schema.org), where none of the added fields will reveal the fact of a relationship in a more generic query. secondly, it foresees the expansion of relationships into indirections, frequently implying an intermediate event, and the deduction of direct relationships from such expansions. for instance, the size of an object can be described as a property of an object or as a property of a measurement of an object. the location of an object can be property of the object or of a transfer of it. the expansion adds temporal precision. the deduction generalizes the question to any time, as a keyword search does. modern information systems are well equipped to deal consistently with deductions, but no other documented schema for cultural data integration has made use of this capacity (tzompanaki and doerr, ; tzompanaki et al., ). this paradigm shift means that, instead of the limitations imposed by using fixed fields for global access, the common interface for users is defined by an underlying system of reasoning that is invisible to the user (but is explicitly documented) and is crucially detached from the data entry format. it provides seemingly simple and intuitive generalizations of contextual questions. this use of algorithmic reasoning, that makes full use of the precise underlying context and relationships between entities, provides a far better balance and control of recall and precision and can be adjusted to suit different requirements. by representing data using a real world semantic ontology, reflecting the practice and understanding of scholars and researchers, aggregation projects become more serious resources, and as a result their sustainability will become a more serious concern across the community. the enthusiasm of technologists and internal project teams is not sufficient for long-term sustainability, and corporate style systems integration techniques are not appropriate for cultural heritage data. just like the proliferation of data standards, often justified by small variations in requirements, isolated aggregations using the same justifications will also proliferate affecting overall sustainability and diluting precious resources and financing. in contrast an aggregation that supports and works with the variability of cultural heritage data and owning organisations, and that services a wider range of uses, stands a far better chance of long-term support. other schemas, despite using elements of knowledge representation, are still created, 'top down' and perpetuate a belief in the need for 'core'; and are inevitably flawed by a lack of understanding of knowledge and practice. it is far easier and quicker for technologists to make artificial assumptions about data, and mandate a new schema, than it is to develop a 'bottom up' understanding of how cultural heritage data is used in practice. however, the crm sig has completed this work removing the need for further compromise on this field. position — engagement needs real world context a familiar argument put to the community by technologists is that creating resources using a semantic reference model is complicated and expensive, and that aggregations designed to satisfy a general audience do not need this level of sophistication. moreover, the requirements of museum curators (see above) and other academics are not the same as those of the public and the latter should be prioritised when allocating resources to create services. in other words, publishing data, in whatever form, is the most important objective. however, publishing data and communicating understanding are two completely different concepts and humanities data can be impossible to interpret without meaningful context. this view also misunderstands the role of museums and curators who are keepers of primary material evidence and hold a primary role in communicating with and engaging general audiences using rich contextual narratives. the only reference model that influences the design of current aggregation systems is the reference model for an open archival information system (oais). it basically assumes that provider information consists of self-contained units of knowledge, such as scholarly or scientific publications, finished and complete with all necessary references. it assumes that they are finished products that have to be fixed and preserved for future reference. the utterly unlucky choice of the term 'metadata', for cultural data, assuming that the material cultural object is the real 'data', actually degrades curatorial knowledge to an auxiliary retrieval function without scientific merit, as if one could 'read out' all curatorial knowledge just by contemplating the object, in analogy to reading a book. consequently, a surface representation with limited resolution (a d model) is taken as a sufficient 'surrogate' for the object itself, the assumed real target of submission to the digital archive. the absence of a different type of reference model perpetuates this view in implementer and management circles. in reality, 'museum metadata' are the product, but not as a self-contained book, but rather equivalents of paragraphs, illustrations, headings and references of a much larger, 'living' book — the network of current knowledge about the past. the same holds for other fields of knowledge, such as biodiversity or geology data. museum curators are skilful in representing objects using a range of different approaches, all of them more sophisticated than the presentation of raw object metadata. their experience and practice has wider value for colleagues in schools, universities and other research environments. the reason why many curators have not engaged with technology is because of the limitations that it apparently presents in conveying the history and context in which objects were produced and used. museums, by their nature, remove the object from its historical context and "replaces history with classification". curators, almost battling against the forces of their own environment, attempt to return objects back into their own original time and space, a responsibility difficult to achieve within the "hermetic world" of the museum gallery (stewart, , p. ), and particularly amongst a largely passive and untargeted mixture of physical 'browsers'. in the digital world flat data representations, even if augmented with rich multimedia, do not convey the same quality of message and validity of knowledge that curators attempt to communicate to general audiences every day. the lonely gallery computer with its expensive user experience and empty chair is all too often a feature of 'modern' galleries. museums also spend vast amounts of money enriching data on their web sites, sometimes with the help of curators, and attempt to add this valuable and engaging context. however, such activity involves the resourcing of intensive handcrafted content that inevitably limits the level of sophistication and collaboration that can be achieved, as well as the range and depth of topics that can be covered. (doerr and crofts, , p. ) far from being driven by purely private and scholarly requirements, curators would see contextual knowledge representation as a way of supporting their core role in engaging and educating the public but on a scale they could not achieve with traditional methods and with current levels of financing. since semantically harmonised data reveals real world relationships between things, people, places, events and time, it becomes a more powerful engagement and educational tool for use with wider audiences beyond the walls of the physical museum. in comparison to traditional handcrafted web page development it also represents a highly cost effective approach. semantic cultural heritage data using the cidoc crm may not equate to the same type of narrative communication as a curator can provide, but it can present a far more engaging and sophisticated experience when compared to traditional forms of data representation. while it can help to answer very specific research questions it can also support the unsystematic exploration of data. it can facilitate the discovery of hitherto unknown relations and individual stories, supporting more post-modern concerns; but also providing a means to amalgamate specifics and individual items into a larger "totalizing" view of expanding patterns of history (jameson, , p. ). unsystematic exploration (but which invariably leads to paths of relationships around particular themes) is extremely useful for general engagement, but this is also seen as increasingly important for scholars (curators, researchers/scientists from research institutions and universities) working with big data, changing the way that scholars might approach research and encouraging new approaches that traditionally have been viewed as more appropriate to the layperson. the cidoc crm ontology supports these different approaches bringing together methodologies that are useful to researchers, experts, enthusiasts and browsers alike, but in a single multi-layered implementation. the opportunity provided by the cidoc crm goes further. just in the same way that lessons identified in the 's about cultural heritage integration have been ignored, the research into how museums might shape the representation of cultural knowledge has also been ignored in most digital representations. the pursuit of homogenised views with fixed schemas continues with vigour within digital communities, but the strength of the knowledge held by different museums is in its difference — its glorious heterogeneous nature. yet again from the s, a quote from a leading academic museologist. "although the ordering of material things takes place in each institution within rigidly defined distinctions that order individual subjects, curatorial disciplines, specific storage or display spaces, and artefacts and specimens, these distinctions may vary from one institution to another, being equally firmly fixed in each. the same material object, entering the disciplines of different ensembles of practices, would be differently classified. thus a silver teaspoon made in the eighteenth century in sheffield would be classified as 'industrial art' in birmingham city museum, 'decorative art' at stoke on trent, 'silver' at the victoria and albert museum, and 'industry' at kelham island museum in sheffield. the other objects also so classified would be different in each case, and the meaning and significance of the teaspoon itself correspondingly modified". (greenhill, , pp. - ) while the world wide web has undoubtedly revolutionised many aspects of communication, work and engagement, its attractive but still essentially "gutenberg" publishing model has effectively created an amnesia across the community. while a pre-web world talked about how computers could push the boundaries of humanities as a subject, a post-web world seems content with efficient replication of the same activities that previously took place on paper (renn, ; mccarty, , pp. - ). position — the reality of cultural heritage data provisioning it is a long-standing failure of aggregators to design and implement a comprehensive set of processes necessary to support long term provider-to-aggregator relationships. the absence of such a reference model is considered to be a major impediment to establishing sustainable integrated cultural heritage systems and therefore, by implication, a significant factor in the inability to fully realize the benefits of the funding and resources directed towards the humanities over the last years. this legacy has contributed to a general fragmentation of humanities computing initiatives as project after project has concentrated on end user functionality without properly considering how they could sustain the relationships that ultimately determined their shelf life — if indeed this was an objective. this, along with the lack of an empirically conceived cultural heritage reference model (discussed above), has impeded the ultimate goal of collaborative data aggregation to support intelligent modelling and reasoning across large heterogeneous datasets, and provide connections between data embedded with different perspectives. instead, each new and bigger initiative pushes further the patience of funders who are increasingly unhappy with the return to the community of their investment. in contrast to the approach of most aggregators, the responsibilities demanded of such systems are viewed by this paper from a real world perspective, as distributed and collaborative rather than substantially centralized and divorced from providers, as the oais reference model assumes. in reality the information provider curates his/her resources and provides, at regular intervals, updates. the provider is the one who has access to the resources to verify or falsify statements about the evidence in their hands. therefore the role of the aggregator includes the responsibility for the homogeneous access to the integrated data and the resolution of co-references (multiple uris, 'identifiers', for the same thing) across all the contributed data - but not to 'take over' the data like merchandise. the latter synopsis of consistency appears to be the genuine knowledge of the aggregator, whereas any inconsistencies should be made known to, and can only be resolved by, the original providers. the process of transformation of these information resources to the aggregator's target system requires a level of quality control that is often beyond the means of prospective providers. therefore a collaborative system that delivers such controls means that the information provider benefits from data improvement and update services that would normally attract a significant cost, and could not be done as effectively only based on local knowledge. additionally, if the aggregation is done well, harmonisation should deliver significant wider benefits to the provider (including digital relevance and exposure for organisations regardless of their status, size and location) and to the community and society as a whole. the process of mapping from provider formats to an aggregator's schema needs support from carefully designed tools. all current mapping tools basically fail in one way or another to support industrial level integration of data, from a large number of providers, in a large number of different formats and different interpretations of the same formats, undergoing continuous data and format changes at the provider side, undergoing semantic and format changes at the aggregator side . to consistently maintain integrated cultural data requires a much richer, component and workflow based architecture. the proposed architecture includes a new component, a type of knowledge base or 'mapping memory', and at its centre a generic, human readable 'mapping format' (currently being developed as x ml) , designed to support different processes and components and accommodate all organisations with different levels of resourcing. such architecture begins to overcome the problem of centralised systems where mapping instructions are unintelligible and inaccessible to providers and hence lack quality control. equally, it overcomes the problem of decentralised mapping by providers which often interpret concepts within the aggregator's schema in mutually incompatible ways. it finally overcomes the problem of maintaining mappings after changes to source or target formats and changes of interpretations of target formats or of terminological resources on which mappings are conditional. it should further provide collaborative communication (formal and social) support for the harmonization of mapping interpretations. since the mapping process depends on clean data and brings to light data inconsistencies, sophisticated feed-back processes for data cleaning and identifier consistency between providers must also be built into the design. the ambition of such an architecture exceeds the scope of typical projects and it can only come to life if generic software components can be brought to maturity by multiple providers. unfortunately, all current 'generic' mapping tools are too deeply integrated into particular application environments and combine too many functions in one system to contribute to an overall solution. we do not expect any single software provider to be capable of providing such generic components for all the necessary interface protocols. this is borne out by the continued expenditure of many millions of euros by funding bodies to fund mapping tools and other components in dozens of different projects without ever providing a solution of industrial strength and high quality. therefore the proposed architecture and reference model (called synergy), which has already been outlined by the crm sig in various parts , aims at a specification of open source components, well-defined functionality and open interfaces. implementers may develop and choose between functionally equivalent solutions with different levels of sophistication, for example table-based, or graph-based visualization of mapping instructions, intelligent systems that automatically propose mappings or purely manual definition, etc. they may choose functionally equivalent components from different software providers capable of dealing with particular format and interface protocols and therefore different provider-aggregator combinations. only in this way does the community have a chance to realize an effective data aggregation environment in the near future. in the reference model that we propose the architecture plays a central role and is a kind of proof of feasibility. however, it is justified and complemented by an elaborate model of the individually identified business processes that exist between the partners of cultural data provision and aggregation initiatives, both as a reference and a means to promote interoperability on an organisational and technical level. the processes enabled by this architecture should also be viewed with an understanding that, as a result of a properly defined end-to-end provisioning system, other more collaborative processes and practices can be initiated that enable organizations to support each other and to exchange experience and practice more easily and to greater effect. the establishment of a system that supports many different organisations promotes greater levels of collaboration between them independently of aggregators, and increases the pool of knowledgeable resources. it is at this level where structural robustness can be practically implemented to enable a re-construction of the essential alliances between the cultural heritage sector and the wider academic body. these considerations should be considered a priority for any new aggregation service rather than a problem to be solved at a later date. prioritisation of quantity above quality and longevity means that aggregators soon reach a point where they can no longer deal adequately with data sustainability issues. the solution is often to concentrate even more resources on functionality and marketing in a hope that the underlying problem might be solved externally, and make the decision to remove funding more difficult. inevitably relationships between providers and aggregators start to fail, links become broken and relationships break down leading to a gradual decline and finally failure. the cultural heritage sector is unable to invest resources into schemes that have unclear longevity and which lack the certainty needed to support institutional planning. without a high degree of certainty cultural organisations cannot divert resources into aligning their own systems with that of aggregators and therefore the scope of those systems becomes so low that their overall value is marginal. organisations become ever more cautious towards these new projects. this current state of affairs is also implicitly reflected by the growth of smaller and more discrete projects that seek to aggregate data into smaller, narrower and bespoke models designed as index portals for particular areas of study and particular research communities. these projects can be interpreted as a direct statement of dissatisfaction with larger more ambitious aggregation projects that have failed to provide infrastructures onto which these communities can build and develop (and therefore contribute to an overall effort) extensions for particular areas of scholarly investigation. however, the reduced and narrow scope of these projects mean that they are only of use to those who already have a specialised understanding of the data, can piece together information through their own specialist knowledge, and are content with linear reference resources. they embrace concepts of linked data but forego the idea that a more comprehensive and contextual collaboration is possible. to more cross-disciplinary researchers and other groups interested in wider and larger questions, the outputs of these projects are of limited interest and represent a fragmented patchwork of resources. they provide little in the way of information that can be easily understood or which easily integrates with other initiatives because they provide only snippets, data products that have been separated from their natural wider context and, in effect, they practically restrict (in contrast to their stated aims) the ability to link data outside their narrow domain. this severely limits the possibilities and use cases for the data and contributes to a fragmented landscape over which wider forms of digital humanities modelling is impossible. conclusion knowledge representation at the beginning of the twenty-first century, much effort was spent trying to both define and predict the trajectory of what had now been termed the digital humanities . "in some form, the semantic web is our future, and it will require formal representations of the human record. those representations — ontologies, schemas, knowledge representations, call them what you will — should be produced by people trained in the humanities. producing them is a discipline that requires training in the humanities, but also in elements of mathematics, logic, engineering, and computer science. up to now, most of the people who have this mix of skills have been self-made, but as we become serious about making the known world computable, we will need to train such people deliberately." (unsworth, ) the debate about the extent to which humanists must learn new skills still continues today. the reasons why humanists have been slow and reluctant to incorporate these new skills into their work, in perhaps the same way that some other disciplines have done, are too varied and complex to consider here. whether a lack of targeted training or a philosophical position about the extent to which computers can address the complexities of historical interpretation, or a lack of understanding about the areas of scholarship that can be enhanced or transformed by computers, the resulting lack of engagement seriously affects the outcomes and value of digital humanities projects. while there are notable exceptions the overwhelming body of 'digital humanities' work, while often providing some short term wonderment and 'cool', has not put the case well enough to persuade many humanists to replace existing traditional practices. this has a direct connection with the reasons why, despite a clear identification of the problem from different sources, flawed approaches still exist and are incorporated, without challenge, into each new technological development. the cultural heritage linked data movement currently provides new examples of this damaging situation. far from providing meaningful linking of data, the lack of a properly designed model reflecting the variability of museum and other cultural data, and the inability to provide a robust reference model for collaborative data provisioning mean that early optimism has not materialised into a coherent and robust vision. while more data is being published to the internet it has limited value beyond satisfying relatively simple publishing use cases or providing reference materials for discrete groups. while these resources are useful, their preoccupation has seriously impeded more ground-breaking humanities research that might uncover more profound discoveries and demonstrate that humanities research is as important to society as scientific research, and is deserving of more consideration from funders. however, just as in scientific research, the humanities community must learn from previous research to be considered worthy of increased attention. further fragmentation and unaligned initiatives are unlikely to instil confidence in those organisations that have previously been willing to finance digital humanities projects. we must learn from projects like claros at oxford university that are significant because, while they adopt a more semantic and contextual approach, they have evolved from the lessons learnt directly from projects like rama. the claros team includes expertise and experience derived through past contributions to the rama project, as well as others similar projects. this experience has provided a first-hand understanding of the problems of data aggregation and larger scale digital humanities research. as a result the claros project positively benefits from the failures of previous research rather than replicates unsuccessful methodologies. new projects like researchspace and culturebrokers , are now building on the work of claros to create interactive semantic systems together with other types of crm based projects. research and engagement while different audiences have different objectives all data use cases benefit from the highest quality of representation, the preservation of local meaning and the re-contextualising of knowledge with real world context. researchers benefit from the ability to investigate and model semantic relationships and the facility to use context and meaning for co-reference and instance matching. engagement and education activities benefit from exactly the same semantic properties that bring data to life and provide more interesting and varied paths for people to follow without the 'dead ends' that would ordinarily confront users of traditional aggregation services. there is no longer an excuse for using 'top down' schemas because the 'bottom up' empirical and knowledge based approach is now available (the result of years of considerable effort) and accessible in the form of the cidoc crm. the core crm schema is mature and stable, growing in popularity and provides no particular technological challenge. it is an object-oriented schema based on real world concepts and events implementing data harmonisation based on the relationships between things rather than artificial generalisations and fixed field schemas. it simplifies complicated cultural heritage data models but in doing so provides a far richer semantic representation sympathetic to the data and the different and varied perspectives of the cultural heritage community. reversing fragmentation and sustaining collaboration the history of digital humanities is now littered by hundreds of projects that have made use of and brought together cultural heritage data for a range of different reasons. yet these projects have failed to build up any sense of a coherent and structural infrastructure that would make them more than "bursts of optimism" (prescott, ). this seems connected with a general problem of the digital humanities clearly identified by andrew prescott and jerome mcgann. "... the record of the digital humanities remains unimpressive compared to the great success of media and culture studies. part of the reason for this failure of the digital humanities is structural. the digital humanities has struggled to escape from what mcgann describes as 'a haphazard, inefficient, and often jerry-built arrangement of intramural instruments, free-standing centers, labs, enterprises, and institutes, or special digital groups set up outside the traditional departmental structure of the university'" (prescott, ; mcgann, ) but while these structural failings exist in the academic world, prescott also identifies years of exclusion of cultural heritage organisations, keeping them at arm's length and thereby contributing to a widening gap with organisations that own, understand and digitise (or, increasingly, curate digital material) our material, social and literary history. prescott, with a background that includes both academic and curatorial experience in universities, museums and libraries, is highly critical of this separation and comments that, "my time as a curator and librarian [was] consistently far more intellectually exciting and challenging than being an academic". this experience and expertise, which in the past set the tone and pace for cultural heritage research and discovery, is slowly but surely disappearing making it increasingly difficult for cultural heritage organisations to claim a position in a, "new digital order" — particular in an environment of every increasing financial pressures. (prescott, ). in effect they are reduced to simple service providers with little or no stake in the outcomes. within the vastly diverse and every changing nature of digital humanities projects how can organisations and projects collaborate with each other? how can they spend time and resource effectively in a highly fragmented world that ultimately works against effective collaboration? we believe that one answer is to change the emphasis from the inconsistent 'bursts' and instead focus on the underlying structures that could support more consistent innovation. by establishing the foundational structures that providers, aggregators and users of cultural data all have a common interest in maintaining, a more consistent approach to progressing in the digital humanities may be achieved. in such an environment projects are able to build tools and components that can be both diverse and innovative but that contribute to the analysis and management of a growing body of harmonised knowledge capable of supporting computer based reasoning. the challenge is not about finding the right approach and methodology (these aspects being understood back in the 's) but rather how the ingrained practices of the last years, determined mostly by technologists, can be reversed and a more collaborative, cross disciplinary and knowledge led approach can be achieved. this is a collaboration based not simply on university department collaboration but a far wider association of people and groups who provide an equally important role in establishing a healthy humanities ecosystem. the crm sig has already started elaborating and experimenting with key elements for a new reference model of collaborative data provision and aggregation, in line with the requirements indicated above. work on this new structure has already commenced in projects like culturebrokers, a project in sweden starting to develop some of the essential components described above. we call on other prospective aggregators, existing service providers and end users to pool resources and contribute to the development of this new and sustainable approach. without such a collaboration the community risks never breaking out of a cycle based on flawed assumptions and restrictive ideas, and therefore never creating the foundational components necessary to take digital humanities to a higher intellectual, and practical, level. notes clough, g. wayne, secretary of the smithsonian institute citing robert janes (janes, ) in best of both worlds: museums, libraries, and archives in the digital age (kindle locations - ), ( ). synergy reference model of data provision and aggregation. a working draft is available here. database engine for triple and quad statements in the model of the resource description framework. solr™ is the fast open source search platform from the apache lucene™ project (http://lucene.apache.org/solr/). a database using graph structures, i.e., every element contains a direct pointer to its adjacent elements. the cidoc crm is largely agnostic about database technology, relying on a logical knowledge representation structure. by "digital humanities" we mean not only philological applications but any support of cultural-historical research using computer science. for the recent use of the term "cultural heritage fruition", see, e.g., "cultural assets protection, valorisation and fruition" in cultural heritage space identification system, best practices for the fruition and promotion of cultural heritage or promote cultural fruition. for example, the failed umbrella digital rights management model of mesl. paul walk, former deputy director, ukoln — transcribed from the conference video cast. panel included: rachel bruce, jisc; maura marx, the digital public library of america; alister dunning, europeana; neil wilson, british library; paul walk, ukoln; and david baker, resource discovery task force. garbage in, garbage out (gigo) in the field of computer science or information and communications technology refers to the fact that computers, since they operate by logical processes, will unquestioningly process unintended, even nonsensical, input data ("garbage in") and produce undesired, often nonsensical, output ("garbage out"). (wikipedia) europeana, a european data aggregation project with a digital portal. only recently europeana developed the still experimental edm model, which adopted the event concept of the cidoc crm. dublin core application profiles implemented in rdf make use of some very general superproperties, such as dc:relation, dc:date, dc:description, dc:coverage. xml, json, relational and object-relational data formats cannot represent superproperties. in terms of rdf/owl, one would speak of "superproperties", which are known to the schema and the database engine, but need not appear explicitly in the data. (calvanese, giacomo, and lenzerini, ) use the terms, "relation subsumption" and "query containment". a historiographic concern in respect of the tension between post-modern approaches and uncovering and exposing supposedly power relations across different political-economic phases. for example, (jameson, ). an approach associated with writers such w.g. sebald, for example, see (sebald, ). the german digital library envisaged about , potential providers in germany. hardly any tool supports sources as different as rdbms, xml dialects, rdf, ms excel, and tables in text formats. see, for instance, the migration of europeana from ese to edm. see delving / x ml for the x ml mapping format development. for example, the use of xslt. the reference model has been named 'synergy'. a working draft is available here. formerly, humanities computing. claros, a cidoc crm-based aggregation of classical datasets from major collections across europe. researchspace, ta project, funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation, to create an interactive research environment based on cidoc crm data harmonisation. culturebroker, a project mainly funded by a consortium led by the swedish arts council implementing data provisioning using the new reference model for swedish institutions. something different to simple information publication and the use of popular social networking facilities. see the two art histories, haxthausen ( ) and the museum time machine, lumley (ed.) ( ) for further evidence. references [ ] bayardo, r., et al. ( ) "infosleuth: agent-based semantic integration of information in open and dynamic environments", in acm sigmod international conference on management of data, pp. - . [ ] bearman, d. ( ) "standards for networked cultural heritage". archives and museum informatics, ( ), - . [ ] calvanese, d., giacomo, g., lenzerini, m., et al. ( ) "description logic framework for information integration", in th international conference on the principles of knowledge representation and reasoning (kr' ), pp. - . [ ] calvanese, d., giacomo, g. & lenzerini, m. ( ) "on the decidability of query containment under constraints", in principles of database systems, pp. - . [ ] consultative committee for space data systems. ( ) "reference model for an open archival information system" (oais). [ ] crofts, n. et al. (eds.) ( ) "definition of the cidoc conceptual reference model". [ ] delouis, d. ( ) "tolosystixnes france", in international cultural heritage informatics. [ ] doerr, m. ( ) "the cidoc conceptual reference module: an ontological approach to semantic interoperability of metadata". ai magazine, ( ), . [ ] doerr, m. & crofts, n. ( ) "electronic espernato—the role of the oo cidoc reference model". citeseer. [ ] gruber, t. r. ( ) "toward principles for the design of ontologies used for knowledge sharing". international journal human-computer studies, ( ), - . [ ] greenhill, e. h. ( ) museums and the shaping of knowledge. routledge. [ ] haxthausen, charles w. ( ) the two art histories: the museum and the university. williamstown, mass: yale university press. [ ] iczn ( ) international code of zoological nomenclature. th edition. the international trust for zoological nomenclature. [ ] jameson, f. ( ) postmodernism or the cultural logic of late capitalism. duke university press. [ ] janes, robert r. ( ) museums in a troubled world: renewal, irrelevance or collapse? london: routledge, pp. . [ ] jisc ( ) "jisc discovery summit ". [ ] lu, j. et al. ( ) "hybrid knowledge bases". ieee transactions on knowledge and data engineering, ( ), pp. - . [ ] lumley, robert. ( ) the museum time machine. routledge. [ ] mccarty, w. ( ) "beyond chronology and profession", in hidden histories symposium. september , university college london. [ ] mcgann, j. ( ) "sustainability: the elephant in the room", from a mellon foundation conference at the university of virginia. [ ] prescott, a. ( ) "an electric current of the imagination." digital humanities: works in progress. [ ] renn, j. ( ) "towards a web of culture and science". information services and use ( ), pp. - . [ ] sebald, w. g. ( ) the rings of saturn. london: vintage. [ ] stewart, s. ( ) "on longing: narratives of the miniature, the gigantic, the souvenir, the collection". duke university press. [ ] tzompanaki, k., et al. ( ) "reasoning based on property propagation on cidoc-crm and crmdig based repositories", in online proceedings for scientific workshops. [ ] tzompanaki, k. & doerr, m. ( ) "fundamental categories and relationships for intuitive querying cidoc-crm based repositories". [ ] unsworth, j. ( ) "what is humanities computing and what is not?". [ ] wiederhold, g. ( ) "mediators in the architecture of future information systems". ieee computer. about the authors dominic oldman is currently the deputy head of the british museum's information systems department and specialises in systems integration, knowledge representation and semantic web/linked open data technologies. he is a member of the cidoc conceptual reference model special interest group (crm sig) and chairs the bloomsbury digital humanities group. he is also the principal investigator of researchspace, a project funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation using cidoc crm to provide an on-line collaboration research environment. a law graduate he also holds a post graduate degree in digital humanities from king's college, london. martin doerr is a research director at the information systems laboratory and head of the centre for cultural informatics of the institute of computer science, forth. dr. doerr has been leading the development of systems for knowledge representation and terminology, metadata and content management. he has been leading or participating in a series of national and international projects for cultural information systems. his long-standing interdisciplinary work and collaboration with the international council of museums on modeling cultural-historical information has resulted besides others in an iso standard, iso : , a core ontology for the purpose of schema integration across institutions. he is chair of the crm sig. gerald de jong has a background in combinatorics and computer science from the university of waterloo in ontario, canada. he has a more than a decade of freelance experience in the netherlands, both coding and training, including being part of the original europeana technical team. he has a passion for finding simplicity in otherwise complex things, and with multi-agent and darwinistic approaches to solving gnarly problems. he co-founded delving bv in to focus on the bigger information challenges in the domain of cultural heritage. he is a member of the crm sig. barry norton is development manager of researchspace, a project developing tools for the cultural heritage sector using linked data. he has worked on data-centric applications development since the mid 's and holds a phd on semantic web and software architecture topics from the university of sheffield. before working at the british museum he worked as a consultant solutions architect following a ten year academic career at universities in sheffield, london (queen mary), karlsruhe, innsbruck and at the open university. thomas wikman is an experienced manager working on national and european ict projects and museum collaborations since the mid 's. he is the project manager and co-ordinator at the swedish national archives for the culturecloud and the culturebroker projects. culturebroker is an implementation of the data provisioning reference model and the cidoc crm aggregating archival and museum data. he is a member of the crm sig. copyright © dominic oldman, martin doerr, gerald de jong, barry norton and thomas wikman microsoft word - ucceismic_designprinciples_final_draft.doc open principles, open data: the design principles and architecture of the uc ceismic canterbury earthquakes digital archive james smithies, paul millar, chris thomson digital humanists are developing a tradition of disaster archiving. the trend began with the centre for history and new media’s (chnm) -‐ archive, started after the attacks on the world trade centre in new york in , which eventually crowd-‐sourced , items and has been itself archived by the library of congress. chnm, in partnership with the university of new orleans, later developed the hurricane memory bank ( ), in response to hurricanes katrina and rita. digital humanists have also been involved in responses to the devastating tōhoku earthquake and tsunami of . this article outlines the approach taken by digital humanists at the university of canterbury, new zealand, to the series of earthquakes that seriously damaged the city of christchurch from – . in many ways, these initiatives represent a continuation in the digital sphere of activities many centuries old. disasters are, after all, primarily human events: nature may cause them, but it is the human impact that demands a response. many of our cultural memories of great disasters were created by humanists: oral stories and subsequent myths about the destruction of atlantis in bc, extensive literary and historical references to the lisbon earthquake of and the eruption of krakatoa in , artistic impressions of the destruction of the pink and white terraces in the north island of new zealand in . although any disaster response must be regulated by the need to prioritize life and property, history shows us that humanists will normally be somewhere in the mix, collecting, preserving and commenting on the event for present and future generations. the appearance of digital tools has provided us with new avenues for our activities in disaster and post-‐disaster contexts, but has done little to alter the innate drive to collect, analyze, create, and explain. this article outlines the design principles and architecture of the uc ceismic canterbury earthquakes digital archive in an attempt to record an approach to dh disaster response that might benefit future efforts. . background at : on tuesday february a magnitude m . earthquake struck the city of christchurch, on the east coast of new zealand’s south island. local geography and soil structure, combined with a series of faults under the canterbury plains, produced significant amounts of damage. unlike the . earthquake experienced on september th of the previous year, this event produced remarkably high rates of ground movement and resulted in the loss of lives. at the time of writing over of the buildings in the central business district (cbd) have been demolished, in a process that will continue well past the two year anniversary of the event. the government has noted that “much of the historic fabric [of christchurch] has been lost, as have key facilities such as the convention centre, a significant proportion of the hotel capacity, and sports and recreation facilities”. there was severe damage to lifelines infrastructure across the city of , people, “…including road, the water and wastewater networks and the electric systems”. eventually, entire suburbs had to be abandoned due to liquefaction, subsidence, rock fall, and a host of other geo-‐structural issues. the city rebuild is expected to cost nz$ billion and take – years to complete. by august over , insurance claims have been made with the new zealand’s earthquake commission. as of march , the disaster ranked as the third costliest insurance event in history. four earthquakes of magnitude or greater and over , aftershocks have been recorded in the area since september th . residents continue to struggle with significant disruption to their daily lives. . disaster management and digital archives post-‐disaster recovery plans focus – as they must – on saving lives, identifying victims, reconstituting essential services, and providing information to residents and business owners. they are characterized by overtly vertical command and control management structures, to assist with the coordination of emergency teams, government agencies and the army. normally only essential recovery activities are resourced in an attempt to maximize the response and minimize confusion. that said, disaster management methodology highlights four phases that guide the response of governments, local body authorities and non-‐governmental organizations (ngos) to disaster situations: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. this holistic approach, that includes preparation beforehand and recovery afterwards, is particularly well suited to a response by humanists, because it acknowledges the need for long-‐term participation and accepts the need for cultural and educational input in order to lessen both the immediate and long-‐term impacts of disasters. although every country differs in its disaster response capabilities and policies (and all will prioritize the preservation of life and property in the immediate aftermath of an event), most government agencies in the oecd are aware of the need for broad-‐based information gathering, education, and the development of social and cultural capital: memory, experience, and knowledge are critical to the development of effective response mechanisms. knowledge of past events can condition how contemporary society not only conceptualizes the risk connected with particular events but also anticipates the impacts of future catastrophes. this principle is enshrined in unesco’s text of the convention for the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage ( ) and the united nations’ hyogo framework for action ( – ), which includes a priority action to “[u]se knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels”. similarly, the vancouver declaration explicitly “urged the [unesco] secretariat” to create an emergency programme aiming at preservation of documentary material endangered by natural disasters or armed conflicts, as well as a programme for the recovery of analogue and digital heritage that is under threat of becoming, or is already inaccessible because of obsolete hardware or software. university of canterbury researchers were heavily involved in the early disaster management response to the february earthquake, coordinating information about the status of essential infrastructure and services, providing high performance computing storage and services, and educating the public through the media. few roles, though, were available to humanities academics in the weeks after the february earthquake. the university of canterbury closed for several weeks, to allow staff and students to contact loved ones and attend to damaged properties. thousands of people left the city to avoid aftershocks. a state of emergency stayed in place until april th, making it impossible to attend to business as usual. damage to buildings and general infrastructure, and severe dislocation of regional infrastructure, created significant operational problems for many months. the loss of life and presence of international search and rescue, the military, and increased numbers of police contributed to a general sense of emergency and disorder. when the university did open, during march, staff conducted some classes in tents as contractors began building prefabricated classrooms on vacant ground; the situation was anything but conducive to the development of new digital resources. it wasn’t until may, months after the first major event, that paul millar from the department of english was able to start thinking about possible responses. in an indication of the problems university staff were facing at the time, millar discussed possible options with the author of this paper while he was temporarily located in wellington, because his house was unfit for habitation. despite the difficulties, and as millar was aware, a robust response to disaster situations by humanists soon after the event itself is important, not only for disaster management decision support but also in broader cultural terms, to avoid the “digital death” of crucial artifacts produced as a direct result of events. evidence suggests that the formation of autobiographical and collective memory in the aftermath of significant trauma is a complex affair. psychologists and sociologists alike point to the role emotion plays in the construction of individual and collective memories of events, so it is important that large bodies of primary material are identified and safely stored for later analysis (both by professional researchers and individuals) when the immediate trauma has passed. by doing so, individual and collective cultural memory of the event can be continually revisited and refined and a longitudinal understanding developed. although cultural resources tend to be “ignored and neglected” in the immediate post-‐disaster phase, the experience of the september , hurricane memory bank, uc ceismic, and tōhoku archives suggest there are compelling arguments for the speedy deployment of cultural heritage-‐related assets. studies suggest a focus on ‘social capital’ (which includes a cultural component) can speed recovery, enhance cohesiveness, and contribute to post-‐disaster resilience. patrick meier has pointed out the specific role collections of big data can have in these processes. it is important to recognize the “multidimensionality” of disasters, and the impact a loss of cultural heritage can have on communities. in some cases, “rescuing culture is essential for the mental survival of people in emergency situations, and can contribute to their overall resilience and empowerment when overcoming catastrophe”. the problem is, of course, that easily deployable digital archives suitable for the complex task of post-‐disaster collection do not exist. while applications like omeka, islandora, ushahidi, and fedora commons provide excellent starting points, developing a ‘shrink-‐ wrapped’ solution tailored specifically to post-‐disaster situations would be a non-‐trivial task. the ideal situation would be one in which humanists, or perhaps government employees within a central cultural heritage agency, could visit an online service provider (or download an easily deployable virtual machine to deploy on their own infrastructure) after a disaster and provision a robust, preservation-‐quality, archive system capable of ingesting large quantities of digital content (either crowd-‐sourced or through an administrative interface) according to configurable standards-‐based ontologies. the infrastructure would be on-‐ demand infrastructure as a service (iaas) and fully scalable. the software would be provided as a service as well (saas), perhaps with a modular architecture to allow administrators to deploy services as required (including integration with and archiving of social media services, and provision of downstream big data analysis). it would be capable of metadata aggregation to allow it to act as the central node in a heterogeneous federated archive, and have an easy to use interface and ‘baked in’ terms and conditions and copyright tools, to ensure broad-‐based usage and legal probity. large-‐scale data export functionality would allow for migration of content to long-‐term preservation systems and dark archives. in lieu of such a service systems need to be put together very quickly by humanities or cultural-‐ heritage teams, in the difficult circumstances of post-‐disaster management and with minimal funding. sometimes, as was the case with the september archive, the process works very well and great benefits accrue from small outlay; at other times, as with the hurricane memory bank, a similar team can go through the same process but with significantly reduced results. there is currently no example of a broad archive aggregating post-‐disaster cultural heritage, scientific, geographic and social data in a manner conducive to long-‐term preservation, general research by the public and academics, and computationally intensive research. . governance one issue with the development of a generic cultural-‐heritage disaster archive system would be how to deploy it in a variety of operational, cultural, and legal contexts. while new zealand’s culture and local and central government structure bears many similarities to other oecd nations there are significant differences too, especially in its lack of state or federal structures, which enabled uc ceismic to develop a broad-‐ranging consortium of both local and central government agencies. differences with developing countries would presumably be even more profound. detailed discussion of these issues is outside the scope of this article, however. the important thing to note is merely that the uc ceismic archive was designed and deployed with a particular operational context in mind. new zealand’s small cultural network meant that it soon became clear that a variety of groups were considering or actively engaged in developing archive systems to collect quake-‐related content. a meeting was held at lincoln university amongst interested parties and a decision was made to form a consortium, which eventually comprised archives new zealand, christchurch city libraries, the canterbury museum, the canterbury earthquake recovery authority, the ministry for culture and heritage, the national library, new zealand film archive, nz on screen, the ngai tahu research centre and te papa tongarewa: the museum of new zealand. the new university of canterbury digital humanities programme led the consortium, which came to be known as the uc ceismic consortium. responsibility for the development of the consortium and leadership of the project as a whole rested with paul millar as director, and responsibility for project management and technical development of the federated archive (and additional university of canterbury research repository) rested with the author. the university of canterbury (uc) provided funds for the first two years of development and operations, and consortium members offered both technical and archival resources, and input from chief executives, senior managers, and general staff. the project benefitted from a remarkable degree of inter-‐agency cooperation and goodwill that might not have been possible in other countries. although there turned out to be little practical need for it, the project was underpinned by a broad adherence to a concept of mutual aid. it was agreed that consortium members would help each other where possible, even if that meant supporting or improving a ‘competing’ archive. similarly, if smaller nodes began failing in future years, the broader consortium would try to step in and help, or migrate their content to more robust infrastructures. the goal was to create a radical model, where the whole was always held up as greater than its parts. paperwork and official documentation was kept to a minimum, and any documents that were produced adhered to a ‘less is more’ principle. the founding document of the consortium was a three page memorandum of understanding, which allowed for any member to leave the consortium with two weeks notice, signed by senior representatives of all organizations. policies and processes for ingestion into the archive are determined by the policies and processes of contributing members, with the consortium providing advice to the uc team in establishing their new processes. in general, aside from community archives where a lower standard is accepted, the contributing archives can be said to adhere to best practice. in many ways the uc ceismic federation presents a classic example of the use of information federalism to manage “information and [establish] standards for cultures that celebrate empowerment and widespread participation”. . design principles the first act in the technical development of the archive was the organization of an information architecture workshop involving technical personnel from a variety of consortium partners. the workshop was held at nv interactive, a web development company already contracted by the ministry for culture and heritage to build their ‘quakestories’ archive, and later contracted by uc to build the main web portal for the federated archive: http://www.ceismic.org.nz. at this workshop, general principles were agreed about how the consortium archives would work together and it was agreed that, rather than pooling existing resources to create a single archive, the team would work to a “distributed custody model”, storing content in a variety of existing and planned repositories, and contributing content to a federated archive via metadata aggregation. although some principles were pinned down later, and no formal list was ever produced and agreed to, the following design principles were discussed: . open access: the concept of a federated archive would not have gained approval without this. no consortium partners were willing to contribute their existing content to a gated archive, and it was felt that individuals and organizations would be unlikely to contribute additional content in those circumstances either. . open source: some of the government agencies were already using proprietary software and would continue to do so, but the workshop evinced broad agreement that open source components should be used wherever possible, in order to foster sharing and reuse. . multi-‐channel: ceismic.org.nz would be the ‘front door’, but it was agreed that the federation would aim for a radically multi-‐channel approach. the metaphor of an ‘ecosystem’ was used to describe a belief that all nodes in the federation were to be of equal importance. small community archives, after all, could well contain more valuable content than large national ones. the key was to facilitate and foster a broad, healthy federation, which was capable of supporting large and small partners. . asymmetry: because of the support behind the uc team it was understood that the proposed quakestudies repository was likely to become the largest node in the federation. other contributing organizations were constrained by their normal business as usual operations, and although the new zealand government had directed them to prioritize quake-‐related activities as part of their strategic plans (and the christchurch city libraries team in particular had made valiant efforts to get an archive up and running very quickly after the earthquakes), it was clear the uc team were the only ones in a position to focus their efforts on earthquake-‐ related content ingestion for years at a time. . heterogeneity: archival ‘nodes’ mushroom in post-‐disaster situations, due to the ubiquity of web technologies and the ease with which simple archives can be established with products like wordpress. rather than impose uniform standards and technologies that would have stifled the development of new archives and left many small community archives outside the federation, it was necessary to embrace heterogeneity and design a solution that could cope with a broad range of technologies. . extensibility: the development of an open dataset allowed for the possibility of myriad new sites and applications as the archival ecosystem developed. this was embraced and undertakings were made to encourage the development of widgets, mobile applications and satellite sites in order to broaden the reach of the consortium as far as possible. . leveraging existing assets: it was made clear that uc ceismic was a national project rather than a regional or university one. the post-‐disaster situation, involving significant loss of life and a devastated city, meant that there was no room for partisan politics. from the outset it was understood that the programme would leverage existing national digital infrastructure as much as possible. there was no reason to spend money duplicating existing solutions or services when the earthquake had apparently already put a $ -‐ billion hole in the economy. . data consistency: the development of federated archives requires attention to data consistency, to aid metadata aggregation and facilitate longitudinal and computationally intensive research. metadata consistency was relatively low across the existing archives, despite basic adherence to dublin core essentials. the uc team undertook to work with member archives to improve their metadata if necessary. . data openness: for phase of the uc project (the initial build and deployment of ceismic.org.nz and quakestudies.canterbury.ac.nz) online services like facebook and twitter wouldn’t be archived. these services were very useful in the post-‐disaster context, but pose difficulties for long-‐term preservation. it was felt better to deal with the basics first and consider social media later. . geo-‐referencing: damage caused by earthquakes tends to be associated mainly with built environments such as buildings and houses. indeed, a significant proportion of the damage to christchurch was in the central business district (cbd) and suburbs hit by severe liquefaction. although time-‐consuming, it was agreed that efforts should be made to geo-‐reference as much content as possible to enable implementation of map-‐based discovery tools. . linked open data: wherever possible design efforts would enable participation in the world of linked open data (lod). because many of the ‘nodes’ in the federation were already established, and not capable of lod, most of the efforts in this regard were directed towards the university of canterbury’s new quakestudies repository. none of these principles were particularly challenging to workshop participants. conversely, they represented a set of principles – or a common language -‐ held in common across the it, cultural heritage, and digital humanities worlds that bonded the group. the biggest concern of many participants before the workshop was the possibility that one or more participants would not be aware of these common expectations and would demand, for instance, a gated archive using proprietary technologies that would undermine the smaller, more vulnerable archives in the consortium. some participants worried that the university, in particular, would take a closed approach to data acquisition and sharing; the communication of common standards, and digital humanities principles of openness and sharing went a long way to allaying fears and allowing development to proceed. as linda barwick has noted, distributed systems like uc ceismic “can only work into the longer term if they are built on shared standards, formats, and procedures, designed for long-‐term viability”. . architecture uc ceismic relies on two main assets: the uc ceismic federation, which provides a website, metadata aggregation services, and federated archive comprised of over ‘nodes’, and uc quakestudies, a bespoke repository tailored to the collection of cultural heritage content and research data. either of these assets could be deployed individually, but together they offer a wide-‐ranging solution to myriad issues. the products were built concurrently over a period of months by nv interactive and cwa media / learning media limited respectively. the university of canterbury digital humanities programme led the design and build of both systems, from procurement to requirements definition, solution design, development, testing, and deployment. overall project management lay with uc, who also held the responsibility for final decisions on technical matters. that said, it should be made clear that external vendors and professional software developers built both assets. quakestudies in particular was treated as a major enterprise build, involving a vendor-‐side project manager, solution architect, front and backend developers, testers, graphic designers and system administrators. i. uc ceismic federation figure : uc ceismic federation architecture the uc ceismic federation is comprised of three separate layers. at base, a memorandum of understanding bonds it, with signatories agreeing to “ensure that digital content deemed appropriate by them and the [programme] board is made available to users of [uc ceismic]”. effectively, this means that consortium members undertake to make all their digital holdings associated with the canterbury earthquakes available to the broader federation via ceismic.org.nz or any other consortium-‐related sites that might appear. for most of the members this wasn’t an issue: they are mandated by government to collect digital material related to significant new zealand events, and make them publically available. some organizations had less developed digital infrastructure, or no digital infrastructure at all, and would either share other members’ infrastructure or develop their own (some agencies had plans for implementing digital archives but had not yet gone live with them). at go-‐live providers were able to deliver content, with others coming online progressively as resources allowed. the great benefit of this approach, of course, is that nothing else needs to be done after the archives are ‘plugged into’ the broader federation: business as usual practices mean that contributions to uc ceismic will grow automatically as federation harvesting proceeds. the same is the case for any community sites added to the federation. at the time of writing, with the system operationally complete and an archive ‘seed’ completed, the archive includes over , items contributed by over providers. projections indicate the archive will hold upwards of , items by the end of , contributed by many different content providers. the expectation is that year on year increases, over the course of the – year rebuild process, will result in a significant cultural asset. the mechanism for metadata aggregation across the federation was initially a technical concern, and would be a significant challenge for any group intending to implement the uc ceismic model outside new zealand. as indicated below, a decision had been made relatively early to use fedora commons as the backend repository for the uc quakestudies repository, in part because it has native ability to act as a metadata aggregation point: quakestudies would aggregate content from the federation members, and ceismic.org.nz search would be powered by api queries from its backend. this sounds straightforward enough, but it would have involved significant overhead. federation members have a broad variety of metadata standards (ranging from national library and museum quality to the barest dublin core fields on a wordpress instance), which would need to be massaged and mapped to a common standard. legal and policy issues would also have been a significant issue, as the small uc ceismic programme team would have needed to administer content agreements and assure the university legal team that the terms and conditions were both robust and enforceable. as it happens, quakestudies is only likely to become a metadata aggregation point for archives within the university of canterbury, or perhaps for other new zealand universities who would like their content surfaced via uc quakestudies as well as ceismic.org.nz. such a ‘mini-‐federation’ would offer administrative advantages, in that research-‐heavy data could be corralled into a single repository that has easy access to high performance computing services (see below). as it happens, new zealand has an existing metadata aggregation service based in the national library, known as digitalnz. although outside the earliest technical discussions, this team were sent the detailed requirements for the quakestudies archive early in the design process, which included an ontology based on their own metadata schema (itself based on dublin core), to enhance interoperability. it quickly became apparent that not only was the uc ceismic project well aligned to their strategic direction, they were already aggregating content from several of the federation members and, as a government agency, had robust policies and procedures that would enable the uc team to completely outsource metadata aggregation to them. in some senses this is the great ‘cheat’ of the uc ceismic programme: a core architectural component, crucial to the integrity of the entire system and difficult to implement, was outsourced to a government unit. and yet, it was only the underlying governing principles and clear articulation of the proposed technical architecture that made this possible. open architectures, collaboration, leveraging existing assets, working for the public good – all these attitudes combined to point to digitalnz. although it might seem an obvious choice, it would not have been possible if the project had been constituted in a different way, or been based on different attitudes: constant recourse to principles of openness and sharing offered significant benefits, but was in the final analysis a choice that could have been made differently. digitalnz is a beguilingly simple service. established in , and now a business unit of the national library of new zealand, the service uses solr to aggregate metadata from hundreds of content providers across new zealand and expose the metadata through a ruby on rails cms, and simple api. the platform is capable of harvesting from a variety of formats (oai-‐pmh, api, rss), which are then mapped to the digitalnz metadata schema. at the time of writing the service aggregates million records from more than providers. it has recently been used as the search engine for the upgraded national library website. the key point in terms of uc ceismic, of course, is that all content in the federation is aggregated upstream in digitalnz, and available at both digitalnz.org and via the digitalnz api, providing a radically open data model. in some ways, although it makes sense to offer the public a ‘front window’ to the uc ceismic collection at ceismic.org.nz for ease of use and to ensure the programme has a solid web presence, there is no technical reason to do this – the content is available at digitalnz anyway. it should also be noted that, depending on the individual licensing restrictions placed on content, users are free to mashup, remix, and reuse uc ceismic content using the digitalnz api as well. this open architecture offers significant advantages in the context of web . and the movement towards a mobile web. in some senses, the uc ceismic archive is conceived as post-‐website service. the dataset itself, and the api that exposes it, are the essential components; multiple access points, or channels, can be developed as need or interest arises. ceismic.org.nz, although highly functional, is merely a microsoft umbraco cms with a search function that queries the digitalnz api; a light-‐weight front-‐end to a highly distributed data architecture. in some ways, the success of the programme will be determined by the number of channels that are built to expose the archival content: the more that exist, the more uses the content is being put to. the first mobile application – a windows ‘metro’ application that was a winner in the microsoft new zealand humanising data competition -‐ has been released and more are expected to follow. to a similar end lincoln university applied computing have produced an html web framework that includes basic search and authentication to the uc ceismic collection in the digitalnz api. the framework is designed to facilitate the creation of ‘satellite sites’ that can be set up to showcase particular collections in the archive. some major content providers, for instance, might want to showcase their earthquake-‐related content and will be able to do so using the satellite site framework. it is one more way to open up multiple channels to the content, making it more accessible and, hopefully, more widely used. more importantly, it provides a way to encourage the development of “survivor rites”, those various cultural expressions that bond post-‐disaster communities and aid in the recovery, rebuild and memorialization process. if there is one ‘design principle’ that disaster-‐related dh projects should consider aiming to support, it is surely this. ii. uc quakestudies figure : uc quakestudies architecture the uc quakestudies repository can also be described in terms of three layers, although as a single system, rather than a broad federation of systems. following the production of high level and detailed requirements, a solution options process chose drupal and fedora commons as the preferred components. omeka was considered as both a standalone solution and as a front-‐end to fedora commons, but drupal and fedora commons were chosen as more ubiquitous technologies, with larger open source communities and therefore more opportunity for technical support. fedora commons fitted particularly well with requirements for metadata aggregation, native rdf indexing and api, and the ability to use no-‐sql databases. islandora was initially used, based on the assumption that it would provide a good base for further development and a desire to contribute to an excellent open source project, but it was abandoned relatively early on in favor of a ‘clean’ development platform of drupal and fedora commons, connected via a heavily customized drupal rest api module. this created significant development overhead and introduced a higher degree of risk but, in probably the biggest decision made in the build as a whole, it was decided that the benefits of being able to use drupal and code its connection to fedora commons afresh out-‐weighed those risks. the end result is a system that could be open-‐ sourced and added as an option alongside products like omeka, ushahidi, and islandora. uc quakestudies is a fairly straight-‐forward web application and archiving system, but its architecture needs to be described ‘in the round’. the programme has three environments in total: development, testing and production. production sits on two virtualized rhel servers with a total of cpus and gb of ram, themselves located on the university’s main san. disk size is in the terabyte range but can (and will need to) scale to whatever is required. most of the compute power is deployed on the tomcat server running fedora commons, and is required to support java processes triggered by requests from the drupal frontend. drupal application caching reduces overhead significantly, but the combination of drupal and fedora commons is a heavyweight solution; cosmetic improvements are planned for the ui, but it is unlikely to ever provide a highly responsive user experience. this was a considered decision in light of predicted capacity requirements: the system would need an architectural upgrade to achieve it, but could theoretically scale to hold million objects. it should also be noted that the ‘post-‐website’ approach to the project as a whole meant that the fedora commons resource index / api and oai-‐pmh feed are the most important components in the application stack: as long as these are live and able to feed digitalnz, and from there ceismic.org.nz, mobile apps and satellite sites, the broader ‘ecosystem’ will be healthy. the quakestudies front-‐end could in fact be removed entirely, with little impact on broader operations beyond a loss of the full-‐text and advanced search functions provided by the quakestudies solr component. although not entirely desirable, this provides an excellent low-‐cost option should maintenance costs for the drupal component become unsupportable. it may be that in twenty years time, when content ingestion is no longer a priority, all uc ceismic content is surfaced via ceismic.org.nz, with quakestudies being scaled back to the bare fedora commons data store. cloud options were considered for infrastructure, but using normal operational infrastructure offers significant benefits. firstly, it means the uc ceismic programme office (the team that runs the archive) is supported by normal uc it support networks. system maintenance and upgrades are all submitted to the central university change advisory board (cab), and the development expertise paid for through a service level agreement with the vendor is augmented by system administration and network expertise on campus. the system also uses the standard university disaster recovery processes, and backups to tape occur as a part of business as usual. because the infrastructure is virtualized, additional storage can be provisioned through a simple university helpdesk request and then deployed using minimal vendor support. university infrastructure also offers easy access to high performance computing services at the uc blue fern super-‐computer and new zealand’s national grid computing network (nesi), via the karen high-‐speed research network. it is worth noting that this choice of infrastructure was not a given, but the result of a carefully considered solution options assessment specifically related to infrastructure. although development of the system itself proceeded using an agile methodology, major decisions like this involved more formal ‘waterfall-‐like’ methods. it is only now that the system is live that it has become fully clear just how seriously poor decision-‐making at crucial moments would have negatively impacted the project. in terms of functionality, the drupal front-‐end is fairly basic. its main purpose, besides offering users browse and search access to the collections held in fedora commons, is as a tool to allow uc ceismic administrators to archive items. the ingestion process is governed by detailed policies and processes developed in consultation with the uc human ethics committee and the uc ceismic research committee (composed of senior academics from all areas of the university, along with additional members from the otago medical school and massey university). administrators can upload items individually, or using a bulk ingest facility capable of ingesting up to items an hour with individualized metadata (for each item if necessary) included on a .csv file. during early requirements definition a lot of emphasis was placed on the inclusion of high-‐quality metadata (it remains one of the key performance indicators for the service), which requires the programme office team to spend considerable time scoping, defining and improving metadata before ingestion. the goal was never, after all, to try to collect everything produced as a result of the earthquakes but to curate a large, high-‐quality archive that would be useful for both the general public, but also researchers. done properly, the hope was that the quakestudies repository would generate a series of use cases requiring high performance computing time. several such use cases have already been identified. metadata requirements were a key focus of the early design efforts, led by the lead architect, jason darwin. a range of options were considered, including dublin core, icom-‐ cidoc, marc, mets and the emerging “international standard for digital archiving”, oais, in an attempt to find a commonly accepted standard that could both provide the necessary descriptive elements, and facilitate data sharing. while many projects have difficulty finding a standard suitable for their specific heritage purposes, the situation was complicated by the post-‐disaster context, which required event-‐related information rarely required in business as usual heritage contexts and therefore not included in any of the various cultural heritage standards. foaf was seriously considered as well, but abandoned due to concerns about ethics and privacy; it was felt that it would be more sensible to develop specific social media projects that could use foaf on a case-‐by-‐case basis than implementing it as a system-‐wide feature. the fedora commons digital object model was extremely useful in this regard, because it offers the ability to connect multiple ontologies (or ‘datastreams’) to a single digital object. this allowed the team to implement a single ‘base’ ontology, but offer content providers the opportunity to use a reference standard of their own choice to describe their collection. with this realization, it became apparent that there was no pressing need to choose only one of the metadata standards listed above: the key was to develop a base ontology that would satisfy the immediate requirements of post-‐earthquake christchurch. from there it was a relatively simple step to implement a combination of dublin core (satisfying the basic requirements for international data transfer) and digitalnz’s bespoke standard (itself based largely on dublin core), making use of their aggregation service considerably easier. additional standards would be attached as subsidiary datastreams when required. it was this decision, when communicated to digitalnz, which led to the use of digitalnz as the aggregation point for the entire uc ceismic federation: a case of internal project decisions aligning well to external service options. the design focus placed on metadata was related to a significant long-‐term goal to create a dataset conducive to analysis by high performance computers (hpcs). while in some senses a lack of structured data would have offered more use cases for hpcs, which would have been required to derive structure and meaning programmatically, it was felt that effort should be directed towards providing a base layer of human-‐entered metadata to not only facilitate basic content curation, search, and usability but to act as a control against future implementations of crowd-‐sourced and machine-‐derived metadata: users would be able to toggle crowd-‐sourced and machine-‐derived metadata on or off, giving them the ability to interpret the content through three different ‘lenses’ and three different levels of reliability. another requirement called for the implementation of the resource description framework (rdf) to provide researchers with semantic meaning; this was also implemented using native fedora commons functionality. as can be seen in figure , fedora commons includes a rest api that can be used to access content in the backend directly, by-‐passing the user-‐interface. a web service known as resource index search “exposes the relationships described in the quake studies repository data model, allowing relationships between the qsr classes to be queried and navigated”; it can be programmatically accessed via http get or post. tuples and triples can be returned using a variety of query languages, offering the opportunity to engage in rich data analysis and create a broad range of data visualizations. although it will be desirable to use computers to programmatically derive additional meaning (especially given the very large amount of content expected to be stored and the corresponding difficulty of finding the resources to describe it manually), the basis for solid semantic analysis is native to the system. uc quakestudies went live as a beta service on september . many requirements (including the provision of a user-‐friendly api) were either scaled back or abandoned due to pressure of time and funding. because of this, at go-‐live the list of potential development jobs was long, including improving the user interface, adding crowd-‐ sourcing functions, using high-‐performance computers to analyse and improve collections and metadata, and improving access to the api. drupal plugins are planned to allow more sophisticated browsing and searching of archival content based on maps and timelines, the administrative workflow could be improved, and functionality to allow the addition of crowd-‐sourced and computer-‐generated metadata will be implemented if funding allows. improvement continues at an infrastructure level, too, with changes being made to the way the virtual servers connect to the university san to improve performance as the archive scales. uc quakestudies is a significant asset to maintain, and the project team’s espousal of continuous improvement over several decades brings with it considerable overhead, but this is simply another aspect of the model offered to the digital humanities community. although a lot of work, it is possible for a small dh team to design, build, maintain, and improve a significant enterprise asset (in this case marked as such at a university-‐wide level). . uc ceismic digital archive: current state despite its success, the uc ceismic digital archive is best considered a working ‘proof of concept’. the key contribution of the project to the digital humanities community is not in the specific tools used (drupal, fedora commons etc), but the commitment to national federation as a core principle, and the combination of that with long-‐term commitment, community-‐focused attitudes, and open access principles. although the technical solution is elegant enough, and covers a very broad variety of use cases, further development is required to refine it and (as with most it projects) the solution would benefit greatly from additional funding. much of the value of uc ceismic lies in its status as a useful model for others to consider, and the attitudes, governance mechanisms, processes and policies that underpin the consortium and control content curation, ingestion and sharing. perhaps the most significant element in the project is the sheer scale envisaged by project director paul millar from inception. unlike other digital humanities disaster archives, that have been envisaged as scalable but in important ways limited undertakings, uc ceismic was conceived from the outset as a vast all-‐encompassing archive of national and even international scope that is intended to keep collecting for as long as funding allows. in some ways, the federated architecture reflects a need to accommodate this vision; the suitability of this approach for digital preservation in a post-‐disaster content is merely one happy result of it. lucky coincidences aside, it should be noted that if the goal was only to collect content in the immediate aftermath of the earthquakes the ‘uc ceismic solution’ would have been unwieldy and too slow to implement. the design approach was based on an assumption that the recovery of the canterbury region will take decades rather than months or even years, and that the uc ceismic team will need to continue collecting for decades to come. while the broad goal of creating a federated resource would suit most situations, the development of a relatively large bespoke repository to augment such a federation is a significant undertaking that will produce most rewards over the long term. the expectation is that hundreds of thousands of items will be ingested into the archive year on year, creating a dataset capable of providing valuable insights into the nature of disaster risk, resilience, and renewal. in this model, which could perhaps be more effectively implemented by governments or communities as part of preparedness programmes before disasters occur, the goal is to establish a robust and very wide-‐ranging ‘net’ capable of catching and preserving as much digital content as possible over as long a time period as possible. one of the great barriers to success is the identification and storage of what unesco began referring to in as “intangible heritage” , largely due to difficulties associated with archiving social media services. although the term initially referred to folklore, some commentators have pointed out that a focus on ‘intangible heritage’ opens up interesting opportunities in the digital era. silberman and purser suggest that in the future [t]he task of heritage professionals will be rather to enable contemporary communities to digitally (re)produce historical environments, collective narratives and geographical visualizations that cluster individual perspectives into shared forms and processes of remembering. these interactions are reminiscent of the conversations that once occurred much more frequently at corner bars, in town squares and by evening campfires (cf. putnam ) as a vital part of the exercise of cultural diversity that is now seen as a central component of world heritage (unesco ). capturing this kind of “performative memory” is made very difficult by the widespread use of social media services like facebook and twitter. these services are easy to use and canterbury people flocked to them after the earthquakes, posting extensive comments on facebook and using the #eqnz hashtag to comment on and organize themselves. the university of canterbury student volunteer army was almost solely organized around facebook, generating over , ‘likes’, and beckerfraserphotos (the photographer of record) used facebook to publish and develop a community around their photos, generating over , ‘likes’. ideally, content from services like facebook and twitter would be integrated into the uc ceismic archive, but it is very difficult to navigate licensing issues and organize local storage of the content outside those eco-‐systems. the current approach is threefold: rely on new zealand’s national digital heritage archive (ndha) domain harvesting process (which takes a complete harvest of the .co.nz web domain and targets selected important sites for special treatment) and hope resources appear that will allow integration of that content into the uc ceismic archive in years to come; identify organizations and teams with significant local datasets of content that might be able to be made available via uc ceismic if progress can be made with the relevant companies; hope that the companies themselves are developing long-‐term archiving solutions, as is the case with twitter and the library of congress; and make every effort to contact the relevant social media companies to request partnering arrangements. taming these data ‘decahoses’, and integrating them into a federated archive to facilitate research, analysis and public memory, is a difficult task. cornelius puschmann and jean burgess are correct to note that, despite what many people might think, the “owners” of social media data are the platform providers, not the users. “[w]hile the data in social media platforms is sought after by companies, governments and scientists, the users who produce it have the least degree of control over “their” data”. while this might not cause many issues for day-‐to-‐day use, it has significant implications for cultural heritage and research purposes because it makes it impossible for social media users to effectively gift their content to an archive. when people do make an attempt it soon becomes clear that the only option is to manually download and re-‐describe images, videos, comments and suchlike, with an attendant loss of essential context. although the services are fundamentally useful in post-‐disaster contexts, the “rhetoric of democratization” that drives them often falls flat when it comes to preserving their content for posterity and research because the services are oriented towards “findability rather than preservation”. this issue is of particular concern if one accepts scott lash’s contention that our lives have come to be not only mediated by information and technology, but also constituted by them. if this is the case archiving the digital outputs that resulted from the earthquakes takes on a significant moral imperative. despite succeeding in developing a flexible national system capable of archiving a significant snapshot of the digital content associated with the canterbury earthquakes, a vast amount of social media content is currently not accounted for. it sits in trust with commercial entities whose business drivers are by no means certain to ensure it will be preserved for the long-‐term. the problem isn’t solely related to the commercial nature of many web services, of course. rather, it is part of the broader problem of digital preservation. instant messages (ims), emails, internet relay chats (irc) and other detritus of the so-‐called “deep web” are also likely to be available to uc ceismic for archiving, but archiving it, displaying it to users, and making it findable poses a different set of problems again. novel approaches are required to allow archives to store and describe a wide variety of digital formats, that – in the context of the canterbury earthquakes – appears to include d panoramas, flash, vrml and qtvr objects, cad files, gis mapping data, and lidar imagery. as with social media, “[t]he potential of virtual heritage has been hindered as much by people as by diverse technologies, poor provenance, and changing systems.” . conclusion although outlier content such as social media and less ubiquitous file types have yet to be archived, the uc ceismic system holds great promise as a model for post-‐disaster digital archiving. the combination of national federated archive and a bespoke archive designed for the ingestion of research-‐oriented content has proved to be a powerful combination, and cemented a broad community of content providers reaching from local community sites to the largest national archives. the success of the broader programme has resulted directly from its insistence on the use of open source tools and the implementation of open access policies. funding this phase of the uc ceismic project was supported by funding from the university of canterbury, sysdoc, the canterbury community trust, the christchurch press, the (london) christchurch earthquake appeal, internetnz, and the malaysian chamber of commerce. references http:// digitalarchive.org/. 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(january , ): . daniel p. aldrich. building resilience : social capital in post-‐disaster recovery. chicago, il: university of chicago press, . aldrich defines resilience as ( ) “a neighborhood’s capacity to weather crises such as disasters and engage in effective and efficient recovery through coordinated efforts and cooperative activities”. patrick meier. “how to create resilience through big data.” irevolution, january , . anthony oliver-‐smith, 'the centrality of culture in post-‐disaster reconstruction'. goldewijk, berma klein, georg frerks, and els van der plas, eds. cultural emergency in conflict and disaster. rotterdam: nai publishers, : . iwana chronis, louk de la rive box, eleonore de merode, 'cultural emergency response: at the crossroads of heritage and humanitarianism'. goldewijk, berma klein, georg frerks, and els van der plas, eds. cultural emergency in conflict and disaster. rotterdam: nai publishers, : . see also coppola: – . sheila a. brennan, and t. mills kelly. “why collecting history online is web . .” roy rosenzweig center for history and new media. nd. accessed january , . ‘ceismic’ initially stood for ‘canterbury earthquakes images, stories and media integrated collection’, but the full title was soon dropped in favour of the more easily digestible ‘uc ceismic canterbury earthquakes digital archive’. michael forstrom, nancy kuhl, susan thomas, jeremy leighton john, megan barnard, gabriela redwine, kate donovan, erika farr, will hansen, and seth shaw. born digital: guidance for donors, dealers, and archival repositories. media commons press, . ingrid mason, 'cultural information standards -‐ political territory and rich rewards', ed. fiona cameron, sarah kenderdine. theorizing digital cultural heritage: a critical discourse. media in transition. cambridge, mass: mit press, : . http://quakestories.govt.nz. quakestories, along with the christchurch city libraries kete archive (http://ketechristchurch.peoplesnetworknz.info/canterbury_earthquakes_ _ ), was one of the first post-‐quake archiving initiatives. gillian oliver, brenda chawner, and hai ping liu. “implementing digital archives: issues of trust.” archival science , no. – (november , ): . barwick, linda. “turning it all upside down . . . imagining a distributed digital audiovisual archive.” literary and linguistic computing , no. (september , ): . uc ceismic programme board. memorandum of understanding. christchurch, september : . at the time of writing it seems likely that digitalnz will open source their metadata aggregation toolset, making it possible for the entire uc ceismic system to be replicated. http://www.digitalnz.org/about. accessed february . http://natlib.govt.nz/. http://www.digitalnz.org/records?text=% ceismic% . http://www.nvinteractive.co.nz/news/nv-‐announced-‐as-‐winner-‐in-‐microsofts-‐ humanising-‐data-‐competition. accessed february . susanna m. hoffman. 'the worst of times, the best of times: toward a model of cultural response to disaster'. the angry earth: disaster in anthropological perspective. new york: routledge, : . fedora_rest by don gourley (https://github.com/dongourley/fedora_rest). the intention is to open source the modifications when time and resource allows. consideration was given to using open source centos servers, but as the university uses rhel it was felt sensible to stay with the supported product. because of the close relationship between rhel and centos the feeling is that the current application stack could be open sourced using centos relatively easily. http://www.bluefern.canterbury.ac.nz/. at the time of writing blue fern® features ibm blue gene/l, and ibm blue gene/p and an ibm power cluster. http://www.nesi.org.nz/. http://www.karen.net.nz/. at the time of writing the uc ceismic research committee was chaired by prof. and dean of postgraduate studies lucy johnston, and included representatives from the university of canterbury (including the human ethics committee), massey university, and otago university. mason, 'cultural information standards’: . alonzo c. addison, 'the vanishing virtual: safeguarding heritage’s endangered digital record". kalay, yehuda. new heritage new media and cultural heritage. hoboken: taylor & francis, : . http://www.foaf-‐project.org/. fedora commons. the fedora digital object model. http://fedora-‐ commons.org/documentation/ . b /userdocs/digitalobjects/objectmodel.html. jason darwin, ‘quakestudies repository: api documentation’. this assumption is backed up by research. see hoffman, 'the worst of times, the best of times’: . barbara kirshenblatt-‐gimblett. “intangible heritage as metacultural production.” museum international , no. / (may ): . neil silberman and margaret purser, 'collective memory as affirmation: people-‐centered cultural heritage in a digital age'. heritage and social media: understanding heritage in a participatory culture. st ed. new york, ny: routledge, : . ibid. https://www.facebook.com/studentvolunteerarmy. patrick meier. “social media: pulse of the planet?” blog. irevolution, february , . cornelius puschmann and jean burgess. “the politics of twitter data (january , ). hiig discussion paper series no. -‐ . beer, david. “power through the algorithm? participatory web cultures and the technological unconscious.” new media & society , no. (september , ): . sheenagh pietrobruno. “youtube and the social archiving of intangible heritage.” new media & society (january , ): . cited in david beer. “power through the algorithm? participatory web cultures and the technological unconscious.” new media & society , no. (september , ): . michael k. bergman, “white paper: the deep web: surfacing hidden value.” the journal of electronic publishing , no. (august ). alonzo c. addison, 'the vanishing virtual: safeguarding heritage’s endangered digital record". kalay, yehuda. new heritage new media and cultural heritage. hoboken: taylor & francis, : . raemy_schneider_vkks _quidproquo_assigningpid_art_design . . raemy & schneider . . assigning persistent identifiers to art and design entities julien a. raemy & rené schneider fourth swiss congress for art history, vkks, mendrisio quid pro quo: linked data in art history research . . raemy & schneider . introduction to persistent identifiers (pids) . cool uris and pids . the rationale and main results of the icopad project . icopad possible follow-up project: incipit agenda . introduction to pids . . raemy & schneider persistent identifiers (pid) a persistent identifier is a long-lasting and biunique reference to a digital resource. it usually has two parts: . a unique identifier (to ensure the provenance of a digital resource) . a location for the resource over time (to ensure that the identifier resolves to the correct location) https://www.slideshare.net/australiannationaldataservice/fsci-persistent-identifiers https://www.slideshare.net/australiannationaldataservice/fsci-persistent-identifiers . . raemy & schneider in order to… https://www.interserver.net/tips/kb/ -error-fix/ - create long lasting (not permanent) access - avoid error messages https://www.interserver.net/tips/kb/ -error-fix/ . . raemy & schneider pids are essential and indispensable to create fair data. f principle: (meta)data are assigned a globally unique and eternally persistent identifier fairness http://www.dit.ie/dsrh/data/fairdata/ http://www.dit.ie/dsrh/data/fairdata/ . . raemy & schneider § publications § data § persons § organisations § citations and more: (antibodies, fictious characters, places, plants, e-books, …) pid ≠ pid . . raemy & schneider « persistence is not dependant on the identifier itself, but on legal, organisational and technical infrastructure ». (hakala ) persistence . . raemy & schneiderhttp://andrew.treloar.net/research/diagrams/recording-to-archiving-architecture.jpg http://andrew.treloar.net/research/diagrams/recording-to-archiving-architecture.jpg . cool uris and pids . . raemy & schneider § cool uris don’t change: https://www.w .org/provider/style/uri (tim berners-lee, ) § cool uris for the semantic web: https://www.w .org/tr/cooluris/ (w c interest group note, ) cool uris https://www.w .org/provider/style/uri https://www.w .org/tr/cooluris/ . . raemy & schneider pids and cool uris (bazzanella, bortoli, bouquet ) feature pids cool uris resolver yes no authority yes no naming authorities yes no level of trust high low policies yes no persistence yes no actionability of ids partially yes uniqueness yes no content change no yes content negotiation no yes cross linkage no yes effort for implementation high low costs for users potentially high low sustainability issues many few identified entities mainly digital objects everything bridge metadata no yes . . raemy & schneider motivation § sari § icopad pid lod – cool uris . . raemy & schneider pids and lod at the bnf . . raemy & schneiderhttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/ /btv b w/f .item https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/ /btv b w/f .item . the rationale and main results of the icopad project . . raemy & schneider § identités de confiance pour les données de l’art et du design (icopad) – june to december o haute école de gestion de genève (heg-ge) – instigator and project manager o zentralbibliothek zürich (zb) / zurich central library o zürcher hochschule der künste (zhdk) / zurich university of the arts o schweizerisches institut für kunstwissenschaft (sik-isea) / swiss institute for art research o goal: feasibility of a suitable pid model (prototype) o requirements and workflow – link between research data and linked data based on pids o dedicated to the disciplines of art, design, and digital humanities to derive conjectures o transferability of the model to other disciplines icopad project https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/index_fr.asp https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/index_fr.asp . . raemy & schneider swiss pid landscape ark . . raemy & schneider icopad use cases from our project partners institution data set types/entities needs sik-isea artists artworks dictionary entries diverse pids and links to normed data. zb digital surrogates fine level of granularity. zhdk artists artworks events films glossary entries projects research data further development of applications such as emuseum and medienarchiv. . . raemy & schneider approaches doi + 𝐶(𝑑𝑜𝑖) = 𝑥 doi + 𝐶(𝑑𝑜𝑖) = 𝑎 𝐶(𝑑𝑜𝑖) = 𝑥+,𝑥-, …,𝑥/doi + n doi + + ld 𝐶(𝑑𝑜𝑖) = 𝑎 → 𝑜𝑤𝑙:𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒𝐴𝑠 𝑥+,𝑥-, …,𝑥/ 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑘 (𝐴𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐾𝑒𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑎 𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦) . . raemy & schneider § ark identifiers are free § arks are built using a completely different theoretical model, consisting of a decentral and domain (i.e. dns) agnostic approach § arks allow to use with ease lod on top of them § arks can effortlessly be combined with other specifications such as the international image interoperability framework (iiif) canonical uri syntax archival resource key (ark) . . raemy & schneider solution approaches ark s ervic e to crea te pid service request swiss pid hub ark r eque st dasch uni bas ark cdl exis ting ark s ervic e multitude of pids ark service to create own pid attribution service if not doi @ eth ¦ fors and if not data archived @ dasch . . raemy & schneider o pids are a key element in the research data management process and should be assigned to any entities as soon as possible o trusted identity, fair data o pid for the semantic web is possible o bnf platforms o a large variety of pids à dois are not sufficient o most interesting complement: arks (lod, free, decentral, granularity, etc.) o need for an infrastructure/service in switzerland o national hub that can mint arks conclusion . icopad possible follow-up project: incipit . . raemy & schneider §infrastructure nationale d’un complément pour les identifiants pérennes, interopérables et traçables (incipit) §project submission (august ) § phases . attribution service (by the end of ) – arodes . fusion of arodes and sonar ( ) . creation of a hub ( ) partners welcome (see you at bits and bites)! incipit . . raemy & schneider julien a. raemy research and teaching assistant in information science julien.raemy@hesge.ch rene.schneider@hesge.ch rené schneider full professor of information science mailto:julien.raemy@hesge.ch mailto:rene.schneider@hesge.ch . . raemy & schneider bibliography • bazzanella, barbara, bortoli, stefano and bouquet, paolo, . can persistent identifiers be cool? international journal of digital curation. june . vol. , no. , p. – . doi . /ijdc.v i . . • bermÈs, emmanuelle, . des identifiants pérennes pour les ressources numériques : l’expérience de la bnf [online]. paris, france: bibliothèque nationale de france. [accessed may ]. available from: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.bnf.fr/documents/ark_presentation_bermes_ .pdf • espasandin, kate, jaquet, aurélie, lefort, lise and schneider, rené (dir ), . trmasid : panorama et modélisation d’identifiants pérennes pour la création d’identités de confiance [online]. genève, suisse: haute école de gestion de genève. [accessed may ]. available from: https://doc.rero.ch/record/ • eu. directorate-general for research and innovation, . ki- - - -en-n: turning fair into reality. final report and action plan on fair data [online]. brussels, belgium. [accessed may ]. available from: https://doi.org/ . / • hilse, hans-werner and kothe, jochen, . implementing persistent identifiers: overview of concepts, guidelines and recommendations. london: cerl. isbn - - - - . • la tribune des archivistes, . choisir des url persistantes pour la mise en ligne de sa base de données : ark pas à pas... la tribune des archivistes [online]. october . [accessed may ]. available from: http://latribunedesarchives.blogspot.com/ / /choisir-des-url-persistantes-pour-la.html • meadows, alice, . pidapalooza – the open festival for persistent identifiers. insights. november . vol. , no. , p. – . doi . /uksg. . • nicholas, nick, ward, nigel and blinco, kerry, . a policy checklist for enabling persistence of identifiers. d-lib magazine [online]. january . vol. , no. / . [accessed may ]. doi . /january -nicholas. available from: http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january /nicholas/ nicholas.html • peyrard, sébastien, kunze, john a. and tramoni, jean-philippe, . the ark identifier scheme: lessons learnt at the bnf and questions yet unanswered. international conference on dublin core and metadata applications. october . p. – . • pronguÉ, nicolas and raemy, julien a., . revue de la littérature : identifiants pérennes (pid), linked data, données de la recherche [online]. carouge, suisse: haute école de gestion de genève. [accessed may ]. available from: https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/doc/prongue_raemy_revue_litterature_ .pdf • raemy, julien a., . identifiants pérennes (pid) : processus d’obtention, mapping et approches d’attribution, modélisation, glossaire [online]. carouge, suisse: haute école de gestion de genève. [accessed may ]. available from: https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/doc/raemy_pid_processus_approches_modelisation_ .pdf • schneider, rené and raemy, julien a., a. résultats du projet icopad. id bilingue [online]. february . [accessed may ]. available from: https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/results_fr.html • schneider, rené and raemy, julien a., b. towards trusted identities for swiss researchers and their data. th international digital curation conference (idcc) [online]. melbourne, australia. february . [accessed may ]. available from: https://doi.org/ . /zenodo. • van de sompel, herbert, klein, martin and jones, shawn m., . persistent uris must be used to be persistent. arxiv: . [cs] [online]. february . [accessed may ]. available from: http://arxiv.org/abs/ . https://doi.org/ . /ijdc.v i . https://web.archive.org/web/ /http:/www.bnf.fr/documents/ark_presentation_bermes_ .pdf https://doc.rero.ch/record/ https://doi.org/ . / http://latribunedesarchives.blogspot.com/ / /choisir-des-url-persistantes-pour-la.html https://doi.org/ . /uksg. https://doi.org/ . /january -nicholas http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january /nicholas/ nicholas.html https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/doc/prongue_raemy_revue_litterature_ .pdf https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/doc/raemy_pid_processus_approches_modelisation_ .pdf https://campus.hesge.ch/id_bilingue/projekte/icopad/results_fr.html https://doi.org/ . /zenodo. http://arxiv.org/abs/ . / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / (http://dh .adho.org) dh home (http://www.dh .adho.org) / abstracts (/abstracts/) / (/abstracts/ ) show info how to cite xml version (/static/data/ .xml) title: boundary land: diversity as a defining feature of the digital humanities authors: daniel paul o'donnell, barbara bordalejo, padmini murray ray, gimena del rio, elena gonzález- blanco category: paper:panel / multiple paper session keywords: diversity, interdisciplinarity, boundary objects o'donnell, d., bordalejo, b., murray ray, p., del rio, g., gonzález-blanco, e. ( ). boundary land: diversity as a defining feature of the digital humanities. in digital humanities : conference abstracts. jagiellonian university & pedagogical university, kraków, pp. - . boundary land: diversity as a defining feature of the digital humanities it is normally the case that the objects of scientific inquiry inhabit multiple social worlds, since all science requires intersectional work... the management of this diversity cannot be achieved via a simple pluralism or a laissez-faire solution. the fact that the objects originate in , and continue to inhabit, different worlds reflects the fundamental tension of science: how can findings which incorporate radically different meanings become coherent? (star and griesemer, : ) in the sociology of science, objects of scientific enquiry that are common to multiple disciplines or communities are known as “boundary objects” (star and griesemer, ). as borgman argues, “these are objects that can facilitate communication, but that also highlight differences between groups” (borgman, : ). they have “different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation” (star and griesemer, ). handled poorly, they promote "boundary work" - the effort to institutionalize difference between fields (gieryn, ; lamont and molnár, : ); handled well, they are “important interfaces enabling communication across communities” (lamont and molnár, : ). the theme of this session is the digital humanities as a “boundary land” - i.e. a locus in which such objects are common. as o'donnell argues in his paper, this aspect is one of the defining features of contemporary digital humanities and an important cause of its recent rapid growth. as the field grows, dh workshops, panels, and journals see increasing work by practitioners trained in more and more traditionally distinct disciplinary traditions: textual scholars, literary critics, historians, new media specialists, as well as theologians, computer scientists, archaeologists, cultural heritage specialists... and geographers, physicists, biologists, and medical professionals. http://dh .adho.org/ http://www.dh .adho.org/ http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ http://dh .adho.org/static/data/ .xml / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / it is the contention of the speakers of this panel that interpersonal diversity (i.e. diversity along lines such as gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, language, economic region, etc.) is as an important element of this aspect of dh. the digital humanities is not only a place where different disciplines work together (and at times at odds to each other): it is also a place where different people work together and at odds in developing our field. in other words, diversity initiatives in the digital humanities are important not only because they let more people into our field, they are important because they change the nature of our field as its practice widens. the papers in this session each approach the issue from a different perspective. in the first paper, o’donnell looks at the theoretical background to this understanding of diversity as a component of dh as a boundary discipline, grounding his approach in early work on interdisciplinarity and boundary work. in the second paper, murray ray and bordalejo discuss the ways in which efforts to promote diversity within dh can paradoxically undermine its theoretical importance to the field, before turning to different examples of diversity's intellectual importance. in the third paper, del rio and gonzález-blanco examine the institutional and social pressures that promote and hinder dialogue among researchers in developing and developed countries and across linguistic and other boundaries before proposing new approaches in digital humanities that go beyond lingüistic diversity focusing on theories such as sociology of culture and education and other reformulations. . all along the watchtower: an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the importance technical, disciplinary, and interpersonal diversity within the digital humanities daniel paul o'donnell (university of lethbridge) . . the increasing paradisciplinarity of digital humanities perhaps the defining feature of the digital humanities as a discipline is its growth (terras, ). despite some pushback and counter pushback about the precise valence of the field as a discipline (for some more famous recent examples of this growing genre, see koh, ; fish, ; marche, ; chun, ; grusin, ; jagoda, ; a selection of responses to these specific pieces include, among many others, risam, ; gil, ; liberman, ; o'donnell, ; pannapacker, ), digitally inflected work on humanities problems and material continues to grow. as its popularity has grown—and, more importantly, as the potential of networked computation as applied to cultural material and questions has become more broadly apparent - it has begun to incorporate practitioners trained in more and more traditionally distinct disciplinary traditions: textual scholars, literary critics, historians, new media specialists, as well as theologians, computer scientists, archaeologists, cultural heritage specialists... and geographers, physicists, biologists, and medical professionals (see deegan and mccarty for a detailed discussion of cross disciplinary collaboration in dh). this growth is interesting for a variety of reasons: as a demonstration of the continuing relevance of the humanities (davidson, ), as a route to new approaches to traditional disciplines (e.g. ramsay, ; moretti, ), and as a method of improving our ability to answer old questions (e.g. terras, ). it also has been interesting for the way it fed back into computer science and other non-humanities domains, for example, through the development of xml and unicode (o’donnell ). above all, however, this growth is interesting because it reflects the increasingly paradisciplinary nature of the domain and its methods. "humanities computing”, the designation most commonly used before blackwell’s marketing team proposed “digital humanities” as an alternative in (kirschenbaum, ), was far more traditional in approach: beginning with the original work of roberto busa in the s, computation in this older form was used to work with relatively traditional objects and questions within relatively traditional humanities domains. as a glance at the tables of contents of journals from this period demonstrates, literary scholars and historians tended to use their computation to do literary and historical work: build concordances and indices, develop statistics, and, later, capture text; gallery, archive, library, and museum (glam) professionals, for their part, computed metadata and built catalogues; corpus linguists built corpora; and so on. dh, on the other hand, especially in the course of the last decade, has been marked—perhaps defined (o'donnell, ) - by its inter - and cross - disciplinarity: geographers study british romantic poets' fascination with the lake district (cooper et / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / al., ); museum curators decipher mathematical texts (netz and noel, ); literary scholars edit maps, compile archives of things, or analyse cultural heritage installations (foys, ; nelson, ; o'donnell et al., ; hobma, ). . . boundary objects and border lines in the sociology of science in the sociology of science, such cross-disciplinary outputs are known as “boundary objects” (star and griesemer, ). as borgman argues, “these are objects that can facilitate communication, but that also highlight differences between groups” (borgman, : ). they have “different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation” (star and griesemer, : ). handled poorly, they promote “boundary work”—the effort to institutionalize difference between fields (gieryn, ; lamont and molnár, : ); handled well, they are “important interfaces enabling communication across communities” (lamont and molnár, : ). . . the digital humanities as boundaryland as the digital humanities has matured technologically, the question of these boundary objects has become an increasingly important, if largely unrecognised, issue among practitioners, users, and critics of dh (borgman, , chap. ). as the example of fish and liberman (a literary scholar and a computational linguist discussing “distance reading” and “algorithmic criticism”) suggests, unacknowledged disciplinary differences about how such objects are understood can result in users talking past each other (see the debate between fish ; liberman ). and indeed a surprisingly large number of other debates in the field can be understood as involving such boundary constructs: complaints that the digital humanities are “undertheorised”, for example; the “hack vs. yack” debate (i.e. about the relative importance of programming vs. cultural aspects of dh; see nowviskie, ) or even “centre and the periphery” (about the definition of dh through western—or sometimes simply anglo-american—norms; see galina, ; fiormonte, ). the rest of this paper looks at the place of globalisation and diversity in light of this understanding of dh as a "boundaryland" - a place in which shared research objects or goals take on different meanings depending on the background of the participant. as the paper will show, interpersonal diversity is in this regard as important to the growth of our field as disciplinary diversity. research objects, questions, and more importantly, solutions, look very different when lack of funds or inadequate technology prevents the proper preservation of your cultural patrimony and makes participation in collaborations next-to-impossible (see babalola, ). drawing on the author’s experience in establishing and overseeing the first few years of the special interest group, global outlook::digital humanities, this paper demonstrates the extent to which this openness to difference is in fact an essential feature of both interdisciplinarity and the future growth and development of the digital humanities as a discipline that transcends the domains it increasingly incorporates. . . conclusion although the concept of the “boundary object” is now most commonly discussed in terms of disciplinary difference, the original work on the concept involved the boundary between “science and nonscience” or the management of differences in the way in which professional and amateur ornithologists understood the collection of specimens for a museum (gieryn, ). by failing to understand the extent to divisions within the boundaries that coincide with broader cultural, historical, economic, or regional differences amplify existing impediments to the incorporation of the full diversity of our community’s experience (fiormonte, ; galina, ; wernimont, ). as star and griesemer note: / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / when participants in the intersecting worlds create representations together, their different commitments and perceptions are resolved into representations —in the sense that a fuzzy image is resolved by a microscope. this resolution does not mean consensus. rather, representations, or inscriptions, contain at every stage the traces of multiple viewpoints, translations and incomplete battles... by reaching agreements about methods, different participating worlds establish protocols which go beyond mean trading across unjoined world boundaries. they begin to devise a common coin which makes possible new kinds of joint endeavour ( , ). . if you think you know the answer, you don’t understand the question bárbara bordalejo and padmini ray murray digital humanities appears to be an open and welcoming field. indeed, conversations about diversity have been increasingly visible in the digital humanities community. it has been said that the discipline boasts “...a culture that values collaboration, openness, nonhierarchical relations, and agility” and so “might be an instrument for real resistance or reform (kirschembaum, ). notably, this statement by kirschembaum is also supported by burdick et al., who state that “...however heterogeneous, the digital humanities is unified by its emphasis on making, connecting, interpreting, and collaborating” ( ). these emphases on unity are necessary and vital to ensure that the ideal of a “global” dh establishes itself as a reality in the future. but the widespread belief that these values are at the core of digital humanities as a discipline, and that just by virtue of such values it is open and welcoming to all, may prevent us from seeing that the discipline can also fail to meet these standards. and when we discuss the importance of diversity, we need to understand what it is we are talking about: do we mean simply the inclusion of an ever broader collection of participants? or do we mean that diversity is in some way a crucial intellectual aspect of what we do? the emphasis on representation and inclusivity has been a main focus of what we might describe as the initial stages in the opening of the digital humanities. from the early emphasis on gender balance in the selection of keynote speakers at the alc/allc conference through the early years of dh, to the more recent work of formal committees within adho, such as the special interest group global outlook :: digital humanities (go::dh) and the the multilingual/multicultural committee, the focus of work thus far has been primarily on discovering and understanding the obstacles that prevent full access to our community and developing strategies to address those obstacles. there are two dangers to this approach, how ever well meaning and necessary it is. the first is, of course, that “diversity” is a boundary-less category. by concentrating on one category, or even a few categories, we, almost inevitably end up ignoring others. we focus on gender, but ignore race; or emphasise language, but ignore social class, professional status, or economic/regional disparity. thus, when the editorial board of (http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/digital-humanities#editorial-board) frontiers in digital humanities was announced, it became instantly notorious because all the editors were male. what was less debated was the fact that they were, with one exception, white. or that they all came from the usually dominant (primarily high income) countries. likewise, when scott weingart started to write about the acceptance rate of women as first author of papers to the dh conference, it had to do (at least in part) with the relative ease of identifying female and male authors. in reality, as the example of frontiers shows, it can be much more difficult to assess other layers of diversity which are not apparent and, therefore, cannot be easily quantified. even if we imagine that it might be relatively simple to identify native speakers of english, we would remain ignorant of people whose day to day work is http://journal.frontiersin.org/journal/digital-humanities#editorial-board / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / carried out in a different language from their native one. moreover, degrees of bilingualism vary greatly from country to country and culture to culture in such way that for scholars who have english as their second language, their proficiency and ease within it, might be significantly different. the second danger to this approach is that it trivialises the importance of the category it intends to support. if diversity involves no more than simply ensuring that a wider range of people are present at the table, then questions about the relationship of diversity to quality become, if not entirely reasonable, at least not completely beyond understanding. perhaps it is possible to become too welcoming--or at the very least to believe that we are somehow watering down the quality of our work by allowing too many participants in simply because they belong to the right demographic. this paper is about both aspects of the place of diversity within the digital humanities. in the first section, padmini ray murray examines how non-western cultural concepts and intellectual categories might redefine the digital humanities in terms of methodological frameworks. it is particularly significant that the concept and understanding of what dh is varies in accordance to the cultural context in which it is presented. in other words: although there might be a significant conceptual overlap, one researcher’s digital humanities is rarely equal to the one of another. ray murray's investigations look at how infrastructural and structural ramifications of working in languages other than english; how notions of the archive can be culturally fluid and how critical making as an intervention is altered by local conditions of production and economics in order to demonstrate that the digital humanities must necessarily be informed by these factors in order to be truly diverse. in the second section, bárbara bordalejo looks at intersectionality and the digital humanities. she investigates the combination of factors that might hinder the ability of individual researchers to make themselves more widely known within the dh community. as she shows, background, race, culture, gender, language and ability are all factors whose impact we are just beginning to understand. as she argues, however, this diversity does not need to be a problem. on the contrary, it could be (and it should be) taken advantage of in such way that it challenges and enhances both our research and our community. a final goal of both parts of this paper is to test the words of domenico fiormonte (http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/ -may/ .html) about the importance of social capital in the digital humanities: “...it's not enough to have good ideas, work in the northern [h]emisphere and write them in english: you need good sponsors and authoritative venues.“ although it is true that this is part of the problem, nothing should prevent current structures to become part of the solution. opening authoritative venues can only bring enrichment and new understanding to the dh community. . spanish digital humanities: the construction of a scientific field gimena del rio riande (conicet) and elena gonzález-blanco garcía (linhd, uned) as pierre bourdieu ( , ) clearly stated forty years ago: “the scientific field is the locus of a competitive struggle, in which the specific issue at stake is the monopoly of scientific authority, defined inseparably as technical capacity and social power.” universities are strategic spaces for the construction of scientific competences and practices in terms of doxa and habitus (bourdieu, ). the agents that are part of these academic spaces acquire there a socially recognised capacity to speak and act in an authorized and authoritative way in scientific matters. this way, these agents can define and legitimate the definitions they propose for their subjects of study. university education is also a vital experience of utmost importance: university socialization can lead to a deep identity redefinition, with the incorporation of new ways of thinking, communicating and acting. consequently, altogether with the recognized capacity to legitimate, universities provide the social framework to interpret academic disciplines and communicate specific shared knowledge. (bernstein, : ), makes it clear when he highlights the distribution of power and principles of control that produce different communication principles unevenly distributed. in his theory, different contexts produce different codes that act selectively on the meanings and realizations. undoubtedly, digital humanities are nowadays part of the north american and european scientific field. a big offer of postgraduate courses, summer schools, digital humanities centers and labs, and scientific journals and websites legitimate the field and its discourse. in this sense, defining digital humanities. a reader ( ), edited http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/globaloutlookdh-l/ -may/ .html / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / by melissa terras, julianne nyhan and edward vanhoutte, can be seen as a text that comes to serve as the last legitimated definition for digital humanities. the volume appeared almost ten years after a companion to digital humanities ( ), edited by susan schreibman, ray siemens and john unsworth, and aims to collect the authoritative voices in the field. the book focuses just on voices that have defined the digital humanities making use of english as lingua franca and it only considers as authoritative voices a very homogenic group that legitimates the field from universities with a shared anglo-american perspective and a set of common discourses and practices. this landscape is very different for the spanish speaking community. on the one side, european spanish universities have defined digital humanities paying little or no attention to latin america (gonzález-blanco, ; spence and gonzález-blanco, ; rojas castro, ); on the other side, very few definitions have been provided in this side of the world (galina, ; rio riande, a, b) or there is a preference for working on a non-defined scientific field that could lead to more open and less philological humanities, more interested in the social sciences or digital media (piscitelli ). although there may be many external social, cultural and economic issues that divide the spanish-speaking digital humanities field, this work means to unveal the symbolic violence (bourdieu, ) behind these facts and focus on the characteristics of the institutional spaces in which legitimated discourses and socialization occur as a set of historical and social conditions that explain their particular constitution and nature in spain and some countries that have started regarding digital humanities as a possible (non actual) academic discipline. knowledge and practices as expressed in the university curricula, but also the set of norms, values and social representations that make each space, can not be fully understood without taking into account the very specific historical, intellectual and institutional factors that have operated and operate in its constitution and legitimate in different ways their discourses. regarding the aforementioned, some questions arise: are there possibilities of dialogue in digital humanities between developed countries and others with unequal access to technology despite using the same language? who are the agents that can be part of this dialogue? how do they become part of the scientific field? how much of that symbolic violence comes across in this dialogue? how do social, cultural and historical factors shape the knowledge built at university? the work aims to outline some possible answers to these questions at the time it claims for new approaches in digital humanities that go beyond lingüistic diversity focusing on theories such as sociology of culture and education and other reformulations. bibliography . babalola, t. 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( c). acceptances to digital humanities (part ) http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= (http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= ) (june th ). . –––––. ( d). acceptances to digital humanities (part ) http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= (http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= ) (june th ). . –––––. ( e). what’s counted counts http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= (http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= ) (july st ). . wernimont, j. ( ). whence feminism? assessing feminist interventions in digital literary archives. digital humanities quarterly ( ). this work has been developed thanks to the starting grant research project: poetry standardization and linked open data: postdata (erc- -stg- ), funded by the european research council (erc) under the european union´s horizon research and innovation programme. http://melissaterras.blogspot.ca/ / /infographic-quanitifying-digital.html http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= publications , , ; doi: . /publications www.mdpi.com/journal/publications article open science in the humanities, or: open humanities? marcel knöchelmann department of information studies, university college london, foster court, gower street, london wc e bt, uk; marcel.knochelmann. @ucl.ac.uk received: october ; accepted: november ; published: november abstract: open science refers to both the practices and norms of more open and transparent communication and research in scientific disciplines and the discourse on these practices and norms. there is no such discourse dedicated to the humanities. though the humanities appear to be less coherent as a cluster of scholarship than the sciences are, they do share unique characteristics which lead to distinct scholarly communication and research practices. a discourse on making these practices more open and transparent needs to take account of these characteristics. the prevalent scientific perspective in the discourse on more open practices does not do so, which confirms that the discourse’s name, open science, indeed excludes the humanities so that talking about open science in the humanities is incoherent. in this paper, i argue that there needs to be a dedicated discourse for more open research and communication practices in the humanities, one that integrates several elements currently fragmented into smaller, unconnected discourses (such as on open access, preprints, or peer review). i discuss three essential elements of open science—preprints, open peer review practices, and liberal open licences—in the realm of the humanities to demonstrate why a dedicated open humanities discourse is required. keywords: open humanities; open science; digital humanities; scholarly communication; peer review . introduction there is a long history of sorting disciplines into clusters, primarily the sciences and humanities [ – ]. these clusters are, at times, extended to a triad with the social sciences in between. contrary to the impression this clustering conjures, though, no exact distinction can be drawn between the sciences and the humanities (or the social sciences in between). not one binary opposition, nor a combination of several ones, can describe the differences that would suffice for a clear-cut separation of disciplines: understanding or explaining, idiographic or nomothetic, qualitative or quantitative, meaning or theory—all fall short of describing but a few temporal or field-specific regularities. any such distinction can at best approximate what unites and separates disciplines so that, in the end, it is a question of purpose or necessity on the basis of which the exercise of unifying or separating disciplines is to be undertaken. one such necessity arises when norms and practices of open and transparent research and communication are to be debated. disciplines share characteristics of research and communication practices that require a discourse on these practices to sort disciplines into clusters so as to sufficiently address the characteristics of these disciplines. there is a specific discourse dedicated to open practices for disciplines of the sciences: open science. this discourse regularly takes for granted to speak for scholarly communication as a whole. however, already its name—open science—indicates that this discourse is not concerned with the humanities but with a cluster of scientific disciplines. there is no such discourse dedicated to the publications , , of humanities. this is the case, although research and communication practices in disciplines commonly clustered into the humanities do share characteristics, that could—and, i argue, need to—be addressed by a coherent discourse as well. the coherence of this discourse builds upon the unifying characteristics of its disciplines. without such unifying grounding, contributions to a potential discourse would only be concerned with elements of some disciplines—in the humanities, for instance: philology, philosophy, history, theology, among others—instead of the humanities as a whole. the result would be a fragmentation into several smaller discourses such as open philology, open philosophy, etc. characteristics on the basis of which disciplines can be sorted into the humanities are, for instance, an emphasis on perspectivity (as opposed to objectivity in the sciences), verbality (as opposed to reliance on models), or historicity (as opposed to systemic integration) of contributions to discourses in these disciplines [ ]. these characteristics are expressive of the research paradigms and epistemologies employed in what is commonly termed the humanities: the importance of hermeneutics, source criticism, and nuanced, contextual meaning [ – ]. these more abstract characteristics lead to distinct practices such as the reliance on long-form publications (primarily the monograph), qualitative arguments, slower, editorially-heavy publishing processes, recursivity of its discourses, critique, and qualitative embedding of references [ – ]. moreover, the humanities live on a culture of debate, with the analysis and dialectic of interpretative understanding at its core [ ]. scholars in the humanities focus on “interpretation and critical evaluation, primarily in terms of the individual response and with an ineliminable element of subjectivity” [ ] (p. ). the resulting discourses are based on the power of arguments so that the “overall cogency of a substantial piece of work seems more closely bound up with the individual voice of its author” [ ] (p. ). dissonance is essential and there is no need for agreement in a discourse for it to be successful in scholarship. scholars may never reach consensus; their arguments of disagreement are essential bits of knowledge production. all this makes critiquing and reinterpreting existing contributions to a discourse—thus, continually and recursively coming back to previous work—an integral part of the humanities. a prerequisite for this is that scholarly communication practices enable such a culture of debate to flourish. a liberal understanding of scholarly practices enabled by free access to contributions, diversity of argument, intention of the author to contribute to discourses—as opposed to the intention to publish for the sake of authorship and reputation—can be supportive of such flourishing (as is discussed for the characteristics of the sciences in open science). there is, however, no discourse concerned with such elements that are dedicated to the here-offered characteristics of the humanities. in other words: though there is no one field of scholarly communication—but at least one for each cluster of scholarship—there is currently only one dedicated discourse on open research and scholarship, and this is open science. . open science, open humanities, and digital humanities . . the meaning of discourse there is a long and strong thread of—mostly scholarly—discourses on topics of openness in all forms: open source, open access, and open science in particular, and the digital means and discourse conventions enabling openness of scholarly communication in general. moreover, discourse is a term with a difficult genealogy. its meaning varies depending on the disciplinary and temporally-situated context. this necessitates differentiating what i imply to with my claim for a dedicated discourse. discourse here refers to a debate that includes various forms of textual or oral communication as contributions to a specific enquiry and body of knowledge. such discourse is both the intellectual construction of the object of enquiry and serves as a reference to the practices it is dedicated to (in discursive form). this notion does not refer to a foucauldian conception of discourse that includes there are variances in these, of course. as mentioned in paragraph one, such unifications are approximations at best and so it needs to be stated that, for philosophy, for instance, the monograph has become less important. publications , , of practices, but comes closer to the early habermasian tradition that posits as discourses a rational exchange of communicative action. the closest the conception of discourse in this article comes to is that offered by hyland [ ]. it is the engagement of experts—or novices who aspire to become experts by contributing to discourses—in communication that is governed by conventions fixed temporally only by the very members of that discourse. contributions to a discourse are accepted and negotiated by those who already partake in the discourse. on the one hand, this is based on peer review or editorial decision making, and, on the other hand, on less standardised forms of communication, for instance, in blogs, at conferences, or on social media. the discourse, therefore, is constituted by the contributions to it which are either accepted formally through selection, or included informally through references to them. crucially, such notion of discourse links the communicative action happening within the discourse to the individuals who contributed to it. they form discourse communities and, as hyland summarises, the ways the members of these communities “understand knowledge, what they take to be true, and how they believe such truths are arrived at, are all instantiated in a community’s discourse conventions” [ ] (p. ). a new discourse is rarely established by an artificial gathering of contributions, but is formed organically by the need of enquiry or the lack of a coherent body of knowledge. hence, proposing a discourse means demanding more enquiry to form a more coherent body of knowledge. contributions to a later-formed discourse may already exist in disparate forms. as i will show in sections . to . , there are few instances where the object in question—open practices in the humanities—is already touched on. these instances are not linked, though, because of the lack of the dedicated discursive realm. similarly, the discourse on open science was not opened as a discursive realm dedicated to open science. its origins are widely spread and contributions to it may stem from a wide array of other discourses that existed before open science was established (see section . for a discussion of open science). it is, thus, not merely the dedication of a new terminology. the term open humanities has been used before, but this does not mean that there is an open humanities discourse. demanding such a discourse does not dismiss existing explorations of open practices in humanities disciplines, but calls for a dedicated communicative realm where such enquiries have space to be taken on in an integrated and focussed manner. moreover, the members of a discourse community may have worked on practical implementations, thus, conversions of knowledge into practices or experimentation to induce practical knowledge. that these practices are concerned with the knowledge in action that may be part of a discourse does not constitute that these practices are themselves components of that discourse. only by means of textual reporting do the experiences of implementing practices or applying knowledge feed back into discourses, especially discourses governed by scholarship such as open science, digital humanities, or a potential open humanities. this distinction is essential to the ensuing discussion in this article. though there are or have been instantiations of practices in a form of open humanities—irrespective of these being called open humanities—these instantiations do not as such contribute to an open humanities discourse; they either form minor contributions to the digital humanities discourse (see section . ), or they contribute to other, disparate discourses which are not linked to each other (as in the case of some of the elements such as preprints or liberal licensing discussed in section ). already the existence of such practices that are linked to each other through their integrated nature in the field requires that the enquiries into these practices, their textual representations, and the knowledge of these practices are linked as well. thus, what a discourse is cannot be defined before its existence, as only the content of those elements of communication that contribute to the discourse determine its boundaries. with this in mind, i do not aim to define what open humanities needs to be in general or in detail, but demand that there is a discursive realm where potential elements have the potential to be linked and debated. these elements will then render the realm and define its boundaries. open practices in the humanities could be an element of either open science or digital humanities discourses. there is no definition or guard preventing the uptake of this direction within the existing discourses. however, as i will demonstrate with the relevant literature in section , and the discussion in section , existing publications , , of contributions to these discourses show that they are conceptionally unqualified (open science), or lack coherence and dedication (digital humanities). . . open science the term open science refers to the historical and contemporary practices and norms of open research and communication in disciplines of the sciences as well as to the discourse on these practices and norms. david [ ] finds historical origins of open science practices in early developments of the then still less formal conduct of natural philosophical enquiry in the late sixteenth century—a time when there was not even a separation of clusters of scholarship into sciences and humanities. vicente-saez and martinez-fuentes [ ] aim to determine an integrated definition for the proclaimed “disruptive phenomenon” that open science is and arrive at: “[o]pen [s]cience is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks”. in addition to having a primarily static definition of open science, they remain diffuse on what knowledge is. madsen simply sees open science as a movement that “seeks to promote openness, integrity and reproducibility in [scientific] research” [ ]. fecher and friesike [ ] have a more wide-ranging approach to defining open science, including processes, infrastructures, measurement, and society outside institutionalised academia. though they state in their introduction that open science is concerned with the “future of knowledge creation and dissemination”, making no distinction here between clusters of disciplines, they only refer to scientists (next to politicians, citizens, or platform providers) when they discuss their open science schools of thought. they either presume that, due to epistemological distinctions, the humanities disciplines are not to be found in the realm of knowledge production, or they locate the humanities disciplines outside of any of their five schools of thought of open science. such scientific perspective is further reinforced by friesike et al. in another study on the emergent field of research on contemporary openness in research [ ]. a different approach to defining open science comes from a review conducted by peters [ ]. after having reviewed the dimension and some historical origins of thought about open science, peters offers conclusive remarks about the nature of thought that underscores open science and the broader philosophy of openness. what he does not do, though, is examine the application of this in specific research, thus, potentially enlightening the eventual differences of the development of an open culture between disciplines of the humanities and the sciences. similar approaches and shortcomings can be found in other articles concerned with open science (see [ ] or [ ]). thus, it can be confirmed that open science is taken to be literal—science-related. open science is a concept for scientific research; the broader terminology encompassing also humanities and social science disciplines may be open scholarship, which, in short, means “opening the process of scholarship”, irrespective of discipline [ ]. thus, by definition, open scholarship includes all scholarship—irrespective of disciplinary specifics. but the above-mentioned characteristics of the humanities necessitate such differentiation. and with the humanities being in the process of opening communication and research practices as well, a dedicated space is required for debating these processes and emerging practices—one that complements open science but does not resolve into the overtly abstract open scholarship. such a dedicated discourse should not be read as a demand to separate sciences and humanities or to reinforce a dichotomous perspective on scholarship, but as a reference to the unifying aspects of disciplines and their practices that allow for such a clustering. moreover, what this overview of the definitions of open science shows is that it has shortcomings in addressing the humanities. open science is not simply reducible to scientific disciplines and it is not my objective to do so; however, it is, as the literature shows, the case that open science does not address the unique characteristics of the humanities both terminologically and conceptually, making an open humanities discourse necessary. publications , , of . . the necessity of a discourse on open humanities arguments for the necessity to establish such a dedicated discourse can be made in manifold ways: the humanities are lacking behind the sciences in the transformation towards openness; the humanities are but a by-product of open science due to the lacking of an own discourse; the fragmentation of discourses about open practices in the humanities requires an integration of these smaller discourses into a single discourse (for instance, the connection of preprints and peer review as discussed in section ); there lies strength in a focussed, single voice of a discourse community such as (a potential) open humanities with which to address issues of policy and funding that are more and more concerned with openness. the most pressing argument, however, comes from within scholarship of the contemporary humanities: the inadequacies of the current practices of scholarly communication require a systemic approach to finding new solutions. dedicating a discursive realm termed open humanities to this quest not necessarily means that openness is to be taken as the only solution to these shortcomings. but without a discourse analogous to that of open science, there is no realm within which the potential of openness as a solution can be determined for the humanities. to mention are among the inadequacies of communication practices in contemporary humanities, for instance, the detrimental ways “peer reviewers criticize one another” [ ]; the “great many unnecessary and inadequate publications” because of wrong incentives and evaluation mechanisms [ ]; the fear of subjectivity that is immanent to judgement of quality alongside the denial of subjectivity in quantitative measurement [ ]; the different funding and financial support structures that are unfit for a quicker uptake of open access in the humanities [ ]; the debate around the “problem of value, transparency, and distributed financing of disciplinary activities” that arises because of the reluctance of learned societies to engage in more open processes [ ]; the poisoned paradigm behind productivity and excellence, because of which scholarly communication is increasingly alienated [ , , , ]. some of these issues are equally applicable to all disciplines, but by means of their discourse on openness, these issues are regularly addressed for the sciences (but not so for the humanities). the latest example for this is the recently published ten hot topics around scholarly publishing by tennant at al. [ ]. tennant et al.’s review article provides a useful guide to current debates in scholarly communication in the sciences; it is framed, however, as a review of scholarly publishing as a whole. this framing would make it necessary to include perspectives on the humanities which it obviously lacks. of the ten hot topics, only three appear to be not focussed on journal articles and only four are not primarily concerned with scientific literature. especially those topics that take on issues of research quality, judgement, and objectivity do not discern the profound differences that are in place between the communication practices of scientific and humanities disciplines. this makes both choice of and approach to the disputed topics a perpetuation of debates rooted in scientifically minded open scholarship practices—in short: open science. what, then, are hot topics in (open) humanities publishing? a point can be made about the higher pressure of openness in scientific disciplines because of more policy work. indeed, open policy is a key element of open science as outlined in some of the conceptual frameworks such as foster open science. this is less so the case in the humanities. the demand for openness in the humanities seems to be rooted in scholarship itself, whereas it is rooted in both scholarship and policies in the sciences. while this may impact the pace of implementing open practices in the humanities, it does not affect the necessity to have a discourse on these practices. . . open access, open humanities, and digital humanities open access is one of the hot topics found in both the sciences and the humanities. but as opposed to issues such as peer review, preprints, or licences, open access in the humanities is well- as the authors state in the article, the choice of topics arose by means of a somewhat democratic process through a discussion on social media. the demos in this process, however, may have been unrepresentative for the humanities resulting in these science-focussed ten topics. publications , , of established as a discourse, or: within the discourse on open access, distinctions are made between the sciences and the humanities [ – ]. though the early uptake of open access took place in non- humanities disciplines, already the early declarations on open access include the humanities, with the berlin declaration explicitly being issued as “berlin declaration on open access to knowledge in the sciences and humanities” [ ] (own emphasis). hence, other than for complementary elements of open science, the humanities developed their own discourse on open access, often focussing on the technicalities of implementing more open forms of publishing. however, whereas open access to scientific literature is embedded in an established discourse on open science, open access to scholarly literature in the humanities often remains in quarantine without a broader discursive framework— such as open humanities—within which it could be embedded. even kleineberg and kaden, who enquire the need of a concept of open humanities, cling to open access as a key issue already in their heading (though they do refer to open research data and open review as well in their article) [ ]. kleineberg and kaden’s contribution shows that, theoretically, there is a discourse on open humanities in place. in practice, however, it seems to be mostly invisible, especially in comparison with open science and digital humanities as well as in reference to the fundamental changes potential open practices in the humanities would mean for scholarship. the reluctance of an uptake of open humanities may be due to the outsourcing of digitality in the humanities that is unseen in scientific disciplines. whereas digital methods are integral to the disciplines of the life, natural, or applied sciences, the humanities developed digital humanities to devise new methods empowered by digitality. in other words, where digitality is part of each scientific discipline, open science is the dedicated realm for debating open practices in the sciences; humanities scholars would refer to digital humanities for digitality in humanities disciplines but lack a discourse as a reference to open practices. the digital humanities appear with a twofold mission: applying digitality to support or help answer questions in traditional humanities disciplines, and exploring what it means to be human in an increasingly digital environment [ ]. the former mission is transdisciplinary in nature, bridging humanities with digital specialist realms. because of this nature, though, it advances only what is already enquired in the humanities but may not lead to new epistemological efforts; or, as gibbs and owens argue, “[d]espite significant investment in digital humanities tool development, most tools have remained a fringe element in humanities scholarship” [ ]. digitality remains an add-on to the humanities, a set of tools and approaches that requires more focus and aspiration for genuine integration into the traditional disciplines [ ]. the latter mission seems philosophical, or even sociological, in nature, touching on questions of digital hermeneutics and ontology. it may well be argued that this is a genuine task for philosophers or sociologists which only appears in the guise of a different discourse, termed digital humanities. overall, this layover discipline may have the potential to gather scholars to form a community that drives a discourse on open humanities—only termed digital instead of open humanities. this is questionable, though. much of the discourses within digital humanities focus on digital practices, applied methods, or projects, instead of on open practices comparable to open science. there are exemptions to this, authors who directly or indirectly analyse or discuss elements considered to be part of open science (or open humanities respectively); examples include borgmann, who discusses “publication practices, data, research methods, collaboration, incentives, and learning” for the “future of digital scholarship in the humanities” [ ] (p. ), thus describing essential prerequisites for open humanities. bianco emphasises the “tremendous opportunities” that digital humanities have “to open up research modes, methods, practices, objects, narratives, locations of expertise, learning and teaching” [ ], but fails to connect this to any of the larger contexts of open science/humanities or open scholarship. borrelli looks at the distinction of digital practices as opposed to digitalised practices [ ], touching on open access and peer review. pritchard looks at an early, concrete version of open see, for instance, key journals: digital humanities quarterly, debates in digital humanities, digital scholarship in the humanities, zfdg - zeitschrift für digitale geisteswissenschaften, digital studies / le champ numérique, or international journal of humanities and arts computing. publications , , of scholarly communication in the humanities from which he deduces more general findings about pre- /post-prints, open access, and a digital, potentially open infrastructure in classical studies [ ]. kuhn and hagenhoff analyse requirements of digital monograph publishing and conclude with a decisively progressive, open potential for an outdated publishing model [ ]. fitzpatrick contributes comprehensive discussions of inadequate scholarly communication practices for which openness is offered as the best way forward [ – ]. cohen discusses digital processes as a possible solution to one of the fundamental problems scholarly communication in the humanities exhibit: the social contract that is actualised by traditional, institutional publishing [ ]. again, this article makes no reference to open humanities (or open science/open scholarship respectively). these contributions are starting points for debates. but their glaring shortcoming is that they are not integrated into a dedicated discourse, and, instead, remain disintegrated and a minor concern next to the many contributions on methods and projects that appear in the digital humanities discourses. integration here means bringing together the different ideas and enquiries to debate their interconnectedness and implementation in practice. combined, the various open practices pose a fundamental change of scholarship in the humanities and to get scholars to engage with the shaping of these practices, there needs to be a single discourse as a reference, one that is centred around open humanities and not mixed up with the various debates on methods presented in the digital humanities. conclusively, thus, the digital humanities have a topical agenda that is only to a lesser degree concerned with what would be an open humanities discourse. in the following section, i will look at some of the elements that such a discourse would be required take on and reconfigure. . discussion of practices of open science and their applicability in the humanities the foster open science taxonomy names a variety of elements from open access and open data to open reproducible research and open science policies, tools, or guidelines as first order elements of open science [ ]. most of these elements further spread to second or third order elements among which range some of the often-debated topics such as open metrics and impact or open peer review. this taxonomy comprises of many terms explicitly connected to the sciences. as apparent by the terminology, these elements are largely indifferent to the humanities: they are intended to advance, or improve, scholarship specifically in scientific disciplines by making it more open. i will discuss three key elements of the open science taxonomy with respect to their meaning and how the distinction of practices requires a different understanding of these terms in the humanities. . . preprints in the humanities a preprint is a manuscript of an article, book, or chapter that is being published in a distinguished online repository before it is formally published in a journal or as a book [ , ]. this quite general definition can be discussed in more detail with respect to its elements: the manuscript is usually one authored for the purpose of being published in a peer reviewed journal or book; publication online in a repository means that the manuscript is published rather informally—i.e., not necessarily formatted according to a publisher’s guidelines—on an online server that functions as a repository for such manuscripts, optionally specifically for a discipline. this online publication is freely accessible with respect to a creative commons licence; the manuscript is likely to be published in a similar, but potentially revised version formally later on. the ostensibly outdated term preprint derives from the idea that the manuscript is available for debate before its formal imprimatur in a journal or book, thus, before it is printed—irrespective of this being done with ink or digitally. this also enlightens about the purpose of using preprints: it accelerates scholarship without compromising authorship and enables early debates [ , ]. the formal publishing process usually takes time, especially because of the standard pre-publication peer review [ ]. during the time of this peer review, potential readers can already evaluate and judge the research as it is publicly available as a preprint. at the same time, the author(s) can take advantage of the preprint because they have an early citable and timestamped manuscript for the time of it being in review for a journal or book. publications , , of these characteristics have a potentially positive impact on scientific scholarship, as tennant et al. [ ], ginsparg [ ], or taubes [ ] suggest. what these authors do not touch on is that this may be different in humanities disciplines, where preprints have as yet a much smaller presence than in scientific disciplines. there are far fewer preprint servers for humanities disciplines than there are for scientific disciplines [ ], which can be explained with the much smaller output of publications in the humanities, their (sometimes) geographically limited importance, and perhaps the reluctance of humanities scholars to engage in progressive, digital publishing procedures in general. kleineberg and kaden [ ] discuss how there is no established culture for preprints in the humanities, though their publication processes are particularly long-termed. laporte [ ] identifies several challenges that arise for humanities scholars to have a more established preprint culture. one of these is that, other than in most discourses in the sciences, those of the humanities are still highly (geographically) regionally rooted and make use of a variety of languages and discursive norms instead of resorting to english as a lingua franca. this goes along with the reach of journals and book publishers who have more individual, language-dependent audiences, which makes it much harder to have a single space for an international discourse. another challenge is posed by the high share of monographs among the overall output as well as popular articles, which further divides the output of the already considerably smaller amount of humanities publications. those obstacles may well be overcome by highly specialised or well indexed preprint servers; but apart from the conception in theory, these characteristics are a reason for the difficulty of finding a critical mass for the uptake of active preprinting in the humanities. geltner, the founder of a preprint server for medieval studies [ ], argues strongly in favour of preprints [ ]. one of his key arguments is to encourage more curation by editors actively reaching out to authors of compelling new works to convince them of publishing with their journals. if this new work would have been uploaded to preprint servers, the whole process of active curation would be strengthened, the argument goes. preprints in the humanities are, for geltner, not about ““accelerating research,” but rather protecting research as a curiosity-driven endeavor [sic]” [ ]. it remains questionable whether such a form of curation is incentive enough for scholars to engage in authorship and preprinting, only then to be targeted by journal acquisition editors with publication advertisements. if such targeting led to publications in more prestigious journals, most authors would be encouraged to take the effort. but it may as well be the rather less prestigious journals that would aim for more targeting—a scenario no discourse or author may wish for (irrespective of the fact that the concept of prestige of journals is highly contested in the first place). moreover, the purpose of preprints is to enable discussion for the time a manuscript is in review, not before it is submitted to a journal for review. another yet undebated point can be made with reference to the nature of discourses particularly in the humanities, and whether scholars in the humanities may be better served with more rapid formal publication, rather than the formal publication remaining the same and instituting preprints as a temporal placeholder: in disciplines of the sciences, especially in those that have a high uptake of preprints such as physics, formal publication is generally conceived to be, literally, the formal last step. at that point in time, the content of the manuscript is generally already known within the discourse community and has gone through debate [ ]—just what preprints aim to facilitate. other scholars had the chance to incorporate and work with the knowledge drawn from the research reported in the preprinted manuscript. the purpose is clear—a sensible procedural step to accelerate scholarship during that time in which the manuscript is in review. the downside is that this step reinforces the impression that both the formality of the publication and its closed review process are required. this impression may be falsely conjured as there may not need to be a closed review process, so that preprints would either not be necessary or the preprint would be the final publication itself (making the practice of preprinting redundant). another characteristic may be even more imperative as an argument against preprinting in the humanities. it is based on the importance of the historicity of publications. this is different in the for a popular example of a preprint as the only—thus final—publication, see [ – ]. publications , , of sciences, where the most recent version of a publication—if approved of by peer review—is essential: the up to date, reliable, and reproducible research reported in the publication counts, not the historicity and versioning of the publication. this is not the case in the humanities which can be illuminated by an example. consider that, by means of peer review, there is a change in the content from preprinted manuscript to final publication, for instance, in the line of argument or references included. this change will have to be reflected in case a future author aims to discuss this publication. this future author may no longer merely write: author a claims that x; she will instead be required to write: author a claims that x and reviewer r adds that xy. if authors in the humanities adopted preprinting, there would always be at least two versions of an article available (provided the article got accepted after revision). this may sound trivial. but for disciplines that emphasise the importance of hermeneutics and source criticism, where editorial history is a key concern, such details require attention. it is, therefore, necessary to debate whether the broader uptake of preprints in the humanities is desirable. counterarguments may be that both the author’s initial intention and the reviewer’s request for change may be reasonable so that preprint and final publication should reflect such process of change. moreover, one may argue that attribution of authorship of any publication is entangled already today; that is, reviewers can as well be seen as co-authors—they help with the creation of the work, rather less than more substantially, only that this is opaque today. preprints will just make visible the difference between manuscript and publication; they will not change that there is a difference. this, however, connects to our understanding of peer review as it is this process, rather than preprints, that makes such co-creation and change opaque today. this directly leads to the next realm that requires attention for open humanities: open peer review. . . open peer review in the humanities peer review refers to the practice where fellow scholars evaluate each other’s works. the resulting evaluation may be used by editors to provide guidance to authors so that they can improve the manuscript, and to make an informed decision about whether or not to publish. the practice’s institutionalisation originates in “debates over grant funding” in the s “and has since been extended to cover a variety of processes by which academics formally evaluate each other’s work” [ ] (p. ). however, the process of peer refereeing is much older. it can be traced back to learned societies and their journals in the eighteenth century. it developed as “distinctive editorial practices of learned societies [which] arose from the desire to create forms of collective editorial responsibility for publications which appeared under institutional auspices” [ ] (p. ). since then, peer review has been developed into an institutionalised practice, and it is a systemic gatekeeper today. especially the systemic nature of this practice, captivated by a paradigm of excellence, led to the acceptance of peer review to be a threshold to quality and authenticity, and to the assumption that by merely organising peer review, publishing companies add value to the published material [ ]. some authors argue that peer review is material for scholarship and its quality, as, for instance, babor et al. do: “[t]he most important criterion for quality and integrity is the peer-review process, as overseen by a qualified journal editor and the journal’s editorial board” [ ] (p. ). gatekeeping is seen as a means of merit and scholarly obligation [ ], one that is supposed to be—but often enough does not achieve to be—a democratic process [ ]. finch argues that peer review performs as part of the effectiveness of high-quality channels within the current communication system, in which researchers have “effective and high-quality channels through which they can publish and disseminate their findings, and that they perform to the best standards by subjecting their published findings to rigorous peer review” [ ] (p. ). such statements seem ignorant of the limitations of peer review in terms of quality. when refereeing is applied as an entry threshold to communication, it is a sorting mechanism, indeed a procedure of selection that filters content into diffusely constructed classes of quality; but it is not a criterion for quality as such. moreover, the effectiveness of a practice can be questioned if that practice, on the one hand, withholds research for a longer period in which it is inaccessible to other scholars while, on the other hand, only a selection of one to three fellow scholars is deemed worthy for the publications , , of judgement about the value of a manuscript in a discourse. it takes, on average, weeks for eventually accepted papers to get through peer review; this period is longer than average in the social sciences and humanities with – weeks [ ]. many journals in the humanities have “single figure acceptance rates” [ ] (p. ), meaning that a bulk of research is excluded from that discourse to which an author wished to contribute it to. because of the hidden process, the reasoning behind both ex- and inclusion is opaque to fellow scholars. it is for these and other reasons that peer review is a contested practice across disciplines. tennant et al. conclude that “debates surrounding the efficacy and implementation of peer review are becoming increasingly heated, and it is now not uncommon to hear claims that it is “broken” or “dysfunctional”“ [ ]. especially for disciplines in the sciences, this practice of gatekeeping and verification judgement is under close scrutiny [ – ]. on the other hand, some authors claim evidence for value in peer review [ ] and double-blind procedures in particular [ ] for disciplines of the sciences. others raise concern and enquire the options for opening this practice, claiming increased accountability and transparency [ ] or proposing entirely new models such as a preprinting-connected collaborative open peer review [ ]. ross-hellauer [ ] discusses a variety of problems with peer review, most of which affect the realms of quality and credibility fundamentally. he accounts inconsistent and “weak levels of agreement” among referees, questions the authority of their role as gatekeeper, and issues the ““black-box” nature of traditional peer review” as a “[l]ack of accountability and risk[...] of subversion”. most of all, the social component of peer reviewing is set against the “idealized as impartial, objective assessors” based on gender, nationality, institutional affiliation, or language. backed with (peer reviewed) studies as evidence, ross-hellauer’s review arrives at a devastating conclusion for this practice. early experiments such as peters and ceci’s [ ] only add to the impression that modern peer review has long established itself as a contested gatekeeping practice instead of a process of collaborative improvement of research. this criticism questions how peer review really achieves to democratise scholarship, or conform to an objective enterprise—two of robert merton’s key principles in the sociology of science [ ]—resulting in an inevitable debate about making this practice more open and transparent. a concerted and concentrated debate is established within open science, and it is likewise necessary for the humanities, where there are differences in the practice. being published in the humanities is much more connected to editorship, where peer reviewers provide the editor with a subjective understanding of the work. decisions of acceptance or rejection are much more connected to interpretation and argument instead of objectified principles. the name of the editor is highly connected to the value of the journal and the discourse it serves. editors are “cultural intermediaries who bridge two worlds, insiders-outsiders with a foot in each camp” [ ] (p. ). it is no news, however, that scholars, especially in the humanities, judge and argue in manifold subjective ways [ ], making it much harder to compare reviews so as to arrive at a desirable compromise in the process of gatekeeping. being published with a publishing brand—may it be a journal or a book series—is, thus, more than a question of abstract, objectified quality. statements of quality are much harder to be made in the humanities than they are in the sciences; it is, here, rather a question of consensus and agreement of reviewers or editors on a particular level of intelligibility. but if agreement is not the objective of humanities discourses, why should inclusion in a discourse be based on agreement? making the peer review process more open by, for instance, publishing the reviews would not necessarily disturb the mechanism of gatekeeping but make the terms of inclusion more transparent. these terms of inclusion may not be the decisive elements, though; the terms of exclusion are. and the culture of debate may require scholars to know about these terms as well. moving the position of review from pre- to post-publication would profoundly change the purpose of reviewing from gatekeeping to improving, reconfiguring the emphasis of this practice away from the journal towards the discourse. fitzpatrick argues in a similar manner, demanding more progress in the practice and discourse on open peer review [ , ]. however, her approach is profoundly shaped by notions of the digital publications , , of and digital humanities. while she indeed writes about the subjectivity and qualitative representation of humanities scholarship, these arguments are not taken up by a larger discourse outside of digital humanities. the discourse on opening peer review should not be left to either the sciences or digital humanities. it needs to be approached from within the humanities, where connections are drawn to other practices such as preprinting and making statements of value and judgement about scholarship. . . liberal copyright licences in the humanities another discussion that stands in line with the elements discussed above concerns the applicability of liberal copyright licences. licences are fundamental for open scholarship as they are guiding principles for the practice of any form of open publishing as well as the policy work that underpins these practices. licences are not just crucial for potential readers, indicating how the published material can be accessed and used without consulting author or publisher. they are also responsible for a progressive understanding of authorship where the author is not required to sign over copyright to the publisher. cc by is the licence most favoured by open access advocates and organisations (see, for instance, the discussion by frosio [ ] (p. ); or [ , ]). the reasoning here is that reducing the limitations issued by the creative commons licence (by means of nc, nd, sa) to by, means limiting the limitation of reuse of the publication simply to attribution of authorship. in other words: “anything less introduces a barrier to the open progress of science” [ ] (§ ). while it is true that cc by as the “most liberal” licence “imposes no limits on the use and reuse of material so long as the original source is acknowledged” [ ]; it is also true that there is a debate whether such liberalism is in favour of discourses in the humanities. a strong position in this matter has mandler who repeatedly voiced his concern about overtly liberal licences—though supporting open access in general [ ]. in an interview he claims that ““reuse” under cc by authorises practices that we call plagiarism in academic life. i know advocates of cc by dislike the use of this word, but it is a good word to describe the practice of copying and altering words without specifying how they are altered” [ ]. this aligns to what morrison discusses, criticising that a “poor translation could have a negative impact on a scholar’s reputation, whether through the quality of the writing or through other scholars misquoting an inaccurate translation” [ ] (p. ). this is essentially a problem of the humanities: not only because the humanities live on a variety of languages, thus, making translations a regular necessity; even more so, it is in the humanities where the nuances of argument and expression matter. both these issues are much less present in disciplines of the sciences. therefore, the claim made by morrison and mandler seems legitimate. in the daily process of discourses, however, i think it is not the licence that is fundamental for this form of misrepresentation. it rather is good or bad scholarly convention, and thus practice, that is responsible. translations are made by other scholars as are discussions and reviews of works cited. the basis of such scholarly practices should be the willingness to not misrepresent a fellow scholar and her argument; if this fails, no amount of altering licences will help maintain scholarly integrity. one may wish to publish only with an nd licence to pre-emptively avoid misrepresentation and still be wrongly represented in discussions and reviews of the published work, or even incorrectly connected to a different argument altogether by means of inattentive referencing. if the integrity of the discourse practices in scholarship are not held high, any pre-emptive steering through licences is futile. if the integrity is in place, however, the steering though licences is not necessary in the first place so that the more liberal licence cc by may as well be suitable for the humanities. the suitability of this practice needs to be integrated into a larger discourse that connects it to other elements of open humanities, especially open access and open data (infrastructures), enabling creative commons attribution only licence. creative commons attribution licence with the added restrictions (possible in combinations): nc— noncommercial; nd—noderivatives; sa—sharealike. publications , , of policy workers to draw on it to make informed decisions. without such integrated discourse, policy workers can draw on only minor, fragmented opinions about this matter, or must resort to open science altogether. . conclusion it seems to be harder for the humanities to speak with a single voice than it is for the sciences. but this must not mean that the humanities need not have a discourse on opening their research and communication practices. the three elements discussed indicate the necessity to have this discourse; the lack of having it in a coherent, focussed manner may harm the progress of scholarship in the humanities in an—arguably inevitable—digital future. unlike the sciences, where the dialectic between the discourse open science and the advancement of more open science practices results in positive progress, issues in question in the humanities are dispersed into often isolated, disintegrated niche discourses. especially the close connection of preprinting and open peer review indicates the need to have an integrated, rather than a fragmented discourse. similar claims for interconnectedness can be made for, for instance, open data and open reproducible research, open evaluation and open metrics and impact, or open access and popular humanities communication. another form of interconnectedness concerns book reviews and review articles which may well be called forms of post-publication peer review. in this sense, practices in the humanities include forms of openness already. however, those review publications are at times excluded from debates of open access as, according to principles of open science, primarily original research is to be published open access. yet, reviewing, and thus debating, scholarship is incremental to discourses in the humanities. to sufficiently debate and find solutions for such an issue, humanities scholars and scholarly communication experts need an integrated discourse that brings these elements of open access and open post-publication peer review together. in its current, disintegrated form, the issues will always run into errors in implementation and be unrelatable to scholars in the traditional humanities disciplines. open access alone—likely the most prominent element of open science—is well discussed for publishing practices in the humanities. and there are other practices that, out of the requirement of particular scholarship in the humanities, drive individual, smaller discourses that showcase the need for understanding and advancing practice in this field. opening access to data of humanities scholarship and building sustainable infrastructures is one such practice. similar to many other elements in open science that are assumed to be applicable to the humanities, however, it must be understood that “[t]he concept of research data comes from the sciences, and can only be transferred to the traditional scholarly methods of the humanities to a limited degree” [ ]. though questions of publishing data, their infrastructures, and degrees of openness are partly integrated into discourses of the digital humanities [ , – ], it is not connected paradigmatically to a broader open humanities. but facing a digital future, the humanities need to be open to interdisciplinary knowledge transfer in this realm [ ]. this can also be seen in the social sciences, where herb, for instance, consulted on various elements of open science and their development in sociology, eventually concluding that “[t]he open knowledge culture is not widespread in sociology” [ ] (p. ; translated by the author) . as stated before, some disciplines and research projects of the social sciences may well be in the realm of the humanities communication does not exist as a term. this is another curious instance where there is a term called science communication without a comparable counterpart for the humanities. this is the case, either because or although, practices such as publishing in popular media are integral to humanities scholarship (collini, ). it can be argued that there is no need to have such a term because of the integral nature of such publishing practice. the fact that there is no such term and discourse, however, should not lead to the assumption that there is no associated practice. the sciences only seem to be more communicative due to their discourse on and practice of science communication; the humanities conduct this communication integratively. original: ‘die kultur des offenen wissens ist in der soziologie nicht verbreitet.’. publications , , of sciences and can, thus, be captured by open science. for those closer to the humanities, this cannot be assumed, especially because their scholarly communication practices are distinct. most of all, it can be stated with certainty that the crisis of scholarly communication is not simply one of the sciences. just because the crisis may have a similar origin, the discipline-specific developments and their potential solutions may not be the same. the origin of this crisis may be seen in the paradigm of false productivity, excellence, and pressure to publish. due to the differences of practices, this led to dissimilar problems which, for the humanities, are concisely summarised by rosa: i am firmly convinced that, at least in the social sciences and the humanities, there is, at present, hardly a common deliberation about the convincing force for better arguments, but rather a non-controllable, mad run rush for more publications, conferences and research-projects the success of which is based on network-structures rather than on argumentational force [ ] (p. ). more transparency and openness that rid authorship of its stances of formality and reputation may serve as a solution. but the discursive space in which scholars debate the specifics of this solution must not be fragmented and dispersed into niche contributions. there may well be individual contributions to what openness means in the humanities or why it may be beneficial. this is especially true in the digital humanities discourse. but, as discussed above, the digital humanities are focussed on methods much more than on open practices. yet, scholars in the humanities need a voice to shape their digital, open future. this needs to be a transdisciplinary space, just like digital humanities is one; only that it needs be driven from within the humanities (where digital humanities seems to be driven rather by technology), and dedicated and focussed on the opening of practices (where digital humanities are primarily concerned with methods and projects). this process may start with a disciplinary discourse in individual humanities disciplines, for instance, at conferences or in special issues of dedicated journals. the importance of an open humanities discourse will be to bring these threads together and to serve as a dedicated reference to what open practices means to humanities scholars and what best practices and their problems and implementations are. open science achieves this for the sciences. there is nothing comparable for the humanities. notwithstanding, such a space should not be taken as an openness for granted discourse. as the discussion above shows, not everything that can be opened necessarily works in favour of the knowledge production of its disciplines. it may just as well be the case that the ends of practices instead of the practices themselves are ripe for change so that merely reconfiguring processes may not lead to positive progress. controversial as this may seem, there needs to be a dedicated discourse on it that brings together the variety of currently disconnected endeavours and proficiencies. open humanities may serve as a namespace for this. funding: the author received funding from the arts & humanities research council through the london arts & humanities partnership. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . abbott, a. chaos of disciplines; 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the role of statistics in dh. in debates in the digital humanities, ; gold, m.k., klein, l.f., eds.; university of minnesota press: minneapolis, ms, usa, . . herb, u. open science in der soziologie. eine interdisziplinäre bestandsaufnahme zur offenen wissenschaft und eine untersuchung ihrer verbreitung in der soziologie; schriften zur informationswissenschaft ; hülsbusch: glückstadt, germany, . . rosa, h. alienation and acceleration. towards a critical theory of late-modern temporality; nsu press: malmö, sweden, . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). digital humanities the importance of pedagogy: towards a companion to teaching digital humanities hirsch, brett d. brett.hirsch@gmail.com university of western australia timney, meagan mbtimney.etcl@gmail.com university of victoria the need to “encourage digital scholarship” was one of eight key recommendations in our cultural commonwealth: the report of the american council of learned societies commission on cyberinfrastructure for the humanities and social sciences (unsworth et al). as the report suggested, “if more than a few are to pioneer new digital pathways, more formal venues and opportunities for training and encouragement are needed” ( ). in other words, human infrastructure is as crucial as cyberinfrastructure for the future of scholarship in the humanities and social sciences. while the commission’s recommendation pertains to the training of faculty and early career researchers, we argue that the need extends to graduate and undergraduate students. despite the importance of pedagogy to the development and long-term sustainability of digital humanities, as yet very little critical literature has been published. both the companion to digital humanities ( ) and the companion to digital literary studies ( ), seminal reference works in their own right, focus primarily on the theories, principles, and research practices associated with digital humanities, and not pedagogical issues. there is much work to be done. this poster presentation will begin by contextualizing the need for a critical discussion of pedagogical issues associated with digital humanities. this discussion will be framed by a brief survey of existing undergraduate and graduate programs and courses in digital humanities (or with a digital humanities component), drawing on the “institutional models” outlined by mccarty and kirschenbaum ( ). the growth in the number of undergraduate and graduate programs and courses offered reflects both an increasing desire on the part of students to learn about sorts of “transferable skills” and “applied computing” that digital humanities offers (jessop ), and the desire of practitioners to consolidate and validate their research and methods. we propose a volume, teaching digital humanities: principles, practices, and politics, to capitalize on the growing prominence of digital humanities within university curricula and infrastructure, as well as in the broader professional community. we plan to structure the volume according to the four critical questions educators should consider as emphasized recently by mary bruenig, namely: - what knowledge is of most worth? - by what means shall we determine what we teach? - in what ways shall we teach it? - toward what purpose? in addition to these questions, we are mindful of henry a. giroux’s argument that “to invoke the importance of pedagogy is to raise questions not simply about how students learn but also about how educators (in the broad sense of the term) construct the ideological and political positions from which they speak” ( ). consequently, we will encourage submissions to the volume that address these wider concerns. references breunig, mary ( ). 'radical pedagogy as praxis'. radical pedagogy. http://radicalpeda gogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.ht ml. giroux, henry a. ( ). 'rethinking the boundaries of educational discourse: modernism, postmodernism, and feminism'. margins in the classroom: teaching literature. myrsiades, kostas, myrsiades, linda s. (eds.). minneapolis: university of minnesota press, pp. - . http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue _ /breunig.html digital humanities schreibman, susan, siemens, ray, unsworth, john (eds.) ( ). a companion to digital humanities. malden: blackwell. jessop, martyn ( ). 'teaching, learning and research in final year humanities computing student projects'. literary and linguistic computing. . ( ): - . mccarty, willard, kirschenbaum , matthew ( ). 'institutional models for humanities computing'. literary and linguistic computing. . ( ): - . unsworth et al. ( ). our cultural commonwealth: the report of the american council of learned societies commission on cyberinfrastructure for the humanities and social sciences. new york: american council of learned societies. mapping meaning mapping meaning: learnings from indigenous mapping technology for australia's digital humanities mapping infrastructure bill pascoe, i acknowledge the algonquin anishnaabeg people and nation where this conference is hosted, and awabakal and worimi people, land and waters where i'm writing. i pay my respects to elders past, present and emerging. introduction the time layered cultural map (tlcmap) digital humanities mapping infrastructure is for everyone, but the inspiration, conception and development of it has always had aboriginal and torres strait islander mapping at its heart. if australian culture is world famous for anything it is the world’s oldest living culture, a culture for which connection to country is of vital importance. many years ago, when a simple desire took shape to make it possible for people to add cultural layers to maps that other people could find, it was unthinkable without first considering aboriginal and torres strait islander culture and mapping technology. indigenous views on country and its representation have factored into the software architecture and vision from the beginning. the transformational effect that the colonial frontier massacres project has had on australian culture was a catalyst sparking recognition of the important role digital humanities maps can play in the lives of australians and played a role in the truth telling process of reconciliation. five of the main projects in tlcmap are focused on aboriginal and torres strait islander culture and both acknowledge history and celebrate living culture. these projects come to tlcmap already as collaborations with aboriginal and torres strait islander people, and indigenous australians are employed in tlcmap software development and research. apology the pandemic disruption has delayed some things anticipated to have been complete by now and it wasn’t until the last week that i was sure i could contribute to dh , and so was not able to update the abstract by the deadline. this paper may differ slightly to the abstract. maps and translation because this is an international audience i will make some points with reference to anmatyerre artist, clifford possum tjapaltjarri’s warlugolong , a seminal work of writing/art/mapping in the internationally recognised style of western desert ‘dot painting’. there are many art styles and story and song genres, traditional and contemporary, across more than aboriginal and torres strait islander languages and peoples in australia, but this one illustrates many points well. please note that there is a controversial history in aboriginal and torres strait islander art over misappropriation, tlcmap, http://tlcmap.org is a mapping platform of interoperable digital humanities mapping systems with development on new and existing systems, initiated through an arc grant project id: le . tjapaltjarri, clifford possum warlugulong , (anmatyerre) national gallery of australia https://artsearch.nga.gov.au/detail.cfm?irn= http://tlcmap.org/ mapping meaning theft, secret knowledge, exploitation and intellectual property. this particular piece was made specifically for public viewing. clifford possum tjapaltjarri's warlugolong demonstrates how indigenous ontologies and ethics can be translated across cultures. this work is a landmark masterpiece in australian and indigenous art. it is both traditional in using traditional symbolic systems to represent tjukurpa, and contemporary in using the western convention of oil on rectangular canvas, use of the dot technique, and its ‘abstract’ aesthetic. it is also a map and a text, with elements of nine tjukurrpa relating to places and navigation that can be read, if you learn how to read. some of the things we can learn about how to do mapping, especially ‘deep mapping’, from indigenous mapping technology, through this include:  country is an organising principle for navigating knowledge.  a map can exist in many media, not just a d grid of longitude and latitude. it can exist as a story, song, dance, painting, etc.  the meaning of a place is across many layers and through its connection to other places in an intersecting mesh.  mapping is personal and social. each place and part of a story is the responsibility of an individual. if anyone wants to hear the whole story they must travel to see that person and learn from them. being connected to a place, understanding, and holding its story, means you are important to the longevity of culture, of the meaning of that place. when we look at a map we see our part in a greater whole and where we stand in relation to the world. understanding the stories associated with places enhances our personal connection to where we grew up and where we live and work. broadly defined culture is shared experience. by learning the meaning of the places we inhabit we are connected to our past and our future, and generations before and to come.  having learned the meaning of a place through a map (painting, sand, words, etc), the meaning of that place is evident when next we see the land and water features, or the buildings. a map is a tool for teaching us ‘how to read country’. the land or place itself then means the lessons of the story. more broadly, places tell the story of our history and being in them, and remembering being in them is a mnemonic for that history. this is identity forming – how we came to be who we are where we are.  there is much more that could be discussed - many more complex details in indigenous mapping technology, and diversity across the continent, such as use of what is called ‘redundancy’ in information theory, polysemy, rhetoric, mnemonics, and relationships to seasons, land management and law but there isn’t space here. what i can learn by analogy from clifford possum tjapaltjarri’s map is far from the experience of anmatyere and warlpiri living and growing up within their own culture. want i mean to do here is illustrate an act of ‘translation’. in any translation something is lost and something is added. there is no one to one ‘mapping’ of meaning across cultures or individuals. aileen moreton-robinson describes this as ‘incommensurable’ and an ongoing process: “this must be theorised in a way which allows for incommensurable difference between the situatedness of the indigenous people in a colonizing settler society such as australia and those who have come here. indigenous and non-indigenous peoples are situated in relation to (post)colonization in radically different ways - ways that cannot be made into sameness. there may well be spaces in australia that could be described as postcolonial but these are not spaces inhabited mapping meaning by indigenous people. it may be more useful, therefore, to conceptualise the current condition not as postcolonial but as postcolonizing with the associations of ongoing process which that implies.” incommensurability doesn’t mean there is no understanding. language exists both because we don’t understand each other and because we can understand each other better. this works initially by relating (mapping) new things to things already within our ken, and as we proceed our ken adjusts and changes. the warlugolong painting is an illustration of how indigenous knowledges can be translated into something non-indigenous people can begin to understand. it has contributed greatly towards international recognition and respect for the sophistication of aboriginal and torres strait islander culture. gary foley points out that (paraphrasing) if you want to help indigenous people, teach yourself, then teach your own people. it is as a sad irony that in a country famous for an indigenous culture where the connection to and meaning of country is of central importance, most of us living here don’t know much at all about the places we live. raewyn connell suggests a way to avoid the history of objectification in academic indigenous study is to ‘learn from’ instead of ‘learn about’. if we are to do that, learnings such as those from tjapaltjarri, foley, moreton-robinson and many others must be built into tlcmap system architecture. it is incumbent on me then as system architect to take the responsibility to ‘learn from’ to heart. tlcmap, as a national digital humanities mapping infrastructure, has a role to play in enabling people to teach people to read the meaning of places in australia. decolonising software development as aileen moreton-robinson points out ‘postcolonising’ or ‘decolonising’ is a process. it’s not as if we will ever arrive at an ‘uncolonised’ state since the future cannot be disentangled from the past. tlcmap involves a complicated mix of activity. ‘decolonising’ is a term often used in terms of archives and collections, but tlcmap is more about ‘agency’. it is a platform enabling people to do research in spatiotemporal humanities that may produce archives, to work with the meaning of place – it isn’t a map but ways to do mapping. we have to consider what agency is involved, who designs that agency, with what assumptions, who has that agency and who can be effected by it. we could look at ways in which decolonisation might occur in tlcmap software systems:  content where indigenous ‘content’ is put into existing ‘colonial’ it systems.  bricolage where existing systems are turned to other purposes.  from the first where the needs or world view/concepts/metaphors etc of indigenous people drive technological development from the beginning, without limiting possibility to already existing capabilities. in practice these abstractions aren’t mutually exclusive, and most situations involve something of all these approaches. p , moreton-robinson, a. ( ). ‘i still call australia home: indigenous belonging and place in a white postcolonising society’. in ahmed, s., castañeda, c., fortier, a. & sheller, m. (eds) uprootings/ regroundings: questions of home and migration oxford & new york: berg foley, gary ‘advice for white indigenous activists in australia’ and foley, gary 'educate yourself, then educate the people' connell, raewyn southern theory: the global dynamics of knowledge in social science crows nest: allen & unwin, mapping meaning for example, one of the early successes of tlcmap is the gazetteer of australian historical placenames (ghap). it’s been commented that the gazetteer has colonial assumptions built in. it is based around placenames demarcated using a coordinate system and surveying technologies that were development to serve the project of european colonisation. the gazetteer begins as a list of ‘official’ placenames as decreed by a colonial government. the naming of places is itself an exercise of power, in stating what exists, and by omission, what does not, and in what language places are named. we provide a means for users to contribute place names. this is more at the ‘content’ end of the spectrum. none the less, this simple addition of functionality means anyone has an opportunity to intervene in the ‘authoritative’ government naming of places, including indigenous people, or researchers in consultation with indigenous people. awareness of something being there can do something to counteract cultural blindness which factors into government and commercial decisions over land and water use. other unexpected uses also arise, where we turn the gazetteer to various other ends simply because it is ready to hand. there are some indigenous place names with meanings that have become uncertain in places colonised for a long time. the quick and easy availability of the ghap means we can quickly obtain maps and information that can help inquire into the meaning of the prefix ‘coo’ in many south east queensland placenames. search results can be exported in open interoperable formats for visualisation, analysis and layering. as research contributions are made, the ghap will be an increasingly valuable resource for people not only looking for a specific place, but simply wondering “what’s here?” to learn about both indigenous and non-indigenous history and meaning of place. problems on the way unfortunately the pandemic has put us months behind in some cases, which is significant in a year undertaking. the lock down has meant that trips to country that were to be a crucial part of the ngadjeri heritage project were cancelled, for example. one common difficulty highlighted by researchers in a recent discussion was the need to re-consult to obtain permission to do new things with information provided earlier such as to putting it on the web. tlcmap projects tlcmap is an infrastructure or platform of interoperable tools and it involves a suite of projects to drive requirements and development and to demonstrate usefulness. the following are projects that have a specific focus on aboriginal and torres strait islander culture and history. at the inasa : unsettling australia conference, waanyi woman josephine davey, with her companions ostiane massiani and kate van wezel movingly expressed her disappointment at the majority of the papers being about the history of violence towards aboriginal and torres strait islander country and culture which created the impression it was inevitable the same thing happen in her country. by contrast she was present to speak about how a ranger program was helping people travel great distances to access important traditional sites. this is a critique echoed in walter & suina’s critique of deficit based quantitative indigenous research, and elsewhere. the following tlcmap projects from across australia include both history and traditional knowledge, and both acknowledge the bad and celebrate the good. davey, josephine (waanyi) inasa : unsettling australia conference / / - / / walter, maggie & suina, michele ( ) indigenous data, indigenous methodologies and indigenous data sovereignty, international journal of social research methodology, : , - , doi: . / . . mapping meaning colonial frontier massacres contact: dr bill pascoe, prof lyndall ryan https://c ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/ this project maps colonial frontier massacres in australia from to . ngadjuri heritage mapping contact: dr julie nichols, prof ning gu this project is a collaboration between ngadjuri people, particularly quenten agius, and university of south australia staff, particularly prof ning gu and dr julie nichols. this project aims to improve best practice for digital mapping of indigenous heritage including virtual reality, panoramas and d architectural modelling. journey ways contact: dr francesca robinson, prof paul arthur this project is a collaboration with dr noel nannup (nyoongar), prof paul arthur and dr francesca robinson, in consultation with aboriginal people across wa. it is based on research that went into the ‘great journeys’ booklet and making this available in digital form. it describes the aboriginal perspectives and stories that relate to major roads across western australia, which often follow traditional routes, and which have become further storied with historical use. it delves also into deep time, showing how stories relate to events of thousands of years ago according to geological time. nsw aborigines protection/welfare board - : a history contact: prof victoria haskins and prof john maynard https://www.newcastle.edu.au/research-and-innovation/centre/purai/history-of-nsw-aborigines- protectionwelfare-board- - this project provides a web interface and map into a research collection of aboriginal protection/welfare board sites in nsw and interviews with and photographs of people about their personal experiences with them. this project is lead by indigenous academic/s, employs indigenous research assistants, and presents aboriginal perspectives. aboriginal historians on this project are prof john maynard (uon), dr lawrence bamblett (anu), dr lorina barker (une), dr ray kelly (uon) and prof jaky troy (usyd) and indigenous phd student, ms ashlen francisco. endangered languages map data contact: aprof mark harvey this project aims to consolidate and archive an overview of information about indigenous languages, particularly endangered languages in australia in a way that can be accessed by others. care has been taken to ensure that only information that can be made public is included in the open archive. this is part of long term work with speakers of endangered languages. ozspace contact: aprof bill palmer this linguistics project looks at how spatial relations and orientation is conceptualised and spoken about in australian indigenous languages. it has two main parts, one is a database of languages with information describing the spatial and orientation features of languages, providing an overview. the other is visualisation tools, in particular tools that attempt to illustrate how space and orientation works in that language. ryan, lyndall et al colonial frontier massacres v . c ch, university of newcastle, australia, https://c ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/ robertson, francesca; nannup, noel; barrow jason great journeys undertaken by aboriginal people in ancient times in western australia batchelor: batchelor institute https://c ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/ https://www.newcastle.edu.au/research-and-innovation/centre/purai/history-of-nsw-aborigines-protectionwelfare-board- - https://www.newcastle.edu.au/research-and-innovation/centre/purai/history-of-nsw-aborigines-protectionwelfare-board- - https://c ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/ mapping meaning bibliography ara irititja ara irititja aboriginal corporation (aiac), https://www.irititja.com/ arthur, bill and morphy, frances macquarie atlas of indigenous australia sydney: macquarie dictionary publishers, aveling , nado ( ) ‘don't talk about what you don't know’: on (not) conducting research with/in indigenous contexts, critical studies in education, : , - , doi: . / . . bardon, geoffrey and bardon, james papunya: a place made after the story, the beginnings of the western desert painting movement carlton: miegunyah press, barwick, linda; marett, allan; blythe, joe; walsh, michael arriving, digging, performing, returning: an exercise in rich interpretation of a djanba song text in moyle, r. m. (ed.), oceanic encounters: festschrift for mervyn mclean. auckland: research in anthropology and linguistics monographs. p - brody, hugh maps and dreams vancouver: douglas & mcintyre, burarrwanga, laklak and family welcome to country sydney: allen & unwin, cane, scott first footprints: the epic story of the first australians sydney: allen & unwin, coller, matt temporal earth http://collection.temporalearth.net/pages/loadfile.html connell, raewyn southern theory: the global dynamics of knowledge in social science crows nest: allen & unwin, cotter, maria; boyd, bill; gardiner, jane heritage landscapes: understanding place and communities lismore: southern cross university press, dargin, peter aboriginal fisheries of the darling-barwon rivers dubbo: brewarrina historical society, dixon, rmw and duwell, martin the honey ant men’s love song and other aboriginal song poems st lucia: university of queensland press, elder, bruce blood on the wattle sydney: new holland publishers, fesl, eve mumewa conned! st lucia: university of queensland press, foley, gary the koori history website http://www.kooriweb.org/ foley, gary ‘advice for white indigenous activists in australia’, the juice media, posted sep , filmed during the public discussion forum: 'deactivating colonialism / decolonising acivism' https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uegsbv vgtq convened by clare land at maysar (melbourne aboriginal youth, sport and recreation), fitzroy: august st, . foley, gary 'educate yourself, then educate the people', the juice media, posted sep , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iw yvbbqgng filmed during the public discussion forum: 'deactivating colonialism / decolonising acivism' convened by clare land at maysar (melbourne aboriginal youth, sport and recreation), fitzroy: august st, https://www.irititja.com/ http://collection.temporalearth.net/pages/loadfile.html http://www.kooriweb.org/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uegsbv vgtq https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iw yvbbqgng mapping meaning foley, gary ‘gary foley abc-tv interview’, posted apr , https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w vpop pqa gammage, bill the biggest estate on earth: how aborigines made australia crows nest: allen & unwin, huijser, henk, and brooke collins-gearing. “representing indigenous stories in the cinema: between collaboration and appropriation.” international journal of diversity in organisations, communities and nations, . https://www.academia.edu/ /representing_indigenous_stories_in_the_cinema_between_ collaboration_and_appropriation hendery, rachel; dousset, laurent alfred; mcconvell, patrick; simoff, simeon j waves of words: mapping and modelling the history of australia's pacific ties arc funded project - huni deakin university https://huni.net.au/ inasa : unsettling australia conference / / - / / https://iash.uq.edu.au/event/session/ johnson, ian heurist https://heuristnetwork.org/ kelly, lynne the memory code sydney: allen & unwin, kerkhove, ray aboriginal camp sites of greater brisbane brisbane: boolarong press, kerkhove, ray with support and collaborations of kabi kabi traditional owners including lyndon davis, kerry jones, arnold jones, and others kabi kabi sites and history of the legendary mount coolum (sunshine coast, qld) national reconciliation week, kerkhove, ray ‘aboriginal camps as urban foundations? evidence from southern queensland’ in aboriginal history vol koch, harold and hercus, luise (eds) aboriginal placenames: naming and re-naming the australian landscape canberra: anu e press and aboriginal history incorporated, leavey, brett virtual songlines brisbane: bilbie labs https://www.virtualsonglines.org/brett-leavy maynard, john who’s traditional land? the wollotuka institute, university of newcastle, https://www.newcastle.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/ / /research-document_john- maynard_whose-land.pdf maggie walter & michele suina ( ) indigenous data, indigenous methodologies and indigenous data sovereignty, international journal of social research methodology, : , - , doi: . / . . mathew, john two representative tribes of queensland london: t. fisher unwin, moreton-robinson, a. ( ). ‘i still call australia home: indigenous belonging and place in a white postcolonising society’. in ahmed, s., castañeda, c., fortier, a. & sheller, m. (eds) uprootings/ regroundings: questions of home and migration oxford & new york: berg, pp. - moreton-robinson, aileen (ed) sovereign subjects crows nest: allen & unwin, muecke, stephen. "australian indigenous philosophy." clcweb: comparative literature and culture . ( ) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w vpop pqa https://huni.net.au/ https://iash.uq.edu.au/event/session/ https://heuristnetwork.org/ https://www.virtualsonglines.org/brett-leavy https://www.newcastle.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/ / /research-document_john-maynard_whose-land.pdf https://www.newcastle.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/ / /research-document_john-maynard_whose-land.pdf mapping meaning napaljarri, peggy rockman and cataldi, lee warlpiri dreamings and histories pymble: harper collins, neale, margo (ed) songlines: tracking the seven sisters canberra: act national museum of australia press, needham w.j. burragurra revisited fyshwick: canprint, nunn, patrick d and reid, nicholas ‘aboriginal memories of inundation of the australian coast dating from more than years ago’ in australian geographer, : , - , doi: . / . . pascoe, bruce convincing ground: learning to love your country aboriginal studies press, pascoe, bruce dark emu: aboriginal australia and the birth of agriculture broome: magabala books, phillips, sandra and verhoeven, deb “how do we live together without killing each other?” indigenous and feminist, perspectives on relationality, doi: . /ccc/tcaa recogito austrian institute of technology, exeter university, humboldt institute for internet and society, the open university and university of london https://recogito.pelagios.org/ robertson, francesca; nannup, noel; barrow jason great journeys undertaken by aboriginal people in ancient times in western australia batchelor: batchelor institute ryan, lyndall et al colonial frontier massacres v . c ch, university of newcastle, australia, https://c ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/ ryan, lyndall & lydon, jane remembering the myall creek massacre sydney: new south, ryan, lyndall tasmanian aborigines: a history since sydney: allen & unwin, smith, linda tuhiwai decolonizing methodologies: research and indigenous peoples dunedin: university of otago press, steele, j.g. aboriginal pathways in southeast queensland and the richmond river st lucia: university of queensland, sutton, peter ‘traditional cartography in australia’ chapters and in woodward, david and lewis, g. malcolm the history of cartography volume two, book three: cartography in the traditional african, american, arctic, australian, and pacific societies chicago: university of chicago press, , edited by david woodward and g. malcolm lewis time layered cultural map http://tlcmap.org/ tjapaltjarri, clifford possum warlugulong , (anmatyerre) national gallery of australia https://artsearch.nga.gov.au/detail.cfm?irn= waanyi/garawa rangers centre for aboriginal economic policy research canberra: anu college of arts & social sciences walsh, micheal ‘a polytropical approach to the “floating pelican” song: an exercise in rich interpretation of a murriny patha (northern australia) song’ in australian journal of linguistics vol. , no , jan, pp - https://recogito.pelagios.org/ https://c ch.newcastle.edu.au/colonialmassacres/ http://tlcmap.org/ https://artsearch.nga.gov.au/detail.cfm?irn= mapping meaning walter, maggie & suina, michele ( ) indigenous data, indigenous methodologies and indigenous data sovereignty, international journal of social research methodology, : , - , doi: . / . . won, miguel; murieta-flores, patricia; martins, bruno ‘ensemble named entity recognition (ner): evaluating ner tools in the identification of place names in the historical corpora’ in fontiers in digital humanities, vol , ( )# udk . : . . prethodno priopćenje preliminary communication primljeno: . . . edin tabak i damir kukić sveučilište u zenici filozofski fakultet, bih edin.tabak@ff.unze.ba damir.kukic@pf.unze.ba modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici sažetak novi mediji su otvorili nove mogućnosti u području obrazovanja, koje počivaju na inherentnim karakteristikama novih medija poput interaktivnosti i nelinearne naracije. koncept društvenih “web . ” medija je omogućio korisnicima web- stranica da se od običnih korisnika transformiraju u kreatore informacija. međutim, prijašnje studije su sugerirale da web . mediji nisu dovoljno integrirani u obrazovanje zbog nedostatka modeliranja za takvu integraciju i nedostatka opisa najboljih praksi integriranja. kako bi pružili jedan takav model i slučaj studija integracije web . medija u obrazovanju, mi smo adaptirali model informacijskog ponašanja za dizajniranje aktivnosti učenja na jednom kolegiju na našem sveučilištu. naša pretpostavka je bila da povezivanje kulture participacije u web . medijima s konceptima distribuirane kognicije i kreativnosti može biti efikasan način da se dizajniraju ambijenti učenja koji podržavaju kreativnost. studij slučaja je potvrdio da korištenje web . alata može podržavati kreativnost u učenju. međutim, nije dovoljno samo uposliti web . alate budući da stupanj kreativnosti ovisi o načinima kako se ti alati koriste. ako interaktivnost medija nije u potpunosti iskorištena, i ako se umjesto toga alati koriste za jednosmjernu komunikaciju, mala je šansa da će takvi mediji stvoriti prostor za distribuiranu kreativnost. ključne riječi: web . mediji, ambijenti učenja, informacijsko ponašanje, distribuirana kognicija, kultura participacije, digitalna humanistika. e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici uvod internet i novi mediji su otvorili nove mogućnosti u obrazovanju, bazirane na inherentnim svojstvima novih medija kao što su interaktivnost i nelinearna naracija. međutim, inicijalni modeli za korištenje novih medija i interneta za učenje nisu mogli pružiti adekvatne okvire za to jer su se temeljili na pretpostavkama da studenti uče isključivo u učionicama. koncept web . (o’reilly, ) i pojava novih društvenih mreža je omogućila korisnicima weba da se transformiraju iz potrošača u stvaratelje informacija. u takvom kontekstu, učenje postaje aktivnost neovisnih individualaca koje se može pojaviti i u formalnom obrazovanju i u neformalnim okolnostima. dok se web . koristio gotovo isključivo za prenošenje obrazovnih resursa u online okruženje, web . je omogućio transformaciju i formalnog i neformalnog učenja. ovo sugerira da web . mediji imaju potencijal za razviijanje kreativnosti u procesu učenja. ovaj članak istražuje neke mogućnosti web . medija u podržavanju kreativnosti u učenju. prvo ćemo diskutirati glavne razlike između web . i web . medija, a onda povezati koncepte kreativnosti, participacijske kulture i distribuirane kognitivnosti s karakteristikama web . medija s ciljem da pokušamo identificirati efektivne načine dizajniranja okruženja za učenje koje bi podržavalo studentsku kreativnost. poslije toga, analiziran je studij slučaja dizajniranja aktivnosti učenja na studiju kulturologije na sveučilištu u zenici. postojeći model informacijskog ponašanja, koji je izgradio jedan od autora ovog članka, korišten je kako za dizajniranje aktivnosti učenja tako i za analizu studije slučaja. konačno, članak diskutira neke propozicije nastale iz analize ovog slučaja. web . i web . mediji pojam web . je popularizirao tim o’reilly ( ) kao novi model društvenih softwera, a kao posljedica se pojavio pojam web . kao retronim kako bi označio inicijalnu fazu weba. cormode i krishnamurthy ( ) razlikuju web . i web . na tehnološkim, strukturalnim i sociološkim osnovama. tehnološke osnove se odnose na programiranje i tehnologiju korištenim za web dizajn; strukturalne osnove se odnose na svrhu i prezentaciju web-stranica; a sociološke osnove se odnose na pojam uvezivanja grupa na webu. njihova analiza sugerira da se web . koristio u obrazovanju kao komunikacijski alat za prenošenje konvencionalnih resursa i sadržaja kao što su knjige, prezentacije i slično. takav transfer je uglavnom uključivao hijerarhijski dizajnirane web-stranice na kojima je sadržaj bio kontroliran od strane malih grupa ili pojedinaca. kao posljedica, participacija u kreiranju sadržaja je bila ograničena. samo oni koji su posjedovali vještine u programiranju html-a (hypertext markup language) mogli su postaviti sadržaj na web. dakle, najvažnija razlika između web . i web . je u mogućnosti korisničke participacije i kreativnosti pošto je većina korisnika na web . jednostavno djelovala kao grupa korisnika sadržaja, dok na web . bilo koji korisnik može ujedno biti i kreator sadržaja, a brojni alati su izgrađeni da bi maksimizirali potencijal kreiranja sadržaja (cormode, krishnamurthy, ). web . je, dakle, “read-write” web, za razliku od “read-only” web . , jer omogućava korisniku da postane kreator informacija, a ne samo konzument informacija vol , br. , . ( - ) bilo tako da participira sa svojim vlastitim sadržajem ili s remiksiranjem nečijeg tuđeg sadržaja, ili jednostavno da participira komentiranjem i tagiranjem različitih web-medija (bell, ). owen i ostali ( ) ukazuju da su rane web . aplikacije e-učenja bile biheviorističke po prirodi, fokusirajući se na preskriptivno oblikovanje i sustavno vođenje studenata k postizanju postavljenih ciljeva. neki autori tvrde da je web . utijelotvorio klasičnu perspektivu znanja koje je stvoreno od strane eksperata s akademskim autoritetom koji koriste isključivo argumentaciju baziranu na evidenciji, dok je web . utjelotvorio perspektivu koja shvaća znanje kao kolektivni dogovor (dede, ). pojam web . opisuje participativne i društvene elemente web-medija koji omogućuju interaktivne, globalne i društvene veze na internetu dopuštajući korisnicima i da konzumiraju i da kreiraju sadržaj kroz virtualne društvene veze (wheeler, ). neki drugi termini se također koriste da se opiše ista stvar kao na primjer “read and write web” “društveni web”, što ukazuje da se ovaj pojam odnosi na preokret u praksama i korištenju web alata koji su usmjereni prema participativnoj korisničkoj interakciji (conole, alevizou, : ). međutim, ovdje je važno naglasiti razliku između pojma web . i pojma društvene mreže pošto je web . ujedno i platforma za nove tehnologije i koncept na kojem su se izgradile raznovrsne društvene mreže (owen et al., ). web . pruža nove mogućnosti u obrazovanju jer podržava interaktivnost i kolaboraciju. web . alati koji uključuju blogove, wikije, društveno umreživanje i zajednice online učenja, povezuju učitelje i studente u učionici i izvan učionica, stvarajući mogućnosti za kolaboraciju i razmjenu informacija i ideja ne samo u granicama učionica nego kroz škole, regije, države i cijeli svijet (yan, : ). owen et al. ( ) primjećuje nove trendove u obrazovanju i tehnologiji. vidljiv je preokret u obrazovanju od jednostavnog prijema znanja i informacija prema izgradnji vještina koje su potrebne da se nosi s društvenim i tehnološkim promjenama kroz doživotno učenje. u isto vrijeme je primjetan tehnološki preokret od upotrebe informacijske i komunikacijske tehnologije koja naprosto emitira informacije za stvaranje društvenih softvera koji podržavaju zajednice u kojima se razmjenjuje znanje. u web . alatima, multimedijalni element i tekst se mogu prearanžirati i promijeniti svoju svrhu tako da se izbrišu razlike između konzumiranja i stvaranja informacija, te između individualnog i grupnog autorstva u vizualno bogatim društvenim medijima (greenhow, robelia, hughes, : ). greenhow, robelia i hughes ( ) ukazuju kako su se mnogi istraživači bavili temama koje se odnose na web . u obrazovanju kao što su na primjer: pristup internetu, selekcija informacija i web-medija, teškoće studenata prilikom traženja informacija na webu, i problemima valoriziranja informacija koje pronađu, studentsku kreativnost i njihovu participaciju na webu kroz multimedijske artefakte koje oni kreiraju i izmjenjuju. s proširenim pristupom internetu i kontekstima za učenje, ali isto tako i sa smanjenim tehničkim barijerama, mogućnosti weba . za interaktivnost, stvaranje i miješanje sadržaja mogu olakšati sve veći istraživački interes za kreativnim praksama u učenju, paticipaciju i produkciju znanja, a to, opet, sugerira nove načine razmišljanja o kompetencijama u digitalnoj eri koje želimo modelirati i razvijati u mnogim područjima (greenhow, robelia, hughes, e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici : ). bell ( ) tvrdi da webom omogućene aktivnosti učenja uspijevaju izbjeći formalnosti tradicionalne učionice, jer su poduzete od strane individualaca koji su neovisni studenti unutar društvenog konteksta. web . mediji imaju potencijal da omoguće kreativnost u učenju tako što podržavaju kulturu participacije u kojoj kreativnost i znanje nisu svojstva individualaca nego su distribuirana. sljedeći odjeljak pokušava povezati koncepte kreativnosti, kulture participacije i distribuirane kognicije s karakteristikama web . medija u nastojanju da se pronađu efektivni načini za dizajniranje ambijenta za učenje koji bi podržavao studentsku kreativnost. kreativnost, kultura participacije i distribuirana kognitivnost web . , dakle, omogućava nove oblike okoliša za učenje, koji su definirani od strane geeja ( ) kao “affinity spaces” (prostori sklonosti) koji dozvoljavaju studentima da participiraju na različite načine ovisno o njihovom interesu i vještinama. jenkins ( ) ukazuje da su ovi prostori jako različiti od formalnog učenja. više su eksperimentalni i privremeni od formalnog obrazovanja koji je konzervativniji i u većoj mjeri institucionalan. oni su više lokalizirani i nisu statični i birokratski kao prostori formalnog učenja. dok je lako ući i izaći iz zajednica neformalnog učenja ako ne zadovoljavaju naše potrebe, ne postoji takva fleksibilnost u formalnom obrazovanju (jenkins, : ). ti “prostori sklonosti” su efekti kulture participacije koja je definirana kao kultura: s relativno niskim barijerama za kreativnu ekspresiju i građansku angažiranost,• s jakom podrškom za stvaranje i razmjenu kreacija s drugima,• s nekom vrstom neformalnog mentoriranja gdje se znanje prenosi s iskusnijih na novake,• s članovima koji vjeruju da je kolaborativnost važna, i• s članovima koji osjećaju neki stupanj društvenih veza s drugima (barem ih se tiče što drugi • misle o njihovoj kreativnosti). (jenkins, : - ) kultura participacije je, dakle, blisko definirana s konceptima kreativnosti i društvenih veza. nasuprot, koncept kreativnosti je tradicionalno bio povezan s individualnim umom prije nego s društvenim kontekstima i relacijama. ljudska kognicija je viđena od strane mnogih tradicionalnih pristupa kao nešto što postoji samo “unutar ljudskih glava”, a istraživanje kognicije je najčešće ignoriralo fizička i društvena okruženja u kojima kognicija djeluje (fischer, konomi, : ). barab i plucker ( ) primjećuju da iako tradicionalne perspektive na inteligenciju, sposobnost i talent često priznaju ulogu konteksta u razvoju inteligencije, jak fokus je uvijek bio na pojedincu kao analitičkoj jedinici. oni tvrde da takva linija razmišljanja, koja je ukorijenjena u kartezijanskom dualizmu, odvaja studente od konteksta učenja postavljajući kreativnost unutar uma onih koji se smatraju talentiranim i intelegentnim (barab, plucker, : ). međutim, u devedesetim godinama prošlog stoljeća, istraživači kreativnosti su počeli shavaćati da je takav fokus na individualni um ograničen pa su počeli ispitivati društvene i kulturološke aspekte kreativnosti. ova promjena je bila vol , br. , . ( - ) inspirirana promjenama u kognitivnim znanostima tog vremena koja su obilježena preokretom s fokusiranja na unutrašnja mentalna stanja i procese na analizu toga kako se kognicija distribuira među ljudima, alatima i okruženju (sawyer, dezutter, : ). teza o distribuiranoj kogniciji (hutchins, a) jedna je od takvih kognitivnih teorija i modela koja je proširila opseg toga šta se smatra kognitivnim. teorija distribuirane kognicije se razlikuje od sličnih teorija po njenoj privrženosti ovim teorijskim principima: jedan princip se odnosi na granice osnovne analitičke jedinice kognitivnog, a drugi princip se odnosi na opseg mehanizama koji participiraju u kognitivnim procesima (hollan, hutchins, kirsh, ). dok su za tradicionalne teorije granice kognicije granice ljudske jedinke, ova teorija traži kognitivne procese gdje god se mogu pojaviti pošto neki proces nije kognitivan samo zato što se pojavljuje u mozgu. perspektiva distribuirane kognicije uzima za analitičke jedinice čak različite društveno-tehnološke mreže kao što su komandni most broda (hutchins a) ili kabina aviona (hutchins b). na sličan način, ova perspektiva proširuje mehanizme koji participiraju u kognitivnim procesima. dok tradicionalne kognitivne teorije pronalaze kognitivna događanja u manipulaciji simbola individualnih aktera, ova teorija ne očekuje da su sva takva događanja ograničana “kožom i lubanjom ljudske jedinke” (hollan, hutchin, kirsh, : ), i shvaća materijalno okruženje kao nešto više od obične vanjske memorije za unutrašnje kognitivne procese. hollan, hutchins i kirsh ( ) tvrde da ovi principi impliciraju kako kognicija može biti distribuirana kroz članove društvene grupe, može uključiti koordinaciju između unutrašnjih i vanjskih (materijalnih) struktura i može biti distribuirana kroz vrijeme pošto prijašnji događaji mogu transformirati kasnija događanja. bazirajući se na konceptu distribuirane kognicije, sawyer i dezutter ( ) uvode koncept distribuirane kreativnosti koja se odnosi na situacije gdje kolaborativne grupe “kolektivno stvaraju kreativni proizvod” (sawyer, dezutter, : ). iako smatraju da distribuirana kreativnost može biti relativno predvidljiva i ograničena, oni se više fokusiraju na grupe koje su radije neograničene, u kojoj kolaboracija između članova može rezultirati neočekivanom kreativnošću. takav proces nazivaju “kolaborativni nastanak” (collaborative emergence) koji je tipičan za grupe gdje aktivnosti imaju nepredvidiv rezultat i gdje se iz trenutka u trenutak događaju nepredvidljivi slučajevi u kojima je svaka akcija ovisna o prijašnjoj akciji. Što se više povećava broj nepredvidljivih slučajeva, i što se snaga objašnjenja pomoću individualnih varijabli smanjuje, postoji veća mogućnost da će interakcija između članova grupe postati značajniji izvor kreativnosti nego unutrašnji mentalni procesi članova grupe. fokus se, dakle, okreće prema društvenoj interakciji prije nego k individualnim mentalnim procesima. kao takva, teza o distriburanoj kreativnosti ima dosta zajedničkog s postavkama društvenog konstruktivizma. e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici međutim, perspektiva distribuirane kognicije se razlikuje od društvenog konstruktivizma u tome što uzima u obzir ne samo društvene nego i materijalne kontekste. uzima u obzir i ljudske i neljudske aktere jer što se više oslanjamo na kapacitete tehnologija u našem radu, sve više se čini da je kognicija distribuirana (jenkins, : ). tehnologija u ovoj perspektivi nije shvaćena kao nešto što je izvan ljudskog uma i što može zamijeniti neke kognitivne procese, nego je to nešto što može esencijalno promijeniti način razmišlanja. bell i winn ( ) tvrde da tehnologije pomažu ljudima ne samo da ljudi na njih prebace dio kogntivnog rada tako da mogu usmjeriti više kognitivnog napora na druge akktivnosti, nego, također, omogućuje ljudima da obave neke kognitivne aktivnosti u nedostatku tehnologije. pea ( ) koristi pojam “inskripcioni sustavi” za takvo korištenje tehnologije prije nego “simbolični sustavi” ili “reprezentacijski sustavi” iz dva razloga. prvo, on naglašava eksternalni statut tehnologije u stvarnom svijetu što omogućava praćenje nastanka i konstrukcije ovih inskripcija. drugo, želi izbjeći pojmove “simbol” i “reprezentacija” pošto oni uobičajeno imaju značenje “mentalne” reprezentacije u kognitivnim znanostima, a on tvrdi da takvi sustavi započinju svoje postojanje ontogenetički kao vanjske inskripcije čije konvencije, konstrukcije, interpretacije i korištenja moraju biti stečene u kulturalnim aktivnostima (pea, : ). distribuirana kognicija, shvaćena kao sposobnost interakcije s alatima koje proširuju mentalni kapacitet, jedna je od glavnih studentskih društvenih vještina u kulturi participacije u novim medijima (jenkins, ). kreativnost u obrazovnom okruženju se može povezati s kulturom participacije karakterističnom za web . medije. kada kažemo da je kognicija (ili kreativnost) distribuirana, želimo reći da su resursi koji oblikuju kreativnost distribuirani kroz ljude, kontekste i situacije, što implicira da su inteligencija i kreativnost postignuti prije nego što su posjedovani (pea, : ). jedna od implikacija ovakve teze je da kontekst za kreativnost u obrazovnom okruženju može biti dizajniran. bell i winn ( ) tvrde da se koncept distribuirane kognicije može koristiti, ne samo kao deskriptivni, nego i kao preskriptivni okvir na kojem bi se temeljio dizajn inovativnih obrazovnih okruženja te pokazuju da su edukatori (iako možda nesvjesno) već dugo, u stvari, dizajnirali za distribuciju kognicije. web . mediji pružaju snažnu motivaciju za upotrebu distribuirane kognicije kao okvir za dizajn obrazovnih okruženja. u takvim okruženjima studenti se ohrabruju da učine njihovo vlastito mišljenje vidljivim kroz “inskriptivne sustave”, da izmjene njihove poglede kroz strukture participacije fokusirane na debate te da rade fokusirajući se prema integrativnom razumijevanju problema kroz primjenu znanstvenih kriterija (bell, winn, : ). kako bi se ohrabrila studentska kreativnost, trebali bi dizajnirati obrazovna okruženja koja će biti u stanju naglasiti situacijski karakter i materijalnu bazu kreativnosti, ali isto tako trebamo eksplicitno vezati kreativnost uz svakodnevni život umjesto da je rezerviramo za izuzetne individualce i procese unutrašnjeg psihološkog razmišljanja (tanggaard, : ). barab i plucker ( ) drže da je principijalni izazov obrazovanja u dobu web . medija izgraditi strukturu participacije koja donosi zajedno pojedinca, okruženje i društveno-kulturne relacije (barab, plucker, : ). međutim glavni razlog što web . tehnologije participacije nisu široko integrirane u obrazovanje je nedostatak vol , br. , . ( - ) modeliranja i studija najbolje prakse, što ograničava našu sposobnost da unaprijedimo studentski angažman s ovim tehnologijama kao inskriptivnim sustavima, kao i da transformiramo formalne web . lekcije u neformalna web . obrazovna okruženja (greenhow, ). u nastojanju da adresiramo ovaj nedostatak, ovaj studij je adaptirao jedan model informacijskog ponašanja (izgradio ga je jedan od autora ovog članka) za modeliranje studentske aktivnosti na kolegiju digitalne humanistike na sveučilištu u zenici. model “informacijska kosmopolitika” (tabak, ) baziran je na relacijskim konceptima teorije aktera-mreže, a koncept kosmopolitike je preuzet od isabelle stengers ( ) da bi se opisala kontinuirana cikulacija u kojoj informacije i korisnici, individua i kolektiv, ljudski i neljudski akteri, kosmos i politika, konstantno razmjenjuju svojstva. kao takav, model uzima u obzir kulturu participacije na web . medijima, promatrajući kreativnost kao efekt kontekstualnih relacija između heterogenih aktera u kojem kreativnost nije jedino u ljudskom umu nego je distribuirana (a ne podijeljena) između tijela i uma, individue i kolektiva, i drugih aktera. informacijska kosmopolitika informacijska kosmopolitika je definirana kao konstantno pregovaranje (dakle, politika) između heterogenih (ljudskih i neljudskih) aktera u procesu komponiranja zajedničkog svijeta (kosmosa) - u kojem individua i kolektiv konstantno razmjenjuju svojstva. informacijske prakse su, dakle, shvaćene kao kontinuirana cirkulacija procesa individualizacije i kolektivizacije. jedan krug cirkulizacije se sastoji od nekoliko posljedičnih momenata koji su neophodni za odžavanje cirkulacije (slika ). svaki krug počinje nedoumicom koju donosi inskripcija kolektivnih propozicija u informacijske objekte, koje su onda prevedene u individualne propozicije kroz proces deskripcije. trenutak kontekstualizacije pruža sučelje između individualnih i kolektivnih propozicija, dok trenutak standardizacije omogućava transformaciju lokalnih deskripcija u kolektivno prihvaćene propozicije, što otklanja početne nedoumice. međutim, ovo otklanjanje je uvijek privremeno pošto je svaka nova propozicija tek još jedan poziv za sljedeću nedoumicu. slika : model informacijske kosmopolitike e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici cirkulacija informacijske kosmopolitike počinje s nedoumicom informacijskih korisnika u susretu s informacijskim objektom, koji može biti bilo kakav objekt (ljudski ili neljudski) i koji može nositi informaciju. informacijski objekti su uobičajeno smješteni u institucijama kao što su biblioteke, arhivi, muzeji te distribuirani kroz različite medije kao što su tiskani mediji, video, internet itd., ali često imamo posla s informacijskim objektima u svakodnevnom životu. na primjer, ležeći policajac na ulici je informacijski objekt u kojem je implicitno upisana poruka iz policijskog ureda koja traži od vozača da uspori vožnju (latour, ). inskripcija je proces kada neki entitet postane materijaliziran u znak, arhiv, dokument, komadić papira, ili trag (latour, : ). informacijski objekt može, dakle, biti sve ono što ostavlja trag, za čim se može tragati, što se može prevesti ili opisati. takav trag nas često postavlja u stanje nedoumice. odakle trag dolazi? kako se može pratiti? mogu li ga prevesti na moj jezik? je li relevantan za mene? kako mogu napraviti deskripciju te inskripcije? takva vrsta nedoumice je početna točka informacijske kosmopolitike. informacijski objekti nose inskripcije s implicitnim propozicijama upućene “generičnoj individui”. kako bi se snašla u specifičnoj situaciji, specifična individua mora prevesti i implicitne propozicije u eksplicitno relevantne informacije. dakle, kako bi generično tijelo postalo potpuno individualiziran akter koji djeluje u specifičnoj situaciji, inskripcija koja nosi propoziciju u informacijskom objektu mora proći kroz proces deskripcije. informacija je uvijek transfomacija - deskripcija informacijskog objekta. kako bi inskripcija postala informativna, akteri trebaju prevesti informacijske objekte na njihov jezik. trebaju individualizirati kolektivne propozicije u skladu s njihovim vlastitim kriterijima i metodologijama, čineći ih relevantnim ili ne. deskripcija je, dakle, proces “trans-formiranja” prije nego “in-formiranja” aktera (latour, hermant, ). prije nego da prosmatra aktere kao osobe ograničene njihovom vlastitom deskripcijom, njihovom društvenom i kognitvnom reprezentacijom vanjskog svijeta, informacijska politika pristupa deskripciji inskripcije kao obnovi kosmosa. takav pristup nam omogućava da vidimo informacijske procese kao rezultat kompleksnih dogovaranja, pošto se transfer informacija pojavljuje kroz suptilne i višestruke transformacije (latour, : ). umjesto da jednostavno transportiraju informacije, akteri preuzimaju ulogu posrednika sposobnih da prevedu to što transportiraju, da to redefiniraju i preraspodijele, ali isto tako da to iznevjere (latour, : ). akteri tako oblikuju kontekst umjesto da budu oblikovani kontekstom, i “informacija se pretvara iz cigle u glinu, pokretana i oblikovana na jedinstvene načine od svakog korisnika” (dervin, : ). međutim, značenje informacija mora biti legitimirana od drugih aktera tako da se deskripcija mora postaviti u “veću sliku” da bi bila komparativna s postojećim standardima. individualna propozicija mora biti kontekstualizirana kako bi postala relevantna za druge. kontekstualizacija pruža zajednički jezik za heterogene entitete. ništa ne veže ljudske aktere, neljudske aktere, različite domene interesa te različita vremena i prostore, kao kontekst. povezani zajedničkim kontekstom, različiti entiteti su ovisni jedni od drugih. međutim, akteri nisu postavljeni u kontekst nego su povezani s kontekstom. kontekst i njegov značaj su konstruirani od strane aktera. akteri uvezuju individualne interpretacije s kontekstom da bi postali značajni za druge aktere. vol , br. , . ( - ) ovo često stvara nove informacijske potrebe ili mijenja prioritete postojećih informacijskih potreba što utječe na cirkulaciju informacijske kosmopolitike. zbog toga je trenutak kontekstualizacije često početna točka za razne vrste serendipitnosti (pettigrew, ), i kao takav je vjerovatno najkreativniji moment cirkulacije jer pruža najveću moguću kombinaciju propozicija. kontekstualizacija dozvoljava “maksimalizaciju osporavanja” (latour, ) tako da kosmos nije preuranjeno pojednostavljen u neku vrstu sporazuma. informacijska politika nije nastojanje da se nekim čudom svi akteri sporazumiju, nego je to nešto što će sve aktere učiniti prisutnim na način da se sporazum donese na što je moguće teži način, tako da se spriječe sve prečice ili simplifikacije te suspendiraju bilo koje apriori razlike kada je riječ o tome što će se, ili neće, uzeti u obzir (stengers, : ). kontekstualizacija, dakle, pruža prostor za korektnu proceduru prije nego što se odluke donesu o tome što ostaje u cirkulaciji, a što ide van. ovaj trenutak pruža akterima mogućnost da se usporede s drugim akterima tako što ih uvezuje u isti kontekst prije nego što se neke informacije odbace, a druge standardiziraju. standardizacija je proces kroz koji se informacija artikulira u kolektivnu propoziciju. privremeno rješenje za početnu nedoumicu je omogućeno dodjeljivanjem biti informacijama kroz sporazumijevanje. Što je bio objekt nedoumice, postaje objekt sporazuma. neke informacije su standardizirane, neke su odbačene tijekom ovog procesa koji stvara unutrašnjost i vanjštinu cirkulacije kroz koju kolektiv (kosmos) dobiva oblik, veličinu i identitet predstavljen kroz kolektivne propozicije. ovaj pokret od konteksta do standarda je pokret od generičnog do specifičnog kolektiva, pokret od fleksibilnosti do izvjesnosti. dok kontekstualizacija omogućuje raznovrsnost što omogućuje komparaciju, standardizacija omogućuje hijerarhiju što omogućava jedinstvo. međutim, kolektivne propozicije mogu dostići stabilnost samo u konstantnoj cirkulaciji. dok je dramatična promjena uvijek moguća s iznenadnom pojavom vanjske inskripcije, najčešće promjene su suptilne, ali regularne. svaki novi krug cirkulacije je novi test kredibilnosti kolektivnih propozicija. važno je primijetiti da takva cirkulacija sporazumijevanja ne proizvodi izjave nego propozicije. da parafraziramo latoura ( : ), ogromna je razlika pričati o informacijskoj praksi ako se koriste propozicije (koje mogu biti artikulirane i neartikulirane) umjesto izjava (koje su ili točne ili netočne). razlika, dakle, ne može biti oštrija jer se izjave odnose na preciznost, a propozicije su rezultat artikulacije. dok zahtjevanje preciznosti ignorira sporazumijevanje, i kao takvo paralizira cirkulaciju informacijske kosmopolitike, artikulacija je skoro sinonim za kosmopolitiku u kojoj heterogeni entiteti izmjenjuju svojstva u konstantnom sporazumjevanju. kao takve, kolektivne propozicije pružaju lokalni totalitet, dakle, totalitet kojim se može upravljati, a što na kraju pruža razrješenje početne nedoumice. međutim, takva razrješenja su uvijek privremena pošto se kroz novu inskripciju stvara nova nedoumica. slika ne ilustrira punu integraciju informacije u kolektivnu propoziciju nego više jedan krug ove spore transformacije. svaka nova informacija prolazi kroz ovaj proces. ako je odbačena prije nego što je artikulirana u propoziciju još uvijek može biti uključena kroz neku buduću inskripciju, kada je nova konfiguracija cirkulacije pogodnija. svaka odbačena informacija je nova mogućnost e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici u novom krugu, i svaka prihvaćena propozicija se ponovo postavlja u novu inskripciju i u novi informacijski objekt. ono što je nevažna informacija u jednom krugu može biti krucijalna informacija u nekom drugom krugu. informacija nije sama po sebi značajna nego postiže značajnu poziciju u cirkulaciji. informacija se prevodi u svakom momentu cirkulacije. međutim, ove transformacije nisu iznenadne modifikacije nego su to suptilne promjene limitirane granicama mreže. koliko god da su suptilne, ove transformacije ipak modificiraju konfiguraciju veza unutar cirkulacije. kao rezultat, novi krug često donosi potrebu za novim individualnim interpretacijama, novi pririteti se stvaraju i pomalo mijenjaju kontekst, odnosno, standardi se pomalo mijenjaju stvarajući potrebe za novim inskripcijama. sve ovo proizvodi nove informacijske potrebe i nove nedoumice što drži na životu cirkulaciju informacijske kosmopolitike. pomjerajući fokus s individualnog uma i društvenog konteksta na ovu cirkulaciju, model informacijske kosmopolitike pruža alternativu postojećim modelima informacijskog ponašanja. znanje nije shavaćeno kao kognitivno ili društveno nego prije kao nešto što je distribuirano. model sugerira da su i individua i društvo samo privremeni efekti procesa individualizacije i kolektivizacije, i kao takvi ne mogu biti korišteni za objašnjenje informacijske prakse. individua i kolektiv su samo momenti informacijske kosmopolitike povezani skriptama koje cirkuliraju između njih. u jednom trenutku kolektiv propisuje ulogu individue, da bi u drugom trenutku individua propisivala ulogu kolektiva. ovi posljedični momenti izmjene svojstava između individue i kolektiva su to što drži cirkulaciju informacijske kosmopolitike i što omogućava, u istom trenutku, i raznolikost individualnih veza i njihovo ujedinjenje u zajednički svijet - kosmos koji se konstanto redefinira cirkulacijom. praćenje ove cirkulacije može ukazati kako korisnici prevode informacije da bi bile relevantne njihovim interesima; kako oni kontekstualiziraju njihove individualne propozicije tako da bi bile prihvaćene od kolektiva; kako se kolektivne propozicije upisuju u informacijske objekte; i kako novi informacijski objekti stvaraju nove nedoumice koje pokreću novi krug inforacijske kosmopolitike. studij slučaja: društveno čitanje i blog kao alati za kreativno učenje ova sekcija opisuje studij slučaja u kojem smo implementirali informacijsku kosmopolitiku kao model za dizajniranje ambijenta učenja u okviru jednog kolegija na sveučilištu u zenici. koristile su se i formalne i neformalne karakteristike web tehnologija kako bi se omogućio prostor za studentsku kreativnost, mogućnost da se kontekstualiziraju njihove neformalne individualne propozicije u formalne akademske propozicije. studenti su ocjenjivani u njihovim aktivnostima u društvenom čitanju i pisanju blogova. dok su i društveno čitanje i pisanje blogova koncepti koji se uobičajeno odnose na neformalno učenje, blog se u ovom slučaju koristio kao alat za formalno učenje. inskripcija. svaki tjedan u semestru je počinjao s inskripcijom nove teme na web stranicama kolegija. na početku tjedna, predavač je postavio novu temu, pisanu na formalnom akademskom jeziku, koja se nije mnogo razlikovala od lekcija u tipičnim akademskim udžbenicima, s postavljenim ciljevima, zaključcima i preporučenom literaturom. svaka lekcija je, dakle, predstavljala glavne vol , br. , . ( - ) kolektivne propozicije akademskog polja koje su implicitno upisane u informacijske objekte ciljajući generičnog individualnog studenta. jedina razlika od formalnog obrazovnog okruženja je bila što su informacijski objekti u kojem su upisane ove kolektivne propozicije bile web-stranice, a ne tiskani udžbenik. dakle, ovaj proces se nije mnogo razlikovao od bilo kojeg formalnog učenja u učionici. međutim, proces inskripcije je rezultirao različitim informacijskim objektom – digitalnim, a ne tiskanim udžbenikom. deskripcija. ovaj digitalni informacijski objekt je onda interpretiran (i u analognom okruženju) kroz proces deskripcije. kao što smo vidjeli, glavni proces u momentu deskripcije je informacijska relevantnost. studenti su čitali temu paragraf po paragraf i pokušavali odrediti relevantnost sadržaja za njihovo poznavanje teme, za temu njihovog eseja, kao i relevantnost za njihov život generalno. transformirali su implicitne kolektivne propozicije u eksplicitne individualne propozicije pozivajući se na njihove vlastite kriterije i na situacijsku relevantnost informacija. iako je koncept situacijske relevantnosti (wilson, ) primarno logički koncept, također je i personalni koncept koji se odnosi na relacije između informacije i osobnog individualnog pogleda na svijet i osobne situacije u tom svijetu (wilson, : ). ovaj koncept se, dakle, odnosi na procese individualnog donošenja odluka o tome može li se informacija upisana u informacijski objekt opisati kao direktno situacijski relevantna osobnim interesima i je li relevantna osobnom pogledu na svijet. proces deskripcije u ovom slučaju se nije mnogo razlikovao od procesa koji bi se dogodio s tradicionalnim udžbenikom. bio je to jedan neformalan proces transformacije u kojem su studenti pokušavali razumjeti nove koncepte, napraviti relaciju između novih i obiteljskih koncepata, i interpretirati koncepte na način da ih identificiraju kao relevantne ili nerelevantne za njihovu situaciju u učenju i za njihov pogled na svijet. kolektivne propozicije akademske discipline, upisane u digitalni informacijski objekt od strane predavača, bile su interpretirane od strane studenata i involvirane u njihove individualne propozicije. kontekstualizacija. trenutak kontekstualizacije je, međutim, bio sasvim različit nego što bi bio u tradicionalnom kontekstu učenja s tiskanim udžbenikom. dok je moguće kontekstualizirati individualne propozicije u tradicionalnom obrazovnom okruženju kroz diskusije sa studentima u učionici i izvan nje, i čak kroz procese u kojima studenti postavljaju izazove svom vlastitom znanju, proces društvenog čitanja se pokazao kao aktivnost koja pruža značajno više mogućnosti za kontekstualizaciju studentskih individualnih propozicija. neograničena mogućnost kombinacija različitih konteksta pruža svojevrsnu arenu za studentsku kreativnost omogućavajući kompariranje različitih interpretacija. jedan od studentskih zadataka u ovom slučaju je bio da koriste društveno čitanje za komentiranje, anotacije i diskutiranje postavljene teme. društveno čitanje je pružalo mogućnost studentima da postave njihove individualne interpretacije teksta u kontekst s ostalim interpretacijama, tako da se mogu usporediti s drugim individualnim propozicijama. ovakva kontekstualizacija je bila proces umrežavanja različitih elemenata kako bi se generirao “efekt značaja” (frohmann, : ). e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici studentske individualne interpretacije su postavljene u “veću sliku” kako bi postale značajne za druge. ovo je često stvaralo serendipitnost, što je bio glavni izvor kreativnosti u procesu učenja. različite studentske interpretacije su pružale mogućnosti za kreativno učenje kroz različite pristupe tekstu. u mnogim slučajevima različite individualne propozicije su bile kombinirane u nove propozicije ili su kreirane na nove načine kako bi se shvatio tekst. Čak je predavač izvjestio o kreativnosti stvorenoj u ovom procesu: društveno čitanje je bilo od velike pomoći u pripremi mojih predavanja. studentska kontekstualizacija teme je otkrivala stvari koje bi trebalo dodatno pojasniti i stvari koje su zahtijevale više pažnje. ponekad bi čak studenti donijeli nove resurse i nove načine za prezentiranje sadržaja. na primjer, jedan tjedan su dva studenta diskutirala valorizaciju tehničke reprodukcije umjetničkih objekata. iako diskusija nije bila direktno relevantna za temu, pružila mi je dobar primjer za prezentaciju druge teme, tako da sam promijenio tekst predavanja da bih uvrstio taj primjer. dakle, društveno čitanje nije samo podržavalo kreativnost u učenju, nego i u predavanju. društveno čitanje je omogućilo da predavač identificira probleme koje treba razjasniti pošto se predavanje dešavalo uvijek poslije aktivnosti društvenog čitanja na određenu temu. predavanja su služila kao neka vrsta tranzicije između kontekstualizacije i standardizacije. dok je društveno čitanje omogućavalo “maksimum osporavanja”, predavanja su pokušavala uvezati studentske debate tijekom društvenog čitanja sa standardima akademske discipline. međutim, predavanja su još uvijek bila unutar momenta kontekstualizacije pošto su još uvijek dozvoljavala individualnim interpretacijama da budu testirane kroz debatu. standardizacija. iako su, dakle, standardi bili promovirani za vrijeme predavanja, trenutak standardizacije je počinjao sa studentskim pisanjem blogova na temu predavanja. od studenata se zahtijevalo da pišu blogove u akademskom stilu. iako je blog kao forma pisanja uobičajeno shvaćen kao neformalan način argumentacije, cilj kolegija je bio da se blog koristi da bi se studenti uveli u akademsko pisanje, što je trebalo kulminirati pisanjem eseja na kraju semestra. studenti su često opominjani da koriste akademski jezik, da korektno koriste citate i da fokusiraju svoje pisanje na argumentaciju - slično kao u akademskom eseju što podrazumijeva izbjegavanje jednostavnog iznošenja individualnih/subjektivnih interpretacija. dakle, ova tranzicija iz situacijske relevantnosti u akademske standarde je tranzicija iz fleksibilnosti u izvjesnost. dok je kontekstualizacija tijekom društvenog čitanja pružala studentima raznovrsnost ideja, standardizacija je pružala jedinstvo ideja prilikom pisanja blogova ohrabrujući studente da povežu njihove ideje s akademskim normama i standardima. ukratko, studentske aktivnosti u društvenom čitanju i pisanju blogova su obilježile puni krug modela informacijske kosmopolitike i to svakog tjedna tijekom semestra. prvo je predavač postavljao inskripciju kolektivnih propozicija u informacijski objekt - interaktivne web-stranice koje su omogućile anotaciju svakog paragrafa teksta koji je predstavljao sadržaj u obliku udžbeničkih lekcija. vol , br. , . ( - ) drugo, studenti su individualno čitali tekst na isti način kako bi čitali tradicionalni udžbenik. u ovom procesu deskripcije, studenti su pokušavali evaluirati relevantnost teksta za njihove zadatke i za njihov život generalno, što je rezultiralo njihovim individualnim propozicijama. treće, relevantne informacije u formi individualnih propozicija su postavljene u kontekst tijekom studentske aktivnosti društvenog čitanja. ovakva kontekstualizacija je stvorila mnoge mogućnosti za kreativno učenje. u mnogim slučajevima su studenti dolazili do novih ideja baveći se individualnim interpretacijama drugih studenata. razumijevanje (a u nekim slučajevim i nerazumijevanje) interpretacija drugih studenata je bio poticaj kreativnim interpretacijama teksta. Četvrto, proces standardizacije je bio implementiran kroz pisanje blogova. u ovoj fazi studenti su pokušavali formalno uvezati individualne propozicije sa standardima akademskog područja i transformirati ih u kolektivne propozicije koje bi mogle biti u skladu s normama kolegija i discipline. konačno, mi smo pročitali sve studentske blogove, i po našem mišljenju, blogovi su regularno pružali mogućnost diskusije, odnosno, oni su pozivali na nove nedoumice što bi proizvelo nastavljanje cirkulacije informacijske kosmopolitike. međutim, iako je komentiranje blogova bilo tehnički ponuđeno, studenati ga nisu koristili. po mišljenju dvoje sudionika, studenti nisu komentirali blogove drugih studenata jer se takvi komentari nisu ocjenjivali. zbog toga je cirkulacija informacijske kosmopolitike bila ograničena na jedan jedini krug u svim ovim slučajevima. moguće implikacije ovaj studij slučaja je potvrdio glavne postavke modela informacijske kosmopolitike prema kojima informacijska praksa cirkulira kroz momente inskripcije, deskripcije, kontekstualizacije, i standardizacije, te kroz posljedične procese individualizacije i kolektivizacije. međutim ovaj studij je, također, osvijetlio procese formalnog i neformalnog učenja koji su, također, bili posljedični, ali u malo drugačijoj konfiguraciji. formalno učenje je uključivalo momente standardizacije kolektivnih propozicija i njihove inskripcije u nove informacijske objekte. nedoumica koja je stvorena susretom s novim informacijskim objektom je u pravilu bila poticaj za procese neformalnog učenja koje bi krenulo s momentom deskripcije i nastavljalo se kroz trenutak kontekstualizacije. kao i individualizacija i kolektivizacija, formalno i neformalno učenje su bili međusobno ovisni procesi i imali su posljedični karakter. neformalno učenje je omogućavalo kreativnost, ali ta kreativnost nije bila moguća bez procesa formalnog učenja. formalno učenje je pružalo temelj za procese neformalnog učenja. momenti neformalnog učenja (deskripcija i kontekstualizacija) bili su nepredvidljivi i neograničeni, ali, u isto vrijeme, u većoj mjeri i kreativni pošto su omogućavali više prilika za ono što sawyer i dezutter ( ) nazivaju “kolaborativno nastajanje” - iznenadne situacije u kojima aktivnosti imaju nepredvidljive rezultate i u kojima je svaka akcija ovisna o prijašnjim akcijama. dok je formalno učenje koristilo karakteristike weba . , koje su implementirane kroz statične web stranice kolegija, neformalno učenje je implementirano kroz interaktivne web . medije kao što je to bila aplikacija društvenog čitanja na web-stranicama kolegija. e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici društveno čitanje je pružalo prostor za studentsku kontekstualizaciju novog znanja. kao takvo, bilo je glavni izvor za kreativno učenje. studenti su u ovom slučaju tvrdili da je društveno čitanje često bilo izvor “eureka” efekta, trenutaka koji su se događali kada bi bili u nedoumici oko tumačenja nekih argumenata iz udžbenika, a kada su im komentari drugih studenata omogućili ne samo da razjasne te argumente nego da ih postave u različite kontekste. društveno čitanje je, dakle, omogućavalo “kolaborativno nastajanje” na različitim nivoima i u različitim fazama. ono je omogućavalo prostor za deskripciju i kontekstualizaciju formalnih argumenata iz udžbenika u studentske individualne interpretacije, ali isto tako i za dalju kontekstualizaciju ovih interpretacija od strane drugih studenata. društveno čitanje, kao web . medij i koncept, modelirali su mehanizam i za suočavanje i za stvaranje neizvjesnosti i nedoumice, što je gotovo uvijek bio poticaj za kreativno neformalno učenje. s druge strane, blog, kao još jedan web . medij, koristio se radije za formalno učenje. naš slučaj ukazuje da je korištenje bloga za formalno učenje moguće, ali ne pruža najefektivniji oblik standardizacije. blog se koristio za rezimiranje teme s predavanja u stilu kratkog eseja s formalnom strukturom i napisanom u formalnom akademskom stilu. iako se ovo pokazalo kao korisna vježba za akademsko pisanje, studenti nisu bili dovoljno stimulirani da komentiraju jedni drugima blogove. zbog prezauzetosti studenata s drugim studentskim aktivnostima i kolegijima, studenti nisu našli dovoljno motivacije da diskutiraju tuđe blogove pošto nisu bili ocjenjivani za takve aktivnosti. mi pretpostavljamo da je stimuliranje studenata da komentiraju blogove drugih studenata moglo otvoriti više mogućnosti za dalju cirkulaciju informacijske kosmopolitike, dakle, za dalju kontekstualizaciju i kolaborativno nastajanje koje bi takve aktivnosti poticale. bell i winn ( ) tvrde da se distribuirani sustavi učenja, kao samoorganizirani sustavi, moraju nositi s neizvjesnošću. nivo neizvjesnosti unutar takvih sustava bi se trebao smanjivati tijekom vremena sve dokle sudionici ne dođu do “sporazumnog razumijevanja”. međutim, oni također sugeriraju da iako ovo implicira kako mora postojati nekakav kraj učenja gdje se postiže izvjesnost, postignuće izvjesnosti u jednoj stvari uobičajeno stvara otkriće neizvjesnosti u nečemu drugom. model informacijske kosmopolitike uzima u obzir načine kako se nositi s neizvjesnošću i nedoumicama i kako to koristiti da bi se održavala kreativnost u učenju. model tvrdi da je nedoumica poticaj za bilo kakvu vrstu informacijske prakse. akter prevodi informacijske objekte u individualne propozicije po svojim kriterijima relevantnosti i postavlja ih u kontekst po svojim vlastitim interesima. ove individualne propozicije su onda standardizirane u kolektivne propozicije kako bi omogućile sporazum između različitih aktera, što pruža razrješenje početne nedoumice. kolektivne propozicije bi se mogle smatrati kulturom kao što je definira teorija distibuirane kognicije pošto postavljaju norme za kolektiv. hollan, hutchins i kirsh ( ) definiraju kulturu kao akumulaciju privremenih rješenja na često pojavljivane probleme i, kao takva, kultura nam pomaže da izbjegnemo, uvijek iznova, rješavanje istih problema. međutim, jedna kolektivna propozicija nas može, kao i kultura, zaslijepiti za druge načine razmišljanja, čineći nas da povjerujemo da su određene stvari nemoguće iako su moguće, posebno ako se stvari pogledaju na drugi način (p. ). momenti neformalnog vol , br. , . ( - ) učenja u ovom modelu (deskripcija i kontekstualizacija) pružaju mogućnosti da se vide drugačiji načini razmišljanja i kao takve omogućuju distribuiranu kreativnost. jedna stvar koja nas je iznenadila u ovoj studiji se odnosi na grantowenovu ( ) teoriju “jačine slabih karika” u društvenim mrežama. po ovoj teoriji, nismo mogli očekivati veći broj novih kombinacija informacija, te, dakle, nismo ni očekivali velik broj slučajeva kreativnosti u studentskim debatama pošto smo pretpostavljali da su studenti povezani strogim karikama jer su studirali zajedno dvije godine u maloj grupi. teorija tvrdi da nove informacije imaju veću šansu da prodru kroz slabije karike pošto su većinu informacija, koje cirkuliraju društvenom mrežom s jakim karikama, već apsolvirali članova mreže. nove informacije, dakle, u pravilu dolaze kroz slabije karike. međutim, bili smo iznenađeni količinom novih informacija koje cirkuliraju kroz, naizgled, jake karike. razlog ovome je bio što su ove karike samo naizgled jake. iako su se studenti prilično dobro međusobno poznavali, nove karike u mreži su se konstantno stvarale kroz nove kontekste i kroz nove informacijske objekte. jedna studentica je objašnjavala da je društveno čitanje bilo često posvećeno temama o kojima nikad nije diskutirala s prijateljima s ovog kolegija, tako da je i sama bila iznenađena činjenicom da su njeni prijatelj imali takve informacije. opisivala je takvu situaciju kao da su nove informacije dolazile od slabih karika, a ne dobrih prijatelja - kao da je dobar prijatelj iznenada u novoj situaciji postao nova osoba. ovo sugerira da ne treba gledati samo mrežu kao dinamičan entitet nego i njene karike, pošto karike mijenjaju svojstva u novoj situaciji i novom kontekstu, transformirajući slabe karike u jake i obrnuto. ovo također otvara pitanje je li kreativnost rezultat konfiguracije mreže pametnih ljudi ili pametnih konteksta, ili oboje, to jest pametnih ljudi u situaciji/kontekstu (barab, plucker, )? u našem slučaju web . medija je omogućila značajno više situacija nego što bi to bilo moguće u tradicionalnoj učionici i bez ovih medija. međutim, nije bilo dovoljno uposliti ove medije u kolegij da bi se razvila kreativnost. nivo kreativnosti je bio visoko ovisan o načinu korištenja medija. dok je aplikacija društvenog čitanja pružila prostor za kreativnost jer je bila korištena kao interaktivni medij, blogovi su se koristili kao medij s jednostranom komunikacijom, ne ohrabrujući interaktivnost koja je mogla omogućiti dalju cirkulaciju i otvoriti prostor za višestruku kontekstualizaciju. naša pretpostavka je da je blog korišten na način da je povećao stupanj interaktivnosti te da je bilo više mogućnosti za kontekstualizaciju zato što više situacija (i time više osoba u situaciji) može pružiti veći broj slabih karika. slabe karike su, u slučaju društvenog čitanja, stvarale više neizvjesnosti i nedoumica, što je bio glavni poticaj za cirkulaciju informacijske kosmopolitike i time poticaj za distribuiranu kreativnost. e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici sažetak ovaj članak je pokušao istražiti veze između web . medija i kreativnosti u obrazovnom okruženju. prijašnja istraživanja su identificirala da se web inicijalno koristio samo kao produžetak ili dodatak formalnog učenja u učionici i zbog toga se istraživanje korištenja web medija u obrazovanju fokusiralo na pitanja kao što su studentski pristup internetu, teškoće u traženju online informacija i pitanja koja se odnose na kredibilitet tako pronađenih informacija. jako malo studija je ispitivalo povezanost kretivnosti u učenju i novih web medija te mogućnosti da se povežu neformalno učenje i formalno učenje u učionici. da bi se diferenciralo inicijalno korištenje weba u obrazovanju od novih oblika web medija, skovani su pojmovi web . i web . , definirajući web . obrazovno okruženje kao jednostavni transfer tradicionalnog obrazovnog okruženja u nove web medije, dok je web . pojam koji se odnosi na transformaciju takvih okruženja u kompletno različita obrazovna okruženja koja podjednako uzimaju u obzir i formalno i neformalno učenje. web . pruža nove oblike obrazovnih okruženja koji omogućavaju studentima participiranje na mnogo načina ovisno o njihovim vještinama i interesima te na taj način stvaraju kulturu participacije koja je, prethodno, definirana konceptima kreativnosti i društvenih relacija. dok se koncept kreativnosti tradicionalno vezao za individualni um prije nego za društveni kontekst i relacije, kultura participacije na webu je ukazala na distribuiranu prirodu kreativnosti i kognicije. mi smo tvrdili u ovom članku da povezivanje kulture participacije u web . medijima, i koncepata distribuirane kognicije i kreativnosti može biti efikasan način da se dizajniraju obrazovna okruženja. prijašnje studije su sugerirale da web . mediji nisu dovoljno integrirani u obrazovanje zbog nedostatka modeliranja za takvu integraciju i nedostatka opisa najboljih praksi integriranja. kako bismo pružili jedan takav model i slučaj studija integracije web . medija u obrazovanju, mi smo adaptirali model informacijskog ponašanja za dizajniranje aktivnosti učenja na jednom kolegiju na našem sveučilištu. naša studija je potvrdila da se predloženi model može koristiti za integraciju web medija podržavajući kretivnost u učenju. formalno učenje je pružilo agendu za neformalno učenje koje je pokrenuto neizvjesnošću koja je donesena formalnim propozicijama implicitno upisanim u informacijske objekte (web-stranice koje su prezentirale nove lekcije). studenti su pokušavali načiniti deskripciju ovih inskripcija, i postaviti ih u nove kontekste kroz društveno čitanje. društveno čitanje je omogućilo sučelje za različite kontekste što je rezultiralo bogatom distibuiranom kreativnošću. ovo istraživanje pokazuje da korištenje web . medija može podržavati studentsku kreativnost. međutim, korištenje bloga u ovom slučaju je pokazalo da nije dovoljno samo uposliti web . alate zato što stupanj kreativnosti ovisi o načinima kako se taj alat koristi. ako interaktivnost medija nije u potpunosti iskorištena, i ako se umjesto toga alata koristi za jednosmjernu komunikaciju, mala je šansa da će takvi mediji stvoriti prostor za distribuiranu kreativnost. ovaj studij slučaja, dakle, sugerira da postoji prostor za dalje istraživanje modeliranja korisničkog ponašanja u web . obrazovnim okruženjima. mi smo koristili model informacijskog ponašanja za dizajniranje takvog obrazovnog okruženja. važna propozicija ovog studija je da postoji prostor za uvezivanje istraživanja vol , br. , . ( - ) informacijskog ponašanja i istraživanja distribuirane kognicije sa studijima kreativnosti i medija generalno, te osobito sa studijama kreativnosti u web obrazovnim okruženjima. zahvala istraživanje za ovaj rad finansirano je od strane programa eu (fp ) pod brojem pcig -ga- - . (the research leading to this publication has received funding from the european union seventh framework programme (fp ) under grant agreement number pcig -ga- - .) literatura: barab, s. a. & plucker, j. a. ( ). smart people or smart contexts? cognition, ability, and talent development in an age of situated approaches to knowing and learning. educational psychologist. ( ), - . bell, f. ( ). connectivism: its place in theory-informed research and innovation in technology- enabled learning. the international review of research in open and distributed learning. 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( ). social technology as a new medium in the classroom. new england journal of higher education, ( ), - . e. tabak i d. kukić, modeliranje ambijenta učenja u digitalnoj humanistici modelling learning environments in digital humanities abstract new media have opened new opportunities in education, which are based on inherent features of new media such as interactivity and non-linear narration. the concept of social web . media has enabled web users to be transformed from consumers to creators of information. however, previous studies suggested that web . media was not not enough integrated in education because the lack of modelling for such integration as well as research-based best practices. in order to provide a model and a case study of integration of web . media in education, we have adapted a model of information practices to design learning activities in a course at our university. our assumption was that linking the participatory culture of web . media and the concept of distributed cognition and creativity can be an effective way in designing learning environment. the case study confirmed that using the web . tools in learning environments can foster students’ creativity. however, it is not enough to simply employ the web . tools in learning environments as the level of creativity depends of the ways of using the media. if the interactivity of the web . is not fully used, and instead these tools are used for one-way communication, there is a little chance that they will create space for distributed creativity. key words: web . media, learning environments, information behaviour, distributed cognition, participatory culture, digital humanities. vol , br. , . ( - ) this journal is open access and this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international license. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / foreword photogrammetric analysis of historical image repositories for virtual reconstruction in the field of digital humanities f. maiwald a , t. vietze a, d. schneider a, f. henze b, s. münster c, f. niebling d a institute of photogrammetry and remote sensing, technische universität dresden, germany - theresa.vietze@mailbox.tu- dresden.de, (danilo.schneider, ferdinand.maiwald)@tu-dresden.de b informationsverarbeitung im bauwesen/vermessungskunde, brandenburgische technische universität cottbus-senftenberg, germany - frank.henze@b-tu.de c media center, technische universität dresden, germany - sander.muenster@tu-dresden.de d human-computer interaction, julius-maximilians-universität würzburg, germany - florian.niebling@uni-wuerzburg.de commission ii key words: historical images, structure-from-motion, image configuration, point cloud, virtual d reconstruction abstract: historical photographs contain high density of information and are of great importance as sources in humanities research. in addition to the semantic indexing of historical images based on metadata, it is also possible to reconstruct geometric information about the depicted objects or the camera position at the time of the recording by employing photogrammetric methods. the approach presented here is intended to investigate (semi-) automated photogrammetric reconstruction methods for heterogeneous collections of historical (city) photographs and photographic documentation for the use in the humanities, urban research and history sciences. from a photogrammetric point of view, these images are mostly digitized photographs. for a photogrammetric evaluation, therefore, the characteristics of scanned analog images with mostly unknown camera geometry, missing or minimal object information and low radiometric and geometric resolution have to be considered. in addition, these photographs have not been created specifically for documentation purposes and so the focus of these images is often not on the object to be evaluated. the image repositories must therefore be subjected to a preprocessing analysis of their photogrammetric usability. investigations are carried out on the basis of a repository containing historical images of the kronentor (‘crown gate’) of the dresden zwinger. the initial step was to assess the quality and condition of available images determining their appropriateness for generating three-dimensional point clouds from historical photos using a structure-from-motion evaluation (sfm). then, the generated point clouds were assessed by comparing them with current measurement data of the same object. . introduction in recent decades there was much research on photogrammetric reconstruction from historical and user generated content. with regards to a reconstruction from heterogeneous photographs, a focus in previous research was specially to involve large amounts of photographs from web based repositories (ioannides et al., ), (kersten et al., ). for example, snavely et al. ( ) have examined the reconstruction of the great wall of china from various internet photo collections. moreover, historical photography has been used to reconstruct lost heritage in various projects, sometimes with broad recognition, for instance the reconstruction of the buddha statues in bamiyan afghanistan which were destroyed in the early s (grün et al., ). most of these projects are dealing with photographs not more than a few decades old, only a small number of projects rely heavily on photographs which are more than years old (gouveia et al., ), (henze et al., ). one example is the reconstruction of the paluxy river tracks from s photographs by roland t. bird from (falkingham et al., ). even if basic workflows are independent of the age of the photograph or creation process – digital or non-digital – by which it was created, older photographs, are more challenging to work with due to archival quality, issues of digitization, technical equipment and film media. another challenge relates to the context and purpose of photographs in digital image repositories. since there is much research on several purposes of photographic production– e.g. for documentation of architecture, press, personal memories - in the field of visual studies (remondino et al., ), these aspects can affect photogrammetric reconstruction of architecture with regards for instance to completeness of photographic documentation or ‘occlusions’ in images caused for example by persons or cars. this contribution presents an approach to reconstructing an object which was commonly photographed at different times. photographs used in this paper come from the photo library of the saxon state and university library dresden (slub). the historical images used show parts of the dresden zwinger, especially the kronentor. firstly the hits in the photo library were filtered and sorted manually by means of sources (maps, plans, photography) and for general image quality. furthermore the characteristics of scanned analogue images with unknown camera geometry, differing radiometric resolution or even destroyed image sources had to be considered. in the next step the photogrammetric quality of the photos for the three- dimensional reconstruction with structure-from-motion (sfm) was evaluated. the rear and front sides of the kronentor were separated in this investigation because of a lack of tie points between the two sides. in the future these two parts will be combined. in a second approach the historical photos were processed with additional current images. this made it possible to use more the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, – march , nafplio, greece this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - historical images for the sfm calculation and thus to generate a denser point cloud. finally the quality of the generated historical point cloud was compared to a present sfm point cloud and a point cloud created by terrestrial laser scanning. the investigated object is part of the zwinger - one of the most visited sights of the city of dresden. the kronentor forms the western entrance of the palace complex. both sides are affiliated with a long gallery, which are enclosed in front by a moat. over this moat leads a bridge to the kronentor. it was built in as a gate with an additional tower in the baroque style. two pairs of columns form the main component of the passage. the gate is two-storied, and the upper floor can only be reached through the roof corridor of the wings. a parapet wall encloses the hall in the upper floor, which is open on four sides. the kronentor is completed by a bulbous dome with a golden crown. in large sections of the zwinger, including the kronentor, were heavily damaged by bombs. it was reconstructed after the war, and later portico with gold fittings was added to the dome. between and the kronentor was refurbished completely. with the help of historical images and photogrammetric methods, the original building can be reconstructed. in doing so, it is possible to reveal structural changes in comparison to current models. figure . overview of the zwinger with historical images of the kronentor (google maps) . data sources in order to find suitable images of the dresden zwinger, more than historical photos from different periods were filtered from the photo library of the saxon state and university library dresden (slub) by a keyword search. the data set could be reduced to images by more detailed search criteria. at first sight, this is a very large data base, but this was limited to photographs by applying further selection criteria. these criteria can be divided into two groups. firstly, all recordings which do not appear to show the kronentor or are not suitable for a later d reconstruction using structure-from-motion (sfm) were removed. these included drawings, postcards and sketches. night shots and recordings, which depict the kronentor scaffolded were also rejected, as this would affect the image matching results. recordings at a greater distance from the object do not provide the necessary level of detail for a d reconstruction. an image segment should also show the kronentor at full size. considering these factors the data set could be reduced from to images, and then reduced further by assessing the quality of the photos. images with a low scan resolution are often not suitable for sfm, since certain details are not represented adequately. as a result, too few feature points were found, which means that the image orientation may be computed inaccurately, or not at all. in the subsequent dense matching process, many wrong point assignments were found, which led to outliers within the final point cloud. radiation or blurring will also distort the result. a few pictures had to be deselected because they were warped or contained kinks. finally, a data set with images was created (compare examples in fig. ). it was assumed that this data set was in principle suitable for the generation of point clouds using sfm. figure . examples for historical images of the kronentor used for sfm taking a closer look at the selected images, however, it was found that many recordings are taken from the same imaging direction, whereas pictures from other perspectives are not available. the historical photographs are taken mainly by private persons or newspaper photographers, who did not photograph the kronentor according to photogrammetric criteria. this is a problem for sfm, since the overlapping areas between photos from two different imaging positions are not sufficient to be able to link them together. in addition, the baseline between the images is too large to reliably determine homologous image points. therefore, images of interjacent positions are required, but they either do not exist or their resolution is too low. the local conditions also restricted the photographer’s choice of shooting location. the recordings can be subdivided into two groups: those made from outside or inside the zwinger (fig. ). a point cloud was generated for each of these groups. the two point clouds could be transferred into a common coordinate system at a later stage. . data processing and results applying agisoft photoscan it was evaluated whether point clouds can be created from historical images with sfm (lowe, ). through previous research and experience, this program promised the best results (remondino et al., ), (santagati et al., ). other software, such as visualsfm, was also tested. however, the comparison of the programs should not be the focus here. the investigation of the point clouds created from the previously selected historical recordings is described in this section. some of the point clouds represent the side of the kronentor, which is outside the dresden zwinger. another point cloud represents the object area visible from the courtyard (compare fig. ). the calibration of the cameras was determined by the self-calibration within photoscan. the the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, – march , nafplio, greece this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - generated point clouds are still arbitrarily scaled and are not registered in a global coordinate system. . generation of a point cloud exclusively using historical images to create the point cloud which represents the kronentor from outside, at first images with a subjective high quality were imported into photoscan. however, in the workflow it was noted that some images did not have enough overlapping areas with others. therefore, only images could be automatically orientated and then used to generate the point cloud (fig. ). figure . point cloud generated from historical images (exterior view of the zwinger) first of all, observing the point cloud, the kronentor can be recognized. small details, such as sandstone figures on the wings are only visible schematically (compare fig. ). this is because the given resolution of the images does not comprise these fine details. during the reconstruction of the dresden zwinger and the kronentor after the damage of , small structural details were altered or replaced. the exact years when images were recorded are not known. it can therefore be assumed that images from different periods of the building’s history were integrated into the image block. the structural changes led to reconstruction errors. figure . comparison of a segment originated from a historical image (left) and a point cloud (right) it should be noted that the selected photographs were mostly taken from a central position (fig. ). therefore, on the one hand, the model is incomplete in some places due to occlusions. on the other hand, the very short baselines between the camera positions lead to small intersection angles and thus to low accuracy of the computed object points. in order to achieve better results, a better imaging configuration is crucial. for this purpose, the images taken from other viewing directions, which could not be oriented initially, must be included as well. figure . historical point cloud with camera positions of the images used the second point cloud is based on photographs taken from within the dresden zwinger. however, it has to be noted that only photographs taken from the left-hand direction of view were suitable. recordings from other perspectives, which could strengthen the imaging geometry, were not included due to their low resolution. some of the images used have also been taken from a longer distance (fig. ), so the given resolution on the object is not adequate to recognize details (fig. ). in order to achieve a satisfactory result, analogue photographs with a significantly higher resolution need to be digitalized. this assumes that the analogue originals offer a higher resolution potential than the existing digitization. however, it can be assumed that a high-resolution scan is available in many cases, since until this point the preview image of the slub photo library was often used. figure . historical point cloud (interior view of the zwinger) the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, – march , nafplio, greece this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - figure . camera positions for the interior point of view . generation of a point cloud integrating historical and current images the following investigations relate only to the side of the kronentor that is visible from the outside of the dresden zwinger (see section . ). for the orientation of further historical images with more suitable imaging directions, current images are used as ‘filling material’, since they provide smaller baselines between the images (fig. ). figure . camera positions of the historical (dark blue) and the current (light blue) images figure . point cloud generated on the basis of both, historical as well as current images thus, historical images, which are located at the edge, can be orientated and subsequently included in the processing of the point cloud. figure shows that the level of detail and the number of points in the point cloud have increased significantly (from approx. . to million points in the dense cloud). however, the ‘historical points’ are superimposed with ‘current points’. this can be clearly seen by the structural changes to the crown. the historical recordings do not show the gold fittings on the roof. thus, the current images distort the historical point cloud. therefore, these points have to be removed, which is described in more detail in the following section. . generation of a point cloud from historical images with current images supporting the image orientation of historical images in the following, a point cloud is to be generated in which the current images were only included to support the determination of the orientation of the historical images. one option for doing this is to import the previously computed orientation of an image (see section . ) into a new photoscan project. this means that only historical recordings are used throughout the workflow. another option is to use the project, in which historical and current images are combined and specify that the current photos should only be taken into account for the image orientation (and the generation of the sparse point cloud) but not for the following step, in which the dense cloud is processed. in both cases, all points in the resulting point cloud originate exclusively from the historical photos. using this procedure, two other historical photos could be integrated into the image block. this made it possible to fill some gaps in the first point cloud (section . ) and the level of detail could be improved in some object areas (fig. , fig. ). the number of points in the dense point cloud could also be increased from approximately . to . million. figure . point cloud based on historical images the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, – march , nafplio, greece this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - . comparison of the point cloud with a point cloud from recent images and terrestrial laser scanner data the point cloud generated from historical images (fig. ) is compared with the point cloud, which was created from exclusively current images (fig. ). in both cases, the same settings have been used in photoscan. a visual comparison clearly shows that the current point cloud is less noisy and more details are reproduced. a third point cloud (fig. ) was generated with a terrestrial laser scanner riegl lms-z i from a total of points around the kronentor. the laser scanning point cloud, which is not yet colorized, shows the highest level of detail and the lowest noise. figure . point cloud based on recent images figure . point cloud based on terrestrial laser scanner data . conclusion and future research it is possible to generate three-dimensional point clouds from historical, digitalized photographs using structure-from-motion (sfm). furthermore triangulated and textured d models can be generated on the basis of these point clouds. this paper has shown the requirements to be met by historical photographs and how the sfm workflow can be influenced in order to create point clouds or models with a high visual quality. factors which have to be taken into account include imaging configuration, camera parameters, camera resolution and image quality. the paper discusses additional alternative methods for generating d models, such as the integrated processing of historical and current images. this approach can only be used if the architecture of the observed building has not significantly changed over time. and it has to be possible to reach the object with photogrammetric methods currently. in case of a small number of images or too long baselines between the camera positions, partial point clouds of the object were generated. in a following processing step partial models can be potentially merged. further investigations could include digitalized photography with a higher scanning resolution. this would probably improve the quality of point clouds generated by these images significantly. in future research, objective quality metrics, e.g. for accuracy and completeness will be defined which can be used to compare and to analyse the quality of different point clouds. if no better-quality images exist an approach could be evaluated based on interactive modelling of object geometries. this approach might be more suitable due to a potential higher visual quality of the results it the targeted area of application is history teaching or history research. however, it would require more user interaction and thus, the results would depend stronger on the modeler’s knowledge and assumptions about the object in this case. orientation of individual historical images just for object texturing of virtual d models could be another option. acknowledgements this research is part of ongoing investigations of the junior research group histstadt d, comprising people – including post-doctoral and phd researchers – which are working until july on how digital image archives and media repositories can be used for urban historical research and on how to communicate the results of this research. references falkingham, p., l., bates, k., t. and farlow, j., o., . historical photogrammetry: bird's paluxy river dinosaur chase sequence digitally reconstructed as it was prior to excavation years ago. plos one, ( ): e . gouveia, j., branco, f., rodrigues, a. and correia, n., . travelling through space and time in lisbon's religious buildings. digital heritage, granada, pp. - . grün, a., remondino, f. and zhang, l. . photogrammetric reconstruction of the great buddha of bamiyan, afghanistan. the photogrammetric record, , pp. – . the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, – march , nafplio, greece this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - henze, f., lehmann, h. and bruschke, b., . nutzung historischer pläne und bilder für diestadtforschungen in baalbek / libanon. in: photogrammetrie – fernerkundung – geoinformation (pfg), / , pp. - . ioannides, m., hadjiprocopi, a., doulamis, n., doulamis, a., protopapadakis, e., makantasis, k., santos, p., fellner, d., stork, a., balet, o., julien, m., weinlinger, g., johnson, p. s., klein, m. and fritsch, d., . online d reconstruction using images available under open access. isprs ann. photogramm. remote sens. spatial inf. sci., ii- /w , pp. - . kersten, t., lindstaedt, m., michelke, k. and zobel, k., . automatische d-objektrekonstruktion aus unstrukturierten, digitalen bilddaten für anwendungen in architektur, denkmalpflege und archäologie. publikationen der deutschen gesellschaft für photogrammetrie, fernerkundung und geoinformation e. v., band , . wissenschaftlich- technische jahrestagung der dgpf, pp. - . lowe, d., g., : distinctive image features from scale- invariant keypoints. international journal of computer vision ( ), pp. - . remondino, f., pizzo, s., d., kersten t., p. and troisi, s., . low-cost and open-source solutions for automated image orientation – a critical overview. in: ioannides m (ed) euromed , pp - . santagati, c., inzerillo, l. and di paola, f., : image-based modeling techniques for architectural heritage d digitalization: limits and potentialities. international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences ( /w ), pp. - . snavely, n., seitz, s., m. and szeliski, r., . modeling the world from internet photo collections. international journal of computer vision, ( ), pp. - . the international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume xlii- /w , d virtual reconstruction and visualization of complex architectures, – march , nafplio, greece this contribution has been peer-reviewed. doi: . /isprs-archives-xlii- -w - - geoparsing, gis, and textual analysis: current developments in spatial humanities research ian gregory, christopher donaldson, patricia murrieta-flores, and paul rayson introduction the spatial humanities constitute a rapidly developing research field that has the potential to create a step-change in the ways in which the humanities deal with geography and geographical information. as yet, however, research in the spatial humanities is only just beginning to deliver the applied contributions to knowledge that will prove its significance. demonstrating the potential of innovations in technical fields is, almost always, a lengthy process, as it takes time to create the required datasets and to design and implement appropriate techniques for engaging with the information those datasets contain. beyond this, there is the need to define appropriate research questions and to set parameters for interpreting findings, both of which can involve prolonged discussion and debate. the spatial humanities are still in early phases of this process. accordingly, the purpose of this special issue is to showcase a set of exemplary studies and research projects that not only demonstrate the field’s potential to contribute to knowledge across a range of humanities disciplines, but also to suggest pathways for future research. our ambition is both to demonstrate how the application of exploratory techniques in the spatial humanities offers new insights about the geographies embedded in a diverse range of texts (including letters, works of literature, and official reports) and, at the same time, to encourage other scholars to integrate these techniques in their research. to date, a standard definition of the spatial humanities has yet to be determined (a fact which, no doubt, has much to do with the pioneering nature of the field); however richardson et al’s description of geohumanities as a ‘rapidly growing zone of creative interaction between geography and the humanities’ offers an excellent starting place. although there is nothing explicitly digital about this definition, such ‘creative interaction’ certainly owes much to the widespread application of geographical technologies within the digital humanities. in this way, one can begin to trace the relation between geohumanities and what gregory and geddes describe when referring to the spatial humanities as a field that employs ‘geographical technologies to develop new knowledge about the geographies of human cultures past and present.’ for gregory and geddes, the spatial humanities has its origins in historical geographical information systems (hgis), from which it has developed both on account of technological advances in geographic information science (gisc) and on account of the increased acceptance of digital technologies as tools for knowledge creation across a range of humanities disciplines. in their seminal collection, the spatial humanities, bodenhamer et al advance a similar conception of the field, presenting the spatial humanities both through critical engagements with specific spatial technologies and through more general evaluations of the benefits these technologies can bring. implicit in each of these accounts is the notion that the spatial humanities has come about through the creative adaptation and application of geographical technologies in humanities research. taking this basic definition of the spatial humanities as a starting point, this issue draws attention to important developments that are shaping the field. . digital collections and geographical technologies information technology is currently advancing in ways that make both non-quantitative source materials and geographical technologies increasingly available and accessible. the amount of the digital textual material available to researchers is proliferating rapidly. some of the major digital collections of historical books and reports include the old bailey online, early english books online, and the british library’s nineteenth-century newspaper collection, which each comprise many millions or even billions of words. the digitisation of these corpora (as large collections of digital texts are called) was principally driven by the desire to make them available online with keyword-search facilities. with recent advances in text analysis software, however, it is becoming apparent that researchers can gain new insights about these corpora through more complex forms of analyses. in addition, researchers have also begun to recognize the manifest importance of ‘born digital’ material, including corpora compiled from websites, email archives, and social media, which can be analysed in many of the same ways. alongside these developments, the last several years have also witnessed unprecedented advances in the design and distribution of geographical technologies. once these were the preserve of geographical information systems (gis) software, such as arcgis, which, although powerful, were both expensive and highly specialised and therefore only accessible to a small number of specialists. thanks to the increasing number of open-source gis software packages, however, technologies that were once available only to a select few have begun to reach a mass audience. moreover, with the ubiquity of satnavs and virtual globes (such as google earth), interest in and familiarity with digital mapping has increased exponentially. indeed, as bodenhamer et al proffer, ‘we are more aware than ever of the power of the map to facilitate commerce, enable knowledge discover, [and] make geographic information visual and socially relevant.’ when we draw these threads together – the proliferation of digital corpora, the increasing availability and accessibility of geographical technologies, and the growing awareness of the potential contributions to knowledge that these technologies can make – the potential of the spatial humanities to advance humanities scholarship becomes clear. this is especially so when we consider the recent advances made in the development of automated geoparsing. . georeferencing and automated geoparsing creating georeferenced databases (where each item of data is assigned geographic coordinates, allowing it to be mapped and spatially analysed) has long been identified as one of the main challenges in implementing gis and other geospatial technologies in humanities research. much of the foundational work in quantitative hgis was completed by projects that built major databases of census and related statistics. these projects entailed time-consuming research, and frequently millions of dollars in funding, to create systems that linked digitised changing historical administrative boundaries with databases of statistical tables. the challenge facing humanities researchers today is rather different. in general, the sources used by humanities researchers are unstructured texts in which geographical information is present in the form of specific named-entities such as place-names. in order to georeference an unstructured text, one needs to identify the place-names it contains and then to assign each place-name to the coordinates that represent its location. the first of these steps can be achieved by implementing natural language processing techniques that are capable of automatically recognizing the place-names within a text. completing the second step entails pairing these place-names with coordinate data from a gazetteer, such as geonames or gnis. this two-step process is known as geoparsing. geoparsing provides a solution to georeferencing texts; however, the next (and arguably the more important) task is to decide what to do with the fully georeferenced text. the software and the analytic techniques developed for working with georeferenced databases have been developed to handle quantitative sources, usually from scientific or social science paradigms. but how does one analyse a georeferenced text in ways that are sensitive to the complex nature of humanities sources? moreover, what contributions to knowledge can we expect from these approaches? this special issue addresses these questions by presenting series of studies and research projects that demonstrate not only the opportunities afforded by geoparsing and working with georeferenced texts, but also the challenges this presents and their implications for spatial humanities research. . trends in spatial humanities research the early days of hgis were characterised by projects that used quantitative data to study spatial patterns in fields such as historical demography and environmental and economic history. over the past decade, the potential of these approaches to make contributions to knowledge has become increasingly apparent, and scholars in disciplines across the humanities and social sciences have begun to incorporate gis, and cognate geospatial technologies, into their research. in what follows, we offer a brief survey of these developments, beginning with archaeology and history and then moving on to consider literary studies and, finally two closely related areas, corpus and computational linguistics. . . archaeology, history and classics archaeology was one of the first humanities disciplines to integrate geospatial technologies in its methods and to apply these technologies in its research. that this was the case is largely because the study of the material past is inherently spatial in nature. in order to make sense of artefacts and sites, archaeologists need to understand their spatial contexts. they need, in other words, to determine how specific objects, features, and structures relate not only to the places where they are found, but also to the wider landscapes those places comprise. it is only by understanding the spaces inhabited by past cultures that archaeologists are able to reconstruct the customs, beliefs, and institutions that defined those cultures. at this rudimentary level, all forms of archaeology can be characterised by a preoccupation with spatial thinking. given this, it comes as little surprise that the methodologies and theories that have shaped the discipline over the past fifty years have continued to emphasize the spatial dimension of archaeological practice. the emergence of ‘spatial archaeology’ during the s can be seen as paradigmatic in this respect; for, although not uncontroversial, its influence is apparent not only in the widespread use of spatial analysis for studying excavated artefacts to landscape compositions, but also in the most recent trends in archaeological computing. archaeologists first began to utilise gis during the s. since that time, other spatial technologies such as remote sensing and gps have also been incorporated in almost every branch of the discipline. by contrast, the spatial study of textual sources in archaeology is a much more recent phenomenon. the reasons for this are varied; but, for the present purposes, it suffices to say that the use of textual sources in archaeology is different than it is in most other humanities disciplines. whereas texts are the core source for most humanities disciplines, artefacts found in digs are the core of archaeology. this is one of the reasons why digital archaeology has often seemed to have such a different ‘scene’ during the emergence of digital humanities. indeed, pioneering projects have only recently begun to harness the potential of spatial technologies to investigate text corpora relevant to archaeological research. one example of this is using techniques from corpus and computational linguistics to mine grey literature reports, extracting potential spatial and contextual information for archaeological interpretation. although this type of approach provides a foundation for assessing the geographies underlying such texts, the methodologies that can go beyond data exploration and enter the realm of corpus analysis have yet to materialise in archaeology. we think, however, that this will not take long. with the combination of the experience in spatial methods and thinking from archaeology, and the diverse approaches developed in history, corpus and computational linguistics, we expect to see advanced forms of textual spatial analysis in archaeology in the near future. in the case of history, the application of geospatial methods is a more recent phenomenon. here, as was the case in archaeology, the integration of gis came about largely in response to the need to find methodologies to answer specific research questions in the wider context of the discipline. hgis, the result of these endeavours, has over the past fifteen years become a diverse and dynamic subfield. although, as noted above, hgis projects initially concentrated on the quantitative exploration of economic and political data, more recent studies have focused on the application of gis in the analysis of historical documents. exploratory hgis scholarship has also recently undertaken experimental research combining spatial and corpus analysis, and, in some cases, even integrating gis with serous gaming engines to facilitate the -d virtual modelling of historical places and landscapes. thus, by different routes, gis has become important to both archaeology and to historical geography. for archaeologists this evolved from the need to survey and record sites, for historical geographers from the desire to make better use of quantitative data, but for both subjects it has led to the development of new analytic approaches. in both cases, there is a clear potential to apply these technologies and methods to textual sources. work done in classics has also been exploiting the potential benefits of harnessing the spatial information in texts and representing them using enhanced visualisations. examples include hestia and google ancient places which have developed web-based visual resources to facilitate the exploration of places of interest mentioned in ancient literature. . . literary studies a number of ground-breaking research projects have also recently identified the transformative potential of gis, and related technologies, for the discipline of literary studies. led by research teams at centres of excellence in britain, europe, the united states, and australia, these projects have proven that gis and its cognates have the power to revolutionise how we interpret the material, imaginative, and discursive geographies not only of individual novels, poems, and plays, but also of large corpora of literary works. in doing so, these projects have helped reinvigorate both literary geography (the study of the spatiality of literary works) and, more generally, what might be called the geography of literature (the study of the place-bound nature of the acts of writing, publishing, and reading). even more remarkably, they have also suggested the potential of wholly new modes and practices for literary scholarship. a key development here has been the emergence of digital literary atlas projects, such as eth zurich’s literary atlas of europe, the university of queensland’s cultural atlas of australia, trinity college dublin’s digital literary atlas of ireland, and the new university of lisbon’s litscape.pt (which is featured in this collection). taking their cue from the pioneering work of franco moretti, matthew jockers, and the stanford literary lab, the creators of these atlases have embraced the idea that literary critics can use maps as ‘analytical tools: that dissect the text in unusual ways, and bring to light relations that would otherwise remain hidden.’ underlying this methodological premise is a conviction in the value of the map as a form of abstraction that, in reducing the object of study – the literary text or corpus – to a few particulars, both defamiliarizes it and, in the process, helps to generate new research questions and to guide critical inquiry. equally operative here is a new, contested paradigm for literary hermeneutics, variously called ‘distant reading’ or ‘macroanalysis’ , which has sought to supplement more traditional critical approaches through the aggregate analysis of large literary corpora. these new practices, as jockers explains, are poised to take advantage of ‘the massive digital-text collections’ available on the world wide web and, in the process, to launch literary studies into a new age: today, in the age of digital libraries and large-scale book-digitization projects, the nature of the evidence available to us has changed, radically. which is not to say that we should no longer read books looking for, or noting, random ‘things,’ but rather to emphasize that massive digital corpora offer us unprecedented access to the literary record and invite, even demand, a new type of evidence gathering and meaning making. in other words, instead of simply identifying, isolating, and analysing the features of a handful of ‘representative’ texts, literary scholars today should strive to create new knowledge about those features and texts by contextualizing them in relation to the large text corpora that are now available to them. the creation of digital literary atlases, such as the literary atlas of europe and litscape.pt, have demonstrated how gis and spatial analysis can assist in facilitating this sort of contextualization. but, even though these projects are successful in their own terms, they have also stimulated important debates about the merits of such macro-mapping activities for literary scholarship. a key issue here is the widely perceived incongruity between the methodologies of gisc – with their reliance on precise, quantifiable data – and the kinds of equivocal or, what bushell calls, ‘slippery’ information with which literary scholars typically engage. put bluntly, tools and techniques designed to measure absolute euclidean space often prove inadequate for modelling the complex, contingent, and, at times, contradictory geographies of literary works of art – a criticism that can also be applied to other humanities sources. consequently, many literary scholars have dismissed the application of gis, and other digital tools, in the macro-mapping of literary corpora as problematically instrumentalist and reductive, noting that this approach tends to flatten out and suppress the differences that distinguish literary works from one another. other scholars have been more conciliatory, expressing interest in the results of such projects whilst advising that the value of mapping as a critical practice depends largely on the nature of texts being studied. notably, hewitt councils that the analysis of literary works ‘is more revealing when sensitivity is shown to the approaches of individual texts and authors,’ and that, accordingly, that ‘mapping … cannot be the first step in a mass hermeneutic process,’ but should come ‘after an exploration of … evidence of a work’s engagement with spatial concerns.’ another common criticism of large-scale, literary atlas projects is that they problematically conflate the real world and the world of the literary text. for, although acknowledging that ‘the geography of fiction follows its own distinctive rules, since literature can create its own space, without physical restrictions,’ in the end these projects are often simply predicated on the positivist assumption ‘that a large part of fiction indeed refers to the physical/real world.’ as bushell reminds us, ‘the points where [a literary map] does not correspond directly to the world of the book may be more interesting than the points where it does.’ these are major impediments for the integration of spatial humanities approaches in literary studies. for although it is clear that gis and distant reading are clearly compatible and can be usefully combined to build spatial models of specific narrative structures, their efficacy in aiding textual study is, as yet, limited. the problem here, as one research team has noted, is both epistemological and technological: both a consequence of differing research cultures and of the limitations of current research tools. in order to overcome these deficits, researchers within the field of the digital humanities – including literary scholars, computer scientists, and gisc specialists – need to work together not only to develop new practices and frameworks for interdisciplinary collaboration and creative exchange, but also to produce substantial works of scholarship that demonstrate how those practices and frameworks contribute to close study and analysis of specific literary texts. encouragingly, this is precisely the direction in which much work in the field of literary cartography is moving. notably, research centres such as the stanford literary lab have continued to pioneer innovative interdisciplinary approaches to the study of literary spaces, most recently by modelling the use of digital crowdsourcing to construct an ‘emotional map’ of london based on a corpus of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century novels. at lancaster university, moreover, a team of literary scholars, giscientists, quantitative historians, corpus and computational linguists is using data mining in conjunction with gis to investigate literary representations of and responses to the english lake district. furthermore, an interdisciplinary team of scholars at the university of edinburgh is currently using immersive- mapping and mobile-computing technologies to enable users to explore the edinburgh cityscape through geo-located extracts of literary works from the early modern period to the twentieth century. alongside these projects, other integrative forms of geospatial technology are informing the development of deep mapping, a newly emerging concept that an increasing body of literature discusses in detail. . corpus and computational linguistics a key requirement underpinning the mapping of texts is the ability to connect the gis techniques with the underlying qualitative texts. as already described, at a minimum, this entails geoparsing the texts to extract place-names and locate these on a map. additional techniques from the closely related areas of corpus and computational linguistics can enable the spatial humanities researcher to link their distant reading back to close analysis of the underlying text. computational linguistics, or natural language processing (nlp), techniques drawn from computer science allow the automatic summarisation of meaning or extraction of a variety of patterns from text. one example nlp technique is named-entity extraction which can, to a certain level of accuracy, find all mentions of personal names, organisations, place names, dates and times in a text. as evidenced in this special issue, combining this technique with toponym resolution to locate the extracted place-names on a map forms one of these bi- directional links from analysis to text. another large class of nlp techniques enable the automatic annotation of words or phrases within a text at various levels of linguistic detail. part-of-speech (pos) annotation enables highly accurate ( - %) identification of major word classes in text, such as adjectives, nouns, verbs and adverbs. once these categories are marked in the corpus, they can be searched alongside the word forms. proper nouns are particularly useful for finding place-names and personal names. adjectives are a good source when searching for evaluative descriptions of landscape features for example. a second level of tagging, called semantic annotation, adds meaning or conceptual labels to words and phrases in a text. this enables searching by concepts e.g. health and disease, finance and money, education within the corpus. the second family of related techniques stems from corpus linguistics which is a method or collection of methods for text analysis stemming from the discipline of linguistics. with the increase in power and storage capacity of computers in the s and s, a set of methods emerged which enabled large quantities of machine-readable text to be analysed and explored semi-automatically for language description purposes. similar developments in the digital humanities can be traced back to roberta busa working with ibm in to produce his computer-generated index thomisticus of the writings of thomas aquinas. in parallel, dictionary publication was revolutionised in the s with the creation of machine-readable corpora such as cobuild alongside new searching and analysis software. at least five corpus linguistics methods are worthy of mention here. in combination, they provide a semi-automatic approach to data-driven exploratory analysis which can uncover patterns within the data that are otherwise difficult or impossible to extract by more manual analyses. first, frequency lists show all the different word types in a text and how often they occur allowing the researcher to focus their efforts on the most represented features in a corpus. frequency lists can also be extended to show how well a word is dispersed within a corpus and this is key to understanding the salience of a word in a corpus. second, concordances show every occurrence of a word in a text with a small amount of context, usually - words either side. this enables the researcher to look for patterns and meanings by sorting the surrounding text. third, the keywords method compares two or more frequency lists to identify words which are statistically more represented in one text relative to another sub-corpus or a much larger reference corpus. this can show what a text is about and highlight interesting terms for further analysis. fourth, n-grams (sometimes called lexical bundles or clusters) shows repeated consecutive sequences of words of a given length (n) which extends the single word frequency lists. finally, the collocation technique assists in finding which words regularly co-occur in close proximity in texts. in the context of the spatial humanities, the collocation technique has proven useful for discovering which topics are discussed in relation to different places that are mentioned in a corpus. in addition, the combination of keywords methods, semantic analysis and collocation means that it is possible to uncover and visualise the topics associated with particular place-names by connecting gis databases to their semantic collocates, so called ‘visual gisting’. . the essays in this issue the above discussion shows that the spatial humanities draw from, and applied to, a wide range of disciplines. nevertheless, at its core there are similarities in approach, methods and limitations that draw the spatial humanities together. the essays in this volume have been selected to represent both the diversities and commonalities of the field. the first essay, by alex et al, is principally concerned with geoparsing, and with how the automated extraction of geographic information can aid the analysis of large text corpora. the main focus here is the edinburgh geoparser, a state of the art web-based tool, which has been adapted to facilitate the georeferencing of historical texts. in order to illustrate the power and flexibility of the edinburgh geoparser, alex et al present three brief, but contrasting, case studies: one concerned with nineteenth-century trade, another concerned with the ancient world, and a third concerned with a historical gazetteer of english place-names. the four essays that follow alex et al move from geoparsing to consider how working with georeferenced corpora can inform humanities research. in the first, schwartz engages with a field that is near the traditional heartland of hgis: environmental history. drawing on georeferenced texts from the british parliamentary papers, his chapter examines nineteenth- century reports on fish stocks in british waters. in order to do this, schwartz combines computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (caqdas) methods with gis to assess changing perceptions about the decline of fish stocks by comparing texts from royal commissions in and . although schwartz is keen to stress that caqdas and gis are reductionist approaches, his essay convincingly demonstrates how they can aid more traditional forms of historical analysis by generating research questions and guiding critical inquiry. alves and queiroz’s essay, which focuses on the application of geospatial tools in literary studies, also suggests how gis-based distant reading can complement more traditional close reading practices. here the focus is on litscape.pt, a digital literary atlas of historical and modern portuguese literature. rather than using geoparsing software, as alves and queiroz explain, litscape.pt relies on a creative combination of crowdsourcing and relational databases to facilitate the mapping and analysis of excerpts from a wide variety of literary works. using this mixed-methods approach, the project has successfully catalogued more than , excerpts, which are being used to study literary representations of mainland portugal as well as social and environmental history. as examples, alves and queiroz present two case studies: a comparative examination of the evolving physical and literary geographies of lisbon and a transhistorical assessment of the declining presence of wolves in portuguese literature. the fourth essay, by purves and derungs, also addresses the representation of landscapes in writing; however, they are more concerned with the way that texts represent landscape than what those representations reveal about the texts themselves. as purves and derungs argue, engaging with written representations of space can help human geographers move beyond the gis-facilitated measurement of euclidean space towards a more nuanced conception of place. as proof-of-concept, purves and derungs focus on two apparently contrasting corpora related to mountain landscapes in switzerland and britain: the text+berg archive of the yearbooks of the swiss alpine club and georeferenced photographs from flickr. although the yearbooks (a historical corpus documenting years of alpine mountaineering) seem like a typical resource to draw on in such an analysis, flickr (a web . site that allows users to upload photographs) is a much less obvious choice. however, as purves and derungs explain, the metadata added to flickr photos make them an equally excellent resource for understanding how places are experienced and perceived. van den heuvel’s essay, which concludes this special issue, also emphasizes the need to move beyond a purely euclidean conception of space, which, he contends, is inadequate for modelling the sorts of networks and systems of knowledge exchange in which scholars in the humanities are often interested. as his example, van den heuvel concentrates on the republic of letters, suggesting that spatial humanities approaches can aid us in reconstructing the geographical distribution of documents and drawings that defined this epistolary intellectual community. taking inspiration from the notion of ‘deep maps’, van den heuvel, concludes by positing the idea of ‘deep networks’ as a means for visualising how knowledge was communicated and disseminated in early modern europe. taken together, these essays offer a representative sample of the sorts of projects currently being pursued within the spatial humanities. they call attention to new developments within the field and, moreover, present different perspectives on the challenges and the potentials of research in the field. in doing so, they affirm that the creative adaption and application of geographical technologies has the potential to revolutionize scholarship across a number of different humanities disciplines. our hope is that, in modelling the use of innovative methods they will encourage other scholars to integrate these approaches in their research. acknowledgements this special edition resulted from an expert meeting on ‘digital texts and geographical technologies in the digital humanities’ held at lancaster university - th july , funded by the european research council (erc) under the european union’s seventh framework programme (fp / - ) / erc grant ‘spatial humanities: texts, gis, places’ (agreement number ). this introductory essay also benefited from support under the same grant. end notes d. richardson, s. luria, j. ketchum and m. dear, ‘introducing the geohumanities’, in m. dear, j. ketchum, s. luria and d. richardson, eds., geohumanities: art, history, text at the edge of place (abingdon, ), - . cited here at . see, for instance, k. offen ‘historical geography ii: digital imaginations’, progress in human geography, , no. ( ), - . i.n. gregory and a. geddes, ‘introduction: from historical gis to spatial humanities: deeping scholarship and broadening technology’, in i.n. gregory and a. geddes, eds., towards spatial humanities: historical gis and spatial history (bloomington, in, ), ix-xix. cited here at xv. see: d.j. bodenhamer, j. corrigan, and t.m. harris, ‘introduction’, in d.j. bodenhamer, j. corrigan and t.m. harris, eds., the spatial humanities: gis and the future of humanities scholarship (bloomington, ), vii-xv; and d.j. bodenhamer, ‘the potential of spatial humanities’, in d.j. bodenhamer, j. corrigan, and t.m. harris, eds., the spatial humanities: gis and the future of humanities scholarship (bloomington, ), - . see: the proceedings of the old bailey – london’s central criminal court, to , http://www.oldbaileyonline.org, last accessed aug ; early english books online, http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home, last accessed aug ; british newspapers, - , http://gale.cengage.co.uk/product-highlights/history/ th-century-british-library-newspapers.aspx, last accessed aug . see arcgis, [accessed aug ]. see: google earth, [accessed aug ]. examples of free and open source gis software include: qgis: a free and open source geographic information system, http://www.qgis.org, last accessed aug ; and mapwindow, http://www.mapwindow.org, last accessed aug . bodenhamer et al ( ), vii. i.n. gregory and p.s. ell, historical gis: technologies, methodologies, scholarship (cambridge, ), chap . a.k. knowles, ed. ‘reports on national historical gis projects’ historical geography, ( ), - provides a review. geonames, [accessed aug ]; gnis, [accessed aug ]. c. grover, r. tobin, k. byrne, m. woollard, j. reid, s. dunn and j. ball, ‘use of the edinburgh geoparser for georeferencing digitized historical collections’, philosophical transactions of the royal society a, ( ), - . i.n. gregory, ‘further reading: from historical gis to spatial humanities: an evolving literature’ in i.n. gregory and a. geddes, eds., towards spatial humanities: historical gis and spatial history (bloomington, in, ), - ; a.k. knowles, ed., placing history: how maps, spatial data, and gis are changing historical scholarship (redlands, ca, ). j. huggett, ‘what lies beneath: lifting the lid on archaeological computing’ in a. chrysanthi, p. murrieta flores, and c. papadopoulos, eds., thinking beyond the tool: archaeological computing and the interpretative process (oxford, ) – . m. aldenderfer, h. maschner, and m. goodchild, anthropology, space, and geographic information systems (new york, ); a.s. fotheringham, c. brunsdon, m. and charlton, quantitative geography: perspectives on spatial data analysis (thousand oaks, ca, ); and d. wheatley and m. gillings, spatial technology and archaeology. the archaeological applications of gis (london, ). r.n. parker and e.k. asencio, gis and spatial analysis for the social sciences: coding, mapping, and modelling (new york, ); and m.f. goodchild and d.g. janelle, ‘toward critical spatial thinking in the social sciences and humanities’, geojournal , no. ( ), - . j. huggett, ‘core or periphery? digital humanities from an archaeological perspective’, historical social research, , no. ( ) - . j. richards, s. jeffrey, s. waller, f. ciravegna, s. chapman, and z. zhang, ‘the archaeology data service and the archaeotools project: faceted classification and natural language processing’, in e. c. kansa, s. whitcher kansa, & e. watrall, eds., archaeology . . new approaches to communication and collaboration (los angeles, ), – . i.n. gregory and r.g. healey ‘historical gis: structuring, mapping and analysing geographies of the past’ progress in human geography, ( ), - . b. donahue, ‘mapping husbandry in concord: gis as a tool for environmental history’ in a. k. knowles and a. hillier, eds., placing history: how maps, spatial data, and gis are changing historical scholarship (redlands, ca, ), - ; a. k. knowles, w. roush, c. abshere, l. farrell, a. feinberg, and t. humber, ‘what could lee see at gettysburg’, in a. k. knowles and a. hillier, eds., ( ), - ; r.m. schwartz, i. gregory, and j. marti-henneberg, ‘history and gis: railways, population change, and agricultural development in late nineteenth century wales’, in m. dear, et al ( ), - . i. gregory and a. hardie ‘visual gisting: bringing together corpus linguistics and geographical information systems’, literary and linguistic computing , no. ( ), - ; p. murrieta- flores, a. baron, i. gregory, a. hardie, and p. rayson, ‘automatically analysing large texts in a gis environment: the registrar general’s reports and cholera in the nineteenth century’, transactions in gis ( ). see, for example, ucla romelab, [accessed aug ]; virtual st paul’s cross project, [accessed aug ]; and t.m. harris, l.j. rouse, and s. bergeron, ‘humanities gis: adding place, spatial storytelling and immersive visualization into the humanities’, in m. dear, et al ( ), - . e. barker, s. bouzarovski, c. pelling, and l. isaksen, ‘mapping an ancient historian in a digital age: the herodotus encoded space-text-image archive (hestia)’, leeds international classical studies, , no. ( ), - . google ancient places, [accessed aug ]. e. barker, k. byrne, l. isaksen, e. kansa, and n. rabinowitz, google ancient places, [accessed aug ]. f. moretti, atlas of the european novel, - (london, ), . f. moretti, ‘conjectures on world literature’, new left review, ( ), – . m. l. jockers, macroanalysis: digital methods and literary history (illinois, ). jockers ( ), - . s. bushell, ‘the slipperiness of literary maps: critical cartography and literary cartography’, cartographica, , no. ( ), - . r. hewitt, ‘mapping and romanticism’, wordsworth circle, , no. ( ), - . b. piatti and l. hurni. ‘editorial: the cartographies of fictional worlds’, the cartographic journal, , no. ( ), - : - . bushell ( ), . d.j. bodenhamer, t.m. harris, and j. corrigan, ‘spatial narratives and deep maps: a special report’, international journal of humanities and arts computing, , nos. - ( ), - . see stanford literary lab, [accessed aug ]. see d. cooper and i. gregory, ‘mapping the lakes district: a literary gis’, transactions of the institute of british geographers, , no. ( ), - ; see also spatial humanities: texts, gis, places, [accessed aug ]. see palimpsest, [accessed aug ]. see d.j. bodenhamer, t.m. harris, and j. corrigan, deep maps and spatial narratives (bloomington: indiana university press, forthcoming ). see j. l. leidner. ‘toponym resolution in text: annotation, evaluation and applications of spatial grounding’. sigir forum , ( ), - . rayson, p., archer, d., piao, s. l., mcenery, t. ‘the ucrel semantic analysis system’. in proceedings of the workshop on beyond named entity recognition semantic labelling for nlp tasks in association with th international conference on language resources and evaluation (lrec ), th may , lisbon, portugal, ( ) pp. - . gregory and hardie ( ). open data empowerment of digital humanities by wikipe- dia/dbpedia gamification and crowd curation –wiqizi’s challenges with apis and sparql this is an extended version of the article found at https://dh .adho.org/revitalizing-wikipedia-dbpedia-open-data-by-gamification- sparql-and-api-experiment-for-edutainment-in-digital-humanities/ go sugimoto acdh-Öaw vienna, austria go.sugimoto@oeaw.ac.at abstract digital humanities (dh) enjoys a wealth of open data published by cultural heritage institutions and ac- ademic researchers. in particular, linked open data (lod) offers an excellent opportunity to publish, share, and connect a broad array of structured data in the distributed web ecosystem. however, a real break-through in humanities research as well as its societal impact has not been visible, due to several challenging obstacles including lack of awareness, expertise, technology, and data quality. in order to re- move such barriers, this article outlines an experimental case study of application programming interfac- es (apis) and sparql. wiqizi project employs a gamification technique to develop a simple quiz ap- plication to guess the age of a randomly selected image from wikipedia/dbpedia. the project demon- strates a potential of gamification of open data not only for edutainment for the public, but also for an inspirational source of dh research. in addition, a face detection api based on an artificial intelligence is included for hint function, which would increase both the public and academic interests of new tech- nology for dh. moreover, the project provides a possibility for crowd data curation for which the users are encouraged to check and improve the data quality, when the application fails to calculate the answer. this method seems to create a win-win scenario for the wikipedia/dbpedia community, the public, and academia. keywords: digital humanities, application programming interfaces, linked open data, sparql, gam- ification, crowd sourcing, data curation introduction the time is ripe for open data. as new tech- nology becomes available and expertise spreads across communities, governments and research entities are particularly keen to promote open data to meet the demands of democracy in the st century and ensure the transparency of re- search activities. in particular, berners-lee's ( ) five star open data proposition has start- ed to take off. in his vision, open data is closely associated with linked data, which connects related data on the web with hyperlinks. he combines the two concepts and names it linked open data (lod). while the best practice of linked data is summarized by heath ( ), he defines lod as linked data that ‘is released under an open licence, which does not impede its reuse for free’. followed by those initiatives, the global com- munity has started to flourish. over the last years, lod has been gaining momentum in digi- tal humanities (dh) and cultural heritage re- search. many repeatedly explain the essence of lod, including the tripod of supporting technol- ogy: http, uris, and rdf (for example, si- mou et al., ; marden et al., ; boer et al., ). in fact, rdf has been adopted more frequent- ly as a data format in data repository systems such as fedora . important datasets including europeana , viaf , geonames , and getty vo- cabularies are being published with http uris in machine-readable formats such as rdf, tur- tle , and json-ld . sparql endpoints have been progressively created in many cultural her- itage organizations and dh projects (edelstein et al., ). sparql allows the users to query a large volume of rdf graph datasets, so that se- mantically rich data fragments can be trans- https://dh .adho.org/revitalizing-wikipedia-dbpedia-open-data-by-gamification-sparql-and-api-experiment-for-edutainment-in-digital-humanities/ https://dh .adho.org/revitalizing-wikipedia-dbpedia-open-data-by-gamification-sparql-and-api-experiment-for-edutainment-in-digital-humanities/ formed, by selecting, merging, splitting, and fil- tering, into new information and knowledge. ‘the promised land’ in the digital research era seems to be just around the corner. however, research outcomes of lod, which would have a significant impact on new discov- eries and/or innovation in society, are still out- standing. although lod is meant to offer a powerful paradigm for global data integration, most probably reinforcing interdisciplinary re- search, many cases in dh are reported for the creation and publication of lod and/or internal use of lod (marden et al., ). although there are several dh projects concerning the use of external lod (e.g. (boer et al., ), they often focus on data enrichment. in addition, sparql query exploitation is rather limited within small technology-savvy communities (lincoln, ; alexiev, ). there could be several reasons for the underuse of lod: a) lack of awareness of existence, b) lack of knowledge and skills to use rdf and sparql, c) opened data being too narrow in scope, c) lack of com- puting performance to be usable, and d) interdis- ciplinary research being not widely exercised. in a more general framework of open data, the situation is much better for xml and json , because they are, in general, less com- plex than rdf and sparql. as such, they are more broadly accepted as standard formats of application programming interfaces (apis). however, sugimoto ( a and c) is still concerned about technical hurdles for a majority of data consumers, as well as the needs of api standardization and ease of data reuse for ordi- nary users. in another context, the underuse of data, tools, and infrastructures seems to be a common phenomenon in dh. for example, the use of one of the most prominent services of a european language infrastructure, the virtual language observatory of clarin , is rather low and below expectation (sugimoto, b). those realities seem to indicate that research is not yet taking full advantage of open data, especially lod, although a large amount of data has become available. it is a pity that the benefit of open data is only partially spread. to this end, this article attempts to stimulate the use of lod within dh. the author has experimented with wikipedia /dbpedia to explore the po- tential use of and/or the revitalization of (linked) open data in and outside research community. gamification for wikipedia/dbpedia (linked) open data . simple quiz application the choice of wikipedia, and its structured database version, dbpedia, is rationalized by taking into account the above-mentioned issues of open data reuse for apis and sparql end- points. contrary to most of dh and cultural her- itage targeted projects, wikipedia/dbpedia pro- vides a much broader scope for data-driven re- search, meaning there would be more familiarity and reusability of the data among the users. this also solves the problem of datasets in dh being too specific to be used by third party researchers (or the researchers do not know how to use data and/or what to do with them (edmond and gar- nett, ; orgel et al., ). in addition, inter- disciplinary research could be more easily adopt- ed, using a more comprehensive yet relatively detailed level of knowledge, compared to dh- branded research topics. this paper would also serve as an example of the simple application of api and sparql for less technical researchers within the dh commu- nity, due to the background of this project. the project is conducted solely by the author who has developed all the code with the assistance of a colleague, albeit being a programming beginner. this setting displays an encouragement not only for researchers with less technical experience to try lod-based research, but also for the lod community to gain more like-minded supporters. the project is not limited to pure research use of data. in a connection to the evolution from open data to open science (foster consorti- um, n.d.), public interest and (ideally) engage- ment are just as important as the innovation po- tential of research itself. in this respect, the key- word of the project is gamification. in order to draw public attention and to show- case a social benefit of open data and dh, gam- ification would be a catalyst to connect the scholars conducting complicated dh research and the increasingly greedy knowledge consum- ers among normal citizens. kelly and bowan ( ) states that limited attention has been paid to digital games until recently, although this is changing rapidly. those exceptions include the recent projects of art history games reviewed by hacker ( ). however, the intensive use of open data via apis and sparql endpoints is still not prominent. although there already are a few sophisticated projects such as a eu funded project cross cult which uses elaborate semantic technologies (daif et al., ), this article is able to contribute to this discourse from a web innovation perspective in a more simplified diy project environment. the primary outcome of the project is wiqi- zi , a simple quiz application, based purely on external open data apis and sparql. in a nut- shell, it requires users to guess the age of a ran- domly selected person from wikipedia by look- ing at a portrait of the person. the game starts with a selection of a year in order to specify the time of the target person (fig. ). ten random years between and are generated and presented to the users. it is recommended to pick one of them, because the year range is more likely to find a person from a pool of available people. the users can also type a specific year of their choice. the year is used as the birth year of the person. when an image of a person is loaded, the users can start guessing the age of the depicted person, also using the de- scription of the person as a clue (fig. and fig. ). as such, wiqizi represents an interplay of wikipedia, quiz and information, delivering elements of entertainment, education and re- search for potentially a wide range of audience. apparently, the age of a person in a particular image is provided neither by wikipedia, nor by dbpedia. it is, in fact, calculated programmati- cally by comparing the birthdate and the creation date of the image. although it is a simple algo- rithm, the quiz is generated automatically. it goes without saying that this approach does not guar- antee the correct answer. for example, an image may be created after the death of a person. if the image is a photograph, it is likely to be more ac- curate. thus, this game merely provides the best guess based on available facts. nevertheless, it is good enough for edutainment, because the main purpose of the application is to stimulate the us- ers’ interest. in addition, it only takes into ac- count years but not months or days. on a positive side, the application enables users to play the game even if either (or both) of months and days are missing (see section too for data quality issues). the random selection of data is sometimes costly for data processing, but it was applied for year and image in the application. randomiza- tion is, in fact, the key to developing a game ap- plication, as gamers easily get bored, if the game always shows the same information and situa- tion. the application is intended for fun, thus, includes both female and male, and all types of contemporary persons such as politicians, sport athletes, musicians, actors, and businesspersons. living persons are useful to increase the en- gagement level of the users. at the same time, the inclusion of historical figures is very im- portant in dh in that the user would learn the history of a person from the past. as a result, figures range from oliver cromwell (political leader) and luis peglion (bicycle racer) to irina shayk (model) and ariana grande (singer). in this regard, the project successfully represents the richness and diversity of information which lod can offer for history, art and culture, media studies, and alike. the images are typically paintings, drawings, prints, photos, but occasionally objects such as statues and coins, which depict a person. it is also possible that no person is depicted in the image. for instance, they can be graves or items that symbolise the person (fig. ). the earlier the year, the more likely it is that the image does not contain the portrait of a person. in such cases, users are required to reshuffle the image (see yel- low box in fig. ). fig. select a randomly generated year, or type a year in the text box fig. quiz to guess the age of a person found in a wikipedia article fig. the screen when submitting a wrong answer fig. symbol of a person in the image when the user cannot guess the age, there is a help function. a hint section is equipped with a face detection api, suggesting the estimate age and gender of the person in the image by ma- chine learning (fig. ). the confidence score of the estimation is also given by percentage. alt- hough the function is extremely simple, the cur- rent boom of artificial intelligence in our society would inspire dh and alike in the context of apis in combination with open data from wik- ipedia/dbpedia. when the right answer is deliv- ered, the application displays the links to the cor- responding wikipedia article and dbpedia da- taset. this gives the users opportunity to learn the person in detail. fig. hint function for age and gender, using the face detection and machine learning api . simple technology, but technical chal- lenges the application is built with simple php even without using a framework such as laravel . bootstrap is used for creating a quick web design. this is why the project would be better labelled as a diy project. the application is entirely based on external data via apis and sparql endpoint, exploring the potential of distributed data research. it uses three different apis of wikipedia and sparql endpoints of dbpedia . the former consists of ) wikipedia api to access wikpedia articles, ) wikimedia api to access images in wikipedia articles, and ) another wikimedia api to access the metadata of the images. the third one is crucial in that it contains copyright and licence information. all the images of the quiz come with as much ipr information as possible, so that the application ensures the protection of copyright, while pro- moting data re-use by clarifying the licenses. it should be also noted that wiqizi does not store any images on the server. it displays imag- es directly from wikimedia, being a lightweight software application. it is worth iterating that the automatic generation of quiz is neither very common nor easy, because a quiz has to provide intellectual challenges and the right level of dif- ficulty, thus, many quizzes are hand-written. thanks to the semantics of dbpedia, question- answer applications such as wiqizi can be de- veloped. the mix of apis makes the application devel- opment a little tricky, because api calls have to be made one after another, although they all serve the data that originate, one way or another, from wikipedia. better organization of data ac- cess to those resources would increase the usabil- ity of the developers and users in the future. in contrast, there are also advantages for the use of apis in a decentralized system. it allows devel- opers to save resources (cost of servers and stor- age and maintenance) and to focus on system and data integration. for the sake of data pursing, a sparql que- ry is embedded into api query parameters and the query results are returned as json . dbpe- dia automatically executes this transformation. for example, the following sparql query (whose results can be seen with the dbpedia endpoint interface on a web browser: fig. ) can be transformed into api query parameters below: select * where {?person rdfs:label ?person_name ; rdf:type ?type ; dbo:birthdate ?birthdate ; dbo:abstract ?abstract . bind(rand( + strlen(str(?person))* ) as ?rid) filter regex(?type, "person") filter regex(?birthdate, " ") } order by ?rid limit http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default- graph- uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=sele ct+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alab el+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftyp e+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+ dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++b ind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fpe rson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilte r+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d % afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% a lim- it+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs = &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ fig. sparql query results (part) the implementation of face detection is also simple. the application posts an image of the quiz as url to the image analysis api of ibm watson . the api returns json data with the estimation of the age and gender of the person depicted, as well as the numeric location of the facial area. if the image is larger than the stand- ard layout of the game interface, it should be ad- justed accordingly. in that case, extra php cod- ing is needed to calibrate the area of the face by using the ratio of resize. there are a couple of technical challenges. first of all, it turns out that the dbpedia dataset is not as rich as one may expect. more precisely, if a sparql query is fired to access a generic dataset, for example, to select data classified as ‘person’, there are often only few shared rdf properties in the query results (table ). namely, name of the person, description, and link to the wikipedia article. even birthdates and birthplac- es (and death date and place) may not exist, de- pending on the data quality. in addition, the occupation of the person de- termines the availability of his/her properties. for instance, whereas football players may have properties related to club teams and national caps, politicians hold properties related to politi- cal parties and experience of ministers, etc. this generalization-specialization makes it hard to anticipate what properties are available for dif- ferent persons. this is not a problem for dbpe- dia; however, it is a challenge for a quiz applica- tion, which has to start with a generic query in order not to preselect the dbpedia categories of persons. in fact, the very first sparql query of age- q is to randomly retrieve data from entries of the type “person” that have user-selected year for the variable of birthdate (see above and fig. .). a further condition is set in php to restrict the data to ones with thumbnails available. unless an al- ternative interface is developed (e.g. select occu- pation first) and the quiz compromises the amount of available persons, the quiz questions need to be very generic. this is the very reason why age was chosen for the application in the first place. table summary of available rdf property available level likely available common-properties almost always name (rdf:label), type (rdf:type) description (dbo:abstract), wikipedia link frequent birthdate (dbo:birthdate), birthplace, death date, death place, nationality etc. sometimes spouses, occupation, associated people etc. depending on the type of person art works, publications, political parties, teams, etc. secondly, although rather trivial, the applica- tion currently does not support face detection for multiple persons in an image. therefore, it may not return the estimation of the right person. in rare cases, there are a multiple persons in an im- age and one of them is the very person of the wikipedia article. at the moment, there is no excellent logic to identify the face of a person in question, and filter out the others. ibm watson http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ http://dbpedia.org/sparql?default-graph-uri=http% a% f% fdbpedia.org&query=select+*% d% awhere+% b% fperson+rdfs% alabel+% fperson_name+% b+rdf% atype+% ftype+% b+dbo% abirthdate+% fbirthdate+% b+dbo% aabstract+% fabstract+.% d% a++++bind% rand% +% b+strlen% str% % fperson% % * % +as+% frid% % d% afilter+regex% % ftype% c+% person% % % d% afilter+regex% % fbirthdate% c+% % % % d% a% d+order+by+% frid% d% alimit+ &format=json&cxml_redir_for_subjs= &cxml_redir_for_hrefs=&timeout= &debug=on&run=+run+query+ normally detects several faces without prioritis- ing them. thirdly, as hinted earlier, the performance is slow, when loading the first image. in the worst case, it might take up to a couple of minutes to load the quiz, because the application depends on the chain of apis and select data randomly. alt- hough the users are informed on the start page, a progress bar is not yet implemented. in the long run, the code needs to be refactored and opti- mized in order to satisfy the users. as sugimoto ( a) reported, the chain of api calls opens an avenue for a new data mash-up possibility, but the current web technology may not be sufficient for pragmatic use cases of such distributed sys- tems. lastly, the application has no multilingual support. the description of a person is always in english, while person names (used as a header of the quiz page) may be presented in languages other than english (see fig. ). the biggest ob- stacle of the multilingual extension of wiqizi is sparql query. it is assumed that swapping language code (e.g. xml:lang=”en” to xml:lang=”ja”) is enough to convert english game to japanese one. however, it turns out that it is not possible to re-use the sparql query used for english dbpedia for another language version of dbpedia, because each language ver- sion of dbpedia uses a different ontology. only a fraction of the ontology (such as rdfs:label and rdf:type) is the same across different languages. for example, the rdf property, http://dbpedia.org/ontology/birthdate, is replaced by http://es.dbpedia.org/property/nacimiento or http://es.dbpedia.org/property/fechadenacimient o (“fecha de nacimiento” is the spanish transla- tion of birthdate) for spanish dbpedia. while dutch dbpedia uses dbpedia-owl:birthdate in- stead, italian dbpedia has another property called http://it.dbpedia.org/property/annonascita as well as dbpedia-owl:birthdate. many of the variations of property names are unpredictable. this makes it complicated to rep- licate the game in the same manner. there is also inconsistency between different languages of dbpedia, causing confusion for data integrity. the data organization problem between wikipe- dia and dbpedia only adds complications to the data quality discussion. therefore, we must acknowledge that although dbpedia provides extremely useful structured data, it has not yet become a fully reliable source of information for serious research. ongoing development and future work . potential of gamification and citizen science another use of this application for the em- powerment of dh and wikipedia communities is the crowdsourcing of the curation of wikipedia articles and dbpedia datasets. data curation is one of the burgeoning issues of dh and cultural heritage. countless publications are produced every year to discuss the data quality in the field of library science, archives and dh in general. for instance, as a reflection of critics of linked data quality, daif et al. ( ) reckon that hu- man supervision is needed to manage the data in their project. in our case, the application is sometimes not able to calculate the age of a person, due to sev- eral reasons of metadata quality. for instance, data may be not numeric (e.g. “ th century”) (see fig. for a wikipedia/wikimedia case), malformed (e.g. not iso compliant: “ / / ”), confusing (e.g. the creation date of digital image is used instead of that of analogue image), inac- curate (e.g. s instead of (true value) due to uncertainty), wrong (e.g. instead of due to mistype), or missing, resulting in an error message. this is normally regarded as an optimization problem of the code. while usually developers might try to suppress erroneous results, in this case, we are not interested in concealing errors. when the error occurs, it could be a sign of a data quality problem and we could trace back to underlying inconsistencies in the data structure. in this application, users are persuaded to follow the provided links to wikipedia and dbpedia and able to double-check the original data (fig. ). if the users are able to correct and/or improve data, for instance, by executing a little online research, the impact for data curation could be considerable. this scenario creates a dual possi- bility. in other words, the application can be used as: • a curation tool of wikipedia and dbpedia for existing active editors of wikipedia. • a tool to transform normal users into new curators of wikipedia not only could crowd curation benefit wik- ipedia by correcting and/or adding data, but dbpedia would also be improved, leading to a higher quality of datasets of this lod magnet http://dbpedia.org/ontology/birthdate http://es.dbpedia.org/property/nacimiento http://es.dbpedia.org/property/fechadenacimiento http://es.dbpedia.org/property/fechadenacimiento http://it.dbpedia.org/property/annonascita and affecting hundreds of applications world- wide. fig. wikimedia metadata displaying non-numeric date (“ th century”) fig. crowd sourcing potential for the game application without doubt, crowdsourcing has become an established subject in dh in its own right. wik- ipedia itself is an exemplar of crowdsourcing (carletti et al., ). in her introductory article about crowdsourcing in dh, terras ( ) re- ported and discussed an overview of crowdsourc- ing examples applied in dh and the glam (galleries, libraries, archives and museums) sector, ranging from an early example of the australian digitisation program (holley, ) and the north american bird phenology pro- gram to transcribe bentham and soldier stud- ies . with regard to data curation, the success of crowdsourcing is proven by examples such as “wasisda?” by the sound and vision in the netherlands (brinkerink, ) , and “what’s on the menu?” by the new york public library (nypl labs). focusing on user engagement and its design patterns, ridge, ( ) analysed the success of old weather , herbaria@home , and galaxy zoo . dunn and hedges ( ) states that one of the four factors of crowdsourcing used within hu- manities research is a clearly defined core re- search question and direction within the humani- ties. this argument is also echoed in other litera- tures (ridge, ; terras, ). in this regard, however, wiqizi project has a different view. it does not define a clear research question for the crowdsourcing; thus it does not help a specific area of humanities research per se. rather, it brings a humanities and/or cultural heritage per- spective of and inspiration for a new use of wik- ipedia/dbpedia for scholars. in addition to that, the author prefers to focus on the gamification of ‘reasonably intellectual’ materials (i.e. wikipedia), and the crowd sourc- ing possibility is regarded as a spin-off service. the advantage of this positioning is that it em- phasizes on the ‘voluntary’ public engagement of wikipedia data curation, rather than the ‘mis- sion’ of institutional crowdsourcing that often has a certain goal, expectation, or ambition to complete relatively specific tasks. a disad- vantage is the lower level of public participation. the more voluntary and supplementary the crowdsourcing becomes, the less the users would engage and help. in this respect, wiqizi takes a slightly unusu- al approach to crowdsourcing. therefore, it may not be covered by the crowdsourcing typology (see for example carletti et al. ( )). moreo- ver, integrating gamification and crowdsourcing would be an answer for our project to enhance the motivation of the participants. wiqizi im- plements a kind of crowdsourcing possibility in such a way that the participants join it without noticing or are less conscious about it. as ridge ( ) observed, crowdsourcing participants can be categorised into two: those who are intentionally participating and those whose contributions are a side effect of their par- ticipation in other core activities. cases where the core activity of the latter is a game may be called crowdsourcing games, which seems to better fit the classification of wiqizi. subse- quently, wiqizi project is comfortably in sync with the dh advocators who are careful about criticism on a potential risk of labour exploita- tion (terras, ). currently there is no good mechanism imple- mented to systematically collect information about the data curation. the users are encouraged to contact the developer via email to report their contributions to data curation. however, adding such a complication affects the incentive to play the game and constitutes extra effort. it could be possible to track user engagement in wikipedia, using user logs. unfortunately, this would re- quire a good deal of elaboration to the applica- tion, therefore it is not planned in the close fu- ture. concerning the combat for data quality on the web, there are initiatives such as a w c working group, which works on creating a data quality vocabulary (dqv)(w c, ). it will not spec- ify what quality means, simply because some datasets are useful for some, but low quality for other purposes. instead, it aims to make it easier to publish, exchange, and consume quality metadata for every step of a dataset's lifecycle. in this way, different stakeholders can evaluate the datasets and the data consumers are free to use it as an aid to assess data quality by themselves. the author understands that the need of such a vocabulary has arisen from the situation where it has become difficult to find valuable datasets in the enormous sea of data on the web. in the fu- ture, metadata such as dqv could help the users to identify the data quality including dbpedia. . future work improvement to the application could be made on several levels. for example, it would be very interesting to have a point awarding system. incentivization is arguably one of the most chal- lenging parts of crowd sourcing, as ridge ( ) explored the user motivation and engagement. one simple addition would be to display the amount of guessing attempts to reach the right answer. based on the count, points can be given to the users, adding more fun element to the game. by introducing a login registration, points can be saved to the user account. there is no doubt that the point system is effective, especial- ly when the game stimulates user competition. in addition, an even more ambitious system can be developed. ideally, more points should be awarded for contributions to the crowd data cura- tion. although it is not an easy task to consider a fair way of validation and score provision, for example, by assigning moderators in the user community, it would surely increase user en- gagement. for this type of deep engagement, ridge ( ) suggests the use of scaffolding techniques of museums for online crowdsourc- ing. scaffolding design provides clear user roles and information about participation. it also care- fully manages the complexity level of participa- tion with a shallow learning curve and guidance through early levels of participatory activities. obviously, it is not trivial to devise a sophis- ticated platform that deploys such scaffolding, due to the diy nature of wiqizi. however, if more interactive features such as score compari- son, personalisation, and visibility of contribu- tion are implemented, it would be a win-win sit- uation for users to enjoy the game and the wik- ipedia/dbpedia community to gain more volun- tary support in terms of data curation. in this project, the official lod version of wikipedia, wikidata , has not been explored. the tight connection between wikipedia and wikidata would provide an outstanding chance for wiqizi. depending on the data quality of wikidata, wiqizi can be extended to more de- tailed quiz questions, which will increase the ap- petite of the users. on the other hand, the use of wikipe- dia/dbpedia was just a beginning of effective lod research in dh. its full potential can be examined only by stretching the data integration to other data sources. to this end, europeana is in the scope of the next development, which sup- plies over million cultural heritage objects of europe. its metadata is offered with cc license. good linking points between europeana and wikipedia/dbpedia, as well as other such im- portant resources as geonames, viaf, and get- ty vocabularies need to be investigated, so that the applications like wiqizi would truly incen- tivize dh research based on the fully-fledged lod cloud. multilingual support is also needed for the promotion of data diversity. it is the interest of not only the dh community in which language plays a vital part of research, but also the wik- ipedia/dbpedia community, as well as the web community at large, which facilitates diversity. as seen in section , like many other web pro- jects, wikipedia and dbpedia are rather unnatu- rally english-oriented. wikipedia’s multilingual achievement is extraordinary in the sense of local community development. in contrast, dbpedia seems to be lagging be- hind. for many lod experts, the english version takes the central position, partly because of the richness of data. the development of language chapters is rather slow. while there are ac- tive wikipedia language versions (wikipedia, ), only about dbpedia versions exist (dbpedia, )(fig. ). many dbpedia websites are operated on a voluntary basis by local communities that lack organisational, technical, and financial support. according to a survey among nine dbpedia lan- guage chapters, % of the chapters have only one to four people involved in the core work, while only one chapter has about ten people (dbpedia association, a). in addition, . % update their services once a year, while over . % have not updated in more than two years (dbpedia association, b). further- more, the inconsistencies of their websites and the lack of cooperate design reflect the backlog of the multilingual versions of the project. if wiqizi were able to cope with different lan- guage versions, it would help to promote dbpe- dia chapters and could be presented as a use case for multilingual lod. fig. catalan dbpedia chapter conclusion in conclusion, this article demonstrates an ex- perimental case study of mixing gamification techniques (entertainment) with data-driven re- search (education) and the possibility for data curation (crowdsourcing), showcasing cutting- edge technologies such as sparql and deep learning api, with the help of open data in the framework of dh. in addition, it presents an ex- ample of an application that automatically gener- ates simple quizzes, based on semantic question- answer capability. moreover, it displays a poten- tial for a new digital research ecosystem for hu- manities research and digital technologies, con- necting various stakeholders including humani- ties researchers and the public. as terras, ( ) puts it, ‘the digital human- ities can aid in creating stronger links with the public and humanities research, which, in turn, means that crowdsourcing becomes a method of advocacy for the importance of humanities scholarship, involving and integrating non- academic sectors of society into areas of human- istic endeavour.’ it would be interesting to use the same or a similar method for different types of quiz. given the variety and richness of information in wik- ipedia, the automatized quiz can be about any interesting concept including buildings, objects, places, events, genres, and movements. hence, wikipedia seems to provide an exciting platform for edutainment, especially in the art and human- ities sphere. in addition, the project plans to con- tinue developing a more elaborate game applica- tion by taking advantage of semantically rich open data resources such as europeana, viaf, geonames, and getty vocabularies. if wiqizi could cope with dbpedia multilingual chapters, it would be able to become a valuable prototype for the representation of lod diversity. at the same time, the paper also acknowledg- es several challenges. for instance, technical de- velopments such as improvement of query per- formance are required in order to use lod for practical day-to-day research business. standard- ization may be required to lower the barrier of the complex technical environments especially for the ordinary yet majority of users. there are also data quality issues for wikipedia and dbpe- dia to be fully useful for serious research, espe- cially in the context of automatization. raising awareness is another social issue. admittedly, although the application of this project is fairly simple, it is hoped that it helps to inspire and incentivize the dh researchers to actively use lod as a new tool for our knowledge society in which any member of the society can become an active actor of knowledge creation, curation, and distribution. notes https://www.w .org/rdf/ https://fedorarepository.org/ https://pro.europeana.eu/resources/apis/sparql https://viaf.org/ http://www.geonames.org/ http://vocab.getty.edu/ https://www.w .org/tr/turtle/ https://json-ld.org/ https://www.w .org/tr/sparql -overview/ https://www.w .org/xml/ https://www.json.org/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/application_programming_interface https://vlo.clarin.eu https://www.clarin.eu/ https://www.wikipedia.org/ http://wiki.dbpedia.org/ https://wiqizi.acdh-dev.oeaw.ac.at http://www.php.net/ https://laravel.com/ https://getbootstrap.com/ https://www.w .org/rdf/ https://fedorarepository.org/ https://pro.europeana.eu/resources/apis/sparql https://viaf.org/ http://www.geonames.org/ http://vocab.getty.edu/ https://www.w .org/tr/turtle/ https://json-ld.org/ https://www.w .org/tr/sparql -overview/ https://www.w .org/xml/ https://www.json.org/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/application_programming_interface https://vlo.clarin.eu/ https://www.clarin.eu/ https://www.wikipedia.org/ http://wiki.dbpedia.org/ https://wiqizi.acdh-dev.oeaw.ac.at/ http://www.php.net/ https://laravel.com/ https://getbootstrap.com/ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/api:main_page http://dbpedia.org/sparql http://www.json.org/ https://www.ibm.com/watson/services/visual-recognition/ the wikipedia url is easily inferred by the corresponding slug url of dbpedia. the application excluded foaf:primarytopic to fetch wikipedia link (partly in order to increase query perfor- mance). https://www.nla.gov.au/content/newspaper-digitisation-program http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/projects/pwrc/nabirdphen ologyprogram/ http://www.soldierstudies.org/ https://www.oldweather.org/ http://herbariaunited.org/athome/ https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/zookeeper/galaxy-zoo/ https://www.wikidata.org references alexiev, v. ( ). getty vocabularies lod: sample queries http://vocab.getty.edu/queries#finding_subjects (accessed oc- tober ). berners-lee, t. ( ). linked data - design issues https://www.w .org/designissues/linkeddata.html (accessed october ). boer, v. de, penuela, a. m. and ockeloen, c. j. ( ). linked data for digital history: lessons learned from three case studies. anejos de la revista de historiografía( ): – . brinkerink, m. ( ). waisda? video labeling game: evalua- tion report images for the future – research blog http://research.imagesforthefuture.org/index.php/waisda-video- labeling-game-evaluation-report/index.html (accessed october ). carletti, l., giannachi, g., price, d., mcauley, d. and benford, s. ( ). digital humanities and crowdsourcing: an exploration. https://core.ac.uk/reader/ (accessed october ). daif, a., dahroug, a., lópez-nores, m., gil-solla, a., ramos- cabrer, m., pazos-arias, j. j. and blanco-fernández, y. ( ). developing quiz games linked to networks of seman- tic connections among cultural venues. metadata and seman- tic research. (communications in computer and information science). springer, cham, pp. – doi: . / - - - - _ . https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ (accessed october ). dbpedia ( ). chapters. https://wiki.dbpedia.org/join/chapters (accessed october ). dbpedia association ( a). dbpedia chapters – survey evalua- tion – episode one | dbpedia https://wiki.dbpedia.org/blog/dbpedia-chapters-%e % % - survey-evaluation-%e % % -episode-one (accessed octo- ber ). dbpedia association ( b). dbpedia chapters – survey eval- uation – episode two | dbpedia https://wiki.dbpedia.org/blog/dbpedia-chapters-%e % % - survey-evaluation-%e % % -episode-two (accessed octo- ber ). dunn, s. and hedges, m. ( ). crowd-sourcing scoping study engaging the crowd with humanities research. edelstein, j., galla, l., li-madeo, c., marden, j., rhonemus, a. and whysel, n. ( ). linked open data for cultural her- itage: evolution of an information technology. http://www.whysel.com/papers/lis -linked-open-data-for- cultural-heritage.pdf (accessed october ). edmond, j. and garnett, v. ( ). building an api is not enough! investigating reuse of cultural heritage data lse im- pact blog http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/ / / /investig ating-reuse-of-cultural-heritage-data-europeana/ (accessed oc- tober ). foster consortium (n.d.). what is open science? introduction, foster facilitate open science training for eu- ropean research https://www.fosteropenscience.eu/content/what-open-science- introduction (accessed october ). hacker, p. ( ). the games art historians play: online game- based learning in art history and museum contexts the chron- icle of higher education blogs: profhacker https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/the-games-art- historians-play-online-game-based-learning-in-art-history-and- museum-contexts/ (accessed april ). heath, t. 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(eds), mixed reality and gamification for cultural heritage. springer http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/ / (accessed october ). sugimoto, g. ( a). who is open data for and why could it be hard to use it in the digital humanities? federated application programming interfaces for interdisciplinary research. interna- tional journal of metadata, semantics and ontologies, ( ): doi: . /ijmso. . . sugimoto, g. ( b). number game -experience of a european research infrastructure (clarin) for the analysis of web traffic. clarin annual conference . aix-en-provence, france: clarin eric and laboratoire parole et langage and la- boratoire des sciences de l’information et des systèmes (lsis) and aix-marseille université and centre national de la recher- che scientifique (cnrs) https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- (accessed october ). sugimoto, g. ( c). battle without fair and easy data in digital humanities. metadata and semantic research. (com- munications in computer and information science). springer, cham, pp. – doi: . / - - - - _ . https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ (accessed april ). terras, m. ( ). crowdsourcing in the digital humanities. a new companion to digital humanities. wiley-blackwell, pp. – https://hcommons.org/deposits/download/hc: /content/ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/api:main_page http://dbpedia.org/sparql http://www.json.org/ https://www.ibm.com/watson/services/visual-recognition/ https://www.nla.gov.au/content/newspaper-digitisation-program http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/projects/pwrc/nabirdphenologyprogram/ http://www.birds.cornell.edu/citscitoolkit/projects/pwrc/nabirdphenologyprogram/ http://www.soldierstudies.org/ https://www.oldweather.org/ http://herbariaunited.org/athome/ https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/zookeeper/galaxy-zoo/ https://www.wikidata.org/ mterras_crowdsourcing in digital humanities_final .pdf/ (accessed october ). w c ( ). data on the web best practices: data quality vo- cabulary https://www.w .org/tr/vocab-dqv/ (accessed octo- ber ). wikipedia ( ). list of wikipedias. https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/list_of_wikipedias (accessed october ). accident reconstruction of damaged human body using mdct and computer numerical analysis applied sciences case report accident reconstruction of damaged human body using mdct and computer numerical analysis eui soo kim department of safety engineering, korea national university of transportation, chungju-si, chungbuk , korea; es kim@ut.ac.kr received: march ; accepted: april ; published: april �� abstract: techniques to analyze damage to a human body provide an important foundation to investigate the human body’s dynamics during accidents. however, the systematic investigation and analysis of accidents’ causes are limited due to a lack of suitable technology, personnel, and equipment. recently, -d technologies and engineering verification through the finite element method have become widespread in forensics to investigate accidents’ causes and dynamic environments. bone fracture analyses can provide important information on how victims may have died and injured. in this study, -d images obtained from multi-detector computed tomography of personal injuries and closed-circuit television, as well as image analyses based on forensic investigations, are used in a finite element program to analyze how ribs are broken during an accident and the possibility of further body damage. technologies that deduce stress states and mechanisms are also developed in this study using fe analyses of the reconstructed model. keywords: mdct; accident analysis; body damage; bone modeling; finite element method . introduction techniques for analyzing the damaged human body due to crashes, falling and traffic accidents provide important information in the investigation of the dynamics of the human body during these events. however, the systematic investigation and analysis of accidents’ causes have been limited because the procedure, method and equipment for identifying the cause are not specified in terms of standards or regulations and there is no engineering verification in the field of normal work and household accidents. human body damage is mainly the result of dropping and crashes. in the case of the falling accident, the human body falls free from a building and collides with the ground. this is very different from the case in which an external object is actively impacting the body in terms of the damage mechanism. in the case of the falling accident, the human body has different impact areas on the ground depending on the height of the fall. in general, the ribs are mainly fractured among damage to the human body. the rib cage is comprised of a cylindrical connection of ribs and has a certain degree of elasticity. when a force is applied on the rib cage, not only is the part on which the force acts directly susceptible to damage, but other parts on which a force is not directly applied may also break. furthermore, as is often the case, the other side of the forced part of the rib cage can be broken when its structure is twisted. this is the reason why the distribution of rib fractures is hardly estimated in the case of crashes and accidents. therefore, an estimation of the distribution of a rib fracture through a finite element (fe) model of the rib cage has become an indispensable part of rib fracture research. the finite element method (fem) is widely used in the mechanical engineering field in order to divide an object into elements of virtual finite size for structure analysis. in recent years, it has been used frequently with d scanning technology to identify causes for engineering-based accidents such as dropping and collision [ , ]. in particular, bone fracture analyses are able to provide important information regarding the damage a victim may have sustained during appl. sci. , , ; doi: . /app www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /app http://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci appl. sci. , , of an accident. consequently, verification through actual dynamic simulations of bone fracture analyses helps increase forensic reliability [ , ]. images from multi-detector computed tomography (mdct) have great pathological potential in the visible representation of forensic evidence, tools, and materials. to check their relevance to crime, the kinds and directions of forces applied to a body should be analyzed for their injury mechanism, so that -d images obtained from mdct can be used for the verification of injury mechanisms as well as the damage reconstruction. . background of damaged human body in this study, using three-dimensional images obtained from mdct for personal injury and closed-circuit television (cctv) as well as image analysis based on the results of forensic investigations, fe analysis was performed utilizing a commercially available finite element program to evaluate how ribs are broken and the possibility of further body damage due to an accident. the event applied in this study is that of a man who weighs kg, who crashed onto a concrete floor from a height of . m. the scene of the fall accident was recorded as shown in figure . as a result of the autopsy, it was determined that his back crashed first against the floor. in this study, fracture behavior is reconstructed as a three-dimensional model using an estimation of the mechanism at the time of the crash. technologies that are able to deduce the state of stress and the state of the mechanism will also be developed in this study by performing fe analysis of the reconstructed model. . reconstruction of the damaged human model reconstructing the damaged human model involves three steps: ( ) the reconstruction of the damaged human bone from computer tomography (ct) images; ( ) the conversion of ct image files to digital human bone; and ( ) the reconstruction of the digital bone model. the software “mimics,” which was developed by “materialise nv” was used to reconstruct -d images from the -d ct scan images obtained in this study as shown in figure . this software has been used mainly in the fields of biomedical and biomechanical engineering and has been certified as reliable software by iso , the united states food and drug administration (fda), the european economic area (eea), and european standards (en). this software is able to extract -d models from the medical ct and magnetic resonance imaging (mri) image data using the value of a particular area of hounsfield units (hu) or gray value of a region of interest (roi). to convert ct image data of the damaged human bone to digital human bone, the software “mimics” performs -d object construction for the region of vertebra, sternum, rib, or costal cartilage. the relevant region is classified by setting the hu value including the relevant pixel. the imported ct image data in the “mimics” program is shown in figure and the converted digital human bone model is shown in figures and . as shown in the converted digital human model, rib and costal cartilage in the front and rear are the most damaged; the shape and orientation of these fractures and breakage can be clearly seen. therefore, easier and more detailed analyses are possible by converting the ct image data to a -d digital human bone model than by using conventional -d images. lastly, the damaged bone model is reconstructed to its original state to obtain the state of stress and mechanism at the time of the crash. the reconstruction can be performed by adjusting and bonding the processes of the fracture area of the damaged model. figure shows the digital bone model before and after its reconstruction. figure . the recorded information at the time of the falling accident. figure . imported computer tomography (ct) image data in “mimics” program. figure . the recorded information at the time of the falling accident. appl. sci. , , of figure . the recorded information at the time of the falling accident. figure . imported computer tomography (ct) image data in “mimics” program. figure . imported computer tomography (ct) image data in “mimics” program. figure . transferred digital bone model from ct image data, front view. figure . transferred digital bone model from ct image data, front view. appl. sci. , , of figure . transferred digital bone model from ct image data, back view. figure . transferred digital bone model from ct image data, back view. appl. sci. , , of (a) pre-reconstruction of the digital bone model. (b) post-reconstruction of the digital bone model. figure . reconstruction of the digital bone model’s damaged parts. . analysis of damage mechanism using adina in this study, post fracture analysis and accident reconstruction were carried out for the finite element model of the previously obtained digital human bone using the adina structure simulation, which is a commercially available finite element simulation program. adina enabled the coupled field analysis with fem and fvm (finite volume method) within one solver. the goal of this study is to find out the state of stress and mechanism at the point of crash by performing finite element analysis of the human bone. . . pre-processing of computational numerical analysis the digital human bone model of this study is composed of ribs, sternum, spine, and rib cartilage; table shows the mechanical properties of these components. there are discs between vertebrae and table shows their elastic modulus. in the case of costal cartilage, it is impossible to figure . reconstruction of the digital bone model’s damaged parts. . analysis of damage mechanism using adina in this study, post fracture analysis and accident reconstruction were carried out for the finite element model of the previously obtained digital human bone using the adina structure simulation, which is a commercially available finite element simulation program. adina enabled the coupled field analysis with fem and fvm (finite volume method) within one solver. the goal of this study is to find out the state of stress and mechanism at the point of crash by performing finite element analysis of the human bone. . . pre-processing of computational numerical analysis the digital human bone model of this study is composed of ribs, sternum, spine, and rib cartilage; table shows the mechanical properties of these components. there are discs between vertebrae and table shows their elastic modulus. in the case of costal cartilage, it is impossible to obtain appl. sci. , , of its mechanical properties by conventional test methods such as tensile tests due to difficulties in using test specimens as costal cartilage is limited in size. therefore, an instrumented indentation technique that uses ais and a specific jig for this study was applied to obtain the mechanical properties of costal cartilage [ , ]. using the specimens collected from the body, the elastic modulus, yield strength, and tensile strength were obtained and their average values calculated from the results of tests were used and are shown in table . figure shows a photograph of the specimen of costal cartilage and the results of the tests. the conversion of human bone to a finite element model is necessary before performing a finite element analysis of the reconstructed digital human bone model. figures and show a finite element model of the digital bone model. generating a finite element model, the connection of nodes between the ribs and cartilage was constructed using a rigid link element and the connection of nodes between the spines was constructed using a spring element. the mechanical properties of the connections are designated as those of the disc. finite element analysis was performed by applying the appropriate mechanical property to each model of the converted digital human bone model. to obtain compatibility and reliability between -d ct images and a -d human bone model, skin and lung tissue are excluded and analysis was performed only for the pure human bone. the -d model of the human bone and the number of elements was , . to obtain the value of impact force, a mechanical environment is assumed and estimated using three-dimensional images obtained from mdct for personal injury and cctv image analysis based on the results of the investigation of the forensic point of view. potential energy from . m high is fully converted to kinetic energy by the principle of the conservation of energy. the speed of the falling body at the ground is calculated as equation ( ). vfinal = √ ghinitial ( ) here, vfinal is the speed of the falling body at the ground, g is acceleration of gravity and hinitial is height of the falling. from the image analysis of the cctv information of the event, delay time was measured as . ms and finally, impact force is calculated by equation ( ). impact force = mvfinal ∆t ( ) here, m is the weight of the body and ∆t is the delay time. boundary conditions and load conditions are shown in figure considering the calculated impact force, n. each n was applied to nodes which are estimated to contact the ground as shown in figure . in the case that the body falls freely from . m high, finite element analysis is performed. the analysis starts at mm away from the rigid wall and the initial speed is calculated as . m/s by equation ( ). figure shows the finite element model and the boundary condition for the analysis of the falling body. table . material properties for each part of bone. young’s modulus density (kg/m ) poisson’s ratio yield strength (mpa) tension strength (mpa) rib . gpa . . . sternum . gpa . . . vertebra . gpa . . . costal cartilage . mpa . . . table . elastic modulus of disc according to direction. direction value(n/mm) tensile direction compressive direction appl. sci. , , of the body falls freely from . m high, finite element analysis is performed. the analysis starts at mm away from the rigid wall and the initial speed is calculated as . m/s by equation ( ). figure shows the finite element model and the boundary condition for the analysis of the falling body. (a) photograph of the specimen. (b) elastic modulus obtained from the tests. figure . cont. appl. sci. , , of (c) nominal yield strength from the tests. (d) nominal tensile strength from the tests. figure . photograph of test specimen and the results of mechanical properties. figure . photograph of test specimen and the results of mechanical properties. appl. sci. , , of figure . finite element model of the digital bone model. figure . finite element model of the digital bone model. figure . finite element model of the digital bone model. figure . finite element model of the digital bone model. appl. sci. , , of figure . the finite element model and the boundary condition. figure . the schematic boundary condition for the analysis of the falling body. . . post-processing of computational numerical analysis as a result of finite element analysis using this model and the aforementioned conditions, the maximum stress was distributed around rib( ), costal cartilage( ), vertebra( ), and the sternum on which the force was directly applied, as shown in figure . furthermore, the load was delivered to a rib below the sternum, so that a smaller distribution of stress could be found. as there is no stress concentration around the rigid beam element, it was concluded that load could be easily delivered. figure shows stress variation as a function of time for stress analysis. the maximum stress was found at point , which is the top part of the rib; point had the lowest stress value. in the case of costal cartilage, the maximum stress was found at point . in the case of the vertebrae, point had a higher value of stress than point , which means that higher stress was applied to the vertebrae located in higher positions. in particular, in the rib and the costal cartilage in the front and rear of the upper part, the stress value is over mpa. this value exceeds the yield strength of the rib, . mpa and the tensile strength, . mpa as well, which means a fracture of the rib on the same part. in the front of the sternum, the stress value ranges up to mpa from which it is inferred that the impact from the back has a great effect on the front. these results are in good agreement with the damaged bone model in section . figure . the finite element model and the boundary condition. figure . the finite element model and the boundary condition. figure . the schematic boundary condition for the analysis of the falling body. . . post-processing of computational numerical analysis as a result of finite element analysis using this model and the aforementioned conditions, the maximum stress was distributed around rib( ), costal cartilage( ), vertebra( ), and the sternum on which the force was directly applied, as shown in figure . furthermore, the load was delivered to a rib below the sternum, so that a smaller distribution of stress could be found. as there is no stress concentration around the rigid beam element, it was concluded that load could be easily delivered. figure shows stress variation as a function of time for stress analysis. the maximum stress was found at point , which is the top part of the rib; point had the lowest stress value. in the case of costal cartilage, the maximum stress was found at point . in the case of the vertebrae, point had a higher value of stress than point , which means that higher stress was applied to the vertebrae located in higher positions. in particular, in the rib and the costal cartilage in the front and rear of the upper part, the stress value is over mpa. this value exceeds the yield strength of the rib, . mpa and the tensile strength, . mpa as well, which means a fracture of the rib on the same part. in the front of the sternum, the stress value ranges up to mpa from which it is inferred that the impact from the back has a great effect on the front. these results are in good agreement with the damaged bone model in section . figure . the schematic boundary condition for the analysis of the falling body. . . post-processing of computational numerical analysis as a result of finite element analysis using this model and the aforementioned conditions, the maximum stress was distributed around rib( ), costal cartilage( ), vertebra( ), and the sternum on which the force was directly applied, as shown in figure . furthermore, the load was delivered to a rib below the sternum, so that a smaller distribution of stress could be found. as there is no stress concentration around the rigid beam element, it was concluded that load could be easily delivered. figure shows stress variation as a function of time for stress analysis. the maximum stress was found at point , which is the top part of the rib; point had the lowest stress value. in the case of costal cartilage, the maximum stress was found at point . in the case of the vertebrae, point had a higher value of stress than point , which means that higher stress was applied to the vertebrae located in higher positions. in particular, in the rib and the costal cartilage in the front and rear of the upper part, the stress value is over mpa. this value exceeds the yield strength of the rib, . mpa and the tensile strength, . mpa as well, which means a fracture of the rib on the same part. in the front of the sternum, the stress value ranges up to mpa from which it is inferred that the impact from the back has a great effect on the front. these results are in good agreement with the damaged bone model in section . appl. sci. , , of (a) isotropic view. (b) front view. figure . result of stress distribution for finite element analysis figure . stress according to time variance on each section. figure . result of stress distribution for finite element analysis. (a) isotropic view. (b) front view. figure . result of stress distribution for finite element analysis figure . stress according to time variance on each section. figure . stress according to time variance on each section. appl. sci. , , of . conclusions the goals of this study were to find the stress states and mechanisms at the point of a crash by performing finite element analyses of the human bone and to develop technologies that can deduce the state of stress and its mechanisms by performing fe analysis of a reconstructed model. in this study, a -d digital human model was reconstructed using ct of the damaged human bone. the finite element model was obtained by a meshing operation using “mimics” software and finite element analysis was performed using the mechanical property as shown in the previous table. by performing finite element analysis using a transformation model, the mechanism regarding fracture of the ribs due to the falling accident was verified in terms of engineering by deriving stress-time curves for the stress generated in ribs, costal cartilage and vertebrae. as a result of the analysis in this study, it was found that the location of the maximum stress obtained from the analysis is in good agreement with that of the actual fracture, which proves that our analysis methodology has adequate reliability in forensic fields. as a future study, comparison between analysis data and the actual accident data considering the impact force should be performed for reliability. furthermore, finite element analysis will be able to be performed for digital bone models including skin tissue and lung tissue, based upon the previous analyses of digital bone models. funding: this research was supported by basic science research program through the national research foundation of korea (nrf) funded by the ministry of education ( r d a b ). conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . greer, a. numerical modeling for the prediction of primary blast injury to the lung. master’s thesis, university of waterloo, waterloo, on, canada, january . . bass, c.r.; salzar, r.; davis, m.; lucas, s.; donnellan, l.; folk, b. injury risk in behind armor blunt thoracic trauma. int. j. occup. saf. ergon. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . dupre, s. modelisation en elements finis du complexe de l’epaule et simulation de sa reponse a un choc lateral. ph.d. thesis, l’institut national des sciences applique’s de lyon, villeurbanne, france, . . stemper, b.d.; board, d.; yoganandan, n.; wolfla, c.e. biomechanical properties of human thoracic spine disc segments. j. craniovertebral junction spine , , – . . lau, a.g.; oyen, m.l.; kent, r.w.; murakami, d.; torigaki, t. indentation stiffness of aging human costal cartilage. acta biomater. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . kemper, a.r.; mcnally, c.; kennedy, e.a.; manoogian, s.j.; rath, a.l.; nq, t.p.; stitzel, j.d.; smith, e.p.; duma, s.m.; matsuoka, f. material properties of human rib cortical bone from dynamic tension coupon testing. stapp. car. crash j. , , – . [pubmed] © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.actbio. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. introduction background of damaged human body reconstruction of the damaged human model analysis of damage mechanism using adina pre-processing of computational numerical analysis post-processing of computational numerical analysis conclusions references unus pro omnibus! generic research tool for all humanities disciplines. andré kilchenmann a.kilchenmann@dasch.swiss flavie laurens flavie.laurens@dasch.swiss data and service center for the humanities dasch — november , cfp paper abstract | dariah annual event the “digital turn” has changed research in the humanities to a large extent: many new digital tools and methods exist with which you can access and analyze texts, videos, sound and music. however, those tools are most of the time standalone applications and it is more difficult to combine various records. a good illustration of this situation is research projects with moving image as main (re)source. scholars record current events and interview contemporary witnesses like historic or ethnographic projects. here, moving images or videos need to be transcribed which could be a “simple” interview transcription. but in some disciplines like sociology or film and media studies, these multimedia objects must be extended which complexify the process. in those cases, scholars would also like to annotate the source, to describe the composition of the image, the soundtrack, or the movement of the camera. it’s a linkage between various sources and descriptions. the question is: how can we bring them all together? at the data and service center for the humanities (hereinafter called dasch) in basel, switzerland, we have to deal with all different data sets from all disciplines in the humanities. the dasch is a national research infrastructure which provides data handling services like data curation, long-term access, and research and analysis tools to work with qualitative data. we bring a wide variety of data, data models and media (digital representations) from different disciplines together: from archaeology to philosophy; from moving image to books, audio and still images. an important aspect of managing qualitative data in the digital humanities is that, in most cases, the preservation of data sets alone makes little sense. we have to store data sets that can be accessed, re-used, connected and annotated. to reach this goal and to provide qualitative data handling services, the dasch develops and maintains a software platform called dasch service platform (previous “knora”) consisting of a database based on a resource description framework (rdf) triple store and application programming interfaces (apis). the dasch service platform handles data from database, as well as media files stored on our own iiif-based- media server. those tools are part of the backend, the server side. scholars with good it-skills can interact with apis and work with their data. for scholars with limited it-knowledge, we need to provide a simple, generic user interface. we are developing an intuitive, easy-to-use web-based application, called “dsp-app”, placed on top of dasch service platform to directly use its powerful data management functionalities. data models and data will automatically follow accepted standards, be findable, accessible interoperable, and re-usable (fair principles). with dsp-app, scholars will have a ready-to-use platform in order to create their own data models, upload data, attach metadata, and perform analyses and data-visualization as they could do with a desktop data management tool. even scholars with small data sets will have access to long-term accessibility at minimal cost and time to keep their research data alive, guaranteeing longevity of the data. author biography dr. andré kilchenmann studied cultural anthropology, media studies and computer science at the uni- versity of basel. during this time, he worked at the museum of cultures in basel and at the data center of the university. his interests are photography, design and digital work in general. in , he completed his phd studies at the digital humanities lab in basel and now works for the data and service center for the humanities dasch. flavie laurens is a front-end designer and web developer. she has a master’s degree in “systematics, evo- lution, paleobiodiversity” minor in “biodiversity informatics” from pierre and marie curie university (upmc), paris. since june , she has been working on different user interfaces for the data and service center for the humanities dasch. the language of caring: digital human modeling, practice patterns, and performance assessment - published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference doi: . /j.promfg. . . procedia manufacturing ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect th international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics (ahfe ) and the affiliated conferences, ahfe the language of caring: digital human modeling, practice patterns, and performance assessment j.r. hotchkissa,b,c,*, j.d. paladinod, c.w. brackneya,b, a.m. kaynarb, p.s. crookee aveteran’s affairs healthcare system, pittsburgh, pa , usa bdepartment of critical care medicine, university of pittsburgh, pittsburgh, pa , usa cveteran’s engineering resource center, pittsburgh, pa , usa ddepartment of medicine, john a. burns school of medicine, honolulu, hi , usa edepartment of mathematics, vanderbilt university, nashville, tn , usa abstract digital human modeling offers unique potential in educating providers to apply complex, titratable forms of medical care and assessing their cognitive competence in these domains. mechanical ventilation uses a machine (a ventilator) to support patients who cannot breathe independently, and is a cornerstone of modern intensive and emergency medical care. this cognitively complex, titrated, and potentially harmful therapy saves hundreds of thousands of lives per year. practical and ethical considerations limit the provision of extensive bedside training, and there are no current mechanisms for assessing operational competence. we constructed a comprehensive digital model of patients undergoing mechanical ventilation that was populated with “virtual patients,” as well as specific guidelines regarding clinical goals for each patient. individuals ranging from experienced clinicians to trainees were evaluated regarding their performance as they managed the virtual patient population. the training experience was well received and required less than hours. nonetheless, exposure to the simulator improved provider efficiency, and was accompanied by clear changes in patterns of practice. the ability to test on rigorously standardized cases (entirely unfeasible in the clinical setting) facilitated assessment of competence and more sophisticated quantification of. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference. keywords: mechanical ventilation; virtual patients; practice patterns; performance assessment * corresponding author. e-mail address: john.r.hotchkiss@gmail.com published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.promfg. . . &domain=pdf j.r. hotchkiss et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . introduction mechanical ventilation (mv) is a cornerstone intervention in modern intensive and emergency care that is used to support hundreds of thousands of individuals each year while they cannot breathe independently. unfortunately, this lifesaving intervention can cause harm: injudicious ventilator settings can promote lung injury, compromise circulatory stability, produce patient distress, stimulate an inflammatory response, and prolong the period of support required. such adverse consequences of mechanical ventilation add to the burden of patient suffering, increase healthcare resource utilization, and compromise outcomes. the physiologic and engineering foundations of mechanical ventilation are relatively well understood [ - ]. regrettably, the teaching of mechanical ventilation remains primarily a “bedside” exercise more akin to an apprenticeship than a systematic approach to mastery. new learners cannot practice extensively on actual patients, for ethical and practical reasons, and physiologically realistic alternatives (large animals or physical simulators) are expensive and suffer from limited access. moreover, the exposure of the practitioner to the full spectrum of possible mechanical or physiologic derangements cannot be guaranteed. contemporary approaches to assessment of expertise in mechanical ventilation are ill-suited for defining clinician practice patterns or competence in the context of a potentially harmful intervention for which any patient problem may have many possible solutions, the prevailing physiology is highly dynamic, and the clinician is reasoning in the setting of uncertainty. however, there is recent evidence that model-based training can have an impact on the proficiency of clinicians [ - ]. we addressed these issues by refining and extending an existing simulation-based educational model of mechanical ventilation and coupling this software to a state of the art approach to characterizing practice patterns, one based on symbolic dynamics [ , ]. this ensemble included a computer based micro-simulation training tool and software and algorithms for constructing a database, characterizing provider practice patterns. we explored the evolution of the practice patterns adopted by individual providers as they progressed through a training exercise in which they confronted virtual patients having common clinical derangements of respiratory mechanics. an updated version of the simulation tool freeware can be downloaded from: http://www.math.vanderbilt.edu/ ~pscrooke/canvent/upload.html. . methods . . simulation tool the simulation tool comprises distinct simulation based elements: element one: mathematical models that faithfully emulate airspace mechanics during mechanical ventilation. the mathematical models that underlie the simulator are based on general models of non-passive (patient active to varying degrees) mechanical ventilation under pressure controlled (pcv) or volume controlled (vcv) mechanical ventilation. the primary model has been parameterized and tested in a large animal model of lung injury, and are based on a representation of the pulmonary pressure-volume curve (lung recruitment) originally proposed and validated in humans [ ]. in this approach, lung compliance is represented as a trapezoidal (increasing, constant, and decreasing) function of lung volume [ , ]. we studied this model in an oleic acid swine model, and found it to faithfully emulate the dynamic behaviors of this large animal model of very severe lung injury [ ]. element two: a model emulating gas exchange during mechanical ventilation. we developed a simple “two- compartment” model of pulmonary gas exchange that captures relevant behaviors based on a “perfused, ventilated” compartment and a “perfused, unventilated” compartment. the “size” of the unventilated compartment is determined by the volumes predicted from the mechanics model above. element three: models emulating acid-base metabolism and the effects of elevated intrathoracic pressure we developed a simple model of co clearance and systemic ph that captures relevant behaviors based on co production, minute ventilation, and anatomic deadspace . similarly, we incorporated a simple model of interactions between elevations in intrathoracic pressure and decrements in cardiac output that is used to emulate mean arterial pressure responses to elevated intrathoracic pressure. j.r. hotchkiss et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – element four: a population of “virtual patients” that faithfully emulate the behaviors of patients managed in everyday clinical practice. manipulation of patient specific impedance parameters (such as inflection points, gain values, oxygen consumption, etc.) was undertaken to construct a population of virtual patients having physiologic characteristics mimicking common clinical derangements: chronic obstructive lung disease (cold) severe acute asthma (saa) mean airway pressure responsive acute lung injury (rali) mean airway pressure unresponsive hypoxemia (uh) restrictive lung disease (rld). several iterations were performed in which experienced critical care clinicians confronted each simulated patient; those displaying grossly unrealistic behaviors, or that were deemed so easy to be uninformative, were replaced by alternate candidates. we sought virtual patients that were both ultimately “solvable,” and non-trivial in the manipulations required for solution. the simulator sequentially presented patients, of which ( from each pathophysiologic class) were unique and an additional of which ( from each class) appeared times (at the beginning of the simulation, and after , , and patients). these “recurring patients” allowed evaluation of user responses to identical patients at different points in the educational experience. element five: a user friendly interface in which learners confront sequential patients, attempt to satisfy specified goals, and can terminate the simulation when they believe goals have been met. following (potentially multiple) iterations of ventilator adjustments, mode selections, and fluid management decisions, the user commits to the solution or determines that goals cannot be met. immediate feedback is provided. . . assessment tool for each ventilator adjustment imposed on each patient, the simulator archives the patient type and impedance and other characteristics, the current values of each physiologic variable, and requests for ancillary data. similarly, the software archives the exact values for changes in ventilator settings made by the user. these data, collected for each learner, comprise the inputs of the assessment toolkit. this toolkit provides two broad classes of performance data, detailed below. analysis of provider solution speeds, success rates, and response patterns. gross outcomes, such as the number of attempts to solve each patient, number of successful solutions, and complication rates (unsatisfactory physiologic parameters within a trial) are calculated directly. in addition, the complexity of each intervention imposed by the learner is quantified in two ways: average complexity and weighted complexity. average complexity is simply the number of ventilator settings that the practitioner changes at each attempt, divided by the number of relevant attempts. weighted complexity “weights” each setting change by the number of outcome measures that parameter can affect—for example, changes in tidal volume can affect ph, plateau pressure, oxygenation, and blood pressure (weight = ), whereas changes in inspired oxygen concentration typically only affect oxygenation (weight= ). these metrics were constructed to capture the tendency of more experienced practitioners to respond with patterns of interventions, rather than unitary changes. quantitative analysis of provider practice patterns. for each point in each simulated management problem, the prevailing pattern of derangements of the patient (such as hypoxemia, low ph and high plateau pressure combined with a low blood pressure: the failure pattern) can be assigned a unique numerical symbol. similarly, the provider responses (such as decreasing tidal volume, increasing peep, increasing respiratory frequency, administering a fluid bolus, or combinations thereof) can also be assigned a unique numerical symbol. the simulation can thus be cast as a series of aligned symbols: “the provider saw this pattern of derangements, and responded with the following pattern of interventions.” j.r. hotchkiss et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – table . attempt/failure patterns. these data are used to construct provider- and population- specific frequency tables depicting the frequency with which a provider (or population of providers) responds to a specific derangement pattern with a specific pattern of interventions. approaches promulgated by tang and daw [ , ] can be used to construct difference matrices expressing the “distance” between practice patterns. such difference matrices can provide quantitative measurements of the distance between a provider’s practice patterns and those of other providers or those of a consensus panel of providers. . results we studied subjects ranging from trainees to experienced faculty members. each managed virtual patients; completion of the training experience took each subject approximately . hours of interaction time ( . ± . h). user acceptance was good, with % of users agreeing that the virtual patients resembled those in their daily practice and % indicating that they would apply the knowledge gained in this experience to their daily practice. the resulting database contained , disorder: intervention dyads. incomplete pairs resulting from keystroke errors accounted for . % and were excluded, leaving , dyads for analysis. two subjects had keystroke errors in the last of the standardized patient panels ( - ) rendering these standardized sets not evaluable. accordingly, performance on the standardized sets was assessed using patients - and - and performance on previously unseen patients was conducted using patients - and - . when the two individuals with incomplete terminal sets were excluded from the analyses and the remaining individuals were evaluated using patients - and - (standard patient panels) and patients through and through (previously unseen patients), the results of the analyses were not substantively changed. all results are corrected for multiple comparisons within the study. simulation based training increases practitioner efficiency. following simulation based training practitioners solved a panel of standardized patients with fewer attempts on each patient. rates of successful solution were similar (as planned- patients were “designed” to be solvable), suggesting increased efficiency (figure ). for the provider subset comparing performance on standardized patients - and - the corresponding corrected p value was . . fig. . evolution of performance on standardized patient sets. panel a: number of attempts required to solve standardized set before and after training; panel b: success rates before and after training. attempt failure pattern provider pattern j.r. hotchkiss et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . evolution of performance on novel patient sets. panel a: number of attempts required to solve individual patients before and after training; panel b: success rates before and after training. the increased efficiency seen on standardized patient panels generalized to new patients. following simulation based training, practitioners solved panels of more difficult patients they had not previously encountered with fewer attempts and similar or increased success, suggesting that the increased efficiency seen in the standard panel generalized to “novel” encounters (figure ). for the providers subset comparing performance on patients through and through the corresponding corrected p value is . . providers adopt more sophisticated practice patterns following simulation-based training. following simulation based training, practitioners implemented significantly more complex patterns of adjustment at each change in ventilator settings. “complexity” is simply the average number of parameters changed at each step. “weighted complexity” is the sum of setting changes at each intervention, with each setting change weighted by the number of outcome parameters that are affected by that setting. for example, frequency can affect minute ventilation, plateau pressure, oxygenation, minute ventilation, and mean arterial pressure; changes in fio only affect oxygenation. practitioners qualitatively changed their patterns of practice (figure ). for the provider subset comparing performance on standardized patients - and - the corresponding corrected p-values are . and . . fig. . average complexity of interventions imposed by each user before and after training. panel a: average complexity; panel b: average weighted complexity. j.r. hotchkiss et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . similarity of individual practice patterns to the patterns adopted by high performing individuals. panel a: similarity on standardized patient sets; panel b: similarity on novel patients. simulation based training leads to providers adopting higher performance practice languages. as previously demonstrated, practice patterns during management of mechanical ventilation display language-like characteristics [ ]. accordingly, we defined a consensus “practice language” based on the patterns of the most effective subjects, and compared the remainder of the subjects to these patterns before and after simulation training. the “most effective” designation was determined as those subjects having the lowest values for: . following simulation based training, the practice patterns of the remaining subjects converged toward those of highly efficient providers, whether on a standardized panel of patients or on panels of previously unseen patients, suggesting that practitioners were learning a more efficient “language” (figure ). for the provider subset comparing practice patterns on standardized patients - vs - and - vs - the corresponding corrected p-values are . and . . although not a primary outcome within the analysis, within the standard sets learners demonstrated a qualitative trend toward increased efficiency across each of the different patient classes. this finding was observed when both the full data and the learner data were examined. table . attempt/failure before and after training. class average attempts (before training) average attempts (after training) p-value (corrected) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a similar analysis was not possible for the novel simulated patients, as the degree of difficulty of these patients was not constant (by design). accordingly, patients could not be “matched” for inherent difficulty for comparison before and after training. j.r. hotchkiss et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . discussion users of this micro-simulation based training tool for mechanical ventilation increased their solution efficiency, implemented more complex patterns of intervention, and converged toward a common “expert practice pattern” as they progressed through the simulations and were confronted with a rigorously standardized testing panel of simulated patients. these changes in performance and practice pattern were mirrored by similar changes as the users confronted “novel-“ not seen before – virtual patients. of note, learners were exposed to a large volume of cases spanning a wide clinical range in a very short period- on average less than hours. this work highlights unique advantages of digital human models as training tools. first, the trainee can “practice” in an environment that poses no threat to patient safety. second, an adequate, high volume exposure to the entire range of clinical problems can be assured. our results suggest that, in the setting of mechanical ventilation, such exposure can be accomplished in a short time frame. the individual cases can be rigorously standardized, facilitating intra-and inter- individual comparisons. in addition, such standardization, combined with complete data capture, facilitates the definition of practice patterns and allows the implementation of practice pattern based assessment tools. as real world medical care requires the apprehension of multi element patterns of patient derangement and multicomponent provider interventions, such pattern based competency assessment is likely more appropriate than currently employed, univariate assessments. properly deployed digital human models are uniquely suited for training practitioners to manage patients with complex medical conditions requiring titrated care. in addition, such models allow characterization of “expert” practice patterns, facilitating assessment of competence along multiple simultaneous axes. more sophisticated training tools, such as those including user-tailored training (where the cases focus on the user’s weak points) are also readily implemented. the future is bright for such approaches. acknowledgements this research was supported by nih r hl and ahrq r hs - . references [ ] burke, w.c., et al., comparion of mathematical and mechanical models of pressure-controlled ventilation. journal of applied physiology, . 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[ ] tang, x.z., et al., symbol sequence statistics in noisy chaotic signal recognition. physical review e, . ( ): p. - . ano vii, n. - jan-jun/ - issn - resenha understanding digital humanities (berry, david m. (org.). basingstoke: palgrave mcmillan, ) andré carlos moraes a expressão “humanidades digitais” (“digital humanities”) tem sido usada para designar um campo emergente de pesquisa que busca investigar as temáticas das humanidades e ciências sociais com auxílio extensivo de recursos eletrônicos, principalmente computa- cionais. não se trata apenas de adotar o uso de ferramentas digitais, mas, em alguns casos, de rediscutir metodologias e mesmo epistemologias. envolvendo reflexões sobre o fazer científico tanto quanto novas estratégias de aproximação aos objetos de pesqui- sa, as humanidades digitais ainda lutam por conquistar reconhecimento e, principalmen- te, por se fazer compreender pelo público acadêmico, mesmo aquele que seja simpático às novas tecnologias. É neste esforço de se aproximar da comunidade de pesquisadores que se encaixa understanding digital humanities, coletânea de artigos que reúne alguns dos principais autores que têm se dedicado à área. os primeiros ensaios trazem tentativas de sistematização do campo e relatos históricos sobre sua origem, inclusive mapeando a gênese do termo, inicialmente adota- do por um grupo de pesquisadores da universidade de virginia, eua, no final do sécu- lo passado (berry, , p. ). também há artigos dedicados à discussão epistemo- lógica, propondo compreender as diferenças entre as pesquisas convencionais e os mé- todos eletrônicos, inclusive aprofundando os motivos da resistência de alguns dos cien- tistas sociais e autores de humanidades. de interesse específico para a área de comunicação são os relatos de pesquisas implementadas. há trabalhos, por exemplo, dedicados à análise de textos, que procuram usar algoritmos computacionais para extrair indicadores de um grande corpus (às vezes doutorando pelo programa de pós-graduação em comunicação e informação da universidade federal do rio grande do sul. e-mail: andrecmoraes@uol.com.br ano vii, n. - jan-jun/ - issn - composto por milhares de documentos). um dos estudos apresentados no livro executou este tipo de procedimento em amostras de jornais, fazendo comparativo com o trabalho executado por um pesquisador por métodos analógicos (idem, p. ). embora sujeitos a questionamentos em diversos níveis, estes tipos de pesquisa têm consequências episte- mológicas relevantes, já que questionam diferenças normalmente assumidas como da- das, tais como aquelas entre os métodos qualitativo e quantitativo. outros estudos fazem propostas de trabalho para a área de investigação ligada à cultura visual, que concentra, também, especial interesse para o campo de comunica- ção. o austríaco adelheid heftberger (idem, p. ) faz um apanhado de pesquisas de humanidades digitais na área de cinema, incluindo tentativas de digitalizar acervo de cineastas clássicos e automatizar categorizações. o livro inclui um artigo de um dos maiores pesquisadores das digital humanities ligadas à cultura visual, lev manovich, da universidade da califórnia (idem, p. ), que liderou uma pesquisa que comparou um milhão de páginas de histórias em quadrinhos japonesas (mangás), colhendo automati- camente indicadores sobre estilo, técnica e contraste. algumas das experiências apresentadas discutem abertamente questões de pes- quisa que se abrem especificamente em vista dos métodos computacionais, como a questão do “black boxing”, a opacidade técnica de alguns dos procedimentos. envol- vendo colaboração entre equipes de programadores e de cientistas sociais, alguns dos projetos de humanidades digitais relatam problemas como a falta de compreensão mú- tua das necessidades e tradições epistemológicas, o que acaba produzindo resistência e desestímulos. É o caso do projeto relatado pela britânica yu-wei lin (idem, p ). a discussão sobre limitações técnicas e configurações epistemológicas se torna importante na medida em que o livro também relata a pressão, em centros de pesquisa internacionais, para que profissionais das humanidades se conformem a exigências vin- das dos campos das hard sciences. alguns dos autores relatam, por exemplo, que certas fontes de financiamento europeias passaram a adotar como requisito que fossem adota- das equipes e métodos amplos, numa espécie de transposição para as humanidades da chamada “big science” (como visto nos grandes projetos da física ou da saúde). neste sentido, o emprego de técnicas de pesquisa para estender a uma dimensão quantitativa a investigação em humanidades seria uma forma de ajudar a atrair maiores recursos e mesmo assegurar a continuidade dos projetos na área. ano vii, n. - jan-jun/ - issn - entre os artigos úteis para o cotidiano de pesquisa está um de morgan currie, da universidade de amsterdam (idem, p. ), que realizou uma extensiva análise sobre os padrões e polêmicas entre editores da enciclopédia aberta wikipedia em torno de um tópico em especial (o feminismo). o ensaio também traz uma discussão sobre ferramen- tas de análise automatizadas disponíveis em código aberto, suas limitações e estratégias de uso e exposição. como outros capítulos do livro, é um bom ponto de partida para quem esteja contemplando trabalhos com metodologias on-line. reunindo vários artigos e, portanto, uma diversidade de revisões bibliográficas, understanding digital humanities ainda oferece uma oportunidade de mapear algumas vertentes teóricas representativas dos estudos recentes sobre novas tecnologias. neste sentido, é também um bom guia para sistematizar trabalhos acadêmicos na área, inde- pendente de considerações metodológicas ou epistemológicas. entre os teóricos cujos trabalhos merecem análises críticas estão referências como friedrich kittler, wolfgang ernst e henry jenkins, entre outros. como decorrência da pluralidade geográfica dos autores, também é uma oportunidade para localizar fontes alternativas aos eixos francês e anglo-saxônico, costumeiramente referenciados em muitas pesquisas brasileiras. outro ponto interessante é que entre as discussões presentes no livro está a questão da aplicabilidade do conhecimento científico. o britânico dan dixon, da uni- versidade de bristol, propõe pensar as humanidades digitais em termos da proposição epistemológica do action design, lembrando que esta é a dimensão em que se trabalha quando se busca algum grau de intervenção, diferente das proposições positivista, com sua meta descritiva e universalizante, e da crítica, com seu objetivo de análise, engajada ou não. levar em consideração a dimensão aplicada das digital humanities é útil tanto para os interessados em estabelecer relações com setores produtivos da sociedade quan- to para os que buscam a pesquisa pura, já que funciona como lembrete de que se trata de um campo no qual o pragmatismo tem peso às vezes determinante. understanding digital humanities seria uma leitura recomendável para estudan- tes e pesquisadores que estejam contemplando se dedicar a métodos computacionais ou investigar fenômenos on-line. em anos recentes, o panorama das pesquisas de comuni- cação no brasil tem apontado um crescente interesse pelas pesquisas ligadas a redes sociais, jornalismo on-line e tecnologias de comunicação eletrônica, como o e-book. também são frequentes os trabalhos que empregam algoritmos ou recursos telemáticos ano vii, n. - jan-jun/ - issn - tanto na análise quanto na coleta do corpus. em vista deste interesse, é mais do que útil aprofundar referências, tanto para acompanhamento de técnicas e métodos já em avalia- ção quanto para a igualmente indispensável discussão epistemológica e mesmo filosófi- ca sobre o conhecimento originado a partir daí. anote no caderno da pesquisa. ou, para ficar no espírito, faça uma tag: #útil. abstract machine - geographical information systems (gis) for literary and cultural studies: 'mapping kavanagh' | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: abstract machine - geographical information systems (gis) for literary and cultural studies: 'mapping kavanagh' @article{travis abstractm, title={abstract machine - geographical information systems (gis) for literary and cultural studies: 'mapping kavanagh'}, author={c. travis}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } c. travis published sociology, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. drawing upon previous theoretical and practical work in historical and qualitative applications of geographical information systems (gis), this paper, in giles deleuze and felix guattari's terminology, conceptualizes gis as ‘an abstract machine’ which plays a ‘piloting role’ which does not ‘function to represent’ something real, but rather ‘constructs a real which is yet to come.’ to illustrate this digital humanities mapping methodology, the essay examines irish writer patrick kavanagh's novel… expand view via publisher tara.tcd.ie save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables geographic information system abstract machine citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency visual geo-literary and historical analysis, tweetflickrtubing, and james joyce's ulysses ( ) c. travis sociology pdf view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed transcending the cube: translating giscience time and space perspectives in a humanities gis c. travis computer science int. j. geogr. inf. sci. save alert research feed visualizing a spatial archive: gis, digital humanities, and relational space r. foley, rachel murphy geography pdf view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed geographic information systems and historical research: an appraisal luís espinha da silveira history, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. save alert research feed geohumanities, giscience and smart city lifeworld approaches to geography and the new human condition c. travis save alert research feed gis and history: epistemologies, reflections, and considerations c. travis geography save alert research feed designing a profession: the structure, organisation and identity of the design profession in britain, - leah armstrong political science pdf save alert research feed digital arts and humanities working group - report jennie m. burroughs, k. brooks, + authors s. spicer political science save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency the city in textual form: manhattan transfer's new york m. brosseau history save alert research feed place, voice, space: mikhail bakhtin's dialogical landscape m. folch-serra sociology save alert research feed qualitative gis: a mixed methods approach m. cope, s. elwood sociology save alert research feed topophilia: a study of environmental perception, attitudes and values j. w. watson, yi-fu tuan sociology save alert research feed moving through modernity: space and geography in modernism a. thacker art save alert research feed a thousand plateaus: capitalism and schizophrenia g. deleuze, f. guattari, b. massumi philosophy , pdf save alert research feed computing and language variation: a special issue of international journal of humanities and arts computing j. nerbonne, charlotte gooskens, s. kürschner computer science save alert research feed postmetropolis: critical studies of cities and regions t. bell sociology save alert research feed speech genres and other late essays m. bakhtin, m. holquist, c. emerson, vern w. mcgee psychology, philosophy , pdf save alert research feed the personality of ireland: habitat, heritage and history e. e. evans geography save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract figures and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue static search: an archivable and sustainable search engine for the digital humanities joseph takeda (@joeytakeda) (digital humanities innovation lab at simon fraser university) martin holmes (humanities computing and media centre at the university of victoria) project endings project endings ● static websites – no server side dependencies – strictly xhtml + css + vanilla js – best chance for preservation years + (we hope) but... but... ● researchers require robust searching mechanisms, including: but... ● researchers require robust searching mechanisms, including: – keyword search but... ● researchers require robust searching mechanisms, including: – keyword search – exact phrase search but... ● researchers require robust searching mechanisms, including: – keyword search – exact phrase search – filtered search (by date, by author, +++) why not use...? why not use...? why not use...? why not use...? why not use...? why not use...? ● not particularly reliable why not use...? ● not particularly reliable ● external dependency = technical debt why not use...? ● not particularly reliable ● external dependency = technical debt ● too many documents to put in one index so we built our own so we built our own ● https://github.com/projectendings/staticsearch https://github.com/projectendings/staticsearch demonstration applications ● https://johnkeats.uvic.ca/search.html ● https://dvpp.uvic.ca/search.html https://johnkeats.uvic.ca/search.html https://dvpp.uvic.ca/search.html how it works you have: ● a collection of html files ● all well-formed & valid xhtml html collection html html html you add: ● an html search page containing a special div: search page html you add: ● some metadata elements to support search filters: html collection html html html you create: ● a configuration file (xml) to specify the features and constraints for your search engine configuration xml html collection html html html configuration xml html collection html html html xslt files xslt xslt xslt configuration xml html collection html html html json tokens json json json xslt files xslt xslt xslt configuration xml html collection html html html json filters json json json json tokens json json json xslt files xslt xslt xslt configuration xml html collection html html html json filters json json json json tokens json json json search page html xslt files xslt xslt xslt configuration xml json token file {"token": "unprofit", "instances": [ { "docid": "pom_ _ithe_old_man_of_hoy", "docuri": "poems/goodwords/ /pom_ _ithe_old_man_of_hoy.html", "score": , "contexts": [ { "form": "unprofitably", "context": "…whole that day was spent unprofitably<\/mark>.", "weight": , "pos": } ] }, { "docid": "pom_ _john_and_joan_canto_ii", "docuri": "poems/blackwoods/ /pom_ _john_and_joan_canto_ii.html", "score": , "contexts": [ { "form": "unprofitable", "context": "…too much ap- propriated unto unprofitable<\/mark> jocularities and facetiousness. craving licence,…" , "weight": , "pos": } ] } ] } filter json { "filterid": "ssbool ", "filtername": "unsigned", "ssbool _ ": { "value": "true", "docs": [ "poems/chambers_series/ /pom_ _the_husbands_request.html", "poems/alltheyearround/ /pom_ _the_hourglass.html", "poems/alltheyearround/ /pom_ _in_the_conservatory.html", "poems/blackwoods/ /pom_ _jolly_father_joe.html", "poems/blackwoods/ /pom_ _the_watchmans_lament.html" ] } } on the website... ● ...of the thousands of json files... ● ...the search page js retrieves only the ones it needs for the search you do: search page html search page html unprofitable search page html unprofitable js stem unprofit search page html unprofitable js stem unprofitunprofit.json search page html unprofitable js stem unprofitunprofit.jsonretrieve search page html unprofitable js stem unprofitunprofit.jsonretrieve compile filter search page html unprofitable js stem unprofitunprofit.jsonretrieve compile filter display next steps ● wildcard searches (*, ?, [uv]) ● pluggable stemmers for different languages / dialects resources ● get the code: https://github.com/projectendings/staticsearch ● read the documentation: https://projectendings.github.io/staticsearch https://github.com/projectendings/staticsearch https://projectendings.github.io/staticsearch thanks! ● hcmc, university of victoria ● dhil, simon fraser university ● social sciences and humanities research council ● dhsi, lindsey seatter, arun jacob slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide slide s jrv .. review essay digital humanities and the discontents of meaning michael a. fuller* university of california, irvine *corresponding author. e-mail:mafuller@uci.edu (received july ; revised december ; accepted february ) the digital humanities offer more than just a set of tools. the application of software to assist in the analysis of large collections of data does not just expand the volume of material we can incorporate in our work, it also expands how we in the humanities understand the nature of meaning. the recent scholarly turn to the expanded modes of analysis made possible by dh is not just the “latest new thing” but gives the scholarly community a way to articulate and respond to long-standing doubts about the episte- mological grounding in the practice of the humanities. even more importantly, i believe that this broadening of inquiry afforded by dh is intrinsic to the humanistic project itself. in this essay, i seek in particular to connect the implicit conceptual substructure behind the architectural logic of the digital humanities to key strains of hermeneutic thought that have established a basis for exploring the question of how we are to under- stand the vast, variegated world of historical human experience that is the object of our humanistic inquiries across disciplines. the retreat of meaning how do the digital humanities provide an epistemological model for thinking about the human? i would argue that the digital humanities live within the impasse of the failure of language that has long shadowed humanistic study, but offer compelling ways of thinking about meaning within that impasse. this reorientation becomes clearer when we consider the digital humanities within the context of the epistemological pre- dicament of the humanities in the past half century. the failure of language—the simple truism that words are just words, signifiers not securely attached to things—has long presented an epistemological problem in the human- istic interpretation of texts. in the past fifty years in particular, scholars have intensely debated the question that if all we have are words—and if our mode of thinking about these words is through systems of yet more words—how can we reach beyond words to the things themselves? of course not all our understanding of the past relies on words: we have the substantial resources of artifacts from fragments of textile to pottery and metal castings, to human bones, to extensive archeological sites. still, many aspects of the past—and in particular, the intellectual, affective, and aesthetic dimensions—remain inaccessible without relying on textual corpora. without a theory of reference to connect © cambridge university press . this is an open access article, distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. journal of chinese history ( ), , – doi: . /jch. . h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:mafuller@uci.edu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog?doi= . /jch. . &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms texts firmly to the world, the meanings we can justifiably draw from textual evidence become suspect. the story of the unmooring of language is well-known: structuralism gave us a synchronic account of meaning in language. its logic of mutual differentiation among signifiers offered important insights into the working of texts, but it also led to the vision of language as a closed, endless mirroring of words. substantive links between signifiers and a signified world outside of language dissolved into an infinite deferral of meaning. although the problem of the retreat of reference has deep roots in the western philo- sophical tradition, with the vanishing of reference to ground meaning, we have been forced to confront the question: if the world does not shape the structure of language, then what does? one answer derives from the isolated subjectivity of the individual reader. words and texts mean to me what they mean to me, without access to larger structures other than those i supply. this is how we read unreflectingly most of the time, and its connois- seurship and inner world of responses can be very satisfying. this certainly is how most of my students read, and they are happy within an asserted subjectivity of meaning which admits no further analysis. however, a second set of responses has evolved. what is often collectively deemed the “hermeneutics of suspicion” unravels this isolated subjectiv- ity of meaning and posits the individual as a node within systems of difference shaped by the structuring of power. compelling critiques of institutional racism and sexism and the ways in which they are embedded in and structure our shared discourses offer ample evi- dence to support a vision of the ideological structuring of meaning. critical theory both in literary studies and in the social sciences offers modes of revealing the duplicity and eva- sions of texts and showing that texts that claim to assert truths can be revealed as relying on concealed predications. while such analyses remain a crucial check on complacency in scholarly as well as broader public discourse, by their nature their reflections remain within and demonstrate in myriad ways the failures of language rather than offering deeper knowledge of the human. aware of the limits of critique, scholars in critical theory increasingly have come to echo bruno latour’s query in “why has critique run out of steam? from matters of fact to matters of concern.” indeed, the movement toward “postcritique” discussed by rita felski and others is an important index of the discontents of meaning and of a desire in humanistic disciplines to develop perspectives and methods that move beyond the impasses of failures of language. the challenge of scientific insights into the human while scholars in the humanities have been sharpening their modes of critical analysis, a second, less visible trend outside of the humanities has been rapidly gaining strength in the pragmatic study of language, perception, and cognition that treats the structuring of human experience as an object of scientific inquiry. the success of neural networks and ever more pervasive forms of artificial intelligence recently has caught the public imagination and seemingly rendered scholarship in the humanities yet more irrelevant to the exploration of human meaning. thus, humanistic scholarship—either in the tra- ditionalist mode of individual sensibility or in the contemporary mode of social critique —has little standing to speak to the larger patterns and deeper meanings of human bruno latour, “why has critique run out of steam? from matters of fact to matters of concern,” critical inquiry . ( ), – . for example, see rita felski, the limits of critique (chicago: university of chicago press, ) and elizabeth s. anker and rita felski, eds., critique and postcritique (durham: duke university press, ). michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms experience. other disciplines—now largely in the sciences—are stepping in to provide insights into the human. geoffrey harpham, the former director of the national humanities center, lamented in : “one of the most striking features of contem- porary intellectual life is the fact that questions formerly reserved for the humanities are today being approached by scientists in various disciplines such as cognitive science, cognitive neuroscience, robotics, artificial life, behavioral genetics and evolutionary biol- ogy.” this story of the crisis in the humanities has been presented—and lamented— many times and in innumerable variations in recent years and is in no way new. however, as i suggested earlier, it is a story that may have a happy—even if unlooked for—ending in which dh plays a part. harpham continues in his essay, “science and the theft of humanity,” which i quote at length: humanists, who have been only partially aware of the work being done by scien- tists and other nonhumanists on their own most fundamental concepts, must try to overcome their disciplinary and temperamental resistances and welcome these developments as offering a new grounding for their own work. they must commit themselves to be not just spectators marveling at new miracles, but coinvestigators of these miracles, synthesizing, weighing, judging and translating into the vernac- ular so that new ideas can enter public discourse. they—we—must understand that while scientists are indeed poaching our con- cepts, poaching in general is one of the ways in which disciplines are reinvigorated, and this particular act of thievery is nothing less than the primary driver of the transformation of knowledge today. for their part, those investigating the human condition from a nonhumanistic perspective must accept the contributions of humanists, who have a deep and abiding stake in all knowledge related to the question of the human. we stand today at a critical juncture not just in the history of disciplines but of human self-understanding, one that presents remarkable and unprecedented opportunities for thinkers of all descriptions. a rich, deep and extended conversa- tion between humanists and scientists on the question of the human could have implications well beyond the academy. it could result in the rejuvenation of many disciplines, and even in a reconfiguration of disciplines themselves—in short, a new golden age. i share both harpham’s optimism and his call for us humanists to look to the sciences to provide at least partial grounding for our work. in particular, engagement with the neuroscience of memory, emotion, language, and selfhood can deepen humanistic reflection on the patterns of human experience. however, there is a yet broader and more profound conceptual shift at work, of which whatever neuroscience can tell us is just a part. words and texts are traces of human action and accordingly participate in the broader patterns of life as humans live it. the sciences can help us with crucially important creaturely dimensions of expe- rience—help us understand the biological mechanisms of memory, affect, and language production—but situating and understanding texts within the human world built upon geoffrey harpham, “science and the theft of humanity,” american scientist no. (july–august ), – , cited in geoffrey rockwell and stéfan sinclair, hermeneutica: computer-assisted interpretation in the humanities (cambridge, ma: mit press, ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms these basic processes return us to the humanistic discipline of hermeneutics, of which, i argue below, the digital humanities are a modern technological incarnation. the schol- ars who shaped modern western hermeneutics, born in the aftermath of kant’s copernican revolution, confronted the problem of understanding the religious, philo- sophical, and literary legacy of the past without access to timeless essences. instead, they had to develop theories and methods to allow them to extract understanding from the totality of the evidence at hand. we confront the same problem—with similar hopes—in the practice of the digital humanities. thus i turn next to describe the anti- foundational approach to language in dh, connect it to wittgenstein’s proposal of lin- guistic meaning defined through usage, and then trace wittgenstein’s model for understanding back to the hermeneutic lineage through wilhelm dilthey to friedrich schleiermacher. having considered theoretical models for the broad integration of data from lived experience in the hermeneutic tradition, i return to propose that these integrative models implicitly shape the emerging approaches to the digital human- ities and in fact complement the new approaches to thinking about human perception, memory, emotion, selfhood and meaning being developed through research in neuro- science and evolutionary biology. the digital humanities the digital humanities play a critical role in the gradual opening up of the humanities to the broader interpretation of the human because they embody and articulate a different understanding of the nature of meaning. i begin by returning to the issue of textual meaning, in particular to the central problem of how words mean: even if we stay for the moment in saussure’s structuring of signifiers through mutual differentiation, the paradigms of the digital humanities do not find language either condemned to the infinite regress of critical theory or an order built upon ideology. topic modeling, one of the most familiar techniques in the digital humanities, pro- vides a clear example of the modeling of meaning in dh. explaining the concept pre- sents a challenge because the very phrase “topic modeling” all too easily misleads those who are without the technical knowledge of what these “topics” are and the mathemat- ics by which they are derived. without that frame, people seem to assume that the “words” in topic-modeling systems rely in some way on the semantic structure of lan- guage. instead, in topic modeling, words as signifiers are not only cut off from any pos- sible signified content but also from the entire system of mutual differentiation that defines the signifiers of a language. i believe that a brief introduction to the basic ele- ments of linear algebra upon which topic modeling is built will go a long way to help clarify the logic of meaning as defined within the set of conceptual structures associated with topic modeling. in topic modeling, one begins with a collection of texts. in the most common approach, the order of the words does not matter, and each document is considered simply an unordered “bag of words.” moreover, the words in the texts are meaningless tokens, just strings of bytes. the goal of topic modeling then is to build a system of mutual differentiation relying only on the collection of the bag of words in the corpus to be analyzed. this mathematized version of meaning and structure is unfamiliar to most human- ists, but grasping it is a key to seeing how the digital humanities synthesize the vast cor- pora of data into a new world of empirically organized human connections. my aim at this juncture is to explain the basic mathematics in topic modeling to demystify the structure of meaning defined by topic modeling and related paradigms. michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms texts as matrices of meaning the first version of a structured representation of words within the particular domain of selected texts is simply a large matrix with the dimensions determined by the number of documents and the total number of different words in that collection of documents. the value for each element in the matrix is the frequency ( f) of a given word (wi) in a given document (dj). thus with d documents and n different words, we have a matrix: any particular document is defined as an array of words, and any word is defined as its frequency in the array of documents. if we had a thousand documents with ten thousand different words, we would have a matrix with million entries ( , documents x , words). in topic modeling, one looks for a way to change this very large matrix into the product of two smaller matrices such that there are k number of topics (tk) where each document can now be described as an array of topics, and each topic can be described as an array of words: a matrix is a mathematical formalism from the discipline of linear algebra. an m x n matrix is a set of numbers arranged in m rows, with each row having a set of n numbers. the n values all line up to produce n columns, each with m values. thus the following is a x matrix: [ ] it has rows, ( , , ) and ( , , ), and three columns, ( , ), ( , ), and ( , ). the sets of numbers for the rows and columns in turn define vectors, which define positions in multidimensional spaces. the row-vectors in the example are -dimensional, while the column-vectors are -dimensional. an m x n matrix defines a specific way of mapping n-dimensional vectors into m-dimensional space (i.e., turn n-dimensional vectors into m-dimensional vectors). journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the advantage of this factoring of the matrix into two separate matrices is that if one has topics, then the documenttopics matrix has , elements ( topics x , documents) and the topicswords matrix has , , entries ( topics x , words), for a grand total of , , entries. finding a matrix of topics allows us to condense the initial data by a factor of about . so far this looks like a mathematical trick, but what does a “topic” then mean, given the math that defines it? the words in the set of documents are not randomly distrib- uted. they have an internal logic within the collection of documents, and “topics” cap- ture the regularities in the appearance of the words. words cluster together, and the topics represent those clusters. people working with topic modeling stress that the mathematical tools that find the two topic matrices are “semantically naïve”: they know nothing about the meaning of the words; they just manipulate them. topic mod- eling, however, does construct a new version of meaning for the tokens (words) in the system. while mallet, the standard package used in the humanities for topic modeling, uses lda (latent dirichlet allocation) which is based on bayesian probability, another, simpler approach uses a form of non-negative matrix factoring called plsa (probabilistic latent semantic analysis). the semantics of matrices where does the semantics—the assignment of meaning—come in? recall that the col- umns in the new matrix define the topics as arrays of words: wikipedia is in fact a perfectly good source for learning the basics of these models; see “probabilistic latent semantic analysis,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/probabilistic_latent_semantic_analysis; “non-negative matrix factorization,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-negative_matrix_factorization; and “latent dirichlet allocation,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/latent_dirichlet_allocation. michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/probabilistic_latent_semantic_analysis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/probabilistic_latent_semantic_analysis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-negative_matrix_factorization https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-negative_matrix_factorization https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/latent_dirichlet_allocation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/latent_dirichlet_allocation https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms at the same time, however, the rows in the matrix define the words through the topics in which they participate: wordj = ( f (tiwj), . . . f (tiwj), . . . f (tkwj))[row vector] since the topics themselves are mathematical constructs, defining the meaning of words as a vector of the weights they contribute to defining the array of topics may seem extremely abstract. however, we then take a next step of comparing the similarity of the words as defined by their role in the topics. the simplest approach is to take the normalized dot product of the two word vectors: similarity(wqi, w q j) = w q i · w q j ‖wqi‖ ‖w q j‖ if the two word vectors are identical, the similarity = , and if they have no overlap at all, the value is . one then can use these similarity values to generate a hierarchical clus- tering analysis visualized as a tree graph (dendrogram) with branches that split in ever finer groupings to represent the clustering of words that share similarities in meaning. the point to stress here is that this clustering of words by similarity is relative to a specific collection of texts. a different set of texts would produce a different clustering. this move from a collection of texts as bags of words to the combination of ( ) the texts defined as arrays of topics and ( ) the topics defined as arrays of words, and then to a hierarchical clustering of the words based on their similarity is a form of distributional semantics in which the meaning of words are defined through the patterns of their usage within a corpus. even though the words remain a system of signifiers, this ana- lytic approach from the digital humanities (originating in linguistics) takes us very far away from the enclosed world of poststructuralist analysis and much closer to the struc- turing of meaning in a textual corpus. that is, the algorithms here, seemingly a set of the dot product of two vectors is a single number (a scalar) calculated by taking the sum of each value in the first vector multiplied by the corresponding value in the second vector, i.e. a · b = ∑mi= aibi. the norm (the length) of a vector is the square root of the dot product of the vector times itself, i.e., ‖a‖ = ��a · a√ . a vector defined as a‖a‖ is a unit-vector (i.e., with a length of ) in the direction of a. journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms mathematical functions, in fact embody and articulate a model for meaning defined through usage. meaning as usage and the hermeneutics of “forms of life”: wittgenstein and dilthey some authors relate this meaning-as-usage to ludwig wittgenstein’s famous dictum “for a large class of cases of the employment of the word ‘meaning’—though not for all—this word can be explained in this way: the meaning of a word is its use in the lan- guage.” thus wittgenstein, like distributional semantics, assigns meaning according to usage. wittgenstein arrived at his view of language when he confronted the failure of the more substantive model of traditional philosophy. in the model of logic inherited from frege but with roots leading back to plato, words refer to objects, and the truth of prop- ositions relies on the correctness of the relationships they describe in the world. wittgenstein rejected this appeal to reference to ground meaning and instead came to argue that the meaning of language comes simply and modestly from how humans use language. wittgenstein’s account, in other words, is anti-foundational: it rejects the possibility that human access to objects can serve as the foundation of knowledge and of language. wittgenstein, encountering the failure of reference to provide meaning, devel- oped an empirical response based on actual experience. he proposed language-games as the locus of meaning. facing the same failure of reference, we now have turned to the digital humanities’ ability to survey the vast corpora that document the human use of language. like previous scholars, however, i suggest that in assigning meaning to usage wittgenstein was echoing—and perhaps drawing on—an earlier, broader tradition of interpretation in german hermeneutics from schleiermacher to dilthey. this herme- neutic tradition is of great significance to our understanding of the digital humanities as modes of exploring meaning. the specific link between wittgenstein and dilthey in particular is in the concept of “forms of life” that wittgenstein introduces—but does not expand on—in the philosophical investigations, the central work of his late career. wittgenstein sees communication as possible because people are participating in the same language-games, but the question arises of how it is possible that people are play- ing the language-game in the same way, since rules cannot possibly specify all the var- iations allowable in a language-game. agreement becomes possible, wittgenstein argues, because people share a “form of life:” here the term “language-game” is meant to bring into prominence the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity, or a form of life. “so are you saying that human agreement decides what is true and what is false?”—it is what human beings say that is true and false; and they agree in the language they use. that is not agreement in opinions but in forms of life. ludwig wittgenstein, philosophical investigations, translated by g.e.m. anscombe (oxford: basil blackwell, ), . see karl-otto apel, “wittgenstein and the problem of hermeneutic understanding,” in ludwig wittgenstein—critical assessments, vol. , ed. stuart shanker (london: routledge, ) and nicholas f. gier, wittgenstein and phenomenology: a comparative study of the later wittgenstein, husserl, heidegger, and merleau-ponty (albany: suny press, ). wittgenstein, philosophical investigations, . wittgenstein, philosophical investigations, . michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms this grounding of agreement in shared forms of life resembles wilhelm dilthey’s stress on the role of “objective mind” in providing a basis for mutual understanding: the cita- tion here is long but important: i have shown how significant the objective mind is for the possibility of knowledge in the human studies. by this i mean the manifold forms in which what individ- uals hold in common have objectified themselves in the world of the senses. in this objective mind, the past is a permanently enduring present for us. its realm extends from the style of life and the forms of social intercourse to the system of purposes which society has created for itself and to custom, law, state, religion, art, science and philosophy. for even the work of genius represents ideas, feelings and ideals commonly held in an age and environment. from this world of objec- tive mind the self receives sustenance from earliest childhood. it is the medium in which the understanding of other persons and their life-expressions takes place: for everything in which the mind has objectified itself contains something held in common by the i and the thou. every square planted with trees, every room in which seats are arranged, is intelligible to us from our infancy because human planning, arranging and valuing—common to all of us—have assigned a place to every square and every object in the room. the child grows up within the order and customs of the family which it shares with other members and its mother’s orders are accepted in this context. before it learns to talk, it is already wholly immersed in that common medium. it learns to understand the gestures and facial expressions, movements and exclamations, words and sentences, only because it encounters them always in the same form and in the same relation to what they mean and express. thus the individual orientates himself in the world of objective mind. this has an important consequence for the process of understanding. individuals do not usually apprehend life-expressions in isolation but against a background of knowledge about common features and a relation to some mental content. dilthey’s argument is that we humans manifest our internal intentions in our actions and change the phenomenal world based on them. although those intentions are not knowable in themselves, the world into which we are born and in which we live is shaped by the long history of intentional human structuring, and we learn to speak, act and think through the mediation of these humanly shaped forms. these are precisely wittgenstein’s forms of life. because we share these forms, we understand one another. and if we seek to understand people from a different time or place, we need to understand the context of “objective mind” through which they thought and wrote. this is the hermeneutic project for dilthey. dilthey’s approach of seeking the totality of the mind-built world in which a person lived—a world of explicit traces in the sensory realm that mediate intentionality—was, like wittgenstein’s, a response to skepticism and the failure of meaning. as dilthey explained: wilhelm dilthey, draft for a critique of historical reason, translated in kurt mueller-vollmer, ed., the hermeneutics reader: texts of the german tradition from the enlightenment to the present (new york: continuum press, ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms today hermeneutics enters a context in which the human studies acquire a new, important task. it has always defended the certainty of understanding against his- torical skepticism and wilful subjectivity; first when it contested allegorical inter- pretation, again when it justified the great protestant doctrine of the intrinsic comprehensibility of the bible against the scepticism of the council of trent, and then when, in the face of all doubts, it provided theoretical foundations for the confident progress of philology and history by schlegel, schleiermacher and boeckh. now we must relate hermeneutics to the epistemological task of showing the possibility of historical knowledge and finding the means for acquiring it. focusing on what is given, “the expression of what is expressed” in dilthey’s words, and grasping its meaning in a disciplined re-living through one’s own experience makes understanding possible: in such understanding, the realm of individuals, embracing men and their crea- tions, opens up. the unique contribution of understanding in the human studies lies in this; the objective mind and the power of the individual together determine the mind-constructed world. history rests on the understanding of these two. dilthey’s goals here are very broad: he seeks to understand all of human experience through careful reflection on the manifest sedimentation of human intentions “from the style of life and the forms of social intercourse to the system of purposes which soci- ety has created for itself and to custom, law, state, religion, art, science and philosophy.” more crucially, he asserts that only by such a broad reflection can one hope to under- stand another person or another time. dilthey’s model for humanistic interpretation extends to aspects of human social organization that go far beyond the humanities and sees human production as drawing its material and meaning from all forms of the “objective mind.” this understanding of human production—and thus of the humanities—as part of a broader matrix of mean- ing provides the underpinnings for the project of the digital humanities to search out regularities from the world of materials in which the objects of our inquiries are embed- ded. however, dilthey’s hermeneutics is so abstract that it does not offer concrete meth- odological models. for humanists, the model of friedrich schleiermacher, whose work on textual interpretation dilthey extended and generalized, is more directly relevant. schleiermacher and textual hermeneutics schleiermacher, considered the father of both modern hermeneutics and modern protestantism, was primarily a theologian, but he was deeply interested in the problem of understanding. the pressing task for him was to be sure that he understood the new testament correctly, but he also was an innovative and acclaimed translator of plato whose translations are still used today in germany. the story of the reasons behind his approach to hermeneutics gets very complicated very quickly, but it is nonetheless dilthey, draft for a critique of historical reason, . dilthey, draft for a critique of historical reason, for the connection between schleiermacher’s efforts as a translator and his hermeneutic theorizing, see, for example, theo hermans, “schleiermacher and plato, translation and hermeneutics,” in friedrich schleiermacher and the question of translation, eds. larisa cercel and adriana serban (berlin: de gruyter, ), – . michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms worth exploring, for the epistemological problematic that drove schleiermacher’s approach to understanding and the solutions he proposed for finding knowledge within that problematic are directly relevant to the situation of the humanities today and the role of digital humanities in reasserting the claims of humanistic knowledge. schleiermacher was part of the group of early german romantic writers who were endeavoring to find ways to respond to immanuel kant’s critical philosophy. kant argued that not only do we not have access to objects in the world; we do not have inner access to our own self as the ground for experience. all we can know is within a phenomenal realm that is shaped in a priori ways by categories of perception we bring to the world to make experience possible. among the major categories kant pro- posed were subject-and-object, time-and-space, and cause-and-effect. we have no right to assume that these categories are actually part of the world, but we cannot experience the world without them. the post-kantian early romantic writers essentially worked within this epistemological critique that called metaphysically grounded foundational knowledge into question. schleiermacher actually went kant one better. while kant asserted the necessity of the particular a priori categories of his analysis, schleiermacher considered them to be as shaped by the same constraints of time and place as all other provisional human knowledge. thus, while schleiermacher was a theologian, he was a post-kantian theologian whose approach to the religious under- standing of the new testament complemented his hermeneutic approach to texts. for schleiermacher, the religious element in human experience lay in the capacity to have intuitions about unity that preceded any conceptual understanding of what that unity might be. this capacity is without any additional specific content. thus, to under- stand any particular form of religious practice, one cannot bring any presumed content to one’s observations and instead must rely on an understanding of the logic of practice within the particular community. the question, then, is how one understands another human community, once one sets aside access to universal truths. in particular, how is one to understand the christianity as given in the new testament without recourse to received dogma? schleiermacher’s hermeneutics provided his answer. for schleiermacher, hermeneutics—the art of understanding—had two components. he asserted: . as every utterance has a dual relationship to the totality of the language and the whole thought of its originator, then all understanding also consists of the two moments: of understanding the utterance as derived from language, and as a fact in the thinker. schleiermacher elaborated on these two moments: . . according to this, each person, on the one hand, is a location in which a given language forms itself in an individual manner; on the other, their discourse can only be understood via the totality of the language. but then the person is also a spirit which continually develops, and their discourse is only one act of this spirit in connection with the other acts. friedrich schleiermacher, hermeneutics and criticism and other writings, translated and edited by andrew bowie (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), . schleiermacher, hermeneutics and criticism, – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms schleiermacher is not naïve here. he knows that understanding, as he presents it, requires a totality that is impossible. he argues instead that one makes progressively greater sense of the fragments one does know through the sorts of intuitions without rules that kant defined as aesthetic judgments. thus, schleiermacher further asserted: . explication is an art . each side on its own [is an art]. for in every case there is construction of something finitely determinate from the infinite [and] indeterminate. language is infinite because every element is determinable in a particular manner via the rest of the elements. but this is just as much the case in relation to the psycholog- ical side. for every intuition of an individual is infinite. and the effects on people from the outside world are also something which gradually diminishes to the point of the infinitely distant. such a construction cannot be given by rules which would carry the certainty of their application within themselves. . for the grammatical side to be completed on its own there would have to be a complete knowledge of the language, in the other case [the psychological] a com- plete knowledge of the person. as there can never be either of these, one must move from one to the other, and no rules can be given for how this is to be done. the hermeneutics of the digital humanities with this pair of impossible complementary tasks—the demand for complete grammat- ical and psychological understanding—defining the hermeneutic endeavor, we at last arrive at our destination. i assert that the project of the digital humanities in our own day, with our own epistemological problematic, is a continuation of schleiermacher’s infinite project of understanding. schleiermacher, working within strong prohibitions against foundational knowledge of either the self or the world, turned to synthesizing the patterns of the details of what we can know of the middle realm, the world as given to human experience. in reading texts, schleiermacher required a difficult, disciplined synthesis of broad and deep knowledge and intuitions binding the disparate forms of information into that moment of synthesis. his approach here entirely recasts the distinction between close reading and the various methodologies in the digital humanities that come under the rubric of distant reading. each text is abuzz with patterns—patterns of lan- guage usage as well as the patterns of historical and social interaction that shaped the author in its writing. the modes of distant reading powerfully search through textual corpora on a scale that humans cannot hope to match, and provide a background of linguistic behavior for the texts we read. at the same time, as schleiermacher pointed out, the particular texts we engage are also moments in human experience. on the one hand, the authors writing them are embedded in the structures of their society, culture, and language, and on the other, their writings diverge from the givenness of these struc- tures and reflect particular intentions at a particular time and place. we need sensitivity to discern these divergences. thus close reading remains vital, but given the growing availability of distant readings, the demands placed on close reading change. close schleiermacher, hermeneutics and criticism, . for a useful account of distant reading, see s. jänicke, g. franzini, m. f. cheema, and g. scheuermann, “on close and distant reading in digital humanities: a survey and future challenges,” in eurographics conference on visualization, eds. r. borgo, f. ganovelli, and i. viola (eurovis) ( ), www.informatik. uni-leipzig.de/~stjaenicke/survey.pdf. michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~stjaenicke/survey.pdf https://www.informatik.uni-leipzig.de/~stjaenicke/survey.pdf https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms reading opens out when we see the text as the locus of synthesis for all the myriad pat- terns disclosed by distant readings of which the text is a part (the modern version of schleiermacher’s project). consider some of the options offered by distant reading. we already have seen how distributional semantics can provide hierarchical clustering for the language in a corpus of texts. we can apply this approach to particular genres of history, literature, and reli- gious and philosophical discourse within a given period to see if there are distinctive patterns of usage for each genre of which we need to be aware as we read. we can com- pare usage within a genre across time, with obvious examples like the scholarly notes (biji 筆記) from the tang to the southern song. stylometry for classical chinese is still a work in progress, but we can sharpen its techniques as we explore the rise and complex dispersions of genres. here i would cite paul vierthaler’s exploration of various subgenres of chinese fiction in “fiction and history: polarity and stylistic gradience in late imperial chinese literature.” similar approaches can be applied to the whole range of informal writings in the song or between early and later biji as the genre develops. having aggregated data, we can see the distinctiveness of particular texts as identified by their divergence from the collective metrics. another important development in distant reading is the effort to identify intertex- tuality, as in the work on latin texts by walter scheirer and others in their essay “the sense of a connection: automatic tracing of intertextuality by meaning.” (i confess i am astonished at how well their approach works given the state of the tools they bring to it.) this question of intertextuality is vitally important for the reading of chinese literati texts, in particular, since so much of the connoisseurship in the close reading of chinese poetry and prose from the song dynasty onward is in the identification of allusive ref- erence. in the tradition, this search for allusions appears to be an effort to assert mas- tery and control the meaning of texts, but it relies on a rather arbitrary methodology. i will be very interested to see what large-scale intertextuality studies turn up and how those results will complicate close reading. what i present here is just a very partial list of the role of distant reading in giving us important information about word-usage, genre, and intertextuality. there is much more that i have not seen and yet more in the offing, where scholars are still playing with the possibilities of current tools and learning new approaches to tagging texts that then can be used to greatly extend the power of the basic techniques we now have. these are exciting times, and it is my hope that we never will be able to look at texts the same way again. as we read and interpret, they will be deeper and more demanding because of the work of the digital humanities. paul vierthaler, “fiction and history: polarity and stylistic gradience in late imperial chinese literature,” cultural analytics may , , doi: . / . . walter scheirer, christopher forstall, and neil coffee, “the sense of a connection: automatic tracing of intertextuality by meaning,” digital scholarship in the humanities . , ( ), – . donald sturgeon, as part of his important collection of digital texts, has created a platform for looking at text reuse that will be an important tool for exploring intertextuality in pre-modern chinese texts. see his discussion of the tool in donald sturgeon, “digital approaches to text reuse in the early chinese corpus,” journal of chinese literature and culture (jclc) . ( ), – . from this special issue of jclc devoted to digital humanities, also see yi-long huang and bingyu zheng, “new frontiers of electronic textual research in the humanities: investigating classical allusions in chinese poetry through digital methods,” jclc . ( ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the china biographical database (cbdb) as hermeneutic “technical” interpretation the digital techniques i have mentioned so far all center on what schleiermacher called the “grammatical” mode of hermeneutics. in contrast, schleiermacher’s “technical” moment focuses on the question of “how the author arrived at the thought from which the whole developed, i.e. what relationship does it have to his whole life and how does the moment of emergence relate to all other life-moments of the author.” thus the central challenge of the psychological component of hermeneutics is how to understand the larger life patterns within which an individual (or an era) lives. the goal of presenting a systematic analysis of the “human sphere” informing life in premodern china drives the china biographical database project, where i am the chief data architect. our goal is to systematically collect what data we can on the key struc- tures shaping social experience in pre-modern china. we are acutely aware of data that we cannot collect and the limits of what we offer. for example, parish records in england allow historians to inventory people’s worldly goods, but there are no corre- sponding sources of information for china. the information we have also is strongly biased toward the elite stratum that shows up in histories, including local gazetteers. careful sifting of buddhist and daoist records allows us to know something about the lives of monks, but we know next to nothing about merchants, farmers, and artisans throughout chinese history. these lacunae seriously distort what we can know of social experience in pre-modern china. fortunately, it turns out that most of the extant authors from pre-modern china were from the elite stratum about which we can say a good deal. the extant historical record allows us to track a range of important social and insti- tutional systems that structured elite life in pre-modern china. kinship relations, of course, come first, and then social relations, and locality. the examination system and one’s place within the imperial bureaucracy also loomed large in the lives of many of the authors we read. when harvard inherited the database from robert hartwell, all of these components already were included in his data structures. i cleaned these up a bit, but the only significant addition i made to the types of data was that of “social institutions,” since we discovered that such entities as private academies and temples were institutions around which members of the elite stratum formed commu- nities to achieve collective goals. the major innovation i brought to the functionality of the database was my realization that we could exploit the hybrid nature of the system on which cbdb ran. hartwell created the initial database in dbase, an old database pro- gramming language. when i reconfigured the database in foxpro, a close cousin of dbase, i realized that we could exploit the initial kinship and social relationship infor- mation we had for individuals by recursively searching through them. that is, we start with the kinship information for an individual, and then we add all the kinship infor- mation for that person’s kin, and then we add the kinship information for all the newly discovered people, and so on, until the kinship distances reach a limit set by the end user. this sort of recursive search is relatively easy to set up in a procedural program- ming language like foxpro or vbasic, which microsoft access uses as its back-end programming language. it is much harder to build into sql, structured query language. in any case, i set the system to loop through social relations data in the same way to build social networks that could be exported to social network analysis packages like gephi. and in addition, we allowed the system to mix and match: to schleiermacher, hermeneutics and criticism, . michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms pull in all the social relations of kin, all the kin of people in one’s social network, and every other possible combination of kinship and social relationship. although hartwell designed his database to allow him to look at the connection between office-holding and kinship, i don’t think he quite realized what an extraordi- narily powerful database he had developed. schleiermacher asserted the relevance of the totality of social structures impinging on the individual. because cbdb has tables rep- resenting the components of kinship, social network, social status, office-holding, and locality in an individual’s life, it allows a scholar to explore their interactions in a cor- ollary to schleiermacher’s proposed methodology. that is, a simplified version of the cbdb structure looks like figure . that is, people are at the center, and through them one can link all the additional components of social organization. we can ask questions like “was the role of medical officer hereditary, that is, were medical officers the sons or nephews of medical officers, and did the families of medical officers marry their children to one another?” (figure ). we can ask yet more complicated questions. were officials from fujian more likely to develop local kinship networks than were officials from zhejiang? did patterns differ depending on rank, and did the patterns change over time? this adds the dimension of locality (figure ). when i was reading the writings of liu kezhuang 劉克莊 ( – ) from fujian, this question was of considerable importance. indeed, in my recent book on southern song poetry, being aware of the interactions among locality, kinship, social networks, participation in the examination system, and office holding compelled me to rethink the usual understanding of the “rivers and lakes” poets and realize that the usual story was wrong. there clearly were large networks of men from important local line- ages who participated in the examination system as proof of their elite status but who had little hope to actually succeed and little interest in serving more than would be required to confirm their tax exemption. instead, they traveled from patron to patron talking and writing and, frequently enough, joining in protest against the current impe- rial administration. reading their poetry in this context allows one to develop a more nuanced understanding of their work. figure . simplified diagram of cbdb relational database structure journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the digital humanities and the connectedness of meaning in human experience schleiermacher and dilthey were circumspect and methodical in their efforts to allow contemporary readers to understand the lived significance of texts of the past. the pos- tulates they needed to justify their methods were—keeping with their kantian model— fairly minimal: people in the past were biologically similar to people today, and people acted with motives. an understanding of all else that is built upon the basic hardware figure . querying the relation of office and kinship networks figure . querying the relation of place, office and kinship networks dilthey’s model for historical knowledge requires the postulate that people act with motives, either as 意, intentions, or as 情, feelings rather than randomly. this assumption is a corollary to kant’s postulate of the purposivesness of nature as a totality behind the aesthetic judgments that are the first step toward michael a. fuller h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms —from what we now consider the history of affect, to religious and philosophical sys- tems, to literary history—must be constructed from a careful, reflective consideration of the texts (and other artifacts) that survive. and there was no absolute certainty in the conclusions they could draw, given the pastness of the past and the limitations of our sensibilities and the data that remains. this is precisely our current situation, except that the new digital technologies allow us to extend the range of our data and our ability to organize it in ways that they could not have imagined. the sort of empirical results for individuals and for larger aggregations of people that are derived from network analyses and other forms of statistical analysis are not a reduction of people and texts to numbers but a hermeneutically compelling way to discover the large-scale patterns of the social world that informed people’s lives. these results provide contexts for reading and thinking, and they put demands on read- ing. my understanding of the writings of the large community of “rivers and lakes” poets of early thirteenth-century china became profoundly different once i incorpo- rated the myriad factors—from the evolving nature of local elites, to the examination system and the role of printing, to the details of the daoxue networks (and their argu- ments)—that shaped the historical context for poetry at the time. the model of cbdb and access to large repositories of digital texts were both crucial to reconceiving how the texts i studied were connected and where their meaning resides: within the texts, cer- tainly, but texts, the digital humanities shows us, are not just singularities; they radiate outward and are traces of moments of experience at the intersections of complex mul- tidimensional patterns that the digital humanities can partially—if never fully—restore. we live within epistemological impasses, but with the help of the digital humanities, we, like schleiermacher, dilthey, and wittgenstein, are turning to the large world of human experience to see what we can learn about who we are. we as humanists have much to contribute to this project that we share with scholars pursuing other forms of inquiry. we have a great future if we open ourselves to the challenges of this shared endeavor and learn to see the methodologies for large-scale analysis as inte- gral to our inquiry into the human. empirical. intentions, however, apply to the “life-world” of human experience rather than to the larger phe- nomenal realm. cite this article: fuller ma ( ). digital humanities and the discontents of meaning. journal of chinese history , – . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms digital humanities and the discontents of meaning the retreat of meaning the challenge of scientific insights into the human the digital humanities texts as matrices of meaning the semantics of matrices meaning as usage and the hermeneutics of “forms of life”: wittgenstein and dilthey schleiermacher and textual hermeneutics the hermeneutics of the digital humanities the china biographical database (cbdb) as hermeneutic “technical” interpretation the digital humanities and the connectedness of meaning in human experience umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , v. vanden daelen – data sharing, holocaust documentation and the digital humanities: introducing the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) doi: http://doi.org/ . /issn. - / data sharing, holocaust documentation and the digital humanities: introducing the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) veerle vanden daelen kazerne dossin, memorial, museum and documentation centre on holocaust and human rights, mechelen, belgium veerle.vandendaelen@kazernedossin.eu abstract. the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) started its work in october with financial support from the european union. the project, which is currently under its second funding phase, continues developing according to its’ mission to support the holocaust research community by building a digital infrastructure and facilitating human networks and by helping networking of holocaust researchers and archives. ehri provides online access to information about dispersed sources relating to the holocaust through its online portal. tools and methods are developed that enable researchers and archivists to collaboratively work with such sources and explore new methodologies within digital humanities. this contribution seeks to present the resources and services ehri has to offer to the research community, with a special emphasis on the ehri portal. european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) è un progetto lanciato nel grazie al sostegno dell'unione europea. fa parte degli obiettivi del progetto la creazione di una infrastruttura digitale a supporto della comunità degli studiosi della shoah e l'implementazione del networking fra ricercatori e istituti di conservazione. nell'ambito di ehri metodi e strumenti di lavoro sono sviluppati con l'obiettivo di favorire il lavoro collaborativo fra ricercatori e archivisti e, di studiare nuove metodologie per le digital humanities. grazie al suo portale web (online portal) ehri fornisce l'accesso alle informazioni sulle risorse d'archivio per la storia della shoah disperse nei numerosi archivi europei e internazionali. proprio i servizi e le risorse disponibili attraverso il portale web ehri costituiscono il principale argomento di questo paper. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , introduction the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) started its work in october with initial financial support from the european union seventh framework programme for four years. thanks to the continued eu support - ehri is currently ( - ) a horizon eu-financed project with a total budget of almost eight million euros - the project keeps on developing. the consortium in ehri’s second phase under h consists of partner institutions from different countries and includes research institutions, libraries, archives, museums, memorial sites and e-science specialists. apart from this core working group, ehri equally relies on the support of many other individuals and organisations in the broad fields of holocaust studies and digital humanities. ehri is devoted to building a holocaust research infrastructure that is sustained by its network and will have a right of existence on its own accord. the mission and main objective of the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) is to support the holocaust research community by building a digital infrastructure and facilitating human networks and by helping networking of holocaust researchers and archives. ehri provides online access to information about dispersed sources relating to the holocaust through its online portal. tools and methods are developed that enable researchers and archivists to collaboratively work with such sources and explore new methodologies within digital humanities. apart from providing an online platform, ehri also facilitates an extensive network of researchers, archivists and others to increase cohesion and co-ordination among practitioners and to initiate new transnational and collaborative approaches to the study of the holocaust. ehri thereby seeks to overcome one of the hallmark challenges of holocaust research: the wide dispersal of the archival source material across europe and beyond (because of the geographical scope of the holocaust, attempts to destroy the evidence, migration of holocaust survivors etc.) and the concomitant fragmentation of holocaust historiography with a multiplicity of documentation projects. by bringing together experts from different fields, and by building an innovative digital infrastructure supported by a large community, ehri is a flagship project that showcases the opportunities for historical research in the digital age. with this presentation at the ehri workshop “data sharing, holocaust documentation, digital humanities: best practices, case studies, benefits”, we would like to present the niod, institute for war, holocaust and genocide studies (amsterdam), yad vashem (jerusalem), national archives belgium/cegesoma (brussels), king’s college (london), institute for contemporary history (munich), jewish museum in prague, dans (den haag), wiener library (london), vienna wiesenthal institute for holocaust studies, jewish historical institute, Żih (warsaw), mémorial de la shoah (paris), international tracing service (arolsen), united states holocaust memorial museum, ushmm (washington d.c.), bundesarchiv (berlin / koblenz), elie wiesel national institute for the study of the holocaust in romania (bucharest), hungarian jewish archives (budapest), vilna gaon state jewish museum (vilnius), dokumentačné stredisko holokaustu (bratislava), contemporary jewish documentation center foundation cdec (milan), the jewish museum of greece (athens), ontotext (sofia), inria (le chesnay), stowarzyszenie centrum badań nad zagładą Żydów (warsaw), kazerne dossin: memorial, museum and documentation centre on holocaust and human rights (mechelen). v. vanden daelen – data sharing, holocaust documentation and the digital humanities: introducing the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) resources and services ehri has to offer to the research community, with a special emphasis on the ehri portal. ehri resources and training include: online portal with information on holocaust-related archival material held in institutions across europe and beyond, online training in holocaust studies; seminars and workshops; fellowship programme; conferences; online document blog; online research guides; and tools and methods for digital history. ehri fellowships, online courses, research guides, document blog & workshop the ehri fellowships support and stimulate holocaust research by facilitating international access to key archives and collections as well as archival and digital humanities knowhow. the fellowships intend to support researchers, archivists, curators, digital humanists, and younger scholars (for information on past fellows and open calls, see https://ehri- project.eu/ehri-fellowship-call- - ). the ehri online courses also address the researchers, the general public and data managers/archivists (http://training.ehri-project.eu). there is on the one hand an unguided online course with units from ehri’s first phase (https://training.ehri-project.eu/), as well as now the development of an interactive tutored online course with six lessons (https://ehri-project.eu/interactive-ehri-online-course-holocaust- studies) and a bundesarchiv-written course on german archivistics (aktenkunde). whereas in ehri’s first phase two research guides were published online (https://portal.ehri-project.eu/guides; e.g. on theresienstadt, https://portal.ehri- project.eu/guides/terezin), ehri is now exploring the options of its relatively new ehri document blog (https://blog.ehri-project.eu/). the ehri document blog provides a space to share ideas about holocaust-related archival documents; it provides an innovative platform for the presentation, visualization, contextualization and interpretation of the data and metadata, using digital tools. ehri furthermore reaches out and explores new methodologies via workshops and methodological seminars. these include, for example, a seminar for conservationists working on holocaust-related materials and workshops on specific topics. the ehri portal the ehri portal offers information on countries, descriptions on , archival institutions across countries, and , archival descriptions in institutions (https://portal.ehri-project.eu/ july , ). the data in the portal are structured in a top- down fashion: from countries with country reports on the history, archival situation and status of ehri’s research on the country, to an inventory of institutions which preserve holocaust- relevant sources within these countries, to top-level collection descriptions (be it record groups, fonds, subfonds, collections or any other way the institution describing the sources structures them). ehri’s goal is to provide information on the archives, not to provide digital representations of all the archival materials. ehri focuses on collection descriptions and is not https://portal.ehri-project.eu/ https://blog.ehri-project.eu/ https://portal.ehri-project.eu/guides/terezin https://portal.ehri-project.eu/guides/terezin https://portal.ehri-project.eu/guides https://ehri-project.eu/interactive-ehri-online-course-holocaust-studies https://ehri-project.eu/interactive-ehri-online-course-holocaust-studies https://training.ehri-project.eu/ http://training.ehri-project.eu/ https://ehri-project.eu/ehri-fellowship-call- - https://ehri-project.eu/ehri-fellowship-call- - umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , aiming to be a “scan depository”, nor does it aim to be a complete public database on the (often privacy sensitive) file or document level (although we will take those descriptions if we can have them). so, instead of a digitization project giving direct access to the sources, it should be seen more as a “routeplanner”, assistance to researchers to identify the sources they need and to see information on the sources they are looking for across different institutions, languages and countries. if ehri is aware of where the sources themselves are consultable in a digital format, it will include the link into the description. storing all digital images of holocaust-relevant archives is at this point not something the project can support or is aiming for. however, the contextualization, the merging of information on the sources across this many different countries and institutions is a tremendous help for researchers to identify their sources and it also allows the institutions preserving these sources to communicate to the international research community which sources they are holding, as quite often sources ended up in unexpected places. as such, ehri is making sources visible in a systematic fashion in order to counteract the fragmentation of the sources. the project reveals interconnections (e.g. through a multilingual thesaurus with approx. terms; collation of authority files; relationships between originals and copies). the goal is to keep expand and enriching the online inventory of institutions and collections pertaining to the holocaust in europe, israel and beyond, and to connect archives and users. the contextualization of the sources they preserve is indeed useful for the archives, as well as receiving potential expert user feedback. as such, the project is mutually useful for both researchers and archives, and the positive news on this ever-growing portal is that it has attracted in a relatively short time after its launch a high number of unique users, who make frequent use of this resource. integration of metadata into the ehri portal in ehri’s first phase, the metadata in the portal were either bulk-imported by ehri-it or manually added by historians within the project. however, all data entry remained non- synchronized as even the bulk imports where one-time only harvests or imports. in ehri’s second phase, the key factor of attention is on ensuring sustainable, meaning updatable, connections between the metadata providers and the project’s portal. multiple scenarios for metadata integration the integration of metadata into the ehri portal can be done in various ways and can involve interaction with historians, archivists and it/digital humanists within the project (as identified in the figures beneath). typically, the historians and archivists (work package - wp in the figure) will indicate which archives contain holocaust-relevant collections. they will verify whether or not the institution already has descriptions of the sources or not. in the latter case, ehri may decide to write collection descriptions itself or hire a local expert to do so. in the first case, with descriptions available, the first follow-up question is whether or not the v. vanden daelen – data sharing, holocaust documentation and the digital humanities: introducing the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) descriptions are digital and if so, in which format and in an exportable way or not. samples of exports are provided to the ehri it of work package (wp ) so that ehri can assess which pathway would be possible to ingest information on the institution in case into the ehri portal (hence the reference to in the figure). figure : workflow between wp and wp regarding data imports into the ehri infrastructure ( ) (ehri, d . resource reports, update april ). wp consequently verifies the sample export to evaluate whether or not the export is valid encoded archival description or ead and whether or not the institution has a protocol for metadata harvesting (pmh) endpoint. when both these questions get affirmative answers, establishing a connection between the institution and the ehri project is a fairly straightforward endeavor, which only then entails the signing of a content-provider agreement (cpa) to ensure a sustainable connection to the ehri project. figure : workflow between wp and wp regarding data imports into the ehri infrastructure ( ) (ehri, d . resource reports, update april ) umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , the ehri ead mapping tool and the ead publishing tool for those who send in sample data that did not provide valid ead, the ehri project has developed an ead mapping tool. the ehri mapping tool allows for the mapping of local metadata fields to the international ead standard. the tool can be installed by the institution itself or by the ehri it and will take the metadata of the institution, map them to valid ead and convert consequently all metadata passing through this mapping tool. if they consequently have oai-pmh (open archives initiative – protocol for metadata harvesting), they are then ready to share their data with the ehri project, as seen in the figure below for collection holding institution a. in case there is no oai-pmh for ehri to harvest the metadata, ehri can assist further by the installation of an ead publishing tool (resource sync). the ehri metadata publishing tool has been created to help archives to publish their metadata in a sustainable way (allowing for semi-automatic updates of descriptions in the ehri portal). here as well, the institution can install the tool itself or with the help of ehri it. as soon as the program is installed and the metadata are being stored on a for ehri accessible place on the institution’s website, the sustainable connection to the project is a fact, as shown in the example of collection holding institution b. those able to provide valid ead but without oai-pmh can also install the ead publishing tool in order to provide the ehri project with their metadata in a sustainable way, as seen in the figure below for collection-holding institution c. figure : ehri data infrastructure (ehri d . and d . collection description publishing services) v. vanden daelen – data sharing, holocaust documentation and the digital humanities: introducing the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) ehri manual data entry and follow-up in any case, the institutions preserving the documentation concerning the holocaust are center stage in ehri. it is not only those who have all the necessary knowhow and it-tools available that are able to connect to the project. also those institutions that are not yet having digital metadata or metadata in a format which would not be compatible with the use of the above- mentioned tools, are invited to share their metadata in the portal and make their metadata more openly available online. as already mentioned, where appropriate, archives can also be covered by manual surveying and manual data entry, either by ehri staff or local experts, or by the collection-holding institution itself which in that case receives direct access to its own institution description in the ehri portal and can – from there – add collection descriptions and child descriptions to its repository description. the screen shots below give an idea of how repositories, collections and child item descriptions can be created and updated within the ehri portal. the extra tool behind the scenes is that every field from the ica-standards, which form the basis for the forms, is explained when one clicks on the field itself. moreover, all metadata entered in the portal can be exported in valid ead to the respective institutions and as such, ehri opens possibilities for further use of the data beyond the project itself. figure : illustration: screen shots from the ehri portal admin site umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , open source and data sharing beyond the project because ehri does not only wish for the metadata to be published in its own portal, but equally on the portal or website of the collection-holding institution or on other project’s websites, ehri has developed tools that allow for this, i.e. the mapping and publishing tool work equally for institutions to publish on their own website as well as share their data with other projects. the same is true for those institutions for which the data are manually added to the portal. ehri can export the data back to the institutions. with some assistance from a web designer or basic explanation on how to create a website by yourself, the institution can further communicate about the data via its own ways of communication. those without a website can go for a minimum scenario by integrating a link to their repository and its holdings in the ehri portal in their email signature and spreading the news as such. ehri furthermore provides tutorials and a helpdesk for each of the explained pathways to bring metadata into the ehri portal. so, all together, the ehri portal and the open source ehri tools help archives not only to join the ehri project, but equally to publish their own data themselves and to exchange data with other archives, memorials, projects and portals. figure : ademp (internal ehri figure by mike priddy) to stay informed about ehri’s activities and products, there are multiple options: the ehri project website which includes links to all above named products (https://www.ehri-project.eu), the ehri facebook page (https://www.facebook.com/ehriproject/), the ehri newsletter (https://ehri-project.eu/ehri-newsletter) and the possibility to follow ehri on twitter (@ehriproject). https://twitter.com/ehriproject https://ehri-project.eu/ehri-newsletter https://www.facebook.com/ehriproject/ https://www.ehri-project.eu/ v. vanden daelen – data sharing, holocaust documentation and the digital humanities: introducing the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) acknowledgments projects like ehri are a group effort. the author would like to thank all her colleagues who contribute or have contributed to the ehri project. introduction ehri fellowships, online courses, research guides, document blog & workshop the ehri portal integration of metadata into the ehri portal multiple scenarios for metadata integration the ehri ead mapping tool and the ead publishing tool ehri manual data entry and follow-up open source and data sharing beyond the project acknowledgments expanding the librarian's tech toolbox: the "digging deeper, reaching further: librarians empowering users to mine the hathitrust digital library" project search d-lib: home | about d-lib | current issue | archive | indexes | calendar | author guidelines | subscribe | contact d-lib d-lib magazine may/june volume , number / table of contents expanding the librarian's tech toolbox: the "digging deeper, reaching further: librarians empowering users to mine the hathitrust digital library" project harriett green and eleanor dickson university of illinois at urbana-champaign {green , dicksone} [at] illinois.edu https://doi.org/ . /may -green abstract this paper provides an overview of the imls-funded project "digging deeper, reaching further: librarians empowering users to mine the hathitrust digital library," and explains how the project team developed a curriculum and workshop series to train librarians on text mining approaches and tools, in order to address the recognized skills gap between the needs of researchers pursuing digital scholarship and the services that librarians are traditionally trained to provide. keywords: hathitrust digital library project, text mining introduction the roles of librarians are transforming as a growing number of researchers and instructors integrate data into their work and scholarship. as the association for research libraries' strategic thinking and design initiative report predicts, in , the research library will have shifted from its role as a knowledge service provider within the university to become a collaborative partner within a rich and diverse learning and research ecosystem. [ ] this futurist declaration frames how librarians increasingly are encountering new research questions and scholarly needs oriented around data and digital technologies — needs that push the boundaries of current skillsets, knowledge, and service scope of librarians and archivists today. and recent initiatives such as the library of congress's "collections as data" forum and the imls-funded "always already computational: collections as data" project recognize today's essential role of libraries and archives in providing and curating much of the data being used in this new, emergent research. in light of the "computational turn" [ ] across the disciplines and in libraries themselves, how can libraries prepare for supporting data-driven research? the digging deeper, reaching further: libraries empowering users to mine the hathitrust digital library resources (ddrf) project aims to develop and disseminate a curriculum for librarians to build competence in skills and tools for digital scholarship that they then can incorporate into research services at their home institutions. background digital scholarship centers and research commons are emerging in more and more libraries as part of revised service models to address the research needs for digital humanities and data-driven scholarship. still, not all academic libraries have (or need) centralized services, and even when they do, librarians from many different departments in the library and areas of expertise are being drawn into digital scholarship support [ ]. studies document how these dynamic, data-driven changes in how scholars pursue research often involve deeper collaboration between librarian and disciplinary researchers [ ], and what the research libraries uk's re-skilling for research report called "a more proactive model of engagement with researchers." [ ] services such as research collaborations with faculty [ ], building new models for scholarly communications and publishing in digital humanities [ ], and offering tiered support services for digital scholarship projects encompassing digitization, multi-media publishing, and software development [ ] are becoming increasingly standard in libraries. the recently published volumes digital humanities in the library: challenges and opportunities for subject specialists [ ] and laying the foundation: digital humanities in academic libraries [ ] feature multiple case studies of new services and programs in academic libraries that address contemporary research needs in the area of digital humanities specifically. but these rapidly growing areas of digital scholarship research, and the responding changes in library services and infrastructure, also highlight the key challenges that librarians face in gaining skills that enable them to engage with digital scholarship work [ ]. some centers have responded by offering training programs for librarians at their institutions to become more familiar with digital tools and methods. notable efforts at the university of maryland [ ], indiana university [ ], and columbia university libraries' developing librarian program exemplify programs that re-skill librarians, especially subject librarians, to participate in new service models and the growing demand for digital scholarly support. national and international initiatives to train those across the academy, from students and faculty to librarians, in strategies for incorporating digital methods and tools into research have proliferated in recent years. programs such as the humanities intensive learning and teaching (hilt) institute prepare attendees, who include librarians, to engage in digitally-intensive research. other recent professional development opportunities for librarians on topics in digital scholarship have included the digital humanities institute for mid-career librarians at the university of rochester and the data science and visualization institute for librarians at north carolina state university, as well as the forthcoming the association of research libraries' newly-launched digital scholarship institute. our ddrf project aims to share and build upon the goals of many of these training initiatives, which are to address the recognized skills gap between the needs of scholarly research with computational tools and the services that librarians are traditionally trained to provide. notably, these training initiatives for librarians employ a "train-the-trainer" model, by which librarians learn a new skillset that they, in turn, can introduce to local scholars. the newly released findings of the imls-funded mapping the landscapes: continuing education and professional development needs for libraries, archives and museums [ ] attest in particular to the need for digital scholarship skills, as they note that of the core competency areas for professional development highlighted in their survey, "intermediate to advanced technology skills, digital collection management and digital preservation competency areas received the highest percentage of respondents indicating a need for significant improvement." ddrf aims to empower librarians — especially those without local training programs — to become active in digital scholarship on their campuses. as such, our project seeks to build this capacity in support of the institute for museum and library services (imls) national digital platform initiative. funded by a - imls laura bush st century librarian grant award, ddrf is a partnership between five institutions: the university of illinois at urbana-champaign, indiana university bloomington, lafayette college, northwestern university, and the university of north carolina at chapel hill. librarians and specialists from the partner institutions have been collaborating to develop a curriculum and training mechanism focused on preparing library and information professionals to engage in text analysis and core skills in supporting data-driven research. this project leverages the expertise of the hathitrust research center jointly based between the university of illinois at urbana-champaign and indiana university bloomington. many of the hands-on activities and examples presented in the curriculum are drawn from the workshops, tools, and research services provided by hathitrust research center for text analysis research [ ]. the curriculum will be released as an open educational resource at the end of the grant. project update we have drafted, delivered, and revised the initial version of the ddrf text analysis curriculum using an iterative instructional design process. our process drew upon the inspiration and examples offered by other effective open training initiatives, including software carpentry, data carpentry, and library carpentry [ ], as well as the new england collaborative data management curriculum [ ]. the ddrf curriculum aims to be skills-oriented and centered on specific real-world use cases, as we describe later in the paper. the suite of teaching materials includes slide decks, instructor guides, and participant handouts. we continue to refine the materials after each iterated pilot workshop, with the aim of teaching the final curriculum at regional and national workshops across the u.s. during through . through the pilot workshops, we have learned that the skill needs for librarians around digital scholarship are varied and individually-driven. the five project partners represent colleges and universities with diverse constituents and approaches to supporting digital scholarship. as such, each partner institution has encountered unique experiences teaching the same curriculum to their different audiences, which have ranged from cohorts of public services librarians working in undergraduate-central communities, to information science researchers and librarians at large research universities. the richness of this participant diversity has meant that the project partners are able to provide feedback on the efficacy of the training materials for different audiences. our experience teaching the workshops to date has influenced our approach to instructional design and curriculum development, both of which have also been shaped by participant feedback through formal assessment. . instructional design the multistage instructional design process applied in this project began in fall with definitions of learning goals and objectives for the curriculum. this stage involved identifying the requisite skills and knowledge for librarians from different areas of expertise to support text analysis research, and how to build a training program that would address those requirements. this process established a benchmark for the curriculum that project partners were able to reference as the materials took shape. as a part of iterating on the teaching materials, we have refined the learning goals and objectives based on feedback and teaching experiences. our learning goals and objectives address librarian-specific competencies to engage with digital scholarship, and we developed them with the approach of seeing text analysis tools and methods as a digital scholarship service supported by the library. we do not expect for the learner to become an expert over the course of several hours, nor for the learner to necessarily formulate their own research project. instead, we focus on fostering awareness of, and the ability to communicate about, key tools and methods in text analysis. additionally, they map to five training modules that follow the text analysis workflow, from finding textual data to managing and analyzing it, which also align with key points at which a librarian might be involved in the research process (table ). each module incorporates skills-based competencies that are developed through hands-on activities. a sample reference question that could be addressed using text analysis threads the modules and guides hands-on activities and discussion. where appropriate, the activities align with hathitrust research center tools and services. module primary learning goal skills developed introduction understand what text analysis is and how scholars are using it in their research. recognize research questions that may lend themselves to text analysis methods. gathering textual data differentiate the various ways textual data can be acquired and evaluate textual data providers. build a textual dataset and run a web scraping script. working with textual data distinguish cleaning and/or manipulating data as a part of the text analysis workflow. clean text data files using a python script and/or openrefine. analyzing textual data recognize the advantages and constraints of web-based text analysis tools and programming solutions. run a web-based text analysis algorithm and extract token frequencies from a dataset. visualizing textual data identify data visualization as a component of data-driven analysis. practice exploratory data analysis using different tools for visualization. table : learning and skill-building goals for ddrf curriculum we chose to use a modular format for the curriculum, so that the workshops could be adjusted for different settings. some modules have been further broken down into "beginner" and "advanced" lessons, improving the flexibility of the teaching materials. in the second round of pilot workshops, we found that the partner institutions were interested in rearranging the content to suit their audiences. some chose to teach the modules in order from one to five, while others taught the beginner lessons of multiple modules before moving on to the advanced lessons. . teaching we have now taught several iterations of the curriculum via pilot workshops at each of the partner institutions. the workshops have been open to librarians, library paraprofessionals, and students in library and information science departments. we have seen strong interest in the workshops from across the library: for all of the fall workshops combined, % of attendees self-reported as reference librarians, % as technical services librarians, % as "other" types of librarians, and % as digital humanities or digital scholarship librarians. between each round of pilot workshops, the project team reviewed and updated the curriculum, based both on the attendees' evaluations and also in part on the experiences of the partner instructors teaching the materials. the feedback from the project partners has revealed that it can be challenging to learn, digest, and teach materials that others have developed. in such cases, instructors found it helpful to team-teach the workshop so that the instructor team was better able to grasp the materials and answer attendee questions. making it easier for others to pick-up and teach the curriculum is one of our goals for the coming year. to this end, we are drafting in-depth instructor guides for each module that define vocabulary terms, outline the key points that should be addressed, and provide a slide-by-slide script from which the presenter can read. an important component of our strategy thus far has been to limit technological barriers to participating in the workshop. the activities deployed in several of the modules involve the participants executing python programs to complete a task. properly setting up a programming environment can take considerable time, especially in a workshop setting and when using machines in a computer lab. when possible, we have explored web-based tools for programming, such as pythonanywhere, that allow participants to complete activities no matter what their operating system and without configuring their computer. we came to this decision by evaluating our learning goals and determining what aspects of the code-based activity was most important to meeting our objectives. we determined that streamlining the technical activities through web-based programming platforms lowers the cognitive load of learning a new concept, and allows attendees to focus on what happens when they run a script as opposed to the nuances of their programming environment. while we have attempted to simplify the steps to successful completion of each activity, we have also learned to value creative and critical thinking in the hands-on sections. after the first rounds of workshops, project partners reported that they wished there were more opportunities in the curriculum for open-ended inquiry. they also reflected on the importance of play and experimentation for those learning digital scholarship competencies. the first iterations of the activities were straightforward, and we are exploring ways to make them more playful as a means of reinforcing the concepts in the activities [ ]. we have also incorporated discussion questions into the most recent version of the teaching materials. we hope such discussion will provoke critical reflection of the skills and competencies addressed in each module within the context of the learning goals, as well as provide space for attendees to connect the workshop's content to their own teaching and learning. . assessment following each workshop, participants complete an assessment form. from the assessment feedback, the project team has been able to glean that librarian learners appreciate learning by doing, and that they prefer depth over breadth of content in a workshop. attendee feedback shows that librarians value experiential learning. responses gathered in the assessment form often related to the hands-on activities. for example, one workshop attendee wrote that they were "intimidated" before coming to the workshop because it would teach programming concepts, but that "the structure of the workshop which allowed us to focus on the conceptual capabilities of using python and scripts to do text mining was very useful and interesting." additionally, others noted that there should be even more time devoted to skill-based learning. one wrote, "when i sign up for a workshop, i expect that most of the time will be actual hands on activities." current work on the curricular materials is focused on further developing the scope of the hands-on sections of each module to allow learners the opportunity to understand the process happening in each activity, in addition to fostering experimentation and discourse as mentioned above. workshop feedback also reflected that early pilot workshops were too short relative to the amount of content we tried to teach. one attendee advised us to, "make it longer, with more time for exploring data. [there is] not nearly enough time to really dig deep." we intend for future workshop sessions to be longer and anticipate they will be less rushed. we are also devising ways to create paths through the content for shorter workshops: by highlighting key points for each module in the aforementioned expanded instructor's guide, we aim for instructors to feel empowered to condense content as needed for use in abbreviated workshops. next steps and conclusion we continue to incorporate the feedback and assessment received into our curricular and programmatic development of the project materials, and strive to keep in mind the various user groups and skills levels that librarians and information professionals have today. given the initial response to our workshops, we know that our colleagues are actively seeking training and instruction in these emergent skillsets for digital scholarship and data science. the next year will see a series of regional and national workshops where we will present the curriculum to larger, more diverse audiences from across north america. through these workshops, we will gather additional responses from the librarian community that will allow us to refine the curriculum into a final open educational resource. our project is motivated by the potential to build new and interactive communities of practice in libraries around digital scholarship. library and information professionals today, across areas of expertise, must grapple with questions such as: what technical and social infrastructures do libraries need to build or re-think in order to support digital scholarship? how do we provide librarians with the skillsets and knowledge needed to respond to new research and teaching needs? how can libraries anticipate the data-driven research of the future? the more that libraries proactively equip their staff to engage in more data-intensive research and teaching — in addition to developing new spaces and service models — the richer the future looks for the changing role of libraries and archives in higher education. references [ ] association for research libraries. ( ). strategic thinking and design initiative: extended and updated report, washington, dc: association for research libraries. [ ] david berry, d.m. ( ). the computational turn: thinking about the digital humanities. culture machine . [ ] mulligan, r. ( ). spec kit : supporting digital scholarship. washington, dc: association for research libraries. [ ] green, h. e. ( ). facilitating communities of practice in digital humanities: librarian collaborations for research and training in text encoding. library quarterly ( ) , - . https://doi.org/ . / [ ] auckland, m. ( ). re-skilling for research: an investigation into the role and skills of subject and liaison librarians required to effectively support the evolving information needs of researchers. london: research libraries uk. [ ] alexander, l., case, b., downing, k., gomis, m. & maslowski, e. ( ). librarians and scholars: partners in digital humanities. educause review; nowviskie, b. ( ). skunks in the library: a path to production for scholarly r&d. journal of library administration ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / . . [ ] coble, z., potvin, s., & shirazi, r. ( ). process as product: scholarly communication experiments in digital humanities. journal of librarianship and scholarly communication ( ), ep . https://doi.org/ . / - . [ ] vinopal, j. & mccormick, m. ( ). supporting digital scholarship in research libraries: scalability and sustainability. journal of library administration ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / . . [ ] hartsell-gundy, a., braunstein, l. & golomb, l. eds. ( ). digital humanities in the library: challenges and opportunities for subject specialists. chicago: association for college and research libraries. [ ] gilbert, h. & white, j. eds. ( ). laying the foundation: digital humanities in academic libraries. lafayette, in: purdue university press. [ ] posner, m. ( ). no half measures: overcoming challenges to doing digital humanities in the library. journal of library administration ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / . . [ ] munoz, t. & guiliano, j. ( ). making digital humanities work. digital humanities conference abstracts efpl-unil lausanne, switzerland - july . - . [ ] courtney, a., m. dalmau, & c. minter. ( ). research now: cross training for digital scholarship. poster presented at dlf forum. [ ] drummond, c., skinner, k., pelayo, n., & vukasinovic, c. ( ). self identified library, archives, and museum professional development needs edition: compendium of - mapping the landscapes project findings and data. atlanta: educopia institute. [ ] downie, j.s., furlough, m., mcdonald, r.h., namachchivaya, b., plale, b.a., & unsworth, j. ( ). the hathitrust research center: exploring the full-text frontier. educause review, may , . [ ] baker, j. et al., ( ). library carpentry: software skills training for library professionals. liber quarterly. ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . /lq. [ ] lamar soutter library, university of massachusetts medical school. new england collaborative data management curriculum; kafel, d., creamer, a. t. & martin, e. r. ( ). building the new england collaborative data management curriculum. journal of escience librarianship ( ): e . https://doi.org/ . /jeslib. . [ ] for more about the concept of play in digital pedagogy, see sample, m. ( ). play. in digital pedagogy in the humanities: concepts, models, and experiments. new york: modern language association. about the authors harriett green is the interim head of scholarly communication and publishing, english and digital humanities librarian, and associate professor, university library, at the university of illinois at urbana-champaign. her research and publications focus on usability of digital humanities resources, digital pedagogy, digital publishing, and humanities data curation. she is principal investigator for the imls-funded "digging deeper, reaching further: libraries empowering users to mine the hathitrust digital library" project. eleanor dickson is the visiting hathitrust research center digital humanities specialist at the university of illinois at urbana-champaign. she supports outreach and training for the hathitrust research center, as well as local digital humanities research at illinois. copyright ® harriett green and eleanor dickson copies and facsimiles research article copies and facsimiles mats dahlström published online: may # the author(s) abstract the concepts of original and copy, of source and facsimile, always convey particular understandings of the process of reproducing documents. this essay is an analysis of these concepts, in particular copies and facsimiles, framed within the context of digital reproduction. the activities and cases discussed are picked from two areas: digital scholarly editing and cultural heritage digitization performed by research libraries. the conceptual analysis draws on three fields of scholarly inquiry: scholarly editing, library and information science, and philosophical aesthetics. keywords digitization . digital facsimiles . scholarly editing . library and information science . philosophical aesthetics when we talk about digital scholarly editing and library digitization, we frequently use words such as originals, sources, copies, and facsimiles. each of these words, however, points to varying understandings of documents, texts, media, and art. what is an original, what is a facsimile, and in what way is a digital facsimile a reproduction, if it is indeed? this article takes a look at some of the connotations of these labels. it starts with a discussion of the generic concepts, gradually moves into the particular realms of scholarly editing and library digitization, and ends by framing the discussion of copies and identity within philosophical aesthetics. media and copies to begin, let us recognize that the terms original and copy are mutually dependant. the everyday idea of an original supposes the existence of copies (or forgeries) of that original, and there would be no copies if there were no such original. so between original and copy there is always a supposed relationship, or perhaps movement. for, international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * mats dahlström mats.dahlstrom@hb.se swedish school of library and information science, university of borås, borås, sweden http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:mats.dahlstrom@hb.se inasmuch as it refers to a process of transmission, for instance when a copy of a printed book is chosen as a source document, digitized and made available on the web, the relationship between this source and copies derived from it seems to imply the kind of simple linearity which, as citizens of the print regime, we have come to take for granted. digital culture dissolves this linearity in more ways than one, and suggests spiral, recursive processes in place of linearity. when the perceived contents of printed books have been re-represented as bits and zeroes and have been shipped into the plural streams of the web, the questions of which texts, documents, and displays constitute originals and which constitute copies largely depend on which streams one is looking at and on where in the recursive processes one starts looking. a prominent characteristic of documents is that they are unique yet at the same time indefinitely repeatable. one example of this would be the signature, which is highly personal but which derives its function by being repeated in various public settings (ferraris , ff.). an even more striking example would be the dna signature or code, which is unique for each individual but yet repeated identically in each and every one of the individual’s billion cells. to most of us, notions of copies and originals are rooted in the mechanics of print and analogue media. as we all know, digital media challenge such notions. i will not go into lengthy discussions about how the mechanics of print and digital text cultures fundamentally differ, as there is an abundance of scholarly literature on this topic already. let us just remind ourselves that although digital documents are sometimes characterized as immaterial, this characterization is misleading at best. many will recognize the writings by matt kirschenbaum (e.g. ), who refers to the hard drive as perhaps the stickiest form of physical media ever invented. furthermore, digital media depend on a distinction between storage media and pre- sentation media. this separation is not new, nor is it specific to digital media, and it does not mean that these media are immaterial. on the contrary, for both storage and presen- tation, we make use of material, tangible media. this is a feature shared by many families of media, including several analogue ones, e.g. the gramophone, where the vinyl records are the storage for the notation and loud speakers are among the devices used to perform the music. we would hardly refer to the gramophone as an immaterial medium. finally, an important distinction should be made between monoform and polyform artworks. monoform artworks consist of a unique and single item, such as da vinci’s mona lisa. polyform works consist of a set of items that claim to be identical, such as the many copies of graham greene’s our man in havana. a common enough version of the polyform mode is the distinction between type and token, where a type can be e.g. the blueprint for a car model, whereas the many cars manufactured according to the model make up the tokens of this type. issues such as media materiality, storage versus presentation modes, and monoform versus polyform modes affect the relationship between original and copy for the particular documents of these art forms, and they even affect the question of whether or not such a thing as a copy can be said to exist. let us further recognize that copy has many connotations, as does copia, its latin original (pun intended). in everyday discourse, copy refers either to imitation or to instance (i.e. a copy within an edition of a printed book). we will return to this double connotation later. m. dahlström in a much quoted essay, walter benjamin discussed how the force of mechanical reproduction steadily grows within media and art (benjamin ). to benjamin, this was not necessarily a blessing, given what he saw as the corresponding loss of the aura of the artwork. in other words, the mechanical increase in copies could basically be detrimental to the original. bruno latour and adam lowe, on the other hand, have an interesting turn on this: the intensity of the search for the original, it would seem, depends on the amount of passion triggered by its copies. no copies, no original. to stamp a piece with the mark of originality requires the huge pressure that only a great number of reproductions can provide. (latour and lowe , ). so rather than draining a work of art of its aura or originality, perhaps the very abundance, or copia, of copies is what consolidates the aura of the work and in the end assures its survival. digital reproductions latour’s and lowe’s turn on the issue of aura is something to bear in mind when thinking about digital reproductions of documents. here, the relationship between original and copy, between a reproduction and the thing that the reproduction aims to reproduce, is put to the test. and as with other forms of culturally sanctioned repro- duction, digitization adds a status to the document being digitized. the document is granted an entourage of digital copies. specifically, i am thinking of scholarly text editing, where there is not only awareness that reproducing means changing, but where there is also an age-old toolbox of measures and principles with which to come to terms with such change. in scholarly editing, transcription editions reproduce documents as strings of texts, whereas facsim- ile editions reproduce them as graphs. as for facsimile editions, a distinction was proposed quite early by w. w. greg (in pollard et al. ) between typographic and photographic reproduction. to greg, photographic reproduction would ensure a higher degree of authenticity vis-a-vis an original, whereas the typographic reproduction would better support such things as collation or calculation. at that time there was no technology to support both. but digital scholarly editions can help dissolve the distinction between the authentic and the executable. indeed, the presence of photo- graphic reproductions in scholarly editions, or digital facsimiles, has increased tremen- dously the last few decades. digital image facsimiles are becoming a standard feature in digital scholarly editions as something that is expected by users. this is logical. an objective for scholarly text editors has always been to bring the reader as close as possible to a set of source documents by providing a thorough and reliable represen- tation of these sources. digital facsimiles offer an enhancement of that purpose. another field engaged in the systematic and methodical reproduction of culturally significant sets of documents is the digitizing of library collections. the process forces the library to specify the nature and borders of the source document, the original, if you will, and to prioritize some features and aspects of the original at the expense of others. curiously enough, these kinds of digital reproduction seem to be regarded both as copies and facsimiles means for intellectual analysis performed by a critical subject and as mechanical, non- critical, objective processes. this is certainly the case for reproduction work in libraries, which repeatedly seems to suggest the idea of the perfect copy or the clone, i.e. that it is possible to capture everything in a source document and then transfer all of this information onto another document, the copy. the copy is equivalent to the source document, which can basically then be discarded (something which also regularly takes place in libraries, see numerous examples in baker ). the idea again comes to the fore in so-called mass digitization, and it rests firmly on a view of media as channels or conduits where information is transported without being affected. but to some extent, this idea is also embraced by scholarly editors. on the one hand, working with facsimiles in scholarly editions has traditionally been regarded by textual critics as a non-critical activity, where the editor recedes into the background and the user is brought closer to the source documents by being given direct access, as it were, to the originals. on the other hand, perhaps more than any other editing phase, digitization and the subsequent editing of images has the potential to make editors recognize that virtually all parameters in the process (image size, colour, granularity, bleed-through, contrast, layers, resolution etc.) require critical intellectual choices, interpretation, and manipulation. these are interpretative work processes which are not that different from the steps and interpretations of the critical editing of texts. and if one looks closely at high-quality digital imaging projects in libraries, it is clear that teams of conservators, technicians, and photographic experts constantly make series of decisions informed by critical and bibliographical analysis and by a highly specialized knowledge of the graphical, historical, and other research aspects on the object they are digitizing. this critical work, elsewhere referred to as critical digitiza- tion (dahlström ), is far from always recognized by, or even known to, scholarly editors. it comprises activities such as critical discrimination or collation between varying source documents; image editing and emendation; critically matching the reproduction to the source with respect to exhaustiveness and faithfulness; and pro- ducing large amounts of metadata, descriptive encoding and bibliographical informa- tion. in doing so, scholarly work is embedded in the objects. visual fragments from different sources can even be critically selected to form an eclectic virtual facsimile, somewhat akin to how classical textual criticism establishes a text through an amalgam of readings from several different versions (an early printed example would be inger bom’s edition of a sixteenth-century hortulus synonymorum, see kondrup , ). and finally, the photographic teams regularly produce many versions of the facsimiles (varying in colour, light, resolution, size, formats) to serve different aims, both internally and externally. be this as it may, it is still a plain fact that any method for transmitting perceived content from one representation to another, be it ever so thorough and critical, necessarily means that some information and aspects are prioritized at the expense of others. there will always be losses, additions, and changes. this is why it is worth trying to counter such changes and losses by providing more modes of representation than one in the reproduction. we are all aware of the value of a digital image of a manuscript as a representation which enriches and is enriched by a searchable, encoded transcription of its text. this is increasingly the case in digital scholarly editions and m. dahlström digitized library collections, where users are presented not just with a transcription or a digital facsimile, but a synoptic access to both modes, or perhaps a representation which has been enhanced with even further views, such as editorial comments or the tei markup layer, all integrated within the same technical platform. offering these various views and entrances to the edited work supports editorial transparency. but the various view modes also support one another. the transcription can be a key to or a map of the facsimile and thus can shed light on it, and vice versa. using elena pierazzo’s ( , ) phrase, the transcription as interpretation enters into ‘competition’ with the facsimile. several recent editing projects even go to considerable lengths to accommodate the need for and interest in graphical information about the source documents, and they display the entire source document, as it were, i.e. not just the sections of the document bearing text, but also covers, margins, blank pages, etc. in fact, this is an area in which we are only beginning to take the first steps to go beyond the textual transcription and the d flat graphical reproduction to represent the source document and to provide a large array of access and views: d simulations of the material object or minute photographs down to a microscopic, molecular level to serve analyses of cellulose, skin nerves, and fibers (björk , ). and in the other direction, vast amounts of abstracted information in the form of linked data to serve various kinds of work at the macro level. critical facsimiles i mentioned that digital facsimiles are regularly edited and manipulated. for instance, colour is adjusted, images which have been warped or distorted in the capture phase are adjusted, and the background is often manipulated digitally in the post-processing phase. high-quality digital imaging in library digitization and in digital scholarly editions should really provide the user with links to the uncompressed raw files as they were prior to being manipulated and edited. in addition, a transparent account of the production history, versionality, technical parameters, and editing history of the image files is needed. although these concerns may seem peripheral or may rarely come up, they constitute important issues, particularly when we are addressing the relationship between originals and copies. this kind of transparency contributes to the authenticity of the reproduction. in archival science, this is sometimes referred to as digital validity (e.g. duranti ). a digital document not only carries an implicit and interpretable history of produc- tion in the form of its graphical and textual display (as printed objects do), but also an explicit documentation of its production, usage, and version history, embedded in its technical layers and paratexts. and this does not just apply to textual documents, of course. during image capture and processing, the image can be edited at bit level without a human eye being able to discern that a change has been made from one instance to the next. our concept of authenticity is different in the case of digital photographs than in the case of analogue photos. or perhaps digitization has meant that our entire ‘truth contract’ towards images has been renegotiated. this is why photog- raphers are beginning to embed family trees into digital images. in other words, they include metadata about the history, versions, and updates of the object in order to copies and facsimiles provide transparency and strengthen authenticity. the user will thus be better equipped to discern the steps in the production process and the degree to which the image has been edited. in digitization projects, related tools would be the calibrating stick, the ruler, and the colour chart, which all enable the user to check the reproduction. again, these tools are only rarely provided to the user in digital scholarly editions. but not only can digital facsimiles be retouched and tidied up in order to come closer to the source document and in that sense be said to be more virtual. they can also be used, quite literally, to shed new and different light on the source documents, a much cited example being the digital edition of the fragmented manuscript codex sinaiticus, which allows us to dig deeply into the layers of the object. this is even further accentuated when the source documents have a more complex material spatiality and texture, e.g. cunei form tablets or ancient seals. facsimiles can of course also be used to uncover details contained in the document but invisible to the naked eye, often with the aid of infrared light or x-ray or multispectral imaging, such as in the david livingstone spectral imaging project and the archimedes palimpsest project. similar techniques are being used to uncover historical layers in documents damaged by fire or other accidents or even by the earlier good-intentioned efforts to uncover damaged contents, e.g. the british library’s work to restore one of the four extant magna carta manuscripts (duffy ). the concept of facsimile so digital scholarly editing and critical digitization has increasingly and sometimes quite literally opened up the graphical and material source documents, with the potential to enhance new scholarship and research and to enable us to see familiar objects through new lenses. be that as it may, a facsimile is of course never a perfect copy. it is a kind of simulacrum. and both terms, fac-simile and simul-acrum, have a common stem, meaning ‘as’ or ‘as if’. the latin word simulacrum has interesting meanings: semblance, imagination, phantasm, shadow, ghost. a related word is ‘simulamen’, meaning imitation or even subterfuge (deception, to hide something). another is ‘simulator’, which can mean magician. these references to ghosts and spirits living in the shadows, hidden behind something else, connects to the way many of us think about and talk about the digital object as a genie released from his bottle, a spirit in the material world. in his dialogue the sophist, plato points to a distinction between the making of likenesses (‘eikon’) and the making of semblances (‘phantasma’). the making of likenesses involves creating a copy that conforms to the proportions of the original, whereas sculptors in plato’s time who made e.g. colossal works often altered the proportions to accommodate the perspective of the viewer, e.g. making sure that the upper parts did not look too small and the lower parts too large, somewhat akin to trompe-l’œil paintings. plato also questioned the status of a painting of an object as an original. he referred to such paintings as simulacra which strove for an effect of authenticity. incidentally, aristotle, in contrast, saw a representation as a creative act, http://www.codex-sinaiticus.net. http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/index.htm, http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/. m. dahlström http://www.codex-sinaiticus.net http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/index.htm http://www.archimedespalimpsest.org/ not as an inferior recreation of a model. one could take this further in claiming that a representation demonstrates a value of knowledge of its own, knowledge that exceeds the knowledge one had prior to the existence of the representation. again, this trail of thought can certainly be brought to bear on acts of digital reproductions. what plato’s argument basically boils down to is two forms of image making, or simulacra: . the exact, proportionate reproduction of an original; . a reproduction which has been intentionally manipulated and skewed to produce the perception of a ‘correct’ copy or instance. although many of us probably think about digital facsimiles in plato’s first sense, the second approach is certainly not unfamiliar to the world of digitization and scholarly editing. rather than providing an exact copy, the facsimile offers just a sample of characteristics of the source document. the selection may be the result of careful and deliberate consideration, as i suggested earlier, but it might also be due to random or incidental factors, factors over which the editor or digitizer does not have full control or even understanding. how can we define the concept of facsimile? if we strictly follow the encyclopaedic definition of facsimile, any reprint of e.g. a book could in principle constitute a facsimile. but this is not what we mean by a facsimile, neither in everyday discourse nor in scholarly work. in fact, it is quite difficult to come up with a definition that covers both our daily understanding of the term and the scholarly concept. as book historian kristina lundblad explains (lundblad ), not only can the term facsimile in scholarly editions designate a whole range of graphical phenomena and levels, but a graphical rendering of a source document can even be labelled differently within one and the same edition, either as ‘facsimile’ or as ‘illustration’, or simply as ‘image’. usually, there is a qualitative difference between these labels. unlike ‘illustration’ or ‘image’, the term ‘facsimile’ in a scholarly edition seems to require that historical and perhaps even text-critical work has been done to produce it. but this text-critical level is rarely if ever reached in the case of photographic reproduction in editions. perhaps this is because we have not yet been witness to the emergence of an image criticism on par with centuries-old textual criticism. a facsimile is usually a d photographic reproduction of the graphical appearance of the source, but it can also be a d reproduction of the source as a material document in the form of book facsimiles or scans and prints using d printers, where each page is carefully scanned and the printed pages then physically pieced together. but no matter how faithfully this is performed, the resulting facsimile, as book historians remind us (ridderstad ), will never be a facsimile in the strictest sense, and for a d reproduction, only very rarely is a facsimile manufactured with an identical combina- tion of types, tools, colours, materials, and paper quality as that of the original document. were a facsimile to aspire to this level of identity and authenticity, it basically would be a forgery. a representation, both a text transcription and a facsimile image, is something other than the original it represents. it is akin to the principle of a map. a map is a representation of a landscape, not the landscape itself. even borges’ both humorous and nightmarish notion of a world map at the scale of : is about a representation copies and facsimiles which has the degree of a copy, but which is not the landscape itself. at the same time, we must look at it pragmatically. we cannot, of course, refrain from representing and reproducing, only because the reproduction cannot do total justice to the original. a map will always be a schematic reduction, but that is also precisely what makes the map useful. the reduction may be strategic, highlighting specific details or features of the original objects at the expense of others. the facsimile functions as a comment on the original, or even an exhibition. kathryn sutherland ( ) has even referred to it as a curatorial installation. the facsimile aims to invoke the virtual presence of the source, so the bond between reproduction and source is not only graphical and material but is also defined by a retrospective relationship between two points in history, the then and the now. in doing this, however, the facsimile simultaneously makes use of subtle effects to highlight this historical relationship, to mark a difference towards the source. lundblad ( , ) refers to it as an accent, distortion, or warpedness in the facsimile towards to the source. again, we are reminded of plato’s ideas of a simulacrum as something deliberately skewed. that the representation is something different from the source is of course obvious to us, but still something we tend to forget when things turn industrial in scale, which is often the case with library digitization and digital scholarly editing. i mentioned earlier the trope of the clone, induced by mass digitization. but high-resolution digital facsimiles, in library digitization activities as well as in digital scholarly editing, also tempt us to espouse this fallacy. if we are careful to create digital representations of sufficiently high quality and then provide them with quantitatively and qualitatively adequate meta-information, we will avert any future need for new digital renderings because every relevant aspect of the original is already represented in the digital collection we created. we would, in other words, have achieved a kind of ‘definitive reproduction’. even more to the point, state-of-the-art technologies for image capture and screen rendering, especially in high quality digitization projects, tend to be so dazzling that one might think of the quality of digital facsimiles as insurpassable. history however informs us that this is never the case. given a decade or two, the facsimiles, once thought to be definitive, call for being replaced by better ones through redigitization. we know, of course, that pictures can lie and that with modern digital photography the truth contract between the photographer and the viewer has been challenged. the retouching of photographic items is an easy task for anyone with a smartphone. our relationship with digitally born or edited images and their authenticity is changing fundamentally. but even the high-quality digital facsimile can be treacherous in its claim of authenticity, that what we receive in our hands, or at least on screen, is the very original object. something illusory enters the scene. the way in which digital facsim- iles simulate an original as a spatial object is increasingly seductive. for several years, there have been plenty of digital applications with which we can flip through a digitized book using mouse and pointer or by touching the screen with our fingers and pulling the edges and margins. it is becoming easier to twist, turn, rotate, reduce, enlarge, and move around the object on the screen. audio additions, such as the sounds of pages turning, are common in smartphone or tablet applications to enhance the simulation, and haptic interfaces can further strengthen the sense or experience of authenticity. even lo-fi digital facsimiles of manuscripts expose us to gutter shadow images, responsive animation, and other tools with which they attempt to prompt us buy the m. dahlström simulation, like the magician in a circus (cf. the meaning of simulator as magician). the techniques aim to convey a sense of authenticity, or rather, they violate one kind of authenticity, that of being faithful to the original appearance of the page, in order to uphold another kind of authenticity, that of simulating the spatial object. the experi- ence presupposes or generates a kind of suspension of disbelief. and here we touch upon plato’s second meaning of a simulacrum: a reproduction deliberately distorted so as to achieve the effect of an authentic copy. facsimiles and scholarly editing digital scholarly editing can retouch images or strengthen their contrasts to convey the appearance of an original in better shape and readability than it actually is. although these practices could be thought of as innovations of the digital age, they were in fact used by scholarly editors already in the s (e.g. the facsimile edition of the codex argenteus, andersson et al. ). facsimiles thus have a long history in scholarly editions, stretching back more than a century. what roles do they play, and are they changing scholarly editing in any fundamental way? until recently, facsimiles have largely played the subordinate role of illustration to the transcription text, an add- on. usually, only a few sections in the source were photographically reproduced. now, however, almost all digital editing involves image capture, even when the editors aim for a text transcription edition. not only can ocr turn the images into machine- readable and codeable text, the edition can also display images in full alongside the edited transcriptions. the facsimiles are then no longer just tools for internal work, but a form of publication mode. this has proven to go hand in hand with particular types of scholarly editing, such as genetic criticism, material philology, versioning, documen- tary editing, text sociology, and editing when transcribing the text is particularly difficult or the graphical aspects of the source have significant relevance to the interpretation of the text. some editing projects are beginning to focus not only on the edited work and its variant texts, but also on the context of the work. they strive to include large amounts of ancillary materials, such as photographs, contracts, letters, ads, paintings, music recordings, and newspaper articles and clippings, either by digitizing these materials themselves or by depending on libraries and archives to digitize such material and make it available. documentary editing, the editing of primary source documents, is much in line with this development. it is a field of practice that seems to sit between critical editing and advanced library reproduction work. but documentary editions differ from digitized collections in some respects, for instance the kind of reunification of physically dis- persed fragments of a document that i mentioned before. digital documentary editions also link the reproductions with external resources to form a virtual network in a way most collections digitized by libraries do not. furthermore, digital documentary or genetic editions can establish links between or even within documents, using facsimiles in a way that was previously impossible with printed editions (pierazzo ). one of the reasons some people are optimistic about documentary editions is that digital facsimiles of source documents might be republished and reused to a higher degree than other segments in an edition. but this is far from certain and will depend on what approach the digitizing agent (such as a library) will take with respect to putting copies and facsimiles e.g. creative commons public domain mark (pdm) seals on the digital files. it will also depend on the development of orphan works legislation (martinez and terras ). again, a heightened awareness of this on the basis of a dedicated image criticism would serve as an incentive for scholarly editors to increase the transparency of the production history of such images and to subject their degree of authenticity and (un)certainty to better scrutiny. digital facsimiles are still being treated with less rigour and interest than expected in the field of scholarly text editing. the paradigmatic mode of this field still is the text transcription, and the role of the picture as a subordinate illustration has probably been transferred from the printed to the digital realm. in order for this to change, editors and users need to treat the images with the same demands for authenticity, detail, and transparency that we apply to text transcriptions. exhaustive metadata for the images, for instance, will be of paramount importance, providing information about states, production history, and digital provenance. what is missing for many current digital facsimiles in editions and digitized collections is the historical-bibliographical link between, on the one hand, what we see on the screen and, on the other, a particular identified artefact in a physical collection. in other words, which document was actually used when producing a given digital facsimile? autography, allography and reproductions in the concluding section of this article, let us return to some of the fundamental concepts put forward in the beginning. it seems obvious that issues of identity, imitation, and authenticity surface within digital scholarly editing and library digitiza- tion. difficult problems occur when we are faced with questions such as how can we distinguish an original (in two senses of the word) from a bmere^ copy, how similar are the two, and how can we measure the degree of authenticity. one way of pondering those problems is to turn to the realm of philosophical aesthetics. let us briefly have a look at a couple of discussions concerning such problems. a famous question raised by frederick bateson (referred to in mclaverty , ) was ‘if the mona lisa is in the louvre, where is hamlet?’ or put more bluntly, if i break into the louvre, get my hands on the mona lisa, and burn it to ashes, the work mona lisa would be forever gone. if, however, i pick up my own pocket book copy of hamlet (or even the original manuscript, had it survived) and burn it to ashes, no one would claim that the work hamlet was forever gone. this is because the two works belong to different regimes of art, tangible and intangible, and hence relate differently to the media categories mentioned earlier, such as repeatability, monoform/polyform, materiality, and storage/representation. the identity of a tangible work of art (e.g. painting or sculpture) is usually closely tied to a particular physical artefact, but this does not apply in an equal sense to intangible regimes of art, such as literature or music. the identity of tangible artworks is in this way linked to a specific production history, while the identity of intangible artworks is linked to an ahistorical code (or notation, see below), whose relationship to any represented empirical object can be more or less arbitrary. another characteristic is that the tangible work of art usually consists of unique items which identify the work, while the intangible artworks consist of multiple manifestations (editions, performances, etc.), each of which can be said to represent the underlying m. dahlström work, what we previously referred to as monoformity versus polyformity. in the case of tangible arts, thus, copies and works generally coincide. intangible works of art are also extended in time. when preserved in a sequential code, we have, in a sense, a text. nelson goodman ( ) suggested the conceptual pair of autography and allography to address this phenomenon. autographic works of art are e.g. paintings and sculptures, whereas allographic works of art are literary works, films, music, or architecture. allographic works are identified as being represented by a series of instructions, a representation goodman calls notation: ‘an art seems to be allographic just insofar as it is amenable to notation’ (goodman , ). according to this view, notation is separate from the production conditions and history of the work of art, enabling the work to be recreated at another time and place. notation thus signifies allographic art forms and is not something you would find in arts such as painting or sculpture. every replay, recitation, and performance of a correct notation with exact relative positioning of notation characters generates a new instance of the work, which identifies and defines the work. each new correctly performed instance reproduces the work as much as any other correct instance. in this way, a text is not a written copy of a work. it is (along with other text instances) the work itself. in such a particular context, the distinction between original and copy is meaningless. what is left out of this equation is obviously the problem of variants and versions. goodman only talks about exact notations and correct instances, but we all know that there can be minor or major textual differences between two texts which do not in any way prevent us from identifying them as instances of the same work of art. the whole discipline of textual criticism and scholarly editing, of course, is largely devoted to this problem and operates at a higher level of complexity than this. still, this goodmanian view of works of art and copies has some peculiar implica- tions. let us consider two. one is, according to gérard genette, that it would be impossible to imitate a text directly; it can be imitated only indirectly, by practicing its style in another text. this is typical of literature and music, genette says. the visual art forms, however, allow for direct imitation: copies are routinely done ... to imitate directly – i.e., to copy – a painting or a piece of sculpture means an attempt to reproduce it as faithfully as possible by one’s own means, and the difficulty and technical value of the exercise are obvious. to imitate directly – i.e., to copy – a poem or a piece of music is a purely mechanical task, at the disposal of anyone who knows how to write or to place notes on the staff, and without any literary or musical significance (genette , ). so the reproduction of text and music requires neither subject skills nor advanced artisan skills. the imitation, on the other hand, ‘supposes a more complex operation, the completion of which raises imitation above mere reproduction: it becomes a new production’ (ib.). let me make one observation here. using this kind of vocabulary, we would have to say that a digital facsimile of a printed textual document is not a reproduction but an imitation. a facsimile, after all, is a visual art form. whole new sets of (binary) notation systems have been put to use to accomplish the copies and facsimiles digital facsimile, which is a new document that interprets and imitates the visual appearance of the analogue source, and the new notation set is far from a mere correct replay of the notation set in the source document. the other implication is goodman’s claim that only autographic works can be faked: a work of art [i]s autographic if and only if the distinction between original and forgery of it is significant; or better, if and only if even the most exact duplication of it does not thereby count as genuine (goodman , ). if the notation of an allographic work is rendered exactly, for instance at a performance of beethoven’s fifth symphony or a recital of cervantes’ don quixote, where the performer claims that this is indeed the fifth symphony by beethoven or don quixote by cervantes, you would not have accomplished fakes of the work, but new instances of the work. but an exact rendering of all the characteristics of van gogh’s wheatfield with crows, if that were possible, of which the performer actively claims that it is indeed van gogh’s work, would not be considered the work proper but a fake. the attentive reader realizes that with this line of reasoning, we might be forced to say that a high-quality digitization of wheatfield with crows is a fake. or are we then rather facing a case where an autographic object has been ‘allographed’? goodman suggests that there were originally only autographic arts, but a need arose eventually to materialize intangible artworks, and notation serves that purpose. with notation, a work of art is being allographed, and vice versa: an art form is allographic if its works can be allographed through notation. the notation is an attempt to represent the qualities and characteristics that can be considered significant for a work. by transmitting the notation, we hope that we also have transmitted the work. although an autographic work cannot be copied without loss, any allographic work can in principle be reproduced eternally without loss, as long as the notation is preserved and presented correctly. to me, one of the most challenging questions arising out of goodman’s claim would be whether the process of digitizing an object necessarily means turning it into an allographic object. as i mentioned, goodman assumed a development towards increased allography, and, arguably, the binary notation of ones and zeros making up any digital file, regardless of what art form or expression is represented, could be conceived of as a notation in goodman’s sense and a prolongation of the development. if this is the case, then it would follow that as an allographic entity, a digital file cannot be subject to counterfeit. if its notation is rendered exactly, we do not have an imitation of it, we have a new instance. a counter argument could however point out the need to separate storage form from presentation form. we recall the property of digital media: a distinction between storage and presentation. very few of us come into close encounter with the binary storage notation, instead we use presentation devices. the storage notation is rarely of primary interest to us. several technical factors come into play to produce what we perceive as the document on a screen. equating the binary code with goodman’s notation as identifying the work, at the expense of other factors, pulls our attention away from the displayed document’s digital textuality at the perceptual level. this example shows that even conceptual models aspiring to be generic are always framed by particular historical media settings. goodman’s distinction refers to particular kinds of arts and media (primarily print culture), but this distinction does prove equally applicable in the case of digital media. m. dahlström furthermore, the specific appearance form of a digital document can be generated by many different technical storage architectures, one of which is binary notation, or rather several possible sets of binary notation. every time we choose to display the textual work in a software environment, there is an adaptation of the work to this particular software and interface setting, and a virtual and temporary set of ones and zeros is generated which thus also partly reflects the tool which one is using. it is, i think, unsatisfactory to claim that the binary notation is what identifies the work. in the case of a digital image, the binary notation is also a storage form. it could be argued that it also provides an appearance form and can be bread^ as notation per se, but that is, i think we would agree, an odd way of accessing the work. furthermore, in this case, we would be hard put to talk about the work as an image at all. the binary notation occurs in sequential allographic form, but the form of presentation is another thing. to the user, the presentation form is as stationary and momentary as any analogue picture. there certainly seems to be much to say about goodman’s conceptual model and the premises on which it is based, and much in his model to which one might object. however, autography and allography are, i would argue, most fruitfully thought of not as empirical classes but as perspectives on works of art and media. for instance, goodman’s approach suggests that there cannot be any notational system for painting. but does not the phenomenon of ‘painting by numbers’ at least suggest the possibility of allograph painting? furthermore, let us return to what we discussed at the outset of this article: a copy of a printed book. is it autographic or allographic? it is both. it is autographic as a tangible, graphical artefact, but its text is allographic as an identity test for the work it represents. the distinction between autography and allography can never be sharp, even less so in the digital realm. as is often the case, theories and conceptual models tend to lose some of their generic aura once they are applied to families of media beyond the historical time frame of their origin. but this should not stop us from making critical use of them in our analytical inquiries. they help us ask better questions. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references andersson, h., brolén, c. a., grape, a., & von friesen, o. ( ). codex argenteus upsaliensis jussu senatus universitatis phototypice editus. uppsala: almqvist & wiksell. baker, n. ( ). double fold: libraries and the assault on paper. new york: random house. benjamin, w. ( ). das kunstwerk im zeitalter seiner technischen reproduzierbarkeit. zeitschrift für sozialforschung, paris. [engl. translation at: http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works /ge/benjamin.htm]. accessed may . björk, l. ( ). how reproductive is a reproduction? digital transmission of text-based documents. (doctoral dissertation, the swedish school of library and information science, university of borås, borås. retrieved from http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hb:diva- . accessed may . dahlström, m. ( ). critical transmission. in p. svensson & d. t. goldberg (eds.), between humanities and the digital (pp. – ). cambridge, mass: mit press. copies and facsimiles http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin.htm http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/benjamin.htm http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hb:diva- duffy, c. ( ). revealing the secrets of the burnt magna carta. the british library. retrieved from https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/revealing-the-secrets-of-the-burnt-magna-carta. accessed may . duranti, l. ( ). reliability and authenticity: the concepts and their implications. archivaria, , – . ferraris, m. ( ). documentality: why it is necessary to leave traces. new york: fordham university press. genette, g. ( ). palimpsests: literature in the second degree. lincoln: university of nebraska press. goodman, n. ( ). languages of art: an approach to a theory of symbols. indianapolis: hackett. kirschenbaum, m. ( ). mechanisms: new media and the forensic imagination. cambridge, mass: mit press. kondrup, j. ( ). editionsfilologi. copenhagen: museum tusculanum. latour, b., & lowe, a. ( ). the migration of the aura, or how to explore the original through its facsimiles. in t. bartscherer & r. coover (eds.), switching codes: thinking through digital technology in the humanities and the arts (pp. – ). chicago: university of chicago press. lundblad, k. ( ). Återge eller återskapa? faksimilen som verktyg och konstverk. in e. nilsson nylander (ed.), mellan evighet och vardag. lunds domkyrkas martyrologium liber daticus vetustior (den äldre gåvoboken). studier och faksimilutgåva. skrifter utgivna av universitetsbiblioteket i lund. ny följd. . (pp. – ). lund: lund university library. martinez, m. & terras, m. ( ). 'not adopted’: the uk orphan works licensing scheme and how the crisis of copyright in the cultural heritage sector restricts access to digital content. open library of humanities, ( ). retrieved from: https://doi.org/ . /olh. . accessed may . mclaverty, j. ( ). the concept of authorial intention in textual criticism. the library, ( th ser.), – . pierazzo, e. ( ). digital documentary editions and the others. scholarly editing, . retrieved from: http://scholarlyediting.org/ /essays/essay.pierazzo.html. accessed may . pollard, a. w., et al. ( ). ‘facsimile’ reprints of old books. the library, ( th ser), – . ridderstad, p. ( ). hur dokumenteras ett dokument? om kravspecifikationer för materiell bibliografi och immateriell textkritik. in p. forssell & r. knapas (eds.), varianter och bibliografisk beskrivning (pp. – ). helsingfors: svenska litteratursällskapet i finland. (nordiskt nätverk för editionsfilologer, skrifter ). sutherland, k. ( ). making copies. in p. boot, a. cappellotto, w. dillen, f. fischer, a. kelly, a. mertgens, a.-m. sichani, e. spadini, & d. van hulle (eds.), advances in digital scholarly editing: papers presented at the dixit conferences in the hague, cologne, and antwerp (pp. – ). leiden: sidestone press. m. dahlström https://www.bl.uk/magna-carta/articles/revealing-the-secrets-of-the-burnt-magna-carta https://doi.org/ . /olh. http://scholarlyediting.org/ /essays/essay.pierazzo.html copies and facsimiles abstract media and copies digital reproductions critical facsimiles the concept of facsimile facsimiles and scholarly editing autography, allography and reproductions references dariah | zagreb, croatia insights on scholarly primitives from digital humanities research in spain authors: m. toscano, a. rabadán reyes, s. ros muñoz, e. gonzález-blanco garcía. abstract: digital humanities are experiencing a growing interest in spain, especially in the last decade, becoming a leading trend in research, either as a field of study or as a preferential financing topic. at the same time, because of their novelty, they are under scrutiny by the research community and government institutions because the return of investment is not understood neither the role that spanish researchers can play within european-wide research infrastructures, such as dariah. in order to provide the global community of scholars working in this field with a greater understanding of the current spanish scenario, linhd has recently promoted a research on the evolution of digital humanities in spain in the last years, a timeframe comparable with unsworth first formulation of scholarly primitives. the immediate goals of the study were to identify researchers in the field of digital humanities and to explore their financing, institutional affiliations, research projects and developed resources. the research has been very much data oriented and quantitative at its core, in order to quantify and describe initiatives, researchers, projects, digital resources, educational courses and scientific publications, connected among themselves and spanning from the nineties to the latest contributions. from a quantitative point of view, we collected bibliographical records from over authors, that represent a good approximation of the available literature produced by researchers affiliated with spanish institutions and a quantifiable measure of the impact and interest in dh within the spanish research community in the humanities. more than projects have been mapped, generally small from the point of view of economic resources, but that together represent a significant amount of research funds dedicated, in the last twenty years and by a variety of public and private funding bodies, to research in this field (over million euros). finally, a dozen educational courses and over digital resources of diverse nature (repositories of documents, collections of artefacts, crowdsourcing platforms, dictionaries, etc.) have been analyzed, the latter, most of the time, produced with the aim to publish a service to improve the basic of day-to-day research in the humanities. in the context of this contribution, we plan to explore and exploit this relatively vast amount of data in order to identify how the introduction of digital tools and methods from computer science has affected the basic functions of research in the humanities in spain. among the types of records collected, we believe that digital resources in particular will be able to provide insights, because they speak more about the reality of research workflows. to perform this analysis, resources will be classified and described according to classical scholarly primitives (discovering, annotating, comparing, referring, sampling, illustrating and representing), in order to highlight presences, absence and recurring associations of these categories, at certain specific stages and over time. additionally, being resources already classified by discipline (philology, history, archaeology, history of arts, …) and typology, we will be able to visualize the relationships between scholarly primitives and other dimensions in our data. this taxonomy exercise will also provide an opportunity to reflect about the need for new possible classifications, and on how classical primitives can assume different meanings depending on the scope of a project. we think that the poster format will better suit this presentation, as it will offer opportunities to exchange ideas one-on-one with attendees and stimulate conversations. dariah | zagreb, croatia white paper report report id: application number: ht- - project director: joseph scheinfeldt (tom.scheinfeldt@uconn.edu) institution: george mason university reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / another week | another tool: a digital humanities barn raising in , the roy rosenzweig center for history and new media gathered twelve digital humanists of different stripes – developers, professors, designers, managers – for one week | one tool, a digital humanities barn raising. the goal was to conceive of, produce, and market a new digital humanities tool. the result was anthologize, a wordpress plugin for publishing wordpress content to pdf, epub, and other forms. following that success, rrchnm attempted to recreate the experience with twelve different digital humanists, again from many different fields and backgrounds. drawing on lessons learned from the first iteration, we put more emphasis on project management strategies and reduced the amount of time devoted to instruction in digital humanities tools and methods. the tool they produced is a software as a service application, serendip-o-matic, which allows users to enter text or their zotero library and discover unexpectedly similar results in dpla, europeana, and other sources. in what follows, we hope that you will find insights and perspectives about the experience that will provide inspiration for other innovative programs, project management considerations, and digital humanities practices in general. the another week | another tool team was: brian croxall. digital humanities specialist and lecturer in english, emory university jack dougherty. associate professor and director of educational studies, trinity college meghan frazer. digital resources curator, the ohio state university scott kleinman. professor of english, california state university rebecca sutton koeser. software engineer, emory university libraries ray palin. teacher and librarian, sunapee middle high school amy papaelias. assistant professor of graphic design and foundation, suny mia ridge. ph.d. candidate in digital humanities, open university eli rose. undergraduate student, oberlin university amanda visconti. ph.d. candidate in english, university of maryland scott williams. collections database adminsitrator, univ of pennsylvania museum of archaeology and anthropology amrys williams. postdoctoral fellow, national museum of american history the second iteration of one week | one tool was an extremely successful experience for the participants' professional development, instruction in digital humanities methods, and experience in collaboration with a variety of people in different roles. the results differ from the first iteration, very much following the changes rrchnm implemented between the two events. in particular, this iteration's emphasis on a project management team led to several participants citing learning about project management structures as their most important takeaway from the experience. the product, the software-as-a-service application, serendip-o-matic, continues online, though with fairly minimal traffic. the reach of the experience to affect other digital humanists' thinking has been extraordinary, taking the forms of a long session presentation at digital humanities , and a post for acrl's techconnect series, among other successful informal and formal papers and presentations. project activities, accomplishments, and audiences the one week | one tool team coalesced into a group that quickly self-selected into distinct teams with clear leaders: the development team, the outreach team, and the project management team. this division, particularly within the development team, reflects the inroads that project management techniques, particularly agile, have made into digital humanities. mia ridge became the “scrum master” of the development team, coordinating the teams activities and priorities. meghan frazer and brian croxall, the project management team, took on the role of coordinating between the the development and outreach teams. at times this was a controlled chaos, as sometimes within the course of a single day the realities of what could be built and the expectations of the outreach team would diverge. this was to be expected in such a condensed product launch time, and provided valuable experience for all participants, some of whom had not worked within anything analogous to the project management structures that developed. indeed, the structure was noted by more than one participant as an important lesson in their professional lives and development. the adoption of those project management structures and gaining experience in learning and negotiating them is perhaps the most important lesson. indeed, that management processes were extremely productive. interestingly, this appears to have allow the participants to focus more on the 'playfulness' of both the event and ultimate product in their publications. despite occasional frustrations and the somewhat more well-defined structure of the group, playfulness in research and tool-building became a major theme in their later presentations and reflection. the participants have produced many formal and informal presentations and documents. many were avid bloggers about their experiences – most can be found in their zotero group (https://www.zotero.org/groups/oneweekonetool /items). the range of presentations and publications speak to an extraordinarily wide audience, including the international digital humanities conference; through design, a popular design podcast; the association of college and research libraries' techconnect series; and regional technology and/or humanities conferences (see below for details, and appendix i for a complete bibliography). https://www.zotero.org/groups/oneweekonetool /items evaluation evaluation of the participants' experiences was conducted via a survey in a google form. themes that can be seen in the survey include: • collaboration many participants cited lessons in team collaboration, particularly as part of project management. the importance of managing communication between all members of the team and the experience in doing so is described as producing important changes in their professional lives. • structure closely related to collaboration and communication, well-defined structure was noted as a factor in the success of the week. interestingly, more structure, established both before and after the week itself, was noted as a suggestion for changing one week | one tool. • time constraints after the week as discussed below, the most common reason cited for the cessation of development work on serendip-o-matic is lack of available time in the year after the experience. this is consistent with the first iteration of one week | one tool. continuation of the project for most practical purposes development on serendip-o-matic is at an end, though for the time being the application will be maintained. during our reunion at thatcamp in , we discussed the possibility of active development continuing. the consensus was that continuing active development was an unrealistic goal. the lack of available time was consistently given as the primary reason for this. while enthusiasm for serendip-o-matic remained high, the reality is that everyone's professional responsibilities left little opportunity to continue development and coordination. this is not surprising, as one week | one tool is by design an experience distinct from 'usual' professional life, and participants in the first iteration had much the same reaction. that said, the more fundamental part of one week | one tool – the development of professional skills that will be applied in working life and shared among others, appears destined to have a continuing effect on the participants and their colleagues. occasional new presentations from the participants will expand the influence of their lessons learned. hence, rrchnm will continue to keep serendip-o-matic up and running for as long as our technical infrastructure can reasonably support it. grant products publications and professional development the one week | one tool team has been quite prolific in their ongoing professional development work about serendip-o-matic and the experience of one week | one tool. their zotero library of their blog posts, presentations, papers, and other recognitions contains over seventy items. the most significant product is the long paper at digital humanities presented by amy papaelias, brian croxall, mia ridge, and scott kleinman. in the presentation, they reflect on the virtues of playfulness, both in the process of building serendip-o-matic and in the product itself. they argued in favor of the benefits for incorporating more “playful work” in the context of academic research and scholarship. as current digital humanities work relies on collaborative environments (including hackathons, maker spaces, maker challenges, etc.), opportunities like one week | one tool provide a space for playful work to encourage more creative risk-taking and engaging user- experiences within the context of digital humanities scholarship and practice. importantly, they included a considerations of the challenges of evaluation in their talk. another notable and informative post is meghan frazer's post in the acrl's techconnect series (http://acrl.ala.org/techconnect/?p= ), which provides an insightful summary of the lessons learned. please see appendix i for a full bibliography of resources related to one week | one tool. serendip-o-matic the usage of serendip-o-matic itself has been somewhat limited. the site usage statistics show that, after the initial release, visits declined sharply. that is not to say, however, that it does not continue to bear fruit. it is used as a demonstration tool not only for the one week | one tool process itself, but also as an example of using multiple apis to produce research results. overall, though, it is important to remember that one week | one tool is an exercise in rapid, immersive learning about technologies, tools, development, management, and outreach in digital humanities projects. what the twelve participants achieved, learned, and – most importantly – shared with their colleagues has been a significant success. http://acrl.ala.org/techconnect/?p= appendix i bibliography of related presentations and publications [generated from the another week | another tool zotero group https://www.zotero.org/groups/oneweekonetool /items] andrew, liam. “i’m feeling lucky: can algorithms better engineer serendipity in research — or in journalism?” nieman journalism lab, july , . http://www.niemanlab.org/ / /im-feeling-lucky-can-algorithms-better-engineer- serendipity-in-research-or-in-journalism/. “another week | another tool begins.” roy rosenzweig center for history and new media, july , . http://chnm.gmu.edu/news/another-week-another-tool/. baker, james. “@humabirdproject + #inspiringwomen.” digital scholarship blog, august , . http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/digital-scholarship/ / /humabirdproject- inspiringwomen.html. benatti, francesca. “mia ridge leads developement at one week|one tool.” digital humanities at the open university, august , . http://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/dighum/? p= . carlspina. “spark new paths of research with serendip-o-matic.” novel technology, august , . http://carlispina.wordpress.com/ / / /serendip-o-matic/. croxall, brian. “day of owot: check your ego at the door,” july , . http://www.briancroxall.net/ / / /day- -of-owot-check-your-ego-at-the-door/. ———. “day of owot: pick your poison,” july , . http://www.briancroxall.net/ / / /day- -of-owot-pick-your-poison/. ———. “day of owot: of names and stories and gophers,” august , . http://www.briancroxall.net/ / / /day- -of-owot-of-names-and-stories-and-gophers/. ———. “day of owot: stay gold, ponyboy,” august , . http://www.briancroxall.net/ / / /day- -of-owot-stay-gold-ponyboy/. ———. “day of owot: we did it! (can we do it again? please??),” august , . http://www.briancroxall.net/ / / /day- -of-owot-we-did-it-can-we-do-it-again-please/. ———. “‘if hippos be the dude of love…’: serendip-o-matic at digital humanities .” brian croxall, july , . http://www.briancroxall.net/ / / /if-hippos-be-the-dude- of-love-serendip-o-matic-at-digital-humanities- /. https://www.zotero.org/groups/oneweekonetool /items ———. “one week | one tool: introducing serendip-o-matic.” the chronicle of higher education. profhacker, august , . http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/one-week- one-tool-introducing-serendip-o-matic/ . dorn, sherman. “one week, better tools (spoof).” sherman dorn, august , . http://shermandorn.com/wordpress/?p= . ———. “pictura invisibilis collegio artium digital.” sherman dorn, august , . http://shermandorn.com/wordpress/?p= . dougherty, jack. “final reflections from one week one tool: the blur of days - ,” august , . http://commons.trincoll.edu/jackdougherty/ / / /owot- - /. ———. “learning moments at one week one tool , day ,” july , . http://commons.trincoll.edu/jackdougherty/ / / /owot /. ———. “metaphorical learning moments at one week one tool, day ,” august , . http://commons.trincoll.edu/jackdougherty/ / / /owot- /. ———. “my peggy olson learning moment at one week one tool, day ,” july , . http://commons.trincoll.edu/jackdougherty/ / / /owot- /. “dpla welcomes serendip-o-matic to the app library.” digital public library of america, august , . http://dp.la/info/ / / /welcome-serendip-o-matic/. “europeana api used in one week | one tool’s serendip-o-matic!” europeana, august , . http://pro.europeana.eu/web/guest;jsessionid=b a e ef c afa dc d db. frazer, meghan. “one week, one tool, many lessons.” acrl techconnect blog, august , . http://acrl.ala.org/techconnect/?p= . graham, shawn. “a quick run with serendip-o-matic.” electric archaeology, august , . http://electricarchaeology.ca/ / / /a-quick-run-with-serendip-o-matic/. grossman, sara. “how to build a digital-humanities tool in a week.” the chronicle of higher education. wired campus, august , . http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/how-to- build-a-digital-humanities-tool-in-a-week/ . heimburger, franziska. “vos sources vous surprennent avec le serendip-o-matic.” la boite à outils des historiens, august , . http://www.boiteaoutils.info/ / /vos-sources- vous-surprennent-avec-le.html. hocking, cameron. “mining the treasures of trove.” bright ideas, august , . http://slav.global .vic.edu.au/ / / /mining-the-treasures-of-trove/#.ugfcvmraqls. hovious, amanda. “serendip-o-matic | designer librarian.” designer librarian, august , . http://designerlibrarian.wordpress.com/tag/serendip-o-matic/. hunt, ryan. “serendip-o-matic as a potential model for open online academic work.” ivrytwr, september , . http://ivrytwr.com/ / / /serendip-o-matic-as-a- potential-model-for-open-online-academic-work/. kleinman, scott. “introducing serendip-o-matic,” august , . http://scottkleinman.net/blog/ / / /introducing-serendip-o-matic/. ———. “play as process and product: on making serendip-o-matic | scottkleinman.net.” accessed july , . http://scottkleinman.net/blog/ / / /play-as-process-and- product-on-making-serendip-o-matic/. ———. “serendip-o-matic (and other good news).” digital humanities - southern california, august , . http://dhsocal.blogspot.com/ / /serendip-o-matic-and-other-good- news.html. machovec, george. “from your managing editor: fourteenth annual readers’ choice awards.” the charleston advisor , no. (october , ): – . meacham, rebecca. “‘dear lucky one’: the westing game invites us to play.” the ploughshares blog, august , . http://blog.pshares.org/index.php/dear-lucky-one-the- westing-game-invites-us-to-play/. moravec, michelle. “serendip-o-matic seeks to replicate thrill of archival discovery online.” history news network, august , . http://hnn.us/articles/serendip-o-matic-seeks- replicate-thrill-archival-discovery-online. “one week | one tool has built . . . serendip-o-matic.” one week one tool, august , . http://oneweekonetool.org/. “one week | one tool team launches serendip-o-matic.” roy rosenzweig center for history and new media, august , . http://chnm.gmu.edu/news/one-week-one-tool- team-launches-serendip-o-matic/. palin, ray. “one week | one tool: bit by bit,” august , . http://raypalin.info/blog/archives/ . peter. “serendip-o-matic: der automat für zufallsfunde...” hatori kibble, august , . http://hatorikibble.wordpress.com/ / / /serendip-o-matic-der-automat-fur- zufallsfunde/. “presentations, exhibitions.” news pulse: faculty/staff newsletter, august , . http://newspulse.newpaltz.edu/ / / /presentations-exhibitions- /. “professor kleinman helps develop search tool serendip-o-matic.” department of english, california state university-northridge, august , . http://www.csun.edu/engl/news.php? op=story&id= . “recommended: serendip-o-matic, from the one week | one tool team.” dh+lib, august , . http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /recommended-serendip-o-matic-from-the-one- week-one-tool-team/. retief, esther. “serendip-o-matic search engine - 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csodálkozz a bibliográfiádra.” kereső világ: keresés, szövegbányászat, big data, august , . http://kereses.blog.hu/ / / /serendip-o- matic_csodalkozz_a_bibliografiadra. “serendip-o-matic: it’s not search, it’s serendipity.” danegeld, august , . http://danegeld.dk/ / / /serendip-o-matic-its-not-search-its-serendipity/. “serendip-o-matic launched.” mason news, august , . http://newsdesk.gmu.edu/ / /serendip-o-matic-launched/. “serendip-o-matic: let’s your sources surprise you.” digital meets culture, august . http://www.digitalmeetsculture.net/article/serendip-o-matic-lets-your-sources-surprise-you/. “serendip-o-matic: let your sources surprise you.” stuff you missed in history class, august , . http://missedinhistory.tumblr.com/post/ /serendip-o-matic-let-your- sources-surprise-you. serendip-o-matic - post mortal songs. switzerland, . http://www.discogs.com/serendip- o-matic-post-mortal-songs/release/ . “serendip-o-matic results using spu library annual report.” keeping time, august , . http://forkeepingtime.tumblr.com/post/ /serendip-o-matic-results-using- -spu-library-annual. smale, maura. “new at the dpla: there’s an app for that.” acrlog, august , . http://acrlog.org/ / / /new-at-the-dpla-theres-an-app-for-that/. “smhs connects with serendip-o-matic.” sunapee school district, august , . http://www.sunapeeschools.org/home/announcement/smhsconnectswithserendip-o-matic. “stained glass, google, serendip-o-matic, more: short wednesday buzz.” researchbuzz, august , . http://researchbuzz.me/ / / /stained-glass-google-serendip-o- matic-more-short-wednesday-buzz-august- - /. starr, julie. “serendip-o-matic led me to these gorgeous images of early nz.” evolving newsroom, august , . http://evolvingnewsroom.co.nz/serendip-o-matic-led-me-to- these-gorgeous-images-of-early-nz/. “surprising results: a search engine designed by and for digital humanities.” explored.tech, august , . http://sophia.smith.edu/blog/exploredtech/category/digital- humanities/. verhoeven, deb, and toby burrows. “crowdsourcing for serendipity.” the australian: higher education, december , . http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher- education/opinion/crowdsourcing-for-serendipity/story-e frgcko- . visconti, amanda. “digital projects from start to finish: dh mentorship from one week one tool (owot).” literature geek, july , . http://www.literaturegeek.com/owotdayone/. ———. “#owot a week: introducing serendip-o-matic, a tool for digital humanities discovery and delight.” literature geek, august , . http://www.literaturegeek.com/owot-a-week/. williams, amrys o. “one week, one tool.” amshazam., july , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /one-week-one-tool/. ———. “owot, day .” amshazam., july , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /owot-day- /. ———. “owot, day .” amshazam., july , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /owot-day- /. ———. “owot, day .” amshazam., july , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /owot-day- /. ———. “owot, day .” amshazam, august , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /owot-day- /. ———. “owot, day .” amshazam., august , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /owot-day- /. ———. “owot, day .” amshazam., august , . http://amrys.wordpress.com/ / / /owot-day- /. ———. “what we built at owot: serendip-o-matic.” history of science, medicine, and technology at the university of wisconsin, august , . http://wisconsinhstm.blogspot.com/ / /what-we-built-at-owot-serendip-o-matic.html. “Сервис serendip-o-matic иллюстрирует тексты картинками из библиотек и музеев.” edutainme, august , . http://www.edutainme.ru/news/servis-serendip-o-matic- illyustriruet-teksty-kartinkami-iz-bibliotek-i-muzeev/. project activities, accomplishments, and audiences evaluation continuation of the project grant products appendix i bibliography of related presentations and publications humanist studies & the digital age, . ( ) issn: - (online) http://journals.oregondigital.org/hsda/ doi: . /uo/hsda. . . noisemakers! putting the analog in digital humanities serena ferrando & mark wardecker abstract: noisefest! is an interactive, multisensory experience centered around a small maine town and rooted in the sounds and noise of its streets. comprising a virtual reality tour, soundwalks and remixes, a d laser cut geographical map with arduino controllers, and a futuristic noise intoner, one of the objectives of this collaborative, transdisciplinary, and theory-based project is to create concrete opportunities for students to participate in the “real” world and engage with the materiality of noise and its manifestations by interacting with the soundscape through novel, interactive, and multisensory practices. noisefest! is also an example of how one can creatively and artistically extend the reach of the digital humanities beyond the borders of academia and into the public realm. digital humanities methods, approaches, and tools allow us to explore and present concepts in multimedia formats, but they can also aid us in the actual binding of our intellectual, academic lives to the material reality around us. building analog artifacts through digital humanities can be the culmination of a string of theoretical reflections on a given concept. if we take, for example, the concept of “noise”, which is a major component of the modern industrial soundscape and the contemporary music scene and is central to a large corpus of scholarly writing, the application of digital tools and methods can be the vessel through which to acquire and develop a heightened understanding of the physical properties of noise and its abstract derivations such as the propagation of sound waves through different spaces and mediums, how infrasound inaudible to human ears affects the body, or how applied filters can modify different areas of the audio frequency spectrum. software such as max for live, arduino, and flatfab – to name a few – that are designed to create objects and experiences and thus occupy the membranic space between the digital realm and reality, can also facilitate the absorption as well as the transmission of knowledge from an academic environment to larger communities outside academia. as diane jakacki and katherine faull observe in doing digital humanities. practice, training, research, alan liu’s tripartite methodology of “practice, discovery, community” (that is central to the practice of digital humanities) comprises both critical thinking and critical doing ( ). when the theoretical analysis of either data or literary, artistic, and cultural phenomena is supplemented by experiential investigation, the discovery of new knowledge is not only enhanced but also accompanied by the production of objects that will also serve the purpose of disseminating such knowledge. therefore, the products that are the concrete outcomes of digital humanistic inquiry can provide abundant opportunities to reach beyond the theory and beyond the walls of academia to engage with the wider public. http://journals.oregondigital.org/hsda/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/ . / humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) noisefest! is a case in point. an interactive, multisensory experience, noisefest! is centered around the town of waterville, maine, where colby college is located. rooted in the sounds and noise of main street, it comprises a virtual reality tour of the town, various soundwalks and remixes, a d laser cut geographical map with arduino controllers, and a futuristic noise intoner. collaborative, transdisciplinary, and rooted in theory (russolo, varèse, adorno, cage, schafer, attali, nyman, pasnau, westerkamp, and many others), the ramifications of this project serve the purpose of participating in the “real” world by engaging with the materiality of noise and its manifestations by interacting with the soundscape through novel, interactive, and multisensory practices. on weekly google classroom blog posts and in class, students discussed excerpts from theodor adorno. quasi una fantasia; r. murray schafer. the soundscape; luigi russolo. the art of noises; jacques attali, noise. the political economy of music; robert pasnau. “what is sound?”; edgar varèse and chou wen-chung. “the liberation of sound”; paul hegarty. noise/music. a history; michael nyman. experimental music. cage and beyond; thom holmes. electronic and experimental music. technology, music, and culture; maria maddalena novati and john dack. the studio di fonologia. a musical journey - ; eduard hanslick. on the musically beautiful; paul d. miller. sound unbound; c. lane and a. carlyle. in the field. the art of field recording; and bernie krause. the great animal orchestra. these readings were for students an introduction to the field of sound and noise studies, and this theoretical knowledge was manifested in the digital/analog noise artifacts of their own creation. this article, however, focuses primarily on the section of the lab where students built hybrid analog/digital sound/noise artifacts with the intention to promote new, multisensory ways of experiencing and understanding our shared soundscape. the noisefest! artifacts imitate and reproduce urban noise while also highlighting the musical potentialities inherent in the city that russolo described in the art of noises over a century ago. as revealed by cage’s experimental pieces such as ’ ” where he draws attention to the fact that what we call silence is in reality the negation of any type of noise that does not fit a culturally and historically situated definition of music, the mimetic features of the noisefest! instruments serve the purpose of capturing the life of the environment and reminding us that the potential for a “new” music (non- representational and in the form of “unregimented sound” to use theodor adorno’s words) is all around us ( ). the reader is invited to visit the noisemakers! website for photos, videos, and sound clips of the noise artifacts. as per hildegard westerkamp’s definition, a “soundwalk is any excursion whose main purpose is listening to the environment.” ( ) noisefest! also featured a talk by adi snir, director of the harvard group for new music at harvard university, titled “noise is a matter of listening.” the talk focused on the openness of snir’s scores, which utilizes the space between performers and composer to promote a greater engagement with the “real” of the performance and tie back to his way of conceiving noise and sound. for example, inspired by attali’s work, two students’ soundwalk and accompanying d printed artwork explored the environmental politics inherent to increased noise levels when the dam on a local river remained in place even when the paper mill that it fed went out of business and closed permanently. another entirely digital project was the soundwalk in virtual reality using the mule works innovation lab’s htc vive headset. in addition to recording ambient sounds, students also used a samsung gear camera to capture degree videos of the locations they visited. these were then imported into the unity game engine software running on an alienware gaming pc in the lab. with unity’s built-in d sound settings, the students were able to spatialize the sounds differently at certain points so that users would hear different things as they turned their heads while watching the videos. we then wrote a c# script for the simulation that would let users navigate from one image to the next with the vive controllers. at the more analog end of the spectrum was an actual noise intoner constructed with pieces that were cut with a laser cutter and assembled in a sculptors’ studio. humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) colby college’s center for the arts and humanities sponsors several humanities labs every year, which give students a chance to do more involved hands-on work with the subjects they are studying, such as going on field trips to work with collections at cultural institutions or creating digital projects. noisefest! originates from a digital humanities lab titled noisemakers! tracing the origins of modern music in italy that explores different perspectives on noise emerging from the fields of music, ecocriticism, philosophy, phenomenology, and technology and translates them into digital, analog, or hybrid digital- analog artifacts that facilitate the reproduction and the physical experience of noise. michael nyman reminds us of cage’s distinction between “old” and new (experimental) music as the difference between communication and perception ( ). the performers of experimental music increasingly take on the role of perceivers who must pay close attention to the sounds around them in order to respond to them and adjust their playing. they are at once players and audience. noisefest! creates a similar situation where the emphasis of the musical experience instead of residing in the need to convey an artistic message lies in the participation in a shared auditory experience that is more firmly rooted in life than in music or art as they are traditionally perceived. emphasis is placed on the value of the process of extracting sound from a city rather than on the results of such operation. preparation for noisefest! was an essential part of the students’ lab experience, and they began their hands-on work by forming groups to create soundwalks of waterville and inspired by rule six in cage and kent’s “ten rules for students and teachers,” “nothing is a mistake. there’s no win and no fail. there’s only make.” the guidelines were extremely simple: students were free to record anything as long as it was in waterville. for these soundwalks, the students used marantz portable audio recorders to record ambient noise at various locations in town. they then downloaded the open source audio editor, audacity, and in a class session, learned to use it to edit and enhance the audio files they wanted to feature in their projects. for their soundwalks, their goal was to create digital maps with their laptops on which the locations of their recordings would be highlighted. using midi controllers connected to their laptops, students tested how users would be able to play and manipulate loops of the sounds corresponding to each map location. in this way, the aural maps of the soundwalks would function as electronic musical instruments. the musical instrument digital interface standard (midi) is a communications protocol that allows electronic instruments, like synthesizers and samplers, and computers to interface with each other. for the soundwalks, we decided to use novation launch control midi controllers, because of their simplicity and popularity (fig. ). to create the playable maps, we chose cycling ‘ ’s max/msp software. max is rather unusual in that it is really a visual programming language that mimics the type of patching that was done with early modular analog musical equipment and various connecting cords and cables. a max program is actually called a “patch,” and to create one, the programmer adds and, using virtual “patch cords,” connects a variety of max “modules,” such as a digital audio player or a buffer for storing a sound file. the benefit to using max is that it works with a variety of audiovisual media. more specifically, max allowed the students to upload an image file of see cage’s concept of auditory disponibilité or being open to the sounds of the world, “hear what there is to hear, rather than what [one] thinks there’s going to be to hear” ( ). this of course does not exclude the value of this operation for the user, who is also a participant in the shared auditory experience by being able to manipulate sounds extracted from the city but not crystallized in a final composition. in this case, the involvement and the agency of the user are heightened in comparison to those of the traditional passive listener. humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) a waterville map and then use this as a canvas in what it calls “presentation mode,” a curated view of what the programmer wants to display of a particular patch. figure . novation launch control midi controller. given its complexity, we did not expect the students to become experts at max programming and decided to create a basic patch they could download that would quickly get them started with using their launchpad controllers to play their found sounds. this patch was mapped to the midi outputs of the first column of the launch control. a press of the button would start or stop a loop of a sound file, and turning the potentiometers (pots or knobs) would smoothly alter the speed at which the loop played and its pitch (fig. ). when the students were introduced to max, we talked them through how to add one of their own sound files to the patch’s buffer object and then walked them through how the patch worked. though we decided that loop speed and pitch would be good basic interactions, we also showed them how to substitute other objects if they wanted to explore max a bit more. from this point, they could duplicate the objects in the patch and keep adding more sounds to be played with the controller’s other seven buttons and fourteen pots. after they were comfortable with how the patch worked, we showed them how to geo-locate their sounds in max/msp by adding an image of a map to the patch and then assigning or adding objects to max’s “presentation mode” view. this view allows the programmer to control what a viewer sees of a patch on a monitor or screen, and in all of the code and its accompanying documentation for these projects is available at gihhub: https://github.com/academicits/noisemakers/. https://github.com/academicits/noisemakers/ humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) this case, it allowed the students to put their soundscapes of waterville’s main street at a user’s fingertips. by interacting with the sound clips in max and manipulating them in real time, launching certain clips and stopping others, the user becomes a dj with the power to “remix” the town in original ways and revisit a familiar landscape with new eyes and ears (fig. ). figure . max interface with the basic patch. humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) figure . max sound map in “presentation mode.” the embedding of analog features in a digital artifact such as a max sound map, like the one in fig. , creates great terrain for the mind to engage with the materiality of the senses, and makes it thus a valuable instrument for both the creators and the users. the process of building such an instrument requires a knowledge of the necessary software and hardware to create and operate it, a great dose of creativity to make it as engaging and as efficient as possible, and an exploration of the theoretical discourse surrounding the topic of noise. it also requires the awareness that building a digital object based in reality that will become part of the public domain will reach an audience that may not be digitally-inclined or tech-savvy. the use of analog tools and materials to complement and enhance the digital component therefore becomes crucial. for this reason, noisefest! features an interactive map with arduino hardware that is the result of a combination of digital and analog media. it is, in fact, a digital sound machine encased in an analog shell where knobs that control electrical voltages are connected via soldered wires to a circuit board that converts their analog signal to a digital one (fig. ). this exploration included reflections on the definition of noise, its physical properties, its integration into modern and contemporary musical compositions, as well as the listeners’ ability to participate actively in the experience of noise, and the socio-political implications of noise such as the power of enharmonics (or notes that have smaller intervals than a semitone) to disrupts the established music system and related cultural hierarchies. humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) figure . interactive map combining digital and analog media. that signal is then passed to a laptop running max/msp. having already guided students through creating their max soundscapes, we encouraged a team of students to design and build an actual wooden map that would be playable in much the same way. since mounting a manufactured midi controller, like a launch control, into a map would severely limit the look and feel of the project, we decided to see if we could build our own controller with an arduino microcontroller board, which would allow us to place pots or buttons at any location. we started by trying to replicate the button and two pots of a single launch control column. using a breadboard for prototyping, we wired a button and a resistor to a digital input and two pots to analog inputs on the arduino uno board (fig. ). we then wrote a short c++ program to make these output the appropriate midi messages. since the arduino had to connect to a computer using a usb cable, instead of a dedicated, five-pin midi cable, we used the open source software, hairless midi, as a bridge to get the midi output from the arduino to max via usb (fig. ). humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) figure . arduino uno board. figure . hairless midi software bridges output from the arduino board. with a working midi controller prototype, we then discussed with the students the locations that they wanted to map and the kinds of interactions they would like to include in their project. we decided to keep the two pots from the basic patch that control the speed and pitch of the looped humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) audio file but felt that we should replace the button that starts the loop with a pot that controls volume. that would allow the sound to play continuously and give users more control of the mix while “playing” the map. to represent the space depicted by the map, we spatialized the sounds by adding a monaural reverb and panning module to each loop in the max patch. these were then adjusted so that sounds farther away from the listener (i.e., closer to the north of the map) were “wetter,” or had more reverb applied to them, and the panning, or stereo positioning, of each sound was determined by how far east or west the location was on the map. the students then designed the map of waterville in adobe photoshop, and the jpeg file they created was imported into retinaengrave software. the plywood map was cut and etched with a full spectrum laser cutter in colby college’s mule works innovation lab. from there, the students brought the wooden map to sculptor, bradley borthwick’s, campus studio to build a frame for it and drill the necessary holes for the pots. finally, the students were taught how to solder and began wiring the pots to the arduino controller. at this point, we encountered a few difficulties. the map featured eight different waterville locations, such as the public library, city hall, and a popular coffee house. since each of these locations required three pots, we needed twenty-four analog input pins for our controller. since even the largest arduino board, the mega, only has sixteen analog inputs, we had to use multiplexer (mux) boards to add additional input pins for the pots. these could then be combined into a single output from the mux board and wired into a single input on the arduino. the code for the arduino program had to be adapted to this new arrangement. in the end, we did get the map working, and the final result was an impressive looking and sounding instrument. the traditional look of the board makes it quite approachable and enticing even to the non-technologically-inclined user, and hides the seventy-two wires that are soldered to the knobs and connected to the arduino board. compared to a novation midi controller, this large semi-analog board presents a much warmer feel and appears more immediately playable than its sleek counterpart and, for this reason, consistently garners greater interest and use. the skills required to develop noise-based artifacts such as the laser-cut arduino-controlled map comprise the ability to apply noise and sound theory to the ideation of concrete objects, as well as the ability to find creative solutions to practical problems such as determining the optimal scale of the waterville map for laser cutting or the placement of the knobs on the board. such skills also extend to using a drill and a soldering kit, which are not among the traditional goals of the liberal arts education offered at colby but that nevertheless engage the brain and the body in equal measure and are transportable to various fields of work and research such as architecture, art, music, and engineering. the transportability of these skills to a variety of disciplines is mirrored in that of the digital-analog noise artifacts that they inform and that can be brought to a museum, a creative space, special thanks to louisa baum, anikka schliesmann, and olivia wandres for their dedication to the project, and to tim stonesifer from colby information technology services for the technical support and expertise that he provided. many thanks also to assistant professor of art, bradley borthwick, for sharing his knowledge and putting his sculpture studio and its tools at our disposal. there were a few pots that did not work due to either soldering or wiring errors. one thing we learned was that it is critical to agree on a color scheme for wiring and to stick to it. that makes troubleshooting bad connections much easier. while building the noise instruments, students pondered what the purpose of a soundwalk was, the capacity that noise has more than music to carry non-static, mutable message, and how the listener plays an active role in the creation of a sound experience. humanist studies & the digital age ferrando & wardecker . ( ) a library, or a concert hall where they can engage with the public without requiring any mediation, theoretical explanations, or technical expertise. noisefest! captures the distinctive sounds and noise of main street in waterville at a specific historical time and provides both creators and users with the opportunity to be completely immersed in the physicality of the present and interact with it in creative and experiential ways. while building their noise artifacts, students reflected on the past and looked to the future as they listened, analyzed, and critiqued early- and mid-twentieth-century noise compositions and sound recordings and learned to situate sound and noise along geo-temporal coordinates. this helped them follow and understand the process of inclusion of urban and anthropogenic noise into the modern musical landscape and inspired their creative work. furthermore, the ability to portray and “play” the city of waterville as a musical instrument is a way of drawing attention to the city as a multilayered sound system and away from the unreceptive and unresponsive act of being passively subjected to the cacophony of urban noise. embodying the convergence of the concrete auditory substance of the world with theoretical meditations on noise, such as cage’s suggestion that music is not about understanding but about awareness, noisefest! is an example of how one can creatively and artistically extend the reach of the digital humanities into the field of sound and noise studies beyond the borders of academia and into the public realm. works cited adorno, theodor. quasi una fantasia. essays on modern music. . verso, . berio, luciano, roberto leydi, and bruno maderna. “portrait of a city.” , http://fonologia.lim.di.unimi.it/brani_scheda.php?id= &phpsessid=bp u knb hlqu vkg rl . accessed october . cage, john, and corita kent. “ten rules for students and teachers.” open culture: the best free cultural and educational media on the web, www.openculture.com/ / / -rules-for-students- and-teachers.html. accessed october . jakacki, diane, and katherine faull. “doing dh in the classroom: transforming the humanities curriculum through digital engagement.” doing digital humanities: practice training, research, edited by constance crompton, richard j. lane, and ray siemens, taylor and francis, , pp. - . nyman, michael. experimental music. cage and beyond. . cambridge university press, . perloff, marjorie, and charles junkermann. john cage. composed in america. the university of chicago press, . russolo, luigi. the art of noises. futurist manifesto. . pendragon press, . ---. “the awakening of a city.” musica futurista: the art of noises. salon ltmcd . . westerkamp, hildegard. “soundwalking.” sound heritage. . vol. , no. , , https://www.sfu.ca/~westerka/writings% page/articles% pages/soundwalking.html. accessed october . noisemakers! putting the analog in digital humanities serena ferrando & mark wardecker works cited voyant, digital humanities, general chemistry, scientific papers, undergraduate education , ( ): - doi: . /j.edu. . reading science: digital humanities and general chemistry jennifer m. vance natural sciences, laguardia community college, long island city, united states abstract scientific papers often present challenges to undergraduate readers. this paper reports on research to explore whether voyant, a digital humanities text analysis tool, might help students become more proficient and independent readers of scientific articles. students taking honors general chemistry were introduced to voyant. for the study, they read, analyzed, and summarized a scientific paper without the use of voyant to establish a baseline measure of their skills. they then read, analyzed, and summarized a second scientific paper with the aid of voyant, and a third one without voyant again. for the first article, the students earned an average of . points out of . for the second article, they gained a point, reaching an average of . . for the third article, students maintained the gain with an average of . points. in addition, thematic coding of answers to open-ended survey questions posed after the second article confirmed reports by eleven out of fourteen students that voyant had helped them; however, for the third article, only four missed the assistance of voyant. in conclusion, voyant was found to be a helpful temporary aid for reading scientific papers. keywords voyant, digital humanities, general chemistry, scientific papers, undergraduate . introduction scientific articles present a gateway to fascinating stem (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields and allow students to gain current information about research. an emphasis on encouraging students to engage in research outside the classroom during their undergraduate education has been reported as a path to greater student persistence and retention [ ]. in addition, researchers report that students who do such research have greater success in graduate school than their less experienced classmates [ ]. by reading scientific articles, students engage with the background of their future fields and current projects. in addition, in the classroom, students frequently need to read some scientific articles when writing their research papers. however, reading scientific literature can be daunting to an undergraduate student, because there is usually a gap in reading level between the classroom textbook and scientific journal articles [ ]. in addition, extensive scientific background and vocabulary are referenced and assumed. finally, there is a level of uncertainty in reading current research that results from not understanding the entire article, because scientific articles frequently report on complex techniques and equipment [ ]. in order to assess the grade levels of the articles that i asked my students to read for this * corresponding author: jvance@lagcc.cuny.edu (jennifer m. vance) published online at http://journal.sapub.org/edu copyright © scientific & academic publishing. all rights reserved study, i employed the flesch-kincaid readability grade level test through microsoft word. this method considers the average sentence length and the average number of syllables per word in a calculation [ ]. in an attempt to make the process reading scientific articles faster for students, i decided to apply voyant, a tool of the digital humanities, toward the reading of scientific articles in the classroom. in - , i had been a participant in the professional development seminar initiated by provost paul arcario, the provost‘s learning space, which that year focused on the digital humanities. voyant software can be used for any text that is in digital form and, therefore, can be used across the disciplines. in the fall of , i introduced the tool to my classes with the goal of promoting transferrable skills such as finding the main idea, defining vocabulary, and being comfortable with possible uncertainty. my students had a very positive response to the use of voyant. the purpose of this article is to determine whether voyant, a free online digital humanities tool, can serve as a sort of ―training wheels‖ to spur students into becoming effective and independent readers of scientific articles. . literature review . . reading scientific articles in the science classroom science educators have reported including scientific journal articles in the curriculum for a variety of reasons: guiding students in summarizing; teaching scientific writing jennifer m. vance: reading science: digital humanities and general chemistry and enhanced problem solving; and increasing the interest level of the class. several papers have been written about using scientific journal articles to teach writing [ - ]. some papers offer help in reading and summarizing journal articles [ - ]. for instance, students taking a third-year introduction to chemical research course at annapolis state university in boone, north carolina were given excerpts from scientific articles and asked to pick a key sentence that summarized each paragraph. they then created a powerpoint slide with a key sentence as the title. the supporting sentences were used to write bullet points. students were surveyed and they said that this technique helped them in ―finding keywords and concepts, understanding the author‘s point, and determining how to organize and evaluate information for a presentation‖ [ ]. this is a creative approach to reading papers in science, although the students were not given an entire paper and the papers were chosen so that the students did not have to deal with technical jargon [ ]. another type of summarizing method was introduced in the literature as kenshu, the japanese word for ―research understanding‖ [ ]. this method was adapted from a top japanese national university and involved translation of articles, summarizing, and presenting. the students worked in pairs on science articles with an experimental procedure [ ]. alternatively, students in an analytical chemistry class were given prescreened articles and were asked questions about them. the author specifically chose analytical science papers with experimental data. the students reported that these papers helped them with exams and gave them more exposure to scientific literature [ ]. lastly, some articles report the process and benefits of incorporating journal reading into the curriculum to increase interest in the course [ , ]. . . reading in other disciplines’ classrooms summarization itself is a reading strategy for increasing comprehension of texts [ ]. friend presents this strategy as having ―four defining features: (a) it is short, (b) it tells what is most important to the author, (c) it is written ‗in your own words,‘ and (d) it states the informa- tion ‗you need to study‘‖ [ ]. spörer, brunstein, and kieschke ( ) taught readers four strategies for increased comprehension: ―summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting‖ [ ]. they also reflected on the positive effects of asking students to teach each other. mcnamara ( ) expands on these strategies to include: ― ) comprehension monitoring, ) paraphrasing, ) elaboration, ) logic or common sense, ) predictions, and bridging [inference]‖ [ ]. finally, liu, chen, and chang ( ) reported the use of computer-assisted concept mapping as a technique for increasing reading comprehension with english as a foreign language (efl) students [ ]. . voyant software this paper differs from the literature reviewed above in that it reports on the use of a computer program that generates in minutes a word analysis of an assigned article for students to refer to while reading the article. voyant software, available free online, analyzes the scientific article or articles and generates a word cloud, a word frequency list, a graph of frequent words, and a presentation of keywords in sentences. students can quickly see themes and difficult words in context. for students who speak english as a second language, seeing the words in context can be particularly helpful. using voyant in this way has not been reported in the literature, but it has been used to analyze medical survey responses [ ]. voyant, which is found at http://www.voyant-tools.org, is a text analysis tool used in the digital humanities. the digital humanities is a new and thriving field which looks for patterns in texts by way of what is called ―distant reading.‖ literary scholar franco moretti‘s view of distant reading is described as ―understanding literature not by studying particular texts, but by aggregating and analyzing massive amounts of data‖ [ ]. voyant is a distant reading tool. there is some controversy in the humanities with regard to this type of study of large amounts of data made available by the digitization of vast numbers of books [ , ]. since participants in this study also had to read the paper, the controversy is avoided. an example of work done with distant reading is ana mitric‘s ( ) essay on ―jane austen and civility: a distant reading.‖ [ ] in addition to reading scientific papers for research outside the classroom, students must read scientific papers as part of the general chemistry curriculum because they need to use journal articles to write their own research papers. as professional scientists, students will need to read scientific papers for a living. the present study explores whether the voyant tool will help students become more proficient with reading and summarizing scientific papers. . methods voyant analyzes an article cut and pasted from a pdf or html document, generating a word cloud, a word frequency list, the printed article, a graph of word frequencies, and the words in their context sentences. the word cloud simply displays words in sizes that represent their relative frequencies within the text of the article. the graph of the word frequencies provides a picture of where the chosen words appear in the article. finally, the words in their context sentences allow students to see how important words are used in a sentence in the article. these features potentially help students interpret the major themes more quickly based on word frequency. in a study by dooling and lachman, they found that students who received the theme before reading a passage had better recall and comprehension of the material [ ]. students can also look up difficult words and see how they are used in various sentences within the article, in order to gain context for the words. however, the program does not change the language education , ( ): - of the sentences to make it easier to interpret. in order for the program to be most useful, it is very important to click on the gear-shaped icon to filter out repetitive words such as ―the,‖ ―a,‖ and ―and.‖ click on the box for stopwords in english and on the box to apply a stopword list globally. i booked a computer classroom for my students when i introduced voyant and made sure that all the students were able to get the voyant analysis to work. in my experience with general chemistry i and ii students at laguardia community college, i have found that there is a gap between reading the textbook and diving into the literature. for this exploration, fourteen students in the honors general chemistry ii course in spring read an article without voyant, wrote a summary, and answered some survey questions. next, the students read an article with voyant, wrote a summary, and answered survey questions. finally, students read another paper without voyant, wrote a summary, and answered survey questions. the articles were checked in microsoft word for grade level to make sure that they were comparable; the three articles had a flesch-kincaid readability grade level of . , . , and . respectively. students received a rubric of expectations for each article summary assignment. the surveys were analyzed with thematic coding, that is, searching for common themes in the survey responses. . results and discussion . . first article the first article, summary, and survey were designed to get a baseline estimate of the students‘ abilities in summarizing articles. the first article was titled ―use of human urine fertilizer in cultivation of cabbage (brassica olera- cea): impacts on chemical, microbial, and flavor quality‖ [ ]. this article had a reading level of grade . . of all the articles, it was probably the easiest because it had fewer unfamiliar scientific terms than the other two articles. i chose an article about cabbage because the other articles are related to cabbage. in particular, red cabbage contains anthocyanins, which are natural dyes that we discussed throughout the course in our research projects. in a survey after the first article summary assignment, i asked the students about their process of crafting the summary. i asked them if creating the summary was difficult, and why or why not. my honors students achieved a fairly high baseline score of . points out of for the first summary. six of the students reported using highlighting as a technique for drawing out the main ideas. two read the paper and used the internet to help them with difficult terms. three mentioned outlining the article. as for the question of difficulty, nine students said the article was not very difficult. one student commented, ―it was not that difficult. the article was really interesting to me and so that allowed me to engage it well. overall thought it was a good fair article.‖ five students said that the article was difficult. one student compared it to sat questions: ―yes, because the article was almost like the passages that are offered in the english section of the sats and those long passages requires a lot of analysis in order to decipher it into one‘s own words and understanding. especially since this article felt more longer.‖ one student used an interesting term—―filtered out‖—to describe his process of summarizing. he reported, ―it wasn‘t that very difficult. there was a lot of technical details and the important parts had to be filtered out.‖ . . second article for the second article, which they read with voyant, the students achieved an average of . out of , which reflected a gain of one point over their average score of . for the summaries they had written without voyant. the second article was titled ―anthocyanins contents, profiles, and color characteristics of red cabbage extracts from different cultivars and maturity stages‖ [ ]. this article had a reading level of . . in their work with the second article, eight students improved, three students stayed the same, one student did worse, and two students did not hand in the second summary. the students were asked about their process of crafting the summary, whether the process was difficult, whether voyant had helped in any way and, if yes, in what ways. eleven students reported that voyant had helped them write the summary. in general, students suggested that they could find the keywords and focus of the article more quickly: ―voyant helped me get to details faster and easier.‖ the majority of the students found voyant helpful for the second article, but four students felt that it had not helped them. some of them preferred their highlighting method over using the software. some of the students misunderstood and thought i was asking them to use voyant as a substitute for reading the article: ―i did not like not being able to physically read the article. what usually helps me is reading and manually highlighting an article, while also being able to write and scribble notes in the margins. voyant did help in finding sections quicker but i would not use it alone.‖ none of the students reported that they could write the summary without reading the article in detail. voyant was not viewed as an effective substitute for reading the article. . . third article finally, for their summaries of the third article, read without voyant, the students achieved an average of . points out of . students gained a point with the use of voyant, and kept that gain without voyant for the third article. the third article was titled ―influence of steviol glycosides on the stability of vitamin c and anthocyanins‖ [ ]. this article had a grade level of . . for the third article, three students improved, four stayed the same, five did worse, and two did not hand in the summary. the most extensive number of improving students was seen after the second article, but this result could have been due partially to the students becoming more comfortable with the jennifer m. vance: reading science: digital humanities and general chemistry assignment. since this was an honors class, the students were relatively strong readers to start with, having averaged a baseline . out . some of them had techniques for reading articles that they already felt comfortable with. regarding the third article, students were asked if they missed voyant, and four said yes, and eight said no. it was interesting that many of the same students who said that voyant helped after the second article were convinced they did not need it for the third article. one student said, ―no, i did not [miss voyant]. although it may have been helpful, i can do just as good without it.‖ one student thought there were too many keywords to sift through: ―voyant was not [used] during crafting the summary because there were too many keywords and it was necessary to read the whole text and understand.‖ some students did not want to bother with voyant, if it meant they still had to read the whole article. one student used voyant for the third article despite my instructions, and said, ―yes, i used voyant because it gave clear idea of terms mostly used and also separates the main points.‖ although there was not the same jump in improvement and actually five students did worse with the third article, the students maintained nearly the same average as the second article. based on these results, we can conclude that voyant helped some students with their summaries but was not necessary for the third article. students made gains with voyant and kept their gains without voyant for the third article; by then, the majority felt comfortable without the aid of voyant. i think that the major benefit of voyant is that it saves time by distilling the article into keywords and placing those keywords into their context sentences. some students who are less than experienced readers might not have the persistence to wade through the article to distill those keywords on their own. less experienced readers might see greater gains than my honors students. this study also revealed that some students had methods such as highlighting the article, that they felt more comfortable with and preferred. . conclusions this paper explores whether utilizing voyant can help students become more independent and proficient scientific readers. using voyant to read scientific papers was evaluated by compiling point totals for summaries and analyzing answers to survey questions with thematic coding. a majority of students said that voyant was helpful for reading the second article, but a majority of students also said they did not need voyant for the third article. in reading and summarizing the third article, students retained the gains made in reading the first and second articles. students who are weaker readers might see greater gains than my honors students. whether this is so is an important question that i want to explore in future research. in conclusion, student reports found voyant to be a helpful temporary aid for summarizing research papers. acknowledgements many thanks to paul arcario and richard dragan for organizing and presenting the digital humanities-themed provost‘s learning space in – . references [ ] graham, m. j., frederick, j., byars-winston, a., hunter, a. b., handelsman, j., , increasing persistence of college students in stem., 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[ ] pradhan, s. k., nerg, a. m., sjöblom, a., holopainen, j. k., heinonen-tanski, h., , use of human urine fertilizer in cultivation of cabbage (brassica oleracea): impacts on chemical, microbial, and flavor quality., journal of agricultural and food chemistry, ( ), – . [ ] ahmadiani, n., robbins, r. j., collins, t. m., m. giusti, m. m., , anthocyanins contents, profiles, and color characteristics of red cabbage extracts from different cultivars and maturity stages., journal of agricultural and food chemistry, ( ), – . [ ] woźniak, k., marszalek, k., skąpska, s., , influence of steviol glycosides on the stability of vitamin c and anthocyanins., journal of agricultural and food chemistry, ( ), – . javascript must be enabled to use the system humanist studies & the digital age, . ( ) issn: - (online) http://journals.oregondigital.org/hsda/ doi: . /uo/hsda. . . the origins of humanities computing and the digital humanities turn dino buzzetti, university of bologna abstract: at its beginnings humanities computing was characterized by a primary interest in methodological issues and their epistemological background. subsequently, humanities computing practice has been prevailingly driven by technological developments and the main concern has shifted from content processing to the representation in digital form of documentary sources. the digital humanities turn has brought more to the fore artistic and literary practice in direct digital form, as opposed to a supposedly commonplace application of computational methods to scholarly research. as an example of a way back to the original motivations of applied computation in the humanities, a formal model of the interpretive process is here proposed, whose implementation may be contrived through the application of data processing procedures typical of the so called artificial adaptive systems. . introduction a retrospective overview of the first stages of development of the newly emerged forms of reflection and methodological practices that, in italian, have been properly named informatica umanistica (humanities computing) can also foster a better understanding of the new current trends. as a matter of fact, the limitations of the technological tools available at the time conferred more space to the ideation of what could have been achieved through the application of computational methods. the essential nature of the available technology focused the attention on the vast range of future opportunities enabled by the implementation of computational procedures on the model of the universal turing machine. the origins of humanities computing are therefore characterized by a marked attention to the methodological and theoretical implications of research projects based on the application of computational procedures. the ensuing technological developments produced a rather paradoxical drawback. by polarizing the attention of scholars on the functionalities of application programs occasionally imposing themselves as dominant technologies, they induced a conceptual dependence on the available technology, to the detriment of a well-grounded choice of appropriate methods and alternative solutions. it may therefore be worthwhile to review the successive phases of this article was published in italian: alle origini dell’informatica umanistica: humanities computing e/o digital humanities, in il museo virtuale dell’informatica archeologica, a cura di paola moscati e tito orlandi. atti della “segnatura” ( dicembre ). «rendiconti dell’accademia nazionale dei lincei», classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche, s. ix, . - ( ), - . http://journals.oregondigital.org/hsda/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/ . / humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) applied computation characterized by new technological developments in order to evaluate their impact on the research practices of humanities computing and to reconsider its current orientations in the light of the theoretical discussions of its opening phase. . the era of the mainframes the initial phase of humanities computing was characterized by employment of large computers available in computer centers, or public or private institutions that used them for administrative purposes. a “special thanks” for the intertextual analysis of the correspondences between two fundamental legal texts of the jewish tradition, conducted by sergio noja in , was addressed “to the management of the s. paolo banking institute of turin,” who made “the electronic computer available,” which in turn made the publication of the essay presenting the results (noja , ). the most famous example of this type of facility is that of the printed volumes of the index thomisticus prepared by father roberto busa ( - ) thanks to the support of thomas j. watson, founder of ibm, and completed, after thirty years of work, only in the s. it has surely been noted that both computational projects conducted by the electronico ibm automato resulted in printed publications. at first glance, in an era characterized by the ever- increasing pervasiveness of the digital, this seems surprising. however, the paradox is only apparent and, if well considered, leads us to conclusions of a different sort. this circumstance leads us to reflect on the working conditions that the mainframe technology then allowed. the memories, consisting of punched cards and only later of magnetic tapes, did not allow any form of visualization of the data, and the output resulting from their processing was returned in print format from the output units of the computers specifically used. therefore, the purpose of computation could not consist in reproduction and visualization of digital data, or object sources of investigation, but only in the elaboration and analysis of their informational content. in this situation the purpose of the research was primarily directed to computation, that is to the application of computational procedures to objects, in our case, of humanistic research. hence the name of humanities computing or, in italian informatica umanistica, for the research practices of this first period. the possibility of tackling research problems in the humanities with computational methods involved, at this stage and in the absence of technological mediation consisting of instruments already available and ready for use, a reflection directly addressed to the fundamentals of computation. ibm itself is likely to have supported father busa’s project for the opportunity it offered to extend the application of computation, up to that point almost exclusively aimed at processing numeric data, into the realm of processing textual information. therefore, researchers did not simply have to make use of computational tools already set up, and choose those most suitable for the purposes of the research, but they had to contribute their own design, focusing attention on the specific aims of their own research. . a definition of humanities computing attention to “the fundamentals of computing theory and science, which today absolutely nobody in humanities computing mentions” (orlandi , - ), together with the constant reference to the objectives of the research, led in the first phase of development of humanities computing to a humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) definition expressed in the title of nicholas wirth’s widely read book, algorithms + data structures = programs (wirth ). in this regard, a volume that appeared at the conclusion of an investigation on the “impact of new technologies in the humanities” in europe included a chapter, coordinated by tito orlandi, dedicated to study of formal methods, in which we find this specification – proposed by manfred thaller – of humanities computing as it was characterized in previous years and understood fundamentally as “applied computer science” (de smedt ): we will attempt to define the core in terms of the traditional combination of data structures and algorithms, applied to the requirements of a discipline: - the methods needed to represent the information within a specific domain of knowledge in such a way that this information can be processed by computational systems result in the data structures required by a specific discipline. - the methods needed to formulate the research questions and specific procedures of a given domain of knowledge in such a way as to benefit from the application of computational processing result in the algorithms applicable to a given discipline. crucial in this definition was the awareness that computation applied to the humanities requires both representation (data structures) and processing (algorithms) of the information contained in the objects of study, a requirement often overlooked in the subsequent phases of development influenced by advances in technology. this essentially theoretical characterization of humanistic information technology placed formalization in the foreground as a necessary and unavoidable prerequisite of research. from this point of view, the “real beginnings” of humanities computing can be directly traced, together with other initial “experiments” to the seminal works of jean-claude gardin (orlandi , ) on “formalization of aspects of archaeological research connected with the processes of representation and classification of data” (moscati , ). as paola moscati rightly notes ( , ), gardin stated that “the interest of method [...] rather comes from its logical implications, and from the consequences it seeks to provoke in the general economy of the archaeological research” (gardin , ); and later, in , in a letter to rené ginouvès, gardin reiterated that “[...] the comparative merits of such or such machine model or punch cards since worried us less than the methods of formalization (mise en forme) of the data and of the archeological reasoning, in the perspective of a ‘mechanization’ conceived without referring to any of these cards or these machines in particular” (jcg , january ). what mattered more than the technology, therefore, was the formal organization of data. from this point of view jean-claude gardin, “really is at the source of humanities computing” (orlandi , ). . representation vs. data processing subsequently, the impressive technological development that occurred within a few years with the introduction of personal computers, graphic interfaces and then the implementation of the world wide web, profoundly transformed the research practices in the domain of the humanities computing, and greatly influenced the relationship itself between the representation and the elaboration of the content of the data under examination. the new and more advanced opportunities for practical use of computers, made possible by the progressive advancement of technology, have paradoxically humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) caused, if not quite a setback, at least one obvious delay in the theoretical elaboration necessary for the planning of applications specifically designed for specific research purposes. once more manfred thaller, in the aforementioned volume, stated that, for an adequate training in humanities computing, “the study of computational methods themselves” was essential to the development of “new methods” for “the explanation,” framed “according to formal principles,” of the phenomena studied in the various humanities disciplines (de smedt ). but in the new technological context, the center of the discussion was progressively moving from the investigation of the formalization of research methods and of the applicability of computation, to the evaluation of the possibility of using the new technological tools that gradually became available. the theoretical discussion about the design of applications specifically developed for specific projects of research and their intrinsic methodological implications thus fell into the background. to give just one example, in the years in which exclusively textual terminals were still in use, the graphic layout of a document was decided by the author himself during the composition of the text with the insertion of the markup, or print instructions, in declarative or directly procedural form. subsequently, with the introduction of graphical interfaces, writing programs working in wysiwyg mode (what you see is what you get) automatically inserted the markup, removing from the author the direct control of the layout, which could be carried out exclusively in the ways provided by the program functionalities. the alleviation of effort in the process of composition was obtained at the cost of renouncing the direct design of the graphic characteristics of the document. this example, after all banal and certainly not relevant in terms of research, is nonetheless useful to point out certain consequences, often unnoticed, implicit in the development of technology, and to highlight some actual reasons for the progressive renunciation of the design of computer applications usable for research purposes, in favor of the passive and uncritical use of new instruments thrust upon us. also the very rapid spread of the web has had profound consequences in the evolution of humanities computing. on closer inspection, the specific role of the computer in the practical use of the web is quite limited, since it does nothing but guarantee remote access to data or documents stored at a distance, to be viewed on the computer screen. but the elaboration of the information content of the resources displayed remains entrusted to the reader’s ability to understand and, from this point of view, nothing changes. about the so-called “liberational effect of electronic technology on texts” marilyn deegan and kathryn sutherland have acutely observed that “the narrative of redemption from print” – anticipated by mcluhan and repeated emphatically by its followers of the s – did not foresee that further, unimagined, developments in electronic technology, like the google search engine, the brainchild of two college students, would lovingly extend the culture of the book through instant delivery of high-resolution images of the pages of thousands of rare and previously hard-of-access volumes. (deegan and sutherland , ). therefore, it is possible to assert that one “google book search” – as they emphasize – “is not providing electronic text, it is providing books” ( ). in other words, this common tool uses electronic technology to archive and instantly return “simulations of print and manuscript documents” ( ). the elaboration of the informational content of the object of study is substantially neglected and the interest is turned to the digital reproduction of the source. that being said, we certainly do not humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) want to underestimate the importance of availability of multimedia resources. digital images can, for example, be technically elaborated to improve the readability of deteriorated manuscripts, but the precedence given to the mere visualization of the sources profoundly modified the functionality of the fundamental link between representation and information processing. attention came to be mainly addressed to the representation of information transmitted by objects of study, to the detriment of the elaboration of their contents for purposes of analysis and interpretation. the lack of attention paid to the elaboration of information content of textual data can also be seen in the strategic choices of text encoding initiative (tei), with which in the s the community of scholars of humanities established “a standard for the representation of texts in digital form” (tei ). the purpose of the tei was indeed to publish guidelines for electronic text encoding and interchange, in order to “define and document a markup language for representing the structural, renditional, and conceptual features of texts,” above all “in the humanities and social sciences” (tei ). with the introduction of document production systems, among computer scientists, a so-called document community was formed, which took care of the automation, the visualization and printing processes of the documents, distinct from the community denominated in a similar way data processing or database community, dedicated instead to the design of archives for structured data. now, while for the document community, in the interchange of data between different systems, it was essential to maintain the invariance of the representation of the documents, for the data processing community, it was instead fundamental to ensure the invariance of data processing operations. as a result, while the document community “chose to standardize the representation of data,” to guarantee its interchangeability, the database community “chose to standardize the semantics of data,” by developing “data models that described the logical properties of data, independently of how it was stored,” and regardless of the particular format of their representation. to tell the truth, even the “data semantics was not irrelevant to the document community, but the definition of semantics did seem to be a difficult problem” and the attempts undertaken proved too easily exposed to criticism (raymond et al. , ). so, for quite similar reasons, attempts to define semantics in the scholarly community, most notably the text encoding initiative, similarly met with resistance. thus, the route proposed by sgml was a reasonable one: promote the notion of application and machine independence, and provide a base on which semantics could eventually be developed, but avoid actually specifying a semantics. ( ). the technology of document management systems thus affected the choices for the digital representation of the text and led to the adoption of standard generalized markup language (sgml) as a standard language for the codification of textual data. as a language of simple representation and not data processing – because it lacks a semantics of its own – sgml represented a clear limit for the processing of textual data for the analysis of contents and the interpretation of texts. in the field of humanities computing, the prevalence assigned to the representation as opposed to the processing of information radically changed, in this phase, the prevailing orientations of the research. . semantic web and digital humanities in the last and most recent period, the development of technology has had contrasting effects on the research practices of humanities computing. the semantic web project has brought back to the humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) fore the fundamental demand for the elaboration of the information accessible online. languages have been developed for the representation of the content of web resources, such as the resource description framework (rdf) and for the construction of formal ontologies. through the use of these languages, the so-called dikw hierarchy (data, information, knowledge, wisdom), already in use in information science, could be treated more formally, allowing meaning to be assigned to data conceived as pure symbols that have not been interpreted and to represent the information conveyed by them through descriptions of the linked content between them. the networks and graphs of semantic relations thus obtained (linked data) made it possible to define connections rigorously and to organize certain fields of knowledge according to logically defined structural relationships and as such to allow the application of real procedures of formal inference. all this made it possible to bring attention back – through the tools provided by semantic web technologies – to the problem of processing the content of digital resources accessible online. at the same time, and against this trend, the use of the expression digital humanities to define the customary field of humanities computing has imposed itself. the deliberate adoption of this name seems to be due to the preference expressed by the publisher blackwell publishing for a catchy title for its companion for the introduction to the discipline (schreibman et al. ). however, this has favored the tendency to comprehend under this definition all the phenomena in which the digital medium is used to disseminate contents related to the humanities. even a simple e-book, or all applications for mobile devices designed for the access to multimedia concessions, thus seems to enter the field of interest of humanities computing. the transition from humanities computing to digital humanities also comes explicitly theorized as a positive evolution of humanities computing. in fact, literary and artistic practice itself is more and more taking place in a directly digital form. in a recent interview with the online magazine il lavoro culturale (cultural work) jeffrey schnapp, founder and director of metalab of harvard university, claims to fully share “the point of view according to which a definition of digital humanities that reduced it to the application of a series of it tools for the study of cultural heritage would be a relatively trivial operation,” and argues that already in the s, when the formula, digital humanities, was established in the united states, and we stopped talking about computational humanities or humanistic computing, we wanted to emphasize two aspects: the emergence of the network as a public space and the personalization of the computer... the expression digital humanities marked precisely this moment of transition, in which the distinction between the world of digital technologies and culture in society no longer existed. this is a moment of unification in which there has certainly been a rethink on what research in the field of human sciences can be. consequently, humanities computing should give way to a “new experimental model of the human sciences,” to a new social practice of “knowledge design,” as opposed to nineteenth-century practice of philology (capezzuto ). in the face of all this, there is no lack of authoritative positional statements that in different forms instead recommend the opportunity for a return to origins. so john unsworth, already in the title of an essay in which he draws coherent attention to the results achieved in the various phases of humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) humanities computing development, urges us to go beyond the simple digital representation of the primary research sources (unsworth ): we are, i think, on the verge of what seems to me the third major phase in humanities computing, which has moved from tools in the s, s, and s, to primary sources in the s and s, and now seems to be moving back to tools, in a sequence that suggests an oscillation that may repeat itself in the future. but whether or not the pattern ultimately repeats, i think we are arriving at a moment when the form of the attention that we pay to primary source materials is shifting from digitizing to analyzing, from artifacts to aggregates, and from representation to abstraction. the exhortation to proceed beyond the simple digital “representation” of the studied documents, passing to the “analysis” of the content and to the “abstraction” necessary for the formal specification of computational procedures, is here quite evident, while the reference to “tools” should be understood as being functional with respect to the formalization of the methods adopted, and not as simple technological devices prepared in advance, regardless of the specific procedures applied, just placed “in the hands of researchers” for the computer-assisted practice of the usual activity of examining and annotating documents (leon s.d.). . the “logicism” of jean-claude gardin is it then possible to envisage the forms of this desired return to origins in our new context? the indications are not lacking and many inspiring principles can be drawn precisely from the illuminating anticipations of jean-claude gardin. first of all, in the whole of his theoretical reflection, his rigorous methodological perspective and the reference to its necessary epistemological foundation take a central role. in a text published for the proceedings of a seminar held on january at the university of bologna, in which he presents the “research program” in which he was engaged “for thirty years” (gardin and borghetti , ), gardin states that he is interested more than in “extending the field of application of computer science in the human sciences than in the progress and consolidation, with or without the calculator, of methodologies and their epistemological status.» ( ). on the other hand, without giving priority to theoretical reflection on the possibility of applying computational methods to the humanities, one would inevitably run “the risk of confusion between the means and the ends of research ( ),” and humanities computing would lose those “features of an autonomous intellectual project, with its own tools and goals” that actually characterize it ( ). hence the proposal by gardin of the “logicist method” ( ff) and “of the inevitable reference to epistemology” ( ) that the application of this method necessarily involves. in the “analysis of archaeologists’ and historians’ texts” ( ), or of the human sciences in general, considered “in their entirety” and as “constructs” ( ) or “scientific constructions” (gardin and borghetti , ), gardin interest lies not so much, with wittgenstein, in “erecting a building,” but rather “in having the foundations of possible buildings transparently before me” ( ; see wittgenstein , ). it is therefore necessary to face a problem of method and “practical epistemology” (gardin and borghetti , ), that is, of a type of epistemological reflection which he considers as “an activity whose purpose is to clarify the basic conceptual constructs of the human sciences, as they arise in practice, through the combined study of the symbolic systems that provide the materials, and the chains of operations that govern its architecture (gardin et al. , ).” humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) the logicist method presented by gardin consists therefore in the “study of the mechanisms and foundations of scientific argumentation” (gardin and borghetti , ) and in applying its principles to scientific «constructions» of the humanities, defined as follows: i define ‘constructions’ the texts elaborated on the model of scientific works, with the following three components: (a) a set of observation facts or data ascertained on any type of foundation; (b) hypotheses or conclusions based on these data and which constitute the end of the construction, its reason for being; lastly, (c), the argument produced to link these two components: data to conclusions or, conversely, hypotheses to the facts, with modalities that can be of different nature: natural reasoning or common sense, mathematics, formal logic, computer science, or any type of conjunction of these instruments that is considered as distinctive of our intellectual procedures in the human sciences ( ). the application of the logicist method involves the use of “schematizations,” which in turn are defined – following “the logician j.b. grize” ( ) – as “the exercise that aims to isolate the operations called ‘natural logic’, currently practiced in the argument of ordinary language” ( ; cf. grize , ); the schematizations “are therefore nothing more than exercises in transferring into logical or, rather, semiological form, specialized texts in a particular discipline or field of research” ( ). the assignment of a logical form to the discursive arguments obtained through the schematizations “shows that every construction can be defined through the combination of two elements” ( ), the “initial” propositions that describe the “facts” ( ) and the “rewriting operations,” or the discursive passages, “whose sequence constitutes the reasoning” that leads to the “conclusions” ( ), that is the propositions called “terminal” ( ). the rewriting operations constitute real “logical operations that are in reality particularly diversified” ( ) and depend on the peculiar principles of inference of the different “modes of reasoning” ( ) that in the “discursive practices” ( ) of the human sciences can take the most varied forms: “inductions, implications, abductions, inferences, deductions, etc.” ( ) now, “the two elements” of the schematization previously cited are found again unchanged in the structure of the knowledge base in the field of artificial intelligence” and “the organizations thus defined constitute” practically “the specific subject of expert systems or ‘knowledge-based systems.’ ” ( ) the result was “the possibility of conceiving the schematizations as one source of knowledge for the elaboration of expert systems or, conversely, expert systems as a possible development of schematizations” ( ); and “the computational paradigm” could become “the main tool” of the logicist analysis, that is, of that “rewriting modality which consists in expressing interpretative constructions in the form of chains of propositions that link observed data” to theoretical statements such as “in a calculation procedure” (gardin , ). the adoption of the computational tool, therefore, originates from a precise methodological choice and is based on the “homology” between the “architecture” of expert systems and that of schematizations (gardin and borghetti , ). now, the more relevant aspect related to the switching to expert systems “concerns the ‘added value’” which is expected to be obtained “on the epistemological level” in which our scientific arguments are situated. but if, on the one hand, “the mandatory conversion of rewriting operations in reasoning ‘rules’ ” offers the possibility of “applying these rules in an experimental way, through simulations aimed at proving their validity”; on the other hand, “nothing allows us to affirm that our discursive practices can be assimilated to the true and humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) proper, and rigorously formal, rules of reasoning” ( ). the computational methodological option thus requires an equally well-founded epistemological justification. . epistemological reflection and expert systems in response to the alleged “scientist infection” of which he would be a victim (gardin , ) and to other criticisms of his logicist approach, gardin presents a thorough picture of the contrasting positions in an attempt to arrive at an adequate characterization of the method of human sciences, without, however, refraining from considering “the limits and possibilities of logicism” ( ). among the different positions taken into consideration we can distinguish, on the one hand, those that presuppose an exclusive “dualism” between the expositional methods of the human sciences and those of the natural sciences (gardin and borghetti , - ) and, on the other, the “middle positions” that insist on the intermediate nature of the human and social sciences “should one characterize them only by negations (‘neither this nor that’), or should one opt for an intermingling of categories (‘a little of this, a little of that’)” (gardin , ). in this debate, the position of logicism “seems to be confused with that of the human sciences themselves, in that ‘entre-deux’ (passeron ) where they intend to legitimize their location today,” unless they put in question the very definition of “this ‘third way’ of knowledge which, according to the some, would not be that of science or literature; according to the others, it would be neither that of the symbolic constructions, separated from the logic and ‘natural’ languages, nor entirely that of argumentation current in everyday life.” (gardin , ). rather than following this debate in detail, it is important to note here that gardin declares that he “feels uncomfortable in these intermediate spaces where the rules of the discursive game remain obscure” ( , ), even admitting in the end, that the “substance de l’entredeux, elle, m’echappe” ( a, ). indeed, it is perhaps more important to observe that, today, both the epistemological reflection and the most up-to-date computational procedures actually seem to converge in offering a way out that addresses the issue gardin leaves unresolved. in retrospect, its difficulty seems to depend upon the state of research in the field of expert systems at that precise moment and upon the availability of inference engines, which at the time were still too tied to the classical model of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, typical of the natural sciences. now, however, a possibility of solution is in sight, in full compliance with the homology recognized by gardin between the “logical form” ( , ) of the scientific constructions of the human sciences and the procedures of formalized inference of expert systems; and all this without overthrowing, however, from another point of view, the relationship of priority between the adoption of the logicist method and the “computer applications” that accompany it, but which – it should be reiterated – “do not constitute its main objective, nor its inevitable extension” ( , ). therefore, it seems appropriate to pay attention to the possibility of a more detailed analysis of the interpretative and inferential practices of the texts expressed in natural language both in general and, for what concerns us more directly, in the field of human sciences. . adaptive systems and methodological issues in this regard, in an essay published on archeologia e calcolatori we find an affirmation that sounds almost surprising to those who usually rely on the classical deterministic paradigm of computation, but that is, however, of particular importance for our purposes since it is precisely based on the humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) “homology” already highlighted by gardin between the “architecture” of the expert systems and that of the schematizations of scientific constructions expressed in natural language (gardin and borghetti , ). this essay is dedicated to the epistemological foundations of “adaptive systems,” whose theory developed thanks to contributions from “several fields” of research such as biology, cognitive sciences, and artificial intelligence (cf. holland , ). precisely at the beginning massimo buscema, the author of this essay, writes expressly, “i shall use an analogy to explain the difference” or, to say it in a better way, the relationship, “between artificial science and natural language; the computer is to the artificial sciences as writing is to natural language” ( , ). in other words, in the artificial sciences, the computer is what writing represents for natural language: the artificial sciences consist of formal algebra for the generation of artificial models (structures and processes), in the same way in which natural languages are made up of semantics, syntax and pragmatics for the generation of texts. ( , ) it follows that in the “artificial adaptive systems,” that are “part of the vast world of natural computation” – which constitutes in turn “a subset of the artificial sciences” – the functioning of the texts composed in ordinary language is assimilated, in an apparently unexpected way, to the algorithmic operation of the computer. what is illustrated here, in fact, is a homology between the forms of computation and the analysis of cultural phenomena, which amounts to a renewed proposal of the homology already theorized by jean-claude gardin between the schematizations of scientific constructions in the humanities and the architecture of expert systems. in this sense, we can also read the definition of artificial science proposed by buscema: “artificial sciences are those sciences for which an understanding of natural and/or cultural processes is achieved by the recreation of those processes through automatic models” ( , ). one could then almost say that gardin’s logicism also fits, like the adaptive systems studied by buscema, in the field of the so-called “natural computing,” which is, however, described as “the computational version of the process of extracting ideas from nature to develop computational systems” (de castro , ). in both cases, the homology between discursive procedures and automatic systems works in reverse: while in natural computation the rules of the system adapt to the processes from which they are derived, in gardin’s logicist analysis, the discursive schematizations are necessarily adapted to the formal rules of the expert system in use. among the expert systems examined by gardin and the adaptive systems studied by buscema there is therefore a crucial difference. what is characteristic of the adaptive systems is the presence of “rules that determine the conditions of possibility of other rules”; by their nature, these rules – formed by ‘constraints (links)’ which give the artificial models of natural processes the capacity to dynamically generate other rules – “are similar to the kantian transcendental rules” and constitute the regulatory overarching principles on which the adaptive functioning of the system depends. in this way, natural computation does not try to recreate natural and/or cultural processes by analyzing the rules which make them function, and thus formalizing them [statistically] into an artificial model. on the contrary, natural computation tries to recreate natural and/or cultural processes by constructing artificial models able to create local rules dynamically and therefore capable of change in accordance with the process itself. (buscema , ) based on these considerations, the idea of building an adaptive model of this type – functional with respect to the analysis of texts expressed in natural language, in order to overcome the difficulty humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) encountered by gardin in assigning a well-defined logical form to that intermediate form of argument that seems plausibly proper to all humanistic disciplines – looks quite legitimate, without thereby legitimizing non-clarified discursive rules and the residual mingling of models. even from a more general epistemological point of view, “this ‘third way’ of knowledge,” still viewed with suspicion by gardin ( , ), has some plausible justifications. it is true that even the field of humanistic research can be subdivided in “two sectors,” one more strictly “governed by logic” and the other “governed by what you might call intuition”. it is also true that it is “difficult to subject intuition to scrutiny” for validity (orlandi , ), an objection that gardin frequently aims at positions that are prone to justify “the plurality and accumulation of interpretations” ( , ), without defining a precise criterion for validation. however, “a phenomenologically inclined cognitive scientist,” reflecting on the origins of cognition, might reason as follows: we reflect on a world that is not made, but found, and yet it is also our structure that enables us to reflect upon this world. thus, in reflection we find ourselves in a circle: we are in a world that seems to be there before reflection begins, but that world is not separate from us. for the french philosopher maurice merleau-ponty, the recognition of this circle opened up a space between self and world, between the inner and the outer. this space was not a gulf or divide; it embraced the distinction between self and world, and yet provided the continuity between them. its openness revealed a middle way, an entre-deux. (varela et al. , ) the recognition of this entre-deux, of this intermediate path between the self and the world, brings into play the fundamental relationship between the subject and the object of knowledge. gardin also considers the problem posed by the “incisive formula,” frequently cited in epistemological debates, of the retour en force du sujet ( b, ); however – without going into the discussion of the complex relationship between model or subjective representation of phenomena and objective reality, or between observer and observed – he tends to treat the “subject” from a predominantly objective point of view and to deal above all with the “objective evaluation of the role of the subject in human sciences” ( ). suffice it to mention, however, that in the face of this, even in the natural sciences and especially in physics, the problem has been addressed in a direct way: “when a theory is highly successful and becomes firmly established, the model tends to become identified with ‘reality’ itself, and the model nature of the theory becomes obscured,” writes the theoretical physicist hugh everett, who thus goes on: once we have granted that any physical theory is essentially only a model for the world of experience, we must renounce all hope of finding anything like “the correct theory.” there is nothing which prevents any number of quite distinct models from being in correspondence with experience (i.e., all "correct"). (everett , ) also in physics, therefore, the ‘multi-interpretation,’ considered so problematic by gardin, does not cause scandal and, except for the criterion of empirical conformity, the problem of choice doesn’t arise anymore. then the question shifts rather to the formal reconstruction of the interpretative process in the discursive practices of the ‘third way’ mainly followed in the human sciences, whose characterizing element seems to be constituted precisely by a form of self-referentiality, which includes in itself the role of the observer. thus, one understands the relevance of the processes of redefining their own rules which are typical of automatic adaptive systems. formal analysis of self-referential humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) procedures of internal transformation imposes itself as the primary task of a research that can be extended – thanks to the analogy previously reported – to the interpretative practices of the texts expressed in natural language. . ordinary language: formal model and natural computation which formal model can therefore be proposed for the representation and the formal analysis of the texts in natural language, which constitute the main product of scientific constructions in the humanities? inspiration can come only from an analysis of language and from the perception of the enormous distance that separates the rigid “formalist’s motto” – characteristic of one of the most raw formulations of good old-fashioned artificial intelligence (gofai), if you take care of the syntax, the semantics will take care of itself (haugeland , ) and the compelling image of the connection between the text and its meaning offered by samuel beckett: there are many ways in which the thing i am trying in vain to say may be tried in vain to be said. ( , ) this illuminating sentence dissolves with immediate naturalness the extreme trivialization of the relationship between syntax and semantics of the previous maxim. in the conception of good old- fashioned artificial intelligence, a formalization of the syntax should lead to an alleged one-to-one correspondence between the syntactic structure and the semantic structure of the text, an assumption which persists also philosophies of language of analytical orientation. as davidson maintains, “to give the logical form of a sentence is, then, for me, to describe it in terms that bring it within the scope of a semantic theory” (davidson , ). the illusory postulation of this cherished one-to-one relation between syntax and semantics is completely debunked by the iconic representation of the fundamental indeterminacy of the relationship between the many ways of saying the same thing and the many ways to understand what is said by the same sentence: an identical content can admit different forms of expression, while an identical expression each time can be assigned different meanings. here we encounter opposite conceptions of the relationship between the “expression” and the “content” of the text (see hjelmslev , - ). following saussure, who speaks of a plane of ideas (plan... des idées) and a plane of sounds (celui... des sons), ( ) hjelmslev states that an adequate description of the functioning of language “must analyze content and expression separately,” and that each of the two analyses may identify a certain number of entities “which are not necessarily susceptible of one-to-one matching with entities in the opposite plane” ( ). on the one hand, the logicians, perhaps too conditioned by the symbolic character of the formal languages, are led to suppose that a syntactic system has “essentially the same structure as a semiotic” system and to consider it “normative for the concept of a semiotics.” on the other hand, for linguists it is the language which must be “considered as normative” for the functioning of a syntactic system ( ). accordingly, the task of the linguistic theoretician is not merely that of describing the actually present expression system, but of calculating what expression systems in general are possible as expression for a given content system, and vice versa. ( ) humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) in fact, “the two planes,” the syntactic one and the semantic one, “cannot be shown to have the same structure throughout,” with a “one-to-one relation” between the functioning of the one and the functioning of the other ( ). therefore, while a logician like carnap proposes “a sign-theory where, in principle, any semiotic is considered as a mere expression system without regard for the content,” from a linguistic point of view the “formal” description “is not limited to the expression-form, but sees its object in the interplay between the expression-form and a content-form” ( - ). however, it would be misleading to think that the radical difference between the two different conceptions of the relationship between the expression and the content of the text puts into question the possibility of establishing a functional homology between the discursive practices of ordinary language and the most advanced systems of artificial intelligence and natural computation. in jean- claude gardin’s view, the formalization of the scientific production of the humanistic disciplines consists essentially in the formalization of the discours savant ( , ): in fact, the possibility of formalizing the textual phenomena in no way requires, as a necessary condition, a one-to-one correspondence between the syntactic structure and the semantic structure of the text. rather, it is necessary to reflect on other characteristic aspects of the text and in particular on its diacritical or self- referential forms of expression. also, in this regard, however, the approach of the logicians and that of the linguists diverge. as hjelmslev observes, “the logistic theory of signs finds its starting point in the metamathematics of hilbert,” which considers the system of mathematical symbols only as “a system of expression-figurae with complete disregard of their content,” and which treats its “transformation rules,” or rules of rewriting as gardin would say, “without considering possible lnterpretations.” the same method was then “carried over by the polish logicians into their ‘metalogic’” and eventually “brought to its conclusion by carnap” ( , ). in particular, hjelmslev, who had defined language in general as “a semiotic into which all other semiotics may be translated,” ( ) argues that this is the advantage of everyday language, and its mystery. and this is why the polish logician tarski (who reached the same conclusion independently of the present author) rightly says that everyday languages are characterized in contrast to other languages by their ‘universalism.’ ( a, - ) for tarski, on the other hand, rather than constituting an advantage, it is presumably just this universality of everyday language which is the primary source of all semantical antinomies, like the antinomies of the liar or of heterological words. ( , ) in fact, “one does not realize that the language about which we speak must not at all coincide with the language in which we speak” and if the semantics is elaborated in that same language, the analysis of antinomies shows that “the language which contains its own semantics and within which the logical rules commonly accepted apply must inevitably be inconsistent” ( , ). so while for hjelmslev “owing to the universalism of everyday language, an everyday language can be used as metalanguage to describe itself as object language,” ( a, ) for tarski “in contrast to natural languages, the formalized languages do not have universality.” ( , ). in fact, formal languages are developed as pure symbolic systems regardless of the content and for this reason, “when we investigate the language of a formalized deductive science, we must always distinguish clearly between the language about which we speak and the language in which we speak,” ( ), between the “metalanguage” and the “language under investigation” ( ). however, proceeding in this way, the normative relationship humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) between semiotic structure and logical structure is reversed and what is deemed to be an obstacle due to the self-referentiality of natural language is avoided through the sharp separation of the “metalanguage,” the language “to describe,” from the “object language,” the “language described” (hjelmslev a, ). but it is precisely the search for the forms of expression of metalinguistic import within the natural language that can make our investigation proceed to the construction of a formal model of its self-referential semiotic system. to use hjelmslev’s linguistic terminology natural language can actually be described as a “semiotics” that includes its “metasemiotics,” which is more specifically described as “a semiotics whose content plane is a semiotic” ( , ), also expressed in the natural language itself. . the markup: diacritical function and self-referential cycle a useful starting point for this research can be found precisely by considering the current model for the digital representation of the text. it is well known that the text understood from a computational point of view as a data type of, that is, exclusively as “information coded as characters or sequences of characters” (day , ), fails to represent all the information contained in the text understood in its current meaning. to solve this problem one resorts to the markup, whose standard form, accepted by the community of scholars of the humanities, consists in embedding, in the ordered sequence of the set of characters, marks or tags that define the properties of its partial segments or subsets. now, if the markup represents textual information, the legitimate question arises about the status assumed by the markup in relation to the text. thus, as allen renear puts it, one can enquire “about just what markup really is,” and in particular, “when it is about a text and when it is part of a text,” or in other words whether it belongs to the object language or the metalanguage of the text, without however excluding that “it may sometimes be both” ( , ). trying to arrive at a satisfactory answer, we can examine the case of punctuation. alluding to the importance of this topic for the interpretation of the text, the title of a book dedicated to punctuation, eats, shoots and leaves (truss ), presents an interesting example: written with the comma the title means “eats, shoots and leaves” and can allusively describe the rude behavior of a young man invited to dinner by a friend; written without comma it means “eats buds and foliage” and may describe the eating habits of a panda. now that comma, which completely changes the meaning of the sentence or of single words like shoots and leaves, can be considered, like any other another diacritical sign of the text, both as an element of the text, in that it is part of the writing system, and as an indication or a metalinguistic rule, as it prescribes the way in which the text must be interpreted. it therefore can be affirmed that “punctuation is not simply part of our writing system,” but that “it is a type of document markup” (coombs et al. , ). along the same lines, the condition of the markup in general can be assimilated to that of a diacritical sign which, as such, has a double function: when it is used “to describe a document’s structure” (raymond et al. , ) it carries out a metalinguistic function, but since it is expressed with “assigned tokens” which denote “specific positions in a text” ( ) it constitutes itself the structure. the markup is therefore “simultaneously embedded and separable” from the text, is “part of the text, yet distinguishable from it” ( ). therefore, because it “denotes structure” in the text and at the same time it “is structure” itself (buzzetti , ), the markup plays with respect to the text – in addition to “a properly diacritical function” – also “a self-reflexive function” and “can be considered, respectively, as an extension of the expression that humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) explains its structure” and the implicit rules that determine it, “as a form of external reference to its functional and structural aspects” (buzzetti ). in short, “markup is at once representation and representation of a representation” (buzzetti , ). because of its ambivalent nature, every form of diacritical expression generates a cyclic process (markup loop) within the textual dynamic: we may say that an act of composition is a sense-constituting operation that brings about the formulation of a text. the resulting expression can be considered as the self-identical value of a sense- enacting operation. by fixing it, we allow for the indetermination of its content. to define the content, we assume the expression as a rule for an interpreting operation. an act of interpretation brings about a content, and we can assume it as its self-identical value. a defined content provides a model for the expression of the text and can be viewed as a rule for its restructuring. a newly added structure mark can in turn be seen as a reformulation of the expression, and so on, in a permanent cycle of compensating actions between determination and indetermination of the expression and the content of the text. (buzzetti and mcgann , ) all this can also be appropriately expressed with a diagram (fig. ). it is worthwhile to pause and consider in more detail some of the formal aspects both of the cycle and of the diagram that represents it. the diagram refers in particular to the markers that complete the digital representation of the text and that can be inserted inside it, or be made up of external elements connected through pointers to certain positions in the linear sequence of the characters. since there is no direct correspondence between the elements of the syntactic structure and the elements of the semantic structure, the internal (embedded) markup – as it is part of the sequence of characters and it forms itself its structure – diacritically describes syntactic and expressive properties of the text. the external markup (stand-off), on the other hand, not being bound to the linear structure of the expression of the text, can freely express aspects that are not necessarily linear in the structure of its content. in the multidimensional diagram of the self-referential cycle of the text, there is therefore a correspondence between the dimension of the expression and that of the internal markup, as well as that of the content and external markup. humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) figure . the markup loop (buzzetti and mcgann , ). the dual linguistic and metalinguistic function of the markup owing to its diacritical nature means that the same marker is both a self-identical element of the expression of the text, and a rule that determines the structure of the content and defines its specific elements, which in turn behave in the same way with respect to the expression. therefore, the structural diacritical elements of expression and content can be considered both as the result of a restructuring operation and as the operations themselves that determine, respectively, the organization of the structure, both of the expression and of the content of the text. formally, therefore, they can be understood as values of a function, or as the functions themselves which formally represent the rules for structuring the text. the relationship between the formal representation of the value of the function and the formal representation of the function or the rule itself, deserves to be carefully considered from the logical point of view, in order not to run into serious confusion between the linguistic and the metalinguistic levels present in natural language. in his careful analysis of ordinary language use, gilbert ryle appropriately cautions against easy “category-mistakes” ( , ) which one incurs if one does not pay attention to the “logical type or category,” ( ) of commonly used expressions. as for what concerns us, ryle observes that “a ‘variable’ or ‘open’ hypothetical statement” ( ) – that is, a propositional function that contains variables, and all propositions of this type that express law- statements or a rule – “belong to a different and more sophisticated level of discourse from that, or those, to which belong the statements of the facts that satisfy them” ( ). these propositions therefore constitute real rules of inference, for a law is used as, so to speak, an inference-ticket (a season ticket) which licenses its possessors it to move from asserting factual statements to asserting other factual statements ( ). so the rules of inference, and with them the diacritical expressions we are dealing with, can be considered as statements of a higher order that belong to the logical type of the “inference-licenses,” studied by stephen toulmin in the uses of argument ( , ), who by his own admission “owes humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) much” to ryle’s ideas, which he also “applied to the physical sciences” in his own philosophy of science ( , ). in his review of this work, ernest nagel ( ) observes that, thanks to the so-called deduction theorem, the principle, now “canonical in modern logical theory” ( ), that “a rule of inference can in general be replaced by a premise,” holds in the case of our inference-licenses, and that “in the case of material rules of inference,” consisting of true non-tautological propositions like the ones we are dealing with, “this can apparently always be done.” nagel tells us too that this “maneuver” can also “be introduced in reverse” ( ). this means, according to standard logic, that the same sentence can act both as a first-order asserted premise in the object language, and as a rule of inference in the metalanguage. one should note that while in logic the object language and the metalanguage are necessarily kept separate – and are made up of statements respectively in the “material” and in the “formal mode of speech,” to use the terminology introduced by carnap ( ), or by statements de re and statements de voce, to use a terminology drawn from the use of medieval logical latin (henry ), a technicized, but still natural language – in the case of ordinary language, which contains its own metalanguage, inference rules are expressed by statements. such object-language higher-order de re statements are however inferentially equivalent to first-order de voce statements expressed in an external metalanguage, separated from the object language. consequently, in natural language, self-referential object-language diacritical expressions take on a double function: considered as first-order statements, they are used as structural markers both of the expression and the content of the text; whereas considered as second-order statements, they constitute rules of inference which are used as functions of the expression to determine the structure of the content or, conversely, rules of inference used as functions of the content to determine the structure of the expression. . generalization of the model still on a formal level, we can observe that the structure of the markup cycle, represented above – which can however be generalized for all forms of diacritical expression – corresponds exactly to the “conversational cycle,” which according to frederick parker-rhodes represents the actual “speech process” between the speaker and the listener ( , ) or, dealing with texts, between the writing and the reading of a text (fig. ). humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) figure . the conversational cycle (parker-rhodes , ). in this cycle, the “expression” (a) is an operation performed by the speaker “which takes a ‘thought’ as input (which we must think as formalized in some manner)” and produces a “text” (b). one should note, incidentally, that here by expression we mean an operation, which is a function of the content, and not its result, a fact that proves the ambivalence of the diacritical mark on which it operates. in turn, the “comprehension” (c), or interpretation, is an operation performed by the listener, who receives the text as an “input containing all the information imparted to it by the speaker” and that produces “again a thought” (d) as its “output” ( ). it is clear, regardless of the use of a different terminology, that the structure of this cycle corresponds exactly to that of the previously examined markup cycle (fig. ). however, an important observation by parker-rhodes should not be overlooked. it explicitly refers to the indeterminacy of the interpretation process: the “thought that the speaker had intended to convey,” once received and interpreted in the mind of the listener, “could produce the elaboration of a new thought” as a “result” ( ). in this case the diagram could take the form of an open spiral, which is more suitable to represent the case of several possible interpretations (fig. ). humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) figure . the helicoidal cycle (gardin , ). such a cycle could end at some point, returning to the starting point, or proceed indefinitely, depending on the context in which a given expression of the text is received. jean-claude gardin also recognizes as “self-evident” the “cyclical nature” of the process of scientific construction. however, similarly to parker-rhodes, he believes that the cycle is not necessarily closed and therefore can be best represented by a “helicoidal curve,” more suited to retrace “the successive steps of its formation,” which are produced through a series of choices, depending not only on the data and their organization, but also and above all on the “logico-semantic rules of interpretation” and the different “interpretative models” that are equally possible ( , ). . epistemological foundations the analysis of the cyclical nature of discursive practices brings us back again to the question of its epistemological foundation. as gardin observes, the process of scientific construction can be considered both “from within,” and “from without,” or in other terms, subjectively from the author’s point of view, and objectively from the point of view of those who examine it, as an alternative to other constructions, in order to express a judgment of “validation” ( ). this allows us to better evaluate the intermediate nature of the humanistic disciplines’ methodology, which many locate in the entre-deux between the predominantly objective nature of the methods of the natural sciences and the predominantly subjective nature of literary or discursive production in general. in other words, one has to decide whether this entre-deux divides or joins the two points of view, establishing what relationship exists between the subject and the object, or else the subjectivity and the objectivity absolutely considered. the cyclic and self-referential nature of the discursive process, which in the ordinary language form of expression jointly includes both the representation of its own object, and the representation of the way in which the subject represents it, inclines towards an answer that excludes the absolute separation between the subject and the object, or in other words between the observer and the observed. this is the position embraced, for example, by the theorists of autopoiesis (varela et al. ), that draw inspiration from the epistemological discourse of maurice merleau-ponty and his notion of “chiasm.” in one of his most iconic descriptions, merleau-ponty presents the chiasm as humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) an exchange between me and the world, between the phenomenal body and the “objective” body, between the perceiving and the perceived: what begins as a thing ends as consciousness of the thing, what begins as a “state of consciousness” ends as a thing exchange between me and the world, between the phenomenological body and the ‘objective body’ between the perceiver and the perceived: what begins as a thing ends as consciousness of the thing, what begins as a “state of consciousness” ends up as a thing. ( , ) in his essay on la structure du comportement, in order to clarify the connection between the subject and the object, merleau-ponty, once again, cites ( , ) the physiologist viktor von weizsacker, who describes that relation in these terms: “the properties of the subject and the intentions of the subject (...) not only mix with each other, but also constitute a new whole” ( , ). this means that the subject and the object must not be conceived as separate, but as constantly connected in a continuous process of “overlapping or encroachment (empiétement)” (merleau-ponty , ), as if one would over and over again take the place of the other. the chiastic interlacement thus consists of a relationship of “activity and passivity coupled,” ( ) a representing and being represented of the subject and the object both in language and perception. thus, the understanding of the “chiasm,” as described by merleau-ponty, leads to the conclusion that language, understood as natural language, “is the same” thing that simultaneously represents and is represented, but not the same “in the sense of real identity,” but rather “the same in the structural sense,” that is, in the sense of a unique and self- identical semiosis, which also includes the semiosis that represents it ( ). the same relationship between the subject that represents and the object being represented, when conceived as ‘the same thing,’ that is, as the ‘new whole’ that they constitute, is found in the notion of the subject proper to the cybernetics “of the second order,” the cybernetics of the “observing systems,” in which “the observer enters the system by stipulating his own purpose,” as opposed to the cybernetics of the “observed systems,” or “first-order” cybernetics, in which “the observer enters the system by stipulating the system’s purpose” (von foerster , - ). thus, in this context, one can find this enlightening definition of the subject: “i am the observed relation between myself and observing myself.” ( ). here the subject is defined as one and the same thing, a new whole, constituted by the representation of the relationship between the self observing itself and the self observed by itself. hence the idea that the conception of systemic self-referentiality – that takes place, for example, both in natural language and in its formal model – could constitute a new fundamental scientific paradigm. a new paradigm of this kind necessarily leads one to believe that the nature of the human sciences can be considered as an intermediary one, only as long as the natural sciences and the literary or the discursive disciplines in general are conceived of as absolutely separate and incompatible with each other. however, the recognition of the unavoidable relationship between the observer and the “systems observed,” or the principle of the autonomous organization of the “observing systems,” today extends manifestly beyond the field of the disciplines characterized by the interpretive method to the field of the physical and biological sciences. thus, the paradigm of self-referentiality seems to open a new perspective of convergence between the methods of the natural sciences and the methods of the human sciences, whose median nature would then be based more on the nature of the object of the investigation than on the specific nature of the method whereby knowledge is constructed. humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) . subjectivity and objectivity: formalization and implementation at this point, our diagram of the self-referential cycle of the discursive process can be reconsidered, taking into account the reflexive character of the relationship between the subject and the object. language, in as much as it is seen as expression, is subjective, because it is the representation of the form of our act of representing; however, in as much as it is seen as content, language is objective, because it is the representation of the form of what it represents. in turn, a form of diacritical expression of the text, subjective in itself, can be considered both from an objective point of view, as an element of the expression identical to itself, and from a subjective point of view, as a function that determines a structural element of the content (fig. ). the same can be said of an element of the content: objective in itself, which can be considered both from an objective point of view as an element identical to itself, and from a subjective point of view as a function that determines a structural element of the expression. figure . subjectivity and objectivity in the speech process (parker-rhodes , ). the distinction between something subjective and something objective is therefore a recursive distinction that could continue indefinitely (fig. ): humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) figure . recursiveness of the subjective/objective distinction. but this does not happen, for the very reason that language is self-referential, as one can clearly infer from the diagram shown in fig. : figure . chiastic self-referentiality of the subjective/objective distinction. it can be reasonably assumed that this scheme represents a possible formal model of the ‘chiasm,’ that is, of the relationship between the subject and the object that involves a continuous process of mutual “encroachment, infringement (empiétement, enjambement)” (merleau-ponty , ), or reciprocal displacement, dismissal, and override. an image of continual oscillation between what is subjective and what is objective, as an uninterrupted process, is aptly allusive of the self-referential mobility of the text and the dynamic nature of the ambivalence of the diacritical structural elements of both the expression and the content of the text. this is an aspect which cannot be described only metaphorically, but which finds formal expression also in rigorous mathematical terms. as david hestenes writes about the mathematician who introduced the algebras that bear his name, humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) clifford may have been the first person to find significance in the fact that two different interpretations of number can be distinguished, the quantitative and the operational. on the first interpretation, number is a measure of “how much” or “how many” of something. on the second, number describes a relation between different quantities. ( , ) in other words, seen from the latter point of view, a number describes the operation that connects two different quantities. the same concept of ambivalence between value and function can be found in the “calculus of indications” introduced by the english mathematician george spencer brown ( , ): he admits that there can be a “partial identity of operand and operator,” since an operand “is merely a conjectured presence or absence of an operator” ( ). granted that a rigorous formalization of such a model is possible, it can be surmised that a computational implementation could be obtained by developing a suitable adaptive system, endowed with functional capabilities as those previously illustrated. if the adaptive artificial systems that we described are built on the basis of a recognized analogy with the operation of natural language, that is, foreseeing the presence of rules capable of modifying other rules of the system, the same analogy allows us to suppose that a formal model of the discursive processes of natural language could be implemented precisely using an adaptive computational system of the same type. ln fact, the ambivalence of precise mathematical objects strictly defined (operation and operand, function and value), can constitute the formal expression of the relationship between subject and object that we have described by recalling the epistemological notion of the ‘chiasm.’ secondly, it is precisely the indeterminate character of the relationship between syntax and semantics in the natural language that gives origin to the self-referential cycle of “rules” of the second order “that establish the conditions of possibility of other rules” of the system (buscema , ). thus, in this way, the road is open for the possibility of implementing a computational model of the discursive processes proper to scientific constructions in the humanities, consisting in an automatic system of an adaptive type. . conclusions this concludes our long, extended argument aimed at supporting the opportunity for a return to the origins of humanities computing to avoid the risk, of which jean-claude gardin has made us aware, of exchanging means for research purposes. the period of the origins, or the so-called humanities computing, was distinguished by an attitude aimed primarily at reflecting on the methods and their epistemological foundations, as a preliminary condition to the choice of computational means suitable for the solution of the research problems of a specific disciplinary field. subsequently, subordination to the rapid technological development of the s, favoring the importance of the digital medium in artistic and literary production, has actually reversed this relationship. the priority given to practices of cultural production directly in digital forms and to research activities assisted by the computer, although still conducted in all-traditional forms, has produced a veritable mutation of the humanities computing practice of the original period and led to the advent of the so-called digital humanities. thus, interest has abated in what jerome mcgann considers, in this new digital environment, the urgent and very current philological “imperative” of the “preservation of cultural memory” ( ), in agreement with the famous definition of august boeckh, die erkenntnis des erkannten. humanist studies & the digital age buzzetti . ( ) in the second part of the essay, i therefore tried to present, through an example, a form of restoration of the original humanities computing attitude to deal with theoretical and methodological issues in regard to the interpretation of texts. building on the thoughts of jean-claude gardin on the analysis of discursive practices in the human and social sciences – in particular, on the homology between the structure of knowledge base expert systems and the structure of the schematizations of data and argumentations in humanities scientific texts – i have noted a significant convergence, or rather a substantial homology, between the analysis of the self-referential phenomena of natural language and the establishment of data processing rules in automatic adaptive systems. thus, this correspondence has allowed me to outline a formal model for the analysis of the interpretative practices of texts in ordinary language congruent with data processing procedures proper of adaptive systems. a possibly successful implementation of this model would undoubtedly confirm the fecundity, for humanities computing, of a re-proposal of the priority of the theoretical and methodological reflection that particularly characterized the period of its origins. translated by massimo lollini works cited s. beckett, proust and three dialogues with georges duthuit, london . r. busa s.j. 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(hrsg.), handbuch der normalen und pathologischen physiologie, bd. , berlin . n. wirth, algorithms + data structures = programs, englewood cliffs n.j. . l. wittgenstein, culture and value: a selection from the posthumous remains, edited by g. h. von wright in collaboration with h. nyman, revised edition of the text by a. pichler, translated by p. winch, oxford . the origins of humanities computing and the digital humanities turn dino buzzetti, university of bologna . introduction . the era of the mainframes . a definition of humanities computing . representation vs. data processing . semantic web and digital humanities . the “logicism” of jean-claude gardin . epistemological reflection and expert systems . adaptive systems and methodological issues . ordinary language: formal model and natural computation . the markup: diacritical function and self-referential cycle . generalization of the model . epistemological foundations . conclusions works cited microsoft word - -유희천.doc journal of the ergonomics society of korea vol. , no. pp. - , october http://dx.doi.org/ . /jesk. . . . development of a distributed representative human model generation and analysis system for multiple-size product design baekhee lee , kihyo jung , heecheon you department of industrial and management engineering, postech, pohang, - school of industrial engineering, university of ulsan, ulsan, - abstract objective: the aim of this study is to develop a distributed representative human model(drhm) generation and analysis system. background: drhms are used for a product with multiple-size categories such as clothing and shoes. it is not easy for a product designer to explore an optimal sizing system by applying various distributed methods because of their complexity and time demand. method: studies related to drhm generation were reviewed and the rhm generation interfaces of three digital human model simulation systems(jack®, ramsis®, and catia human®) were reviewed. results: drhm generation steps are implemented by providing sophisticated interfaces which offer various statistical techniques and visualization methods with ease. conclusion: the drhm system can analyze the multivariate accommodation percentage of a sizing system, provide body sizes of generated drhms, and visualize generated grids and drhms. application: the drhm generation and analysis system can be of great use to determine an optimal sizing system for a multiple-size product by comparing various sizing system candidates. keywords: multiple-size product design, sizing system, distributed representative human model . introduction digital human model(dhm) simulation system(예: jack®, ramsis®)은 가상환경상에서 대표인체모델(repre- sentative human model, rhm)을 생성하여 인간공학적인 제품과 작업공간의 설계 및 평가를 위한 효율적인 도구로 사용되고 있다. rhm은 제품 설계대상인구의 인체크기를 통계적으로 적합하게 대표하는 소수의 인체모델로서, 효율 적인 제품 설계 및 개발을 위해 필수적이다(jung and you, ). 예를 들면, park et al.( )과 lee et al.( ) 은 소수의 rhm을 기반으로 한국형 헬리콥터 조종실과 방사성폐기물처리장 주제어실을 인간공학적으로 설계하고 평가하기 위하여 dhm simulation system을 활용하였다 (figure ). dhm simulation system의 rhm 생성은 percentile 방 법과 custom-built 방법 등에 의해 수행될 수 있는데 각각 설계대상인구에 대한 rhm의 생성 효율성 측면의 한계점을 지니고 있다. percentile 방법은 대부분 대표적으로 사용되 는 가지 rhm( th , th , 그리고 th percentiles)을 제공 하며, 두 개 이상의 인체변수에 대한 인구수용비율은 목표수 용비율보다 저하된다(hfes , ). 또한, custom- built 방법은 인체변수(예: 개, jack®)별로 rhm의 인체 크기를 사용자가 직접 입력하는 인터페이스를 제공하고 있 는데, 생성 목적에 맞는 인체변수들의 크기를 결정하고 사용 자가 직접 입력하는데 많은 시간이 소요된다. corresponding author: heecheon you. department of industrial and management engineering, postech, pohang, - . phone: - - , e-mail: hcyou@postech.ac.kr copyright@ by ergonomics society of korea(pissn: - eissn: - ). all right reserved. baekhee lee · kihyo jung · heecheon you jesk rhm 인체크기 결정을 위한 rhm 생성 방법들 중 산포 대표인체모델(distributed representative human model, drhm)의 생성은 의복과 같은 다중치수제품(multiple- size product)의 대량맞춤생산을 위한 치수체계 개발에 활 용되고 있다. 그러나, drhm을 생성하고 대표성(repre- sentativeness) 분석에 특화된 시스템의 개발은 미흡한 실 정이다. 따라서, drhm을 생성하고 분석하는 시스템의 개발 은 인간공학적인 다중치수제품 설계 시 비용 절감, 시간 단 축, 그리고 최적 치수체계 선정에 기여할 수 있다. 본 연구는 다중치수제품 설계를 위한 drhm 생성 및 분석 시스템을 개발하였다. 본 연구에서는 문헌조사를 통 해 drhm 생성 절차 및 기법을 조사하고, 기존 dhm simulation system의 drhm 생성 인터페이스의 특성 및 한계점을 파악하였다. 그리고, drhm 생성 절차 및 방법을 적용하여 drhm 생성 및 분석에 특화된 시스템을 개발하 였다. . literature review drhm은 치수체계가 있는 제품(예: 장갑)의 설계 및 평 가 시에 생성된다. drhm은 제품 설계대상인구 전반에 지 정된 비율(예: %)을 수용하도록 격자들을 배치한 후, 각 격자에서 한 개씩 drhm을 선정하여 생성된다(jung et al., ). drhm 생성 절차는 단계(중요변수 선정, distributed method 결정, 그리고 drhm 인체크기 결정)로 구분되는데, figure 와 같이 각 단계에서는 다양한 통계적 기법(예: regression analysis)이 사용된다(jung, ). 본 연구는 세 가지 대표적인 dhm simulation system들 (jack, ramsis, 그리고 catia human)에 대하여 특성 및 한계점을 파악하였다(table ). 예를 들어, jack은 us army 인체측정 data(gordon et al., )를 기반으로 성 별(female, male) 및 percentile( st , th , th , th , th ) 을 선택하여 rhm을 생성하는 인터페이스를 제공하고 있으 나, 성별 및 다양한 연령대를 특정 비율로 혼합하여 rhm을 생성하는 기능을 제공하지 않는 것으로 파악되었다. . system development 본 연구는 microsoft visual studio c# 과 matlab a(ver. . )을 활용하여 drhm을 생성하 고 분석하는 시스템을 개발하였다. 본 시스템은 figure 과 같이 drhm 생성 절차 단계가 구현된 입력 인터페이스와 생성된 drhm에 대한 분석 결과 및 시각화된 결과를 제공 한다. table . characteristics of distributed representative human model generation interfaces of digital human model simulation systems factors jack (simens) ramsis (human solutions) catia human (dassault systemes) database /nation us army ( ) germany etc., nations ( ~ ) american etc., nations (*n.s.) gender female, male female, male female, male age groups **n/a fixed groups (e.g., ~ ) n/a number of ad n/a rhm generation method percentile custom-built percentile custom-built percentile * n.s.: not specified ** n/a: not applicable (a) helicopter cockpit (park et al., ) (b) radioactive waste facility control room(lee et al., ) figure . distributed representative human model(drhm) generation process & used statistical techniques (ad: anthropometric dimension, k: key dimension) figure . ergonomic product design using a digital human model simulation system vol. , no. . . . distributed representative human model generation and analysis system . drhm generation . . step : target population selection 설계대상인구는 인체측정 data로부터 성별과 연령대를 선 택하여 선정된다. 본 시스템은 여러 인체측정 database(us army, ; us army pilot, ; korean pilot, ) 와 연동되도록 구축되어 있으며, 남녀 비율과 대부터 대까지 각 연령대 비율을 지정하여 설계대상인구를 형성할 수 있도록 하였다. . . step : target anthropometric variable selection 본 시스템은 설계대상 인체변수들을 대분류, 소분류, 그리 고 치수유형으로 분류하여 사용자가 용이하게 선택할 수 있 도록 하였다. 예를 들어, figure 와 같이 가슴둘레(chest circumference)는 trunk(대분류), chest(소분류), circum- ference(치수유형) 순으로 탐색하여 선정된다. . . step : extraction of key dimensions 중요변수 추출단계는 대표적으로 사용되는 가지 통계적 분석 방법(regression analysis, factor analysis, principal component analysis)을 적용할 수 있는 각각의 인터페이스 를 제공한다. 예를 들어, regression analysis 인터페이스는 figure 와 같이 선택된 설계대상 인체변수들로부터 중요변수 개수 ( ~ 개)에 따른 중요변수 후보와 나머지 변수간의 평균수 정회귀계수의 경향을 graph 및 table로 제공한다. 또한, 사 용자가 중요변수를 사전에 알고 있을 경우 'user-defined' 버튼을 사용하여 직접 선정할 수 있다. . . step : determination of distributed method drhm 생성 방법 선정단계에서는 가지 drhm 생성 방 법(grid, cluster, optimization method)을 적용할 수 있는 figure . system overview figure . interface of target anthropometric variable selection baekhee lee · kihyo jung · heecheon you jesk 각각의 인터페이스를 제공한다. 예를 들어, grid method 인 터페이스는 figure 과 같이 선정된 중요변수들의 다양한 기술적 통계치(예: mean, percentile)를 제공하고(kwon et al., ), 생성될 grid의 설계허용공차를 인체변수마다 동 일한 혹은 다른 값을 설정할 수 있으며, 목표수용비율이나 각 격자의 최소인구수용비율을 선택할 수 있도록 구현되었다. . . step : determination of drhm's body sizes drhm 인체크기 결정단계에서는 중요변수 측면에서 drhm 생성 방법에 의해 생성된 격자들을 대표할 수 있는 두 가지 인체크기 선정 방법(estimated case 및 real case) 이 제공된다(figure ). estimated case 사용 방법은 생성 된 격자의 형상학적 중심(centroid)에서 drhm을 결정 하는 반면, real case 사용 방법은 centroid에서 euclidian distance가 가장 최소인 실제 case를 drhm으로 선정한다. . drhm analysis 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm의 인체크기 정보, 수용비율 분석 결과, 그리고 관련 정보의 시각화된 기능을 제공한다 (figure ). 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm의 설계대상 인체 변수별 인체크기를 table로 제공한다. 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm에 대하여 중요변수 측면의 인구수용비율과 선정된 인 체변수 개수에 따른 가지(mean, sd, minimum, maximum, median) 단일수용비율 및 다변량수용비율 분석 기능을 제 공한다. 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm에 대하여 중요변수 측 면에서 생성된 격자와 drhm의 시각화 정보를 제공한다. . discussion 본 연구에서는 다중치수제품 설계를 위한 drhm 생성 및 분석에 특화된 시스템이 개발되었다. 본 시스템은 단계 drhm 생성 절차(설계대상인구 선정, 설계대상 인체변수 선정, 중요변수 추출, distributed method 선정, 그리고 drhm 인체크기 결정)를 적용하여 사용자가 drhm 생성 을 용이하고 신속하게 할 수 있도록 제공하였다. 본 시스템 은 drhm 생성에 사용되는 통계적 기법을 총체적으로 제공 하여 사용자가 원하는 맞춤형 치수체계 설계가 가능하도록 인터페이스를 제공하였다. 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm 분석 에 특화된 시스템으로서 drhm의 인체크기, 인구수용비율 분석, 그리고 시각화된 정보를 제공하여, 인간공학적 제품의 치수체계 개발 시 유용하게 활용될 수 있다. 본 시스템은 설계 가능한 치수체계를 용이하고 신속하게 분석함으로써 체계적인 비교 분석을 통한 최적 치수체계 설계 시 활용될 수 있다. 기존 drhm 생성관련 연구들은 drhm 생성 시 체계적인 방법간의 비교 없이 연구자가 임 의로 선정한 방법을 적용하여 제품의 치수체계를 설계한 것 으로 파악되었다. 반면, 본 연구에서 개발된 시스템을 활용 (a) estimated case (b) real case figure . determination of the body sizes of distributed representative human models(illustrated) figure . interface of regression analysis figure . interface of grid method vol. , no. . . . distributed representative human model generation and analysis system 하면 치수체계 설계자는 drhm 생성 절차 별로 적용되는 다양한 기법들을 적용하여 치수체계 대안들을 파악하고 이 들을 비교 분석함으로써 최적 치수체계를 선정할 수 있다. 본 연구에서 개발된 시스템은 주변부 대표인체모델 (boundary representative human model, brhm) 생성 및 분석 시스템의 개발과 함께 dhm simulation system의 custom-built rhm 생성 인터페이스와의 연동이 필요하다. brhm은 자동차와 같은 단일치수제품(one-size product) 의 인간공학적 설계 시 적용되는데 본 연구의 drhm 생성 및 분석 시스템과 같은 특화된 시스템으로 개발되어 생성 될 수 있다. 또한, 개발된 시스템을 통해 생성된 rhm들이 dhm simulation system의 custom-built rhm 생성 기능 과 연동되어 인간공학적 평가(예: 도달성, 여유공간 등)가 수 행될 수 있도록 하는 시스템간 상호 운용(interoperability) 에 대한 연구가 필요하다. acknowledgements this research was supported by the basic science research program through the national research foundation of korea (nrf) funded by the ministry of education, science, and technology( - ). references chaffin, d. b., improving digital human modeling for proactive ergonomics in design. ergonomics, ( ), - , . gordon, c., et al. anthropometric survey of us army personnel: methods and summary statistics, technical report natick/tr- / , . hfes , guidelines for using anthropometric data in product design, santa monica, california: human factors and ergonomics society, . jung, k., kwon, o. and you, h., development of a digital human model generation method for ergonomic design in virtual environment, international journal of industrial ergonomics, ( ), - , . jung, k., development of a multivariate representative human model generation method for anthropometric design, unpublished ph.d. dissertation, pohang university of science and technology, pohang, korea, . jung, k., you, h. and kwon, o., evaluation of the multivariate accommo- dation performance of the grid method, applied ergonomics, , - , . kwon, o., jung, k., you, h. and kim h., determination of key dimensions for a glove sizing system by analyzing the relationship between hand dimensions. applied ergonomics, , - , . laing, r. m., holland, e. j. and niven, b. e., development of sizing systems for protective clothing for the adult male, ergonomics, ( ), - , . lee, b., chang, y., jung, k., jung, i. and you, h, ergonomic evaluation of a control room design of radioactive waste facility using digital human simulation, journal of the ergonomics society of korea, ( ), - , . mcculloch, c. e., paal, b. and ashdown, s. p., an optimization approach to apparel sizing, journal of the operational research society, , - , . park, j., jung, k., lee, w., kang, b., lee, j., eom, j., park, s. and you, h., development of an ergonomic assessment method of helicopter cockpit using digital human simulation, in proceedings of the spring conference of the ergonomics society of korea, . robinette, k. m. and annis, j. f., a nine-size system for chemical defense gloves (technical report aamrl-tr- - ), ohio: wright-patterson air force base, . rosenblad-wallin, e., an anthropometric study as the basis for sizing anatomically designed mittens, applied ergonomics, ( ), - , . zheng, r., yu, w. and fan, j., development of a new chinese bra sizing system based on breast anthropometric measurements, international journal of industrial ergonomics, , - , . author listings baekhee lee: x won@postech.ac.kr highest degree: m.s., department of industrial engineering, postech position title: ph.d., department of industrial engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, digital human modeling & simulation, vehicle ergonomic kihyo jung: kjung@ulsan.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial and management engineering, postech position title: assistant professor, university of ulsan areas of interest: ergonomic product design, digital human modeling and simulation, usability testing, musculoskeletal disorders prevention baekhee lee · kihyo jung · heecheon you jesk heecheon you: hcyou@postech.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial engineering, the pennsylvania state university position title: professor, department of industrial engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, user interface design & evaluation, digital human modeling & simulation, human performance & workload assessment, usability testing date received : - - date revised : - - date accepted : - - / / ideology critique and film criticism in the new media ecology http://quod.lib.umich.edu/f/fc/ . . ?view=text;rgn=main ideology critique and film criticism in the new media ecology matthew flisfeder volume , issue , january permalink: http://hdl.handle.net/ /spo. . . [http://hdl.handle.net/ /spo. . . ] [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /] academic buzzwords in the humanities and social sciences, in recent years, are quite indicative of the times. “digital humanities;” “screen studies;” “entrepreneurship:” it seems clear that neoliberalism and the ideology of technological progress have something to do—much more so in our current age of austerity—with the shape, relevance, and space for critical theory. cultural criticism in neoliberal times has shifted away from the critical investigation of the arts (including cinema), and has geared the study of culture towards business interests—the culture industry thesis has transformed into “the cultural industries.” technological transformation, though, certainly, has changed the way films are made, and the way that we view cinema: imax and d, on the one hand, and hand-held devices and online streaming services like netflix, on the other. we have a larger than life “cinema of attractions” on one side—a side that “massifies” the audience—and digitized personalization on the other (and here i use the “digital” to indicate, as well, the individuation of spectatorship—pseudo-individuation, if you like, very much keeping with adorno and horkheimer’s critique of the culture industry). though the grand spectacle of the cinema attracts “audiences,” it might be more appropriate now—more so now than in the s—to speak of the “spectator.” the post- theory criticism of the s chastised the “screen theory” version of the ambiguous spectator, preferring instead the empirical audience; and though “audience” seems to denote a “mass,” the personalization of media experience might make the spectator an appropriate unit of study (when the neoliberal “individual” has largely taken priority over the society) in the “post-media” era. by “post-media” i refer to a media ecology that tends to blur the lines between different media. i borrow the term from lev manovich who, in an unpublished paper available on his website, argues in favour of doing away with the critical distinctions between different media in the digital age, since it is all too often difficult to really draw the lines in contemporary aesthetics; and i think that this is a suitable argument given that new media changes the way that we experience art, culture, and cinema. but, because of the blurring of the lines, it is my contention that film criticism must all the more forcefully be tied to the critique of ideology. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/f/fc/ . ?rgn=main;view=fulltext http://quod.lib.umich.edu/f/fc/ . . *?rgn=main;view=fulltext http://hdl.handle.net/ /spo. . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / / / ideology critique and film criticism in the new media ecology http://quod.lib.umich.edu/f/fc/ . . ?view=text;rgn=main there is a distinction that needs to be made between the ideological analysis of cinema, and the cinematic critique of ideology. the former deals with films as ideological symptoms, and the aim is to deconstruct the film text to locate the ideology present within the frame. the cinematic critique of ideology, a practice engaged by critics like slavoj Žižek and fredric jameson, tells not something about the ideology of the text; instead it is a practice of using the text to deal with textuality of our everyday lives—that is, the uncovering or the revealing of ideology as part of the fabric of our everyday culture. if we want to locate a particular practical mode of operation here, we can think of comolli and narboni’s category ‘e’ in their well-known editorial in cahiers du cinema, “cinema/ideology/criticism.” the films in this category, they point out, are those which seem to fit directly with the reigning ideology, but can be appropriated for radical purposes, helping to dismantle ideology from within. this includes films like the matrix ( ) which, though they appear as typical sci-fi action thrillers, help us to grasp more easily the operation of everyday ideology. more recently, i would include films like david fincher’s gone girl ( )—a film that at first glance is codified in misogynistic visual rhetoric, but which can also be appropriated to develop an apt interpretation and critique of the media ecology of our hyperreal environment, particularly in the way the characters self-reflexively perform their identities for the media. the film teaches us that real change demands a pseudo-individuated construction of the self for the media— particularly in social media, where the construction of a self in the form of the public profile has become the very means by which we make ourselves available to the other. this is the fabric (or fabrication) of identity in the twenty-first century, modelled on the entrepreneurial ethic of post- financial crisis neoliberalism. if film criticism is going to have any relevance for the twenty-first century, it’s going to have to commit to the raising of critical awareness of our own historicity, and the culture of neoliberalism and austerity-finance-capital, the digital, and processes of personalization that further mark gaps in the social. i draw my own inspiration from comolli and narboni’s editorial where, in the context of the post-may ’ period, they sought to politicize film and film criticism directly—something that contributed to earliest formations of film studies as a distinct academic discipline. a politicized film criticism can be part of the congealing of the “digital humanities” and contemporary “screen studies.” author biography: matthew flisfeder is an assistant professor in the department of politics and public administration at ryerson university. he is the author of the symbolic, the sublime, and slavoj Žižek’s theory of film. hosted by michigan publishing, a division of the university of michigan library. for more information please contact mpub-help@umich.edu. online issn forthcoming http://www.publishing.umich.edu/ http://www.lib.umich.edu/ mailto:mpub-help@umich.edu?subject=film% criticism wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ cultural diversity and the digital humanities original paper cultural diversity and the digital humanities simon mahony received: december / accepted: february / published online: march © the author(s) . this article is an open access publication abstract digital humanities has grown and changed over the years; we have moved away from expecting technology to be a tool to make humanities research easier and faster into one where we are now equal partners. our collaborative projects drive forward the research agendas of both humanists and technologists. there have been other changes too. the focus of our scholarly interest has moved away from its historical origins in text-based scholarship, although that now has many more possibilities, and we are seeing an interest in exploring culture and heritage more widely. where the progress is slower is in our moves towards openness and inclusivity, and this is to some extent hampered by a lack of linguistic diversity. this is being addressed with specialist groups within the major dh organizations on a national and a global level. dh has grown rapidly in china, and the anglophone world could do more to engage with practitioners and potential colleagues in this new vibrant and emerging area. there are certainly western centres that specialize, particularly in chinese texts and historical documents, but this needs to be extended further if we are not to impose limits on the conversations, synergies and collaborations that can result. keywords digital humanities · cultural diversity · multi-lingualism · community · globalism & simon mahony s.mahony@ucl.ac.uk department of information studies, ucl centre for digital humanities, university college london, gower street, london wc e bt, uk fudan j. hum. soc. sci. ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf introduction digital humanities (dh) has grown out of what was previously known as humanities computing, and perhaps earlier as applied computing in the humanities, working at the intersection of technology and the humanities. a comprehensive introduction to the growth of dh can be found in the introductory chapter in nyhan and flinn ( ). with this change in nomenclature have come other changes in this versatile and fastmoving interdisciplinary field; the focus has moved away from technology as the servant of the humanities to one where our projects and other activities are of interest to and advance the research agendas of both disciplines. humanities itself is difficult to define but can, in my view, best be described as the study of the human condition, and of human achievement, and alternatively, as the study of that which makes life worth living. dh commonly works and builds partnerships at the intersection of cultural heritage, human achievement and the computational sciences, exploring new areas that were not possible previously. this is not the only change that has been occurring. historically, dh has developed in a very anglophone environment as english became the language of the internet (with icann) and the lingua franca of the web (with the w c consortium), along with the domination of the ascii code. icann is extending things now with the new generic top-level domains to include non-latin characters, although only those that are included in anglo/us-centric unicode. there have been recent studies on the metrics of publication and how that along with citation counts has a clear anglo-bias, resulting in incentives for advancement, promotion and funding to favour publication in the english language for the arts and humanities. as domenico fiormonte argues: the over-representation of us and uk humanities titles [as counted in major indices such as scopus and web of science] will always support arguments in favor of using english as the lingua franca, and the misrepresentation of knowledge production and geopolitical imbalance will continue to thrive (fiormonte ). as he notes, this is supported by metrics from scopus itself (see meester ). this article looks at the growth of dh beyond the anglophone sphere and some of the challenges that cross-cultural initiatives present. the beginnings of dh are generally ascribed to roberto busa and his collaborations with ibm to create an index variorum of the works of thomas aquinas, a corpus of latin texts, although alternatives to the general narrative have been put forward by some scholars. nevertheless, medievalists such as busa along with classicists were very much at the forefront of humanities scholars using icann https://newgtlds.icann.org. for this and a cultural critical approach to dh, see fiormonte ( ). for more on this, see crane ( a) and the response by fiormonte ( ) and the comments appended to the latter. see also fiormonte ( ). see, for example, rockwell ( ). s. mahony https://newgtlds.icann.org computational methodologies for their data-intensive research projects (bodard and mahony ). referencing my original discipline of classics (as referring to greco-roman studies), examples would be the thesaurus linguae graecae (tlg) and the lexicon of greek personal names (lgpn), both founded in and more recent publications such as the chicago homer, suda online, inscriptions of aphrodisias and roman tripolitania, to name but a few. these are primarily text- based sources whether that text is found on papyrus, parchment, paper or stone. this also is in a context where classical greek and latin are the two heritage languages of european and western culture, and greco-roman culture forms the foundation of european (and by extension north american) cultural heritage, literature and philosophy. this foundation and reverence is clearly manifest when looking at the canon of literature and the architectural design of many public buildings such as museums and galleries with their columns and porticos mimicking those of athens and rome. cultural and linguistic diversity looking back to our earliest writings in europe and the earliest surviving complete work in greek literature from the so-called ‘father of history’, herodotus of halicarnassus (approx. – bc), we read in the very first paragraph of the first page of his histories the justification for this work: that human achievement not be forgotten and that the deeds of the greeks and barbicans should have their glory and particularly that we should know ‘why’ they fought each other (adapted from de selincourt (trans) ). he uses the term ‘barbarian’ in the same way that chinese understand ‘foreigner’—to herodotus anyone that did not speak greek was a barbarian as their speech sounded like that of sheep. he moves on to account for the origins of the quarrel that began the enmity between east and west (asia and europe), and he arrives at conflicted accounts. the scene is set, however, for the long-running conflict between east and west; he is, of course, talking about greece (europe) and persia (or more particularly the medes as asia, built on the relatively understudied empire of cyrus the great). there is a gulf in understanding between the two. they speak different languages and have different cultures and customs while each, he tells us, ‘without exception believes his own native customs […] to be the best. […] pindar was right when he called [custom] king of all’ (de selincourt (trans) , : ). the histories culminates with the invasion of greece firstly by darius and then by his son xerxes and their defeat at the hands of an tlg http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu. lgpn http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk. chicago homer http://homer.library.northwestern.edu. suda online http://www.stoa.org/sol. inscriptions of aphrodisias http://insaph.kcl.ac.uk. inscriptions of roman tripolitania http://inslib.kcl.ac.uk/irt . see the british museum in london and the library of congress in washington dc as two striking examples. cultural diversity and the digital humanities http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk http://homer.library.northwestern.edu http://www.stoa.org/sol http://insaph.kcl.ac.uk http://inslib.kcl.ac.uk/irt alliance of greek city states. whether herodotus actually travelled beyond the wider greek world or collected together stories gathered from sailors in the ports of halicarnassus or piraeus is not a discussion to have here but from these accounts, whatever the source, the further east, we read in histories, the more mysterious are the peoples and their customs. whatever the truth, it is clear that differences in language and culture lead to difference in understanding. an anglo-centric critique of the dh is nothing new and was made well by fiormonte in his article ‘towards a cultural critique of the digital humanities’. he starts with the perceived tension between methodological differences before moving on to the geopolitics which he claims is to be found endemic in our field as evidenced by the dominance of such pervasive systems as ascii code (american standard for information exchange) and the domain name system (administered by icann). the same is of course true for html and the ubiquitous xml, the latter particularly having a pronounced linguistic bias (difficulties with accented characters and right-to-left scripts) as well as the english-based tei guidelines. as i explain to students when giving visiting lectures and talks overseas, english is the language of the web and of digital publishing. it is, therefore, an additional incentive to learn english for anyone wanting to work in the myriad of internet industries regardless of whether or not they study or train in an english-speaking environment. the counter side to this is, of course, that working in these industries does not incentivize english speakers to develop other language skills. this dominance of the english language is, of course, not only an issue for the digital humanities as a trip to the fudan library will doubtless reveal the wealth and spread of journals and magazines it holds, covering many fields and disciplines for which the major and most prestigious publications are often in english. for a european example, in italy informatica umanistica has long been established at the university of pisa and elsewhere. in my former institution, i was very pleased to have as colleagues a former lecturer and a former student from that programme (elena pierazzo now at grenoble and raffaele viglianti now at mith), but we hear little about the activities of the italian informatica umanistica in mainstream dh publications; with the exception, perhaps, of fiormonte quoted above and geoffrey rockwell, also included in this publication, drawing our attention to the importance of tito orlandi and others. this is despite the continuing work of the very research centre founded by roberto busa being carried out on the index thomisticus treebank at circse at the università cattolica del sacro cuore, milan. colleagues at the ucl centre for digital humanities (ucldh), julianne nyhan and andrew flinn, have worked on uncovering some of the lesser known histories of the development of the digital humanities, including interviewing informatica umanistica: university pisa https://www.unipi.it/index.php/lauree/corso/ . centro interdisciplinare di ricerche per la computerizzazione dei segni dell’espressione (circse) http://centridiricerca.unicatt.it/circse-home?rdelocaleattr=en. s. mahony https://www.unipi.it/index.php/lauree/corso/ http://centridiricerca.unicatt.it/circse-home% frdelocaleattr% den orlandi, for their ( ) volume computation and the humanities. it is pleasing to see the new journal of the italian association of digital humanities, umanistica digitale, online although this seems to be mostly in english. objects of study this bias is not restricted to language but also concerns the materials of our study. from the early days of computational scholarship in the humanities, text has always been the fundamental material for study as evidenced by the index thomisticus, through the tlg and many other publications. looking, however, at the research projects at my own dh centre (ucldh), we now see a much greater variation in source material and data. the nyan and flinn volume mentioned earlier gathers together oral history interviews to push ‘forward the current boundaries of scholarship on the history of dh’ and questions the previous narratives (nyhan and flinn , p. ). there are projects using non- destructive imaging technology to uncover texts otherwise not visible, such as on an egyptian coffin lid and the papyri used as filling ; an online camera capturing viewers’ reaction to seeing the auto-icon of jeremy bentham; computer algorithms to assist reassembling fragments of wall paintings; handwriting recognition; open educational resources; user log analysis; and many more. the objects of our research within dh are changing. even within the area of textual scholarship, digital humanities methodologies have opened up new opportunities to study texts in different ways. examples from two of my phd students illustrate this well. greta franzini, on the editorial board of umanistica digitale, began her doctoral research to create a digital edition of a medieval latin manuscript, being the oldest surviving copy of st. augustine’s de civitate dei and held in the scriptorium at her hometown of verona. this project has morphed into much more and now includes best practice in the field of electronic editing, user studies and requirements, as well as recommendations for the production of digital editions of texts. part of this research has been to create a detailed catalogue of extant digital editions of texts, and this included mapping the institutions involved; the results clearly demonstrate the western-european and us focus on such production (see fig. ). umanistica digitale https://umanisticadigitale.unibo.it. ucl advanced imaging consultants http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh/ / / /ucl-advanced-imaging- consultants-uclaic-undertake-imaging-projects-on-a-range-of-fascinating-heritage-materials. ucldh research projects http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/projects. greta franzini http://www.gretafranzini.com. cultural diversity and the digital humanities https://umanisticadigitale.unibo.it http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh/ / / /ucl-advanced-imaging-consultants-uclaic-undertake-imaging-projects-on-a-range-of-fascinating-heritage-materials http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/dh/ / / /ucl-advanced-imaging-consultants-uclaic-undertake-imaging-projects-on-a-range-of-fascinating-heritage-materials http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/projects http://www.gretafranzini.com […] the reader will notice a shortage of, for example, asian and arabic editions as we work through those in the catalogue. nevertheless, digital editions appear to be a western phenomenon, led by the united states and the united kingdom, two of the wealthiest and most influential countries in the world, both economically and politically (franzini, mahony and terras , p. ). in this study, % of the projects are anglo-american; that is out of the total of editions recorded. moreover, it is necessary to remember that the major associations and portals in the digital humanities field are based in the usa and the uk; as well as this, historically, the major journals published in dh are primarily english language publications. as a result, chinese digital editions and any others in a non-latin script were not included in the catalogue because of the language barrier which further serves to accentuate any bias (franzini et al. ) (fig. ). another of my phd students, jin gao, is researching the intellectual and social structures of dh with research methodology primarily (so far) based on citation and social network analysis. at the adho dh conference, gao presented her preliminary results showing the clustering of topics based on her co-citation analysis of the major dh journals: computers and the humanities, digital scholarship in the humanities (formerly known as literary and linguistic computing) and digital fig. screenshot of the map visualization of editions present in the catalogue of digital editions. note: this is at the time of writing: . (franzini et al. , p. ) among others, the association for computers and the humanities (ach); alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho); the european association for digital humanities (formerly allc); arts-humanities.net; dhcommons; digital humanities now; humanities, arts, science, and technology advanced collaboratory (hastac) and the humanities and technology camp (thatcamp). jin gao http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dis/people/gao. s. mahony http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dis/people/gao humanities quarterly; these are all in the english language. at a recent seminar in the department of information studies at ucl, gao presented her latest research which focused on visualizing the dh community through the connections made in twitter; effectively, this represents an analysis of who is connected to whom by their patterns of re-tweeting content on the microblogging platform that is used extensively by members of the dh community. interestingly, this also revealed edge clusters in languages other than english, with the largest being french, followed by german (also including dutch contributors using german rather than their native dutch) and then spanish. the lack of italian is curious given the stature of the late father busa and the longevity of informatica umanistica but perhaps they are tweeting in english or one of the other european languages. it is important to note that these edge clusters are determined by the language of the tweets rather than the home nation of those posting them, although it was also found that these individuals do sometime post tweets in english as well, presumably when entering into discussion and engaging with english language twitter posts. the main point here is that although the original source material is text, in some form or other (citations in journals or twitter postings), it is being interrogated using visualization methodologies to further understand the field’s intellectual structures rather than any close reading of the texts themselves. moreover, we can identify other languages being used within a primarily english-speaking medium. again, however, we are looking at an anglo-focus here and there are, i am sure, many other dh microblogging discussion groups out there in many different languages and on many different platforms. china, for example, has the ubiquitous fig. languages of the primary sources presented in the catalogue of digital editions. note that this is at the time of writing: . (franzini et al. , p. ) dh abstracts https://dh .adho.org/program/abstracts. cultural diversity and the digital humanities https://dh .adho.org/program/abstracts wechat and the dh groups that i am aware of and a member of are digital humanities group (数字人文群|dh group ), digital humanities group (数字人文群|dh group ), with and members (approximately unique individuals), respectively, at the time of writing, and dh global (for non-chinese speakers with members at this time) and doubtless there are many others elsewhere. it is notable also that the names of dh group and dh group were changed to include the latin characters very soon after allowing me to join. nevertheless, despite the clear language issues, from this, we can also see that digital humanities methodologies and techniques are allowing us to ask new and interesting questions of text that were not possible previously without the intervention of computational analysis. the scope and variety of digital humanities research is, of course, much broader; for example, at ucldh, as noted above, we have projects that make use of digitization, the visualization of materials, text mining, crowdsourcing and many varied methodologies. although the source data are still often in the form of text (the letters of jeremy bentham, the british library corpus of digitised newspapers, census records from the national archives, etc.), we are doing new and innovative research using these materials. in addition, the sources also now include oral histories and cultural heritage artifacts. moving beyond just as the objects of dh study are moving beyond a focus on the reading of written text, so too they are now moving beyond their linguistically imposed geographical boundaries. the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) conference no longer simply alternates between europe and north america, with dh in sydney and dh to be hosted at the national autonomous university of mexico (unam), mexico city. adho itself has become more global with membership extending to dh associations in australasia and japan : ● the european association for digital humanities (eadh) ● association for computers and the humanities (ach) ● canadian society for digital humanities/société canadienne des humanités numériques (csdh/schn) ● centernet ● australasian association for digital humanities (aadh) ● japanese association for digital humanities (jadh) ● humanistica, l’association francophone des humanités numériques/digitales (humanistica) centernet which describes itself as, ‘an international network of digital humanities centers formed for cooperative and collaborative action to benefit ucldh research projects http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/projects. alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) http://adho.org. s. mahony http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/projects http://adho.org digital humanities and allied fields […]’, pulls together dh centres internation- ally. their map, just as the one above (fig. , franzini, mahony and terras. , p. ) also shows a preponderance of western europe and north america with a few outliers (fig. ). this online map from centrenet is also very similar to the one recorded in the infographic (fig. ) published by melissa terras, then director of ucldh, to quantify the extent of dh activities globally in (terras ). according to these graphics, the spread of dh centres in the east has changed little in the intervening years; one has gone missing from south korean and one added at hong kong (to identify the cause or to see whether this results from a possible error in the data would take further research beyond the scope of this article). in east asia, the centrenet map (fig. ) indicates dh centres in tokyo and kyoto in japan, taipei in taiwan, and one in hong kong. what is missing is a connection here with mainland china. notwithstanding this, saw the first chinese dh forum at peking university (pku), crossing boundaries and engaging communities: digital humanities under global view, with the second in , interaction and coexistence: digital fig. centernet, centres map http://dhcenternet.org/centers (november ) centernet http://dhcenternet.org. centernet: map of the registered centres http://dhcenternet.org/centers. cultural diversity and the digital humanities http://dhcenternet.org/centers http://dhcenternet.org http://dhcenternet.org/centers humanities and historical research. at the time of writing, we have just seen the call for papers for the third dh forum at pku circulated, incubation and application: how digital humanities projects cater to academic needs. the first chinese dh centre was established at wuhan in (although apparently not registered with centrenet), with another set up this year at nanjing (i have already met with the director of the wuhan centre and hope to visit both centres in as part of my #chinesedh networking activities); dh was one of the topics for the fudan conference, cross-cultural, cross-group and comparative modernity conference, from which this publication derives, and the international symposium on library and digital humanities (isldh) was held at shenzhen in december . as these maps demonstrate, there are a number of dh centres listed in centernet clustering around the east asian pacific rim: hong kong, taiwan and japan. perhaps as a result of cross-pacific migration and/or trading links, there seems to be an ever-growing interest in collaborative dh projects in the usa that focus on chinese literature and culture: the china bibliographic database project and the chinese text project, both based at harvard along with the east asia dh lab. the harvard/china connection can, of course, be traced back to john king fairbank, the first director of the center for chinese studies based there and subsequently named after him, and his pioneering work on chinese history and fig. global dh centres (detail from terras ) the first dh forum at pku http://pkunews.pku.edu.cn/xwzh/ - / /content_ .htm; the second dh forum held at pku http://english.pku.edu.cn/news_events/news/focus/ .htm. china bibliographical database project (cbdp) https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/cbdb and. chinese text project http://ctext.org. east asia dh lab http://guides.library.harvard.edu/c.php?g= &p= . s. mahony http://pkunews.pku.edu.cn/xwzh/ - / /content_ .htm http://english.pku.edu.cn/news_events/news/focus/ .htm https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/cbdb http://ctext.org http://guides.library.harvard.edu/c.php?g= &p= culture. a quick search of the web brings up others including the dh asia summit being held at the stanford humanities center. in london, saw the official opening by president xi jinping, president of the people’s republic of china, of the ucl institute of education, confucius institute, ‘supporting the teaching and learning of mandarin chinese and the study of china across other areas of the curriculum’. at king’s college london, there is the lau china institute for the study of contemporary china. while writing this article, i received a pdf via the ‘digital humanities group ’ wechat group of a new publication in the journal digital scholarship in the humanities, examining text reuse in early chinese literature (sturgeon b). there is clearly much active western research activity in this rich field. closer to my own interests, i co-organize the digital classicist summer seminar series supported by the institute of classical studies, school of advanced study, at senate house, london. in our series, we invited donald sturgeon from harvard to present a paper entitled ‘crowdsourcing a digital-library of pre-modern chinese’ with a focus on the chinese text project mentioned above. this was well attended and particularly by colleagues from the british library working on the chinese manuscript collections held there. of more note, the british library is a partner institution for the international dunhuang project: the silk road online (idp). this project pulls together disparate collections of artifacts and manuscripts originally held at dunhuang and now dispersed internationally, as well as of other heritage sites along the eastern silk roads. this multinational project has stated aims to engage in the conservation of the original documents and artifacts, cataloguing and research, the systematic digitisation of the material to allow access that would not otherwise be possible, as well as the all-important education and outreach to bring this collection to a wider audience. these types of projects stimulate the interest in and so the scholarship on this important cultural area. they in turn acknowledge the huge debt that europe and the west owe to chinese culture, technology, innovation and scholarship, for example, the recently screened bbc four documentary, the silk road , and also scholarly print publications such as frankopan ( ). the idp online project publishes in a range of languages (english, chinese, russian, japanese, german, french and korean) or at least when the various hosting sites are available. these languages make the content available beyond the immediate confines of either the anglophone world or the mandarin one. this is an exemplar for the appropriate and effective dissemination of scholarship, making the research outputs and other material available in a range of languages, fairbank center for chinese studies http://fairbank.fas.harvard.edu/. dh asia summit http://shc.stanford.edu/events/digital-humanities-asia- -summit. ioe confucius institute http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/departments-centres/centres/ioe-confucius-institute- for-schools. lau china institute https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/lci. sturgeon http://www.digitalclassicist.org/wip/wip - ds.html. idp http://idp.bl.uk. idp activities http://idp.bl.uk/pages/about_activities.a d. bbc the silk road http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p qb . cultural diversity and the digital humanities http://fairbank.fas.harvard.edu/ http://shc.stanford.edu/events/digital-humanities-asia- -summit http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/departments-centres/centres/ioe-confucius-institute-for-schools http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ioe/departments-centres/centres/ioe-confucius-institute-for-schools https://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/departments/lci http://www.digitalclassicist.org/wip/wip - ds.html http://idp.bl.uk http://idp.bl.uk/pages/about_activities.a d http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p qb makes them accessible to a far wider audience and does not restrict the engagement or outreach to a single language-based audience. at ucldh, we have had students working at the british library on the idp and writing dissertations relating to that project, on the importance of the silk roads and the impact that publishing otherwise unobtainable original source material online has and how it benefits research in that area. we also have our own project, bridge to china, which aims to further the understanding of all aspects of the chinese speaking world. ucl, more widely and as a linguistic centre, has been partnering attempts to address the language issues and limitations of internet domain names, with their limited character set, as a partner organization in icann’s development of the new generic top-level domains, particularly with regard to chinese (han), japanese and korean characters. language initiatives are particularly welcome in the uk as we are notoriously bad at learning languages, despite language learning being compulsory at primary school level, and as english had become such an international language, there is generally not the incentive to do so. lack of language acquisition is not the only potential issue when it comes to lack of linguistic diversity. greg crane points to the problematic nature of the loss of the rich linguistic diversity previously found in the usa (particularly german although with an acknowledged rise in spanish) (crane a). widening the possibilities east asia is not the only linguistically under-represented area in dh. the closing keynote of the adho dh conference held at the university of nebraska- lincoln usa was given by isabel galina russell, an honorary research fellow at ucldh where she completed her phd, now working at the institute for bibliographic studies at unam, mexico. in her keynote, ‘is there anybody out there? building a global digital humanities community’, galina raises many of the questions touched on above (galina ). galina asks, ‘who are we?’ in digital humanities and we both share a similar view: dh is a community (more on that below). however, there are problems here which she articulates well: one of the things that characterizes dh i think is that the community has worked very hard towards building the dh community. and most of this work has come from enthusiastic and generous scholars who have given much of their time to developing it. […] this community has traditionally viewed itself, as with the conference, as welcoming and open. collaboration and bridge to china https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/chinese. ‘ucl and soas (the nearby school of oriental and african studies) together form the world’s leading centre of linguistic expertise, teaching and researching more than languages’ http://www.ucl. ac.uk/ah/domain-names/leading-centre. ucl domain names http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ah/domain-names. uk national curriculum https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in- england-languages-progammes-of-study. s. mahony https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/chinese http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ah/domain-names/leading-centre http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ah/domain-names/leading-centre http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ah/domain-names https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-languages-progammes-of-study https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-languages-progammes-of-study cooperation are seen as specific traits of dh that differentiate it from the more “lone-scholar” traditional humanist. it seems to be that openness and a desire to work with others is fundamental to the way we think of ourselves. and yet, over the past few years this community has become aware that this isn’t so open, universal as it thought it was (galina ). the field of digital humanities has arguably been built on openness and a sense of community but has historically excluded much of the world by its anglophone preponderance and focus on text-based scholarship. this, as galina says, has been pointed out over time but has only more recently ‘become more of a mainstream discussion’ (galina ). it is argued in this article that perhaps a self-conscious anxiety over the value and importance of the field (if it can indeed be called that) of digital humanities has got in the way of our reflection on what it is that we do and why we do it. as an educator, this is a task that we often give our students in their assignments and certainly something that we (in the uk) write into module and programme proposals; reflective practice is, or should be, part of the training of our students (the next generation of practitioners) and yet, under all the pressures of academia, we perhaps find little time for that ourselves. experience show that this is not limited to dh but often the case across the wide range of disciplines found in academia. the mexican dh has an established organization red de humanidades digitales with its material published in spanish. spanish is also a european language, and although there are variations specific to mexico, it is still a european romance (indo-european) language that has grown from latin vulgar, the common and spoken language (as opposed to the classical latin of literature and poetry) of much of europe during and after the time of the roman empire and throughout the mediterranean geographic area. it has a common root and heritage with many other european languages but because of the predominance of the english language, particularly in international journals, publication in english is needed to ensure disseminated and engagement with knowledge production. this is true also with spanish universities and their doctoral degrees. my own experience of presenting at events in mexico has involved them supplying live translators, for my benefit rather than anyone else’s, as i have often been the only non-mexican presenter. my attempts at pronunciation prompted polite amusement from my hosts as i attempted to apply my best anglo-andalusian accent to mexican terms, names and titles. for guest talks and workshops delivered in china, i have a translator plus the main text on any content slides is translated into mandarin by my chinese students. where possible, i just use images in slides as these need no translation and the language is international. at my home institution, in accordance with our regulations, my teaching slides are made available for the students prior to classes; this was originally to help students with reading difficulties (e.g. dyslexia) but now more so for the non-native speakers in my classes, who make up the majority, to allow them to investigate unfamiliar words and technical terms beforehand. as a red de humanidades digitales http://www.humanidadesdigitales.net. for example, at the university of guadalajara (mahony ). cultural diversity and the digital humanities http://www.humanidadesdigitales.net lecturer, i quickly learned to remove all traces of sarcasm and irony from teaching material as feedback indicated that some students had thought that examples being held up for ridicule were there as exemplars of good or best practice. i had previously trained as a language teacher to adults and so routinely avoided jargon and colloquial expressions or culturally specific examples to illustrate points. the dominance of the english language is, as above, a barrier to inclusivity to all who do not read or speak english. in dh, we now have go::dh (global outlook:: digital humanities), which is a special interest group (sig) of adho with a purpose, to help break down barriers that hinder communication and collaboration among researchers and students of the digital arts, humanities, and cultural heritage sectors in high, mid, and low income economies […] its core activities are discovery, community-building, research, and advocacy. adho, itself, also has the multi-lingualism and multi-culturalism committee (mlmc), which is there to consult with its steering committee over questions of multiculturalism. the wide range of nationalities within this group can be seen from the list of representatives on their web page along with their protocols and policy documents for linguistic and cultural inclusion. in europe, the eadh has an executive composed of members from a great number of countries, although i understand that english is generally spoken as the most common language. they have associate and partner organizations with dhd (german speaking), aiucd (italian), dhn (nordic countries) and cadh (czech). there are indeed linguistic diversity and multicultural inclusion although in a european and predominately english-speaking sphere. these issues are not confined to dh but there seems to be justifiable concern in a field where there is a drive for inclusiveness rather than exclusion. this is arguably one of the reasons why we struggle ‘not’ to define the field of dh, which has been a distinct policy at ucldh. once you give definitions, you are erecting barriers and fences; if you define what it is that explicitly constitutes dh, you are also saying what is not dh—you are excluding people. we prefer to think of ourselves as self- defining. we are part of the dh community because we think and say that we are; in other words, we self-identify with the field. we also see ourselves as a ‘community’ and self-consciously describe our field as such (mahony ). language is indeed a barrier to inclusion and inclusiveness, and we must endeavour to address this and other issues such as an apparent lack of reflection on what it is that we do and why we do it. galina suggests some simple ways to make things more accessible to non- english speakers such as having more translations of published research outputs and go::dh http://www.globaloutlookdh.org. mlmc https://adho.org/administration/multi-lingualism-multi-culturalism. dhd http://dig-hum.de. aiucd http://www.aiucd.it. dhn http://dig-hum-nord.eu. cadh http://czdhi.ff.cuni.cz/en/about. s. mahony http://www.globaloutlookdh.org https://adho.org/administration/multi-lingualism-multi-culturalism http://dig-hum.de http://www.aiucd.it http://dig-hum-nord.eu http://czdhi.ff.cuni.cz/en/about project reports with the resulting costs being built into funding proposals (galina ). having more international conferences, such as the one in fudan, and the movement of the major conferences outside of the anglophone zone would go some way to addressing this. without doing these things, we are restricting our participants and our audience, and so limiting the global reach of our dh community. there are, of course, also issues of connectivity and computing infrastructure which hamper our wider connections. these are not discussed in this article, other than to note that there are great regional differences within the uk itself without having to cross any political borders. the so-called digital divide has not yet been resolved here in a technologically developed nation. in china, where there is a much faster growth in internet penetration, the gap appears to be closing with the spread of phone networks (the most popular way to connect to the internet in china) (statista ), although there is still a clear gap between urban and rural areas which the government is planning to address. in the uk, the drive is still for high- speed fibre optic cables, although full coverage in even such a small country is still limited with a similar gap between urban and rural areas, with the greatest coverage in the more populated and affluent areas. conclusion returning to the main topic of cultural diversity and the digital humanities, as shown by the examples above, we are now seeing within dh an ever-growing interest in exploring culture and heritage more widely. geographic inclusion, however, does not necessarily equate to scholarly inclusion, particularly if language is a barrier to that inclusiveness. this is an issue for the principal dh journals, other dh publications, and calls for conference papers within the global dh sphere. for the adho international dh conference in , we have the call for papers available and circulated in a variety of languages (german, english, spanish, italian and portuguese) as well as the conference itself being bilingual. the conference will be officially bilingual in spanish and english, so we invite proposals for presentations particularly in these languages, as well as in the other languages for which we have a sufficient pool of peer reviewers (german, italian, french and portuguese, the latter an important language community of our host region). this is pleasing to see and not too unexpected as it will be held in mexico city at unam with red de humanidades digitales as one of the hosting organizations and galina russell as one of the local conference organizers. another important issue that cannot be overlooked is that of institutional support; a digital humanities centre requires this support along with a coherent management china daily http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/ - / /content_ .htm. gov.uk https://www.gov.uk/guidance/broadband-delivery-uk. dh call for papers (cfp) https://dh .adho.org/en/cfp. cultural diversity and the digital humanities http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/ - / /content_ .htm https://www.gov.uk/guidance/broadband-delivery-uk https://dh .adho.org/en/cfp policy. it can also find itself being constantly asked to justify its existence and whether or not it represents ‘good value’ for the resources (staff time and funding) that it receives. within rigid university structures, it is easy to say that interdisciplinary practice is encouraged but as we all find out to our cost, it is often difficult to achieve. beyond the institutional barriers imposed by schools and faculties, there are also the disciplinary ones which bring with them their own logistical, practical and inter-personal ones too. these often revolve around the management of projects, funding opportunities, recognition for the work done and publishing venues (terras ). in the introduction to debates in the digital humanities, matthew gold also expresses this but in a different way, describing dh as ‘a field in the midst of growing pains as its adherents expand from a small circle of like-minded scholars to a more heterogeneous set of practitioners who sometimes ask more disruptive questions’ (gold ). this ‘disruption’ is another potential cause of tension when entering into collaborations with more established disciplinary areas. institutional support is needed to facilitate interdisciplinary working, to provide support for dh centres and their activities, as well as allowing practitioners to engage in international projects and events; budgets for travel, conference attendance, publication, and now also for translation must be part of long-term institutional strategic vision. as an academic field, dh has come a long way in a relatively short time but we still have much to do to achieve the openness, sense of community and inclusiveness that we aspire to. we need to have more conversations with dh groups beyond the anglophone sphere and the conference in fudan, that prompted this article, and that in shenzhen (mentioned above) have given the opportunity for and facilitated several such conversations. chinese dh centres and research groups in libraries such as pku and shanghai offer a welcome and hospitality to western visitors. the challenge is for us in the western anglophone sphere to be equally welcoming and willing to engage with researchers and practitioners outside of our echo-chamber and to reach out more widely. otherwise, we are destined to meet, greet and discuss our topics of interest and research only with those that we already know. coda just as the artefacts we produce are the results of cultural influences, so too are the writings, our cognitive processes, and how we view and understand the world around us. this article has also drawn on my own very limited research into cross- cultural teaching, examining some of the issues that become apparent when working across disciplinary and ethnic boundaries; it also considers some of the growing number of collaborative dh projects that focus on chinese literature and cultural heritage. restricting our cultural perspective is restricting our field; we all learn from each other and inclusion benefits us all. and without this, it is those english speakers who have no other language that stand to lose the most. greg crane expresses this well: s. mahony now, english has emerged as a de facto lingua franca – with of those of us who grew up speaking english losing the most, insofar as the widespread use of english makes it easy for us to ignore the importance of language and to avoid the challenge of mastering languages other than our own. no one would benefit more from a commitment to linguistic diversity than speakers of english (crane b). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, dis- tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references bodard and mahony eds. . ‘“though much is taken, much abides”: recovering antiquity through innovative digital methodologies’ digital classicist special issue, digital medievalist . crane, gregory. a. ‘resisting a monocultural (digital) humanities’ https://docs.google.com/ document/d/ novwutubpa yn uibjvz_tscavzs exrsjrzisn -vq. accessed jan . crane gregory. b. ‘the big humanities, national identity and the digital humanities in germany’. http://www.dh.uni-leipzig.de/wo/the-big-humanities-national-identity-and-the-digital-humanities- in-germany. accessed jan . de selincourt, aubrey. . (trans) herodotus the histories. penguin. fiormonte, domenico. . ‘towards a cultural critique of the digital humanities’, historical social research, vol. no. , – . reprinted in: debates in the digital humanities , eds matthew gold and lauren klein (eds) university of minnesota press. fiormonte, domenico. . ‘towards monoculture (digital) humanities?’ infolet: cultura e critica dei media digitali : . https://infolet.it/ / / /monocultural-humanities. accessed jan . frankopan, peter. . the silk roads: a new history of the world. london: bloomsbury publishing. franzini, greta, simon mahony, and melissa terras. . ‘a catalogue of digital editions.’ in digital scholarly editing: theories and practices, eds. elena pierazzo and matthew driscoll, – . open book publishers. galina russell, isabel. . ‘is there anybody out there? building a global digital humanities community’, humanidades digitales http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/ / / /is-there- anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community. accessed jan . gold, matthew. . ‘introduction: the digital humanities moment’. in debates in the digital humanities, ed. gold, matthew, ix–xvi. university of minnesota press. mahony, simon. . university of guadalajara ‘reflections on knowledge production within the framework of uk academic institutions. http://www.udg.mx/es/noticia/redes-sociales-generan- nuevas-dimensiones-de-ensenanza. accessed jan . mahony, simon. . ‘the digital classicist: building a digital humanities community’, digital humanities quarterly : . http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. accessed jan . meester, wim. . ‘towards a comprehensive citation index for the arts & humanities’ research trends . https://www.researchtrends.com/issue- -march- /towards-a-comprehensive- citation-index-for-the-arts-humanities. accessed jan . nyhan, julianne and flinn, andrew. . computation and the humanities: towards an oral history of digital humanities, springeropen. rockwell, geoffrey. . ‘an alternate beginning to humanities computing?’ theoretica.ca. statista ‘mobile phone internet user penetration in china from to ’ https://www.statista. com/statistics/ /china-mobile-phone-internet-user-penetration. accessed jan . sturgeon, donald. a. ‘crowdsourcing a digital library of pre-modern chinese’ http://www. digitalclassicist.org/wip/wip - ds.html. accessed jan . sturgeon, donald. b. unsupervised identification of text reuse in early chinese literature. digital scholarship in the humanities. https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqx . cultural diversity and the digital humanities http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://docs.google.com/document/d/ novwutubpa yn uibjvz_tscavzs exrsjrzisn -vq https://docs.google.com/document/d/ novwutubpa yn uibjvz_tscavzs exrsjrzisn -vq http://www.dh.uni-leipzig.de/wo/the-big-humanities-national-identity-and-the-digital-humanities-in-germany http://www.dh.uni-leipzig.de/wo/the-big-humanities-national-identity-and-the-digital-humanities-in-germany https://infolet.it/ / / /monocultural-humanities http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/ / / /is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community http://humanidadesdigitales.net/blog/ / / /is-there-anybody-out-there-building-a-global-digital-humanities-community http://www.udg.mx/es/noticia/redes-sociales-generan-nuevas-dimensiones-de-ensenanza http://www.udg.mx/es/noticia/redes-sociales-generan-nuevas-dimensiones-de-ensenanza http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html https://www.researchtrends.com/issue- -march- /towards-a-comprehensive-citation-index-for-the-arts-humanities https://www.researchtrends.com/issue- -march- /towards-a-comprehensive-citation-index-for-the-arts-humanities https://www.statista.com/statistics/ /china-mobile-phone-internet-user-penetration https://www.statista.com/statistics/ /china-mobile-phone-internet-user-penetration http://www.digitalclassicist.org/wip/wip - ds.html http://www.digitalclassicist.org/wip/wip - ds.html https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqx terras, melissa. . ‘the digital classicist: disciplinary focus and interdisciplinary vision’. in digital research in the study of classical antiquity, eds. gabriel bodard and simon mahony, – . ashgate. terras, melissa. . ‘quantifying digital humanities’. infographic. ucl centre for digital humanities. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ucldh/ . accessed jan . simon mahony is director of the ucl centre for digital humanities and principal teaching fellow in digital humanities at the department of information studies, university college london (ucl). his research interests are in the application of new technologies to the study of the ancient world, using new web-based mechanisms and digital resources to build and sustain learning communities, collaborative and innovative working. he is a member of the ucl student recruitment interest group and recipient of support from ucl’s global engagement funding; chair of the new ucl open education special interest group and on the project management team and a member of the project board for the ucl open educational resources (oer) repository. he is also active in the field of distance learning and is a member of the university of london’s centre for distance education with an interest in the development of educational practice and the use of new tools to facilitate this. in addition, he is an associate fellow at the institute of classical studies (school of advanced study, university of london) and one of the founding editors of the digital classicist. s. mahony http://www.flickr.com/photos/ucldh/ cultural diversity and the digital humanities abstract introduction cultural and linguistic diversity objects of study moving beyond widening the possibilities conclusion coda open access references umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger doi: http://doi.org/ . /issn. - / the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger angelica lo duca, clara bacciu, andrea marchetti iit cnr, pisa, italy angelica.loduca@iit.cnr.it clara.bacciu@iit.cnr.it andrea.marchetti@iit.cnr.it abstract in recent years, blockchain technology is progressively spreading on a large scale in various research sectors, including cultural heritage. different types of blockchain exist, which can be classified either according to the type of users that can access them, or based on the features they offer. this article describes a theoretical study in which two very different blockchains are compared: ethereum and hyperledger, in order to define which of the two is more suitable for storing tangible heritage contained in digital archives. after a brief description of the two technologies, a possible generic application scenario will be described in order to understand which of the two technologies best meets the requirements of the scenario. the comparison between the two blockchains will therefore be carried out on the basis of general issues, architectural requirements and various considerations. as a result of the comparison, it will emerge that hyperledger fabric is more suitable in the context of digital archives. negli ultimi anni la tecnologia blockchain si sta diffondendo sempre più su larga scala in diversi settori di ricerca, inclusi i beni culturali. esistono diverse tipologie di blockchain, che possono essere classificate sia in base al tipo di utenti che possono accedervi, sia in base alle funzionalità che offrono. questo articolo descrive uno studio teorico in cui si confrontano due blockchain molto diverse tra di loro: ethereum e hyperledger, al fine di definire quale delle due è maggiormente indicata per la memorizzazione di beni culturali tangibili contenuti in archivi digitali. dopo una breve descrizione delle due tecnologie, verrà descritto un possibile scenario di applicazione abbastanza generico per poter capire quale delle due tecnologie meglio soddisfa i requisiti. verrà quindi effettuato il confronto tra le due blockchain sulla base di problematiche generali, requisiti architetturali e considerazioni varie. come risultato del confronto, emergerà che hyperledger fabric è più adatta nel contesto degli archivi digitali. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , introduction recently, the diffusion of applications based on blockchain technology [ ], [ ] has been increasing rapidly. the original focus of these technologies concerned cryptocurrencies (i.e., bitcoin), but is shifting to finance and business in general, and is being extended progressively for a variety of applications in healthcare, government, internet of things, entity and assets management and eventually cultural heritage. in particular, a blockchain could be a good solution to store, protect and preserve over time data about tangible heritage, especially minor tangible heritage, i.e. artistically relevant artworks but not as famous as masterpieces. for example, in case of disasters (either natural or man made), the fact that the blockchain is a replicated registry can be exploited to retrieve information that in other circumstances would otherwise be lost forever. in addition, information contained in the blockchain cannot be erased or tampered with, so, in case of theft of the real artwork, related data will remain available and would be used to recognise the work if someone tries to sell it and to detect counterfeits. using blockchain to store digital archives of artworks thus constitutes a promising field of application. this paper is an extension of the work illustrated in [ ]. in particular, it describes the challenges and requirements for storing a digital archive of artworks in a blockchain. in addition, a possible framework based on blockchain is illustrated. then the paper describes a comparison between two blockchains, ethereum [ ] and hyperledger fabric [ ], used as main framework for digital archives. a preliminary implementation of a framework for digital archives, based on ethereum, has already been defined in [ ], [ ]. on the basis of the described framework, a selection of some comparison criteria is done, including general issues related to blockchains, architectural requirements applied to the specific architecture and other considerations. as a result of the comparison, we can say hyperledger fabric better fits for the proposed scenario because is more configurable. however, due to its popularity ethereum still remains a good solution. in addition to ethereum and hyperledger there are other implementations of the blockchain technology. some of the most important are: bitcoin [ ], corda, quorum. bitcoin was the first blockchain. based on open source code, it implements a decentralized digital cryptocurrency where transactions are validated by miners through a rewarding process. corda is an open source blockchain platform, designed mainly for business applications. similarly, to corda, quorum, based on ethereum with added control for permission and privacy, is a blockchain envisaged mainly for business applications. a complete comparison among the most important blockchains is done in [ ]. the choice of which blockchain should be used to store digital archives depends mainly on two aspects: firstly, the blockchain should be general, i.e., not limited to financial applications. secondly, it should be popular, i.e. technically mature https://www.ethereum.org/ https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/fabric https://www.corda.net/ https://www.jpmorgan.com/global/quorum https://www.jpmorgan.com/global/quorum https://www.corda.net/ https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/fabric https://www.ethereum.org/ a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger and with community guaranteeing long-term sustainability. this paper compares only ethereum and hyperledger fabric, mainly because they represent the two main ways of implementing a blockchain: on the one hand ethereum is the most representative example of all permissionless blockchains. on the other hand, hyperledger represents permissioned blockchains. both ethereum and hyperledger can be applied to specific scenarios through the use of smart contracts/chain codes. bitcoin is a digital currency, and programmability is very limited. corda, instead, is a more recent blockchain, still not established as ethereum and hyperledger fabric. quorum is a specific implementation of ethereum, thus some considerations done for ethereum are valid also for quorum. related works the problem of managing records through a blockchain has been largely investigated during the last few years. in her paper, lemieux proposes a classification of blockchain applications [ ], based on which information is stored in the blockchain: a) mirror type, b) digital record type, c) tokenized type. mirror type in the mirror type, the blockchain serves as a mirror, which stores only records fingerprints. the complete information of a record is stored into an external repository and the blockchain is used only to verify records integrity. in [ ] the authors describe a first implementation of a decentralized database for the storage of descriptive metadata related to digital records, based on the combination of the blockchain and ipfs technologies. in their paper liang et. al. describe provchain [ ], a system which guarantees data provenance in cloud environments. vishwa et. al. [ ] illustrate a blockchain-based framework, which guarantees copyright compliance of multimedia objects by means of smart contracts. digital record type in the digital record type, the blockchain is used to store all the records in the form of smart contracts. in [ ] the authors illustrate a distributed and tamper-proof framework for media. each media is represented by a watermark, which is firstly compressed and then stored into a blockchain. approved modifications to media are stored in the blockchain thus preventing tampering. in [ ] the authors describe archain, a blockchain-based archive system, which stores small sized records. multiple roles are defined in the system, thus allowing records creation, approval and removal. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , tokenized type in the tokenized type, records are stored in the blockchain and they are linked to a cryptocurrency. adding, updating or removing a record has a cost. this constitutes an innovative case, where the literature is not consolidated yet. an example of this type of blockchain is represented by the ubitquity project, which records land transactions on behalf of companies and government agencies. background the concept of digital archive a digital archive is a repository of digital records that need long-term or even permanent preservation for their cultural, historical, or evidentiary value. in digital archives, a record can be anything holding a piece of information in the form of digital object, such as texts, images, pictures, videos and audios. this paper focuses on digital archives which contain collections of minor artworks. minor artworks are artistically relevant works but not as well-known as famous masterpieces, or belonging to the so-called minor arts, such as books and manuscripts, pottery, lacquerware, furniture, jewellery, or textiles. examples of minor tangible heritage could be those kept in some small libraries or countryside churches, or even in private households. the creation, management and sustainability of a digital archive is not an easy task, because there is a series of issues that must be taken into consideration [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]. the interpares (international research on permanent authentic records in electronic systems) series of projects [ ] focused on creating policies and guidelines for making and maintaining digital records, including authenticity requirements for record systems and long-term preservation of digital records. a digital archive is subject to obsolescence, in the sense that the hardware supports on which it is stored change over time (from the floppy disk to the internet cloud). thus a digital archive needs long-term preservation, i.e. digital artwork should remain accessible for a long period of time depending on legal, regulatory, operational, and historical requirements. secondly, every artwork of the digital archive must be associated with different metadata (descriptive, structural, administrative), which should be maintained up-to-date by authorized accounted persons. this means that on the one hand that all the operations about the digital archive should be documented in an open and verifiable manner (transparency). on the other hand, artworks should be protected against forgery and identified correctly in case of loss and subsequent discovery (anti-counterfeiting). thirdly, records of the digital archive are stored in different media formats, each defined by its own software and hardware. a digital archive should guarantee the availability of all the formats, i.e. artworks should be efficiently and accurately retrieved. finally there are also other aspects that must be considered, such as corruption and loss of information, which need protection, integrity and traceability of artworks. http://ubitquity.io/brazil_ubitquity_llc_pilot.html http://ubitquity.io/brazil_ubitquity_llc_pilot.html a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger integrity makes sure that the digital description of the artwork is not subject to unauthorized changes. protection permits to protect the digital description of the artwork in case of natural disasters and/or attacks (it is obviously impossible to protect the real work only with it tools). traceability permits to trace all movements of individual artworks. another relevant issue concerns how difficult it can be to find and access repositories due to the inconsistent description practices among different archives. the isad(g) (general international standard archival description) [ ] is a standard that addresses this issue and gives guidelines, to be used in conjunction with existing national standards, for the preparation of archive descriptions that are effective in presenting the content of archival material, so that it is easily identifiable and accessible. this description creates a hierarchy of metadata related to the entire archive, as opposed to those related to each record. an overview of blockchain technology a blockchain is a particular implementation of a distributed ledger (dl). a dl is essentially a database, which is shared among different nodes of a network. in practice, all the nodes of the network share the same copy of the database and any change made on a node, is replicated to all the other nodes in few minutes and, in some cases, even in few seconds. a dl can be public (as opposite of private) if any node can read the content, and permissionless (as opposed of permissioned) if any node can write content (table ). the protocol for the first functioning blockchain was introduced in to support the digital cash bitcoin, and implements the ledger as a chain of blocks. each block contains data, a timestamp and a cryptographic hash of the previous block. this way the integrity of the information stored in the blockchain is protected through a security system based on cryptography. with respect to a standard database, a blockchain is an append-only register. this means that information can only be added to the database, but it cannot be removed. modifications to the stored data can be done by re-uploading a new version of the data. a distributed consensus algorithm is used to decide which updates to the ledger are to be considered valid. new participants (nodes) can start collaborating to the maintenance of the repository by following this algorithm. there is no need of a central authority or trust between nodes; the consensus algorithm and cryptography grant the correctness of data even in the presence of some malicious nodes. each block is made tamper-resistant by adding in its header a cryptographic signature of the data it contains (usually a hash of the content), as well as a link to the previous block of the chain (the cryptographic hash of the block). this way each block is dependent on the content of all the previous blocks, making it impossible to modify the data contained in old blocks without rewriting the new ones. initially designed for financial transactions, blockchain technology can be used to record anything of value. even executable code can be stored in the blockchain, the so-called smart umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , contracts. a smart contract is not necessarily the transposition of a real contract, it is just code that is executed by all the nodes of the blockchain network, and the result of the computation is stored after a consensus is reached. a transaction carrying the payload of the contract is first broadcast to the network. its result is the deployment of the payload as code linked by its public address. any new transaction can then refer to this address to trigger the execution of the functions inside the contract. the big advantage of a blockchain is that it is an immutable, distributed, always available, secure and publicly accessible repository of data. the main issues with blockchain implementation of distributed ledgers are scalability and efficiency: often, consensus algorithms that are used to grant consistency are expensive in terms of time and resources. in some cases, a certain level of trust among participants can be present, thus simpler consensus algorithms can be used. key technical choices of blockchain technology include: ) permission design, i.e., whether permission is needed to access the blockchain; ) choice of consensus algorithm, i.e., how a new block is added to the blockchain; ) whether or not to use smart contracts, i.e., whether to use the blockchain as a virtual machine where programs representing business processes are run; ) whether or not to use a cryptocurrency, i.e., whether the consensus algorithm and smart contract operations depend on an artificial currency or not. those technical choices often result from the governance model that has been chosen for the ecosystem of participants. some all can read private public can write permissioned permissionless table : types of blockchains according who can access what. ethereum ethereum is a public open-source blockchain platform that has the capability of running so- called decentralised applications (dapps). at the moment, the consensus algorithm is based on proof of work. mining nodes generate a cryptocurrency named ether that is used to pay for transactions. the key characteristic of ethereum is that it is a programmable blockchain, because it provides a virtual machine (evm) that can execute user generated scripts (smart a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger contracts) using the network of nodes. smart contracts are usually written in solidity language (but there are some alternatives), are compiled to evm bytecode, and are deployed to the blockchain for execution. contract computation consumes gas, which is paid spending ether. smart contracts are the foundation of dapps. diagram in figure shows the simplified architecture of dapps: there is no central server to which web every browser has to connect, but instead each one has its own instance of the application. ethereum functions both as storage for data and code, and as the machine that executes the code. the ethereum network the ethereum network is a public distributed network with two types of nodes: full nodes and lightweight nodes. full nodes which contain the whole blockchain, i.e. all the validated transactions. some full nodes, called miners, are also responsible for transaction validation. miners can also be grouped in pools. lightweight nodes contain a subset of the blockchain and rely on full nodes for missing information. examples of lightweight nodes are e-wallets, i.e. electronic devices or apps which permit to do transactions. https://solidity.readthedocs.io figure : the architecture diagram of an ethereum dapp. https://solidity.readthedocs.io/ umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , ether and gas as already said, ethereum is cryptocurrency-based blockchain where the cryptocurrency used is called ether (eth). the price of eth is . $ (updated on october , ). together with ether there is also gas, which is used to pay computational resources in the network ( gas fee). the current value of gas is called gas price. every smart contract has associated a gas limit, which is the maximum amount of gas which it can consume. hyperledger hyperledger is an open source effort aimed at advancing cross-industry blockchain technologies. hyperledger focuses on developing different blockchain frameworks and modules to support global enterprise solutions. hyperledger blockchains are generally permissioned blockchains, which means that the parties that want to join the network must be authenticated and authorized. the focus of hyperledger is to provide a transparent and collaborative approach to blockchain development. within hyperledger, there are eight different technology code projects, which define a common set of development principles: five distributed ledger frameworks and three support modules. the hyperledger frameworks include: an append-only distributed ledger a consensus algorithm for agreeing to changes in the ledger privacy of transactions through permissioned access smart contracts to process transaction requests. in this paper only hyperledger fabric is described, because it is the most widespread. the hyperledger fabric blockchain is a distributed system consisting of many nodes that communicate with each other. figure shows the hyperledger fabric model. figure : the hyperledger fabric model. client a defines a chaincode (contract) through a transaction. once the transaction approved, client b can invoke methods contained in the chaincode through another transaction. a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger chaincodes and channels the blockchain runs programs called chaincodes, holds state and ledger data, and executes transactions. chaincodes correspond to the ethereum smart contracts. each chaincode can be invoked through one or more operations, called transactions. transactions have to be endorsed and only endorsed transactions may be committed and have an effect on the state of the ledger. the most peculiar aspect of hyperledger is the possibility to define channels, which are data partitioning mechanisms that allow transaction visibility for only some defined users of the blockchain. each channel is an independent chain of transaction blocks containing only transactions for that particular channel. the ledger contains the current world state of the network and a chain of transaction invocations. the world state reflects the current data about all the assets in the network. ledger provides a verifiable history of all successful state changes (valid transactions) and unsuccessful attempts to change state (invalid transactions), occurring during the operation of the system. roles and transactions in hyperledger two roles can be defined: clients and validators. clients are applications that act on behalf of a person to propose transactions on the network. validators maintain the state of the network and a copy of the ledger. unlike ethereum, in hyperledger fabric there is no mining of blocks. in order to verify a transaction, each transaction is sent to one trusted validator, which broadcasts it to all the other validators of the network. all the validators reach consensus (using a specific algorithm) on the order to follow to execute all the transactions. then each validator runs the transactions on its own, following the established order and builds a block with all the executed transactions. since the execution of transactions is deterministic, all the validators build exactly the same block. finally, the validators asynchronously notify the client application of the success or failure of the transaction. clients are notified by each validator. the model of blockchain for digital archives the use of blockchain for digital archives guarantees a mechanism to access, manage and protect cultural heritage on a daily basis and at times of disasters (due for example to climate change or man-made). the blockchain-based framework should be designed both for minor tangible heritage and major tangible and intangible heritage. thanks to the append-only-register property of the blockchain, the framework provides a layered protection and conservation means for cultural heritage. the framework exploits also some specific advantages of blockchain (integrity, transparency and authenticity of records) to allow the secure storage of minor tangible heritage contained in digital archives. the framework integrates also technologies for a distributed record storage, such as the interplanetary file umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , system [ ], in order to guarantee the digital preservation and transmission of tangible and intangible heritage from generation to generation. the use of these storage technologies permits the development of a sustainable protection and enhancement of values as well as the long-term management of cultural heritage at risk. thanks to the benefits of blockchain and the distributed technologies for record storage, the framework should improve sustainable access to digital heritage by contributing to the resilience of our societies in terms of: helping users to preserve the memory of cultural heritage in case of destruction of the physical artwork, due to natural disasters or man-made disasters, facilitating the restoration and/or the reconstruction of damaged heritage, thanks to the information contained in the ledger, preventing malicious changes to the ledger, registering temporary movements of movable heritage, for example for exhibits. requirements the section the concept of digital archive describes the general requirements of a digital archive (long-term preservation, transparency, anti-counterfeiting, protection, integrity and traceability). the use of blockchain for digital archives should guarantee also the following architectural requirements: interoperability: this aspect should guarantee that the blockchain can easily interoperate with external modules, such as web interfaces and external storage (i.e. ipfs); customizable infrastructure: the system should guarantee that the underlying infrastructure is customizable, e.g. the number of nodes and costs can be decided independently; roles: the blockchain should define different users roles, according to what specified in the previous section. queries: this aspect refers to the ability to search data in the blockchain, e.g. search an artwork by title or author. in addition to these requirements, the following parameters that affect performance and scalability should be taken into account [ ]: block frequency: inversely proportional to the time between two succeeding blocks. it is affected by mining difficulty; block size: the number of transactions that fit in a block; network size: the number of nodes of the network. increasing the number of nodes in the network does not always improve performance. in fact, communication and consensus costs may increase. https://ipfs.io/ https://ipfs.io/ a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger throughput: the number of transactions per second; latency: the time elapsed between the submission of a transaction and its validation; finality: the property that once a transaction is completed, there is no way to alter it. architecture errore: sorgente del riferimento non trovata describes the architecture of the blockchain-based framework for digital archives. starting from the bottom of the figure, there is a data lake where all the descriptions of artworks are stored. the data lake is a distributed storage. artworks in data lake can be accessed through indexes contained in the blockchain. the blockchain contains also other basic information related to artworks descriptions, as well as a track of all the operations done on each artwork. this means that an external audit of the framework can always verify the status of an artwork and determine if something is wrong. the blockchain constitutes the backend of the framework, together with the cache. the cache service stores basic information about artworks, such as author name and description, in order to make users queries faster. in fact, natively, a blockchain is not suitable for fast queries such those required by a web search engine. the frontend of the framework is composed of the authentication service, which manages users access to the system, and three interfaces, one for each type of user: search, publisher, and admin interface. users of the framework should play one of the following roles: generic user, publisher, verifier. a generic user can search for an approved artwork in the system. a publisher user can publish or update an artwork in the system. when a new artwork is published, its status is set to pending. this means that the artwork is not approved yet thus cannot be accessed by third parties neither can be updated by its author. a verifier is an expert in the field to which the artwork belongs, and can vote for the approval of the artwork description. this mechanism constitutes an algorithm for compliance with the principle of reliability of a record. complex strategies can be defined to establish how an artwork should be approved. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , due to its intrinsic nature, the blockchain already satisfies the general requirements of a digital archive, but long-term preservation, which is guaranteed through the data lake. protection would be achieved through the fact that the blockchain is replicated on different nodes. anti- counterfeiting would be guaranteed by associating each work to a sort of digital identity card, containing all the information related to the work (including physical information). finally, integrity and traceability would be intrinsically guaranteed by the immutability and timestamping properties of the blockchain. in fact, blockchain security assumptions guarantee that if at a certain time a piece of information has been added to a block that reached consensus, it will be impossible to alter that information without altering all the following blocks. both ethereum and hyperledger fabric satisfy the architectural requirements. however, depending on the type of blockchain, there are the following additional issues that should be taken into account: figure : the architecture of the blockchain-based framework. a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger costs: whether or not every transaction has a fee; popularity: how the blockchain is known, i.e. there is a supporting community and there are skilled programmers able to implement contracts; consensus: the distributed process which establishes the validation of transactions. discussion table illustrates issues associated with the proposed architecture for digital archives and how the two blockchains address them. the fourth column of the table shows which blockchain fits better the requirements for digital archives. regarding costs, hyperledger fabric fits better to the proposed architecture, because the network can be configured without costs on transactions. this means that all the categories of users can access the blockchain freely. however, if a business model were defined in the architecture, e.g. pay as you publish/access resources, also ethereum could be suitable for digital archives. anyway, a private network can be always set up on ethereum, with a gas price set to zero, thus satisfying the model of the proposed architecture. when dealing with popularity, ethereum is more popular and well-known than hyperledger fabric. this means that a technical problem in the implementation of the described architecture could find a greater support by the ethereum community that the hyperledger one. regarding consensus, ethereum bases it on proof of work, while hyperledger fabric implements a permissioned voting-based consensus that implies a level of trust among participants ad requires messages to be exchanged between nodes. in this case, ethereum seems to be more fit because of the lack of need for trust among participants. summarizing, from the point of view of issues, ethereum seems to behave better than hyperledger fabric, but for costs. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , issue ethereum hyperledger fabric preferred blockchain costs every transaction has a cost dependent on gas price (current is about gwei). in a private blockchain, the gas price can be configured. costs can be established when configuring the network hyperledger fabric popularity a well-established and wide community exist. many programmers are able to write smart contracts a developing niche community exists. ethereum consensus based on proof of work. the larger the network, the more reliable the consensus consensus algorithm requiring a level of trust and message overhead. the larger the network, more time it takes to reach consensus. ethereum table : considerations about issues in the two blockchains and which one is more suitable for digital archives. table describes the architectural requirements and how the two blockchains satisfy them. like in the previous table, the fourth column specifies the preferred blockchain for a given requirement. firstly, referring to the customizable architecture, hyperledger fabric is to prefer, because it permits to define who can access the network (permissioned blockchain). however, ethereum can be set up as a private blockchain, in the sense that there is a single organization which manages it, and contracts handling user permissions can be implemented. secondly, looking at interoperability with external storage, hyperledger fabric is better than ethereum, because it has a native storage (data lake) and there is no need to configure external libraries to access it. anyway, if a programmer has good skills with ethereum, the configuration of external libraries to access external storage should not be difficult. the same analysis can be done for interoperability with web interfaces. thirdly, regarding roles, hyperledger fabric is more configurable than ethereum because of its native support of roles. through channels, hyperledger fabric can define also more complex access policies. when defining roles, ethereum has an overhead in terms of smart contracts thus is not indicated for the proposed a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger architecture. finally, queries are not supported neither by ethereum nor by hyperledger and this aspect constitutes a limit of all blockchains. thus, an additional mechanism based on caching is defined in the architecture, in order to speed up data searches. summarizing the comparison about the architectural requirements, hyperledger fabric is the best solution. requirement ethereum hyperledger fabric preferred blockchain customizable infrastructure ethereum is natively a public network, however a private blockchain can be set up native support of permissioned blockchain hyperledger fabric interoperability with external storage (e.g. ipfs) external libraries exist to support ipfs (e.g. infura) no support to external storage because nodes in hyperledger fabric have already a local storage hyperledger fabric, but ethereum is a good alternative interoperability with web interfaces external libraries exist (e.g. web .js and drizzle) native support of interoperability with web interfaces (in angular js) hyperledger fabric, but ethereum is a good alternative roles a smart contract must be defined to manage roles native support of roles through the definition of policies hyperledger fabric queries no native support no native support - table : considerations about architectural requirements in the two blockchains and which one is more suitable for digital archives. a direct comparison between ethereum private and hyperledger in terms of performance is https://infura.io/ https://web js.readthedocs.io/en/v . . / https://www.trufflesuite.com/docs/drizzle/quickstart https://angularjs.org/ https://angularjs.org/ https://www.trufflesuite.com/docs/drizzle/quickstart https://web js.readthedocs.io/en/v . . / https://infura.io/ umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , difficult, due to the fact that are both highly configurable. in general, how the protocol and the network are configured (starting from the choice of a consensus algorithm) has a big impact on performance. an increase in mining difficulty leads to a block frequency decrease, throughput decrease and latency rise. block size and block frequency are to be balanced (especially with pow): incrementing block size improves performance only if the block period is large enough for nodes to be able to create, sign, propagate, execute transactions and reach consensus. adding nodes to the network increases computation capability, but if block frequency is high and block size is large, some nodes may not have the resources to propagate information on time and keep in sync. therefore, scaling is limited by the design of the blockchain platform. a study about performance and scalability of ethereum private networks can be found in [ ], while performance metrics about hyperledger are studied in [ ]. as for the ethereum public platform, average block frequency is - seconds, and average block size is - kb. troughput is about transactions per second, with a latency of about minutes. current network size is . . nodes. summarizing, although ethereum is more popular than hyperledger fabric, hyperledger fabric seems more suitable to store digital archives, because it is highly configurable and permits to define roles natively, without additional overhead. however, as the first implementation of the proposed architecture, ethereum is more indicated because of its simplicity and popularity [ ], [ ]. conclusions and future work this paper has presented challenges and requirements of storing digital archives through blockchain. in addition, a possible architecture based on blockchain has been illustrated as well as a preliminary comparison between ethereum and hyperledger fabric as underlying blockchains in a framework for storing, protecting and preserving digital archives. the paper has compared the two blockchains at three levels: natively issues of the blockchain, architectural requirements and general considerations. as a result, hyperledger fabric is more suitable to store digital archives because of its high configurability. we are aware that this study is preliminary, but we believe that the effort to define a possible architecture of the framework, as well to select and analyse which parameters should be considered when comparing two or more blockchains for digital archives storage is useful in this field. as already said in the introduction, an implemented use case of this architecture can be found in [ ], which exploits ethereum as underlying blockchain. the further step should be the implementation of the framework in hyperledger fabric and then a comparison of the two implemented use cases. https://etherscan.io/nodetracker/nodes https://etherscan.io/nodetracker/nodes a. lo duca, c. bacciu, a. marchetti – the use of blockchain for digital archives: a comparison between ethereum and hyperledger references [ ] arma. . “international. generally accepted recordkeeping principles”. https://rim.ucsc.edu/management/images/theprinciplesmaturitymodel.pdf [ ] bacciu, clara, angelica lo duca and andrea marchetti. . “the use of blockchain for digital archives: challenges and perspectives”. aiucd annual conference – pedagogy, teaching and 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hong-ning dai, xiangping chen and huaimin wang. . “blockchain challenges and opportunities: a survey.” in international journal of web and grid services, / , - . last access urls: th october . https://gavwood.com/paper.pdf abstract introduction related works mirror type digital record type tokenized type background the concept of digital archive an overview of blockchain technology ethereum ether and gas hyperledger chaincodes and channels roles and transactions the model of blockchain for digital archives requirements architecture discussion conclusions and future work references partially automated method for localizing standardized acupuncture points on the heads of digital human models research article partially automated method for localizing standardized acupuncture points on the heads of digital human models jungdae kim , and dae-in kang nano primo research center, advanced institutes of convergence technology, seoul national university, suwon - , republic of korea pharmacopuncture medical research center, korean pharmacopuncture institute, seoul - , republic of korea correspondence should be addressed to jungdae kim; tojdkim@gmail.com received february ; revised may ; accepted may academic editor: vitaly napadow copyright © j. kim and d.-i. kang. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. having modernized imaging tools for precise positioning of acupuncture points over the human body where the traditional therapeutic method is applied is essential. for that reason, we suggest a more systematic positioning method that uses x-ray computer tomographic images to precisely position acupoints. digital korean human data were obtained to construct three- dimensional head-skin and skull surface models of six individuals. depending on the method used to pinpoint the positions of the acupoints, every acupoint was classified into one of three types: anatomical points, proportional points, and morphological points. a computational algorithm and procedure were developed for partial automation of the positioning. the anatomical points were selected by using the structural characteristics of the skin surface and skull. the proportional points were calculated from the positions of the anatomical points. the morphological points were also calculated by using some control points related to the connections between the source and the target models. all the acupoints on the heads of the six individual were displayed on three- dimensional computer graphical image models. this method may be helpful for developing more accurate experimental designs and for providing more quantitative volumetric methods for performing analyses in acupuncture-related research. . introduction regardless of regional differences between western and east- ern medicine, a large amount of medical data has been accumulated over the centuries in the qualitative forms of texts and pictures [ ]. thanks to the fast central process units and vast sizes of computer memories, a new representation of medical knowledge, especially knowledge concerning human anatomy and function, can now be made [ ]. nowadays, the quest to modernize medicine seems to be more demanding on the eastern side than on the western side [ ]. as one of the core therapeutic modalities in many asian countries, acupuncture is still a subject that is actively being studied by with various modernized tools and advanced techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography [ – ]. in countries such as china, japan, and korea, acupunc- ture has been practiced for more than years and has now become a global therapeutic method used across the world. clinical studies have shown promising results for the efficacy of acupuncture in, for example, reducing both postoperative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting in adults, as well as postoperative dental pain [ ]. although basic research on acupuncture has led to considerable progress over the past decades, its underlying mechanism is still an abstruse subject [ ]. because of the increasing demand for standardization of acupuncture point locations, the world health organization western pacific regional office initiated projects in the early s to reach a consensus on those locations. the who presented the general guidelines for acupuncture point locations in the forms of texts and figures, and it stipulated the methodology for locating acupuncture hindawi publishing corporation evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine volume , article id , pages http://dx.doi.org/ . / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / / evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table : characteristics of six subjects for the d digital ct images. subject gender age (years) height (cm) weight (kg) bmi (kg/m ) category male . normal male . underweight male . obese female . normal female . underweight female . overweight obese man underweight mannormal man underweight womannormal womanoverweight woman figure : three-dimensional reconstructed surface models of korean adults with various body types. points on the surface of the human body, as well as the locations of standard acupuncture points. this standard established by the who may be applied in teaching, research, clinical service, preparation of publications, and academic exchanges involving acupuncture [ ]. in more recent studies on acupoint locations, researchers began to use more advanced equipment such as x-ray machines. as a convenient method for locating acupoints, the cun measurement methods have been widely used in the practice of acupuncture. however, the traditional cun measurement methods have been criticized for their lack of reliability. in one study a comparison of two different location methods was done by using dual-energy x-ray absorptiom- etry to measure the soft tissue and the bone mass indepen- dently [ ]. another study used computed tomography (ct) to provide a metric description of acupuncture points in the lumbar region and to give their relation to individual anatomical landmarks and structures [ ]. another study used x-ray radiography to provide experimental evidence to standardize the location of the acupoint in the hand [ ]. synchrotron radiation phase-contrast x-ray ct was also employed to investigate the three-dimensional ( d) topo- graphic structures of acupuncture points [ ]. the results of another study suggested that biomedical information about acupuncture treatment could be visualized in the form of a data-driven d acupuncture point system [ ]. the accurate localization of acupoints is a key issue in acupuncture research. for more precise scientific research and development on acupuncture therapy, having definitions on how to localize acupoints by using a computer-based pictorial representation of the human body is critical. a method for localizing the acupoints on the head of a virtual body by using segmentation and a d visualization of the voxel-man software system was reported [ ]. our initial research on positioning all the standardized acupuncture points was done with the digital data from a healthy korean male with a normal body shape [ ]. the cross-sectional images generated by x-ray ct were used for generating the d virtual models for the bones and the skin’s surface of the entire human body. the volumetric d acupoint model evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table : categorized acupoints on the head. the acronyms for the acupoint names come from the names of meridians: gv (governor vessel), gb (gall bladder), st (stomach), te (triple energizer), bl (bladder), cv (conception vessel), li (large intestine), and si (small intestine). the values in the parentheses are the total numbers of points in the categories.∗these points are not standard acupuncture points but are introduced for convenience. category acupoints on the head anatomical points ( ) gv , gv , gv , gv , gv , gv ( ) gb , gb , gb , gb , gb , gb , gb , gb ( ) st , st , st , st , st , st , st ( ) te , te , te , te , te ( ) bl , bl ( ) cv , cv ( ) li , li ( ) si , si ( ) pupil∗, yintang∗, top∗ ( ) proportional points ( ) gv , gv , gv , gv , gv , gv , gv ( ) gb , gb , gb , gb , gb , gb , gb ( ) st ( ) bl , bl , bl , bl , bl , bl , bl , bl ( ) si ( ) morphological points ( ) gb , gb , gb , gb , gb ( ) te , te ( ) was developed based on projective d descriptions of the standard acupuncture points. according to the general guidelines suggested by the who in the western pacific region, three methods are used for determining acupuncture point locations: the anatomical landmark method, the proportional bone (skeletal) mea- surement method, and the finger-cun measurement method [ ]. the anatomical landmark method utilizes some char- acteristics on the surface of the body that may be fixed or movable, such as protuberances or depressions formed by joints and muscles. the proportional bone (skeletal) mea- surement method also uses landmarks on the body’s surface, that is, primarily joints, to measure the lengths and the widths of various parts of the body. the finger-cun measurement method refers to the proportional measurement method for locating acupuncture points based on the size of the fingers of the person to be measured. in some cases, these methods are used together for complementary decisions on the same acupoint. in this study we developed systematic procedures and algorithms for positioning acupoints on the heads of six individuals. all the acupoints on the head were categorized into one of three types: anatomical points, proportional points, and morphological points. the anatomical acupoints are determined by using corresponding anatomical char- acteristics from the skin’s surface and bone structure. the proportional acupoints are calculated by using prescribed x y frontback right left up down ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) z z 󳰀 y 󳰀 x 󳰀 (cmx, cmy, cmz) figure : coordinate systems based on the ct images of the head. for convenient numerical calculations, the𝑥-,𝑦-, and 𝑧-axes were chosen to access every voxel from the head skin and skeleton. the model frame (𝑥󸀠,𝑦󸀠,𝑧󸀠)was introduced by translating (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) to the center of mass of the model and scaling down. proportional numbers between the anatomical points. some remaining acupoints only have descriptive definitions for their positions in which case the morphological technique is introduced among the individuals. the traditional methods for the acupoint localization are based on measurements along the surface of the body with cun. here, we do not use cun units, which may vary in length for different parts of the body. one of basic assumptions for this study with the head is that the shape of the human head is approximately spherical. . materials and methods . . digital korean human data. digital korean ct data for six human beings were obtained from the korean institute of science and technology information (kisti; http://dk.kisti.re.kr/). the ct images of the entire body were taken from three men and three women whose body sizes were measured. based on the body mass index (bmi), the six individuals were categorized as underweight ( kg/m ). the genders, ages, heights, and weights of the six individuals are shown in table . a stack of ct images with × pixel resolution was taken from head to toe in mm depth intervals, and the results were saved in the dicom format. . . procedure for surface reconstruction of d human models. the procedure for reconstructing the surfaces of the skin and the skull from the stack of d images of the six individual is basically the same as that used in [ ] for a single person with a normal body shape. in brief, first, the dicom images are converted to -bit bmp format because of memory issues. then, the images for the surfaces of the skin and bone were put into binary format by using the proper evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table : descriptions of the locations of the anatomical acupuncture points and landmarks. ∗these landmarks are additionally positioned for localization of the acupoints. acupoints/landmarks surface models description of the position for the landmark gv bone in the depression superior to the spinous process of the second cervical vertebra(c ) on the posterior median line gv bone directly inferior to the external occipital protuberance gv bone external occipital protuberance gv skin tip of the nose gv skin midpoint of the philtrum midline gv skin midpoint of the tubercle of the upper lip gb skin and bone outer canthus of the eye gb bone depression between the intertragic notch and the condylar process of the mandible gb bone depression superior to the midpoint of the zygomatic arch gb skin junction of the vertical line of the posterior border of the temple hairline and thehorizontal line of the apex of the auricle gb skin directly superior to the auricular apex gb skin directly superior to the posterior border of the auricular root gb bone depression posteroinferior to the mastoid process gb bone inferior to the occipital bone, in the depression between the origins of thesternocleidomastoid and the trapezius muscles st skin and bone between the eyeball and the infraorbital margin, directly inferior to the pupil st bone in the infraorbital foramen st skin directly inferior to the pupil, at the same level as the inferior border of the ala of thenose st skin the angle of the mouth st bone anterior to the angle of the mandible, in the depression anterior to the masseterattachment st bone angle of the mandible st bone depression between the midpoint of the inferior border of the zygomatic arch andthe mandibular notch te skin posterior to the ear lobe, in the depression anterior to the inferior end of themastoid process te skin auricular apex te skin and bone in the depression between the supratragic notch and the condylar process of themandible te skin anterior to the auricular root, posterior to the superficial temporal artery te skin in the depression at the lateral end of the eyebrow (it is superior to gb ) bl skin and bone in the depression between the superomedial parts of the inner canthus of the eyeand the medial wall of the orbit bl skin in the depression at the medial end of the eyebrow cv bone in the anterior region of the neck, superior to the superior border of the thyroidcartilage, in the depression superior to the hyoid bone, on the anterior median line cv skin in the depression in the center of the mentolabial sulcus li skin at the same level as the midpoint of the philtrum li skin in the nasolabial sulcus, at the same level as the midpoint of the lateral border of theala of the nose si bone posterior to the angle of the mandible, in the depression anterior to thesternocleidomastoid muscle si skin and bone inferior to the zygomatic bone, in the depression directly inferior to the outercanthus of the eye pupil∗ skin center line of the pupil yintang∗ skin midpoint between the eyebrows top∗ skin top of the head evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine yintang gv te top figure : the baselines or planes for the head are determined by using four landmarks: yintang and gv (the red line, the median plane) and te and top (the green line, the frontal plane). a transverse plane (the blue line) is determined by using a plane orthogonal to the imaginary line connecting the center of the left and the right te points to the top. the four landmarks can be positioned by using their anatomical descriptions on the skin and the skeleton. yintang is the point between the eyebrow, and top is the highest point of the head. the acupoint gv is in the depression superior to the external occipital protuberance, and the acupoint te is just superior to the auricular apex on both the left and the right sides. gv gv gv gv gv gv gv gv yintangte cp . . . . . . . . gv gv gv figure : some proportional acupoints from gv to gv on the midsagittal plane that were obtained by dividing the angle between gv and yintang by appropriate proportionality constants based on the guidelines of the who for standard acupuncture positioning. evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine st gb gb gb gb gb te gb te gb gb te te / / / / / / / / / / (a) p q r x standard source target q 󳰀 p 󳰀 l ≡ ‖(p 󳰀 − x) − (p − r)‖ + ‖(q 󳰀 − x) − (q − r)‖ (b) figure : morphological acupoints on the right side of the head (a) and the distance formula for the unknown position𝑋with the known positions𝑃󸀠,𝑄󸀠 from the target model and the𝑃,𝑄, and𝑅 from the standard source model. the position𝑋 is adjusted in such a way that the distance𝐿 is minimized. threshold values for the pixel intensity, for the skin and for the skull. unnecessary holes were filled by using a d binary dilation subroutine, and boundaries were extracted from the objects in the binary images. the boundary for the skin’s surface or for the bone’s surface was isolated, and a d dataset was made for the skin’s surface or for the bone’s surface by using the marching cube algorithm through the boundary. actually, the marching cube algorithm can be applied to the -bit images directly. however, a procedure for binarizing and deleting unnecessary parts is essential in order to obtain model data that are more compact. the d image of the surface can be made smoother by averaging the normal vectors at every vertex during the triangulation and by using opengl software (https://www.opengl.org/) to present the d surface models, as shown in figure , for the skin’s surface. the two surface models, one from the skin and the other from the skull of an individual, can be combined in such a way that their centers of mass coincide. the skull can be seen through the skin by computer-graphically giving it some opacity. . . definition for the reference frames and the anatomical planes. if any point in the d digital models is to be described, proper reference frames should be introduced. a natural frame, called the stack frame (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧), can be fixed by using the three indices (𝑖,𝑗,𝑘) along the width, length, and height of the stack of d images, as shown in figure . for more a model-dependent frame, the model frame (𝑥󸀠,𝑦󸀠,𝑧󸀠) can be obtained by translating and scaling the stack frame as follows: (𝑥 󸀠 ,𝑦 󸀠 ,𝑧 󸀠 ) = 𝛼(𝑥−cm 𝑥 ,𝑦−cm 𝑦 ,𝑧−cm 𝑧 ), ( ) where the position of the center of mass position for a given stack of binary images, 𝐼bin 𝑖𝑗𝑘 , is cm 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 𝐼 bin 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑖, cm 𝑦 = ∑ 𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 𝐼 bin 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑗, cm 𝑧 = ∑ 𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 𝐼 bin 𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑘, and we have set 𝛼 = / , for convenience. the anatomical planes for the head can be defined by choosing some obvious points anatomically. the sagittal plane, that is, the midsagittal plane or median plane more precisely, is determined by fixing three points in the head: yintang (midpoint between the eyebrows), top (top of the head), and the acupoint gv (external occipital protuber- ance in the back of the head), as shown in figure . any point,𝑃, which resides in the sagittal plane should satisfy the following equation: [(gv −yintang)×(top−yintang)] ⋅(𝑝−yintang) = , ( ) where all the points in the equation are considered as vectors with triplet values corresponding to the vector’s three components and the cross and the dot in the equation mean the cross product and the scalar product, respectively. a coronal plane in the head can be defined by choosing three points on the head: two acupoints te at the auricular apex just above the left and the right ears and the top. any point, 𝑃, in the coronal plane should satisfy the condition [(te left−top)×(te right−top)] ⋅(𝑝−top) = . ( ) the transverse plane at any level can be defined in such a way that the plane is perpendicular to the common axis that resides in the sagittal and the coronal planes simultaneously. . . categorization for acupuncture points. all the acupoints on the head can be categorized into one of three types depending on how they are located, as shown in table . in addition to the standard acupuncture points, three more points, pupil, yintang, and top, are introduced for position- ing the acupoints. the anatomical acupoints have anatomical descriptions that are more or less clear based on the structures evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine gb gb gb gb gb st gb gb gb te te gb st st st st st li li si bl bl bl bl bl bl gv gv gv gv gv gv cv cv te te si gb st si gb gb gb bl bl gb bl bl gb gb gb (a) gb gb gb gb gb st gb gb gb te te gb st st st st st li li si bl bl bl bl bl bl gv gv gv gv gv gv cv cv te te si gb st si gb gb gb bl bl gb bl bl gb gb gb (b) figure : continued. evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine gb gb gb gb gb st gb gb gb te te gb st st st st st li li si bl bl bl bl bl bl gv gv gv gv gv gv cv cv te te si gb st si gb gb gb bl bl gb bl bl gb gb gb (c) figure : various views of the d model of an (a) obese, a (b) normal, and an (c) underweight man with positioned acupoints on their heads. of the skin or the skull. brief descriptions on the acupoints on the head are presented in table . the corresponding surface models for their positioning are also given in the table. for the proportional acupoints, we first introduce the midpoint between the left and the right te as follows: te cp≡ (te left+te right) . ( ) this imaginary point is introduced just for arithmetic con- venience. in order to obtain the conditions for positioning the proportional acupoints, let us define the angle𝜃 made by the three points yintang, te cp, and gv , with the vertex point being te cp, as follows: 𝜃 = cos− (yintang−te cp) ⋅ (gv −te cp) 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 yintang−te cp󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨 |gv −te cp| . ( ) we can also calculate two angles depending on the point𝑃, which is one of the voxels for the surface of the skin on the head. if the point𝑃 is on the skin’s surface in the sagittal plane, we define the angle as follows: 𝜃 = cos − (𝑝−te cp) ⋅ (gv −te cp) 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 𝑝−te cp󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨 |gv −te cp| . ( ) if the point𝑃 is on the skin’s surface in the transverse plane, we define the angle as follows: 𝜃 = cos − (𝑝−te cp) ⋅ (gv −te cp) 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 𝑝−te cp󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨 |gv −te cp| . ( ) the conditions for the proportional acupoints are displayed in table , and the pictorial descriptions of the conditions are shown in figure . according the standard acupuncture positioning in [ ], some acupoints are described on the curved lines between two acupoints, as shown in figure (a) and table . for example, gb , gb , and gb are positioned along the curved line between st and gb . in this case, we use the morphological method for positioning the acupoints gb , gb , and gb by using the previously-known points st and gb as two control points. precise information about positioning the morphological acupoints should be prepared from a “standard” source. we took that “standard” source to be the d model of the normal man, as displayed in figure (a), and we obtained the positions of the anatomical and proportional acupoints in advance. figure (b) shows that the target point 𝑋 between the two control points 𝑃󸀠 and 𝑄󸀠 can be calculated in such a way that the sum of the distances between the two control points is minimized evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine st gb gb gb gb gb gb gb gb te te te te figure : morphological acupoints and the lines connecting the two control points through them. the upper left corner shows the morphological acupoints on the head of anormal man; they exactly match the same positionings on our “standard” source model for the morphological technique. in the other models, the shapes of the curves are shown to be slightly different, depending on the individuals. compared to the distances of the two control points from the standard source. . results all the acupoints on the head above the neck were calculated following the above procedure. we positioned the acupoints on the head models taken from the d digital ct images. figures (a), (b), and (c) show various views of the heads of the obese, the normal, and the underweight man, respectively. the total of standard acupoints on the head could be classified into anatomical points, proportional points, and morphological points. the positions of the anatomical acupoints were described, and those descriptions are summarized in table . based on the descriptions, the anatomical acupoints were positioned manually, and their positions were saved for further calculations on positioning the proportional and the morphological acupoints. the analytic and pictorial descriptions of the proportional acupoints are presented in table and figure , respectively. if we assume that the shape of the surface of the head is spherical, the distance between consecutive acupoints in the midsagittal planes can be approximately determined by using the dividing the angle between the two points with a vertex into smaller angles. the acupoints from gv to gv , for example, are positioned by dividing the angle between the gv and yintang with the vertex te cp into smaller subangles with proportional values, as shown in figure . in the numerical code for positioning the proportional acupoints, proper small intervals are introduced for every condition in table . if a pixel point on the skin’s surface satisfied the condition within the interval, that pixel point was included, and an average point, which was taken to be the position for the proportional acupoint, was obtained. traditionally, all the acupoints are classified according to the meridians to which they belong. the results for the morphological acupoints for the six subjects are shown in figure . the figures are displayed for the right sides of the heads, and the three lines in each head connect the two control points with the morphological acupoints along the curves. the morphological acupoints gb , gb , and gb , for example, reside on the curve connecting the control points of st and gb . our computer code for the morphological technique has been checked to start positioning the morphological acupoints with the model of the normal man (the panel in the upper left corner in figure ). by adopting the model of the normal man as the standard source model, we confirmed that the source points precisely match the target points in the case of the normal man. the same code was applied to the other models to obtain the morphological acupoints. figure shows lines evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table : proportional acupoints. the left and the right sides of the acupoints are determined by the positions of 𝑃 whether the acupoints are located on the left and the right side of the 𝑦𝑧 plane, respectively. †the point aux is introduced for arithmetic convenience. conditions calculated points 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gv 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=aux † 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃= st 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=gb 𝑃 𝑥 =pupil 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 =aux 𝑧 𝑃=gb 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=bl 𝜃 𝜃 = . . 𝑃=bl 𝑃 𝑥 =pupil 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 =gv 𝑧 𝑃=gb 𝑃 𝑥 =pupil 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 =gv 𝑧 𝑃=gb 𝑃 𝑥 =pupil 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 = ∗gv 𝑧 + ∗gv 𝑧 𝑃=gb 𝑃 𝑥 =bl 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 =gv 𝑧 𝑃=bl 𝑃 𝑥 =bl 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑦 = ∗gv 𝑦 + ∗gv 𝑦 𝑃=bl 𝑃 𝑥 =bl 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑦 = ∗gv 𝑦 + ∗gv 𝑦 𝑃=bl 𝑃 𝑥 =bl 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑦 = ∗gv 𝑦 + ∗gv 𝑦 𝑃=bl 𝑃 𝑥 =gv 𝑥 − . . ∗(bl 𝑥 −gv 𝑥 ),𝑃 𝑧 =gv 𝑧 𝑃=bl 𝑃 𝑥 =gb 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 =bl 𝑧 𝑃=gb 𝑃 𝑥 =gb 𝑥 ,𝑃 𝑧 =gv 𝑧 𝑃=gb 𝑃 𝑥 = ∗(gv 𝑥 +gb 𝑥 ),𝑃 𝑧 =gv 𝑧 𝑃=bl 𝑃= ∗(te +gb ) 𝑃 = si with slightly different shapes that depend on the surface structures of the heads of the other two men (the obese man and the underweight man) and those of the three women (the overweight woman, the normal woman, and the underweight woman). . discussion recently, considerable efforts have been made to understand the characteristics of acupuncture points [ , ]. in our previ- ous study, acupuncture point positioning for the entire body of a single person was done by using the d digital model of the normal man. the reference points or the landmarks were positioned based on the standard descriptions of the acupoints, and the formulae for the proportionalities between the acupoints and the reference points were presented every- where on the body. we found that the % of the standardized acupoints on the entire body were automatically linked to the reference points. the reference points accounted for % of the acupoints, and the remaining acupoints ( %) were positioned point-by-point by using d computer graphics libraries [ ]. in this study, we increased the number of subjects to six and confined the positioning area to their heads. for the locations of some acupoints, we used the morphological technique in which topographical constraints between acupoints were considered among the individuals. many morphological approaches to handling medical image data have developed for use in basic research, as well as in clinical studies, in various fields [ – ]. currently, substantial interrater variability in acupoint location and intrarater variability within the clinical setting exist because the optimal location of the point therapeutically may deviate from the location of the standard textbook point and may vary from treatment to treatment. that is, in addition to the anatomical, proportional, and morphological considerations for locating a point, a clinical palpatory consideration may also exist, which may involve modifying the textbook location of the point based upon the texture or the tension of the tissue as detected by the practitioner or based upon the “ashi” tenderness felt by the patient. our approach can also accommodate the localization of any additional points on the body that might be clinically relevant for treatment. the traditional methods for acupoint localization are based on measurements along the surface of a body with cun, the traditional chinese measure, which varies in length for different parts of the body and for different directions of the longitude (vertical) and latitude (horizontal). with a contrasting approach to this work, authors of [ ] introduced three projection planes on the head for a d acupoint description system. for a definite viewing direction, all visible points on the body’s surface have one projection plane that is perpendicular to that viewing direction, and the visible points have corresponding projection points in that projection plane. each projection point may be back-projected to the body’s surface to obtain the corresponding d coordinates. this project matching between the d and the d images is necessary to satisfy the traditional descriptions on position- ing acupoints. evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table : seven acupoints categorized as morphological points with the two corresponding control points. the values in the parentheses are the “standard positions” of the acupoints on the left and the right sides of the head taken from the d digital model of the normal man. these values were used as the standard for calculating the morphological acupoints in the other models. acupoints control points gb left: (− . , . ,− . ) right: ( . , . ,− . ) st left: (− . , . ,− . ) gb left: (− . , . ,− . ) right: ( . , . ,− . ) right: ( . , . ,− . ) gb left: (− . , . ,− . ) gb left: (− . , . ,− . ) right: ( . , . ,− . ) right: ( . , . ,− . ) gb left: (− . ,− . ,− . ) gb left: (− . ,− . ,− . ) right: ( . ,− . ,− . ) right: ( . ,− . ,− . ) gb left: (− . ,− . ,− . ) gb left: (− . ,− . , . ) right: ( . ,− . ,− . ) right: ( . ,− . , . ) te left: (− . ,− . ,− . ) te left: (− . ,− . , . ) right: ( . ,− . ,− . ) right: ( . ,− . , . ) te left: (− . ,− . ,− . ), te left: (− . ,− . ,− . ), right: ( . ,− . ,− . ) right: ( . ,− . ,− . ) in conclusion, we propose a partially automated method and procedure for localizing the standardized acupuncture points on the heads of d digital ct human models taken from six living individuals. in the future, we expect to be able to develop for practical clinical use a fully automated method for positioning acupuncture points on the entire body 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[ ] d. c. barber and d. r. hose, “automatic segmentation of med- ical images using image registration: diagnostic and simulation applications,” journal of medical engineering & technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation: the hebrew bible dirk roorda introduction . annotation an annotation is a piece of information attached to another piece of information. annotations generally do not have the same authorship, publishing workflow, and audience as the information sources they are attached to. annotations serve to provide comments to sources, and these comments may involve analysis, explanation, correction, linking, evaluation, tagging, counting, and much more. in this article we focus on the logistics of information, rather than on the meaning. while it is useful to distinguish annotations for their type of content, our interest lies in the patterns of information distribution. how are annotations created, how are they published, and how do they behave in the research data cycle? . the hebrew bible the hebrew bible is a family of ancient texts with a complex origin. it is recognized by several world religions, and it has pervaded large swaths of human culture. academic research into the bible occurs in several disciplines: linguistics, history, and theology with their specialties such as linguistic variation, historical linguistics, textual criticism, literary analysis, exegesis, and hermeneutics. religious communities have added their own sets of interpretations and observations. the practice of bible translation into a great many languages of the world has tuned people’s antennas for interpretation. there are editions of the text of the hebrew bible in which the pages contain a small square of source text, surrounded by layers and layers of annotation. international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press www.euppublishing.com/ijhac august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation figure . : text and annotations in shebanq. clicking on a verse number hides and shows the annotations. shebanq: a system for hebrew text the etcbc is the department of the faculty of theology at the vrije universiteit amsterdam that has created a linguistic text database of the hebrew bible. in – the shebanq project has reshaped that database into a standard form: laf and has built a demonstrator to show new ways of utilizing that database in the age of internet connectedness. indeed, the etcbc database has been modeled as a huge set of annotations. this demonstrator is now a website in production, also called shebanq. we show how the hebrew bible has been captured in a system of annotations and point to a number of non-trivial, innovative uses of the concept of annotation which were not possible or practical before the digital handling of information. . exhaustive linguistic annotation each of the more than , words carries annotations specifying its part of speech, it morphological characteristics, its various representations and more. the same holds for larger units, such as phrases and clauses. all in all, this gives tens of millions of annotated features. before the arrival of digital information processing, this was not a feasible thing to do. but here we have it: a text with millions of annotations, online, in a working system: shebanq (see fig ). august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex dirk roorda figure . : text in phonetic representation, with all markings and annotations in place. . multiple textual representations as annotation there is something else to note: the text itself exists as the content of annotations. this has to do with the peculiar fact that the older variants of biblical material were written down in a consonantal script, while the vowels were added as diacritical marks (‘pointing’) several centuries later, near the final consolidation of the text around ad. so every word still has a consonantal representation, but also a fully ‘pointed’ representation. it is a clear case where the text does not have a single representation. annotation provides a neat way to expose those representations together. further down that road, we also provide a phonetic representation of the text (see fig. ). that will help people not familiar with hebrew to get access to the linguistic annotations and use it for their own purposes. nevertheless, the authoritative text of the biblia hebraica stuttgartensia is the default representation. in shebanq, the annotations are not tied to the representation of the text. so if the user switches representation, all the highlights and other annotations remain in place. . queries as annotations now that text and linguistic annotations reside in a database, it becomes possible to query both kinds of data. an important objective of the creators of the etcbc database has always been the ability to search for peculiar syntactic patterns. when reading the bible, every now and then a passage is particularly problematic and requires explanation. but what kind of explanation? has there been a text transmission error? is there a hidden borrowing from another text? is there a syntactic construction that belongs to another dialect or language? is august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation figure . : queries as notes in the margin. the reader of the passage is drawn to exegetical problems of others, and their solutions. there deliberate use of language to achieve a literary effect? or is there a truly special meaning lurking behind the text? research into these problems is greatly helped by catalogues of occurrences of the same or partly the same phenomenon. by using a text database, we are able to systematically query those patterns. it is not easy to write such queries. the data is full of unexpected patterns, it is easy to miss cases, so many checks and cross-checks are needed. a successful query is a piece of scholarly crafts(wo)manship, and should be shared and published as such. seen in an abstract way, a query is an annotation to all its results. one annotation targeting multiple passages is already a little bit innovative, although one might say that cross-references and indexes are examples of multi-target annotations. but here there is a bit more going on. by presenting a query as an annotation to its results, an unexpected flow of information is made possible: from result to query. when a scholar reads a difficult passage, (s)he might be interested in the exegetical queries that have results in that passage (see fig. ). this is exactly what shebanq makes possible. next to every chapter in the bible a list of relevant queries is presented, and the results of those queries are highlighted in the chapter at hand. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex dirk roorda . semi-automatic analysis as annotation linguistic research into the hebrew bible has not ended. the meaning of hebrew verb forms in poetry is a long-standing problem (and many occurrences in prose are far from clear for that matter), and data-driven research has the potential to produce new solutions. verb meanings are also dependent on the number and nature of constituents in the sentence (verbal valence), and it is worthwhile to devise a flow chart system to generate verb senses on the basis of signals near verb occurrences. this involves a lot of trial and error. sometimes it leads to a review of the linguistic encoding, to new syntactic and semantic distinctions. one way to organize this, is to generate the results of a flow chart as a set of annotations to be presented next to the text. the researcher can then see the decisions in full context and comment on those outcomes by manual annotations. these annotations can be harvested in turn and provide a basis for an improved algorithm. this workflow is supported on shebanq, although not many people are fully utilizing it yet. experience, however, shows that it is cumbersome to execute this work exclusively on a website. a website such as shebanq only supports that many use cases, while every research activity requires its own data preprocessing. an efficient workflow for this kind of research is to collect data, store it in spreadsheets, have the researcher work on them, and then feed the filled-in sheets back into the system. we support this workflow by means of laf-fabric, which is an off-line companion to shebanq, based on exactly the same data. with the help of laf-fabric, the programming scholar can grab all data that is needed for a particular task, lay it out neatly in columns, and convert edited sheets into new sets of annotations. the work of verbal valency is available on the shebanq tools page (see fig. ). these new annotations have been bulk-imported into shebanq and pubished, but they can also serve as basis for new algorithms in laf-fabric. . everything else although versatile, shebanq cannot do everything. for example, teaching hebrew to academic students could profit from shebanq, but shebanq is not optimized for it. there is a system called bible online learner , based on the same etcbc database, that has facilities to generate drills and exercises for students and score their answers. rather than to try to pack all functionality into one system, it is better to have several systems around, each geared to their own task, but yet knowing of each other’s existence. every chapter page in shebanq links to the corresponding chapter page in bibleol and vice versa. moreover, in order to compose exercises, bibleol uses queries that are published in shebanq (see fig. ). august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation figure . : verbal valence notes have been bulk-imported into shebanq and are visible in notes view. users can mute note sets and focus on the topics of their interest. figure . : interlinking with bible online learner. clicking on the shebanq logo takes you to shebanq, where there is a bible ol logo to link you back. . summing up in the digital age, annotation has become a practical paradigm to carry out scholarly work: we can use annotations in quantities unheard of, to achieve old goals in new ways, and to pursue new goals with new workflows. the reader is invited not only to look at the screenshots, because they tend to show screens packed with information. one of the strong points of digitally displaying information is that most of the material can be hidden most of the time. shebanq as an annotation tool helps the researcher to collect all data relevant to the task at hand in one or two screens, for a great variety of tasks. and where shebanq falls short, the companion tool laf-fabric takes over, but the price is that the user must program it. this is where the digital paradigm affects (or should we say infects) the daily work of the scholar: programming skills are becoming increasingly relevant. an important characteristic mentioned in most of the cases above is the facility to share and publish annotations. the hebrew text database is the result of a lot of scholarly work, and that work should be published, not only for the academic august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex dirk roorda record, but also for the purposes of teaching and training. moreover, published annotations enable useful cooperation of different systems based on the same data. requirements for scholarly annotation in the previous section we described annotations in action. when the action is research, it is important to comply with a few essential requirements. archiving we saw how annotations capture scholarly work, sometimes at a high level of abstraction and expertise. so scholars must be able to save annotations and then share and publish them. researchers that work years from now must be able to retrieve annotations when they see the sources, and to retrieve the sources when they see the annotations. while the digital paradigm is very beneficial to transform information flexibly and distribute it globally, it is much more challenging to fix existing information rigidly and distribute it over decades to come. the digital age calls for digital archives that recognize these challenges and do something about it. in the shebanq case, the data has been archived at dans , all the code sits on github (see an overview of the sources) and repository snaphsots have been archived at zenodo at cern. the live website is run by dans on a server of the royal netherlands academy of arts and sciences. coupling the particular thing about annotations is that they need the coupling to another resource in order to be ‘to-the-point’. in the age of analogue resources, this coupling tended to be tight: in the margins, or as footnotes, usually within the same material container. where the coupling was less tight, such as in endnotes, indexes, registers as separate books or volumes, it became quickly unwieldy to handle all relevant annotations. in the digital age these problems of information logistics can be solved much more elegantly and effectively, provided certain agreements are being made by the designers of information. it is a bit like geotagging photos by means of a recorded gps track: if the track points are coded with the same time codings as the photos, the photos can be located on the track and then on the map. for annotations we need anchors: points in sources to link to. these points should be standardized so that different scholars, as producers of annotations, use the same anchors. that will help to make their annotations interoperable. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation for linguistic annotations, the laf standard helps a lot to refer to primary data in an objective way, although these anchors are still project dependent. there are efforts to bring about a more global persistent linking system to canonical resources (see canonical text services and the cite architecture), and it is a matter of time before it will be applied to the hebrew bible as well. the holy grail of this all is the linked open data (http://linkeddata.org) endeavour, which is an attempt to map all entities in human discourse unto unique, persistent identifiers, and code all properties that can be expressed into triples consisting of a subject, predicate and object, according to well-defined vocabularies and ontologies. this is a huge modelling effort, and it is not always clear how computing-intensive workflows may take advantage of it. but for importing and exporting data across boundaries of project and discipline, this is definitely the way to go. an advantage of well-coupled annotations is that they can be sorted and organized on the basis of where they point to. but we need other organizing principles as well, such as the provenance of an annotation (researcher, project, organization), time (creation, update), motivation (correction, evaluation), nature (linguistic, hermeneutical). of these, motivation and nature can be entered in free text description fields, which in practice, sadly, quite often reveal the text ‘none’. innovation a lot of digital development starts with mimicking analogue concepts. after a certain period, those digital counterparts may exhibit new dynamics. this only happens if the new concepts manage to exploit typical advantages of the digital paradigm over the old ways. one of the key digital advantages is the network effect: for certain tasks it has become possible to mobilize many people with mostly limited contributions. such loosely organized networks can deliver impressive results, such as wikipedia. if scholars grab the opportunity to ‘socialize’ parts of their workflows, they may gain results not previously possible. shebanq has socialized the art of making exegetical queries. it is being used in the classroom, and scholars can quote queries to each other and cite them in papers. everybody may enter new queries. and everybody can comment on specific query results by means of simple manual annotations. however, we are not seeing (yet) that kind of spontaneous manual annotation. reflection and action before building shebanq, we tried to design its layout and the details of how queries should be displayed to the user. query results are structured objects, and queries may have many structured results; it was not at all clear how we could august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex dirk roorda provide the users with a good visual representation of query results, and how to show them in context. most of this became clear after we started construction. only fully engaging in building this web app made us discover one unanticipated problem after another, and solve them all. for example, we decided to provide on-the-fly heat maps of query results, which give users an instant overview of how the results of a particular query are distributed in the bible (see fig. ). but we refrained from presenting query results in their full complexity as structured objects. we also modified our goals. rather than make shebanq into the ultimate research tool, we developed laf-fabric as an off-line side tool, with more flexibility to tackle the nitty-gritty of daily research. shebanq got redefined from a laboratory to a showroom of research results, where very diverse research output comes together in one context. now shebanq and laf-fabric together provide the facilities of a scholarly lab. in our opinion, it makes no sense to reflect on the nature of annotations without being involved in digital construction work. the ontology of a (digital) medium is the reflection of its usage patterns. when migrating annotations from analog to digital, we are potentially upsetting those very usage patterns, and hence the ontology of annotations. programming skills just as analogue information systems presuppose the skills of reading and writing, the potential of the digital media cannot be unleashed without new skills. for researchers, this means definitely: programming. especially where experimentation is involved, it is impractical to outsource development of new tools to ‘mere’ programmers. instead, scholarly teams should insource programming skills in their own skulls. they do not need to master professional levels. data oriented programming has become much easier by the evolution of scripting languages such as python and additional tools such as the jupyter notebook. and not every team member needs to learn to program, if only the team as a whole is able to produce experimental or pilot solutions. only after many experiments by scholars, it will be the right time to bring the professional coders in to turn the successful pilots into products and infrastructure. addendum from the start of onwards, i have deprecated laf-fabric in favour of a new format and tool: text-fabric. thanks to the move from an xml based format into a plain text based format all data fits in a github repository. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation figure . : heat map of query results. every square represents a block of words of bible text. the color indicates how many result words the query has in that block. every square is clickable and takes you to the corresponding passage. end notes this works rests on the shoulders of the giants at the etcbc, such as eep talstra and constantijn sikkel who conceived the database and made it work through the decades behind us. see e. talstra and c. j. sikkel, ‘genese und kategorienentwicklung der wivu- datenbank’, in c. hardmeier et al., ed., ad fontes! quellen erfassen—lesen—deuten. was ist computerphilologie? ansatzpunkte und methodologie—instrument und praxis (amsterdam, ), – ; e. talstra, ‘computer-assisted linguistic analysis. the hebrew database used august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex dirk roorda in quest. ’, in j. a. cook, ed., bible and computer. the stellenbosch aibi- conference. – – / , stellenbosch: proceedings of the association internationale bible et informatique (leiden, ), – , https://shebanq.ancient-data.org/shebanq/static/docs/ methods/ _talstra_questdatatypes.pdf. the query engine of shebanq is the one made by ulrik petersen. see u. peterson, ‘emdros—a text database engine for analyzed or annotated text’, proceedings of coling , – , http://emdros.org/petersen-emdros- coling- .pdf; u. peterson, ‘principles, implementation strategies, and evaluation of a corpus query system’, lecture notes in computer science, ( ). – , http://link.springer.com/chapter/ . % f _ ; u. peterson, emdros. text database engine for analyzed or annotated text, – , http://emdros.org. peterson has relied on the ideas of christ-jan doedens: c.-j. doedens, text databases. one database model and several retrieval languages (amsterdam, ). researchers, senior and junior have put data and tools to many tests: janet dyk, reinoud oosting, oliver glanz, gino kalkman, martijn naaijer, christiaan erwich, cody kingham plus users of shebanq that shared queries with us. see m. bauer and a. zirker, ‘whipping boys explained: literary annotation and digital humanities’, in ray siemens and kenneth m. price, eds., literary studies in the digital age: an evolving anthology (new york, ), https://dlsanthology.commons.mla.org/whipping- boys-explained-literary-annotation-and-digital-humanities/; and m. bauer and a. zirker, ‘explanatory annotation of literary texts and the reader: seven types of problems’, this volume. see m. cysouw, ‘parallel bible corpus. unique bible translations’, n.d., http://www.paralleltext.info/data/, and c. a. christodoulopoulos, ‘a multilingual parallel corpus created from translations of the bible’, https://github.com/christos-c/bible-corpus, june . see also r. siemens et al., this volume. d. roorda, ‘the hebrew bible as data: laboratory—sharing—experiences’, in j. odijk and a. van hessen, eds., clarin in the low countries, , https://arxiv.org/abs/ . ; d. roorda, j. krans, b.-j. lietaert-peerbolte, w. t. van peursen, u. sandborg- petersen and e. talstra, ‘scientific report of the workshop biblical scholarship and humanities computing: data types, text, language and interpretation, held at the lorentz centre leiden from feb through feb ’, lorentz center, leiden, , http://www.lorentzcenter.nl/lc/web/ / /report.php ?wsid= &venue=oort, june . n. ide and l. romary, linguistic annotation framework, , http://www.iso.org/iso/ home/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber= , june . f. de vree, ‘using social co-occurrence networks to analyze biblical narrative’, , https://github.com/fred-erik/social-biblical-networks, june . see k. elliger and w. r. rudolpfh, eds., biblia hebraica stuttgartensia, th corrected edition (stuttgart, ), www.bibelwissenschaft.de/online-bibeln/biblia-hebraica- stuttgartensia-bhs/lesen-im-bibeltext/, june . see roorda and van den heuvel for an early formulation of the idea of queries-as-annotations; d. roorda and c. m. j. m. van den heuvel, ‘annotation as a new paradigm in research archiving’, proceedings of asis&t annual meeting. final papers, panels and posters, , http://arxiv.org/abs/ . , june . g. j. kalkman, verbal forms in biblical hebrew poetry: poetical freedom or linguistic system? phd thesis, vu university (amsterdam, ), https://shebanq.ancient- data.org/tools?goto=verbsystem. j. w. dyk, o. glanz and r. oosting, ‘analysing valence patterns in biblical hebrew: theoretical questions and analytic frameworks’, journal of northwest semitic languages, ( ), – , https://shebanq.ancient-data.org/shebanq/static/docs/methods/ _ dyk_jnsl.pdf. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex practical linguistic annotation see roorda, naaijer, kalkman, & van cranenburgh for initial examples; d. roorda, m. naaijer, g. j. kalkman and a. van cranenburgh, ‘laf-fabric: a data analysis tool for linguistic annotation framework with an application to the hebrew bible’, computational linguistics in the netherlands journal, . ( ), preprint http://arxiv.org/abs/ . . indeed, using laf-fabric requires programming skills. it is a python package that gives streamlined access to the hebrew text database. a beginner’s course in python is enough to get started. another, even more computationally intensive, example is the quest for parallel passages in the bible. this is part of the syntactic variation project, carried out by a team of (phd) researchers at the etcbc. to see what is at stake here, see r. rezetko and m. naaijer, ‘an alternative approach to the lexicon of late biblical hebrew’, journal of hebrew scriptures, . ( ), www.jhsonline.org/articles/article_ .pdf. n. winther-nielsen and c. tøndering, bible online learner, n.d., http://www. bibleol. bmoodle.dk/, june . shebanq is meant as a service to publish queries for the academic record. dans, as a national research data archive, is capable of archiving the database as a whole. it is also possible to store the data on github, and preserve a snapshot of the repository to zenodo, a service of cern to preserve repositories for the academic record. e. talstra, c. j. sikkel, o. glanz, r. oosting and j. w. dyk, text database of the hebrew bible, , http://www.persistent-identifier.nl/?identifier=urn:nbn:nl:ui: -ukhm-eb; w. t. van peursen and d. roorda, hebrew text database in linguistic annotation framework, , pid: urn:nbn:nl:ui: – i- , http://www.persistent-identifier.nl/?identifier=urn:nbn: nl:ui: - i- ; w. t. van peursen and d. roorda, hebrew text database etcbc b. dataset available online at data archiving and networked services, den haag, , dx.doi.org/ . /dans-z y-skyh. s. clay, here comes everybody: the power of organizing without organizations (london, ). f. pérez and b. e. granger, ‘ipython: a system for interactive scientific computing’, computing in science and engineering, . ( ), – , http://ipython.org, issn: - , doi: . /mcse. . . text-fabric: data model, file format and processing tool for annotated texts. https://github.com/etcbc/text-fabric/wiki. text-fabric-data: text and annotations of the hebrew bible and the greek new testament. includes documentation of the annotation features. https://etcbc.github.io/text-fabric-data/. srnp aq: please provide missing abstract for this article. biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre un progetto torinese le opere dei docenti che hanno lavorato all’università di torino tra l’ottocento e il novecento sono conser- vate e tutelate nelle numerose biblioteche dell’ateneo. tuttavia sono poco accessibili, non solo a causa de- gli orari di servizio delle biblioteche ma anche perché, spesso, si tratta di materiale raro o facilmente dete- riorabile. inoltre, benché si tratti di docenti che hanno avuto un ruolo importante nella storia dell’università di torino , lo studio e la valorizzazione del loro pensiero e della loro produzione scientifica e letteraria sono af- fidati soprattutto a momenti occasionali come conve- gni, seminari e mostre. il centro interdipartimentale medihum dell’università di torino ha recentemente promosso e, in parte, re- alizzato il progetto i maestri dell’università degli studi di torino: l’opera e il pensiero , al fine di creare una biblioteca digitale che includa le opere di filosofi (come pasquale d’ercole ed erminio juvalta) e di studiosi di lingue classiche (come carlo boucheron, giuseppe fraccaroli, amedeo peyron e tommaso vallauri) che hanno avuto un ruolo particolarmente significativo nel- la storia della cultura accademica torinese, pur essen- do relativamente poco studiati . si tratta, ovviamen- te, di un primo nucleo di discipline e di docenti, ma il progetto prevede di ampliare il numero di autori e di testi presi in considerazione. i testi sono stati acquisiti dalla parte dei ricercatori. biblioteche digitali e marcatura testuale: una nota a partire da due case study elisa della calce dipartimento di studi umanistici università di torino elisa.dellacalce@unito.it paolo tripodi dipartimento di filosofia e scienze dell’educazione università di torino paolo.tripodi@unito.it rossana damiano dipartimento di informatica università di torino rossana.damiano@unito.it focus doi: . / - - - - gli autori desiderano ringraziare maria cassella per l’attenzione e il supporto forniti nella stesura del contributo. per tutti i siti web l’ultima consul- tazione è stata effettuata il novembre . cfr. i maestri dell’ateneo torinese dal settecento al novecento, a cura di renata allìo, torino, alma universitas taurinensis, ; angelo d’orsi, cultura accademica e cultura militante: un itinerario fra docenti e allievi delle facoltà umanistiche, «quaderni di storia dell’università di torino», ( ), p. - . cfr. bandi bs/ e bs/ , università di torino. enrico pasini, pasquale d’ercole, in i maestri dell’ateneo torinese dal settecento al novecento cit., p. ; id., erminio juvalta, in i maestri dell’ateneo torinese dal settecento al novecento cit., p. ; massimo ferrari, non solo idealismo: filosofi e filosofie in italia tra ottocento e novecento, firenze, le lettere, ; filippo picardi, morale e filosofia della morale in erminio juvalta, milano, marzorati, . piero treves, carlo boucheron, in dizionario biografico degli italiani, vol. , roma, istituto dell’enciclopedia italiana, , p. - ; giu- seppe fraccaroli ( - ): letteratura, filologia e scuola fra otto e novecento, a cura di alberto cavarzere e gian maria varanini, trento, università di trento, ; gian franco gianotti, amedeo peyron, in i maestri dell’ateneo torinese dal settecento al novecento cit., p. - . il progetto, coordinato dal prof. ermanno malaspina (responsabile scientifico del centro medihum), è stato finanziato dalla fondazione crt e ha coinvolto tre borsisti e alcuni ricercatori e docenti che collaborano con il centro. l’ambito di ricerca (studi classici e storia della filosofia) è stato individuato sulla base del coinvolgimento nel progetto dei dipartimenti di studi umanistici e di filosofia e scienze dell’educazione, mentre le opere dei maestri d’ateneo sono state selezionate perché sufficientemente numerose (si tratta di oltre settanta opere) e ritenute significative da un punto di vista scientifico e culturale. biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre mediante scansione e ocr (optical character recogni- tion), corretti e marcati secondo lo standard tei (text encoding initiative) e poi inseriti in un content mana- gement system (cms), il cui ruolo consiste nel sempli- ficare e uniformare la gestione e la presentazione dei contenuti attraverso un sistema di pagine predefinito. in particolare, al cms prescelto sono state aggiunte funzioni di ricerca sviluppate appositamente per il pro- getto: alla funzione di ricerca nei metadati dei singoli testi, già disponibile nel cms utilizzato, sono state ag- giunte una funzione di ricerca testuale collegata alle immagini dei testi, che permette all’utente di accedere direttamente alle pagine corrispondenti ai risultati tro- vati, e una funzione di ricerca semantica che consente di cercare alcuni tipi di entità menzionati nel testo . la marcatura tei è stata utilizzata per associare alle named entity presenti nel testo (nomi di persona, rife- rimenti geografici, concetti astratti) i termini standard ricavati dalle apposite risorse terminologiche disponi- bili in rete (authority file e tassonomie di termini quali viaf e dbpedia) . questo tipo di annotazione dei testi permette agli utenti di esplorarne i contenuti astraen- do dalle specifiche espressioni linguistiche (poiché la stessa entità può essere associata a più espressioni linguistiche) e di accedere alla loro definizione online, ove disponibile. in questo modo l’ormai consolidata pratica della marcatura testuale si lega con il para- digma dei linked open data , che uniforma e rende organico all’architettura del web l’uso degli indirizzi di rete (uniform resource identifier, uri) per la condivi- sione di risorse (inclusa la conoscenza semantica dei concetti che ricorrono nei testi). la funzione di ricerca semantica implementata per il progetto permette inol- tre agli utenti di accedere direttamente alla definizione online di una determinata entità. per rendere più agevole la consultazione, le opere sono state pubblicate utilizzando la piattaforma ome- ka , un cms open source di larga diffusione interna- zionale e specificamente progettato per la creazione di collezioni digitali online . grazie alla disponibilità di “temi” predefiniti (vesti grafiche accattivanti e pre- disposte all’utilizzo su vari dispositivi) e a una logica di interazione con l’utente caratterizzata da intuitività e immediatezza, omeka si è affermato come soluzio- ne standard per collezioni digitali che si indirizzino al grande pubblico . la gestione dei metadati in omeka si basa sullo standard dublin core, ma può essere estesa e resa interpretabile usando altri schemi, grazie ai plugin elaborati dall’ampia comunità degli sviluppatori di omeka. la biblioteca digitale rende immediatamente e gratu- itamente disponibili le opere dei maestri dell’ateneo torinese finora digitalizzate non solo ai docenti dell’u- niversità di torino e ai cultori delle discipline classiche e filosofiche, ma anche agli enti che si occupano della gestione e conservazione del patrimonio culturale, agli studenti e, in generale, a tutti gli utenti interessati. ol- tre all’aggiunta delle funzionalità sopra descritte, che permettono agli utenti di cercare nel testo riferimenti a persone, luoghi geografici, concetti e, a partire da essi, accedere alle risorse collegate nel web, la piattaforma omeka è stata oggetto di modifiche ad hoc sia nella grafica sia nelle funzionalità di accesso, allo scopo di renderla più facilmente riconoscibile: in particolare, alla veste grafica predefinita sono stati sovraimposti logo, schema colori e altri elementi grafici (carattere tipogra- fico e immagini). questo contributo non è incentrato sul tema della digita- lizzazione di ampi corpora di testi e non tratta direttamen- te problemi teorici e metodologici di carattere generale attinenti all’ambito multiforme delle digital humanities e delle biblioteche virtuali. il nostro scopo è invece quel- lo di proporre alcune riflessioni intorno a una questione specifica: in che modo la digitalizzazione e la marcatura strutturale e di contenuto di un corpus di testi può aprire nuove e interessanti vie di ricerca per le discipline di cui ci occupiamo professionalmente, la storia della filosofia e gli studi classici? in via preliminare, illustriamo breve- mente i modelli teorici ai quali faremo riferimento. cfr. federico meschini, tms: tei management systems, in zugang zum fachwissen: odok ‘ , edited by eveline pipp, graz-feldkirch, wol- fang neugebauer verlag, , p. - ; cfr. inoltre a companion to digital humanities, edited by susan schreibman, ray siemens and john unsworth, oxford, blackwell, ; elli mylonas - allen renear, the text encoding initiative at : not just an interchange format anymore but a new research community, «computers and the humanities», ( ), n. , p. - ; text encoding initiative: background and context, edited by nancy ide and jean véronis, dordrecht, kluwer academic publishers, . cfr. the virtual international authority file, ; dbpedia, . queste risorse forniscono una terminologia standard, condivisa a livello internazionale, per designare i concetti presenti nel testo. nel caso specifico di dbpedia, viene fornita anche una descrizione semantica delle named entity. linked data: evolving the web into a global data space, edited by tom heath and christian bizer, san rafael (ca), morgan & claypool publishers, . cfr. . jason kucsma - kevin reiss - angela sidman, using omeka to build digital collections: the metro case study, «d-lib magazine», ( ), n. - , . juliet l. hardesty, exhibiting library collections online: omeka in context, «new library world», ( ), n. - , p. - . biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre antenati e modelli teorici: il distant reading di franco moretti il metodo del distant reading, introdotto circa vent’anni fa da franco moretti in storia della letteratura e in critica letteraria, ha fornito nuove prospettive sulla letteratura e il suo sviluppo storico . il metodo di moretti si basa non sullo studio dettagliato di alcuni testi canonici (come nel cosiddetto close reading caratteristico del new critici- sm), ma sull’aggregazione e l’analisi di grandi quantità di dati, con l’ausilio di metodi statistici e di strumenti computazionali: nel distant reading si contano parole e si fa data mining lessicale (in titoli, abstract, artico- li, capitoli e libri di origine eterogenea e appartenenti a svariati generi letterari), si costruiscono grafici e mappe, si calcolano tendenze, si descrivono e si rappresentano visivamente network, si fa analisi stilistica computazio- nale e così via. riteniamo che un’applicazione del me- todo del distant reading a diversi ambiti delle scienze umane e, in particolare, agli studi classici e alla storia della filosofia (così come, del resto, alla storia del pen- siero scientifico) sia destinata nei prossimi anni ad ac- crescere la sua influenza : questo tipo di innovazione metodologica consente nuove conferme o smentite di ipotesi ottenute con i metodi ermeneutici e analitici più tradizionali e, soprattutto, incoraggia la formulazione di nuove ipotesi; il distant reading è un tipo di ricerca au- tenticamente empirico o, più precisamente, sperimen- tale, e ciò fa sì che spesso i dati inducano i ricercatori, nel corso dell’indagine, a scoprire nuove vie, a cambiare direzione, a lasciarsi guidare da risultati non attesi (né, forse, cercati), in un modo più decisivo e significativo ri- spetto a quanto avviene normalmente negli studi basati su metodi più tradizionali . inoltre il metodo del distant reading, pur rimanendo un metodo di analisi “di testi”, si presta a indagini di storia esterna e di sociologia dell’ac- cademia: non a caso, ci sembra ragionevole includere nel concetto di distant reading applicato alle scienze umane anche l’analisi delle corrispondenze multiple usata spesso dai sociologi di scuola bourdieusiana . allo stanford literary lab (fondato nel da moret- ti e matthew l. jockers) e nei centri di ricerca a esso associati sono state realizzate e sono in via di realizza- zione numerose applicazioni “sperimentali” del distant reading e dei metodi delle digital humanities : la com- parazione sistematica di centinaia di network di opere teatrali in una dozzina di diverse letterature nazionali e in diversi periodi storici, usando modelli informatici; un’analisi formale e interdisciplinare (che mescola storia della letteratura, narratologia e psicologia) dei caratteri che, nei diversi periodi (dal a oggi) e nei diversi ge- neri letterari, sono associati all’esperienza della suspen- se; una misurazione quantitativa e una mappatura digi- tale dei luoghi letterari nei quali i personaggi dei romanzi settecenteschi e ottocenteschi provano emozioni (di rabbia, paura, sorpresa e così via); lo studio dell’evolu- zione dello stile e dei generi letterari nell’enorme corpus testuale reso disponibile da fanfiction (un archivio onli- ne che contiene oltre sei milioni di racconti); l’analisi, in un corpus di testi tratto dalle pubblicazioni del ministero degli affari esteri, della storia e dei cambiamenti nelle associazioni semantiche e concettuali relative alla no- zione accademica, politica e sociale di “sicurezza” tra il e il ; e molti altri ancora . cfr. franco moretti, distant reading, london-new york, verso, , che raccoglie i principali contributi che, nel corso degli anni, hanno condotto moretti ad applicare sempre più efficacemente e consapevolmente i metodi quantitativi alla storia della letteratura. i primi semi dell’in- novazione metodologica che moretti ha sviluppato negli ultimi quindici anni si intravedono già in franco moretti, the way of the world: the bildungsroman in european culture, london, verso, . che il tema stia destinato a diventare rapidamente centrale nel dibattito sulle digital humanities e sulle innovazioni metodologiche che esse rendono possibili è testimoniato ad esempio dal fatto che, considerando il caso dell’italia, solo nel mese di gennaio sono previsti due convegni dedicati, rispettivamente, a “distant reading and data-driven research in the history of philosophy” e a “big data and distant reading in the humanities”. il pri- mo convegno si terrà a torino dal al gennaio ed è organizzato all’università di torino dal gruppo di ricerca dr (del dipartimento di filosofia e scienze dell’educazione) e dal centro medihum. il secondo avrà luogo a roma dal al dello stesso mese ed è il congresso annuale dell’aiucd (associazione per l’informatica umanistica e le culture digitali). cfr. franco moretti, operationalizing: or, the function of measurement in literary theory, «new left review», , n. , . cfr. ad esempio pierre bourdieu, homo academicus, paris, Éditions de minuit, , trad. it. di antonietta de feo, bari, dedalo, . cfr. . non solo negli stati uniti ma anche in europa esistono significative applicazioni di metodi quantitativi e digitali alla storia della filosofia e alla storia delle idee. per citare un esempio che ci sembra interessante, il gruppo di arianna betti dell’universiteit van amsterdam è impegnato in alcuni progetti di questo tipo e ha ottenuto numerosi finanziamenti europei (erc, proof of concept ecc.): la ricerca del gruppo “axiom” indaga – mediante l’analisi computazionale di testi – il modo in cui concetti rilevanti della logica, della matematica e della biologia (come verità, conse- guenza logica e vita) si sono sviluppati dal xviii al xx secolo; il progetto glammap ha lo scopo di creare un software per visualizzare su mappe geografiche la presenza di ampie collezioni di libri; il progetto @philostei, infine, intende trasformare le immagini di testi, scritti in diversi periodi storici e in varie lingue, in testi in formato tei, permettendone la marcatura e l’analisi quantitativa e computazionale. biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre lo sviluppo della linguistica computazionale nell’ulti- mo decennio sta offrendo tecniche di analisi sempre più sofisticate, che in futuro potranno essere impiega- te anche nella storia della cultura: si pensi ad esem- pio alla sentiment analysis (l’analisi automatica delle caratteristiche affettive di un testo), all’opinion mining (l’estrazione di indicatori di soggettività da un testo) e all’author profiling (l’identificazione automatica dell’au- tore). la disponibilità di questi strumenti automatici, con l’affermarsi del crowd sourcing nell’annotazione di testi, prefigura uno scenario in cui le tecniche del distant reading avranno una diffusione sempre più am- pia e condivisa. oltre il progetto torinese: i maestri d’ateneo europei nel progetto torinese preso qui in esame la marcatu- ra tematica consente di indagare alcuni aspetti della storia della filosofia e degli studi classici che difficil- mente emergono con i metodi più tradizionali : gra- zie agli strumenti computazionali delle digital huma- nities si potrebbe considerare la storia della ricezione dell’antico negli studi accademici nazionali, spaziando da un’analisi intertestuale che punta all’individuazione delle citazioni classiche a un’indagine di tipo seman- tico centrata su specifiche aree concettuali. analoga- mente, si potrebbe indagare la presenza, nelle filosofie accademiche nazionali, di particolari occorrenze lessi- cali, pattern argomentativi, tradizioni teoriche e nomi di filosofi, usando tecniche di visualizzazione avanza- ta, che rendono le relazioni interne ai dati esplorabili attraverso interfacce grafiche innovative , in grado di far emergere schemi comuni, relazioni complesse e associazioni inedite e poco intuitive. prima di presentare più nel dettaglio alcuni esempi, conviene osservare che, naturalmente, l’interesse di un’operazione di questo tipo è tanto maggiore quanto più ampio e sistematico è il corpus di testi preso in considerazione: si potrebbe infatti passare dalla co- struzione di una biblioteca digitale torinese alla costru- zione di una biblioteca dei maestri d’ateneo – clas- sicisti e filosofi – italiani ed europei. da qui in avanti scriveremo quindi avendo come orizzonte di riferimen- to la situazione ipotetica (e auspicabile) in cui siano stati digitalizzati e marcati secondo i criteri adottati nel progetto originale (con tag di nomi di persona, luoghi geografici e concetti fondamentali) tutti i testi pubblica- ti da docenti di storia della filosofia e di studi classici in alcuni importanti atenei europei in un determinato pe- riodo storico (per esempio in italia, francia, germania e gran bretagna tra il e il , considerando, per ciascun paese, i dieci atenei più grandi). prendere in esame una grande quantità di dati permette, anzi- tutto, di avere un quadro della produzione scientifica nelle accademie europee più realistico e meno viziato dalle consuete scelte di un canone. vediamo dunque alcuni esempi di come potrebbe funzionare questo metodo di lavoro applicato alla biblioteca digitale che immaginiamo di creare. primo esempio. la circolazione internazionale delle idee: le digital humanities incontrano la sociologia di bourdieu in una conferenza tenuta a friburgo nel e inti- tolata “le condizioni sociali della circolazione inter- nazionale delle idee”, pierre bourdieu abbozzava un programma di ricerca sulle relazioni internazionali nel campo della cultura . secondo bourdieu uno studio di questo tipo dovrebbe considerare l’insieme varie- gato e spesso trascurato delle interazioni sociali e dei contesti sociopolitici entro cui i testi circolano, quando oltrepassano le frontiere nazionali. in particolare, bou- rdieu suggeriva di analizzare i processi di selezione dei testi (che cosa si pubblica, chi traduce, chi pubblica) e vari elementi paratestuali (case editrici, collane, autori delle prefazioni e così via), ritenendo che un’analisi di questo tipo avrebbe permesso di comprendere meglio i meccanismi sociologici della circolazione internazionale delle idee, evitando di accettare acriticamente immagini ingenue o eccessivamente semplificate dell’internazio- nalizzazione della vita culturale di un certo paese. la creazione di una biblioteca digitale dei maestri d’a- teneo europei e l’applicazione dei metodi computazio- nali e quantitativi delle digital humanities e del distant reading permettono di lavorare nel solco di bourdieu, anzitutto perché – come lo stesso bourdieu ha osser- vato, per esempio in homo academicus del – il contesto universitario è un luogo privilegiato per in- dagare le relazioni sociali tra cultura, intellettuali e po- che i metodi digitali possano accrescere e affinare le potenzialità ermeneutiche dei metodi tradizionali (senza naturalmente pretendere di sostituirli) è chiarito bene da leighton evans - sian rees, an interpretation of digital humanities, in understanding digital humanities, edited by david m. berry, [s.l.], palgrave macmillan uk, , p. - . cfr. il lavoro dell’interactive data lab dell’university of washington. pierre bourdieu, le condizioni sociali della circolazione internazionale delle idee, a cura di gerardo ienna e marco santoro, «studi culturali», ( ), n. , p. - . biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre tere. ma, d’altra parte, la grande quantità di dati che è possibile analizzare grazie alla biblioteca digitale (e che bourdieu, ovviamente, non aveva a disposizione) consente di rendere più ampia, realistica e oggettiva l’analisi sociologica . per esempio, grazie alla marca- tura tei, si potrebbero scoprire le differenze quantita- tive e geografiche nella trattazione di hegel (o di kant) nelle accademie non tedesche: quando arriva, come viene usato, quale campo occupa, quali logiche stan- no dietro l’uso che ne viene fatto? ci sono differenze tra l’ateneo torinese e quello milanese o napoletano? e tra i diversi paesi europei? il peso di hegel (o di kant) nelle tradizioni accademiche nazionali potrebbe esse- re misurato ricercando nei testi marcati la presenza di lessico hegeliano e – grazie all’analisi delle corrispon- denze multiple introdotta da jean-paul benzécri – di autori legati a hegel, e le informazioni contenute nella taggatura “strutturale” potrebbero fornire le informa- zioni paratestuali che bourdieu considerava cruciali . secondo esempio. l’uso politico della storia: un’analisi quantitativa i metodi digitali e quantitativi danno la possibilità di trovare conferme, smentite, ampliamenti, integrazioni, nuove vie in diversi ambiti delle digital humanities. un caso particolarmente interessante è quello dello stu- dio dell’uso politico della storia da parte di istituzioni e autori . si tratta di un tema che gli studiosi hanno a lungo trattato con i metodi tradizionali. si consideri, ad esempio, il caso di amedeo peyron (uno dei ma- estri dell’ateneo torinese) il quale, convinto che «rien ne rassemble plus à l’histoire d’italie comme celle de la grèce» , parlando della storia greca evocava, tal- volta implicitamente, le vicende della politica sabau- da a lui contemporanee . ipotizzando di digitalizza- re e marcare non solo le opere di argomento storico di peyron , ma anche il suo epistolario (in cui sono contenute riflessioni significative sul rapporto tra storia greca e storia sabauda), si potrebbero ottenere risultati interessanti: analizzando quantitativamente testi come questi, che sono nati con differenti scopi comunicativi e appartengono a diversi generi letterari, sarebbe pos- sibile ottenere una “mappatura” completa di questo argomento “nell’opera di peyron”. ma, d’altra parte, sarebbe di estremo interesse verificare, anche contra- stivamente, quanto e come questo modello di uso po- litico della storia si applichi a una pluralità di docenti, a varie università europee e a svariati contesti storici . terzo esempio. i maestri d’ateneo nella didattica universitaria l’uso didattico delle tecnologie può procurare vantag- gi a livello motivazionale e a livello cognitivo, consen- tendo di proporre agli studenti attività personalizzate, più adeguate ai loro stili di apprendimento, fondate su un approccio interattivo e multimediale . in questa sede ci limitiamo a fare qualche osservazione sul pos- sibile uso della biblioteca digitale europea dei maestri d’ateneo nella didattica universitaria . l’analisi digitale e quantitativa della produzione ac- cademica dei filosofi e dei classicisti servirebbe a vari scopi: permetterebbe agli studenti di usare in modo da oltre un decennio l’iniziativa frbr e la sua integrazione con il progetto cidoc-crm forniscono un modello concettuale in continuo avanza- mento dei processi autoriali, editoriali e di conservazione, permettendone un’analisi computazionale. cfr. jean-paul benzecri, l’analyse des donnés. tome ii: l’analyse des correspondances, malakoff, dunod, . un approccio analogo potrebbe valere per la costruzione di una mappa geografica delle traduzioni di testi classici: per esempio, quanto plato- ne, quanto aristotele, quanti lirici greci vengono tradotti in italia, quanti in francia? per quali ragioni ideologiche e socio-culturali? perché in un certo paese vi è più “domanda” di traduzioni di un certo autore o di una certa opera rispetto a un altro paese? cfr. ad esempio andrea giardina - andré vauchez, il mito di roma: da carlo magno a mussolini, roma-bari, laterza, e angelo d’orsi, usi e abusi politici del passato, tra storia e memoria, in la storia imbavagliata, a cura di claudio moffa, tivoli, azienda grafica meschini, , p. - . missiva del giugno a charles lenormant, citata in gian franco gianotti, amedeo peyron, in i maestri dell’ateneo torinese dal settecento al novecento cit., p. - : . ad esempio, quando considerava il declino delle potenze greche alla metà del iv secolo, affermava che «mentre i greci in questa lotta logora- vano le loro forze, educavasi al settentrione inosservata la nazione macedone distinta dai greci, come ai piedi delle alpi la nazione piemontese distinta dagli italiani»; e, in un’altra occasione, nel contesto di un discorso relativo alla storia della lega achea, richiamava le posizioni federative di gioberti, da lui non condivise. cfr. g. f. gianotti, amedeo peyron cit., p. - . per la bibliografia di peyron, cfr. g. f. gianotti, amedeo peyron cit., note e , p. . naturalmente un discorso analogo può essere svolto a proposito della storia della filosofia, per esempio verificando con l’ausilio dei dati la diversa tendenza dell’accademia italiana, prima e dopo la seconda guerra mondiale, a importare idee da oltreconfine. cfr. fabio ciotti, tecnologia e trasmissione del sapere: verso la biblioteca digitale, intervento tenuto al convegno “internet: ricerca e/o didattica” (bologna, dipartimento di italianistica, novembre ); riccardo fragnito, la rete della didattica, lecce, pensa multimedia, ; cfr. anche indire: ricerca e innovazione per la scuola italiana, . cfr. il lavoro svolto nel laboratorio per le digital humanities della fondazione bruno kessler di trento. biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre critico e consapevole le tecnologie, di familiarizzare con la nozione di “biblioteca digitale” (che cos’è, come si realizza, a che cosa serve, perché è importante), e di creare infine percorsi di studio e di approfondimen- to interdisciplinari. per esempio, gli studenti potreb- bero non solo individuare le co-occorrenze verbali e ritmiche, come è possibile fare ad esempio in archivi digitali come musisque deoque (per la poesia latina) o digiliblt (per la letteratura latina tardo-antica), ma anche imparare a contare le citazioni classiche (greche o latine) nella produzione accademica di alcuni autori interessanti in un certo periodo, riflettendo sul posto occupato dagli autori classici in quel contesto storico e culturale . si tratterebbe di un modo alternativo e intellettualmente stimolante per avvicinare gli studenti alla storia della ricezione dei testi classici. considerazioni conclusive in questo contributo abbiamo proposto alcune rifles- sioni sull’utilità delle biblioteche digitali e della mar- catura testuale per gli studi classici e la storia della filosofia. abbiamo descritto il progetto torinese i ma- estri dell’università degli studi di torino: l’opera e il pensiero, nel quale sono state digitalizzate e marca- te secondo lo standard tei alcune opere di filosofi e classicisti che hanno insegnato all’università di torino tra la metà dell’ottocento e i primi decenni del nove- cento e che, pur avendo avuto un ruolo significativo nella cultura accademica torinese, sono relativamente poco studiati. il discorso intorno al progetto torinese è stato pretesto e punto di partenza per immaginare una situazione ipotetica di lavoro nella quale sia digita- lizzato e marcato un corpus di opere molto più ampio, prendendo in considerazione tutti i testi pubblicati da docenti di filosofia e di studi classici in alcuni impor- tanti atenei europei in un determinato periodo storico (ad esempio si può pensare di restringere il campo di analisi a una decina di università in italia, francia, germania e gran bretagna tra il e il ). se un progetto di questo tipo venisse realizzato, gli stu- diosi di storia della filosofia e di discipline classiche potrebbero integrare i metodi di lavoro tradizionali con gli strumenti digitali e computazionali. i due principali modelli teorici a cui abbiamo fatto riferimento sono il distant reading, introdotto da franco moretti in storia della letteratura, e l’analisi sociologica dei “campi” cul- turali e accademici proposta da bourdieu e dalla sua scuola. applicando il distant reading e gli strumenti della sociologia bourdieusiana alla nostra ipotetica bi- blioteca digitale, si potrebbe ottenere una mappatura completa della produzione accademica negli ambiti considerati, con la possibilità di ricavare risultati origi- nali e prospettive inesplorate in merito alla circolazione internazionale delle idee, alla presenza di pattern si- gnificativi nei corpora considerati, all’uso politico della storia e all’interazione tra i contesti politico-istituzionali e la produzione scientifica di ambito accademico. abbiamo concluso suggerendo che i metodi com- putazionali, applicati alle biblioteche digitali, possono avere risvolti interessanti per la didattica universitaria, giacché consentono di stimolare l’attenzione degli studenti e di affrontare lo studio disciplinare in modo alternativo ed efficace. musisque deoque: un archivio digitale di poesia latina, e digiliblt: biblioteca digitale di testi latini tardoantichi, sono due esempi, tra i tanti possibili, di archivi digitali di questo tipo. il primo progetto è stato realizzato con la collaborazione di vari atenei, tra i quali l’università di venezia “cà foscari”, l’università della calabria, l’università di parma, l’università di perugia e l’università di napoli “federico ii”. il secondo progetto è nato ed è stato sviluppato all’università del piemonte orientale “amedeo avogadro”, con la collaborazione di una rete scientifica internazionale. abstract in questo contributo vengono proposte alcune riflessioni sull’utilità delle biblioteche digitali e della marcatura testuale per gli studi classici e la storia della filosofia. si descrive il progetto torinese i maestri dell’università degli studi di torino: l’opera e il pensiero, nel quale sono state digitalizzate e marcate secondo lo standard tei alcune opere di filosofi e classicisti che hanno insegnato all’università di torino tra la metà dell’ottocento e i primi decenni del novecento. il discorso intorno al progetto torinese è stato pretesto e punto di partenza per immaginare una situazione ipotetica di lavoro nella quale sia digitalizzato e marcato un corpus di opere molto più ampio, prendendo in considerazione tutti i testi pubblicati da docenti di filosofia e di studi classici in alcuni importanti atenei europei (ad esempio in francia, italia, germania e gran bretagna) in un determinato periodo storico (ad esempio tra il e il ). se un progetto di questo tipo venisse realizzato, gli studiosi di storia della filosofia e di discipline classiche potrebbero integrare i metodi di lavoro tradizionali con gli strumenti digitali e computazionali. i due principali modelli teorici a cui si è fatto riferimento sono il distant reading, introdotto da franco moretti in storia della letteratura, e l’analisi sociologica dei “campi” cultu- biblioteche oggi trends • dicembre rali e accademici proposta da pierre bourdieu. applicando questo tipo di metodi si potrebbero ricavare risultati originali in merito alla circolazione internazionale delle idee, alla presenza di pattern testuali significativi nei corpora considerati e all’interazione tra i contesti politico-istituzionali e la produzione scientifica di ambito accademico. the digital libraries and textual markup: the case studies of classical studies and history of philosophy in this paper we present some reflections on the usefulness of digital libraries and textual markup for the classical studies and the history of philosophy. first, we describe the project “i maestri dell’università degli studi di torino: l’opera e il pensiero”, in which a small corpus of works by philosophers and classicists who taught at the university of turin from mid-nineteenth century to the first decades of the twentieth century has been digitized, marked up according to tei standards and augmented with semantic information. then, we take inspiration from this project to figure out a hypothetical working scenario characterized by the availability of a larger corpus of digitized and tei-marked texts that takes into account all the works published by professors of philosophy and classical literature in some important european universities (for example in france, italy, germany and the uk) for a given historical period (for example from to ). if such a corpus were available, historians of philosophy and classicists could supplement traditional methods with digital and computational ones thanks to digitization. the two main models we refer to in this paper are “distant reading”, introduced by franco moretti for literary history, and the analysis of cultural and academic “fields” proposed by pierre bourdieu for sociology. these methods would allow scholars to get a fresh understanding of the international circulation of ideas for the given areas and periods of time, letting the presence of interesting patterns emerge from the textual corpora, with insights about the interaction between scientific-academic works and the political-institutional contexts of their production. hfc_mamprin_ _ _ _eng humanities for change a network for the future of the humanities ( ) | reviews • bembus scholarly digital editions: an (un)known land irene mamprin electronic version doi: http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. url: https://www.humanitiesforchange.org/ / / /scholarly-digital-edtions-an-unknown-land/ url (humanities for change hypotheses): https://hfc.hypotheses.org/ url (bembus hypotheses): https://bembus.hypotheses.org/ publisher humanities for change a network for the future of the humanities www.humanitiesforchange.org www.hfc.hypotheses.org info@humanitiesforchange.org electronic reference mamprin, irene. “scholarly digital editions: an (un)known land”. humanities for change [online] ( ), february , . http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. . license humanities for change by marco sartor and francesco venturini is licensed under cc by . (creative commons attribu- tion . international). to view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . . http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. https://www.humanitiesforchange.org/ / / /scholarly-digital-edtions-an-unknown-land/ https://hfc.hypotheses.org/ https://bembus.hypotheses.org/ http://www.humanitiesforchange.org http://www.hfc.hypotheses.org mailto:info@humanitiesforchange.org http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . mamprin, irene. “scholarly digital editions: an (un)known land”. humanities for change [online] ( ), february , . http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. . irene mamprin scholarly digital editions: an (un)known land abstract. the new book by tiziana mancinelli and elena pierazzo is an introduction to the ecdotic practices developed in the digital environment. the concept of “scholarly digital edition” is investiga- ted and the reader is provided with a series of tools to understand its limits and potential, also in relation to future developments and the adoption of shared standards. keywords. digital philology, digital scholarly editions, electronic representation, elena pierazzo, lite- rary texts, scholarly editions, tiziana mancinelli che cos’è un’edizione scientifica digitale is the new book by tiziana mancinelli, a spe-cialist in the modeling and production of digital editions, and elena pierazzo, pro-fessor at the university of tours and expert in theory and methodology of digital philology. the book – published in january – aims to offer an overview of new ec- dotic methodologies and practices within the digital environment to an audience who is not necessarily expert in digital publishing or computer science for the humanities: essentially, to anyone who wants to become aware of this paradigm shift. the authors, therefore, aim to provide an adequate reading key to this vast and varied phenomenon of digital editions through a summary presentation of the new techniques: in fact, the work does not claim to teach how to develop these techniques – nor to present a taxo- nomy of digital editions – but to make them understand how they really work and why they can be useful for the humanities. mancinelli and pierazzo map a still unexplored area, immediately asking the question of what a scientific edition, and in particular a digital scientific edition, is: the authors inform the reader of the difference between “digitized philology” – based on a more tra- ditional work system – and a “digital philology”, that is the real innovation born in a computer environment. the paradigm shift the authors point out developed gradually, in stages, until the scientific community understood the importance of digital techno- logy in providing standardized methods and principles that overcome any national and cultural barrier. subsequently, a series of examples of critical digital editions is propo- sed, such as the electronic beowulf (https://ebeowulf.uky.edu/) and the various projects around dante’s comedy (https://dante.dartmouth.edu/) for the italian panorama. all the http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. https://ebeowulf.uky.edu/ https://dante.dartmouth.edu/ exemplified editions have a not negligible technical aspect: the standardization with tei coding and xml language. here follows a brief chronological account of the history of digital editions from the s to the present day, in italy and abroad: the authors identify four historical phases characterized by methodological and epistemological changes. the final chapters are all dedicated to the definition and description of the methodology, codification, processes and tools needed not only to build and design a scholarly digital edition, but also to read it correctly and evaluate it. finally, a small glossary is provided to familiarize with the new computer vocabulary. some examples of digital scholarly editions and digital archives evolution and challenges since the very first lines mancinelli and pierazzo grasp the problem in the definition of the new editions: in a history studded with gaps and incompleteness due to technolo- gical obsolescence and the absence of a plan for the maintenance of digital resources, the authors make the reader understand that digital represents a new way of produc- tion and fruition of the text, just as printing was for renaissance philologists. the em- phasis placed on the four historical phases of digital editions (one more than tito or- landi’s thesis) clarifies in an exhaustive way the positive and negative aspects of the potential of digital philology. the book does not neglect any problem: on the contrary, it immediately highlights the obstacles that young scholars may encounter when publi- shing a digital edition. in fact, they warn that the non-existence of a platform that allo- ws access to digital editions and copyright problems affect the weakest groups in re- search and this may stifle the affirmation of new digital projects. in this sense, the book intends to send a message about the future of digital humanities: it is our duty to limit the economic obstacles linked to research tools, so that young researchers can advance a sector rich in scientific potential. although the book is not intended to be a specialist handbook, it fully describes an evolutionary process that has affected the entire second half of the twentieth century: so the study investigates in detail the changes and milestones in the history of digital editions providing an almost complete overview of this phenomenon. moreover, the au- thors through their proposal for the evaluation of a digital edition show how much the work of a digital humanist (indeed, of the whole team for the realization of a digital project) is worthy of attention and scientific examination and for this reason they want to provide a univocal methodology of reading and criticism, defining step by step all the phases of work. ✦ video. introduction to digital scholarly editions (with marjorie burghart and elena pierazzo). an introductory video on digital scientific editions that illustrates some of their potentialities, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= gmorqiaoro. the paradigm shift the existence of national schools with sometimes diametrically opposed methods and principles has been the norm for at least the whole of the last century; one of the great changes generated by digital is undoubtedly that of overcoming national (not to say nationalistic) optics which can only harm the cause of knowledge. elena pierazzo, tiziana mancinelli, che cos’è un’edizione scientifica digitale, roma, carocci, , p. . with these words the authors underline how the paradigm shift in digital humanities, namely the introduction of the tei guidelines (https://tei-c.org/) and the use of the xml language, represent an epoch-making turning point in philological research. as early as peter shillingsburg highlighted the democratic nature of the web, insisting on the possibility that it could offer equal tools and guidelines for all scholars. if we look at all the national schools – as the authors suggest – in the last century, we notice a heterogeneity of principles, methods and thoughts that for a long time prevented the dialogue between humanists, while now the web becomes the spokesman of a brea- king down of boundaries and a universal unification of the scientific community. shil- lingsburg, by publishing the general principles for electronic scholarly editions (http://sun- site.berkeley.edu/mla/principles.html) in toronto during the mla congress (modern language association, , https://www.mla.org/), initiated the codification of criteria for the evaluation of digital editions, hoping in this way for a widespread diffusion of philological innovations through the web. but if shillingsburg dwelt more on the tech- nological supports, mancinelli and pierazzo intend – like the mla guidelines – to highlight the quality of the ecdotic criteria and subsequently the analysis of the tech- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= gmorqiaoro https://tei-c.org/ http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/mla/principles.html http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/mla/principles.html https://www.mla.org/ nical aspects. once the standard has been defined, however, it is not certain that an edition will last forever and digitization is not a simple process: the choice of one me- dium and one technology instead of another has consequences at all levels of resear- ch. let’s think, for example, about the automatic transcription of a text and how diffi- cult – if not impossible – it is to obtain % accuracy: should we rely on crowdsourcing and the free work of volunteers recruited on the web or should we prefer outsourcing to external companies that are not always competent? the web teaches us that every choice we make is never neutral and can have repercussions on the ethics and quality of our work. still, computers are often considered a way to reduce working time: wil- liam mccarthy, on the other hand, makes it clear that new technologies are a new way of conceiving work and creating a new and revolutionary world view. and while it’s good that digital editions are open source, the lack of financial income could compromise the very existence of digital humanities. an example of scholarly digital edition: lo stufaiuolo by anton francesco doni (http://scholarlyediting.org/ /editions/intro.stufaiuolo.html) edited by elena pierazzo to learn more ﹆ mancinelli, tiziana; pierazzo, elena ( ). che cos’è un’edizione scientifica digitale. roma: carocci editore. ﹆ mccarthy, william ( ). «finding implicit patterns in ovid’s ‘metamorphoses’ with ‘tact’» [online]. digital studies/le champ numérique, . doi: http://doi.org/ . / dscn. ( - - ). ﹆ orlandi, tito ( ). informatica umanistica. roma: carocci. ﹆ shillingsburg, peter l. ( ). general principles for electronic scholarly editions [online]. url: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/mla/principles.html ( - - ). http://scholarlyediting.org/ /editions/intro.stufaiuolo.html http://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/mla/principles.html crowdsourcing bentham: beyond the traditional boundaries of academic history this is a pre-publication version of ‘crowdsourcing bentham: beyond the traditional boundaries of academic history’ by tim causer and melissa terras. it will be published in april in vol. ( ) of the international journal of humanities and arts computing (http://www.euppublishing.com/journal/ijhac), and appears here thanks to edinburgh university press. http://www.euppublishing.com/journal/ijhac crowdsourcing bentham: beyond the traditional boundaries of academic history tim causer, bentham project, faculty of laws, university college london melissa terras, department of information studies, university college london abstract: the bentham papers transcription initiative (transcribe bentham for short) is an award-winning crowdsourced manuscript transcription initiative which engages students, researchers, and the general public with the thought and life of the philosopher and reformer, jeremy bentham ( – ), by making available digital images of his manuscripts for anyone, anywhere in the world, to transcribe. since its launch in september , over . million words have been transcribed by volunteers. this paper will examine transcribe bentham’s contribution to humanities research and the burgeoning field of digital humanities. it will then discuss the potential for the project’s volunteers to make significant new discoveries among the vast bentham papers collection, and examine several examples of interesting material transcribed by volunteers thus far. we demonstrate here that a crowd- sourced initiative such as transcribe bentham can open up activities that were traditionally viewed as academic endeavors to a wider audience interested in history, whilst uncovering new, important historical primary source material. in addition, we see this as a switch in focus for those involved in digital humanities, highlighting the possibilities in using online and social media technologies for user engagement and participation in cultural heritage. keywords: collaborative transcription; crowdsourcing; tei; jeremy bentham; animal welfare; convict transportation . introduction: crowdsourcing and the transcribe bentham in recent years, there has been a movement in the cultural and heritage industries to trial crowdsourcing (the harnessing of online activities and behaviour to aid in large-scale ventures such as tagging, commenting, rating, reviewing, text correcting, and the creation and uploading of content in a methodical, task-based fashion) to improve the quality of, and widen access to, online collections. a number of projects have harnessed public enthusiasm for contributing to cultural heritage, such as the national library of australia’s trove, which successfully recruited legions of amateur and family historians to correct the ocr text of digitised newspapers, and ancestry.com’s world archives project, which encouraged genealogists to transcribe name indexes. building on this, there have been attempts to crowdsource a more complex task traditionally assumed to be carried out by academics: the accurate transcription of manuscript material. scripto, developed by the center for history and new media at george mason university, and t-pen from saint louis university, are only two of a number of open-source tools currently in development which aim to facilitate manuscript transcription. no projects, however, have tested the feasibility and practicalities of crowdsourcing manuscript transcription within an academic context, or examined its impact on scholarly editing. transcribe bentham was begun to establish whether crowdsourcing can be used successfully for both scholarly work and for widening public access to manuscripts, whilst also hoping that it would contribute to the transcription of a particular set of historical manuscripts. transcribe bentham is co-ordinated by university college london’s (ucl) bentham project, in partnership with ucl centre for digital humanities, ucl library services, ucl learning and media services, the university of london computer centre (ulcc), and ‘the crowd’. it was initially funded under a twelve-month grant from the arts and humanities research council’s (ahrc) digital equipment and database enhancement for impact scheme (dedefi), and launched to the public in september . since october , for two years, transcribe bentham is funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation, and the british library has joined the project consortium. the initiative intends to engage students, researchers, and the general public with the thought and life of the philosopher and reformer, jeremy bentham ( – ), by making available digital images of his manuscripts for anyone, anywhere, to access and transcribe. bentham’s works had a profound historical impact and are still of major contemporary significance. in ethics, bentham was founder of the modern doctrine of utilitarianism—that the right and proper end of all action is the promotion of the greatest happiness. bentham’s so-called ‘felicific calculus’ is the inspiration for cost-benefit analysis, while his ‘nonsense upon stilts’ is a hugely important critique of the doctrine of natural rights (forerunning the modern conception of human rights). bentham detailed a systematic theory of punishment which emphasised deterrence, proportionality, and the reformation of the offender. his writings on the early history of new south wales—written around to —were devastating critiques of the practice of transporting convicts to australia: the ideas they contained proved highly influential in the decision to abandon transportation in . bentham advocated female suffrage, was a major theorist of representative democracy, and proposed an international court of arbitration to promote peace between nations. however, bentham is perhaps best known for two things: his proposed panopticon prison, or at least michel foucault’s interpretation thereof; and for requesting that his body be preserved as an ‘auto-icon’ after his death. bentham’s wishes were carried out, and his dressed skeleton is on public display, seated in a wooden box at ucl. the bentham project was founded in to produce a new, critical edition of the collected works of jeremy bentham, based both on bentham’s published works and unpublished manuscripts; ucl library’s special collections holds some , manuscript folios (c. thirty million words), and the british library a further , (c. six million words). thus far, twenty-nine volumes of the collected works have been published, and a total of around , manuscript folios have been transcribed. prior to the public launch of transcribe bentham, the majority of the bentham papers, comprising a resource of enormous historical and philosophical importance, were therefore un-transcribed and their contents largely unknown, rendering our understanding of bentham’s thought—together with its historical significance and continuing philosophical importance—at best provisional, and at worst a caricature. transcribe bentham allows students, researchers, scholars and the general public alike to help explore and widen access to this material. at the heart of the project is a collaborative transcription platform, based on a customised mediawiki. volunteers are presented with a high-quality digital image of a bentham manuscript, and a plain-text box into which they type their transcript. transcribers are also asked to encode their work in text-encoding initiative (tei) -compliant extensible mark-up language (xml), but rather than requiring that volunteers learn mark-up, they can instead use a bespoke ‘transcription toolbar’ which adds the relevant tags to sections of, and places in, the text. volunteer-produced transcripts of the required standard—i.e. those which, after being submitted to project staff for checking of textual accuracy and encoding consistency, are considered complete—have two purposes. first, transcripts are uploaded to ucl’s digital bentham papers repository and linked to the relevant manuscript image. access to the repository for study and research is free. the repository also greatly increases the speed at which others can be given access to transcribed material, and encoded transcripts allows the bentham project to electronically publish preliminary texts of bentham’s works, as has been done recently with the controversial unpublished third volume of bentham’s work on religion and sexual morality, not paul, but jesus. second, the transcripts will also make a valuable contribution to research. bentham project editors will be given a head-start in producing collected works volumes by the availability of draft transcripts, and since volunteers frequently transcribe manuscripts which have not been read since bentham composed them, they can potentially make new discoveries (see section ). in this sense, transcribe bentham is a collaboration between a ‘traditional’ scholarly editorial project, historians, digital humanists, library professionals, digital curators, and experts in digitisation, with the project’s success reliant upon volunteers who have given—and continue to give—their valuable time and effort to benefit others. this paper will examine transcribe bentham’s contribution to humanities research and the burgeoning field of digital humanities. it will then discuss the potential for the project’s volunteers to make significant new discoveries among the vast bentham papers collection, and examine several examples of interesting material transcribed by volunteers thus far. . progress as of march , , users had registered an account with transcribe bentham (figure ). volunteers have transcribed or partially-transcribed a total of , manuscripts, , ( %) of which were deemed to be of the requisite standard for uploading to ucl’s digital repository. since the project began, volunteers have worked on an average of manuscripts per week, though from december to march , this has increased to per week (figure ). volunteers are currently working on an average of , manuscripts per year, whereas a full-time member of staff might be expected to produce around , transcripts each year, on the basis that he or she could transcribe ten manuscripts per day. volunteers have carried out a vast amount of work, the true volume of which is perhaps obscured by an exclusive focus on the number of manuscripts on which work has been started: volunteers have transcribed—so far—an estimated . million words, including the extensive mark-up. [figure : user accounts registered, manuscripts worked on, and completed transcripts, september to march . ] [figure : rate of transcription, sept to march .] it is worth noting that, like other crowdsourcing projects, the majority of the work in transcribe bentham has been carried out by a minority of users. only (fifteen per cent) of the , registered users have transcribed anything, and almost two-thirds of those who have have worked on only one manuscript (table ). the overwhelming bulk of the transcription has been done by fifteen ‘super transcribers’, who comprise the strong core of transcribe bentham, and whose work generally requires minimal editorial intervention (figure ). these volunteers are highly motivated, but such heavy reliance upon them puts transcribe bentham in a potentially precarious situation: if even one of the currently participating ‘super transcribers’ ceases participation, then the rate of transcription will reduce noticeably. furthermore, though their work rate is prodigious, ‘super transcribers’ comprise only a tiny portion of those registered with transcribe bentham, and the fact remains that eighty per cent of all those registered with the project were not motivated to transcribe anything at all. that the overall rate of participation is low suggests that many were overwhelmed and found the task rather daunting, and that improvements must be made to the transcription interface before volunteer recruitment and retention will increase. [table : number of manuscripts worked on by volunteers, september to march .] [figure : contributions of transcribe bentham’s ‘super transcribers’, as of march .] . transcribe bentham and digital humanities the media-wiki plugins developed for transcribe bentham are of particular interest to the digital humanities community for a number of reasons. firstly, it was important for us to embed in our project best-practice understanding of how to mark-up and deliver electronic texts, and therefore we decided to encourage tei-compliant xml encoding via the transcription toolbar. in part, it was an experiment to assess how tei mark-up would be greeted beyond the usual user community: although we deliberately did not stress that encoding of transcripts was compulsory, the level of uptake by volunteers has been good, with most super-transcribers mastering the tag-set. transcribe bentham has, to an extent, demonstrated that volunteer labour can be used to undertake the type of detailed mark-up tasks generally perceived to be the preserve of those trained in xml and tei. it was always our intention to make the transcribe bentham code available to others, and the mediawiki plug-ins developed by the project have been made freely available. staff from ulcc have since worked with representatives from the public record office of victoria, melbourne, and we were delighted to see a customised version of the transcribe bentham software adapted for their pilot transcription project. code reuse in the digital humanities is still extremely rare, and—as other institutions are also exploring and testing the software—the impact of transcribe bentham is not necessarily limited to bentham manuscripts, but to other collections, demonstrating the strength of the crowd-sourcing approach to transcribing manuscripts. we hope that an upgraded version of the transcription desk software, produced under funding from the mellon foundation and now also available for reuse and customisation, will prove even more attractive to other institutions. finally, transcribe bentham, can also be seen as a public engagement and outreach project (whilst so many digital projects are designed for a niche scholarly audience, transcribe bentham was designed to engage with as wide an audience as possible), demonstrating the interest in, and use of, digital tools to further and assist humanities scholarship. there is a growing movement within the digital humanities field to develop tools and techniques which spread the traditionally time-intensive task of reading handwritten materials across a volunteer pool: transcribe bentham is only one of a range of projects such as scripto, t-pen, old weather, and from the page. these projects demonstrate that harnessing internet technologies can allow as wide an audience as possible to interact with, and contribute to, the understanding of primary source material. . new discoveries much of the bentham collection has yet to be fully—or even adequately—explored, and since volunteers in many instances transcribe manuscripts which have not been read since bentham wrote them, there is potential for transcribe bentham participants to make significant and interesting discoveries. new strands of bentham’s thought, or alterations of current understandings of his position on various issues will most likely only come to light after time is taken to compile manuscripts into works (or parts of works), and after they are edited into coherent and structured texts: a task dependent on identification and transcription of all relevant manuscripts for a particular work. for example, dr michael quinn of the bentham project is currently editing bentham’s writings on political economy, and whilst the transcription for the first two volumes was almost complete before the launch of transcribe bentham, the prospect of building on the work of volunteer transcribers in the attempt to reconstitute a complete text of ‘a tract intituled [sic] circulating annuities’, which has never before been published, is as exciting as it is challenging. bentham spent almost twelve months planning, drafting, and revising this major work, before deciding to provide a précis of his text in a work entitled ‘abstract or compressed view of a tract intituled [sic] circulating annuities’. if the mass of substantive and illustrative material provided by the recent publication of the full text of ‘pauper management improved’ is compared with the truncated ‘outline’ of that work which bentham himself published, there is reason to be optimistic that the publication of an unexpurgated text of bentham’s annuity note scheme will present an exciting resource to scholars and historians of economic thought alike. the work of transcribe bentham volunteers will significantly expedite work on this material, and thus contribute to its first publication. in other areas of interest, a number of interesting items have already been identified through crowdsourced transcription, detailed below. . . the treatment of animals bentham is regarded as a hero to the animal rights movement: activists often aprovingly quote bentham as having said—in the context of establishing the rights of a living being— ‘the question is not: can they reason? nor, can they talk? but, can they suffer?’ though this is frequently adopted as a slogan, it is in fact a partial quotation which does not necessarily represent bentham’s true position. the fuller remark makes it clear that bentham believed that killing animals for food is perfectly acceptable, since they ‘have none of those long-protracted anticipations of future misery that we [humans] have’, but he did maintain that their deaths should be made as painless as possible, and that tormenting animals should be forbidden. bentham was, therefore, not against the infliction of pain on animals per se, but the infliction of useless pain, in much the same way as he would balance the effects of any pain-inflicting act by considering any corresponding pleasures to which it might give rise. volunteers have transcribed a number of manuscripts which contextualise and support these views. firstly, volunteer diane folan transcribed a recollection from bentham’s childhood (figure ), which though mentioned in the nineteenth century edition of his works, was not expanded upon by the editor. writing at some point between and , bentham recalled how, at the age of four or five: i took it into my head to amuse myself with putting ear-wigs in the candle. i had no malice to the ear-wigs (poor insects): for my disgust at them if i had conceived any would have led me rather to have avoided them than to have handled them in that matter. but the writhings of their bodies, added to the little explosions made by the moisture of their juices composed a scene which amused my curiosity. one of the family’s servants—‘martha’, according to bentham’s biographer—noticed what the young jeremy was doing, and: asked me [for] what i thought the ear-wigs must suffer, and what i could have to say [for myself if any one that was stronger than i should] serve me in the same manner. i was struck with remorse. i looked back upon the deed with horror: and from that time i have been nearly as attentive to the feelings of the brute part of the creation as of the human. this manuscript provides valuable anecdotal detail about bentham’s childhood, and complements what is already known about his views on how animals should be treated. [figure : jb/ / / , displayed in ucl’s bentham papers digital repository.] in manuscripts composed between and , bentham wrote extensively on the penal code and attempted to define and set out punishments for a variety of offences. a handful of unpublished manuscripts relate to cruelty to animals, which bentham described as a state of affairs in which as if ‘any person is wantonly instrumental in hurting or worrying an animal’. bentham clearly states that an ‘act is to be deemed wanton when performed deliberately for the sake of seeing the animal suffer and not for any useful purpose’. ‘useful purposes’, which could justify the infliction of suffering or ‘chastisement’, included: ‘making the animal subservient to the conveniences of man in the way of food, physic, cloathing [sic], conveyance or manufacture’; preventing injury to a person; and making ‘experiment to promote medical of other useful knowledge’. in two manuscripts transcribed by volunteers peter hollis and simon shields, bentham also suggested that ‘restraining men from exercising cruelty on inferior animals is of use on three accounts’: . for the offender’s own sake … to prevent their giving way to habits of cruelty or insensibility, which where indulged are apt to lead men into the worst of crimes. he who has no feeling for brutes, will have but little for his fellow creatures. in this point of view, an act of direct legislation against cruelty to animals is an act of direct legislation against personal injuries, murder and incendiarism; and in short against all crimes which have malice for their source. […] . for the sake of other men … a considerable mischief is sometimes done by cats and other domestic animals when worried by the cruelty of children; mischief but more particularly in large towns, by horned cattle driven to madness by the cruelty of their drivers. . for the sake of the animals themselves … to a benevolent mind misery, let it be found where it willcan never be an object of indifference. what reason can man give why he should be permitted to hurt other animals except that it is out of their power to prevent it. if there be any arguments by which man can be justified in being here is further evidence that bentham believed that the infliction of ‘wanton’ pain upon animals should be considered a punishable offence: such action harms the animal itself, hardens the individual to cruelty, and could cause mischief to the community. transcribe bentham volunteers are, therefore, helping to clarify further what is known about bentham’s position vis-à-vis the treatment of animals. . . bentham, the panopticon prison, convict transportation, and early new south wales a large collection of manuscripts uploaded to transcribe bentham in april relate to bentham’s writings, dating from to , on the early history of new south wales, convict transportation, the panopticon prison, and penal policy. this material consists of notes collated by bentham, earlier and partial drafts of published works, and a great deal of unpublished material. bentham was one of the earliest and most influential critics of convict transportation to australia, a practice which began in and ended in . during this eighty year period, an estimated , men, women and children were transported to new south wales, van diemen’s land (renamed tasmania in ), norfolk island, and western australia. bentham’s antipathy to transportation is in part traceable to his belief that the government’s favouring of transportation had thwarted the construction of his panopticon penitentiary, the ‘simple idea in architecture’ which—bentham argued—would have solved at a stroke all trouble in managing criminals. bentham invested a great deal of money, energy and time in the panopticon scheme, which he believed had all been wasted owing to the perfidy of the british government; ‘they have murdered my best days’, he complained. bentham’s bitterness and frustration at having his protests ignored is evident in one unpublished, volunteer-transcribed manuscript, in which he bemoaned in june that ‘[t]he more evident it became that the conduct of men in power in my instance was indefensible the more decided were they not to hear of it [bentham’s complaints]’. this discovery from transcribe bentham may add to the debate over the precise period at which bentham developed the idea of ‘sinister interests’—that legislators did not necessarily act in the best interests of those they ruled—and the timing of his conversion into a political radical, convinced of the need for a representative parliament with universal adult suffrage. the manuscript appears to support philip schofield’s contention that it was ‘the panopticon experience which began to convince him [bentham] that nothing worthwhile could be achieved through the existing political structure in britain’. the first of two published works in which bentham criticised transportation was panopticon versus new south wales ( ), which takes the form of two open letters to the then home secretary, lord pelham. volunteer transcribers have made a potentially very exciting discovery: there is, in fact, a third, unpublished letter which has never before been identified in the literature, and the re-unification of the complete work will further expand our understanding of bentham’s thought on this issue. panopticon versus new south wales is an angry condemnation of transportation, a punishment bentham considered to be utterly useless. he argued that it offended the principle of effective and proportionate punishment, as convicts given varying sentences of transportation would, essentially, all be deported from britain for life. transportation was uncertain, as no-one could determine for sure how much (or how little) pain would be inflicted, while the individual convict’s crime mattered little in his treatment: a vicious but skilled convict might be assigned to an indulgent master and be well-treated, while a much less dangerous but unskilled one-time thief could languish on public farms or at a penal settlement. furthermore, transportation was not only a poor deterrent as the punishment occurred out of sight of the general population, but did nothing to reform those so punished. finally, the society created in new south wales by the ‘excrementitious mass’ sent there was immoral, and would be a burden on the mother country for years to come. set against this picture of antipodean perversity was bentham’s efficient, cheap, orderly and reformative panopticon. panopticon versus new south wales had little immediate impact, but the arguments it contained proved to be more influential after bentham’s death, and they were rehearsed in great detail by those campaigning for the abolition of transportation to new south wales during the s. however, panopticon versus new south wales must be read with some caution, as it is an extremely tendentious work in which bentham’s use of evidence can be constantly called into question. bentham extended his attack on transportation and the british government in a second, lesser-known work entitled a plea for the constitution, written in – but not published until because of its potentially incendiary contents. amongst other things, bentham argued in the plea that the governors of early new south wales had no authority from parliament to make binding local regulations, and that they, therefore, could neither make such rules, nor punish those who transgressed against them (and any punishments already inflicted were illegal). bentham realised that this was a dangerous argument, telling his brother samuel that ‘[o]f the publication of these discoveries a natural consequence would be the setting of the whole colony in a flame’. though bentham suppressed the plea, there is evidence that a copy did reach new south wales, and that his arguments may well have influenced those who deposed governor william bligh in the bloodless ‘rum rebellion’ of january . in an unpublished manuscript discovered and transcribed by volunteer lea stern, bentham discussed the offences committed against the british constitution in new south wales, and the ‘tyranny’ which had been ‘so happily planted’ in the colony: against such dominion, established as it is, “insurrection” may surely be said to be a right, if not as some would add, “a duty.” insurrection, conspiracy, treason, every thing of that sort is accordingly “compassed and imagined”: treason, not precisely against the constitution indeed, but unquestionably against the despotism so lately built upon the ruins of it. here, bentham essentially offers a justification for violent insurrection against the governor of new south wales. the plea was strident enough in tone as it was, and bentham was certainly counselled against publishing it by his friends: the more i read of [the plea],’ wrote charles bunbury mp on june , ‘the more desirous i am that it should not be published; it will bring upon you enemies irreconcileable, and procure you friends only amongst the malefactors of new south wales. it’s [sic] ingenuity, and acuteness render it more objectionable, for the sharper the knife, the deeper the wound. bentham clearly thought better of publishing such an openly seditious argument, and left it out of the final version of the plea. work by volunteers will ensure that transcribe bentham assists scholars in recovering complete versions of both panopticon versus new south wales, and a plea for the constitution, and contribute to understanding of bentham’s thinking on convict transportation, colonies, law, and his thwarted panopticon scheme. it will also assist in helping to trace the impact of bentham’s thought and its influence—which is perhaps underestimated—on later critiques of transportation. . conclusion this paper has demonstrated that not only has transcribe bentham used digital means to successfully open up the activity of scholarly transcription to a wide, online audience, but it has uncovered material which is contributing to our knowledge of bentham, and wider historical and philosophical debates and discussions. as more material is transcribed by volunteers, our knowledge will grow, as will the mass of bentham texts now being made immediately available through ucl library’s digital repository to scholars worldwide. this voluntary transcription initiative will inform the new volumes of the collected works of jeremy bentham, indicating the scholarly contribution that crowdsourced effort can make. transcribe bentham is indicative of a new focus in digital humanities scholarship: reaching out to encourage user participation and engagement, whilst providing tools which can be repurposed for others. it is now our aim to maintain the trajectory we have set, demonstrating the applicability of crowdsourcing approaches to bona-fide scholarship in the humanities, whilst encouraging volunteers to aid us in transcribing a fascinating body of historical documents. we are grateful to those who have worked on transcribe bentham for their contribution to the project upon which this paper is based, including: philip schofield, justin tonra, valerie wallace, martin moyle, tony slade,richard davis and josé martin. philip schofield and michael quinn offered many helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper, and particular thanks are owed to michael quinn for information about how the work of volunteer transcribers will assist his work in editing bentham’s writings on political economy. we are grateful to the arts and humanities research council, under whose auspices transcribe bentham was launched, and to the continuing support of the andrew w. mellon foundation. transcribe bentham project, http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham, last accessed november . r. holley, ‘crowdsourcing: how and why should libraries do it?’, d-lib magazine, vol. , , http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march /holley/ holley.html. trove: http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper, last accessed august . world archives project: http://community.ancestry.com/wap/download.aspx, last accessed august . scripto, a community transcription tool: http://scripto.org/, last accessed august . t-pen: a transcription tool for digital humanities: http://digital-editor.blogspot.com/, last accessed august . t. causer, j. tonra and v. wallace, ‘transcription maximized; expense minimized? crowdsourcing and editing the collected works of jeremy bentham’, literary and linguistic computing ( ), – . ucl bentham project, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project, last accessed may . ucl centre for digital humanities, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh, last accessed may . ucl library services, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library, last accessed may . university of london computer centre, http://www.ulcc.ac.uk, last accessed may . arts and humanities research council’s dedefi scheme, http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/fundingopportunities/pages/dedefi.aspx, last accessed may . j. bentham, rights, representation and reform: nonsense upon stilts and other writings on the french revolution, ed. p. schofield, c. pease-watkin and c. blamires (oxford: oxford university press ). j. bentham, an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation (hereafter ipml), ed. j. h. burns and h. l. a. hart, and intro. f. rosen (oxford, ), – ; j. bentham, théorie des peines et des récompenses, ed. e. dumont, vols (london, ); and j. bentham, the rationale of punishment, ed. r. smith (london, ). for the difficulties in assessing bentham’s theory of punishment, see h. bedau, http://blogs.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march /holley/ holley.html http://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper http://community.ancestry.com/wap/download.aspx http://scripto.org/ http://digital-editor.blogspot.com/ http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library http://www.ulcc.ac.uk/ http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/fundingopportunities/pages/dedefi.aspx ‘bentham’s theory of punishment: origin and content’, journal of bentham studies ( ) http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/ /. j. bentham, ‘panopticon versus new south wales’, and ‘a plea for the constitution’, in j. bowring, ed., the works of jeremy bentham, vols (edinburgh, – ) (henceforth ‘bowring’), iv. – , and – . m. williford, ‘bentham on the rights of women’, journal of the history of ideas ( ), – . j. bentham, constitutional code, vol. , ed. f. rosen and j. h. burns (oxford: oxford university press ). j. bentham, ‘principles of international law, essay iv: a plan for an universal and perpetual peace’, in bowring, ii. – . j. bentham, ‘panopticon; or, the inspection-house’ in bowring, iv. – . see also m. foucault, discipline and punish: the birth of the prison, transl. a. sheridan (london, ). first published as surveiller et punir: naissance de la prison. bentham’s auto-icon, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/who/autoicon, and the ‘virtual auto-icon’, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/who/autoicon/virtual_auto_icon, last accessed may . the most recently published volume is on the liberty of the press, and public discussion, and other legal and political writings for spain and portugal, ed. c. pease-watkin and p. schofield (oxford: oxford university press ). another volume is in submission: on sexual irregularities: writings on religion and sexual morality, ed. p. schofield, c. pease-watkin and m. quinn. for a discussion of the development of transcribe bentham, see causer, tonra and wallace, ‘transcription maximized’. mediawiki: http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/mediawiki, last accessed august . text encoding initiative: http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml, last accessed august . for the quality-control process, see causer, tonra and wallace, ‘transcription maximized?’, – . ucl’s bentham papers digital repository: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/bentham, last accessed may . see http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/publications/npbj/npbj.html, last accessed may . discounting project staff and blocked spam accounts. for a discussion of the recruitment of transcribe bentham volunteers, see t. causer and v. wallace, ‘building a volunteer community: results and findings from transcribe bentham’, digital humanities quarterly ( ), http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/ / http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/who/autoicon http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/who/autoicon/virtual_auto_icon http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/mediawiki http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/bentham http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/publications/npbj/npbj.html http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html there is, admittedly, some imprecision in this estimate, as bentham manuscripts differ greatly in terms of length, complexity, and legibility. see t. causer and m. terras, ‘“many hands make light work. many hands make merry work”: transcribe bentham and crowdsourcing manuscript transcription’, in mia ridge, ed., crowdsourcing our cultural heritage (forthcoming). the gaps in the number of user accounts registered and transcripts completed are owing to vacation periods. the rate of transcription in january increased dramatically owing to the publication of a feature on transcribe bentham in the new york times. for the impact of this and other media coverage, see causer, tonra and wallace, ‘transcription maximized’, and causer and wallace, ‘building a volunteer community’. see, for example, holley, ‘crowdsourcing: how and why should libraries do it?’, section . for ‘super transcribers’, see causer and wallace, ‘building a volunteer community’, and causer and terras, ‘many hands’. see causer, tonra and wallace, ‘transcription maximized’, , – , and causer and wallace, ‘building a volunteer community’, for factors which may have limited participation, and potential ways of improving the transcription interface. text-encoding initative: http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml, last accessed june . code for transcribe bentham mediawiki plugins: http://code.google.com/p/tb-transcription-desk/, last accessed june . public records office of victoria (prov): http://prov.vic.gov.au, last accessed june . prov transcription pilot project: http://wiki.prov.vic.gov.au/index.php/category:prov_transcription_pilot_project, last accessed june . upgraded transcription desk software, https://github.com/onothimagen/cbp-transcription-desk, last accessed july . old weather: http://www.oldweather.org/, last accessed august . from the page: http://fromthepage.com/, last accessed july . for more the bentham project’s editorial work and production of the collected works of jeremy bentham, see p. schofield, bentham: a guide for the perplexed (new york, ), – . see bowring, iii. – . the ‘abstract or compressed view’ also appears in w. stark, ed., jeremy bentham’s economic writings, vols (london, – ), ii, – . http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml http://code.google.com/p/tb-transcription-desk/ http://prov.vic.gov.au/ http://wiki.prov.vic.gov.au/index.php/category:prov_transcription_pilot_project https://github.com/onothimagen/cbp-transcription-desk http://www.oldweather.org/ http://fromthepage.com/ see j. bentham, ‘pauper management improved’, in . m. quinn, ed., writings on the poor laws, volume ii (oxford: oxford university press ), – , and compare with j. bentham, ‘outline of a work entitled pauper management improved’ in the same volume, – (also published at bowring, viii., – ). box , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/category:box_ , last accessed may . bentham, ipml, . bentham, ipml, – . see also a letter from bentham to the morning chronicle, march , . j. bowring, ‘memoirs and correspondence’, bowring, x. . jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by diane folan, revision of september this, and subsequent transcripts, have been edited for coherence by incorporating and/or discarding bentham’s additions and deletions. for the diplomatic transcripts, please visit the web links. ucl bentham papers collection (hereafter uc), jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe- bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by diane folan, revision of september . the square brackets are bentham’s own. uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by matt mitterko, revision of may . uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by matt mitterko, revision of may . uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by simon shields and peter hollis, revision of february . uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by simon shields and peter hollis, revision of february . box , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/category:box_ , last accessed may . transportation from the british isles began in with the sending of prisoners as indentured labour to the north american colonies, though the british practice of transporting convicts did not cease until the closure of the penal settlement at the andaman islands in . relatively few convicts were transported to australia during the period in which bentham wrote, and most were in fact transported after . for a useful summary, see h. maxwell-stewart, ‘convict transportation from britain and ireland, – ’, history compass ( ), – . http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/category:box_ http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/category:box_ bentham, ‘panopticon’ in bowring, iv. . the panopticon prison was designed with a central inspection tower, with the prisoners’ cells arranged around it; the prison inspector could then see into any cell at any time, unbeknown to the inmates. bentham argued that the prisoners would have to assume they were always being watched, and so would amend their behaviour to avoid punishment. bentham quoted in j. semple, bentham’s prison: a study of the panopticon penitentiary (oxford, ), . see – for more detail on bentham’s attempts to have the panopticon built. uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by lea stern, revision of june . schofield, guide for the perplexed, – . see, for example, manuscripts headed ‘letter, rd’, at uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe- bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by lea stern, revision of may , and uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by diane folan, revision of june . transportation to new south wales ceased in , but continued to van diemen’s land until . convicts were transported to western australia between and . r. v. jackson, ‘bentham’s penal theory in action: the case against new south wales’, utilitas ( ), – ; r. v. jackson, ‘theory and evidence: bentham, collins, and the new south wales penal settlement’, australian journal of politics and history ( ), – ; j. b. hirst, convict society and its enemies: a history of early new south wales (sydney, ); j. ritchie, ‘towards ending an unclean thing: the molesworth committee and the abolition of transportation, – ’, [australian] historical studies ( ), – ; b. smith, australia’s birthstain: the startling legacy of the convict era (crows nest, nsw, ), – . a plea for the constitution is also known as the true bastile [sic]. jeremy bentham to samuel bentham, c. august , j. dinwiddy, ed., the correspondence of jeremy bentham, vol. vii: january to december (oxford, ), . a. atkinson, ‘jeremy bentham and the rum rebellion’, journal of the royal australian historical society ( ), – ; j. gascoigne, the enlightenment and the origins of european australia (oxford, ), – ; g. karskens and r. waterhouse, ‘“too sacred to be taken away”: property, liberty, tyranny, and the “rum rebellion”’, journal of australian colonial history ( ), – . http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / uc jb/ / / , http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / , transcribed by lea stern, revision of april . see preceding manuscripts for the fuller discussion. original emphasis. bunbury to bentham, correspondence of jeremy bentham, vol. vii, . original emphasis. http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/jb/ / / using google sheets to create, organize & explore your humanities data nada ammagui nada.ammagui@nyu.edu postgraduate research fellow at widh@nycdh workshop agenda . introduction . tutorials & demonstrations a. starting in google sheets b. code tables c. data validation d. conditional formatting e. vlookup f. column statistics & filters g. pivot tables . mapping your data starting in google sheets setting up your spreadsheet ➢ start a new google sheets project “blank spreadsheet.” ➢ enter your data manually or import an existing dataset. ➢ create column/row headers to distinguish categories of information. ○ color, date, name, material, acquisition, location, coordinates, true/false, etc. *images taken from sample dataset. entering and viewing data ➢ tips: ○ hit the enter key to start typing in a cell and to jump one cell down. ○ use option/alt + enter to create a new line in a cell. ○ use the arrow keys to move to adjacent cells one at a time. ○ hit the tab key to move one cell to the right. ○ hide columns by highlighting them, right-clicking, and selecting “hide column.” ○ freeze rows by highlighting them, selecting “view” in the menu, then choosing “freeze.” ○ drag the bold blue corner of a cell to copy function and formats to cells. tool : code tables code tables ➢ create a table of codes to pull from (with recurring data) to be used for data validation and vlookup. ○ helpful in saving you time and effort! *image taken from sample dataset. ➢ tip: ○ install the geocode add-on (by awesome table) to automatically add latitude + longitude coordinates. creating a code table . open a new tab at the bottom of your file and name it “codes.” . determine what information you will use the most and that recurs in every row (something with a more limited range of options). a. example: the authors published by a publishing house, the venues at an art exhibition, etc. *image taken from sample dataset. ➢ tip: ○ organize the information in the same order in which it will appear in your main spreadsheet to facilitate the vlookup process. tool : data validation data validation ➢ using the data validation tool will create a dropdown selection list in specified columns to limit the possible entries. *image taken from sample data. enabling data validation . highlight the column or cells to which you’d like to apply this tool. . right-click and scroll down to “data validation.” . in the dialogue box that appears, edit your range ( ) and inputs ( ). *image taken from sample dataset. ➢ tips: ○ format the range as: [tab]![startlocation]:[endlocation] ○ “data!e :e” indicates a range starting in tab “data,” cell e and encompassing the rest of e. tool : conditional formatting conditional formatting ➢ conditional formatting is a tool that enables you to format columns or cells according to your instructions for specific entries. *images taken from sample dataset. enabling conditional formatting . highlight the columns or cells you’d like to format. . right-click and scroll to “conditional formatting.” . for the range, use the same structure as in dv. . specify rules for sheets to follow (i.e., if cell is empty, if text is exactly, if greater than, etc.). . choose the format you’d like to apply, from editing the text to filling in the cell. *image taken from sample dataset. tool : vlookup function vlookup ➔ =vlookup([search_key], [range], [index], [is_sorted]) ❖search key: cell/information you want to look up in another table ➢ use a vlookup formula to automatically populate your table with information found elsewhere in your sheet (code table!). ❖range: where you want the function to find your information ❖index: the number of the column that contains your return value ❖is sorted: true/ if approximate match, false/ if exact match ❖[( )]: used to group together the formula ❖[$]: used to create absolute references (so that the range does not change when the formula is applied elsewhere) using the vlookup function ➔ =vlookup([search_key], [range], [index], [is_sorted]) ➔ ➢ recall the vlookup function structure: ➢ so, to automatically fill in the information for columns f–k that corresponds to the value in column e, use this formula: *images taken from sample dataset. tool : column statistics & filters column statistics and filters filtering columns column statistics *images taken from sample dataset. ➢ these two features allow you to get a bird's-eye view of your data. viewing column stats and adding filters *images taken from sample dataset. ➢ column statistics . highlight your desired column, right-click, and select “column stats” at the bottom. . check out your spreadsheet statistics on the right side of the screen. ➢ filters ( ways) ○ highlight your desired column and, in the toolbar, click on the funnel icon to add a filter. ○ highlight your desired column and click on “data” in the menu then select “create a filter.” ○ use the triangle icon in the column header to customize filters. tool : pivot table pivot table ➢ a pivot table allows you to summarize, sort, average, and count parts of your data, giving you an overall view of your spreadsheet. ○ this is especially useful for making heatmaps or generating % calculations. *images taken from sample data. creating pivot tables . highlight the data (rows and columns) that you’d like to analyze. . in the menu, select data → pivot table to create one in a new sheet. . select the data category to analyze and format it into rows or columns. . apply a function under values (counta, countunique, etc.) a. values is where you can choose what about your data you would like to analyze (like the # of unique residential hall names per campus). . adjust viewing settings in values to see data as % of total data if needed. . add latitude and longitude columns to later turn into a map. editing pivot table settings *images taken from sample dataset. *hide totals here to minimize clutter. bonus feature! use the explore option on the bottom right of your spreadsheet window to view various analyses and visualizations of your data generated by google sheets. mapping your data mapping your data ➢ choose a mapping software (google maps, arcgis/qgis, umap). ➢ import data sheet and pivot table as csv into your software. ➢ manipulate map features to highlight different elements of your data. *images taken from sample dataset maps. all done! congratulations on picking up new skills (or sharpening your expertise) in these google sheets features! i hope this short tutorial brought you one step closer to organizing and analyzing your data, no matter the subject. geojournal issues/year electronic access ▶ link.springer.com subscription information ▶ springer.com/librarians geojournal spatially integrated social sciences and humanities editor-in-chief: b. warf ▶ an interdisciplinary journal devoted to all branches of spatially integrated social sciences and humanities ▶ covers human geography, human-environment interactions, geographical information science, medical and health geography, and geographic education ▶ presents research notes, commentaries, reports, and reviews ▶ contributors include scholars from around the world ▶ % of authors who answered a survey reported that they would definitely publish or probably publish in the journal again geojournal is an international journal devoted to all branches of spatially integrated social sciences and humanities. this long standing journal is committed to publishing cutting-edge, innovative, original and timely research from around the world and across the whole spectrum of social sciences and humanities that have an explicit geographical/ spatial component, in particular in geojournal’s six major areas: - economic and development geography - social and political geography - cultural and historical geography - health and medical geography - environmental geography and sustainable development - legal/ethical geography and policy in addition to research papers geojournal publishes reviews as well as shorter articles in the form of research notes, commentaries, and reports. submissions should demonstrate original and substantive contributions to social science and humanities from a geographical perspective. submissions on emerging new fields such as geoethics, neogeography, digital humanities and other emerging topics are also welcome. on the homepage of geojournal at springer.com you can ▶ sign up for our table of contents alerts ▶ get to know the complete editorial board ▶ find submission information http://link.springer.com/journal/ http://www.springer.com/librarians http://www.springer.com/social+sciences/human+geography/journal/ http://www.springer.com/ clarin-it: state of affairs, challenges and opportunities lionel nicolas eurac research, bolzano, italy lionel.nicolas@eurac.edu alexander könig eurac research, bolzano, italy alexander.koenig@eurac.edu monica monachini ilc ”a. zampolli” cnr, pisa, italy monica.monachini@ilc.cnr.it riccardo del gratta ilc ”a. zampolli” cnr, pisa, italy riccardo.delgratta@ilc.cnr.it silvia calamai università di siena, italy silvia.calamai@unisi.it andrea abel eurac research, bolzano, italy andrea.abel@eurac.edu alessandro enea ilc ”a. zampolli” cnr, pisa, italy alessandro.enea@ilc.cnr.it francesca biliotti università di siena, italy francesca.biliotti@unisi.it valeria quochi ilc ”a. zampolli” cnr, pisa, italy valeria.quochi@ilc.cnr.it francesco vincenzo stella università di siena, italy francesco.stella@unisi.it abstract this paper gives an overview on the italian national clarin consortium as it currently stands two years after its creation at the end of . it thus discusses the current state of affairs of the consortium on several aspects, especially with regards to members. it also discusses the events and initiatives that have been undertaken, as well as the ones that are planned in the close future. it finally outlines the conclusions of a user survey performed to understand the expectations of a targeted user population and provides indications regarding the next steps planned. introduction among the research fields of interest for the clarin initiative as a whole, several have a long history of research efforts performed in italy over the past decades and have identifiable associations organizing recurrent italian events. for example, for computational linguistics and language technology applica- tions - particularly for italian - there is the associazione italiana di linguistica computazionale (ailc) that organizes, among other events, the yearly celebrated conference clic-it and the periodically held evaluation campaign of natural language processing - evalita ; for speech sciences there is the as- sociazione italiana di scienze della voce (aisv), that also organizes a yearly celebrated conference, together with the franco ferrero prize, and for digital humanities there is the associazione per l’in- formatica umanistica e le culture digitali (aiucd) that also organizes, among other events, a yearly this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international licence. licence details: http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.ai-lc.it/ http://www.ai-lc.it/en/initiatives/clic-it/ http://www.ai-lc.it/en/initiatives/evalita https://www.aisv.it/ http://www.aiucd.it selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). celebrated aiucd conference . accordingly, it is only natural that ever since clarin started in with a preparatory phase, it has always been of great interest for several italian institutions . when clarin eric was established in after the end of the preparatory phase in , several efforts have been made to create a national consortium. on october , the ministero dell’istruzio- ne, dell’università e della ricerca (miur) signed the memorandum of understanding to become a full member and italy finally joined clarin eric with the department of social sciences and humanities (dsu) of the consiglio nazionale delle ricerche appointed as representing entity, the istituto di lingui- stica computazionale (ilc) nominated as leading italian participant and monica monachini nominated as national coordinator. this paper aims at providing a clear overview of the italian national clarin consortium as it cur- rently stands two years after its creation. in section , it discusses the current state of affairs of the consortium, be it in terms of members, funding, technical infrastructure or role within the clarin fe- deration. section then provides a number of information on the clarin-it members, especially with regards to what they offer to clarin in terms of resources, services and expertise, and what clarin offers them to further their own research. section discusses the clarin-it events organized in italy so far and the events planned in the close future, especially with regards to the organization of the clarin conference. finally, section outlines the conclusions of a user survey performed to understand the expectations of a targeted italian user population while section provides indications regarding the next steps planned for the consortium as a whole and for each member individually. current state of affairs . members as it stands at the moment, the clarin-it consortium includes four institutions as full members with two other institutions in the process of formally joining it. the four current full members are: . the istituto di linguistica computazionale ”a. zampolli” (ilc) of the consiglio nazionale delle ricerche in pisa, . the institute for applied linguistics (ial) of eurac research in bolzano, . the dipartimento di scienze della formazione, scienze umane e della comunicazione interculturale (dsfuci) of the università di siena, . the dipartimento di filologia e critica delle letterature antiche e moderne (dfclam) of the università di siena. the two other institutions in the process of formally joining the consortium are the dipartimento di discipline umanistiche of the università di parma and the dipartimento di studi umanistici of the università ”ca’ foscari” in venezia. aside from these six institutions, a noticeable number of other italian institutions from a wide range of disciplines have expressed their interest in participating. among those, we can cite the fondazione bruno kessler (trento) the università cattolica del sacro cuore (milano), the università ”tor vergata” (roma), and the università di pisa, dipartimento di linguistica (pisa). . funding one reason for the late arrival and the limited number of members (when compared to other clarin consortia) is due to the fact that negotiations regarding an italian national funding of the clarin-it consortium with the research ministry are still ongoing. consequently, while other institutions have put on hold their membership until a viable context for their participation can be arranged, the current http://www.aiucd.it/convegno-annuale/ one of them, the institute for computational linguistics ”antonio zampolli” (ilc) of the italian national research council, was already a member of the consortium that carried out the preparatory phase under the fp -infrastructures ec programme (ga: - ). selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). members have either sought funding for personnel at regional or local level, have committed some of their own internal resources or are contributing on a purely voluntary basis. . clarin-it committees following the best practices implemented within clarin eric and the clarin federation, clarin-it has established the following committees: the technical committee, the metadata and standards committee, the legal issues committee and the committee for the relations with users. the technical committee coordinates all clarin-it type c and b centres and ensures the smooth functioning of all the technical services. it will be responsible of ensuring conformance to clarin eric technical requirements and of the prompt uptake of technological upgrades and new solutions developed and/or suggested by clarin eric. it also advises the national coordinator on any critical issue regarding the quality of the services provided and on the possible measures to take. the metadata and standards committee is responsible for the adoption of the metadata and data format standards supported by clarin eric. as such it selects and disseminates the existing supported stan- dards relevant for its user communities; helps adapting the standards to the specific needs of the users and members, and contributes to the definition of metadata and concepts in the clarin concept registry, when needed. it also gives advice to the national coordinator in matters of standards. the legal issues committee deals with ipr and privacy protection issues. its main task is to revise and adapt the policies and licenses devised and recommended by clarin eric to the needs of clarin-it. the committee also helps and advises members on ipr critical matters about specific data resources, with the aim of maximising research data sharing within the clarin community. the committee for the relations with users discusses and coordinates the national activities towards an active engagement of user communities. its main responsibilities are to adapt and implement the guidelines and best practices promoted by clarin eric within clarin-it, discuss new ideas for involving new users and research communities, receive feedback from the users, disseminate information about services, resources, projects and all relevant clarin-like activities in italy and beyond. in addition to those, clarin-it is also creating an advisory board that will provide strategic advice on various matters such as, among others, quality, new initiatives or synergies with international and national related infrastructures and projects. the advisory board will be formed by high profile scholars that are not directly involved in clarin-it activities, but who have access to relevant networks in the social sciences and humanities (ssh). . technical infrastructure as regards the clarin centres and resources made available, the ilc currently hosts the ilc clarin, clarin type c centre, and is in the active process of achieving a clarin-b certification . ilc clarin is the first clarin-it technological node that links the italian ssh community to the eu-wide clarin communities; it has set up a clarin dspace repository which will soon offer de- posit services to the italian community. the ial has successfully created its own clarin dspace repository and is progressively making its resources available on it. it is also aiming at achieving a cla- rin c status as soon as possible. the dsfuci and dfclam are actively working on making their resources available via the ilc clarin repository. on a different technical perspective, the clarin-it consortium closely cooperates with the con- sortium garr, the italian university and research network, in particular with the idem-garr office that supports federated authentication in clarin. thus, any member or participant of the idem-garr federation already has access to services hosted at any clarin centre in europe via their institutional credentials. the clarin-it consortium is also in contact with the cloud-garr office so as to allow members to safely and securely deposit data in the cloud. https://www.clarin.eu/content/centre-requirements-revised-version https://www.idem.garr.it/en https://cloud.garr.it selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). . clarin-it within the clarin federation regarding the participation in clarin events, clarin-it members participated in the clarin an- nual general assembly and , in the clarin annual conference , and and in the clarin centre meeting in and . clarin-it members also participated in the first, second and third clarin-plus workshop on oral history (oxford, utrecht, arezzo) , the clarin- plus workshop on user involvement, the clarin-plus workshop on digital collections of newspa- pers, the clarin-plus workshop ”sustainability and governance”, and in the clarin workshop on ”interoperability of l resources and tools”. finally, clarin-it was represented at the clarin booth at lrec and at the parthenos wp meeting (an initiative of which clarin is member of) in november . clarin-it centres a large networking initiative such as clarin allows institutions with their own agendas to devise efficient roadmaps to approach their common or inter-related challenges and achieve several added va- lues such as, among many others, preventing the duplication of efforts, the sharing of resources or the creation of new initiatives resulting from productive encounters. also, a common added value brought to all clarin-it members comes from the opportunities in terms of sustainability, be it through the clarin-supported standards and tools or through the interaction with expert fellow stakeholders. mo- re specifically, we can outline the following synergies between the overall clarin initiative and the clarin-it centres. . synergies between the ilc and clarin . . the ilc in few words the institute for computational linguistics ”a. zampolli” is a reference centre in the field of computa- tional linguistics at both national and international levels. its various research lines (digital humanities, representation standards, distributed research infrastructures and knowledge management) makes the ilc a unique institution. the institute is part of the department of social science and humanities, cultu- ral heritage (dsu) of the consiglio nazionale delle ricerche (cnr). it was already an active participant in the clarin preparatory phase. . . the ilc as an asset for clarin ilc has for many years been active in the field of language resources and technologies for natural lan- guage processing. the group of language resource and infrastructures has been paying attention to the development of digital resources (corpora, computational lexicons) for italian and english and is now creating new lexical resources for greek and latin according to the linked open data (lod) paradigm. ilc recognizes, indeed, that there is still a lack of lexical resources dealing with ’historical’ langua- ges, such as ancient greek, latin or sanskrit, and this can be seen as a missed opportunity for the dh community. ilc is thus making available legacy, digitalized, print resources as lod, as well as creating new resources by linking existing ones and distributing them with standard methods such as sparql end points and/or html browsing. ilc is an active member and covers leading roles within the iso committee tc/ sc , as well as in the w c ontolex working group, thus facilitating both the liaison and the coordination between clarin eric and the iso standard committees. ilc is also involved in developing methods and digital technology for preservation of textual archives. experts are dealing with text encoding and mark-up to provide the scientific community with digital data access, exchange and research on textual heritage of the literature held by ilc. ilc has set up a clarin c-centre (ai- ming for type b certification in ), ilc clarin , along with a clarin dspace repository, where the above-mentioned language resources are deposited and/or described according to the cmdi model http://oralhistory.eu/workshops http://lari.ilc.cnr.it https://ilc clarin.ilc.cnr.it/en/ selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). (broeder et al., ), which make them also visible and retrievable in the clarin virtual language observatory (vlo) (van uytvanck et al., ; goosen and eckart, ). along with the digital resources made available through the repository, ilc clarin provides a set of linguistic services such as systems for querying text corpora, natural language analysis and annotation tools, tools for extraction and acquisition of linguistic information, format converters and tools for lexicon creation or manipulation. many of these tools are offered in the form of webservices; some of them are already available in weblicht (hinrichs et al., ) and the language resource switchboard (zinn, ) or are currently being integrated there (see section for the next steps). through its repository, ilc clarin also makes available both web applications and lexical resour- ces for latin and greek. the web application for lemmatizing short latin texts offers also a rest web service which outputs the results of the lemmatization process in json; a search interface is available for browsing several wordnets in different languages including italian, ancient greek, latin, croatian, and arabic. together with these web applications, a revised portion of the ancient greek wordnet is also available. . . clarin as an asset for the ilc participating in clarin provides a number of opportunities in terms of sustainability, preservation, persistent identification, and visibility for the ilc’s research outputs. sustainability is a key aspect for the ilc’s strategy as it kept on growing and conducting research over the years; preservation and persi- stent identification of research data and results is fundamental as well, since they provide to users and researchers the technologies to retrieve data and replicate experiments. clarin offers ilc frameworks and platforms where to promote and support the use of technology and text analysis tools. for example, weblicht allows to combine web services so as to handle and exploit textual data. finally, the vlo makes the resources produced and described in the ilc centre available to a wider audience in the dh community while the cmdi model ensures a high quality in terms of metadata. . synergies between the ial and clarin . . the ial in few words the institute for applied linguistics (ial) is part of eurac research, a private non-profit research centre located in bolzano and composed of several research groups focussing their efforts on research subjects of particular importance for the south tyrolean region where it is situated. the ial in particu- lar aims at addressing current issues of language and education policy as well as economic and social questions at the local and international level. it is an international research environment where around junior and senior researchers with heterogeneous backgrounds are performing research on a wide range of language-related subjects. . . the ial as an asset for clarin with a majority of its workforce dedicated to linguistics-related or terminology-related research que- stions, the ial is an active figure in several research fields and an active producer of manually crafted and curated high-quality datasets. https://vlo.clarin.eu https://ilc clarin.ilc.cnr.it/services/ https://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de/weblichtwiki/index.php/main\_page in particular, the italian tokenizer whose rest apis are described at http://ilc clarin.ilc.cnr.it/ services/ltfw/readme, while the cmdi file used by weblicht is available from http://hdl.handle.net/ . . /ilc- @format=cmdi. http://hdl.handle.net/ . . /ilc- http://cophilab.ilc.cnr.it: /latmorphwebapp/services/complete/ http://hdl.handle.net/ . . /ilc- http://hdl.handle.net/ . . /ilc- . such format is compatible with the global wordnet initiative http://globalwordnet.org/wordnets-in-the-world/. https://weblicht.sfs.uni-tuebingen.de http://www.eurac.edu/en/research/autonomies/commul/pages/ selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). as regards linguistics-related questions, the ial is a known figure in the research fields of learner corpora, didactics and e-lexicography. among the initiatives undertaken for the field of learner corpo- ra, the ial has created or participated in the creation of several learner corpora such as kolipsi (abel et al., ), koko (abel et al., ), and merlin (wisniewski et al., ). it also has organized in the th learner corpus research conference . as regards to didactics, the ial has both strong connec- tions with schools and policy makers in and outside south tyrol and organizes a number of workshops and training courses for teachers and pupils (engel and colombo, ). it also organized the interna- tional conference on language competences ”sprachkompetenzen erheben, beschreiben und fördern im kontext von schule und mehrsprachigkeit” celebrated in bolzano in . finally (with regards to linguistics-related questions), the ial is an active member of the cost action ”european network for e-lexicography” (enel), is currently leading the european association for lexicography (euralex) and has organized in the th edition of the euralex international congress . as regards terminology-related questions, the ial is active in the field of legal terminology, for which it has produced and made available several terminological datasets such as the lexalp and bistro information systems (chiocchetti et al., ; lyding et al., ; streiter et al., ). the ial is also part of the iso committee tc/ for ”terminology and other language and content resources”, is an active member of the radt , is part of the beta-test group for the sdl multiterm and trados studio and is acting on regular occasions and through several local projects as terminological consultant for the local south tyrolean government. with the rest of its workforce providing assistance on automatic processing for their colleagues, the ial has also become over time an active figure in the domain of language technologies, especially with regards to the automatic processing of the south tyrolean german dialect. among the efforts undertaken for this field, the ial has developed expertise for non-standard written communication such as computer- mediated communication (cmc), with a special focus on social media, and webcorpora. in that research context, it has released the cmc corpus didi (frey et al., ) and the webcorpus paisa (lyding et al., ). it also has organized in the th conference on cmc and social media corpora for the humanities and is an active contributor in a tei special interest group (tei-cmc-sig). finally, as re- gards language technologies, the ial also started a very clarin-alike local project named di-öss which aims at establishing a local digital infrastructure among the south tyrolean language stakeholders allowing them to benefit from each others’ expertise and services. except for specific cases, the ial intends to integrate as many resources as possible into its clarin dspace repository . because of its diversity in terms of research subjects and member profiles, the ial relies on a varied set of workflows and can accordingly be an asset by providing a range of expertise of interest to a larger scope of stakeholders. therefore, it also intends to be involved in several clarin initiatives and committees . . . clarin as an asset for the ial the main added value from the ial’s participation to clarin is the number of opportunities it offers in terms of sustainability, an aspect that became key in the ial’s strategy as it kept on growing over the years. in that aspect, an initiative such as clarin dspace greatly benefits the ial which could not hope to develop such an advanced solution on its own. http://lcr .eurac.edu/ up to now, more than pupils (aged to ) took part in the offered didactic activities. ”describe, nurture, and improve language competencies in the context of school and multilingualism”. http://euralex .eurac.edu ”rat für deutschsprachige terminologie” (an expert panel including large institutions such as the unesco). leading professional solutions in language and content management services with a focus on terminology and translation. https://cmc-corpora .eurac.edu/ ”digitale infrastruktur für das ökosystem südtiroler sprachdaten und -dienste” (digital infrastructure for the south tyrolean ecosystem of language data and services). https://clarin.eurac.edu/ members of ial already participate actively in the cmdi taskforce and the clarin dspace initiative. selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). in a different but similar logic, as outlined earlier, the research profile of the ial is rather varied and as such the ial lacks often enough the tools (or uses suboptimal ones) to pursue some research oppor- tunities, as it cannot afford developing and maintaining new ones. however, clarin as a whole is even more varied in terms of research profiles and a number of clarin-related initiatives, targeted at first to the needs of other institutions, directly address needs of the ial. a good example is the language re- source switchboard which allows non-expert stakeholders to seamlessly use advanced natural language processing tools and can thus allow linguists and terminologists at the ial to test and develop indepen- dently their own research ideas, while relying on their colleagues’ expertise in language technologies for the later stages (e.g. for the fine tuning of the automatic tools). in that perspective, such technologies, despite having been developed independently of the ial, directly tackle one of its needs . finally, clarin represents a great asset for the ial in terms of visibility and dissemination. indeed, because the ial is an active producer of high-quality datasets, being able to reference such datasets on international catalogues such as the vlo is particularly interesting. . synergies between the dsfuci and clarin . . the dsfuci in few words the dipartimento delle scienze della formazione, scienze umane e della comunicazione interculturale (dsfuci) is one of the departments of the università di siena and is located in arezzo. the arezzo campus brings together a community of scholars with a range of methodological approaches and research interests in various areas of education, languages, the humanities, and the social sciences. the depart- ment coordinates and promotes theoretical and applied research projects aimed in particular at improving and changing life and work styles; strengthening cultural, linguistic and professional skills of adults and professionals; studying the role of languages, technologies and the media in today’s world and in the historical development of groups and social communities; providing services to public and private or- ganizations, administrations and professional associations in the realm of human resources development (educators, language experts, school teachers, cultural managers, trainers and middle management). . . the dsfuci as an asset for clarin the dsfuci carried out together with the scuola normale superiore di pisa (pier marco bertinetto, p.i.) the grammo-foni (gra.fo) project (calamai and frontini, ), a co-founded project devoted to the building of a digitization and cataloguing system with the aim of creating a regional network for the management of speech and oral archives of the past (calamai et al., ). the preservation of analogue archives, that have so far remained unknown to the large public, entailed their detection as a first step, and then the digitisation (including restoration, when necessary) and cataloguing of the recordings contained in them. the oral documents preserved are disseminated via a web portal that allows registered users to access the audio files and the corresponding cataloguing records, together with the relative transcriptions and accompanying material (when available). a subsequent project, voci da ascoltare , was devoted to the dissemination of oral archives to high school students and also to the building of cultural trail via mobile apps (pozzebon and calamai, ; pozzebon et al., ). therefore, with respect to the speech and oral archives domain, the participation of dsfuci and the gra.fo archive in clarin would give several advantages. with over , hours of digitized recordings and the incredibly vast range of type of documents and topics covered, the gra.fo archive is a unique and exemplary accomplishment in the italian panorama. having preserved such a significant collection of oral documents, gra.fo not only constitutes a precious repository of tuscan memory and provides a first-hand documentation of tuscan language varieties from the early s, but also represents a model for other research groups or institutions dealing with oral archives. gra.fo covered the entire workflow with respect to the managing of oral archives: from digitization to long-term preservation, cataloguing the interest in being involved in several clarin initiatives and committees is also motivated by the possibility to detect, influence and contribute to other useful initiatives such as the switchboard. regione toscana par fas - https://grafo.sns.it università di siena and unicoop firenze, - . selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). and description, ethical and privacy issues managing, and dissemination, also in terms of public history and general public involvement (calamai et al., ). nevertheless, the dsfuci’s commitment to speech and oral archives does not confine itself to the gra.fo experience. we succeeded in discovering and locating the first oral archive related to an italian psychiatric hospital – which was located in the same buildings as the department in arezzo, also where the historical archive of the arezzo psychiatric hospital is hosted. the oral archive of anna maria bruz- zone, an analogue archive (made of compact cassettes) contained the testimonies (life stories) of more than thirty former patients. it represents the documental basis of the book ”ci chiamavano matti. voci da un ospedale psichiatrico” (bruzzone, ). the author wrote it after a two-month stay in arezzo, when she spent almost every day in the hospital. the book testifies to the patients’ miserable lives inside and outside the hospital and sheds light on the atrocity of their everyday condition by letting them speak for themselves. yet, what the book contains is not their actual voice: their voice is contained in the tapes that bruzzone recorded during her research, when she witnessed the lives of the inpatients, in a continuous dialogue of which only a part is collected in the published interviews. the tapes were donated by the heirs and we are currently working on their digitisation and on metadata description. . . clarin as an asset for the dsfuci being part of clarin would benefit the speech sciences and oral history research communities in at least three main aspects: ( ) the possibility to use a shared and internationally consistent metadata standard (e.g., the oralhistory profile in the clarin component registry ); ( ) the possibility to ensure the long-term preservation of the original speech data (both preservation and access copy) and of the metadata according to the fair principles (wilkinson et al., ); ( ) the possibility to offer a proper reuse of research data (license agreement, ethical and legal issues). as for ( ), the inclusion of a member of dsfuci in the clarin legal issues committee may be considered as the first step towards a more conscious involvement of the italian research communities in the ethical and legal issues associated to the web dissemination and re-use of speech and oral archives. at present, another crucial issue is represented by automatic speech recognition tools. one of the aims of the oral history research group inside clarin was to provide full speech recognition for different languages in order to perform one of the main ”steps” envisaged in the oh transcription chain , enabling the researchers to go from a ”recorded interview” to a findable, accessible and viewable digital av-document with relevant metadata on the internet. italian language is devoid of a web-based asr, which would be of a great benefit for both communities of oral historians and linguists. . synergies between the dfclam and clarin . . the dfclam in few words the dipartimento di filologia e critica delle letterature antiche e moderne (dfclam) of the univer- sità di siena, ranked in as one of the national excellence departments by the italian government (miur), focusses on the philological, literary and anthropological competences that lie at the very heart of the study of literary texts, from the ancient world to modernity and for each literary genre. the in- teraction between philology and literature is central in the long-standing european humanistic tradition and the history of the department includes significant names of the italian literature (antonio tabucchi, franco fortini, alessandro fo, etc.) and some forerunners of the application of anthropological methods to literature (m. bettini, s. ronchey). in particular, its strongest points of engagement concern the an- thropology of the ancient world (centre ama), the italian contemporary literature (centro fortini) and the study of medieval literatures (latin and romance) through digital methods and tools. the depart- ment includes some research centres such as the centre for comparative studies � i deug-su � which is strongly engaged also in research on digital humanities and three laboratories on digital humanities funded by a development project newly approved by the miur. https://catalog.clarin.eu/ds/componentregistry#/?itemid=clarin.eu\% acr \% ap_ ®istryspace=public https://www.clarin.eu/governance/legal-issues-committee http://oralhistory.eu/workshops/transcription-chain\#transcriptions selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). . . the dfclam as an asset for clarin the dfclam committed itself to offering data and free online access to some digital archives of literary and historical texts: among them the alim (the archive of the italian latinity of the middle ages), the largest digital library (with textual analysis tools and a medieval-latin lemmatizer), which includes latin texts and documents, encoded in xml-tei from philologically checked sources or firstly edited from manuscripts, produced in italy during the middle ages. strategies for importing the metadata of alim in the clarin-ilc repository through a shared tei-header are under study, as well as procedures for delivering dedicated tools for textual and linguistic analysis through the clarin channels. this would allow meta-queries and cross-queries on semantic items which could connect latin and modern european languages derived from latin and allow to develop semantic trees and networks of lexical derivations at the very heart of the european shared lexicon. clarin-it events & promotion . lectures four lectures were given to introduce clarin-it to the next generation of collaborators. a contribution called ”language resources and infrastructures for digital humanities” was presen- ted at the curso de verano ”new trends in quantitative and computational linguistics”, organized by the universidad de castilla-la mancha in ciudad real, spain. a keynote lecture on ”humanities: advantages, opportunities and benefits of the clarin research infrastructure and the clarin-it national node for the italian community.” was performed at the final ceremony of the master digital humanities ( - ), held in venice at the università di ca’ fosca- ri. subsequently, a lecture on ”digital humanities and research infrastructures: clarin” was given during the course ”digital humanities: web resources, tools and infrastructures” of the third edition ( - ) of the master in digital humanities . finally, during the first and second part of the workshop ”digital humanities and greek philology: resources and research infrastructures applied to the study of ancient greek” organized at the università di parma in november and december , two lectures were given. the first one was entitled ”new technologies and new investigations: clarin-it and some examples of application to the study of an- cient greek” whereas the second one was entitled ”infrastructures of research and classical studies. clarin-it: opportunities and perspectives”. this event was devoted to the discussion of the opportu- nities and research perspectives offered by the collaboration between research infrastructures and the digital classics community. different approaches to a traditional discipline are expected to offer, in per- spective, new study habits that, based on the good practices inherited from the previous tradition, allow the development of new research methodologies and teaching practices. . participation in italian events in order to raise awareness among the italian research communities and extend the consortium, clarin-it members have been participating in four relevant italian events. a keynote ”clarin-it, l’infrastruttura di ricerca per le scienze umane e sociali” was presented at the th annual conference of the associazione per l’informatica umanistica e la cultura digitale (aiucd) held in venezia in september and in which numerous italian researchers in digital hu- manities were taking part. during the conference a survey on clarin-it aiming at raising awareness about clarin and collecting needs, requirements and expectations was launched (see section .). clarin-it was presented at the workshop ”utilizzo e diffusione di metodi, strumenti e tecnologie digitali per gli studi filologici: l’applicazione della filologia digitale al greco antico” and at the se- minar ”le risorse informatiche applicate alle discipline umanistiche: strumenti e metodi con esempi clarin-it, in collaboration with the aiucd, patronizes the third master in digital humanities (a.a. - ). ”clarin-it: a research infrastructure for the social sciences and humanities” ”utilisation and dissemination of methods, instruments and digital technologies for the philologies: application of digital philology to ancient greek” selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). sull’utilizzo didattico nelle discipline classiche” held in october . such events were organized by the dipartimento di discipline umanistiche of the università di parma, which is about to become a member. the contribution was called ”infrastrutture di ricerca nel settore umanistico” . clarin-it was also presented at the garr conference ”the creactive network: uno spazio per creare e condividere nuova conoscenza” , held in november and organized by the gruppo per l’armonizzazione delle reti della ricerca (garr), an italian network aiming at providing high- performance connectivity and developing innovative services for the daily activities of teachers, re- searchers and students and with which clarin-it is actively collaborating on technical questions. the presentation was entitled ”corpora digitali: dall’obsolescenza tecnologica, alla salvaguardia e alla condivisione” (sassolini et al., ). . organization of clarin & clarin-it events a presentation of clarin-it, the ilc and the ilc clarin repository was held at the consiglio nazionale delle ricerche in pisa in march . this presentation was the occasion to raise awareness among colleagues about the aim and functioning of clarin, its potential and its benefits. a first result of clarin’s interest towards the tuscan speech and oral archives can be found in the clarin oral history workshop (arezzo, may, - ; henk van den heuvel p.i.), whose aim is the finalization of the setup of a transcription chain for oh-interviews . an implementation plan for an oh transcription chain that can be integrated into the clarin infrastructure has been set up during the arezzo workshop. as for the italian community, the meeting brought together the clarin-it executive committee (ilc) and representatives from the italian speech sciences association (aisv) and the italian oral history association (aiso). the workshop undertook the challenging task of putting together different kinds of expertise (from linguistics to oral history, to language and speech technology, to infrastructure analysis and implementation). in june , an application to organize and host the th edition of the clarin conference was sub- mitted and selected, thus acknowledging the efforts and capacities of the clarin-it consortium, its contribution as a full member of the federation, as well as demonstrating the interest in supporting its growth. the clarin annual conference is an imporant scientific event where the wider humanities and social sciences communities can meet in order to exchange ideas and experiences with the cla- rin infrastructure. this includes the design, construction and operation of the clarin infrastructure, the data, tools and services that it contains or should contain, its actual use by researchers, its relation to other infrastructures and projects, and the clarin knowledge sharing infrastructure. the special thematic session for this edition will be in the areas of multimedia, multimodality and speech, including the collection, annotation, processing and study of audio, visual or multimedia data with language as an important part of the content. the conference will be held in october - , in pisa. it is expected to last days and receive around participants. on october th, ial organized a clarin user involvement event titled ”how to use tei for the annotation of cmc and social media resources: a practical introduction”. the event was held in conjunction with the th conference on cmc and social media for the humanities (cmccorpora ) . survey . motivation in clarin, users are recognized as a central part of the infrastructure and of any service design process, but saying that our audience are humanists is not enough. we have a wide range of scholars working within the academy or research institutions who have different needs. ”computational resources applied to the humanities: tools and methods with examples on their didactic use in the classical disciplines” ”research infrastructures in the humanities” ”the creative network: a space for creating and sharing new knowledge” ”digital corpora: from technological obsolescence towards preservation and sharing” http://oralhistory.eu/workshops/arezzo https://cmc-corpora .eurac.edu/ selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). while there is a soaring interest for the use of digital resources and related tools in the broader context of humanities, some specific scientific communities are still reluctant to adopt them. we performed a survey to ascertain the current interest in digital methods, the practice and the related needs within the community of classical philologists; in particular, it was performed on a restricted sample of italian digital humanists with ancient greek philology as the main focus of interest. other surveys were sporadically carried out during the last decade, aiming at collecting input from sectors that, although not strictly within the realm of digital classics, may have similar requirements and arrive at similar conclusions as far as resource design is concerned. a point worth remarking is that the preceding studies concern a wide spectrum of scientific interests within the digital humanities realm and involve mostly english native speakers scholars; our study, in- stead, focused on the specific scientific community dealing with digital classics and aimed at evaluating the impact of digital techniques in their practice. . context the clarin-it survey collects the points of view of a restricted sample of italian digital humanists, with a focus of interest on ancient greek philology. this area of study is a relatively small field but it retains great interest in italy, where it also looks back to a great tradition. it also includes university students and schoolteachers. moreover, italian scholars of ancient greek are an active part of a large international community (especially in europe, north and south america). the perspective of the study was enhanced by the fact that its spectrum involves also latin, ancient history and philosophy, and classics in general. finally, it is important to remember that ancient greek studies are an essential part of our occidental cultural heritage, and it is crucial that the highest number of people knows these texts and their contents. for all these reasons, the italian ancient greek community is an excellent field to test new opportunities about knowledge and quality in transmission of ancient texts. the questionnaire was sent to a selected group of italian researchers whose main focus of study was ancient greek language, although their interests span over a broader area, encompassing greek and latin literature. the sample was numerically consistent with the survey target (about % with respect to the potential target population of about people). the survey focused on the digital resources and tools needed to support an excellent and usable digital edition of an ancient text. for this reason, first, the applicants were asked to evaluate the tools they use and know. they were then asked to indicate their expectations towards technologies and to rank a set of four functionalities in priority order. finally, they were asked to rate, on a - scale, the set of functionalities considered as crucial. . main outcomes and action plan consistently to the preceding surveys, the key outcome was that most of the available resources do not respond to users’ requirements . many respondents pointed out that important research needs in the field are models and software for authoring, editing, indexing and presenting a digital edition, how to link it to the available resources and improve them. all of them insisted on the need to develop and/or make tools more reliable and usable, thus lamenting the absence of tools integrating textual data and bibliography links, or hypertext links with other texts or resources available. based on the outcomes of this survey, clarin-it could address a set of r&d priorities that may be the base for establishing a research and innovation action plan for digital classics. as it currently stands, the plan foresees a workbench in which to insert text in a simple and intuitive way and visualize its encoding with specific tei transcription; provide apparatus, literature and translation, link together primary sources and lexica, provide textual (and metrical) analysis and commentary, and offer search tools. we are developing a sample prototype to submit for evaluation by end-users. at a larger scale, the work represented one of the first attempts undertaken within the context of clarin-it to contribute to the wider impact of clarin on the specific italian community of users interested in the application of digital humanities to the field of classics and to ancient world studies. for an extensive analysis, see monachini et al. ( ). selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). next steps . for the clarin-it consortium as a whole for the consortium as a whole, the next step is to include more members which will depend on whether or not a national funding for personnel can be secured. the plan is to agree with the ministry on a national project aiming at strenghtening the infrastructural activities in italy to foster the use of digital technologies in the humanities, through the collection of needs and requirements of the community and the development of case studies. clarin-it will enhance the use of language resources and technology through the italian infrastructure and, at the same time, will encourage innovation in research paradigms and methodologies of the sectors. the consolidation of the consortium will respond to representativeness criteria. while a scientific criterion is aimed at covering research sectors related to the study of language and gather language resource producers, linguists, computational linguists and language engineers, a geographical criterion will also be considered to ensure territorial coverage. participation in the national consortium of all the most important research centers in the language technologies will allow to achieve the goal of coverage, ensuring the long-term preservation of the great wealth of digital resources and their easier access to the scientific community. the clarin-it consortium aims to attract the scientific communities of the various fields: classical, modern and contemporary history, literary studies, political science, communication science, sociology, theology, philosophy, social anthropology and ethnography, linguistics and philology. furthermore, clarin-it is also aimed at attracting disciplines that make use, albeit less massively, of text resources and technologies, such as law, education, archeology, artistic disciplines and entertainment, design, architecture, music, demography, human geography, economics, social and political studies, the history of science and medicine. the clarin-it consortium is also deeply involved in one of the aspects on which eric insists, namely the training sector, with the launch of master’s or doctoral theses and university courses in line with the objectives of clarin. the digital classics survey, now publicly available on the clarin-it channels , may further help the italian consortium in fostering new and sustaining existing knowledge in digital classics (dc). clarin-it will play an important role in disseminating the results to the relevant academic, cultural, industrial communities and the interested public. furthermore, our plans are to extend the survey to other clarin consortia, thus helping to identify gaps and drive the development of new technologies for ancient studies at large. this will contribute to the general clarin mission to grow its infrastructure so as to serve in a better way the international community of scholars from any disciplines dealing with language and help them to boost their studies. last but not least, since each consortium is unique but none is fully different from the others, the clarin federation constitutes an important source of inspiration as regards to the next efforts and initiatives to undertake. therefore, we will keep on observing the past and on-going initiatives undertaken by other national consortia and, whenever relevant and possible in practice, undertake similar ones. . for each clarin centre regarding the ilc clarin, the next steps are to complete the set of linguistic resources freely accessible through its online portal and achieve a clarin-b certification in , which is under way. a high priority task of the near future is the integration of the web services developed within previous funded projects (and thus already available) into the clarin federated services language resource switchboard and weblicht. as mentioned in del gratta ( ), these are mainly basic nlp services that may serve various purposes and can thus be included in useful analysis chains for textual research. for the ial, the next steps are to get recognized as a clarin-c centre as soon as possible. du- ring the course of , ial will start integrating all its language resources into its recently-established clarin dspace repository, and will undertake the additional steps needed to achieve a b centre certi- fication within or . finally, through its (clarin-like) local di-öss project, the ial intends to organize a number of events with the south tyrolean language stakeholders to raise awareness around http://www.clarin-it.it/it/content/sondaggio-current-practice-digital-classics-tools selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). digital infrastructures, the di-öss project itself, the clarin-it consortium and the overall clarin initiative as a whole. as pertaining to the dsfuci, the next steps are to make the gra.fo digital archives accessible via clarin dspace (calamai et al., ) and ensure their long-term preservation, to describe new digital archives according to clarin metadata profiles (e.g. bas-coala service) and to update the registry of oral history collections in italy, which is made accessible and maintained by clarin eric. finally, another future objective is to strengthen the collaboration among linguists and oral historians in the speech and oral archives domain. finally, regarding the dfclam, the next steps are to make the alim digital archive accessible via ilc clarin and ensure its long-term preservation. conclusion this paper presented the current italian clarin consortium and discussed its current state of affairs. this paper also provided a number of information on its current members, especially with regards to what they offer to clarin in terms of resources, services and expertise, and what clarin offers them to further their own research, as well as information on the institutions that are expected to join in the close future. the events and initiatives undertaken at the italian level have also been discussed together with one planned in a close future, namely the edition of the clarin conference. this paper finally outlined the conclusions of a user survey performed to understand the expectations of a targeted user population and provided indications regarding the next steps planned. as one can observe from the efforts undertaken and the results achieved, clarin-it has a lot to offer to clarin and vice-versa. despite limited means, clarin-it is slowly but surely taking its place in the clarin landscape. the consortium has yet to grow larger and address several questions. nonetheless, its steady growth and 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scientific data management and stewardship. scientific data, : . katrin wisniewski, karin schöne, lionel nicolas, chiara vettori, adriane boyd, detmar meurers, andrea abel, and jirka hana. . merlin: an online trilingual learner corpus empirically grounding the european reference levels in authentic learner data. in th edition of the ict for language learning conference (ict ll), florence, italy. claus zinn. . the clarin language resource switchboard. in proceedings of the th clarin annual conference (cac). selected papers from the clarin annual conference , budapest, – september . conference proceedings published by linköping university electronic press at www.ep.liu.se/ecp/contents.asp?issue= . © the author(s). jahrbuch für internationale germanistik in verbindung mit der internationalen vereinigung für germanistik herausgegeben von mun-yeong ahn – laura auteri – rudolf bentzinger – anil bhatti – michael dallapiazza – elvira glaser – rüdiger görner – wolfgang hackl – isabel hernández – mark l. louden – carlotta von maltzan – gaby pailer – hans-gert roloff – karol sauerland – franz simmler – paulo astor soethe – jean-marie valentin – maoping wei – winfried woesler geschäftsführender herausgeber hans-gert roloff jahrgang lii – heft bern · berlin · bruxelles · new york · oxford issn - e-issn - pen open access: wenn nicht anders angegeben, sind inhalte unter den bedingungen der creative commons namensnennung . internationalen (cc by . ) lizenz wiederverwendbar. weitere informationen: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / diese publikation wurde begutachtet. peter lang ag, internationaler verlag der wissenschaften, bern wabernstrasse , ch- bern, schweiz info@peterlang.com, www.peterlang.com printed in germany inhaltsverzeichnis abhandlungen zum rahmenthema lvii ‚neue wege der germanistik: international, transdisziplinär, digital‘ erste folge einführung in das rahmenthema von laura auteri (palermo) und marina foschi albert (pisa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wilhelm von humboldts erbe für die fremdsprachliche bildung von odile scheider-mizony (strasbourg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . grammatische kompetenz im zeitalter der mehrsprachigkeit von marina foschi albert (pisa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fremdheitserfahrung und berufsfähigkeit in der germanistischen lehre: erfahrungsbericht zur entwicklung des mastertudiengangs in transnational german studies von john greenfield (porto) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . deutsch als fremdsprache in china – aktuelle situation, herausforderungen und ausblick von jin zhao (shanghai) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität. ein versuch, herder heute im zeitalter der ‚digital humanities‘ zu interpretieren von elena agazzi (bergamo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figuren des hasses. prolegomena zu einer literatur- und kulturgeschichte von martina wagner-egelhaaf (münster) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . offen, kreativ und kollaborativ, dazu noch kritisch? zwei koreanische beispiele von ‚digital humanities‘ von yun-young choi (seoul) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . johann heinrich ramberg als interkultureller buchillustrator der goethezeit: ein digitaler vernetzter werkkatalog (projektvorstellung rambergillustrations) von waltraud maierhofer (iowa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . digitales deutschlehren und -lernen in china von jin zhao und xiong zhang (shanghai) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sprachliche mittel der komik im gesprochenen deutsch: eine projektskizze von nicolò calpestrati (mailand) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zum verhältnis zwischen englisch l und deutsch l bei italophonen studierenden von sara corso (pisa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . betrug und täuschung in der literatur der frühen neuzeit von alina korotkova (palermo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . modalpartikeln in deutschen fragesätzen und ihre funktionsäquivalente im italienischen von martina lemmetti (pisa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | inhaltsverzeichnis jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang grammatische traditionen im vergleich: die satzdefinition in der deutschen und italienischen grammatikschreibung von patrizio malloggi (pisa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . abhandlungen zum rahmenthema li ‚die auslandsgermanisten und ihr mittelalter‘ zweite folge léopold sédar senghors deutsches mittelalter: eine kulturelle selbstbehauptung mittels romantikrezeption. von amadou oury ba (dakar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . globalisierte mediävistik in nordamerika – plädoyer für gesellschafts-relevante lektüre mittelalterlicher texte von albrecht classen (tucson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . neueste deutschsprachige literatur peter waterhouse: equus. wie kleist heißt. matthes & seitz, berlin (gloria) . . . . rafik schami: die geheime mission des kardinals. carl hanser verlag. münchen (arianna di bella). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jackie thomae: brüder. roman. hanser berlin verlag, münchen (marie a. rieger). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rezensionen karolin freund: der theatermonolog in den schauspielen von hans sachs und die literarisierung des fastnachtspiels. tübingen: narr francke (roberto de pol, genua) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stuart jeffries: grand hotel abgrund. die frankfurter schule und ihre zeit. aus dem englischen von susanne held. stuttgart: klett-cotta verlag (michael dallapiazza, prato/bologna) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . valentina savietto: kunst und künstler im erzählwerk klaus manns. intermediale forschungsperspektiven auf musik, tanz, theater und bildende kunst. würzburg: königshausen & neumann (maren lickhardt, innsbruck). . . vorschlag für rahmenthemen arbeitstitel: medizin und naturwissenschaften in deutscher literatur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wiederaufnahme des rahmenthemas ‚dialektliteratur‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . jahrbuch für internationale germanistik jahrgang lii – heft | peter lang, bern | s. – zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität. ein versuch, herder im zeitalter der ‚digital humanities‘ zu interpretieren. von elena agazzi, università di bergamo dieser beitrag zu herder versucht nicht in erster linie, eine ihm eigentümliche weltauffassung im bereich der kultur-perspektiven zu vertiefen, die sein werk vor allem kennzeichnen, sondern wird sich auf folgendes konzentrieren: ) vor allem werden einige kritische kommentare herangezogen, die seine theoreti- sche leistung im kontext einer sich schnell verändernden globalisierten welt aktualisieren. diese welt sieht sich ideologischen bedrohungen ausgesetzt, die zu schweren rückschrittsentwicklungen führen könnten, auch aufgrund der einsetzenden verdrängung unseres historischen gedächtnisses und der evi- denten grenzen eines kulturell „verträglichen“ zugangs zu den verschiedenen breiten unseres planeten sowie der schon begonnenen veränderungsprozesse. einige beobachtungen herders zur identität der völker als ausdruck verschiedener ethnien und nationen eignen sich in der tat sehr gut zu einer neubetrachtung in der gegenwart. das betrifft besonders die ausführungen zum begriff der „humanität“, der als der leitgedanke seiner schriften anzu- sehen ist, der – aus herders sicht – nicht von der möglichkeit des menschen absieht, entscheidungen zu treffen, die gott ihm auf den weg gelegt hat. diesen begriff der humanität betrachtet er als einen mobilen und variablen, weil vom altertum bis zur moderne und nach seiner voraussage auch in der zukunft, sich die beziehungen zwischen volk und staat kontinuierlich verändern, gemäß der fortschritts- und rückschrittserfahrungen, die sich in der geschichte der verschiedenen sozio-politischen gesellschaften auf endogener und exogener ebene entfalten. in einer aus zwei teilen bestehenden kleinen abhandlung mit den je- weiligen Überschriften haben wir noch ein publikum? und haben wir noch ein vaterland?, die anlässlich der eröffnung des zuvor schon im beisein von katharina ii. eingeweihten gerichtshaus in riga verfasst wurde, bemerkt herder mit verbitterung über den jüngsten ausgang des siebenjährigen kriegs unter anderem: so sehr hat sich also die art der regierung [in bezug auf die antike, e.a.] geändert: und ich setze dazu: selbst das volk ist nicht mehr dasselbe. dort war dieser name ehrwürdig: er begriff alle bürger, rat und priester ausgenommen: © © elena agazzi - doi http://doi.org/ . /ja _ - except where otherwise noted, content can be used under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license. for details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / pen | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang jetzo ist er gemeiniglich s o viel als pöbel und canaille. dort waren alle bürger gleich: sie waren soldaten, ackersleute, und staatsräte zusammen; heut zu tage sondert man ackerbau, und soldatenstand, ja gemeiniglich auch die regierung vom bürgestande ab: man setzt also kaufmann und handwerker dagegen. weiter in unseren darlegungen fortfahrend impliziert dieser blickwinkel auch ) ein bewusstsein darüber, dass herders rhapsodischer stil und seine arbeitsweise, mit der er eine konstellation von fragmenten und eine anord- nung on rie en und gedanken scha t die ie egri iche onaden in sich selbst einen universellen blick auf die geschichte, philosophie, gesellschaft, politik, Ästhetik und literatur projizierend, seinem werk die struktur eines riesigen rhizoms verleihen. das legen auch die vorarbeiten herders zu auch eine philosophie der geschichte zur bildung der menschheit nahe, die unter dem titel wie die philosophie zum besten des volks allgemeiner und nützlicher werden kann erschienen sind. diese struktur bietet sich dazu an, ) herders denkmethode theoretisch und empirisch im kontext des projekts der „digital humanities“ neu zu betrachten, als ein system von verweisen aufgrund von informationsverbindungen, die miteinander aus der distanz verknüpft sind. es ist daher symptomatisch, dass in einer innovativen sammlung von studien, die in dem band j. g. herder: from cognition to cultural science enthalten sind, amina gabrielov in dem theoretischen auf bau von herder die geeignetheit erkennt, als ausdruck dessen interpretiert zu werden, was likchachev, indem er sich auf einige intuitionen von den philosophen sergei alekseevich askoldov und vladimir ivanovich vernadsky bezieht und sie ex- pandiert, als das modell einer „konzeptsphäre“ verstanden hat: according to askoldov, a concept is a cognitive tool, that functions as a replacement, or a mental category for a multitude of similar objects, in a way comparable with medieval universalia […] askoldov outlined two types of concepts – cognitive and artistic. cognitive concepts, that are more typical for anal tical and scientific discourse can e com ared to diagrams or technical drawings; they are mainly rational and logical. however, if we look at them from another point of view, cognitive concepts are like […] the buds of complex johann gottfried herder: haben wir noch jetzt das publikum und vaterland der alten? eine abhandlung zur feier der beziehung des neuen gerichtshauses. in: ders.: werke in zehn bänden. frankfurt am main: deutscher klassiker verlag – . bd. [frühe schriften – ]. hrsg. von ulrich gaier, – , hier . diese ausgabe von herders werken wird ab jetzt mit fha zitiert. johann gottfried herder, wie die philosophie zum besten des volks allgemeiner und nützlicher werden kann. in: ders.: werke in zehn bänden. frankfurt am main: deutscher klassiker verlag – , bd. (wie anm. ), – . vgl. j. g. herder: from cognition to cultural science. hrsg. von beate allert. heidelberg: synchron . elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) o ers o our mental s ecificities or the em r os o our mental o erations artistic concepts, on the other hand, have a cognitive and rational side as well, ut the also re ect our emotions and desires our s chological realities and also associative and potential meanings. man erfasst hier unmittelbar die „dynamische“ dimension dieses auf baus, in dem die begriffe eine brücke zwischen sprache und kultureller entwicklung darstellen und in ihrer eigenschaft als sprachwissen auch eine kulturelle und anthropologische dimension erwerben. einer der beiträge, die gemeinhin als wegweisend für eine neuentdeckung herders in den letzten jahren betrachtet werden, ist sicherlich der von den auto- ren john h. zammito, karl menges und ernest a. menze gemeinsam verfasste artikel johann gottfried herder revisited: the revolution in scholarship in the last quarter century aus dem jahr . darin wird konstatiert, dass der alte streit über herders ideologische rolle innerhalb der auf klärung nunmehr überwunden und die debatte bezüglich seines verhältnisses zur philosophie kants, dank der zahlreichen forschungen zu diesem thema, die zwischen den er-jahren des letzten jahrhunderts und zu beginn des . jahrhunderts vor- genommen wurden, relativiert seien. wie die autoren bemerken, the recognition extended herder in the histories of various disciplines in the human sciences has not been misguided; the problem is that it has not been synthesized effectively enough across these disciplines to demonstrate his truly seminal importance auch weil, wie die autoren weiterführen, „for herder the ‘science of man’ was also a natural science“. das begründet ebenfalls sein wirken auf dem gebiet der „the ‘interpretive‘ cultural and social sciences – most prominently, cultural anthropology, history, and literary-philosophical hermeneutics“ , was amina gabrielov: the notion of “conceptosphere” and possibilities of a cognitive ap- proach to cultural studies from herder to likhachev. in: j.g. herder: from cognition to cultural science (wie anm. ), – , hier . „lichachev’s conceptosphere, then, is a totality of concepts, or the multitude of potential meanings in the vocabulary of an individual person, a group of people, or a particular language. we can talk about a conceptosphere of a language, within it about a conceptos- phere of scientist astronomers, and then a conceptosphere of a particular family, and then a conceptosphere of an individual person. each following conceptosphere narrows down the previous one, but also expands it“, gabrielov, the notion (wie anm. ), . john h. zammito/karl menges/ernest a. menze: johann gottfried herder revisited: the revolution in scholarship in the last quarter century. in memoriam regine otto. in: journal of the history of ideas / (oktober ), – . zammito/menges/menze, johann gottfried herder (wie anm. ), . zammito/menges/menze, johann gottfried herder (wie anm. ), . zammito/menges/menze, johann gottfried herder (wie anm. ), . | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang eine hervorragende basis bilde, um eine kognitive disposition auf fragen und antworten zu schaffen. dem bisher gesagten sei noch eine abschließende be- merkung zu den gründen für die befürwortung einer neubewertung zu herders werk im . jahrhundert hinzugefügt, die sich in den letzten zehn jahren vor allem in deutschland, england und den usa entfaltet hat. seine auffassung von sprache als nicht nur kommunikatives, sondern auch kognitives instrument hat die re e i e imension ei der ehandlung der antiken und modernen elt in den vordergrund gerückt. sie verwandelt seine sicht der geschichte in eine historisch-philosophische lesart der menschlichen handlungen und in eine analyse über die entwicklung der zivilisationen, die nicht linearer, sondern s no tischer und seismografischer rt ist ie auch ntoine es goguet ( ) in seiner darstellung der geschichte der alten völker zeigt. auf eine ebenso relevante weise hat herders betrachtung der funktionen unserer sinne im zusammenhang mit dem denken die aufmerksamkeit von der abstrakten transzendentalphilosophie kantscher prägung auf die gründung eines soliden verhältnisses zwischen hermeneutik und soziologie verschoben und damit ermöglicht, die verbindung zwischen vergangenheit und gegenwart neu zu behandeln, dank einer empathischen annäherungsweise an die problematiken. wir haben nun also verschiedene perspektiven des hauptthemas präsen- tiert, die wir schritt für schritt erörtern möchten. zuerst einmal: was kann unter dem ausdruck „herder heute“ verstanden werden? eine der größten schwierigkeiten bei der erforschung dieses autors besteht darin, einen be- griff, der seine lehre von den frühschriften bis zur reifezeit begleitet, mit einer präzisen bedeutung zu verbinden: ein unterfangen, das sich in herders fall aus mehr als nur einem grund als unzulässig erweist. herders haupt- begriffe entstammen einem präzisen willen, das philosophische denken in ein anthropologisches zu verwandeln und sind äußerst wandelbar, wie es der begriff der „humanität“ zeigt, der auch heute noch sehr kontrovers diskutiert wird. aus diesem grund stellt sich hier die frage nach der notwendigkeit und nützlichkeit eines lexikons der herderschen hauptbegriffe, um die seman- tischen neustrukturierungen in der entwicklung seines werks zu verfolgen. vgl. hier besonders den von beate allert herausgegebenen band: j. g. herder: from cognition to cultural science (wie anm. ). an eachte as erder dem erk on ntoine es goguet aus dem jahr erdankt de l’origine des loix, des arts, et des sciences; et de leurs progrés chez les anciens peuples. bände. paris: desaint & saillant mdcclviii, das innerhalb von knapp fünf jahren in vier sprachen übersetzt wurde. die deutsche Übersetzung wurde von georg-christoph am erger herausgege en: ntoine es goguet: ntersuchungen on dem rs rung der gesetze, künste und wissenschaften wie auch ihrem wachstum bei den alten völkern. bde. lemgo – . elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) herder heute: ein ausgangspunkt? in einer fußnote des artikels von bernd fischer aus dem jahr mit dem titel herder heute? Überlegungen zur konzeption eines transkulturellen humanitätsbegriff, lesen wir folgendes: die entwicklung von herders humanitätsbegriff kann hier nicht in allen veräste- lungen dargestellt werden. ein entwicklungsstrang, der in diesem aufsatz eine rolle s ielt hrt on innerhal der u kl rungsterminologie ertrauten efi- nitionen zu einer offeneren, dialogischen und pragmatischen bestimmung; viel- leicht als reaktion auf kant, der in seiner rezension der ideen gezeigt hatte, daß eine konkretisierende efinition der kritischen philoso hie nicht standhalten konnte. kant brachte dem sich in herders humanitätsbegriff ankündigenden eingriff der kulturtheorie in die philosophie nur wenig toleranz entgegen und schrieb dem begriff innerhalb der ordnung seiner metaphysik der sitten einen eher untergeordneten stellen ert zu: als p icht zur enschlichkeit fischer weist schon im titel seines beitrags auf den begriff der transkultur- alität hin, der sich, im licht der anthropologischen wende von herder bezüglich der philosophie kants begründe. der begriff zeigt aber auch auf eine direkte weise die unsicherheit des deutschen denkers, der den ersten, ausdrücklich dem thema der „humanität“ gewidmeten abschnitt in seinen ideen, d. h. nr. vi des . buchs im i. teil (zur humanität und religion ist der mensch gebildet), mit diesem gedankengang begonnen hatte: ich wünschte, daß ich in das wort humanität alles fassen könnte, was ich bisher über des menschen edle bildung zur vernunft und freiheit, zu feinern sinnen und trieben, zur zartesten und stärksten gesundheit, zur erfüllung und be- herrschung der erde gesagt habe: denn der mensch hat kein edleres wort für seine bestimmung als er selbst ist, in dem das bild des schöpfers unsrer erde […] abgedruckt lebet. fischer konstatiert in der folge, dass die „verästelungen“ der variationen – wobei wir für diese noch die bezeichnung „diaphasisch“ hinzufügen wollen – dem begriff der humanität leicht anlass zu ideologischen instrumentalisierungen bernd fischer: herder heute? Überlegungen zur konzeption eines transkulturellen humanitätsbegriffs. in: herder jahrbuch ( ), – , fußnote , s. . die re- zension kants zu den ideen von herder war in der jenaer „allgemeine literatur-zeitung“, nr. , vom . januar , s. – und beilage zu nr. , – ; anhang zum märzmonat, nr. , november , s. – erschienen. johann gottfried herder: ideen zur philosophie der geschichte der menschheit. in: ders.: werke. bd. . frankfurt am main: deutscher klassiker verlag , . d. h. anders abhängig von kontext, thema und beziehung mit den rezipienten. | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang geben, wie es schon in der vergangenheit vorgekommen war. zur ver- anschaulichung seiner these führt fischer den roman von christoph hein in seiner frühen kindheit ein garten ( ) an, in dem der rektor eines „humanistischen“ gymnasiums entdeckt, dass ihn sein amt nicht davor geschützt hat, ein komplize antiliberaler handlungen zu werden, die seine funktion als garant einer erziehung der jungen menschen zur bürgerlichen verantwortlichkeit in frage stellen. der roman enthüllt die dunkle seite vom bestreben des protagonisten zur ausübung von „humanität“. da nämlich diese ethische sichtweise mit der weit verbreiteten sozialen ungerechtigkeit kollidiert, führt dies dazu, dass sein eigener sohn, den er zu den ethischen prinzipien, an die er glaubt, erzogen hatte, den weg in den terrorismus wählt, um seine menschheitsutopie zu verwirklichen. diese situation zeigt auf, wie leicht der begriff „humanität“ mit dem der gleichheit und gerechtigkeit in einen on ikt ger t er ist n mlich nicht so e istenziell d h ontologisch im en- schen verwurzelt wie der der menschlichkeit bzw. des menschseins und kann also nur aus einer notwendigkeit des moments heraus interpretiert werden. bei diesem streit zwischen verschiedenen moralischen dimensionen, unter denen die „humanität“ als die unklarste erscheint, ist das „gewissen“, von dem sie abhängt (wie in versuch über das sein von – veröffentlicht erst im jahr - zu lesen ist), vorherrschend. es ist die erste instanz, die den menschen vom tier unterscheidet, dank des zusammenlaufens zwischen äußeren wahrnehmungen und dem bewusstsein der inneren, von gott gegebe- nen geistigkeit. damit überwiegt es auch über normen, die von außen auferlegt werden: z.b. durch die politik einer staatsregierung, die der anthropologischen natur einer nation zuwiderläuft, die wiederum mit dem sie konstituierenden volk übereinstimmt. vielleicht hat herder aus diesem grund keinen platz im handbuch geschichte der menschenrechte gefunden, das der geistigen entwicklungs- geschichte der menschenrechte gewidmet ist und erschien. in einer ngeren onografie zur u kl rung hat der istoriker vincenzo errone wahrscheinlich einen hilfreichen blickwinkel gefunden, von dem aus die gründe für dieses Übergehen herders verständlich werden, auch wenn dessen entschiedene position gegen die sklaverei ein ausreichendes motiv wäre, um ihn als einen würdigen verfechter der menschenrechte zu betrachten: fischer, herder heute? (wie anm. ) . fischer, herder heute? (wie anm. ) . erder findet sich nur einmal in dem and uch ieder es ird eine passage on ihm zu dem politischen klima zitiert, das sich um die déclaration des droits de l’homme e du citoyen von entwickelt hatte, vgl. wolfgang m. schröder: natur- und vernunftrecht. in: menschenrechte. ein interdisziplinäres handbuch. hrsg. von arnd pollmann/georg lohmann. stuttgart: metzler , – , hier . elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) so wie rousseau und diderot stellt auch herder mit seinen werken und seinem kampfgeist ein schlüsselmoment dar, um endlich die wesentlichsten züge der s tau kl rung als eigenst ndiger und s ezifischer historischer oche z ischen dem siebenjährigen krieg und der großen revolution von zu verstehen […]. seine schriften erhalten ihre wahre bedeutung nur dann, wenn man auf hört, sie teleologisch zu studieren, als eine prämisse von etwas bedeutendem des folgen- den jahrhunderts: sie sollten vielmehr in einen zusammenhang mit der dramati- schen endphase des ancien regimes gelesen werden: d. h., die radikale politisie- rung der gelehrten republik dieser turbulenten jahre, die umwertung der alten werte und die transformation der idee von humanität und menschenrechten in einem universellen sinn gegen sklaverei und kolonialismus. herder hätte in dem allgemeinen inhaltsverzeichnis des handbuches sicherlich der platz zwischen rousseau und mill und gewiss nach fichte und kant zugestanden, aufgrund seiner kritischen auseinandersetzungen mit dem phi- losophen aus königsberg, die einen teil seines intellektuellen werdegangs ausmachten. dieser platz hätte herder nicht nur wegen seiner darlegungen in den wichtigsten historiographischen werken wie den ideen gebührt, bei denen die „menschheit“ und die „humanität“ den kern seiner ausführungen dar- stellen, sondern auch, weil seine vorstellung, mit der er die rolle des menschen in der geschichte behandelt hat, immer einen hauptsächlich anthropologisch- sozialen und historisch-kulturellen ursprung hatte, und weniger einen philo- sophischen. somit bezog er sich vor allem auf die bedürfnisse des menschen bei dem auf bau einer gemeinschaft, in der die rechte demokratisch her- gestellt erden und dar er hinaus ahrscheinlich or die p ichten gestellt sind. in der planung dieses handbuches war offensichtlich die philosophische perspektive vorherrschend, die dann zu einer philosophisch-juristischen und philosophisch-ökonomischen lesart der allgemeinen frage des personen- und völkerrechts geführt hat. vincenzo ferrone: il mondo dell’illuminismo. storia di una rivoluzione culturale. torino: einaudi , s. . ferrone nimmt bezug auf den text von sankar muthu: enlightenment against empire. princeton: princeton university press . man verweist hier provisorisch auf einen der interessantesten beiträge zum thema: hans adler: metaschema und aisthesis. herders gegenentwurf zu kant. in: zwischen bild und begriff. kant und herder zum schema. hrsg. von ulrich gaier/ralf simon. münchen: wilhelm fink verlag , – . kant, so erklärt adler, habe eine grundlegende kopernikanische wende eingeleitet, indem er herausstellte „‚der mensch‘ ist die instanz, die nicht nur erkenntnisse gewinnt, sondern auch bestimmt, welcher art und welchen formats seine erkenntnisse sind“ ( ). diese substantive werden in der italienischen Übersetzung mit einem identischen begriff wiedergegeben, bedeuten aber in wirklichkeit einerseits die summe aller menschen als individuen und andererseits eine ethisch-moralische haltung, die durch mitleid und ge- rechtigkeit dazu anhält, die einzigartigkeit des menschen im vergleich zu den anderen lebewesen anzuerkennen. | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang herder geht in den drei „büchern“ von teil i der ideen zur philosophie der geschichte der menschheit, die hauptsächlich die frage der „menschen- organisation“ und der „humanität“ behandeln (d. h. in iii., iv. und v.), nach problembereichen vor. diese zeigen, dass der zweck aller auf der welt ver- teilten völker darin besteht, einerseits die irdische dimension des menschen zu perfektionieren und andererseits die menschheit in einer überirdischen dimension zur erfüllung zu bringen, die nur in schrittweisen etappen erreicht werden kann. herders ziel ist es, zu zeigen, dass der mensch ein soziales wesen ist, das nach seiner erfüllung streben soll, wobei er von einem unvollkom- menen zustand ausgeht und den eigenschaften und verhaltensweisen folgt, die ihn vom tier unterscheiden: friedlichkeit, liebe, teilnahme/sympathie, fürsorge (s. – ) fallen in den bereich ethik und sitten (s. – ), gerechtigkeit und wahrheit (s. ) in den der gerechtigkeit und moral, die wohlanständigkeit (s. ) in den der Ästhetik, dann die religion (s. ) als „höchste humanität des menschen“. in abschnitt v des fünften buchs von teil i wird der diskurs über die „humanität“ weitergeführt, aus einer perspektive, die zeigen will, dass die dem menschen von gott zugedachte essenz als ein abbild seiner selbst eine art vorbereitungsstätte auf ein zukünftiges leben ist, auf das man sich bei- zeiten durch das studium des lebens ausrichten sollte. der teil, der sich in den ideen am um assendsten mit dem thema der umanit t esch tigt efindet sich schließlich im xv. buch von teil iii (besonders die abschnitte von i bis iv). dort behandelt herder die strukturen der verschiedenen völker auf den unterschiedlichen kontinenten, den zusammenhang vom jeweiligen klima und der entwicklung ihrer äußeren erscheinung, gewohnheiten, sprache und traditionen, die nahen und die entfernten populationen: seit roms untergange ist in europa kein kultiviertes reich mehr entstanden, das seine ganze einrichtung auf kriege und eroberungen gebauet hätte; denn die verheerenden nationen der mittleren zeiten waren rohe, wilde völker. […] kein kluger regent europa’s verwaltet seine provinzen mehr, wie der perser- könig, ja selbst die römer solche verwalteten; wenn nicht aus menschenliebe, so aus besserer einsicht der sache […]. daraus können wir zwei weitere beispiele von denkansätzen gewinnen, die die möglichkeit einer aktualisierung zu herders lehre untermauern: der eine, der den imperialismus, kolonialismus und die diskriminierung zwischen den völkern verteufelt, aber über das problem der menschlichen katastro- phen hinaus auch das der zerstörung der natur bedenkt. der andere, der sich mit der rolle und dem standpunkt europas auseinandersetzt und besonders herder, ideen (wie anm. ), – . elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) aktuell ist, in einer zeit, in der diese rolle zwischen licht und schatten erneut debattiert wird. er erste punkt findet seine egr ndung in der tatsache dass erder immer das „volk“ im singular anführt, als eine anthropologische und religiöse kategorie, als „sein“ und als „mitwissen des wahren“, das er betrachtet gemäß „dem naturmenschen aus rousseaus zweitem discours, der sich nach dem contrat social in einen gesellschaftsvertrag begibt, einen patriotismus des amiliengeistes und damit seine sel st er ichtung au eine volonté générale entwickelt, die keines gesetzgebers bedarf.“ wenn man den berührungs- unkt z ischen den egri en umanit t und volk findet ( o ei volk in der rekonstruktion von der geschichte der spätantike zu seiner gegenwart für herder immer mehr die konnotation eines multiethnischen miteinanders annimmt, je weiter er seine lehre von einem zum nächsten werk entwickelt), erhält man auch die bedeutung der historischen aufgabe, die herder dem menschen zugedacht hat. ist es also wahr, dass gott den menschen mit dem potential ausgestattet hat, seinen zweck zu erfüllen, so hat er doch nicht a priori auch seinen erfolg dabei mitbestimmt. für herder ist die bestimmung des menschen eine „kondition“, aber keine form der „prädestination“. damit sind wir an dem entscheidenden punkt angelangt: die verantwortung für die menschlichen handlungen liegt in der hand des menschen! d. h. auf heute übertragen: wer immer noch bestreitet, dass der klimawandel und die daraus erfolgten katastrophen auf den eingriff des menschen zurückzuführen sind, also die so genannten „klimawandel-leugner“, bestreitet auch die bedeutung der „humanität“ im herderschen sinne des begriffs. davon ausgehend führt uns die skepsis herders gegenüber dem begriff des kosmopolitismus, der ihm als ein ansatz erscheint, bei dem die nationalen unterschiede übergangen werden, und der stets dem europäischen blickwinkel bei der betrachtung der welt und der anderen realitäten den vorzug gibt, zu der zweiten aktuellen perspektive: ein Überdenken der rolle europas in der elt o ei on der re e ion er den m erialismus au dem ge iet der post-kolonialen studien auszugehen ist. hier kann man auch die jüngsten vgl. ulrich gaier: herders volksbegriff und seine rezeption. in: herder im spiegel der zeiten. verwerfungen der rezeptionsgeschichte und chancen einer relektüre. hrsg. von tilman borsche. münchen: wilhelm fink verlag , – . ur efinition derartiger thesen urde der egri lima eugnung ge r gt um damit die störrische und irrsinnige ablehnung der größten wissenschaftlichen evidenzen, die jemals unter den wissenschaftlichen vetreterinnen einen konsens gefunden haben, an- zuzeigen (caserini ). es handelt sich hierbei nicht um eine gesunde skepsis, die der wissenschaft dienlich ist, da ein/e skeptikerin in der lage sein muss, die wissenschaftliche evidenz anzuerkennen und darauf andere wissenschaft aufzubauen. man siehe dazu: [abruf: . . ]. | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang versuche einbeziehen, die die belletristik zu deutschen herrschern in afrika und neuguinea hervorgebracht hat (ich denke hier an die literarischen werke von uwe timm, hans christoph buch, christof hamann und christian kracht, um nur einige namen aus dem bereich der deutschsprachigen literatur zu nennen). eine derartige neuinterpretation der vergangenheit hat gezeigt, dass die interpolation literarischer erzählung und historie, von der herder als moderner ausgangspunkt und hayden white als dessen koryphäe in der gegenwart betrachtet werden können, zu äußerst fruchtbaren ergebnissen führt, die es uns ermöglichen, das spätauf klärerische denken auf den ethischen diskurs zu projizieren, aber auch den entgegengesetzen weg zu durchlaufen. dieser möglichkeit waren sich sicherlich autoren wie daniel kehlmann bewusst, in dessen roman die vermessung der welt ( ) die wissenschaft- lichen fortschritte von alexander von humboldt hervorgehoben werden, dank der zwischen und vorgenommenen explorationen von weiten gebieten in südamerika und danach in china, oder wie ilija trojanow, der in der weltensammler ( ) die wichtigsten etappen der erkundungsreisen von richard francis burton in indien, den arabischen ländern und im osten afrikas beleuchtet. beide autoren nehmen im angesicht dieser historischen figuren eine neuinterpretation der „zivilisationskritik“ vor, die nach dem ende der goldenen zeiten des wirkens von den vertretern und nachfolgern der frankfurter schule in eine art mottenkiste gepackt zu sein schien. mit anderen worten: die deutschsprachige gegenwartsliteratur regt ex post dazu an, über die von die von herder entwickelte skepsis gegenüber einem uro a zu re ektieren das als unange ochtene iege der i ilisation und des kontinuierlichen fortschritts betrachtet wird – wobei er sich auch gegenüber dem auf klärerischen rationalismus skeptisch zeigt – was vor allem in auch eine philosophie der geschichte zur bildung der menschheit ( ) zum ausdruck kommt. massimo mori stellt in seinem beitrag von herder und europa, des- sen erster abschnitt mit „ein negativmodell“ betitelt ist, heraus, dass herder in der oben genannten schrift in betracht ziehe, die völkerwanderung in rich- tung heiliges römisches reich von – n. chr. mit der anschließenden gründung der lateinisch-germanischen reiche habe den zustand der politischen und kulturellen hinfälligkeit gelöst, in dem die römische welt sich nunmehr befand. der diskurs über die produktive mischung der völker (als ein mit- einander von einheiten und pluralitäten, von konvergenzen und differenzen), der auch die notwendige christianisierung der heidnischen völker einschließt, unterstreicht herders befürwortung eines modells von histoire culturelle de dabei denke ich z. b. an das buch von elisabeth johanna koehn: auf klärung erzählen: akteure des langen . jahrhunderts im deutschen und französischen gegenwartsroman. heidelberg: winter . elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) l’antiquité, das nicht den konservativen geist des klassischen ideals übernimmt, welches dazu neigt, das demokratische modell des gesellschaftsauf baus (das griechenland des vi. jahrhundert v. chr.) in verbindung mit seiner künstler- ischen und kulturellen größe zu verherrlichen. er zielt hingegen darauf ab, einerseits im nahen morgenland den ort zu erkennen, von dem aus unsere kenntnisse ausgestrahlt wurden, und europa andererseits als schmelztiegel der verschiedenen kulturen zu sehen, unter den verschiedenen bezeichnungen „europäische republik“ (fha , ), „völkergemeinschaft“ (fha , ), „nationen-verein“ (ebd.), „christen-republik“ (fha , ). es scheint uns angebracht hervorzuheben, dass diese analyse eine rodukti e voraussetzung zu einem vergleich der re e ionen er den gegen- seitigen in uss der v lker aus der damaligen pers ekti e und den heutigen etrachtungen der igrations sse aus olitischen religi sen und kulturellen gründen ist. auch auf literarischem gebiet sollte herders idee des kulturellen transfers näher ergründet werden sowie dessen auswirkungen auf ausländi- sche schriftstellerinnen, die mit der sprache des ankunftslands arbeiten und den austausch zwischen den kulturen in ihren eigenen werken thematisieren. neue horizonte franco moretti hat vor nicht allzu langer zeit erneut jenes panorama der ver- mischung von kulturen analysiert, das den geographical sketch der modern european literature begründet. moretti betont eine produktive synergie zwischen der nationalen dimension, den zivilisationsprozessen und der an- deren kulturen einschließenden kosmopolitischen sichtweise, wobei er eine jedwede a priori ontologisch oder transzendental aufgebaute idee dieser drei kulturellen größen auseinandernimmt. darüber hinaus scheint ein jegliches verhältnis von ursache und wirkung zwischen historischen bedingungen und künstlerisch-literarischen ausdrücken aus dem panorama des distant reading verbannt, das moretti uns mit seiner gleichnamigen publikation aus dem jahr präsentiert: but don’t think of a mechanical universe, where the ball of politics hits the ball of literature and passes its own spin over to it. this is rather a solving system, of stimuli and responses, where the political sphere creates symbolic problems for the entire continent, and the literary sphere tries to address and to solve them. so suggeriert es massimo mori in seinem beitrag: herder und europa. in: herder im spiegel der zeiten (wie anm. ) – , hier . ranco oretti: istant reading ondon e ork: verso | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang hier wird erneut die wichtigkeit der kognitiven dimension von fragen und antworten unterstrichen, worüber wir schon zuvor gesprochen haben, aber auch der narrativen-explikativen funktion als ein mögliches instrument der antwort. ich schließe mich dem an, was moretti dank der formel goethes von bezüglich der entstehung der weltliteratur sagt, und meine, dass in den ideen von herder durchaus das kulturelle panoptikum liegt, auf dem man diese sicht der literatur begründen kann, die weltweiter natur ist. diese fächerartige Öffnung zeigt sich am eindrucksvollsten in den ideen, wo die reiseliteratur, zusammen mit in dem werk enthaltenen berichten und erinnerungen, dazu beiträgt, meinungen über ferne länder zu bekräftigen und den zustand der ent- icklung oder des r ckschritts einer s ezifischen i ilisation zu er r en andere werke herders bieten sich jedoch als konstruktionen mit „offener struktur dar in denen der ialog die re e ion die oetische om osition als intermezzi eingefügt werden, womit sie den fluss der kritischen perspektive des autors unterbrechen und ein dokumentarisches zeugnis des ausgangspunktes seiner re e ionen ge en ie briefe zur beförderung der humanität zeigen eine galerie von porträts großer historischer figuren wie benjamin franklin, friedrich ii., klopstock, luther mittels des briefwechsels als einer form un- s stematischer re e ion ohne detailliert darauf einzugehen, was irmscher schon sehr genau in seinem kommentar zum werk und den verschiedenen facetten des begriffs „humanität“ in brief des texts und anderenorts dargelegt hat, scheint es doch wichtig zu betonen, dass die geschichte gleichzeitig als sub specie temporis und sub specie aeternitatis zu lesen, wie es hier gemacht wird, in einer durch die schwankung zwischen wachzustand und traum hergestellten poetischen dimension, den folgenden gedankengang zu einem für unser zeitalter profetischen macht: ich stellte mir den zustand der künftigen literatur aus dem zusammenhan- ge der etzigen und der ergangenen or as erfindsame ei ige geister unserer zeit und der vorzeit nützliches versuchten, begannen, taten, sah ich on der ach elt ge raucht und ertro en sie erichtigte rfindungen au anlagen baute sie; sie schuf sich gleichsam neue organe; die ganze ansicht der dinge war verändert. […] unsre bemühungen, die alten in ihrem geist zu lesen, waren nichts weniger, als verkannt; ich hörte den namen einiger meiner freunde mit liebe und hochachtung nennen. man war aber weiter gekommen; man dachte, und schrieb wie die alten, zeiten, denen ähnlich, in denen die edelsten griechen und römer schrieben, waren erschienen; man schrieb, was man sah und tat; und schrieb merkwürdige dinge. der feldherr und bürger, der philosoph und staatsmann trennten sich nicht voneinander. johann gottfried herder: briefe zur beförderung der humanität. in: ders.: werke. band . hrsg. von hans dietrich irmscher. frankfurt am main: deutscher klassiker verlag , (brief ). elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) heute diskutiert man über die bedeutung von „humanities“ in verbindung mit „digital“, so wie sich damals herder fragte, wie legitim es sei, über humanität zu sprechen, in verbindung mit einer sicht der geschichte als von menschli- cher kontrolle abhängiger wie unabhängiger dimension. der heute gebrauchte begriff der „humanities“ erscheint als eine art rechtfertigung der nunmehr immer mehr maschinell durchgeführten prozesse, und man fragt sich daher, welchen mehrwert die annäherung an den text haben könnte, die das close reading darstellt, das sich nur auf ein werk, bzw. eine begrenzte zahl von werken beschränkt, mit denen sich ein/e forscherin in seinem/ihrem leben als interpretin beschäftigen kann. die hauptfrage lautet, inwieweit diese form von humanities-managing der „menschlichen dimension“ gerecht wird. an dieser stelle erscheint es angebracht, eine bemerkung von arndt niebisch hervorzuheben, der in einem vor kurzem erschienenen artikel die theorie von franco moretti zum „distant reading“ übernimmt, den er wie olgt definiert: distant reading ist arbeitsteiliges lesen. die lektüre wird nicht mehr als eine individuelle tätigkeit des wissenschaftlers verstanden, sondern wird zu einer form der mustererkennung. die aufgabe des wissenschaftlers ist dabei, die muster vorzugeben, nach denen mitarbeiter/innen, studierende oder computer einen textkorpus auswerten sollen. […] in dieser formulierung tritt viel her- vor, was eine digitale von einer konventionellen literaturwissenschaft unter- scheidet. individuelle exploration tritt zurück und kollaboratives arbeiten wird zentraler. der meditative umgang mit „hoher literatur“ wird ersetzt durch die analyse von daten. der garant von wissenschaftlichkeit liegt nicht in der inti- men nähe, sondern in der analytischen ferne zu einem text. herder legt bei seiner vision mit dem satz „unsre bemühungen, die alten in ihrem geist zu lesen, waren nichts weniger, als verkannt“ die betonung darauf, dass die interpretationsmaßstäbe, mit denen man in einer zukünftigen dimension die analyse der werke vornehmen würde, weder von dem anspruch abhängig seien, sich in den zeitgeist zu versenken, noch in einer hierarchisie- rung der bezugsmodelle bestünden. herder glaubt schon an einen zugang zur lektüre, der von multiplen und transversalen kompetenzen unterstützt wird. ein klares zeichen zugunsten einer popularisierung der kultur wird durch folgende Überlegung aus dem brief von herders briefen zur beförderung der humanität vermittelt: „ich hörte den namen einiger meiner freunde mit liebe und hochachtung nennen.“ auch der hinweis auf den zugang zu em- pirischen daten, „man schrieb was man sah und tat“, bestätigt die extreme arndt niebisch: distant reading. in: germanistik digital. digital humanities in der sprach- und literaturwissenschaft. hrsg. von ingo börner/wolfgang straub/christian zolles. wien: facultas verlag , – , hier – . | elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) peter lang modernität eines autors, der immer auf die effekte von „verjüngung“ und „revitalisierung“ der literatur abgezielt hat, die über die synthese eines mit- einanders von sinnlichen eindrücken verlaufen; von ihnen hängt herder zufolge die möglichkeit ab, die außenwelt zu verstehen und zu meistern. durch die wahrnehmung entstehen bilder. bilder, die, wie karl menges schreibt, sich in er ndung und in dichtung umwandeln, und damit zu neuen literarischen produkten werden. das verhindert, dass die imagination steril wird, und neue horizonte der suche nach alternativen narrativen lösungen können sich öffnen. unser letztes zitat stammt ebenso aus den briefe[n] zur beförderung der humanität und hebt wieder, obwohl nunmehr dreißig jahre seit der abfassung der abhandlung von haben wir noch jetzt das publikum und vaterland der alten? vergangen sind, die notwendigkeit einer vereinten Öffentlichkeit hervor, die eine kritische diskussion über die dringlichsten themen und menschheits- erfahrungen ermöglicht. diese sollen bewusst von der kollektivität als fragen und nt orten zu den stattfindenden ver nderungen anal siert erden denn in der zivilgesellschaft wie in den wissenschaften „ist der anfang einer jeden sache ein versuch; durch fallen lernen wir gehen, durchs verspielen lernen wir gewinnen […] und bloß durch eine menge von revolutionen haben die größten staaten ihre ruhe und gipfel erreicht.“ bibliographie adler, hans: metaschema und aisthesis. herders gegenentwurf zu kant. in: zwi- schen bild und begriff. kant und herder zum schema. hrsg. von gaier, ulrich / simon, ralf. münchen: wilhelm fink verlag , – . allert, beate (hrsg.): j. g. herder: from cognition to cultural science. hrsg. von allert, beate. heidelberg: synchron . caserini, stefano: guida alle leggende sul clima che cambia. come la scienza diventa opinione. milano: edizioni ambiente . caserini, stefano: riscaldamento globale e negazionismo. [abruf: . dezember ] ferrone, vincenzo: il mondo dell’illuminismo. storia di una rivoluzione culturale. torino: einaudi . fischer, bernd: herder heute? Überlegungen zur konzeption eines transkulturellen humanitätsbegriffs. in: herder jahrbuch ( ), – . karl menges: particular universals: herder on national literature, popular literature and world literature. in: a companion to the works of johann gottfried herder. hrsg. on ans dler ul oe ke rochester : o dell re er amden ouse - , hier . herder, haben wir noch jetzt das publikum und vaterland der alten? (wie anm. ), . elena agazzi: zwischen transdisziplinarität und transkulturalität | peter lang jahrbuch für internationale germanistik, jahrgang lii – heft ( ) gabrielov, amina: the notion of “conceptosphere” and possibilities of a cognitive approach to cultural studies from herder to likhachev. in: j.g. herder: from cognition to cultural science. hrsg. von allert, beate. heidelberg: synchron , – . gaier, ulrich: herders volksbegriff und seine rezeption. in: herder im spiegel der zeiten. verwerfungen der rezeptionsgeschichte und chancen einer relektüre. hrsg. von borsche, tilman. münchen: wilhelm fink verlag , – . goguet ntoine es: e l origine des loi des arts et des sciences et de leurs progrés chez les anciens peuples. bände. paris: desaint & saillant mdcclviii. : ntersuchungen on dem rs rung der gesetze nste und issenscha ten ie auch ihrem wachstum bei den alten völkern. bände. lemgo – . herder, johann gottfried: werke in zehn bänden. frankfurt am main: deutscher klassiker verlag – . koehn, elisabeth johanna: auf klärung erzählen: akteure des langen . jahrhun- derts im deutschen und französischen gegenwartsroman. heidelberg: winter . menges, karl: particular universals: herder on national literature, popular lite- rature and world literature. in: a companion to the works of johann gott- fried herder rsg on dler ans oe ke ul rochester : o dell brewer/camden house , – . moretti, franco: distant reading ondon e ork: verso mori, massimo: herder und europa. in: herder im spiegel der zeiten. verwerfungen der rezeptionsgeschichte und chancen einer relektüre. hrsg. von borsche, tilman. münchen: wilhelm fink verlag , – . muthu, sankar: enlightenment against empire. princeton: princeton university press . niebisch, arndt: distant reading. in: germanistik digital. digital humanities in der sprach- und literaturwissenschaft. hrsg. von börner, ingo/straub, wolfgang/ zolles, christian. wien: facultas verlag , – . schröder, wolfgang m.: natur- und vernunftrecht. in: menschenrechte. ein interdis- ziplinäres handbuch. hrsg. von pollmann, arnd/lohmann, georg. stuttgart: metzler , – . zammito, john h. /menges, karl /menze, ernest a.: johann gottfried herder revi- sited: the revolution in scholarship in the last quarter century. in memoriam regine otto. in: journal of the history of ideas / (oktober ), – . burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , the author is associate professor of english and associate director of the maryland institute for technology in the hu- manities at the university of maryland. a version of this article was presented at the ade sum- mer seminar east in adelphi, maryland. people who say that the last battles of the computer revolution in en glish departments have been fought and won don’t know what they’re talking about. if our current use of computers in en glish studies is marked by any common theme at all, it is experimentation at the most basic level. as a pro- fession, we are just learning how to live with computers, just beginning to integrate these machines effectively into writing- and reading- intensive courses, just starting to consider the implications of the multilayered literacy associated with computers. —cynthia selfe what is (or are) the “digital humanities,” aka “humanities computing”? it’s tempt- ing to say that whoever asks the question has not gone looking very hard for an answer. “what is digital humanities?” essays like this one are already genre pieces. willard mccarty has been contributing papers on the subject for years (a mono- graph too). under the earlier appellation, john unsworth has advised us “what is humanities computing and what is not.” most recently patrik svensson has been publishing a series of well- documented articles on multiple aspects of the topic, including the lexical shift from humanities computing to digital humanities. more- over, as cynthia selfe in an ade bulletin from reminds us, computers have been part of our disciplinary lives for well over two decades now. during this time digital humanities has accumulated a robust professional apparatus that is probably more rooted in en glish than any other departmental home. the contours of this professional apparatus are easily discoverable. an organiza- tion called the alliance of digital humanities organizations hosts a well- attended annual international conference called digital humanities (it grew out of an earlier annual series of conferences, hosted jointly by the association for computers and the humanities and the association for literary and linguistic computing since ). there is blackwell’s companion to digital humanities. there is a book series (yes, a book series), topics in the digital humanities, from the university of illinois press. there is a refereed journal called digital humanities quarterly, one of several that serve the field, including a newer publication, digital studies / le champ numérique, sponsored by the canadian society for digital humanities (société pour l’Étude des médias interactifs). the university of victoria hosts the annual digital humani- ties summer institute to train new scholars. crucially, there are digital humanities centers and institutes (probably at least one hundred worldwide, some of them estab- lished for a decade or more with staffs numbering in the dozens): these are served by an organization known as centernet. there have been digital humanities manifestos (i know of at least two) and faqs, colloquia and symposia, workshops and special sessions. not to mention, of course, that a gloss or explanation of digital humani- ties is implicit in every mission statement, every call for papers and proposals, every what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in english departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum ade and the association of departments of en glish are trademarks owned by the modern language association. © by t he a sso ci at ion of dep ar t ment s of en g l ish, crossref d oi: . /ade. . , issn - burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in en glish departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum strategic plan and curriculum- development document, every hiring request, and so forth that invokes the term. or the countless times the question has been visited on electronic discussion lists, blogs, facebook walls, and twitter feeds, contributing all the flames and exhortations, celebrations and screeds one could wish to read. we could also, of course, simply google the question. google takes us to wikipe- dia, and what we find there is not bad: the digital humanities, also known as humanities computing, is a field of study, research, teaching, and invention concerned with the intersection of computing and the disciplines of the humanities. it is methodological by nature and interdisciplinary in scope. it involves investigation, analysis, synthesis and presentation of information in electronic form. it studies how these media affect the disciplines in which they are used, and what these disciplines have to contribute to our knowledge of computing. as a working definition this serves as well as any i’ve seen, which is not surprising since a glance at the page’s view history tab reveals individuals closely associated with the digital humanities as contributors. at its core, then, digital humanities is more akin to a common methodological outlook than an investment in any one specific set of texts or even technologies. we could attempt to refine this “outlook” quantitatively, using some of the very tools and techniques digital humanities has pioneered. for example, we might use a text- analysis tool named voyeur developed by stéfan sinclair to mine the proceedings from the annual digital humanities con- ference and develop lists of topic frequencies or collocate key terms or visualize the papers’ citation networks. we could also choose to explore the question qualitatively, by examining sets of projects from self- identified digital humanities centers. at the university of maryland, where i serve as an associate director at the maryland in- stitute for technology in the humanities, we support work from “shakespeare to second life” as we’re fond of saying: the shakespeare quartos archive, funded by a joint grant program administered by the united kingdom’s jisc and the neh, makes a searchable digital facsimile of each of the thirty- two extant quarto copies of hamlet available online, while the preserving virtual worlds project, supported by the library of congress, has developed and tested standards and best practices for archiving and ensuring future access to computer games, interactive fiction, and virtual communities. yet digital humanities is also a social undertaking. it harbors networks of people who have been working together, sharing research, arguing, competing, and col- laborating for many years. key achievements from this community, like the text encoding initiative or the orlando project, were mostly finished before the current wave of interest in digital humanities began. nonetheless, the rapid and remark- able rise of digital humanities as a term can be traced to a set of surprisingly specific circumstances. unsworth, who was the founding director of the institute for ad- vanced technology in the humanities at the university of virginia for a decade and is currently dean of the graduate school of library and information science at the university of illinois, has this to relate: the real origin of that term [digital humanities] was in conversation with andrew mcneillie, the original acquiring editor for the blackwell companion to digital hu- manities. we started talking with him about that book project in , in april, and burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in en glish departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum by the end of november we’d lined up contributors and were discussing the title, for the contract. ray [siemens] wanted “a companion to humanities computing” as that was the term commonly used at that point; the editorial and marketing folks at blackwell wanted “companion to digitized humanities.” i suggested “companion to digital humanities” to shift the emphasis away from simple digitization. (message) at about the same time the blackwell’s volume was being put together, the leader- ship of two scholarly organizations opened discussions about creating an umbrella entity for themselves and eventually other organizations and associations with like interests. as anyone who has ever tried to run a scholarly organization will know, economies of scale are difficult to come by with only a few hundred members and so the thought was to consolidate and share infrastructure and services. the two or- ganizations were the aforementioned association for computers in the humanities and the association for literary and linguistic computing. the umbrella structure that resulted was called adho, or the alliance of digital humanities organiza- tions. here is unsworth again, from the same communication: conversations about merging ach and allc began at tuebingen, in a bar, in a conversation between harold short and me, in july . a couple of months later, i had set a list called “adhoc”—allied digital humanities organizations committee), first message dated august , . . . . we finally got things off the dime in swe- den, at the allc/ ach, and after waffling some more about names (ichio, ohco, and others) we voted, in april of , to go with adho, changing “a” from “allied” to “alliance.” by then, the blackwell’s companion had been published and the alliance for digital humanities organizations had been established. there’s one more key event to relate, and that’s the launch, in , of the digital humanities initiative by the neh, then under the chairmanship of bruce cole and with leadership provided by brett bobley, a charismatic and imaginative individual who doubles as the agency’s cio. in an e-mail to me, bobley describes a january lunch with another neh staffer at which they were brainstorming ideas for what would become the digital humanities initiative: at the lunch, i jotted down a bunch of names, including humanities computing, ehumanities, and digital humanities. when i got back to the office, i googled all three of them and “digital humanities” seemed to be the winner. i liked it for a few reasons: due to adho and their annual digital humanities conference, the name brought up a lot of relevant hits. i believe i’d also heard from julia flanders about the forthcoming digital humanities quarterly journal. i also appreciated the fact that it seemed to cast a wider net than “humanities computing” which seemed to imply a form of computing, whereas “digital humanities” implied a form of human- ism. i also thought it would be an easier sell to the humanities community to have the emphasis on “humanities.” in the digital humanities initiative became the office of digital humani- ties, the designation of “office” assigning the program (and its budget line) a perma- nent place within the agency. that the major federal granting agency for scholarship in the humanities, taking its cues directly from a small but active and influential group of scholars, had devoted scarce resources to launching a number of new grant burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in en glish departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum opportunities, many of them programmatically innovative in and of themselves, around an endeavor termed “digital humanities” was doubtless the tipping point for the branding of dh, at least in the united states. these events will, i think, earn a place in histories of the profession alongside other major critical movements like the birmingham school or yale deconstruction. in the space of a little more than five years digital humanities had gone from being a term of convenience used by a group of researchers who had already been working together for years to something like a movement. individual scholars routinely now self- identify as digital humanists, or “dhers.” there is an unusually strong sense of community and common purpose, manifested, for example, in events such as the day of digital humanities, organized by a team at the university of alberta. its second annual iteration featured over participants (up from around one hun- dred the first year), who blogged on a shared site about the details of their workday, posted photographs of their offices and screens, and reflected on the nature of their enterprise. digital humanities has even been the recipient of its own downfall re- mix, the internet meme whereby the climactic scene from the hbo film depicting hitler’s final days in the bunker is closed- captioned with, in this instance, a tirade about the pernicious influence of online scholarship. digital humanities was also (you may have heard) big news at the mla an- nual convention in philadelphia. on december, midway through the conven- tion, william pannapacker, one of the chronicle of higher education’s officially appointed bloggers, wrote the following for the online “brainstorm” section: “amid all the doom and gloom of the mla convention, one field seems to be alive and well: the digital humanities. more than that: among all the contending sub- fields, the digital humanities seem like the first ‘next big thing’ in a long time.” (it seems fair to say that pannapacker, who is the author of “graduate school in the humanities: just don’t go,” under the pseudonym thomas benton, is not a man easily impressed.) jennifer howard, meanwhile, a veteran chronicle reporter who has covered the convention before, noted the “vitality” of digital humanities with its “overflow crowds to too- small conference rooms.” there were several dozen panels devoted to the digital humanities at the mla convention, and one could (and did) easily navigate the three- day convention by moving among them. crucially, digital humanities was visible in another way at the conference: the social- networking service twitter. twitter is the love- it- or- hate- it web . application often maligned as the final triumph of the attention- deficit generation because it lim- its postings to a mere characters—not words, characters. the reason has less to do with attention spans than twitter’s origins in the messaging protocols of mobile devices, but the format encourages brief, conversational posts (“tweets”) that also tend to contain a fair measure of flair and wit. unlike facebook, twitter allows for asymmetrical relationships: you can “follow” someone (or they can follow you) without the relationship’s being reciprocated. tweeting has rapidly become an inte- gral part of the conference scene, with a subset of attendees on twitter providing real- time running commentary through a common “tag” (#mla , for example), which allows everyone who follows it to tune in to the conversation. this phenomenon has burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in en glish departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum some very specific ramifications. amanda french ran the numbers and concluded that nearly half ( %) of attendees at the digital humanities conference were tweeting the sessions. by contrast, only % of mla convention attendees tweeted— according to french’s data, out of about , attendees at the mla convention only tweeted. of these, the vast majority were people already associated with digital humanities through their existing networks of followers. jennifer howard, again writing for the chronicle, noted the centrality of twitter to the dh crowd and its im- pact on scholarly communication, going so far as to include people’s twitter identities in her roundup of major stories from the convention. inside higher ed also devoted coverage to twitter at the mla convention, noting that rosemary g. feal was using it to connect with individual members of the organization—not surprisingly, many of them dhers. feal, in fact, kept up a lively stream of tweets throughout the confer- ence, gamely mixing it up with the sometimes irreverent back-channel conversation and, in a scene out of small world had it only been written twenty years later, issued an impromptu invite for her “tweeps” to join the association’s elite for nightcaps in the penthouse of one of the convention hotels. while it’s not hard to see why the academic press devoured the story, there’s more going on than mere shenanigans. twitter, along with blogs and other online outlets, has inscribed the digital humanities as a network topology, that is to say, lines drawn by aggregates of affinities, formally and functionally manifest in who follows whom, who friends whom, who tweets whom, and who links to what. digital humanities has also, i would propose, lately been galvanized by a group of younger (or not so young) graduate students, faculty members (both tenure line and contingent), and other academic professionals who now wield the label “digital humanities” instru- mentally amid an increasingly monstrous institutional terrain defined by declin- ing public support for higher education, rising tuitions, shrinking endowments, the proliferation of distance education and the for- profit university, and, underlying it all, the conversion of full- time, tenure- track academic labor to a part- time adjunct workforce. one example is the remarkable tale of brian croxall, the recent emory phd who went viral online for a period of several weeks during and after the mla. croxall had his paper, “the absent presence: today’s faculty,” read at the con- vention in absentia while he simultaneously published it on his blog after finding himself unable to afford to travel to philadelphia because he hadn’t landed any con- vention interviews. as numerous observers pointed out, croxall’s paper, which was heavily blogged and tweeted and received coverage in both the chronicle and inside higher ed, was undoubtedly and by many orders of magnitude the most widely seen and read paper from the mla convention. these events were subsequently dis- cussed in a series of cross- postings and conversations that spilled across twitter and the blogosphere for several weeks after the convention ended. many seemed to feel that the connection to wider academic issues was not incidental or accidental, and that digital humanities, with a culture that values collaboration, openness, nonhier- archical relations, and agility might be an instrument for real resistance or reform. so what is digital humanities and what is it doing in en glish departments? the answer to the latter portion of the question is easier. i can think of some half a dozen reasons why en glish departments have historically been hospitable settings for this burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in en glish departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum kind of work. first, after numeric input, text has been by far the most tractable data type for computers to manipulate. unlike images, audio, video, and so on, there is a long tradition of text- based data processing that was within the capabilities of even some of the earliest computer systems and that has for decades fed research in fields like stylistics, linguistics, and author attribution studies, all heavily associated with en glish departments. second, of course, there is the long association between computers and composition, almost as long and just as rich in its lineage. third is the pitch- perfect convergence between the intense conversations around editorial theory and method in the s and the widespread means to implement electronic archives and editions very soon after; jerome mcgann is a key figure here, with his work on the rossetti archive, which he has repeatedly described as a vehicle for applied theory, standing as paradigmatic. fourth, and at roughly the same time, is a modest but much- promoted belle- lettristic project around hypertext and other forms of electronic literature that continues to this day and is increasingly vibrant and diverse. fifth is the openness of en glish departments to cultural studies, where computers and other objects of digital material culture become the centerpiece of analysis. i’m thinking here, for example, of the reader stuart hall and others put together around the sony walkman, that hipster ipod of old. finally, today, we see the simultaneous explosion of interest in e- reading and e- book devices like the kindle, ipad, and nook and the advent of large- scale text digitization projects, the most significant of course being google books, with scholars like franco moretti tak- ing up data mining and visualization to perform “distance readings” of hundreds, thousands, or even millions of books at a time. digital humanities, which began as a term of consensus among a relatively small group of researchers, is now backed on a growing number of campuses by a level of funding, infrastructure, and administrative commitments that would have been unthinkable even a decade ago. even more recently, i would argue, the network ef- fects of blogs and twitter at a moment when the academy itself is facing massive and often wrenching changes linked both to new technologies and the changing political and economic landscape has led to the construction of “digital humanities” as a free- floating signifier, one that increasingly serves to focus the anxiety and even outrage of individual scholars over their own lack of agency amid the turmoil in their insti- tutions and profession. this is manifested in the intensity of debates around open- access publishing, where faculty members increasingly demand the right to retain ownership of their own scholarship—meaning, their own labor—and disseminate it freely to an audience apart from or parallel with more traditional structures of aca- demic publishing, which in turn are perceived as outgrowths of dysfunctional and outmoded practices surrounding peer review, tenure, and promotion (see fitzpatrick on “planned obsolescence” in this issue). whatever else it might be then, the digital humanities today is about a scholarship (and a pedagogy) that is publicly visible in ways to which we are generally unaccus- tomed, a scholarship and pedagogy that are bound up with infrastructure in ways that are deeper and more explicit than we are generally accustomed to, a scholarship and pedagogy that are collaborative and depend on networks of people and that live an active / life online. isn’t that something you want in your en glish department? burns—documents—ade file: kirschenbaum_ade .indd job #: - / / –lg/dc/lg ade bulletin ◆ number , what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in en glish departments? matthew g. kirschenbaum works cited bobley, brett. “what’s in a name: neh and ‘digital humanities.’” message to the author. apr. . e-mail. “digital humanities.” wikipedia. wikimedia, nov. . web. nov. . french, amanda. “make ‘ ’ louder; or, the amplification of scholarly communication.” amandafrench .net. french, dec. . web. aug. . howard, jennifer. “the mla convention in translation.” chronicle of higher education. chronicle of higher educ., dec. . web. aug. . mccarty, willard. humanities computing. new york: palgrave, . print. pannapacker, william. “the mla and the digital humanities.” chronicle of higher education. chron- icle of higher educ., dec. . web. aug. . selfe, cynthia. “computers in en glish departments: the rhetoric of technopower.” ade bulletin ( ): – . web. aug. . svensson, patrik. “humanities computing as digital humanities.” digital humanities quarterly . ( ): n. pag. web. aug. . ———. “the landscape of digital humanities.” digital humanities quarterly . ( ): n. pag. web. aug. . unsworth, john. message to the author. apr. . e-mail. ———. “what is humanities computing and what is not?” graduate school of library and information sciences. illinois informatics inst., u of illinois, urbana, nov. . web. aug. . modeling visually guided hand reach for digital human models - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference doi: . /j.promfg. . . procedia manufacturing ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect th international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics (ahfe ) and the affiliated conferences, ahfe modeling visually guided hand reach for digital human models nitesh bhatiaa, anand v. pathakb, dibakar sena,* acentre for product design and manufacturing, indian institute of science, bangalore, india bspace applications centre, indian space research organisation, ahmedabad, india abstract digital human models (dhm) are used in digital mockups to identify human factor problems in design and assembly. present applications are mostly limited to the posture, biomechanics, reach and simple visibility analysis and they are mostly developed for independent simulations that are mostly hand crafted by designers. our aim is to develop natural simulations using vision as a feedback agent for performing any postural simulations similar to humans. in this paper, the work presented is limited to demonstrating active vision based feedback for a typical hand reach task without using inverse kinematics. the proposed concept takes into account of previously developed vision and hand modules and describes an integration methodology such that both modules can work in tandem providing feedback and feed forward mechanisms. the scheme primarily utilizes vision module that acts similar to human eyes by providing spatial information about hand and object in workspace. similar to retinal projection, the workspace object and the model of dhm hand is geometrically projected over the grid and the relative positions are computed in terms of grid-cells. the computed relative positions are used to compute a vector direction that is provided as a feedback to hand for guiding it towards object. the hand module independently is capable of natural grasping and visual feedback is used for motion guidance. the implementation shown in this paper is limited to monocular vision and two-dimensional hand movement as a proof of concept. this scheme is used to demonstrate a scenario where dhm is successfully able guide the hand and point it to a given object. the presented model finally shows vision as a guiding agent for hand reach simulations. it can be used for planning and placement of workspace objects to enhance human task performance. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference. keywords: digital human models; hand reach tasks; digital mockups; hand reach simulations * corresponding author. tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - . e-mail address: dibakar@cpdm.iisc.ernet.in © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.promfg. . . &domain=pdf nitesh bhatia et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . introduction vision is important for processing information about the spatial location of objects and object characteristics such as shape, size, weight and texture. reaching for an object in visual space is a simple process that involves bringing hand closer to an object by using visual feedback as a guiding medium. for visual tasks, reach would include moving the head-eye complex so as to align the target location at the fovea of the eye and to bring the images to the focus in a binocular vision scenario [ , , ]. reach is the step when parts of the body move in the free space to assume some desired configuration with respect to the parts/objects in the scene. the mathematical framework of direct and inverse kinematics, path planning, collision avoidance etc. is the support available in the existing literature for their use in dhm. however the contexts of variable functional kinematic structure, purposeful grasping etc. are the challenges that are still unresolved in literature. unlike robotics where manipulations are predominantly point referenced, human activities are object referenced. hence the computational paradigm is inherently fuzzy and iterative. moreover, real life man- machine interaction not only involves errors in decision making but also errors in execution which affects his performance. for visual tasks, reach would include moving the head-eye complex so as to align the target location at the fovea of the eye and to bring the images to the focus in a binocular vision scenario. modelling and simulation of such tasks require a close integration of visual and manual feedback, for which the present state of art in human simulation technology - the digital human models (dhm), provides valuable but very limited information. it is not possible to design and simulate tasks and evaluate the human performance, which is highly dependent on operator’s visual capabilities. thus, the possibilities of providing sensory assistance to dhm opens up new opportunities towards simulation of natural performance for automatic identification of issues in a given work scenario [ ]. in this paper we have presented an “active” vision based scenario to demonstrate visually guided simple hand reach for simulation of reach movements. the model takes its inspiration from the way human performs reach using active visual feedback and hand feed forward mechanisms. our scheme is based on three interconnected modules viz. vision, hand and cognition. the vision module takes account of central and peripheral vision and provides feedbacks in terms of spatial location of object and hand located in visual workspace. the hand module consists of a basic hand model capable of movement across a plane on the basis of input obtained in terms of direction vectors. the cognition module has the central role of planning and execution of hand movement on the basis of visual feedback. a primitive task is simulated to show that this presented model is successfully able guide the hand and point it to a given object. in section we discuss the relevant literature about reach modelling in existing human simulation systems. in section we describe the newly developed active vision based reach framework and data- structure of a variable resolution cube-grid acting as receptor surface for sampling of spatial information in dhm vision model. in section , we present simulations and results based on functional implementation of discussed framework. conclusions to the presented work are presented in section . . literature being a part of complex social system, humans constantly interact with each other and surroundings [ ]. hence maintaining sustainability and cost effectiveness is a desirable goal while designing any such system. understanding and modeling the human behavior can effectively help in responding and adapting to the uncertainties that may arise while dealing with humans and the materials. in order to maximize human performance the elements of purpose, people, structure, techniques and information must be coordinated and integrated appropriately [ , ]. human behavior and performance in any given system is based on biomechanical, physiological, and psychological capabilities of the human [ ]. for any kind of interaction human vision, is the primary channel for processing perceptual information. under human visual system capabilities, biomechanical includes head and eye anthropometry that act as the primary sources for sensory spatial information; physiological includes the eyes and brain with their combined ability to collect visible spatial information; and psychological, involves processing, interpretation and response generation based on the knowledge and experience of humans. different phases in human performance include spatial searching, object recognition and localization, reaching to grasp, manipulation of objects, evaluation of the task progress, and completion [ , ]. traditional methods for design and evaluation of nitesh bhatia et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – such systems include experimental strategies, ethnographic design, and behavioral observation; open ended interviews, etc [ ]. however, generally these studies are regionally confined and it is not feasible every time to assess the interaction of a large human population with system for testing each and every aspect of design. in recent times, moving away from traditional design process and using digital human models (dhm) for virtual simulations of human interaction with the product has helped the designers significantly. dhm technology comprises of computer generated human simulation medium that is primarily used for simulation and visualization and assessment of human tasks in a virtual workspace [ ]. this technology offers human factors and ergonomics specialists the promise of an efficient means to simulate a large variety of ergonomics issues early in the design of products and manufacturing workstations. with this advanced technology, human factors issues are assessed in virtual digital prototype of workstation with digital human model. most products and manufacturing work settings are specified and designed by using sophisticated computer-aided design (cad) systems. by integrating a computer-rendered avatar (or humanoid) and the cad-rendered graphics of a prospective workspace, one can simulate issues regarding who can fit, reach, see, manipulate, and so on [ , ]. the implementation of digital human model reduces and sometimes eliminates the requirement of dummy model, cardboard manikin, d drawings and even real human trial in expensive physical mock-ups [ ]. this technology has reduced the design time, cycle time and cost of designing new products along with improvements in quality, production, operation and maintenance costs. in past few decades, lot of work had been done in the area of posture and hand modeling. being a relatively new area of research and development current dhm applications are mostly dominant towards whole body posture and biomechanical analysis used for simulations of material handling tasks mostly dominated in the areas of automotive production, assembly line simulations and vehicle safety [ , ]. hand modeling and its interaction with objects often requires a realistic simulation of the hand-object interaction and a reliable estimation of performance. for grasping and reach simulations hand model specific approaches have been developed [ , ]. in [ , ], authors have shown usage performance, usage durations, and the handling (grasp) qualities of hand held devices. in [ ], authors have developed grasp quality index that can be used for estimation of finger reach for a given element. all these approaches concentrate in the area of reach and grasp modeling and most don’t take care of human performance related applications. human performance in any given task-workspace is based on biomechanical, physiological, and psychological capabilities of an operator where vision plays an important role in by providing spatial characteristics of visual space and frame of body. while interacting with workspace objects, visual information is either received directly while interacting with tools, reading text, etc. or indirectly by seeing things through monitors, microscopes, etc. there are several factors that determine visual capabilities of the operator and the effectiveness of corresponding tasks. the most important one include operator’s fov, visual acuity and accommodation capabilities. for modeling and simulation of vision dependent tasks, the present dhm tools are mostly limited to symmetric fov cones and line of sight based passive visibility analysis. for instance, in [ ] jack has been used to evaluate vehicle dashboard visibility and driver’s visual field using the uniform field of vision (fov) cones. in [ ] similar fov cones are used to assess direct exterior vision of a postal delivery vehicle driver. similar uniform fov based vision analysis tools are available in other dhms like humancad/sammie, ramsis, etc. for simulation of traditional assembly tasks active and continuous visual feedback is required during alignment and fastening phases. vision plays a key role in precision assembly tasks and requires a close integration of visual and manual feedback. for simulation of such tasks, the present state of art in dhm technology provides valuable but very limited information. hence it is not possible to design and simulate tasks and evaluate the human performances that are highly dependent on operator’s visual capabilities. our primary aim is to use and simulate dhms, digital hand models, and vision models for natural human simulations such that usability tests for human performance can be developed in the early phases of system development in order to save cost and labor. for this purpose there is a need to combine these independent models into a single high level framework that can work in tandem to perform human tasks without needing any handmade tinkering. literature related to human behavior modeling generally talks about the approaches to combine anthropometric models and cognitive modeling. using such models, the natural human simulations can be achieved using a dhm in a virtual environment [ , ]. in [ , ], the authors have considered cognitive aspects of behavior nitesh bhatia et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – in human simulations. the existing independent models have been taken up by industry and commercial products since they produce stable results that match with humans. but developing the interdependent modules on the basis of these independent models are not yet mature enough, hence the industry uptake is very limited. our aim is to develop a human behavior model where vision model can be as a feedback agent for performing any postural simulations similar to humans. in this paper, the work presented is limited to demonstrating active vision based feedback for hand reach task that is discussed further. . vision guided hand reach simulations there are several motion simulation approaches that have been followed to produce reach and grasp motions. in general these techniques can be divides into two types as described by weeber [ ]. first kind is artificial animation where the designer usually imagines the desired motion before running the simulation. these techniques include key posture interpolation and frame based interpolation. in a key posture based simulation, the designer provides key postures and for motion the successive frames are calculated by interpolation [ ]. in frame based animation, the motion is animated by applying inverse kinematics to each frame of the motion given by designer [ ]. several more advanced techniques like motion blending and functional regression have also been developed on the similar grounds [ , ]. second kind is automated simulations that generally produce natural and human like behaviors. the system per se generates the motion based on designer’s input in form of some basic human attributes. the motion generated is automated and user knows less about what motion should result. some techniques involve manual and artificial inverse kinematics based methods [ , ]. for cohesive and modular development of simulations, reed et al proposed an approach where motion simulation is achieved by interconnected small and individual modules like task-oriented head and eye movement, posture balancing, etc [ ]. we have followed similar technique to demonstrate vision guided hand reach simulations. the scheme utilizes two modules viz. vision model and hand model that have been developed by the authors. we have shown a use case where vision model can provide feedback to the hand model for guided motion towards an object. fig. shows the data flow architecture of proposed scheme. the modules are described as follows. . . vision model sen. et. al. [ , ] introduced a dhm vision modeling framework for performing gaze-dependent fov based workspace visibility analysis and object legibility analysis. based on a d scanned human head, this model computes realistic gaze-dependent field of view (fov) with respect to location of pupil and the facial features. the fov is further divided into central and peripheral vision that simulates human acuity dependent vision for dhm. the analysis done using this model is based on actual human visual parameters that can be personalized across population and workspace objects. the computational framework behind this model relies on a uniform cube-grid having faces. it integrates a unit-cube representation of a direction with each face covering . in [ ], the uniform resolution cube-grid from , was enhanced to a variable resolution cube-grid. the resolution was taken is fig. . data flow architecture of vision guided hand reach. nitesh bhatia et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . visual output of cube-grid for the sentence,“the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.”, of height . cm, when shown at a distance of m, where the point of fixation is at first letter “t” [ ]. similar to human acuity resolution, such that information projected on the cube-grid can be sampled similar to human retinal sampling. to simplify the model, the fov is quantified into three regions viz. central ( º fov), medium ( º to º fov), and peripheral (beyond º). as an standard for each region, an average human acuity of . , . and . was taken respectively. fig. shows the visual output of cube-grid for the sentence, “the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.”, of height . cm, when shown at a distance of m, where the point of fixation is at first letter “t” located in the central vision and remaining sentence stretches till the peripheral vision. in this work we have divided fov into two regions central fov ranging within º and peripheral fov beyond º. a d model of hand and an object located in dhm workspace are geometrically projected on the cube-grid that acts as the receptor surface. the object of interest remains located in central vision region and hand can be located in any part of fov. for the purpose of computation of a direction vector ‘d’, the center of object is considered as origin and is denoted by ‘o’. to compute the location of projected hand on the retinal surface, mean of occupied cells is taken as position ’h’. hence vector ‘d’ is denoted is difference of vector ‘o’ and vector ‘h’. the vector provides a guiding direction to the hand. . . hand model sen. et. al. developed a systematic hand manipulation schemes using the concept of relational description which is abstract (non-numeric) and yet precise; it can be used for describing hand-object interaction pattern using any hand model. the hand model is developed using d scan of a real human hand. the hand model is capable of performing six degrees of freedom motion dominant reorientation for grasping and force dominant behavior for slip prevention grasp. for the current work, we have considered monocular vision model and hence limited the hand motion in two dimension perspective parallel to the eye plane. for motion, the hand takes an input feedback in terms of direction vector ‘d’ computed by vision model and produces a motion in the same direction. the step size of distance is provided as a user input. upon completion of a step, the position of hand and object is recomputed by the vision model and vector ‘d’ is recomputed for feedback. if the complete hand or a part of hand falls under central fov the reach algorithm stops and hand interaction related methods are called further. fig. shows the flowchart of steps followed in performing proposed reach simulation. fig. . flow chart of instructions followed in vision guided hand reach. nitesh bhatia et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . simulation results for the purpose of simple simulation we have considered a task that reaching towards an object located in visual field. the object is located in front of dhm head and the hand is located in the periphery as shown in fig. . in first step the visibility of object and its position on the visual grid is computed. fig. a shows the highlighted object whose position is computed as vector o. in second step the hand is projected on the vision model that computed its position vector h with respect to object o as shown in fig. b. vector ‘d’ is computed on the basis of location of hand and object (fig. c). this vector is given as an input to the hand model. in the current case vector ‘d’ represents a straight line along negative x axis and hence the direction coordinates given to hand model as input are (- . , . , . ). the step size is chosen as units. in next step the hand is shifted in direction of vector ‘d’ by units (fig. d). the reach procedure starts again at this step and position of object and new position of hand h’ is computed. in this case since a part hand is already inside central fov, some of the cells occupied by projection of hand come under central fov. at this stage the reach algorithm stops. . conclusion and future work in this paper, we have shown a methodology to achieve natural human behavior by integrating a cognitive vision model with anthropometric hand model. the work however is limited to demonstrating active vision based feedback for a typical hand reach task without using inverse kinematics. the presented model takes into account of our previously developed vision and hand modules and describes an integration methodology such that both modules can work in tandem providing feedback and feed forward mechanisms. the scheme shown primarily utilizes vision module and hand module. vision model gathers spatial information about hand and object in workspace and computes the position and a vector direction from pointing hand to object. the hand module independently is capable of natural grasping. for reach visual vector direction is used as a feedback for motion guidance. the implementation shown in this paper is limited to monocular vision and two-dimensional hand movement as a proof fig. . vision guided hand simulations. nitesh bhatia et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – of concept. this scheme is used to demonstrate a scenario where dhm is successfully able guide the hand and point it to a given object. the presented concept demonstrates a natural behavior using vision as a guiding agent for hand reach simulations. it can be used for planning and placement of workspace objects to enhance human task performance. in future we plan to integrate binocular vision model along with three dimensional hand models to simulate reach related tasks in any given workspace. acknowledgements the work presented in this paper was partially funded by the indian space research organization (isro) and indian institute of science (iisc) - space technology cell (stc), under a project scheme iisc/istc . references [ ] marc jeannerod. intersegmental coordination during reaching at natural visual objects. attention and performance ix, : – , . 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( ) – | e-issn: - x this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license uopen journals | http://liberquarterly.eu/ | doi: . /lq. liber quarterly volume issue unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research margo bargheer state and university library göttingen bargheer@sub.uni-goettingen.de, orcid.org/ - - - zeki mustafa dogan state and university library göttingen dogan@sub.uni-goettingen.de, orcid.org/ - - - wolfram horstmann state and university library göttingen horstmann@sub.uni-goettingen.de, orcid.org/ - - - mike mertens dariah-eu mike.mertens@dariah.eu, orcid.org/ - - - x andrea rapp technical university of darmstadt rapp@linglit.tu-darmstadt.de http://liberquarterly.eu http://www.doi.org/ . /lq. mailto:bargheer@sub.uni-goettingen.de http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:dogan@sub.uni-goettingen.de http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:horstmann@sub.uni-goettingen.de http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:mike.mertens@dariah.eu http://orcid.org/ - - - x mailto:rapp@linglit.tu-darmstadt.de margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue abstract in the light of new digital production and dissemination practices, the scholarly publishing system has seen significant and also disruptive changes, especially in stm (science, technology and medicine) and with regard to the predominant format “journal article.” the digital transforma- tion also holds true for those disciplines that continue to rely on the schol- arly monograph as a publication format and means for reputation building, namely the humanities and the social sciences with a qualitative approach (hss). in our paper we analyse the reasons why the monograph has not yet reached its full potential in the digital paradigm, especially in the uptake of open access and innovative publishing options. we highlight some of the principal underlying factors for this, and suggest how especially prac- tices, now more widespread in hss but arising from the digital humani- ties, could play a role in moving forward the rich digitality of the scholarly monograph. key words: digital humanities; scholarly publishing; monographs; digitality; open access . introduction in recent years the scholarly publishing system has seen significant and at times disruptive changes. in order to understand these changes and their implications, it is helpful to analyse first the core functions of scholarly pub- lishing, since such an approach reveals how these functions operate in certain scenarios, what its determinants are, and how these changes interlink. in this paper it is our intention to apply this functionalistic approach to the ques- tion of how the scholarly monograph as the leading publishing format for the humanities and social sciences as a whole, in short for hss, can reach its full potential in the digital paradigm. roosendaal and geurts ( ) identified the four core functions of scholarly communication (figure ) as “registration, certification, awareness, and archiving,” whereby a) registration includes aspects of intellectual property, b) certification comes with the aspect of infor- mation being eligible as scientific information via selection and review, c) awareness is achieved through dissemination and d) archiving supports the dialogical process in science publication of citing the previous work of peers through standardised referencing and citation practices. these functions are not separate from one another, and indeed often act in a friction-laden unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue feedback loop; this friction will be highlighted in the following via the certifi- cation aspect of scholarly publications. in the current evaluation and reward system of science and its current com- petitive setting, the certification aspect receives an overproportioned value. especially prominent is the “impact factor,” its most common and yet prob- lematic proxy. as most authors are in need of credits, be it for tenure and promotion or for research grants, they tend to make their publishing deci- sions according to the reputation of the publishing channel even if the other functions might be served rather poorly, for example, when books that price themselves out of their market diminish their awareness potential. the “cer- tification” function of scholarly publication is thus emphasised to the detri- ment of the three other functions. furthermore, publishing channels with high reputation thus attract authors. as authors and readers in scholarly communication are mostly identical, the symbolic capital “reputation” can be commodified into an economic advantage ready to be exploited (for an extended discussion on reputation as symbolic capital see eve, , p. – ). fig. : the four core functions (roosendaal & geurts, ). • authority • dissemination • mediated dialogue with community • intellectual ownership • qualifies as scientific information • permanent access • auditability of science • trusted commu- nication channel registration certification archiving awareness margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue if suppliers of scientific information achieve a high distribution of the offered goods, their reputation on the consumer side can grow, which again supports the wider dissemination of the good and strengthens the market power of the supplier. in the digital transformation, with its increased potential for open access to scholarly information, in particular the dissemination aspect of scholarly publications has changed radically. we postulate that the publi- cation format of the “monograph” for the digital dissemination of research results has evolved less than the publication format of the “journal article” (favoured in stm research), which is especially detrimental to more recent forms of hss research, for instance those evident in the field of digital humanities. . digital access to research results in the science, technology and medicine disciplines (stm) platforms like google scholar, pub med, arxiv.org, researchgate or scienceopen have been designed with a focus on the scholarly format “article” as the prevalent format of communication in stm, and therefore corresponding modes of production and consumption have arisen. digital processes and the internet now allow the / availability of articles, by which the formerly scarce resource “scientific information” turns into a natu- ral part of the scientific value chain, either provided by libraries thanks to significant investment on their part, sold as costly pay-per-view (although creatively undermined by rogue alternatives such as scihub or #icanhazpdf), more or less reliably through the above-mentioned platforms, or financed on the production side according to the open access model. this digital avail- ability has led to significant added value for the consumers of scientific infor- mation, both in the functionality of the medium itself (e.g. by enabling digital references, access to primary data, or the integration of dynamic elements) as well as in the dissemination dimension. in respect of the awareness function, apart from the overall possibility of the digital dissemination aspect itself, for stm authors the variety and number of open access publication routes has reached significant coverage and still continues to grow. both established and newly founded journals offer open access publication opportunities and authors are able to draw on established funding, financing and license mod- els. similarly, the activities of research funders and institutions (oa publica- tion funds or the european commission’s open access guidelines) add to unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue the visibility, enforcement and acceptance of oa publications in those fields. efforts over more than a decade by funders and research institutions have contributed to the development of a comprehensive repositories infrastruc- ture, resulting in a steadily growing proportion of the published literature being available in open access. all in all, real certification in the stm field does not necessarily run along simple digital vs. non-digital or open access vs. closed access lines, but along the achieved level of certification potential, the “impact,” made up of both reputation and dissemination. . digital access to research results in the humanities and social sciences (hss) for the humanities and social sciences, working to a large extent within the format “monograph,” we see a different picture. the monograph as the “long argument,” the comprehensive text that interlinks the state of the art with the specific research question, its context and the research result as such, main- tains its dominant position in the development of an academic career. while researchers in the natural sciences almost exclusively rely on digital journal articles to communicate with peers and to promote their career, publishing the thesis as a printed monograph is for large parts of the humanities and social sciences still the proxy for being recognised as a serious researcher, which is reflected in tenure and recruitment procedures. text-oriented disci- plines as in the hss take language beyond the descriptive carrier of informa- tion as in stm. for these disciplines language is a research subject in itself as well as a virtual laboratory with language as an analytical and interpretative tool for frequently hermeneutic approaches, laying the ground for cultural setting and contextualisation. therefore, using a lingua franca like english in stm, is hardly an option for academics in the hss and this drastically reduces the potential market for publishers in comparison to the stm fields. at the same time, the respective disciplines working as described have rela- tively small numbers of authors and corresponding readerships, which poses a general challenge for the dissemination of their research result, the mono- graph. the german language area, for example, has a market for scholarly lit- erature just large enough for publishers to stay in business with conventional modes of publishing, yet not tight enough to force them into innovation by seeking out new opportunities in online dissemination. and although a few large and dominant publishing houses continue to grow primarily through the margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue acquisition of smaller competitors, there are still more than specialised small and medium enterprise (sme) publishers for scholarly monographs active in germany. compared to sme anglo-american university publishers, they specialise in certain topic segments and have correspondingly low economic potential to invest in new access models or publishing innovations. they have to deal with the fact that retail prices continue to rise as print runs become shorter (greco & wharton, ), while the number of newly released titles [see the annual reports of the german national library ( – )] has not dropped, despite shrinking library budgets. the tight budget situation of sci- entific institutions and sponsors has exacerbated the existing circulation and sales decline even further (greco & wharton, ), so that the current sup- ply of literature on the part of libraries has noticeably deteriorated in terms of publications from these disciplines. for authors, the situation described here means that the likelihood of publishers accepting their research results in publishing programs, and libraries subsequently making them publicly avail- able and known via acquisition and library catalogues, wanes significantly, resulting in fewer peers becoming aware of the research results in question. further to this, the majority of scholarly books focusing on the target group “professional colleagues” rely on being subsidised by authors, as publishers operate in niche markets, and sales revenues are too small to cover produc- tion and dissemination costs. this puts authors in the position of either co- financing the dissemination of their research results with funds they have to apply for, drawing on their research budget, or streamlining their research for economic exploitation. . tracing a delayed technological uptake on the consumption side, the budget-related undersupply and the scarcity of publishing opportunities in the conventional realm could be softened by increased open access and innovative publishing concepts. in reality how- ever, in hss disciplines we see neither an adequate supply of literature in the open access mode per se nor a strong push for more open access, although according to the german study of open access publishing % of the social scientists interviewed stated that their disciplines would benefit from more open access. martin paul eve described already in several successful unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue initiatives for open access monographs; however the majority of mono- graphs remain behind pay-walls or are produced as print editions. the larg- est open access monograph collection in the oapen library holds around , titles. the jstor open access books collection holds less than . furthermore, both collections grow only rather slowly, going on the num- bers of current genuine open access titles, despite benefitting from backlists and parallel or delayed dissemination. even a highly innovative digital plat- form such as the aggregating openedition service rests on the conventional business model of toll-access monographs. openedition offers the innovative “freemium” model (free html open access plus paid access to pdf and mobile formats), while knowledge unlatched requires significant marketing effort to win libraries that need to pledge for book collection to be set free. even the “open library for humanities” (olh), which was established in as a counterpart to the successful “public library of science” (plos), is for the time being focusing on articles/journals, although it is envisaged to also move into monographs as stated by eve already in (p. ). and while plos already struggles with a maturity problem of having a too dominant market position to allow competition-based elasticity in their pric- ing model, the hss counterpart is still in the phase of consolidation as an infrastructure, and seeking wider acceptance in the hss mainstream. the directory of open access journals (doaj) as an indexing service for articles launched in , while the corresponding directory of open access books (doab) started to index books with licenses for free access and re-use a full decade later. a delay of around ten years, it could be argued, in terms of these infrastructural examples, can be seen as a proxy for the overall relative differ- ence in speed of open access uptake in comparing the stm fields with hss. the reasons for this delay are complex and involve not just factors around access but also the nature of the “digital” as such. we postulate that the main reason is that scholarly journals and their sub-unit “article” travel a lot more smoothly through digital transformation than books, since in their case fewer technical and conceptual obstacles need to be overcome, be it reading habits, reputation gain or storage concepts. and if stakehold- ers have less room to move – whether for economic or identification rea- sons – there will be less change on the supply side for digital hss books. low numbers on the supply side mean that the acceptance of the new and unfamiliar will accordingly also remain low. paradoxically, the workflow in hss requires that scholarly authors deliver “camera-ready” manuscripts margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue and make significant contributions to finance their book projects in terms of printing costs. however, only a handful of scholars bring to bear the required technical and economic means the system demands of them to develop here, beyond the thresholds of conventional publishing parameters. evidence from the oapen project suggests that with author’s financial contributions to pro- duction costs publishers place the entire economic risk for peer-to-peer pub- lications on authors and series editors (see, e.g., adema, ). nevertheless for most book projects, commercial publishers will demand exclusive rights and rarely offer them within a dedicated digital strategy but instead main- tain a revenue model dependent on print retail. this corresponds to the generality of authors, editors and publishers displaying strong and at times seemingly ideological reservations regarding innovative approaches such as open access, even though the benefits for public dissemination and therefore impact are obvious. . the publishing format “monograph” and digital research methods . . digital methods and their outputs in the humanities and social sciences digital methods and digital resources are increasingly in use – digitality has become a central part of culture and society and “digital humanities” can be viewed, alongside open access, as one of the most significant and sustained examples of innovation in hss. we see more and more digital cultural objects and works of art, digital vocabularies, critical digital editions, data journals, primary source studies based on high-resolution retro-digitised content, extensive corpora, georef- erenced visualisation (gazetteers), d models, fully searchable interviews, vr-reconstructions, visualised social networks, alongside the respective infrastructure and research environments, software for the said methods and statistical data – plus specialised data modelling and standards (e.g. tei, rdf, etc.). this explosion has been both overseen by and has informed the setting up of large-scale research infrastructures such as dariah-eu and clarin-eric (see blanke, kristel, & romary, ). given the horizontal and vertical complexity of such research data, those objects and methods call for a systematic approach to research data management in respect to all aspects of the corresponding research processes, not just those outputs that unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue directly serve research assessment. they call for high-level skills to formu- late appropriate research hypotheses and resulting operationalisation, and to design appropriate data processing workflows and data analysis. at the same time they pose specific challenges in terms of embedding them in the regular workflows of presenting and disseminating research results, i.e. in terms of a new publication model. while some researchers have become familiar with applying these skills to their primary research or even advancing them with new methodology-ori- ented research based on the affordances of advanced digital tools and ser- vices, most rely on competencies and resources from specialised third parties. this range of digital possibilities puts researchers in the dilemma (figure ) that almost anything possible could be implemented in the digital domain, particularly in a state of dependence on third-party resources, but only by ignoring one of the aspects of “easy,” “fast” or “good.” in theory, publishers could embed the aforementioned digital functionalities in their products and disseminate them to the respective stakeholders. in real- ity, however, the conversion to full digital functionality in the field of scientific fig. : you can only pick two out of three. easy fast good anything possible margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue communication in the hss is still the exception. conversion even to basic and by now ubiquitous formats and standards such as xml, html or epub requires extensive manual and intellectual effort, thus posing additional challenges for products with low economic potential to finance the neces- sary human effort involved. only a minority of hss textual outputs pass automated digital workflows without any loss in accuracy or meaning. accordingly, sme publishers, unlike the large players in the market, will have more difficulties in scaling the required complex and diversified skills and infrastructures to manage such digital research resources routinely. a new cooperative culture among publishers and scholars could be a remedy; how- ever developing these new forms of collaboration would require time and effort that sme publishers would not easily be able to invest. these general challenges are possible explanations as to why publishers in hss continue either to publish in print or as pdfs. and although pdfs allow hyperlinking, the full digital potential of, say, embedding digital methods, dynamic data or interactive research is limited (not only in terms of volumes) by text and image formats resembling the two dimensions of print and thus this publi- cation format, the “ubiquitous pdf,” levels out the complexity, multidimen- sionality and ultimately the re-use value of the underlying research. . . research results beyond the text due to format limitations research results have had to undergo such levelling out processes for many decades, resulting in established codices such as the use of indexes, references or citation standards. in the digital humanities par- adigm, however, we face the challenging situation of missing links between research data, research software and research results as well as their respec- tive versions. how do we encode, acknowledge and keep track of the differ- ent versions of the creation of a topic model, the effort of data compilation, annotations to digitised primary sources in archives, refactoring software or creating software as such based on the paradigm of publishing methods and formats that are still in the main tied to the printing process? such a limited view of publishing formats thus prevents direct traceability of research as well as a media usage lifecycle fully representing the knowledge contained in the discipline and would call for more fluid and complex approaches (see romary, mertens, & baillot, ). ultimately, the phenomenon digitality calls for an adequate publication culture that unlocks the potential of hss research for science and society. unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue doing research under the paradigm of digital humanities requires inno- vative research approaches such as the formulation of testable hypotheses, novel ways of creating primary data and curating secondary data as well as the development of software and their reflexive refinement. as they are more than methodological or technical amendments but increasingly turn into the core research result, they need to reverberate also in the hss publishing for- mat “monograph.” technical approaches in terms of how to link from the monograph – whether as a printed or digital format – to underlying digi- tal resources such as persistent identifiers (e.g. datacite doi), qr codes to bridge media gaps exist, but especially multidimensional and platform-inde- pendent forms of publication, have not yet reached a mature state of recogni- tion. dedicated early career researchers from the digital humanities face the challenge of codified expectations around publications for tenure and promo- tion that seem to leave little or no formally recognised space in research eval- uation exercises for experiments or novel solutions (see, e.g., moulin, ). in addition to developing a reliable technical basis for innovative digital (or hybrid) forms of publication, we need a corresponding cultural change, for which established and prestigious institutions should feel some responsibil- ity in promoting such change effectively. those could be conventional pub- lishing houses with selected series as well as new initiatives emanating from broader-based library cooperations with the academic community (e.g. a monograph extension of the above mentioned olh). . . free access to research results let us look at the german situation as it amplifies some of the general under- lying challenges, for example, those for smaller language areas or highly specialised communities. in the german research foundation (dfg) held the göttingen workshop “open access for scientific monographs” (see the report by chatzoudis, ) aiming to address growing demands for dedicated funding schemes for the hss. the outcomes of the workshop led to a dfg call for innovative projects for open access monographs. the call received a significantly greater number of project proposals than one might infer from the support of only two monograph projects, namely “oa monographien: language science publications: a publication model for open-access books in linguistics ” and “oa monographien: entwicklung eines geschäftsmodells für open access monographien anhand des pilotprojektes heidelberg studies in transculturality” (developing a business model for open access monographs margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue from the pilot project heidelberg studies in transculturality). both proj- ects included innovative elements of the actual medium itself; the central development idea, however, seemed to be the development of new business models. looking at the solutions the conventional market offers, it becomes obvious why the dfg call put business models under scrutiny. the for-profit publisher walter de gruyter launched a dedicated oa publication model for books, as did palgrave macmillan and springer open. however their fees for an open access monograph pose a serious barrier to research dissemina- tion, for example, de gruyter started their model at , eur (although they have recently lowered the price to , eur to address criticism). the open access monographs funding scheme of the austrian science fund, which was implemented in cooperation with commercial publishers, on first sight looks convincing as researchers do not need to change their publishing behaviour and publishers can adopt open access without any economic risk or need to innovate. given the substantial contributions from authors and editors to create and curate the content, however, it is questionable whether this funding model scales to really address the crisis of the monograph through the open access paradigm as such or carries any significant trans- formative potential besides making more open access content available. the mission-driven university presses embedded into their institutions or more independent ups such as amsterdam or leuven and innovative publishers like ubiquity press or open book publishers, have been routinely publish- ing in the open access model for many years now, and in the interest of sci- entific institutions. the mentioned alternatives are gaining momentum, but the majority of the commercial players seem to lack proven business and rev- enue models and experience, to which all stakeholders of the value chain in scholarly publishing could turn. . possible remedies in fields where the most prestigious publishing houses have sufficient poten- tial for innovation, such as the great anglo-american university presses and publishers like brill and routledge, the influence of authors and promoters in terms of more open access has to date been relatively weak and therefore ripe for bolstering. given the above about the changing nature of digitally- enabled research in the humanities as such, one could argue that realising the full range of corresponding research outputs should be achieved entirely unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue outside of the print paradigm and instead focus on digital monographs in which, at the very least, hyperlinks to other digital resources would be rou- tinely integrated, as in the case of electronic articles. however, this would stand in opposition to the still widely established reading habits concern- ing printed monographs – and furthermore would not particularly solve the aforementioned dilemma for authors, given the critical certification function of the printed monograph. so the question is, what forms of closer integra- tion between printed monographs and digital resources could there be? we therefore propose to develop in close cooperation with researchers, infra- structures and other relevant stakeholders (including publishers) such for- mats that will support open-ended and experimental projects for establishing a monograph culture capable of exploiting the full potential of digital deliv- ery and the scope of digitally-enabled research without doing away with the advantages of the conventional form. we envisage six action points that could be fruitfully addressed, refined and implemented through joint discus- sion and the efforts of multiple stakeholders: • creating multiple bridges between media types: effecting greater transparency and ethical robustness of research by adopting techni- cal, logistic and methodological approaches that bridge the existing gap among published digital resources and their underlying primary data, in addition to cited scientific publications (rich contextualisa- tion via linked data; interoperability of current monograph publish- ing platforms (for example, building on and extending the h supported hirmeos project). • enable enhanced publications by building on conventional for- mats: the support of parallel print and digital editions economi- cally and technically, with pragmatic revenue and business models for monograph production and dissemination enabled in part via enhancing publications with standardised persistent identifiers for all digital objects, names (including their authors), places, dates and corporate entities (organisations, companies, institutions, etc.); as an example, wide scale application of multilingual ner (named entity recognition) and disambiguation technologies, developed from within the community, such as (n)erd from inria. monographs could then become ‘gateways’ to other digital offerings from any given source, but also from the respective publishers themselves that might support new digital affordances in their production. margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue • bring research processes and research result dissemination closer together: technical and organisational developments such as novel publishing platforms for digital products and data for humanities research, pushing forward the adoption of overlay technology espe- cially in the humanities, and further means of recording and open- ing up the iterative stages of research (open methodologies), linking out from monographs. • interlink printed and digital material: user-friendly procedures to reference from printed literature to digital resources and back, for example, by deepening collaborations with libraries in the repre- sentation of both print and associated digital objects via electronic catalogues, indexes and bibliographies, using linked data and other semantic linking as underlying infrastructure; examples of such sys- tems are already in production, such as the open source d:swarm. • improve and extend data citation practices: develop and promote with and through the researcher community, guidelines on good practice in data citation (going beyond research data to cultural heri- tage data and annotations data, for example, in the humanities and social sciences, as well as working more closely with the glam sector to enable greater linking of research publications with digital manuscripts and archival material) • develop appropriate research assessment, evaluation and acknowl- edgement regimes: approaches for innovative methods of assessment, evaluation (such as open peer review or post-publication certification via overlay platforms), impact measurement, and participation by working with and through publishers and platforms, research funders and councils as well as ministries of research; introducing novel ways of measuring the impact of and acknowledgement for collaborative works among individuals, groups or infrastructures; formal partner- ships between researchers and collection-holding institutions, with new forms of appropriate to citing cultural heritage institutions them- selves, as explored by the cultural heritage data re-use charter. the proposed action points are open for discussion and ideas for implemen- tation online. we are convinced that the existing research and application landscape shows promising approaches to address the challenges outlined regarding the monograph-oriented disciplines. meanwhile, there are regis- tered courses in germany (advanced, b.a., master, summer schools), to which the term digital humanities has been assigned, while the association “digital unlocking the digital potential of scholarly monographs in st century research liber quarterly volume issue humanities im deutschsprachigen raum” (dhd) has seen significant growth over the last years and currently has over members. on the international level we see for example the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) that serves as an umbrella organisation for several national initia- tives. the recently launched digital humanities course registry, overseen jointly by dariah-eu and clarin-eric also indicates an ever-growing provision in courses teaching aspects of new methods in the digitally-enabled arts and humanities. scholars enrolled in such bodies, can draw upon well- established platforms and tools available, including textgrid and cendari with their active user communities, vibrant networks and infrastructures such as the aforementioned infrastructures, dariah-eu or clarin. nevertheless it shouldn’t be taken for granted that, with the rise of new research frameworks, publication channels will follow along effortlessly. if we take the four core functions of publishing into account again, a) the registration, b) certi- fication, c) the dissemination, and d) the archiving, it becomes obvious that the optimal digital potential of the monograph won’t be unlocked with conventional approaches. which object and what persistent identifiers do we refer to when cit- ing, what are the novel reputation-gaining processes and which of those become dominant, what are the distribution channels for innovative monographs and their complementary research data and how do we maintain them and their interlinking over time? these are just a few of the still open questions, only a handful of which is being explored in experimental approaches such as “shared canvas,” the data model that attempts to reimagine the registration function in terms of this new context for the scholarly monograph (sanderson & albritton, ). if within these four mentioned publication functions the potential of digi- tality cannot be unlocked, innovative research fields face a specific disadvantage: either publications will fall too short as mentioned in regard to qualification work for tenure and promotion, or they remain unsatisfactorily flat where, for exam- ple, linkage of publication and digital primary data is not exploited, although the research design would indeed call for this. as long as the symbolic capital of reputation-building for authors rests on the reputation of the respective publish- ers, the four publishing functions in a new setting would need to be developed together with publishers, namely publishers that are actively concerned to have a meaningfully co-operative relationship to science. the signs in the market are promising: more and more publishers offer open access options for set fees. at the same time the range and variability of such fees in terms of open access monographs – mostly in a simple pdf format – give cause for concern, for within this limited framework publishing opportunities for scholars using increasingly margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue advanced digital methods become even more scarce and thus a bottleneck for career opportunities. against this background, it is understandable why in february the andrew mellon foundation american university presses successfully launched a call for project proposals for innovative forms of publication in digital humanities contexts (straumsheim, ). for such a call in continental europe the afore- mentioned mission-driven university presses with their open science approach would be a perfect match, especially those run as service institutions at the respective universities or their libraries. commercial publishers already active in open access, and implementing it for certain projects, should also play a role in the development of the digital potential of the monograph. within an appropri- ate funding policy these publishers could accompany digital humanities proj- ects according to the needs of the scholarly community and the public to develop access and business models to exploit the potential of the digital work and meet- ing all four functions to realise the full digitality of the monograph. the authors wish to thank daniel beucke, stefan buddenbohm, laurent romary, and birgit schmidt, whose ideas and contributions have been incorporated into this text. references adema, j. 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( , june). school reform and classroom practice: the dilemma of fast, cheap, and good: you can only pick two. boulder, co: national education policy center. retrieved august , , from http://nepc.colorado.edu/blog/dilemma-fast-cheap. dallmeier-tiessen, s., & lengenfelder, a. ( ). open access in der deutschen wissenschaft – ergebnisse des eu-projekts “study of open access publishing“ (soap). gms medizin – bibliothek – information, ( – ), doc . https://doi. org/ . /mbi . eve, m.p. ( ). open access and the humanities – contexts, controversies and the future. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press. https://doi.org/ . / cbo . greco, a.n., & wharton, r.m. ( ). should university presses adopt an open access [electronic publishing] business model for all of their scholarly books? in l. chan & s. mornati (eds.), open scholarship: authority, community, and sustainability in the age of web . 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( , february ). shared canvas data model. retrieved august , , from http://iiif.io/model/shared-canvas/ . /index.html. straumsheim, c. ( , february ). piecing together publishing. inside higher ed. retrieved august , , from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/ / / / researchers-university-press-directors-emboldened-mellon-foundation-interest. notes see e.g. soap study, dallmeier-tiessen and lengenfelder ( ). adopted from the “fast, cheap or good” dilemma of project management, see, e.g., cuban . http://nepc.colorado.edu/blog/dilemma-fast-cheap https://doi.org/ . /mbi https://doi.org/ . /mbi https://doi.org/ . /cbo https://doi.org/ . /cbo http://elpub.scix.net/data/works/att/ _elpub .content.pdf http://elpub.scix.net/data/works/att/ _elpub .content.pdf http://annotatio.hypotheses.org/ http://annotatio.hypotheses.org/ https://doi.org/ . /bfp- - https://doi.org/ . /bfp- - http://www.physik.uni-oldenburg.de/conferences/crisp /roosendaal.html http://www.physik.uni-oldenburg.de/conferences/crisp /roosendaal.html http://iiif.io/model/shared-canvas/ . /index.html https://www.insidehighered.com/news/ / / /researchers-university-press-directors-emboldened-mellon-foundation-interest https://www.insidehighered.com/news/ / / /researchers-university-press-directors-emboldened-mellon-foundation-interest margo bargheer et al. liber quarterly volume issue http://gepris.dfg.de/gepris/projekt/ [accessed october ]. http://gepris.dfg.de/gepris/projekt/ [accessed on . . ]. de gruyter: https://www.degruyter.com/dg/page/open-access; or palgrave macmillan open: http://www.palgrave.com/open/faq.asp#section ; o’reilly open book: http://oreilly.com/openbook/. http://www.springeropen.com/books usually quoted as , eur in presentations given by springer representatives. http://www.fwf.ac.at/de/projects/selbststaendige_publikationen.html. in the programme referred to, the support funds available are some , – , eur for a hybrid publication. in the case of the majority of publishers, this would allow an open access option while eliminating practically all risk. the question of whether a publicly funded risk insurance for the private sector, which in large part consists of for-profit institutions, is both a desirable and/or an inevitable effect of such a programme could not be fully answered due to the natural limitations of the project’s brief. this facet could however be pursued in further dedicated research projects. see for instance those organised in the working group of university presses of the german language area. http://www.ubiquitypress.com/, the business model requires author contributions starting at , gbp for a monograph of medium size. http://www.openbookpublishers.com/, prizes in a comparable range to ubiquity press. http://www.dswarm.org/ (accessed august ). galleries, libraries, archives, museums. see a poster of the first version at http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. . the charter process is being sponsored by dariah-eu, europeana, parthenos and archives portal europe. the charter will be updated, based on the results of an extensive survey during . https://etherpad.gwdg.de/p/dariah_openmonogr; please use #openmonogr to disseminate in social media. see the clarin and dariah registry at https://registries.clarin-dariah.eu/ courses/. see also the association’s web site (in german) http://www.dig-hum.de/ueber-dhd. http://adho.org/. https://registries.clarin-dariah.eu/courses/ (accessed august ). https://www.upress.umn.edu/press/press-releases/manifold-scholarship and http://library.stanford.edu/news/ / /stanford-university-press-awarded- - million-publishing-interactive-scholarly-works. http://gepris.dfg.de/gepris/projekt/ http://gepris.dfg.de/gepris/projekt/ https://www.degruyter.com/dg/page/open-access http://www.palgrave.com/open/faq.asp#section http://oreilly.com/openbook/ http://www.springeropen.com/books http://www.fwf.ac.at/de/projects/selbststaendige_publikationen.html http://www.ubiquitypress.com http://www.openbookpublishers.com http://www.dswarm.org http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. https://etherpad.gwdg.de/p/dariah_openmonogr https://registries.clarin-dariah.eu/courses https://registries.clarin-dariah.eu/courses http://www.dig-hum.de/ueber-dhd http://adho.org https://registries.clarin-dariah.eu/courses https://www.upress.umn.edu/press/press-releases/manifold-scholarship http://library.stanford.edu/news/ / /stanford-university-press-awarded- -million-publishing-interactive-scholarly-works http://library.stanford.edu/news/ / /stanford-university-press-awarded- -million-publishing-interactive-scholarly-works microsoft word - fenlon_ro _preprintsubmission.docx interactivity, distributed workflows, and thick provenance: a review of challenges confronting digital humanities research objects katrina fenlon (kfenlon@umd.edu; https://orcid.org/ - - - ) introduction while research objects (ros) are primarily oriented toward scientific research workflows, the ro model and parallel approaches have gained some uptake in the humanities, enough to suggest their potential to undergird sustainable, networked humanities research infrastructures. digital scholarship in the humanities takes a great variety of forms that range widely beyond traditional publications, and which incorporate narratives, media, datasets and interactive components—any of which may be physically dispersed as well as dynamic and evolving over time. despite the rapid growth of digital scholarship in the humanities, most existing research infrastructures lack support for the creation, management, sharing, maintenance, and preservation of complex, networked digital objects. ros, and the community and tools that are growing around ros, offer a potential, partial solution. while the concept of the ro has seen significantly more uptake in the humanities than has the formal data model (bechhofer, ; belhajjame et al., ), several compelling applications of the concept that suggest the time is ripe for considering broader integration of the model into distributed infrastructures. these applications include platforms for data sharing and collaborative scholarship, platforms for digital and semantic publishing, and digital repositories in several domains. this paper reviews existing applications of the ros model to identify challenges confronting the application of ros to humanities digital scholarship. this paper builds on fenlon ( ), which investigated the application of the ros model to digital humanities collections, and which identified three promising strengths of the model for the realm of digital humanities: ( ) ros readily perform the most essential function of a collection: to aggregate related resources in order to support scholarly objectives; ( ) ros have the capacity for explicit, semantic descriptions of interrelationships among components that are often hidden in digital humanities collections (and therefore vulnerable to dissolution); and ( ) the ro model accommodates aggregations of linked data, offering researchers the opportunity to create and annotate virtual, fully referential collections. having identified some strengths and limitations of the ro model for digital humanities collections through one experimental application of model, this paper builds on that analysis by reviewing the literature on ros in the humanities and examining a range of applications of the ro and similar models within humanities and cultural heritage domains. this paper frames the review around three main challenges and their implications for future implementations of ros to support digital research in the humanities: first, digital humanities scholarship requires specialized interactive use, so realizing the advantages of ros for the humanities will depend on implementations that create platforms for experimentation and development by communities. second, the idiosyncratic workflows employed in the construction of networked humanities scholarship means that workflow-oriented ros will not gain significant uptake in the humanities unless they can capture distributed, sociotechnical workflows in meaningful ways. third, humanities ros will require capturing provenance in ways and at a level of detail that may be unfamiliar to the ros scientific origins; humanities scholarship requires “thick,” multilayered, context-rich provenance descriptions that can accommodate conflicting assertions and formalize uncertainty. challenge . essential interactivity for specialized use much of humanities digital scholarship is essentially interactive. new modes of production and publication in the humanities are intended for user interaction or participation, and dynamic and responsive representation based on research context. digital collections and archives, digital editions, maps, models, and simulations, and other modes of digital scholarship all rely on interactive components to express their interpretive contributions, or to enact their scholarly purposes. the interactive and dynamic components of digital scholarship include things like customized browsing and searching facilities that take advantage of extensive, rich scholarly encodings and annotations; platforms for collaborative annotation; dynamic maps and visualizations; etc. such components are intended to do multiple things at once: to make arguments, to manifest interpretive stances, to enable knowledge transfer, and simultaneously to serve as active platforms for ongoing interpretation and research (palmer, ; fenlon, ; and others). prior empirical work on applying the ro model to digital humanities collections found the main limitation of the model for digital humanities collections to be that functional components, designed for ongoing end-user interaction, are not usefully captured in a basic ro model and instead fall to the implementations built on top of research-object management systems (fenlon, ). ros can, of course, accommodate as flat code objects that are intended to be interactive; and ros have been employed for this purpose to support data migration and archiving (e.g., the ro bagit profile). but the purpose of digital humanities scholarship is to be alive and functional, and for ros to be useful in this domain will require implementations that support platforms for flexible, participatory development. in a conceptual sense, the ro model has demonstrated value for this kind of platform approach in the humanities. the perseids project offers a platform for sharing and peer-review of the transcriptions, annotations, and analyses that constitute research data in the classics. the perseids architecture is built around the concept of data publications, which are modeled as collections of related data objects. the perseids team explicitly relates the data publication model to the ro model (almas, ). like ros, perseids data publications weave in several domain standards (including the tei epidoc schema, w c web annotation, and others) to undergird an infrastructure that supports scholarly requirements specific to the classics domain: transcription, fine-grained annotation, collaborative editing (with versioning), a research environment that facilitates data-type-specific extensions, and tailored workflows for peer review (almas, ). similarly, the ceres (community enhanced repository for engaged scholarship) toolkit, created by the northeastern university libraries digital scholarship group, explicitly draws on the concept of the ro in its system for supporting networked humanities scholarship and publishing. ceres allows digital humanities creators to build custom publications that pull objects from different repositories using apis (including the northeastern university libraries’ digital repository service and the digital public library of america) (sweeney, flanders & levesque, ). it is unclear how the ro model may fit into the broader, more diversified landscape of linked data and the semantic web in cultural institutions and in the humanities, but the conceptual fit within digital scholarship is established. ros and similar models have substantial potential to underpin systems that support a variety of implementations. realizing the advantages of ros for the humanities will depend on implementations that create platforms for experimentation and collaborative development by distributed communities (fenlon, ). such platforms must accommodate dynamic interface-building, to allow scholarly communities with distinctive interests and needs to mobilize ros in different ways. they must also accommodate participation and co- creation through contributions of linked-data annotations and enrichments, including linking among ros and the concepts and entities within ros. challenge . distributed and idiosyncratic workflows of networked humanities scholarship humanities digital scholarship is increasingly networked: heavily interconnected with and dependent on external resources for functionality and meaning. many digital humanities publications in various forms—monographs, multimedia productions, exhibits, collections—draw on, reference, embed, and patch together distributed resources called from other collections, often via api. for example, a collection may center on a set of high-resolution images of primary sources, which are called from another digital library’s iiif image server. some of the longest- running, large-scale cultural heritage digital libraries (including europeana and the digital public library of america) are aggregations of descriptive surrogates, which link to original content hosted externally. externally maintained schemas, authorities, and utilities undergird digital editions. visualization and mapping projects generate content using external services. and with the growth of linked data in cultural collections, projects increasingly leverage external data sources as primary content, to which scholars then add layers of interpretive narrative, annotations, context, and interconnection. humanities workflows rarely happen in self-contained or end-to-end research infrastructures, thwarting the possibility of sufficiently rich, automatic workflow capture. indeed, efforts to build a workflow-oriented, unified cyberinfrastructure for supporting humanities scholarship tend to founder (e.g., dombrowski, ). however, niche, task- or domain-specific infrastructures can capture constrained workflows. for example, in the domain of musicology, page et al. ( ) observe how digital editions and annotations of encoded works are “manifestations of workflows deployed in musicological scholarship,” and offer a compelling framework for representing musical ros, which include images, text, audio, and encoded music (page et al., ; de roure et al., ). computational workflows are readily captured within humanities research environments, and ros have come into play for this purpose. for example, the hathitrust research center data capsule environment is moving toward systematic provenance-capture for computational text analysis workflows. these workflows take as inputs worksets (jett et al., ), which are conceptually and technically akin to ros: aggregate digital objects that implement addressability for and relational expressivity among components using domain ontologies. unlike ros, worksets are envisioned as the inputs of workflows in the current model of the hathitrust data capsule environment, rather than encompassing whole research workflows (murdock et al., ). but workflow-oriented ros will not gain significant uptake in humanities contexts unless they can also capture and make useful more complex, distributed, sociotechnical workflows in meaningful ways. with their capacity for linked data using domain vocabularies, ros readily accommodate many of the artifacts of networked digital scholarship in the humanities, along with their interrelationships (fenlon, ). but can ros accommodate humanities workflows in useful ways? in their effort to undergird dariah (pan-european infrastructure for digital arts and humanities research) through the systematic production of humanities ros, blanke and hedges ( ) observed that humanities scholars employ sequential workflows, but “except in relatively specialised cases we rarely encountered workflows that could be automated, shared with and used by others, such as occur in many scientific disciplines.” while auto-generated and computer- useable workflows may not apply to most humanities research processes, formally characterized, (semi-) manually captured workflows would be highly useful for review, validation, archiving, reproducibility, reuse, and other purposes. while the ro model has the capacity and flexibility for complex workflow representation, more research is needed to characterize humanities workflows; to identify how such characterizations can be made useful; and to identify model extensions and unique implementation strategies workflows might require in different domains. challenge . thick provenance drilling down on the problem of workflow capture, digital humanities scholarship places special demands on data provenance—not only on the provenance of digital resources (such as files, compound objects, datasets) or components thereof (such as passages of music, paragraphs of a text, or lines of a poem), but also the provenance of attached, contextual information. archival artifacts—the evidence of the humanities—often possess simultaneous, multiple and parallel provenances (gilliland, ; hurley, ). documenting the provenance of the evidence itself can be complicated, but beyond that, the provenance of the provenance must also be documented. any assertion made about any artifact (in the form of metadata or annotation), or any contextual and secondary information attached to artifacts in the context of digital scholarship, require provenance. annotations and metadata are often, in the humanities, products of scholarly, interpretive work. therefore, each annotation or metadata proposition itself is subject to claims of authorship, competing perspectives, expression of uncertainty, and further annotation—all requiring provenance information. because provenance is a multilayered thing in humanities scholarship, different humanities disciplines and subdisciplines may require domain-specific provenance schemas and standards, which specialize existing standards for the expression of the provenance of different kinds of resources, ranging from digital media files to annotations. humanities ros will require thick, multilayered, context-rich provenance descriptions, which can accommodate conflicting assertions and formalize uncertainty. it is unclear whether existing implementations of the ro model can accommodate this level of description, though the model itself has the capacity. the researchspace environment (oldman and tanase, ) offers exemplary support for documentation of thick, multifaceted provenance of humanities ros. researchspace is an open- source platform created by the british museum to facilitate scholarly data sharing, formal argumentation, and semantic publishing within communities of researchers. researchspace does not directly employ the ro model, though its architecture does rely on aggregates of linked data, taking advantage of related standards including w c web annotation and linked data platform containers. in this environment, provenance and argumentation are expressed using the cidoc-crm specialization crminf (the argumentation model). scholars can use this vocabulary to build narratives and thick descriptions around digital ros through annotation and data-linking. these narratives of provenance allow and formalize the expression of uncertainty and competing perspectives, and the environment also serves to document the scholarly work that goes into building these narratives (researchspace team, ). the reasons for highlighting the researchspace approach to provenance in this review of humanities ros are ( ) to exemplify the unique demands of formalizing humanities provenance, and ( ) to exemplify the highly distinctive, domain-specific implementation requirements that confront the ro and other domain-independent data models. describing humanities provenance will require vocabularies to express argument and belief, as oldman et al. ( ) observe. beyond the ro model’s use of prov and web annotation, humanities provenance will demand domain- specific argumentation extensions such as crminf. it is clear that ros can theoretically accommodate thick provenance description, just as they can theoretically accommodate the representation of highly complex workflows, but can they usefully undergird implementations that are centered in humanities research needs? the researchspace interface is tailored toward knowledge work, toward the collaborative construction of multifaceted provenance descriptions, without requiring users to code or gain expert-level knowledge of domain ontologies. tools for the authorship of humanities ros, or tools that implement ros behind the scenes, may benefit from taking the same approach. conclusion ros make a great deal of sense for modeling cultural information; skeletons of a similar shape— the simple and powerful combination of aggregation and annotation to represent compound digital objects—already structures large-scale cultural data aggregations, e.g., through the europeana data model and the digital public library of america metadata application profile, which are both founded on ore:aggregations plus oa:annotations. but the challenges confronting widespread application of the ro model to humanities digital scholarship are significant. this review of existing applications has identified three central challenges: . digital humanities scholarship requires specialized interactive use, so realizing the advantages of ros for the humanities will depend on implementations that create platforms for experimentation and development by communities. . the idiosyncratic workflows of networked humanities scholarship means that workflow- oriented ros will not gain significant uptake in the humanities unless they can capture distributed, sociotechnical workflows in meaningful ways. . humanities ros will require thick, multilayered, context-rich provenance descriptions that can accommodate conflicting assertions and formalize uncertainty, along with implementations that support the documentation of such provenance. in particular, the challenge of characterizing and formally expressing diverse humanities workflows, along with the provenance of data and contextual information within those workflows, presents the most urgent challenge and exciting opportunity for the future of humanities cyberinfrastructure. to many stakeholders in humanities cyberinfrastructure, “workflows are the new content” (dempsey, ; baynes et al., ; schonfeld and waters, ). while research on workflows is underway on multiple fronts (including liu et al., ), it is clear already that there will be significant semantic differences between conceptual and technical elements in scientific workflows (and provenance) and those in the humanities; and these differences will affect the implementation of ros for humanities research. historically, attempts to implement scientific research infrastructures (including data models like the ro model) to support humanities scholarship have hit an obstacle in the form of semantic gulfs. for example, in the linking and querying ancient texts (laquat) project, an effort to transfer escience infrastructure in support of a humanities virtual research environment, anderson and blanke observed a fundamental challenge in integrating humanities data from different databases. they located the solution to that problem in humanities research communities: “integrating humanities research material...will require researchers to make the connections themselves, including decisions on how they are expressed and how to understand and explore the data more effectively” (anderson and blanke, ). oldman et al. ( ), reviewing the state of linked data in the humanities, observed that basic linked data publication for many kinds of humanities sources can be counterproductive, “unless adapted to reflect specific methods and practices, and integrated into the epistemological processes they genuinely belong to.” this caution resonates with the challenges identified for the adoption of the ro model—or indeed for the importation of any data model, even domain- independent data models—into the humanities. the main challenges to implementing ros for humanities research also present exciting opportunities for a more sustainable cross-disciplinary infrastructure (fenlon, ), but implementation strategies must be centered in scholarly communities, and grow out from the practices, needs, and epistemologies of specific areas of study in the humanities and cultural institutions. references almas, b. 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( ). towards publishing secure capsule-based analysis. proceedings of the th acm/ieee joint conference on digital libraries, – . retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= . oldman, d., doerr, m., & gradmann, s. ( ). zen and the art of linked data. in a new companion to digital humanities (pp. – ). https://doi.org/ . / .ch oldman, d., & tanase, d. ( ). reshaping the knowledge graph by connecting researchers, data and practices in researchspace. in d. vrandečić, k. bontcheva, mari carmen suárez-figueroa, v. presutti, i. celino, m. sabou, … e. simperl (eds.), the semantic web – iswc (pp. – ). retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . % f - - - - _ page, k., lewis, d., & weigl, d. ( ). contextual interpretation of digital music notation. presented at the digital humanities (dh ), montréal, canada. palmer, c. l., teffeau, l. c., & pirmann, c. m. ( ). scholarly information practices in the online environment: themes from the literature and implications for library service development. retrieved from oclc research and programs website: http://www.oclc.org/content/dam/research/publications/library/ / - .pdf researchspace team, british museum. ( , december). moving from documentation to knowledge building: researchspace principles and practices. presented at the stiftung preußischer kulturbesitz (prussian cultural heritage foundation) berlin. retrieved from https://www.researchspace.org/docs/berlin.pdf schonfeld, r. c., & waters, d. ( , april). the turn to research workflow and the strategic implications for the academy. presented at the coalition for networked information (cni) spring membership meeting, san diego, ca. retrieved from https://vimeo.com/ sweeney, s. j., flanders, j., & levesque, a. ( ). community-enhanced repository for engaged scholarship: a case study on supporting digital humanities research. college & undergraduate libraries, ( – ), – . https://doi.org/ . / . . an optical character recognition software benchmark for old dutch texts on the eyra platform mirjam cuper , dr. adriënne mendrik , maarten van meersbergen , tom klaver , pushpanjali pawar , dr. annette langedijk , lotte wilms national library of the netherlands (kb), the netherlands escience center, surf digitized collections of printed historical texts are important for research in digital humanities. however, acquiring high-quality machine readable texts using currently available optical character recognition (ocr) methods is a challenge. ocr quality is affected by old fonts, old printing techniques, bleedthrough of the ink, paper quality, old spelling, multiple columns and so on. it is unclear which ocr methods perform best. therefore, we are currently in the process of setting up a benchmark to enable the evaluation of the performance of ocr software on old dutch texts. the benchmark is being set-up on the eyra benchmark platform (eyrabenchmark.net) developed by the netherlands escience center and surf. for the pilot version of the benchmark a data set containing dutch book pages ( - ) and dutch newspaper pages ( - ) is made available by the national library of the netherlands (kb). this data set contains both scanned pages (ocr method input data) and machine readable text (ground truth that can be used to assess the quality of the ocr method output). this dataset is split in training and validation data. the training data can be downloaded and used by algorithm developers to train their ocr algorithms or tune their workflows (pre-processing, layout segmentation, character recognition, post-processing). the eyra platform offers algorithm developers the opportunity to submit their ocr algorithm or workflow to the eyra platform in a docker container. the docker container will, in turn, be run on the validation data in the cloud on the dutch national infrastructure of surf. the advantage of this set-up, is that it prevents over-tuning on the validation data and therefore provides a fair comparison of the performance of the ocr methods. also, if new validation data is available and added to the benchmark later on, the ocr methods can easily be re-run on the new data. various metrics could be used to assess the performance of the ocr methods in comparison to the ground truth. in the pilot we will use the most commonly used metrics (character error rate and word error rate). however, we are planning to add more metrics later on, that address different aspects of the ocr method performance. the eyra platform uses observable (observablehq.com) to visualize algorithm results on the platform, to gain more insight into algorithm performance. these visualizations can easily be integrated in a journal paper, which promotes replication of result visualizations. furthermore the ocr benchmark provides an easy way for ocr method developers to compare their method to other existing methods, by providing the data, metrics, ground truth and algorithms for comparison, replicating algorithm validation in the experiment and results section of a journal paper. for the national library of the netherlands, this benchmark provides a way to gain insight into the performance of ocr methods and to select the best available ocr method for their problem of digitizing old dutch texts. this in turn will provide higher quality digitized texts for digital humanity research. artnodes ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.label## ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.main_navigation## ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.main_content## ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.sidebar## register login change the language. the current language is: english castellano català toggle navigation current issue published issues who we are editorial team 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required email address * you can unsubscribe at any time by clicking the link in the footer of our emails. for information about our privacy practices, please visit our website. we use mailchimp as our marketing platform. by clicking below to subscribe, you acknowledge that your information will be transferred to mailchimp for processing. learn more about mailchimp's privacy practices here. about raco about inclusion criteria and editorial board news statistics contact direct to… authors subjects participant journals information accessibility legal note cookies policy collaborations coordination microsoft word - . bordalejo-marked.docx walking alone online: intersectional violence on the internet barbara bordalejo this article discusses the targeting of women and minorities on the internet, specifically focusing on matters which have arisen within the digital humanities community in the global north. i explore the connection between milo yiannopoulos’s key role in gamergate, the online harassment of female journalists, and the targeted attacks against female academics working in the digital humanities. the link between these phenomena is organic, with yiannopoulos playing a critical role in both attempts to terrorize female-identifying individuals into silence and compliance. the article also elucidates the reasons why an online mob mentality can overrule social boundaries and shows how hatred is directed mostly at individuals who stand at the intersection of several marginalized groups. i explore how the rise of the far right, currently referred to as the alt-right, is directly linked to the type of harassment female academics experience and conclude that despite the internet’s potential as an egalitarian space, i wrote this article in the global north, as i held a tenure-track post at a european university. my background, however, is intersectional. a mixed race latinx, i grew up as the child of immigrants in a country in which i was not born (i am an adult third culture kid) and where my accent and my appearance singled me out. my academic background in english literature required me to learn a new language in which i will never enjoy the advantages of a native-speaker. as a textual critic and a specialist in chaucer’s canterbury tales, i work among a very conservative group emphasizing and, often fostering, sameness. see robinson’s article on this same volume about female editors. alt-right is a term originally developed by the group itself as a rebranding of multiple hate groups. as defined in wikipedia, the alt-right is “a loosely-connected and somewhat ill-defined grouping of white supremacists, neo-confederates, neo-nazis, neo-fascists and other far-right fringe hate groups.” "alt- right," wikipedia, june , https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=alt- right&oldid= . although i consistently use the appellative alt-right in this article, i do this because i consider their tactics, specially developed for the age of social media, unify them as a group not because i believe that there is any legitimacy to any of their claims or that we should not clearly understand them as a hate group closely linked with white supremacists and fascists. the virtual plane is so profoundly tainted by the hetero-patriarchal reality as to allow figures which should have been marginal to take center stage and orchestrate coordinated assaults against what have become easy targets. i conclude that the threats of seemingly fringe individuals cannot be taken lightly in a world in which so many individuals can be manipulated through the smoke and mirrors of the internet. . background . the importance of gamergate i have chosen to start with the events surrounding gamergate because this controversy became one of the most obvious instances in which women were publicly targeted, in this case for their perceived role in influencing game production. gamergate made headlines in major newspapers as it brought the mainstream public into what became one of the ugliest battles fought online. most of us did not know enough then to even begin to imagine what the future had in store. now we know there was a backlash against achievements in terms of civil rights for minorities and women, a the events of gamergate were preceded in by the doxxing of technology blogger kathy sierra that lead to the closure of her blog and sierra’s leaving twitter. jessica valenti, "how the web became a sexists’ paradise," the guardian, april , sec. world news, http://www.theguardian.com/world/ /apr/ /gender.blogging; "why the trolls will always win," wired, accessed june , https://www.wired.com/ / /trolls-will-always-win/. bob stuart, "#gamergate: the misogynist movement blighting the video games industry," october , sec. culture, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturenews/ /gamergate- misogynist-felicia-day-zoe-quinn-brianna-wu.html; nick wingfield, "feminist critics of video games facing threats in 'gamergate' campaign," the new york times, december , sec. technology, https://www.nytimes.com/ / / /technology/gamergate-women-video-game-threats-anita- sarkeesian.html; chandra steele, "everything you never wanted to know about gamergate," october , https://www.pcmag.com/article / , , , .asp; fruzsina eördögh, "gamergate and the new horde of digital saboteurs," christian science monitor, november , https://www.csmonitor.com/technology/tech-culture/ / /gamergate-and-the-new-horde-of- digital-saboteurs; jesse singal, "gamergate should stop lying to journalists — and itself," the cut, october , https://www.thecut.com/ / /gamergate-should-stop-lying-to-itself.html. backlash which went beyond the gaming world and infiltrated politics with the use of trolls to enact political change which sustains the worst instances of traditional hegemonic power. russian trolls interfered in brexit, perhaps leading to the united kingdom leaving the european union. they are likely to have contributed to donald trump's rise to the white house, setting the world back years in matters of civil rights, climate change, peace, and trade. one cannot help but to trace a line from gamergate to the rise of trump, with other events in between. . zoe quinn and depression quest. in , zoe quinn published a book entitled crash override , in which she describes the events leading to gamergate and how this affected her and shook the gaming industry. she describes her breakup with eron gjoni, the author of the blog that unleashed a wave of hatred which is only now subsiding and which is now known as thezoepost. the blog went viral as members of the gaming community rose as judges and executioners under the banner of challenging the ethics of the video ‘matt burgess, "twitter has admitted russian trolls targeted the brexit vote (a little bit)," wired uk, february , http://www.wired.co.uk/article/twitter-russia-brexit-fake-news-facebook-russia; patrick wintour, "russian bid to influence brexit vote detailed in new us senate report," the guardian, january , https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /jan/ /russian-influence-brexit- vote-detailed-us-senate-report; "russian twitter trolls meddled in the brexit vote. did they swing it?," november , https://www.economist.com/britain/ / / /russian-twitter-trolls-meddled- in-the-brexit-vote.-did-they-swing-it. kenneth p. vogel, "how russian trolls crept into the trump campaign’s facebook messages," the new york times, march , sec. u.s., https://www.nytimes.com/ / / /us/politics/russian- trolls-trump-campaign-florida-matt-skiber.html; canadian press, "russian trolls that meddled in u.s. election targeted pm, canadian oil," huffpost canada, march , https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/ / / /russian-trolls-us-election-trudeau-oil-canada_a_ /; molly mckew, "did russia affect the election? it’s now undeniable," wired, february , https://www.wired.com/story/did-russia-affect-the- -election-its-now-undeniable/. casey johnston, "how chan manufactured the #gamergate controversy," wired uk, september , http://www.wired.co.uk/article/gamergate-chat-logs; dale beran, " chan: the skeleton key to the rise of trump," medium, february , https://medium.com/@daleberan/ chan-the- skeleton-key-to-the-rise-of-trump- e cb cb. ‘thezoepost’, accessed june , https://thezoepost.wordpress.com/. games industry. online trolls were so effective in their mob behaviour that they succeeded in driving several women away from their homes. zoe quinn, joanna wu, and anita sarkeesian were all the target of threats. sarkeesian had already been harassed when she tried to crowdfund feminist frequency in . at the time, she received threats both in twitter and from anonymous email accounts. citron in her book hate crimes in cyberspace states that: nonwhite females faced cyber harassment more than any other group, with percent reporting having been harassed online. next were white females, at percent, and nonwhite males, at percent. the group least likely to have been harassed was white males, at only percent. however, there is no clear proof that race is determinative; for example, the bureau of justice statistics found that percent of cyber harassment victims were white women, and the majority of victims in the citu cases were white women. these statistics are already worrying, but citron's tagline summarizes the state of affairs, “what is beyond dispute is that being a woman raises one’s risk of cyber harassment, and for lesbian, transgender, or bisexual women and women of color, the risk may be higher.” zoe quinn's queerness was a determining factor in increasing the vitriol against her. non-normative individuals are frequently the stuart, "#gamergate: the misogynist movement blighting the video games industry.” simon parkin, ‘zoe quinn’s depression quest’, september , https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/zoe-quinns-depression-quest#. brianna wu, "rape and death threats are terrorizing female gamers. why haven’t men in tech spoken out?" the washington post, october , https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/ / / /rape-and-death-threats-are-terrorizing- female-gamers-why-havent-men-in-tech-spoken-out/?tid+sm_fb. danielle keats citron, hate crimes in cyberspace, reprint edition (cambridge: harvard university press, ). citron, hate crimes in cyberspace. citron, hate crimes in cyberspace, . citron, hate crimes in cyberspace, . target of bullies both online and in real life. quinn, the unwilling protagonist of gamergate, writes about how marginalized groups are frequently the targets of unprovoked attacks: it doesn’t take much. maybe you’ll express your opinion on a political issue and it will get noticed by the wrong person. maybe you’ll wake up to find that a company you once bought shoes from online was careless with security, and now your personal information is in the hands of anyone who bothers to look. maybe someone who has a grudge against you is relentless enough to post and promote bogus information about you online —stuff that can never be erased. maybe you’re a member of a demographic that is constantly targeted —you’re a woman, you’re black, you’re trans, or any combination of these or other marginalized groups —and someone who wants to get people like you off “their” internet decides to take it upon themselves to make your life hell. online abusers target countless people every year for any number of arbitrary reasons. thus, in august a bad breakup mutated into one of the most controversial events in the gaming industry, with consequences in apparently distant academic fields such as new media studies and digital humanities, where such matters become the object of analysis and study. this did not come as a surprise to people involved in game studies who have seen women targeted in various cases before this one. among those women, anita sarkeesian has zoe quinn, crash override, (new york: publicaffairs, ), - . been the focus of frequent threats lasting up to this date. the general public learned en masse, for the first time, how much resentment and vitriolic anger is manifested when the status quo feels threatened by women or minorities. gamergate became the story we know today. after accusing zoe quinn of trading sex for a good review of her game, depression quest , an anonymous mob doxxed her, sent her a range of threats, and made her life hell. quinn describes the experience in detail in crash override . it verges on the surreal as what should have been an ordinary breakup became a crusade for men who claimed to be defending the gaming industry's sacred ethics. the only problem was they were not. instead, they acted as if they were playing a game in which the ultimate objective was to obliterate zoe quinn as if she had been an npc. the gamergate trolls have continued to argue there was "corruption in video games journalism and that feminists [were] actively working to undermine the video game industry." even though these claims were unsubstantiated, they continued to feed what became a massive move against women in gaming (both in industry and academia) which continues to this date. . being online not all days are dark on the internet. occasionally, people can find spaces or content which make them feel welcomed or, at least, understood. many days, being online feels like a positive experience, but this is only true of those who have not attracted the attention of trolls. shira chess and adrienne shaw, "a conspiracy of fishes, or, how we learned to stop worrying about #gamergate and embrace hegemonic masculinity," journal of broadcasting & electronic media , no. ( january ): – , https://doi.org/ . / . . . the behaviour of some trolls maps a game. their language suggests that they consider it not different from playing on their computers or consoles. chess and shaw, "a conspiracy of fishes.” in , writer-director eleonore pourriat released a short film entitled the oppressed majority. the short became viral in early after the director had included english subtitles. it was shared on social media and became the centerpiece of articles in the new york times and the guardian . it can be described as a gender-bender of society. the main character, pierre, is harassed and eventually assaulted. over the course of the piece, he is the object of the abuse and contempt of the women surrounding him. an intriguing aspect of the oppressed majority is that it parallels how women live in our society every day: ignoring things we are told on the streets, trying to defend ourselves without causing men to be offended (because men can be dangerous), and generally not acknowledging everything which makes us uncomfortable. during the first minute and a half, we have pierre put down by a neighbour and then being the recipient of unwanted comments from another. this second woman is returning from a jog, her breasts exposed. this image, of women jogging bare-chested, brings one of the strongest points of the film: the question of who owns what space. because our society has sexualized women's breasts, in many countries, there is a lack of balance between male and female chest exposure. in other words, men can jog without a t-shirt, women cannot. moreover, often women are shamed for breastfeeding in public. this translates into an understanding that outside space is male space. men can expose their nipples in most of the western world, while women cannot. this is relevant for our understanding of how the physical world translates into the virtual one. it took facebook until to allow images of breastfeeding women in their platform, while hate groups are allowed to thrive. within the public posts of vdare's facebook group one can find their subscribers referring to mixed race eleonorepourriat , oppressed majority (majorité opprimée english), by eleonore pourriat, n.d., https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v uwxlvvt a. alissa j. rubin, "french film goes viral, but not in france," the new york times, december , sec. movies, https://www.nytimes.com/ / / /movies/oppressed-majority-provokes-debate- on-internet.html. chris matyszczyk, "facebook: breastfeeding photos that bare all are ok," cnet, june , https://www.cnet.com/news/facebook-breastfeeding-photos-that-bare-all-are-ok/. people as "dysgenic," photographs calling for a ban on muslims, and for the building of a wall at the mexico border. this is to say nothing of calls for the defense of "their legacy" and "their ancestry," or the presentation of white supremacists as victims of chan stalkers. although the breitbart facebook pages are less obvious, they present many judgements over public figures featured in their articles while they spread conspiracy theories in which google, facebook, and twitter are supposedly working with the "far-left" to undermine their site. this happens because these hate-groups are protected under the banner of free speech, which should apply to all, while female breasts are considered a societal taboo because online space is akin to outside space and it does not belong to women or minorities. in real life, women and minorities walk in fear. this is even truer for intersectional bodies as they are frequently the target of violence. it follows that intersectional individuals are also more likely to be the target of violence online, as stated above. . the day i asked questions in , some members of the steering committee of the alliance for digital humanities organizations were in the process of promoting a more inclusive annual conference. despite the efforts of the subcommittee tasked with increasing diversity for this gathering, their suggestions were initially discarded without being shared with the steering committee. this led to the resignation of the then chair, john nerbonne, and triggered a minor crisis. following these and other events detailed in my article, "minority report," i created a demographic survey similar to those often found as part of for black trans-women the murder rate is higher than for cisgender people. within the general population the murder rate is every , for transgender women of color it is every meredith talusan, "unerased: mic’s database of trans lives lost to homicide in the us," december , https://mic.com/unerased. university admissions or recruitment processes. although the survey seemed innocuous enough, some responses had to be eliminated because their content rendered them unusable. these were either openly mocking, trolling, or simply angry. in an unexpected turn of events, i discovered a few individuals, most notably mcp ("male chauvinistic pig"), were dismissive of the issues being considered and aggressive in their answers, sometimes both, and felt they had earned the right to insult the person who dared to ask them to provide this information. i received a handful of rude emails, some of them forwarded by colleagues, pointing out the lack of relevance of this work and, particularly, its lack of significance to those working in the field. despite this, the results of that survey were presented at various conferences and the article based on the work was published in bodies of information. intersectional feminism and digital humanities, edited by jacqueline wernimont and elizabeth losh, part of the debates in digital humanities series. although one cannot be certain, it appeared as if the aggressive respondents all identified themselves as heterosexual cisgendered men. scholars have called before for a more self-critical dh, notably, miriam posner when she wrote: "dh needs scholarly expertise in critical race theory, feminist and queer theory, and other interrogations of structures of power in order to develop models of the world that have any relevance to people's lived experience.” she has not been the only one to point out this need. roopika risam has been vocal about the realities of a larger, and consequently, more diverse field in combination with a lack of the volume is currently in preparation and should be printed in fall . miriam posner, "what’s next: the radical, unrealized potential of digital humanities," in debates in the digital humanities, ed. matthew k. gold and klein, lauren, th ed., debates in the digital humanities (university of minnesota press, ), http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ . understanding of how to transcend the view insisting on individuating aspects of a discipline which would be better served by an intersectional approach. my brush with trolls was minor, almost nothing, in comparison to what others have had to endure, and yet it was a disagreeable experience i would rather have avoided. the most disturbing part of it was the sure knowledge these were not random strangers, but university professors and researchers who hid behind anonymity to lash out their anger and frustration. why would educated people working in research institutions act this way? . the trolls . who are they? in the general public's mind, there is a stereotype of trolls. jessica moreno, a former reddit employee, stated in an interview with joel stein that: "the idea of the basement dweller drinking mountain dew and eating doritos isn't accurate... they would be a doctor, a lawyer, an inspirational speaker, a kindergarten teacher. they'd send lovely gifts and be a normal person." or university professors or researchers. at any rate, they are highly educated people who should know better and not allow themselves to fall into this trap of aggression and hatred. despite this, our experience, over and over, is that trolls exist, that they mount campaigns against individuals, and that they enjoy causing damage and destruction, especially when the persons involved have a high profile. according to john suler, a psychologist, six factors contribute to what he calls "the online disinhibition effect" a type of conduct observed in individuals using the internet. this was portrayed in roopika risam, "beyond the margins: intersectionality and the digital humanities," digital humanities quarterly , no. ( september ). reprinted in this volume. joel stein, "how trolls are ruining the internet," time, august , http://time.com/ /internet-trolls/. john suler, "the online disinhibition effect," cyberpsychology & behavior , no. ( june ): – , https://doi.org/ . / . a positive light in sherry turkle's book, life on the screen , where she writes: "but it is on the internet that our confrontations with technology as it collides with our sense of human identity are fresh, even raw. in the real-time communities of cyberspace, we are dwellers on the threshold between the real and virtual, unsure of our footing, inventing ourselves as we go along." turkle goes on to describe how virtual environments can be experienced as “more real” than real life. turkle goes on to describe how virtual environments can be experienced as "more real" than real life. according to turkle, this affords us the possibility of reinventing ourselves. this reinvention, in turn, changes the individual involved because “[v]irtual spaces may provide the safety for us to expose what we are missing so that we can begin to accept ourselves as we are.” the problem resides in that perhaps our lives on the screen are not potentiating our best selves. although it is possible a place of disinhibition could contribute to the growth of an individual, this raises the question of how the same place may hold equal potential for developing the more negative aspects of someone's personality. this is the line of research pursued by suler. he acknowledges the possibility of benign disinhibition, “an attempt to better understand and develop oneself, to resolve interpersonal and intrapsychic problems or explore new emotional and experiential dimensions to one’s identity.” however, this potential is overshadowed by what he calls "toxic disinhibition." suler's six contributing factors (whether this is benign or toxic) are dissociative anonymity, invisibility, asynchronicity, solipsistic introjection, dissociative imagination, and minimization of authority. the dissociative aspects, anonymity and imagination, together with the lack sherry turkle, life on the screen: identity in the age of the internet (new york, ny: simon & schuster, ). turkle, life on the screen. turkle, life on the screen. suler, "the online disinhibition effect.” the asynchronicity aspect was mostly related to online forums and boards. facebook, instagram, and, specially, twitter, allow for instant reaction from the victim. suler, "the online disinhibition effect.” of authority, which in suler's argument refers to the lack of status signs individuals exhibit online, could also be extrapolated to environments where there is little control over the behaviour of individuals, i.e. they are free to do exactly as they please, and hence be essential factors in troll behaviour. suler, a psychologist, also considers that even if online and offline behaviours are contradictory, they are both parts of the personality spectrum of a particular individual and neither is truer than the other: “the self does not exist separate from the environment in which that self is expressed. if someone contains his aggression in face-to-face living but expresses that aggression online, both behaviors reflect aspects of self: the self that acts nonaggressively under certain conditions, the self that acts aggressively under other conditions. when an individual is shy in person while outgoing online, neither self- presentation is truer. they are two dimensions of that person, each revealed within a different situational context.” however, others disagree with suler and posit that “[t]he troll persona appears to be a malicious case of a virtual avatar, reflecting both actual personality and one’s ideal self.” the key question is whether the lack of inhibition online, particularly when hatred meets no consequences, might also be conducive to a modification of offline conduct. . why do they do it? trolls themselves say they do it “for the lulz.” this behaviour, which only aims to please the trolls themselves, consists in picking a subject to be mocked. the advice used to be "don't feed the trolls," i.e. do not engage with destructive individuals online. suler, "the online disinhibition effect.” erin buckels, paul d. trapnell, and delroy l. paulhus, "trolls just want to have fun," personality and individual differences (n.d.): – . “for the lulz” is a negative version of “for the lolz” which means for the laughs. the problem with presenting trolls as people who do it for fun and with only mild negative connotations akin to the figure of a trickster, like loki in scandinavian literature, is that it ignores the most destructive aspects of troll behaviour. it has been shown that not only do online trolls score high in the so-called dark tetrad but they are also typically characterized by sadism: when controlling for enjoyment, the impact of sadism on trolling was cut nearly in half; and the indirect effect of sadism through enjoyment was substantial, significant, and remained significant when controlling for overlap with the dark triad scores. these findings provide a preliminary glimpse into the mechanism by which sadism fosters trolling behavior. both trolls and sadists feel sadistic glee at the distress of others. sadists just want to have fun ... and the internet is their playground! if buckels et al. are right in their conclusions, the internet allowed these types of individuals to flourish and to create communities of like-minded individuals (within reddit, chan, and similar sites), and also to develop into particularly virulent behaviours such as "gendertrolling," a type of particularly vicious trolling characterized by the coordinated participation of many individuals, gender-based insults, vicious language, credible threats, unusual intensity and longevity, and reactions to women speaking out. . trolling celebrities on social media. in the last couple of years, for example, two notorious actresses who are women of colour have been forced to leave social media. leslie jones was found herself in that situation after the release of in psychology the dark triad focuses on narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy as a conjunct study subject. the dark tetrad adds in sadism as a fourth component for the predictor of criminal and antisocial behaviours. buckels, trapnell, and paulhus, "trolls just want to have fun.” buckels, trapnell, and paulhus, "trolls just want to have fun.” karla mantilla, "gendertrolling: misogyny adapts to new media," feminist studies , no. ( ): – , http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . ghostbusters, when trolls attacked her on twitter, created a fake account purporting to be hers, and harassed her until she could not take it anymore. it was this specific episode of trolling which got milos yiannopoulos banned from the platform. although this was seen as positive by many who objected to the way he degraded others, it might have also allowed him to take refuge in the darkness of reddit and chan. more recently, kelly marie tran, who had endured months of abuse because a section of the star wars fandom did not like her character in the last jedi, deleted her instagram account. even journalists of the calibre of jessica valenti, a well-known feminist writer, who are used to being the target of trolls quit twitter in july when she started to receive rape threats against her five-year-old daughter. the irony here was that valenti was one of the journalists who had written about the pervasive misogynism of online culture. valenti's example is an example of mantilla's gendertrolling. although kelly marie tran and leslie jones might also fall into this category, i contend that the way in which vicious racial slurs were used against both actresses puts it in a further category of intersectional trolling. this might also have been what happened in the case of zoe quinn, whose queerness made her more vulnerable to certain types of attack. both platforms have been a breeding ground for the alt-right and for mysogynistic groups like the “incels.” reddit banned the incels subreddits in november olivia solon, "'incel:' reddit bans misogynist men’s group blaming women for their celibacy," the guardian, november , sec. technology, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/ /nov/ /reddit-incel-involuntary-celibate- men-ban., but these might be alive and well in chan zoe williams, "'raw hatred:' why the 'incel' movement targets and terrorises women," the guardian, april , sec. world news, http://www.theguardian.com/world/ /apr/ /raw-hatred-why-incel-movement-targets-terrorises- women. bbc news, "abuse-hit star wars actress wipes instagram," bbc news, june , sec. asia, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia- . chasmar, "jessica valenti, guardian columnist, quits twitter over 'rape and death threat' against daughter," the washington times, web edition, accessed june , https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/ /jul/ /jessica-valenti-guardian-columnist-quits-twitter-o/. valenti, "how the web became a sexists’ paradise.” . the violence affecting us. one might think academia is free from attacks from trolls. however, academics are often the target of oppressive movements. in march , inside higher education published an article about alt-right harassment and academic freedom in the us. the article notes that "outbursts and outrages against liberal professors who have written or spoken about white supremacy in america have become routine. scholars like steven salaita, saida grundy, johnny eric williams, george ciccariello-maher, amanda gailey, dorothy kim and, most recently, david palumbo-liu have all been subjected to severe right- wing media scrutiny for their stances against white supremacy, white privilege, settler colonialism and fascism.” this list is notable because gailey and kim, as well as palumbo-liu, are included in it. each of these individuals has made a contribution to the digital humanities. we want to believe there are no trolls among us but, as argued above, trolls are not weird basement dwellers, but individuals respected within their communities. in some cases, as explained before, they are members of our own community, the digital humanities. equally, individuals within dh can be the targets of online hatred campaigns. this is the case of amanda gailey, associate professor of english at the university of nebraska, lincoln, and dorothy kim, assistant professor of english at vassar college. for different reasons, these two professors have been identified by online alt-right trolls who have orchestrated attacks against them. . amanda gailey amanda gailey is not just a professor of english; she is a vocal activist against gun-violence, a pervasive and crippling problem in the usa, working as part of nebraskans against gun violence since reshmi dutt-ballerstadt, "striking a nerve," inside higher education, march , https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/ / / /what-do-when-you-are-academic-under-attack- right-wing-publications-opinion. , she has appeared in front of legislators, written op-eds, and organized events. gailey has been a target of online articles attempting to defame her by manipulating quotes either deliberately or due to ignorance. the attempt to discredit gailey backfired, as the poem in question is an homage to ginsberg. gailey's activism and her political position have attracted the attention of the wrong crowd and ended up in breitbart and other alt-right websites. breitbart has enough pull to call upon hundreds or thousands of people to harass others. they have even published an ill-conceived and sexist answer to the issue of online harassment of women in an article, authored by milo yiannopoulus, entitled "the solution to online 'harassment' is simple: women should log off," where they state that "[w]omen are -- and you won't hear this anywhere else -- screwing up the internet for men by invading every space we have online and ruining it with attention-seeking and a needy, demanding, touchy-feely form of modern feminism that quickly comes into conflict with men's natural tendency to be boisterous, confrontational and delightfully autistic.” the threats against gailey started in , when a local pro-gun group considered the idea of protesting in front of her house. although that never happened, she began to receive threats and hate mail through social media. according to gailey, it works like this: i view it as a kind of pyramid, with the types of communication requiring the least energy from people being at the bottom, and the ones requiring the most at the top. this translates into a vast number of social media messages, followed by e-mail, phone calls, regular mail, and in-person contact. of the individuals harassing gailey in social media, dutt-ballerstadt, "striking a nerve.” milo yannopoulus, "why women should leave the internet," breitbart, july , http://www.breitbart.com/milo/ / / /solution-online-harassment-simple-women-log-off/. carolyn gallaher, "war on the ivory tower: alt right attacks on university professors," the public eye, may , http://feature.politicalresearch.org/war-on-the-ivory-tower. some were working independently while others were following instructions from pro-gun webpages which actively encouraged to contact gailey. also in , in response to an amazon review in which gailey condemned magpul, she received hate mail by email and social media messaging. later, in , just when a nra bill was about to be voted on in the nebraska legislature, gailey experienced coordinated attacks after an article published by the nra was picked up by breitbart and other alt-right outlets. gailey calculates that more than social media messages, emails, phone calls, and letters reached her a result of the incitement from the alt-right. however, in the fall of , gailey's situation became worse. turning point usa had organized a recruitment event at the university of nebraska and gailey turned up to protest the event. although gailey was there to protest tpusa and their professor watchlist website (she was holding a sign requesting to be included in the list), she became concerned for the wellbeing of one of the students and tried to comfort her. carolin gallaher details the events in her article "war in the ivory tower," where she writes: “gailey positioned herself away from the scrum, near the tpusa recruiting table. a short while later gailey noticed that the student managing the table, kaitlyn mullen, was crying. ‘i rolled up my sign and walked over to ask her if she was ok,’ she recalled. the student seemed overwhelmed, so gailey asked the student protesters to cool things down. she tried to reassure mullen, telling her, ‘i don’t want anyone to be upset. no one is protesting you. it’s your organization they are protesting.’” carolyn gallaher, "war on the ivory tower: alt right attacks on university professors," the public eye, may , http://feature.politicalresearch.org/war-on-the-ivory-tower. later, tpusa posted a video of the event (the video did not feature gailey who had not arrived yet) with a misleading title to make it appear as if gailey had been harassing the student. afterwards, bureaucratic failures left gailey at the mercy of her detractors who did not take long to call for her being disciplined. gailey was fortunate, however. in the aftermath of the tpusa rally, she had been banned from facebook for a month after posting a picture of batman breaking a gun. the -day ban helped curb what would have undoubtedly a multitude of facebook posts. instead, she only received several dozen emails. gailey explains: ...as of the fall of , the alt-right had a system working in which a single organization that wanted to push a story would post it and it would be immediately picked up by a connected alt- right media network and would be pushed by bots. so when tpusa posted the video, it went viral in the space of hours because of this algorithmic push. in contrast, a controversy i was involved with involving an nra protest this spring got a fraction of the response despite my fb account being active and a fox news program with over three million viewers vilifying me by name. gailey's experience supports the idea that specific attacks are conceived and coordinated through alt- right linked sites, with the specific aim of intimidating academics seen as a threat to the new fascist agenda. each time gailey's name is featured in mainstream media, the alt-right's response is to flood her social media and email with threats and obscene language. each incident prompts gailey's harassers to post her office address, sometimes her home address, endangering her and her family. . dorothy kim amanda gailey, private communication, june , . gallager also chronicles the story of dorothy kim, a medievalist and digital humanist, who has become the target of conservative professor rachel fulton brown. brown is a professor of history at the university of chicago. i followed the events relating to the "dispute" because, like kim, i am a medievalist and digital humanist, so our areas of study overlap and we move within some of the same virtual communities. in august th , kim published an article entitled “teaching medieval studies in a time of white supremacy,” as part of the blog in the middle. kim is a feminist who specializes in critical race studies and, upon recognizing the use of medieval symbols by members of the alt-right, she took the opportunity to call upon fellow scholars to err on the side of caution when teaching the middle ages and explicitly signaling they are not white supremacist sympathizers. kim has a solid argument to back this up. she quotes another scholar, catherine cox, who studies islam and the weaponization of “the idea of the pure medieval islamic past in their recruiting rhetoric for young male muslims.” these are legitimate concerns, but they were seized by brown who wrote various posts in which she accused kim of hating her. through her facebook page, brown tagged milo yiannopoulus so he would read her posts. this resulted in a subsequent article, published on his site on september , entitled “lady with a sword beats down fake scholar with facts and fury.” the article follows the breitbart editorial lines of only making modest attempts to appear as legitimate news praising brown while presenting kim as a “fake scholar.” for anyone with a minimal degree of objectivity, the yiannopoulus article appears ridiculous, both in tone and content. dorothy kim, "teaching medieval studies in a time of white supremacy," in the middle (blog), august , http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /teaching-medieval-studies-in-time-of.html. kim, "teaching medieval studies.” the allusion to the sword links it directly to brown’s blog, fencing bear at prayer. the consequences for kim were severe. because brown had posted both kim's picture and affiliation, she became readily identifiable for yiannopoulus' enormous number of followers within the alt-right. this call upon a "celebrity" is reminiscent of melissa terras' (now at the university of edinburgh, then at ucl) experience in , which has been partially documented by amy earhart as follows: in a twitter argument with fellow scholar adeline koh over the charge of digital humanities being touted as the "savior of humanities jobs," terras asked koh for a citation of such a statement from a dh scholar. asking for a citation seems a legitimate and appropriate form of academic debate. while a few scholars on twitter provided some suggested sources, an ugly twitter firestorm erupted that overrode discussion and ended in an anonymous bot tweet that told terras that she should "go get raped by niggers." what should have been an academic discussion became a series of vicious personal attacks against terras. this happened because at some point as the pressure to produce evidence for koh's claims mounted, as the community came up with suggestions, she invoked the twitter personality, suey park. park, in turn, exhorted her followers to attack terras. at the time, terras was travelling to give an invited talk in siberia, so she was not online for the duration of her flight. by the time terras arrived at her destination, hundreds of angry messages, including atrocious threats such as the one quoted by earhart, flooded her twitter feed. most likely, koh amy earhart, "digital humanities futures: conflict, power, and public knowledge," digital studies/le champ numérique , no. ( august ), https://doi.org/ . /dscn. . suey park has been described as a brawler who in had followers in twitter. she was responsible for the #cancelcolbert campaign, among other things elizabeth bruenig, "why won’t twitter forgive suey park?," the new republic, may , https://newrepublic.com/article/ /suey-parkof-cancelcolbert-fame-has-stopped-fighting-twitter. did not intend for anything like this to happen, but in calling upon another party, she unleashed a pack of rabid wolves upon terras. the same cannot be said about brown. when she tagged milo yiannopoulos she knew what she was doing: fulton brown then spent the next two weeks writing about kim on her blog, mirroring the tactics of “gamergate,” intentionally drumming up chatter about kim so trolls would go on the attack. it worked. the threats started coming in after breitbart posted its story and picked up each time fulton brown mentioned kim by name. when one mobilizes such a vast number of followers, there is real danger that such an aggressive movement will result in violence against the target. kim requested an unlisted office, a change of her class locations, and police monitoring of her on-campus residence. a possible reason for brown to want to endear herself with the alt-right could be that she sees herself as being in a position to legitimize them from an intellectual perspective. given that media like breitbart presents barely literate texts, the alt-right might benefit from recruiting academics with moderate rhetorical training. . conclusions. we have come full circle. milo yiannopoulus, who orchestrated, encouraged, and cheered the hordes of trolls launched against women in the wake of #gamergate, is now actively targeting academics using tactics devised years ago and tested with zoe quinn, anita sarkeesian, and brianna wu. moreover, collaborators within academia are willingly reporting anyone who stands up to the neo- fascist regimes installed by the alt-right. as zoe quinn has written: gallaher, "war on the ivory tower.” gallaher, "war on the ivory tower.” gamergate wasn't really about video games at all so much as it was a flashpoint for radicalized online hatred with a long list of targets. the movement helped solidify the growing connections between online white supremacist movements, misogynistic nerds, conspiracy theorists, and dispassionate hackers who receive a sense of power from disseminating disinformation. this patchwork of thanksgiving-ruining racist uncles might look and sound like a bad joke, but they became a real force behind giving donald trump the keys to the white house. gamergate was a trial run for more substantial harassment campaigns. quinn makes a good point: the kind of troll who populates the comments sections of online publications is the same one likely to have voted for trump, encouraged by russian trolls and by their previous success with brexit. in political terms, the influence of social media has become an unpredictable force shaped by those who know how to manipulate it. yiannopoulus and others like him have learned, through multiple successful campaigns, how to manipulate both people and information online. moreover, by the time social media gatekeepers smart up and ban people like yiannopoulus, he already has another space in which to plot mayhem with his followers. when reddit cancels misogynistic forums, the incels have already had so much time to organize their hatred and resentment that individuals might still succeed in carrying out terrorist acts. at every point, we are a step behind in relationship to trolls and their leaders. it would appear that a deep restructuring of social media might be required in order to turn the internet from a lawless town in the wild west into a place in which people can exist without fear of being harassed or even put in physical danger. we cannot uphold and transfer some rights, like free speech, without taking into account that there are individuals who by their body or circumstances are vulnerable to be victimized by our society's quinn, crash override, - . power structures. moreover, as a community, we must defend colleagues who have also taken the role of activists and public intellectuals. as academics, we should all aspire to be an inspiration for those seeking knowledge and be inspired by those of us who already transcend the boundaries of the ivory tower and the limits of the universities. if professors and researchers are not ready to make the investment that is required for the improvement of our society, then we cannot complain when it deteriorates as it has been doing. this might be a dangerous article to write, its existence might invite the wrong kind of attention from the worst type of people. having researched the stories of amanda gailey, dorothy kim, and melissa terras, having read the vile language of the forums of reddit or chan, part of me wanted to quit. this is probably the most difficult piece that i have written in my career. it has given me a new perspective on colleagues who study difficult subjects (gender studies, postcolonial theory, critical race theory, sociology, ethnography), and have to deal with difficult subjects every day. depending on their individual circumstances, they might also sit at the intersection of systems of oppression that are likely to make their everyday lives more difficult. hsr suppl. _ _tomasi_modeling in the digital humanities.docx www.ssoar.info modelling in the digital humanities: conceptual data models and knowledge organization in the cultural heritage domain tomasi, francesca veröffentlichungsversion / published version zeitschriftenartikel / journal article zur verfügung gestellt in kooperation mit / provided in cooperation with: gesis - leibniz-institut für sozialwissenschaften empfohlene zitierung / suggested citation: tomasi, f. ( ). modelling in the digital humanities: conceptual data models and knowledge organization in the cultural heritage domain. historical social research, supplement, , - . https://doi.org/ . / hsr.suppl. . . - nutzungsbedingungen: dieser text wird unter einer cc by lizenz (namensnennung) zur verfügung gestellt. nähere auskünfte zu den cc-lizenzen finden sie hier: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /deed.de terms of use: this document is made available under a cc by licence (attribution). for more information see: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://www.ssoar.info https://doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /deed.de https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . historical social research supplement ( ), - │ published by gesis doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - modelling in the digital humanities: conceptual data models and knowledge organization in the cultural heritage domain francesca tomasi ∗ abstract: »modellieren in den digitalen geisteswissenschaften: konzeptuelle datenmodelle und wissensorganisation für das kulturelle erbe«. this paper ex- plores the role of model and modelling in the field of digital humanities, pay- ing special attention to the cultural heritage domain. in detail, the approach here described adopts a bi-dimensional vision: considering the model as both a process of abstraction, an interpretation from a certain point of view, and a formal language to implement this abstraction in order to create something processable by a machine. the role of conceptual models – to be converted into ontologies – as a semantic deepening of controlled vocabularies, is the transla- tion of this vision. ontologies are the models used in domain communities in order to share classes and predicates for conceptual interoperability. thinking of data models as a knowledge organization system is the core of this reflec- tion on digital humanities domain. keywords: ontologies, knowledge, interpretation, data structures, controlled vocabularies. . introduction model and modelling in the domain of digital humanities (dh) is a huge and challenging topic. it is not trivial to find a common and shareable definition, because the concept of model/modelling is related to multiple facets, integrat- ing the humanistic point of view with the computer scientists’ approach. also, dh have their own notion of models and modelling (see in particular orlandi ; buzzetti ; mccarty ); concepts that also reflect a core method in dh in general and in my research on domain ontologies – or better on con- ceptual data modelling in the cultural heritage – in particular. but let us start from the beginning, from the attempt to find an appropriate definition. we could say that the activity of modelling consists of choosing the features of the observed reality (e.g. an object in a domain) to be formally represented (the abstract model). this formalization requires the adoption of a data struc- ∗ francesca tomasi, department of classical philology and italian studies, university of bolo- gna, via zamboni , bologna, italy; francesca.tomasi@unibo.it. hsr suppl. ( ) │ ture related to a language useful for the description of the abstraction. thus, a model refers to the declaration of the selected properties of an object, e.g. a plain text, to be translated into a machine-readable form by using a descriptive language as a representational method. following this definition, a model is firstly a matter of extracting properties of an object as the result of an interpre- tation. and an interpretation is, naturally, the expression of a point of view. in this sense, a model can never be exhaustive. each point of view is only one of many ways to interpret the observed reality. the more viewpoints on the same object we have, the more models might be collected. so each abstraction is a possible, individual representation of an object in a domain, which is able to replicate the original object: “to an observer b, an object a* is a model of an object a to the extent that b can use a* to answer questions that interest him about a” (minsky ). but models have to be able to aggregate viewpoints. in fact, modelling also means to identify common features of a collection or extracting those patterns that could be recognized in similar resources. the similarity is a matter of sharing, i.e. sharing a genre, a type, a computational objective, a scope or a function. in this sense, modelling reveals a crowdsourced idea: sharing some- thing within a community that decided to advocate a common idea. by using this approach, we recognize two interrelated levels of modelling: on the one hand, the model as an abstraction, as the interpretation of the object through possibly shared and potentially multiple “lenses” (peroni et al. ); on the other, the model as the choice of a language useful to implement this abstraction by creating something that is processable by a machine. . controlled vocabularies as an abstraction the representation of common features of the observed reality is then a matter of communicating a specific vision of the domain. for example, a digital scholarly edition is a model because it represents the choices of the editor in creating the digital objects at each level of the represen- tation: the transcription, the annotation or markup, the para-meta-intra-inter- textual elements, eventually the textual tradition, but also the interface, the criteria for browsing data and documents, etc. (tomasi ). when the editors choose how to transcribe a document (e.g. in a diplomatic, interpretative or critical manner), or to define which features they want to be managed by the machine, they thereby define a model of the text, which they want to reproduce in a digital dimension. each step of this process involves computational conse- quences. in general, modelling, as the result of an interpretation, has to be in dialogue with a shared vision of the observed domain. this is the reason why each cul- tural heritage domain (from libraries to archives, from museums to galleries) hsr suppl. ( ) │ endeavors to define strategies for a semantic dialogue within and between cultures that use different standard reference models. the choice of the content model, i.e. a metadata vocabulary for describing a collection, is a matter of sharing. and sharing a model is what it takes to guar- antee a basic semantic interoperability. dublin core (dc) is, for example, a content model chosen for describing the reality through an abstraction: categories able to collect all necessary features of the observed domain (a cul- tural heritage collection, a web page, an institutional repository, the papers of a journal, etc.). the text encoding initiative (tei) is a model expressed in embedded markup, i.e. a controlled vocabulary, a grammar or, better, a schema (a set of elements, attributes, rules and constraints), for describing objects related to a domain, namely, the humanities. so, tei is a common model for representing the observed reality (i.e. texts and documents in the humanities domain), but it also leaves the interpreter free to define his or her own model of the text(s)/document(s) by choosing the features to be in focus in the computation- al representation. the encoded archival description (ead) and the encoded archival con- text – corporate bodies, persons and families (eac-cpf) are, again, firstly document type definitions (dtds) and schemata created to describe archival finding aids and authority records. they are models in the archival domain, reference systems for the community. and they are both the result of the at- tempt to formalize the two related methodological standards, namely isad (international standard for archival description) for the archival description, and isaar-cpf (international standard archival authority records for cor- porate bodies, persons and families) , for the description of authority records. despite the different implementations, dc, ead, eac-cpf, and tei are all examples among others of metadata element sets used in cultural heritage to resolve ambiguities by sharing a domain vocabulary. they want to present themselves as models, through elements and attributes, conventions, and decla- rations. dublin core metadata element set, version . : (accessed april , ). tei p guidelines, latest version . . , : (ac- cessed april , ). ead: (accessed april , ). eac-cpf: (accessed april , ). isad ( nd edition), : (accessed april , ). isaar-cpf ( nd edition), : (accessed april , ). hsr suppl. ( ) │ metadata models (and controlled vocabularies) take up the need to define a common conceptual architecture for a domain. it is worth noting that in the literature “metadata modelling” refers to a type of metamodelling used in soft- ware engineering and systems engineering for the analysis and construction of models applicable to and useful for some predefined class of problems. the activity of metadata modelling is reflected in a concept diagram. unified mod- eling language (uml) is the language used in the object-oriented paradigm to represent a model as a diagram. concept, generalization, association, multiplic- ity and aggregation are all keywords for creating the model. so, a diagram is a model of the reality, able to represent objects in a context. we move from controlled vocabularies to diagrams; and from diagrams to languages. . languages, data structures and data types it has indeed been said that modelling is also a matter of language. and a for- mal language, from a computational point of view, is a question of data struc- ture and abstract data types, i.e. graph (the network), tree (a hierarchy), table (a relation), sequence (a list). they are, in fact, models. for all data to be orga- nized in a digital environment one of these models is chosen to represent the observed reality. some examples will help make this point clear: - indeclarative markup languages, e.g. in xml, the model of the document is a tree-like structure. so the content (actually the structure) of the doc- ument is represented as a series of features hierarchically organized and nested; - in database systems (dbms), the more common model adopted is the re- lational one, namely the table. objects are records (and thus data) and each value is related to one of the attributes (properties) that describe the reality of the objects; - the network is the structure – the model – of the web; but the network is also the hypertextual representation of documents (in the web . envi- ronment), and now of interconnected data (from a linked open data [lod] perspective); from the sequence (a list of documents) to the graph (a network of data). hypertext is then a model organizing data objects through their relationships. we have to keep this aspect in mind. the formal language is another way to conceive the concept of model. the choice of the language, and of the related uml: (accessed april , ). w c official page on linked data: (accessed april , ). hsr suppl. ( ) │ structures, depends on the observed domain: e.g. documents (i.e. non-structured objects) or data (i.e. structured objects). with the markup, e.g. with xml as a formal meta-language, we model documents as semi-structured objects. and the aim is to reduce the narrative, in order to model content (or, better, struc- ture) as a collection of atomic interconnected pieces to be managed as data. we move from the property-value pairs through the tree (the declarative markup language as xml) to the graph (a model as resource description framework [rdf] for creating lod). as it has been said: in computer science, the concept of model is related to a data structure, i.e. a possible representation of a digital content or a particular way of organizing data. in this sense, the choice of the logical model (e.g. a relational database instead of a markup language) determines the computational results or, better, the computational activities and operations on the data as based on the chosen model. hence, models play an important role in moving from theory (the abstract model) to practice, understood as the actions that can be performed (the formal language). . a conceptual-oriented position in the document community, the markup is the model, i.e. the language to represent the structure of the reality. in the data community, the model, i.e. the traditional way to represent the content of the domain, is the database. in data modelling theory, used especially in database design (although it holds true also for other contexts), we recognize three possible models, also described as three levels of abstraction of a dbms: - a conceptual data model - a logical data model - a physical data model (or better a schema). we begin with the latter. at the physical level, we deal with physical means by which data are stored, which is not our level of interest. at the logical level, we deal with structures of models again: hierarchical, network, relational and object oriented. the importance of this level lies in the fact that each chosen data structure affects the possible computational activi- ties: even if the model is theoretical, it involves the kind of operations that we could perform with data based on one of these abstract structures (the tree, the graph, the table, the class). so the model in this case is the content, not just the structure. now, let us move to the first level: the conceptual data model, i.e. the ab- stract conceptual representation of data. on this level, data are defined from a conceptual point of view. the meaning of data depends on the context of the interrelationships with other data. hsr suppl. ( ) │ there are several notations for data modelling. the most common model is the “entity relationship model” (e/r), because it depicts data in terms of the entities and relationships described in the data. the e/r notation yields a mod- el, because its aim is to represent the reality as an abstraction: “this model incorporates some of the important semantic information about the real world” (chen ). the conceptual model then represents concepts (entities) and connections (relationships) between them. the notation itself is an abstraction. . ontologies and knowledge the same approach is adopted by ontologies, i.e. conceptual data models trans- lated through a formal language. again, we range between database theory and markup languages: the data-centric approach of the dbms, the formal declara- tive language (xml) and the assertion (the triple) as a graph (rdf). we could say that we are dealing with the semantic web approach and the lod perspec- tive (bizer, heath, and berners-lee ). in ontology design, the model is the conceptual framework. the ontology is the conceptualization of an abstraction by identifying those features, in the form of classes and predicates, which enable us to describe a domain, observed from a specific point of view. and the aim is to move from data to information in order to extract knowledge, i.e. to reveal the latent, the yet unknown. reveal- ing knowledge through the analysis of, for example, the context, is necessary in order to enable inferences (daquino and tomasi ). modelling, for in- stance, persons, dates, places or events is an attempt to standardize a conceptu- al approach through relationships (gonano et al. ). edm , cidoc crm and frbroo , skos – just to give some hetero- geneous examples (see, for example, doerr ) – are nothing but points of view on reality. we could assert that ontologies are the shared ideas concerning a domain, expressed with classes and properties, relationships between con- cepts, rules and constraints. a domain ontology is a formal, abstract representa- tion, useful in order to semantically describe, i.e. to model, a collection of resources and to reason on data, with an inferential aim and a problem-solving approach. another attempt to model the reality is the translation of an xml schema, e.g. tei, into an ontology (see, for example, eide ; ciotti and tomasi ). europeana data model: (accessed april , ). cidoc conceptual reference model: (accessed april , ). frbroo: (accessed april , ). skos: (accessed april , ). hsr suppl. ( ) │ so, ontologies are models, and i think that conceptualization is the core of modelling, with reference to the issue of knowledge organization. in fact, ontologies are both a way to express the semantics of a domain and a method to organize knowledge through concepts. i personally believe that in the dh domain, ontology engineering is the most effective and persuasive modelling strategy: it is a method enabling us to reproduce the brain’s reasoning, i.e., the humanistic approach to interpretation. the act of moving from controlled vocabularies to ontologies reflects the need to express the semantics that are hidden because of the absence of a con- tent model. the creation of an interconnection through typed links is the key to solve relationships between entities in order to reveal real knowledge. . final remarks another definition, from the linked open data perspective, is the concept of model as a conversion method: linked data modelling involves data going from one model to another. for example, modelling may involve converting a tabular representation of the data to a graph-based representation. often extracts from relational databases are modeled and converted to linked data to more rapidly integrate datasets from different authorities or with other open source datasets. so, the act of converting data into a different format, or using another data structure, is again a practice. the model gives the theoretical basis for a practi- cal activity. finally, a model is also a question of interface. the template for a web page, for instance, is a model. the design of a page in a content management system (cms) is a model. the architecture of information, understood as the position of logical components of a page, is a model. the iconic symbols are models of the reality. so, when we model a web resource, we chose a way to represent information in the visual interface: we define spaces for components and we use icons as an abstraction of an idea, we adopt glyphs as a representation of graphemes. in conclusion, models are a guideline, models are shared by a community, models are the representation of a domain, models refer to languages and data an interesting event related to these themes is the “three-day workshop held at brown university on data modelling in the humanities, sponsored by the neh and the dfg, and co- organized by fotis jannidis and julia flanders”. knowledge organization and data modeling in the humanities: an ongoing conversation, (accessed april , ). best practices for publishing linked data. w c working group note january : (accessed april , ). hsr suppl. ( ) │ structures, models are a visual and iconic abstraction. ontologies are models. modelling is my favorite job. . discussion günther görz’s questions (q) and my answers (a) q . i plead for a more restricted and terminological use of the term “model”. as nelson goodman already wrote in “languages of art”: “few terms are used in popular and scientific discourse more promiscuously than ‘model’” ( ). a . the scope of this paper is to reflect on the concept of model by using multiple perspectives. so, yes, the term is used here in order to refer to differ- ent levels, but this is exactly what i would like to get across: the ambiguity, the multiplicity and the polysemy of the word “model”. q . it is true that modelling in dh is a challenging topic, but i can't see that dh already has its own notion of models and modelling compared with other interdisciplinary enterprises with computer science such as the social sciences, (cognitive) psychology, or economics. a . the literature in dh regarding the concept of model and modelling is so vast that i could assert that dh is elaborating its own definition. q . for the formal language, the distinction between abstract data types, (concrete) data structures and their implementation should be noticed. never- theless, e.g. in the mentioned case of digital scholarly editions, we should dis- tinguish between a model (the concepts, properties, constraints, structures, rules, etc.) and a particular result. a . in digital scholarly editing, the concept of model refers to the choice of the features to be formalized at each level of the scholarly activity. in this sense, the edition is a model: it represents the interpretative act of the editor. q . i see a similar problem in calling tei a model. in my view, tei is first of all a formal language with an informal semantics. this view imposes several severe constraints, e.g. a fundamental tree structure due to its commitment to xml. so, i still see a deficit on the theoretical side; for me, tei is yet more a representational framework than a model. a . from the formal point of view, tei is not a model. it lacks semantics. but, from the point of view of models as a shared definition of elements and attributes related to the classification of hermeneutic aspects of a domain, tei is a model. q . another issue is the depth of semantic modelling. in this respect, edm, cidoc crm + frbr and skos are not on the same level. i think we are in substantial agreement on what is said about formal ontologies: the question of semantics is tightly connected to a well-defined inference relation. taking up tei again, marking up named entities such as place names and representing hsr suppl. ( ) │ places in a formal ontology such as cidoc crm are on reasonably different abstraction levels. the anything but simple question is then, how the relation- ship between tei elements and crm concepts can be formally recorded and mapped into a (partial) semantic and interoperable representation in terms of crm, expressible in rdf/lod. in the actually used formal systems, the most advanced of which are descriptions logics (cf. owl), we can deal with under specification, but not with vagueness. this is one of the very big challenges of the humanities and science. a . edm, cidoc crm, frbr, and skos are not on the same level, i agree. the semantic depth is surely different. but they are all models, i.e. point of views: how to integrate metadata vocabularies (edm), how to use an event- centric approach in the cultural heritage (cidoc crm), how to document the stratification of object descriptions (frbr), how to express structured subjects in a domain (skos). so, again, they are not all models from the viewpoint of formal languages to describe concepts, i.e. ontology, but because of their at- tempt to define a shared conceptualization. translating the tei schema into an ontology (e.g. an owl representation), or thinking on tei as a crm, is a challenging issue (see, for example, eide ; ciotti and tomasi ). q . finally, reasoning with formal ontologies is, up to now, deductive rea- soning. but for reasoning in the humanities and in science other forms are also needed, something that leibniz called “ars inventoria”. a . yes, formal reasoning is the final aim. and the role of ontologies is to enable inferences through description logic formalism. but this is just one of the various ways to interpret the concept of model. references bizer, christian, tom heath, and tim berners-lee. . linked data – the story so far. international journal on semantic web and information systems ( ): - . buzzetti, dino. . digital representation and the text model. new literary history ( ): - . chen, peter. . the entity-relationship model – toward a unified view of data. acm transactions on database systems ( ): - . ciotti, fabio, and francesca tomasi. . formal ontologies, linked data and tei semantics. journal of the text encoding initiative (accessed april , ). daquino, marilena, and francesca tomasi. . historical context ontology (hico): a conceptual model for describing context information of cultural heritage objects. in metadata and semantics research, - . berlin: springer. doerr, martin. . ontologies for cultural heritage. in handbook on ontologies, - . berlin: springer. eide, Øyvind. . ontologies, data modeling, and tei. journal of the text encoding initiative (accessed april , ). hsr suppl. ( ) │ gonano, ciro m., francesca mambelli, silvio peroni, francesca tomasi, and fabio vitali. . zeri e lode. extracting the zeri photo archive to linked open data: formalizing the conceptual model. in digital libraries (jcdl), - . london: ieee. mccarty, willard. . modeling: a study in words and meanings. in companion to digital humanities. oxford: blackwell (accessed april , ). minsky, marvin l. . matter, mind and models (accessed april , ). (rev. version of the essay in semantic information processing, ed. marvin minsky. cambridge, ma: mit press, ). orlandi, tito. . linguistica, sistemi, e modelli. in il ruolo del modello nella scienza e nel sapere (roma, - ottobre ) (= contributi del centro linceo interdisciplinare, n. ), roma: accademia dei lincei, - . peroni, silvio, francesca tomasi, fabio vitali, and jacopo zingoni. . semantic lenses as exploration method for scholarly article. in bridging between cultural heritage institutions, - . berlin: springer. tomasi, francesca. . vespasiano da bisticci, lettere. a digital edition. bologna: university of bologna (accessed april , ). historical social research historische sozialforschung all articles published in hsr supplement ( ): models and modelling between digital humanities – a multidisciplinary perspective arianna ciula, Øyvind eide, cristina marras & patrick sahle modelling: thinking in practice. an introduction. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - willard mccarthy modelling what there is: ontologising in a multidimensional world. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - nina bonderup dohn models, modelling, metaphors and metaphorical thinking – from an educational philosophical view. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - barbara tversky multiple models. in the mind and in the world. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - christina ljungberg iconicity in cognition and communication. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - rens bod modelling in the humanities: linking patterns to principles. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - fotis jannidis modeling in the digital humanities: a research program? doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - oliver nakoinz models and modelling in archaeology. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - gunnar olsson everything is translation (including the art of making new boots out of the old ones). doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - claas lattmann iconizing the digital humanities. models and modeling from a semiotic perspective. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - giorgio fotia modelling practices and practices of modelling. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - paul a. fishwick a humanities based approach to formally defining information through modelling. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - günther görz some remarks on modelling from a computer science perspective. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - francesca tomasi modelling in the digital humanities: conceptual data models and knowledge organization in the cultural heritage domain. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - for further information on our journal, including tables of contents, article abstracts, and our extensive online archive, please visit http://www.gesis.org/en/hsr. historical social research historische sozialforschung https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - patrick sahle how to recognize a model when you see one. or: claudia schiffer and the climate change. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - cristina marras a metaphorical language for modelling. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - zoe schubert & elisabeth reuhl setting the space: creating surroundings for an interdisciplinary discourse and sharing of (implicit) knowledge. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - nils geißler & michela tardella observational drawing. from words to diagrams. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - tessa gengnagel the discourse about modelling: some observations from the outside. doi: . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr.suppl. . . - 教育資料與圖書館學 journal of educational media & library sciences http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vol. , no. ( ) : - 孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析 who was the key figure? a social network analysis of suzhou book collector groups in ming dynasty through a digital humanities approach 陳冠至* kuan-chih chen* associate professor e-mail： @mail.fju.edu.tw 陳柏溢 bo-yi chen ma student 黃敬程 ching-cheng huang librarian english abstract & summary see link at the end of this article http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) : - doi: . /joemls. _ ( ). .rs.am 研究論文孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析 ψ 陳冠至a*　陳柏溢b　黃敬程c 摘要明代蘇州藏書家的社群集團性格十分明顯，與明代的「吳中文苑」彼此呼應，對於全國各地的區域藏書文化，產生了十分強大的影響力。一般而言，古代藏書家與藏書家之間的社群集合，可以透過血緣、姻親、師承、友朋等社會關係加以鏈結，但是這四種關係的史料紀錄卻十分龐雜而難以處理。為此，本文嘗試利用數位人文技術，選擇社群分析軟體，來對明代蘇州藏書家集團性進行深入性的探究，進而描繪出藏書家集團的四大社會關係網絡模型，並縷列其不同時期的傳承性或關連性，同時研判明代不同時期內蘇州藏書家集團的核心社群及核心社群裡的靈魂人物，其結果可能將與以往學者們的認知有所不同，期盼能夠提供另一種參考。關鍵詞：明代，蘇州，藏書家社群，數位人文一、前　言江南地區自宋代以來，即是中國經濟和文化的重鎮，尤其在雕板印刷普遍興起之後，私人藏書風氣更因而大盛。蘇州歷來亦為人文薈萃之區，不少文人兼具藏書家的身分，以藏書為終身職志，發展出蘇州地區文人藏書的特色與文化。特別是到了明代，在江南的文人群體中，由於蘇州的文人集團獨特地發展出揉合南北且深具區域和時代特色的文學傳統與文化風格，被現代學者稱為 ψ 本文「附錄：明代蘇州藏書家社會關係表」請另見本刊官網電子檔。 a 輔仁大學圖書資訊學系進修學士班副教授 b 輔仁大學圖書資訊學系碩士班研究生 c 新生醫護管理專科學校圖書館館員 * 本文主要作者兼通訊作者： @mail.fju.edu.tw / / 投稿； / / 修訂； / / 接受http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 「蘇州文苑」或「吳中文苑」。而藏書活動歷來便是蘇州文人文化的主要環節，因此，探討藏書家在文人集團中所扮演的角色，也就顯得格外地重要。另一方面，藏書家於文化發展所產生的影響力，通常也會透過集團的方式來散布傳播，所以針對藏書家的社群性研究，自然也可從中觀察到文人群體推動區域時代文化特色的一個面向。當時的藏書家們主要是透過家族、姻親、師承、友朋等各種社會關係，結合成各式各樣的集團，對於在地生活文化的形塑與發展，確實十分重要。目前國內以群體傳記學為基礎，搭配數位人文的研究方法，利用社群軟體進行古代文士社會關係的集團性分析，其中最為知名者就是「中國歷代人物傳記資料庫」（china biographical database project, cbdb; the president and fellows of harvard college, ）。而本文即嘗試以「中國歷代人物傳記資料庫」的作法，透過資訊科技，選擇社群分析軟體ucinet（university of california at irvine network），來對明代蘇州藏書家的集團性質進行深入地分析與探究。首先，透過蒐集、過濾、整理與輸入大量的史料紀錄，經過資訊系統的分析、比對與交叉綜整，進而描繪出藏書家集團的社會關係網絡模組，並縷列其不同時期的傳承性或關連性。其次，研判出不同時期何者為明代蘇州藏書家集團中的核心社群？哪些人又為該社群的靈魂人物？藉以提供文史學界研究明代「蘇州文苑」之參稽。其三，釐清明代蘇州藏書家集團各時期、各集團首腦人物、集團成員與集團成員間的關連性、首腦人物與首腦人物之時代傳衍性等諸多問題。至於文中所列藏書家與他人交往的史料紀錄，請參考本文之「附錄：明代蘇州藏書家社會關係表」。二、明代江南文士的集團性格特徵文人集團是一種文化屬性的職能集團，它是由知識階層透過一定的社會關係，甚至是為了一定的目的而組織起來，進行文化活動的一種社會團體。集團構成的基本條件有三：一是集團中每個成員都有共同的社會活動的目標。二是集團在實體上，必須構成一種現實存在的組織，且在這一組織中的人們之間，具有一種或多種十分確定的因緣關係，譬如血緣、地緣、業緣等社會關係。三是集團中的人們，在精神上，必須有一種十分鮮明的集團意識。而上述三點，又以第二個條件最為重要（郭英德，）。中國歷史上的文化主導階層，通常就是包括了士大夫在內的廣義文人階層；而時代文化精神，也正可說是一個時有關「蘇州文苑」的意涵與集團性發展情形，可參見簡錦松於年所著明代文學批評研究，第章，〈蘇州文苑〉，頁 - 。關於明代蘇州藏書家的總體情況，請參見陳冠至於年所著明代的蘇州藏書—藏書家的藏書活動與藏書生活一書。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析代裡，文人們的主導精神傾向（高小康，）。明代文人的集團性格特徵相當明顯，可能與當代文人普遍崇尚的「好事」精神有關。明代文人通常只要在藝文上稍有表現，便要加以品題，甚至為此結會社集，當時不勝枚舉的詩社、文社、酒會、抄書社⋯⋯等團體，皆是如此而生。他們往往借著以文會友為題，從事文酒之宴、嗜癖之會，成為一時的風尚（郭紹虞，）。文人集團在廣大的社會群體中，往往具有某些特殊的共通性；且相同的社會集團、階層與派別，就團內成員的審美趣味而言，也都具有較為一致的品味（朱義祿，）。而明代蘇州的藏書家群體亦屬當地文人集團的一支，有些雖然沒有正式打出集團名號，卻仍定期或不定期的舉行文會，各自出示珍藏的典籍或文物，相與品隲、觀摩題詠，或討論版本與書籍的裝幀形式、作者的學派源流，以及種種與書籍相關的議題等。不過，有些藏書家社集，則會正式提出藏書家集團的名號，盟會社集，立宗旨，訂社約。例如明末的「鈔書社」，便是藏書家之間為了尋求書籍流通、互易有無的一種專為抄書目的而組成的社團。由於集團成員全具文人身份，自然也是當時在地文人集團的一部分。以下，我們便由明代蘇州地區藏書家之間的家族、姻親、師承與友朋等四大社會關係，觀察此地不同時期藏書家之間的關連與集團文化屬性。三、社會網絡分析研究的意義「社會網絡分析」（social network analysis, sna）是對社會網絡的分析方法。以日常接觸來說，社會網絡比較容易聯想到網絡、部落格或臉書等連結。但事實上，社會網絡泛指各種不同形式的社會關係或連結，因此有時我們置身其中，理所當然，擁有的各種關係或連結，包含社會性的連結，例如友誼；也包含實體的連結，例如上班的交通路線。若是將這種關係或連結視為一張「網絡圖」，其中「點」代表個體、我與他人，而「線」則代表不同的關係、連結或路線。將社會關係視為這種點與線交織的網絡，並加以分析，便是社會網絡分析。社會網絡分析即是用來分析社會關係網絡的一種工具，可以透過社會網絡問卷、訪談、觀察、文獻檢索等各式各樣的方式，來蒐集不同個體間具備何種關係的資料，再將其製作成n×n的關係矩陣圖（n為網絡內節點的數量）後，並且匯入社群網絡分析軟體（ucinet）中，以用來計算出各種社會網絡的指標數據，並且描繪出各種關係類型的網絡圖形（陳榮德，）。直覺上，我們對於上述的網絡概念似乎都不陌生，網絡也常常讓我們聯想到周邊所發生的許多事物，以網絡想像或設想社會關係似乎也特別親近與容易。人類往往是許多社群中的一員，透過不同的關係而與他人產生連結，而http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 整體社會便籍由這些關係或連帶才能運轉。每個人際網絡圈或許具有相當的差異，但也有可能相互重疊，社會即因此顯得多元與繁複，區域文化也隨之成形、發展與傳布。社會網絡不是一個構思出來的觀念，而是一種生活型態，既然如此，可以想見網絡分析對象其實是非常普遍與多元的（hanneman & riddle, / ）。至於社會網絡分析的目的，是希望對各種關係進行精確的量化分析，從而為某種中層理論（mid-range theory）的構建、實證假說的檢驗提供量化的工具。根據有關文獻，我們可將社會網絡歸納出若干特性：㈠同一個群體的成員（以下或稱「節點」，nodes），常常共同擁有不只一個的關係網絡。㈡兩個關係網絡，也不必然擁有完全相同的群體成員。㈢群體成員彼此關係的變動（如新增、喪失），會造成關係網絡的變動。社會網絡並非憑空產生、無中生有，而是從有人類的互動開始便在於社會結構之中，社會網絡分析方法拓展了理解社會網絡的新視野。明確地說，社會網絡是指將人們連結在一起的社會關係網絡，並利用社會圖（sociogram），以點表示節點（或成員），以線表示節點之間的關係，呈現這些社會組態的屬性，衡量社會凝聚加或密度，以及「各種關係」之間的關係（榮泰生，）。四、明代蘇州藏書家的社會網絡分析社會網絡（social network）是人們為了滿足各種需求，與他人產生的互動，且在互動的過程中，往往自然而然的去選擇某些符合自己需要的對象來建立關係。因此，不論個人、組織或群體，都能夠在社會網絡中成為一個個體，而個體與個體之間的關係也會形成連結，這樣的社會關係結構，就構成社會網絡（林琨華，）。一般而言，古代藏書家與藏書家之間的社會群體，通常可以透過一些社會關係來加以串接鏈結，即：血緣、姻親、師承、友朋等四大節點。有鑑於此，本文乃透過史料中有關明代蘇州文士具備這四種社會關係的記錄，利用 ucinet軟體來進行社群解析，期盼可以先行了解明代蘇州藏書家社群的真實全貌與內涵，作為未來進一步地探索明代蘇州藏書文化風潮之所以會如此興盛原因的基礎。該軟體內建許多網絡分析指標（例如：中心度、位置分析法、派系分析法等），藉由人與人、人與事之間的關係來加以辨識、區劃和歸納，最後透過不同的指令來產生不同的結果，進而加以分析並推出結果（劉軍，）。在ucinet社會網絡分析中，本文採用的研究指標為：網絡密度、程度中心性、仲介中心性、接近中心性、派系等模式，做為觀察明代藏書家社群的http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析個途徑。值得注意的是，利用ucinet來處理古代的社群關係議題時，往往無法如同研究現代社群節點之間的關係一般容易，經常會受限於史料對於人際關係的記載過於直接、簡略，導致很多ucinet原本設計的功能，都無法發揮或使用。雖然如此，以下仍將分別依這個指標，逐一整理、分析與解釋明代蘇州藏書界的社會網絡連結狀況，不但縱剖性地檢視整個明代蘇州藏書家的社會網絡發展，同時還進一步地按照每一位成員的卒年或生存年代，將明代區分為「洪武至天順」（ - ）、「成化至正德」（ - ）、「嘉靖至萬曆」（ - ）、「天啟至明末清初」（ -）等四個時期，期盼藉由不同時期的數據與獲得的核心人物，來看出明代蘇州藏書家社群不同時期的傳承與發展脈絡，並試圖比較不同時期藏書家社群的盛衰情況，進而提供學界一種有別於以往研究成果的參考答案。㈠網絡密度（density）分析 wasserman與faust（）認為「網絡密度」指的是網絡成員間彼此互動的聯繫程度，亦即團隊成員彼此互動的平均程度。密度高，表示網絡中的任何一個成員和其他成員的聯繫關係也較多，藏書社群的數量自然就比較多；密度低，則是每一個成員間的聯繫較少，藏書社群的數量亦較少。網絡密度顯示出社會網絡節點間關係的緊密程度，也就是社會網絡節點的連結程度（hanneman & riddle, / ）。誠如表所示，網絡所有節點的聯繫程度密度越高，則彼此之間的關係越複雜或重疊，其值介於和之間，越接近則代表彼此間的關係益趨緊密。表　明代蘇州藏書家社會網絡密度時段網絡密度標準差洪武至天順 . . 成化至正德 . . 嘉靖至萬曆 . . 天啟至明末清初 . . 至於標準差，則可以反映出每個社群與其他成員或社群之間的離散程度，亦即用來輔助檢視藏書家社群之間再結合成更大社群的可能性。較大的標準差，代表大部分的數值和其平均值之間差異較大，社群之間的離散性比較大，彼此結合成更大社群的可能性比較小；反之，較小的標準差，則代表這些數值較接近平均值，社群之間的離散性較小，彼此結合成更大社群的可能性當然就比較大。利用網路密度，可以幫助了解明代各個時期蘇州藏書家社群的成長情形，藉以比較出明代的哪一段時期是社群作發達或最不發達，進而得知有明一代蘇州藏書家社群的整體成長情況。由於整個明代（洪武至明末清初）的網絡密度缺乏比較的基礎（例如可以和某個朝代，或明代其他地區的網絡密度數據來作比 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 較），故在此不列。但若進一步地將明代分為四個時期，便可比較彼此之間的差異性（請參考表）。因此，本文即透過網路密度的數據，來比較明代四個時期藏書家社群的發展情況，由這些數據來觀察整個明代，可以得知洪武至天順這一段時期內，蘇州的藏書家群體數量在所有時期中是最少的，且社群之間互相結合的可能性也最低，以至於大型的區域藏書家社群不多。相反地，成化至正德時期則是明代蘇州藏書家社群數量存在最多的時期，且社群之間再結合成較大型藏書家群體的可能性在明代也是最高的，出現了許多大型的區域藏書家群體。明代蘇州藏書家社群之所以大量出現於本時期，應該與吳寬（ - ）、王鏊（ - ）等在地藏書家的政治與文學成就對地方士風的引領作用有關。長洲藏書家文徵明（ - ）曾經指出：「成化、弘治間，吳文定（寬）、王文恪（鏊）繼起高科，傳掌帝制，遂持海內文柄」（焦竑（明）， d，南京翰林院孔目蔡先生羽墓誌，頁上；括號內文字為本文作者所加）。文徵明的弟子、同縣藏書家陸師道（ - ）則又更進一步地說明：吳自季札、言（言偃）、游（子游）而降，代多文士。其在前古，南鏐東箭，地不絕產，家不乏珍，宗工鉅人，蓋更僕不能悉數也。至於我明，受命郡重，扶馮王化所先，英奇瑰傑之才，應運而出，尤特盛於天下。……至於英、孝之際，徐武功（有貞， - ）、吳文定（寬）、王文恪（鏊）三公者出，任當鈞冶，主握文柄，天下操觚之士，嚮風景服，靡然而從之。時則有若李太僕貞伯（應禎， - ）、沈處士啟南（周， - ）、祝通判希哲（允明， - ）、楊儀制君謙（循吉， - ）、都少卿元敬（穆， - ）、文待詔徵仲（徵明）、唐解元伯虎（寅， - ）、徐博士昌穀（禎卿， - ）、蔡孔目九逵（羽，？ - ）先後繼起，聲景比附，名實彰流，金玉相宣，黼黻並麗，吳下文獻於斯為盛，彬彬乎不可尚已。正德、嘉靖以來，諸公稍稍凋謝。（陸師道（明），，袁永之集序，頁上；括號內文字為本文作者所加）以上陸師道指稱的明代蘇州名士，幾乎全部都是藏書家，得以想見明代成化至正德時期蘇州藏書家社群網絡高度發展連結的盛況，誠可謂一時名流輩出，聲氣相連，進而引領風氣之先，成為一項突兀的時代及區域人文特徵。㈡程度中心性分析（degree centrality）每個行動者在網絡結構中都有其所處的位置，無論人與人的社會網絡，或在政治環境中的政策網絡，其結構位置往往影響著行動者所能控制的資源，因此，在政策社群中的行動者，比起一般的議題網絡行動者，更具備影響決策的力量與資源。換言之，在網絡中的結構關係是呈現出不對稱的型態，有些行動http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析者會佔據較重要的網絡位置，可以成為政策產出中權力的中心點或中介點，有些則為居邊陲（史美強、王光旭，）。所以，研究社會網絡時，必須注意每個節點對社群的影響力將有所不同，並設法加以區別開來。「程度中心性」的分析，即是測量節點在網絡關係中的涉入程度，在一個網絡當中擁有高程度中心性的人，代表其在網絡居於主要的地位，也就是說能夠與較多的節點直接聯繫，其所具有的影響力也就越高，可能代表是此網絡結構的領導者、專家抑或樞紐（freeman, - ）。換句話說，衡量程度中心性的目的就是要去計算誰在網絡中是最重要的核心人物。當程度中心的指標越高，則節點可能擁有的影響力範圍以及調節能力就越大。節點之「程度中心性」描述的就是社會網絡中，單一成員點在資訊傳播的地位，也就是個人在社會網絡資訊與文化傳播中具有怎樣的權勢，或者處在一個什麼樣的中心地位，進而推結出哪些成員在資訊傳播過程處在核心位置，以及不同的社區成員所表現出的不同重要性。程度中心性又可區分為「向外中心性」（outward centrality）和「向內中心性」（inward centrality）。向外中心性意味著節點具有高度的對外聯結傾向與能力，希望能多多與他人牽連，常被視為是有影響力的節點；向內中心性則是他人企圖與其有所關連，亦可顯示出節點在整個社群的重要性。然而受到史料記載內容的限制，本文僅能於程度中心性內呈顯「向內」的結果，也就是著重於節點連線數量的多寡。至於「向外」的部分，本文將以「仲介中心性」的結果為準。將明代蘇州藏書家的社會網絡以ucinet進行節點程度中心性分析，可以得知各時期藏書社群的核心靈魂人物。限於篇幅，茲將明代蘇州藏書家的社會網絡其中排序前四名藏書家之相關數值列表及說明。由表可知，綜觀有明一代，當以活躍於明代中葉「蘇州文苑」的長洲藏書家文徵明（ - ）的程度中心性最高，達次，成為整個明代蘇州藏書社群裡最為核心的靈魂人物。而邢參與祝允明則同列第二，朱存理（ - ）第三。同時值得注意的是，這四位明代蘇州的藏書家都是長洲縣人，此或可見長洲縣於整個明代蘇州的藏書界所占有的區域領導地位，是藏書社群發展最為活躍的地區。再從四個不同時期來看，每個時期蘇州藏書界的集團核心人物分別是：洪武至天順時期，崑山縣的藏書家沈愚；成化至正德時期，長洲縣的藏書家文徵明；嘉靖至萬曆時期，太倉州的藏書家王世貞（ - ）；天啟至明末清初，常熟縣的藏書家錢謙益（ - ）。這些人不但在其所處時代，對於區域藏書社群之橫向形成過程皆具有一定影響力，且在各個藏書集團的時代縱向連結，也扮演著十分重要的角色，可將他們視為藏書家社群網絡的明星成員（請參考表）。至於一些節點程度中心性不是很高的成員，雖然也是構成明初蘇州各個藏書集團的重要部分，但他們往往仍會處於一種自由活動的狀態，多數時候對社 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 會網絡間的連結抱持觀望態度，所以僅視為普通成員，其重要程度視其與蘇州藏書家的聯結狀況而定。為了使網絡節點程度中心性的數據具備比較的基礎，在ucinet中，系統會自動計算出「網絡中心性標準化指數」（network centralization），作為對照的依據，百分比越高則社群間交往連結的情況益趨熱絡。依據表可知，四個時期，當以成化至正德時期藏書家社群的活動最為熱絡，其次為天啟至明末清初；而嘉靖至萬曆時期藏書家社群的連結狀況則是最低（請參考表）。表　明代蘇州藏書家社會網絡節點程度中心性分析之標準化指數時期標準化指數% 洪武至天順 . 成化至正德 . 嘉靖至萬曆 . 天啟至明末清初 . ㈢仲介中心性（betweenness centrality）分析「仲介中心性」是用來測試節點居於其他所有人最短溝通路徑的數量加總，換句話說就是計算節點與其他節點聯絡時，經過某中介節點的次數。當節點的指標越高，則代表在網絡中有越多的成員必須藉由此節點，才能產生連結關係，也就是相當於媒介者的角色。所謂媒介者，可以將其想像成一座橋梁，表　明代、明代各時期蘇州藏書家群體之社會網絡節點程度中心性分析時期姓名（排序）程度中心性明初至明末清初文徵明 . 邢參 . 祝允明 . 朱存理 . 洪武至天順（ - ）沈愚 . 王貞慶 . 湯胤勣 . 劉溥 . 成化至正德（ - ）文徵明 . 邢參 . 王寵 . 祝允明 . 嘉靖至萬曆（ - ）王世貞 . 王世懋 . 王錫爵 . 孫七政 . 天啟至明末清初（ - ）錢謙益 . 歸莊 . 金俊明 . 毛晉 . http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析在整個社會網絡所佔據的位置，是連接的重要角色，也同時擁有較高的控制能力，所以在社會網絡的結構中，也可能扮演著資訊交換者或掮客的角色（史美強、王光旭，）。同樣地，在社會網絡關係中，任兩個成員的互動必須透過某個關鍵點連結的程度來判斷；亦即衡量一個成員是否在其他兩個成員相互聯絡的通路上。仲介者即為網絡分析中所說「橋樑」的位置，此一位置往往在知識或資訊流通的網絡中，佔著十分有價值的地位。根據「弱聯繫優勢理論」（the strength of weak ties），仲介者常常是訊息最靈通的人，因為他是站在傳遞資訊的交通樞紐上，也因為仲介他人的訊息，而因此掌握了豐富的資訊（granovtter, ）。透過ucinet的仲介中心性分析，便能將明代蘇州藏書家的社會網絡中，每位成員的仲介性加以量化，藉此比較社群網絡中具備仲介角色藏書家的重要程度。利用節點的仲介中心性分析，得到的結果從高到低展現了各個成員點的「絕對中心指數」（betweenness）和「相對中心指數」（nbetweenness，又稱標準化仲介中心性），可以指出明代各時期各藏書集團的每位成員與其他藏書社群連結的控制程度。絕對中心指數為衡量某一節點存在於其他任兩點路徑上的重要程度，當仲介中心性指數越高時，表示該節點是位於溝通與橋梁的地位，也代表其在網絡中是個重要的節點；至於相對中心度指數則是標準化後的仲介中心性，據此可以得知該藏書家參與群體討論話題的參與程度（吳來奇，）。不過，本文由於缺乏藏書家參與群體討論話題的史料紀錄，因此僅以絕對中心指數來觀察明代蘇州藏書家社群網絡節點的仲介中心性程度。總之，就每個節點來說，其仲介中心性指數越高，就表示他們對藏書社群與社群間發生連結的控制程度越高，亦即在連結各藏書社群上所發揮出的權力與重要性也就越大。宥於篇幅，茲僅將整個明代及四個分期，排序前四位的藏書家表列說明如表。根據表，就整個明代蘇州藏書界而言，常熟藏書家錢謙益的絕對中心指數最高，也就是最大的仲介者。至於在四個不同分期內，每時期仲介中心性最高的成員按照四個分期的先後順序排列，分別是：吳縣藏書家劉昌（ - ）、長洲縣藏書家沈周、太倉州藏書家王世貞，以及常熟藏書家錢謙益，說明他們在各時段的藏書社群交流網絡中，都處在很重要的橋梁位置。不論貫穿整個明代，或分處在各個不同時期，這些藏書家不但於蘇州藏書資訊流通的控制程度相對較高，同時也掌握了較為豐富的藏書資訊資源，所以在促進節點間的交流與連結，起到很大的歷史作用。也就是說，很多藏書家會在交流書籍資訊的過程中，對他們的依賴程度較大。㈣接近中心性（closeness centrality）分析「接近中心性」著重在每一個節點到其他節點的距離，考量他們的間接http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 表　明代、明代各時期蘇州藏書家的社會網絡節點仲介中心性分析時期姓名（排序）絕對中心指數明初至明末清初錢謙益 , . 王錫爵 , . 歸有光 , . 孫七政 , . 洪武至天順劉昌 . 杜瓊 . 朱存理 . 陳繼 . 成化至正德沈周 . 祝允明 . 文徵明 . 王寵 . 嘉靖至萬曆王世貞 . 王錫爵 . 馮復京 . 孫七政 . 天啟至明末清初錢謙益 . 歸莊 . 毛晉 . 徐乾學 . 表　明代、明代各時期蘇州藏書家的社會網絡接近中心性時期姓名（排序）不受他人控制程度明初至明末清初黃姬水 , . 錢穀 , . 劉鳳 , . 祝允明 , . 洪武至天順杜瓊 , . 陳繼 , . 朱存理 , . 伊彤 , . 成化至正德祝允明 , . 文徵明 , . 邢參 , . 朱存理 , . 嘉靖至萬曆王世貞 , . 王錫爵 , . 王世懋 , . 孫七政 , . 天啟至明末清初錢謙益 . 歸莊 . 毛晉 . 馮舒 . http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析聯繫，指出每位成員於社群網絡的「全域中心性」（global centrality）。依據 freeman（ - ）的研究，社會網絡中接近中心性最高的節點，就能以最小的成本與最多數的人進行溝通。也就是說，當一個節點的接近中心性越小，就表示他在訊息傳播中受到旁人控制的程度也就越小；相反的，如果接近中心性越大，則在資訊傳播受到他人控制的程度也就越大。換句話說，接近中心性測量的是節點「不受他人控制的程度」（farness），所以該數值越小，表示節點越接近網絡的中心位置，必須透過的仲介者也就越少，亦即越不必透過他人來與社群產生連結。所以，透過「接近中心性」數據分析，可以得知明代最不必透過他人便可和其他節點連結的蘇州藏書家，也就是在社交上獨自較為活躍的藏書家。以下進行接近中心性分析，亦僅列出指數前四名藏書家的數值，並加以說明。按照「不受控制」程度的大小排序，整個明代接近中心性指數最低的是吳縣藏書家黃姬水（ - ；請參考表），成為明代最不必透過他人便可和其他節點連結的蘇州藏書家；再就四個先後時期而言，則分別是吳縣藏書家杜瓊 ( - ）、長洲藏書家祝允明、太倉州藏書家王世貞，以及常熟藏書家錢謙益等人最為活躍（請參考表）；至於黃姬水則因跨越不同時期而數值分散，以至無法成為上列四個時期中活躍的人物。㈤派系（clique）分析「派系」是一個非正式群體，也就是本文所指的大小藏書家社群。透過各種社會關係的鏈結，其中成員都有一定的群體感與親密性，並在社群內建起某些群體的行為規範。任何人都可以成為許多派系的一個成員，並且這種派系成員的重疊會進一步地擴大成為相互關聯的網絡，意即該網絡會把一個社會網絡內部的全部人，整合到一個巨大的派系關係系統。一個大型的社群網絡往往是由各大大小小的子群體所組成，透過不同子群體間的相互引涉，共同組成大型的社群網絡。我們可以把子群體稱之為派系，一般而言，派系內至少要包含個節點，其中任兩點必須能直接相通。派系分析便是用來分析網絡是由哪些子群體所組成，且對群體結構進行測量的起始點，都涉及到「子圖」（subgraph）這個概念。所謂子圖，是指從一個網絡圖中選擇出來的任何一點和連接這些點的線所構成的集合。從圖可得知，整個明代蘇州藏書家的社群，一共存在著個派系（社群）。由這些派系來看，人數最多的社群有個成員，而最小的則如本文所預設的僅有人。就明代蘇州的藏書界而言，分析結果呈現出幾個大派系，其中第一大派系為以長洲縣三位藏書家邢參、祝允明、文徵明等人為主的社群，成為明代蘇州最大的藏書家集團。而第二大派系也存在於長洲縣，是以朱存理、邢參、祝允明等人為主的社群（請參考圖）。可見在明代蘇州府轄下，長洲縣可說是最核心的藏書重鎮，藏書家薈萃雲集。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 圖　明代蘇州藏書家派系個數 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析㈥圖解明代蘇州藏書家群體的社會網絡將明代蘇州藏書家以ucinet分析其網絡密度、程度中心性、仲介中心性、接近中心性、派系等參數指標，並綜合所有分析結果，然後利用ucinet 所內建的社會網絡繪圖程式，得出以下明代全期和各分期的網絡圖。在各圖中，紅色方形的節點表示洪武至天順時期的蘇州藏書家，綠色方形的節點代表成化至正德時期的蘇州藏書家，藍色方形的節點表示嘉靖至萬曆時期的蘇州藏書家，黃色方形的節點代表天啟至明末清初時期的蘇州藏書家，紫色圓形的節點則代表明代文士而非蘇州藏書家者，但透過他們可以串連二位以上的明代蘇州藏書家（請參考圖）。圖　明代蘇州藏書家社會網絡圖由圖可知，跨越整個明代，蘇州的藏書家社群組合是以長洲藏書家文徵明（圖示最大者）為最主要的核心人物，其次為邢參、祝允明以及朱存理、王寵（ - ）。這五位藏書家，除了王寵為吳縣人外，其他都是長洲人。至於文徵明於整個明代蘇州藏書界的靈魂地位與重大文化影響力，則正如明末常熟藏書家錢謙益所說：吳門前輩，自子傳（陸師道）、道復（陳道復， - ），以迄於王伯穀（穉登， - ）、居士貞（節）之流，皆及文待詔（徵明）之門，上下其議論，師承其風範，風流儒雅，彬彬可觀。遺風餘緒，至今猶在人間，未可謂五世而斬也。（錢謙益（清），，丁集中‧陸少卿師道，頁；括號內文字為本文作者所加）此外，還可進一步地發現，藏書家們往往必須透過彼此熟識的人，才能夠不斷擴大自己的人際交游圈。當然，難免有些會因時代的不同而無法連接，進而產生所謂的「結構洞」（structural hole）。所謂結構洞是指在網絡結構中，若有http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 兩個節點或群體之間缺少聯繫，彼此沒有互動往來，便會形成一個結構上的洞。不過，若此時有某第三方個體能在此結構洞上扮演「橋梁」的角色，則仍然可將兩個不接觸、不往來的個體或群體連接起來，進而獲得更多交流（burt, ）。就洪武至天順時期而言，以崑山縣藏書家顧阿瑛（ - ）為首等知名的蘇州文士，可惜都沒能出現連結其他藏書家的「橋梁」角色，致使他們未能與其他藏書家社群得以牽連（請參考圖），擴大本地藏書家集團的規模；而這情形與明代史料所記載顧阿瑛風雅好客的形象也略有出入。圖　洪武至天順蘇州藏書家社會網絡圖圖以橘色方形的節點來表示明代蘇州的藏書家，另以紫色圓形的節點來表示明代非蘇州藏書家。可以發現洪武至天順時期蘇州的藏書家網絡顯得十分單調，社群分散而缺乏連結，分別是以崑山縣藏書家葉盛（ - ）、吳縣藏書家劉昌（ - ），以及吳縣藏書家伊彤等人為各集團的主要人物。相較於洪武至天順時期，成化至正德時期已開始出現了明顯的複雜化。此時期不但藏書家成員與藏書社群的數量大幅增加，網絡社群的糾結也趨向錯綜複雜，且出現了貫穿整個明代蘇州藏書家社群的最主要核心人物長洲藏書家文徵明（圖示最大者），以及長洲藏書家邢參、祝允明和吳縣藏書家王寵等成化至史載顧阿瑛「卜築玉山草堂，園池亭榭，餼館聲妓之盛，甲於天下。日夜與高人俊流，置酒賦詩，觴詠倡和」（錢謙益（清），，甲乾集‧顧錢塘德輝，頁）。http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析正德時期蘇州藏書界的靈魂人物。從此以後，蘇州藏書界的社群性逐漸不斷地開展與活絡，即便社群成員只是一般文士，也加入了藏書家社群，成為藏書家集團的一份子，扮演將藏書家與藏書家連結起來的重要角色（請參考圖）。圖　成化至正德蘇州藏書家社會網絡圖有別於成化至正德時期蘇州藏書家社會網絡圖的複雜性，嘉靖至萬曆時期就顯得單純許多。這時期藏書家社群是以太倉州藏書家王世懋（ - ；圖示最大者）為最主要核心人物，其次為王世懋之兄王世貞，以及同樣是太倉州的藏書家王錫爵（ - ）、常熟縣藏書家孫七政（ - ）等人，都是本時期蘇州藏書家社群內的重要人物。如同前期藏書家社群，本期也有「結構洞」產生的情況，缺乏「橋梁」性質的成員來連結不同的藏書家群體（請參考圖）。圖　嘉靖至萬曆蘇州藏書家社會網絡圖http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 到了天啟至明末清初，蘇州藏書家集團的是以常熟縣藏書家錢謙益（圖示最大者）、崑山縣藏書家歸莊（ - ）、吳縣藏書家金俊明（ - ）、常熟縣藏書家毛晉（ - ）等人為主要核心人物。較諸前面部分時期，因缺乏扮演「橋梁」角色的人，以至於產生許多「結構洞」，進而阻礙了社群的發展與擴大。但在本時期扮演「橋梁」角色的人較多，特別是常熟縣藏書家錢陸燦（ - ）與崑山縣藏書家徐乾學（ - ），透過友朋的關係，將兩大藏書家群體連結了起來，整合成為當時在地最大的藏書家集團（請參考圖）。圖　天啟至明末清初蘇州藏書家社會網絡圖值得注意的是，有些藏書家重複出現在上列不同時期的社會網絡關係圖中，扮演著串聯二個不同時期藏書家社群的「橋梁」角色，例如：長洲縣藏書家朱存理、吳縣藏書家趙宧光（ - ）等人便是。因他們所處的網絡社群分屬於不同時期，透過二人才讓前、後時期的社群產生縱向連結，故重複出現於不同時期的社群網絡圖。五、結　論歷來藏書史研究對於明代蘇州藏書家群體的研究議題仍不夠全面，以致無法完整地呈現出區域藏書文化成形的特徵及其真實的歷史地位。透過數位人文方法來剖析明代蘇州藏書家的社群結構，非但有助於深入認識古代中國的區域傳統文化，亦有助於理解明代蘇州藏書風氣興盛的主要原因，對於今後的目錄版本學、圖書館史建設和發展，都具有一定的貢獻與參考意義。明代蘇州地區的藏書家具有相當密集複雜且強烈濃厚的社群脈絡，成為超越其他地區的特殊時代現象。其實，明代蘇州藏書家集團皆各自有其淵源，自天順以後，每個時代的集團首腦人物或成員們，皆有傳承自上一個時代文會社群的情況；而同時代的集團間，往往亦互有牽涉，使得藏書家網絡http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析益發顯得錯綜複雜，具有相當強烈的集團性格特質。藏書家在這些不同類型的集團基礎下，彼此之間相互地鼓舞與影響，釀成時代的主流風格，致令藏書成為明代蘇州文士們共同的嗜好與習性，為區域時代藏書文化營造出良好的時空背景與氛圍（陳冠至，）。一種文化心態、文化性格，透過族群網絡的展衍推進，便可顯得相當清晰。且文化世族在特定區域內，作為地方文化發展過程載體的重大作用，也是確定無疑的（嚴迪昌，）。明代蘇州私人藏書事業之所以如此興盛且具有特色，藏書家社群可說發揮了相當大的影響力。今日的人文社會學研究，已開始運用資訊技術與軟體工具進行資料的分析與處理，被稱為「數位人文」（digital humanities）；同時還引進了巨量資料（big data）的分析概念（鄭宇君，），作為處理超越人類資訊管理能力之複雜運算工作的理論指導。與二十年前的學術資料查詢相比，今天我們的工具、成就與環境，都不僅是數倍的發展而已，可說已經成為一個世代的躍進，以及人文學術研究本質的異變。歸功於資訊技術，學術資料的整理走上了夢想之路，研究者的要求與理想，幾乎可以無限延伸。值得注意的是，我們進行發展的腳步以及面向時的審視，不但是為了確立往後資料庫利用之主流地位，也希望在深入的檢討下，讓這項新的工具能夠持續成長，進而開發出實現夢想的終極效果（劉寧慧，）。當然，我們必須體認到社會網絡或人際關係其實只是人類創造的一種虛擬概念而已。人際關係網絡的研究也極有可能只是一種假設，例如：a是b的朋友，b是c的朋友，但不見得a一定是c的朋友，所以abc社群可能並不存在。不過，人際關係網絡雖然是以無形的方式存在於社會，卻仍實質地發揮出推動學術與傳播文化的影響力，每個成員皆可賴以傳達個人或他人的知識、思想與習尚給其他的成員，所以，針對人際關係網絡的解析，仍然具有相當重要的研究價值。此外，本文雖利用ucinet所設計之許多不同衡量人際關係的指數加以分析運算，獲得了許多在不同條件下不同時期的核心人物，但也發現利用ucinet來處理古代的社群關係議題時，實在無法如同現代之人際社群關係研究一般，往往會受限於史料記載古代人際關係的內容過於簡單，導致很多 ucinet原本設計的功能，無法全部發揮或使用。雖然如此，本文仍嘗試透過ucinet，利用網絡密度、程度中心性、仲介中心性、接近中心性、派系等參數指標，將每個社群成員在群體成形的過程中產生之不同的貢獻度來加以分析，最終再以量化、圖像化或視覺化的方式，來濃縮萃取文本資訊的龐雜內涵，呈現出明代「蘇州文苑」內藏書家社群的科學模型，期盼藉此可以深化研究者對這一部分明代文化史的印象，並提供各界有別於以往研究成果的另一類參考。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 誌　　謝由衷感謝本文評審老師們的指導，以及本刊編輯團隊的耐心校對和提供各種協助，讓本文減少很多的錯誤，作者群特別在此一併向他們的辛勞致上最深的謝忱。參考文獻 hanneman, r. a., & riddle, m. （）。社會網絡分析方法：ucinet的應用（陳世榮譯）。高雄市：巨流。（原著出版於年） the president and fellows of harvard college（）。中國歷代人物傳記資料庫。檢索自 https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/chinesecbdb。尹守衡（明）（ a）。王世貞。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明史竊列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。尹守衡（明）（ b）。康楊桑顧朱劉文唐祝列傳第七十三。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明史竊列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。文林（明）（ a）。明故中順大夫浙江溫州府知府文君墓碑銘。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。文溫州集（第卷，頁上- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據北京圖書館藏明刻本影印。文林（明）（ b）。故浙江布政使司右參政陸公墓誌銘。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。文溫州集（第卷，頁上- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據北京圖書館藏明刻本影印。文徵明（明）（ a）。亡友閻起山墓誌銘。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。甫田集（第卷，頁上- 上）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。文徵明（明）（ b）。太傅王文恪公傳。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。甫田集（第卷，頁上- 下）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。文徵明（明）（ c）。先君行略。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。甫田集（第卷，頁上- 上）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。文徵明（明）（ d）。沈維時墓誌銘。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。甫田集（第卷，頁上- 上）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。文徵明（明）（ e）。廣西提學僉事袁君墓誌銘。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。甫田集（第卷，頁上- 上）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。文徵明（明）（ f）。錢孔周墓誌銘。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。甫田集（第卷，頁上- 上）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。文震孟（明）（）。姑蘇名賢小記（上、下卷）。台北市：中央研究院藏光緒八年長洲蔣氏心矩齋校刊本。牛若麟等（明）（）。崇禎‧吳縣志（第 - 、卷）。上海：上海書店。據明崇禎刻本影印。王士禎（清）（）。史辰伯。在新文豐（編），叢書集成三編。池北偶談（第卷，頁上）。台北市：成文出版社。據清代筆記叢刊本影印。王世貞（明）（）。弇州山人四部稿（第卷）。台北市：國家圖書館藏明萬曆年王氏世經堂刊本。王世貞（明）（）。周公瑕先生七十壽序。在沈雲龍（編），明人文集叢刊。弇州山人http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析續稿（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：文海出版社。王世貞（明）（ a）。亡弟中順大夫太常寺少卿敬美行狀。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。弇州山人續稿碑傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王世貞（明）（ b）。邢州守天方張先生安府。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。弇州山人續稿碑傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王世貞（明）（ c）。陸五湖先生師道。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。弇州山人續稿碑傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王兆雲（明）（ a）。文徵仲。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。皇明詞林人物考（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王兆雲（明）（ b）。王叔承。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。皇明詞林人物考（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王兆雲（明）（ c）。陸子傳。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。皇明詞林人物考（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王錫爵（明）（）。光祿大夫少保兼太子太保吏部尚書建極殿大學士贈太保諡文肅荊石王先生行狀。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。王文肅公全集（第卷，頁上- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據首都圖書館藏明萬曆王時敏刻本影印。王穉登（明）（）。王百穀集二十一種（下卷）。台北市：國家圖書館藏明萬曆年金陵葉氏刊本。王鴻緒（清）（ a）。文苑三‧文徵明。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明史稿‧列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王鴻緒（清）（ b）。隱逸‧沈周。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明史稿‧列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。王鏊（明）（）。正德‧姑蘇志（第、 - 卷）。上海：上海書店。據明崇禎刻本影印。王鏊（明）（無日期）。王文恪公集（第卷）。台北市：中央研究院藏明萬曆間震澤王氏三槐堂刊本。史美強、王光旭（）。台灣府際財政治理的競合關係：一個網絡分析的實證研究。公共行政學報，， - 。申時行（明）（）。贈光祿大夫太子太保禮部尚書兼武英殿大學士王公神道碑銘。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。賜閒堂集（第卷，頁下- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據北京大學圖書館藏明萬曆刻本影印。朱存理（明）（）。跋劉太中遺翰。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。樓居雜著（頁上-下）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。朱竹垞（清）（ a）。吳寬。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。靜志居詩話（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。朱竹垞（清）（ b）。邢參。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。靜志居詩話（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。朱竹垞（清）（ c）。錢允治。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。靜志居詩話（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。朱竹垞（清）（ d）。錢穀。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。靜志居詩話（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。朱義祿（）。逝去的啟蒙—明清之際啟蒙學者的文化心態。鄭州：河南人民出版社。朱謀垔（明）（）。袁長史福徵。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。續書史會要（頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 何良俊（明）（）。詩三。在李清（編），元明史料筆記叢刊。四友齋叢說（第卷，頁上- 下）。北京：中華書局。何喬遠（明）（）。名山藏，文苑記。揚州：江蘇廣陵古籍刻印社。吳來奇（）。以五大人格特質與社會網路分析探討大學製作專題組成的影響成因—以北部某大學專題學生為例（未出版之碩士論文）。中華大學資訊管理學系碩士班，新竹市。吳寬（明）（）。伊氏重修族譜序。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。家藏集（第卷，頁下- 上）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。吳德旋（清）（）。陸敕先。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。初月樓聞見錄（第卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。李元度（清）（）。名臣。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。清朝先正事略（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。李放（清）（）。馮武。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。皇清書史（第卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。李東陽（明）（）。贈文林郎廣西道監察御史陸君墓表。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。懷麓堂集（第卷，頁下- 下）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。李流芳（明）（）。四庫全書珍本。檀園集（第卷）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。李桓（清）（ a）。文藝七。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。國朝耆獻類徵初編（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。李桓（清）（ b）。儒行六。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。國朝耆獻類徵初編（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。李桓（清）（ c）。隱逸十六。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。國朝耆獻類徵初編（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。汪琬（清）（）。史兆斗傳。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。堯峰文鈔（第卷，頁上- 下）。上海：商務印書館。據上海商務印書館縮印林佶寫刊本影印。汪道昆（明）（）。太函集（第卷）。台北市：中央研究院藏明萬曆年金陵刊本。沈周（明）（）。明清史料彙編。杜東原先生年譜。上海：上海書店。據雪堂叢刻影印。周士佐（明）（）。人物‧陸伸。在上海書局（編），天一閣藏明代方志選刊續編。太倉州志（第卷，頁下- 下）。上海：上海書店。據明崇禎年重刻本影印。周世昌（明）（）。重修崑山縣志（第卷）。台北市：成文出版社。據明萬曆年刊本影印。林俊（明）（）。明琴川處士陳清隱公墓表。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書。見素續集（第卷，頁上- 下）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。林琨華（）。社會網路於合作學習上的應用（未出版之碩士論文）。銘傳大學資訊工程學系碩士班，台北市。姚希孟（明）（）。棘門集（第卷）。台北市：國家圖書館藏明崇禎間蘇州張叔籟刊本。姚宗儀（明）（）。常熟縣志（第、卷）。台北市：中央研究院藏明萬曆間刊本。查繼佐（清）（）。王錫爵。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。罪惟錄‧列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。皇甫汸（明）（）。四庫全書珍本。皇甫司勳集（第卷）。台北市：臺灣商務印書館。徐禎卿（明）（）。新倩籍序。在中華書局（編），叢書集成初編。新倩籍（頁上- 下）。上海：商務印書館。祝允明（明）（ a）。刻沉石田詩序。在國立中央圖書館（編），明代藝術家集彙刊續集。祝氏詩文集（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。祝允明（明）（ b）。唐子畏墓誌并銘。在國立中央圖書館（編），明代藝術家集彙刊續集。祝氏詩文集（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析祝允明（明）（ c）。祭王文恪公文。在國立中央圖書館（編），明代藝術家集彙刊續集。祝氏詩文集（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：國立中央圖書館。秦瀛（清）（）。傳畧。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。己未詞科錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。袁袠（明）（）。袁永之集（第、卷）。台北市：國家圖書館藏明嘉靖二十六年姑蘇袁氏家刊本。高小康（）。精神分裂的時代—明代文人社會形象分析。天津社會科學，， - 。張大復（明）（ a）。吳郡張大復先生明人列傳稿。台北市：臺灣學生書局。據國家圖書館藏方氏清稿本清康熙間編者手稿本影印。張大復（明）（ b）。皇明崑山人物傳。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。梅花草堂集（第卷，頁上- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據明刻本影印。張弘道（明）（ a）。探花顧天埈。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。皇明三元考（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。張弘道（明）（ b）。會元王錫爵。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。皇明三元考（第卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。張其淦（近人）（）。馮儼公、許孟宏。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。明代千遺民詩詠（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。張昶（明）（ a）。方外。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。吳中人物志（第卷，頁上- 上）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據浙江圖書館藏明隆慶四年張鳳翼等刻本影印。張昶（明）（ b）。逸民。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。吳中人物志（第卷，頁上- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據浙江圖書館藏明隆慶四年張鳳翼等刻本影印。張萱（明）（ a）。好學。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。西園聞見錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。張萱（明）（ b）。建言中。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。西園聞見錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。張萱（明）（ c）。臨財。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。西園聞見錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。清國史館（ a）。文苑傳一。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。清史‧列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。清國史館（ b）。文苑傳二。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。清史‧列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。清國史館（ c）。藝術三。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。清史稿‧列傳（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。郭英德（）。中國古代文人集團論綱。中國文化研究，， - 。郭紹虞（）。照隅室古典文學論集（上編）。上海：上海古籍出版社。陳冠至（）。明代的蘇州藏書—藏書家的藏書活動與藏書生活。宜蘭市：明史研究小組。陳榮德（）。組織內部社會網絡的形成與影響：社會資本觀點（未出版之博士論文）。國立中山大學人力資源管理研究所，高雄市。陸師道（明）（）。袁永之集序。在袁袠（著），衡藩重刻胥台先生集（頁上-下）。台北市：國家圖書館藏明萬曆年衡藩重刊本。湯日昭、王光蘊等（明）（）。治行志。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。萬曆‧溫州府志（第卷，頁上- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 溫州市圖書館藏明萬曆刻本影印。焦竑（明）（ a）。天池山人陸采墓誌銘。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ b）。朱性甫先生存理墓誌銘。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ c）。典司理百川孫公樓墓誌銘。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ d）。南京翰林院孔目蔡先生羽墓誌。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁上- 下）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ e）。按察副使張君和傳。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ f）。浙江布政使司右參政陸公榮墓碑。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ g）。廣東布政使司左參政劉公昌墓誌銘。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。焦竑（明）（ h）。顧仲英瑛傳。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。國朝獻徵錄（第卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。馮復京（明）（ a）。文苑。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明常熟先賢事略（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。馮復京（明）（ b）。自敘。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明常熟先賢事略（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。馮舒（清）（ a）。何大成。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。懷舊集（下卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。馮舒（清）（ b）。何述皐。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。懷舊集（下卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。馮舒（清）（ c）。孫林。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。懷舊集（上卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。馮舒（清）（ d）。孫胤伽。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。懷舊集（下卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。馮舒（清）（ e）。顧雲鴻。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。懷舊集（上卷，頁）。台北市：明文書局。黃之雋等（清）（）。人物志。在華文書局（編），中國省志彙編。江南通志（第卷，頁上- 下）。台北市：華文書局。據清乾隆年重修本影印。黃宗羲（清）（ a）。許元溥。在隆言出版社（編），梨洲遺著彙刊。思舊錄（頁下）。台中市：隆言出版社。黃宗羲（清）（ b）。劉城。在隆言出版社（編），梨洲遺著彙刊。思舊錄（頁上- 下）。台中市：隆言出版社。黃宗羲（清）（）。先正。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。南雷學案（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。葉昌熾（清）（ a）。小兒逃塾含飴樂巧婦深閨得寶歌去恐不來來欲色愛書結癖比如何。在楊家駱（編），中國目錄學名著。藏書紀事詩等五種（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：世界書局。葉昌熾（清）（ b）。石川張氏崇古樓潁川陳氏至樂樓藏書充棟與汗牛足敵懷煙顧孝柔。在楊家駱（編），中國目錄學名著。藏書紀事詩等五種（第卷，頁 - ）。台http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析北市：世界書局。葉昌熾（清）（ c）。杉青牐畔表孤忠父子南湖世攷工八十櫝書前進士西臺淚灑杜鵑紅。在楊家駱（編），中國目錄學名著。藏書紀事詩等五種（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：世界書局。葉昌熾（清）（ d）。東澗方羊如海若述古猶能得什三羣從翩翩雖嗜古執圭僅許視諸男。在楊家駱（編），中國目錄學名著。藏書紀事詩等五種（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：世界書局。葉昌熾（清）（ e）。草堂寂寞面湖開林界山窩老此才俯仰古今同一慨鄭俞姓字亦蒿萊。在楊家駱（編），中國目錄學名著。藏書紀事詩等五種（第卷，頁）。台北市：世界書局。葉恭煥（明）（）。吳下冢墓遺文續編。台北市：臺灣學生書局。過庭訓（明）（ a）。南直隸蘇州府五。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明分省人物考（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。過庭訓（明）（ b）。南直隸蘇州府六。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明分省人物考（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。鄒漪（清）（）。明清史料彙編。啟禎野乘（第、卷）。台北市：文海出版社。榮泰生（）。ucinet在社會網絡分析（sna）之應用。台北市：五南。聞人詮（明）（修）、陳沂（明）（纂）（）。北京圖書館古籍珍本叢刊。嘉靖‧南畿志（第卷）。北京：書目文獻出版社。據明嘉靖刻本影印。趙用賢（明）（）。松石齋文集（第卷）。台北市：中央研究院藏光緒年趙氏承啟堂重刊本。趙經達（清）（）。明清史料彙編。歸玄恭先生年譜。上海：上海書店。據又滿樓叢書排印。劉軍（）。整體網分析講義：ucinet軟件實用指南。上海：格致出版社。劉寧慧（）。現階段（）海峽兩岸主要文史學術工具資料庫的建置與使用效益。書目季刊， ( )， - 。doi: . /bq. . . . . 劉鳳（明）（ a）。立春日集周公瑕止園序。在新文豐（編），叢書集成三編。劉侍御集（第卷，頁下- 上）。台北市：成文出版社。據國立中央圖書館藏劉侍御全集本影印。劉鳳（明）（ b）。都穆。在四庫全書存目叢書編纂委員會（編），四庫全書存目叢書。續吳先賢讚（第卷，頁下- 下）。台南市：莊嚴文化。據浙江圖書館藏明隆慶四年張鳳翼等刻本影印。潘介祉（清）（）。明詩人小傳稿（第、、、卷）。台北市：國家圖書館。蔡冠洛（）。藝術‧文學。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。清代七百名人傳（第五編，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。鄧之誠（清）（）。先正。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。清詩紀事初編（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。鄭宇君（）。向運算轉：新媒體研究與資訊結合的契機與挑戰。傳播研究與實踐， ( )， - 。doi: . /jcrp. . 鄭鐘祥（清）（）。常昭合志稿（第卷）。台北市：中央研究院藏清光緒甲辰活字本。錢曾（清）（）。陸德明經典釋文三十卷。在商務印書館（編），叢書集成初編。讀書敏求記（頁 - ）。上海：商務印書館。錢儀吉（清）（）。康熙朝宰輔中。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。碑傳集（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 錢謙益（清）（ a）。何仲容墓誌銘。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋初學集（第卷，頁上- 上）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ b）。故淮府左長史何公墓誌銘。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋初學集（第卷，頁下- 上）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ c）。族孫嗣美合葬墓誌銘。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋有學集（第卷，頁 - ）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ d）。跋真誥。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋有學集（第卷，頁 - ）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ e）。馮嗣宗墓誌銘。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋初學集（第卷，頁上- 上）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ f）。黃子羽六十壽序。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋有學集（第卷，頁 - ）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ g）。蓮蕊居士傳。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋有學集（第卷，頁 - ）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（ h）。顧君升墓誌銘。在商務印書館（編），四部叢刊初編。牧齋有學集（第卷，頁上- 上）。上海：商務印書館。據康熙甲辰初刻本縮印。錢謙益（清）（）。列朝詩集小傳。台北市：世界書局。閻湘蕙等（清）（ a）。王鏊。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。明鼎甲徵信錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。閻湘蕙等（清）（ b）。明清史料彙編：明鼎甲徵信錄。上海：上海書店。據雪堂叢刻影印。歸有光（明）（）。震川先生集（第、、卷）。台北市：源流出版社。羅炳綿（）。清初錢毛諸藏書家與學風考。在陶希聖（編），清代學術論集（頁 - ）。台北市：食貨出版社。嚴迪昌（）。「市隱」心態與吳中明清文化世族。蘇州大學學報‧哲學社會科學版，， - 。竇鎮（清）（）。順治朝。在周駿富（編），清代傳記叢刊。國朝書畫家筆錄（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。蘇茂相（明）（）。編中名公姓氏。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。皇明寶善類編（頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。龔立本（清）（）。趙祖美。在周駿富（編），明代傳記叢刊。煙艇永懷（第卷，頁 - ）。台北市：明文書局。 burt, r. s. ( ). structural holes: the social structure of competition. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. freeman, l. c. ( - ). centrality in social networks: conceptual clarification. social networks, ( ), - . doi: . / - ( ) - granovetter, m. ( ). the strength of weak ties. american journal of sociology, ( ), - . doi: . / wasserman, s., & faust, k. ( ). social network analysis: methods and applications. new york, ny: cambridge university press. 陳冠至 - - - 陳柏溢 - - - 黃敬程 - - - http://joemls.tku.edu.tw i陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析附錄　明代蘇州藏書家社會關係表編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）楊維禎（ - ）馬麐朋友周世昌（明）（），重修崑山縣志，第卷，頁。顧阿瑛（ - ）張翥朋友焦竑（明）（ h），顧仲英瑛傳，頁。楊維禎朋友柯九思朋友李孝光朋友張伯雨朋友于彥成朋友琦元璞朋友唐元朋友錢謙益（清）（），列朝詩集小傳，甲乾集‧ 唐元，頁。馬麐朋友周世昌（明）（），重修崑山縣志，第卷，頁。陳芳陳璇父子林俊（明）（），明琴川處士陳清隱公墓表，頁。朱德潤朱吉父子張大復（明）（ a），吳郡張大復先生明人列傳稿，朱吉子定安泰安永安傳，頁。朱永安祖孫張大復（明）（ a），吳郡張大復先生明人列傳稿，朱吉子定安泰安永安傳，頁。陳汝秩（ - ）陳汝言兄弟牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。陳汝言（？ - ）陳繼父子牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。陳繼（ - ）錢紳表兄弟王鏊（明）（），正德‧姑蘇志，第卷，頁下。俞貞木師承王鏊（明）（），正德‧姑蘇志，第卷，頁上。王行師承杜瓊師承王鏊（明）（），正德‧姑蘇志，第卷，頁上。沈澄師承潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁。陳寬父子王鴻緒（清）（ b），隱逸‧沈周，頁。杜瓊（ - ）朱存理師承文震孟（明）（），姑蘇名賢小記，上卷，邢布衣先生，頁。沈周師承沈周（明）（），明清史料彙編：杜東原先生年譜，頁。沈方沈訥父子聞人詮（明）（修）、陳沂（明）（纂）（），沈訥，嘉靖‧南畿志，卷，頁下。沈愚父子潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁。沈愚沈世麟祖孫葉恭煥（明）（），吳下冢墓遺文續編，玄朗先生墓碣，頁。劉溥湯胤勣朋友（景泰十才子）潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁。沈愚蘇平蘇正晏鐸王淮王貞慶 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw ii 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）蔣主忠蔣主孝徐震鄒亮葉春葉明父子潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁。葉盛父子蘇茂相（明）（），編中名公姓氏，頁。張和（ - ）張安甫父子王世貞（明）（ b），邢州守天方張先生安府，頁。張穆兄弟焦竑（明）（ e），按察副使張君和傳，頁。葉盛（ - ）劉昌朋友文震孟（明）（），姑蘇名賢小記，上卷，大中大夫劉公，頁。陸容朋友焦竑（明）（ f），浙江布政使司右參政陸公榮墓碑，頁。葉晨父子張大復（明）（ b），皇明崑山人物傳，頁。劉昌（ - ）朱存理朋友朱存理（明）（），跋劉太中遺翰，頁。楊循吉師承、舅甥牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。劉嘉䋭父子牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁下。劉本道曾祖孫焦竑（明）（ g），廣東布政使司左參政劉公昌墓誌銘，頁。劉天祐祖孫劉公禮父子沈周（ - ）劉鈺朋友張昶（明）（ a），方外，頁。都穆師承、朋友史鑑朋友文林朋友邢參朋友祝允明朋友吳寬朋友李太僕朋友沈澄祖孫潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁 - 。沈恒父子張昶（明）（ a），方外，頁。陳寬朋友王鴻緒（清）（ b），隱逸‧沈周，頁。孫艾師承錢謙益（清）（），列朝詩集小傳，丁集上‧ 孫處士艾，頁。沈雲鴻父子文徵明（明）（ d），沈維時墓誌銘，頁。史鑑（ - ）張淵朋友張昶（明）（ b），逸民，頁。史兆斗後世子孫王士禎（清）（），史辰伯，頁。吳寬（ - ）沈周朋友朱竹垞（清）（ a），吳寬，頁。史鑑朋友陸容（ - ）陸申父子文林（明）（ b），故浙江布政使司右參政陸公墓誌銘，頁。陸溥（ - ）陸完父子李東陽（明）（），贈文林郎廣西道監察御史陸君墓表，頁。朱存理（ - ）劉鈺朋友焦竑（明）（ b），朱性甫先生存理墓誌銘，頁。吳寬朋友沈周朋友文徵明朋友 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw iii陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）楊循吉朋友都穆朋友邢參朋友杜瓊師承潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁。邢量師承朱凱朋友文林（ - ）文徵明父子尹守衡（明）（ b），康楊桑顧朱劉文唐祝列傳第七十三，頁。楊循吉表妹婿文林（明）（ a），明故中順大夫浙江溫州府知府文君墓碑銘，頁。王鏊（ - ）徐源朋友王鏊（明）（無日期），王文恪公集，第卷，瓜涇集序，頁。吳寬朋友王鏊（明）（無日期），王文恪公集，第卷，匏菴家藏集序，頁。祝允明師承祝允明（明）（ c），祭王文恪公文，頁 - 。王琬父子閻湘蕙等（清）（ a），王鏊，頁 - 。王延喆父子文徵明（明）（ b），太傅王文恪公傳，頁。王延素父子王延凌父子王延昭父子邢參邢量祖孫文震孟（明）（），姑蘇名賢小記，上卷，邢布衣先生，頁。徐禎卿朋友（東莊十友）朱竹垞（清）（ b），邢參，頁。吳爟文徵明蔡羽錢同愛陳淳湯珍王守王寵張靈伊彤陳繼朋友牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。金問朋友魏驥朋友周忱朋友陳璉朋友杜瓊朋友文震孟（明）（），姑蘇名賢小記，上卷，淵孝先生杜東原，頁 - 。伊恒父子牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。伊侃族人吳寬（明）（），伊氏重修族譜序，頁 - 。在紀昀等（清）（總纂），景印文淵閣四庫全書：家藏集，第卷。孫艾（ - ）孫紀父子姚宗儀（明）（），常熟縣志，第卷，頁上。孫舟父子姚宗儀（明）（），常熟縣志，第卷，頁下。孫耒父子 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw iv 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）孫舟孫樓祖孫焦竑（明）（ c），典司理百川孫公樓墓誌銘，頁。孫耒孫七政父子姚宗儀（明）（），常熟縣志，第卷，頁下。張安甫（ - ）張寰父子歸有光（明）（），震川先生集，第卷，通政使司右參議張公墓表，頁。楊循吉（ - ）劉嘉䋭表兄弟牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。祝允明表姐夫祝允明（明）（ a），刻沉石田詩序，頁。沈雲鴻都穆（ - ）朱凱朋友張萱（明）（ c），臨財，頁。楊循吉朋友劉鳳（明）（ b），都穆，頁。祝允明朋友王守仁朋友陸采師承焦竑（明）（ a），天池山人陸采墓誌銘，頁。顧元慶師承朱謀垔（明）（），袁長史福徵，頁 - 。劉嘉䋭（ - ）劉穉孫父子牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。文徵明（ - ）良俊朋友文徵明（明）（ c），先君行略，頁 - 。唐寅朋友王寵朋友楊循吉朋友徐禎卿朋友尹守衡（明）（ b），康楊桑顧朱劉文唐祝列傳第七十三，頁。陳淳朋友王兆雲（明）（ a），文徵仲，頁。陸師道師承、朋友王穀祥朋友王寵朋友周天球師承、朋友文彭父子文嘉父子袁袠朋友文徵明（明）（ e），廣西提學僉事袁君墓誌銘，頁。閻起山朋友文徵明（明）（ a），亡友閻起山墓誌銘，頁。錢同愛朋友過庭訓（明）（ a），南直隸蘇州府五，頁。祝允明朋友尹守衡（明）（ b），康楊桑顧朱劉文唐祝列傳第七十三，頁。朱良育朋友徐禎卿（明）（），新倩籍序，頁。劉嘉䋭朋友牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。陸伸朋友周士佐（明）（），人物‧陸伸，頁下。周天球朋友王世貞（明）（），周公瑕先生七十壽序，頁。沈周師承王兆雲（明）（ a），文徵仲，頁 - 。吳寬師承何良俊（明）（），詩三，頁。錢穀師承朱竹垞（清）（ d），錢穀，頁。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw v陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）唐寅（ - ）王寵親家祝允明（明）（ b），唐子畏墓誌并銘，頁。朱良育柳僉朋友葉昌熾（清）（ e），草堂寂寞面湖開林界山窩老此才俯仰古今同一慨鄭俞姓字亦蒿萊，頁。顧道隆文徵明朋友錢謙益（清）（ h），顧君升墓誌銘，頁下。文彭朋友文嘉朋友祝允明朋友顧世峻父子錢謙益（清）（ h），顧君升墓誌銘，頁下。顧夢川顧潛父子黃之雋等（清）（），人物志，頁上。顧天埈父子張弘道（明）（ a），探花顧天埈，頁 - 。蔡羽（？ - ）王寵師承王鴻緒（清）（ a），文苑三‧文徵明，頁。錢同愛（ - ）文彭岳父文徵明（明）（ f），錢孔周墓誌銘，頁。顧元慶（ - ）王鏊妹婿王穉登（明）（），王百穀集二十一種，下卷，顧大有先生墓表，頁。黃魯曾（ - ）黃異父子張萱（明）（ a），好學，頁。黃省曾兄弟黃道美父子皇甫汸（明）（），四庫全書珍本：皇甫司勳集，第卷，黃先生墓誌銘，頁。黃道貴父子黃河水父子吳中英（ - ）歸有光朋友葉恭煥（明）（），吳下冢墓遺文續編，明吳秀甫先生墓表，頁。文彭（ - ）錢穀朋友王世貞（明）（），弇州山人四部稿，第卷，錢穀先生小傳，頁上。陸士仁翁婿趙用賢（明）（），松石齋文集，第卷，尚寶司少卿五湖陸先生行狀，頁。文元發父子姚希孟（明）（），棘門集，第卷，文起先生元配陸碩人行狀，頁。陸粲（ - ）陸采兄弟焦竑（明）（ a），天池山人陸采墓誌銘，頁。陸延枝父子文震孟（明）（），姑蘇名賢小記，下卷，給諫貞山先生陸公，頁。王延喆王有壬父子趙用賢（明）（），松石齋文集，第卷，太常寺少卿文峰王公行狀，頁。王延陵劉鳳朋友牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。張憲翼朋友王穀祥（ - ）文彭朋友牛若麟等（明）（），崇禎‧吳縣志，第卷，頁上。文嘉朋友袁尊尼朋友袁鼒袁鼏兄弟袁袠（明）（），袁永之集，第卷，封安人母葛氏行狀，頁。袁表父子袁袠（ - ）袁表兄弟袁袠（明）（），袁永之集，第卷，袁永之文集序，頁。袁褧兄弟王寵朋友楊舫楊集父子張萱（明）（ b），建言中，頁。楊儀父子馮復京（明）（ a），文苑，頁 - 。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vi 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）葉夢淇王世貞姑丈王世貞（明）（），弇州山人四部稿，第卷，錢穀先生小傳，頁下。葉良才父子王世貞（明）（），弇州山人四部稿，第卷，錢穀先生小傳，頁上。葉良才葉恭煥父子葉恭炫父子葉恭煥葉國華曾孫秦瀛（清）（），傳畧，頁。葉國華葉奕苞父子歸有光（ - ）周孺允朋友歸有光（明）（），震川先生集，第卷，題瀛涯勝覽，頁。台北市：源流出版社。張寰朋友歸有光（明）（），震川先生集，第卷，通政使司右參議張公墓表，頁。沈果姻親歸有光（明）（），震川先生集，第卷，沈貞甫墓誌銘，頁。台北市：源流出版社。魏希明妹婿葉恭煥（明）（），吳下冢墓遺文續編，魏誠甫行狀，頁。錢穀（ - ）錢允治父子朱竹垞（清）（ c），錢允治，頁。黃姬水（ - ）黃省曾父子姚宗儀（明）（），常熟縣志，第卷，頁下。祝允明師承王鴻緒（清）（ a），文苑三‧文徵明，頁。陸師道（ - ）王寵師承趙用賢（明）（），松石齋文集，第卷，尚寶司少卿五湖陸先生行狀，頁。陸粲朋友王兆雲（明）（ c），陸子傳，頁。袁袠朋友王寵朋友張鳳翼朋友文彭朋友袁表朋友袁袠（明）（），袁永之集，第卷，袁永之文集序，頁。袁褧朋友陸士謙父子趙用賢（明）（），松石齋文集，第卷，尚寶司少卿五湖陸先生行狀，頁。陸士仁父子陸卿子父女趙用賢（明）（），松石齋文集，第卷，尚寶司少卿五湖陸先生行狀，頁。趙宧光岳父鄒漪（清）（），明清史料彙編：啟禎野乘，第卷，趙隱君傳，頁。王穀祥師承王世貞（明）（ c），陸五湖先生師道，頁。周天球（ - ）祝允明朋友王世貞（明）（），周公瑕先生七十壽序，頁。都穆朋友唐寅朋友錢同愛朋友湯珍朋友陳淳朋友王寵朋友王穀祥朋友陸師道朋友劉鳳朋友劉鳳（明）（ a），立春日集周公瑕止園序，頁。史兆斗朋友王士禎（清）（），史辰伯，頁。王穉登朋友 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vii陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）孫樓（ - ）孫胤伽祖孫馮復京（明）（ a），文苑，頁。劉鳳（ - ）史兆斗師承汪琬（清）（），史兆斗傳，頁下。陸卿子（ - ）趙宧光姻親鄒漪（清）（），明清史料彙編：啟禎野乘，第卷，趙隱君傳，頁。何鈁（ - ）何墨父子錢謙益（清）（ b），故淮府左長史何公墓誌銘，頁下。何允澄父子湯日昭、王光蘊等（明）（），治行志，頁上。何允泓父子王世貞（ - ）李攀龍朋友王鴻緒（清）（ a），文苑三‧文徵明，頁。王忬父子過庭訓（明）（ b），南直隸蘇州府六，頁。王燾真師承何喬遠（明）（），名山藏，文苑記，頁。王世懋兄弟尹守衡（明）（ a），王世貞，頁。王錫爵朋友王鴻緒（清）（ a），文苑三‧文徵明，頁。袁尊尼朋友王世貞（明）（ a），亡弟中順大夫太常寺少卿敬美行狀，頁。王穀祥朋友文彭朋友周天球朋友俞允文朋友黃姬水朋友張鳳翼朋友張獻翼朋友王鑑曾祖孫竇鎮（清）（），順治朝，頁。秦四麟孫胤伽岳父鄭鐘祥（清）（），常昭合志稿，第卷，藏書家，頁。孫胤伽馮復京朋友馮舒（清）（ d），孫胤伽，頁。何德潤朋友馮復京（明）（ b），自敘，頁。何錞秦四麟朋友馮舒（清）（ b），何述皐，頁。張鳳翼（ - ）張燕翼兄弟王兆雲（明）（ c），陸子傳，頁 - 。張獻翼兄弟張滂父子潘介祉（清）（），明詩人小傳稿，第卷，頁。孫七政（ - ）王世貞朋友馮舒（清）（ c），孫林，頁。莫廷韓朋友黃省曾朋友王世貞（明）（），弇州山人四部稿，第卷，錢穀先生小傳，頁下。黃姬水朋友孫林父子姚宗儀（明）（），常熟縣志，第卷，頁上。孫森父子文元發（ - ）文震孟父子鄒漪（清）（），明清史料彙編：啟禎野乘，第卷，文文肅傳，頁。王錫爵（ - ）王夢祥父子申時行（明）（），贈光祿大夫太子太保禮部尚書兼武英殿大學士王公神道碑銘，頁。王鼎爵兄弟張弘道（明）（ b），會元王錫爵，頁。王叔承朋友王兆雲（明）（ b），王叔承，頁。黃翼聖姻親王錫爵（明）（），光祿大夫少保兼太子太保吏部尚書建極殿大學士贈太保諡文肅荊石王先生行狀，頁上。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw viii 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）王侃父子閻湘蕙等（清）（ b），明清史料彙編：明鼎甲徵信錄，王錫爵，頁上-下。王衡父子查繼佐（清）（），王錫爵，頁。王侃王銑父子趙用賢（ - ）趙琦美父子龔立本（清）（），趙祖美，頁 - 。趙祖美父子王世懋（ - ）周天球朋友汪道昆（明）（），太函集，第卷，明故中順大夫南京常寺少卿瑯琊王次公墓碑，頁。俞允文朋友黃姬水朋友王士駰父子汪道昆（明）（），太函集，第卷，明故中順大夫南京常寺少卿瑯琊王次公墓碑，頁。王士騄父子何德潤（ - ）馮復京姑丈馮復京（明）（ a），文苑，頁。何允泓堂兄弟鄭鐘祥（清）（），常昭合志稿，第卷，藏書家，頁。馮復京（ - ）顧雲鴻朋友馮舒（清）（ e），顧雲鴻，頁。馮舒父子錢謙益（清）（ e），馮嗣宗墓誌銘，頁上。馮偉節父子馮知十父子馮班父子文震孟（ - ）趙宧光朋友姚希孟（明）（），棘門集，第卷，文起先生元配陸碩人行狀，頁。顧雲鴻師承葉昌熾（清）（ b），石川張氏崇古樓潁川陳氏至樂樓藏書充棟與汗牛足敵懷煙顧孝柔，頁。許自昌（ - ）許朝相父子李流芳（明）（），四庫全書珍本：檀園集，第卷，許母陸孺人行狀，頁。許元溥父子許心扆父子葉昌熾（清）（ c），杉青牐畔表孤忠父子南湖世攷工八十櫝書前進士西臺淚灑杜鵑紅，頁。錢謙益（ - ）錢世揚父子姚宗儀（明）（），常熟縣志，第卷，頁上。何德潤朋友錢謙益（清）（ a），何仲容墓誌銘，頁下。毛晉師承、朋友羅炳綿（），清初錢毛諸藏書家與學風考，頁 - 。錢曾師承、朋友李如一朋友錢裔肅朋友趙琦美朋友徐朋友陸貽典朋友馮舒朋友黃翼聖朋友錢謙益（清）（ f），黃子羽六十壽序，頁。歸莊師承鄧之誠（清）（），先正，頁。錢曾族人黃宗羲（清）（），先正，頁。錢朝鼎族人柳如是夫妻錢陸燦族孫李桓（清）（ a），文藝七，頁。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw ix陳冠至、陳柏溢、黃敬程：孰執牛耳？明代蘇州藏書家社群的數位人文解析編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）錢裔肅從孫錢謙益（清）（ c），族孫嗣美合葬墓誌銘，頁。錢召族孫錢名族孫錢魯族孫譚應明譚應徵兄弟錢謙益（清）（ d），跋真誥，頁。何允泓（ - ）何大成父子葉昌熾（清）（ a），小兒逃塾含飴樂巧婦深閨得寶歌去恐不來來欲色愛結癖比如何，頁。何大成（？ - ）馮舒朋友馮舒（清）（ a），何大成，頁。王時敏（ - ）王鑑族人清國史館（ c），藝術三，頁。錢謙貞（ - ）錢謙益兄弟錢謙益（清）（），列朝詩集小傳，丁集下‧ 錢秀才謙貞，頁。馮舒朋友錢孫保父子葉昌熾（清）（ d），東澗方羊如海若述古猶能得什三羣從翩翩雖嗜古執圭僅許視諸男，頁。錢孫艾父子黃翼聖（ - ）何允泓朋友錢謙益（清）（ g），蓮蕊居士傳，頁。毛晉（ - ）毛清父子蔡冠洛（），藝術‧文學，頁。毛襄父子清國史館（ b），文苑傳二，頁。毛褒父子毛袞父子毛表父子毛扆父子金俊明（ - ）金永昌父子李桓（清）（ c），隱逸十六，頁。彭行先朋友李桓（清）（ c），隱逸十六，頁。金侃父子竇鎮（清）（），順治朝，頁。吳䎖（ - ）金俊明朋友（復社）清國史館（ a），文苑傳一，頁。顧炎武李桓（清）（ b），儒行六，頁。歸莊清國史館（ a），文苑傳一，頁。許元溥黃宗羲（清）（ a），許元溥，頁下。黃宗羲清國史館（ a），文苑傳一，頁。劉城黃宗羲（清）（ b），劉城，頁。林馮悰張其淦（近人）（），馮儼公、許孟宏，頁。錢陸燦（ - ）徐乾學朋友李桓（清）（ a），文藝七，頁。歸莊（ - ）葉奕苞朋友趙經達（清）（），明清史料彙編：歸玄恭先生年譜，康熙年乙巳條下，頁。金俊明姻親趙經達（清）（），明清史料彙編：歸玄恭先生年譜，永曆年壬寅條下，頁。顧炎武（ - ）徐乾學舅甥李桓（清）（ b），儒行六，頁。陸貽典（ - ？）馮班朋友吳德旋（清）（），陸敕先，頁。葉樹蓮朋友鄭鐘祥（清）（），常昭合志稿，第卷，藏書家，頁。馮舒朋友吳德旋（清）（），陸敕先，頁。馮武（ - ）毛晉翁婿李放（清）（），馮武，頁。錢曾（ - ）錢沅父子鄭鐘祥（清）（），常昭合志稿，第卷，藏書家，頁。http://joemls.tku.edu.tw x 教育資料與圖書館學　 : ( ) 編號姓名姓名社會關係資料出處（僅舉一種為例）徐乾學（ - ）徐開法父子李元度（清）（），名臣，頁。徐元文兄弟李桓（清）（ b），儒行六，頁。徐秉義兄弟錢儀吉（清）（），康熙朝宰輔中，頁。徐亮采兄弟葉奕葉樹廉兄弟錢曾（清）（），陸德明經典釋文三十卷，頁。毛扆（ - ？）陸貽典翁婿清國史館（ b），文苑傳二，頁。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : ( ) : - doi: . /joemls. _ ( ). .rs.am br ief c om m un ica tio n ψ please visit our official website of joemls for the electronic file of appendix . social network relationships of suzhou book collectors in ming dynasty. a associate professor, school of continuing education, department of library and information science, fu jen catholic university b ma student, department of library and information science, fu jen catholic university c librarian, library of hsin sheng college of medical care and management * to whom all correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: @mail.fju.edu.tw who was the key figure? a social network analysis of suzhou book collector groups in ming dynasty through a digital humanities approachψ kuan-chih chena* bo-yi chenb ching-cheng huangc abstract in ming dynasty, the characteristic of social congregation among the suzhou (蘇州) book collectors were extremely prevalent. the characteristic echoed with ming dynasty’s “wuzhong wenyuan” (吳中文苑). the suzhou book collectors had significant influence on the regional collection culture at suzhou during the ming dynasty, and even on the collection culture all over the country. generally speaking, the social linkages between ancient book collectors can be categorized into four categories, namely through linkages via consanguinity (relationship by blood), affinity (relationship by marriage), same school of thoughts, or friendship. however, historical records on these four linkages are enormous and fragmented. processing and analyzing such records is difficult. therefore, this study attempts to utilize digital humanity technology by selecting the social communit y analysis sof t ware to conduct in-depth analysis on suzhou book collectors in ming dynasty, aims to depict the four major social network models of the suzhou book collectors, and to identify the heritage or connection through the difference periods. the study also aims to identif y the core social groups among the suzhou book collector communities in ming dynasty during different periods, and to provide answers questions such as the identity of core members in the social communities. the result may be different from the academic community previous perception, and can serve as a good clarification, and another good reference to the public. keywords: ming dynasty, suzhou, book collector communities, digital humanities summary the group personality of literates in ming dynasty was obvious due to a trend of literates valuing a personality of being socially active. the literates of http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : ( ) ming dynasty tended to gather for honoring certain topics; they even gathered and formed social groups of two to thousands of members for certain common hobbies or specific goals, including societies of poetry, literature and composition, wine tasting, book transcribing, etc. they had regular or irregular meet-ups, forming a special trend among literates of that era. after the song dynasty, with the prevalence of woodblock printing technology, there had been a trend of book collecting by private sectors happening in jiang nan, the south part of china. suzhou had been a place with gathering of literary talents who had hobbies of collecting books, thus developing its own unique style and culture of collections of ancient chinese literature. especially in ming dynasty, distinguished from other literary groups in jiang nan, the literates in suzhou developed a unique literary tradition and cultural style incorporating local features and era characteristics of both the north and south china, thus had been termed by contemporary scholars as suzhou wenyuan or wuzong wenyuan, suggesting its importance as a literary center. book collecting had been the major activity of suzhou literates, thus an investigation of the roles of book collectors in literate groups is of its importance. in this article, the researcher tried to use a social group analysis software, university of california at irvine network, to analyze and investigate the group characteristics of suzhou book collectors in ming dynasty, and identified the four social relationships including blood relatives, relatives-in-law, masters- apprentices, and friends. it should be pointed out that when using ucinet to study the social relationships in ancient cultures, it is not as easy as using it to study the relationships of nodes in contemporary social groups, and tends to be limited by the over-direct and simplified descriptions on inter-personal relationships in historical materials, thus the full use of some functions designed by ucinet cannot be made. therefore in this study, five indicators including network density, degree centrality, betweenness centrality, closeness centrality and cliques were adopted to longitudinally investigate the social network developments of suzhou book collectors during the whole ming dynasty, and the ming dynasty was further categorized into four periods, including hongwu- tianshun ( - ), chenghua-zhengde ( - ), jiajing-wanli ( - ), and tianqi-early qing dynasty ( - ). through the study of core figures of different periods generated and retrieved from the software, the network relationships and legacy developments of suzhou book collector groups of each period in ming dynasty were identified. in terms of network density, among the four periods in ming dynasty of suzhou book collector groups, the hongwu-tianshun period was of the lowest number of book collector groups, and the lowest possibility of collaborating with each other http://joemls.tku.edu.tw chen, chen, & huang: who was the key figure? among the groups, thus there had been not many large-scale local groups of book collectors during that period. in the contrary, the chenghua-zhengde period was of the highest number of suzhou book collector groups, and the highest possibility of collaborating with each other and forming larger-scale book collector groups, thus there had been more large-scale book collector groups during this period. through the analysis of degree centrality, we can see that wen zhengming, a suzhou-born book collector active in the suzhou wenyuan during the middle ming dynasty, had the highest degree centrality, and was the core figure of suzhou book collector groups during the whole ming dynasty. the core figures of book collector groups of each period were quenshan-born shen yu (hongwu- tianshun period), changzhou-born wen zhengming (chenghua-zhengde period), taichang-born wang shizhen (jiajing-wanli period) and changshou-born qian qianyi (tianqi-early qing dynasty). among the four periods, the book collector groups during the chenghua-zhengde period were the most active, followed by the book collector groups of the tianqi-early qing dynasty period. the book collector groups of the jiajing-wanli period was of the lowest development. through the analysis of betweenness centrality, the betweenness of each member of suzhou book collector groups in ming dynasty can be quantified, for comparison of the importance in terms of betweenness among social networks. in terms of the suzhou book collector groups in the whole ming dynasty, qian qianyi, a changshou- born book collector active during the tianqi-early ming dynasty period, was of the highest in betweenness centrality, and was the figure with the most betweenness in the development of suzhou book collector groups in ming dynasty. through the analysis of closeness centrality, we can see who the suzhou book collector that could connect with other nodes without being through others was, that is, who the most socially active book collector was. the results showed that huang jishui, a wu-born book collector active during the jiajing-wanli period, was the most socially active as an independent book collector. the analysis of cliques can reveal the number of book collector groups. during the whole ming dynasty, there were suzhou book collector groups, among which the largest group was of members and with wen zhengming as the leading figure. from the data automatically calculated through the built-in partial indicators of ucinet, the information regarding key figures and core groups of suzhou book collector groups during different periods in ming dynasty has been revealed. furthermore, in this study, the complicated contents of historical materials had been presented in a quantified, pictorized and visualized fashion, for revealing various scientific models of suzhou book collector groups of different periods in ming dynasty. it is expected to deepen scholars’ understanding of cultural history of ming dynasty, and to present a study with results different from previous studies.http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : ( ) romanized & translated 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( - ). centrality in social networks: conceptual clarification. social networks, ( ), - . doi: . / - ( ) - granovetter, m. ( ). the strength of weak ties. american journal of sociology, ( ), - . doi: . / wasserman, s., & faust, k. ( ). social network analysis: methods and applications. new york, ny: cambridge university press. kuan-chih chen - - - bo-yi chen - - - ching-cheng huang - - - http://joemls.tku.edu.tw adpf d.tmp journal of educational media & library sciences uhttp://joemls.tku.edu.tw vol. , no. ( ) : - / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / (http://dh .adho.org) dh home (http://www.dh .adho.org) / abstracts (/abstracts/) / (/abstracts/ ) show info how to cite xml version (/static/data/ .xml) title: evi-linhd. a virtual research environment for the spanish-speaking community authors: gimena del rio riande, elena gonzález-blanco garcía, clara martínez cantón, juan josé escribano category: paper:poster keywords: virtual research environment, virtual research community, digital scholarly edition, spanish- speaking community, dh center del rio riande, g., gonzález-blanco garcía, e., martínez cantón, c., escribano, j. ( ). evi-linhd. a virtual research environment for the spanish-speaking community. in digital humanities : conference abstracts. jagiellonian university & pedagogical university, kraków, pp. - . evilinhd. a virtual research environment for the spanishspeaking community although digital humanities have been defined from a discipline perspective in many ways, it is surely a field still looking for its own objects, practices and methodologies. their development in the spanish-speaking countries is no exception to this process and, even it is complex to trace a unique genealogy to give account for the evolving field in spain and latin america (gonzalez-blanco, ; spence and gonzalez-blanco, ; rio riande a, b), the emergence of various associations in mexico (reddh), spain (hdh) and argentina (aahd) that seek for a constant dialogue (galina, gonzález-blanco and rio riande, ), and academic lab and dh center initiatives such as linhd (spain and argentina), grinugr (spain), medialab usal, labtec (argentina), tadeolab (colombia), elabora hd (mexico), among others, make it clear that research has become increasingly “global, multipolar and networked” (llewellyn smith, et al., ) and that the academic field is looking for a global outreach and aims to open spaces of shared virtual work. virtual research communities (vrcs) are a consequence of these changes. virtual research environments (vres) have become central objects for digital humanist community, as they help global, interdisciplinary and networked research taking of profit of the changes in “data production, curation and (re‐)use, by new scientific methods, by changes in technology supply” (voss and procter, : - ). dh centers, labs or less formal structures such as associations benefit from many kind of vres, as they facilitate researchers and users a place to develop, store, share and preserve their work, making it more visible. the focus and implementation of each of these vres is different, as carusi and reimer ( ) show in their comparative analysis, but there are some common guidelines, philosophy and standards that are generally shared (as an example, see the centernet map and guidelines of tgir huma-num, ). this poster presents the structure and design of the vre of linhd, the digital innovation lab at uned ( http://linhd.uned.es (http://linhd.uned.es)), and the first digital humanities center in spain. this vre focuses on the possibilities of a collaborative environment for (profane or advanced) spanish-speakers scholarly digital editors. taking into account the language barrier that english may suppose for a spanish-speakers scholar or http://dh .adho.org/ http://www.dh .adho.org/ http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ http://dh .adho.org/static/data/ .xml http://linhd.uned.es/ / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / student and the distance they may encounter with the data and organization of the interface (in terms of computational knowledge) while facing a scholarly digital edition or collection, linhd’s vre comes as a solution for the vrc interested in scholarly digital work. moreover, it will make it possible to add an apply tools that contribute to improve spanish-english applications or tools developed locally, such as contawords, by iula- upf http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions (http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions). opening such an environment to the spanish speaking world will make it possible to reach different kinds of communities, whose profile and training in digital humanities differ from the typical users of dh tools and environment. testing all these tools in this new environment will, for sure, draw interesting project results. in this sense, our project dialogues and aims to join the landscape of other vres devoted to digital edition, such as textgrid, e-laborate, etc. and, in a further stage, to build a complete virtual environment to collect and classify data, tools and projects, work and publish them and share the results with the research community. after having studied the structure and components of other digital virtual environment, our vre has been designed on a humanist-user centered perspective, in which interface design, accessibility easiness and familiarity with tools and standards are key factors. therefore, the key of our vre is the combination of different open-source software that will enable users to complete the whole process of developing a digital editorial project. the environment is, up-to-now, divided into three parts: ) a repository of data to (projects, tools, etc.) with permanent identifiers in which the information will be indexed through a semantic structured ontology of metadata and controlled vocabularies (such as isidore and huni, but using lindat software by clarin. eu). ) a working space based on the possibilities of existdb to work on text encoding together with tei-scribe, a tool developed at linhd to tag texts in an intuitive way, storing and querying, plus some publishing tools (pre-defined stylesheets and some other open-source projects, such as sade, versioning machine, etc.). ) a collaborative cloud workspace which integrates a wiki, a file archiving system and a publishing space for each team. sustainability and long-term preservation are issues which we contemplate from the beginning, as our group is leading the addition of spain into dariah and linhd is also part of a clarin-knowledge center with two powerful nlp groups from u.pompeu fabra in barcelona and ixa in país vasco. our project has been conceived according to dh standards and open-source tools and its infrastructure is supported by our university uned. bibliography . candela, l. virtual research environments. grdi . http://www.grdi .eu/repository/filescaricati/eb e fea-c - b -a c - b fe .pdf (http://www.grdi .eu/repository/filescaricati/eb e fea-c - b -a c - b fe .pdf) (accessed - - ). . carusi, a. and t. reimer, ( ). virtual research environment collaborative landscape study. a jisc funded project. oxford e-research centre, university of oxford and centre for e-research, king's college london https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual-research-environments (https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual-research- environments) (accessed - - ). . galina, i., gonzález blanco garcía, e. and rio riande, g. del ( ). se habla español. formando comunidades digitales en el mundo de habla hispana. abstracts of the hdh conference, madrid, spain. http://hdh .linhd.es/ebook/hdh - galina.xhtml (http://hdh .linhd.es/ebook/hdh -galina.xhtml) (accessed - - ). . gonzález-blanco garcí a., e. ( ). actualidad de las humanidades digitales y un ejemplo de ensamblaje poético en la red: remetca. cuadernos hispanoamericanos, : - . . llewellyn smith, c., borysiewicz, l., casselton, l., conway, g., hassan, m., leach, m., et al. ( ). knowledge, networks and nations: global scientific collaboration in the st century. london: the royal society. . rio riande, g. del ( a). ¿de qué hablamos cuando hablamos de humanidades digitales? abstracts of the aahd conference. “culturas, tecnologías, saberes buenos aires, argentina. http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/ ? abstracts (http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/ ?abstracts) (accessed - - ). . rio riande, g. del ( b). ¿de qué hablamos cuando hablamos de humanidades digitales? http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/ / / /de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/ (http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/ / / /de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/). (accessed - - ). . spence, p. and gonzález-blanco, e. ( ). a historical perspective on the digital humanities in spain,h-soz-kult, doi: . . , http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte- (http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte- ). the status quo of digital humanities in europe, h-soz-kult, doi: . . . (accessed - - ). http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions http://www.grdi .eu/repository/filescaricati/eb e fea-c - b -a c - b fe .pdf https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual-research-environments http://hdh .linhd.es/ebook/hdh -galina.xhtml http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/ ?abstracts http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/ / / /de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/ http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte- / / dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ / . tgir h.-n. ( ). le guide des bonnes pratiques numériques. http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes- pratiques-numeriques (http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques) (version of - - ). (accessed - - ). . voss, a. and procter, r. ( ). virtual research environments in scholarly work and communications, library hi tech, ( ): – . this paper has been developed thanks to the starting grant research project: poetry standardization and linked open data: postdata (erc- -stg- ), funded by the european research council (erc) under the european union´s horizon research and innovation programme. http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques picture archives and the emergence of visual history of education. ische pre-conference workshop. rd workshop "pictura paedagogica online: educational knowledge in images" picture archives and the emergence of visual history of education | august , . bbf (berlin) digital resources and tools in historical research lars wieneke and gerben zaagsma luxembourg centre for contemporary and digital history https://www.c dh.uni.lu abstract. this proposal will discuss the use of digital picture archives and associated tools in historical research from the perspective of digital history with a focus on resources for the history of education. our starting point will be threefold: • digital picture archives need to be seen as part of a wide range of digital resources that are currently available for historical research; while certain methodological, epistemological and technical questions • the broader question of what prerequisites should be considered for digital archives more generally; and addressing the question of whether or not such general prerequisites can be formulated at all given the wide range of research questions and use cases researchers bring to the table with this broader contextualisation in mind we will focus on the possibilities and limitations of digital picture archives for the history of education through a brief discussion of the following points: • what are the characteristics of digital picture archives; technical and otherwise, and within that context, latter or not? • what layers of information are currently embedded in digital picture archives for the history of education (taking gerhard paul‘s differentiation as a starting point); how can we improve the design, annotation ische pre-conference workshop | rd workshop “pictura paedagogica online: educational knowledge in images” lars wieneke and gerben zaagsma introduction our paper will have to start with a con- fession: neither of us are historians of ed- ucation. both of us, however, have a keen interest and experience in what is called “digital history” and hence in the use and potential of digital resources in histori- cal research. this workshop presents us with an excellent opportunity to consider a particular case study, the visual history of education, and think through how, and in what ways, digital resources are already in our paper we will discuss the use of dig- ital picture archives and associated tools in historical research with a focus on the possibilities and limitations of digital pic- ture archives for the history of education. before doing so some contextual parame- ters need to be established: first of all: digital picture archives need to be seen as part of a wide range of digital resources that are currently available for historical research; while certain meth- odological, epistemological and technical archives, many pertain to digital resources in general; secondly: discussing the prerequisites for a picture archive on educational histo- question of what prerequisites should be considered for digital archives more generally; and addressing the question of whether or not such general prerequisites can be formulated at all given the wide range of research questions and use cases researchers bring to the table. the call for papers for this pre-conference workshop announced a focus on “the im- pact of the discipline on developing and maintaining of a picture archive” and list- ed a number of pertinent questions. for the purposes of our talk we have reframed these questions as three major topics to be addressed, and added some of our own concerns: prerequisites: what prerequisites, if any, are there for a picture archive on educational history? are there common basic requirements? existing data archives: in how far can ex- isting data archives meet the needs? what do they offer and how are they used? what is their strength and weakness in regard to the analytical possibilities they offer? potential: can existing data archives meet the demands of the visual history of educa- tion? is there a need for another solution? and what potential do new technological computer vision, offer? picture archives and the emergence of visual history of education | august , . bbf (berlin) digital resources and tools in historical research the visual turn in the digital humanities before addressing the issues above, a very brief word on the visual turn in the digital. the digital humanities are tradi- tionally text-based and the engagement with images, as more than digitised ar- tefacts, is only recent. as patrik svensson wrote as recently as : “the so-called “visual turn” or research on multimodal representation does not seem to have had a large impact on humanities computing.” many digitisation projects of the s fo- cused on textual materials and text edi- tions. large scale digitisation of images is a development of roughly the past years. gerhard paul talks about the “the technological quantum leap of the world wide web” as a result of which “historians have had completely new possibilities of image research at their disposal for mere- ly the last ten years.” the question is of course how that po- tential has been used and to what extent it has been realised. for our purposes a further question is whether digital picture archives are merely used as repositories of visual material and images, now easily patrik svensson, humanities computing as digital humanities. dhq: digital humanities quarterly / ( ). gerhard paul, ‘visual history’, version: . , in: docupe- dia-zeitgeschichte, . . . url: http://docupedia. de/zg/paul_visual_history _v _de_ . doi: http://dx. doi.org/ . /zzf.dok. . .v accessible and in much larger quantities than before, or if new digital methods are used to actually analyse them. as to the latter: recent developments in computer vision are now beginning to offer exciting new possibilities. using neural networks and other techniques rapid advances are being made in visual pattern discovery, as a result, it is now possible to analyse large image data sets and categorise them to a certain extend. if all that sounds some- what deterring to many historians, a crea- tive use of metadata can already yield in- teresting research results for those willing to invest in some technical expertise. prerequisites let’s now turn our attention to the impact of the discipline on developing and main- - tion is what prerequisites, if any, exist for a digital picture archive on educational his- tory? this is a problematic that relates to the more fundamental question what the demands of the visual history of education see for a succint overview of recent developments the dh workshop proposal on computer vision in digital humanities: https://dh .adho.org/ab- stracts/ / .pdf. see for a description of a very recent example this dhbenelux abstract: seeing history: analyzing large-scale historical visual datasets using deep neural networks. http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-con- tent/uploads/sites/ / / /wevers_smits_seeing _ history _dhbenelux .pdf. ische pre-conference workshop | rd workshop “pictura paedagogica online: educational knowledge in images” lars wieneke and gerben zaagsma should look like and can be approached from either a content or technical per- spective. as to content, researchers and heritage institutions should jointly decide digitisation priorities, ensuring that what is being digitised represents a broad spec- trum of relevant topics for potential future research (avoiding the pitfall that what is - ter narratives). from a technical perspective other factors come into play, related to content: first of all the size of the collection affords differ- ent approaches when dealing with hun- dreds, thousands or millions of images. furthermore the technical provenance of the images (raster images, photographs, etc.) comes into play while resolution and file size of the scanned images require different strategies depending on the size - search questions and topics require cer- tain technical possibilities, for example, certain types of metadata to allow a re- case of images, high-quality and consist- ent metadata are of crucial importance as they provide, at least so far, the only way to find relevant non-textual mate- rials (as compared to being able to per- form a full-text search in ocr’ed textual materials). conversely, new technologi- cal possibilities can help to open up new avenues of research and generate new research questions. here one can think about interlinking materials from various repositories, for example through the so- called international image interoperability framework . state of the art let’s consider a couple of example of rele- vant digital picture archives for the history of education. pictura paedagogica online is the bbf’s digital picture archive, his- torywallcharts is a collaborative project offering history wallcharts from germany, the netherlands and denmark; and dig- iporta is a digital portrait archive. these archives differ considerably when it comes to search and browsing options, extent and quality of metadata, possibilities to save and / or export found objects and their metadata, etc. as image repositories they function well but there is much room for improvement, especially when search options and quality of metadata are con- cerned. one factor to keep in mind here is that the migration of data from legacy websites to newer more state of the art content and or asset management sys- tems is costly. in many cases, the question then is how existing databases can be im- proved until funding is secured for entirely new solutions. see https://iiif.io picture archives and the emergence of visual history of education | august , . bbf (berlin) digital resources and tools in historical research potential can existing digital picture archives meet the demands of the visual history of edu- cation? this, of course, all depends on how one formulates these demands. to provide an example: suppose we wanted to con- duct a comparative wallchart analysis of the depiction of world war ii in germa- ny, denmark and the netherlands based upon the collection in http://historywall- charts.eu/. this can certainly be done, yet it requires quite some time as there is no advanced keyword search that would al- low us to retrieve all relevant images at once and / or per country; moreover, one needs to search using multiple languages to obtain all possibly relevant results. in this particular example the main point to address would be the quality and consist- ency of metadata. a different approach would be to use iiif to interlink the original databases the wallcharts come from, obvi- ating the need for a new application that brings them together in a new database. websites like digiporta allow users to ex- port metadata, but only for individual re- cords. if this could be done for all relevant records that a search yields the options for following example, a description by dutch historian martijn kleppe of his research into iconic images used in dutch history textbooks: “this presentation will focus on the methods applied to establish which photos can be called iconic. one of the characteristics of iconic photos is the repetitive publication of the same image. we therefore made an inven- tory of all photos that were published in dutch high school history text- books during — . a total of books have been analysed and photos were digitised and added into a database, using software package fotostation pro. a total of varia- bles containing information about the photo and the textbook were written photo. this enabled the researcher not only to ‘read’ the information in different types of photo- editing and viewing software but we could also export the data into statistical soft- ware like spss, enabling us to cal- culate which photos were used most often, resulting in a list of most used photos.” if we move to the realm of computer vision technologies we have other options. apart from using, for example, deep learning approaches to determine the type of im- age we are looking at (a drawing, photo, engraving, etc) we could look for all kinds of categories of interest, such as depic- tions of war, cities, cars, animals etc. martijn kleppe, ‘photographic icons — building and researching large-scale photo collections’, brainstorm meeting — e-humanities: innovating scholarship ( march , nias wassenaar). url: https://www.ehu- manities.nl/v /beheer/wp-content/uploads/ / / booklet-e-humanities-meeting .pdf. ische pre-conference workshop | rd workshop “pictura paedagogica online: educational knowledge in images” concluding remarks the above was only a very short explora- tion of digital picture archives in historical research and the visual history of edu- cation. what is clear to us is that a mul- tilayered strategy is necessary to realise the potential of digital picture archives for the visual history of education more fully. enriching and improving the quality and consistency of metadata of existing re- positories is one important approach as is exploring what improvements in browsing and advanced search options could be im- plemented. as to new solutions, migration to more modern systems is costly but of course preferred. interlinking reposito- ries, through iiif and linked open data should be part of such an effort. for research, a way to export metadata of search results is crucial to open up more possibilities for digital historical analy- sis with some of the existing repositories. nonetheless, whereas the design and technical possibilities embedded in digital archives obviously shape and constrain what researchers can do with the mate- rials located within them, a researcher’s creativity, imagination and willingness to experiment are equally important. in the end, though, we have to return to the question posed in the beginning: what are of education from the perspective of its researchers? only by formulating these can we hope to build corpuses that meet researcher’s requirements. all along the watchtower: intersectional diversity as a core intellectual value in the digital humanities daniel paul o’donnell department of english university of lethbridge this problem is significant because it indicates the failure of the traditional model for scholarship adequately to describe serious intellectual work in humanities computing, whose scope cannot be delimited in the same way and to the same extent as the traditional kind…. a new definition of scholarship, demanding new abilities, would seem to follow. the bonfire of the (digital) humanities the digital humanities (dh) came close to imploding as an organised discipline in the - academic year. the origins of the dispute lay in the deliberations of the programme committee for digital humanities, the annual, usually very competitive, international conference organised by the alliance of digital humanities organisations (adho) and held in in krakow, poland. what criteria, this committee asked itself, should we use for accepting or rejecting submissions? should we privilege “quality”—presumably as this is measured by success in the conference’s traditionally highly structured and quite thorough peer review process? or should we privilege “diversity”—defined largely in terms of ensuring that speakers from as wide a willard mccarty, humanities computing (basingstoke [england]; new york: palgrave macmillan, ), . preprint from intersectionality in digital humanities, ed roopika risam and barbara bordalejo (forthcoming ). doi (all versions): . /zenodo. ; (this version): . /zenodo. possible range of demographics are given slots at a conference (and in a discipline) that has been accused of skewing heavily towards the white, male, northern, and anglophone? or, as one member of the committee put it with forceful clarity in an email: there's a solid consensus that the conference is there in order to hear from diverse groups, but whenever one opts for diversity, it usually means opting for less quality (otherwise there would be no issue), so the danger is that one loses sight of this, very central goal of the conference. email is an informal medium, and it would be unfair to take the position expressed here and later circulated by others on social media as having been considered in the same way that this chapter has been or that other formal presentations have been that have referred to this email since this controversy first arose. as steven ramsay has noted of his own apparently unintentionally provocative comments on the belief that coding is the core activity within the digital humanities, moreover, “all quotes are by nature taken out of context.” in this particular case, it is important to remember, the passage in question comes from the middle of an internal debate (most of which has not been published or released on social media) in which members of a conference organising committee struggled to determine the best method of fairly distributing access to a major conference with a high rejection rate. at the same time, however, the “diversity debate” exemplified (and in part provoked) by this email was real and involved the numerous regional, national, linguistic, and other organisations that make up adho and run the field’s major journals, conferences, and societies. [adho conference coordinating committee email listserv], “re: dh and diversity,” september , . stephen ramsay, “on building,” accessed june , , http://stephenramsay.us/text/ / / /on-building/. the debate led to the resignation of one of adho’s officers and it resulted in inter-society debates about cultural norms surrounding issues of “diversity” and “quality” that are still on- going. this resignation and these debates led to a brief threat from one of the societies to break away from the larger consortium, taking its journal and participation in the international conference with it. the debate provoked in part by this email, in other words, was serious enough to threaten some of the most prestigious and central organs and activities that characterise global digital humanities and undo what can be considered one of the most characteristic features of international digital humanities as it is currently constituted: its strong and highly centralised international organisational collaboration and cooperation. moreover, while people seem wary of putting it in writing, the sentiment that there is an opposition between “quality” on the one hand and “diversity” on the other remains relatively common within some parts of institutional digital humanities as (well as other industries). it also aligns to a certain extent with longer-standing positions and regional trends in how the field as a whole is understood: between “those who build digital tools and media and those who study traditional humanities questions using digital tools and media,” as mark sample puts it: “do vs. think, practice vs. theory, or hack vs. yack.” i am a member of a national digital humanities society executive and a former chair of the special interest group (sig) global outlook::digital humanities (go::dh), an organisation that played a pivotal role in the recent “global turn” within dh. i am also a middle aged, white see cleve r. wootson jr, “a google engineer wrote that women may be unsuited for tech jobs. women wrote back,” the washington post, august , , https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/ / / /a-google-engineer-wrote-that-women-may-be- genetically-unsuited-for-tech-jobs-women-wrote-back/. mark sample “the digital humanities is not about building, it’s about sharing,” samplereality, may , , http://www.samplereality.com/ / / /the-digital-humanities-is-not-about-building-its-about-sharing/. anglophone man who enjoys the security of a tenured north american professorship. and i have been, at various times, a member of the adho executive, adho conference organising committees, and president of one of the national societies that collectively govern the organisation. in these contexts, i have heard both dismissive complaints about “diversity” as a way of promoting the less qualified and honest struggles with the question of how a desire to promote as wide participation as possible within dh might conflict with definitions of various forms of “quality” within the field. as is true of many significant disciplinary debates within the dh, however, much of this discussion has taken place out of public view—on closed email lists used by the adho executive or in closed meetings of its various committees: as shelaigh brantford pointed out in an unpublished paper, a person unfamiliar with the details of the internal debate provoked by this email and resignation would not be able to build an accurate sense of the issues at stake (or just how serious the crisis had become) from the organisation’s own public pronouncements. in this paper i would like to tackle the question of “diversity” and “quality” within the digital humanities head on. that is to say, i would like to consider the question raised in the email thread from the digital humanities organising committee directly and seriously. is there an inherent conflict between these two concepts within the digital humanities? is it the see daniel paul o’donnell and shelaigh brantford, “the tip of the iceberg: transparency and diversity in contemporary dh,” csdh-schn (congress ), calgary, june , . for a summary, see geoffrey rockwell, “csdh-cgsa ,” philosophi.ca, august , , http://philosophi.ca/pmwiki.php/main/csdh-cgsa . examples of public statements showing this oblique approach include alliance of digital humanities organisations, “adho announces new steering committee chair,” adho, november , , http://adho.org/announcements/ /adho-announces-new-steering-committee-chair; karina van dalen-oskam, “report of the steering committee chair (november – july ),” adho, july , , http://adho.org/announcements/ /report-steering- committee-chair-november- -%e % % -july- . it is important to remember that the purpose of such statements is administrative and political rather than academic and that an approach that makes things difficult for the researcher may represent good management practice. case that “whenever one opts for diversity, it usually means opting for less quality”? and is the promotion of “quality,” to the extent that it can be kept distinct from “diversity,” actually a “very central goal of the [digital humanities] conference,” or any other venue for disseminating our research? to anticipate my argument, i am going to suggest that the answer to each of these questions is “no.” that is to say, first, that there is no inherent conflict between “diversity” and “quality” in the digital humanities; second, that emphasising “diversity” does not threaten the “quality” of our conferences and journals; and, finally, that “quality”—when taken by itself, without attention to questions of “diversity”—is in fact not the central goal of the dh conference, or any other digital humanities dissemination channel. indeed, to the extent they can be distinguished at all (and to a great degree, in fact, i argue they are the same thing), “diversity”—in the sense of access to as wide a possible range of experiences, contexts, and purposes in the computational context of the study of problems in the humanities or application of computation to such problems, particularly as this is represented by the lived experiences of different demographic groups—is in fact more important than “quality,” especially if “quality” is determined using methods that encourage the reinscription of already dominant forms of research and experience. full of sound and fury…? as intense as it was, the “quality vs. diversity” debate revolved around what can only be described as a very odd premise for a discipline that is commonly described as a “methodological commons” or “border land.” at the most literal level, the debate suggests that the two qualities in question (i.e. “diversity” and “quality”) have a zero-sum relationship to each other: the more “diversity” there is of participation on a panel or at a conference, the fewer examples (presumably) of “quality” work you are likely to find. that this is inherently problematic can be tested simply by reversing the terms: if diversity of participation is thought to lead to lower “quality,” then, presumably, greater “quality” comes from increasing the homogeneity of participation. in certain circumstances and to certain degrees, of course, this can be true: a conference that is focussed on a single discipline or subject, for example, is likely to be of higher “quality” (in the sense of creating opportunities to advance that discipline or topic) than a conference that sets no limits on the subject matter of the papers or qualifications of the participants. faculty and students at the university of lethbridge participate in several conferences each year where the principle of organisation is geographic (“academics living in alberta”) or educational status (“graduate students”) rather than discipline or topic. in such cases, the principal goal of the conference is less the advancement of research in a particular discipline (i.e. promoting the kind of “quality” that seemed to be at issue in the adho debate) than the advancement of researchers as a community. these conferences can attract a wide variety of approaches, subjects, and methods and, frankly, “quality” of contributions (in the sense of “likely to be of broad interest or impact to the field or discipline in question”). the benefit they offer lies in the practice they afford early-career academics and students in preparing papers or the cross- mccarty, humanities computing, . julie thompson klein, interdisciplining digital humanities: boundary work in an emerging field (ann arbor: university of michigan press, ). disciplinary networking opportunities they provide for scholars working in a particular geographic area. but while it would be wrong to measure the success of such conferences by the impact they have on their field (since there is no single field), it is also undeniable that such conferences generally have lower “quality” when measured from a disciplinary perspective. at the same time, however, absolute homogeneity is also obviously problematic. research, like many collaborative tasks, is an inherently dialectic process. it involves argument and counter-argument; debate over methods and results; agreement, disagreement, and partial agreement over significance and context. in many cases, this dialectic takes place within a broader context of theoretical agreement (the so-called “normal science” ) in others, it can involve sweeping changes to the framing theories or concepts (the infamous “paradigm shift” ). advancement in research, in other words, requires there to be at least some difference among researchers in approach, goals, method, or context. for great advancement to occur—the kind that changes the field or opens up new avenues of exploration—it is necessary for at least some of the participating researchers to understand the problems the discipline is facing from very different perspectives from that of the rest of the field. the relationship between lack of homogeneity and advancement of research is particularly true in the case of the digital humanities. this is because the “field” is really a paradiscipline— that is to say “a set of approaches, skills, interests, and beliefs that gain meaning from their association with other kinds of work.” in contrast to many traditional humanities disciplines, see thomas s. kuhn, the structure of scientific revolutions (chicago: university of chicago press. ). see kuhn, the structure of scientific revolutions. while kuhn is discussing science, the same pattern can be found, mutatis mutandis, in the social sciences and humanities. daniel paul o’donnell, “‘there’s no next about it’: stanley fish, william pannapacker, and the digital humanities as paradiscipline,” dpod blog, june , , http://dpod.kakelbont.ca/ / / /theres-no-next-about- it-stanley-fish-william-pannapacker-and-the-digital-humanities-as-paradiscipline/. the digital humanities traditionally has been much more about methodology than content: that is, it is less about something than it is about how one studies or researches something else. advancing the field in such cases requires developments either in the range of “something elses” to which these “hows” can be applied (i.e. the range of subjects studied); or in the “hows” themselves (i.e. the methods that can then be used across disciplines and problems). novelty in the digital humanities (and research is always about new ideas or concepts), in other words, requires either the application of existing techniques, models, or understandings to an ever widening range of humanities problems (testing the boundaries of our existing tools and approaches); or experiments in the development and application of new techniques, tools, theories, and approaches to new or old types of problems (expanding the range of the digital humanities methodological project). in both cases, diversity of experience and situation are crucial pre-conditions for advancement. we improve our understanding of computers and the humanities by discovering new problems for old solutions and re-solving existing problems in new cultural, economic, social and computational contexts. without such diversity of experience and condition, the digital humanities ceases to be a paradiscipline and becomes instead simply a computationally heavy sub-discipline within some larger traditional field of research. medieval studies: a counter case this fundamental importance of diversity to the digital humanities can be seen when they are compared to a more traditionally content-focussed field such as medieval studies. as a cross-disciplinary area study, medieval studies covers a wide range of topics, approaches, and subjects—from archaeology to philosophy to literature to geography—and involves a number of technical and methodological skills (e.g. paleography, linguistics, numismatics, etc.). the field is commonly organised along cultural and temporal lines, with often parallel (but largely unconnected) research going on otherwise similar topics within different political, cultural, or linguistic contexts. a scholar of anglo-saxon kingship may have little to do with somebody studying the same topic with regard to continental european or middle eastern cultures during the same time frame—or even with those studying the same topic in earlier or later periods in the same geographic area. medieval vernacular literary studies, similarly, tend to focus on relatively narrowly delimited languages, movements, or periods. apart from some common broad theoretical concerns, a student of early italian vernacular literature might have very little to do with research on early french, spanish, or english literature of the same or different periods. even within a single time or culture, the multi- disciplinary nature of the field means that it is quite common for research by one medievalist to be of only marginal immediate relevance or interest to another medievalist trained in a different discipline or tradition: art historians debate amongst themselves without necessarily seeking input from (or affecting the work of) philologists or archaeologists working the same geographical or cultural area and time-period. but while the range of medieval studies is huge, its definition is still primarily about content rather than methodology. that is to say, the goal of medieval studies ultimately is to know or understand more about the middle ages, not, primarily, to develop new research techniques through their application to the middle ages. while differences between the different sub-disciplines within medieval studies are such that advanced research in one area can be difficult or impossible to follow by researchers trained in some other area, it remains the case that the overall goal of research across domains and approaches is to develop a comprehensive picture of the time or location under discussion: the history, archaeology, politics, language, literature, culture, and philosophical understandings of a particular place or time in the (european) middle ages. if a piece of research focuses on europe or the middle east (as a rule, research involving a similar time period in africa, asia, or the americas is not considered part of medieval studies) and if it involves or analyses content or events occurring from (roughly speaking) the fall of the roman empire through to the beginning of the renaissance, then that research is likely to be considered “medieval studies” and its practitioner a “medievalist”; if, on the other hand, a piece of research falls outside of these temporal and geographical boundaries, then it is not considered “medieval studies,” even if the techniques it uses are identical to those used within medieval studies or could be applied productively to material from the medieval period. content vs. method in historical disciplines one implication of this is that in medieval studies, comprehensiveness or completeness can be as important a scholarly goal as novelty of method, and the discovery and explication of additional examples of a concept or type of cultural object are as or more valuable than more generalisable methods or studies. if having a scholarly edition of one anglo-saxon poem is thought to be useful for the study of the period, for example, then having editions of two anglo- saxon poems—or, better still, all anglo-saxon poems—will be thought to be even more useful. a digital library of frankish coins, similarly, is the better the more it is complete. for a discussion of this with regard to medieval and classical studies see gabriel bodard and daniel paul o’donnell, “we are all together: on publishing a digital classicist issue of the digital medievalist journal,” digital medievalist ( ), https://doi.org/ . /dm. . just how important this focus on the accumulation of examples and detail is can be seen simply by examining medievalist conference programmes or publishers’ booklists. medievalist conferences, for example, place a premium on the specific. while broad generalised papers synthesising across domains are not unheard of (they are in fact characteristic of keynote addresses), by far the majority of contributions focus on quite specific topics: “the music of the beneventan rite i (a roundtable)” or, in a session on “flyting” (i.e. the exchange of insults in germanic poetry), papers on three or four specific texts: “the old high german st. galler spottverse,” “flyting in the hárbarðsljóð,” “selections from medieval flyting poetry,” and “hrothgar, wealhtheow, and the future of heorot [i.e. in the poem beowulf],” to take some examples from the international congress on medieval studies at western michigan university. indeed, it is significant in this regard that the dominant form of submission to a conference like the international congress on medieval studies is by externally organised panel (i.e. a collection of papers assembled and proposed by an external organiser) rather than through the submission of individual papers by individual scholars: given the level of detail involved in the majority of the papers (and the lack of generalising emphasis), this is the only way of ensuring a critical mass of background knowledge in speakers and audience. andrew j. m. irving, “the music of the beneventan rite i (a roundtable) [conference session],” international congress on medieval studies, kalamazoo, mi, may , , https://wmich.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/u / /medieval-congress-program- -for-web.pdf; doaa omran, “dead poet flyting karaoke [conference session],” international congress on medieval studies, kalamazoo, mi, may , , https://wmich.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/u / /medieval-congress- program- -for-web.pdf. this focus on specificity is the norm across the traditional humanities: the annual conference of the modern language association, for example, the largest in the humanities, fills its programme entirely by means of externally proposed sessions (nicky agate, personal communication). book series on topics in medieval studies, similarly, tend to justify their claims to the scholars’ attention through their comprehensiveness. thus the early english text society advertises for new subscriptions by pointing to its collection of most of the works attributed to king alfred or aelfric, along with some of those by bishop wulfstan and much anonymous prose and verse from the pre-conquest period… all the surviving medieval drama, most of the middle english romances, much religious and secular prose and verse including the english works of john gower, thomas hoccleve, and most of caxton’s prints… a similar emphasis on comprehensiveness is found in the advertisement for early english books online: from the first book published in english through the age of spenser and shakespeare, this incomparable collection now contains more than , titles... libraries possessing this collection find they are able to fulfill the most exhaustive research requirements of graduate scholars - from their desktop - in many subject areas: including english literature, history, philosophy, linguistics, theology, music, fine arts, education, mathematics, and science. significantly, this interest in completeness is such that it can even trump methodological diversity: the goal of comprehensive collections of texts or artifacts, after all, is to provide anne hudson, “the early english text society, present past and future,” the early english text society, accessed august , , http://users.ox.ac.uk/~eets/. early english books online, “about eebo,” eebo, accessed august , , https://eebo.chadwyck.com/marketing/about.htm. researchers with a body of comparable research objects—that is to say, research objects established using (more-or-less) common techniques and expectations. this is both why it makes sense for scholars to regularly re-edit core texts in the field (the better to make them compatible with current scholarly trends and interests) and why it can make sense to explicitly require researchers to follow specific methodological approaches and techniques. thus the modern language association’s committee on scholarly editions codifies its views on best practice in textual editing in the form of a checklist against which new editions can be compared. this checklist and the associated guidelines include advice on the specific analytic chapters or sections that ought to be included in a “certified edition” as well as minimum standards of accuracy and preferred workflows. the early english text society, likewise, warns potential editors of its strong preference for editions that follow the models set by previous editions in the series, recommending against experimentation without prior consultation: we rely considerably on the precedents set by authoritative earlier editions in our series as a means of ensuring some uniformity of practice among our volumes. clearly discretion must be used: departures from practice in earlier editions are likely to have been made for good, but particular, reasons, which do not necessarily suit others. moreover, if they wish to make an argument from precedent, editors should follow eets mla committee on scholarly editions, “guidelines for editors of scholarly editions,” modern language association, june , , https://www.mla.org/resources/research/surveys-reports-and-other-documents/ publishing-and-scholarship/reports-from-the-mla-committee-on-scholarly-editions/guidelines-for-editors-of- scholarly-editions. editions, in preference to those of other publishers. once again, please consult the editorial secretary in cases of doubt. this emphasis on continuity, consistency, and clearly identified standards is not (necessarily) evidence of unthinking conservatism. textual criticism and editing as a method has gone through some remarkable developments in the last three decades, and while not all presses or series are prepared to accept some newer methods for representing texts and objects editorially, others, such as the modern language association, have worked diligently to ensure their guidelines work with different prevailing methodologies and approaches. what it does suggest, however, is a belief in the necessity of minimum common standards, in a minimal degree of common understanding about expectations and purpose, and that the purpose of method is to develop reliable content rather than, as both the mla and the early english text society emphasise, experiment for the sake of experiment—a sense of minimum “quality,” in other words, that is more important than “diversity” if “diversity” produces something methodologically or conceptually unexpected. given the choice between reliable content produced using a conservative, well-tested methodology, and content of unknown quality produced using novel, but less well-tested methodologies, in other words, these examples suggest that mainstream medievalists will tend to prefer the reliable success over the interesting “failure.” this bias against (methodological) early english text society, “guidelines for editors,” early english text society, , accessed august , , http://users.ox.ac.uk/~eets/guidelines% for% editors% .pdf. the early english text society, for example, promises to issue separate guidelines for “electronic editions… as and when the society decides to pursue this manner of publication in the future,” see early english text society, . mla committee on scholarly editions, “mla statement on the scholarly edition in the digital age,” modern language association, may , https://www.mla.org/content/download/ / /rptcse .pdf. a famous example in medieval english studies is the reception of the athlone press editions of piers plowman, i.e. george kane, piers plowman : the a version. will’s visions of piers plowman and do-well (london: diversity need not, in principle, lead to a bias against participation by “diverse” communities (in the sense of gender, belonging to a racialised community, economic class, or educational background)--although medieval studies as a field has recently begun to recognise both its lack of diversity in this respect as well, and the degree to which this homogeneity may leave it particularly vulnerable to co-option by explicitly racist political movements. but it does in current practice discourage it, in part because it interacts poorly with the lived experience of intersectionally diverse participants: it allows for participation by “anybody,” but is methodologically suspicious of those whose experience, training, interests, or economic situation results in work that does not easily continue the larger common project using clearly recognised methods and meeting previously recognised standards. as a new generation of medievalists university of london, ); george kane and e. talbot donaldson, piers plowman the b version (london; berkeley: athlone press, ); william langland, george russell, and george kane, piers plowman : the c version ; will’s visions of piers plowman, do-well, do-better and do-best (london; berkeley: athlone ; university of california press, ). these were generally criticised on the basis that their innovative editorial method, while interesting and perhaps theoretically sound, left the texts “unreliable” and incomparable to other editions of the poem. see among many others derek pearsall, “piers plowman: the b version, (volume ii of piers plowman: the three versions), by george kane, e. talbot donaldson,” medium aevum, ; john a. alford, “piers plowman: the b version. will's vision of piers plowman, do-well, do-better and do-best. george kane, e. talbot donaldson,” speculum, ; traugott lawler, “reviewed work: piers plowman: the b version. will's visions of piers plowman, do-well, do-better, and do-best. an edition in the form of trinity college cambridge ms. b. . , corrected and restored from the known evidence, with variant readings by george kane, e. talbot donaldson,” modern philology . lawler’s review is an interesting example as it praises the edition while mentioning these same caveats. robert adams, “the kane-donaldson edition of piers plowman: eclecticism’s ultima thule,” text ( ): – , contains a discussion of the reception. see among others candace barrington, “beyond the anglophone inner circle of chaucer studies (candace barrington),” in the middle, september , , accessed january , , http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /beyond-anglophone-inner-circle-of.html; wan-chuan cao, “#palefacesmatter? (wan-chuan kao),” in the middle, july , , accessed january , , http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /palefacesmatter- wan-chuan-kao.html; dorothy kim, “a scholar describes being conditionally accepted in medieval studies (opinion) | inside higher ed,” inside higher ed, august , , accessed july , , https://www.insidehighered.com/views/ / / /scholar-describes-being-conditionally-accepted-medieval- studies-opinion; dorothy kim, “the unbearable whiteness of medieval studies,” in the middle, november , , accessed january , , http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /the-unbearable-whiteness-of- medieval.html; and medieval institute, “featured lesson resource page: race, racism and the middle ages,” teams: teaching association for medieval studies, july , . accessed january , , https://teams-medieval.org/?page_id= . http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /the-unbearable-whiteness-of-medieval.html http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /the-unbearable-whiteness-of-medieval.html https://www.insidehighered.com/views/ / / /scholar-describes-being-conditionally-accepted-medieval-studies-opinion https://www.insidehighered.com/views/ / / /scholar-describes-being-conditionally-accepted-medieval-studies-opinion http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /palefacesmatter-wan-chuan-kao.html http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /palefacesmatter-wan-chuan-kao.html http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /beyond-anglophone-inner-circle-of.html http://www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / /beyond-anglophone-inner-circle-of.html tackle this problem using an explicitly intersectional theoretical approach, the field may gradually become more hospitable to a broader and more welcoming definition of diversity. the digital humanities as methodological science the focus on content, comprehensiveness, and, in the more technical areas, methodological conservatism that i argue characterises the practice of a traditionally historically-focussed field like medieval studies contrasts very strongly against what we can easily see to be the case within the digital humanities. if medieval studies can be described as a discipline that marshals specific types of method and theory in order to apply it to the study of a specific temporally and geographically bound subject, the digital humanities can be described as a field that marshals studies of a variety of (often) temporally, geographically, and similarly bound subjects in order to develop different types of method and theory. as in medieval studies, the range of topics, approaches, and subjects covered by the digital humanities is extremely wide—indeed, in as much as the digital humanities does not focus on a specific temporal period or geographic location, far wider. and as in medieval studies, different streams of research in different areas of the digital humanities—while engaged, broadly speaking, in the same large project—commonly advance with a fair degree of independence: advances in d imaging, for example, may or may not be related to or have an impact on developments in text encoding, media theory, gaming, or human-computer interaction, to name only a few areas commonly considered to be part of the digital humanities. the difference, however, is that the project of the digital humanities, in contrast to that of an area study like medieval studies, is primarily about the methods and theories used rather than the content developed. that is to say, the goal of the digital humanities as a discipline is not primarily to know more about any specific period, text, idea, object, culture, or any other form of content (though it does no harm if it helps further this knowledge), but, rather, to develop theories, contextual understandings, and methods that can be used in the context of computation to study such periods, texts, ideas, objects, cultures, etc. this is not to deny that research in the digital humanities can have an impact on our knowledge of such periods, texts, ideas, objects, and cultures. in fact much good digital humanities work does have that impact. rather it is to claim that this impact is not the primary interest of such research to other digital humanities researchers: a digital edition of an anglo- saxon poem can be at the same time a work of medieval studies (if it adds to our knowledge of the anglo-saxon period) and digital humanities (if it adds to our knowledge of how one can make digital editions or some other aspect of digital method or theory). in order to make such an edition a contribution to the digital humanities, however, it must do something new computationally, regardless of its value to anglo-saxon studies: the kind of methodological conservatism we have seen as being acceptable in medieval studies is simply fatal in a field like the digital humanities. where editing yet another anglo-saxon text improves our knowledge of anglo-saxon england, the simple application of well-known computational techniques to yet another cultural object of the same kind dealt with previously by others does nothing to advance the digital humanities as a paradiscipline. advancement in the digital humanities requires there to be something new, innovative, or generalisable about the work from a digital/methodological perspective. as is the case with medieval studies, this difference in emphasis is reflected in how digital humanities dissemination channels define themselves and operate. digital humanities book series, in contrast to the examples we have seen from medieval studies, tend to celebrate the methodological and disciplinary breadth of their catalogue, rather than the comprehensiveness of their collections. both “digital culture books,” a digital humanities imprint of the university of michigan press, and “topics in the digital humanities,” an imprint of the university of illinois press, for example, advertise their series in terms of the breadth of topics covered in their volumes, the methodological diversity and innovation they entail, and the diverse experiences of their authors: the goal of the digital humanities series will be to provide a forum for ground-breaking and benchmark work in digital humanities. this rapidly growing field lies at the intersections of computers and the disciplines of arts and humanities, library and information science, media and communications studies, and cultural studies. the purpose of the series is to feature rigorous research that advances understanding of the nature and implications of the changing relationship between humanities and digital technologies. books, monographs, and experimental formats that define current practices, emergent trends, and future directions are accepted. together, they will illuminate the varied disciplinary and professional forms, broad multidisciplinary scope, interdisciplinary dynamics, and transdisciplinary potential of the field. humanities computing is undergoing a redefinition of basic principles by a continuous influx of new, vibrant, and diverse communities or practitioners within and well beyond the halls of academe. these practitioners recognize the value computers add to their work, that the computer itself remains an instrument subject to continual university of michigan press, “digital humanities series,” digital culture books, accessed september , , http://www.digitalculture.org/books/book-series/digital-humanities-series/. innovation, and that competition within many disciplines requires scholars to become and remain current with what computers can do. topics in the digital humanities invites manuscripts that will advance and deepen knowledge and activity in this new and innovative field. conference sessions, too, tend to be far less specialised and homogenous in terms of subject. where in the case of area or historical studies, conference papers tend to focus on very specific research questions and outcomes and submissions tend to be primarily through the externally organised panel, in the case of digital humanities conferences, papers tend both to be on a wider variety of topics in any single session (because the content is less important than the methodology) and organised by single-paper-submission rather than externally organised panels. i have been on conference panels in both the digital humanities and medieval studies: where in the case of medieval studies conferences, committees commonly look favourably on papers that emphasise new detailed findings, digital humanities committees commonly ask the authors of papers that concentrate too much on the details of their “case” and not enough on its generalisability to reorganise their paper or consider presenting their findings as a short paper or poster. the role of diversity this brings us finally, to the role of intersectional diversity in the advancement of the digital humanities. thus far this paper, i have been emphasising the way in which the digital humanities acts as what mccarty and short have described as a methodological commons: an university of illinois press, “topics in the digital humanities,” university of illinois press, accessed september , , http://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/find_books.php?type=series&search=tdh. intellectual space in which researchers active in different disciplines, in essence, compare notes and develop new approaches and ideas about the role, context, and use of the digital in relation to humanities questions. the great change in the last five years within the digital humanities, however, has been the recognition that this “commons” also involves lived experience within the digital realm. that is to say, that diversity of personal, gendered, regional, linguistic, racialised, and economic experience and context is as important to developing our understanding of method and theory in the digital humanities as is diversity of subject or focus. what this means is that it is as important to promote diversity of experience in the digital humanities as it is diversity of methodology or topic. the experiences of researchers working with relatively poor infrastructure in mid and especially low income communities, for example, are as important to the progress of the digital humanities as a discipline as those working with cutting edge infrastructure in the most advanced technological contexts. the problem of doing good humanities work with “minimal” computing infrastructure is at least as challenging (and interesting) for the digital humanities as the problem of adapting the latest tools from silicon valley in a high bandwidth environment—and it remains so, even if the research in high bandwidth infrastructures produces “better” content for the domain specialist (e.g. colour or hd imagery vs black and white, for example, or larger collections taking advantage of the latest interfaces and technologies). the experiences of those working in rigid or very traditional research environments that discourage novel work with computation in traditional humanities fields, likewise, bring interesting cultural and methodological challenges which enrich the understanding of researchers working in environments in which the digital humanities is “the next big thing.” because it also involves the application of computation to the humanities or the understanding of the humanities in an age of (mostly) ubiquitous networked computing, the research of underfunded researchers, those at non-research-intensive institutions, those without permanent faculty positions, and those just beginning their careers as students, likewise, is at least as important to our understanding of the digital humanities as that of tenured researchers working with the best funding in the most elite institutions. the digital humanities, in other words, is about the intersection of the humanities and the world of networked computation; it is not (solely) about the intersection of the humanities and the world of the fastest, most expensive, and best supported examples of networked computation. because it is part of the contemporary humanities, the experiences of the marginalised in their use of computation or their understanding of and access to different computation contexts are at least as important to a full understanding of the digital humanities as are the experiences of those at the centre of our best-funded and most technologically advanced research and cultural institutions. diversity and quality there is in theory of course no reason why encouraging the contributions of the marginalised alongside those of the non-marginalised (i.e. encouraging “diversity”) should result in lower “quality,” as measured by things like “impact,” citation rates, or peer review scores. researchers working with poor infrastructure can do as “careful” work as those working with excellent infrastructure and, as dombrowski and ramsay have pointed out, excellent infrastructure and funding does not preclude large scale failure. william pannapacker, “no dh, no interview,” the chronicle of higher education, july , , http://chronicle.com/article/no-dh-no-interview/ /; william pannapacker, “the mla and the digital humanities,” brainstorm, accessed june , , http://chronicle.com/blogpost/the-mlathe-digital/ /. the problem, however, is that measures of “quality” in the academy are as a rule, self- inscribing. that is to say, the mechanisms by which “quality” is determined strongly favour the already favoured: as my colleagues and i have demonstrated of “excellence” (a synonym for “quality” in this context): a concentration on the performance of “excellence” can promote homophily among... [researchers] themselves. given the strong evidence that there is systemic bias within the institutions of research against women, under-represented ethnic groups, non-traditional centres of scholarship, and other disadvantaged groups, it follows that an emphasis on the performance of “excellence”—or, in other words, being able to convince colleagues that one is even more deserving of reward than others in the same field—will create even stronger pressure to conform to unexamined biases and norms within the disciplinary culture: challenging expectations as to what it means to be a scientist is a very difficult way of demonstrating that you are the “best” at science; it is much easier if your appearance, work patterns, and research goals conform to those of which your adjudicators have previous experience. in a culture of “excellence” the quality of work from those who do not work in the expected “normative” fashion run a serious risk of being under-estimated and unrecognised. this is particularly true when measures of relative “quality” (or “excellence”) are used to distribute scarce resources among researchers. peer review is an inherently conservative process —the core question it asks is whether work under review conforms to or exceeds existing samuel moore et al., “‘excellence r us’: university research and the fetishisation of excellence,” palgrave communications (january , ): , https://doi.org/ . /palcomms. . . internal bibliographic citations within this quotation have been silently elided. disciplinary norms. in zero-sum or close to zero-sum competitions—such as the distribution of prizes or space in a conference—it has a well-established record of both rewarding the already successful and under-recognising the work of those who do not conform to pre-existing understandings in the discipline. in other words, as we have argued elsewhere, ...the works that—and the people who—are considered “excellent” will always be evaluated, like the canon that shapes the culture that transmits it, on a conservative basis: past performance by preferred groups helps establish the norms by which future performances of “excellence” are evaluated. whether it is viewed as a question of power and justice or simply as an issue of lost opportunities for diversity in the cultural coproduction of knowledge, an emphasis on the performance of “excellence” as the criterion for the distribution of resources and opportunity will always be backwards looking, the product of an evaluative process by institutions and individuals that is this is known as the “mathew effect”; see robert k. merton, “the matthew effect in science,” science , no. ( ): – , http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.alu.talonline.ca/stable/ ; dorothy bishop, “the matthew effect and ref ,” bishopblog, october , , http://deevybee.blogspot.ca/ / /the-matthew-effect-and- ref .html discusses the effect in relation to the research excellence framework. as jian wang, reinhilde veugelers, and paula e. stephan, “bias against novelty in science: a cautionary tale for users of bibliometric indicators,” social science research network, january , , have shown, novelty in science is consistently underestimated by most traditional measures of “impact” in the short and medium term. there is a minor industry researching the failure of peer review to recognise papers that later turned out to be extremely successful by other measures such as citation success or the receipt of major prizes. see joshua s. gans and george b. shepherd, “how are the mighty fallen: rejected classic articles by leading economists,” the journal of economic perspectives: a journal of the american economic association , no. (winter ): ; juan miguel campanario, “rejecting and resisting nobel class discoveries: accounts by nobel laureates,” scientometrics , no. (april , ): – ; pierre azoulay, joshua s. graff zivin, and gustavo manso, “incentives and creativity: evidence from the academic life sciences,” the rand journal of economics , no. ( ): – ; juan miguel campanario, “consolation for the scientist: sometimes it is hard to publish papers that are later highly cited,” social studies of science ( ): – ; juan miguel campanario, “have referees rejected some of the most-cited articles of all times?,” journal of the american society for information science , no. (april ): – ; juan miguel campanario, “commentary on influential books and journal articles initially rejected because of negative referees’ evaluations,” science communication , no. (march , ): – ,; juan miguel campanario and erika acedo, “rejecting highly cited papers: the views of scientists who encounter resistance to their discoveries from other scientists,” journal of the american society for information science and technology , no. (march , ): – ; kyle siler, kirby lee, and lisa bero, “measuring the effectiveness of scientific gatekeeping,” proceedings of the national academy of sciences , no. (january , ): – . established by those who came before and resists disruptive innovation in terms of people as much as ideas or process. diversity instead of quality taken as a whole, this bias among traditional measures of quality means that they are highly likely to underestimate the value of potentially “excellent” work by digital humanities researchers from non-traditionally dominant demographic groups—especially if this work challenges existing conventions or norms in the field. but what about poor quality work from “diverse” researchers? that is to say, what about work from researchers outside traditionally dominant demographic groups within the digital humanities that can be shown on relatively concrete grounds to be below the accepted standards in the field? work, for example, that does not use or recognise existing technological standards? that ignores (or appears to be ignorant of) basic disciplinary conventions? a student project, say, that encodes text for display rather than structure? or a project from a researcher working outside mainstream digital humanities that uses proprietary software or formats or strict commercial licences? it is easy to see, in theory, how a conference programming committee that had to choose between a good project by a research team from a dominant demographic group and a flawed project by a team working outside such traditionally dominant communities might struggle with the question of “diversity vs. quality” when it came to assign speaking slots. the answer is that it is a mistake to see “poor quality” as a diversity issue. while such problems can arise with researchers from demographics that are not traditionally dominant moore et al., . within the digital humanities, they also arise among researchers from traditionally dominant demographics as well. indeed, the willingness to celebrate (or at the very least destigmatise) “failure” is one of the features of the digital humanities that distinguishes it from traditional area fields like medieval studies. mccarty has described the digital humanities as “the quest for meaningful failure” and many authors in the field have devoted considerable attention to the “error” part of “trial and error” (i am aware of no such bibliography or tradition within medieval studies). we have a proud tradition of accepting student papers at digital humanities conferences—indeed, there are often both special prizes and special adjudication tracks for such papers. as long as the researchers in question conform to dominant group expectations in other ways, it seems, referees and review panels are prepared to accept work that implicitly or explicitly violates disciplinary norms on an exceptional basis because it helps define the field. in the case of student papers, they also take positive steps to identify and support a demographic that, by definition, is still presumably acquiring the skills that otherwise make for “quality” work. what this suggests, in turn, is that even “poor quality” is not a reason to avoid privileging diversity within the digital humanities. the digital humanities has a tradition of encouraging willard mccarty, “humanities computing,” encyclopedia of library and information science (marcel dekker, ), https://doi.org/ . /e-elis. see, among many others, isaac knapp, “creation and productive failure in the arts and digital humanities,” inspire-lab, january , , https://inspire-lab.net/ / / /creation-and-productive-failure-in-the-arts-and- digital-humanities/; katherine d. harris, “risking failure, a cuny dhi talk,” triproftri, march , , https://triproftri.wordpress.com/ / / /risking-failure-a-cuny-dhi-talk/; brian croxall and quinn warnick, “failure,” digital pedagogy in the humanities, mla commons, accessed august , , https://digitalpedagogy.mla.hcommons.org/keywords/failure/; jenna mlynaryk, “working failures in traditional and digital humanities,” hastac, february , , https://www.hastac.org/blogs/jennamly/ / / /working- failures-traditional-and-digital-humanities; stephen ramsay, “bambazooka,” accessed august , , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://stephenramsay.us/ / / /bambazooka/; quinn dombrowski, “what ever happened to project bamboo?,” literary and linguistic computing , no. (september , ): – . accounts of failure and accounts of structurally often less accomplished researchers such as students for the same reason it has a tradition of encouraging reports from researchers working in a wide variety of disciplinary contexts—because these accounts contribute collectively to the breadth of our understanding of the application of computation to humanities problems, expanding particularly our knowledge of method (i.e. the “hows,” or, in this case perhaps, “how not tos”). adding to this the occasional failed or less accomplished work of a researcher from a traditionally non-dominant demographic will neither disturb this tradition of celebrating failure nor result in the crowding out of successful projects by members of traditionally dominant or non-dominant demographics. conclusion the history of the digital humanities is often traced through landmark projects and movements, from the initial work by roberto busa on his concordance, through the stylometrics and statistical work of the s and s, to the “electronic editions” of the s and s, to big data and ubiquitous computing today. this history, however, is also a history of diversity. at each stage, progress in the field has required the introduction of new problems, new methods, and new solutions: a broadening of, rather than simple repetition or perfection of, the type of problems to which computation can be applied or which exist in an interesting computational context. the digital humanities is what it is today because we did not privilege “quality”—of concordance-making or edition-making or other early forms of humanities computing—over other novel forms of computational work. rather, it has thrived because we have embraced new and (often initially) imperfect experiments in the application of computation to other problems or new approaches to understanding the significance of computation in the context of humanistic research. this is, indeed, as mccarty has pointed out, perhaps the most ironic thing about the decision of the editors of computers and the humanities to narrow the focus of their journal to language resources and evaluation in , just as the digital humanities entered its most expansive and diverse phase. just as progress in humanities computing would have stalled if it had been unable to expand beyond roberto busa’s early interest in concordances, or the burst of activity in text encoding and presentation that characterised the “electronic editions” of the s and early years of this decade, so too the digital humanities will fail to progress if it cannot expand its range of experiences beyond those whose work and experience have largely defined it for most of its history: the white, northern, male, university researcher with access to reasonably secure funding and computational infrastructure. as digital culture (and hence the scope of humanities research) expands globally, the type of methodological and theoretical questions we are faced with have become itself much broader: why are some groups able to control attention and others not? how do (groups of) people differ in their relationship to technology? how do you do digital humanities differently in high- vs. low-bandwidth? how does digital scholarship differ when it is done by the colonised and the coloniser? how is what we discuss and research influenced by factors such as class, gender, race, age, social capital in an intersectional way? this expansion requires the field, if it is to advance, to ensure that researchers with experience in these questions from different perspectives are given a place to present their findings in our conferences and journals. in some cases—and there is no reason to believe that the frequency of such cases will be more than we find whenever new approaches and ideas enter the field—this work will belong to the well-established tradition of see humanist discussion group (by way of willard mccarty semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: the eton myers collection virtual museum @article{chapman theem, title={the eton myers collection virtual museum}, author={henry chapman and v. gaffney and helen l. moulden}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } henry chapman, v. gaffney, helen l. moulden published geography, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. the digitisation of museum collections provides great opportunities for broad communication and access. however, currently the majority of online ‘virtual’ museums present information two-dimensionally. three-dimensional data capture using laser scanning provides the potential to generate d virtual objects that can be used for a much greater interactive experience. this paper presents the results of a jisc-funded project aimed at the generation of a d online museum of an internationally… expand view via publisher researchgate.net save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations methods citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure interpretation (logic) objectivity/db citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency chapter more than just a sum of the points : re-thinking the value of laser scanning data henry chapman, e. baldwin, helen l. moulden, m. lobb view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed more than just a sum of the points: re-thinking the value of laser scanning data henry chapman, e. baldwin, helen l. moulden, m. lobb engineering, computer science visual heritage in the digital age view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed an investigation to examine the most appropriate methodology to capture historical and modern preserved anatomical specimens for use in the digital age to improve access - a pilot study ianto thorvald jocks, d. livingstone, p. rea engineering pdf view excerpts, cites background and methods save alert research feed digital heritage: concluding thoughts eugene ch'ng, v. gaffney, henry chapman history, computer science visual heritage in the digital age save alert research feed let's get virtual: examination of best practices to provide public access to digital versions of three-dimensional objects t. johnson computer science pdf save alert research feed assessing the capabilities of additive manufacturing technologies for coral studies, education, and monitoring l. gutierrez-heredia, colin keogh, e. reynaud biology front. mar. sci. view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed visual heritage in the digital age eugene ch'ng, v. gaffney, henry chapman computer science, geography springer series on cultural computing view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed statistical approaches to inferring object shape from single images ashwini shikaripur nadig computer science save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency virtual skeletons: using a structured light scanner to create a d faunal comparative collection l. niven, t. steele, h. finke, t. gernat, j. hublin biology save alert research feed laser scanning for conservation and research of african cultural heritage sites: the case study of wonderwerk cave, south africa h. rüther, m. chazan, + authors l. k. horwitz geography pdf save alert research feed developing a documentation system for desert palaces in jordan using d laser scanning and digital photogrammetry s. alkheder, yahya alshawabkeh, n. haala computer science pdf save alert research feed a new approach to recording and monitoring wet-preserved archaeological wood using three-dimensional laser scanning m. lobb, k. krawiec, a. howard, b. gearey, henry chapman geology save alert research feed on the application of -d scanning technology for the documentation and typology of lithic artifacts leore grosman, oded smikt, u. smilansky computer science save alert research feed d scanning technology as a standard archaeological tool for pottery analysis : practice and theory a. karasik, u. smilansky pdf save alert research feed light detection and ranging (lidar) in the witham valley, lincolnshire: an assessment of new remote sensing techniques s. crutchley geology save alert research feed d scanning technology as a standard archaeological tool for pottery analysis: practice and theory a. karasik, u. smilansky geology save alert research feed archaeological prospection of forested areas using full-waveform airborne laser scanning m. doneus, c. briese, m. fera, martin janner geology save alert research feed department of culture, media and sport's peer review pilot helen r. graham sociology pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract figures and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue sustainability strategies for digital humanities systems claes neuefeind , philip schildkamp , brigitte mathiak , unmil karadkar , johannes stigler , elisabeth steiner , gunter vasold , fabio tosques , arianna ciula , brian maher , greg newton , stewart arneil , martin holmes cologne center for ehumanities, university of cologne, germany data center for the humanities, university of cologne, germany centre for information modelling, university of graz, austria king’s digital lab, king’s college london, united kingdom humanities computing and media centre, university of victoria, canada now that the digital humanities (dh) are becoming a well-established research field, producing seminal publications in print as well as digital formats, the time for consolidation has come. it is noteworthy that digital tools and methods from the pioneering days of the dh are degrading and some have already vanished. therefore, it is urgent to take action and to prevent further losses. while the necessity of high quality research data management (rdm) is encouraged or even required by funding agencies and there is an increasing awareness for long-term archiving (lta), when it comes to primary research data, the fact that the dh exhibit a structural deficit regarding maintaining and preserving research software is at the least underestimated. in this panel, we will focus on infrastructure and institutional support. beginning with an overview of existing strategies from the dh and beyond, we highlight selected strategies to compare how they are implemented at different institutions in terms of infrastructure, expert knowledge and also funding. we also want to evaluate the extent of institutional support that is needed to successfully sustain and archive dh projects and the software they use. we will discuss currently implemented solutions to maintain and preserve research projects and software, all of which approach the outlined problem from a different angle. . sustainability strategies in dh and beyond (brigitte mathiak, data center for the humanities, university of cologne) sustainability of research software is an important issue for the dh. in our investigation of the “digital scholarly editions“ online catalogue, we compared the time stamps of the last seen version on the internet archive with the first seen version (schildkamp & mathiak, ). we discovered that of digital editions, had disappeared (cf. fig. ). the average life time is . years, while the half life time is about years. we expect that other dh projects exhibit similar trends. the reasons for the disappearance of these valuable research resources are manifold: diminishing funding, lack of institutional support and, over time, lack of personnel support as researchers switch career paths or research directions. the “digital dark age” (whitt, ) affects not only our digital cultural heritage, but also the born digital outcomes of scholarly labor. figure : life time of digital scholarly editions the problem of sustainability is neither unknown, nor without solutions. several different models have been explored within the dh community. these include the development of centers such as chnm, consortia such as europeana, hathitrust, and dpla, as well as community partnerships such as samvera (previously hydra) and islandora. individual institutions such as those represented on this panel have taken up responsibility for the resources that were placed in their care. yet, there is a dazzling variety of strategies, technologies, and policies that have been adopted to improve the elusive sustainability, e.g. code archiving, open source dissemination, duplication, sandboxing, refactoring, unified tech stacks, virtual research environments, virtualization, and use of the internet archive. while it is clearly easier to prepare a project for sustainability in the planning stage, advice for enhancing sustainability is divergent, ranging from using simple technology, someone’s preferred infrastructure, or particular documentation practices. many completed projects do not have a sustainability strategy, either because they were too old or too optimistic. what happens to these projects is often determined by funding and institutional support. the luxury version is a complete redesign with all the newest bells and whistles, but there are also cheaper strategies, such as putting the system in a sandbox, or relying on the internet archive. however, the problem of sustainability is not unique to the dh. basic sciences (biology and physics), atmospheric and space sciences, as well as geosciences are some disciplines that are developing sustainability enhancing mechanisms. in conjunction with funding agencies such as the national science foundation, researchers in these disciplines have attempted approaches such as community engagement in software and schema development (specify), ongoing external funding for maintenance (rather than only for new research), long-term funding arcs (nsf centers), funding agency mandates (contribution of digitized data to existing repositories), efforts to desilo or integrate resources (idigbio, iplant), and institutional support for pre-publication drafts (arxiv). we will explore the breadth of these approaches as well as the expected and actual impact of these strategies on sustainability of products that are critical for scholarship in these disciplines, and connect the dots by drawing parallels to the dh. . tosca-based application management (claes neuefeind and philip schildkamp, cologne center for ehumanities/data center for the humanities, university of cologne) the university of cologne’s data center for the humanities (dch) is obliged to concern itself with the sustainability of all digital artifacts produced during (digital) humanities projects, e.g. as run by the cologne center for ehumanities (cceh). and as such, it is not only committed to the long-term preservation of data, but of so-called “living systems” (sahle & kronenwett, ) as well. with regards to this necessity, the dch is currently engaged in the dfg-funded project “sustainlife - sustaining living digital systems in the humanities” (neuefeind et al., ), conducted in cooperation with the institute of architecture of application systems (iaas) of the university of stuttgart. the project aims at adopting the “topology and orchestration specification for cloud applications” (tosca) standard (oasis, and ) to the field of digital humanities. being an industry standard focussed on deployment and maintenance of complex software services, tosca allows to model applications as abstract topologies consisting of reusable components, while avoiding any kind of vendor or technology lock-in. through this meta-modelling of software components, not only can the deployment context be adjusted easily (e.g. deployments geared towards openstack can easily be adjusted towards docker, vmware vsphere, etc.), but from the reusability of said components, synergetic effects emerge, lessening the overall administrative costs for long-term archiving and deployment of research applications. in our contribution to the panel, we will present the methodological concept of our approach based on the opentosca ecosystem (breitenbücher et al., ), an open-source implementation of the tosca standard, as well as a distinct set of use case implementations conducted within the sustainlife project. the use cases to be presented will cover some of the typical technology stacks in the dh. foremost, the ( ) earlycinema use case stands for one of the most common technology stacks: lamp (linux, apache, mysql, php). further, the ( ) autopost and ( ) tiwolij use cases employ the popular java framework spring(boot) with a mysql database as persistence layer. also implemented using spring(boot), but persisting data in mongodb, employing elasticsearch as indexing service and packing a reactjs frontend, the ( ) vedaweb use case represents one of the more specialized stacks. and lastly the ( ) musical competitions database is the most specialized use case, as it depends on older versions of couchdb for data persistence and elasticsearch for indexing persisted data (neuefeind et al., ). . gams: geisteswissenschaftliches asset management system (unmil karadkar, johannes stigler, elisabeth steiner, gunter vasold, and fabio tosques, centre for information modelling, university of graz) recognizing the problems inherent in conducting digital humanities research based on stand-alone, custom software, the centre for information modeling has developed, maintained, and enriched gams--a modular, standards-based, community-used software-- since the early ’s, gaining over years of experience in sustaining a digital scholarship infrastructure. the gams infrastructure is supported by ongoing relationships with researchers, personnel, processes, and certifications that inform a holistic, long-term sustainability philosophy. thus, gams embodies a strategy for digital preservation that has been hardened through software upgrades, continuous use, and external testing. gams hosts over , compound digital objects and supports over digital humanities projects. ● infrastructure: the gams software is developed using open software and platform-independent standards. these include fedora--a flexible open repository infrastructure, blazegraph, a standards-based, high-performance graph database, handle--a persistent identifier service, postgresql, apache cocoon, apache lucene, apache solr, and loris iiif image server. gams was initially developed using fedora . and over the years, has been migrated to fedora . . the gams team has developed oais-compliant workflows in order to support long-term preservation. data stored in gams is subject to fair data principles. currently, the gams team is updating the backend to fedora . . this upgrade presents unique challenges as fedora has outsourced the notion of content models since version . and model compliance must now be handled in the application layer. the modularity of the gams architecture facilitates such an upgrade as the java-based cirilo client supports the management of a legacy layer while migrating to a rest-api-based interface. cirilo is developed on an open source philosophy and is available for download via github. the user interface layer of the gams web interface is based on web technology standards, such as xml and xslt that separate structure from content and enable multiple, context-specific renditions of web-based information. ● relationships: in order to ensure continued relevance, the gams team partners with humanities researchers. gams receives and stores data in recognized archive-compliant standards such as jpeg , tiff, tei, and lido. in addition to providing interfaces for tasks such as the upload, management, description, presentation, and dissemination of digital objects, the team consults with research partners about issues such as document digitization, ingest, description, and management, developing custom workflows, data models, deposit agreements, data management plans, and publication pipelines as necessary. developed tools and techniques are available for other projects, thus enriching gams as well as the digital research environment for humanists. ● personnel: continuity of people is often correlated with the availability of infrastructure and data. in order to ensure long-term availability of the data as well as services, the centre invests in project staff for tasks such as software development, infrastructure management, processes, workflows, and content model design, as well as for document and metadata enrichment. ● certifications: in a demonstration of our commitment for long-term preservation and to assure (potential) partners of this commitment, gams has undergone rigorous evaluation and has been certified as a trusted digital repository (since ), carries the coretrustseal (since ), and is registered with the registry of research data repositories (roar).the team is currently working to certify gams repository as a clarin center. . managing dh legacy projects and building new ones: a pragmatic and holistic approach to archiving and sustainability (arianna ciula and brian maher, king’s digital lab, king’s college london) king’s digital lab’s (kdl) (king’s college london) contribution to archiving and sustainability practices in digital humanities (dh) will be presented along the following dimensions: ● (human) sustainability of expertise: as generational change occurs and in line with reorientations across the dh community (see boyles et al., ), it has become increasingly clear that the surest way to sustainability is to ensure continuity of technical expertise, domain knowledge, and tacit understanding. kdl conceived and adopted a relatively flexible model with defined career development document and research software engineering (rse) role definitions (smithies, ). ● (technical) sustainability of systems and technical stack: the second dimension needed to sustain the dh tradition and fulfil kdl’s mandate to increase digital capability across the arts & humanities is caring for the cluster of technical systems comprised of hardware and software, web servers, network infrastructure, application frameworks, programming languages, tools (for project, data and code management), and equipment. in practice, sustainable management of lab projects required the adoption of limited server and development environment stacks, in a move away from the more flexible but difficult to manage environment used in earlier eras (for more details of the tools used to support the stack see https://stackshare.io/kings-digital-lab). ● (operational) post-project integrated in the lab software development lifecycle: the techniques used to manage kdl rich and heterogeneous estate of legacy projects matured into an ongoing process of archiving and sustainability tailored to the lab’s historical, technical and business context. it is applied to new as well as legacy projects, in a manner that ensure systems as well as data are maintained https://stackshare.io/kings-digital-lab https://stackshare.io/kings-digital-lab throughout defined life-cycles (king’s digital lab, ). to control this, open ended service level agreement (sla) contracts are offered to principal investigators (pis) of collaborative research projects to secure maintenance of legacy projects in their live state; however, other options for archiving are also possible and assessed (see also smithies et al. and https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html). to make the overall approach sustainable, it had to be integrated into the lab’s software development lifecycle (sdlc; see https://kingsdigitallab.github.io/sdlc-for-rse/), and in so doing align with kdl infrastructure architecture and core technical stack, while at the same time informing practices of forward planning for new projects. kdl’s contribution to the panel will reflect on how alignment across these three layers raises challenges but also poses the foundations for the sustainability of the lab’s ecosystem, hopefully offering a reference for others to reflect upon, adapt and improve. . keeping it simple and straightforward (greg newton, stewart arneil, martin holmes, humanities computing and media centre, university of victoria) the university of victoria long ago demonstrated its commitment to dh research by providing base-budget funding for the five-person humanities computing and media centre - a department in the faculty of humanities. as can be seen from the name, hcmc actually pre-dates the term digital humanities. as a base-budget funded department, hcmc has the capacity to take on projects regardless of their level of funding - we regularly take on projects with no funding at all - and the commitment to support the project's outputs in perpetuity. this is only possible due to a critical mass of professors and executives seeing value over time. for over twenty years hcmc has been consulting on and developing web applications in support of teaching and research. on behalf of our academic collaborators we work closely with library and systems colleagues who take primary responsibility for archiving and technical infrastructure, respectively. this is a strategic division of labour entailing ongoing communications with the benefits of specialization and scale. over the years we have come to recognize the inherent dangers of creating teetering stacks of complicated, fashionable technology that cannot stand the test of time. experiments with several cms's, javascript libraries, and so forth has invariably led us to the conclusion that the long-term cost of coping with breakage and security problems outweighs the short-term value these applications and libraries offer. while we provide institutional support we are not keen on a never-ending cycle of upgrades and code-maintenance. to mitigate this we have become staunch supporters of kiss - in our case it might stand for "keep it simple and straightforward". we take on very few projects that we did not develop, and when we do they are usually converted to a static site and archived or completely re-written. our project endings survey and interviews have made us doubly aware of the potential for catastrophe using technology that is not proven to be simple and durable. from our https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html https://kingsdigitallab.github.io/sdlc-for-rse/ https://www.uvic.ca/humanities/hcmc/ https://projectendings.github.io/ perspective every project will benefit from adopting a kiss strategy, but perhaps especially those projects without institutional support. references arneil, stewart, martin holmes and greg newton. . “project endings: early impressions from our recent survey on project longevity in dh.” digital humanities conference, utrecht, netherlands. july . https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html boyles, christina, carrie johnston, jim mcgrath, paige morgan, miriam posner, and chelcie rowell. . ‘precarious labor in the digital humanities – dh ’. in digital humanities : book of abstracts / libro de resúmenes, edited by Élika ortega, glen worthey, isabel galina, and ernesto priani, – . mexico city: red de humanidades digitales a.c. https://dh .adho.org/precarious-labor-in-the-digital-humanities/. breitenbücher, uwe, endres, c., képes, k., kopp, o., leymann, f., wagner, s., wettinger, j., zimmermann, m. . ‘the opentosca ecosystem. concept & tools’. in: european space project on smart systems, big data, future internet - towards serving the grand societal challenges - volume : eps rome . scitepress, pp. - . king’s digital lab. . ‘archiving and sustainability | king’s digital lab’. king’s digital lab. . https://www.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/our-work/archiving-sustainability/. neuefeind, claes, lukas harzenetter, philip schildkamp, uwe breitenbücher, brigitte mathiak, johanna barzen, frank leymann. . ‘the sustainlife project – living systems in digital humanities’. in: proceedings of the th advanced summer school on service-oriented computing (summersoc ) (ibm research report rc ), pp. - . neuefeind, c. and schildkamp, p. and mathiak, b. and marčić, a. and hentschel, f. and harzenetter, l. and breitenbücher, u. and barzen, j. and leymann, f. ( ). sustaining the musical competitions database. a tosca-based approach to application preservation in the digital humanities. in: book of abstracts of the th digital humanities conference (dh ), https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html oasis. . topology and orchestration specification for cloud applications version . , http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/tosca/v . /tosca-v . .html oasis. . tosca simple profile in yaml version . , http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/tosca-simple-profile-yaml/v . /tosca-simple-prof ile-yaml-v . .html. sahle, patrick and simone kronenwett. . ‘jenseits der daten. Überlegungen zu datenzentren für die geisteswissenschaften am beispiel des kölner data center for the humanities’. in: libreas. library ideas # , pp. - . schildkamp, philip and brigitte mathiak. . ‘overview of life and death of digital scholarly editions’ [data set]. zenodo. http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html https://dh .adho.org/precarious-labor-in-the-digital-humanities/ https://www.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/our-work/archiving-sustainability/ https://dev.clariah.nl/files/dh /boa/ .html http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/tosca/v . /tosca-v . .html http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/tosca-simple-profile-yaml/v . /tosca-simple-profile-yaml-v . .html http://docs.oasis-open.org/tosca/tosca-simple-profile-yaml/v . /tosca-simple-profile-yaml-v . .html http://doi.org/ . /zenodo. smithies, james. . ‘the continuum approach to career development: research software careers in king’s digital lab’. king’s digital lab - thoughts and reflections from the lab (blog). february . https://www.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/blog/rse-career-development/. smithies, james, anna maria sichani, carina westling, pam mellen, and arianna ciula. . ‘managing digital humanities projects: digital scholarship & archiving in king’s digital lab’. digital humanities quarterly. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html. whitt, richard. . ‘through a glass, darkly’ technical, policy, and financial actions to avert the coming digital dark ages, santa clara high tech. l.j. . available at: http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/chtlj/vol /iss / https://www.kdl.kcl.ac.uk/blog/rse-career-development/ http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://digitalcommons.law.scu.edu/chtlj/vol /iss / hfm _lr.dvi using ergonomic digital human modeling in evaluation of workplace design and prevention of work-related musculoskeletal disorders aboard small fishing vessels enrique álvarez-casado,∗ bing zhang,∗∗ sonia tello sandoval,∗∗∗ and mondelo pedro∗∗ ∗department d’organizacio d’empresses, universitat politecnica de catalunya (upc), barcelona, spain, ∗∗centre especific de recerca per a la millora i innovació de les empresses (cerpie), universitat politecnica de catalunya (upc), barcelona, spain, ∗∗∗centro de ergonomia aplicada, barcelona, spain, abstract this article seeks to present methods for preventing work-related musculoskeletal disorders of spanish fishermen and for redesigning the workplace aboard small fishing vessels. to achieve its objective, the research project was designed in four steps. first, the equipment and procedures for catching, handling, and storing fish were studied. second, the work postures of all the fishermen were simulated and assessed by using an ergonomic digital human modeling system (mannequin pro). third, the work environment design aboard vessels was modified on the basis of acceptable simulated work postures to prevent repetitive movements, awkward working postures, and lower back biomechanical stresses. in the fourth step, ergonomic design parameters were provided to vessel designers. c© wiley periodicals, inc. keywords: work-related musculoskeletal disorder (wsmd); physical risk factors; vessel ergonomic design; postures simulation; work place; digital human modeling . introduction in the past months, . % of workers in the eu experienced work-related health problems: this num- ber corresponds to million persons. meanwhile, back problems ( %); neck, shoulder, arm, or hand problems ( %); and stress, depression, or anxiety ( %) are most often reported as the most serious health problems (eurostat, ). in this report, % ∗∗correspondence to: (cerpie) research centre for cor- porate innovation, upc (technical university of catalonia), av. diagonal, planta – etseib, barcelona, spain. phone: + ; e-mail: bing.zhang@ upc.edu received: september ; revised december ; accepted march view this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/hfm doi: . /hfm. of fishermen have been exposed to one or more fac- tors adversely affecting physical health; this number is only slight less than the number of workers in the mining sector ( %). the european foundation for the improvement of living and working conditions ( )presents that almost a third ( . %) of spanish workers believe that their workplace design is lacking quality in some way. the most arduous working po- sitions affect farmers, stockbreeders, fishermen, and sailors in particular; in all of these professions, . % of workers carry out their work with a bent back. in spain, it has been concluded (ruiz & ledesma, ) that work-related musculoskeletal disorders (wmsds) (in particular, low back pain [lbp]) are some of the most important problems of the fisherman population. in fact, the official data from the spanish labour ministry about accidents in show that wmsds represent the main cause of accidents in fish- ermen (more than % of the registered cases). human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries ( ) – ( ) c© wiley periodicals, inc. using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard álvarez-casado et al. the term “musculoskeletal disorder” (msd) is used collectively for symptoms and disease of the muscles, tendons, and/or joints. wmsds and in- juries occur when there is a mismatch between the physical requirements and the physical capacity of the human body (taelman, adriaensen, spaepen, langereis, gourmelon, & van huffel, ). conse- quently, wmsds and injuries are caused by a combina- tion of risk factors such as repetitive motion, excessive physical exertion, and bad and/or awkward working postures. posture as a source of musculoskeletal ill- nesses such as low back diseases have attracted the most attention, however. musculoskeletal problems related to repetitive work are also connected to posture. there are a few studies related to wmsds in some countries. swedish studies on fishermen have shown that symptoms from the musculoskeletal system are common and that they follow a logical pattern ac- cording to the fishing and type of working tasks on board. during the months before the study, % of the fishermen had experienced symptoms of the musculoskeletal system (torner, blide, eriksson, kadefors, karlsson, & petersen, ). the authors found that the largest number of fishermen consid- ered the motion of the vessel to be a major strain, not only on the musculoskeletal system, but on the indi- vidual as a whole. in their research of work-related injury in new zealand commercial fishermen, nor- rish and cryer ( ) found that of the cases were diagnosed as strains or sprains. back strain ( cases) represented almost two thirds of these and % of the total injuries. this finding agrees with the find- ing that more than one third of the injuries ( cases) were recorded as having occurred during lifting, low- ering, loading, or unloading and that boxes (probably containing fish in many cases) were specified in of these cases. the worker’s compensation for back strain injuries was % of the total cost, and indicates the importance of this injury group. strains of the knees, shoulders, and forearms were also common. to quantify biomechanical stresses on the lumbar spine during work activities of commercial crab fish- ermen, and thus determine work task priorities for ergonomic intervention, the continuous assessment of back stress methodology was used to develop distribu- tions describing the amount of time that each of the members on a two- or three-man crabbing crew spend at various levels of low back stress (mirka, shin, kucera, & loomis, ). an observational work-sampling technique—posture, activity, tools, and handling— was used to describe the prevalence of awkward pos- tures and other physical risk factors for shoulder symp- toms among a purposive sample of small-scale com- mercial crab pot fishing crews (kucera & lipscomb, ). lbp is a generic term for various low back dis- eases. it has many causes, and posture is one possible causal element (kuorinka, , website of interna- tional labour organization). epidemiological studies have shown that physically heavy work is conducive to lbp and that postures are one element in this process. there are several possible mechanisms that explain why certain postures may cause lbp. forward bending pos- tures increase the load on the spine and ligaments, which are especially vulnerable to loads in a twisted posture. external loads, especially dynamic ones, such as those imposed by jerks and slipping, may increase the loads on the back by a large factor. from a safety and health standpoint, it is important to identify bad postures and other postural elements as part of the safety and health analysis of work in general. this study was done in catalunya, spain, where there are fishing boats, and % are small fishing ves- sels. the main goal of our research was to identify and assess the risk factors of wmsds in fishing tasks of spanish fishermen and to evaluate the workplace de- sign aboard in-shore small fishing vessels. there are many challenges to identifying and assess- ing the risk factors on board fishing vessels. in our case, there are three main research problems that have to be solved: ) ergonomics analyses related to work- place layout design; ) studies of fishermen’s working postures while catching, handling, lifting, and storing fish; and ) workplace redesign and construction to prevent wmsds on board fishing vessels. integration of the human factor and ergonomics in the design and construction of fishing vessels has been studied by many research groups (chauvin, le bouar, & renault, ; orosa & oliveira, ). for instance, personnel movement simulation has been integrated into preliminary ship designing for testing vessel layout suitability (andrews, casarosa, pawling, galea, deere, & lawrence, ). the project led to improved ship design, provided a major savings for ship operators, improved the efficiency of the ship-designing process by reducing time and costs, and ensured that the ves- sel was safer and more efficient for the personnel on board. ergonomics research related to workstation lay- outs and manual lifting and handling has been imple- mented in many industrial countries. a structured job human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm álvarez-casado et al. using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard analysis procedure was developed to assist occupational health and safety professionals in the recognition and evaluation of exposures to ergonomic stresses in the workplace (keyserling, armstrong, & punnett, ). additionally, a comparison between occupational in- juries in the french sea fishing industry in the s and those of today was carried out (chauvin & le bouar, ). this research found that catch processing and handling caused a great number of accidents. during these tasks, fishermen have to cope with two main risks: getting cut or pricked, and making an excessive physical effort and/or awkward movement. digital human modeling has been applied in er- gonomics design and analyses for a long time. a method for conducting workplace assessments in the digital environment was proposed for preventing wmsds (chang & wang, ). by integrating dy- namic simulation and ergonomics evaluation, digital human modeling enables the system designer to vi- sualize and improve workplace design in the digital space. the method has been applied to evaluate au- tomobile assembly tasks. the distinct advantages of integrating the ergonomic analysis model with the dig- ital human modeling include ) the ability to perform ergonomic assessments in the early design process and ) improved communication of both ergonomic con- cerns and design alternatives. a comparative study was made of digital human modeling simulation re- sults and their outcomes in the real world (lamkull, hanson, & ortengren, ). the results of that study show that ergonomic digital human modeling (edhm) tools are useful for providing designs of standing and unconstrained working postures. how- ever, using edhm tools to simulate work processes and postures for purposes of risk prevention has not been adequately done. this article is aimed at presenting methods for im- proving health and safety in the spanish fishing sector, where occupational hazard rates are extremely high. to obtain its objective, the research project was designed with the following steps: first of all, equipment and procedures for catching, handling, storing, and pro- cessing fish were studied. second, the work postures of all the fishermen were simulated and evaluated by using a digital human modeling system (mannequin pro, used by the laboratory of cerpie, upc). third, based on acceptable work postures of fishermen sim- ulated by mannequin pro, the modifications of ves- sel design and construction relevant to preventing low back biomechanical stresses and repetitive movements was recommended. the digital human modeling sys- tem applied in this project has been effective in terms of simulating and evaluating fishermen’s work postures and providing ergonomic design parameters for fishing vessel designers. . methods manual handling involves the movement of heavy loads by hand or bodily force, and should be avoided when possible. work-related upper limb disorders arise mainly from performing repetitive actions. if avoid- ance is not possible, risk of injury must be reduced as much as possible by actions that include ) improving workplace design so that less movement is needed; ) modifying the load by making it lighter or easier to hold; and ) training workers in good practices such as proper handling techniques (agilent technologies, inc., ). to improve on board workplace design, one must first simulate the work process and the work postures of the fishermen. figure depicts the work flowchart for the ergonomic redesign of the workplace aboard fishing vessels. in this research study, the digital fishermen have been built with mannequin pro. mannequin pro human modeling programs have been the most suc- cessful in the world, with thousands of users since the original mannequin program was introduced in . two important features of mannequin pro are ) er- gonomically correct human figures for a range of ethnic groups, percentiles, and body types and ) simulation of lifting, pushing, and pulling by adding forces and torque in any direction on any body part. mannequin pro is a pc-based, three-dimensional ( d) human modeling software package that helps per- form basic analysis during the design, validation, and communication stages of any space design project. it features various biomechanical tools that may be used to enhance analyses or validate new or existing human centered designs. moreover, mannequin pro is con- veniently equipped with the revised national institute of occupational safety and health lifting equation for lifting task analysis. if properly used, this formulation can provide a recommended lifting weight for a spec- ified activity. the multiple anthropometric databases for creating mannequins ensure that the space fits the desired population characteristics. human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard álvarez-casado et al. figure work flowchart of ergonomic redesign of work areas aboard fishing vessel. figure purse seining fishing method. . . risk factor identification and assessment of working aboard small shipping vessels there are several fishing methods for in-shore fishing vessels. purse seining is the general method of encir- cling a school of fish with a large net. the net is then drawn together underneath the fish (pursed) so that they are completely surrounded. it is one of the most aggressive methods of fishing and aims to capture large, dense shoals of mobile fish such as tuna, mackerel, and herring (fishing on line). figure describes the steps used in purse seine fishing. in purse seine fishing inshore, the following tasks are executed: . pulling the net through the water to make a type of wall; . gathering up the net; . with scoop nets, placing fish into boxes; . arranging fish into empty boxes until boxes are full; . placing ice on fish; . collecting fish from the floor and placing them into boxes; . carrying boxes to pallet and stacking; and . lowering boxes from ship at port. after getting permission, we used a video camera and a digital camera to record the working tasks aboard one fishing vessel. other data related to work organiza- tion and time shifting was also collected during three days of observation on board. the fishing boat leaves at o’clock in the evening and comes back to down- load fish at approximately o’clock the morning of the next day. the first step of our research was to identify and assess risk factors in working aboard small fishing human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm álvarez-casado et al. using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard figure typical hazardous postures on board fishing vessels. left to right: trunk bending forward/backward; sideways; twisting; low back and lower extremities; and upper arm posture - en - : (e). figure examples of occupational risks in the work areas and tasks aboard small fishing vessels. vessels, based on videos and images collected on board. the hazard parameters and the cause of the parame- ters of all the working postures (including postures of catching, pushing, lifting, and pulling) were identified and assessed. figure displays the typical hazard postures aboard fishing vessels found in the analysis: trunk bending (forward, backward, and sideways); twisting (lower back and lower extremities); and upper arm posture - en - : (e). figure shows some exam- ples found aboard small fishing vessels of work areas and tasks with high occupational risks. in figure a, the fishermen place empty boxes (for the incoming fish) on top of the full boxes. figure b shows how, after placing the fish in the boxes, the fishermen must squat on the floor to pick up the remaining fish and put human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard álvarez-casado et al. table . identification risks from working postures task a: arrange the fish inside the boxes task b: pick the fish up from the floor task c: carry the boxes for stacking range critical for % range critical for % range critical for % range critical for % range critical for % range critical for % high frequency over ◦ high frequency over ◦ squat to work squat to work flexion of the torso ◦ flexion of the torso ◦ flexion of the torso between ◦ and ◦ with high frequency and over ◦ is not acceptable flexion of the torso between ◦ and ◦ with high frequency and over ◦ is not acceptable forbidden forbidden flexion of the torso between ◦ and ◦ with high frequency is not acceptable flexion of the torso between ◦ and ◦ with high frequency is not acceptable flexion of the upper arm ◦ flexion of the upper arm ◦ flexion of the upper arm ◦ flexion of the upper arm ◦ not acceptable not acceptable flexion of upper arm in ◦ with high frequency in moving is not acceptable flexion of upper arm in ◦ with high frequency in moving is not acceptable them in the boxes. this squatting posture is completely forbidden according to international organization for standardization (iso) standards. figure c presents a fisherman manually carrying and stacking boxes one on top of the other. table depicts the risk factors for each of these three tasks. . . simulation of bad or awkward and acceptable working postures after identifying risk factors, the next step was to sim- ulate bad working postures and present acceptable working postures, with the help of our digital fish- ermen. the practical limit of arm reach, for exam- ple, is not the sole consequence of arm length; the limit is also affected by shoulder movement, partial trunk rotation, possible bending of the back, and the function to be performed by the hand (sanders & mccormick, ). therefore, it is difficult to simulate all the possible interactions by various body segments of the men while they are fishing. the multiple anthropometric databases for creat- ing mannequins ensure that the space fits the de- sired population characteristics. according to statis- tics from december , there are , fishermen in spain (carmona, ). among these fishermen, % are women. % and % percentiles of span- ish fishermen (men) were selected. the anthropo- metric data of the ergonomics software (mannequin pro) had been semi-updated. in other words, only weight and height in the original anthropometry data were updated to the ones of spanish fishermen. other anthropometry data, such as sitting height, should breath, and so forth, were applied based on the french population. other biomechanical and anthropometric data were updated according to these two parameters. dur- ing simulation of working postures, differences in degree of physical effort due to variations in body heights are noted, to better describe actual conditions for workers of different sizes working in the same workplace. human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm álvarez-casado et al. using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard table . findings from analysis using edhm in simulating three task on board small fishing vessels human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard álvarez-casado et al. figure an idea to avoid picking up fish from the floor. the simple structure will help to correctly place the fishin the boxes. . . inputting d geometric data of designed fishing vessel into mannequin pro the d geometric data of the designed fishing ves- sel were imported into mannequin pro, and all the digital fishermen were placed in a d fish- ing vessel to simulate real-life work conditions on board. . results by using an edhm system and simulating all on board work postures, we found multiple risk factors aboard fishing vessels. in contrast, we also found solutions for redesigning the work areas on board to prevent occu- pational hazards in fish collection, processing, trans- portation, and storage. . . redesigning work areas aboard shipping vessels based on acceptable working postures in this article we present our research findings in the tables. table presents the findings of our analysis of three tasks aboard small fishing vessels. task a is to arrange the fish in boxes until the boxes are full. task b is to collect the fish from the floor and put them into the boxes, task c is to transport and stack the boxes on pallets. as we can see from task c, the ergonomic digital fishermen have been simulated in bad postures when transporting and stacking boxes on pallets; accordingly, the upper body–including the upper arm and neck–is in hazard red. in other words, the upper body is in red, which indicates that it is in a posture with risk of developing an msd. after analysis of risk factors, solutions for workplace redesign are provided with re- gard to work surface height. acceptable and good pos- tures have also been simulated based on the redesigned workplace. . . recommendation for ergonomics workplace design in our simulation of the workplace aboard fishing ves- sels, we found that there was inadequate foot clearance in the current workplace when fish boxes were being stacked. foot clearance is an important design parame- ter if fishermen are to maintain good working postures; therefore, we made some recommendations in connec- tion with the design of the workplace aboard fishing vessels. to avoid picking up fish from the floor and working on one’s knees, we have designed a fish col- lecting table, which is presented in figure . figure shows how the workplace can be redesigned so as to avoid the need to pick up fish from the floor. with this design, the fish will fall directly into the boxes and not onto the floor. . conclusion in this study, we have found that the work areas aboard a fishing vessel present typical examples of a work en- vironments that pose risks to workers regarding the development of wmsds. the risk factors of msd have to be controlled at the source, and the risks have to be minimized by such means as the design of safe work systems. consequently, the current on board work- place needs to be redesigned from an ergonomic and human-centered point of view. a suitable work desk is needed for many on board tasks if the fishermen human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm álvarez-casado et al. using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard are to have good working postures. the size of the on board workplace is limited, however. using devices for collecting fish and transporting boxes for stacking is difficult. therefore, there is a need for further innova- tion and redesign of the on board workplace to reduce the risk factors involved. in contrast, we also have found edhm for simu- lating the workplace and work postures to be an ef- fective tool for assessing the workplace and preventing wmsds aboard fishing vessels. we have made sev- eral recommendations to the final vessel designer as to how to redesign the workplace to reduce hazards and risk factors involving manual handling operations in the spanish fishing industry. with regard to computer software, additionally, we have found that the interface and feedback display of the edhm system has to be improved in the future. acknowledgment we thank judith mayers for correcting the english in this article. references agilent technologies, inc. 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( ). human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm using ergonomic dhm in evaluation of workplace aboard álvarez-casado et al. contactless emg sensors for continuous monitor- ing of muscle activity to prevent musculoskele- tal disorders. belgian day on biomedical engineer- ing, ieee benelux embs symposium, december - . torner, m., blide, g., eriksson, h., kadefors, r., karlsson, r., & petersen, i. ( ). musculoskeletal symptoms as related to working conditions among swedish pro- fessional fishermen. applied ergonomics, ( ), – . human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing & service industries doi: . /hfm motion parameters identification for the authoring of manual tasks in digital human simulations: an approach using semantic modelling available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of th cirp conference on manufacturing systems - cirp cms doi: . /j.procir. . . procedia cirp ( ) – sciencedirect th cirp conference on manufacturing systems - cirp cms motion parameters identification for the authoring of manual tasks in digital human simulations: an approach using semantic modelling george pintzosa, nikolaos nikolakisa, kosmas alexopoulosa, george chryssolourisa,* alaboratory for manufacturing systems and automation, dept. of mechanical engineering and aeronautics, university of patras, patras, greece * corresponding author. tel.: + - - ; fax: + - - . e-mail address: xrisol@lms.mech.upatras.gr abstract the use of digital simulation tools for the planning and verification of manufacturing processes has been identified as a key enabler technology. through these tools, the need for physical prototypes is reduced, thus enabling the early assessment of decisions, regarding the efficiency of processes. the same stands for manual assembly planning. however, in industrial current practices, the digital simulation tools are scarcely used since the times for the generation of human simulations are still high. furthermore, the current tools do not support the generation of motions that correspond to real life worker behaviors. this paper presents a methodology for the recognition and reuse of motions and motion parameters during a manual assembly execution. the methodology is based on a motion recognition algorithm using low cost sensors. this algorithm employs a rule based approach in order to identify motions that are translated into semantic individuals. a semantic model is also presented, accompanied by the relevant semantic rules for the organization and reuse of recorded motion parameters, during the production planning and more specifically, during the digital human simulation. the methodology is applied to an industrial case study around the assembly of a car differential. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of th cirp conference on manufacturing systems - cirp cms . keywords: motion; assembly(ing); worker simulation . introduction in today’s market, manufacturing companies face increased pressure for quick responses to changes in the environment [ ]. therefore, research efforts are being carried out to provide flexible, robust and competitive solutions that enable the faster and more effective commissioning of manufacturing systems. regarding human centered operations, such as manual assembly, the manufacturing companies use digital tools to simulate and optimize them [ , ]. based on this, the simulation of human-centered systems has been one of the vital topics of research [ - ]. a challenge with manual operations is that, during their simulation, a number of constraints must be defined and taken into account. the human related processes should respect ergonomic and time values that correspond to real life practices. this should be done in a manner that would allow alternative strategies to be assessed, in order to come up with a near optimum solution for a given set of criteria. details and results from operations without interfering and affecting their performance [ , ] are needed. since many industries make an intense use of human resources, e.g. for assembly, repair and recycle operations, the inclusion of this information would improve the accuracy of simulations [ - ]. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of the scientifi c committee of th cirp conference on manufacturing systems - cirp cms george pintzos et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – the use of modern digital human simulation systems enables the representation and inspection of a process in a simulated environment. a digital simulation may provide the required functionalities for the assessment and evaluation of alternative strategies during the design and reconfiguration of a manufacturing process [ ]. for example, the use of digital human simulation tools has enabled the ford automotive industry to reduce its assembly-related worker injuries dramatically, when at the same time, the quality of new vehicles had been improved by % [ ]. furthermore, mapping the performed operations to digital structures by means of information technologies can provide a framework for advanced planning and control of the overall industrial operation [ ]. detailed reviews on manufacturing system simulation techniques can be found in [ , ]. from these detailed reviews, the requirement for more efficient methods is pointed out as one of the more important ones. finally, digital human simulations tend to include miscalculated process durations, which can lead to non-effective planning of the actual operations [ ]. the fact that when simulations may be incorrect in terms of duration, thus resulting in non-realistic conclusions is one of the main motivations for the study presented in the following sections. the problem with standardizing motions and their parameters, such as the ones performed during assembly tasks, is that of variations caused by the environmental parameters. as an example, a carrying motion performed for different parts with different volumes will have different durations. the existing approaches propose either functions or discrete values, expressing the duration of a certain process, which has to be manually calculated or identified in relevant indexes [ ]. in order to provide realistic parameters, related to the execution of manual processes with specific environmental characteristics, a motion recognition and classification approach is proposed. motion recognition is used in order to identify the actual motions carried out on the shop floor for their classification, based on their type and the environmental characteristics (including the actor’s characteristics, parts’ dimensions etc.) and make them available for the simulation of similar motions in future scenarios. for the storage and reuse of the identified motion parameters, a semantic model is proposed. in the next section, the overall methodology is described. . methodology as stated in the previous section, the approach discussed, is based on a motion recognition algorithm in combination with a data structure, which is used to storing the semantic representations of motions. in order to record human motions similar to the ones performed in a shop floor environment, three types of fig. . sensors used and the data provided by each type. sensors are proposed, namely the optical, force and tool embedded sensors that can provide process related information such as fastening torque for electric screwdrivers. in the implementation presented in this paper, a second generation kinect sensor for windows has been selected as an optical sensor due to its low cost. it can capture depth images in a to meters limited field of view, under a maximum recorded resolution of frames per second (fps). the optical sensor can track joints of the human body and store the related information into a structured form. the force sensors provide information by expressing the force applied to them in different key frames. sensors, integrated into tools, such as the electric screw drivers, provide process related information, namely torque, start and finish of a process. all the data produced by these sensors are then used to identifying and properly recognizing the captured motions. in the implementation presented in this paper, only optical and force sensor data are used. through various motion captures (mocaps), common patterns are sought after for the identification of specific motions. however, motion styles can vary depending on a number of secondary features, such as age, gender, body shape etc. in order for the issues caused by these features (i.e. variations in sensor data) to be overcome, the use of rules is proposed. performed motions, such as picking, placing, walking, etc. can comprise smaller ones. for example, picking is the combination of a reaching action towards an object, a grasping action and a motion where the hand moves closer to the body. therefore, in order for the more effective recognition of motions to be enabled, a two level approach has been used, where the motions are recognized firstly through their sub-components and then confirmed and completed, on the basis of their sequence or intersection with a common timeline. the component motions are termed motion elements (mes) and are recognized by the motions recognition algorithm (mra). afterwards, the mes are semantically stored and there, through additional semantic rules, the high level motions are identified. these motions are termed elementary actions (eas). the eas are provided by clustering mes. eas are generated and constrained through the semantic george pintzos et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – correlation of mes. as an example, the fusion of a grasping motion, preceded and followed by motions reaching forward and backwards respectively, results in a pick elementary action. as presented in the following sections, the combination of mra and semantic processing can currently recognize the following eas: walk, walk inverse, pick, place, carry, carry inverse, sidestep and sidestep-carry. apart from the generation of eas, the semantic storage functionality enables the reuse of mes and eas as well as their related parameters and constraints for future simulations. as stated earlier, mes are stored into a semantic repository together with parameters related to the environment. eas are also stored into this database after their generation. the database created has a triple database (tdb) format. semantic queries enable the retrieval of eas’ parameters, which can be used in digital simulations as constraints. fig. . overall methodology steps. . motion recognition algorithm in order to test and evaluate the proposed methodology, a software application was developed on the basis of requirements for low processing time and low storage requirements. the developed application can be divided into two parts; motion recognition and semantic storage and processing. in this section, the first part will be described. in the current implementation, two types of data are collected and used as input; the optical and force ones (fig. ). data coming from optical sensors include joints’ displacement and rotation values for each of the recorded time frames. force data are measurements on the force applied to a body part during a motion, e.g. the fingers’ force during a grasp motion. fig. . mra steps. the mes recognition is based on the use of rules related to the joint distances, their differentials and raw force data, while the eas upon semantic rules which are further explained in the next section. the mes’ rules use parameters exported from optical and force data and are divided into two categories: rules related to the motion, e.g. distance, velocity, start and stop time frames, force etc. the calculation of these parameters is made by considering the joint values related to the motion. rules related to the environment, e.g. human body dimensions, size of picked object etc. in the current implementation, the mes that can be recognized are walk, reach and their inverses as well as grasp and sidestep, sidestep-carry. the relations between these mes and the eas can be seen below: fig. . hierarchical relations between mes and eas. the first action performed by the algorithm is the calculation of the distances between the joints using the optical data: table . joint distances calculated for recognition of specific motions. distance used in recognition of ankle – waist walk, walk inv., sidestep, sidestep inv. ankle – ankle walk, walk inv., sidestep, sidestep inv. wrist – waist reach, reach inv. ankle – wrist reach, reach inv. wrist – wrist reach, reach inv. george pintzos et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – the velocity is calculated through differentiation. an interesting characteristic of the motions is that the velocity peak values arise near the middle of an me. based on this, the mes’ starting points are sought after within the times that precede and follow the peak values. a starting point is set at the time when the relative velocity has a zero or near-zero value. this is done by following the velocity curve backwards from peak to the first zero point. the relative velocity, here, expresses either the change in the distance between two specified joints or one joint and the global coordinate system. following a similar approach, an me ends at a timeframe after a peak value, when velocity derives from a peak value to near-zero. at this point, it should be noted that the velocity criterion enables recognition only to a certain extent. in order to be firmly resolved whether an me has been performed or not, further processing is required. the additional rules used involve the “if… then…” condition. these rules examine the values of different, secondary to the motion, joints. as an example, a rule for walking would consider, apart from the movement of the ankle joints, the concurrent hip joints’ motion in space. for instance, a pick ea, consists of two mes that have to be recognized; reach, and grasp. the following figure shows the speed between the examined joints. the wrist to hip distance is calculated and translated by differentiation to speed. within the speed values, peaks are identified and compared to threshold values. when walking, the users’ hands are also moving in a similar to reaching motion. in order to avoid including this, the threshold is set accordingly. the positive values in the following figure correspond to the reach mes, while the negative correspond to the hands’ return or the reach inverse me. afterwards, it is the start and stop frames that are identified. fig. . right hand - waist speed curve. in fig. , points . and . define the start of the reach mes and . and . the end of them. in addition, points . and . correspond to the starting frames of the reach inverse mes, while . and . to the end of the mes. the existence of a grasp me is expected from the identification of a reach and reach inverse mes, but it is not recognizable by the kinematic data. the recognition of a grasp me is carried out by force sensor data. the grasp is separately recognized and when all the mes are stored into the semantic repository, the semantic rules identify the sequence of the mes, leading to the generation of the relative eas. in this way, when a reach me is falsely identified, it will not lead to the storage of a pick ea. each me recognition is accompanied by additional rules which confirm the identification. as an example, for reach, the ankle joints are also checked; at least, one foot has to remain still during a reaching motion. in a similar way, all possible mes are recognized and further parameters are calculated. for walk, the distance covered by walking is calculated and stored. for reach, the height of the reached object’s position is calculated and so on. extra parameters include the person’s height, which is calculated at the beginning of the mocap session, the object’s size, when it is carried with both hands (average distance of hands during carrying), etc. the algorithm was written in matlab® and follows a linear processing of data. the specific sequence and results of the described steps can be seen in fig. . fig. . motions indication and recognition steps of the mra. george pintzos et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – . human motions semantic model and application the second part of the applications developed, concerns the mes’ semantic representation and storage, the generation of the eas and the reuse of their parameters. these features are performed within a motion semantic repository (msr). the msr was developed through the jena framework. within the repository, the mes are stored as individuals. data properties are used for the storage of the mes’ related parameters, whilst the object properties are used for the storage of the relations between the mes and the eas. the developed semantic model is composed of two main classes; the motionelement class is used for the mes, and the elementaryaction class for eas. the recognized mes and their parameters, provided from the mra, are stored into the motionelement class, using specific sub-classes. the following figure shows the different sub-classes of each main class. one sub-class is provided for each type of motion element and elementary action. the data properties presented describe the instances (individuals) of each sub-class. depending on the type of motion, different parameters are stored as data properties. as an example, for walk or carry motions, the “distance” property is stored, which is the distance that the tracked person walked or carried an object. for carry, pick and place eas (and the relevant mes) the hands that the person uses are stored using boolean values. fig. . semantic model classes and properties. based on the start and stop frame values, the me individuals are sequenced with the use of the data property sequence (integer). then, on the basis of additional rules, the different sets or discrete me individuals, generate eas. an elementaryaction individual obtains the includesme property, if the sequence of the me individuals, stated to generate an ea, fulfil the constraints for the generation of this specific individual. an me individual obtains the isincluded if it is part of a generated ea. the semantic rules ensure the generation of eas from the correct mes as well as the correlation of the relevant parameters to them. following the previous example, the start frame of the reach me becomes the start frame of the pick ea, while the stop frame of the reach inv. me becomes its stop frame. in other cases, such as the carry ea, its start and stop frames are identified as the start and stop frames of the walk me being a part of it (fig. ), since a carry me comprises the parallel execution of a grasp and walk mes. fig. . rule for identification of the start and stop frames of a carry ea. after all eas have been generated and associated with the necessary data properties, all the mes are deleted from the msr. then, the user can easily search in the msr for the identification and reuse of motion parameters (fig. ). via the interface, the user can access, search and retrieve information from the msr. moreover, new mes can be imported. delete and export functionalities are also available. . case study in order to present and evaluate the proposed concept in a real environment, a case study has been performed with the following scenario: fig. . input section of the msr gui. george pintzos et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – a person performs assembly operations on an automotive differential. the session is recorded with the use of sensors. the results of the mocap session are imported to the msr and processed via semantic rules. another user searches the msr in order to identify time parameters for a digital simulation. the user identifies the parameters and generates the simulation based on them. the first step was performed in an industrial environment with the use of an optical sensor and a set of force sensors. the force sensors were embedded within a glove that was used for assembly operations. the optical sensor was placed on the side of the user in a two meter distance from his original position. the activities planned and tracked were the following: walk to table with parts. pick left side mount of differential. carry left side mount of differential to differential casing’s position. place right side mount of differential on the casing. repeat all tasks for right side mount. the session was recorded and two separate files were generated comprising of optical and force data. force data were communicated through a wireless node and collected. the two generated files (containing optical and force data), were processed by the mra algorithm, and another file was generated. the file format used was of a spreadsheet application and contained all the mes recognised as well as the relevant constraints per type. afterwards, the files were imported through the graphical user interface (gui) of the msr. fig. . scene from the (a) mocap sessions and from the (b) digital simulation. finally, a simulation of the entire session was performed in a digital human simulation software. the duration of all motions was requested and successfully retrieved through the gui of the msr, providing a realistic, in terms of time, simulation of processes similar to the ones performed in the mocap sessions. during the mocap sessions it was identified that, in order for the motion capturing to be successful, all key joints should be “visible” by the optical sensors at all times. this places the requirement for additional optical sensors as well as for a data fusion mechanism. . conclusions and discussion the motivation behind the study presented in this paper, was centred on the need for faster planning of manual assembly operations, and more precise digital human simulations. the main idea proposed was the use of motion data, obtained from the performance of assembly operations by shop floor personnel, using various types of sensors. a methodology for the recognition of different motions as well as the storage and reuse of the generated parameters was also presented. finally, the overall methodology was verified in a shop floor environment and reusing the parameters identified in a new digital human simulation. the presented methodology has shown promise for future advancements that could bring it closer to industrial practices and help generate digital human simulations in less time and with greater realism. as a first step towards the improvement of the methodology, the inclusion of additional sensors will be realised. as described in section , sensors on tools will be used in future developments to enable the identification of additional processes which will further enhance the algorithm’s capabilities. this solution is already available in off-the-shelf products that use bluetooth as a standard for wireless communication. furthermore, the use of multiple optical sensors will be investigated. in order to realise this, an existing fusion algorithm will be used in order to merge data from different sensors [ ]. beyond these, the use of additional sensors, will be investigated, namely inertial measurement units (imus) will be explored for tracking the motion of assembly equipment. regarding mra and msr, two developments are foreseen: one will be the inclusion of motions for recognition such as kneeling and screwing (processing). furthermore, key joint positions will be added to the msr, to enable the storage of the actors’ detailed poses for specific motions. this will allow the more precise reuse of motion parameters, both concerning time and space. finally, the most important step for the significant improvement of the presented methodology and for bringing it closer to industrial practice, will be the integration of all the developed components both george pintzos et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – internally and externally. primarily, the distinct components, i.e. the motion recognition application and the motion semantic repository, will be integrated into one application. subsequently, the application will be integrated with existing, commercial digital simulation tools in order to automatically receive requirements for assembly operation parameters and deliver them directly into simulations. acknowledgments this study was partially supported by the project interact / ict- - - , funded by the european commission. the authors of this paper would like to thank emphasis telematics ae for developing and providing their support regarding the force sensors. references [ ] chryssolouris g. manufacturing systems: theory and practice. rd ed. new york: springer-verlag; . 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[ ] negahban a, smith j. simulation for manufacturing system design and operation: literature review and analysis. journal of manufacturing systems ; : - . [ ] mourtzis d, doukas m, bernidaki d. simulation in manufacturing: review and challenges. procedia cirp ; : - . [ ] lämkull d, hanson l, Örtengren r. a comparative study of digital human modelling simulation results and their outcomes in reality: a case study within manual assembly of automobiles. international journal of industrial ergonomics ; : - . [ ] whitney d. mechanical assemblies: their design, manufacture, and role in product development. st ed. oxford: oxford university press; . [ ] geiselhart f, otto m, rukzio e. on the use of multi-depth- camera based motion tracking systems in production planning environments. procedia cms . [pdf] automatic coding of printed materials | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /e corpus id: automatic coding of printed materials @article{murmann automaticco, title={automatic coding of printed materials}, author={j. murmann and e. homburg and r. geven and y. s. bermiss and a. forgione}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } j. murmann, e. homburg, + authors a. forgione published computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. the paper presents a complete method for using automatic techniques to code printed text pages. it involves three automatic steps and one or two steps of manual corrections to obtain fully accurate results. we discovered that present-day consumer digital cameras are much better than high-end scanners to obtain pictures of printed pages quickly and without the wear and tear associated with scanners. we also found that high-end ($ ) ocr software is much more cost-effective to achieve accurate… expand view via publisher professor-murmann.net save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper figures, tables, and topics from this paper figure figure table figure printing filemaker spss file spanning related papers abstract figures, tables, and topics related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue the dutch-german border: relating linguistic, geographic and social distances | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /e corpus id: the dutch-german border: relating linguistic, geographic and social distances @article{vriend thedb, title={the dutch-german border: relating linguistic, geographic and social distances}, author={f. d. vriend and charlotte giesbers and r. hout and louis ten bosch}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ } } f. d. vriend, charlotte giesbers, + author louis ten bosch published computer science, geography int. j. humanit. arts comput. in this paper we relate linguistic, geographic and social distances to each other in order to get a better understanding of the impact the dutch-german state border has had on the linguistic characteristics of a sub-area of the kleverlandish dialect area. this area used to be a perfect dialect continuum. we test three models for explaining today's pattern of linguistic variation in the area. in each model another variable is used as the determinant of linguistic variation: geographic distance… expand view via publisher repository.ubn.ru.nl save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper figure table figure table figure table figure table figure figure figure view all figures & tables social welfare model geographical distance social structure triune continuum paradigm citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency dialect borders - political regions are better predictors than economy or religion c. derungs, c. sieber, e. glaser, robert weibel geography, computer science digit. scholarsh. humanit. save alert research feed japanese lexical variation explained by spatial contact patterns p. jeszenszky, y. hikosaka, satoshi imamura, k. yano geography, computer science isprs int. j. geo inf. save alert research feed japanese lexical variation explained by spatial contact patterns p. jeszenszky, y. hikosaka, s. imamura, k. yano pdf save alert research feed a study of the variation and change in the vowels of the achterhoeks dialect melody pattison history pdf view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed tools for computational analyses of dialect geography data f. d. vriend computer science view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed space, diffusion and mobility d. britain geography save alert research feed intelligibility of standard german and low german to speakers of dutch charlotte gooskens, s. kürschner, r. v. bezooijen history pdf view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed maps, meanings and loanwords. the interaction of geography and semantics in lexical borrowing karlien franco, d. speelman, r. v. hout save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency travel time as a predictor of linguistic distance charlotte gooskens sociology pdf save alert research feed dutch-german contact in and around bentheim j. nerbonne, peter kleiweg history, political science pdf view excerpts, references background save alert research feed linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography. p. trudgill highly influential view excerpts, references background save alert research feed geolinguistic diffusion and the u.s.–canada border charles boberg geography language variation and change save alert research feed some patterns of linguistic diffusion g. bailey, t. wikle, j. tillery, lori sand computer science save alert research feed evaluating the relationship between linguistic and geographic distances using a d visualization f. d. vriend, j. kunst, louis ten bosch, charlotte giesbers, r. hout computer science lrec pdf save alert research feed quantitative perspectives on syntactic variation in dutch dialects m. spruit art pdf save alert research feed geografie en inwoneraantallen als verklarende factoren voor variatie in het nederlandse dialectgebied w. heeringa, j. nerbonne, r. v. bezooijen, m. spruit sociology pdf save alert research feed a multilocality study of a sound change in progress: the case of /l/ vocalization in new zealand and australian english b. horvath, r. horvath language variation and change view excerpt, references background save alert research feed the apparent time construct g. bailey, t. wikle, j. tillery, lori sand computer science save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract figures, tables, and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue digital humanities e moda essays – peer-reviewed https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / zonemoda journal. vol. n. ( ) issn - digital humanities e moda valentina rossi* pubblicato: dicembre abstract to answer the question posed by the call: could the pandemic, the pervasive use of the web and the experimentation of extended reality technologies give a boost to fashion archives? it is necessary to undertake a analysis of different case studies that over the years have been confronted with digital humanities practices. the essay aims to outline a methodological lecture on museum and archival practices related to digital humanities. since march , museums and archives have accelerated the data restitution process and reinterpreted the functions of institutions through digital practices and virtual exhibitions — that do not aspire to replace the real ones — and demonstrating how these are placed on a different level of reading. they can certainly integrate with the museum and physical itine- rary, but they can also take place independently of it. the debate on digital humanities and virtual exhibitions is now wide and articulated and one of its major authors, jeffrey schnapp, writes of kno- wledge design: we find ourselves creating new forms of knowledge assuming the current conditions that contemporaneity offers us, while other critical perspectives are aimed at restoring the difference on the role of the document as such or on the method of construction and the impact of digital plat- forms keywords: digital humanities; archive; fashion; virtual exhibitions; curatorial practices. * università di parma (italy);  valentina.rossi@unipr.it copyright © valentina rossi the text of this work is licensed under the creative commons by license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) premessa questo saggio cercherà di definire e proporre alcune posizioni che riguardano l’ampia sfera delle digital humanities in relazione agli archivi di moda. per poter rispondere alla domanda: la pandemia, il pervasivo utilizzo del web e la sperimentazione delle tecnologie di realtà estesa potranno dare un impulso agli archivi della moda? è necessario ripercorrere parte dell’intenso dibattito critico che negli ultimi vent’anni è emerso all’interno di importanti centri di studio e ricerca. le fasi del dibattito riguardano non solo le nuove frontiere dell’umanismo digitale, ma anche la natura dell’archivio. negli ultimi anni anche gli archivi di moda, così come quelli museali, aziendali e universitari, hanno accelerato e intensificato gli studi e i progetti digitali. quello che l’emergenza mondiale sanitaria ha fatto emergere verrà analizzato nel saggio attraverso alcuni casi studio che negli anni si sono adeguati a delle linee di ricerca internazionali. questo saggio si propone pertanto di analizzare il modus operandi dell’umanista digitale al cospetto delle nuove tecnologie attraverso appunto l’analisi di alcuni casi studio dai quali emerge un differente approc- cio alla sfera digitale, caratterizzato dalla struttura della piattaforma, dall’elaborazione di contenuti frui- bili e condivisibili per differenti tipi di utenti, dalla selezione del materiale archivistico, ai collegamenti con altre istituzioni pubbliche e private. con questa ricerca cerco di considerare da un lato la natura mutevole dell’archivio, dall’altro il modo in cui la digitalizzazione dà forma alle informazioni e permette il cambiamento del ruolo degli archivi. seilprimocapitoloèdedicatoallaricostruzionedipartedeldibattitoeall’analisidicasistudiocomeeuro- pean fashion heritage association, il portale degli archivi della moda del novecento, e svariati esempi di digitalizzazione di archivi aziendali come quello di gianfranco ferrè, il secondo capitolo è interamen- te dedicato a csac, l’archivio-museo dell’università di parma fondato da arturo carlo quintavalle nel . dal il centro porta avanti una serie di progetti specifici sulle applicazioni digitali legati alla conservazione e valorizzazione del suo patrimonio composto da dodici milioni di opere suddivisi in diversi fondi, dai quali emergono numerosi fashion designer come krizia, albini, armani e versace. la digitalizzazione e le istituzioni culturali proprio nel marzo del , il victoria & albert museum di londra pubblica un comunicato stampa relativo alla propria dimensione digitale. il comunicato in sé non annuncia nessuna nuova rivoluzione digitale, come molte altre istituzioni culturali che durante la pandemia hanno accelerato la restituzio- ne delle progettualità attraverso questa modalità operativa, ma delinea la strategia che il museo ormai intraprende da anni. nel comunicato stampa si legge: “the v&a offers a wide range of content online for visitors to enjoy museum collections and archives, opportunities to explore the museum behind-the-scenes, access educational resources and further information on our world-leading exhibitions programme — inclu- ding virtual tours, blog posts, interviews, a search the collections website and a dedicated youtube channel”. dal testo emerge come un museo virtuoso come il v&a si fosse già allineato alle pratiche digitali: in questo modo — soprattutto durante l’emergenza sanitaria — l’istituzione si è trovata nella possibilità di valorizzare, promuovere e condividere la propria attività anche da remoto, attraverso differenti approcci . comunicato stampa del victoria & albert museum, marzo https://vanda-production-assets.s .amazonaws.com/ / / / / / /c e - a - -a -b a aa e c/v&a% digital% content.pdf. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://vanda-production-assets.s .amazonaws.com/ / / / / / /c e - a - -a -b a aa e c/v&a% digital% content.pdf https://vanda-production-assets.s .amazonaws.com/ / / / / / /c e - a - -a -b a aa e c/v&a% digital% content.pdf https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) — tra cui un accordo con google art, un canale youtube e una serie tv in collaborazione con la bbc “secret of the museum”. ad oggi la collezione è stata digitalizzata all’ % e sul sito è possibile fruirla dal database indicizzato attra- verso vari tag oltre che da differenti focus composti da articoli e immagini come the story of circus e the embroideries by mary, queen of scots. gli altri progetti digitali si circoscrivono in differenti contenitori: il public programme è riservato alla trasposizione digitale delle esposizioni, e a oggi è ad esempio fruibile il video della mostra di tim walker; online collection highlights not generally available on public view sono invece dei focus monografici su alcuni beni conservati in collezione; objects that are ordinarily dif- ficult to look atclosely in-person (particularly -d pieces) offre una visualizzazione dell’oggetto permessa dalla trasmissione d disketchfab, un software che sviluppa modelli tridimensionali. la sezione online interactives riproduce opere della collezione, grazie all’alta definizione è possibile ingrandire il file e ve- dere i particolari difficilmente percepibili in altri modi, inoltre per attivare una interazione con l’utente sono stati progettati dei pop up di informazione che si aprono sulla navigazione dell’oggetto, spostando quindi il cursore su un dettaglio si aprono gli approfondimenti. la sezione further highlights è invece compostadauncanalesoundclouddovesonocaricateconferenzeeeventicome years,fashioninmo- tion, mentre una parte del sito è caricata con wallpaper scaricabili per il pubblico, una serie di poster di mostra implementati da alcuni approfondimenti e infine l’indice delle pubblicazioni in collegamento con la national library. È facilmente intuibile come le ultime attività digitali proposte dal museo permettano una interazione con l’utente finale, così come la creazione di una comunità di fruitori, non solo addetti ai lavori, invitati alla partecipazione e alla condivisione con il materiale archiviato. interessante infatti è sottolineare come tutte le pagine abbiano la modalità di condivisione tramite i differenti social media come facebook, twitter, instagram e pinterest. comunità, collaborazione, condivisione e percezione nel lavoro dell’umanista digitale le modalità sopra elencate favoriscono nuove forme di esperienza, differenti livelli di lettura e appro- fondimento, diversi approcci metodologici e inedite prospettive di ricerca e di apprendimento. quello che emerge dall’attività del v&a sono i concetti di comunità e partecipazione, peculiarità fondanti nelle digital humanities e che jeffrey schnapp rintraccia nel suo saggio “animare l’archivio”: “[…] nuovi approcci alla conservazione e alla salvaguardia basati non sulla limitazione ma sulla moltiplicazione degli accessi ai resti del passato, modelli partecipativi di produzione dei contenuti, ricerca, e curatela; approcci a realtà miste di programmazione e formazione infor- male,chepromettonodialterareerimodellarelabibliotecatradizionaleeilmuseopubblico; mezzi potenziati per vivificare e promuovere modalità attive o sperimentali nell’approccio al passato e al presente. un passato che non è mai davvero morto, ovviamente; da sempre . in questo particolare video si parla della conservazione di un abito di mary quanthttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/ p xhp . . in questo caso viene restituito un costume teatrale italiano del : https://sketchfab.com/ d-models/theatre-costume- ac db c d baa d eaa f b b . . in questo caso il soggetto analizzato è un kimono della metà del xix secolo: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/courtesan- kimono. . https://soundcloud.com/vamuseum/ -years-of-fashion-in-motion-podcast. . https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/wallpaper-design-reform. . https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/ -years-of-va-exhibition-posters. . https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/annals-to-zeitschrift-an-a-z-of-magazines-and-journals. . jeffrey schnapp è fondatore della stanford humanities lab (shl) e successivamente della harvard fonda metalab, che è parte del berkman center for internet and society alla harvard graduate school of design, è il padre della definizione “archivio animato”. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p xhp https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p xhp https://sketchfab.com/ d-models/theatre-costume- ac db c d baa d eaa f b b https://sketchfab.com/ d-models/theatre-costume- ac db c d baa d eaa f b b https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/courtesan-kimono https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/courtesan-kimono https://soundcloud.com/vamuseum/ -years-of-fashion-in-motion-podcast https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/wallpaper-design-reform https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/ -years-of-va-exhibition-posters https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/annals-to-zeitschrift-an-a-z-of-magazines-and-journals https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) appartiene già al presente. e il web . e le toolkits che stanno a cavallo tra il . e il . , inclusi mondi virtuali, web d, web semantico, indicano alcune importanti traiettorie per investire oggi sul passato. in poche parole, promettono di animare l’archivio”. da queste parole emergono anche alcune considerazioni sul web . e web . : secondo numerico, fiormonte e tomasi difatti, con il web . si apre il concetto di open data, un sistema fondamentale per l’evoluzione delle digital humanities. si tratta di produrre socialmente contenuti di qualità e metterli a disposizione di tutti senza scopo di lucro, lasciando che essi siano dinamicamente aperti a ulteriori ag- giornamenti e integrazioni trasversali con altri archivi. schnapp prosegue il proprio saggio restituendo lo scarto tra il web . e il web . : se la prima modalità ha permesso alle istituzioni di presentarsi in rete attraverso siti e cataloghi ragionati, il web . lancia una sfida al concetto di autorialità permettendo una rielaborazione di contenuti dal basso all’alto, ma soprattutto ampliando il virtuale. se infatti un tempo il virtuale era relegato a una correlazione fisica, oggi si possono immaginare mondi virtuali total- mente slegati da quella componente, tanto che “nell’era del web . , ogni istituzione pubblica si è già trasformata in un’impresa glocal, locale e globale allo stesso tempo”. il web . sembrerebbe quindi ampliare e, in un certo senso, realizzare il concetto di comunità alla base delle prime teorizzazione di internet, basti pensare alle parole del suo creatore tim berners-lee: “il web è più una innovazione sociale che un’innovazione tecnica. l’ho progettato perché avesse una ricaduta sociale, perché aiutasse le persone a collaborare, e non come un giocattolo tecnologico”. questo approccio partecipativo e comunitario sembrerebbe quindi essere uno dei fondamenti della rete e ad oggi un requisito necessario per la creazione e la gestione degli archivi digitali, nonché una delle basi dell’operato dell’umanista digitale. collaborazione e cooperazione sono due parole chiavi che si rintracciano quindi nella genesi delle digi- tal humanities, una disciplina che richiede una unione fra struttura umanistica e informatica. questo modello collaborativo tra diverse discipline emerge in modo chiaro nella prima parte del volume di nu- merico, fiormonte e tomasi, ed è evidente anche nei pensieri di joseph carl robnett licklider che nel pubblica con robert taylor the computer as a communication device. questo studio afferma come ci debba essere una relazione tra uomo e macchina e come quest’ultima non debba essere utilizzata non per la semplice trasmissione di dati, l’obiettivo per licklider e taylor è formare gruppi di ricerca e profili di utenti in grado di creare una “«attività creativa informaziona- le»”, pertanto: “la supercomunità della rete arpanet, quindi, avrebbe compreso oltre ai tecnici anche le persone creative in altri settori capaci di sfruttare gli strumenti di comunicazione resi disponibili dalla tecnologia per i loro ambiti di interesse”. nella direzione dei palazzi della memoria può quindi avvenire un cambiamento radicale nella gestione del materiale, se prima del web . , come afferma schnapp, le istituzioni si concentravano sul prodotto, dopo gli sviluppi digitali l’attenzione si focalizza sul procedimento. questa metodologia comporta un minor controllo sui contenuti ma permette però di attivare alcune pratiche che possiamo considerare fondamentali per l’archivio, come mostrare agli utenti una ricerca ancora work in progress, sottoporre . jeffrey schnapp, “animare l’archivio” in design & cultural heritage. archivio animato, ed. irace, fulvio. (milano, electa, ). . numerico teresa and domenico fiormonte, francesca tomasi. l’umanista digitale. (bologna: il mulino, ), . . questa rielaborazione dei contenuti dal basso verso l’alto viene definita da schapps “top-down billboarding”. . schnapp cita manfred lange e il suo neologismo “glocal” elaborato nel suo progetto “global changeexhibition” del . cfr. schnapp, “animare l’archivio”. . tim berners-lee, “l’architettura del nuovo web. dall’inventore della rete il progetto di una comunicazione democratica, interattiva e intercreativa” (milano: la feltrinelli, ), . . josephcarlrobnettlicklider,roberttaylor,“thecomputerasacommunicationdevice,”scienceandtechnology(aprile ) in cfr. numerico and fiormonte and tomasi, l’umanista digitale, . . numerico . https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) il materiale archiviato a commenti e critiche online o costruire una rete di risorse fuori dalla singola istituzione, creare quindi un network. un altro nodo critico fondante per le modalità operative dell’umanista digitale è il concetto di percezio- ne del documento stesso, documento che un tempo veniva percepito nella sua interezza oggettuale ma che adesso affronta differenti restituzioni mediate dall’ interfaccia grafica. sempre burdick, drucker, lunenfeld, presner e schnapp nell’analisi e nella comparazione tra umanistica digitale e umanistica tradizionale scrivono: “condividiamo la tesi degli studiosi che hanno paragonato l’avvento del digitale e della rete all’invenzione della stampa nel rinascimento e nel post-rinascimento: si tratta di fenomeni rivoluzionari sul piano tecnologico, sociale e culturale”. nel volume questo parallelismo emerge con un’altra omologia: con la nascita del world wide web si as- siste alla necessità di stabilire delle convenzioni comuni per i sistemi di trasferimento dati, dall’analogico al digitale, esattamente come avvenne per l’istituzione di caratteri mobili per la stampa e per la comunica- zione telegrafica. questa frase non può che fare emergere gli studi di marshall mcluhan , sono ormai celebri le posizioni del sociologo canadese che in primis aveva visto nei mezzi di comunicazione non solo una rivoluzione sociale ma anche un apporto alle modalità di trasmissione del messaggio. se mcluhan non riuscì a teorizzare la rete ora sono gli scritti del suo allievo derrick de kerckhoveche possono far luce sulle prospettive mcluhniane legate al medium di internet. la nostra cultura è stata fondata sulla stampa, stampa e ricerca umanistica sono da sempre allineate, ma nella visualizzazione generata dall’umanistica digitale non esiste più solo il testo scritto ma bensì un sistema trans-mediale composto da immagini, video, tecniche di interattività, software e file audio. propriolatrasmissioneorale, legataappuntoallarestituzionedifileaudio,èritornataall’iniziodelnuovo secolo, attraverso youtube, podcast e lezione video, si assiste al prepotente riapparire della voce e del gesto. come la stampa ha cambiato il metodo di trasmissione delle nozioni, anche il digitale trasforma la vi- sualizzazione delle conoscenze. i media, in quanto formatori della nostra esperienza, hanno la capacità di plasmare l’esperienza umana, e applicandovi gli strumenti di mcluhan possiamo dire che i media formano l’esperienza umana e allo stesso tempo hanno una funzione trasformativa delle culture. questeconsiderazionifannoemergereunulteriorenodocriticodalvolumediburdick,drucker,lunen- feld, presner e schnapp: “l’umanistica digitale contribuisce direttamente alla «cultura dello schermo» del ventunesimo secolo”, sottolineando inoltre che le parole sono prima di tutto delle immagini e che il nuovo sforzo delle digital humanities, e quindi dell’umanista digitale, è quello di integrare la com- ponente testuale con quella visuale. in questo ambito è interessante ricordare come gli autori prendano ancora in considerazione il lavoro di mcluhan, in particolare il testo pubblicato con quentin fiore, il medium è il massaggio, dove si crea una sinergia fra testo scritto e grafica editoriale, volume che dagli autori viene considerato un precursore dell’odierna umanistica digitale. . cfr. burdick and drucker and lunenfeld and presner and schnapp, umanistica_digitale, . . burdick. . marshall mcluhan, la galassia gutenberg: nascita dell’uomo tipografico, (roma: armando editore, ); marshall mcluhan, gli strumenti del comunicare, (milano: il saggiatore, ). . derrick de kerckhove ha scritto molti saggi e volumi, tra i più noti: la pelle della cultura. un’indagine sulla nuova realtà elettronica del , l’intelligenza connettiva. l’avvento della web society del . . cfr. burdick and drucker and lunenfeld and presner and schnapp, umanistica_digitale, . . burdick, . paolo granata, mediabilia l’arte e l’estetica nell’ecologia deimedia (bologna: fausto lupetti editore, ). . cfr. burdick and drucker and lunenfeld and presner and schnapp, umanistica_digitale, . . il libro viene pubblicato per la prima volta nel dalla bantam books. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) alcuni casi studio in questo paragrafo verranno presi in considerazione alcuni casi studio di differente natura al fine anche di creare un contesto critico e concreto al capitolo dedicato allo studio di csac. il primo progetto è european fashion heritage association nato nel e cofinanziato dalla com- missione europea, è una piattaforma digitale in cui archivi e musei pubblici e privati di tutta europa condividono online il patrimonio di abiti storici, accessori, design, fotografie di sfilate, disegni, schizzi, riviste, cataloghi e video. nella prospettiva di scambio e condivisione si pensi a una interazione tra dif- ferenti archivi, unidisciplinari, multidisciplinari e monotematici che permettano la comunione di più fonti archivistiche. questo progetto contribuisce come aggregatore tematico sulla moda di europeana, un archivio on line che come scopo ha quello di condividere delle risorse culturali ad un vasto pubblico. europeana è una piattaforma suddivisa per collezioni nata nel su iniziativa della comunità euro- pea, e che vede la partecipazione di una fitta rete di partner. in questa prospettiva europeana potrebbe essere considerata come un progetto pioneristico, perché si basa sull’interazione e la collaborazione della rete, quindi anche sull’interconnessione tra archivi e banche dati. la struttura in metadati permette di identificare il materiale di europeana composto da circa cinquanta milioni di documenti di biblioteche, musei, archivi in tutta europa. il repository digitale di european fashion heritage association raccoglie invece circa un milione di og- getti digitali di moda che possono essere liberamente consultati, condivisi e riutilizzati da tutti, facendo quindi fede ai principi fair, ossia findability, accessibility, interoperability e reuse, è la prospettiva con la quale si muove europeana. la piattaforma ha sviluppato anche un europeana data model al fine di creare una standardizzazione dei dati necessari all’inserimento nelle piattaforme che vi confluiscono. european fashion heritageassociation è fruibile quindi attraverso una struttura organizzata in diverse categorie: designers, efha world,events,exhibitions, fashion &history, object focus, runway archi- ve. l’utente può navigare e approfondire le varie voci che offrono alcuni affondi tematici tramite la ricostruzione di una cornice storico-critica e alcune fotografie di archivio. la collezione è fruibile anche attraverso una semplice ricerca del soggetto, attività a cui vengono applicati dei filtri: object, provider, material, colour, creator, date. selezionando ad esempio creator si sviluppa una tendina con i nomi di atelier, case di moda e fashion designer, mentre cliccando sul nome selezionato si apre una schermata con gli oggetti corredati da una scheda strutturata con nome, tecnica, numero di schedatura, data di creazione, provenienza, designer, tipo di oggetto, fotografo, content provider e right statment. il portale risulta quindi strutturato seguendo una serie di attività che permettono la navigazione de- gli utenti in vari livelli. oltre ad una fruibilità di base sono difatti presenti schede critiche a attività di approfondimento per ricercatori, addetti ai lavori, professionisti e creativi che possono incontrarsi virtualmente per condividere modelli e esperienze. nell’ambito di una simile progettualità possiamo citare un caso italiano come culturaitalia, un ag- gregatore nazionale del patrimonio culturale italiano. nato grazie al ministero per i beni e le attività culturali e alla collaborazione scientifica con la scuola normale di pisa, nel progetto confluiscono un sistema di archivi italiani di diversa natura, tra cui anche il san, sistema archivistico nazionale che ha al suo attivo alcuni portali tra cui quello degli archivi della moda del novecento. . europeanfashionheritageassociationadoggivedeall’attivocirca istituzionidellamodaeuropeeprovenientida paesi. https://fashionheritage.eu. . https://pro.europeana.eu/post/publication-policy. . https://pro.europeana.eu/files/europeana_professional/share_your_data/technical_requirements/edm_ documentation/edm_factsheet.pdf. . http://www.culturaitalia.it/opencms/index.jsp?language=it. . mauro tosti croce and maria natalina trivisano, “il portale archivi della moda del novecento e la camera nazionale della moda italiana. dall’inventario al web”, in lo stile italiano nelle carte. inventario dell’archivio storico della camera nazionale della moda italiana ( – ) a cura di elisabetta merlo, maria natalina trivisano, (roma: ministero per i beni e le attività culturali, direzione generale archivi), . https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://fashionheritage.eu https://pro.europeana.eu/post/publication-policy https://pro.europeana.eu/files/europeana_professional/share_your_data/technical_requirements/edm_documentation/edm_factsheet.pdf https://pro.europeana.eu/files/europeana_professional/share_your_data/technical_requirements/edm_documentation/edm_factsheet.pdf http://www.culturaitalia.it/opencms/index.jsp?language=it https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) il portale archivi della moda del novecento viene ideato nel dall’anai (associazione nazionale archivistica italiana) e ha permesso il censimento, la catalogazione e la digitalizzazione di alcuni materia- li conservati dalle più importanti case di moda italiane: da questo progetto si sviluppa, oltre a una serie di attività convegnistiche e di ricerca, il portale degli archivi della moda. questo progetto fa parte di un discorso più ampio sulla digitalizzazione aperto dalla direzione generale archivi con l’intento di creare dei portali tematici, inseriti all’interno del sistema archivistico nazionale. il portale funziona da aggregatore di contenuti, difatti tramite delle opzioni di ricerca è possibile accedere al materiale digi- talizzato proveniente da vari soggetti pubblici e privati, dal museo del tessuto di prato alle fondazioni di emilio pucci e roberto capucci. le varie sezioni guidano gli utenti ad alcuni approfondimenti: in protagonisti si apre un elenco alfabetico dove si può ricercare il soggetto e avere delle informazioni bio- grafiche, ma solo per alcuni è fruibile del materiale restituito all’interno dello stesso portale oppure dal portale del sistema archivistico nazionale. nella sezione multimedia il sistema genera invece delle im- magini a random con una semplice didascalia, per accedere alle schede degli oggetti è necessario utilizzare la funzione cerca. anche questa piattaforma permette un diverso approccio calibrato sulle differenti tipologie di utenti, ad esempio alcuni dossier hanno la bibliografia direttamente collegata all’opac, catalogo del servizio bibliotecario nazionale, in strumenti di ricerca è invece possibile accedere, oltre alla biblioteca sempre collegata a opac, ad un vocabolario e ad un lemmario finalizzato alla compilazione della scheda abito- elementi vestimentari. se european fashion heritage association, così come europena, rappresentano casi studio esemplari per la confluenza di beni da differenti archivi e attivano, attraverso la loro modalità, un modello aggre- gativo per diverse istituzioni, csac, centro studi archivi comunicazione dell’università di parma, rappresenta invece un diverso caso studio in quanto raccoglie l’archivio dell’università. questo caso studio sarà analizzato nel capitolo successivo. in questa prospettiva di analisi, oltre agli archivi dei musei, ai progetti europei, ministeriali e universitari, sono da citare anche gli archivi aziendali, gestiti principalmente in maniera privata. molti brand italiani nel corso degli ultimi vent’anni hanno istituito il loro archivio, il loro museo o spa- zio espositivo. tra i più noti vanno sicuramente menzionati: armani/silos, museo salvatore ferraga- mo, fondazione gianfranco ferrè, gucci garden, fondazione ottavio e rita missoni, fondazione mi- col fontana, fondazione roberto capucci, fondazione archivio emilio pucci e il valentino garavani virtual museum. armani propone la visita del suo archivio digitale, composto da una raccolta di figurini, immagini di campagne pubblicitarie e sfilate, fruibile solo da device messi a disposizione nella sede silos, il museo salvatore ferragamo oltre al programma espositivo nella sede fiorentina propone un virtual tour ma non ha messo in rete il proprio archivio. la fondazione gianfranco ferrè ha un archivio solo parzialmente digitalizzato che consente all’utente di vedere una selezione di modelli riprodotti su manichino con la scheda inventariata con i dati di lavorazione, note storico-bibliografiche, disegni tecnici, foto di sfilata, immagini di compagne pubblicitarie e redazionali. . di queste attività ne viene dato un sintetico resoconto da bruna niccoli, “il costume di scena. il ‘fantastico’ patrimonio archivistico italiano”, zonemoda journal (luglio ) https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / . . https://www.moda.san.beniculturali.it/wordpress/. . maurotosticroce,“iportalitematici:unveicoloperdivulgareilpatrimonioarchivistico”,giornaledistoria,n° ( ). . http://www.iccdold.beniculturali.it/siti_tematici/scheda_veac/lemmario/index.asp.html. . https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?chiavealbero= &aprinodo= &tipopag= comparc&chiave= &chiaveradice= &ricsez=fondi&ricvm=indice&rictiposcheda=ca. . https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/siusa/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= . . https://www.fondazionegianfrancoferre.com/home/schedetecniche.php?lang=it; https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/ cgi-bin/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= . https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.moda.san.beniculturali.it/wordpress/ http://www.iccdold.beniculturali.it/siti_tematici/scheda_veac/lemmario/index.asp.html https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?chiavealbero= &aprinodo= &tipopag=comparc&chiave= &chiaveradice= &ricsez=fondi&ricvm=indice&rictiposcheda=ca https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?chiavealbero= &aprinodo= &tipopag=comparc&chiave= &chiaveradice= &ricsez=fondi&ricvm=indice&rictiposcheda=ca https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/siusa/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= https://www.fondazionegianfrancoferre.com/home/schedetecniche.php?lang=it https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) il gucci garden, ospitato nello storico palazzo delle mercanzie di firenze, oltre all’attività espositiva seguita da maria luisa frisa e a un ristorante gestito da massimo bottura, sembrerebbe non investire sul suo patrimonio archivistico, difatti sul sito della maison e su quello del gucci garden non ci sono particolari rimandi a questa attività. la fondazione ottavio e rita missoni presenta invece una buona parte di archivio digitalizzato: luca missoni, direttore artistico dell’archivio, si pone come obbiettivo una sempre maggior digitalizzazione per rendere accessibili i contenuti e offrire informazioni sul mondo missoni. l’archivio delle sorelle fontana, in parte a csac, è conservato alla fondazione micol fontana che però prevede la fruizione del proprio materiale solo in sede. la fondazione roberto capucci ha buona parte del materiale digitalizzato che propone all’utente attraverso la suddivisione di varie categorie, sotto la sezione portfolio si apre una tendina con: abiti, bozzetti e illustrazioni, sculture in tessuto, collezioni e allestimento. al loro interno le sezioni sono scandite da un modello temporale. il materiale digitalizzato èprettamentefotografico,egliabitidicapuccivengonopresentatisumanichini,manessundocumento digitalecaricatosulsitoèaccompagnatodaunaschedadiinventariatoespecificasull’oggettomostrato. l’archivio emilio pucci è gestito da promemoria, un’azienda che attraverso una piattaforma digitale di archiviazione, archivi, collabora con importanti istituzioni pubbliche e private, ma a oggi l’archivio non è fruibile on line. valentino propone una gallery virtuale costruita in d su un sito ideato ad hoc ma la usere xperience è complessa, è infatti necessario scaricare un file di estensione .dmg, non facilmente leggibile. questi casi studio restituiscono alcuni livelli di lettura calibrati in base alla natura dell’istituzione. in quasi tutti questi esempi non sono presenti delle contestualizzazioni storico critiche o delle schede delle opere, appare evidente come sia necessario un ulteriore lavoro di approfondimento atto alla creazione di un sistema di conoscenze e pratiche condivise per permettere un sistema del patrimonio della moda. questo saggio non prende in considerazione le strategie social e le nascenti influencer che pur circoscrivendosi nell’ambito del digitale necessitano di un altro genere di contestualizzazione sto- rico critica, mi limiterò — rientrando nella tematica del numero di questa rivista — a citare un progetto, ancora embrionale, ma che potrebbe rappresentare, in fase germinale, la collaborazione diretta tra l’apparato digitale e il fashion designer, un modo per animare ulteriormente l’archivio. un tentativo potrebbe essere la creazione di avatar, che nel periodo della pandemia grazie ad animalcrossing, hanno indossato e pubblicizzato abiti di grandi maestri della moda come va- lentino. kara chung è la creatrice dell’account instagram [@animalcrossingfashionarchive] — . https://www.fashionresearchitaly.org/fashion-journal/archivi-moda/archivio-missoni/. . https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/siusa/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= . . https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= . . https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/siusa/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= . . https://www.promemoriagroup.com/it. . https://www.archiui.com/it. . http://www.valentinogaravanimuseum.com. . l’arricchimentoinquestocampopermetteilformarsidinuovefigureprofessionali: ilcentrodidatticofashionresearchitaly offre ad esempio dei corsi inerenti all’archivio di moda, dove non solo si trattano le qualità intrinseche dell’archivio e dei beni conservato, ma è anche previsto un focus specifico sulla digitalizzazione del materiale. https://www.fashionresearchitaly. org/. . come riportato nell’articolo di furio belloni ci sono stati alcuni precursori nel mondo della moda, come louis vuitton e la riot games, casa produttrice del gioco league of legends, che ha portato anche alla creazione di una capsule collection, e la collaborazione tra moschino e skin sviluppatasi in due direzione, dalla creazione capsule collection ispirata da disegni pixelati e i motivi classici del videogioco; alla possibilità di vestire i personaggi con gli abiti di quella capsule collection e di altre collezioni di moschino. furio belloni, “da valentino a louis vuitton e moschino: le maison alla conquista dei video- giochi”,drepubblica( maggio ),https://d.repubblica.it/moda/ / / /news/moda_e_videogiochi_animal_ crossing_valentino_league_of_legends_louis_vuitton_gaming_e_game- /. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.fashionresearchitaly.org/fashion-journal/archivi-moda/archivio-missoni/ https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/siusa/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= https://siusa.archivi.beniculturali.it/cgi-bin/siusa/pagina.pl?tipopag=comparc&chiave= https://www.promemoriagroup.com/it https://www.archiui.com/it http://www.valentinogaravanimuseum.com https://www.fashionresearchitaly.org/ https://www.fashionresearchitaly.org/ https://d.repubblica.it/moda/ / / /news/moda_e_videogiochi_animal_crossing_valentino_league_of_legends_louis_vuitton_gaming_e_game- / https://d.repubblica.it/moda/ / / /news/moda_e_videogiochi_animal_crossing_valentino_league_of_legends_louis_vuitton_gaming_e_game- / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) https://www.instagram.com/animalcrossingfashionarchive/ — dedicato agli abiti virtuali, skin, look digitali di marca che replicano quelli delle collezioni ss e prefall / . questa prima parte restituisce la complessità della prospettiva di studio e diversi esiti di analisi, approcci e declinazioni: emerge pertanto come negli ultimi anni molte istituzioni si siano attivate e abbiano mes- so in rete il proprio patrimonio attraverso modalità che rispecchiano indici di differenzionazione tra le pratiche adottate. il caso csac. un archivio museo. alcuni progetti di digitalizzazione “la sfida per musei e biblioteche? costruire le proprie piattaforme fisiche e collezioni in questi e altri domini d’intersezione tra virtuale e reale, in modo da rinforzare non solo l’ac- cessibilità e il raggio d’azione ma da stabilire anche nuovi modelli di immaginazione, qualità e rigore”. nel suo saggio “animare l’archivio” jeffrey schnapp propone una ipotetica direzione che dovrebbero seguire le istituzioni culturali come luogo di conservazione, valorizzazione e promozione della memoria. sul museo e sull’archivio, istituzioni sorelle , gli scritti e gli studi sono vastissimi: il dibattito critico si infittisce negli anni cinquanta quando iniziano le prime argomentazioni legate alla gestione e viene ri- conosciuto all’archivio il ruolo nella ricerca. nel corso degli anni settanta vedono la luce i primi archivi di musei pubblici e privati e gli artisti interpretano le fonti d’archivio come elementi di valenza estetica e non più solo documentative (un esempio su tutti gli artisti della institutional critique). negli anni novanta e alle soglie del duemila, si pongono invece le basi teoriche-scientifiche per nuovi studi e ap- profondimenti sul ruolo e la natura dell’archivio: ormai sono celebri le riflessioni di jacques derrida, dell’octoberist hal foster e del curatore e critico owkui enwezor. dagli anni settanta in poi l’archivio viene analizzato non solo come serbatoio di memoria ma anche co- me promotore e attivatore dei processi culturali. francesca zanella scrive: “l’archivio è infatti divenuto metafora della cultura postmoderna, non solo della forme di trasmissione della memoria, ma pure del rapporto con la storia, della sua rappresentazione e delle relazioni socio-culturali…”. da queste posi- zioni emerge come archivio e museo non siano solo istituzioni atte alla conservazione, ma anche alla valorizzazione e promozione del patrimonio conservato. con l’arrivo dell’era digitale aumentano gli studi che affrontano non solo la rinnovata identità delle isti- tuzioni culturali — con particolare attenzione per quelle istituzioni museali che nel corso degli anni . https://www.instagram.com/animalcrossingfashionarchive/. . cfr. schnapp, “animare l’archivio”. . “istituzioni sorelle, irriducibili quando necessarie «eterotopie» (foucault, ), archivi e musei condividono la stessa natura duplice di luoghi di conservazione e di produzione di memoria. una memoria che è, innanzitutto, sguardo cri- tico sul presente, occasione di creazione e di azione e assunzione di responsabilità collettiva e del singolo”. stefania zu- liani, “«là dove le cose cominciano». archivi e musei del tempo presente” in ricerche di s/confine, dossier , ( ) http://www.ricerchedisconfine.info/dossier- /zuliani.htm. . risulta difficile riportare l’ampio dibattito critico su questa tematica, in questa sede è comunque necessario ricordare: jac- ques derridaarchive fever: a freudian impression del , archive fever di owkuienwezor del e halfoster con “the archive withoutmuseum” del . fondamentale ricordare come molti studi che analizzano la natura dell’archivio, come quelli sul museo e sulla biblioteca, partono dalle argomentazioni del filosofo francese francois foucault, per il quale l’archivio è “il sistema generale della formazione e della trasformazione degli enunciati”. michel foucault, l’archeologia del sapere (milano: rizzoli, ), . . francescazanella,“digitalarchive.alcunenote”,ricerchedis/confine,dossier ,( )http://www.ricerchedisconfine. info/dossier- /zanella.htm. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.instagram.com/animalcrossingfashionarchive/ https://www.instagram.com/animalcrossingfashionarchive/ http://www.ricerchedisconfine.info/dossier- /zuliani.htm http://www.ricerchedisconfine.info/dossier- /zanella.htm http://www.ricerchedisconfine.info/dossier- /zanella.htm https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) novanta si sono ritrovate all’interno del dibattito sui musei dell’iperconsumo — ma anche le prospet- tive di ricerche e analisi legate all’ambito delle digital humanities, che permettono di rilevare un inedito campo di studi. in una prima fase di analisi si rileva infatti come il digitale permetta di ripensare la natura dell’archivio stesso, mettendo quindi in crisi i modelli di catalogazione adottati nei secoli passati. se il museo negli ultimi vent’anni ha prodotto un ripensamento di natura museografica riallestendo la colle- zione attraverso nuove metodologie espositive lontane da uno stampo storicistico o per scuola, l’archivio ha ripensato la propria struttura interna attraverso un’analisi dei modelli archivistici e delle modalità di accesso ai documenti, non solo fisici ma anche virtuali. sempre schnapp ci illustra come sono cambiati i modelli di conoscenza attraverso l’esempio del “capo- volgimento della piramide del sapere”. gli archivi sono basati sul modello piramidale, alla base si trovano raccolti i documenti, nel mezzo il lavoro dell’archivista mentre in punta ci sono le conoscenze, ossia le varie attività degli studiosi. ad oggi invece la piramide sembrerebbe ribaltata posizionando quindi alla base un ampio spettro di fruitori, di comunità che producono i contenuti, seguendo quindi un modello collaborativo, mentre la raccolta dei materiali si trova sulla cima. questo mutamento mette in discussio- ne il concetto stesso di archivio: “invece di considerarlo un posto dove si conservano le cose, dovremmo vederlocomeun postodovesifannolecose” . questa prospettivalegata aun archiviomutevolesembre- rebbe essere parallela, se pur espressa anni dopo, all’idea di un “museo vivo”, visto come una struttura “proteiforme”. queste premesse teoriche sono funzionali per introdurre una istituzione come csac, un archivio fon- dato nel che ha acquisito natura museale solo nel . nell’archivio sono raccolti circa dodici milioni di pezzi tra fotografia, arte, design, moda, cinema e teatro. in particolare l’archivio dedicato alla moda, istituito nel e conservato nella sezione media, raccoglie all’incirca ottantamila pezzi, tra cui figurini delle sorelle fontana, emilio schuberth, maria antonelli, renato balestra, clara centinaro, antonio pascali, walter albini, irene galitzine, albertina, giorgio armani, gianfranco ferré, krizia, franco moschino, carlo palazzi, cinzia ruggeri, gianni versace, rocco barocco, nino caprioglio, guido cozzolino, valentino e brunetta mateldi. nel csacinizia un progettodi archiviazione digitaleconlo scopodi creareunarchivio che replica quello reale, parallelamente attiva il dominio csacparmalab.info sul quale è stato installato l’applicativo per virtual exhibition omeka. con le esposizioni virtuali si avrà quindi la possibilità di fruire la mostra abbandonandole consuetedirettivespaziotemporali:questogenerediesposizionipermetteunafruibili- tàcontinua,delocalizzataetemporalmentesuperioreallemostrereali,perlequalièpossibileunpercorso di arricchimento attraverso i contributi degli utentie la realizzazione di operazioni con budget ridotti ri- spetto ai meccanismi espositivi tradizionali. l’archivio csac, con questa prima fase di trasformazione digitale, risponde alle “raccomandazioni per le istituzioni culturali” emanate dal mibact nel . nel sono state quindi stilate le linee guida per la digitalizzazione ed incrementate le schede di ca- talogo ora consultabili attraverso la piattaforma samira, il catalogo online di csac. il software vie- ne adottato nel e la sua struttura permette di caricare le schede oa tracciate dal ministero e di . i musei dell’iperconsumo è stato un convegno promosso nel dall’accademia nazionale di s. luca in collaborazione con darc e la triennale di milano e coordinato da franco purini. si vedano gli atti del convegno a cura di pippo ciorra, stefania suma, i musei dell’iperconsumo. materiali di studio, atti del convegno internazionale (roma, marzo ), accademia nazionale di san luca, roma . . inquestaprospettivasirimandaalleposizionidifulvioiracenellibrodesign&culturalheritage.archivioanimato.(milano: electa, ). . jeffrey schnapp, “digital humanities”, in meet the media guru, a cura di maria grazia mattei (san giuliano milanese, milano, egea, ), . . lanfranco binni and giovanni pinna, museo: storia e funzioni di una macchina culturale dal ’ a oggi (milano: garzanti, ). . . adalgisa lugli, museologia, (milano: jaca book, ). . . https://www.csacparma.it. . per gli studi sulla sezione moda si rimanda ai testi di gloria bianchino ed elena fava. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.csacparma.it https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) gestire le riproduzioni digitali dimostrando quanto samira sia uno strumento funzionale grazie a una suddivisione in tre livelli: gestione, catalogo e ricerca. il catalogo dell’archivio è suddiviso in due voci, sezioni e fondi: dalle prima si entra ovviamente alle cin- que sezioni con cui è stato suddiviso l’archivio (arte, media, progetto, fotografia e spettacolo) mentre nella sezione fondi si apre una lista degli autori conservati in archivio. l’utente ha quindi la possibilità di accedere attraverso le sezioni e visualizzare il materiale a oggi conservato, ed è nelle condizioni di fare una ricerca per nome che consente di approfondire la natura dei differenti fondi. il materiale digitaliz- zato è fruibile nelle sezioni e nelle pagine dedicate agli autori, ed è composto da una scheda opera con autore, titolo, data di realizzazione, definizione, fondo, altezza, larghezza, materia e tecnica, stato di con- servazione, note, numero identificativo, foto e diritti. negli ultimi anni csac ha pertanto intrapreso le idonee procedure per definire la fattibilità inerente la condivisione dei metadati verso i portali culturai- talia e europeana. nello specifico sono stati effettuati alcuni test di harvesting sull’intefaccia oai-pmh dell’archivio csac da parte di culturaitalia, test che hanno avuto un esito principalmente positivo. oltre al vasto progetto di digitalizzazione dell’archivio, negli ultimi anni csac ha svolto importanti atti- vità di promozione, valorizzazione e conservazione attraverso ricerche in ambito di digital humanities. socializing the archiveè stato un progetto di ricerca del che ha voluto indagare e individuare stru- menti, strategie e modalità per animare, valorizzare e rendere accessibili gli archivi sfruttando le poten- zialità offerte dalle tecnologie digitali. la ricerca ha intrapreso una analisi di digital landscape dove sono stati comparati casi studio nazionali, internazionali e locali messi a confronto con l’archivio dell’università di parma. i dati sono stati raccolti attraverso i canali social e sono stati elaborati grazie a software specifici quali semrush per l’analisi della seo e del pubblico. grazie alla collaborazione con l’agenzia aicod sono state implementate le attività social tramite le pagine instagram, facebook e twit- ter, i canali youtube e soundcloud. contemporaneamente sono state realizzate le fasi di preparazione, targetizzazione del pubblico, gestione degli annunci, interazione con la community e analisi dei risultati per quanto riguarda una campagna di adv, articolata tra le piattaforme facebook, instagram e google ads. tutta questa parte verte alla costruzione di un dialogo con la propria comunità di riferimento, la disseminazione di contenuti specifici e infine la verifica della ricezione da parte dei fruitori. nel è nato invece il progetto ettore sottsass virtual exhibitor, in collaborazione con visual informa- tionlaboratoryvisitlabcineca—supercomputingapplicationsandinnovationdepartment— scai. gli obiettivi del progetto sono lo sviluppo di prodotti e contenuti per l’archivio/museo applicabi- li all’ambito espositivo e didattico. lo scopo è quindi di favorire delle azioni di integrazione tra archivio e varie attività del museo e infine implementare lo sviluppo dell’accessibilità ai materiali dell’archivio tramite strategie innovative per differenti target di pubblico. in questa prospettiva il lavoro dell’archivio si arricchisce di una nuova progettualità con lo scopo di valo- rizzare la collezione, rendere fruibili i documenti e gli oggetti che una mostra tradizionale non avrebbe esposto per motivi di tutela, sintesi progettuale e pratiche espositive. pur avendo già intrapreso la strada del digitale, csac, in risposta all’emergenza covid- , ha sviluppato una prima restituzione del pro- gettostoriedifili,condivisaattraversovideo,cheraccontanoilprogettointuttelesuefasiecomplessità, caricati nel canale youtube di csac e fruibili anche sul sito. storie di fili è un progetto sulla relazio- ne tra gli archivi csac e alcune realtà aziendali legati alla filiera tessile della zona, è curato da francesca zanella e dalla sottoscritta, ed è composto da tre momenti espositivi, scanditi da tre artisti e da due libri. la prima artista è sissi che, dopo un’attenta ricerca in archivio, ha individuato tre figure emblematiche — brunetta, cinzia ruggeri e krizia — su cui ha articolato tre nuove produzioni di abiti/sculture, rea- lizzati grazie alle aziende del territorio. storie di fili durante il lockdown ha subito una netta frenata e, per non perdere parte della progettualità, si è deciso di produrre nove video che raccontano attraverso immagini e voce narrante la natura del progetto. . https://www.aicod.it. . https://www.csacparma.it/storie-di-fili/. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.aicod.it https://www.csacparma.it/storie-di-fili/ https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) nel siconcluderàilmioprogettodiricerca“mostrevirtualievalorizzazionedelpatrimoniocultura- le: il design italiano” che parte da una riflessione teorica sul ruolo dell’archivio, del museo e delle digital humanities, per arrivare ad approfondire la tematica delle virtual exihibitions, attraverso la comparazio- ne di differenti esposizioni virtuali. la seconda fase del progetto è dedicata alla definizione del progetto curatoriale, potenziato per la visualizzazione digitale, alla selezione del materiale csac e quindi alla de- finizione della piattaforma digitale open access. in particolare l’ambito di riflessione del progetto di ricerca verte sulla valorizzazione di alcuni progetti di design e moda conservati a csac. . l’archivio csac: memorie, conservazione e valorizzazione del progetto italiano vuole quindi restituire una serie di pro- getti d’archivio legati ad un momento storico importante che vede convergere design e moda. il è assunto come data centrale per una serie di eventi come la mostra italy: the new domestic landsca- pe curata da emilio ambasz al moma di new york e lo spostamento delle sfilate da firenze a milano, cambiamento che ha avviato un processo di industrializzazione che caratterizzerà tutta la filiera italiana legata al prêt-à-porter. in quel decennio emerge quindi l’importanza del progetto italiano, iniziata già nel secondo dopoguerra, e che avrà la sua conclamazione con l’etichetta di made in italy. la tematica del made in italy, che è inoltre fortemente emersa durante e dopo l’emergenza sanitaria, in questo contesto viene riletta attraverso grandi autori come andrea branzi, ettore sottsass jr, walter albini, giorgio ar- mani,kriziaemoltialtri.questaconnessionetradesignemodaemergedaalcuneriflessioniericerchegià portate avanti dal centro archivi studi comunicazione, in particolare nella mostra del curata da gloria bianchino e arturo carlo quintavalle il rosso e il nero. figure e ideologie in italia - . in questa prospettiva si evidenzia quanto l’archivio non sia un mero deposito inaccessibile di documenti silenti, ma quanto possa invece raccontare anche il presente attraverso la rilettura della memoria.in que- sto scenario che chiama in campo anche le pratiche curatoriali è opportuno sottolineare la nascita di una nuova figura professionale che sotto la sfera delle digital humanities prende il nome di digital curator. sul ruolo del curatore — museale, archivistico e indipendente — ci sono molti studi accurati , mentre sulla nuova figura del curatore digitale è possibile tracciarne le caratteristiche grazie al digital curator centre che dal svolge attività di promozione, studio e consulenza a favore della digital curation. “digital curation involves maintaining, preserving and adding value to digital research data throughout its lifecyle. implicit in this definition are the processes of digital archiving and preservation but it also includes all the processes needed for good data creation and mana- gement, and the capacity to add value to data to generate new sources of information and knowledge”. maria casella in “il digital curator. tra la tutela della memoria digitale e la gestione dei dati della ricer- ca”, traccia la storia di questa nuova figura e ne definisce alcune caratteristiche, evidenziando il compito di valorizzazione e non più solo di conservazione che ad una prima fase gli era stato assegnato. nell’a- . il titolo è provvisorio e ancora in fase di definizione. . moma negli anni ha intrapreso un progetto di digitalizzazione delle mostre, cataloghi, comunicati stampa e in parte delle rassegne stampa dal ad oggi. in particolare di italy: new domesticitalianlandscapesono pubblicate le foto dell’allesti- mento, il catalogo, il comunicato stampa e la monografica kar-a-sutra di mario bellini. https://www.moma.org/calendar/ exhibitions/ . . nell’ambito degli studi sul made in italy vanno ricordati i volumi: zonemoda journal, la cultura della moda italiana. ma- de in italy, (gennaio ); borgherini malvina and sara marini and angela mengoni and annalisa sacchi and alessandra vaccari, laboratorio italia. canoni e contraddizioni del made in italy, quaderni della ricerca. dipartimento di culture del progetto, università iuav del made in italy, (milano: mimesis, ). . bianchino gloria and arturo carlo quintavalle, il rosso e il nero. figure e ideologie in italia - , csac, università di parma (milano: electa, ). . i volumi usciti negli ultimi anni relativi alle pratiche curatoriali e alla figura del curatore sono molteplici, come: curare l’arte, del ; thinkingabout the exhibition del ; whatmakes a great exhibition? del ; breve storia della curatela, , culture of curating and the curating of cultures(s), del ; fundamentalquestions of curating del ; fare una mostra,del . a questo elenco si aggiunge rethinkingcurating. art after new media, dove c’è un approfondimento dal titolo displaying data — virtual galleries or digital collections?. . https://www.dcc.ac.uk. . maria casella inoltre definisce il digital curator con queste parole: “la figura del digital curator fonde in sé diversi tipi di competenze: abilità personali e comunicative si combinano con competenze tecniche, manageriali e di conduzione del https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/ https://www.dcc.ac.uk https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) nalisi delle nuove professioni che le digital humanities hanno fatto emergere ne viene dato un signifi- cativo profilo da francesca tomasi nel saggio “discipline umanistiche e informatica. quale futuro per l’integrazione?”. il progetto “mostre virtuali e valorizzazione del patrimonio culturale: il design italiano” vedrà quindi la luce nel attraversola collaborazione conun assegnista di ricerca del dipartimentodi ingegneristica. questaformadicollaborazione,comehogiàsottolineatonelcapitoloprecedente,èallabasedelledigital humanities, difatti nel volume umanistica_digitale si legge: “l’umanistica digitale è nata dall’incontro fra l’umanistica tradizionale e i metodi computazionali”. nella restituzione di un quadro generale su questa disciplina, basandosi anche sui primi studi germinali sulla rete e dalle posizioni dei maggiori ricercatori in campo, emerge pertanto un rapporto molto stretto con altri campi del sapere. la digital humanities infatti crea un impianto collaborativo in cui umanisti, progettisti e tecnologi lavorano insieme svolgendo un ruolo fondamentale nella definizione di un nuovo tipo di conoscenza: attraverso questi percorsi incrociati l’umanistica digitale mette in discussione le classiche separazioni disciplinari, evitando l’emergere di demarcazioni forti tra le differenti aree di studio e di ricerca. que- sta prospettiva trasversale emerge anche dagli studi più approfonditi sul dispositivo archivistico, come marlene manoff che infatti scrive: “as libraries, museums, and archives increasingly make their materials availableonlineinformatsthatincludesound,images,andmultimedia,aswellastext, itnolongermakes sense to distinguish them on the basis of the objects they collect”. un altro breve accenno si potrebbe fare sulla relazione tra archivio reale e archivio digitale, è opportuno evidenziare una delle prime caratteristiche: l’archivio reale ha una struttura fisica che spesso si presenta come inaccessibile, storicamente l’istituzione ricalca lo stereotipo di un edificio polveroso dove è difficile accedere direttamente se non attraverso appuntamento. jeffrey schnapp tratta dell’istituzione dedite alla conservazione della memoria come quelle strutture da sempre storicamente legate al bene fisico e materiale, un’altra voce è quella di francesca zanella che parla invece di come gli archivi abbiano da sempre echeggiato ad una forma di chiusura fisica e di come si siano costituiti sul “concetto di vincolo che è alla base della definizione dell’archivio”. conclusioni nel saggio ho cercato, attraverso la restituzione di alcuni casi studio, di estrapolare alcuni concetti chiave che emergono da un dibattito critico che si rivela molto più ampio di quello tracciato e che prende in considerazione non solo gli aspetti relazionati alla sfera culturale e antropologica, ma anche i vari tecnicismi sulle modalità di archiviazione. la mia prospettiva è stata quella di evidenziare l’impianto collaborativo che si trova alla base delle digital humanities, una disciplina che permette una vasta rete di relazione che, a partire dal gruppo di ricerca, sviluppa un progetto digitale che tende ad ampliare il concetto di partecipazione all’utente finale. in conclusione, possiamo quindi affermare che la gestione della collezione digitale permette varie attività che rendono fluida la restituzione dei dati. i metadati consentono di inserire una serie di informazioni lavoro di gruppo. tra le competenze tecniche rientrano: competenze di dominio, competenze sugli aspetti legali del mon- do dei repository e sul copyright in ambiente digitale, competenze relative agli schemi di metadati (metadati descrittivi, amministrativo-gestionali, metadati per la conservazione come, ad esempio, lo schema premis), agli standard ed agli stru- menti per la biblioteca digitale, la comprensione delle tecnologie utili a realizzare la conservazione a lungo termine delle risorse digitali” “il digital curator. tra la tutela della memoria digitale e la gestione dei dati della ricerca”, biblioteche oggi, vol. ( ) http://www.bibliotecheoggi.it/rivista/article/view/ / . . francesca tomasi, “discipline umanistiche e informatica. quale futuro per l’integrazione?”, labour & law issues, vol. , n. ( ), https://labourlaw.unibo.it/article/view/ . . cfr. burdick, drucker, lunenfeld, presner and schnapp, umanistica_digitale, . . marlene manoff, “theories of the archive from across the disciplines”, libraries and the academy , n. ( ): – . . cfr. schnapp, “animare l’archivio”. . francesca zanella, “tra opera e documento. percorsi dal museo all’archivio, dall’archivio al museo”, piano b, vol. , n. ( ), , https://pianob.unibo.it/article/view/ . https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / http://www.bibliotecheoggi.it/rivista/article/view/ / https://labourlaw.unibo.it/article/view/ https://pianob.unibo.it/article/view/ https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) del documento informatico (formato, nome, file, soggetto, autore, etc.) che per essere conservato, essen- do privo di una componente materiale, deve essere posto in relazione ad un insieme di informazioni. in base al software che si intende usare si presenteranno delle collezioni, raggruppati da una o più caratte- ristiche in comune, e dei documenti (item) che possono essere collegati tra di loro assegnando una tag identificativa che permette la costruzione di percorsi e una snellezza e fluidità della ricerca, favorendo quindi anche una navigazione ragionata dei contenuti archivistici. l’archivio è quindi solitamente fruibile attraverso alcune informazioni ricercabili, molte sono le caratte- ristiche e i nodi critici inerenti all’archivio digitale, tra i quali la modellazione dei dati storici e la demarca- zione tra documento e oggetto. inoltre, si dovrebbero approfondire i parametri di digitalizzazione come l’uniformità delle schede archivistiche e dei metadati, ma tutto questo comporterebbe un ampliamento del saggio e uno sconfinamento nella sfera tecnica. a questo punto se volessimo sintetizzare il modus operandi dell’umanista digitale al cospetto delle nuove tecnologie potremmo farlo attraverso alcuni concetti chiave. in una prima fase di ricerca è fondamentale pensare allo spazio, lo scarto quindi tra spazio reale e spazio virtuale, in modo da acconsentire una corretta contestualizzazione delle opere, attraverso una migliorata fruibilità dell’oggetto, è necessario pertanto ragionare in termini di percezione del documento stesso e di visione dei dettagli. fondamentale è riflettere sui concetti di riproducibilità e sui nuovi modelli di conser- vazione, quindi sull’obsolescenza degli strumenti informatici. sempre in una fase iniziale di definizione del progetto l’umanista digitale deve prevedere le modalità di diffusione e creazione di una comunità di lettori che fruiscano lo stesso documento per scopi differenti, attraverso quindi dei percorsi perso- nalizzati per diversi utenti allo scopo di generare nuovi contenuti. importante è creare e attivare degli approcci partecipatori tramite anche, in una seconda fase di lavorazione, le strategie social. infine, è necessario avviare varie condizioni per creare dell’interrelazione con altri archivi di differente natura, attraverso appunto dei link. in ultima analisi possiamo dire che le funzioni dell’archivio digi- tale si possono quindi elencare in questo modo: raccolta, schedatura, conservazione, valorizzazione e divulgazione in rete attraverso una massima diffusione dei contenuti. alla base è sempre viva l’idea di considerare l’archivio, o il museo, come un luogo generatore di nuovi contenuti inediti e di programmi partecipativi. . derrickdekerckhovescrive:“l’eradeltag:iltagèl’animadiinternet”.derrickdekerckhove,“psicotecnologieconnettive”, in meet the media guru, a cura di maria grazia mattei (san giuliano milanese, milano: egea, ). https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. 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( ), https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / . zonemoda journal, la cultura della moda italiana. made in italy, (gennaio ). zuliani, stefania. “«là dove le cose cominciano». archivi e musei del tempo presente”. in ricerche di s/confine, dossier , ( ). https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital humanities e moda zmj. vol. n. ( ) valentina rossi: università di parma (italy)  valentina.rossi@unipr.it she is a research fellow in history of art at the university of parma, independent curator and art historian. after va- riousexperiencesofstudyandworkinberlinandamsterdam,shegraduatedatdamsoftheuniversityofbologna in . from to she worked on scientific research for exhibitions and catalogs at macro, museum of contemporary art in rome, and at museum arcos in benevento. from to she coordinated, orga- nized and set up the exhibitions and the artist residences at the accademia dello scompiglio in lucca. currently she is a member of personal the collective group that wasborn in bologna, and which has two catalogs and three experimental exhibitions to its credit. she is the curator of the research project in digital humanities more a mu- seum of refused and unrealized project, in collaboration with capas center for activities and professionsof arts and entertainment of the university of parma. she has collaborated in the scientific research of catalogs for electa, silvana editoriale, scripta, cura.books, danilo montanari editore and fortino editions, she has curated and coordi- nated exhibition projects in public and private spaces in italy and abroad, and she was also an art contributor for arte e critica, cura and fruit of the forest. she is currently working on the research project concerning curatorial practices related to the digital dimension for the creation of a virtual exhibition with the heritage of csac, centro studi archivi comunicazione, in parma. she teaches “museologia del contemporaneo” at the accademia santa giulia in brescia, she writes for zero and she has published various articles in scientific reviews. in she has published tate modern. pratiche espositive (postmedia book, milan) and nouvelles flâneries (silvana editoriale, milan, ). in , she will curate an exhibition and a book, hidden display. il non realizzato a bologna, for mambo museum in bologna and an exhibition and a book, storie di fili, for csac, parma. https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / https://doi.org/ . /issn. - / premessa la digitalizzazione e le istituzioni culturali comunità, collaborazione, condivisione e percezione nel lavoro dell'umanista digitale alcuni casi studio il caso csac. un archivio museo. alcuni progetti di digitalizzazione conclusioni bibliography . many witnesses, many layers: the digital scholarly edition of the iudicium coci et pistoris (anth. lat. riese) paolo monella abstract. this article will describe the rationale of the digital scholarly edition on which i am currently working (the iudicium coci et pistoris by vespa, anth. lat. riese), an ancient latin text with a multi- testimonial textual tradition. my edition aims to provide a proof-of- concept application of the ideas of tito orlandi and raul mordenti while using a customised xml/tei markup. in my edition, each witness will be encoded at three layers: . the graphic layer (graphemes and other graphic signs); . the alphabetic layer (alphabetic letters); . the linguistic layer (inflected words). the main proposed innovations are as follows: . the distinction of different textual layers within each witness; . the declaration of 'tables of signs' for the graphical and the alphabetical layers of each witness; . each layer of a witness will be collated with the corresponding layers of other witnesses. keywords: textual layers; encoding levels; table of signs; collation; characters; graphemes; alphabemes; manuscripts; xml/tei. centro linceo interdisciplinare "b. segre", accademia dei lincei, rome, italy. e-mail: paolo.monella@gmx.net. mailto:paolo.monella@gmx.net digital humanities . . the conceptual framework . . . the text edited i am currently working on a scholarly digital edition of the iudicium coci et pistoris iudice vulcano by vespa, a latin mock court debate in verse between a cook and a baker, written in the roman late imperial age and included by riese in his anthologia latina as poem number . the edition will contain a number of experimental features. while its realisation is still in progress, the aim of this article is to reveal and discuss the rationale of these innovations, as well as the open issues which arise from them . . . . a proof of concept this edition aims to be a proof of concept. it is my aim to ascertain whether the sophisticated theoretical and methodological reflections of tito orlandi and raul mordenti on digital scholarly editions may be implemented in a prototype through a sustainable work-flow . my experiment addresses two issues central to the current debate in digital philology: manuscript encoding and manuscript collation. the main ideas by tito orlandi that i endeavour to apply are : its oldest witnesses are the codex salmasianus (parisinus , vii or viii century) and the codex thuaneus (parisinus , ix/x century). modern editions, after bücheler and riese - , include pini , shackleton bailey , baumgartner , shackleton bailey (where the poem is number ), barry and lespect . omont is a photographic reproduction of codex salmasianus, but the codex is now fully digitised and openly accessible in gallica at http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/ /btv b f. i wish to thank james pearson-jadwat for his precious advice, going well beyond a mere linguistic revision of my english. see (at least) orlandi , orlandi and his edizione digitale sperimentale di niccolò machiavelli, de principatibus (http://rmcisadu.let.uniroma .it/~orlandi/ principe, last retrieved . . ); mordenti , mordenti and his edizione critica ipertestuale dello zibaldone laurenziano (pluteo xxix. ) autografo di giovanni boccaccio (http://rmcisadu.let.uniroma .it/boccaccio, last retrieved . . ). see particularly orlandi . http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/ /btv b f. http://rmcisadu.let.uniroma .it/% eorlandi/principe http://rmcisadu.let.uniroma .it/% eorlandi/principe http://rmcisadu.let.uniroma .it/boccaccio . many witnesses, many layers . the encoding of each witness's text at different textual layers, including the graphical, alphabetic and linguistic ones; . the explicit declaration of a table of signs for each of the 'lowest' layers (graphical and alphabetic) of each witness; . collation between witnesses by layer: e.g. the linguistic layer of ms a should be collated with the linguistic layer of ms b, and the alphabetic layer of the former with the alphabetic layer of the latter. as my aim is to produce a prototype, the edition model came before (and was appropriate to) the choice of text to edit. i chose the iudicium coci et pistoris because . it is an ancient latin work with a multi-testimonial textual tradition – as we, quite remarkably, have no digital scholarly edition of 'canonical' texts of classical antiquity . . it has a (small) multi-testimonial handwritten textual transmission – so i can devise mechanisms for collation between witnesses with different writing systems. . . . textual layers in my edition, i have decided to encode the text of each manuscript at three different textual layers: . the 'graphical' layer, whose minimal units of encoding are graphemes and paragraphematic signs (like punctuation); . the 'alphabetic' layer, whose minimal units are alphabetic letter ('alphabemes', from now on ); . the 'linguistic' layer, whose minimal units are inflected words. the choice of these three layers among the many others possible (lemmatical, allographic, idiographic, etc. ) is arbitrary, and responds to the scientific purposes of a specific edition . ideally, a digital edition i propose an epistemological explanation for this in monella, forthcoming. the term ‘alphabeme’ was suggested to me by raul mordenti in an email in december . i am here referring to the terminology fixed by peter stokes for the digipal project (http://www.digipal.eu/blogs/blog/describing-handwriting-part-iv, last retrieved . . ). for instance, the ‘allographic’ and ‘idiographic’ layers are relevant for mordenti’s edition of the zibaldone laurenziano by boccaccio (see footnote above). http://www.digipal.eu/blogs/blog/describing-handwriting-part-iv digital humanities should be a modular and 'open source' digital object open to integrations by other scholars: another editor should be able, for example, to add an 'allographic' layer to my edition, if he so chooses . . . . graphemes and alphabemes it should firstly be pointed out that graphemes and alphabemes (alphabetic letters) are not the same thing . in the glossary of unicode terms , a "letter" (here called an 'alphabeme') is defined with no reference to a graphical representation as "an element of an alphabet", while a grapheme is defined as "a minimally distinctive unit of writing in the context of a particular writing system". in my terminology, both grapheme 'j' and the morse code / · – – – / represent alphabeme 'j' . likewise, allographs like 'capital j' and 'lower- case j' represent grapheme 'j', and idiographs like my individual hand- written sign for 'lowercase j' represent allograph 'lowercase j'. . . . five gutenbergian assumptions our approach to digital textual encoding tends to be influenced by the standardisation of graphic systems brought about by print in the last centuries, as well as by a number of related assumptions that are simply not valid for ancient manuscripts: on the concept of an open source critical edition, see bodard and garcés . see emiliano , - , where a clear distinction is drawn between "letter" (my ‘alphabeme’), "character" and "glyph". http://www.unicode.org/glossary, last retrieved . . . an example might clarify my conceptual distinction. latin ‘j’ is an alphabeme in that it belongs to the modern english alphabet (but not to the traditional italian alphabet that i learnt in my first grade). it also belongs to the spanish and to the french alphabet, but in each of them it corresponds to a different phoneme. an alphabeme is an abstract cultural concept. latin alphabeme ‘a’ is different to greek ‘alpha’. if i want to convey the message ‘alphabeme j’, either as a part of a spelled word or as the name of a specific section of a tax refund form, i can use a range of signs that all represent that alphabeme (but obviously are not that alphabeme): i can write my idiograph for the corresponding grapheme ‘j’ on a piece of paper, i can (rather unknowingly) enter in a computer the unicode codes u+ a (small) or u+ a (capital), i can use the corresponding fingerspelling handshape of american sign language, i can pronounce the phonetic chain /dʒeɪ/ or, if i am a sophisticated student in search of ingenious ways to cheat on exams, i can use the morse code / · – – – /. http://www.unicode.org/glossary . many witnesses, many layers . standard alphabet: all witnesses of a text share a standard alphabet (a set of alphabemes). • a counterexample might be a digital edition whose witness base includes a medieval manuscript with no distinction bet- ween alphabemes 'u' and 'v', and a modern print edition which makes that distinction. likewise, some middle english manuscripts include the 'thorn' alphabeme ('þ') and some do not. . standard graphic system: all witnesses of a text share a standard graphic system (a set of graphemes, punctuation, capitalisation conventions etc.). • on the basis of the unicode definition of a grapheme men- tioned above, i consider handwritten systematic abbrevia- tions (like 'ē' for 'em') to be graphemes. such abbreviation conventions vary greatly between manuscripts and normally do not exist in modern print editions. other aspects of graphic systems which were not standardised until the invention of print include punctuation and comparable forms of 'graphic markup'. . standard spelling: a specific sequence of alphabemes (e.g. 'w', 'i', 'f' and 'e') can be taken as a standard representation of an inflected word (e.g. the singular of 'wife'). put simply, there exists a standard spelling for each word. • spelling is notoriously variable at all stages of a language's historical development. even in modern european languages, spelling was (almost) completely standardised only recently. also, old variant spellings of english still exist ('color'/ 'colour') and new ones keep emerging ('night'/'nite'). latin, to name another western interlingua that at some point was fixed in a 'standard' form, features 'deviant' spellings in archaic inscriptions and in the treatment of diphthongs like 'ae'. . standard sequentiality: graphemes in a written text form are in an ordered sequence flowing in one direction only. digital humanities • a counter example is provided by the devanagari indic script. it normally flows from left to right, but a vowel that phonetically follows a consonant may be written 'before' (to the left of) that consonant . a case more familiar to western scholars is that of greek iota subscript ('ῳ'), but many more examples could be taken from the arabic script conventions for vowels and from the medieval european custom of writing some letters above others. . one grapheme, one alphabeme: there exists a one-to-one correspon- dence between alphabemes and graphemes in writing. • this is not only contradicted by the use of ideographs and logographs in western scripts (like '&' or the tyronian note), but also by the existence of alphabetic writing systems that systematically do not write a grapheme for each alphabeme, like arabic and hebrew, or that make a extensive use of systematic abbreviations, like ancient and medieval latin and greek writing systems before the invention of print. in the latter case, as noted above, i consider the final abbreviation in 'regē' as one grapheme ('ē') corresponding to two alphabemes ('e' and 'm'). i should emphasise further that in such cases the correspondence of one grapheme to many alphabemes was systematic: this is how a medieval scribe learned to write, and he did so even when writing or copying an important or sacred text on a luxury codex. it is also worth noting that assumption no. is probably the reason why contemporary western literates find it hard to distinguish between the concepts of alphabeme and grapheme. . . tei issues and solutions . . . graphic/alphabetic layers in tei? does tei already provide mechanisms to distinguish formally between the graphic and alphabetic layers when encoding a text to which the assumptions above do not apply? let us consider the case of abbreviations. it is possible in principle that a theoretically see fiormonte a, (corresponding to page in the pdf file in http://www.cceh. uni-koeln.de/files/fiormonte_final.pdf) and perri , . http://www.cceh.uni-koeln.de/files/fiormonte_final.pdf http://www.cceh.uni-koeln.de/files/fiormonte_final.pdf . many witnesses, many layers conscious and consistent use of elements like and might provide means to encode a witness's grapheme/alphabeme distinction in a concise and 'economic' though formally unambiguous way. however, due to the (intentionally) loose definition of those elements in the guidelines and to the different encoding conventions allowed, the current tei encoding of abbreviations – and above all its practical application in extant editions – does not appear to provide a reliable mechanism for that task . indeed, the issue is more general: simply, the tei p guidelines do not postulate any distinction between graphemes and alphabemes. the general concept of 'character' in tei p assumes a triple correspon- dence one grapheme in the document, one alphabetic letter in the abstract text, one digital code point in the xml file . . . . a saussurean issue this brings us to a second, more complex, issue. the tei guidelines strongly recommend that in digital humanities projects, 'characters' are encoded according to the unicode standard . the unicode system, in turn, is based on the fact that a 'latin small letter u' is a 'u' (i. e., despite the name 'letter', the same grapheme) in all written documents, from late antiquity parchment codices to contemporary websites, and as methodological reflections on digital ‘diplomatic’ and ‘normalised’ editions like driscoll and pierazzo are not based on the grapheme/alphabeme distinction. the two key sections of the tei p guidelines on the encoding of ‘characters’ are vi. languages and character sets (http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/ html/ch.html) and . representation of non-standard characters and glyphs (http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/wd.html). section vi (#d - ) makes a useful distinction between "abstract characters" (which seem to coincide with my ‘graphemes’) and "glyphs" (seemingly ‘allographs’ in stoke’s and my own terminology, i.e. graphic variants of the same ‘abstract character’, with no distinctive value). however, i still can neither find any conceptual distinction between grapheme and alphabetic letter (my ‘alphabeme’) in that section, nor elsewhere in the tei p guidelines. compare orlandi , - and ; emiliano , - . i am now using ‘character’ and ‘glyph’ according to the tei p (http://www.tei- c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ch.html#d - ) and unicode terminology (http://unicode.org/glossary); both links were last retrieved on . . . the ‘unicode-compliance principle’ is described in sections vi. languages and character sets and . representation of non-standard characters and glyphs of the tei guidelines (mentioned in footnote ) and discussed in wittern . http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ch.html http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ch.html http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/wd.html http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ch.html% d - http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ch.html% d - http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ch.html% d - http://unicode.org/glossary digital humanities such it should be encoded with the same code point (u+ ). this 'unicode-compliance' principle works fairly well for the digitisation of those post-gutenberg print documents that feature a standardised alphabet, graphic system, spelling, sequentiality and a one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and alphabeme. however, this principle does not suffice per se as a general principle for the encoding of medieval manuscripts or other documents that do not follow our 'standard' graphic system. even worse does this principle serve us when we try to collate (or search through) a set of those documents . the reason for this is that a 'u' is not always just a 'u': ferdinand de saussure taught us that signs have a relational nature within a specific semiotic system. this is echoed by the unicode definition of a grapheme as "a minimally distinctive unit of writing in the context of a particular writing system" . imagine two medieval english manuscripts, a and b: both are copies of the same text, and a philologist is building a digital scholarly edition upon them. the graphic system of ms a has a distinction between grapheme 'u' and grapheme 'v', while ms b does not have that distinction and uses one grapheme ('u') to represent both alphabeme 'u' and alphabeme 'v' . ms a reads: "the loue of love" ('the hill of love'). ms b reads: "the loue of loue". at the linguistic layer, this is the same text, just encoded with different graphemes. if we encoded both manuscripts following the tei unicode- compliance principle, the result would be as shown in fig. . : see orlandi , and . the unicode definition of "grapheme" is in the glossary of unicode terms (http://unicode.org/glossary). see orlandi , and emiliano , - : "now consider a similar proposition: ‘a is a grapheme’. it is neither true nor false, it is simply meaningless. because the grapheme (like the phoneme) is a linguistic relational concept, this proposition can only have truth or falsehood content in relation to a specific language. the definition of ‘emic’ units, contrary to ‘etic’ units, is a function of their status in a given symbolic system […] the grapheme, like the phoneme, is an abstract unit, whose value is defined in terms of the relation between elements of the same type in a system". in their turn, ‘u’ and ‘v’ are distinct alphabemes because in the middle english linguistic system there exists at least a pair of words that are distinct by the ‘u/v’ difference: an example is the pair ‘loue’ (‘hill’, in modern english) vs. ‘love’ (‘love’), which i am using here as an example. http://unicode.org/glossary . many witnesses, many layers fig. . . encoding of graphemes from documents with different graphic systems by use of the tei 'unicode-compliance' principle. 'g' stands for grapheme, 'a' for alphabeme and 'c' for code point. this entails that a piece of software for collation or cross-corpus searching could not avoid being deceived by the apparent identity of the 'u' grapheme in ms a and the 'u' grapheme in ms b (as both are encoded with the unicode code point u+ ). similarly, it may appear to it that the 'v' grapheme in ms a is not the same as the 'u' grapheme in ms b (as they are encoded with different unicode code points, u+ and u+ ). this is false, as the 'u' grapheme in ms a, defined contrastively by its opposition to the 'v' grapheme, is not the same grapheme as the 'u' grapheme in ms a, which has no such opposition and represents both alphabeme 'u' and alphabeme 'v'. . . . my proposed solutions: the ‘musical score’ model and tables of signs as discussed in the previous two paragraphs, if i want to use tei p to encode my manuscripts at different layers with a formal distinction between graphemes and alphabemes, i have two main issues to solve: digital humanities . the layers distinction issue (see . . . graphic/alphabetic layers in tei? sopra). my proposed solution is a model of digital scholarly edition resembling a musical score, with three parallel sequences of aligned tokens (graphemes, alphabemes and inflected words). the general model is discussed in . . . the abstract data model sotto. possible linearisations of this data model will be expanded upon in . . . separate files linearisation model and . . . menota linearisation model. . the 'saussure' issue (see . . . a saussurean issue sopra). my proposed solution is an implementation of tito orlandi's concept of the 'table of signs' . namely, i am pairing the encoding of each witness with a specific table of graphemes and a specific table of alphabemes. this will be discussed in paragraph . . . a saussurean solution: the tables of signs. . . the ‘musical score’ model . . . the abstract data model as mentioned above, my edition model resembles a musical score, with three parallel transcriptions of the text (graphic, alphabetic and linguistic) mapped to one another at the granularity level of single graphemes. fig. . . the 'musical score' model. [g] stands for graphical layer, [a] for alphabetic layer and [w] for linguistic layer (a sequence of inflected words). see orlandi , - . . many witnesses, many layers this edition model is approximated in fig. . . in this example, grapheme 'c_' at the graphic layer (identifying a systematic abbrevia- tion for 'con') is mapped to three alphabemes ('c', 'o' and, 'n') at the alphabetic layer. the manuscript hypothetically encoded here does not distinguish between the 'u' and 'v' alphabemes: it has a unique alpha- beme with digital id 'uv' (and a unique corresponding grapheme, whose id is also 'uv'). the word is the genitive singular of 'conviva' ("table companion"). note that today this inflected word would be spelled 'convivae'. its alphabetic transcription in fig. . does not constitute a 'regularised spelling'. it is simply a sequence of alphabemes 'as they are' in the manuscript , reflecting the medieval spelling 'convivae'. . . . the linguistic layer: inflected words as atoms the encoding units of the linguistic layer ([w] in fig. . ) are inflected words. in orlandi's view, each inflected word should not be represen- ted as a sequence of letters, a simplistic solution that poses the issues of homographs and variant spellings, but by means of a unique digital identifier. this corresponds conceptually to a 'table of signs' for the linguistic layer, but clearly the attribution of an identifier to many thousands of words poses two kinds of issues. these are the con- ceptual and the practical: conceptual issues. if we do not identify inflected words by means of a sequence of digital characters (i.e. on the basis of alphabetic writing), how else can we identify them? a word might be identified by a combination of a lemma (with a unique id retrieved from a standard digital vocabulary) and standardised morphological information. therefore, latin 'deum' will no longer be identified simply by a se- quence of four unicode code points, which would not tell us whether it is the accusative singular of 'deus' ('god') or the archaic form of its genitive plural (classical latin 'deorum'). it would instead be encoded essentially as a combination of the following two pieces of information: the approximation lies in the fact that the elements of the graphic layer [g] should also be mapped to the linguistic layer [w]. i.e. as the philologist interpretively extracts them from the graphic encoding of the manuscript. digital humanities • the identifier of lemma 'deus' ('god') in perseus' lewis-short dictionary: perseus/ . . /deus; • a standardised encoding of: 'genitive, plural'. it might be necessary, however, to add a third piece of information: the spelling of the word, i.e. the sequence of the four unicode code points for 'deum'. this would allow us to distinguish between 'deum' and 'deorum', which otherwise would erroneously be encoded in the same way (lemma: 'deus'; morphology: genitive plural) . practical issues. it is obviously easier to identify inflected words by a sequence of 'characters', either keyed in by hand or obtained by ocr. encoding every single word of every manuscript as a combination of a lemma and some morphological information implies that the phi- lologist has to perform lemmatisation and morphological parsing on every word. the only solution is to make both operations semi-auto- matic with the help of dedicated software that makes the work-flow sustainable, though undoubtedly more burdensome for the encoder. this will be discussed in paragraph . . . current work-flow sotto. . . . two possible xml linearisations of the ‘musical score’ data model let us go back to the 'musical score' data model and its possible linearisation. xml appears to be better suited to represent trees than three sequences of tokens flowing in parallel and aligned with each other at such a level of granularity. therefore, i am still open to the option of turning to other text-encoding data models, including the range-based model elaborated by gregor middel and others within the faust project ,desmond schmidt's multi-version this approach may look like a simple addition of lemmatisation and morphological parsing to a regular unicode string (‘deus’), and therefore an unnecessary complication. a key question in this respect is whether there exists such a thing as a homographic variant, i.e. whether two witnesses can bear two sequences of signs which resolve to the same alphabetic sequence but can be reasonably interpreted as different readings, due to some contextual information. there is no room for such a discussion here: see my talk monella , slides - . the faust project is also elaborating a data model in which documents are encoded at more than one level, namely two: "dokumentarische" and "textuelle transkript" (the latter is similar to my linguistic layer). see bohnenkamp et al. , especially section iii. umsetzung (pp. - ) and brüning, henzel, pravida . . many witnesses, many layers documents and manfred's thaller's extended strings . at the moment, however, i am still experimenting on tei/xml to see whether i can adapt it to serve the purposes of my edition model. my work on this is still in progress, so what follows is a mere working hypothesis. i shall now describe the two xml linearisation models i am currently testing: . separate files linearisation model . menota linearisation model . . . separate files linearisation model this model requires that, for every witness, three different tei p 'xml transcription files' are created : . salm_graphic.xml . salm_alphabetic.xml . salm_linguistic.xml salm_graphic.xml. this is the transcription of the text of the codex salmasianus at the graphic layer. it includes a sequence of tei p elements representing graphemes, paragraphematic signs (like punctuation) and other graphic signs (like spaces between words). the following code is taken from the current graphic xml transcription file of the codex salmasianus and represents the first two words of the first line of the poem ('ter ternae'): schmidt & colomb ; schmidt & fiormonte . thaller . the ‘salm_’ prefix of filenames denotes that they refer to the encoding of codex salmasianus, the first witness i am encoding. digital humanities fig. . . the first two words of the first line of the iudicium coci et pistoris in the codex salmasianus: 'ter ternae'. the @id attributes have the usual function of marking each gra- pheme unambiguously and sequentially. for readability's sake, the value of @id is the number of the word ('ter' is the th word of the transcription, as it is preceded by the words of the title line), followed by a dot and the number of the grapheme within the word. the manuscript has no spaces between words (scriptio continua), so the delimitation of a sequence of graphemes as a 'word' is an interpretive act of the philologist. also note that, as there are no graphic signs (spaces) to mark the distinction between words, in the graphic transcription above there is no element marking the distinction between the two words. line breaks between verses, instead, are reported in this file because although they are not not ink marks, they are still graphic signs found in the document. grapheme . above is an uppercase latin 't': as it is a grapheme (not an alphabeme), it is distinct from a lowercase latin 't'. grapheme . (the last sign on the right in fig. . ) has the two alphabemes 'a' and 'e' as alphabetic content, and 'ae' as digital identifier. i shall turn back to the semantics of the @ref attributes and on the use of elements in paragraph . . . the table of graphemes below. salm_alphabetic.xml. this is the transcription of the same wit- ness at the alphabetic layer. it includes a sequence of tei p ele- ments which, in this file, represent alphabemes. what follows is a sam- pling of the current salm_alphabetic.xml file: . many witnesses, many layers in fact, the introduction of a new element would theoretically be a much better solution. this is still an option on the table. however, for the time being i am using the existing element while giving it different semantics than in file salm_graphic.xml. also the value of @ref attributes in the code above has different semantics, as will be discussed in paragraph . . . the table of alphabemes below. in the value of the @id element of alphabeme . . above, the three numbers mean that this is the st alphabeme ('a') represented by the th grapheme (the abbreviation for diphthong 'ae') of the th word ('ternae'). salm_linguistic.xml. this is the transcription of the same witness at the linguistic layer. it includes a sequence of tei p ('word') empty elements. they are empty because words, in this model, are not represented by a sequence of alphabemes. this is the part of the model that still requires most work. the following code simply aims to give an idea of the general concept: at the current stage of development of the model, a generic @ana attribute includes the digital identifier of the inflected word: in the example above, word is the nominative plural feminine of lemma 'ternus' (which is an adjective), whose contemporary standard spelling is 'ternae'. at this stage, this notation is nothing more than a placeholder. at a later stage in the development of the prototype, this information will be distributed into the relevant analytical attributes, like @type, @lemma, @lemmaref etc. the elements of the three files above (graphemes, alphabemes and inflected words) must be aligned with each other. this task is performed by three more 'alignment files': . salm_align_alph_graph.xml . salm_align_alph_ling.xml . salm_align_graph_ling.xml these files include and elements only. their function section simple analytic mechanisms of the tei p guidelines (http://www.tei- c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ai.html, last retrieved / / ). http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ai.html http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ai.html digital humanities is to perform the mapping described in fig. . . i shall now briefly describe how the alignment information is encoded in each file. fig. . . alignment between the three separate xml transcription files salm_align_alph_graph.xml. there must be a formal way to encode the information so that, for example, grapheme . in salm_graphic.xml (abbreviation 'ae') corresponds to alphabemes . . ('a') and . . ('e') in salm_alphabetic.xml. this function is performed by a number of tei p elements stored in a separate file. the xml file aligning salm_alphabetic.xml and salm_graphic.xml is currently named salm_align_alph_graph.xml. this is a portion of its content: the element is needed to encode a one-to-many link in tei p (one grapheme must here point to two alphabemes) . salm_align_alph_ling.xml. this file aligns the alphabetic tran- section . . intermediate pointers of the tei p guidelines (http://www.tei- c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/sa.html#saptip, last retrieved / / ). http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/sa.html% saptip http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/sa.html% saptip . many witnesses, many layers scription with the linguistic one, i.e. an inflected word with a sequence of alphabemes that represent it. this is the snippet of code that aligns word ('ternae') with the corresponding alphabemes: salm_align_graph_ling.xml. this file aligns the graphic transcription with the linguistic one. the following code aligns the same word ('ternae') with the graphemes that encode it. note that, while the word has alphabemes (see code above), it is here linked to only graphemes, as the final diphthong 'ae' is one grapheme in the manuscript: the source code above does look complex at first sight, but of course none of it is written directly by the philologist. the writing of the actual xml files, the attribution of @id numbers and the simul- taneous creation of the relevant links between graphemes, alphabemes and inflected words are all tasks performed by a small piece of software (currently a python . script, input.py). what the philologist actually writes is a simple 'input transcription file' in csv format (salmasianus.csv, for codex salmasianus). the script inputs this file and outputs the three xml transcription files (salm_graphic.xml, salm_alphabetic.xml, salm_linguistic.xml) and the three 'alignment files' (which pair each transcription with the other two). this will be discussed in detail in paragraph . . . current work-flow below. all xml, csv and python files described in this article are openly available in the github repository https://github.com/paolomonella https://github.com/paolomonella/vespa.git digital humanities /vespa.git. . . . menota linearisation model while i was in search of an already existing customisation of tei that could encode the text at different parallel layers, my attention was drawn by roberto rosselli del turco to the medieval nordic text archive (menota) . the project's customisation of tei provides a mechanism to encode a text at three layers, named "facsimile", "diplomatic" and "normalised" (which, respectively, correspond roughly to my graphical, alphabetic and linguistic layers). to encode the text in this way, the menota project added three elements to the tei/xml schema, namely , and . the resulting code looks like this: &drot;&osup;ttin&bar; drottinn dróttinn the menota encoding practice for primary sources is certainly a good basis to experiment upon, but it differs from my envisioned model in four ways: . granularity. the finest granularity of the current menota markup is at word level, while i need alignment at grapheme-level granula- rity. . grapheme/alphabeme distinction. all three menota transcription layers share the same set of 'characters', while my graphic and alphabetic transcriptions are based on different sets of elements (graphemes and alphabemes respectively). . unicode-compliance principle. menota relies on unicode for the definition of each sign encoded, while i want to have a formal and explicit definition of each element (grapheme or alphabeme) used home page: http://www.menota.org/en_forside.xhtml (last retrieved . . ). see haugen . paragraph . levels of text representation in the menota handbook v . : http://www.menota.org/hb _ch .xml#d e (last retrieved . . ). https://github.com/paolomonella/vespa.git http://www.menota.org/en_forside.xhtml http://www.menota.org/hb _ch .xml% d e . many witnesses, many layers in the transcription (see paragraph . . . a saussurean issue sopra). . linguistic transcription. my linguistic transcription layer should not encode inflected words as a sequence of letters, as menota does, but by means of unique digital identifiers, as described in paragraph . . . the linguistic layer: inflected words as atoms sopra. still, the menota customisation of tei p has the clear advantage of allowing the coexistence of three different layers of transcription in the same xml file. the following code illustrates a hypothetical combination of the menota 'three-layers' innovation and my own proposed encoding of graphemes, alphabemes and inflected words: adj,[ternus],n,p,f,ternae digital humanities of course, this depends on the possibility of allowing, under the menota scheme, a hierarchy like / / (or , or ) / . as word/graphemes and word/alphabemes alignment is granted by the inclusion of menota and elements in the same element, elements are only required for graphemes/alphabemes alignment. elements are now included in the same salm_menota.xml file. in this hypothesis, issues and above (granularity and grapheme/alphabeme distinction) are overcome by the pervasive use of elements, aligned through elements. issue above (linguistic transcription) may be overcome by the introduction of non- alphabetic representation of inflected words in the element. my proposed strategy for the solution of issue above (unicode-compliance principle) is centred on the use of the element and can be applied either to the 'separate files linearisation model' or to the 'menota linearisation model' equally. this strategy will be described in detail in the following paragraphs. some of the proposed modifications to the menota encoding practice might require a further customisation of the menota scheme. . many witnesses, many layers . . tables of signs . . . a saussurean solution: the tables of signs to solve the 'unicode-compliance' issue discussed in paragraph. . . . a saussurean issue sopra, i propose a tei/xml implementation of tito orlandi's idea of "tabella dei segni" (henceforth 'table of signs') . in orlandi's view, when a philologist digitally encodes the 'glyphs' of a manuscript or any other set of textual phenomena in a document, he or she must create an 'ideal' table (that can, however, become an actual table as part of an edition's documentation), the 'left column' of which consists of the digital signs that they use to represent the textual phenomena, while the 'right column' "includes the list of single phenomena of the object of the encoding which one wants to encode". orlandi's formulation is conceptually wide, and intentionally does not specify the nature of the textual phenomena of the 'right column' . in this respect, i am proposing two innovations: . i am creating two different tables of signs: the table of graphemes and the table of alphabemes; . i am looking for a suitable format to include the two tables in my digital edition as a formal, computable and stable component of the xml source code, possibly in the section of the tei header. . . . the table of graphemes in the current stage of development of my edition, this is a simple csv file (salm_table_graphemes.csv) with three columns, which my python script (input.py) transforms into tei/xml code and writes in the tei header of the salm_graphic.xml and salm_menota.xml transcription files. tab. below shows several rows from my current table of graphemes for the codex salmasianus: orlandi , - . the quotation is from orlandi , (the translation is mine). for his edition of the zibaldone laurenziano (see footnote above), raul mordenti is creating a table of signs describing the set of glyphs identified in the manuscript (‘right column’, textual phenomena), mapped to a set of digital signs, i.e. ascii characters or xml entities in the form &abc; (‘left column’). this is an actual table meant be published with the documentation of the digital edition (mordenti ). digital humanities digital id content of the grapheme (=alphabeme[s]) expression of the grapheme (=glyph) visualisation uv u/v latin minuscule uncial (u-shaped, not v-shaped) u z z latin minuscule uncial z z ae a,e latin minuscule uncial e with a tail bottom left, img/ae.jpg ę tab. . . a portion of the table of graphemes for the codex salmasianus. again, note that this file and the others mentioned in this article (and available in https://github.com/paolomonella/vespa.git) are still at a prototype stage and are merely reported to give a practical idea of the path that my experimentation is currently following. the 'digital id' column includes strings of unicode characters, but they might just as well be ascii characters or numerals. they unambiguously identify every sign (in this case, every grapheme) and correspond to orlandi's 'left column' . for the other two columns ('grapheme: content' and 'grapheme: expression'), a premise must be made: all digital elements upon which our digital textual encoding is based (unicode characters, xml entities, elements etc.) are signs. as such, they have an expression (e.g. a unicode code point) and content. a key concept of my edition is that the content of such digital signs is another sign (e.g. a grapheme), which, in its turn, is constituted and defined by another expression/content pair. for example, in the third row of the table above, the digital sign identified by the two unicode characters 'ae' has these two digital characters as its expression, and the corresponding grapheme as its content. in its turn, this grapheme consists of the pairing of its expression (the 'e with a tail' glyph described in the third column and visible in the jpeg image img/ae.jpg) with its content (the two alphabemes 'a' and 'e', listed in the second column). thus orlandi's 'left column', describing the textual phenomenon, is here represented by two columns (the second and third in table above). the forth column ('visualisation') has an eminently practical function: it instructs visualisation software (xslt or other technology) on what unicode character(s) it should use to display that grapheme, orlandi , . https://github.com/paolomonella/vespa.git . many witnesses, many layers if it is required to give a screen or print visualisation of the graphic layer of the text. . . . the table of alphabemes this too is currently a simple csv table (salm_table_alphabemes.csv), which the input.py python script transforms into xml code. the table for the codex salmasianus has rows, as this is the number of alphabemes that i identified in the codex . this is a part of the table: digital id description of the alphabeme visualisation t latin t t uv latin u/v u z latin z z tab. . . a portion of the table of alphabemes for the codex salmasianus. there is a number of issues connected with this table which are still open. alphabet and alphabemes are conceptual objects much more complex than they appear at first sight . in the tentative tab. above, i did not describe alphabemes by means of an expression/content pair, simply because i am not sure of what that would be. one might think that the expression of an alphabeme is its corresponding grapheme, and its content is a phoneme. the very invention of the alphabet had the goal of making things just this simple. however, things are not so simple, because alphabets are cultural objects in themselves . . is a phoneme the content of an alphabeme? what is the phonetic content of alphabeme 'latin letter c' in codex salmasianus, a latin document written in the vii or viii century ce in vandalic africa, where 'letter c' was probably pronounced in different ways (not fully known to us) according to the vowel that followed, and to the social and cultural status, geographic origin and ethnicity of the reader? not to mention that the same 'latin letter c' in the same text has the second of the three rows in tab. shows that the codex salmasianus does not have two different alphabemes ‘u’ and ‘v’, but one only: this is why there are rows in the table instead of , a more familiar number for the latin alphabet. mordenti , - has an interesting reflection on such complexity. suffice it to mention sampson . digital humanities been read in many different ways throughout the centuries by the many readers that happened to have that codex in their hands. in other words, 'dead languages' have the advantage of keeping alive in us a critical sense of the correspondence between alphabemes and phonemes. but even in contemporary languages, the same english 'letter' may be connected to slightly different phonemes in different national, regional, dialectal or socially determined pronunciations. this should already suffice to show that an alphabeme is defined per se as a cultural object, not as a content/ expression (phoneme/grapheme) pair. . is a grapheme the expression of an alphabeme? this hypothesis is conceptually less problematic, but is still rather simplistic. for instance, grapheme 'b' may represent alphabeme 'b', but grapheme 'b_' in codex salmasianus (a 'b' with a macron top right, serving as abbreviation for 'bis') also represents alphabeme 'b', as well as alphabemes 'i' and 's'. i would still be ready to create a column in the table of alphabemes where grapheme 'b' is designated as the main expression (though this is a rather loose concept) of alphabeme 'b', but i would hesitate to create a column including the contents of alphabemes, as i currently would not know how to populate it. the last column on the right in the table above, again, instructs the software on what unicode character may be best used in visualising of the alphabetic layer of the text. lastly, it is important to note that the second column of the table of graphemes (tab. ) points to the ids (first column) of the table of alphabemes (tab. ). . . . inclusion of the tables of signs in the tei header as anticipated, it is my intention to make the two tables of signs an integral part of the source code in the xml transcription files. this is, however, very problematic and requires further work. again, i shall here describe the hypotheses that i am currently working on. if we adopt the 'separate files linearisation model' described in paragraph . . . sopra, in the codex salmasianus the table of graphemes should be integrated in file salm_graphic.xml and the table of alphabemes in file salm_alphabetic.xml. the most obvious place for these tables is the element in the tei header. . many witnesses, many layers tei p features an interesting innovation: the philologist can define 'non-standard characters' in the element of the header, and then encode instances of them in the body by means of elements. this appears to be a more sophisticated mechanism for formally defining a grapheme than xml entities, so i decided to adopt it in my edition. a major problem, however, is that to my knowledge, there is no way in tei to formally define simple unicode characters. in other words, if i encode something like ui (for latin 'viae' written with a final 'æ' grapheme), i can formally define the last grapheme (the 'non-standard' 'æ') in , but i have no way to define the first grapheme (the 'standard' 'u', for which i am using unicode code point u+ ) anywhere. this is because the tei unicode-compliance principle described in . . . a saussurean issue sopra assumes that a 'u' is a 'u', and requires no further definition than the absolute one given by the unicode standard. however, as my 'saussurean' argument in paragraph . . . sopra and the very definition of grapheme in the glossary of unicode terms postulate, a grapheme must be always defined in a relative way, "in the context of a particular writing system" . in the context of a manuscript featuring a 'u'/'v' distinction, a 'u' is not the same thing as a 'u' in the context of a manuscript with no such distinction. this implies that it must always be possible – in fact, that it should be required – to give a description of all graphemes identified in a manuscript, both 'standard' and 'non- standard'. in the example above, not only the final , but also the initial unicode character u+ (for 'u') should be matched by a (brief and formal) description in . of course, all that is being said about the need to define all graphemes also applies to alphabemes, allographs and the other kinds of signs that the philologist decides to encode. at the moment, as i said, it is technically not possible to formally define unicode characters, and i am afraid that such a change would require not only much work on the tei schema, but also a quite radical modification in the approach towards 'characters' in the guidelines, in which the quotation here comes from the definition of "grapheme" in the glossary of unicode terms (see footnote above). the need for the ‘local’ definition of signs is postulated by orlandi , - (but see also pages and ). digital humanities . it should be recommended to define all graphemes (and other signs), not ; . the very conceptual distinction between 'standard' and 'non- standard' characters should be eliminated. as this seems to be more work than i am currently willing to undertake, for the time being i am confining myself to using only elements (not unicode characters) in the body of the xml transcription files, as i know that i can define them in the . i hope that a solution for this issue can be found in the future, allowing the philologist to simply encode ui rather than needless to say, it would be utterly infeasible to key the 'all ' source code above directly. this is another aspect for which the input.py python script is of use. what i am currently keying is something like this: ui(ae). the script transforms this into the sequence of three elements above. this will be further discussed in paragraph . . . current work-flow sotto. the following code is taken from file salm_graphic.xml. it exemplifies the initial description of graphemes in and their subsequent use in : expression latin minuscule uncial t content t . many witnesses, many layers visualisation t likewise, alphabemes are described in the section of file salm_alphabetic.xml: latin u/v latin alphabeme 'u', with no 'u'/'v' opposition visualisation u ) mirrors the simpler current structure of the table of alphabemes (see tab. above). if we adopt the 'menota linearisation model' described in paragraph . . ., in addition to the issues already discussed, a further complication arises: both tables (graphemes and alphabemes) should be included in the same salm_menota.xml file. unfortunately, the tei header is not designed to accommodate two different elements marked as belonging to two different textual layers. this too would require an ad hoc customisation of tei. digital humanities . . . collation as anticipated at the beginning of this article, my edition is still at an early stage, namely that of encoding witnesses, a stage which runs parallel to the elaboration of experimental encoding standards. the collation phase is yet to come, but i can here mention the two principles that will lead it. . scribes and scholars. i mean to encode the text of modern and contemporary editions, and also scholarly editions, alongside that of ancient medieval manuscripts, thus making no artificial distinction between 'scribes' and 'scholars'. for the same principle, i shall produce 'my' text, by comparing the extant variants and my own iudicium, but this text will then be presented to the reader at the same level as any other text from ancient or modern witnesses . . collation performed layer by layer. the linguistic layer of one witness will be collated with the same layer of others. this should be somewhat easier, as all witnesses' texts will be encoded at this layer by means of references to the same dictionary (for lemmas) and to the same formalised grammar (for morphology) . collating the alphabetic layer of a manuscript with the alphabetic layer of a modern print edition, however, will be more complicated, as two witnesses may well not share exactly the same alphabet (e.g. for the 'u' / 'v' distinction issue). still, this problem can be solved with a formal table of alphabemes for each manuscript describing each reference alphabet. this might allow us to create, by means of rdf/owl or other standards, a net of correspondences: for example, the 'uv' alphabeme in ms b might be connected to the 'u' and the 'v' alphebemes in ms a. this should suffice to instruct sophisticated i shall mention only some of the main reading that influenced me in this respect: pasquali ; reynolds & wilson (whose title is "scribes and scholars"); cozzo ; benozzo ; fiormonte b. the most obvious candidate for a reference dictionary is the online version of the latin dictionary by charlton t. lewis and charles short in the perseus digital library (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper, last retrieved . . ). a theoretical issue regarding lemmata and morphology is that both the vocabulary and the grammar of latin evolved over the centuries, and one could argue that virgil’s text in a medieval manuscript should be mapped against the vocabulary and grammar of the manuscript’s time – therefore not those of ‘classical’ latin. this objection, however, can be partially rejected on the basis that the scribes/philologists normally meant to preserve the text in a presumed ‘original’ linguistic form. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper . many witnesses, many layers collation software to compare two witnesses at this layer. the very same issue will affect collation at the graphic layer, but on a much larger scale: just think of the enormous variance in the nature and use of punctuation in manuscripts. i am considering the option of skipping collation at this layer altogether – or alternatively adopting the same approach that i outlined for the alphabetic layer. . . work-flow . . . current work-flow i shall lastly describe the current work-flow of my edition. as said before, all working files described here are available in the the github repository https://github.com/paolomonella/vespa.git, while further documentation and discussion on the open issues will be published in http://www.unipa.it/paolo.monella/lincei/edition.html as the work proceeds. i am currently encoding the oldest manuscripts. what i actually edit 'by hand' is a csv file for each manuscript. this is a snippet of the content of file salmasianus.csv, the current csv transcription file for the codex salmasianus ('§' is the csv delimiter character): ter § adv,[ter],ter tern(ae) § adj,[ternus],n,p,f,ternae uarias § adj,[varius],ac,p,f,varias the first column includes the graphic transcription. this is what i actually key: • if the grapheme's id is composed of one unicode character (as for uppercase 't' in 'ter', above), i simply key that character inline. • if the grapheme's id is composed of two or more characters (as for the 'ae' grapheme in 'ternæ'), i still key it inline, but wrapped in parentheses, so the script input.py knows how to process it. though the codex salmasianus has no regular graphic word distinction (no spaces between words), i am interpretively distinguishing words: in each row, the left cell has a sequence of graphemes mapped to an inflected word in the right cell. for the time being, this is a sufficiently practical and efficient way to encode the graphemes/word mapping with a simple text or spreadsheet editor. https://github.com/paolomonella/vespa.git http://www.unipa.it/paolo.monella/lincei/edition.html digital humanities the script input.py does the following (i am using here, as elsewhere in this article, the files relative to codex salmasianus as an example): . importing files. it imports the tables of graphemes and alphabemes (salm_table_graphemes.csv and salm_table_alphabemes.csv) and the csv transcription file (salmasianus.csv) of the witness. . tables of signs. it converts the two tables of signs into a sequence of elements as described above and writes them in the section of the of files salm_graphic.xml, salm_alphabetic.xml and salm_menota.xml. . graphic transcription. for each row of the transcription csv file (i.e. for each word), it processes the 'left column' strings (i.e. the graphic transcription) and writes the 'all ' xml code described above to files salm_graphic.xml and salm_menota.xml. in the latter file, the script inserts this sequence of elements in a element. . alphabetic transcription. each 'left column' string is a sequence of grapheme ids. the script matches these ids in table_graphemes.csv with the id(s) of the corresponding alphabeme(s). for instance, grapheme 'ae' in table_graphemes.csv corresponds to the sequence of alphabemes 'a', 'e'. the script writes the relative elements (representing alphabemes) to files salm_alphabetic.xml and salm_menota.xml. in the latter file, the script inserts this sequence of elements in a element. . linguistic transcription. the script processes the 'right column' (linguistic transcription) of the csv transcription file and writes its content to salm_linguistic.xml (with a element), and to salm_menota.xml (in a element). as far as the graphic and alphabetic encoding is concerned, this work-flow is very efficient. apart from the tables of signs, what i actually key in is the graphic transcription alone, in a sort of 'dialect format' for internal use: e.g. tern(ae) for 'ternæ'. the alphabetic transcription is generated automatically. . . . prospective work-flow at the present stage, the 'missing link' in this work-flow is the linguistic layer. in fact, i currently populate the 'right column' of the csv transcription file by hand. i do so simply because i do not want to leave those cells blank. as anticipated, however, i plan to develop . many witnesses, many layers an efficient input mechanism for the linguistic transcription (possibly by means of a web interface and javascript) that will run as follows: . the philologist keys in the graphic transcription in a dynamic html page in the current 'dialect format', e.g. tern(ae). . javascript generates the alphabetic transcription layer semi- automatically (the philologist approves it or rejects it). . a 'normalised' string resulting from the processing of the alphabetic transcription is sent to a web service (possibly perseus ) that parses and lemmatises it, thus returning the lemmatic and morphological information needed for the linguistic layer encoding. this process will also be semi-automatic, as in most cases perseus will return a number of possible lemmas or morphological analyses, between which the philologist will be asked to choose. the whole process should be performed by javascript and other html technologies. undoubtedly, this envisioned work-flow will require more work on the side of the philologist than a simple 'one-layer' transcription, but i think that it may be considered a sustainable work-flow when compared to the complexity of the edition model that it would produce. . . conclusion i believe that a sophisticated, multi-layered model requiring a complete description of encoded signs is needed to meet the challenge of creating digital scholarly editions which are based on the collation of textual witnesses written with different graphic and alphabetic systems. i hope that i shall soon be able to develop a complete and sustainable work-flow that will allow me to implement such a model in a working prototype, and to submit the results of this experiment to the attention of the digital humanities community. this is one of the phases in which the values of the ‘visualisation’ field in the table of alphabemes come of use. see footnote . digital humanities . . bibliography baroni a. 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(http://dh .adho.org) dh home (http://www.dh .adho.org) / abstracts (/abstracts/) / (/abstracts/ ) title: evi-linhd. a virtual research environment for the spanish-speaking community authors: gimena del rio riande, elena gonzález-blanco garcía, clara martínez cantón, juan josé escribano category: paper:poster keywords: virtual research environment, virtual research community, digital scholarly edition, spanish-speaking community, dh center although digital humanities have been defined from a discipline perspective in many ways, it is surely a field still looking for its own objects, practices and methodologies. their development in the spanish-speaking countries is no exception to this process and, even it is complex to trace a unique genealogy to give account for the evolving field in spain and latin america (gonzalez-blanco, ; spence and gonzalez-blanco, ; rio riande a, b), the emergence of various associations in mexico (reddh), spain (hdh) and argentina (aahd) that seek for a constant dialogue (galina, gonzález-blanco and rio riande, ), and academic lab and dh center initiatives such as linhd (spain and argentina), grinugr (spain), medialab usal, labtec (argentina), tadeolab (colombia), elabora hd (mexico), among others, make it clear that research has become increasingly “global, multipolar and networked” (llewellyn smith, et al., ) and that the academic field is looking for a global outreach and aims to open spaces of shared virtual work. virtual research communities (vrcs) are a consequence of these changes. virtual research environments (vres) have become central objects for digital humanist community, as they help global, interdisciplinary and networked research taking of profit of the changes in “data production, curation and (re‐)use, by new scientific methods, by changes in technology supply” (voss and procter, : - ). dh centers, labs or less formal structures such as associations benefit from many kind of vres, as they facilitate researchers and users a place to develop, store, share and preserve their work, making it more visible. the focus and implementation of each of these vres is different, as carusi and reimer ( ) show in their comparative analysis, but there are some common guidelines, philosophy and standards that are generally shared (as an example, see the centernet map and guidelines of tgir huma-num, ). this poster presents the structure and design of the vre of linhd, the digital innovation lab at uned ( http://linhd.uned.es (http://linhd.uned.es)), and the first digital humanities center in spain. this vre focuses on the possibilities of a collaborative environment for (profane or advanced) spanish-speakers scholarly digital editors. taking into account the language barrier that english may suppose for a spanish-speakers scholar or student and the distance they may encounter with the data and organization of the interface (in terms of computational knowledge) while facing a scholarly digital edition or collection, linhd’s vre comes as a solution for the vrc interested in scholarly digital work. moreover, it will make it possible to add an apply tools that contribute to improve spanish-english applications or tools developed locally, such as contawords, by iula-upf http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions (http://contawords.iula.upf.edu/executions). opening such an environment to the spanish speaking world will make it possible to reach different kinds of communities, whose profile and training in digital humanities differ from the typical users of dh tools and environment. testing all these tools in this new environment will, for sure, draw interesting project results. in this sense, our project dialogues and aims to join the landscape of other vres devoted to digital edition, such as textgrid, e-laborate, etc. and, in a further stage, to build a complete virtual environment to collect and classify data, tools and projects, work and publish them and share the results with the research community. after having studied the structure dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ de / / : and components of other digital virtual environment, our vre has been designed on a humanist-user centered perspective, in which interface design, accessibility easiness and familiarity with tools and standards are key factors. therefore, the key of our vre is the combination of different open-source software that will enable users to complete the whole process of developing a digital editorial project. the environment is, up-to-now, divided into three parts: ) a repository of data to (projects, tools, etc.) with permanent identifiers in which the information will be indexed through a semantic structured ontology of metadata and controlled vocabularies (such as isidore and huni, but using lindat software by clarin. eu). ) a working space based on the possibilities of existdb to work on text encoding together with tei-scribe, a tool developed at linhd to tag texts in an intuitive way, storing and querying, plus some publishing tools (pre-defined stylesheets and some other open-source projects, such as sade, versioning machine, etc.). ) a collaborative cloud workspace which integrates a wiki, a file archiving system and a publishing space for each team. sustainability and long-term preservation are issues which we contemplate from the beginning, as our group is leading the addition of spain into dariah and linhd is also part of a clarin-knowledge center with two powerful nlp groups from u.pompeu fabra in barcelona and ixa in país vasco. our project has been conceived according to dh standards and open-source tools and its infrastructure is supported by our university uned. bibliography candela, l. virtual research environments. grdi . http://www.grdi .eu/repository/filescaricati/eb e fea-c - b - a c - b fe .pdf (http://www.grdi .eu/repository/filescaricati/eb e fea-c - b -a c - b fe .pdf) (accessed - - ). . carusi, a. and t. reimer, ( ). virtual research environment collaborative landscape study. a jisc funded project. oxford e-research centre, university of oxford and centre for e-research, king's college london https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual- research-environments (https://www.jisc.ac.uk/rd/projects/virtual-research-environments) (accessed - - ). . galina, i., gonzález blanco garcía, e. and rio riande, g. del ( ). se habla español. formando comunidades digitales en el mundo de habla hispana. abstracts of the hdh conference, madrid, spain. http://hdh .linhd.es/ebook/hdh -galina.xhtml (http://hdh .linhd.es/ebook/hdh -galina.xhtml) (accessed - - ). . gonzález-blanco garcí a., e. ( ). actualidad de las humanidades digitales y un ejemplo de ensamblaje poético en la red: remetca. cuadernos hispanoamericanos, : - . . llewellyn smith, c., borysiewicz, l., casselton, l., conway, g., hassan, m., leach, m., et al. ( ). knowledge, networks and nations: global scientific collaboration in the st century. london: the royal society. . rio riande, g. del ( a). ¿de qué hablamos cuando hablamos de humanidades digitales? abstracts of the aahd conference. “culturas, tecnologías, saberes buenos aires, argentina. http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/ ?abstracts (http://www.aacademica.com/jornadasaahd/toc/ ?abstracts) (accessed - - ). . rio riande, g. del ( b). ¿de qué hablamos cuando hablamos de humanidades digitales? http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic / / / /de-que-hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/ (http://blogs.unlp.edu.ar/didacticaytic/ / / /de-que- hablamos-cuando-hablamos-de-humanidades-digitales/). (accessed - - ). . spence, p. and gonzález-blanco, e. ( ). a historical perspective on the digital humanities in spain,h-soz-kult, doi: . . , http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte- (http://www.hsozkult.de/text/id/texte- ). the status quo of digital humanities in europe, h-soz-kult, doi: . . . (accessed - - ). . tgir h.-n. ( ). le guide des bonnes pratiques numériques. http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques- numeriques (http://www.huma-num.fr/ressources/guide-des-bonnes-pratiques-numeriques) (version of - - ). (accessed - - ). . voss, a. and procter, r. ( ). virtual research environments in scholarly work and communications, library hi tech, ( ): – . . dh abstracts http://dh .adho.org/abstracts/ de / / : capturing displaced person's agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach digitale reprints dokserver des zentrums für zeithistorische forschung potsdam e.v. http://zeitgeschichte-digital.de/doks olaf berg „capturing displaced persons’ agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach“ https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- reprint von: olaf berg, „capturing displaced persons’ agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach“, in: historical social research , nr. , , s. - dieses werk ist lizenziert unter einer creative commons namensnennung - weitergabe unter gleichen bedingungen . deutschland lizenz. historical social researchhistorical social research historische sozialforschung olaf berg: capturing displaced persons’ agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach. doi: . /hsr. . . . - . cite as: berg, olaf. . capturing displaced persons’ agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach. historical social research ( ): - . doi: . /hsr. . . . - . for further information on our journal, including tables of contents, article abstracts, and our extensive online archive, please visit https://www.gesis.org/en/hsr. published in: historical social research ( ) historical social research ( ) , - │ published by gesis doi: . /hsr. . . . - capturing displaced persons’ agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach olaf berg ∗ abstract: »die handlungsmacht von ,displaced persons‘ durch die modellie- rung von lebensereignissen erfassen: ein ansatz, der qualitative und quantita- tive methoden in den digitalen geisteswissenschaften zusammenführt«. the international tracing service archives offer process-generated documents from resettlement programs for displaced persons (dp) after world war ii. this paper addresses two key challenges to ongoing research based on those archival holdings: the generation of data; and the visual representation of that data in geographic information systems. digital history offers the opportunity to go beyond case studies and use the wealth of process-generated documents as se- rial sources for algorithm-based analysis. however, data in that form does not exist as such, and thus needs to be generated – a process that implies interpre- tative acts such as abstraction, normalization, and trans-coding, which are shaped by the character of digital media. can modeling a dp’s life into a series of events, and digitally processing the resultant data, help to find out more about the agency of dps negotiating their destiny with the authorities? if the mostly hidden and implicit configurations of digital knowledge production are thoughtfully considered and geostatistical analysis is combined with close readings of selected source documents, hermeneutic and quantitative ap- proaches can be reconciled via digital history. this mixed method approach has implications for research culture and the publication of such data. keywords: mixed methods, digital history, digital humanities, data, modeling life events, displaced persons, geographic information systems. . introduction at the end of the nazi regime and world war ii, millions of persons had been displaced from their home towns and countries. families were torn apart, many persons did not know if their relatives had survived and if so, where they might be. in , the allies founded the united nations relief and rehabilitation administration (unrra) with the plan to repatriate displaced persons (dps) ∗ https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- olaf berg, leibniz centre for contemporary history potsdam, am neuen markt , potsdam, germany; olaf.berg@zzf-potsdam.de. cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ and refugees as soon as possible after victory day. in , its tasks were taken over by a successor organization, the international refugee organization (iro; see cohen ; gatrell ). however, migration is not simply regu- lated. rather, it is a negotiation (rass and wolff ), and in many cases the dps had their own plans. for various reasons, many of them did not want to return to their homes. when they registered with the authorities in order to obtain dp status, their hopes and wishes were translated into an administrative process that left traces in documents that now provide important sources via which to research the postwar migration regime. these process-generated doc- uments were produced at the intersection of the institutional environment and the individual decisions and actions of dps and eligibility officers. they are expressions of the configuration of institutional settings and personal experi- ences that form part of the negotiation processes concerning the status and opportunities of the dps. thus, the constitution of the actors in the postwar migration regime and dps’ agency is inscribed in these documents. how can historians unveil and understand this agency? due to the large number of potential documents to be examined, and their diverse and complex structure, these process-generated documents are most often explored as small subsets of documents used to investigate individual cases or small groups of dps. to create a broader picture of dps’ agency, the resulting insights on a limited group of dps might be extrapolated to a more general level and com- bined with other generic sources, such as statistics, administrative acts, and reports. to some degree, this is the usual business of historians, who also have a wide range of scholarly procedures with which to generate knowledge from sources by combining and discussing documents as narrative strategies with the aim of forming credible and meaningful histories out of that knowledge. however, digital history methodology now offers the possibility to go be- yond case studies and use the whole stack of process-generated documents as serial sources for algorithmic analysis – for example, by modeling a dp’s life into a series of events, and digitally processing the data. can this approach help to find out more about dps’ agency in negotiating their destiny with the author- ities? if so, how can the relevant information be generated from the sources and modeled into a useful form for research? this paper will discuss these ques- tions in the context of ongoing research in the context of the people on the move consortium (potm), focusing on process-generated documents from unrra was created at a nation conference at the white house on november , . its mission was to provide economic assistance to european nations after world war ii, and to repatriate and assist the refugees who would come under allied control (united states hol- ocaust memorial museum ). https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- the iro constitution was approved by the un general assembly on december , . in july , the preparatory commission of the iro started operations. on september , , the first iro general council took place. the new agency inherited responsibility for , dps in (marrus ; united states holocaust memorial museum ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ resettlement programs for dps after world war ii. in his article in this special issue, henning borggräfe ( ) points to the potential of the diverse sources in the archives of the international tracing service (its), and to possible strat- egies to read the material as expressions of dps’ agency. my article takes up this challenge and focuses on the specific demands inherent to such an ap- proach from the perspective of a historian with it skills, responsible for data modeling. i discuss the challenges of generating, modeling, and processing information from the documents into a series of events – challenges that are not normally visible in final research articles. the first part of this paper provides an outline of the research consortium’s specific approach and prospects. the second part addresses two key challenges for the consortium: the generation of data; and the visual representation of that data in geographic information systems (gis). in the final part, i discuss some of the methodological implications of our approach for research culture and the publication of research data. . the vision the starting point of the people on the move research consortium are its archival holdings of over million documents, many of them generated in the course of applications for assistance in the aftermath of world war ii. the holdings bear traces of dps’ agency because they are the product of the negoti- ations of their applications. depending on the density of the documents that are inherited by the institutional process of transmission, many of these files con- tain extensive information on the negotiation process, arguments brought for- ward, and decisions taken, which can help us to understand the way in which, and how successfully, dps applied for resettlement, repatriation, or other forms of assistance. especially in the so-called cm/ files, we find short autobiog- raphies up to the day of application, reasons given to the authorities, and the results of examinations and decisions by the institutional administrators (for more details, see borggräfe in this special issue). the holdings of about , cm/ files are immense, although far from complete, and thus also biased by the process of transmission within the institution. however, the vast amount of material does not allow us to examine the whole stack of documents in depth. within any given (reasonable) timespan, members of the people on the move consortium are researchers from the international tracing service (its) in bad arolsen, the niod in amsterdam, and the university of osna- brück (uos). between and , i was a member of the potm team of prof. christoph rass at uos. https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- see the holdings . . iro “care and maintenance” program, its online collection (accessed november , ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- researchers can only investigate selected individual biographies or the fate of a small group of selected individuals. yet how should one select those individu- als of interest, and what was the fate of the rest? one possible answer is a mixed method approach that combines hermeneutic research on individual cases and general debates with a more quantitative, prosopographical approach in order to gain knowledge from a large sample of individual cases. while biographical approaches focus on one specific person, prosopographical ap- proaches try to find patterns in the lives of a group of persons with some com- mon features, such as the same profession, place of origin, destination, age, gender, or social status. much faster than a thorough examination, it is possible to extract only the main data of time and place for biographical events from the documents. with this data, it is possible to model dps’ itineraries as declared to the authorities. if we are able to do this, and to include some additional data – for example, gender and profession – not only for a small group of individual dps but also for a large-scale sample, the its archival holdings will allow us to detect pat- terns of movement and their relation to success and failure in the application process. if we add information on the field office and the administrative staff who took the decision, we might also detect patterns in the decision-making process specific to individual field offices and officers. this prosopographical approach allows us to generate knowledge about dps and forced migration that is built on the accounts and traces dps left during the process of negotiating their destiny. if we understand dps and iro eligibility officers, not as subjects independent of their environment but as actors constituted in the negotiation process, the patterns generated by prosopographical analysis can help us to understand the process of their constitution as actors. initial sample checks within the potm context have shown that this mixed- methods approach and the material archived at the its have the potential to extend and challenge knowledge generated by classic approaches, specifically regarding the individual agency of the persons involved – for example, the widespread assumption that in order for an application to be successful, dps needed to have, or fake, a profession that fitted resettlement programs’ criteria (see sebastian huhn’s [ ] article in this special issue). the statistical knowledge generated from serialized life-event data allows us not only to re- view the relevance of such assumptions but also to point to statistically irrele- vant phenomena and groups of dps – for example, a small group of buddhist dps that became visible in the course of encoding by potm. once identified as a group, they can be investigated further by examining the existing material in detail. to allow such interaction between quantitative and hermeneutic levels of investigation, it is important that the information from the case files used for the generation of patterns and statistics is still connected in the data model to the documents from which it was extracted. detail and context appear on a cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ continuum of data, and it is this continuum that allows us to go back and forth between general and more detailed views of the archival material. individual cases can be seen in the context of general patterns, and general patterns can lead to new questions that can be further investigated by looking into individual cases connected to that pattern. thus, hermeneutic and quantitative approaches stimulate and enrich each other in this mixed method approach. a specific group of data abstractions upon which we focus are geospatial abstractions provided by gis. gis can be used to generate visualizations of data encoded with time and place coordinates. from a given dataset, for any given moment or period, gis can model the distribution of individuals and objects in space, and the pathways of those persons and objects through time and space. although this data shows movements (or persistence) and not agen- cy itself, by processing large amounts of data from case files, patterns of movements appear that can reveal the conditions constituting the migration regime, specific negotiation “hot spots,” and dps’ strategies. thus, within this mixed method approach, quantitative analysis helps to identify cases and sources of interest relevant to a detailed hermeneutic investigation. summarizing, the vision of the people on the move research consortium consists of: ( ) generating prosopographical data of life events from the pro- cess-generated sources about dps in the its archival holdings; ( ) processing this data via gis in order to generate a context and questions for each individu- al source that need to be investigated further via hermeneutic research; and ( ) creating an infrastructure to present sources and research results in an integrat- ed and extensible context of growing knowledge about dps. . the challenges of producing data and modelling dps’ trajectories https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- the above mentioned prospects for a gis-based access to, and analysis of, sources about negotiations between dps and migration regulating institutions such as unrra and the iro, and their life itineraries, all build on a founda- tion common to any computer-based analysis. information from the sources has to be identified, extracted, and separated into discrete units that can be repre- sented and stored in a database and processed by algorithms. this poses vari- ous challenges for the transformation of the vision sketched out in the previous subsection into a feasible and fruitful project on at least two intermingled lev- els: on a technical level, we need an appropriate markup and generation pro- cess for the relevant information, appropriate solutions for the representation and storage of the generated data and information, and finally, appropriate processing instructions for the modeling of the data into meaningful representa- tions of dps’ lives and agency. on an epistemological level, we need to be cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ aware of the limits and implications for knowledge production of such a data- driven research approach based on algorithms. . data production in times of new media https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- at first glance, extracting prosopographical data from life events might appear to be a straightforward process of finding and collecting data. however, as geoffrey bowker ( ) suggests, “raw data is both an oxymoron and a bad idea; to the contrary, data should be cooked with care” ( ). for example, date of birth might appear to be a simple matter of fact. however, in the way we define and register it, we inscribe upon that notation our worldview of a linear time, starting with an event relevant to christian culture, and the administrative purposes of identifying a person by his or her name and birthday. in other cultures, the event of birth is represented in different data. for example, the akan people of ghana frequently name their children after the day of the week they were born, and the order in which they were born (agyekum ). in ancient mayan cultures, the day of birth is identified by a system of various circular calendars, and determines the opportunities and character of a child. like gregorian calendars, mayan calendars are expressions of deep-seated structural, cultural, and historical identities (rice ). thus, the way in which we represent a certain event influences the knowledge we can gain from it. data is not something pre-existing, waiting to be found and collected, but rather something that is produced by the very process of collecting it. “data [does] not just exist,” lev manovich ( , ) explains, it has to be “gener- ated.” text encoding is a kind of modeling (ciotti and tomasi , ) and at a certain level, the collection and management of data may be said to presuppose interpretation. “data need to be imagined as data to exist and function as such, and the imagination of data entails an interpretive base” (gitelman and jackson , ). like data, historical facts are not a “given” – something inherited from the past that we can find and pick up somewhere “out there” in the world. they are products of the transformation of social interaction into symbolic representa- tion and the transformation of this representation in the course of its tradition, as well as the research process that places one fact relative to another (goertz ). both historical facts and the history that is built upon them are coined by the medium of symbolic representation – namely, language (white ). this is why extracting data from the sources should be considered a productive process of selection and transformation of representation by its transposition from one medium (written text, spoken word, etc.) into a digital medium – a process that constitutes something new. this perspective raises questions regarding the specificity of the digital me- dium, and the relation between medium and knowledge. some theories situate the medium as the determining factor for knowledge, like in marshall mclu- cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- han’s ( ) defining phrase: “the medium is the message.” from this per- spective, technology determines the social. in a similar fashion, friedrich kit- tler ( ) describes power and knowledge formations as discursively pro- duced by mediums of storage, transmission, and processing. other theories are based on the idea that a medium is only the carrier of pure information. follow- ing this view, meaning is constituted by a system of signs independent of the medium. niklas luhmann ( ) – an exponent of this idea – distinguishes between medium and form: while the medium only loosely links elements, the form coins the medium via a rigid coupling of these elements. however, both positions deny social interaction with the medium as constitutive of the produc- tion of meaning and knowledge. actor-network theory (ant) has shown that knowledge emerges from negotiation processes between observing human actors and observed non-human actors (latour and woolgar ; latour ). thus, media have agency, but their agency is not detached from their interaction with human actors. thus, meaning created by media cannot be a pure object of knowledge; rather, it needs someone who perceives, and thereby constitutes it, although only becoming perceptible through the medium (bächle ). the medium is thus not simply the message. rather, the message carries the trace of interaction between the medium and human actors. moreover, what is expressed through one medium might also be expressed through another medium, but surely not without any medium. thus, meaning cannot be de- tached completely from a medium, and the idea of pure information is false (krämer ). the medium is what paradoxically disappears in its own mani- festation, and is thus present via its absence (mersch , ). specifically regarding digital media, we must first note the tension between the persistence of traditional conventions for knowledge production on the one hand, and the projections of new technologies on the other (bächle ). in their critical introduction to new media, martin lister et al. ( ) emphasize the continuity between “old” and “new” media. despite technological changes, for instance from photochemical to digital image production, the social practic- es of photography have not changed that radically. as the key characteristics of new media, they identify their “digital, interactive, hyper-textual, virtual, net- worked and simulated” characteristics (lister et al. , ). with much more emphasis on technology-induced changes, lev manovich ( ) identifies five key differences that make new media “new”: numerical representation; modu- larity; automation; variability; and cultural transcoding. digital representation slices information into separated data units that can be processed by algorithms independent of human interference. media become programmable, and trans- coded information is organized in databases that structure knowledge in a non- linear manner. manovich ( ) emphasizes the impact of technology on the social, while lister et al. ( ) highlight the idea that technological develop- ments reflect general social and epistemological trends. cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ bowker ( ) is also concerned with the relation between the organization of data and the social. his notion of “cooked data” (mentioned earlier) alludes to claude lévi-strauss’s ( ) work the raw and the cooked. lévi-strauss describes a set of mythological beliefs and practices in accordance with which members of the brazilian bororo tribe organize their lives. in the majority of the cases, the myths are based on dichotomies that can be described as variants of the nature/society divide, where the natural was raw (honey), and the social was cooked (ashes). this binary structure, between the naturally given and the socially constructed, is also characteristic of the modern worldview (bächle ), and reflected in the distinction between raw data and processed data (bowker ). moreover, as our understandings of nature project our views of ourselves (latour ), the way in which databases are organized reflect social and organizational developments: early databases were hierarchically organized, followed by relational databases built on fixed structures, and more recently, object-oriented or object-relational databases and linked data (bowker ). following these changes in both the structure and storage of information, classic linear accounts of life stories become fragmented by encoding and storing them into relational or object-oriented databases. in the course of data analysis, these fragmented data are reassembled into life stories. this time, however, life events are not necessarily ordered into an individual, linear story, but become distributed through time and space, clustered by abstract criteria and the data of others into a generic life story or into transversal views of spe- cific aspects of various lives. the resulting diversity of non-linear references to past events constitutes both a challenge and an opportunity for historical re- search and storytelling. . transcoding written sources into digital representations https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- in the endeavor to know and understand past events, historical research is de- pendent on sources, often in the form of written documents. although the ob- ject of interest is the past event, in a strict sense the research object is inevitably only a representation or a bundle of representations of that event (and in some cases the event itself might never have taken place). in the case of the process- generated documents that we find in the archival holdings of the its, these are only traces of such events. reading historical sources as sources of data or information is itself an act of interpretation and restructuring. using these doc- uments for an analysis supported by gis can thus be described as a process of translating or transcoding the written representation in the source documents into a digital representation thereof. one of the first decisions in this translation process is how to encode the da- ta generated from the sources – a decision that has far-reaching consequences for the entire research project. in general terms, a choice has to be made be- cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ tween a source-oriented or a goal-oriented approach. while the source-oriented approach tries to keep the representation in data as close as possible to the source, the goal-oriented approach restructures the data taken from the source according to the research goal (meroño-peñuela et al. ). if we define in- formation as data in context, in its representation the source-oriented approach maintains information by keeping the source as the context of the extracted data, while the goal-oriented approach creates information by generating from the project’s goal a new context for the extracted data. the main advantage of the source-oriented approach is that it allows for more flexibility and different uses of the data in a later stage of the historical information “life cycle” (boonstra, breure, and doorn ). the main disadvantage of this approach is that great effort is required generating digital information from the sources that might not be needed for the project’s specific goals. conversely, a strict focus on a specific goal at an early stage of the information life cycle allows for more efficient data production, but restricts the possibilities, not only for rede- signing the research project at a later stage but also for re-using the data in different contexts. this restriction might seem less important in the context of a research project with clear aims. however, in historical research projects, this has to be seriously considered, not least because important research questions frequently emerge from the close reading and rethinking of the sources during the research process. let us assume for the moment that the project would have sufficient re- sources to implement the source-oriented approach. a reasonable workflow would start from the archival documents – the process-generated representation of complex social interaction. it would then produce scanned images of these documents – a visual digital representation of those documents. in the context of the people on the move research consortium, the its has already gone to great efforts to scan its archival holdings in order to provide us with visual digital reproductions of most of the documents at hand. while the text encoded in those images can be read by human beings, it is not accessible to computers without further processing. thanks to recent developments in handwriting and character recognition technologies, as well as the semi-structured character of the documents, it would be possible to process these images semi-automatically into character- encoded text (for example, see rass and bondzio [ ] on their experience with the gestapo-kartei of osnabrück). nevertheless, such an approach would require much work in order to adequately reconstruct the complex structure of the documents. although the iro administration worked with forms and main- tained a certain formal structure in its writings, these semi-structured texts are the historical information life cycle proposed by boonstra, breure, and doorn ( , - ) consist of six phases: creation; enrichment; editing; retrieval; analysis; and presentation. https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- more precisely, it is a digital representation that is made to be represented visually. cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ far from standardized and sometimes contain handwritten notes on the side, stamps, and other remarks that contain important information. thus, we cannot reconstruct the diverse range of documents fully automatically, and any text generated by automated processes must therefore be checked and corrected by traditional (human) means. a common encoding approach to the textual representation of the content of the image would be the use of extensible markup language (xml) according to the guidelines of the text encoding initiative (tei ). the tei guide- lines are a widely used standard for text encoding and provide a wide range of elements for text structure and content. the advantage of xml markup is that it is readable by humans, as it keeps the original text, adding additional infor- mation in the form of tags. as such, it resembles closely the widespread prac- tice of highlighting portions of a printed text. in general, xml implies a data model in the form of an ordered tree that structures the document by hierarchy (a contains b), ordered adjacency (a followed by b), and co-occurrence (if a, then b). for this clearly source-oriented approach, the tei-xml encoding of the documents would include – in addition to general structural markup – tags for persons, places, dates, and other useful information. despite the considerable effort it takes to transcribe the scanned image into tei-xml, it would still be insufficient for our goal to model the itineraries of dps. the structural markup that tei provides – the position of a name or date in a given text – is of secondary importance when modeling itineraries, as it is the semantic connection between a specific person and a specific place on a specific date that is of the most importance. thus, despite the huge effort of the encoding process, the relevant information would be highlighted by tags, but still not machine-readable with respect to its semantic content. for this reason, within the tei community, various authors discuss the need to extend tei- xml markup with linked open data (lod) encoding (ciotti, lana, and to- masi ; lana, ciotti, and tomasi ). xml is a powerful formalism with which to define the syntactic aspects of the markup language, but it does not provide a computational semantics and thus owes its semantic value and con- sistency almost entirely to human interpretation and control. the benefits of a formal description of the semantics of a markup language include “automatical- ly deriving facts from documents, and feeding them into various inferencing or reasoning systems” (ciotti and tomasi , - ). lod is one of the main technologies of the semantic web. the semantic web was envisioned in by berners-lee, hendler, and lassila ( ) as an evolution of the existing web (based on the paradigm of the document) into a semantic web (based on the paradigm of structured data and meaning). in the semantic web, “information is given well-defined meaning, better enabling for an application of semantic web technology to historical data, see also edwin klijn’s ( ) contribution in this special issue. https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ computers and people to work in cooperation” (berners-lee, hendler, and lassila , ). the terms “well-defined meaning” and “reasoning systems” obscure the fact that while computers can apply logical operations to data, they cannot understand information or meaning in the way human beings generate meaning from understanding information. this is why computers need a pre- defined rule conform formalized and classified meaning (i.e., “well-defined meaning”) attached as data to an information item in order to apply “reasoning systems” – that is, to process data with algorithms. semantic web technologies such as lod are based on the open-world as- sumption ( robertson ; doan, halevy, and ives ). this refers to a basic distinction made in data science between the open-world assumption and its opposite, the closed-world assumption. while the latter assumes the com- pleteness of data – that is, a statement that cannot be verified is considered false – the former assumes the incompleteness of data – meaning that a state- ment that cannot be verified, nor explicitly shown to be false, is simply consid- ered unknown. following this logic, it is neither possible nor necessary to know everything about a subject, but desirable to discover unexpected infor- mation by connecting one’s own database to information stored elsewhere. this logic is useful for historical research, as often one does not know before- hand what information will be generated from one’s sources. in general terms, lod represents information in a graph that is built on a set of one or more “triples.” these triples consist of subject, object, and predicate. this simple structure enforces the explicit encoding of semantic relations (kräutli and valleriani , ). in combination with ontologies that standard- ize and define the structure of knowledge, it facilitates flexibility and interoper- ability between different data sources (robertson ; meroño-peñuela et al. ). ontologies in information science define the nouns representing classes of objects, and the verbs representing relations between objects. using an es- tablished lod model with one or more ontologies has the advantage of ensur- ing the re-usability of data and connecting one’s own data to other existing data sources. however, this comes at the cost of increased complexity compared to the table-oriented data structures used in relational databases. instead of inter- related tables, we have one or more graphs consisting of subject-predicate- object triples. rather than using more or less intuitive column names to identify the content that we need to ingest into the database table, for the lod ap- proach, we first need to identify the relevant classes for the object and predicate in the lod model, and then annotate the semantic information in a formalized triple format. in comparison, relational databases are mainly a set of interlinked tables. this implies that each class of information that will be inserted into the data- https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- “the data model enables us, but also forces us, to be specific about what we know and cannot know from our sources” (kräutli and valleriani , ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ base needs to be anticipated in the design of the database by assigning a specif- ic column in a specific table for that piece of information. this makes it diffi- cult to integrate new information that does not fit into the pre-configured data- base schema, and every change to the database schema to encompass new information will affect the whole database system. nevertheless, a relational database system is open to new information and does not enforce a closed- world assumption of the completeness of data. although the representation of information as lod is also structured by predefined ontologies, in contrast to relational databases, an extension of the set of elements used from an ontology or the integration of a new ontology into the system does not affect the rest of the data triples. the semantic web approach has gained momentum in the last years. vari- ous projects published collections of information as lod. for example, in the historical domain, since , the warsampo project offers a lod service and web portal based on approximately nine million triples about finland during world war ii (hyvönen et al. ; koho et al. c) and continuously ex- tends its scope (koho et al. a). the portal merges datasets from many institutions (national archives, defense forces, association for military histo- ry, finnish literature society, etc.) that each contain different classes of sources, such as war diaries, history books, wikipedia entries, photographs, and magazine articles. in addition to a lod service for data re-use, the project includes a web portal that offers different views on the available data, such as an event-based perspective, a person-based perspective, an army unit perspec- tive, or a historical places perspective (hyvönen et al. ). various lod-based research projects are related to prosopographical re- search into the history of the american congress (larson ; miyakita, leskinen, and hyvönen ), national biographies (hyvönen et al. ; tamper et al. ), or the tracing of transnational mobility in national biog- raphies. similarly, census data can be addressed by lod approaches, such as that employed by the cedar project, which transformed dutch historical censuses into lod (meroño-peñuela et al. ). other projects aim to contex- tualize individual biographies, such as the diary of the canadian artist john hammond, describing his journey from montreal to the west coast in (robertson ), or emma goldman’s travels through north america be- tween and (larson ). other projects map networks between people, such as the reassembling the republic of letters project (tuominen et https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- see the cosmobilities project at ieg - leibniz institute for european history, mainz, (accessed november , ). the “cosmobilities” tool ( [accessed november , ]) is cur- rently not available online. cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ al. ), or between early modern scientific books, such as the corpustracer project (kräutli and valleriani ). most of these projects link their data to wikipedia or dbpedia (the lod version extracted from wikipedia) and wikidata. these linking hubs provide a good example via which to explain the prospects and limits of the lod prom- ise to discover information by linking to the semantic web. for example, an- other project in the finnish context created biographical lod from a register of over , alumni of norssi, the prominent finnish high school. an examina- tion of the matching of the resulting data to other lod sources reveals the scope of linking open data: from , alumni, ( . %) matched to the family tree data service geni, followed by ( %) matches with wikipedia and wikidata. to the virtual international authority file (viaf) joint service of national libraries’ authority files, ( . %) entries matched, and to the getty institutes union list of artist names (ulan), ( . %) entries matched (leskinen et al. ). this example shows that even from an elite high school, the great majority of alumni have no entry in common databases. florian kräutli and matteo valleriani ( ) from the corpustracer project report that “roughly half of the people we find in our sources do not exist in wikidata” ( ). however, due to the community structure of wikidata, they can add new entities to the database as they identify them (kräutli and valleriani , ). this is true for their research domain, namely early modern scientific literature. however, like all community projects, wikipedia and wikidata have rules that determine which person qualifies for an entry. most of the dps about whom we find information in the its sources are ordinary people who do not fit the catalog of criteria for entries in such databases. unsurprisingly, for our test sample of about , case files with around , names, we could not find a single match for any name and date of birth with a corresponding entry in wikipedia or ulan, while most of the geographical names could be matched to the getty thesaurus of geographical names. however, yad vashem’s central database of shoah victims’ names is one of the few examples of data collections of ordinary people in the historical do- main. this database has only been made possible because of the dedication of a large number of people, substantial resources, and both political and institu- tional support; however, it still has no interface via which to access the infor- mation as lod. thus, for the people on the move consortium, the possibility to link our project’s data about persons to other relevant datasets is currently not an option. nevertheless, as discussed, openness and flexibility to integrate new and unforeseen information into the structure of the data collection and the see also the mapping the republic of letters project at stanford university, which uses different technologies (accessed january , ). see (accessed november , ). https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ ability to present the same data from different perspectives still makes lod an attractive choice for data management. in the context of our project, an appropriate approach to dps’ and in general migrants’ agency is to model their lives as a series of events in time and space. this event-based approach allows us to identify common patterns of movement via agglomerated geostatistical data, as well as individual moments in a mi- grant’s life when decisive decisions worthy of more detailed investigation were made. if we understand a person’s life essentially as a sequence of events, it is a logical choice to represent such lives via an event-based lod model. among the many approaches for modeling events (rovera ), the cidoc concep- tual reference model (crm; doerr ) is a good choice because it is an iso standard and maintained by the international council of museums, and thus supported and applied by a worldwide community of cultural heritage institutions. while an event-based model is helpful if one wishes to represent the movement of persons and objects in space and time, this approach can also make data storage more complex. for example, a photograph would be repre- sented both as an image and as the event that created it (koho et al. b). fortunately, like xml, lod allows the use of different models in parallel by using prefixes to identify the respective ontology. this facilitates pragmatic solutions for the encoding of semantic information in different schemes. this brief overview of the different layers of representation that a diligent source-oriented approach would imply, illustrates the effort and amount of resources that such an approach necessitates. a goal-oriented approach can bypass most of these layers and generate the data needed for the project from the sources directly into a database tailored to the project’s purposes. there- fore, because of the very restricted resources available, the people on the move consortium opted for a more pragmatic, goal-oriented approach that generates only the data relevant for the envisioned gis representation and stores them in a relational database model. despite the advantages of lod, for pragmatic reasons, in the context of the current people on the move project, we decided to use a relational database to record the information generated from the sources. the use of relational databases has a long, established history and features extremely robust implementations. furthermore, the staff in charge of data ingest were already accustomed to working with this type of database. alt- hough gis software prefers to ingest data in table form, our database model is differentiated enough to allow us to, in a future step, transform the representa- tion of the collected data and the semantic meaning implicit in the database structure into an explicit lod structure. indeed, many web services that offer lod still run a relational database in the background, rather than a native triple store. https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- see (accessed november , ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ while this is clearly a goal-oriented reorganization of information taken from the source, we preserve the information necessary for back linking to the original source. we also take care to maintain the literal expression for places, persons, religious affiliations, and other data as written in the source. in addi- tion, we keep contradicting information regarding occupation, nationality, religion, etc. as is. the decision to leave the task of data control and normaliza- tion to a later step in the workflow has various benefits: it maintains a certain level of accuracy with respect to the source; in addition, it separates the process of transcoding the source from the process of interpreting the resulting data. the staff that generate data from the sources do not need to decide about the validity of information or interpret the different spellings of names, while fur- ther interpretation of the data can be made transparent and reversible by quali- fied historians. the preserved contradictions in the sources provide starting points for questions about the reasons why, for example, a person would state a different age, profession, religion, or nationality in different contexts. this can provide insights into the strategies used by dps in the negotiation process. keeping contradicting data is alien to common database systems. most da- tabases are optimized for maintaining the integrity of data and expect unam- biguous entries. however, in the context of historical research, a special chal- lenge is presented by the fuzziness and inconsistency of data in the sources. we do not control the social constructions behind process-generated sources, and thus have to handle terminological and conceptual inconsistencies. as manfred thaller ( , ) points out, even a single linguistic term for a certain pro- fession can have very different meanings – e.g., a person labeled as a black- smith might be an artisan, or an industrial worker. to handle this problem, thaller develops a more complex formula by calculating the probabilities of certain qualities of such datasets. in his conclusions, he proposes that in such cases, “we have [to] consciously [...] avoid general quantitative statements” (emphasis in original), but can apply statistical methods to “narrowly defined groups” and test to what extent the results for those groups can be generalized to other groups (thaller , ). the “real problem” for historians is that, when looking at their sources, what they can observe are always disputable facts derived from the actual events: even on the most extreme level of abstraction, the most simple statement in the historical disciplines is a statement about the consistency of three hypothe- ses, two related to the tradition of information, one to the relationship between the actual events. (thaller , ) https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- van leeuwen, maas, and miles ( ) describe a historical international standard classifica- tion of occupations, a lod ontology to connect and normalize different historical and cur- rent terms of professions in an international context. however for obvious reasons, the on- tology cannot solve the fundamental problems raised by thaller ( ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ this means that the statistical abstractions we can generate from our encoded source material do not discover or prove existing cause-effect relations, but create one or more functions as representations of our hypotheses on observa- ble co-occurrences. nevertheless, if these abstractions lead us to new perspec- tives on the material that can be researched further via a close reading of the sources, they are still a valuable contribution to the research process. . challenges of modeling meaningful representations in gis when talking about modeling life events, we need first of all to think about what modeling means and what kind of knowledge it can produce. arianna ciula et al. ( ) understand modeling as a way of thinking in practice. in their opinion, models are tools for interactive inquiry that help to operationalize research questions, whereas modeling is an iterative and creative process of reasoning in which meaning is made and negotiated. in her essay on the use of integrated assessment models in climate and sustainability studies, saskia el- lenbeck ( , ) distinguishes between three main approaches to models: ( ) a positivist understanding of models as tools to map real-world data onto a true representation of the research object; ( ) a social-constructionist under- standing of models as representations of the epistemological and normative worldview of the scientists who use them; and ( ) a discourse analytical under- standing of models as dispositif – an infrastructure of discourse that by itself produces knowledge (ellenbeck , ). she argues that these perspectives on models are mutually exclusive, because the different epistemological foun- dations do not allow for the formulation of a critique from a single perspective that could be recognized from any of the other perspectives (ellenbeck , ). behind the conflict between these different approaches to modeling lies a contested notion of reality. is reality something external that can be researched and modeled as closely as possible, or is it the construct of our access to the external world? or, is reality the contested product of our social interaction with people and things around us? among historians, the claim for the true representation of “reality” has been contested for a long time, because the past “reality” as a possible research object is gone forever (jenkins ; goertz ). instead, we have the intermediate notion of “history”: a construct that somehow connects the fluid, always already past “reality” to our current dis- course, and thus allows us to integrate different approaches to “reality” into one or multiple histories via specific narrative strategies. in this sense, history – although not a transmission or storage technology – has a lot in common with the characteristics of media. for a definition of the term dispositive, see, e.g., foucault ( ). https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ from a historical perspective, we already know that the past as such is inac- cessible to us. inevitably, historians build on sources – representations of their research object – in their attempt to (re)construct historical events and their context into a meaningful history. thus, the tension between a positivist repre- sentation of past events, a social-constructionist representation of worldviews, and the idea of representation as an actor itself in current discourse, is inherent to historians’ critical evaluation of their sources. each object inherited from the past gains this threefold character when it becomes a source. it is both a prod- uct and a representation of a past event. it is also the product of a specific past perspective on that event, as well as of the processes of transmission and preservation of the source (and the selection decisions made about what should be preserved and what should be vanished). finally, the existence or the ab- sence of a source, the classification of what is a source and what is not, and the choice and use of the source by the researcher make the source not only a rep- resentation of the researcher’s interests and worldview, but also a dispositif that allows us to ask certain questions while foreclosing others. historians know that the models they build from sources are, like the sources themselves, not substitutes for, but representations of, past events. historians know that their models are entangled with their own research interests and questions. they know that such sources and models are infrastructures of discourse that delimit what knowledge can be gained by interacting with them. nevertheless, it is the only material we can build our history on, and what makes this task a science, is the fact that historians document their decisions and reflect on the process of producing history. as discussed in section . , the data that sustains our model of dps’ itinerar- ies is generated via a process of abstraction. the social practices of movement and sojourn, embedded in a complex web of reasons, intentions, and interac- tions, was first reduced to administrative documents – our sources – and is subsequently further reduced to observable, quantifiable, and calculable data within a matrix of space and time coordinates. more precisely, the documented dps’ claims of actually being at a certain place and time before the unrra or iro officials are transformed into algorithmically computable data. the process of data preparation for gis processing can be described as one of loss: “the loss of details in reducing sources to limited data fields, the loss of accuracy in accepting approximate locations, the loss of exemplars in trimming outliers from the dataset” (hornbake , ). however, at the same time, it is inclusive, “incorporating information from more sources than one could possibly reference in a purely textual form” (ibid.), and equals the most inter- esting sources to lesser sources by extracting the same set of data. in effect, we have a large amount of data, but we should not forget, as luc boltanski and https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- for more information on information reduction by visualization and strategies to avoid reduction, see manovich ( ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- arnaud esquerre ( , ) remark, that, by reducing research to the analysis of big data, we always find a socially pre-configured item, making it impossi- ble to include social change and the reflexivity of actors that have not already been the object of taxonomic inquiry and technical and institutional recording (ibid.). unlike boltanski and esquerre, in historical research we cannot resort to ethnographic research in order to sidestep pre-constructed datasets and generate fresh views on the subject through self-reflected observation (except for the realm of oral history). investigating past events means relying on sources that already exist, and therefore carry with them the inscription of the terms of their production and transmission. moreover, to generate data from such sources implies the use of encoding schemas that are themselves social constructs. historical research can only try to keep these conditions of knowledge produc- tion present in its representation of the source and investigate on both levels: the rules of discourse as well as that which is expressed within these rules. our approach to generating and encoding data as closely to the source as feasible – including presumed misspellings, inconsistencies, and fuzziness – is aimed towards keeping the inscriptions of knowledge production visible. thus, the traces left by the reflexivity of agents and social change in the source can be integrated into the analytical abstraction process. in this workflow, the data normalization that is necessary for further processing and interconnecting data is kept visible and reversible as an interpretative act. our intent is to enable the dynamic generation of visual abstractions in gis that allow researchers to react and interact with findings resulting from the hermeneutic analysis of the source material. this points to the double character of data visualization, as defined by ste- phen few ( ): “data visualization is the graphical display of abstract in- formation for two purposes: sense-making (also called data analysis) and com- munication” (n.p.). data is mobilized graphically. it typically requires graphical representation in order to be used as part of an explanation, or as a basis for argumentation (gitelman and jackson , ). to paraphrase mar- shall mcluhan ( ), data visualizations are said to amplify our senses and our abilities to make sense of the world around us. data visualizations, howev- er, are not a neutral tool. they “come with particular ‘ways of seeing,’ particu- lar analytical, mediation and narrative regimes regarding which we ought to be attentive as we use them to do research and tell stories” (gray et al. , ). similar to supposedly neutral data, mapping and tagging are persuasive and tend to create an understanding of constructed reality as self-evident (bächle , ). we should keep this in mind while working with gis-produced visualizations. against the backdrop of various experiences with gis-based abstraction and analysis in projects of the social-gis workgroup at the univer- cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ sity of osnabrück, i want to highlight three productive aspects of gis- supported analysis. ( ) gis-based analysis can help to separate observable facts from the mean- ing commonly attributed to them, enabling new perspectives on concepts that are ideologically coagulated. the subjects of migration and refugees have been discussed at length in recent years. the definition of who is recognized as a migrant or refugee seems self-evident in these discussions and tends to be connected to further social and legal attributions. gis model human mobility in the first instance in a technical context as movement in space. it detaches movement from its interpretation as migration. in this sense, computing is semantically blind, as silke schwandt ( , ) put it in the context of se- mantical historical analysis of text corpora. semantic blindness should not be understood as objectivity. we can only see what is encoded in our system and hence, we will only find what we are searching for. however, the process of encoding and processing builds an intermediate step between hypothesis and analysis. it generates discrete fragments of observable facts that are separated from the meaning attributed to them within their original social context. reduc- ing their meaning to a technical function opens the mind to new encounters with the source material and allows the production of new, meaningful ar- rangements. for example, an ongoing project of the social-gis workgroup collects the birthplaces of parents and grandparents in school classes and enters this data into a gis. the result shows that almost every family has an experi- ence of mobility (kaim, panagiotidis, and rass ). this observation pre- sents an ideal starting point from which to discuss the production of migration as a phenomenon of perception and attribution. similarly, the processing of data from the its archives carries with it the potential to rethink accepted knowledge on the strategies, social structures, origins, and destinations of dps, as well as to identify new groups of dps to be investigated. it also allows us to contextualize experiences of forced migration with previous and later experi- ences of different kinds of mobility. ( ) gis-based analysis can render visible the co-occurrence of temporally and spatially dispersed events – co-occurrences that lead to questions about the interrelation of these events. in an earlier project within the social-gis workgroup, sebastian bondzio ( ) mapped the death toll of soldiers at the front during world war i with the arrival of the notification of death at the soldiers’ home. the visual abstraction shows that battles known in war history due to their high mortality as main events – such as the battle of verdun and the battle of the somme in – on a local level might have far less impact on the social perception of the war than the sum of much smaller battles. in the https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- for an overview of the social-gis workgroup and its projects, see (accessed november , ). between and , i was part of the social-gis workgroup at university of osnabrück. cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ case of soldiers from osnabrück, over the course of the war, at least % of soldiers’ deaths did not occur in prominent battles and was the year with the lowest death toll (bondzio , ). similarly, by processing dps’ data in gis, it is likely that otherwise imperceptible patterns in itineraries, prefer- ences, and the success or failure of applications for resettlement programs will appear. these patterns might point to the agency of dps – for example to nego- tiate their further progress, even if they did not meet the demands of receiving countries. such patterns could thus help to reshape and understand the land- scape of important hubs for refugees before, during, and after the war. ( ) from a given set of sources, gis-based analysis generates a context for individual sources. one specific capability of gis is to map a set of life events into a pathway through time and space, but also to agglomerate co-occurrences and show the dispersion of events within geospatial and temporal coordinates. thus, for each representation of a life event, gis can create a context of rela- tions to other data representations. it can relate the representation of a single life event to representations of other events in the life of the same person, as well as to general classifications, or to representations of the life events of others in the dataset. this creates contextualized perspectives on, and access to, the individual source. from an ant perspective, this context of patterns can be taken as modeling the work and translation of hybrid subject-object actants. the persuasive and analytical power of these contextualized perspectives on sources and the resulting prospects for the presentation of research outcomes have been shown in various projects of the social-gis workgroup. for exam- ple, a project in cooperation with the center for persecuted arts rendered data from artists fleeing nazi germany. on an individual level, the gis model could show the range before, during, and after persecution, and offers an ex- planation concerning the relation between the work and life of an artist as a linear story of action and reaction to his or her surroundings. agglomerating the data from various artists, a broader context emerges, pointing towards gen- eral trends, individual deviations from that trend, probable options for decisions made, and the general as well as individual consequences. moreover, in this context, artworks were produced before, during, and after nazi rule. as with the artists themselves, some of these works survived, while others vanished. mapping the movements of artists and their work, even beyond a particular artist’s death, provides important insights into the artist as he or she is created by the perception of his or her work. in a similar fashion, from the dataset of various dps, we expect to create a context for each individual case and source that can be explored through gis-generated dynamic maps, which are linked back to digital representations of the source documents. https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- see (ac- cessed november , ). cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ the three abovementioned productive uses of gis do not generate represen- tations that are more truthful than written representations. the evidence they produce has to be questioned and handled with care. however, if done well, gis can provide a point of reference for further investigation and support dif- ferent views on well-known topics. a fundamental quality of digital media is the way in which it fragments knowledge into bits of information that are sub- sequently dynamically recombined into new insights. in this respect, gis can help to multiply possible visions of the past and thus enrich the field of histori- cal research. . conclusion: reconciling hermeneutic and quantitative approaches through digital history https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- how can dps’ agency be better understood by modeling their life events into gis? indeed, is it actually possible to do so? in a strict sense, the answer is no. agency is exactly the kind of social interaction that cannot be transformed into calculable bits of information. it is the adaptation and response to the unfore- seen – something that algorithms cannot understand, but only simulate by de- tecting patterns and calculating sophisticated statistical probabilities. neverthe- less, exactly such expectations are raised in current discourse surrounding big data and artificial intelligence. they reveal the underlying algorithmic para- digm of knowledge production inherent to the project of the enlightenment: the subjugation of nature through the scientific description of its functional rules. this paradigm results in the idea that human behavior can also be calculated, if only we would have enough data (bächle ). conversely, the intent to look through the source documents at the social in- teractions, beliefs, and reasons behind them is a challenge always present in historical research. it is the point at which the researcher’s curiosity meets the sources and relates to the past with empathy, creating a historical narrative that sounds credible to the contemporary reader. this interaction transforms both the researcher and the source. following this line of thought, history can be understood as a specific form of appropriation of the present (and not the past; berg ). paradoxically, the use of computational technologies that reduce complex social interactions to a calculable constellation of data ideal for algo- rithmic processing can stimulate reflection upon the interrelation between knowledge production, the medium of that knowledge production, and its rep- resentation. by combining hermeneutic approaches with quantitative and graphical ab- stractions, gis can be a useful means via which to understand dps’ agency. gis can model traces of dps’ agency into graphical representations and dis- cover patterns of movement and sojourn that help pose the right questions about agency, subject constitution, and frames of opportunity. taking up cc by-sa . de hsr ( ) │ ant’s critique of the subject-object divide, the detected patterns can be under- stood as the work or agency of the institutional settings that co-constitute the dps and eligibility officers at the iro. lukas hennies, sebastian huhn, and christoph rass ( ) described this process of interaction between dps, eligi- bility officers and institutional settings based on potm data about osnabrück. even with small datasets, gis representation can help to shed new light on sources and create new hypotheses with which to better understand past events (hornbake ). one of the main opportunities and challenges that the digital humanities offer is the unexpected. what we think we will build and what we actually build, are often quite different (thomas ). gis can help to pro- duce a broader context for the always limited findings generated by detailed hermeneutic research, while hermeneutic understanding can help to improve data modeling in gis. the mixed method approach encourages historians to acquire the basic skills necessary to apply new digital technologies, or at least to understand what they are doing when working together with it experts. the new media of digitized sources, lod, and interactive gis representa- tions also call for a rethinking of traditional habits of scholarly publication. digital representation tends to fragment information, but also has the ability to recombine these fragments of information into new perspectives on the sources and their interrelation. fragmentation and recombination are both interpretative acts. new digital media offer new ways of storytelling, including visual and/or non-linear stories that follow complex graphs of knowledge. history has al- ways been a construct; 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resettlement structures, and displaced persons’ agency: document holdings and research potentials of the arolsen archives. doi: . /hsr. . . . - filip strubbe a straightforward journey? discovering belgium’s refugee policy through its central government archives ( - ). doi: . /hsr. . . . - frank wolff beyond genocide: how refugee agency preserves knowledge during violence-induced migration. doi: . /hsr. . . . - peter romijn “beyond the horizon”: disconnections in indonesian war of independence. doi: . /hsr. . . . - regina grüter & anne van mourik dutch repatriation from the former third reich and the soviet union: political and organizational encounters and the role of the netherlands red cross. doi: . /hsr. . . . - jannis panagiotidis “not the concern of the organization?” the iro and the overseas resettlement of ethnic germans from eastern europe after world war ii. doi: . /hsr. . . . - sebastian huhn negotiating resettlement in venezuela after world war ii: an exploration. doi: . /hsr. . . . - christian höschler “those people who actually do the job…” unaccompanied children, relief workers, and the struggle of implementing humanitarian policy in postwar germany. doi: . /hsr. . . . - edwin klijn from paper to digital trail: collections on the semantic web. doi: . /hsr. . . . - olaf berg capturing displaced persons’ agency by modelling their life events: a mixed method digital humanities approach. doi: . /hsr. . . . - peter gatrell “negotiating resettlement”: some concluding thoughts. doi: . /hsr. . . . - for further information on our journal, including tables of contents, article abstracts, and our extensive online archive, please visithttps://www.gesis.org/en/hsr. historical social research https://doi.org/ . /zzf.dok- historische sozialforschung cc by-sa . de https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - doi: . /jlis. . / 圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）數位人文的跨領域和基礎性研究：以文物數位化保護元數據標準規範為例肖瓏北京大學圖書館研究館員 e-mail: lxiao@lib.pku.edu.cn 張岩北京大學圖書館副研究館員 e-mail: zhangyan@lib.pku.edu.cn 張俊娥北京大學圖書館副研究館員 e-mail: zhangje@lib.pku.edu.cn 馮英北京大學圖書館副研究館員 e-mail: fengy@lib.pku.edu.cn 關鍵詞：數位人文；文物數位化；元數據框架體系；元數據標準【摘要】數位人文是近年來的研究熱點，其目標之一是通過技術的引進，更加深入地描述人文領域的研究物件，挖掘、組織和傳播人類文明及相關知識。本文以文物數位化保護元數據標準研究為例，通過文獻調查與分析、實地調研、建立模型、規範設計，介紹文物數位化保護元數據（metadata）規範的總體架構和專業化拓展，闡明數位人文發展領域不可忽略的基礎性、長遠性工作─標準規範研究之必要性和作用，探索人文與技術的共同合作與發展。背景數位人文是運用資訊技術表現人文內涵的新興學科。隨著電腦和網路技術在人文社會科學領域的廣泛應用，人文社會科學研究引入了大量數位技術在人文資料的搜集、處理、存儲 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ）和展示上，人文社會科學與資訊技術科學的交叉融合，人文教學和科研機構與圖書館、檔案館、博物館等人文資料保存和利用機構的共建共用，都使得跨學科研究、跨組織協作趨勢愈加明顯（熊莉君、張福陽、張燦，）。正如美國賓夕法尼亞大學的傑佛瑞•納普（j. knapp）教授所指出，隨著知識的劇增和學術問題的複雜性，使得閱讀和研究交叉學科及複雜問題的人文學者，越來越需要技術和資料學者來説明他們發現、關聯、轉換、重組不同領域的多形態的知識（knapp, ），技術和資料學者也越來越重視運用資料採擷和視覺化等資料分析方法和技術開發特色服務（熊莉君、張福陽、張燦，）。在這種交叉與融合中，人文學者始終堅持認為，數位人文方法是人文社會科學研究的一種補充手段，可以給傳統人文研究提供全新的研究視角、工具和平臺，實現人文研究範式變革，但不能代替人文研究和人文精神。在這種觀點下，人文社會科學基礎研究領域的跨學科合作比較容易為人文學者和技術學者接受，並成為促進人文與技術融合的重要出發點。究其原因，主要是數位人文研究在很大程度上依賴於數位內容，而資料又是其中的基礎和核心。技術和資料學者作為專業的資料處理專家，在文本數位化、資料管理、資料庫建設、文本挖掘、知識組織、資料保存和元數據標準等方面有自己獨特的作用，從發現資訊／知識到利用已發現的資訊／知識來創建新的學術資源，為數位人文使用者提供了高品質的知識服務轉化。而另一方面，對於技術和資料學者來說，跨學科資料的管理活動為其成功地介入到數位人文研究，與人文領域的學者建立密切的合作夥伴關係提供了獨特的機遇（vandegrift & varner, ）。數位人文的合作不僅應用於傳統的人文領域，還應用於數位圖書館、數位博物館、數位檔案館建設。目前國際上圖書館、博物館、檔案館「三館合一」的趨勢即體現了數位人文的這種發展，即圖書館、博物館、檔案館進行越來越多的數位化整合；三館可以統稱為「記憶機構」（memory institution）；其數位物件多稱為「文化遺產」（cultural heritage）或者「文化遺產物件」（cultural heritage objects）；三館往往在一起共同開展數位化專案，或者建立統一的數位化入口。比較典型的如「美國記憶」（american memory）項目、歐洲 europeana 文化遺產項目等，在這兩個平臺上，有數千所文化機構進行合作，為其提供資料和研究資料。而隨著數位圖書館的發展，圖書館已經在資料存儲、組織、文本挖掘和元數據標準等資料管理方面積累了豐富的經驗，有能力在圖書館、博物館、檔案館合作的數位人文研究過程中發揮重要的作用（acrl research planning and review committee, ）。由北京大學圖書館帶領的國家科技支撐計畫「文物數位化保護元數據標準研究」課題（課題編號： bak b ）就是這方面合作的代表。該課題是國家科技部「國家科技支撐計畫」支援、國家文物局組織的「文物數位化保護標準體系及關鍵標準研究與示範專案」的核心內容，其目標是針對當前文物數位化過程中元數據體系和規範方面的需要，建設文物數位化保護元數據總體框架體系、核心標準、描述標準、管理保存標準及應用技術規範，以及與文物元數據規範語義相關的文圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）物分類體系等，從而規範文物數位化保護元數據建設，支援和促進文物數位化保護建設、推動文物保護的研究、展示、應用與發展。「文物數位化保護元數據標準研究」課題的任務包括以下方面：（）文物元數據標準總體框架，在面向數位化保護的標準規範體系和文物數位化生命週期模型的基礎上，建立交互操作的、可擴展的文物數位化元數據規範體系與總體框架，包括文物數位化標準規範與元數據、文物數位化物件生命週期與元數據體系、文物數位化保護元數據規範類型及其關係、文物元數據資訊框架。（）描述元數據研究，即對文物內容、屬性、外在特徵進行描述的元數據框架體系及相關應用規則，為可移動／不可移動文物元數據規範的設計奠定基礎，制定文物核心元素集及其應用指南、描述元數據應用規範與專門元數據設計規範。（）可移動文物專門元數據標準的研製，包括銅器、古籍、甲骨、輿圖、繪畫、雕塑、織繡、傢俱、拓片、陶器、瓷器、玉器等十二大類。（）不可移動文物專門元數據標準的研製，包括古文化遺址、古墓葬、古建築、石窟寺、石刻、壁畫、近代現代重要史跡和代表性建築等。（）文物數位化保護管理元數據規範與保存元數據規範的研製，支援對數字資源建設各環節的管理需求，包含對技術資訊、智慧財產權、版權保護、許可權控制、來源、數位化過程、服務等與數位資源管理密切相關的內容；研製文物數位化後長期保存元數據規範及相關應用指南。（）文物數位化保護元數據標準應用規範的研究，重點包括與元數據輸入、處理、存貯、管理、發佈、檢索、交換等緊密相關的文物數位化保護元數據標識體系、元數據編碼規則、元數據封裝／交換規範、元數據訪問協定與元數據開放機制，為文物數位化保護元數據管理系統的實現以及互聯互通提供標準依據。（）文物分類體系研究，對數位化後的文物分類體系框架和內容進行研製。根據以上內容，從數位人文研究的角度來看，「文物數位化保護元數據標準研究」課題研究及其成果具有以下特點： . 符合數位人文的跨學科特點。涉及文物學、博物館學、圖書館學、資訊技術等多個學科，既要利用資訊技術領域的資料科學、資料管理來解決文物數位化過程中的資料規範問題，也要根據文博學科和文博領域的特點，對文物屬性、特徵、應用進行深度研究和表達。 . 具有數位人文的跨領域合作特點。課題由北京大學圖書館牽頭，北京大學圖書館及考古文博學院、清華大學圖書館、國家圖書館現代技術研究所等元數據研究機構，與故宮博物院、敦煌研究院、中國科技大學、浙江大學等文物機構和文物研究機構共同合作。課題組根據任務組成了六個課題小組，每個小組都由文博學界和資料研究兩方面學者組成，系統性地開展研究。此外，還有約餘位文博和資訊技術領域專家參與了資料規範成果的評審和建議，十余個文博機構承擔了開放實驗的資料工作。 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ） . 屬於數位人文領域的基礎性研究工作。數位人文領域的研究是分為多層次的，有資訊收集、處理的基礎性研究，也有用於展示、表達的門戶交互性研究。而無論是數位圖書館還是數位博物館，資料都是最基本和最微粒的組成，因此資料規範的制定屬於數位人文領域的基礎性工作，規範化資料的建設對於文物數位化領域不可或缺。本文將主要介紹該課題的核心研究內容。文物數位化保護元數據基礎研究數位人文的學科研究範圍非常廣泛，涵蓋了文學、歷史、考古、藝術、哲學等，文物數位化保護元數據標準規範的研究物件也是包羅萬象，包括建築、繪畫、雕塑、壁畫、手稿、傢俱、服裝、照片、數位文檔、電影、音樂等，同樣涵蓋建築學、文學、文獻學、歷史學、考古學以及藝術學等。因此，這種跨學科的特點使得數位人文研究中的許多方法都可以為文物數位化保護元數據建設所借鑒。文物數位化保護元數據標準規範體系用來支援文物資訊化系統中資訊資源的產生、加工、組織、發佈、存儲與管理，可以滿足對文物實體物件和數位物件進行描述、組織、管理、服務與保存的需要。在面向數位化保護的標準規範體系和文物數位化生命週期模型的基礎上，根據元數據的結構化屬性、關係特徵以及元數據規範的作用，建立交互操作的、可靈活擴展的文物數位化元數據規範體系與總體框架，包括：（）文物數位化標準規範整體結構及其與元數據的關係；（）文物數位化物件生命週期與元數據體系的建立；（）文物元數據資訊框架；（）文物元數據結構框架等。文物數位化保護標準規範體系與元數據文物數位化保護標準規範體系包括標準體系框架、核心標準規範體系、其他支撐標準和應用示範四部分（見圖），文物數位化保護元數據標準體系是其核心內容的重要組成部分。受標準規範管理系統、標準體系管理規範、標準體系擴展規則、標準體系表和文物數位化物件生命週期模型指導，同時與文物數位化技術體系共同構成了核心標準規範體系，在文物分類體系、主題詞表、標準體系編碼規則支援的基礎上，通過文物元數據標準應用示範、可移動文物／不可移動文物數位化保護關鍵標準應用示範進行驗證和規範。圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）圖文物數位化標準規範體系如圖所示：文物數位化保護元數據標準體系包括描述元數據標準、管理元數據標準、保存元數據標準、應用規範以及元數據管理系統。該標準體系針對當前文物數位化保護在元數據體系和規範方面的需要，充分借鑒當前元數據標準制定的內容和技術，把握文物數位化保護元數據的特點和性質。從文物數位化保護的應用邏輯出發，建設能夠支撐文物全方位與全過程採集、存儲、管理、展示、共用與應用文物數位化資訊的元數據總體框架與標準體系，為文物數位化保護的整合、共用、有機組織奠定基礎。文物數位化物件生命週期與元數據體系文物元數據體系與文物數位化物件生命週期息息相關，從文物實體數位化過程的採集、加工整理、服務、保存到處置（主要指資源的剔除／銷毀）的每個階段中，都離不開元數據規範，不同類型的元數據在文物數位化物件生命週期的不同階段產生並在不同環節起著重要作用（肖瓏、申曉娟，）。從文物實體被採集加工成為文物數位化物件到進入資訊服務仲介後的加工、服務、保存、處置的生命週期，以及週期中所涉及的事件與文物數位化建設標準規範之間的關係，可建立如圖顯示的文物元數據體系。 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ）圖文物數位化物件生命週期與元數據體系資料來源：改編自張曉林（年）。數字圖書館標準與規範建設。在圖中，從文物實體被採集加工成為數位化對象到被使用者利用，在整個生命週期內經歷了採集、加工、服務、保存、處置等基礎環節，在每個環節都受到管理過程的控制，每個環節都有其相應的管理機制與管理政策。例如在採集加工階段，對文物的類型、數位物件標準、加工規範進行管理；在提供服務階段，對註冊規範、資訊系統、服務過程等設定管理機制；在資源保存、處置階段，使用管理元數據管理資源的長期保存和資源處理方式。每個環節都有特定的管理元數據，它既反映了這一管理環節管理機制的共性，又能根據更加具體的管理功能進行擴展，各個環節的管理元數據是一個相互融合的有機整體。根據圖文物數位化物件週期中元數據的作用，可以將文物元數據分為以下類型： . 專門元數據、資源集合元數據等組成的描述元數據，主要作用於文物實體數位化的採集加工階段，文物實體被採集加工成為數位物件（複合數位物件）的過程，以及對數位物件（複合數位物件）進行加工、描述、檢索，需要由描述元數據來完成。描述元數據在描述不同數位化物件的同一性質時用到的核心元素集，以及描述不同物件時的個性化的專門元數據都需要建立相應的標準規範和應用指南。圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月） . 服務元數據：主要存在於數位物件提供服務的階段，作用是將採集加工階段完成的文物數位化物件通過描述元數據規範後，再使用服務元數據展示出來，以供讀者檢索、使用，並且實現各資訊資源之間的交換、共用、交互操作。 . 保存元數據：主要存在於數位物件的保存和處置階段，將描述元數據、管理元數據、服務元數據提供的各種數位化資訊、檢索使用、版本更新、剔除／銷毀等過程進行保存。 . 管理元數據：作用於整個生命週期，是專門對文物數位資源實施管理的元數據。它描述在管理文物實體物件數位化的過程中所涉及的管理資訊以及對管理政策與管理機制的規範、開放描述，真實記錄業務活動資訊、關聯組織、有效管理數位化物件並進行多維展示。圖說明了元數據體系中的描述元數據、服務元數據、保存元數據、管理元數據在文物資訊資源從採集、加工整理、利用、保存到處置的生命週期中的作用，以及這些元數據之間的關係，為在不同類型元數據標準的設計中元素的交叉和複用，不同元數據之間的相互連結和調用提供基礎依據。文物數位化保護元數據資訊框架文物數位化保護元數據資訊框架是基於文物數位物件建立的資料模型。該模型根據使用者需求，對應用需求進行抽象概念化，建立概念與概念之間的關係，包含文物實體資訊、參考資訊、數位物件的內容資訊、技術處理、服務管理等。如圖所示：圖文物數位化保護元數據資訊框架資料來源：改編自 the forum on information standards in heritage (fish) ( ). the uk historic environment data standard. journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ）該模型說明了文物數位物件在數位化過程中所涉及的資料資訊，如果按照文物數位化保護元數據的作用來抽取相關資訊的話，可以歸納為以下三類： . 描述資訊（圖之、、欄）：即對文物實體的內容、屬性、外在特徵、關聯資訊以及與之相對應的數位物件進行揭示的資訊，以支援資源的查找； . 技術資訊：即對文物數位物件在採集、加工、服務過程中為實現長期保存的目的而必須記錄下的技術等資訊，從而支援所描述的數位物件的長期保存； . 管理資訊：即關於數位物件使用過程中的存取許可權、智慧財產權、管理等資訊，從而支援對數位物件的有效管理。文物數位化保護元數據結構框架文物數位化保護元數據的內容結構指的是元數據規範術語間的相互關係（如元素、修飾詞及其屬性等的相互關係）以及元素本身的層級描述（如用於描述性的通用核心元素、用於描述某一類型資源的資源類型核心元素、用於描述某個具體物件的個別元素）等。文物元數據的基本內容結構由三個層次組成─即用於描述性的通用核心元素、用於描述某類文物的文物類型核心元素、用於描述某個特定的文物物件的個別元素。元數據的這種基本內容結構形成各類型資源物件描述元數據的基本框架，用於支持資料交換和檢索，實現資料共用，見圖。圖文物數位化保護元數據結構框架圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）文物核心元數據集是根據文物資源共同特點制定、可用於不同類型文物描述的元數據通用元素的集合。從文物實體的角度，根據文物的存在形態分類，分為可移動文物和不可移動文物，因而文物類型核心元數據集分為可移動文物系列核心元數據集和不可移動文物系列核心元數據集。同理，個別元數據集分為可移動文物類型個別元數據集和不可移動文物類型個別元數據集。文物數位化保護元數據應用研究元數據規範設計文物數位化的資源建設核心內容之一就是建立準確的、規範的、可交互操作的元數據標準規範，在此過程中既要充分考慮到文物的多樣性和獨特性，又要兼顧與國際上通用資料標準的融合，而且為了有利於數位資源整合，也要照顧到國內現有文物資料庫系統的實際情況。文物元數據規範的設計是一項非常重要的基礎性工作，它是不同類型資料庫在具體元數據方案設計時可依據的一個基礎框架，是不同資料庫系統間實現交互操作和資料共用的基礎。選擇合適的元數據標準規範，是知識組織的重要一步。針對文物的複雜性和多樣性，圖書館與博物館聯合，元數據研究人員、電腦專家與文博專家共同合作，根據文物的特性，建立適於不同類型文物的元數據標準，並努力做到各類型元數據標準之間的相容與交互操作。一、設計原則 . 簡單性與準確性原則：設計的元數據標準在著錄實踐時應比較簡單，便於掌握，尤其要考慮到著錄人員除編目員外，更多的是相關專業人員，如書畫專家、古籍專家等。但過於簡單可能導致著錄不夠精確，會降低檢索結果的準確度。因此，同時考慮簡單化和準確度，需要二者兼顧。 . 專指性與通用性原則：由於文物的各自特性不盡相同，因此無法只用一個元數據標準來描述多種文物，需要根據文物類型和具體的文物實體來確定專門元數據規範。另一方面，必須考慮元數據標準在一定範圍內的通用性，如不同文物之間共用的特性。 . 實用性原則：制定元數據標準的目的是為了向使用者更充分地揭示資訊資源，在結構與格式的設計、元素的增刪、語法及語義規則的制定等方面都要盡可能從使用者實際需要出發，對廣大使用者的使用需求，包括檢索習慣、對元數據的理解和接受程度、與傳統檢索工具的傳承關係等因素都應當充分考慮。 . 開放性原則：應盡可能複用或嵌套已有標準、或業界通用的元數據規範，沒有充分的合理理由不宜自行創建新的元數據格式。元數據體系實行開放擴展機制，允許在核心集基礎上按規則進行擴展。 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ） . 交互操作原則：建立一個適用的開放的元數據體系框架模型，在結構、格式、內容編碼體系等方面進行規範定義，以盡可能達到系統結構的一致性。例如元數據內容描述應使用標準的內容編碼體系，包括中國文物分類主題詞表、國別或地區、日期或時期等，從而保障內容描述方式的標準化和描述內容的可交換；採用 xml 標記語言和「資源描述架構」（resource description framework，rdf）進行開放性描述和標準化封裝，並在其中通過「命名空間」的方式註明元數據來源，使元數據格式在經過這樣的描述和封裝之後，可以方便地被其它系統相容；在具體的資料級別應用上，應易於建立與其他通用元數據格式的轉換機制（肖瓏、申曉娟，）。二、核心元數據設計核心元數據是對文物數位化保護中不同類型文物資源基本特徵進行描述的元數據，是根據文物資源的共同特點確定的元數據集合。作為各領域元數據交互操作的一個基礎元素集，適用於各類文物資訊資源的基本特徵描述。制定核心元素集的目的是為了給資訊資源描述提供通用的元素和規範。核心元素集可作為各類資訊資源分享操作的語義基礎和元數據擴展基礎。考慮到元數據規範的通用性、可擴展性、元數據之間的易轉換性、系統之間的互通性等需求，以及現有比較通用的 dublin core（dc）元數據是網路環境下資訊資源描述領域影響最大、應用最廣的元數據標準，文物數位化保護元數據的核心元數據集在結構上參考了 dc 元數據，採用元素和元素修飾詞的形式。但是，dc 元數據標準主要針對的是網路資源的檢索，所描述的是數位資源的共性特徵，無法揭示文物的複雜性和特殊性。因此，核心元數據的元素設計又參考了目前國際上文物方面通用的元數據標準、國內文物普查時頒佈的一系列標準規範、各文博機構自行採用的文物著錄元素集等，以便於在文物數位化過程中更加充分地揭示文物及其數位物件，並與國際國內標準相容，如 cdwa（categories for the description of works of art）、cco （cataloging cultural objects）、vra core（visual resources association core categories）、《館藏文物登錄規範》（ww/t - ）、《博物館藏品資訊指標著錄規範》、《博物館藏品聲像資訊指標規範》、《第一次可移動文物普查工作標準規範》等相關標準，設立了個元素。見表。表文物數位化保護元數據核心元素集文物類型主題名稱考古發掘文物識別號級別所在位置現狀圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）（續表）創作來源材質權限工藝技法展覽／借展史計量數字對象描述相關文物題識／標記相關知識核心元數據的擴展和關聯核心元數據的擴展是在核心集基礎上，根據各類型文物特徵進行的專門元數據擴展，以便與已有的文物數位化資源整合，尤其是與文博部門現有的文物資料庫管理系統靈活相容與交互操作。其基本原則如下： . 橫向擴展規則：指元素級別上的擴展規則。包括對核心元素不能描述的特性，可以增加元素，即文物類型核心元素，但文物類型核心元素不能與核心元素有任何語義上的重複；文物類型核心元素只擴展描述型元素。例如雕塑類專門元數據根據雕塑類特點橫向擴展了兩個文物類型核心元素：「製作方法」和「紋飾」。古建築類專門元數據橫向擴展了「朝向／佈局」、「局部」兩個文物類型核心元素。 . 縱向擴展規則：指使用修飾詞的方式向下擴展。修飾詞是對元素的語義進行限定和修飾，以提高元素的專指性和精確性。包括允許擴展核心元素的修飾詞和文物類型核心元素的修飾詞；盡可能遵循向上相容，即自行制定或者複用的修飾詞的語義不能超出被修飾元素的語義，修飾詞只是對被修飾元素的含義範圍作了進一步的限定。例如雕塑類專門元數據核心元素「題識」根據雕塑類特點縱向擴展了元素修飾詞「類型」、「謄寫或描述」、「字體／字形」和「位置」。各機構在對具體的文物物件描述時可根據本單位實際需要進行本地個別元素的擴展。擴展原則與核心元數據的擴展原則相同。在核心元素集中，除描述文物實體的內容、屬性、外觀特徵的元素外，還包括與文物實體相關聯內容的其他描述元素，如數字對象、相關文物、相關知識等，可以利用統一資源識別項（uniform resource locator, url）對這些元素進行標識，進而利用資源描述架構（rdf）對元素集進行關聯，通過連結可以把這些相關資訊揭示出來，從而實現對數位資源的有效整合。核心元數據的擴展與關聯見圖。 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ）圖文物元數據元素構成圖如圖所示，文物元數據元素由核心元素、擴展元素和本地自定義元素組成。核心元數據經過擴展，成為一個專門元數據，在本地應用時，還可以繼續擴展增加當地語系化的元素，如銅器類專門元數據根據銅器類特點擴展了兩個文物類型核心元素：「器形」和「紋飾」。本地在對銅器類文物描述時自行擴展了兩個元素：「鑄造痕跡」和「收藏歷史」。圖中也顯示了核心元數據的關聯，除描述文物實體的內容及外在特徵的元素，如文物類型、名稱、文物識別號、所在位置等，還包括與文物實體相關聯的其他元素，如展覽／借展史、數字對象、相關文物、相關知識，這些元素都有一個識別字（identifier, id），可通過 uri 形式將這些元素所揭示的資訊與核心元數據關聯。總之，通過模組化、可擴展的、可關聯的、既通用又可以個性化應用的描述元數據體系及專門元數據規範的設計，整合了現有的各類文物元數據，滿足了不同的文物元數據應用需求，建立了文物數位化保護元數據規範的可持續發展機制。圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）元數據的應用規範文物元數據的應用規範是對文物資源元數據結構、定義規範、擴展規則、著錄規則、交互操作規則等進行規定，以保持文物元數據結構的一致性，為文物資源的有效組織、元數據之間的交互操作、元數據的廣泛應用和共用奠定基礎，使數位博物館的可持續發展成為可能。文物元數據應用規範基本模型見圖。圖文物元數據應用規範基本模型資料來源：改編自 baker, t. ( ). the singapore framework for dublin core application profiles. 元數據應用規範的基本模型主要由元數據基本結構與基礎規範、元數據應用綱要兩大部分組成。元數據基礎規範主要是指形式化描述語言，即識別字、標記語言、格式語言，是與互聯網的底層規範相符合的。元數據的基本結構包括內容結構、語義結構和語法結構。元數據應用綱要主要由資源分析與功能需求、元素集描述、擴展規則與著錄規則以及編碼指南與資料格式四部分組成。建立文物元數據應用規範模型的目的是保證根據此模型建立的元數據規範在資料結構、格式、語義等方面的一致性和整體性，從而在不同層面上為各種資訊資源的檢索、整合、交換以及其他應用提供支援。因此文物元數據應用規範的核心內容包括確定元數據的基本結構、建立元數據核心集、制定元數據應用綱要。 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ）文物元數據的應用流程是從元數據需求和應用環境分析、元數據標準的選擇與制定、應用綱要的設計、編制元數據一直到在數位環境中應用元數據。在整個流程中，首先對文物資源的數位物件及已有的文物元數據標準進行分析，建立元數據應用的基本框架，選擇適用的元數據標準，再根據具體應用需求，規定元數據結構（包括內容結構、句法結構、語義結構）、元數據核心元素集及命名空間、擴展規則、著錄規則、本地應用規則以及所有元素的編碼規則。在此基礎上創建元數據記錄，形成元數據倉儲，對使用者提供統一的檢索介面，同時對其維護和遷移以保證資料倉儲中元數據的品質與交互操作。最後，通過在數位博物館中的應用，實現文物資訊資源的檢索與展示、管理與保存，支援和促進文物數位化保護建設，推動文物數位化保護的研究、應用與發展（肖瓏、申曉娟，）。結語文物數位化保護元數據的基礎與應用研究為文物數位化提供了基礎保障，滿足了文物數位化和知識資料庫建設的需求，為技術與人文的合作構築了非同尋常的新平臺。數位人文方法的運用，為文物數位化後的深度開發提供了創造性的基礎理論和實踐性的基本方法。從文物資訊的簡單組織、檢索與利用到深度分析和挖掘，從單一的研究手段到多維度的科學分析和智慧介入，文物數位化後的研究工作可以實現質的飛躍。文物數位化保護元數據作為數位博物館資訊資源的資訊組織方式，也是知識組織的基礎。知識組織是資訊組織的延伸，不僅包括詞表、分類法等傳統的資訊組織技術，也包括了語義網、本體等現代資訊和知識組織技術，可以使眾多的資源集合成一張巨大的知識網路，使得面向使用者的知識檢索與知識服務成為可能（蔡璐、熊擁軍、劉燦姣，）。基於本體的知識組織以概念為基礎，而概念是從元數據中的元素中抽取出來的，例如：文物元數據中的文物類型、創作者、地理位置、主題等，其取值和取值的規範對知識組織都是非常重要的基礎性工作。未來可在此基礎上，通過對元數據的整合，明確其各種概念及主題關係，用關聯資料的形式發佈資源，形成層次清晰的網狀結構知識圖譜體系。未來，文物數位化保護元數據設計工作完成後，還有一系列重要工作要進行，如與時俱進地更新內容，推廣文物數位化保護元數據規範的應用，多維度聚合現有數位化資源以實現知識發現，通過關聯資料整合文物數位資源等等。這一系列的工作仍然需要文物工作者、資料和技術工作者攜手合作，充分運用數位人文方法，大力促進文物數位化後的深度研究、開發與應用，助推人類文明文化的傳承。參考文獻 acrl research planning and review committee ( ). top trends in academic libraries: a review of the trends and issues affecting academic libraries in higher education. college & research libraries news, 圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月） ( ), - . retrieved from http://crln.acrl.org/content/ / / .full knapp, j. a. ( ). plugging the 「whole」: librarians as interdisciplinary facilitators. library review, ( ), - . doi: . / vandegrift, m. & varner, s. ( ). evolving in common: creating mutually supportive relationships between libraries and the digital humanities. journal of library administration, ( ), - . doi: . / . . 熊莉君、張福陽、張燦（）。圖書館在数字人文領域的傳播功能與服務研究。圖書館，( )， - 、。【xiong, li-jun, zhang, fu-yang & zhang, can ( ). on the dissemination function and service of library in the digital humanities. library, ( ), - , .】肖瓏、申曉娟（主編）（）。國家圖書館元數據應用總則規範彙編。中國北京市：國家圖書館出版社。【xiao, long & shen, xiao-juan (eds.) ( ). kuochiatushukuan yuanshuchu yingyung tsungtse kuifan huipien. beijing, china: national library of china publishing house.】蔡璐、熊擁軍、劉燦姣（）。基於本體和元數據的非遺資源知識組織體系構建。圖書館理論與實踐，( )， - 。【cai, lu, xiong, yong-jun & liu, can-jiao ( ). the construction of intangible cultural heritage information knowledge organization system based on ontology and metadata. library theory and practice, ( ), - .】 journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ） a cross-disciplinary and fundamental study of digital humanities: taking “metadata standards for digital cultural heritage” for example long xiao professor, peking university library e-mail: lxiao@lib.pku.edu.cn yan zhang associate professor, peking university library e-mail: zhangyan@lib.pku.edu.cn june zhang associate professor, peking university library e-mail: zhangje@lib.pkn.edu.cn ying feng associate professor, peking university library e-mail: fengy@lib.pkn.edu.cn keywords: digital humanities; digital preservation of cultural heritage standards; metadata framework and system; metadata standards 【abstract】 digital humanities is one of the research hotspots in recent years. one of its goals is to describe the object of study in the field of humanities more deeply, excavate, as well as to organize and disseminate human civilization and related knowledge by the technology. this paper takes the research on the metadata for digital cultural heritage as an example to introduce the general framework and professional development of metadata standards for digital cultural heritage. it clarifies that standards and norms are necessary and the metadata research is a basic, long ‐ term work in the development of digital humanities. doi: . /jlis. . / 圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月）【long abstract】 background this study used the ministry of science and technology of china funded project “metadata standards for digital cultural heritage,” jointly implemented by peking university library, national palace museum, dunhuang academy of china, institute of advanced technology, national library of china, china university of science and technology, zhejiang university, and tsinghua university library, as the background to explain the research on standards of overall structure of cultural heritage digitization preservation and metadata and their application. the said research is a study with interdisciplinary features which belongs to the fundamental field of digital humanities, as well as a case of digital humanities development. fundamental study of metadata standards for digital cultural heritage the standard system for cultural heritage digital preservation and metadata is used to support the generation, processing, organization, release, storage, and management of information resources in cultural heritage information systems, in order to meet the needs for describing, organizing, managing, serving, and preserving physical objects and digital objects of cultural heritage. it includes the following: metadata standards for digital cultural heritage the standard system for digital cultural heritage includes four parts: standard system framework, core standard system, other supporting standards, and application demonstrations. metadata standards are the main component of the core standard regulation system of the system. lifecycle of cultural object digitization and metadata system the lifecycle of cultural objects’ digitization is the foundation of standard for metadata. it not only confirms the different functions of metadata in the cultural objects’ digitization process, but also divides cultural heritage metadata into the following types: ( ) descriptive metadata: composed of specific metadata, resource collection metadata, etc. mainly function at the acquisition and processing stages of digitization of physical objects of cultural heritage. the processes of acquiring and processing physical objects of cultural heritage into digital objects (composite digital objects), as well as the processing, description, and retrieval of digital objects (composite digital objects), have to be completed using descriptive metadata. ( ) service metadata: mainly function at the stage of providing of service for the digital objects. ( ) preservation metadata: mainly exist at the stage of the preservation and handling stages of the journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ） digital objects. ( ) management metadata: function at the entire lifecycle and are the metadata specifically for the management of digital resources of cultural objects. information framework of metadata standards for digital cultural heritage the information framework of metadata standards for digital cultural heritage include ( ) descriptive information: the content, properties, external features, associated information of physical objects of cultural heritage and the corresponding digital objects; ( ) technological information: information on technologies, etc. that has to be recorded in order to achieve the purpose of long-term preservation during the processes of acquisition, processing, and service of digital objects of cultural heritage; ( ) management information: information concerning access permission, intellectual property rights, and management during the use of digital objects. structural framework of metadata standards for digital cultural heritage the basic content structure of cultural heritage metadata is the common core elements used for description that are used to describe the cultural heritage type core elements of certain type of cultural heritage, as well as the components of three hierarchies of individual elements of specific cultural objects. study on application of metadata standards for digital cultural heritage design of metadata standards the design of the metadata standards is a very important fundamental work, as well as a fundamental framework serving as the basis for different types of databases during the design of specific metadata programs. it is also the basis for different database systems to achieve interoperability and data sharing, as well as an important step of knowledge organizing. for the complexity and diversity of cultural objects, libraries and museums cooperate with metadata researchers, computer experts, and creative expo experts to establish metadata standards applicable to different types of cultural objects according to the characteristics of cultural objects, and endeavor to achieve the compatibility and interoperability among various types of metadata standards. therefore, it is necessary to follow the basic principles, such as simplicity & accuracy, specificity & versatility, practicality, openness, and interchangeability. core metadata design because dublin core (dc) metadata standards are mainly established for the retrieval of network resources, they describe the common features of digital resources and cannot uncover the complexity and particularity of cultural objects. therefore, the design of elements of core metadata consulted the 圖書館學與資訊科學（）： – （民一○六年四月） metadata standards that are commonly used for current international cultural heritage. in china, a series of standard were promulgated during the general survey on cultural objects. the records and element sets of cultural objects adopted by various creative expo institutions are compatible with international standards and standards in china. elements were established, as shown in table . table core element sets of cultural heritage digitization protection and metadata worktype subject title archaeologicalinformation identifier level currentlocation currentcondition creation source materials copyrightorrestrictions techniques exhibitionorloanhistory measurements digital object description relatedworks inscriptionsormarks relatedknowledge expansion and association of core metadata in addition to describing the elements of content, property, and appearance features of physical objects of cultural heritage, core element sets also include other descriptive elements concerning physical objects of cultural heritage, such as digital objects, relevant cultural heritage, and relevant knowledge. uniform resource identifier (uri) can be used to mark and identify these elements, and resource description framework (rdf) can be further used to associate with element sets. cultural objects metadata elements are composed of core elements, expansion elements, and locally established elements. each element has an identifier (id), which can link with the information uncovered by these elements with the core metadata in the form of a uri. for example, two cultural object type core elements are expanded from specific metadata of brassware according to the characteristics of brassware: “appliance shape” and “pattern and decoration.” two elements are expanded from local descriptions of cultural objects brassware: “casting traces” and “history of collection.” rules and best practices of metadata application they are to establish rules and best practices on cultural heritage resource metadata structure, definition rules, expansion rules, cataloguing rules, and interoperability rules, in order to maintain the structural consistency of cultural heritage metadata. these rules lay foundation for the effective organization of cultural heritage resources, interoperability among metadata, and comprehensive application and sharing of metadata. their basic model is mainly composed of two major parts: basic journal of library and information science （）： – （april, ） structure and basic rules of metadata and metadata application guidelines. conclusion the investigation on the application of digital humanities methods in the study on metadata standards for digital cultural heritage provides basic methods of creative fundamental theories and practicability for the in-depth development after cultural objects’ digitization. as the basis of knowledge organization of digital museum information resources, metadata can release resources and form network structure knowledge map systems with clear hierarchies in the form of linked data through integration and confirmation of various concepts and thematic relationships in the future. 【romanization of chinese references is offered in the paper.】 - - 數位人文的跨領域和基礎性研究_以文物數位化保護元數據標準規範為例 - . .indd contributors andrew abbott is gustavus f. and ann m. swift distinguished service professor at the university of chicago. much of his current research con- cerns libraries. he has a library research text in press. daniel alves is assistant professor at the history department, in facul- dade de ciências sociais e humanas, universidade nova de lisboa, and researcher in the instituto de história contemporânea. he has a special interest in the study of the lower middle classes between and , in urban history, and in historical gis. julia r. azari is assistant professor of political science at marquette uni- versity. her research interests include presidential rhetoric, institutional change in american politics, and the relationship between presidents and political parties. her work has appeared in perspectives on politics and presi- dential studies quarterly. she is author of delivering the people’s message: the changing politics of the presidential mandate (forthcoming) and coeditor of the presidential leadership dilemma: between the constitution and a political party ( ). richard harris teaches urban historical geography at mcmaster univer- sity. a fellow of the royal society of canada and a recipient of fulbright and guggenheim fellowships, he has published on the building industry, housing, housing policy, and suburban development in north america and the british colonies. his most recent book is building a market: the rise of the home improvement industry, – ( ). joseph mackay is a phd candidate in international relations at the univer- sity of toronto. his research interests include insurgency and counterinsur- gency, non- western historical international political systems, and the history of nonstate international violence. h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms social science history ana isabel queiroz is researcher in the institute for the study of tradi- tional literature, in the faculdade de ciências sociais e humanas, universi- dade nova de lisboa. her main research interests are ecocriticism, digital humanities, and environmental history. doi . / - h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms history department, university of guelph winter hist* : exploration of the digital humanities credit weight: . credit prerequisites: . credits restrictions: restricted to students in the b.a. honours program with a minimum % average in all history course attempts. instructor: kim martin office: mackinnon /thinc lab, nd floor, library hours: fridays : - : or w-f by appointment email: kmarti @uoguelph.ca class schedule and location: wednesdays/fridays, : - : pm mckn final exam: there is no final exam for this course. course synopsis this course will begin with an introduction to digital humanities as a practice, a toolset, and a community. we will focus on the role of digital methods in historical and cultural research: the tools you learn in class, as well as those you investigate as part of the assignments, will help you to ground a topic of your choice (be it a person, an event, a historical artifact, a piece of writing, a location, or a work of literature, a work of music, or visual or performance art) in its historical or social context. this will enhance your understanding of your chosen topic and show you how digital tools can help you to organize, investigate, and interpret sources using a different lens, develop an argument based on your findings, and to create a digital humanities project of your own. learning outcomes • increase digital literacy skills, and an awareness of a wide variety of digital tools for historical research • be able to comprehend and use language appropriate to digital humanities research • understand and be able to analyze the advantages of different methodologies of digital humanities inquiry • learn to collect, manage, and manipulate digital data from various sources • be able to formulate, direct, and complete a digital humanities project, and explain its significance to academic and lay audiences • have the ability to situate critically some of the larger debates within digital humanities and their relationship to traditional humanities disciplines methods of evaluation and weights please note, unless otherwise mentioned in class and posted in the revised course outline on slack, all assignments are due before class on wednesday. assessment weight participation % wikipedia assignment % blog posts % digital tool assessment % proposal/annotated bibliography % final assignment % total % details on assignments: participation ( %) • you are expected to be prepared with questions and observations from the readings every week • participate in discussions on the weekly readings • provide reflection on the digital tools introduced • contribute to online discussion outside of class (slack channel) *** further information on all assignments below will be handed out as the term progresses *** wikipedia assignment ( %) due: feb nd in class. • find several wikipedia articles on a historical topic of interest • critique the articles, and find one that you believe needs revision • create a wikipedia account (we’ll do this together in class) • revise the articles where needed, or create a new article if needed • write a word reflection on the process blog posts ( %) due date: write throughout the term, all in by march th • create a blog on a site of your choice (i’d recommend medium or wordpress) • during the semester write at least blog posts on topics relevant to class • blogs should be between and words • if you write more than posts, i will take your highest grades for the final mark digital tool assessment ( %) due date: throughout the term, due the week you present on your chosen tool. • sign up for a digital tool or tool type chosen from the syllabus below, or propose another tool but make sure to get this approved by instructor • prepare a short ( mins) presentation of the tool to the class. • the class will then have some time to experiment. be prepared to answer questions on the tool. • provide a detailed report ( words) outlining tool features, critical analysis, and potential tool uses. cite all the sources you use including any screenshots you include. proposal & annotated bibliography ( %) due date: friday, february th • proposal for topic of final assignment ( words) • annotated bibliography of at least sources • details will be provided in handout final assignment (digital project + showcase): % due date: friday, april th details to be provided policy on late assignments and extensions: assignments are due in class on the dates listed in this outline. late assignments will be penalized % per day ( hours), including weekend days. late assignments will not be accepted after days. extensions will only be considered if a student has written documentation from a doctor or counsellor. no extensions will be granted on the basis of workload. non- medical extensions must be approved at least three days before the assignment is due. course resources this class assumes access to a laptop computer (not a tablet) for the hands-on activities in and out of class. if you do not have access to a laptop, please consult the instructor after the first class. it is possible to borrow laptops from the library. an ongoing list of useful links and resources will be created in a shared slack channel. you are expected to join slack and to participate in the ongoing discussions. d l courselink will be used for marks and reminders about course work. required texts there are two required textbooks for this course: graham, s., i. milligan, and s. weingart. ( ) exploring big historical data: the historian’s macroscope. imperial press. = macroscope in reading list below dougherty, j., and k. nawrotzki (eds). ( ) writing history in the digital age. the university of michigan press. ann arbor. = writing history in reading list below. recommended texts gold, m.k., and l. klein. ( ) debates in the digital humanities . university of minnesota press. = debates in reading list. ***this text is available online at http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/ *** http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/ schedule & assigned work (provisional – updates to be posted in the slack channel) week/da te wednesday friday week jan / course expectations & outline overview cummings, a.s. and j.jarrett. only typing? informal writing, blogging, and the academy. writing history. background on dh tools: zotero, dirt directory kirschenbaum, m. ( ) what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in english departments? https://mkirschenbaum.files.wordpress.com/ / /ade-final.pdf fitzpatrick, k. ( ). the humanities, done digitally.. http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ spiro, l. ( ). “this is why we fight?”: defining the values of the digital humanities. in m. k. gold (ed.), debates in the digital humanities. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ gold, m.k. and l. klein (eds) debates introduction. http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/ week jan / background on digital history debates : chapter . robertson, s. ( ) the differences between digital humanities and digital history. nawrotzki, k, and j. dougherty. introduction. writing history dorn, s. is digital history more than an argument about the past? in writing history. googling the past tools: google ngrams solberg, j. ( ). googling the archive: digital tools and the practice of history. advances in the history of rhetoric, ( ), – . leary, p. ( ). googling the victorians. journal of victorian culture, ( ), – . fyfe, p. ( ). technologies of serendipity. victorian periodicals review, ( ), – . leary, p. ( ). response: search and serendipity. victorian periodicals review, ( ), – . https://mkirschenbaum.files.wordpress.com/ / /ade-final.pdf https://mkirschenbaum.files.wordpress.com/ / /ade-final.pdf http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/ week/da te wednesday friday week jan / history on the web (pt ) tool: htrc bookworm macroscope: chapter . “the joy of big data.” macrosope: chapter . “the dh moment.” rosenzweig, r. ( ). the road to xanadu : public and private pathways on the history web. in organization (vol. , pp. – ). history on the web (pt ) tool: wikipedia seligman, a. teaching wikipedia without apologies. in writing history. wolff, r. the historian’s craft, popular memory, and wikipedia. in writing history. rosenzweig, r. ( ). can history be open source? wikipedia and the future of the past. journal of american history, (june), – . week jan /feb nd text mining macroscope: chapter . “text mining tools.” d’ignazio, c. ( ). “what would feminist data visualization look like?” https://civic.mit.edu/feminist-data- visualization text analysis tool: voyant ramsay, s. ( ). the hermeneutics of screwing around; or what you do with a million books. in k. kee (ed.), pastplay: teaching and learning with technology. ann arbor: university of michigan press. *** wikipedia assignment due *** week feb / data visualization macroscope: chapter . “making your data legible.” *** guest lecture by datavis team from the mclaughlin library *** diversity in dh tools: tableau, timeline js debates : chapter . earhart, a. and taylor, t., “pedagogies of race” debates : chapter . hsu, w. ”lessons on public humanities from the public sphere” tim sherratt, “it’s all about the stuff: collections, interfaces, power and people,” december http://discontents.com.au/its- all-about-the-stuff-collections-interfaces- power-and-people/ https://civic.mit.edu/feminist-data-visualization https://civic.mit.edu/feminist-data-visualization http://discontents.com.au/its-all-about-the-stuff-collections-interfaces-power-and-people/ http://discontents.com.au/its-all-about-the-stuff-collections-interfaces-power-and-people/ http://discontents.com.au/its-all-about-the-stuff-collections-interfaces-power-and-people/ week/da te wednesday friday week feb / crowd-sourcing history graham, s. massie, g., and n. feuerherm. the heritagecrowd project: a case study in crowdsourcing public history. in writing history. rural diary archive. https://ruraldiaries.lib.uoguelph.ca/ manuscript transcription projects. https://folgerpedia.folger.edu/manu script_transcription_projects feminist dh tools: cwrc debates : chapter . losh, l. et al. “putting the human back into the digital humanities” nowviskie, b ( ). what do girls dig? http://nowviskie.org/ /what-do-girls-dig/ *** annotated bib & proposal due *** week feb / *** no class. reading week *** week feb th/ mar nd playing the past lapensée, elizabeth. ( ). video games encourage indigenous cultural expression. the conversation. never alone: the game. http://neveralonegame.com/ kee, k., graham, s., dunae, p., lutz, j., large, a., blondeau, m., & clare, m. ( ). towards a theory of good history through gaming. canadian historical review, ( ), – . tools: inklewriter, twine, aurasma compeau, t., and r. macdougall ( ) tecumseh lies here: goals and challenges for a pervasive history game in progress. in k. kee (ed.), pastplay: teaching and learning with technology. ann arbor: university of michigan press. zucconi, l., watrall, e., ueno, h., and rosner, l., pox and the city: challenges in writing a digital history game. in writing history. spring, d. ( ). gaming history: computer and video games as historical scholarship. rethinking history, ( ), – . https://ruraldiaries.lib.uoguelph.ca/ https://folgerpedia.folger.edu/manuscript_transcription_projects https://folgerpedia.folger.edu/manuscript_transcription_projects http://nowviskie.org/ /what-do-girls-dig/ https://theconversation.com/video-games-encourage-indigenous-cultural-expression- https://theconversation.com/video-games-encourage-indigenous-cultural-expression- https://theconversation.com/video-games-encourage-indigenous-cultural-expression- http://neveralonegame.com/ week/da te wednesday friday week mar / mapping the past jenstad, j. ( ) using early modern maps in literary studies: views and caveats from london. nowviskie, b. ( ) inventing the map in the digital humanities: a young lady’s primer. https://journals.tdl.org/paj/index.php /paj/article/view/ / tools: google earth, historypin harkema, c., and c. nygren ( ). historypin for library image collections. http://synergies.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/perj /article/view/ / #.v tjfzoaoko week mar / network analysis macroscope: chapter . “network analysis” jackson, c. ( ). using social network analysis to reveal unseen relationships in medieval scotland. digital scholarship in the humanities, ( ). tools: gephi, cytoscape alan liu. "friending the past: the sense of history and social computing." new literary history . ( ): - . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ week mar / publishing, archives and exhibits tools: omeka, scalar christen, k. ( ). does information really want to be free? indigenous knowledge systems and the question of openness. http://www.kimchristen.com/wp- content/uploads/ / /christen . .pdf mcpherson, t ( ) “post- archive: the humanities, the archive, and the database.” ed. david t. goldberg and patrik svensson. between humanities and the digital. mit press. manoff, m. ( ). archive and database as historical record. portal: libraries and the academy, ( ), – *** no classes – instructor away *** https://journals.tdl.org/paj/index.php/paj/article/view/ / https://journals.tdl.org/paj/index.php/paj/article/view/ / http://synergies.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/perj/article/view/ / #.v tjfzoaoko http://synergies.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/perj/article/view/ / #.v tjfzoaoko https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ http://www.kimchristen.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /christen . .pdf http://www.kimchristen.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /christen . .pdf http://www.kimchristen.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /christen . .pdf week/da te wednesday friday week mar / linked pasts tools: huviz, peripleo (kim will demo) brown, s. ( ). networking feminist literary history: recovering eliza meteyard’s web. in virtual victorians (pp. - ). palgrave macmillan us. the linked jazz project: https://linkedjazz.org/ *** blog posts due *** *** no classes. holiday friday *** week april / reflections readings tba. final class – showcase of digital projects in thinc lab. *** final assignments due *** standard college of arts statements for winter e-mail communication as per university regulations, all students are required to check their e-mail account regularly: e-mail is the official route of communication between the university and its students. when you cannot meet a course requirement when you find yourself unable to meet an in-course requirement because of illness or compassionate reasons, please advise the course instructor (or designated person, such as a teaching assistant) in writing, with your name, id#, and e-mail contact. see the undergraduate calendar for information on regulations and procedures for academic consideration. drop date courses that are one semester long must be dropped by the end of the fortieth day of class (friday, march ); two-semester courses must be dropped by the last day of the add https://linkedjazz.org/ http://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/current/c /c -ac.shtml http://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/current/c /c -ac.shtml period in the second semester. the regulations and procedures for dropping courses are available in the undergraduate calendar. copies of out-of-class assignments keep paper and/or other reliable back-up copies of all out-of-class assignments: you may be asked to resubmit work at any time. accessibility the university promotes the full participation of students who experience disabilities in their academic programs. to that end, the provision of academic accommodation is a shared responsibility between the university and the student. when accommodations are needed, the student is required to first register with student accessibility services (sas). documentation to substantiate the existence of a disability is required, however, interim accommodations may be possible while that process is underway. accommodations are available for both permanent and temporary disabilities. it should be noted that common illnesses such as a cold or the flu do not constitute a disability. use of the sas exam centre requires students to book their exams at least days in advance, and not later than the th class day. for more information see the sas web site. student rights and responsibilities each student at the university of guelph has rights which carry commensurate responsibilities that involve, broadly, being a civil and respectful member of the university community. the rights and responsibilities are detailed in the undergraduate calendar academic misconduct the university of guelph is committed to upholding the highest standards of academic integrity and it is the responsibility of all members of the university community – faculty, staff, and students – to be aware of what constitutes academic misconduct and to do as much as possible to prevent academic offences from occurring. university of guelph students have the responsibility of abiding by the university's policy on academic misconduct regardless of their location of study; faculty, staff and students have the responsibility of supporting an environment that discourages misconduct. students need to remain aware that instructors have access to and the right to use electronic and other means of detection. please note: whether or not a student intended to commit academic misconduct is not relevant for a finding of guilt. hurried or careless submission of assignments does not excuse students from responsibility for verifying the academic integrity of their work before submitting it. students who are in any doubt as to whether an action on their part could be construed as an academic offence should consult with a faculty member or faculty advisor. the academic misconduct policy is detailed in the undergraduate calendar. recording of materials presentations which are made in relation to course work—including lectures—cannot be recorded or copied without the permission of the presenter, whether the instructor, a classmate https://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/current/c /c -drop.shtml http://www.uoguelph.ca/sas https://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/ - /c /index.shtml https://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/ - /c /index.shtml http://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/current/c /c -amisconduct.shtml or guest lecturer. material recorded with permission is restricted to use for that course unless further permission is granted. resources the academic calendars are the source of information about the university of guelph’s procedures, policies and regulations, which apply to undergraduate, graduate and diploma programs. http://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/index.cfm?index mckn final exam: there is no final exam for this course. course synopsis methods of evaluation and weights course resources d l courselink will be used for marks and reminders about course work. required texts recommended texts the importance of place and openness in spatial humanities research porter, c. ( ). the importance of place and openness in spatial humanities research. international journal of humanities and arts computing, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . published in: international journal of humanities and arts computing document version: peer reviewed version queen's university belfast - research portal: link to publication record in queen's university belfast research portal publisher rights copyright edinburgh university press. this work is made available online in accordance with the publisher’s policies. please refer to any applicable terms of use of the publisher. general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the queen's university belfast research portal is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the research portal is queen's institutional repository that provides access to queen's research output. every effort has been made to ensure that content in the research portal does not infringe any person's rights, or applicable uk laws. if you discover content in the research portal that you believe breaches copyright or violates any law, please contact openaccess@qub.ac.uk. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/the-importance-of-place-and-openness-in-spatial-humanities-research(e f - b - f - b c-cf d ef ).html introduction: the importance of place and openness in spatial humanities research catherine porter abstract digital humanities (dh) is a dynamic and developing field. in recent years, its evolution has been witnessed foremost in the growth of funded dh projects and through the willingness of scholars from diverse backgrounds to not only work in dh research, but also as ‘digital humanists’. one crucial component to dh research is that of spatial enquiry, the expansion of which has rapidly evolved from a small component often found buried in research objectives, to the research aim of a growing number of projects. spatial humanities, while still a relatively new interdisciplinary field, is exhibiting continued advancement and focus from the academic community; however, working with digital data is rarely a straightforward pursuit, even for the most accomplished scholar. primarily access to appropriate and reliable (spatial) datasets, the keystone of spatial humanities research, the sharing and openness of spatial methods, tools and data (smtd), and education in the former, all remain a challenge. witnessing the continued rise of spatial humanities research, this special issue brings together a selection of articles delivered at spatial humanities , a conference held at lancaster university (uk). the aim of this multi-disciplinary conference was to explore and demonstrate the contribution to knowledge that spatial technologies in humanities research may enable within and beyond the digital humanities. here, this introductory text and associated articles present key research that embodies the growing relevance of the spatial humanities across a plethora of fields, and demonstrates several of the prevailing and enduring struggles when working in digital and spatial research. these articles emphasise that, despite common obstacles, spatial humanists make up an imaginative and thriving community keen to share innovation and knowledge and provide stimulating new insights through research. keywords: digital humanities, spatial humanities, smtd, methods, tools, data, gis . introduction this special issue is composed of articles delivered at the conference spatial humanities . the conference attracted close to one hundred delegates, each keen to share and discuss their research, and each advertising how fundamental the ‘spatial’ is to their work. delegates, varying from early career researchers through to senior members of the academy, were brought together in a friendly and relaxed atmosphere which was highly conducive to the success of the spatial humanities has led to the organisation of a second conference, spatial humanities . discussion and debate on all aspects of spatial research. session foci varied from ‘critical perspectives’, ‘gis and text’, ‘literary gis’ and ‘digital landscapes of the past’, to the ‘urban’, the ‘countryside’ and ‘ d applications’, but all with a common thread – to share and exhibit spatial humanities research to the wider community. the spatial humanities has made extensive progress in recent years, rapidly evolving from a small component often found buried in research objectives, to the research aim of a growing number of projects. nonetheless, we must not lose sight of the struggles and associated limitations when working in a digital environment, especially with historic sources, spatial datasets and tools, and associated education. the ambition of this introductory text is to highlight our progress and also to provide a brief reminder of the key difficulties, that we, as spatial humanists, frequently encounter, and make us pause to consider how we might engage with these obstacles and evolve solutions. . our shifting place as spatial humanists to better understand our interest in, and growing contribution to, spatial research, we must first refer to the role that space and place has played in our history. the past brims with examples of natural inquisitiveness in our surroundings and landscape, our sense, awareness and attachment to place, and our urgency to define territory by “marking and making place” (david and wilson, ). historically, we have had a compulsion to mark out our place in the world, and so, to understand the spatial was as inherent to our ancestor’s lives as it is to ours. evidence of the earliest forms of human spatial awareness are demonstrated through early chorography , the visualisation of which we have borrowed and developed over time through progressive spatially motivated application, writing and research. crucially, today, the analysis of space and place play a significant role in developing and broadening our understanding of history. the advent of computer technology in the twentieth-century saw the introduction of a new kind of spatiality - the digital. scientists could now ‘digitise’, analyse and visualise datasets using fresh approaches, but only those niche humanists with statistical or computer science backgrounds (and largely quantitative interests) were coaxed to get involved. gregory and geddes ( : ) describe the take-up of geographic information systems (gis) by geographers in the s as “controversial” with historical gis (hgis) not becoming a focus of research until the turn of the century. by , qualitative components of history and geography were readily being explored through digital technologies with “studies that developed the historiography by answering applied research questions” (gregory and geddes, : ). in pre-history, examples such as the pavlov map in the czech republic ( bc), the ancient polynesian maps of the pacific ocean and cave maps of the stars such as those in lascaux, france ( , bc – , bc). in the ancient and medieval world, we saw maps with religion at their core (in the form of t and o maps and mappa mundi) and ptolemy’s geographia. the early modern saw the knowledge of place coveted and used in conquest, strategy and power, and in the nineteenth-century a growing consideration of the importance of place and space was actively demonstrated through demographics as governments collected, collated, recorded and mapped key information on population. the last ten years have seen a marked expansion in the use of digital and spatial technologies in humanities research, largely due to the growing availability of, and accessibility to, giscience (and data visualisation software), and the development of geospatial datasets, each making the analysis of the spatial more achievable . thus, from a not too distant past, when advocates of the digital had the challenging task of persuading more ‘traditional’ methods-based academics to recognise the merits of spatial technologies, we now welcome to the fold (often self-trained), historians, geographers, literary scholars, linguists, anthropologists and archaeologists who use progressive digital and spatial mechanisms to focus and enhance their research . in a time, arguably described as a “crisis” for humanities research, (waltzer, ; jay, ; kirsch, ; berube and ruth, ), spatial humanities is a burgeoning field that still “promises to revitalise and redefine scholarship by (re-) introducing geographic space to the humanities” (bodenhamer et. al, : ). the field has yet to be formally defined, a difficult prospect considering that, as with all things digital, definitions shift and modify with each technological advancement . considerable change can also be noted in the growing number of scholars now working under the often-interchangeable titles of the digital and spatial humanities. these, often self-labelled, ‘digital humanists’, have diverse backgrounds and interests: it is no longer unusual to find a social historian with a postgraduate degree in computer science, an anthropologist who is an expert in spatial analysis, or an interdisciplinary project where these spatial humanists are working together towards a common goal . there is an undoubted allure to the spatial humanist tribe – it provides a well-formed, yet ever-evolving, diverse and open community in which to belong. it is a community that puts ‘space’ first, expediting choice and opportunity to work freely across disciplines with common goals, and hence, providing the spatially minded with an enhanced sense of place in the academy. . opportunities, challenges and solutions however key challenges remain. aside from the difficulties in securing funding and knowledgeable staff, designing and executing digital research can have numerous complications, none more so than the creation and application of spatial methods, tools and data (henceforth referred to as smtd). in recent years there has been a surge in new and innovative smtd, as more data and computer scientists pursue spatial analysis, but often information on these is presented on websites such as github - extremely useful to those according to lee and kang ( ), geospatial ‘big data’ is growing at a rate of % per annum. here, we also must consider how to tackle this increasing volume of data as illustrated by songnian et al. ( ). it should be noted that not all of these more ‘traditional’ scholars are open to digital methodologies and so there is still some way to go in terms of persuasion. see dunn ( ) for further discussion and examples of this. bodenhamer et al. (various) has made the most comprehensive definition. the authors of the articles in this special issue portray this diversity well. the times higher education (uk) published an overall figure of per cent success rate in grant proposals for / financial year. see: https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/uk-research-grant-success-rates- rise-first-time-five-years github can be used to access open source coding and tools for many forms of analysis. https://github.com/ there are also several studies referring to the quality of coding available on github – see dabbish et al. ( ) and kalliamvakou et al. ( ). https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/uk-research-grant-success-rates-rise-first-time-five-years https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/uk-research-grant-success-rates-rise-first-time-five-years https://github.com/ of us with programming and software development backgrounds, but not so favourable for those without - or is hidden behind publications with little explanation of how one might access or use them. the sourcing of reliable and trustworthy data is particularly important as the lack of available datasets for certain times and spaces complicates this fundamental ingredient of digital research. thankfully, and responsively, librarians and curators are playing a crucial role in combating this deficiency . many large libraries, museums and repositories are now digitising collections and making them available as a crucial resource for researchers. however this supply of robust data, in turn, introduces the danger of data availability shaping research. those of us keen to push the boundaries of our research areas and deliver unique insight into key historical and geographical thought must therefore create datasets, an often time-consuming and arduous process involving multiple stages. sometimes this involves using long-established methods in which many of us were originally trained: trawling through original source material extant in archives and libraries (much of which was not ‘born digital’), actively collecting data in the field, or for a fortunate few, the acquisition of existing (trusted) datasets. once data are sourced, digitisation is often required. this might comprise of transcription and scanning, but is often a manual, or at best, a semi- automated process. apart from the obvious costs involved in time and money, digitisation processes can also lead to levels of inaccuracy in the final datasets (for instance, optical character recognition (ocr) for textual data ) and therefore two-tier checking systems (think punch card dual-checking for main frames!) and post-correction are necessary to carefully assess the newly created datasets before they might be considered a trusted, ‘gold standard’ output (clematide et al., ) . for any research with a spatial focus, following the digitisation of data, a spatial component must be created. this involves firstly, finding and applying a method for extracting ‘place’ information from the collected data, and secondly, linking these data to the most crucial form of data in spatial research (and a common thread highlighted in the articles of this issue), gazetteers. however access to reliable and appropriate gazetteers remains problematic. not only are spatial humanists often working with varied languages and temporal and spatial extents, they must also contend with change over time in country and administrative boundaries, placename revision and standardisation of the same. some notable projects tackling this are the world-historical gazetteer project (whg), a vision of britain through time (and the related great britain historical gis (gbhgis)), the map of early modern london, and pelagios commons . each project, in its own way, promises to for example, the british library has undergone extensive digitisation programmes such as that of the newspaper collections and now employs expert digital librarians, archivists and curators. see king ( ) for an early discussion of this. they also have a focus on digital scholarship see: https://www.bl.uk/subjects/digital- scholarship see schiuma & carlucci, clematide et al. use crowdsourcing to post-correct ocr for a german and french heritage corpus. the world-historical gazetteer project is based at the university of pittsburgh http://whgazetteer.org/ ; a vision of britain through time is at the university of portsmouth http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/ ; the map of early modern london https://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/gazetteer_about.htm ; pelagios commons is funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation http://commons.pelagios.org/ http://whgazetteer.org/ http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/ https://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/gazetteer_about.htm http://commons.pelagios.org/ deliver opensource gazetteer-based resources to all. despite the on-going success of such projects and the openness that they encourage, many projects have a need for more bespoke datasets by necessity. unfortunately, this process, too, is littered with hurdles and without reliable and robust gazetteers employed we may not be able to commence our analysis or trust in our results. the creation of a new smtd for digital and spatial research is futile if we do not have the skills to analyse and interpret these digital data. a common thread that developed during spatial humanities was an admission by several attendees to their lack of formal education in the digital and their apprehension in presenting their work to those they perceived as qualified. there are key concerns for those with no explicit education in the ‘digital’ (or perhaps little contact the digital and/or spatial humanities communities). firstly, the danger of doing research the ‘long way’ when an arduous process (of say, transcription or digitisation) may be least semi-automated using an existing tool, or indeed, duplicating already existing and established smtd. secondly, there is a real concern in the visualisation process and (mis)interpretation of results: as any spatial humanist will tell you, mapping data can produce misleading outputs depending on how data are, intentionally or otherwise, collated and/or classified. lastly, and perhaps worst of all, some will not have the confidence to try at all! as spatial humanists, we have the responsibility to encourage the osmosis of our smtd across established scholarly boundaries and provide a bridge for others. equally importantly, we must as a community strive towards inclusion by continuing to work towards a platform for those at the beginning of their spatial research journey whether they be early career researchers or more established scholars. conferences such as spatial humanities and the adho digital humanities series of events are a beginning of this process. however, this form of sharing is insufficient in itself. there is also a considerable need to offer more accessible training for individuals who are keen to explore the spatial in their research. summer schools based at universities and colleges are key to this digital education . these courses and workshops (which are usually free to attend except for travel and accommodation although student bursaries are sometimes offered) are run by leaders in the field and provide an opportunity for first-hand engagement, practice and discussion. chiefly, they introduce researchers, of all levels, to the basics of spatial research and provide attendees with a starting point, a first opportunity to use and discuss their own data. however, while there are clear barriers to this form of education, for example geographical location and finance (which can be particularly difficult for early career researchers), a greater issue is that of personal anxiety and uncertainty about whether we can do ‘how to’ digital courses. one option that solves geographical and financial constraints is to offer more online training in the ever-popular mooc (massive open online courses) style courses that some universities, colleges and companies such as esri now successfully employ and provide more access to training websites such as the programming historian, such as the digital humanities summer institute at the university of victoria; the summer school in gis for the digital humanities at lancaster university; the university of oxford digital humanities at oxford summer school; sussex humanities lab; digital humanities@manchester’s dh week; and the summer a.w. mellon workshop in digital humanities at carnegie mellon university, to name a few. where opensource ‘how to’ tutorials can be followed . this can only be achieved by leaders in the field working together to offer this education. self-doubt and related anxieties might then be treated by self-paced learning and forums that offer direct assistance from course leaders and peers. regardless of educative delivery formats, the crux of the issues mentioned here is that of openness (graham, ). openness of smtd and associated education is key to the accessibility and transparency within the spatial humanities community and essential for future growth. although many funded projects now publish (or are required to publish) the smtd and associated code alongside the research, there is a genuine need for increased clarity so that we might each learn the processes involved and have the confidence and ability to apply these to our own research. refreshingly, some of the authors in this issue explicitly mention sharing as a core aspect to their research, serving to project the welcoming and receptive attitude of the spatial community and cement the importance of conferences such as the spatial humanities series in moving this positive attitude to openness forward. to do so lies at the heart of what it means to be a spatial humanist – sharing knowledge, educating, being open to new ideas, and carrying out innovative and successful interdisciplinary research toward common goals. . outline of articles in this special issue leading on from the previous short discussion, the chosen articles that make up this special issue touch on each of the previous points and epitomise the breadth and diversity of contemporary spatial humanities research. they embody the variation in research interests, with a temporal scale ranging from the early modern through to the twenty-first century and projects focusing on europe, the americas and beyond. some are building ‘deep maps’ (bodenhamer et al., ), historical gis (hgis) and other spatial tools, others are applying existing techniques and methods but pushing known boundaries. overall, the articles have three common goals: (i) to carry out robust historical research using what is frequently unstructured and undigitised historical source material; (ii) to use the spatial as a core component of enquiry and; (iii) to develop and/or use digital tools, methods and datasets to answer key research questions. within this, the articles fall into two central categories. the first are those that are actively developing and building historical geographic information systems (hgis) as a core component of their research. the second are those that are using methods of spatial enquiry to investigate textual data, be it historic, modern and/or literary in nature. notably, each article introduces new and impressive smtds and showcase the ability to place all kinds of resources into a workable framework for analysis, core to the character of spatial humanities research (terpstra & rose, ). beginning with the first category, hgis is still a growing methodology in historical and geographical research, although now frequently referred to under the dh umbrella. devos https://programminghistorian.org/ tutorials are created by a mix of archivists, librarians and academics. they vary in the level of difficulty. https://programminghistorian.org/ et al. present the innovative stream-project (ghent university and vrije universiteit brussel) which has developed a much awaited spatio-temporal infrastructure for early modern data, specifically, an early modern brabant and flanders historical geographic information system (hgis). the creation of the system and vast dataset serves to highlight the earlier discussion on access to historic datasets for research, something which this project tackles with strength, not least because of the varied datasets it includes: the stream model contains local level data on early modern society including territory, transport, demography, agriculture, industry and trade, data which the team has valiantly sourced and in some cases digitised as part of the on-going project. the project therefore promises not only a new hgis of early modern data but methodological innovation that will assist with the longevity of stream and will extend interest beyond the project’s spatial and temporal context. schindling and harris (west virginia) continue the issue’s focus on methodology and hgis but move towards the integration of textual sources that link source materials related to people, places and events. in common with other papers here, there is a very real focus on the use of historical source material, but the ingenuity and uniqueness lies in the method and the developing technology which includes a mobile application for collecting and adding data in the field and the ability to query and edit the dataset concurrently and in real time, a model that will no doubt be profoundly useful to many archival researchers. stangl (university of graz, austria) transports us to latin america at the end of the colonial period (eighteenth and early nineteenth century) with a historical and web gis. here, the author uses historical data to reconstruct colonial rule as seen through populated places, and various entities such as political and ecclesiastical divisions, territories and administrative boundaries. the need for such a system again reflects common complications mentioned by other papers in this issue, and more generally, the availability of comprehensive historical datasets for research. wisely, the author uses a grading system for the source material, prioritising primary information gathered from the period under research rather than source material reflecting on the time under study. taylor et al. (lancaster university) herald the second theme in this special issue, textual analysis. they tackle the methods of ‘reading’ text through the analysis of a textual corpora containing eighty key pieces of literature related to the english lake district (dating from the seventeenth through to early twentieth century). uniquely, this textual exploration focuses on historical soundscape and in doing so provides a detailed explanation of how the more traditional and computationally driven methods of textual analysis might be combined in the form of geographical text analysis (gta). the method clearly describes the complex weave of processes and techniques necessary to digitise literary text effectively and how we can analyse these data through corpus linguistics. the article highlights the difficulties in geoparsing datasets and points to the lack of complete historical gazetteers. notably, the spatial analysis component of the article combines textual data with various forms of statistical analysis and quantitative datasets (such as digital terrain models), and final visualisation of the data in cartographic form, shows how the techniques devised by this team provide a new voice for not only soundscape studies but also the digital and spatial humanities. the authors clearly highlight the importance of incorporating close reading with what are largely automated, digital and distant reading procedures: to ‘read’ a text effectively the researcher must do so at varying distances and scales. staying with the trend of mapping place in literature, lopez-sandez (university of santiago de compostela) writes of another interdisciplinary project made up of literary scholars, geographers and cartographers who have created databases from two sets of written corpora; one historic and one modern, to compare historic perception of place in compostela with the twenty- first century city experience. the author justifies the use of manual reading, transcription and extraction of placenames in the text speaking to the nuance that they believe more difficult to achieve through automated processes. this differs from the combined methods in the paper by taylor et. al but also highlights that one method is not always applicable to every project. the author does, however, highlight that to go further (say, analysing emotion in the corpora) they must employ automated processes such as collocation using existing software packages. lopez-sandez points to differences between the social use of space as recorded in the historic corpora and the modern student texts. for example, the lack of interest current students of the university has in pilgrimage, religion and the camino and the differing global imaginary in both the historic and modern corpora. the final article shows that through spatial technologies we can now investigate historic texts on a scale not previously possible. porter et al. (queen’s university belfast, the university of liverpool and lancaster university) apply geographical text analysis (gta) to investigate space and time across millions of words extracted from one british nineteenth-century newspaper. in this method-based paper, the authors push the known boundaries of gta to test the techniques and shed light on how a newspaper discussed health in the population of britain. the methods are key to this paper in that they show strong promise for porting to other topics and literary genres as well as illustrating the sheer size of texts that can now be analysed using semi-automated processes. the articles show the intrinsic breadth and interdisciplinarity of the spatial humanities. here, we have geographers, historians, linguists, literary historians, archaeologists and computer scientists working together towards a common goal and in doing so expose the determination of the contributors to conceive of and apply solutions to key obstacles inherent in digital research. . conclusions this corpus of spatially focused articles reaffirms that spatial humanities research is a flourishing field with the interdisciplinary and collaborative research at its core. each article showcases our continued fascination with place and space and through innovative sdtm heralds a promising future for spatial research. equally, we are witness to the ongoing complexity of spatial research. through this issue are introduced several new and complex smtds, each built with a specific purpose in mind, but with the prospect of making substantial contributions to not only the author’s research fields but to the broader spatial community. the articles also highlight that working in the realm of the spatial humanities is not a solely digital pursuit. scholars must be multi-talented and interdisciplinary in their approach to research. they should not only be willing (and able) to search archives, understand census returns, grasp translation and grapple with transcription, but also have the necessary digital skills to record and manipulate this information (or the inclination to learn), so it might make a meaningful contribution to knowledge. as we move forward, in reading the articles we should consider three key elements to spatial humanities research: (i) how the encouragement of openness, sharing and accessibility of smtds would benefit the spatial humanities community,; (ii) acknowledge that more accessible and tailored education is needed to enable new and existing scholars to further their spatial research and actively contribute to knowledge and; (iii) how can you, as an individual or as part of a larger team, help facilitate this? ultimately, these articles are symbols of the continued success of digital and spatial research to ask and answer key questions that add to narratives of time and space. the variation in research interest and background, the tenacity and the innovation of spatial humanists today, is clear and continues to progress. references • berube, m. & ruth, j. 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(ed) debates in the digital humanities. minneapolis: university of minnesota press. https://newrepublic.com/article/ /limits-digital-humanities-adam-kirsch https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ / /supp/c oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne a new wave of prosopography: an application to tide prediction machines helen mair rawsthorne master’s student, supervised by sylvain laubé françois viète centre of epistemology and the history of science and technology university of western brittany, france doodson-légé tide prediction machine, built in london in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at noc, liverpool, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . tidal prediction oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne coastal dwelling fishing marine navigation operating portsoperating docks operating harbours coastal surveyingcoastal zone engineering beachgoing watersports houseboat livingcommercial shipping naval operations building flood defences biology ecology tidal power weather forecasting oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne tidal theory, analysis and prediction ● bce: indian and arabic civilisations recognising link between moon and tides ● middle ages: rule-of-thumb methods linked to phases of moon ● tidal theories: copernicus, bacon, galilei, kepler, descartes, newton, laplace ● tidal analysis and prediction: lubbock, young, airy, thomson, ferrel, darwin, proudman, doodson oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne the development of tide prediction machines ● mid- th century: commercial shipping lines calling for improved prediction service ● calculations by hand no longer sufficient ● baas funded development of a machine to calculate tidal predictions ● first tpm designed by william thomson, constructed in by a. légé & co. in london british tide predictor no. , built in london in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at science museum, london, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne what are tide prediction machines? ● analogue computers used for calculating tidal predictions ● outputs: times and heights of high and low tide ● based on tidal theory and tidal equation ● total of ever built ● used across the world ● always operated on land ● superseded by digital computers doodson-légé tide prediction machine, built in london in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at noc, liverpool, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=li zhg_e vc oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne significance of tide prediction machines ● required development of scientific theory and of technology ● crucial to advancement of marine transport: commercial and military ● used for wwii normandy landing operations ● important for building modern ports and effective flood defences bidston-kelvin tide prediction machine, built in glasgow in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at shom, brest, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . prosopography and digital humanities oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne what is prosopography? ● research approach usually used by historians to study the lives of groups of people ● involves creating collective biography or gathering data about common aspects of lives of individuals within group ● data can be compared, synthesised and analysed define group of people to be studied construct hypotheses and questions about group translate hypotheses and questions into questionnaire use authoritative sources to answer questionnaire for every member of group create database of answers analyse data in database to answer initial questions oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne what is digital humanities? ● interdisciplinary area of study between humanities and digital technology ● dh digital technologies come in form of tools, applications and software (purpose-built for dh or not) digital technologies the humanities to ask questions about and to create new knowledge in to ask questions of and reflect upon oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne tide prediction machines, prosopography and digital humanities: how do they fit together? ● want to study “lives” of tide prediction machines as a collection of artefacts ● going to adapt prosopography for study of artefacts ● going to make use of digital humanities tools for data analysis oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne adaptation of prosopography ● analogy between life of a person and existence of an artefact ● each has a unique story to tell and is impacted by events and relations ● can prosopography be successfully applied to study the “lives” of groups of artefacts? define group of artefacts to be studied construct hypotheses and questions about group translate hypotheses and questions into questionnaire use authoritative sources to answer questionnaire for every member of group create database of answers analyse data in database to answer initial questions graph showing variation of number of initial components built in tide prediction machines over time. made by h. m. rawsthorne using numbers. map showing links between manufacture location (purple) and operation location (red) of tide prediction machines. made by h. m. rawsthorne using palladio. year manufacture began year decommissioned timespan showing dates of manufacture (bottom) and dates of decommissioning (top) of tide prediction machines worldwide. line gradient represents length of lifetime. made by h. m. rawsthorne using palladio. timeline showing number of tide prediction machines that were finished being built each year worldwide. made by h. m. rawsthorne using palladio. year manufacture ended n um ber of m achines chart showing current state of all tide prediction machines ever built. made by h. m. rawsthorne using numbers. timeline showing life events of all tide prediction machines manufactured in great britain. made by h. m. rawsthorne using time.graphics. oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne results and evaluation ● successful ● larger group needed ● need to test with different type of artefact ● digital humanities tools essential ● analysis of life-cycle ● how machine build changed over time ● how foreign relations impacted exportation of machines ● science and technology: motivated by human need, shaped by the sea tide prediction machines artefact prosopography oceanext, la mer xxl, nantes, - july helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne bibliography cartwright, david. tides. cambridge: cambridge university press, . k. verboven, m. carlier & j. dumolyn. a short manual to the art of prosopography, in: k. keats-rohan (ed.), prosopography approaches and applications. a handbook. oxford: unit for prosopographical research (linacre college), , p. - . woodworth, phillip. an inventory of tide prediction machines. southampton: national oceanography centre, . on scholarly communication and the digital humanities: an interview with kathleen fitzpatrick – in the library with the lead pipe skip to main content chat .webcam open menu home about awards & good words contact editorial board denisse solis ian beilin jaena rae cabrera kellee warren nicole cooke ryan randall emeritus announcements authors archives conduct submission guidelines lead pipe publication process style guide search home about awards & good words contact editorial board denisse solis ian beilin jaena rae cabrera kellee warren nicole cooke ryan randall emeritus announcements authors archives conduct submission guidelines lead pipe publication process style guide search jan andrew lopez, fred rowland and kathleen fitzpatrick / comments on scholarly communication and the digital humanities: an interview with kathleen fitzpatrick photo of a class in radio technology at radcliffe college . retrieved from wikimedia commons. in brief: at temple university libraries (tul), librarian fred rowland began conducting interviews and sharing them as streaming audio through tul’s website in . the following interview transcript with digital humanities scholar kathleen fitzpatrick offers insight into her work and a discussion about the future of scholarly communication. an introduction has been added to the interview, which addresses both the transcription process and the implications of using digital media to make more scholarship available to a wider audience beyond academia. by andrew lopez, fred rowland, and kathleen fitzpatrick introduction in , librarian fred rowland started recording and sharing his own interviews with students, scholars, and practitioners on the temple university libraries website. the interviews are noteworthy not just for the reasons any interview would be, but because they capture some of the creative intellectual energy that circulates through an academic institution on a regular basis. they are furthermore conducted by a librarian, which is not typical. to give a sense of what the interviews accomplish, consider rowland’s discussion with the editors of the journal n+ . when the editors visited temple university to talk about their experience starting a print journal in the midst of the online transformation of the early s, rowland made arrangements to sit down and talk with them on record about their work. his n+ interview offers unique insight into the formation of a significant publication at a particular historical moment. it also serves as a record of what transpired on the occasion of their visit. indeed, something similar would need to be said for each of the many interviews rowland has conducted over the course of the last eight years; a growing body of work that merits further consideration. in , rowland’s interviews continue to offer high quality, original content from the front lines of research and publishing. from the perspective of a fellow librarian, his interviews can be seen as an example of professional and scholarly engagement. he asks smart questions of a diverse cohort of academics whom we might not otherwise encounter. my interest in his work, and the desire to transcribe it, developed alongside the expansion of his outreach. gradually, my interest took the form of a concern, first about the findability of the interviews via keyword searching online, and later about their longevity as potentially valuable primary documents. how is anyone going to find these interviews? and how long are the audio files going to last? in my opinion, such rich dialogue should be transcribed and published in order to increase access to it, in order to make it easier to cite should anyone wish to reference its contents, and in order to preserve it as part of the historical record. though it is tempting to see the transcribed interview as simply another way of accessing the same content, it is important to draw a distinction between the audio recording and the transcription. the meaning of the original interview slips and slides at each stage of editing and through the transformation from one medium to the next. kathleen fitzpatrick’s participation in the interview transcribed and published below is an example of the engagement she encourages scholars to make outside the peer-review process. she is concerned that the current grip of peer-review on tenure, promotion, and recognition prevents humanities scholars from taking advantage of the innovative and creative possibilities of new technologies. by participating in informal interviews such as the one that follows, scholars would likely lose some control over their message as it passes from one form and audience to another (although fitzpatrick’s participation as a reviewer in this publication helps ameliorate that effect here). as she explains during her conversation with rowland, scholars get a little nervous when moving outside traditional venues for just this reason. reliance on the monograph has always offered humanities scholars the illusion of control as their work is likely to reach but a small coterie of like-minded academics and enthusiasts who share a similar background and orientation. digital media and the internet have the potential to expand the audience of scholarly work beyond the confines of the academy, if only scholars are willing to work towards such developments. this is both an exciting and unsettling prospect. in order to breathe new life into the humanities and reach wider audiences, scholars will need to learn to negotiate these uncertain and ambiguous encounters. given the longstanding relationships between librarians and scholars, the academic library becomes an important pivot-point in this process of engagement between the world of scholarship and wider communities of interest. librarians have a long history of building personal and professional relationships that encourage conversations across communities, and the academic library is increasingly becoming a hub of publishing support and expertise. as they make the work of scholarship available to wider audiences, academic libraries can play an essential role in loosening the grip of traditional peer-review on the career choices of scholars. around the turn of the century, with two decades of experience in the book trade, and a privileged perspective on the rise of the internet, rowland began working as a librarian in classics, philosophy, religion, and economics. his interviews take place in his small, modest office, decorated with books, family photos, a few buddhas, and a bust of shakespeare. though it is understood that recordings of the interviews will be posted to his blog on the temple university libraries website, it is important to recognize there is no audience at the time of recording, making each interview a rather intimate scholarly conversation between author and librarian. the two participants respond to physical and verbal queues in order to develop a sense of shared meaning. the author provides greater or lesser details and explanations depending on her intuitions and assumptions of the librarian’s knowledge and understanding. in relative terms, this is an impromptu encounter for a scholar, more dance than lecture. once the interview is over, the editing begins, as rowland prepares the conversation for an audience. a preliminary effort is made to remove verbal prompts, hiccups, and pauses. unnecessary signals of agreement or understanding are truncated and digressions deleted. though rowland does not go out of his way to shorten his interviews, the audience’s brief attention span must be considered. once the edited recording is posted online, the encounter has already been stripped of some of its context, and, short of some kind of pre-publication agreement, the scholar’s message is increasingly dependent upon the kindness of strangers. the audio introduction rowland provides before the interview is an additional opportunity to layer in a meaning over which the author has no control. the text of the blog post adds yet another layer. the move between forms of media – from audio recording to transcript – is one more step, and arguably the longest, away from the original encounter. as with the audio editing, accuracy in transcription involves finding some further balance between recording every utterance in all of its detail and stripping out the more detailed idiosyncrasies of speech that may be considered irrelevant. as more of the context is stripped out in transcription, however, what remains of the conversation that took place in rowland’s office? as fitzpatrick goes to read the following transcript, one can imagine her thinking at various points that she should have finished this thought, or rephrased that question, or taken the time to explain some important background information. scholars, who pride themselves on accuracy, precision, and message control, and whose careers are so dependent on reception by peers, might be anxious and reluctant to enter a wider cultural orbit. the intervention that kathleen fitzpatrick advocates is actually much greater than engaging in a few interviews. she and her colleagues are working to influence the scholarly publishing environment in ways that make alternate venues such as blogs and podcasts more respectable as a means of scholarly recognition. in this interview she discusses her experiences with the communities that form around blogs and her experiments in peer-to-peer review. not only do these forms make scholarly work available to the wider public and encourage its response, but they do something more novel in terms of scholarship. they show the scholar’s work in process, as fragments, that precede the finished product in the form of a book or journal article. instead of the monograph springing fully formed from the mind of the scholar, we begin to see the building blocks, like a painter in her studio. if this ethos in scholarship takes hold, we will see an increasing emphasis on the processes – the conversations, the blind alleys, the preliminary judgments and analyses – that are currently obscured from view. the scholars who have agreed to interviews with rowland over the past eight years should be congratulated on their willingness to open up their scholarship to the public. it is one very small but important step in transforming the relationship between the academy and the wider world. kathleen fitzpatrick has been particularly gracious and generous through this whole process, a fine example of the engagement she advocates for her peers in academia. the following interview between rowland and fitzpatrick took place on march , , at temple university, before fitzpatrick gave a lecture at the center for the humanities entitled “the humanities in and for the digital age.” it provides an introduction to her work, her two books the anxiety of obsolescence: the american novel in the age of television and planned obsolescence: publishing, technology, and the future of the academy, as well as a discussion about the meaning of the digital humanities, the crisis in publishing, the history of peer review, and what’s in store for the future of scholarly communication. in discussing these topics, rowland and fitzpatrick address an array of philosophical questions pertaining to the internet’s effect on the human brain, the status of attention, what counts as knowledge, our notions of the author and the text, and the history of reading. rowland’s references to recent books, such as nicholas carr’s the shallows: what the internet is doing to our brains and robert darnton’s the case for books: past, present, and future, add substantially to the conversation. interview audio of interview fred rowland (fr): kathleen fitzpatrick is the director of scholarly communication at the modern language association and a visiting faculty member in the english department at new york university. her graduate work was concentrated in contemporary american fiction and media studies, resulting in her first book, the anxiety of obsolescence: the american novel in the age of television, which analyzed the anxiety and vested interests surrounding the purported demise of literature. she began a blog shortly after completing anxiety of obsolescence called planned obsolescence, because she was, as she writes in the introduction, “left with the detritus of many smaller ideas that demanded a kind of immediacy, and yet seemed destined to fade into nothingness” (planned ). at the invitation of scholars at the institute for the future of the book, she participated in the founding of the online collaborative called mediacommons, which, in the words of its website, is a community network for scholars, students, and practitioners in media studies promoting the exploration of new forms of publishing. her work on her blog and mediacommons led to her second book, planned obsolescence: publishing, technology, and the future of the academy, a fascinating and incisive look at the future of publishing and scholarship in the academy. kathleen fitzpatrick gave a lecture at the center for the humanities at temple on march , , entitled “the humanities in and for the digital age.” before her talk she kindly stopped by my office to discuss her work in scholarly communication and the digital humanities. i am fred rowland. [ : ] fr: kathleen fitzpatrick, thank you very much for speaking with me. kathleen fitzpatrick (kf): well thank you for having me. fr: i was wondering if you would just talk a little bit about your first book, the anxiety of obsolescence: the american novel in the age of television. what is it about, and what were you trying to accomplish? [ : ] kf: well i had been hearing for years, as long as i could remember, that the novel was a form under threat, that the novel was this dying form that no one was paying any attention to anymore. and that new forms like television or film or what have you were taking over the cultural brain space. and so what i was interested in was less trying to figure out whether that was true or not. i sort of began from the presupposition that it was not actually true, because there are more novels published every year than there ever have been in history. instead, i was trying to figure out why we claim that the novel is a dying form and what purposes those claims serve. and what i found the longer i looked into the question was that the claim of the novel’s obsolescence serves to protect it in a certain way from the onslaught of these new forms. it sort of creates what i like to refer to as a cultural wildlife preserve. [ : ] fr: yes, what do you mean by that exactly? kf: it’s a protected space within which we can understand that this threatened form deserves some kind of special treatment. it needs to be protected in order to preserve the heritage of our culture as it has been practiced for centuries. as you can hear in that kind of rhetoric, this notion of cultural heritage and preservation, often what we’re talking about is a fairly conservative impulse. to protect the old from the encroachment of the new. so what i was really interested in in this volume is attempting to think about what that new was. and what kinds of dangers the novel felt like it was being threatened by. [ : ] fr: and the authors, who are the authors you were dealing with? kf: in that book i am primarily dealing with thomas pynchon and don delillo. but a host of associated authors, who are working in that same postmodern vein, are also thinking about the ways the cultural landscape in the united states is changing in the period of television’s onset. fr: you give one example, and this was a fairly well known example, because it broke into the public space, about a certain conflict that developed on oprah. i remember that, but i wasn’t really paying attention at the time. how does that feed into your book and your argument about these tensions? kf: this moment of conflict that you’re talking about is of course the kerfuffle between jonathan franzen and oprah winfrey (fitzpatrick, anxiety - ). when oprah had extended an invitation to franzen to appear as part of her book club, she had adopted the corrections as one of the book club’s books. and franzen said something pretty unfortunate in an interview not really expecting it to get around in the way that it did. and it seemed to indicate that oprah’s audience was not the kind of audience he was hoping that the corrections would reach, and that he was kind of uncomfortable having the oprah seal of approval on the cover of his book. and oprah’s response was to disinvite him and to end that period of the book club’s conversation with the corrections. there was this tremendous brouhaha that came up around this. everybody felt like they had to take sides. either franzen was absolutely right, and we were seeing the encroaching commercialization of literature… fr: the downfall of literature… [ : ] kf: absolutely, and the ways that corporate media was really encroaching on the space of free expression. or, there were the folks who were defending oprah by noting that franzen’s approach to understanding literature was a fairly elitist one and that his description of oprah’s audience was dismissive at best. fr: especially since she did get a lot of people to read good books. [ : ] kf: exactly. so i don’t entirely take a side in that debate, although i am clearly in the course of the book more interested in the kinds of opening up of the audience that television is able to perform in the ways that oprah is able to bring people to the book who wouldn’t have been there otherwise. but i think it’s a really emblematic moment of exactly this conflict between television and the literary. [ : ] fr: this got me wondering about a book i read recently called the shallows: what the internet is doing to our brains. it’s a fairly good book, which i really enjoyed, and it was recommended to me by someone else here on campus. the author describes how he was able to get away from his iphone and his facebook and his various electronic accounts. he moved with his family to a very pristine environment in colorado to write this book about the internet. he presents a lot of scientific information about how the internet is rewiring our brains. and it is very interesting. but when i read something like this i also think to myself of my mother telling me as a young boy “don’t sit too close to the television because it will ruin your eyes,” or because it will do this or that to you. and so i wanted your opinion, you know i also think about when the web first became widely available there were just real millennial expositions on how the internet and the web were going to transform everything. they were going to make democracy break out all over the world, they were going to destabilize all of the powerful forces. so it seems like you’ve got, on the one hand, the utopian dreaming, and now there’s sort of a dystopian feeling creeping in here. although there’s some true stuff to what he writes. [ : ] kf: it is undoubtedly true that the internet, that our iphones, that all of the different forms of technology that we’re surrounded by change the ways that we interact with the world. it is unquestioned. but the degree of that change, and whether it’s actually rewiring our brains, i think, is really under question. there are other folks who are writing about this same kind of question. i think of cathy davidson, for instance, who recently moved from duke university to cuny. she suggests that the mode of the internet’s distribution of attention – rather than having the sort of deep focus that long form print has long had, the ability to think in nonlinear, connected, more distributed ways – is highlighting different kinds of skills that students and workers today really need to develop in order to cope with multiple information streams at multiple times. so all of this suggests that, yes, the internet is producing different modes of learning and different modes of thinking, but that’s not necessarily a bad thing. my sense is that, as you say, these kinds of anxieties about what the internet is doing to us are very, very familiar. they’re very much the same as the concerns about what television was doing to us. television was turning us all into couch potatoes, television was disconnecting us from one another, etc. all of those kinds of things. and yet, none of that seems to really have borne out. the american public hasn’t entirely dissociated itself from reality, it hasn’t become any lazier than it used to be. [ : ] fr: this was particularly a strong feeling for me, because my father actually locked the tv away in the closet during the school week when i was growing up. he would bring out the tv, we would be waiting for him to get home on friday evening so he could unlock the tv…[laughter] kf: literally unlock the tv, that’s great… fr: it’s very interesting now with my own kids and their devices that just seem, no matter what you try to do, they seem to proliferate, because there’s always at least one or two really good reasons why you should have these things. [ : ] kf: i got asked a question not too long ago that i thought was really important in this regard about teaching in the age of all of these divergent information streams constantly coming in. i was asked you know in this kind of environment, how do you command student attention? and all i could think was that attention really is not something to be commanded. fr: yes, you’ve never been able to command attention… [ : ] kf: exactly, it’s something to be channelled. what we’re learning from the internet is the increasing ability to channel attention in multiple ways in different forms at different times. fr: yes, so in your book, in both of your books, you treat both anxiety and obsolescence. but they are in relatively different contexts. in the first book, you describe it as literary criticism. by the time you get to your second book it’s clearly something else. you’re talking about scholarly communication, the digital humanities. how did you get from the first book to the second book? i know that you had a blog called planned obsolescence. could you talk about this transformation? [ : ] kf: sure. the anxiety of obsolescence, the first book, was published in , but i finished writing the book more or less as we know it now in june . at that point, i thought ridiculously optimistically it was going to be about a year and a half before the book would be read by anybody. and i had all of these ideas that were left over and stirring about from having finished the book. so i thought i am going to start one of these blog things that i’ve been hearing about. and i’m going to put some of these ideas out there and see if i can get conversations going. and very quickly, at least by academic terms, i really did get those conversations going. i developed an audience, i found other academic bloggers, there was a real community that developed around these blogs. and it became a real source of energy and engagement, and the development of really fun work. [ : ] at the same time all of that’s going on, i’m trying to get this book published. and i had had interest in the manuscript a few years before from some academic presses that i really was excited about the possibility of working with. they had told me as soon as you’re done with the manuscript, send it on to us and we’ll take a look. and when i did in june when i finished up the manuscript, all of those presses that had previously been interested came back and said we still love this project, and we’d love to publish it, but we just can’t afford to right now. fr: it was right after the internet bubble collapsed. [ : ] kf: exactly. and i started discovering that it wasn’t just those presses. they weren’t unusual in the university press landscape at that point. everybody was in this same kind of circumstance in which they were having to scale back the numbers of titles that they were publishing, they were having to think of things other than sheer quality in order to make publication decisions. and this put a great difficulty in the path of authors of first books, authors who did not already have track records with university presses. so instead of taking a year and a half for people to get their hands on this book, it ended up taking four years. [ : ] it was in the process of attempting to get that book published, while keeping this blog, that i started thinking about what scholarly communication was becoming, what it could be if it were all online in the form of a blog, and why we still need the book and what the book might become as we go forward. so i started at first writing on my blog about it, then writing some extended articles, and then the next thing you knew i woke up one day and realised that everything i had been doing was developing into the book, planned obsolescence. [ : ] fr: so i guess did this surprise you, the path of your career? kf: [laughter] it did. it was not an expected path. looking back on it, it makes perfect sense. fr: right, you were dealing with those issues in anxiety of obsolescence. were you at any point concerned for your career, because you were going from a recognized academic field, literature, into something that is interesting, it’s exciting, it’s developing, but as far as tenure decisions, that kind of thing? [ : ] kf: sure, i had always been a little bit fringey even within literary criticism. i was working on contemporary fiction, which was very popular with the students, i’ll put it that way, but it had less purchase within english departments per se. even more, i was working on this media studies stuff. i mean, what did television have to do with english departments? fr: and then, you studied television in terms of literature in your first book, but were you studying television outside that, in more general terms? kf: television as television? my position at pomona college was joint between english and media studies, and so i was teaching classes that were focused on television in american culture and focused much more directly on the media per se. [ : ] fr: i spoke with somebody who studies film here [at temple university]. since my children watch tv, and i try to limit it, but they certainly do watch it. what i found with my son watching tv was that he would really engage with some of these shows and he really enjoyed some of these shows. and i asked her [this person at temple university], my question to her was, is there something going on when you watch tv that’s more than just passive absorbing of information, because what i saw and what it seemed like i was seeing was a real engagement with the content that was not wholly pernicious. [ : ] kf: absolutely! fr: and so the same questions are going on with the internet with people spending time and absorbing things from the internet. the questions do seem to be very similar in many respects. kf: absolutely, going back to this whole couch potato idea. we have this idea that the process of watching television is a wholly passive one. we lie back and the story comes at you. but it’s never been that passive. because it’s always been about sharing television with someone. talking with your family, talking with your friends; kids reenacting television shows on the playground. there’s always been this kind of activity around it. so i think that similarly we think of the internet as being populated by bloggers in their pajamas in the basement. and in fact there’s real substantive intellectual and communal engagement that takes place in all of these networked spaces. [ : ] fr: how would you define the digital humanities? kf: for me it has to do with the work that gets done at the crossroads of digital media and traditional humanistic study. and that happens in two different ways. on the one hand, it’s bringing the tools and techniques of digital media to bear on traditional humanistic questions. but it’s also bringing humanistic modes of inquiry to bear on digital media. it’s a sort of moving back and forth across those lines, thinking about what computing is, how it functions in our culture, and then using those computing technologies to think about the more traditional aspects of culture. [ : ] fr: okay, good. your first chapter in planned obsolescence is about peer review. when it comes to scholarly communication, peer review is what holds everything together, or prevents real changes in the system. could you give us a little background on how peer review developed? kf: sure. you’re absolutely right that peer review is the lynchpin in all of this. when we were in the process of beginning to found new digital scholarly communication networks online, the first question everybody asked is what are you going to do about peer review? peer review has a couple of different histories that get told. one of which, the most common that you’ll hear, is that at a certain point in its past the royal society of london, which had developed the first recognizable academic journal, philosophical transactions, made the decision that it was going to send everything that was being considered for publication in philosophical transactions out to be reviewed by at least two members of the academy prior to its inclusion. and this is sort of the moment that gets described as being the onset of peer review. [ : ] there is another history that mario biagioli unfolds in his study of peer review, which is to say that peer review doesn’t actually begin with the royal society of london or with journal publications, that there is an earlier form that takes place around the printing of books in the first place. and that in england in particular in order to receive royal permission to print books the printer of those books had to take responsibility for the content in them. and so the crown passed to the printer this royal imprimatur, this royal approval to print this kind of material under the assumption that the printer would not allow anything that was libelous or heretical to pass through its processes. and so the first form of peer review, biagioli argues, was in fact a mode of censorship. that controlled the material that was being produced so that it wouldn’t anger the crown. [ : ] but what happens is that when the royal society gets founded, that imprimatur passes to the society and the society agrees that nothing that it publishes will have any endangering aspects to the crown. and so one of the forms that this form of censorship morphs into is peer review, instead of the sort of external censoring official governmental control over what’s being produced; instead it’s sort of internal self-policing. and so biagioli comes to suggest that peer review is a profoundly foucauldian mode of creating discipline. and literally discipline as we understand it in that michel foucault sense, but also discipline in the sense of the academic structuring of knowledge. knowledge comes to be regulated through the form of peer review. and in this way it comes to seem that peer review is not just about filtering potential material that can be published for quality, but is instead about policing the boundaries of what can be considered knowledge. in that respect, the internet poses great challenges…[ : ] fr: yes… kf: …to the nature of peer review. and not simply because anybody can publish anything, right, anybody who knows how to produce a little html, or who can get their hands on a decent web editor, can post whatever they want to on the internet provided they’ve got access somewhere. it’s also that there is this potential explosion in thinking about not just knowledge, but also who gets to produce that knowledge and what qualifies as knowledge, and who gets to decide what is knowledge. so one of the things that i’m thinking about in planned obsolescence in that particular chapter on peer review is whether the mode of peer review that has long been established within the academy – pre-publication gate-keeping, that kind of makes sure that everything that gets published is the best material, and sort of selects for quality and makes sure that things have certain kinds of quality control around them – whether that can at all function online, or whether the attempt to reinstate that pre-publication gate-keeping in online spaces, like with online journals, saying that we’re going to have rigorous peer review before we release any articles, is in fact working counter to the internet’s best mode. [ : ] fr: so you’ve done a lot of writing, but also you’ve done work online in trying to change the reliance on traditional peer review. can you talk about your experiences with your book planned obsolescence in releasing it for pre-publication peer-to-peer review, and tell us what that is? kf: i had been working for some years prior to finishing up planned obsolescence with an online network called mediacommons. at the point when i was working with nyu press planning on publishing planned obsolescence, it was clear to the press that i was going to want to do something with the book online. and they were thinking, my editor was thinking, that maybe i would want to have a blog alongside it, or to kind of prepublish little bits of it or something like this. and what i suggested was that since i was making this argument about the way that peer review best functions online, i should actually sort of at least put my metaphorical money where my mouth was, and try it out. [ : ] so we posted the entire text, the draft of the manuscript, the entire thing with the exception of the conclusion, which had not yet been written, on mediacommons, in our mediacommons press area. it’s a blog-based structure but it runs with a plug-in called commentpress that allows for paragraph by paragraph commenting. we posted the entire thing there and opened it up to online commenters, asking explicitly for feedback to help me with the revision process. at the same time that this was going on, the press sent the manuscript out for traditional peer review as well, knowing that the process was going to have to be approved by the editorial board, and that it would have to meet some traditional standards. [ : ] but i was interested in having both modes of review available because i wanted to do a little bit of comparison between them and see what kinds of differences they produced. the open review online was an extremely exciting process. i got a lot of engagement from a lot of great people. i had a lot of voices participating in that review process who would never have been called upon in a traditional review process, and yet who provided me with absolutely crucial feedback. [ : ] fr: how many comments did you get? kf: oh gosh, it was just shy of , i think, from about unique commenters, which i was very pleased with. and among those commenters there were several members of the library community, for instance, who would never have been called upon to serve as peer reviewers and yet there is a crucial chapter in the book that focuses on library issues. and they were able to help me really significantly improve that chapter. [ : ] at the same time, i got these two traditional peer reviews, which were both fantastic. really careful, sensitive readings of the book as a whole, that did a lot of really deep thought about the book’s structure and about parts that were working better than others and so forth. and what i finally came to discover in this process was that the openness of the online review allowed for many more voices, allowed for discussion amongst those voices, so people argued amongst each other, and not just with me, and it allowed me to contextualize those reviews, because i knew who the reviewers were. i didn’t ask them to sign their names, but they did. so i had context for understanding the comments they were making and knew how to interpret and how to connect different ideas. on the other hand, the comments were very, very local. they were focused on specific issues within the text, and there weren’t really comments about the overall structure of the text. and then there were places where there were no comments whatsoever. because people don’t tend to comment online to say “i totally agree. this is exactly right.” so i had no idea how to interpret silence. did it mean that everything was fine? did it mean that everything was so bad that no one was going to embarrass me by saying so? [ : ] fr: or did it mean that people just didn’t read those parts? kf: exactly. whereas with the two traditional reviews, they did deal with the entirety of the book. and i knew that when they said chapter was fine, that chapter was fine. so what we were able to take from this is the sense that we need to develop a mode of online review that allows for the best aspects of the open review that we did, but that still allows for the development of this holistic picture as well, something that can deal with the entirety of the text at the same time. fr: interesting, and are other people doing this? [ : ] kf: yes, actually mediacommons has since engaged in a number of different experiments with folks who are interested in using these open review processes, including we did a couple of different experiments with the journal shakespeare quarterly… fr: and can you tell us what those are? [ : ] kf: the first was for a special issue on shakespeare in new media. the special editor for the issue, kathy rowe, posted a select number of essays from that special issue for the same kind of open review that we used on mine, but with a few sort of tweaks in the process. they went out to a very specific set of reviewers asking them to come to participate, they had a very defined period during which commenting would be open, and then comments were closed at the end, and so forth. we have a couple of authors right now who are in the midst of open review experiments on mediacommons; jason mittell with his book complex tv, and aram sinnreich who is working on a book called the piracy crusade. and both of them have chosen, rather than as i did, posting the entirety of the book online all at once, they have been releasing the texts chapter by chapter, seeing if an audience can be built over time that can then follow through and will develop some cumulative thoughts as it goes. mediacommons and nyu press jointly received a grant from the mellon foundation last year to conduct a study of open review practices and develop some sort of best practices for folks who want to conduct experiments like these. we submitted our white paper draft to this kind of open review process as well. and now the final open review paper is available on the mediacommons website. [ : ] fr: okay and just a little bit about mediacommons and how it developed? kf: it developed out of a lot of the blogging that i had been doing right around the time that i was trying to get the anxiety of obsolescence published. i wrote this one blog post in particular that had me thinking out loud about what a scholarly communication network that looked more like blogging might do for us. and i ended up getting an email message from bob stein, who is the director of the institute for the future of the book, saying “we’ve been thinking about this and we really want you to come talk to us.” and i thought, “oh my gosh, really?” and it was amazing. i went and had this series of meetings with the folks at the institute, and out of the course of those meetings came mediacommons. the institute was absolutely fundamental to establish… [ : ] fr: they’re at nyu? kf: yes, they’re connected with nyu. mediacommons has since sort of developed its own independent existence. it’s still at nyu being housed by the nyu library’s digital library technology services group. it has a network of scholars, students, activists, practitioners, all working in the area of media studies. we have a number of different projects that our editorial board has developed and it has been extremely exciting. it’s been around for about years now. [ : ] fr: how does moving more scholarship into web-based formats destabilize our notions of the author and the text? when we talk about peer review, it’s not just an abstract argument, it’s also the bread and butter of academics, right? they get tenure through peer review, they get promotions to full professor through peer review. this is a very unsettling notion when people’s lives and livings are in the mix. what does this do to the author and the text? kf: there are some serious changes that are at least potential for the ways that we understand the author and the text. the changes in the nature of the text seem obvious to us. texts can become nonlinear online, they can include media objects online, they can be interactive, they can be code, they can be… [ : ] fr: and there’s also this sense that they never end… kf: that’s one of the crucial things for our understanding of the author, because we understand the author to be someone who produces discrete, finished, complete, perfect texts. we only see the end result of a long process. fr: it’s a product, it’s a thing… [ : ] kf: it is a product, right. i believe that the longer we work in these online spaces the more we are going to start understanding the act of authorship as being a process, rather than as the production of products. it’s going to be something that’s more ongoing, more fluid, more collaborative. and we’re going to understand our relationship to the texts that we’re producing as being something that is more ongoing and that doesn’t have quite the beginning and end that we come to expect. [ : ] fr: this is interesting from the standpoint of teaching at the university and dealing with students who are writing papers, because the interactive part of scholarship is really something students have trouble grasping. they never see it, although professors will – and they should do this – get up and talk about who is this person responding to in this work? and i think the difficulty for a young student is that they see a book written out by a single author and it really takes some work and some experience to realize that every argument the author is making, he or she is responding to what somebody else has said, or these ideas that are out there. this would be really useful for students who would be able to engage and see by example that these conversations are going on. [ : ] kf: and i think that seeing by example is absolutely crucial, not just to understanding how conversations develop across authorial lines, right, that everyone is always responding to someone else. and therefore any single author text is always collaborative in ways that are sort of belied by the single author’s name on the cover. but also that, you know, i have taught writing for a long time, and have many colleagues who of course do a lot of teaching of writing. and i often hear colleagues frustrated with students’ difficulties in understanding the process of revision as deeply as they would like. they get frustrated that students come in and they just sort of did surface corrections, rather than really rethinking the ideas and the format and presentation of the ideas in the text. and i think, in no small part, that’s because we never model the process for them, right, we never show them that we start out in a totally different place from where we end up in working on an essay ourselves. if we were to show them some of that process, show them the bad first draft, and then all of the work that happened in conversation leading to the next draft, and then the polishing that happened in order to get to the final thing, students might have less of a sense of these ideas just sort of springing forth in full essay format with proper citations. [ : ] fr: you have sort of the romantic notion of the author, the genius that just has this inspiration…. the scholarly monograph seems to have been in crisis for decades. given the pressure that scholarly publishing, and i’m thinking here mainly in terms of the humanities, the pressure that scholarly publishing is under, are you surprised that the monograph, as it’s currently understood in humanities publishing and scholarly publishing, hasn’t changed more than it has? kf: i’m not entirely surprised. i mean, you are absolutely right that university press publishing has been existing in a constant state of crisis certainly since the ‘ s if not before. the monograph hasn’t changed for a couple of different reasons. there are profound forces keeping it looking exactly like it is. one of them is university presses and their extremely constrained budgets. in order to do something different there has to be a lot of research and development. there has to be a lot of exploration. there has to be a lot of experimentation. and that kind of experimentation really requires the folks doing the experimenting to at least admit the possibility of failure. but i think the other part of this, the university presses are only one player in this entire chain of producing the scholarly monograph and keeping it looking exactly like it is. a far more important player in that process is the faculty. right, the folks who are writing these things. and it’s in no small part the tenure review process, which persuades even faculty who want to experiment, who want to do something unusual, who want to produce a digital archive, or want to produce something interactive online, to kind of reign those experimental ideas in and force them between covers in print, because that’s the only thing that anybody believes will get them tenure. and it’s really going to require a serious change in the ways that individual faculty and departments and colleges and universities on the whole approach their understanding of what counts as the large-scale work of scholarship in the humanities in order for the humanities monograph to become something other than what it is. presses feel utterly constrained by faculty desires. faculty desires are utterly constrained by the tenure process. and we end up just not changing anything. [ : ] fr: can you imagine alternatives to the scholarly monograph? what would you…? kf: yes, i think there are lots of alternatives already out there. there are some really amazing projects that are being done out of digital humanities centers, like the scholars’ lab at university of virginia, like the center for history and new media at george mason, like the maryland institute for technology in the humanities at the university of maryland. i could go on and continue naming digital humanities centers that are all over the place. but you see projects that are bringing together digitized corpora of particular authors and texts, or that are doing certain kinds of scholarly editing work around particular authors, or that are doing deep text mining and visualization projects around the incredible quantity of digitized material that exists out there now. [ : ] there are projects that are being built in new platforms like scalar which allows for multi-modal argumentation that can move fluidly across text and video and audio and image and other kinds of media forms that are being published openly online. all of these are really phenomenal alternatives, and i think more and more of them are developing everyday. one of the challenges is getting the folks who are reviewing these projects to recognize that they are works of scholarship, that they are being produced in different ways, that they may be being produced collaboratively, they may not have beginning and end dates, they don’t have covers that sort of demarcate the borders of the text, but they are a similar kind of work, they are the act of scholarship. [ : ] fr: in some of your recent talks and articles you make interesting arguments for opening up humanities scholarship to the wider world beyond academia. can you talk about that? kf: public intellectual work, i think, is something that a lot of scholars in the humanities feel deeply ambivalent about. on the one hand, we all sort of want to do that kind of work, to reach out to the public, to have a greater public engagement for the kinds of work that we’re doing. but on the other hand, it feels like this very scary endeavor, in no small part because a lot of the criticism that the humanities have come in for, since the s in particular… fr: the culture wars? [ : ] kf: the culture wars, exactly. on the one hand, there’s this common sense that the public doesn’t understand or appreciate why it is we do the work we do. i mean, you’re just reading books, how can you take all this too seriously. you’re reading too much into things, as people will say. and there are the political conflicts that come up around a lot of humanities work as well. so it feels like there’s this great danger in putting work out to the world where it can be openly criticized and misunderstood. so we hold it back and kind of keep it to ourselves and communicate only with other experts. but in so doing, we end up convincing the public that there’s nothing serious going on in the humanities, that in fact if you want to think about what’s going on seriously in higher education today, it’s all stem research. it’s wonderful that we have a president right now who is really invested in increasing higher education opportunities across the united states, but if you listen to what’s coming out of the white house it’s all stem, stem, stem. fr: science, technology… [ : ] kf: the humanities simply don’t exist. to some extent, i really believe that opening work in the humanities up to the public can help break down that wall, can help remind everyone what the humanities is doing, why it matters, what we have to share with the world in teaching about our culture, and the ways that individuals engage with it. so i do believe that it’s absolutely crucial that we start doing a better job communicating with the public in order to get that work out there. [ : ] fr: robert darnton wrote an essay in his book, the case for books: past, present, and future, it’s a collection of his essays, and i can’t put my hands on the individual essay or the quote that i’m thinking of, but when i read this i was fascinated. it was a description of a person, i think it was a women, and this person was in early modern europe, maybe around , and he described her as really using books as sources that she could just sort of dip into for little bits and pieces of information. there was no sense in the way he was describing it that this person saw the book as a complete entity, as we’ve just been discussing it. and so i was wondering, could you talk a little bit about the history of reading and how our assumptions about that history might prevent us from thinking clearly about reading on the internet? [ : ] kf: i am far from an expert on the history of reading. i would really want to direct people who are listening to this to robert darnton, to other people like leah price, who are much more fully engaged with that universe of research than i am. but i will say that there are moments in the history of reading at which we can see very clearly that our ideas or idealized notions about what it is to read a book, to sit down as an individual by yourself and engage in a long sustained fashion with a text, starting at the beginning and working through to the end, have not in fact always been the same. there have been other modes of thinking about what it is to read; reading out loud, reading in public spaces, reading in groups, reading bits and pieces of things, picking things up and putting them down… fr: for a quote… kf: absolutely, and there is a wonderful bit of work by roland barthes, and now i can’t remember which book it comes out of, but he makes the argument about what had been seen as the practices of the bad reader, the reader who skips and jumps around in the text, as being, in fact, the empowered reader. this is the reader who is engaging in what he refers to as the process of tmesis, right, who is picking up various ideas from the text, who is doing what she wants with them, who is skipping around at will, and who is really on some level writing the text herself. fr: by active synthesis… [ : ] kf: exactly, and so the description that barthes presents of this reader is very much like the description of the user of the internet, who is following links and moving around and not really behaving in a disciplined fashion, starting at the beginning of something and working her way through to the end. but is instead following paths of association that are about the branches of knowledge that she is trying to produce. so i think this mode of reading that feels so undisciplined and dangerous to us is not about a loss of the powers of concentration, right, it’s not about something that’s been done to us by television or the internet. it’s not that we no longer know how to sustain our concentration, it’s instead that we now have a technology that actually works with our powers of association, with the way that thought works, in a much more fluid fashion. fr: yeah… kf: and i think it is a crucial moment of liberation to realize that we can let ourselves follow these associative paths. and in fact, one of the sort of negative stories that gets told about readers on the internet, following a chain of links and then not knowing how they got where they were going, and never having really found the thing that they were looking for. in fact, we’re developing better and better technologies that allow us to gather the material that we need to pull the ideas together in ways that allow us to do better synthesis, that keeps track of those pathways that we followed to get where we’re going. [ : ] fr: you have a recent article called “reading (and writing) online, rather than on the decline” (available from profession ) and it deals with some of the things we’re talking about right now. but i just spliced or grabbed some quotes from that and i thought i would read them out to you and let you comment on them, okay? so here we go. [ : ] “reading has never been a straightforward means of downloading meaning constructed by an author in a reader’s brain. digital platforms call attention to the degree to which reading is a communal process rather than an individual activity. the relationship between writers and readers online has become less focused on the one-way broadcast of information and more productive of a multi-dimensional conversation that takes place within a community” ( ). so…? [ : ] kf: this is exactly the thing that we’ve been talking about across this conversation. that we have this romantic notion that the author produces an idea and conveys that idea perfectly into the brain of the person who is reading the text. that the reader perfectly obtains that idea and processes it in exactly the way that the author intended, should the author have done his job perfectly. and, in fact, it’s never been that straightforward. the possibility of misreading has in fact been the norm. and the reader has always been free to do with the bits and pieces of the text what he or she will. so digital platforms really sort of call attention to this. to the act of bringing together ideas, to the act of interpretation, and particularly to the act of the creation of community between author and reader, and among readers in the act of engaging around a text. one of the things that the internet adds most explicitly to this development of reading across its history is that it’s become profoundly a read-write medium. readers online expect, on some level, that there will be comments available, and that they will be able to respond if they want to. if they don’t want to respond in the comments on the text that they’re reading, they can go to their own blogs and grab quotes and respond to them and have a conversation within their own communities about the things that they’re reading. [ : ] and it’s that process of the seamless movement from reading to writing, and then back again, that i think has really distinguished the internet in a whole lot of ways. now there are precursors for this, of course. in earlier eras the development of the commonplace book, the commentary, and so forth. fr: which is oral culture, right? [ : ] kf: exactly, the seminar. all of this has been about the process of creating new texts around existing texts. [ : ] fr: how do you think university presses will change in the next ten years? and do you think they should survive, or what are your thoughts? you’ve dealt with a bunch of them… kf: i think university presses serve an absolutely crucial role for scholars in the production and dissemination of certain kinds of work. the reason university presses came into being had to do with the fact that scholars in the humanities were producing these monograph books and commercial presses didn’t want to publish them because there wasn’t a sufficient market. the university saw its responsibility as being facilitating the communication of the work that was going on within its faculty to the outside world. and so universities formed presses and they started distributing the work that was being done originally by their own faculty on their campuses to other campuses. and so the university press was born. [ : ] but the university press over the course of the first half of the twentieth century morphs into this odd relationship to its campus, in which many university presses are now understood to be revenue centers on their campuses. they’re required at minimum to break even. there are even presses that are required to actually contribute back to their universities. there are university presses that are seen as being fully businesses that just happen to function with the university name. and i believe that those university presses serve an absolutely crucial role in the dissemination of scholarship, because they are this locus of not-for-profit communication of the work that is being done by scholars in the humanities. but i think that those presses need to develop, and this is not something that the presses haven’t been trying to do, trust me, and i understand how difficult this is. but they need to develop a different relationship to the universities that house them. the universities really need to understand their responsibility, once again, with respect to the dissemination of scholarship. i also think that university presses need to develop a much more symbiotic relationship with, for instance, libraries, with information technology centers on campus, with academic departments, with the other aspects of what’s going on on campus, that might help fully integrate them into the life of the institution in a way that makes them see very clearly at the heart of what it is the institution does. but that would also sort of alleviate some of the wheel reinvention that has to happen with university presses now because they are adjunct to the campus, rather than being a part of the campus. [ : ] fr: and what role do you see academic libraries playing in this whole publishing ecosystem? kf: well it’s clear that libraries have a crucial role to play. there are increasing numbers of library publishing ventures that are springing up on campuses across the country. there are many libraries that are in fact developing really intimate relationships with their university presses. in some institutions, the press has been brought in fully under the library. in some, there’s just a deep partnership between them. i think that libraries have a certain amount of room for experimentation with new forms of scholarly production and dissemination, because many libraries have technology centers where that kind of research and development work gets done. many libraries have been working on institutional repositories that have allowed them to sort of gather and disseminate the work that’s being done by the faculty on their campuses, just like those original university presses were intended to do. so i believe that rather than doubling efforts across the library and the press, increasingly we’re finding libraries and presses working in a kind of symbiosis, really thinking about how together they’re producing a range of forms of communication for faculty who really need it. [ : ] fr: finally, in your introduction to your book anxiety of obsolescence, you mention that you grew up reading literature and watching tv and you never saw these as incompatible. so, to end our interview, i was just wondering, what were some of your favorite tv shows growing up? kf: oh boy, you know, if i think back on childhood television watching experiences, and you may remember this one, having had your television unlocked on the weekends, i will inevitably think back to what seems to me the iconic saturday evening lineup of archie bunker, mash, mary tyler moore, bob newhart, carol burnett. fr: oh, i remember all of them, yes. [ : ] kf: i grew up in the central time zone, so it started at and it ended at . it was the only time i was allowed to stay up and watch television until ten o’clock was those saturday nights. and i don’t think that lineup could ever be reproduced today, but i think back on those saturday nights in front of the television with great fondness. acknowledgements fred rowland’s interview with kathleen fitzpatrick was transcribed from audio and edited by andrew lopez. thanks are due to fred rowland and kathleen fitzpatrick for undertaking this interview, for agreeing to let me transcribe it, and for participating as peer reviewers in the preparation of the transcript for publication online. an additional thanks is due to fred rowland for collaborating on the introduction with his input on the interview process and his thoughts on scholarly communication. thanks also to dean of university libraries at temple university, joe lucia, for sharing his insights on interview transcription with fred rowland. emily ford at lead pipe has been patient and dedicated throughout the transcription process, which may not have been completed without her support. thanks also to carrie kent and my colleagues at connecticut college for keeping this conversation alive. audio recording of interview an audio recording of this interview is available for streaming or download from the temple university libraries website: http://sites.temple.edu/humansciences/ / / /kathleen-fitzpatrick-on-scholarly-communication-the-digital-humanities/ references & further reading barthes, roland. the pleasure of the text. trans. richard miller. new york: hill and wang, . print. biagioli, mario. “from book censorship to academic peer review.” emergences: journal for the study of media & composite cultures . ( ): - . print. carr, nicholas g. the shallows: what the internet is doing to our brains. new york: w.w.norton, . print. commentpress: a wordpress plugin for social texts in social contexts. institute for the future of the book. web. dec. . darnton, robert. the case for books: past, present, and future. new york: publicaffairs, . print. davidson, cathy n. now you see it: how the brain science of attention will transform the way we live, work, and learn. new york: viking, . print. —–, and david theo goldberg. the future of thinking: learning institutions in a digital age. cambridge, mass.: mit press, . print. fitzpatrick, kathleen. the anxiety of obsolescence: the american novel in the age of television. nashville: vanderbilt university press, . print. —–. “the humanities, done digitally.” debates in the digital humanities. ed. matthew k. gold. minneapolis, mn: university of minnesota press, . - . print. —–. planned obsolescence: publishing, technology, and the future of the academy. new york: nyu press, . print. —–. “reading (and writing) online, rather than on the decline.” profession ( ): - . print. —–. “we never do anything alone: an interview on academic authorship with kathleen fitzpatrick.” a companion to media authorship. by jonathan gray and derek johnson. malden, ma: wiley blackwell, . - . print. maryland institute for technology in the humanities. university of maryland. web. dec. . mediacommons: a digital scholarly network. institute for the future of the book. web. dec. . mittel, jason. complex tv: the poetics of contemporary television storytelling. new york: nyu press, [forthcoming]. price, leah, ed. the history of the book and the idea of literature. spec. issue of pmla . ( ). jstor [database]. web. dec. . rowe, katherine, ed. shakespeare and new media. spec. issue of shakespeare quarterly . ( ). project muse [database]. web. dec. . rowland, fred. “interviews with authors.” fred rowland – librarian. temple university libraries. web. dec. . rowland, fred, et al. “n+ : the temple university libraries interview.” journal of librarianship and scholarly communication . ( ). web. dec. . roy rosenzweig center for history and new media. george mason university. web. dec. . scalar. the alliance for networking visual culture. web. dec. . scholars’ lab. university of virginia. web. dec. . sinnreich, aram. the piracy crusade: how the music industry’s war on sharing destroys markets and erodes civil liberties. amherst, ma: university of massachusetts press, . print. digital humanities, interview, publishing, scholarly communication, transcript editorial: these are a few of our favorite things a conversation with librarian-editors responses pingback : editors’ choice: in the library, with the lead pipe: on scholarly communication and the digital humanities: an interview with kathleen fitzpatrick | digital humanities now pingback : library links th january | latest library links pingback : revise and resubmit: an unsolicited peer review | roopika risam pingback : across two (imperial) cultures | roopika risam pingback : wk. digital publishing & knowledge mobilisation | this work is licensed under a cc attribution . license. issn - about this journal | archives | submissions | conduct radio nouspace: sound, radio, digital humanities research article how to cite: barber, john f. . “radio nouspace: sound, radio, digital humanities.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , – , doi: https:// doi.org/ . /dscn. published: october peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / barber, john f. . “radio nouspace: sound, radio, digital humanities.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research article radio nouspace: sound, radio, digital humanities john f. barber washington state university vancouver, us jfbarber@eaze.net background: the author describes curating sound(s) in a radio context and how this practice prompts creative digital humanities research, scholarship, and presentation. the author describes his radio nouspace project as a site, focus, and methodology. a particular endeavor is curation by re-creation of vintage radio dramas before live audiences in order to prompt listeners to consider the ability of sounds to convey appreciation, emotion, experience, information, and meaning(s). analysis: curating sound in a radio context provides a unique and rewarding opportunity to consider sound as an important component of digital humanities. despite their ephemerality, both sound and radio are immersive and inclusive, and prompt engagement from listeners through their imaginations. conclusion and implications: provides an introduction to sound and radio in the realm of digital humanities research and practice. making sound tangible with curatorial information demonstrates interesting and rewarding opportunities for digital humanities research and creative practice. keywords: digital humanities; radio; radio drama; radio art; audio drama; sound; sound art; curation; action research; creative practice; narrative; sound-based narrative; storytelling; listening contexte: l’auteur décrit la conservation des sons dans le contexte radiophonique et comment cette pratique invite la recherche créative en humanités numériques, en érudition et en présentation. l’auteur décrit son projet radio nouspace comme un site, un objectif et une méthodologie. l’une des initiatives en particulier consiste à conserver les sons en reconstituant d’anciens feuilletons radiophoniques devant un public, afin d’inviter les auditeurs à considérer la capacité des sons à transmettre l’appréciation, les émotions, l’expérience, l’information et la signification. analyse: la conservation du son dans un contexte radiophonique fournit une occasion unique et enrichissante de considérer le son comme un élément important des humanités numériques. malgré leur caractère éphémère, le son et la radio sont tous deux immersifs et inclusifs, et invitent les auditeurs à s’engager par l’entremise de leur imagination. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:jfbarber@eaze.net barber: radio nouspace conclusion et implications: fournit une introduction au son et à la radio dans le domaine de la recherche et de la pratique en humanités numériques. le fait de rendre le son tangible au moyen de renseignements de conservation permet de démontrer des possibilités intéressantes et enrichissantes pour la recherche et la pratique créative en humanités numériques. mots-clés: humanités numériques; radio; feuilleton radiophonique; création radiophonique; feuilleton audio; son; art sonore; conservation; recherche-action; pratique créative; narration; narration sonore; art de conter; Écoute introduction with this essay, i examine curating sound in a radio context as rewarding digital humanities action research and creative practice. curating, as we will see, is a fundamental activity for digital humanities (dh). sound is also fundamental. as a primary sensory input and communication channel for human culture, sound conveys deep, rich information and provides immersive, interactive contexts for listeners by engaging their imaginations. in this regard, sound might be considered the central component of narrative, the driver of storytelling, the basis of literature. radio uses sound(s) as its primary content. radio’s sounds are immediate, in the moment, yet their presence is ethereal, arriving, as if by magic, from unseen sources. however, unless this content is preserved, the experience of radio, as a technology, a creative practice, a cultural endeavor, is lost. with thoughtful curation, the ephemerality of both radio and sound can return and promote communication and collaboration. given this background, i believe curating sound within a radio context prompts a wide range of activities and approaches for creative dh research, scholarship, and presentation. i am inspired in this belief by action research advocated by stefano vannotti ( ). action research is calculated to develop and test new knowledge through doing or making. i will elaborate on this idea by describing my curatorial practice with radio nouspace, a virtual listening gallery and museum, modeled on traditional, analogue barber: radio nouspace radio practices and cultures. these curatorial efforts evolve from practical application with the intent to create communicable knowledge, as inspired by burdick et al. ( ) and vannotti ( ). a specific project within radio nouspace is curation by re-creation of radio dramas before live audiences. augmented with curatorial information activities, these re-created radio dramas prompt listeners to consider the ability of sounds to convey appreciation, emotion, experience, information, and meaning(s). a brief overview of a conceptual framework for using sound as the basis for this research and creative practice rounds out the discussion. in conclusion, i hope to demonstrate how we may use sound(s) to produce, consume, and critique the (digital) humanities. background digital humanities (dh) refers to the use of computer/information technologies (digital media, data mining, software design, modeling, for example) to visualize, analyze, compare, and/or critique issues in the humanities, especially those that might be difficult, if not impossible, to effectively investigate otherwise. in this regard, dh has become interdisciplinary, intertwining research approaches from different fields like literature, linguistics, culture, and history. it is not hyperbolic to predict that dh will quickly become a transdisciplinary approach incorporating features and affordances of multiple research disciplines, involving multiple digital technologies, and integrating multiple data types and analytical techniques. the desired upshot is to develop new research topics and methodologies that will motivate research and practice paradigms in the humanities. for example, consider curation. anne burdick, johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, and todd presner say curation is fundamental to dh. in their book, digital_ humanities, which addresses the dual challenge of both promoting dh by describing ways it might be undertaken as well as assessed for scholarly impact, burdick, et al. position curation as a “fundamental activit[y] at the core of digital humanities” this essay evolved from a presentation at the digital humanities summer institute colloquium, held at the university of victoria in british columbia, canada, june – , . barber: radio nouspace (burdick et al. , ). their list of curatorial activities that can be assessed for scholarly impact include “creat[ing] . . . record[ing] and display[ing] relevant debate trails generated by objects, [and] creat[ing] a public forum in which these debates are edited or represented for study” (burdick et al. , ). i also point to the idea of action research, advocated by stefano vannotti. action research, says vannotti, combines design and creative practice with critical academic research. more specifically, action research involves a “systematic enquiry conducted though the medium of practical action, calculated to devise or test new, or newly imported, information, ideas, forms, or procedures and to generate communicable knowledge” and essentially “undertake[s] research through practice” (vannotti , ). radio nouspace drawing from burdick et al. ( ) and vannotti ( ), i combine curation, action research, and creative practice in a project i call radio nouspace. the name and practice of radio nouspace is derived from “radio,” an ecology of related but different phenomena (dubber ) and “nouspace,” wordplay between nous (french for “we,” referring to collaboration and sharing as key attributes), new (from english, as in a fresh concept), and noos (from greek, pointing to mind and essence) (grigar ). radio nouspace (www.radionouspace.net) is a virtual listening gallery and museum for sound, featuring curated historical and experimental radio and audio drama, radio and sound art, and sound poetry. sound and listening are explored as literacy, creative practice, and research endeavor. curated sounds are available for on demand listening. a desired result is to experience radio nouspace as a point of convergence; a place, virtual in nature, but made believable by its resource offerings, where one can access simultaneously a body of work and a cultural context for its historical creation and contemporary consumption. specifically, as a curatorial site, radio nouspace presents aural narratives in a context focusing on their primary feature: sound. as a practice-based research site, radio nouspace rethinks and reimagines listening as important to narrative experience. https://www.radionouspace.net barber: radio nouspace the work of radio nouspace: curation as noted earlier, burdick et al. consider curation a “fundamental activit[y] at the core of digital humanities” (burdick et al. , , ). at first thought, using radio as a context for curating sound may seem odd. but consider that radio, throughout its history, is a culture and a medium based on sound(s), especially the sound(s) of the human voice, consciously collected (curated) and broadcast as related knowledge modalities (programs) for the purpose of interpreting and distributing information to a broad public. radio amplifies and extends oral communication, prompting connections between people(s) separated by time and distance (mcluhan , ; mcluhan and mcluhan ). radio retrieves some of the prominence of myth, ritual, and participatory drama from pre- literate (pre-writing and reading) times (campbell ). in doing so, radio acts as what marshall mcluhan calls “a subliminal echo chamber” to evoke memories and associations long forgotten or ignored (mcluhan , ). furthermore, as a “fast hot medium,” mcluhan says radio provides accelerated information throughput (mcluhan , ). combining these attributes and features, radio provides context for curating sound not available in more traditional venues. curatorial focus radio nouspace curatorial efforts focus on providing exemplary examples of radio and audio drama, radio and sound art, and sound poetry for on demand listening. i discuss each, briefly, below. drama joseph campbell ( ) documented the reenactment of myths in the form of ritualistic participatory drama, often involving narrative, music, and other sound sources, by cultures around the world. connecting to this notion of drama as an essential endeavor of humanity, playwright david mamet argues drama is the nature of human perception since “it is a human need to construct, or have constructed for us, narratives” about our lives that “order the universe into a comprehensible form” (mamet , , ). our sense of survival, says mamet, orders the world toward a cause-and-effect conclusion. we construct such dramas to understand ourselves barber: radio nouspace (mamet , ), to exercise our own will, and to create our own character (mamet , ). radio drama during the so-called golden age of radio, from the early s to the early s, until it was replaced by television as the primary home entertainment medium, radio provided outstanding programming in several genres (music, comedy, soap opera, and adaptations of comic strips, stage plays, movies, and dramas) to audiences from many cultural, social, political, and economic backgrounds. the common ground through this broad spectrum of radio listeners was a love for good stories and effectively delivered drama. the damon runyon theater, the mercury theatre on the air (retitled the campbell playhouse in ), the columbia workshop, escape, quiet, please!, mamet continues, as an “ur-dramatist” (mamet , ), we are often compelled to promote “arts” which “inform us that everything—understanding, world domination, happiness—is within us, and within our grasp” (mamet , ). believing in our own superiority even while convinced of our own worthlessness, we seek to repress perceived external villains. this compulsion to repress is, according to mamet, reenacted but unsatisfied in romance films, action painting, performance art, and electronic media, all of which he classifies as “pseudoart” versus “true drama” (mamet , ), feeding on “information,” and putting us all in “a new dark age” (mamet , ). only the “nonrational synthesis” (mamet , ) of true art (true drama) can help us structure our lives and the world into three-act dramas: “thesis, antithesis, and synthesis” (mamet , ). yet the knife does not necessarily serve to facilitate this tri-part narrative structure, signifying for mamat, ever the dramatist, a violent and sexist metaphor with which to counter the violence and totalitarianism of pseudoart and pseudo-superiority. mamet draws from a poetic description of the use(s) of a knife by legendary bluesman hudey ledbetter (“leadbelly”): “you take a knife, you use it to cut bread, so you can have strength to work; you use it to shave so you’ll look nice for your lover; on discovering her with another, you use it to cut out her lying heart” (mamet , ). even more disturbing, mamet cites the gun as a “very effective tool” for social change (mamet , ), more so than a play. yet, backing away from this abyss, in a “second act problem,” where the hero is called upon to exercise will and create in front of the audience his or her own character, mamet sanctions theatrical performance as a communal outlet of rage against our self-perceived worthlessness. the theater, along with religion and magic, “inspire cleansing awe” (mamet , ). so, in the end, mamet is focused on drama, the theater, as the only acceptable context with which and within which to construct our personal dramas, confront the dual-demons of superiority and worthlessness, and provide a cause-and-effect meaning for our lives. less understandable is his rejection of electronic media, which has certainly promoted the creation and consumption of far more drama than any single playwright, and allowed individuals to focus on external villains using a number of proactive and productive methodologies. barber: radio nouspace suspense, and you are there provided the finest examples of radio drama ever produced. dramatic series like gunsmoke, the shadow (especially the years starring orson welles), and yours truly, johnny dollar are also highly regarded. for all these radio dramas, scripted speech (the sound of human voice) provided the basis for audience engagement, following the long, long tradition of storytellers using their voices to inform, educate, persuade, and entertain. in addition to voice, sound effects, music, and silence all contributed to a sense of immersion and presence in radio drama. exemplary works of radio drama are curated by radio nouspace, including “the fall of the city,” “r.u.r. (rossum’s universal robots),” “sorry, wrong number,” “the thing on the fourble board,” and “the war of the worlds.” curatorial information, sounds files, and links to additional resources and information are provided. the point of this effort is to emphasize how radio drama continues and extends the ability of speech and other sound(s) to create and share immersive aural narrative spaces and experiences that convey the power of myth and ritual, both central components of literature. audio drama where radio drama is generally regarded as scripted, dialogic exchanges between actors, combined with sound effects, music, and silence, i differentiate audio drama as substituting ambient sounds, environmental and mechanical sounds, animal vocalizations, sonifications, soundscapes, sound collages, and edited sound compositions for human voice. audio drama might manifest in websites, sound walks, locative narrative, site-specific soundscapes and installations, sound diaries, sound travel, found sound, audio documentaries, audio biographies, sonic portraits, and talking signs, among others. the opportunities are rich for narrative, drama, and storytelling to be reconceptualized and reconceived under the umbrella of audio drama. as rick moody says, “it’s the right moment for avid listeners, people thinking with their ears” (moody , xi–xii). exemplary works of audio drama are curated by radio nouspace, including “the city wears a slouch hat,” “the revenge,” and “symphony of sirens.” as with radio barber: radio nouspace drama, curatorial information, sound files, and links to additional resources and information are provided. the reason for this effort is that audio drama, like radio drama, continues and extends the ability of sound(s) to convey the power of myth and ritual. radio art as one of the most significant (perhaps the most significant) technologies of the th century, radio has long been considered either an art form in its own right, or a medium with which one can create art. the radio artist uses sound to make art. radio art includes found sounds, phonography, and field recordings, all meant to provide listening experiences that promote opportunities for sounds from various sources and cultures to create and sustain new narrative strategies and subvert historical media conventions. according to joseph-hunter, duff, and papadomanolaki ( ), radio art falls under the larger umbrella of transmission arts, which encompasses performance, video art, theater, sound art, radio art, media installation, networked art, and acoustic ecology in a multiplicity of practices that engage aural and video broadcast media in an intermedia framework where the relationship(s) between artist and audience, transmitter and receiver, can be redefined, along with the telecommunications airwaves as the site for this practice. in their anthology of transmission artists and their work(s), joseph-hunter, duff, and papadomanolaki note transmission arts offers a great deal of latitude and creative license to artists and content providers, and future radio assures a medium for its transmission. but, there are questions about radio art: • what has comprised radio art historically? • how was this work created, transmitted, and received? • what might be done with sounds (other than the human voice) not possible before digital technology to create and share compelling radio and transmission arts that is both global in scope and local in focus? • could radio and transmission arts provide a venue for narrative? • what stories might be told using radio and transmission arts? • how might these stories be told? • how could these narratives and stories benefit from opportunities for interactivity, collabora- tion, and social networking among the listeners and between the participants (née listeners) and the program itself? • how could these efforts help to recenter sound as the primary form of sensory input, even while it is part of a mix of multimedia? • what might be undertaken in conjunction with such a project (promotional and educational materials, website, social media, etc.) to increase its effectiveness and opportunities for social engagement? barber: radio nouspace sound poetry sound poetry is an artistic form bridging literary and musical composition where phonetic (sounds and acoustic properties) aspects of human speech are foregrounded rather than semantic (meaning) and syntactic (process of constructing sentences) values. the word “sound” acknowledges the initial presence of text, but the result is voice without words, intended primarily for performance. the roots of sound poetry can be found in the futurist and dadaist movements and their interest in exploring new and creative ways of highlighting vocalization, by abstracting language into sounds rather than meanings. radio nouspace curates example works by italian futurists filippo tommaso marinetti and luigi russolo and russian futurists velemir khlebnikov and aleksej kruchenykh. dadaist influences are well represented by hugo ball, tristan tzara, kurt schwitters, and antonin artaud. the availability of magnetic tape recording encouraged practitioners of sound poetry to explore new forms for their work, especially the use of audio collage with multiple, overlain, and often manipulated voices in order to extend the notion of a “reading.” the desired result was poetry that could only exist as sound. radio nouspace curates exemplary works by françois dufrêne, henri chopin, brion gysin, and william s. burroughs. listening opportunities are provided. works by exemplary contemporary european and north american sound poets like bernard heidsieck, ferdinand kriwet, ashby mcgowan, steve reich, charles amirkhanian, jim rosenberg, john giorno, alvin lucier, the four horsemen, and bpnichol are also curated. additional resources and listening opportunities are provided. each of these artists have challenged linearity imposed by time on sound works with non-linear structure. for example, jim rosenberg said, “it’s a serious conundrum. i face this every time i do a ‘reading.’ i tend to think of an oral recitation of my non-linear work as something like pictures in a catalog—it isn’t the real stuff, but gives an idea of what’s there” (rosenberg , n.p.). curation: example methodologies mark tribe, artist and founder of rhizome.org, an online space fostering critical dialogue about new media art, says the curator’s role is to make curated objects communicable, mediative, and manageable, to help the intended audience become https://www.rhizome.org barber: radio nouspace more knowledgable of the layers of meaning associated with the object(s) under curation (tribe , ). i read these remarks to suggest that curated sound works will benefit from context, an understanding of the historical, social, and cultural considerations of the time and place for the production of the original sound(s), and their process(es) of production, distribution, and reception. in this regard, opportunities for the curation of sound art, as well as for educating listeners, may lie in the re-creation of the original sound source, augmented with curatorial information activities that position the ephemeral aural experience in relation to changing interpretations fostered by the passage of time. for example, curating the sound(s) of a radio drama by re-creating them prompts listeners to consider the continued ability of sounds to convey information, explication, experience, appreciation, and meaning(s), years beyond the time and place of their original production. in this regard, i have, under the umbrella of radio nouspace, pursued a partnership, called re-imagined radio, with a group of radio drama enthusiasts and a local, historic theatre to provide live performances of vintage radio dramas. i combine this curation by re-creation with gallery showings of student work created in my digital storytelling course. the result is multi-modal, collaborative, immersive, and informative. to date we have re-imagined and re-created “a christmas carol,” “around the world in eighty days,” “the island of dr. moreau,” “the fall of the city,” “r.u.r. (rossum’s universal robots),” “the war of the worlds” (the most famous radio drama ever broadcast), “sorry, wrong number” and “the hitchhiker” (two well known radio dramas by lucille fletcher), a combination of episodes from “gunsmoke” and “the shadow” (an adult western and a crime-detective series), and, most recently, “dracula.” rather than performing for the live audience, the voice actors and sound effects artists perform for their microphones, striving to convey their narratives through the powerful combination of sound and listeners’ imaginations. ethnographic and anecdotal information collected from audience members suggest broad pleasure in discovering how an original radio drama production might have occurred, and barber: radio nouspace amazement that sound-based worlds and ways to inhabit them are promoted through such unusual means. conceptual framework the focus of each re-imagined radio performance is sound: spoken voice, music, and sound effects. sound, says marshall mcluhan, is the primary sensory input, in use since our earliest history when humankind was awash in sound, with only abstract thought to explain their situation and agency. speech and orality tamed the acoustic wilderness by translating abstract thought into communicable ideas. storytellers wove explanations for sounds into narratives which were incorporated into drama and, when written, into literature. for mcluhan, this process illustrates the idea that “the ‘content’ of any medium is always another medium. the content of writing is speech, just as the written word is the content of print, and print is the content of the telegraph. if it is asked, ‘what is the content of speech?’, it is necessary to say, ‘it is an actual process of thought, which is in itself nonverbal’” (mcluhan , – ). thus, speech, with its origins in abstract thought and presentation, is, according to paul levinson, the oldest medium and the most prevalent form of human communication. it claims a presence in most all media that follow (levinson , – ). this pervasive presence of sound is important. bruce r. smith says “most of us live immersed in a world of sound,” and that sound is the basis for human collaboration and communication. but, he continues, sound as an object of study, has been neglected. most academic disciplines are vision-based in the materials they study and the theoretical models they deploy to interpret those materials. sound, as an object of study, is important, for “knowing the world through sound is fundamentally different from knowing the world through vision” (smith , ). this information is abstracted from a larger conceptual framework for sound i use to underpin radio nouspace and its associated projects, like re-imagined radio and my course regarding sounds and digital humanities offered annually at the digital humanities summer institute, university of victoria in british columbia, canada. discussion, resources, and additional links are available at radio nouspace ( ). barber: radio nouspace american anthropologist steven feld concurs, noting “the primacy of sound as a modality of knowing and being in the world” (feld , ). to get at this primacy, michael bull and les back advocate “deep listening” or “agile listening,” both of which involve “attuning our ears to listen again to the multiple layers of meaning potentially embedded in the same sound.” deep listening, they say, also involves “practices of dialogue and procedures for investigation, transposition and interpretation” (bull and back , – ). in the end, bull and back say sound makes us re-think our relational experiences, how we relate to others, ourselves and the spaces and places we inhabit, by engaging listener’s deep imaginations. returning to mcluhan, he says radio resonates as a tribal drum, its magic weaving a web of kinship and prompting depth of involvement for everyone (mcluhan , – ). radio’s content (sounds) promotes orality as a connection between people separated by time and distance using invisible, disembodied sound (voices, music, other) offering a “world of unspoken communication between writer-speaker and the listener” (mcluhan , ). radio affords a tremendous power as “a subliminal echo chamber” for memories and associations long forgotten or ignored (mcluhan , ). as a “fast hot medium” radio provides accelerated information throughput, contracting the world to village size. in a global village, we live once again in an oral context where issues and people are no longer separate, or unrelated, but rather shared, and simultaneous (mcluhan , ). conclusion in this essay, i have outlined my action research and curatorial practice with radio nouspace, a dh project focused on sound, narrative, and storytelling. as a curated listening gallery and virtual museum, radio nouspace presents sound-based narratives. as a practice-based research site, radio nouspace rethinks and reimagines listening as important to narrative experience. my conceptual framework for combining radio and sound is intentionally designed to promote dh action research and creative practice. specifically, both radio and sound are interconnected. sound is the content of radio. sound is broadcast by radio. both radio and sound are engaging, heard by listeners unseen to each other but nonetheless committed to a common, imagined, immersive space showcasing barber: radio nouspace language and listening as primary forms of communication. both are fleeting, ephemeral, their content disappearing soon after production. with thoughtful curation, however, both radio and sound can return to promote communication and collaboration. to demonstrate, i described my efforts with curation by re-creation of vintage radio dramas. augmented with curatorial information and activities, these re-created radio dramas prompt listeners to consider the ability of sound to convey information, emotion, experience, appreciation, and meaning(s). these efforts are worthy for several reasons. first, by curating and commenting upon sound objects, i am engaged in a core dh activity worthy of assessment for scholarly impact (burdick et al. , , ). second, through curation by re-creation, i am providing a public forum for the representation of the sound objects under investigation, as well as their impact(s) on listening audiences. third, through these endeavors i am engaged in action research, a combination of design and creative practice with critical academic research well suited for dh. by conducting enquiry through practical action, i seek to devise and test “new, or newly imported information, ideas, forms, or procedures and to generate communicable knowledge” and essentially “undertake research through practice” (vannotti , ). fourth, these efforts are underpinned by a conceptual framework that acknowledges the primary and pervasive presence of sound in our lives and cultures, histories and endeavors, as well as the stories we tell about ourselves, which become the subject of humanities enquiries. to conclude, sound and radio promote interesting and rewarding opportunities for dh research and creative practice where one’s ears are used to make and discover new knowledge. by making sound tangible through such practice-based research as radio nouspace and my re-imagined radio project, i hope to demonstrate how we may use sound(s) to produce, consume, and critique the (digital) humanities. competing interests the author has no competing interests to declare. barber: radio nouspace references bull, michael, and les back, eds. . the auditory culture reader. oxford, uk: berg. burdick, anne, johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, and todd presner. . digital_humanities. cambridge, ma: mit press. campbell, joseph. . the hero with a thousand faces. trenton, nj: princeton university press. dubber, andrew. . radio in the digital age. cambridge, uk: polity books. feld, steven. . “a rainforest acoustemology.” in the auditory culture reader, edited by michael bull, and les back, – . oxford, uk: berg. grigar, dene. . “history & mission.” nouspace gallery & media lounge. accessed november , . http://dtc-wsuv.org/wp/nouspace/history/. joseph-hunter, galen, penny duff, and maria papadomanolaki, eds. . transmission arts: artists & airwaves. new york: paj publications. levinson, paul. . digital mcluhan: a guide to the information millennium. new york: routledge. mamet, david. . three uses of the knife: on the nature and purpose of drama. london: methuen. mcluhan, marshall. . understanding media: the extensions of man. new york: mcgraw hill. mcluhan, marshall. . “mcluhan’s laws of the media.” technology and culture, – . january. doi: https://doi.org/ . / mcluhan, marshall. . “the laws of media.” et cetera ( ): – . mcluhan, marshall, and eric mcluhan. . laws of media: the new science. toronto: university of toronto press. moody, rick. . “forward.” in reality radio: telling true stories in sound. edited by john biewen, and alexa dilworth, xi–xii. chapel hill: university of north carolina press. radio nouspace. . “inquiries > sound: conceptual framework.” accessed jan . http://radionouspace.net/inquiries/soundtheory/sound-theory.html. rosenberg, jim. . e-mail message to author. february . http://dtc-wsuv.org/wp/nouspace/history/ https://doi.org/ . / http://radionouspace.net/inquiries/soundtheory/sound-theory.html barber: radio nouspace smith, bruce r. . “tuning into london c. .” in the auditory culture reader, edited by michael bull, and les back, – . oxford: berg. tribe, m. . in cook, s, graham, b and martin, s (eds.), curating new media: the third baltic international seminar, . gateshead, uk: baltic centre for contemporary art. vannotti, stefano m. . “let us do what we can do best: but how can we produce knowledge by designing interfaces?” in interface cultures: artistic aspects of interaction, edited by christa sommerer, laurent mignonneau, and dorothée king, – . new brunswick, nj: transaction publishers, . doi: https://doi.org/ . / - how to cite this article: barber, john f. . “radio nouspace: sound, radio, digital humanities.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , – , doi: https:// doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: october accepted: october published: october copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://doi.org/ . / - https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / introduction background radio nouspace the work of radio nouspace: curation curatorial focus drama radio drama audio drama radio art sound poetry curation: example methodologies conceptual framework conclusion competing interests references exploring dynamic multilayer graphs for digital humanities applied network sciencebornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x research open access exploring dynamic multilayer graphs for digital humanities stefan bornhofen * and marten düring *correspondence: sb@eisti.eu laboratoire etis, cy cergy paris université, ensea, cnrs, umr , boulevard du port, cergy, france full list of author information is available at the end of the article abstract the paper presents intergraph, a graph-based visual analytics technical demonstrator for the exploration and study of content in historical document collections. the designed prototype is motivated by a practical use case on a corpus of circa . digitized resources about european integration since . the corpus allowed generating a dynamic multilayer network which represents different kinds of named entities appearing and co-appearing in the collections. to our knowledge, intergraph is one of the first interactive tools to visualize dynamic multilayer graphs for collections of digitized historical sources. graph visualization and interaction methods have been designed based on user requirements for content exploration by non-technical users without a strong background in network science, and to compensate for common flaws with the annotation of named entities. users work with self-selected subsets of the overall data by interacting with a scene of small graphs which can be added, altered and compared. this allows an interest-driven navigation in the corpus and the discovery of the interconnections of its entities across time. keywords: visual analytics, network visualization, dynamic multilayer networks, digital humanities introduction in recent years, vast quantities of the human cultural records have been digitized, further described with metadata and made available in the form of collections. such collections within the fields of cultural heritage and digital humanities typically consist of digitized multimedia objects with a strong bias towards unstructured text, metadata of various lev- els of detail and completeness, and often a layer of named entity annotations. today, most scholars in the humanities and related disciplines rely on keyword search and faceted search to retrieve relevant content. any analysis of such collections needs to be based on an understanding of the underlying rationale for the creation of collections, how they are organized and to be able to retrieve relevant content in an exploratory manner (van ham and perer ; brown and greengrass ). in this paper we present inter- graph, a technical demonstrator for the exploration of such collections based on named entity linking and collection-inherent metadata as well as the results from preliminary user evaluations. intergraph was designed to utilise multilayer network visualizations to © the author(s). open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article’s creative commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -x&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto: sb@eisti.eu http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of support non-technical users in the exploration of historical document collections. more specifically, it helps to answer the following questions: how is a given named entity (per- son, institution or location) represented in a collection? who appears with whom? how does this change over time? how can we compare the coverage of entities? answers to these questions can help to detect patterns in the collection such as biases in the compo- sition of a collection (in our case for example gaps in the coverage of specific entities), or to highlight unexpected links between them. intergraph was developed as one of three technical demonstrators during the blizaar project, a french-luxembourgish research project dedicated to develop novel visualiza- tions of dynamic multilayer graphs (https://blizaar.list.lu). blizaar concentrated on a use case in biology and a principal use case in history. the targeted users in both cases were scholars with no or very limited experience with data analysis in general and network analysis and visualization in particular. the following section describes the principal use case in more detail, with its dataset and user requirements. “state of the art” section reviews the state of the art in the visu- alization of dynamic multilayer networks. “intergraph” section presents the framework designed in response to the use case, and provides an overview of its main features. “user test results” section gives an account of the user tests conducted. finally, “conclusion & future work” section concludes the paper with a discussion and prospects for future work. dataset and requirements the data is derived from resources on the european integration process since collected by the centre virtuel de la connaissance sur l’europe (cvce) (https://www.cvce.eu), a former research and documentation center which in was integrated into the university of luxembourg. the cvce created a multilingual col- lection of approximately , digitized documents organized in hierarchically structured thematic corpora. the documents differ significantly in nature: they include newspaper articles, diplomatic notes, personal memoirs, audio interview transcripts, car- toons and photos, all with descriptive captions. the histograph project (guido et al. ) processed a subset of circa , of these documents with named entity recog- nition (ner) and -disambiguation and stored links between entities and documents in a neo j graph database. this dataset was made available to and further processed by the blizaar project for the development of more advanced graph exploration prototypes. figure shows the blizaar data structure with its nodes and relationships. firstly, resources are part of one or more collections, from the highest logical unit of thematic corpora (epublications) down to the corresponding hierarchical units and subunits; this is modeled by the “is_part_of” relationship. secondly, named entities (people, locations, themes, institutions) have been extracted using named entity recognition software such as yago (max-planck-institut fur informatik: yago) and textrazor (the natural language processing api). this process enabled the generation of the “appears_in” relationship. entities “co-appear” in resources, and collections “share” resources, by bipartite network projection (latapy et al. ; zweig and kaufmann ). finally, a collection “mentions” an entity, and accordingly the entity “is_mentioned_in” the collection, if the collection contains at least one resource where the entity appears. table gives an idea of the size of the dataset. https://blizaar.list.lu https://www.cvce.eu bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of fig. data structure. blizaar data structure (nodes and relationships) a previous study by the blizaar project on visual analytics requirements for research in digital cultural heritage was published in mcgee et al. ( ). the authors suggest that the data structures supporting the analysis of a complex digital corpus, in which people, organizations, places, multimedia documents and document collections are connected across time, should best be modeled as a dynamic multilayer network. as a matter of fact, concerning the given dataset: • nodes can be considered on at least three layers, a resource layer, an entity layer and a collection layer, and they have different relationships; • nodes on the two latter layers have subtypes which can be treated as extra layers: entities are people, locations, institutions or themes, collections are epublications, units or subunits; • resources are time-stamped by their historical publication date. the network therefore changes depending on the studied time period. moreover, distinct time slices can also be regarded as defining separate layers. the definition of layers in this data model deliberately remains flexible (node types, node subtypes, time periods), and may depend on the user’s research question and vision of the data. also, note that compared to the framework of kivela’s universal model of mul- tilayer networks (kivelä et al. ), the blizaar data does not possess multiple types of relationship between nodes. this network dimension has therefore not been considered for the rest of this paper. in view of the concrete dataset and the cvce (subsequently the university of luxem- bourg) acting as a collaborator and a stakeholder, the blizaar project is an instance of problem-driven visualization research. it has therefore been conducted in the spirit table blizaar dataset magnitudes item approximate count resources , collections , identified entities , entity appearances , entity co-occurrences , , bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of of a design study, which is defined as a project in which visualization researchers ana- lyze a specific real-world problem faced by domain experts, design a visualization system that supports solving this problem, validate the design, and reflect about lessons learned in order to refine visualization design guidelines (sedlmair et al. ). the collaboration was organized as follows: a kick-off workshop with four cvce domain experts helped to assess technical skill levels and to determine the research priorities for historians and to develop user stories. this was followed by monthly exchanges with a primary domain expert (also the second author of this paper). one intermediate and one final evaluation with four cvce domain experts validated the user stories and provided feedback on the usability of the demonstrator. in the kick-off workshop, the domain experts identified content retrieval and insights concerning the representation and interconnections of entities in a corpus as main objec- tives. due to the heterogeneity of the documents in the corpus and lacking information on the nature of links between entities, the data was not considered usable for the reconstruc- tion and quantitative analysis of a historical social network without significant manual annotation which was beyond the scope of the project. in addition, domain experts did not have a strong background in advanced data analysis but highly value at least a basic comprehension of the inherent logic of the tools they work with. these needs were expressed in the following user stories: ( ) content overview: “i would like to have an overview of how a specific per- son/institution/location is represented in the corpus and of the other entities with whom they are mentioned. this helps me to decide which documents i want to study in greater detail.” ( ) query knowledge expansion: “i am interested in a topic but simple keywords are not suitable to retrieve relevant documents. starting with my limited knowledge of the topic i want to receive suggestions for promising contents and additional keywords which can guide my exploration.” ( ) explore search results: “i am interested in a broader topic but am overwhelmed by the very large number of diverse search results. i want to be able to dissect and organize these results and understand how they are related to each other and their attribute values.” ( ) entity comparison: “i want to compare specific entities (persons, institutions, loca- tions, but also collections) in the corpus to get a better understanding of their presence in the corpus. i want to study how the contexts in which they appear change over time. i want to explore links between the entities i compare.” within the blizaar project, one or more of these user stories were targeted by dif- ferent prototypes (https://blizaar.list.lu). the design of the intergraph demonstrator put special focus on ( ) content overview and ( ) entity comparison. to implement these user stories within a graph-based environment, the following user requirements have been identified: create subgraphs of understandable size and complexity set up multiple graphs for the sake of comparison or contrasting observe temporal changes filter for node and edge properties maintain a straightforward link to all connected resources for further study compensate for errors in named entity linking, e.g. duplicates https://blizaar.list.lu bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of a specific problem related to the automatic generation of the network is data imperfec- tions. most commonly we observe fragments which were wrongly identified as entities, duplicate entities which have not been disambiguated correctly, and entities which have been disambiguated wrongly and linked to homonyms (the politician “robert schuman” vs. the composer “robert schumann”). the effort required to rectify all of the above- mentioned flaws is too costly and therefore unrealistic for this and comparable corpora. functionalities moderating the flaws were therefore considered to be the most promising strategy in this case. state of the art network visualizations offer a unique way to understand and analyze complex data by enabling users to inspect and comprehend relations between individual units and their properties. some scientific fields have been using network visualizations for a long time, most notably systems biology where purpose-built visualizations have been developed for more than twenty-five years (mendes ; shannon et al. ; pavlopoulos et al. ). interactive network visualizations have been used in and around the digital humani- ties sphere to make datasets accessible for exploration and research (jänicke et al. ; düring ; jessop ; boukhelifa et al. ; düring ; windhager et al. ) inasmuch as they offer novel search and discovery tools which enhance well-established techniques such as faceted search and keyword search. examples include stand-alone applications based on letter exchanges (warren et al. ), to explore bibliographic data (snac; verhoeven and burrows ), collections of documents based on unstructured text (guido et al. ; moretti et al. ), often with a strong element of decentralised and collaborative data curation. to avoid costly manual relationship extraction, network data is often generated automatically based on named entity recognition (ner), existing document metadata or other data extracted from unstructured text and inferred relations between them. with its focus on the exploration of automatically enriched unstructured texts, intergraph bears closest resemblance to guido et al. ( ) and moretti et al. ( ) but adds new functionality for the exploration of multilayer networks on multiple canvases. dynamic networks represent evolving relationships between entities that evolve over time (beck et al. ). a small number of tools are readily available for dynamic graph visualization, such as gephi (bastian et al. ) or commetrix (trier ) which are arguably the two most prominent solutions. these applications are under continuous development and have a large user community, but they are not adapted to visualizing multiple layers and therefore cannot properly meet the specificities of multilayer data. as a matter of fact, recent research suggests that multilayer graphs allow for more complex- ity in the exploration of historical data (mcgee et al. ; valleriani et al. ; van vugt ; grandjean ). in multilayer networks, subnetworks are considered on indepen- dent layers, but they can also interact with each other (kivelä et al. ). multilayer networks can have multiple types of node (ghani et al. ), with different attributes (kerren et al. ; nobre et al. ) and different types of relationships (singh et al. ). tulip (auber ) is a powerful graph visualization framework capable of embrac- ing the complexity of multilayer data, however its configuration requires expertise in programming and network analysis and has a substantial learning curve for the user to obtain the intended visualization. bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of the particularities of networks being both dynamic and multilayer have recently come to the attention of network science due to their importance for real-world applica- tions. multilayer networks open up new opportunities for the interactive exploration of (historical) datasets but also require novel types of data visualization (rossi and magnani ). in recent years, two collaborative european projects, plexmath ( - ) (https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/ _fr.html) and multiplex ( - ) (https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/ _en.html), were entirely dedicated to this topic, allowing to design a number of novel visualization methods (http://www.mkivela. com/pymnet, https://github.com/sg-dev/multinet.js) (de domenico et al. ; piškorec et al. ). the tools published in the scope of these two projects have been primarily designed to demonstrate concepts and to illustrate universal approaches to dynamic mul- tilayer graph visualizations. given the lack of ongoing development and active support, their usability for the blizaar use case given in this paper is problematic. a complete survey on current visualization solutions for multilayer graphs and their features, can be found in ghoniem et al. ( ). based on the blizaar use requirements identified in the previous section, three feature sets were found to be essential for any adopted solution: the swift creation of subgraphs from a larger dataset to support an iterative exploration workflow; follow-up functionalities beyond selection, layout rearrangement or camera movement. in our case, this includes querying, generating, and juxtaposing related subgraphs and layers; a flexible layer model which allows the user to switch between, and even to combine models (e.g. node type layers vs. time slice layers). to our knowledge there is no tool available which contains all three feature sets and allows their combination in exploratory workflows. this motivated the development of the intergraph visualization platform which we describe in the following section. intergraph intergraph offers a novel approach to exploring digital humanities corpora by means of an iterative search and discovery workflow. the demonstrator has been designed to meet all user requirements specified in the previous section. written in javascript, intergraph runs in a web browser and communicates with a node.js server which queries the data from a neo j database. the front-end client renders the graphs using the three.js graphics library. given the size of the blizaar dataset, an overall visualization of the corpus is nei- ther suitable nor desirable for exploration. instead, users are rather interested in creating and inspecting subnetworks with entities relevant to their current research. the main idea of intergraph is therefore to begin the exploration from one or more known start nodes. following the expand-on-demand principle (van ham and perer ), the user will encounter new relevant nodes and pursue their exploration by conveniently creat- ing additional graphs stemming from the existing ones. this path of exploration yields a sequence of linked subgraphs (user requirement ). depending on the query and the users understanding of the data, a new graph may be used and looked upon as a complementary layer, or as a complementary graph of an existing layer. https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/ _fr.html https://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/ _en.html http://www.mkivela.com/pymnet http://www.mkivela.com/pymnet https://github.com/sg-dev/multinet.js bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of figure shows a general screenshot of the intergraph interface. graphs can be dynam- ically added to and deleted from the scene. following the vislink approach (collins and carpendale ), they are rendered on free-floating planes which can be arbitrar- ily translated, oriented and scaled using familiar transformation widgets. depending on the user’s tasks and preferences, the scene can be viewed from a d or a d perspec- tive. the default d view is known to be most effective for visual data exploration and analytics, since d visualizations tend to suffer from occlusion, overlapping and distor- tion, and they often require increased viewpoint navigation to find an optimal perspective (shneiderman ). however, d scenes allow users to stack multiple planar graph layers in space and to create so-called “ . d” visualizations, which can be useful for understanding complex networks (ware ). since target users are not experts in network science and since the data itself does not lend itself to reconstruct meaningful social networks, intergraph forgoes advanced graph concepts. network analysis functions, metrics and algorithms like clustering coefficients or betweenness have not been considered for implementation in this prototype. on these grounds, intergraph also uses standard visual encoding. node colors reflect the node type and sizes indicate the number of underlying resources. a click on a node or edge gives immediate access to these resources (user requirement ). new graphs are typically pro- duced by querying ego-networks of existing nodes, i.e. subgraphs linking a node with its immediate neighbors, via easy-to-communicate operations such as: • all entities co-appearing with a given entity • all collections mentioning a given entity • all entities mentioned in a given collection • all collections sharing resources with a given collection if the same node appears on two or more graphs of the scene, coupling edges (kivelä et al. ) are drawn (see figs. and ). this user-driven network generation approach was partly inspired by “citation-chaining”, one of the most commonly used search strategies for literature among historians (ellis ; buchanan et al. ). inter- graph applies the citation chaining principle to documents and the entities mentioned in fig. intergraph. a general screenshot bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of fig. comparing graphs. co-evolution of two dynamic networks over consecutive time periods them. this allows users to create their own interest-driven search and discovery paths across the dataset. with regard to data imperfections, one of the most frequently encountered flaws with entity disambiguation in the cvce dataset are entity duplicates, i.e. multiple recognized entities where in reality only one was actually mentioned. for example, named entity recognition yielded three separate nodes for “east berlin”. if the user wants to consider bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of these three nodes as one in order to create an ego-network, it is possible to multi-select a number of nodes and to query “all entities co-appearing with a given entity (union)”, meaning that the result will be the list of nodes co-appearing with at least one of the selected nodes. the user can then define a unique group node for “east berlin” and draw a meaningful graph (user requirement ). it is also possible to query “all entities co- appearing with a given entity (intersection)”. this operation returns the list of entities co-appearing in the corpus with all selected nodes and can be used to merge multiple nodes, for example if understood as representatives of a social group. the results of new queries first appear in the form of a table in the left pane. this first kind of visualization, itemizing only the nodes without the edges, may in some cases already be sufficient to work with. the table lets users decide whether it is worth generating the graph or whether they prefer to recompile the list of nodes, if there are missing nodes or nodes which should be excluded from the graph. a graph of a given node table, or part of it, can be generated on demand and is added to the canvas on the right side of the interface. the scene can be submitted to a filter which operates on resource type and time period (user requirement ). subgraphs of a given resource type can provide a better understand- ing of its distribution within the corpus. subgraphs considering the resources within a specific time window allow the user to assess the relevance and interconnections of enti- ties during a specific period. the user can shift the time window and obtain an animated representation of the dynamic graph (user requirement ). if time-to-time mapping, i.e. animation, is not convenient to analyze the evolution of a network over time, time-to- space mapping is also possible. for this purpose the user can clone and “freeze” a graph of the scene, meaning that its current filter is fixed. using this method, several graphs with the same nodes but distinct time periods can be juxtaposed ( d) or superimposed ( d) in space (beck et al. ) (user requirement ). figure illustrates how intergraph addresses the three challenges as specified in the state of the art by offering interactive subgraph creation, multiple operations to define layers and the free organization of these layers in the canvas. we take as example willy brandt, former chancellor of the federal republic of germany, and his advisor egon bahr. the scene shows a set of subgraphs which have been incrementally constructed. starting with a search for the two nodes “willy brandt” and “egon bahr”, we use the node-level follow-up operation “persons co-appearing with” and the graph-level operations “clone”, “freeze” and “time filter” to create two ego networks at three consecutive time periods (before , - and after ). the flexible layer concept allows organizing these six layers freely, in this case to reveal how the co-occurrence networks evolve and overlap. user test results to assess the usability of intergraph, two user evaluation sessions were held. the first to validate the user stories and to provide feedback on an earlier version of intergraph, the second to evaluate the current version. the tests were conducted with a group of four scholars, all of whom were former cvce employees. the selection criteria were familiar- ity with the underlying corpus on european integration and with the application of digital tools and methods. these criteria were applied to ensure that users could turn their atten- tion to the interaction with the prototype with only minimal reminders of the underlying bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of data model and content, and also that they were qualified to judge the pertinence of the output. for the second evaluation, evaluators were asked to submit in advance a list of five persons or intuitions and optionally up to three time periods between and they wished to explore in greater depth under the precondition that they had expert knowledge about their presence in the cvce corpus. to compensate for the relative unfamiliarity with the software they were to test, the scholars were reminded of blizaar’s research objectives and received a circa -min demonstration of the intergraph core functionalities. after the presentation of the plat- form, they were invited to use intergraph for themselves and to begin their session with an elementary keyword search for an entity they knew was mentioned in the corpus. from this starting point, they were free to perform more synoptic tasks, such as finding relevant collections and resources, searching for co-appearing entities and comparing their corre- sponding networks, in order to obtain a comprehensive overview of how the investigated element is represented, positioned and linked in the corpus. throughout the session, users were encouraged to continuously verbalize their train of thoughts and actions, in line with the thinking aloud approach (boren and ramey ). following the -min testing period, users were asked to give verbal feedback and to complete a questionnaire. in their verbal feedback, users appreciated the ease of navigating through the corpus, the flexibility and freedom to combine different elements, the links across canvases, the management of duplicate entities as well as the ability to drill down to the underlying resources. with regard to the added value in their research workflows, they highlighted the ability to detect unexpected relationships between entities (in this case between a bank and politicians) and the ability to contribute to a global assessment of the collection and its composition. critical remarks addressed the absence of additional inter-layer links across canvases (e.g. multiple entities mentioned in the same epublication), the obscurity of the frequent use of the context menu triggered by a right-click, and long loading times for graphs with more than nodes due to performance limitations. users were invited to fill in a questionnaire and to quantify the utility of intergraph on a scale of to with regard to all aspects of the initially defined user story. as a result, fig. shows a high general acceptance. in one case, intergraph did not produce a number of documents the evaluator expected to retrieve, which explains the low mark below average. most notably, all users declared in the questionnaire that for the given user story they would prefer to fig. evaluation. user test questionnaire results bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of use intergraph over the other available tools (cvce homepage search and cvce backend search). conclusion & future work this paper presented intergraph, a visual analytics platform designed for effective nav- igation through the content of digital humanities corpora by non-experts. the work is inspired by recent advances in the visualization of dynamic multilayer networks, and has been enhanced and optimized for humanities scholars with no or very little skills in data analysis and visualization and their subject-specific workflows. the user tests conducted showed a high acceptance of the demonstrator with respect to the original requirements. the user tests did however also reveal a number of challenges. our evaluation setup sought to minimize the hurdles involved with an ad-hoc evaluation of a new tool and uncommon methods of search and discovery based on named entities and visualiza- tions but could not remove them. users require significant time to learn how to operate especially prototype software and to adjust long established research workflows. most crucially however, automated data extraction and visualization-based exploration need to be understood well and their potential can only be explored by extensive experimentation and adoption to a new domain which was beyond the scope of this project. given the exploratory nature of intergraph, future work will concentrate on additional ways of suggesting related nodes and creating pertinent graphs out of existing ones, for example by applying recommendation algorithms (bobadilla et al. ). the multi- layer character of the data should be leveraged by adding other types of interlayer edges, such as those indicating the “mentions” relationship between collections and entities. for the time being, it is also impossible to visualize more than one type of link within a given layer, which precludes for example the possibility to visualize registered family or friendship relationships between people in addition to their coappearance relationship. moreover, data imperfections may cause significantly skewed results and therefore need to be taken into account. such imperfections may stem from the automated process- ing of digitized materials by methods such as optical character recognition (ocr) or named entity recognition (ner), but also from manual curation of metadata, for exam- ple, as well as intrinsic ambiguities in the source material. since data cleaning is typically too costly, we observe a strong need for systems which enable users to cope with data- inherent imperfections. intergraph’s functionality to merge duplicate nodes is a step in this direction. another promising direction is the critical assessment of the composition of datasets and the potential of visualization to reveal its inherent biases. these require- ments present interesting challenges and opportunities for the design of innovative tools for visual analytics. finally, it is important to observe that the used data model is highly generic. enti- ties identified in collections of time-stamped resources are likely to be found in a huge number of digital corpora. it is intended to open the existing platform to other datasets, and for this purpose the authors are currently working on extending intergraph and its functionalities to two additional historical databases: • regesta imperii (kuczera ) (http://www.regesta-imperii.de): a collection of records of the roman-german kings and emperors, as well as of the popes from the middle ages; http://www.regesta-imperii.de bornhofen and dü applied network science ( ) : page of • romans by (varga ) (http://romans by .com): a population database registering the people which are attested in greek and roman epigraphic sources. by this means, we hope that intergraph can evolve into a valuable visualization and exploration tool for many scholars working in the field of digital humanities. abbreviations cvce: centre virtuel de la connaissance sur l’europe; ner: named entity recognition; ocr: optical character recognition acknowledgements the authors would like to thank the master student samuel guillaume for his excellent contribution to the implementation of the intergraph platform. the authors would furthermore like to express their gratitude to the journal editors and reviewers for their highly constructive feedback on earlier versions of this article. authors’ contributions stefan bornhofen is responsible for the design and implementation of the intergraph software. marten düring is responsible for the development of the use case and evaluation. both authors read and approved the final manuscript. authors’ information stefan bornhofen studied mathematics and computer science at the university of mainz, germany, and obtained a phd in computer science from paris-sud university, france, in . he holds a teaching and research position at cy tech engineering school in cergy near paris, and is the head of a master’s program specializing in computer graphics, computer vision and human-computer interaction. marten düring studied history at the universities of augsburg and manchester, and received a phd degree in contemporary history from the university of mainz, germany in . he is assistant professor in digital history at the luxembourg centre for contemporary and digital history. funding this research was funded by the anr grant blizaar anr- -ce - - and the fnr grant blizaar inter/anr/ / . availability of data and materials the datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to copyright restrictions but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. author details laboratoire etis, cy cergy paris université, ensea, cnrs, umr , boulevard du port, cergy, france. luxembourg centre for contemporary and digital history, porte des sciences, esch-sur-alzette, luxembourg. received: february accepted: july 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( ) what's up prof? current issues in the visual effects & post-production industry. leonardo: art science and technology, ( ). pp. - . issn - x http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / deposited on: january enlighten – research publications by members of the university of glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/view/author/ .html http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/view/journal_volume/leonardo= a_art_science_and_technology.html http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/view/journal_volume/leonardo= a_art_science_and_technology.html http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / t r a n s a c t io n s leonardo, vol. , no. , pp. – , © isast what’s up prof? current issues in the visual effects & post- production industry neil dodgson, university of cambridge, computer laboratory, cb fd, u.k. e-mail: john patterson, university of glasgow, dep’t of computing science, g qq u.k. e-mail: phil willis, university of bath, computer science dep’t, ba ay u.k. e-mail: p.j.willis@bath.ac.uk submitted: / / abstract we interviewed creative professionals at a number of london visual effects and post-production houses. we report on the key issues raised in those interviews: desirable new technologies, infrastruc- ture challenges, personnel and process management. visual effects companies began to estab- lish themselves, in the film industry, in the s. the potential of computers became fully apparent during the s when they began to generate realistic imagery [ ]. in the u.k. alone, visual effects and post-production are now worth over a billion u.s. dollars. today, the industry faces many issues critical to its future. to get a snapshot of current issues, we interviewed a range of creative professionals in london in de- cember . in particular, we elicited how those professionals in the creative industry thought that the universities could best help them. the organizations we visited six organizations [a–f] rep- resenting different facets of the industry: a. a large visual effects company, dealing mostly with movies. the company employs technical staff, artists, plus management. b. a medium-sized post-production company, working on advertising, television, and movies. the com- pany has over employees, mostly visual effects artists. c. a software developer with em- ployees, producing software for post-production and visual effects. d. a systems developer with em- ployees producing combined soft- ware and hardware solutions for colour grading. e. a scanning and recording house, a member of an international group providing full services to the film industry, specializing in converting between digital and analogue media. f. an independent consultancy spe- cializing in coordinating research projects in this industry. the issues we asked each organization to discuss current problems and desires. we subse- quently categorised them three ways: . desirable new technologies. . infrastructure. . managing people and process. . desirable new technologies a) human in the loop. there is much good university research on fully- automatic methods for image processing and computer vision. these work well at the low quality end of the market (e.g., segmentation and d reconstruction). however, this work has had little impact on the high quality end, where every- thing is still done manually. it would be useful to investigate methods that solve particular problems (e.g., optical flow, boundary detection, and object detec- tion) to help a human being either to direct the automated algorithm or to ad- just the output of the automated algo- rithm quickly and efficiently. in either case the semi-automatic method will only be useful if the result is superior to the manual method while taking less time to achieve. [d] b) repurposing. research is needed into effective ways to reuse both footage and d models. models tend to be made anew for each sequel. this is under- standable as technology moves on, but it is increasingly expensive. however, we also find that the d models used for a movie are not used for the simultane- ously-released accompanying game. how can we make better use of existing assets? [c,f] c) finding assets. the databases of as- sets are now so large that we need to develop better ways to catalogue them and to search both images and d mod- els. there are usually many different versions of a given asset: it is vital to find the correct version, not just the cor- rect asset. [a,f] d) d reconstruction. reasonable methods for the reconstruction of d objects exist but they work best with frame-synchronised views from binocu- lar cameras. the next challenge is the extraction of data of good enough quality for the reconstruction of a complete d scene from multiple movie cameras. some aspects of this problem remain challenging. support for d (stereo- scopic) movie-making has become a priority for the industry following the popularity of recent d releases. [ ,c] e) artistic control of physical simula- tion. movie effects need to be visually plausible but the simulations that under- lie them do not have to be physically realistic nor work for longer than the shot. there has been considerable re- search on producing physically realistic simulations. the industry needs physi- cally plausible simulation that can be directed and modified by the artist [ ]. for example, can we build a water simu- lator where the artist can control where the water goes? could we make a cloth simulator which is physically plausible but which gives the artist control over specific behaviours? how do we make things that look plausible when they are physically impossible? [a,e] f) making convincing digital humans. human beings are good at recognizing and analysing the appearance and behav- iour of other human beings. it is still difficult to make a convincing digital human. we know that there is evidence that a digital human that is not quite convincing is more disturbing to the average viewer than a digital human that is clearly not meant to be realistic (“the uncanny valley” [ ]). compounding this is the problem that it is difficult to cap- ture good face data and difficult to pro- duce plausible animation of face data. acquisition of human motion on set or on a soundstage is particularly expensive and therefore is only used if it is abso- lutely necessary. [a] g) breaking free from pixels. a non- pixel format (e.g., that in [ ]) could be useful to break free from the problem of producing the same material at many different resolutions and needing to en- sure that the original material is always shot at the highest resolution that you will need. such a format would need to be able to handle all the processing that we currently do on pixelised images. in the long term there would need to be input devices (cameras) and output de- vices (projectors) that could handle the non-pixel format. [b] . infrastructure a) trans-coding media between digital formats. there has been a proliferation of formats. for example, a single work can be required in a dozen different for- mats resulting in a lot of cpu time and staff time converting between them. one way in which we could tackle this is to develop a video version of adobe’s portable document format, a single file format that can be converted at need transactions t r a n s a c t io n s either at the player or at the server when the player requests the file. [b] b) backup of large data stores. a post- production or visual effects house pro- duces gigabytes of new data each day. at the small end of the scale, a k dpx movie frame requires mb, and a k frame can require as much as mb. at the large end, an advertising poster can be rendered with up to megapixels, requiring . gb. one company uses a tb file store; another mentioned data volumes of several hundred tera- bytes. one company reported that no vendor of off-site backup was able to cope with the quantity of new data that they produce. two companies com- mented that, because of the volume problem, they maintain their backups on site, with the obvious risks. [a,b,d,f] c) keeping up with technology. tech- nology changes rapidly. companies de- vote much resource to making best use of new technology to speed up processes and keep ahead of the competition. it is not just a question of optimizing the effects algorithms: one company re- ported that less than % of their code did the actual effects work, with the rest of the code being required for data man- agement. [d] d) archiving and cataloguing assets. archiving everything is problematic. if done, cataloguing is important (see (c)). for example, an upcoming feature film has effects shots, with million assets, variations on those assets produce million identifiable objects. these take up several hundred terabytes. how do we archive something like this? there are many subsidiary questions within this problem: for example, is it sufficient to store the original imagery and models along with a description of the process to get to the final shot? [a,f] e) archiving footage in perpetuity. in addition to archiving assets in the short to medium term, there is a desire to ar- chive the finished product forever. all physical media deteriorates, whether physical film, magnetic tape, or optical disc. film has a life of around years, though this varies considerably with storage conditions [ ]. some film has survived reasonably intact over years [ ]. lto ultrium (½" digital ar- chive tape) has a predicted life of – years [ ]. can we develop mechanisms that robustly store digital footage for decades or centuries? if so, can we automatically migrate existing film ar- chives to secure digital media. this is not a small problem: the british film institute has an archive of , mov- ies [ ]. the internet movie database [ ] reports , movies released in , the equivalent of a hundred mil- lion feet of film per year. [e,f] f) healing the d/ d divide. there are currently separate workflows for d data (images) and d data (modelling). it would be useful to join the workflows in some way, especially as stereoscopic movies become more popular. [ ,c] g) improving digital capture. there are currently no digital capture devices that can compete with film in quality of captured imagery. [e] . managing people and process a) managing creative input. a decade ago, visual effects artists were generally aware of the underlying technology and of the entire pipeline from concept to the finished film. today, young artists, while still skilled creatively, are far less knowledgeable technically. they can thus either fail to use the full power of the technology or fail to understand the implications of their actions for the later stages of the pipeline. [a] b) managing workflow. the current methods for visual effects and post- production follow a production line: each step in the process building on the previous one. can we break free of this production line method and provide ef- fective feedback loops between the dif- ferent links in the production chain? [a] c) managing a large workforce. the industry once consisted of small compa- nies, within each of which everyone knew everyone else. over the last dec- ade, several of the companies have be- come too large to work in this way. how do we manage this creative, collabora- tive process when people in different parts of the chain do not know each other and have only a basic understanding of each other’s roles? [a] d) managing client expectations. vis- ual effects are now an ordinary part of the production pipeline, rather than any- thing special. some movies now have over a thousand effects shots and even non-effects movies employ a lot of digi- tal post-production. for example, a re- cent live-action movie with no visual effects still had over shots that re- quired cgi post-production, such as changing the sky colour and moving or removing background elements. much effects work is time-consuming and la- bour-intensive. many effects are gener- ated using one-off solutions that are thrown together to get the result wanted by the director. despite these difficulties, the companies find that their clients have little appreciation of which effects are straightforward to produce and which are extraordinarily expensive. there is a common belief that, if they have seen an effect in some other movie, then it must be straightforward to produce. [a,b] implications and conclusions with regard to research timescales, the universities and companies differ. the companies need solutions to their current problems, on a timescale of to months. the universities need to work on problems that will become pressing in to years time or on problems for which no solution is obvious to industry. the latter are those problems to which no company will devote resources but for which a solution would be useful, if one could be found. computer graphics and image proc- essing researchers are best placed to tackle the development of new technolo- gies in ( ). these are also the problems best suited to university timescales. we are working with some of the companies to research certain of these. our col- leagues in networking, information re- trieval, databases, and engineering are best placed to tackle research issues in infrastructure ( ), particularly how to handle backup and archive of large data- sets. the managerial issues ( ) demon- strate that some of the biggest problems facing the industry have little to do with technology and everything to do with people. references and notes . richard rickitt, special effects: the history & technique (virgin books, ). . lenny lipton, “digital stereoscopic cinema: the st century”, proc. spie , . . ronen barzel, “faking dynamics of ropes and springs”, ieee computer graphics & applications ( ), pp. – , . . f.c. gee, w.n. browne, k. kawamura, “un- canny valley revisited”, ieee international work- shop on robot and human interactive communication (roman ), pp. – , , . john patterson, philip j. willis, “image process- ing and vectorisation” international patent applica- tion pct/gb / , filed july , u.k. . james m. riley, ipi storage guide for acetate film, image permanence institute, . . british film institute mitchell & kenyon collec- tion, , accessed february . . sun microsystems lto ultrium tape cartridge specifications, , accessed february . . british film institute national archive, , accessed february . . internet movie database, , accessed february . citation_temp.pdf http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / citation_temp.pdf http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / citation_temp.pdf http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / handbook of human vibration handbook of human vibration when looking for safe vibration, particularly for people with illness or fragility look for a machine that is g-force griffin jj handbook of human vibration. vibration levels related to human comfort in buildings, mainly the ones made of steel. human ( ) griffin, m. j. handbook of human vibration. london: aca. ebook download handbook of human vibration. ebook download high-security mechanical locks: an encyclopedic reference · ebook download homemade. random whole body vibration (wbv) training leads to beneficial short-term effects in patients with parkinson's griffin m. j. handbook of human vibration. the exposure of the human body to vibration is present in everyday situations and may be a source of discomfort and in some handbook of human vibration. the interest in human response to vibration becomes more and more public because , handbook of human vibrations - griffin - (show context). handbook of human vibration read/download keywords: human vibration, building, hvac equipment. . introduction bad vibration a handbook on whole-body vibration exposure in mining. . the title of the iso "mechanical vibration – measurement and assessment of to the vibrations transmitted by hand, handbook of human vibration. sae international conference on digital human modelling, iowa city, iowa, usa, june - , . (sd- ) handbook of human vibration. academic press. both knee angles of ° and ° have similar effects on the vibration load and represent safe (pubmed), griffin m.j. ( ) handbook of human vibration. vibration, shock (single event and repeated), and motion have vibration, impact and motion from the perspective of the handbook of human vibration. san. . betz. human factors in organizational design and management practical human factors for pilots. handbook of human vibration. . griffin. workers in wood industry are exposed to vibration and its damages. the purpose of this study griffin m j. handbook of human vibration. st ed, academic. this module provides an understanding of human responses to sound and vibration in the environment, and how such environmental stimuli are measured. research on the impact of vibrations on the human body is http://www .getfileservice.ru/m.php?q=handbook of human vibration carried out in many griffin m.j., , handbook of human vibration, academic press, london. . vibration magnitudes for z-axis at the pedal-pad on tarmac and paved road surface handbook of human vibration, london : elsevier academic press. an ios application for evaluating whole-body vibration within a workplace risk management references. . m.j. griffin, handbook of human vibration. handbook of human factors and ergonomics handbook of human vibration (rc . .v g ) handbook of hydraulic fluid technology (tj . vibration- induced cervical spine and back pain. etiology generic & av situation-flight vibration/ spinal issues. handbook of human vibration. st ed. involving human exposure to whole-body vibration motion sickness under vibrations at various ( ) griffin, m.j., "handbook of human vibration". academic. griffin, m.j., ,handbook of human vibration, london: academic press. griffin griffin, m.j., , vibration and motion, handbook of human factors. flow-induced vibrations. . nakamura handbook of human vibration. . griffin lee. handbook of shock waves, three volume set. . ben-dor. by karyne rabey in whole body vibration and rodents. in: handbook of human vibration, edited by m. j. griffin. san diego: elsevier academic press, . assessment of whole body vibration exposure among motorcyclist in malaysia under different speeds ( ) griffin, m.j., . handbook of human vibration. volume : human exposure to vibration and shock, vibration in relation to vehicles, specific equipment and machines, buildings. 収載されているiso規格は以下の. abstract excessive, chronic whole-body vibration (wbv) has a number of negative side effects on the human body, including disorders of the skeletal. many parameters governing the human response to vibrations. in particular, as regards ) griffin m j ( ) handbook of human vibration. academic press. in this paper, the vibration acceleration was calculated based on the measured blasting vibration velocity using ( ) griffin m. j. handbook of human vibration. the influence of a human hand- arm system on the vibrational dynamic behaviour of a ( ) handbook of human vibration, london: academic press. handbook of human vibration. mj griffin the apparent mass of the seated human body: vertical vibration evaluation of whole-body vibration in vehicles. handbook of human vibration ebook download handbook of human vibration. ebook download high-security mechanical locks: an encyclopedic reference · ebook download homemade. . betz. human factors in organizational design and management practical human factors for pilots. handbook of human vibration. . griffin. microsoft word - ijhfms - schaub _ _.doc int. j. human factors modelling and simulation, vol. , nos. / , copyright © inderscience enterprises ltd. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks with digital human modelling and the ‘ergonomics assessment worksheet’ (eaws) karlheinz g. schaub* institute of ergonomics, darmstadt university of technology (iad), petersenstr, , d- , darmstadt, germany e-mail: schaub@iad.tu-darmstadt.de *corresponding author jens mühlstedt professorship of human factors and ergonomics, chemnitz university of technology, erfenschlager straße , gebäude c, chemnitz, germany e-mail: jens.muehlstedt@mb.tu-chemnitz.de benjamin illmann, sebastian bauer and lars fritzsche imk automotive gmbh, annaberger str. , d- chemnitz, germany e-mail: benjamin.illmann@imk-automotive.de e-mail: sebastian.bauer@imk-automotive.de e-mail: lars.fritzsche@imk-automotive.de torsten wagner institute of ergonomics, darmstadt university of technology (iad), petersenstr, , d- , darmstadt, germany e-mail: wagner@iad.tu-darmstadt.de angelika c. bullinger-hoffmann professorship of human factors and ergonomics, chemnitz university of technology, erfenschlager straße , gebäude c, chemnitz, germany e-mail: angelika.bullinger-hoffmann@mb.tu-chemnitz.de ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks ralph bruder institute of ergonomics, darmstadt university of technology (iad), petersenstr, , d- , darmstadt, germany e-mail: bruder@iad.tudarmstadt.de abstract: the increasing global competition and changing demographic profiles amplify the importance of efficient design of work stations and processes that considers the physical job demands and the operators’ abilities. good ergonomic design is not restricted to the current production, but should be considered during all phases of the product life cycle. digital human model (dhm) simulations provide good opportunities for an integrated ergonomic design, particularly during pre-production planning. this article gives an overview on dhm used in production ergonomics and highlights two new approaches to enhance current dhm applications. the editor for manual work activities (ema) helps to speed up and optimise human movement simulation. mtmergonomics is an ergonomic risk assessment tool for industrial engineers (and ergonomists) during the planning phase of the product development process, based on mtm process languages like mtm-uas. the ergonomic assessment worksheet (eaws) is a tool for the holistic evaluation of physical workloads. it is implemented in digital human models like jack and serves as an ergonomic evaluation tool within ema and mtmergonomics. eaws serves as a common feature to link dhm, ema and mtmergonomics activities. keywords: anthropometry; biomechanics; physiology; risk assessment; editor for manual work activities; ema; ergonomics assessment worksheet; eaws; mtmergonomics; eu legal requirements; physical workload; digital human model; dhm. reference to this paper should be made as follows: schaub, k.g., mühlstedt, j., illmann, b., bauer, s., fritzsche, l., wagner, t., bullinger-hoffmann, a.c. and bruder, r. ( ) ‘ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks with digital human modelling and the ‘ergonomics assessment worksheet’ (eaws)’, int. j. human factors modelling and simulation, vol. , nos. / , pp. – . biographical notes: karlheinz g. schaub is the head of the research group on production ergonomics in institute of ergonomics, darmstadt university of technology (iad), germany. following his degree in mechanical engineering at darmstadt university of technology, he obtained his phd at the iad. he joined the institute in and essentially works currently on topics concerning the physical workload. as a nominated national expert, he represents germany in european (cen) and international (iso) standardisation organisations in the field of biomechanics. since , he is the chairman of the working group ‘anthropometry and biomechanics’ in the din (german standardisation institute) ‘ergonomics’ standardisation committee. jens mühlstedt is scientist and team leader of the process ergonomics team, professorship of human factors and ergonomics, chemnitz university of technology, germany. he has been scientist in the field of ergonomics and human factors since . after his study in mechanical engineering, he worked on digital human models, biomechanics, signal design for human machine interfaces and working environment. in , he finished his phd k.g. schaub et al. thesis with the title ‘development of a model for motion-related muscular work strain based on digital human models’. currently, he leads the team for process ergonomics at the chair for ergonomics at the chemnitz university of technology. benjamin illmann is an ergonomist in imk automotive gmbh, germany. he studied mechanical engineering at tu dresden. he majored in industrial engineering and ergonomics. after his studies, he worked as a freelancer, before in , he became an ergonomist at imk automotive. the topic of his phd thesis is about motion generation of digital human models. sebastian bauer is a software developer in imk automotive gmbh, germany. he studied computer science at the technical university of chemnitz. in , he started with the idea of developing the ema simulation tool at imk automotive gmbh and is currently finishing his doctoral thesis about this topic. lars fritzsche is the head of ergonomics in imk automotive gmbh, germany. he studied i/o-psychology and ergonomics at the technical university of dresden. he prepared his doctoral thesis at the daimler ag research center in ulm about ergonomic risk assessment based on digital human model simulations. since , he is the head of the ergonomic consulting team at imk automotive gmbh. torsten wagner is a member of the research group on production ergonomics in institute of ergonomics, darmstadt university of technology (iad), germany. he studied mechanical engineering at tu darmstadt. his major subjects were computer integrated design, product engineering and ergonomics. to finance his studies, he set up an individual enterprise in as computer retailer and service provider. since , he is a research associate at iad and is part of the team production ergonomics. angelika c. bullinger-hoffmann is the head of the chair for ergonomics at chemnitz university of technology, germany. she is also a permanent visiting fellow at the university of pennsylvania, pa. she is engaged in the field of it-based innovation management, and her primary interests are the interplay of product development and collaboration. she received her doctorate degree from technische universität münchen, germany and her master of business administration from the university of st. gall, switzerland as well as her master in international management from hec paris, france. ralph bruder is the head of the institute of ergonomics, darmstadt university of technology (iad), germany. he is the new director of iad since winter term / . he studied electrical and automatic control engineering at darmstadt university of technology, and was a research associate at the institute of ergonomics at tu darmstadt from to . he received his doctor’s degree at iad with a dissertation on applications of artificial intelligence in ergonomics in . since , he is engaged in self-employed projects with partners from industrial and administrative sectors, and from on he is university professor for ergonomics in design at the university of essen and head of the institute for ergonomics and design research that was founded by him. in , he was the first president of the design school zollverein. from , he headed the renamed zollverein school of management and design as president and managing director. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks introduction an increasing global competition and changing demographic profiles in industrialised countries stress the importance of designing work stations and processes in a lean way. this is especially due to the fact that in industrialised nations musculoskeletal disorders (msd) cause almost one third of all cases of sick leave (european agency for safety and health at work: zinta podniece, ). good ergonomic design that considers the job demands and the operators’ characteristics and abilities may help to reduce physical workload and optimise the production workflow (bierwirth et al., b). however, it is important to acknowledge that ergonomic design is not restricted to improving the current production, but should be considered during all phases of the product life cycle: the earlier ergonomic concerns are detected, the earlier they can be resolved (schaub et al., a, b). digital human model (dhm) simulations provide a high potential for preventive ergonomic work design, particularly during pre-production planning (duffy, ). human modelling started almost years ago. the first university development was system for aiding man machine interaction evaluation (sammie) at the university of nottingham (uk) (bonney and case, ). the first industrial applications started in aviation industries with boeman (ryan, ) and in automotive industries with cyberman (blakely, ). in addition to anthropometric models, but biomechanical man models (combiman, kroemer, ) were also implemented in this early modelling phase. the number of new dhms grew rapidly in the following years and some of them still exist. an overview on those ‘early’ man models can be found in schaub ( ). this article gives an overview on dhm used in production ergonomics and introduces three new approaches to enhance current dhm applications. the first is editor for manual work activities (ema) that helps to speed up and optimise human movement simulation. the second is mtmergonomics that links dhm to high quality descriptions of the work tasks using standardised process languages (e.g., mtm- , mtm-uas). the ergonomics assessment worksheet (eaws) finally is a tool for the holistic evaluation of physical workloads. it can be used throughout the whole product lifecycle, which also includes the application of dhm during the phase of the digital factory (schaub et al., a, b). as eaws is implemented in dhms like jack (mühlstedt, ) and planning tools like ema and mtmergonomics (schaub et al., a) eaws serves as a link between dhm, ema, and mtmergonomics for the evaluation of physical workload. background . dhms in automotive production dhms represent the human being in a software system or a part of a software system. they embody the complete or partial human characteristics and abilities. by using these systems in specific scenarios in the field of ergonomics, cognitions, medical science, biometrics and others, insights can be derived. for these subject areas, the technical term dhm has become established. furthermore, other terms can be found in publications and linguistic usage (figure ). dhms are used in product ergonomics for designing the k.g. schaub et al. interior, the position of the driver and of controls. beside this, the models are used for manufacturing design, for example to define work places, acceptable stress or the work environment. figure different terms used for dhms in various sources of english literature . . dhms in production ergonomics dhms, such as human builder, jack and realistic anthropological mathematical system for interior comfort simulation (ramsis), can be used for ergonomic studies and are, when integrated in a computer-aided design (cad) system, a helpful tool for designers during the product development process (pdp) as well as the planning process in digital factories (figure ). they enable the use of anthropometric data, reproduction of body postures and investigation of ergonomic issues in design and manufacturing. figure important ergonomic dhms and their usage (see online version for colours) source: taken from a survey in germany (mühlstedt and spanner-ulmer, ). catalogues of dhms are described in seidl’s ( ) doctoral thesis, in contributions from bubb and fritzsche ( ), lafiandra ( ) and li ( ) in handbook of digital human modeling from duffy ( ) as well as in the doctoral thesis from mühlstedt ( ). a survey from among german practitioners, mühlstedt ( ) identified the three most popular and currently used dhms human builder, jack and ramsis (figure ). in the following, their specific characteristics and functions for production ergonomics will be introduced. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks . . . human builder human builder (figure ) is a part of the cad-application delmia by dassault systemes that provides a set of tools to examine products and processes. it is also available in catia v . the model refers to data from various populations (france, america, canada, japan, korea) excluding growth acceleration. when the model is positioned via forward kinematics, inverse kinematics or predefined postures, it considers natural limitations of the joint angle. additional to the basic functions extra packages are available for ergonomic analysis. the add-on human activity analysis can be used to investigate static body postures using rapid upper limb assessment (rula) (mcatamney and corlett, ), lifting and carrying using the niosh (waters et al., ) equations and pushing/pulling using the snook and ciriello ( ) tables. human posture analysis enables qualitative and quantitative posture analyses with individual values for each joint by means of comfort and discomfort areas defined by the user. an automatic posture optimisation completes these features. human task simulation allows motion simulations for work processes to investigate ergonomic and occupational safety aspects. climbing stairs, using a ladder, creation of macro-like motion paths as well as key frame animation are provided (kühn, ; green and hudson, ; fireman and lesinski, ). . . . jack in the mid-‘ s of the last century jack (figure ) was introduced by the university of pennsylvania (center for human modeling) in cooperation with nasa and the company transom technologies inc. under the name classic jack, also jack stand-alone, the human model is available as an individual software; likewise it is linked to the product lifecycle management (plm) suite tecnomatix, the cad-system nx (nx human) and the software teamcenter (vis jack). tecnomatix was developed for application in the digital factory. work sequences and procedures, the workplace, cycle times and ergonomic conditions can be analysed. movement macros, such as gripping objects, enable an efficient use. the basic data for the human model jack is provided by the anthropometric database ansur. the flexible spine and joints allow versatile applications. a number of analysis functions are integrated into the system (strength analysis, lifting, carrying, risk analysis, etc.). there are other complementary packages for jack. these include task analysis toolkit for ergonomic work place design and motion capture toolkit for record of real movement data. possible analyses with tecnomatix are cycle time and ergonomic assessments (lifting, body posture, energy use), reachability analyses, time analyses according to mtm, visibility evaluations, interference analyses, lifting/carrying referring to niosh and analyses of hand-arm-movements (reed, ; kühn, ; siemens plm, ). . . . realistic anthropological mathematical system for interior comfort simulation the human model known as the acronym ramsis (figure ) was originally developed at the institute of ergonomics (tu münchen), katholische universität eichstätt and a research association of automotive manufacturers. ramsis is mainly used for product design. especially adapted to the needs of the automotive industry, it can be used as a single application or as an integrated application in the cad system catia. it is also available as a production-oriented implementation in the plm software tecnomatix. k.g. schaub et al. the main applications of ramsis are ergonomic studies in cockpits of vehicles, aircrafts and construction machineries. the system integrates many sophisticated databases with several populations of different ages, differentiation according to percentiles, somatotypes and includes growth acceleration (bubb and fritzsche, ; lämkull et al., ; seidl, ). in addition to the human models described above, which have the largest distribution in practice, there are others that are also classified as ergonomic dhms. their distribution among practitioners is less significant or their range of functions is limited. ‘anyman’ is similar to jack as the former part of the tecnomatix-system. even in the cad system creo, formerly known as pro/engineer wildfire the human model called manikin is available. the human model implemented in delmia process engineer (dpe) is used for work place analyses with particular focus on economic time management issues. a fairly new, but increasingly important dhm, is the ema by imk automotive which integrates production ergonomics and process planning based on mtm standard times (see section . ). . . . characteristics of dhms for production ergonomics ergonomic dhms have many common characteristics and functions. the models are based on an abstract skeleton model, which couples segments (bones) with joints. the joints have zero to three rotational degrees of freedom which enables the reproduction of body postures. furthermore, dhms for production ergonomics have a surface to represent skin or clothes. in many systems, a three-dimensional body is coupled to a segment and accordingly moves in the same way. this results in unrealistic representations at the transition or interfaces of the three-dimensional objects, especially in extreme positions of the joints. consequently, newer systems include surfaces with deformable skin and clothing (polygonal mesh with textures). the models can be positioned with forward kinematics, inverse kinematics or via access to a posture database. either the human model has sufficient im-/export-interfaces or it is implemented as a plug-in or part of a plm software. therefore, direct access to the data provided by designers and planners is possible. . . functional schema of dhms during an ergonomic analysis with dhms – that means the actual use of software tools – many functions are used. figure illustrates a collection of functions and methods provided by dhm. following the functional schema (mühlstedt, ; green, ; lämkull et al., ), a typical workflow for the use of dhms can be retraced. based on an analysis the human model will be created using anthropometric resources of the system. furthermore, three-dimensional geometries for the environment and necessary resources are created or imported respectively made available within the cad or plm system. using the input and output devices most important functions of the system can be used. by means of manipulation functions body postures of the human model and other characteristics (e.g., appearance) can be determined. three essential functions are used to adjust the body posture: forward kinematics, inverse kinematics and posture databases. in addition ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks to the body posture manipulation the positioning functions of the human model in three-dimensional space and the continuous use of view-changing tools are essential. subsequently, various analyses can be performed using basic ergonomic methods. the current, inherent to the system, visualisation is the basic and most important function. in addition, by means of a sight analysis, the viewing zone can be determined. analyses supported by the use of reach envelopes investigate, for instance the reachability of control levers; measurement analyses examine distances and movement space, whereas force or posture analyses assess body posture. other functions for load handling and energy consumption lead to additional insights. functionality and the number of ergonomic methods vary from system to system. the result of ergonomics methods visualise the output functions and are presented in a further processable form. in addition, the use of the systems general functions, such as help or im-/export functions can be used. figure functional schema of dhms including elements for an ergonomic analysis . . advanced analysis methodology for virtual production ergonomics in order to use dhms in a methodologically meaningful way, it is very helpful to proceed according to a standardised methodology. ‘a generic process model for human analysis’ was presented by green ( ). lämkull et al. ( ) compared the steps to various working persons. mühlstedt ( ) extended the methodology with a further step in developing drafts and proposals for improvement. k.g. schaub et al. figure steps during the performance of an ergonomic study with dhms (modified from green, ) and persons involved (modified from lämkull et al., ) (see online version for colours) the first step is to understand the task, i.e., the requirements of the assigned task. it includes the elements of the work system or functional elements of the design, required tools and utilities, the human-machine interface and the necessary body postures and forces. in addition, controls, displays, time or space limitations and repetitive tasks need to be analysed. closely connected with the first step is to understand the environment of the workplace or product. these include the fixed and moving objects, which interact, as well as any possible hazards and work environment conditions. during the first two steps a close communication with the client is useful in order to find requirements in detail. these design methodologies, which can also be found in other basic considerations, are followed by two further analysis steps, which can be assigned to virtual ergonomics specifically. on the one hand, to understand the population investigates the persons confronted with the product or work place. this includes the actually interacting people and the people in the area, each with their anthropometric variables and other relevant characteristics. in addition, advices concerning special requirements for protective, e.g., clothing, helmets, glasses, shoes or other objects need to be worn. on the other hand potential limitations of the software system are discussed in addition to the computer-assisted methods or techniques. this concerns the limits of the primary software system used and the consequent need for additional pen-and-paper ergonomic methods. afterwards, the real work is done with the system of virtual ergonomics with the implemented ergonomic analysis. a subsequent analysis and judgement of the results of the analysis can be done with an adjustment to the requirements. at this point it becomes apparent which requirements can be met, such as functions and mechanisms of action of the product or elements of the workplace should be designed. prioritisation of the elements helps to specify the solution. in both of these support of an ergonomist is reasonable. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks finally, the engineering of concepts and improvement proposals can support the goal of better designed products or ergonomic workplaces. all elements of the design solution need to be considered within the desired level of detail in a conscientious way. a final documentation of the study summarises important background information, such as anthropometric data sources, body measurements, results of analysis, solution drafts, proposals of improvement and relevant contact persons. thus, a full traceability is ensured. . enhancing efficiency and accuracy of dhms with ema the newly developed software tool ‘ema’ was created by the german engineering consulting company imk automotive in cooperation with chemnitz university of technology. ema utilises a modular approach for planning and simulating manual human labour in industrial settings. these modules are based on so called ‘complex operations’ representing an aggregation of single elementary movements that are directed at carrying out a certain work task. thereby, ema strongly reduces the effort for simulating human work because it enables production planners to generate a simulation of the entire work process by describing operations in a natural planning language like ‘get and place part’ or ‘use hand tool’. in contrast, other dhm tools demand the production planners to rather animate the dhm by teaching each single body movement that is needed to perform the work. . . defining complex operations ema utilises a modular approach for simulating human work activities that is based on ‘complex operations’. complex operations represent an aggregation of elementary movements that are commonly directed at carrying out one work task in a logical sequence. for instance, the operation ‘get and place part’ may consist of the following elementary movements: steps forward – bend – hand to object – pick object – object to body – step backward – turn – steps forward – bend – hand to target – place object – let loose – hand back. in contrast to other human modelling software, ema automatically calculates all elementary movements that are necessary to perform the operation so that the planning engineer must not teach every single movement. in the example above, the planner only defines what part needs to be placed in which location, while ema calculates all body movements including walkways. of course, many complex operations are needed for simulating human work in industrial settings. thus, ema is constantly being improved by adding more complicated and more specific operations, for example car ingress and egress. figure shows a list of all complex operations that are currently available in ema. in order to achieve correct simulation results, the calculation of ema movements is based on highly automated algorithms that were derived from theoretical analyses and validated in motion-capturing studies as well as in practice. in the first step, relevant operations and their elementary movements were defined based on theoretical analyses and practical observations. secondly, operations were simulated using available dhm tools such as delmia v teaching the human manikin all elementary movements step-by-step. thirdly, these basic modules were refined using motion capturing data recorded with experienced industrial operators. typical movement trajectories and k.g. schaub et al. relevant parameters were derived by comparing the movements of different operators performing standardised tasks in varying conditions (e.g., different working heights). as a result, ema developers defined a set of algorithms that consist of movement influencing parameters and describe an average or prototypical movement under the given conditions. figure ema user interface (stand-alone version) (see online version for colours) these algorithms were built and optimised for all relevant complex operations. however, the most difficult task was the software-technical implementation. therefore, a number of parameters were defined for each complex operation enabling the software user to quickly adjust the boundary conditions of the work task, for instance the weight of the part. large efforts of testing were invested to optimise these algorithms for each operational step in accordance with biomechanical and ergonomic principles. moreover, many practical examples from automotive and other engineering industries were simulated with ema and analysed with practitioners to evaluate plausibility and correctness of movements. these are ongoing activities so that ema is constantly being improved based on the feedback of ema software users in practice. . . ema software tool ema is conceptualised as an open software system. the simulation kernel can be incorporated in any available plm system and any d-engine due to its modular architecture and various interfaces. however, there is also a stand-alone version that aims to support small and medium-size companies who may not be able to afford large plm systems. in the current version, ema is available as plug-in for delmia v , which is one of the leading plm-systems for automotive production planning. as mentioned above, ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks delmia already provides a d man-model (human builder) that, however, can only generate dynamic human simulations by defining single body movements in a very time-consuming step-by-step process. such so called ‘movetoposture’ activities contain information about the current values for joint angles and the necessary time for reaching a certain target posture. incorporating ema into delmia aims at reducing the time effort, handling difficulties, and inaccuracies of the current modelling process. the following section briefly describes the ema application as delmia plug-in, the so called ema-v . the workflow with the ema stand-alone version with integrated graphic engine is similar, but even more time-efficient. figure illustrates the user interface of the standalone version with its d simulation environment and the interface for creating sequential and parallel activities. the illustrated work system is part of a short-cycled washing machine assembly line including logistic areas and multiple workers. figure ema user interface for ergonomic assessment (see online version for colours) before starting to work with the ema-v , the production planner first needs to prepare the simulation environment with regular delmia tools. to this end, all relevant data of products (e.g., parts) and resources (e.g., machinery) have to be loaded and saved in their ‘initial state’. furthermore, at least one human model needs to be added to the scene; all properties of the human model (e.g., height, gender) may be defined in the delmia ‘human builder’. following that, the planner may start the ema-v plug-in that is part of the workbench ‘human task simulation’. in the next step, the pre-defined complex operations that are categorised and presented on the left side of the screen may be used for describing the work process with a simple drag-and-drop mechanism that is adding operations to the human model task bar. ema-v automatically presents parameters to specify the operation after it is added to the task bar – in some cases specifications have to be completed with drop-down menus (e.g., object to pick-up), whereas other k.g. schaub et al. parameters are defined by directly interacting with the d simulation environment via mouse click (e.g., point of assembly). based on the parameter settings all pre-defined movements that are included in the complex operation are adapted and calculated to fit the specific situation. this approach enables the planner to describe the entire work process only by choosing the correct operations and entering a small number of defining parameters instead of simulating each particular posture step-by-step. following the interactive description of the work process ema-v automatically generates the d human simulation including all single steps (movetopostures) that are stored into the delmia process structure. furthermore, by running the simulation ema-v automatically calculates the mtm-time for each operation and the entire work process. the mtm analyses can be stored and, potentially, directly transferred to alphanumerical planning software, such as dpe. . . ergonomic risk assessment with ema from their early beginning, dhms were mainly used for analysing anthropometrics and optimising ergonomics in industrial work settings. early models were focusing static investigations of reachability and buildability. ema now allows investigating ergonomic conditions of the entire work process including dynamic aspects of body posture and forces. more precise ergonomic evaluations across a certain period of time are possible because biomechanical correctness and a high accuracy of movements were both important criteria for defining the complex operation modules in ema. ema has therefore included a standard tool for ergonomic risk assessment called eaws (see section . ), which focuses of process evaluation rather than static ergonomic investigations. previous research shows that this paper-pencil checklist produces reliable results in real-world applications as well as in the ergonomic assessment of human work simulations (fritzsche, ). in contrast to other methods like rula (mcatamney and corlett, ) or owas (karhu et al., ), which are both mainly focused on the evaluation of postures, eaws includes several physical risk factors including action forces, weight handling and extra strains. moreover, eaws provides a holistic evaluation of the entire work process taking the intensity, duration, and frequency of risk factors into account. based on the eaws risk assessment, ema enables a semiautomatic ergonomic evaluation by analysing the recorded joint angles and positions of the body segments throughout the entire simulation. based on this data each posture is categorised into one of the standard posture classes defined by eaws (e.g., standing upright, bend forward, overhead). figure shows a summary of those postures as part of the ergonomic assessment. this approach not only improves the efficiency but also the objectivity of posture evaluations with human simulations. to complete ergonomic evaluation, information regarding action forces and objects weights need to be added by the user. finally, ema combines all ergonomic data and calculates a total risk score that is rated into three risk categories (green, yellow, red). the calculation of the risk score and the risk rating follow exactly the rules of the eaws paper-pencil-method (see section . ). ema therefore allows a comprehensive semi- automatic ergonomic assessment by using automatically retrieved data on postures that are combined with data on forces and weights provided by the user. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks figure ema user interface for ergonomic assessment, postures and risk scores are calculated based on the eaws method (see online version for colours) . ergonomic risk assessments using eaws whenever carrying out ergonomic risk assessments there should be a clear indication whether the assessed risk is at a tolerable level or if an ergonomic intervention is required. the eaws (schaub et al., , a) considers physical workload only and evaluates it on a three zone (traffic light scheme) rating system as described below. eaws focuses especially on existing cen and iso standards, which consider physical workload in terms of working postures, action forces, manual materials handling and repetitive loads of the upper limbs. for each of those four types of physical workload one of the standards will offer a risk assessment. this is of limited value for practical applications, as real tasks in industry do not contain either ‘working postures’ or ‘manual materials handling’, but might be a combination of all four types. considering standards the question arises, if a ‘yellow’ ‘working posture’ and a ‘yellow’ ‘manual materials handling’ will produce a total ‘yellow’ assessment, or if they might compensate to a ‘green’ or aggregate to a ‘red’ total. solving this question was the primary purpose for the development of tools like eaws. the acceptance of those tools in industry is an indicator for the needs based on real working tasks (see table ). due to the dual european system of ‘health and safety at work’, ergonomic risk analysis is not only needed during the production phase, but also during the design phase. this involves the need to integrate the eaws or similar risk assessment tools into software tools that are used during the design phases of a pdp (schaub et al., a; toledo, ; walther and toledo, ; neubert et al., ). k.g. schaub et al. table dissemination of ergonomics risk assessment tools of the eaws family in european industries company tool name origin date of implementation opel/gme npw div. implemented porsche designcheck div. implemented daimler eab, eab neu, esc, ecl and belas sak, eaws and iad-bkb developed by daimler/iad, implementation in , and in progress bosch iad-bkb, ‘bosch’ and div., eaws iad-bkb, eaws and div. implementation in progress, implemented audi apsa neu based on aaws, iad-bkb developed by audi, implemented karman aaws aaws implemented smart s-erg eaws implemented daf aaws aaws development and implementation in progress fiat group eaws eaws implementation in progress volkswagen group eaws/aaws eaws, aaws implementation in progress var. big and smes in bw iad-bkb aaws/eaws implementation since . . history in the ‘ s of the last century the development of ergonomic screening tools for physical workload showed first results (schaub, a, b, ). in , the development of screening tools for automotive industries lead to the ‘new production worksheet’ (npw) (schaub and dietz, ), which was initiated by general motors europe (gme) and realised in cooperation with adam opel ag. developed and tested at work stations at ruesselsheim plant the npw is currently used in all german and other gme plants (schaub and kaltbeitzel, ). later on the automotive assembly worksheet (aaws) was developed and checked for validation and applicability (schaub et al., a, b). the aaws is based on the npw (schaub and storz, ; landau et al., ) and designcheck (schaub et al., , ; winter et al., ). later on, the aaws was enriched by a section for the evaluation of upper limbs, which is of major concern for electrical industries and automotive suppliers. revising the aaws for the increased field of application generated the new european assembly worksheet (schaub and ghezel-ahmadi, ; schaub et al., a, ), which is currently being implemented at several german and european car manufacturers and automotive suppliers. the following paragraphs offer a rough description of the eaws (family). for a detailed description of eaws please refer to schaub et al. ( , a, b). since , the application of the eaws was neither limited to europe nor assembly work. thus, the ‘european assembly worksheet’ was accordingly renamed to ‘ergonomic assessment worksheet’. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks . . tool philosophy and structure as described in schaub et al. ( , a) the eaws consists of four sections for the evaluation of: • working postures and movements with low additional physical efforts ( < – n or – kg respectively) • action forces of the whole body ( > n) or hand-finger system ( > n) • manual materials handling ( > kg) • repetitive loads of the upper limbs. this structure is taken from and in line with relevant cen (en - : , en - : /pra : , en - : /pra : , en - : /pra : ) and iso standards (iso : , iso - : , iso - : , iso - : ). it allows a holistic evaluation of the physical workload of the ‘whole body’ (schaub et al., a, b, ) and the repetitive load of the upper limbs. in general and with one to with respect to the german baua and the toyota method, iad tools grant ergonomic load points for unfavourable conditions. finally a traffic light, three zone rating system as described in the eu machinery directive (en - : /pra : ) is associated to the work situation dependent on the score achieved. thus, the eaws overcome the traditional concept of limiting values [e.g., niosh recommended weight limit (rwl) (waters et al., )]. the evaluation of the eaws family is based on four criteria: • the physiological and biomechanical • the medical/epidemiological • the psychophysical • compliance with other internationally accepted methods and standards. sections to (‘whole body’) are based on a ‘traditional ergonomic’ evaluation approach. for modelling of the working posture section (see figure ) en - : / pra : , iso : , sämann ( ), toyota (koide, ; eri et al., ) and owas (karhu et al., ) were considered. for the force section a reference was made to en - : /pra : and schultetus (schaub et al., ) and rula (mcatamney and corlett, ). the manual materials handling section is based on baua’s kims on lifting, holding, carrying, pushing and pulling (steinberg et al., , a, b), which serve as a national german implementation of the eu manual handling directive (council directive / /eec). section (upper limbs) mainly emulates the ocra method (colombini et al., ), which is considered as a preferred method in en - : /pra : and iso - : standards. nevertheless there are some minor differences between ocra and eaws section (lavatelli et al., ; schaub et al., a, b). in addition to ocra kim-mho (steinberg et al., b; klußmann et al., ) was considered. k.g. schaub et al. ‘whole body’ load situations are rated in one of the sections one to three either. double evaluations are not permitted. for validity and reliability of eaws and related methods see schaub et al. ( a, b). figure extract of the eaws working posture evaluation note: grey area in the middle of the page represents the cut out area. . mtmergonomics® – a process language-based risk assessment increased global competition and changing demographic profiles lead to lean processes throughout the entire product lifecycle and the idea that a sustainable human resource management was needed for the future. for the latter an ergonomic workplace and process design adaptive to the characteristics of the workforce was required. besides this the dual european system of health and safety at work [mainly based on the eu ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks framework (council directive / /eec) and machinery directive (council directive / /ec)] calls for an ergonomic risk assessment throughout the entire product lifecycle (schaub et al., , a, b). so the need for a holistic evaluation of physical workload has emerged. this led to the development of eaws. . . history of mtmergonomics® in , mtm and iad developed jointly the basic idea of the mtmergonomics® approach. considering the presence of data relevant to ergonomics in mtm building blocks, launched the idea to use mtm workload information for a basic ergonomic risk evaluation based on mtm codes. as mtm’s original focus was to plan process times, not all ergonomic data, relevant and necessary for a risk assessment were available in mtm codes, but have to be supplemented during the risk assessment process. bearing in mind the complexity and the uncertainties of such a project, it was decided that a feasibility study on mtmergonomics® first carried out. by the end of the basic concept for the mtmergonomics® system was successfully realised (schaub et al., ). in the following years the mtmergonomics® project was realised and a first mtmergonomics® version was available in the mtm software ticon® in (schaub et al., , a; schaub, ). . . tool philosophy and structure initially mtmergonomics® was aimed to evaluate physical workload only and was designed as a modular and open structure in order to: identify, complement and describe a worker’s physical workload by means of the ergo-code generator based on concepts of ‘geometries’ (e.g., get, place) as basic steps sample mtm codes to the relevant type of work (e.g., postures, forces) by means of a workload generator and evaluate it by means of an evaluation generator and a selected evaluation tool aggregate the evaluation outcome of several modules to a common work-station evaluation by means of an evaluation aggregator. in a first step, the mtm process languages uas and mek were chosen as input process languages and the aaws – and later on the eaws – worksheet (schaub and landau, ; schaub, ) as the standard ergonomics evaluation tool. this was primarily done due to the fact that the eaws family offers a holistic evaluation of the total physical workload (see below) and gives therefore direct information to the process engineers, if ergonomics intervention is required during the design process. however, due to its open structure ‘any’ other evaluation method (like owas or niosh) could be used as well. the mtmergonomics evaluation process is shown in figure . figure shows the mtmergonomics system architecture. figure shows the mtmergonomics software architecture. for figures to see schaub et al. ( ). the aaws was chosen for its holistic evaluation approach (winter et al., , ) and for its compliance with eu legal requirements (schaub et al., ; meyer et al., ). k.g. schaub et al. today ‘any’ process language, data base and data level as well as alternate evaluation tools can be implemented into mtmergonomics®. the structure of mtmergonomics software components is shown in figure . a primary purpose of mtmergonomics is to support the industrial engineers during the process planning phase in the pdp concerning the realisation of ergonomically workstations and processes. mtmergonomics may be applied in the later phases of the pdp where time information concerning the tasks to be performed is available. figure mtmergonomics evaluation process as a four step approach (see online version for colours) figure mtmergonomics system architecture (see online version for colours) ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks figure mtmergonomics software architecture (see online version for colours) . . product development processes product development systems especially in automotive industry are highly sophisticated and structured, and developed for an efficient, customised mass production. experience driven ‘best practice’ and ‘lessons learned’ are key elements in the improvement of ergonomic situations and processes (schaub, ). those should be complemented by analytically structured product improvement processes, which focus on the future operator’s ergonomic workload (e.g., design for assembly). in the various stages of the pdp, ergonomic evaluations and design improvements (product as well as process-oriented) are possible. in the beginning of the process only geometric data are available which allow ergonomic evaluations in terms of reach, clearance or collision, which are basic features of dhm. in later phases information of forces and weights are give which allow first ergonomic assessments based on the number of products per shift. in later phases, when time information is available, typically when industrial engineering starts complex ergonomic risk assessments are possible (schaub, ). although the data level for ergonomic analysis and evaluation is better in the later stages of the planning process, late changes are particularly costly and critical, and provide little chance for fundamental and sustainable improvements! hence, both continuous improvements during production as well as proactive engineering and design in the planning phase are required for good ergonomics (bierwirth et al., ). successful ergonomics in an enterprise requires philosophies, visions and decisions on health and safety at work. they must be part of the company structure, process and practice (schaub, ). production conditions and effects are considerably influenced by the workforce, which consists (like the pdp) of single individual life cycles. the legacy ergonomics aim of ‘adapting man to work and vice versa’ is subjected to new challenges, if this is considered, as ‘work’ and ‘man’ become more individual and the adaption more sophisticated (bierwirth et al., , a, b). k.g. schaub et al. application and results . ema pilot applications ema has been tested in a number of pilot applications in automotive manufacturing, for instance for simulating ergonomically critical tasks in assembly and body-shop planning of a large german automobile oem. initial results show that ema can reduce the effort for preparing human simulations considerably compared to manual step-by-step simulations. most importantly, multiple pilot applications showed that ema can be integrated in corporate software architecture being used by several car manufacturers supporting the pdp. as a first step ema may be used to validate the product buildability in an early concept phase, which includes verification that the vehicle can be manufactured with the given planning premises, equipment restrictions, and abilities of manual operators. in that phase ergonomic analyses can, for instance, check well-known issues of a predecessor car (‘reference vehicle’) and other previous models. thereby, ema allows the use of available cad-data to quickly set up human simulations for comparing concept alternatives that may influence the future assembly process. thus, in an earlier design phase part design might be revised to improve the ease of manual assembly, which may not only reduce ergonomic workload but also save production time. by enabling accurate d analyses of the future assembly process costs for late corrective design changes, such as part optimisations after the start of production (sop), can be significantly reduced. through database functions ema also provides the opportunity to visually document good design solutions for best practices that could be used as guideline for the development of future models. secondly, in the phase of pre-production planning ema may be used for the compilation and validation of the future work process. ema supports the production planner to quickly set up a standard work sequence and generate d simulations for visual inspection and optimisation by utilising the features as mentioned before. furthermore, efficient work processes are facilitated by a vast set of tools provided by ema. especially avoiding ‘waste’ (with reference to the toyota production system), such as ergonomic strains (e.g., far reach, bending), long walking ways, and double-handling of parts can be effectively targeted. thus, ema enables to compare process alternatives by means of objective quantitative analyses on ergonomics and mtm-time in early phases of pre-production planning merely based on digital product data. the self-initiated movement of ema easily allows the alternation of certain scenarios since movements will be carried out in reference to the d environment. the use of process languages, such as mtm, and a linkage of all the objects within the d environment thus allow a fast variation of process, product and resource (illmann and finsterbusch, ). this way planning alternatives can be easily compared in reference to mtm-time and ergonomics according to eaws. finally, in the phase of series production ema may be used for investigating product, equipment, and process optimisations before implementing changes to the production line without setting up costly production trials. in order to support the continuous improvement process after sop, ema allows the series planner to quickly simulate and verify the integration of new concepts in an existing production environment. furthermore, the ema simulation can be used to communicate evaluation results to the ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks involved parties and reach a common sense on the final solution between the workers union, safety experts and plant management. at last, the same simulations can be used to introduce the new equipment to the workers providing a first training on the correct usage and the new work process. taken together, using ema’s complex operations for creating human work simulations is similar to the idea of using aggregates of mtm standard times like universal automotive system (uas). methodologically and practically this approach provides some major benefits for the simulation of human work in industrial settings: ema introduces a standard language to digital production planning similar to mtm ema generates standard work movements that are almost independent of the planners’ imagination who creates the human simulation ema saves a lot of time and effort in preparing the simulation because engineers do not have to teach the human model each single body movement – finally the purpose is not nice animation but efficient production planning. . ergonomics assessment worksheet originally, the eaws family was created for the evaluation of assembly work in automotive industries (schaub et al., a). in this field, work is carried out in short cyclic tasks (mainly – min). with respect to the short cycle times, single load peaks and prolonged awkward working postures that need recovery are absent. the eaws family focuses on physical workload only. if job rotation occurs, all tasks performed are analysed and a time-weighted average is calculated for a final assessment as a first approach. at the moment the eaws family cannot be used for a detailed ergonomic job rotation planning as the sequence and the load characteristic of the tasks (e.g., aggravation of fatigue or recovery aspects) is not considered. this will be one of the major challenges in the future. in between, the eaws family has been tested in other fields such as the paint shop, powertrain or press shop, where also longer cycle times or non-cyclic work occurred. the same applies to studies carried out in truck, bus or aviation industries or electric and metal industries (schaub and storz, ). in all cases, ‘good’ results were obtained as rated by the experts involved, if the load situations were equally distributed among the shift and fatigue generating long-lasting load situations were absent as well as load peeks (schaub and kaltbeitzel, ). the evaluation of the latter load situations are clearly beyond the scope of the eaws family. . mtmergonomics mtmergonomics® is designed to meet the challenges from a globalising market (schaub, ; schaub et al., a). in its first edition it was a suitable tool for settling ergonomics in pdps and production systems of automotive industries. integrating new ergonomic evaluation tools like the eaws (bruder et al., ; schaub et al., a, b) addressed new branches (e.g. automotive supplier, metal and electric industries) and companies (e.g., fiat group, volkswagen group) or opened the field for company specific applications like daimler’s eab. k.g. schaub et al. based on the open concept of free definition of process language elements, mtmergonomics® is adaptable to company specific needs (e.g., daimler’s c-values), but also allows the implementation of other languages, e.g., mtm- or mtm- . new features like the comparison of workplace demands and operator capabilities allow an individual (e.g., handicapped people) or collective (e.g., elderly) adaption of man to work (sinn-behrendt et al., ). integrating mtmergonomics® features into line balancing and a pure design phase offers new potentials for holistic and sustainable ergonomics and thus provides good conditions for a successful competition in a globalising world. discussion . editor for manual work activities ema is a new tool for simulating and editing manual work activities in digital production planning. based on theoretical analyses, motion capturing studies, and many practical application tests, ema improves simulation accuracy of existing man-models, such as delmia human, and significantly reduces the effort for compiling human modelling studies using unique modules of complex operations. ema enables the human model to quickly transfer standard work descriptions into sequences of natural movement – just like a real operator would do. in that sense, ema makes the human model smarter by utilising the skills and the knowledge of a qualified worker. finally, ema supports production planners in analysing future ergonomic conditions and avoid physical overload proactively in order to keep the work ability of the aging workforce in manufacturing industries. . ergonomics assessment worksheet eaws is still the only ergonomics evaluation method that offers an overall ‘ergonomic analysis’ including working postures, action forces, manual materials handling and repetitive loads of the upper limbs. it has been tested and applied successfully for short cyclic work with work cycle of about one to three minutes. analysis of longer cycles, like in truck or bus industries or of non-cyclic work offered also good results, when the work load was equally distributed among the shift, and long lasting fatigue generating load situations were absent as well as load peaks. at the moment eaws is applied at automotive original equipment manufacturers (oems) and suppliers, in electric and metal industries. eaws in its basic philosophy is a screening tool that is adapted to the relevant work situation. as production situations and philosophies are a matter of change, eaws will also need adaptation. in order to link the method facilities to users’ needs, an eaws user group will be founded in the near future. the aim of this group is to coordinate the user needs and give input to the adoptions and further enhancements of the eaws. . mtmergonomics meanwhile much experience has been gathered in the application of mtmergonomics (schaub, ). it is easily applicable, but due to the large number of inputs the ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks application is exhausting when implemented, as all uas codes have to be manually completed by means of the ergo-code generator. however, it is possible to initially set a ‘standard’ ergo-code for all uas codes, and alter all the (groups of) codes that differ from the ‘standard’. linking mtmergonomics to a cad system as used at the major automotive oems would substantially cut down the evaluation times, as all workplace data that have to be input manually into mtmergonomics are available in the cad systems. first approaches to link mtmergonomics and cad systems have been undertaken, but due to the early project status no publication is available on this topic at the moment. mtmergonomics is not a dhm in its classical meaning. it does not offer biomechanical evaluations or an extended anthropometric analysis. however it is possible to select the th, th and th unisex anthropometric body height percentile for the european population, so that risk assessments may be carried out for the ‘total target population’. the animator offered allows the user to control the sequence of working postures during the analysed working task. as a matter of fact, it is not a simulation of human movements, but a sequence at defined positions in an mtm code. for example a uas ‘pick and place’ would consist of two ‘geometries’ describing the postures during the ‘pick’ and ‘place’ operation. no movement simulations are done in between the ‘pick’ and ‘place’ nor in between consecutive uas codes. as this feature was only designed for a rough ‘motion’ control, support from dhm simulation systems like ema would be helpful. the mtmergonomics core competence is to generate a very detailed description of the working task by means of an (mtm) process language and to link it with an ergo- code generator that offers input to ‘any’ evaluation tool. . a vision a vision that is not too far from now would be the integration of mtmergonomics and ema (including eaws) into the cad systems of the automotive oems. such an integrated tool would offer a proper workings task simulation based on the ema simulation features, combined with mtmergonomics task description and evaluation (eaws) facilities. the cad systems integration would eliminate the 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( ) ‘a comparative study of digital human modelling simulation results and their outcomes in reality: a case study within manual assembly of automobiles’, international journal of industrial ergonomics, vol. , pp. – and exposition, paper - - , society of automotive engineers (sae), warrendale, pa, usa, issn: - . landau, k., rademacher, h., meschke, h., winter, g., schaub, k., grasmueck, m., moelbert, i., sommer, m. and schulze, j. ( ) ‘musculoskeletal disorders in assembly jobs in the automotive industry with special reference to age management aspects’, international journal of industrial ergonomics, vol. , no. , pp. – . lavatelli, i., schaub, k. and caragnano, g. ( ) ‘correlations in between eaws and ocra index concerning the repetitive loads of the upper limbs in auto-mobile manufacturing industries’, work, vol. , supplement / , pp. – . li, z. ( ) ‘digital human modeling packages: dhm software, santos’, in duffy, v.g. (eds.): handbook of digital human modeling. research for applied ergonomics and human factors engineering, s. – , crc press, taylor & francis group, isbn: , isbn: - - - - . mcatamney, l. and corlett, e.n. ( ) ‘rula: a survey method for the investigation of work-related upper limb disorders’, applied ergonomics, vol. , no. , pp. – . k.g. schaub et al. meyer, j-p., colombini, d., heden, k., ringelberg, a., viikari-juntura, e., boocock, m., lobato, j.r. and schaub, k. ( ) ‘european directive ( / ) for the prevention of risks in manual handling tasks’, paper presented at nd international symposium. low back pain in the health care profession – risk and prevention, – september , hamburg, germany. mühlstedt, j. ( ) entwicklung eines modells dynamisch-muskulärer arbeitsbeanspruchungen auf basis digitaler menschmodelle, dissertation an der fakultät für maschinenbau der technischen universität chemnitz, institut für betriebswissenschaften und fabriksysteme, professur arbeitswissenschaft, chemnitz, isbn - - - - [online] http://nbn- resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:ch -qucosa- (accessed august ). mühlstedt, j. and spanner-ulmer, b. ( ) ‘homo sapiens digitalis: über den praxiseinsatz digitaler menschmodelle’, in lichtenstein, a., stößel, c. and clemens, c. (hrsg.): der mensch im mittelpunkt technischer systeme, , berliner werkstatt mensch-maschine- systeme, , bis . oktober, s. - , vdi verlag, düsseldorf, isbn - - - - , issn - x. neubert, n., bruder, r. and toledo, b. ( ) ‘the charge of ergonomics – a model according to the influence of ergonomic workplace design for economical and efficient indicators of the automotive’, work, vol. , supplement / . reed, m.p. ( ) modeling ascending and descending stairs using the human motion simulation framework, - - , sae international. ryan, p.w. ( ) cockpit geometry evaluation, phase ii, joint army-aircraft instrument research report , the boeing company, seattle, washington, usa. sämann, w. ( ) ‘charakteristische merkmale und auswirkungen ungünstiger körperhaltungen’ schriftenreihe ‘arbeitswissenschaft und praxis’, band , beuth, berlin, germany. schaub, k. ( ) ‘entwicklung eines modularen rechnergestützten dreidimensionalen man models mit interaktiver anpassung an die arbeitsgestaltungsaufgabe’, vdi-reihe , vdi, düsseldorf, phd thesis, darmstadt university of technology, darmstadt, germany. schaub, k. ( a) ‘evaluation of working postures and handling of small loads in goldsmith activities’, international ergonomics association world conference on ergonomics of materials handling and information processing, – june , warsaw, poland, the ergonomics of manual work, london, washington, dc. schaub, k. ( b) ‘khs – a new method for the evaluation of working postures’, international ergonomics association world conference on ergonomics of materials handling and information processing, – june , warsaw, poland, the ergonomics of manual work, london, washington dc. schaub, k. ( ) ‘evaluation of physical workload by means of iadbka’, orp , nd international conference on occupational risk prevention, – february , gran canaria island. schaub, k. ( ) ‘including eu – directive based ergonomic risk assessments into production systems’, proceedings of the conference of human factors in organizational design and management, vii re-design work and macroergonomics – future perspectives and challenges, aachen, germany, pp. – . schaub, k. ( ) ‘mtmergonomics’, asu protect, das magazin für arbeitsschutzmanagement, no. , pp. – . schaub, k. ( ) ‘durchgängige ergonomische gestaltung in produktentstehung und produktion’, gfa-herbstkonferenz : produktivität im betrieb, gesellschaft für arbeitswissenschaft, ergonomia, stuttgart, germany. schaub, k. and dietz, c. ( ) ‘ergonomic vehicle development process and production at adam opel ag (gm-europe) with respect to european legislation’, proceedings of the iea /hfes congress, pp. - – - . schaub, k. and ghezel-ahmadi, k. ( ) ‘vom aaws zum eaws – ein erweitertes screening-verfahren für körperliche belastungen’, in . kongress der gesellschaft für arbeitswissenschaft (gfa), . februar to . märz , magdeburg, gfa press, dortmund. ergonomic assessment of automotive assembly tasks schaub, k. and landau, k. ( ) ‘the eu machinery directive as a source for a new ergonomic tool box for preventive health care and ergonomic workplace and product design’, global ergonomics: proceedings of the ergonomics conference , cape town, south africa, pp. – . schaub, k. and storz, w. ( ) ‘the ‘new production worksheet’ – an example of applying ergonomic eu – directives’, proceedings of the annual spring conference of the gfa on the occasion of the foundation of the gesellschaft für arbeitswissenschaft e.v. (gfa) and the xvii annual conference on the international society for occupational ergonomics & safety (isoes) : quality of work and products in enterprises of the future, münchen, germany, pp. – . schaub, k., boocock, m., grevé, r., kapitaniak, b. and ringelberg, a. ( ) ‘the implementation of risk assessment models for musculoskeletal disorders in cen standards’, nordic satellite symposium under the auspices of icoh ‘ : proceedings of the symposium ‘risk assessment for musculoskeletal disorders’, copenhagen, denmark, pp. – . schaub, k., britzke, b. and landau, k. ( ) ‘piloterprobungen von mtm – ergo für ausgewählte tätigkeiten in der automobilindustrie’, gfa-frühjahrskongress : personalmanagement und arbeitsgestaltung, gesellschaft für arbeitswissenschaft, dortmund, germany. schaub, k., caragnano, g., britzke, b. and bruder, r. ( ) ‘the european assembly work-sheet’, paper presented at the orp : viii international conference on occupational risk prevention, – may ., valencia, spain. schaub, k., caragnano, g., fischer, h., schosnig, r., britzke, b. and bruder, r. ( a) ‘integration of new ergonomic evaluation tools into mtmergonomics’, gfa-frühjahrskongress : arbeit, beschäftigungsfähigkeit und produktivität im . jahrhundert, gesellschaft für arbeitswissenschaft, dortmund, germany, pp. – . schaub, k., occhipinti, e. and colombini, d. ( b) ‘international ergonomics standards (iso & cen) and relevant methods for risk assessment and management in wmsds area’, paper presented at the muscoloskeletal disorder (msd) prevention campaign: presentations and results, – october , dguv, dresden, germany. schaub, k., caragnano, g., britzke, b. and bruder, r. ( a) ‘the european assembly worksheet’, theoretical issues in ergonomics science, april, no. , doi: . / x. . . schaub, k., kugler, m., bierwirth, m., sinn-behrendt, a. and bruder, r. ( b) ‘prevention of msd by means of ergonomic risk assessment (tools) in all phases of the vehicle development process’, work, vol. , supplement / , pp. – . schaub, k., landau, k. and bruder, r. ( a) ‘development and application of methods for stress analysis in manufacturing’, paper presented at the ahfe international conference, nd international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics , – july , las vegas, nevada, usa. schaub, k., rademacher, h., caragno, g., guth, a. and bruder, r. ( b) ‘ergonomics risk assessments in automotive and electrical industry based on the dual european concept of health and safety at work’, nes : th annual conference of the nordic ergonomics society, abstracts, ergonomics is a lifestyle, reykjavík, iceland, p. . schaub, k., landau, k. and sanzenbacher, g. ( ) ‘industrial process optimization and risk analysis’, proceedings of the annual spring conference of the gfa on the occasion of the foundation of the gesellschaft für arbeitswissenschaft e.v. (gfa) and the xvii annual conference on the international society for occupational ergonomics & safety (isoes) : quality of work and products in enterprises of the future, münchen, germany, pp. – . schaub, k., landau, k., menges, r. and großmann, k. ( ) ‘a computer-aided tool for ergonomic workplace design and preventive health care’, human factors and ergonomics in manufacturing, vol. , no. , pp. – . k.g. schaub et al. schaub, k., winter, g. and landau, k. ( ) ‘design check – a pilot study for the evaluation of assembly tasks in automotive industries’, paper presented at the proceedings of the international conference on computer-aided ergonomics and safety, – may , barcelona, spain. schaub, k., winter, g., landau, k., großmann, k. and laun, g. ( ) ‘ergonomics screening of assembly tasks in automotive industries’, proceedings of the xivth triennial congress of the international ergonomics association and the th annual meeting of the human factors and ergonomics society – ergonomics for the new millennium, san diego, usa, pp. - – - . schaub, k.g. and kaltbeitzel, j. ( ) ‘npw – advances in ergonomic design at new opel (gm) plant in ruesselsheim, germany’, paper presented at the th world congress on ergonomics: proceedings iea congress, – july , maastricht, netherlands. seidl, a. ( ) das menschmodell ramsis. analyse, synthese und simulation dreidimensionaler körperhaltungen des menschen, dissertation, lehrstuhl für ergonomie, tu münchen. siemens plm ( ) jack in tecnomatix [online] http://www.plm.automation.siemens.com/en_us/ products/tecnomatix/assem bly_planning/jack/index.shtml (accessed may ). sinn-behrendt, a., schaub, k. and landau, k. ( ) ‘screening tool for the analysis and evaluation of predominantly physical work’, paper presented at the th world congress on ergonomics: proceedings iea congress, – july , maastricht, netherlands. snook, s. and ciriello, v. ( ) ‘the design of manual handling tasks: revised tables of maximum acceptable weights and forces’, ergonomics, vol. , no. , pp. – . steinberg, u., behrendt, s., caffier, g., schultz, k. and jakob, m. ( a) key indicator method manual handling operations, st ed., bundesanstalt für arbeitsschutz und arbeitsmedizin, dortmund, germany. steinberg, u., behrendt, s., caffier, g., schultz, k. and jakob, m. ( b) leitmerkmalmethode manuelle arbeitsprozesse, forschung projekt , bundesanstalt für arbeitsschutz und arbeitsmedizin, dortmund, germany. steinberg, u., caffier, g. and liebers, f. ( ) ‘assessment of manual material handling based on key indicators – german guidelines’, in karwowski, w. (ed.): handbook of standards in ergonomics and human factors, pp. – , lawrenz erlbaum associates, mahwah, new jersey, usa. toledo, b. ( ) ‘global ergonomics strategy in volkswagen: from the product construction, over the planning until the serial process’, work, vol. , supplement / . walther, m. and toledo, b. ( ) ‘integration of time as a factor in ergonomic simulation’, work, vol. , supplement / . waters, t.r., putz-anderson, v., garg, a. and fine, l.j. ( ) ‘revised niosh equation for the design and evaluation of manual lifting tasks’, ergonomics, vol. , no. , pp. – . winter, g., schaub, k., bruder, r. and landau, k. ( ) ‘the application of the ergonomic screening-tool (aaws) to support design engineers in product and process development. physical capabilities and workload for pushing and pulling trolleys aboard aircraft’, nes : th annual conference of the nordic ergonomics society, abstracts, ergonomics is a lifestyle, reykjavík, iceland, p. . winter, g., schaub, k., landau, k. and bruder, r. ( ) ‘development and validation of ergonomic screening-tools for assembly lines’, paper presented at the th world congress on ergonomics: proceedings iea congress, – july , maastricht, netherlands. biron - birkbeck institutional research online eve, martin paul ( ) review of digital humanities: knowledge and critique in a digital age by david m. berry and anders fagerjord (eds.). new formations , issn - . downloaded from: http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / usage guidelines: please refer to usage guidelines at https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk. http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html mailto:lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk review of berry, david m., and anders fagerjord, eds., digital humanities: knowledge and critique in a digital age (cambridge: polity, ) in early , matthew kirschenbaum published an essay entitled “what is ‘digital humanities,’ and why are they saying such terrible things about it?”. punning on the title of a article on stylistics by stanley fish, kirschenbaum’s piece joins the growing roster of essays and books that reflexively seek to define the still-emerging intersection of digital tools, methods, and approaches with humanistic study. the latest to join the line up of texts that are aimed at those who might have heard things – terrible, or otherwise – about the digital humanities and who might want to know more is david m. berry and anders fagerjord’s digital humanities: knowledge and critique in a digital age. indeed, this book sits within a distinctive generic space. as the authors note, “this book will not teach you how to create a relational database or program an advanced algorithm”. on the other hand, the work also will not teach “how to interpret archaeological findings or a victorian novel, either” ( ). instead, digital humanities aims to survey the histories, eruptions, and epistemic contexts within which its eponymous field – if “dh” can even be called a field – has sprung. certainly, berry and fagerjord are not the first to explore this meta-terrain. however, as a clearly articulated, accurate, and concisely critical introduction, this book is exemplary. within a relatively short page count, digital humanities manages to span the genealogies of dh; the epistemic nuances of “computational thinking”; the implications of computational modelling and archives; the institution-wide infrastructural changes of which dh forms a part; ideas of digital methods and tools; interface criticism; and their perceived future need for a “critical” digital humanities. this breadth is both an admirable trait but it does also present a structural challenge. for it is not always clear to me at whom this volume is aimed. while the work purports to be “an essential book for students and researchers” i wondered whether, for instance, the discussion of markup schemas, such as tei, on page thirty should have first defined what a markup language is and does. certainly, this would be redundant if the book is aimed at those with a technical background (as i have). however, if it is to be an introductory volume, then even a short glossary would, i think, have been helpful. on the other hand, for someone who wanted to get their head quickly around the scholarly literature, the different sub-groups, and the politics of dh, this work is an excellent primer. it concisely lays out the different historical groupings but also the challenging political contexts within which dh has grown. for instance, need to know what “hack vs yack” means? this book has you covered. the work is also, i felt, mostly fair on the political challenges of the digital matthew kirschenbaum, ‘what is “digital humanities,” and why are they saying such terrible things about it?’, differences, . ( ), – . stanley e. fish, ‘what is stylistics and why are they saying such terrible things about it?-part ii’, boundary , . ( ), . alan liu, ‘is digital humanities a field? — an answer from the point of view of language’, journal of siberian federal university, humanities and social sciences, ( ), – . see, for just a selection, a companion to digital literary studies, ed. by ray siemens and susan schreibman, blackwell companions to literature and culture (new york: wiley-blackwell, ); steven e. jones, the emergence of the digital humanities (new york: routledge, ); a new companion to digital humanities, ed. by susan schreibman, raymond george siemens, and john unsworth (chichester, west sussex, uk: john wiley & sons inc, ); debates in the digital humanities , ed. by matthew k. gold and lauren f. klein (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ); daniel allington, sarah brouillette, and david golumbia, ‘neoliberal tools (and archives): a political history of digital humanities’, los angeles review of books, [accessed may ]. humanities. many figures have, for instance, warned of the entanglement of dh within paradigms of neoliberalisation of the humanities. berry and fagerjord do not shy from this debate; they express the concerns fairly and call for a greater critical stance within their own fields. this is not a book to proselytize, even while it details the exciting possibilities that digital research work could bring to the humanities. it is, of course, practically a rule in academic book reviewing that one must find something with which to disagree in the book one is reviewing. also as usual, this relates to my own sub-area of interest. for, if i were to pick out one area on which to train a slightly more critical gaze, it would probably be the authors’ discussion of open access on pages - . i found it curious that, at this point, the citation of preceding work on the subject became much thinner than i would have liked. for instance, there was no citation of either peter suber or john willinsky. i also believe that some, such as david golumbia, will take issue with berry and fagerjord’s assertion that an engagement with open access “may also be important for digital humanities to contest attacks on its perceived neoliberalism” ( ). certainly, i stand with berry and fagerjord on this, but this is not representative of all thought on the matter. in all, though, digital humanities: knowledge and critique is a book for our time. it comes just as another wave of assault on “critical” approaches in literary studies rolls over us and asks us to consider what it means to unreflexively adopt digital approaches amid humanist thinking. the work and the authors value computational thinking so long as it is not at the expense of the centuries of humanistic tradition on which it could build. the work thinks about its subject at both the institutional and the personal research level; it is an important book for those “on the ground” doing the research and for university managers who must implement the research architectures that will allow the digital humanities to thrive. while i earlier expressed my qualms about the sometimes deep-end plunges of the material, i would recommend this volume to any newcomer who wanted a fair and true institutional history of the digital humanities. at the same time, many old dogs could also learn a few tricks from this work; a benignly deceptive introductory overview that also serves as a guiding critical compass for the future of the digital humanities. martin paul eve birkbeck, university of london rita felski, the limits of critique (chicago: the university of chicago press, ). works cited allington, daniel, sarah brouillette, and david golumbia, ‘neoliberal tools (and archives): a political history of digital humanities’, los angeles review of books, [accessed may ] felski, rita, the limits of critique (chicago: the university of chicago press, ) fish, stanley e., ‘what is stylistics and why are they saying such terrible things about it?-part ii’, boundary , ( ), gold, matthew k., and lauren f. klein, eds., debates in the digital humanities (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ) jones, steven e., the emergence of the digital humanities (new york: routledge, ) kirschenbaum, matthew, ‘what is “digital humanities,” and why are they saying such terrible things about it?’, differences, ( ), – liu, alan, ‘is digital humanities a field? — an answer from the point of view of language’, journal of siberian federal university, humanities and social sciences, ( ), – schreibman, susan, raymond george siemens, and john unsworth, eds., a new companion to digital humanities (chichester, west sussex, uk: john wiley & sons inc, ) siemens, ray, and susan schreibman, eds., a companion to digital literary studies, blackwell companions to literature and culture (new york: wiley-blackwell, ) editorial measuring, counting, interpreting: our debate on methods continues american journal of cultural sociology ( ) , – . doi: . /ajcs. . why can’t cultural sociology be a science? or can it? and should it? these are the questions that animate an ongoing debate in the american journal of cultural sociology, which reaches an unprecedented level of theoretical sophistication and civil animation in the present issue. this debate began a decade ago with the inaugural conference of yale’s center for cultural sociology. contributing to one of the volumes of collected papers isaac reed and i edited from the conference, meaning and method ( ), richard biernacki seized the opportunity to present a fierce but systematic attack on coding as a method of textual analysis, a -page polemic to which john evans offered a spirited reply and biernacki answered in turn. elaborating his argument theoretically and expanding it empirically, biernacki subsequently published reinventing evidence in social inquiry ( ), which, along with reed’s interpretation and social knowledge ( ), launched a new methodenstreit in american interpretive sociology, and beyond. these works constitute the most significant social scientific discussions of cultural method in decades, building upon and going well beyond the foundational arguments of weber and dilthey, providing the social science equivalent to what hans georg gadamer did for hermeneutics in philosophy four decades ago. biernacki defended subjectivity in cultural interpretation. highlighting the extraordinary resource that a social scientist’s cultural sensibility provides, he justified the interpretive idiosyncrasies that ineluctably affect investigations into and generalizations about social meanings – however rigorous personal and disciplinary commitments to value neutrality and evidence. biernacki is not against counting; understanding and explaining meaning can be enhanced by measurement. what he warns against is the wishful thinking that counting, and coding in particular, can substitute for – or, as he sees it, try to render invisible – the necessary subjectivity of interpretation. this is exactly the point at which monica lee and john levi martin take aim in their opening salvo, ‘coding, counting, and cultural cartography,’ © macmillan publishers ltd. - american journal of cultural sociology vol. , , – www.palgrave-journals.com/ajcs/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajcs. . http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ajcs published in the issue . ( ) of ajcs. what particularly set apart this argument for quantitative method in cultural analysis was lee and martin’s acceptance of biernacki’s controversial critique of coding, even as they went on to argue for a deeper level of computation, one that, following the digital humanities, tries to quantify the fundaments of meaning itself. what biernacki replies to these ‘frenemies’ holds pride of place in the current issue, but extensive comments on lee and martin also follow from isaac reed and lyn spillman, themselves theorists and practitioners of cultural-sociological methods at the highest level. lee and martin reprise. la lutte continue! jeffrey c. alexander co-editor editorial © macmillan publishers ltd. - american journal of cultural sociology vol. , , – measuring, counting, interpreting: our debate on methods continues tracking the evolution of translated documents: revisions, languages and contaminations | springerlink advertisement search log in search springerlink search associated content part of a collection: special issue on digital scholarly editing research article published: june tracking the evolution of translated documents: revisions, languages and contaminations gioele barabucci international journal of digital humanities volume , pages – ( )cite this article accesses metrics details abstract dealing with documents that have changed through time requires keeping track of additional metadata, for example the order of the revisions. this small issue explodes in complexity when these documents are translated. even more complicate is keeping track of the parallel evolution of a document and its translations. the fact that this extra metadata has to be encoded in formal terms in order to be processed by computers has forced us to reflect on issues that are usually overlooked or, at least, not actively discussed and documented: how do i record which document is a translation of which? how do i record that this document is a translation of that specific revision of another document? and what if a certain translation has been created using one or more intermediate translations with no access to the original document? in this paper we addresses all these issues, starting from first principles and incrementally building towards a comprehensive solution. this solution is then distilled in terms of formal concepts (e.g., translation, abstraction levels, comparability, division in parts, addressability) and abstract data structures (e.g., derivation graphs, revisions-alignment tables, source-document tables, source-part tables). the proposed data structures can be seen as a generalization of the classical evolutionary trees (e.g., stemma codicum), extended to take into account the concepts of translation and contamination (i.e., multiple sources). the presented abstract data structures can easily be implemented in any programming language and customized to fit the specific needs of a research project. this is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution. access options buy single article instant access to the full article pdf. us$ . tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. rent this article via deepdyve. learn more about institutional subscriptions fig. fig. fig. fig. fig. fig. fig. fig. fig. fig. notes . http://averroes.uni-koeln.de/ . https://thomas-institut.github.io/averroes-tei .for practical examples, see the chunking system used by the averroes project. references barabucci, g. ( ). a universal delta model. phd thesis. università di bologna. https://doi.org/ . /unibo/amsdottorato/ . barabucci, g. ( ). catview (review). digital medievalist, . https://doi.org/ . /dm. . barabucci, g. ( ). not a single bit in common: issues in collating digital transcriptions of ibn rusd’s writings in multiple languages (arabic, hebrew and latin). presented at digital humanities abu dhabi conference. new york university abu dhabi. barabucci, g. ( ). the cmv+p document model, linear version. in r. bleier and v. das gupta (eds.), versioning cultural objects. ide. (in print). cavoski, a. ( ). interaction of law and language in the eu: challenges of translating in multilingual environment. journal of specialised translation, , – . google scholar halverson, s. l. ( ). the concept of equivalence in translation studies: much ado about something. target: international journal of translation studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /target. . . hal. article google scholar pöckelmann, m., medek, a., molitor, p., & ritter, j. ( ). catview: supporting the investigation of text genesis of large manuscripts by an overall interactive visualization tool. presented at digital humanities, dh , sydney. saenger, p. ( ). space between words: the origins of silent reading. stanford university press: stanford. isbn: . schäffner, c. ( ). translation and the eu: conditions and consequences. perspectives: studies in translation theory and practice, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / x. . . article google scholar download references author information affiliations cologne center for ehumanities, universität zu köln, köln, germany gioele barabucci authors gioele barabucciview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar corresponding author correspondence to gioele barabucci. rights and permissions reprints and permissions about this article cite this article barabucci, g. tracking the evolution of translated documents: revisions, languages and contaminations. int j digit humanities , – ( ). https://doi.org/ . /s - - - download citation published: june issue date: july doi: https://doi.org/ . /s - - - keywords revision control for translated documents independent evolution of translated documents data structures for stemma codicum multi-language stemma codicum associated content part of a collection: special issue on digital scholarly editing access options buy single article instant access to the full article pdf. us$ . tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. rent this article via deepdyve. learn more about institutional subscriptions advertisement over million scientific documents at your fingertips switch edition academic edition corporate edition home impressum legal information privacy statement california privacy statement how we use cookies manage cookies/do not sell my data accessibility contact us not logged in - . . . north east research libraries ( ) - lyrasis ( ) - carnegie mellon university ( ) - carnegie mellon university hunt library ( ) springer nature © springer nature switzerland ag. part of springer nature. \ green dreams, toxic legacies: toward a digital political ecology of silicon valley green dreams, toxic legacies: toward a digital political ecology of silicon valley jason a. heppler abstract this article examines the ways that geohumanities approaches historical research aids in the study of environmental and urban history in one of the twentieth century’s fastest growing american urban centers. it explores how san jose typified the challenges of silicon valley’s rapid urbanization and desire to chart a new form of industrialisation predicated on the ‘greenness’ of high-tech manufacturing and development. these issues are examined through a variety of mapping and gis projects that seek to understand areas of cities threatened by natural hazards, to unveil the growth of cities over time, and how polluted areas introduced environmental hazards to social inequality. the article concludes that studies of urban areas cannot be separated from questions about the environment and its role in social justice, urban planning, and politics. keywords: historical gis, historical mapping, cartography, us census, historiography, historical method, urban history, environmental history background to the urban development of silicon valley on labor day in a caravan of moving vans trekked into sunnyvale, california carrying the possessions of nearly families and equipment for lockheed’s new aerospace research labs. these families had come from the company’s southern california headquarters in burbank, arriving in the san francisco bay area to work at the new missile and space facility. once a small international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press www.euppublishing.com/ijhac green dreams, toxic legacies agricultural market town of , in , sunnyvale’s population grew quickly and housed , people by . employment in electronics research and manufacturing expanded rapidly, rising from less than , workers in to , in . central to the high-tech economy’s growth in sunnyvale, as well as the surrounding towns composing silicon valley, was the role of nature. promotional material lured businesses to the valley by promoting the ‘sylvan setting[s] for picturesque home[s]’ and described the county as ‘a -mile long garden.’ the county had ‘great industrial and manufacturing opportunities,’ according to one san josé promotional video, made possible by the ‘favorable living conditions, varied natural resources, ample transportation facilities, cheap potential power, low overhead costs, and highly intelligent labor supply.’ a vision of bountiful, clean, and pastoral nature has been intertwined with silicon valley since its origin as a technologically-driven urban region. silicon valley eschewed the steel age industries of the midwest and east, plagued with its smokestacks and large industrial structures. new government policies promoting research and development, home ownership, and alternatives to heavy industrialization attempted to balance this vision of a clean, pastoral nature with industrial expansion. yet the reliance on high-tech, purportedly ‘clean’ industrialization in silicon valley masked massive environmental hazards. in the rust belt, these signs were visible on the landscape. in silicon valley, however, they have remained hidden for decades, and to this day have failed to enter the global imagination of silicon valley’s natural landscape. as economic and government boosters defined the contours of their new political project, they continually tried to bring nature into the story. by studying ideas of pastoral nature alongside the politics of growth, there emerges a clearer picture of how silicon valley’s populations reacted to changes in their communities during one of the twentieth century’s greatest modernization of suburban space. between and , the promise of clean industry drove the industrial design and suburban desires of the ‘midpeninsula’ (a local moniker for the territories that are generally associated with silicon valley). city boosters, politicians, and business leaders promised that high-tech research, development, and manufacturing represented a new industrial future for the american economy. the ‘greenness’ of urban environments was not new in the twentieth century. suburbanization in the early nineteenth century emerged in part as a response to the environmental hazards of the industrial city. by the early twentieth century, planners of suburban areas pushed forward the idea that natural surroundings promoted healthier and more productive working conditions. using suburbanization as an alternative to environmental hazards, however, overlooked the effects the process had on landscapes. the process of transforming the suburb into a home for the high-tech sector (rather than just a place to live) promised a welcomed alternative to dirty city industry. jason a. heppler this approach promised industrial facilities that did not pollute, contained broad lawns, trees, low-rise buildings, and hidden parking lots. thanks to strict building guidelines, starting most noticeably at the stanford industrial park, high tech industries appeared more like college campuses than industrial manufacturers. yet this docile design masked alarming environmental problems, including smog, radiation, water contamination, intense energy and water usage, traffic congestion, and rising housing and utility costs that become common features of life in the valley. the tension between ‘green’ cities and industrial cities shaped the valley’s urban form. digitising a political ecology of silicon valley in this article i uncover and track some of the most significant environmental changes and challenges that have shaped silicon valley over the past seventy- five years. as with all environmental histories, this is not a simple task. data is compiled from a variety of sources and woven together to paint a picture of how the builders of silicon valley lived in anything but a virtual, place- less void empty of environmental consequences. i have been able to achieve this aim through the use of digital tools that allow me harness large amounts of political, social, and environmental data in order to visualize the urban silicon valley landscape as it has developed since the s. insights from political ecology and ‘nature-society’ geography have taught us that this not-so-utopic suburban landscape is much more than trees, arroyos, and toxic waste. it is equally political actors, government agencies, corporate policies, racism, and demographics. forging a picture of these entanglements of nature and culture in the making of silicon valley’s environmentally hazardous landscape has greatly benefitted from techniques in the digital humanities, providing a way to layer disparate information together to build a mosaic of environmental history and the valley’s landscape change. by building interactive deep maps, historians and geographers can bring together more exploratory and analytical tools for linking anecdotal information with historical data. the graphical display of geographic information formed a core method- ological approach to studying silicon valley’s postwar transformation and identifying spatial patterns to explain how cities took shape. yet urban and environmental historians have largely neglected to incorporate interactive maps into their work. in the pages ahead, this article seeks to explore the ways such approaches may be useful for historians by drawing on examples from the author’s work on silicon valley. the layering of data is, ultimately, one of the great promises of gis allowing us to more easily compare and explain spatial patterns, to create and recreate many maps at different geographic and temporal scales, and to test ideas against layers of information. in a web mapping environment, not only do these features become available for the researcher green dreams, toxic legacies but also for our readers. by interacting with such projects, readers can explore and combine spatial information in different ways to reach conclusions different from the author. in my work on silicon valley, that could mean any host of layers of information on natural features, administrative boundaries, and demographic surveys, any of which could be surfaced on their own or combined with other sets of data for exploration. these tools become extremely useful when passed into the hands of urban and environmental historians, whose chief concerns about zoning decisions, land use, urban planning and renewal, race relations, natural resources, landscape change, and residential segregation are well suited to gis. the process of both making these maps to test ideas about spatial elements, but also the presentation of those results help drive historical explanation as a visual experience for readers. grappling with growth in the three decades after world war ii, urban areas in the san francisco bay area underwent dramatic expansion. the massive influx of residents to the region—first, to take jobs in war-related industries, and second, to take advantage of low-cost housing and new postwar employment—led millions to resettle along the pacific coast (see figure ). historian carl abbott has noted that world war ii ‘changed the growth curve for every western subregion, reversing decline or stagnation in much of the west and accelerating growth in a few favored areas.’ between and , the west’s metropolitan population surged from . million to . million. by the s, one out of every four americans lived in the west, up from one-in-eleven in . these patterns of growth were reflected in santa clara county. san josé’s population jumped from , in to , by . the population of the county over this period rose from , to , , . a further appeal of these suburban tracts was their proximity to what consumers identified as nature. as homeowners moved from the cities to the suburbs, they sought what urban historian john stilgoe described as a ‘borderland’ of suburb and countryside. early in the twentieth century, residents located their homes in these urban-rural fringes as part of the beliefs that good health and exposure to nature produced good citizens. after world war ii, the growing density of people and infrastructure changed the avenues for incorporating the rural into cities. as the american middle class moved to the suburbs, they sought a ‘suburban countryside’ where nature could be found. as cities expanded and, in a way, erased nature from the landscape, the ideal of nature became a favored component for suburbanites chasing homeownership. just as socio-economic factors shaped and fractured america’s suburbs, so did ecological choices: not only the microenvironments of lawns, yards, and gardens, but also the larger environments of parks, open space, and other places jason a. heppler f ig u re . p op ul at io n gr ow th in th e b ay a re a, – . http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= green dreams, toxic legacies of the unbuilt environment that mattered greatly to suburbanites conceptions of place. a benefit of mapping in urban history is making the process of spatial transformation explicit. above is the expansion of san josé between and . the city grew dramatically in the postwar era, growing from seventeen square miles in to square miles in . the city grew so fast that map makers could not keep up with the pace of change; in one case their maps were outdated just five months after printing. to counteract this, the city began selling monthly packets of stickers with map corrections to affix to printed maps to maintain their accuracy. the interactive version of map in figure allows users to visualize the city’s growth as it leap-frogged out from the city core. no city better typified the experience of postwar metropolitan expansion in the san francisco bay area than san josé. the city lay at the center of northern california’s suburban population boom. a rural farming community of , in , san josé would be among the top ten largest metropolitan areas in the nation by the century’s end. by the s the city’s population numbered , , and doubled by to , . the city quickly surpassed the size of the san francisco bay area’s traditional urban centers of san francisco and oakland, which likewise underwent growth but nowhere near the scale of san josé. among the major governmental tools used by the city to encourage expansion was annexation and consolidation. the city approved over , annexations between and , including narrow ‘shoestring’ annexations designed to capture desirable intersections, commercial centers, and subdivisions. behind this aggressive expansion was city manager anthony p. ‘dutch’ hamann. a long-time resident of san josé originally from orange county, hamann believed growth to be essential to the city’s prosperity and future. ‘you don’t built a city by staying in a vacuum,’ he declared. ‘you build, you sell. . . . and i was the gun for hire.’ so aggressive was hamann’s staff that critics called them ‘dutch’s panzer division’—named after the swift, motorized armored tank squadrons of nazi germany—as the city sprawled outward from the core. one neighboring mayor described san josé’s growth as ‘imperialism, pure and simple.’ but the critics had little power dissuading the city from altering its course. ‘they say san josé is going to become another los angeles,’ hamann rebuked his critics. ‘believe me, i’m going to do the best in my power to make that come true.’ annexations, historian kenneth jackson notes, were viewed by developers as ‘a sort of guarantee to potential buyers that the suburb would eventually possess the comforts of the city.’ san josé reflected the desires of developers, epitomized through the close relationship of city leaders to businessmen, contractors, and real estate developers known colloquially as the book of the month club. the club worked to campaign in bond elections and secure tax jason a. heppler figure . the expansion of san josé’s city boundaries. note the narrow shoestring annexations and patch-worked pattern of annexation before the city adopted an ‘in-fill’ policy in the s. an interactive version of this map is available at http://dissertation.jasonheppler.org/visualizations/annexations/. http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= green dreams, toxic legacies funds to funnel money into capital improvement programs. the workings of the club managed to secure $ million over the course of a decade, funded not only by local organizations but from east coast investors. mayor george starbird recalled hamann as ‘the real architect of this city,’ intimating that without his promotional abilities in new york and elsewhere the bonds would likely have fallen short to city leaders’ desires. annexations also attempted to solve a major problem facing san josé: the capture of taxes to provide city services. while many municipal incorporations in the san francisco bay area sought high-tech manufacturing to fill their coffers, companies largely located themselves in the northern end of the county around stanford university, palo alto, and mountain view. companies densely concentrated along highway running north-to-south along the peninsula. san josé, on the other hand, became a residential city as most people commuted out of the city to work in the industrial campuses to the north. but to support its growing population, the city needed funds to expand its infrastructure and services. digital approaches to the examination of san josé’s annexations allowed me to explore the process in great detail. the very practice of mapping this activity allows one to answer the basic questions of city expansion and land ownership transfers. previous studies that tackle san josé’s growth and growth regime have never mapped the process of city annexation and expansion. thus, the creation of these maps (see figure ) allows scholars to see something not seen before and drive new research questions. there are many areas in san josé’s expansion, for example, where ‘shoestring’ annexations become visible as officials attempted to grab desirable subdivisions or intersections. by seeing this map, we have a way to focus our attention on these areas and ask why, for example, a subdivision was desirable? what builders were involved in its construction? did the city have a political motivation behind capturing a desirable area? were high tech companies given preferential treatment in some of these areas, as was the case with international business machines in western san josé? because of the interactive cartography that i built, i am able to target the most crucial micro- regions in san josé that explain the growth of the city in this era. my archival work can now become much more pointed. furthermore, by creating these interactive maps of city annexation, i was able to start layering new information on top of the maps. for example, i am preparing two key sets of data to drive exploration into the expansion of the city and its services. first, layering of census demographic data will allow me to explore patterns of discriminatory or favorable treatment by the city for certain subdivisions or districts. scholars know this to be the case in certain areas, particularly san josé’s largely latino population in east side. i expect demographic data will present a new way of looking at the process of city expansion and access to infrastructure and services. second, an additional layer of information is environmental hazards. jason a. heppler f ig u re . a nn ex at io ns in s an jo sé , – . http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= green dreams, toxic legacies figure . zoning and land use, san josé, . parcel data, city of san josé. the city’s growth regime expanded so rapidly that it often ignored the warnings of city and county planners to avoid areas prone to landslides, erosion, flooding, and earthquake fault lines. by mapping hazard areas along with the expansion of city boundaries, we can see which areas of the city were potentially most at risk to natural hazards. similarly, zoning became another method for the city to control the kinds of land use regimes that would be allowed (see ocean howell’s article, this issue). in suburbia, zoning served as a method of land use control that provided for the protection of land values as well as exclusionary measures to prohibit certain kinds of development (commercial or industrial activity, for example) and density standards (see figure ). older cities could not compete against suburban zoning since local land use was decided well before local control over zoning was established. central cities, then, tended to zone exclusively around commercial or industrial use and push residential areas outside downtowns. san josé, in part, followed a similar pattern as its downtown zoned largely for commercial activities and multifamily housing, and pushing single-family housing to areas outside the city’s historic core. focusing on the agricultural zoning districts in san josé points to one of the challenges of doing this sort of work. there are several moments in the latter half of the twentieth century when environmentalists sought land use protections for http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= jason a. heppler figure . using historic maps to create new historical gis. wilderness and natural areas. some of the agricultural zoning in san josé, as well as several of the protected districts for open space preservation, occur not just in space but also in time. census tracts, for example, change often over time, sometimes within a very short period of time. there are challenges in building thematic maps when the geographic units are constantly shifting because they are considered mere containers for data. census tracts in the bay area, for example, suffer a similar problem to counties in the american west—the further away one gets from densely-populated areas, the larger the tracts become which visually aggrandizes the relative significance of the data. census tracts also notoriously fail to take into account physical features like parks and lakes, assuming a kind of geographic homogeneity that simply does not reflect the reality on the ground. figure illustrates this problem particularly well. census tracts, especially those in the foothills of the santa clara valley, assume a regularity in population distribution and visually suggests a density of people that fails to live up to reality. such problems are common for historical and cultural geographers. for urban environmental historians, the shifting boundaries of natural hazards presents a similar challenge. environmental hazards in the city shift over time, through great earthworks that reshape the landscape and remove or introduce new challenges, or by the presence of pollution and industrial activity that reshape the space of the city. since such data cannot be found in repositories http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= green dreams, toxic legacies like the national historic geographic information system data and shapefiles provided by the university of minnesota nor through most city-level offices, the data must be created through historic georectified maps used to create new geographic information (see figure .). the result of such maps can be two- fold. first, environmental historians could literally trace how landscape change occurred as cities expanded into new areas by using multiple historical maps and creating several gis layers that could be viewed over time. as creeks are cemented or hillsides built upon, do new environmental risks emerge? second, as amy hillier and robert churchill note, historic maps serve to illustrate the ‘values and prejudices of the people and institutions that created them.’ by layering georectified maps with data, researchers can compare historical demographic information and urban patterns against contemporary data. the polluted garden while certain geographic information may suffer from assumed regularity within polygons, point data plotted against the stable grid of cartesian space provides a more stable geography. in the map pictured in figure , users are presented with three key data points: the location of superfund sites (large red circles), the location of toxic spills and sites (smaller purple circles), and the location of high- tech companies and firms (small yellow circles). while the map itself presents a view into places densely occupied by high-tech firms and polluted sites, it also allows users to explore the map more deeply by mousing over points to retrieve information about toxic sites or companies and the kinds of industrial activity pursued by the company. through this interactivity, the map provides another view into the information presented visually. readers can, for example, read about the superfund sites and their reason for existing, what caused the pollution, whether the site has been remediated, and what areas were affected by the pollution. silicon valley’s reputation grew as a wealth-generating project over the course of the twentieth century, yet little was said about the environmental hazards high- tech industrialization introduced to the region. no amount of planning prowess or superb landscaping could escape the visible and invisible hazards resulting from manufacturing activity that used highly toxic and harmful chemicals in the creation of electrical components. the hazards of high-tech manufacturing became apparent in january . a month prior, construction workers installing a solvents storage tank at fairchild semiconductor in south san josé discovered a leak in a pre-existing tank. the construction crew reported the leak to fairchild and the great oaks water company, which operated drinking water wells nearby that serviced thousands of residents. the water company closed the wells immediately. tests of the groundwater confirmed the presence of an industrial solvent containing the jason a. heppler figure . the location of superfund sites (large red circles), toxic sites and spills (smaller purple circles), and high-tech companies (small yellow circles). the interactive version of the map is at http://dissertation.jasonheppler.org/ visualizations/companies/ carcinogen , , trichloroethane (tca) far above the permissible limit set by the environmental protection agency. roughly , gallons of toxic chemicals had leaked from the tank for eighteen months. when the san josé mercury reported the leak at the end of january, residents of the nearby los paseos neighborhood linked the news of the leak with what seemed like a high proportion of miscarriages, cancer, premature births, and birth defects affecting mothers and children in the area. the presence of highly toxic chemicals just thousands of feet away from public drinking wells alarmed the neighborhood. as the local news continued investigating fairchild, questions http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= green dreams, toxic legacies were asked about the presence of other contaminants at other tech companies in the region. stories flooded the local headlines: hundreds of possible chemical leaks and spills, a chemical explosion at lockheed that forced the evacuation of people from palo alto, stories of workers exposed to chemicals that caused hair loss, respiratory problems, skin infections, and worse. valley residents came to see the landscape as tainted. by , local and federal studies found at least private and public drinking wells were contaminated by high-tech toxins, and plots of land were too toxic for people to walk upon. county authorities determined that of the companies investigated—including ibm, hewlett- packard, raytheon, nec, amd, signetics, and many others—had contaminated the soil beneath their facilities. the environmental protection agency eventually declared superfund sites—more than any other county in the nation. twenty- four resulted from electronics firms. so common had reports become that the san josé mercury editorialized in february —just a month after fairchild reported the leak—that ‘if the present pattern continues, this newspaper might have to stop printing a separate story about each silicon valley hazardous chemical leak and just run a daily box score in agate type.’ activists under the aegis of the silicon valley toxics coalition (svtc) represented the interests of environmentalists and neighborhood activists. svtc pushed for two major initiatives, moving to initiate stricter guidelines regulating the storage and use of chemicals in manufacturing and better guidelines on toxics clean-up, in particular urging the environmental protection agency to expand its list of known carcinogens to chemicals. the activities of svtc had national repercussions as well. at the urgings of svtc, california representative norman mineta included two amendments to the superfund program drawn from the lessons of silicon valley. although his recommendations failed to make it into legislation, the effort demonstrates just how important silicon valley’s case had become to anti-toxics legislation. svtc’s arguments took on a spatiality of their own as well. not all places in the city were created equal. in their analysis, business and government turned a blind eye to poor and nonwhite communities, in some cases offloading pollution onto these communities. where one lived and worked in the valley could have a tremendous impact on a person’s health. health was spatial as well, used as an indicator for a particular kind of space that threatened bodies. ill health, they argued, could result from a particular place they occupied rather than individual causes for disease. the land did not confer clean space. mapping the location of superfund sites and toxic leaks and spills by category allows us to see which areas of the cities were most affected. the map in figure attempts to explore this critique by breaking census tracts into categories labeled ‘higher income, white,’ ‘higher income, minority,’ ‘lower income, white,’ and ‘lower income, minority.’ the categorization is a rough approximation of two features. first, census tracts are defined by an income level that lands above or jason a. heppler figure . polluted sites in santa clara county, showing low-income and minority neighborhoods by census tract, c. . low-income is defined as areas below the county median of $ , , and minority is defined as neighborhoods that have a greater proportion of minority households. categories derived from the u.s. census. large black circles represent superfund sites, smaller red circles represent identified toxic or chemical leaks and spills. below the county median income of $ , , and minority neighborhoods are those that have a greater proportion of minority households over white households. the categorization allows one to break up sections of the city into white-collar areas and blue-collar areas, and trace the areas most at risk for high-tech pollution. what this helps reveal is which particular places most at-risk by the presence of high-tech toxics. while environmental historians have argued that cities tended to put polluting industries near working class and communities http://www.euppublishing.com/action/showimage?doi= . /ijhac. . &iname=master.img- .jpg&w= &h= green dreams, toxic legacies of color in places like gary, indiana, and flint, michigan, in silicon valley there appears more mixing of communities threatened by high tech pollution. conclusion the idea of green space and high-tech became a political project in places like silicon valley. today, that relationship still exists. google and apple tout their green server farms, brag of their solar-paneled campuses, and issue annual reports on their environmental quality efforts. in some ways these are genuine measures of environmental sustainability and accountability, but in the early s technology companies in silicon valley moved their manufacturing activities to places with looser environmental regulations and cheaper labor pools. instead of recognizing the dirtiness of their industry, businesses reframed their argument yet again, drawing on a myth of high-tech and combining it with sustainability: that these companies required smart people, good ideas, and were the clean, green future of capitalism for the nation. the digital tools available to researchers allow them to explore demographic and environmental patterns and relationships (segregated urban space, distribution of butterflies, urban places most threatened by industrial pollution). while gis has yet to support qualitative and temporal data effectively—and, at times, are ill-suited to the qualitative data in the humanities that is, by its nature, incomplete and ambiguous—web applications combine data in new ways. for historical and cultural geographers the tools of digital humanities allows researchers not only the chance to think about their research spatially, but provides avenues for visualizing spatial evidence in political ecology. end notes ‘defense boom: lockheed arrived in ‘ , leading to economic explosion,’ san josé mercury news, december , ; ‘lockheed aircraft: midpenninsula’s largest employ,’ palo alto times, february , ; interview with jack balletto, silicon genesis project, stanford university, – . lockheed was not alone in its arrival to santa clara county in the postwar era, nor was it the first. hewlett-packard, varian associates, gte sylvania, fmc corp., and philco ford all established operations for space, electronics, and telecommunications research and manufacturing prior to . ‘the valley of heart’s delight,’ san josé chamber of commerce, folder , box , arbuckle research files, california reading room, san josé public library. ‘c. ’. ‘the valley of heart’s delight,’ ‘c. ’. kenneth t jackson, crabgrass frontier: the suburbanization of the united states (new york: oxford university press, ); robert fishman, bourgeois utopias: the rise and fall of suburbia (new york: basic books, ); dolores hayden, building suburbia: green fields and urban growth, – (new york: vintage books, ). see, generally, louise a. mozingo, pastoral capitalism: a history of suburban corporate landscapes (cambridge: the mit press, ); fishman, bourgeois utopias. jason a. heppler adam rome, bulldozer in the countryside: suburban sprawl and the rise of american environmentalism (new york: cambridge university press, ); michael dear and a. j. scott, eds., urbanization and urban planning in capitalist society (new york: meuthen, ). for example, see heynen, ‘urban political ecology i: the urban century,’ progress in human geography, , no. ( ), – ; and paul robbins, lawn people: how grasses, weeds, and chemicals make us who we are (philadelphia: temple university press, ). there is no shortage of literature on historical gis. see, especially, ian gregory, a place in history: a guide to using gis in historical research (oakville, ct: david brown, ); ian gregory and alistair geddes, eds., toward spatial humanities: historical gis and spatial history (bloomington: indiana university press, ); mark monmonier, mapping it out: expository cartography for the humanities and social sciences (chicago: university of chicago press, ); anne kelly knowles, ed., past time, past place: gis for history (redlands, calif.: esri press, ); anne knowles and amy hillier, eds., placing history: how maps, spatial data, and gis are changing historical scholarship (new york: esri press, ). colin gordon, ‘lost in space, or confessions of an accidental geographer,’ international journal of humanities & arts computing , no. (march ): – ; amy hillier, ‘invitation to mapping: how gis can facilitate new discoveries in urban and planning history,’ journal of planning history , no. (may ): – ; edward tufte, beautiful evidence (graphics press: cheshire, conn., ), – . david freund, ‘marketing the free market: state intervention and the politics of prosperity in metropolitan america,’ in the new suburban history, ed. by kevin m. kruse and thomas j. sugrue, (chicago: university of chicago press, ), , ; jackson, crabgrass frontier, – , chap. ; marion and burnell clawson held, the federal lands: their use and management (baltimore: resources for the future, inc., ), – ; peter dreier, john mollenkopf, and todd swanstrom, place matters: metropolitics for the twenty-first century (lawrence: university press of kansas, ), – ; peter siskind, ‘suburban growth and its discontents: the logic and limits of reform on the postwar northeast corridor,’ in the new suburban history, ed. by kevin m. kruse and thomas sugrue, (chicago: university of chicago press, ), . carl abbott, ‘frontiers and sections: cities and regions in american growth,’ american quarterly , no. (january ), xviii–xix, – . i’m greatly influenced here by christopher sellers, who argues that in narrating the history of environmentalism we need to take a more ecological approach to the regular narratives of city building and nature erasing. see, especially, christopher c. sellers, crabgrass crucible: suburban nature and the rise of environmentalism in twentieth-century america (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ). stanford environmental law review, san josé: sprawling city: a report on land use policies and practices in san josé, california, march , . ‘county grows too fast for mapmakers,’ palo alto times, september , ; ‘notes for a gazetteer,’ the new yorker, may , , – . u.s. bureau of the census, census, santa clara county, n.d., census.abag.ca.gov; u.s. bureau of the census, census, santa clara county, n.d., census.abag.ca.gov. ‘annexations by year’, , city of san josé planning division; ‘city size by year’, , city of san josé planning division; belser, planning progress , ; philip trounstine and terry christensen, movers and shakers: the study of community power (new york: st. martin’s press, ), ; ‘correcting san josé’s boomtime mistake,’ business week, september , , ; stanford law review, san josé, . quoted in trounstine, and christensen, movers and shakers, . see also ‘joe ridder’s san josé,’ san francisco magazine ( ): . green dreams, toxic legacies ‘joe ridder’s san josé,’ san francisco magazine ( ): . ‘joe ridder’s san josé,’ san francisco magazine ( ): . stanford law review, san josé, . see also ‘hamann: san josé’s growth guru,’ san josé mercury news, . jackson, crabgrass frontier, . trounstine and christensen, movers and shakers, – . the practice behind these maps is georectification and gis to create new digital maps. i can use these maps in a variety of forms, for example arcgis or qgis for spatial analysis, geojson for interactive web maps. many of these digitized maps are drawn from deep archival research and city records to illustrate everything from natural hazard zones to industrial activity. another benefit of this work, in the words of anne knowles, is that ‘one gains intimate knowledge of one’s sources and study area.’ knowles and hillier, (eds) placing history, . colin gordon, mapping decline: st. louis and the fate of the american city (philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, ), . amy hillier and richard churchill, ‘teaching with gis,’ in placing history: how maps, spatial data, and gis are changing historical scholarship, ed. by anne knowles, (new york: – , ), – . hillier and churchill, ‘teaching with gis’, . newspaper clipping, ‘water contaminated by leak,’ san josé mercury, january , , folder , box , svtc records, sjsu; ‘get tough now to avoid spills,’ gilroy dispatch, july , ; peter murphy, ‘great oaks water company distribution study,’ draft report, folder , box , svtc, san josé state university (sjsu); ‘high-tech: a stain on a ‘clean’ field,’ los angeles times, december , . david n. pellow and lisa sun-hee park, the silicon valley of dreams: environmental injustice, immigrant workers, and the high-tech global economy (new york: new york university press, ), – . ‘how safe is our drinking water?’ san josé mercury news, february , , folder , box , santa clara center for occupational health (sccosh) and silicon valley toxics coalition (svtc) records, mss- – – , san josé state university library special collections & archives. letter from norman mineta to ted smith, october , , folder , box , svtc records, sjsu. linda nash, inescapable ecologies: a history of environment, disease, and knowledge (berkeley: university of california press, ), ; henri lefebvre, the production of space, trans. by donald nicholson-smith, (new york: wiley-blackwell, ), – . andrew hurley, environmental inequalities: class, race, and industrial pollution in gary, indiana, – (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ); andrew r. highsmith, demolition means progress: flint, michigan, and the fate of the american metropolis (chicago: university of chicago press, ); carl a. zimring, clean and white: a history of environmental racism (new york: nyu press, ); dorceta e. taylor, toxic communities: environmental racism, industrial pollution, and residential mobility (new york: nyu press, ). this is not to suggest that environmental racism is not present in silicon valley. the location of chemical or waste processing facilities near communities in east palo alto and alviso—predominantly black and latino, respectively—points to attempts by city leaders to locate dirty facilities away from the property values of white suburbia. review of oliver grau, janina hoth, & eveline wandl-vogt (eds.) ( ). digital art through the looking glass: new strategies for archiving, collecting and preserving in digital humanities | springerlink advertisement search log in search springerlink search reviews published: january review of oliver grau, janina hoth, & eveline wandl-vogt (eds.) ( ). digital art through the looking glass: new strategies for archiving, collecting and preserving in digital humanities hamburg/krems/vienna: edition donau-universität krems and austrian academy of sciences. pp. isbn (e-book) penesta dika , postdigital science and education volume , pages – ( )cite this article accesses altmetric metrics details this is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution. access options buy single article instant access to the full article pdf. us$ . tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. subscribe to journal immediate online access to all issues from . subscription will auto renew annually. us$ tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. rent this article via deepdyve. learn more about institutional subscriptions notes .see http://www.mediaarthistory.org/retrace. .see http://www.virtualart.at/nc/home.html. .see https://www.hek.ch/en.html. .see https://www.comune.venezia.it/it/content/algorithmic-signs-ernest-edmonds-manfred-mohr-vera-moln-r-frieder-nake-roman-verostko- (in italian) and https://aru.ac.uk/storylab/our-research/algorithmic-signs (in english). references beiguelman, g., & conçalves magalhães, a. 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( ). beyond digital. wired, ( january) http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/ . /negroponte.html. download references author information affiliations kunstuniversität linz, linz, austria penesta dika university of business and technology in prishtina, prishtina, kosovo penesta dika authors penesta dikaview author publications you can also search for this author in pubmed google scholar corresponding author correspondence to penesta dika. rights and permissions reprints and permissions about this article cite this article dika, p. review of oliver grau, janina hoth, & eveline wandl-vogt (eds.) 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patterns can be discovered that were not apparent before. we use the dutch-australian collaborative project “migrant: mobilities and connection” as an example and case study of this life course–centered methodology and propose that this may develop into a migration heritage template for migrants worldwide. global migration is one of the defining characteristics of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. as alexander betts noted in , “there is greater human mobility than ever before. in , there were million international migrants; today there are well over million” (betts ). with globalization, the opportunity and * edith cowan university † western sydney university ‡ huygens institute for the history of the netherlands § curtin university migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. inclination to move is greater than ever. in australia, nearly half of the population now lives in migrant households, the third-highest proportion in the western world (see arthur , ). successive generations of migrants have left material and immaterial traces of their culture and identity in multiple locations worldwide, forming deep etches in modern collective memory. however, the documents and evidence of the history of migration are spread very widely and, in most cases, remain almost entirely inaccessible for research purposes. these records are a vital resource for humanities and social sciences research on multicultural heritage, and they play a central role in fostering enduring, multicultural community identities. conceptualized as a case study on dutch-australian mutual cultural heritage, the migrant: mobilities and connection (mmc) project set out to examine the archival, custodial, and digital challenges that researchers face in the quest to discover, collect, and preserve traces from the past and to propose an approach to managing such material. considerable progress has been made on this study, which takes in a range of histories that the netherlands shares with australia, including maritime, military, migration, and mercantile history. interdisciplinary in its approach, the project is a collaboration among dutch and australian historians and literary scholars from huygens ing (amsterdam), the centre for global issues at edith cowan university (perth), western sydney university library (sydney), and the curtin university sustainability policy institute (perth). the history of migration is truly international in character. in his article “global migration, – ,” adam mckeown begins with the statement, “mass long- distance migrations have been an important part of world history; but historians have been slow to acknowledge their global extent” (mckeown , ). making a similar point, barbara lüthi points out that “scholars have begun to look beyond the normative model of ‘global migration’—one that focuses solely on european migration and the western world—to focus on the rich and complex migration patterns and circulations of the entire modern (and premodern) world” (lüthi ). while this project focuses on a european example against the backdrop of this immense global phenomenon, the same approach could be used in other parts of the world. vast population movements following the second world war had a profound influence on people’s lives in both their home and host countries. the impacts of those migrations continue into the lives of the migrants and of later generations (arthur , “introduction,” – ; schrover and van faassen , “introduction”, – ; see also persian , – ; williams , – ; peters , a-b, ). however, with more than seventy years having passed since the end of world war ii, the opportunities to gather firsthand postwar migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. accounts of immigration memories are receding, and pressure is mounting to find ways of recording histories relating to these migrant groups and making them visible and accessible. poignant personal memories are recorded in physical documents such as manuscripts, letters, photographs, and objects that are now very widely dispersed and fragmented. some may be housed in private and public collections, policy files, and records stewarded by the institutional archives of local, national, and supranational governments. others may be under the care of nongovernmental organizations (ngos), museums, or libraries, or be in private possession in the homes of individual migrants and their families (peters a; peters et al. ). adding a high degree of urgency to the task is the fundamental problem of the blurring of memory with the long passage of time. history can be lost because of people’s “extraordinary capacity to obliterate memory,” but as colin tatz also recently explained, there is something “more benign but equally dangerous, and that is simple forgetfulness. the world moves on, history recedes” (tatz ). this project uses as its starting point the individual life course and the stories it can offer through archived information, and also, where possible, through recorded memories. this approach is intended to stem the flow of forgetting in the case of this segment of history that forms an important part of the collective memory of each of the two countries (home and host land). in the second half of the twentieth century, the total number of people on the move in europe alone was estimated to be thirty million (hoerder ). of these, half a million were dutch nationals—amounting to some five percent of the country’s population—who migrated to various overseas countries of settlement, including australia. there were comparable flows of migrants from other parts of the world— people seeking a temporary or permanent new home in response to many kinds of pressures, including political persecution, vilification, or conflict. little has changed in modern times (see ensor, polak, and van der merwe ). in fact, never before have there been so many people migrating across borders. in there were million international migrants worldwide ( . percent of the world’s population), up from million in . of these, . million were forcibly displaced, . million were refugees, and million remain stateless (united nations ). in using the mmc project as an example, our intent is to present a methodology that can be applied in other arenas and across other kinds of migration to contribute toward the preservation of important cultural data in situations of displacement or disruption that have arisen as a result of the huge increase in human mobility in recent decades. migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. in this article we propose a life course–centered approach to finding, connecting, and opening up heritage collections—for migrant communities, for scholarly research, and for the general public. with a focus on dutch-australian migrants and what shaped the course of their lives, this method seeks to examine specific social and cultural connections and the interactions between individual migrants and institutions in both countries. working across local, regional, and national scales of inquiry, the method goes beyond the macro or micro level of analysis typically adopted in migrant and migration research (de haas ). given the highly mobile nature of modern global society, the sustainable preservation of migrants’ cultural heritage has worldwide relevance, extending far beyond the dutch-australian case study, and yet to date this issue has not been adequately addressed (unesco ). fundamental questions relating to how to digitally preserve and organize migrant materials and historical traces remain unanswered. planning for digital preservation tends to be uncoordinated and irregular, leading to concerns about the loss of migrant communities’ histories. with vastly improved digital tools and methods now available, there are opportunities to take positive action to digitally preserve heritage materials and maintain historical knowledge in ways that will enable them to endure beyond our generations and beyond the lifetimes of current technology formats. this project demonstrates how, through collaboration, and by confining the project to a well-defined group, this result can be achieved transnationally, drawing upon records from both the country of departure and the country of destination, to provide a more integrated and complete picture. there is a growing awareness of and interest in the heritage of specific migrant groups in cultural institutions and within migrant communities. seen from a worldwide perspective, migrants often belong to migrating ethnic groups and are a minority in the countries of settlement. the united nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization (unesco), the international council on monuments and sites (icomos), and recently the european union (eu) have signaled an urgent need for preserving community heritage (unesco ; icomos ; eu ). museums face unprecedented pressures due to the difficulty and high cost of preserving ethnically diverse cultural heritage materials in a time of economic upheaval. according to the digital agenda toolbox report, “the digitisation of europe’s cultural heritage and its preservation is a costly task. . . . with only a fraction ( %) of europe’s cultural heritage digitised, and only a small proportion of all digitised items accessible online, this work is still in its infancy” (digital agenda toolbox , ). the digital processes and platforms used to collect and hold the cultural material are critically migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. important to ensure longevity and interoperability. the unesco charter on the preservation of the digital heritage ( ) recommended the use of a template for the preservation of immigrants’ cultural heritage as an effective tool for addressing challenges such as these, hence the approach selected for the mmc project. the value of cultural heritage to a country’s economy and social capital is widely recognized for “turn[ing] … cultural resources into an important building block for the digital economy” and “stimulating innovation in other sectors” (digital agenda toolbox , ), and yet the gap between growing societal demand for cultural services and diminishing resources is difficult to bridge. in the country of settlement, a migrant may be identified through a number of different official documents and registers. government archives hold migration registrations that record departure, travel, or arrival plus documentation pertaining to security checks and health. migrants can also be identified through their membership of groups of immigrants recruited for a particular purpose or under a known migration assistance scheme that has its own list of participants, or who settled as a recognizable group in the land that was their destination. other kinds of documents are generated when individual migrants become members of migrant associations, where they may be listed as having served on committees or may be mentioned in newsletters describing events and activities; members may also be identified through grant applications submitted when these groups have sought assistance by applying for funds from governments. in addition to governments, numerous civil society organizations, churches, and other ngos accumulate document trails through their interactions with individual migrants (see figure ). they provide information about their families and social group and the governance systems that have intervened to manage their mobility and their citizenship. all migrants leave evidence of facets of their lives in their country of origin and in their host country within records and artifacts that can be joined up to tell their story of migration and form part of the overlapping cultural heritage of the two places. each of these traces can be seen, in context, as a representative instance within the life course of a migrant that can be captured in a template designed to bring these facts, dates, and figures together to form the frameworks for narratives that can grow and change as more information comes to light. in this project the central focus in the development of a migration heritage template is the individual migrant. the benefits of a migrant heritage template extend far beyond the arenas of family history and academic research. as the map in figure illustrates, many stakeholders are involved, so a template of this kind has the potential migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. to have a wider societal impact. most importantly, the template can help members of migrant communities better understand their own transnational histories. figure . scheme of the myriad cultural heritage institutions involved in a migrant life course. source: van faassen b. the context and rationale for developing such a template focus on these key aspects, following the concept of a “data scope” (hoekstra and koolen, forthcoming): information held by the migrants themselves. migrants are custodians of the cultural heritage of their families; as a result, the materials almost invariably exist as scattered fragments and remnants, disconnected from each other, even within a single family. despite the practical difficulties, migrant communities increasingly want to safeguard their heritage objects through digitization. although a great deal of work has to be done to achieve it, digitization enables not only preservation but also the potential to link materials to a wider ethnic context. because migrant groups do not usually have the resources or technical skills to embark on this kind of project, the need exists to create an underlying digital infrastructure that can facilitate this effort and provide a model for doing so on a larger scale. a template designed for this purpose can provide both a tool and an incentive for migrants to contribute and make their own heritage accessible and thus help to supplement the official documents with voices from the migrant community. migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. information held by institutions. at the public-sector level, cultural heritage institutions—including archives, libraries, and museums—preserve those parts of migrant cultural heritage that are sourced from documents such as those recording historical government activities or the membership and activities of migrant associations, and also the artifacts and memorabilia of key individuals’ estates and migrant newspapers (for example, the dutch weekly and dutch courier, digitized by the national library of australia). increasingly, but only selectively, collections are being made available digitally. collections are typically exhibited in isolation from one another, even when they contain information about the same individual or events. the cross-national dispersion of materials that can be linked to the same people exacerbates the problem and leads to fragmentariness in cultural heritage understanding. the template approach offers practical steps toward a solution to this aspect. synthesis and analysis. academic research organizations can provide the analytical skills to connect different documents together and link materials to the wider history of global migration. by guiding researchers toward a variety of sources and collections that they might not otherwise have considered, the template approach can add new dimensions to research. while using the individual migrant as the starting point, this approach also allows analysis across groups and thus supports the construction of broader, evidence-based, representative stories of the experience of migrant communities. in the mmc project, the overall aim is to reconstruct migrant cultural heritage to show how the histories of australia and the netherlands have intersected and flowed into each other through the lives of migrants. many preparatory steps are required for such a project. the first requirement is to set up a collaborative relationship between relevant organizations in the two countries. the next step is to set up processes to identify the documents that are to be accessed and, if they are in analog forms, to plan for them to be digitized. official papers include emigration and immigration records, passenger lists, passport requests, health clearances, alien registration documents, and citizenship papers, as well as school, business, and employment records. where possible, diaries and letters held in state, regional, national, and international archives, consulates, and other governmental organizations are also being accessed, and plans are underway for these to be digitized and linked. while this process is labor-intensive and time- consuming, it is important to recognize that archives themselves have cultural and political dimensions that are governed by underlying institutional priorities and emphases in each country; as a result, historical knowledge and a critical perspective are migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. required when searching the archives, as is an awareness of the lives behind the simple factual data. archives are themselves “already stories” (haebich , ). archives can provide insights into social attitudes through their recording and preserving principles. a notorious example is the archive of the west australian department of indigenous affairs (dia), which documents seventy-four years of state control of aboriginal people from to in the state of western australia. as the dia archive vividly demonstrates, archives are cultural artifacts that reflect, express, and consolidate the prevailing social structures and systems of regulation; they are not “immutable artifacts of the past” but can be adaptive and open to change through new interpretations (haebich , ). for this reason, digitizing archives achieves much more than simple transfer. it enables archives to be searched for patterns that may stay hidden when they are in analog formats. through the life course approach, such patterns may reveal themselves through formerly invisible common threads or links across individual lives (on the dutch in western australia, see peters ). the mmc project started out with a pilot study that involved the registration system of the post–world war ii dutch consulates in australia, consisting of , emigration cards now held by the dutch national archives, the hague. these contain pre-emigration demographic data for over , dutch emigrants over the period from to . the material includes “hard facts” such as composition of family, dates of birth, addresses, religion, marital status, date of arrival, carriers, and port of entrance, as well as some “soft facts,” such as nature of employment or profession. from this information a basic picture of the life courses of migrants can begin to be constructed and some key questions can be identified. the lives of migrants differ structurally from the lives of most other people, as their life courses are divided very clearly into the periods before and after migration. continuities and discontinuities are very visible across this divide, raising questions such as which institutions, in the countries of origin and destination, were influential in the emigrants’ enrollment for migration. the life course approach can, for example, facilitate the tracing of influences via churches or local community organizations (green ; green and weil ; schrover and van faassen ; peters b; see also elich ). dutch and australian migrant registrations from both nations’ national archives contain the core information on the migrants’ life courses. while these are accessible through databases, up to now it has only been possible to search them separately. the backbone of the current research program is the development of a digital platform that links records from the netherlands and australia to create a connected resource with data relating to the life courses of virtually all dutch-australian emigrants from to migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. (van faassen b; hoekstra ). the longer-term intent is to extend the linked archives to other cultural heritage collections to understand aspects of migration that could previously only be viewed in isolation or were not visible at all (see fig. ). figure . scheme for research and community (web) access to migration data the study of life courses has tended to focus on either the micro level or the macro level. the micro (close-reading) historical approach is predominantly qualitative in nature, relying on biographical interpretations of the lives of individuals. the macro (distant-reading) historical method is serial in nature and distinguishes patterns in the lives of groups of people but is less personalized. the current project breaks down the barriers between these approaches. it enables the study of groups of migrants in much more depth than conventional macro approaches to the individual records in a database migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. would allow. the groups selected may be arbitrary or identified through a specific question. the research is organized around a new comprehensive dataset, blending the computer-assisted heuristics of the digital humanities with traditional archival sources (ensor ). this organization enables the micro and the macro approaches to be connected into what we call serial qualitative research, a method that makes it possible to find patterns while retaining access to details, to make representative selections for case studies, and to generalize and quickly test representative coverage of the findings from case studies (see fig. ). figure . scheme for a dutch-australian migrant database for all manner of groups and selections it is possible to investigate the life course of each member in detail. this approach allows for the identification of social networks of and around the migrants and offers a means to follow their individual and group trajectories as they migrated from a dutch setting to their new environment in australia (peters , , a, b, , b, ). it is also possible to identify the different influences on the social networks as they evolved, using pattern migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. recognition to show links between life courses. such identification allows better understanding both of community formation in the homeland and of forms of assimilation in australia with the influences of a different and changing social context (peters ; hoekstra ; tilly ; brettell and hollifield ; white and houseman ). the combined dutch-australian resource allows important new questions to be asked and explored, such as which institutions were involved, and what their influences were on the lives of the emigrants during their time in the netherlands and then after their immigration to australia. the institutions include not only the dutch and australian governments but also the church, employers, trade unions, and other civil society organizations (peters ; van faassen a). it becomes possible to answer questions as to whether specific aspects of the cultural background of the people, such as original home locality or religion, contributed to the lives they led in their new country. did they seek a similar community? did they join a church? many new questions can be identified and pursued now and into the future as a result of the foundations this project has laid. the connected transnational resource allows access to data in a way that crosses the chasm that has traditionally existed between the old world and the new, making it possible to better understand how culture was transferred both ways and new identities were forged. in addition to basic factual data, other kinds of information and written texts can be integrated into the database, including literary texts, which are a rich resource for migration history (douma ; arthur , ). concluding remarks this collaborative transnational study of migration has many dimensions. first, it seeks to develop a postwar dutch-australian migration database, using a template approach to capture a wide range of archival and other information in digitized form from both countries, that will enable seamless searching across institutional and national barriers. the overall purpose of the combined database is to preserve and better understand the important and extensive dutch heritage that has been transferred to australia as a result of migration and that has been changed by this process, but continues to have cultural and historical value in both countries. importantly, the project seeks to discover hitherto hidden connections and patterns that may cast light not only on this specific set of transitions across geographical, cultural, and linguistic boundaries but also on processes of cultural transition or displacement anywhere, something that is critically important in the current era of unprecedented levels of global mobility. in other words, the project has value in itself as a specific study of dutch-australian cultural heritage intersections, but it also has representative value as a model to be used in other transnational contexts. migrating people, migrating data: digital approaches to migrant heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. the project is particularly timely because of the dwindling numbers of post–world war ii immigrants from europe who have firsthand memories of migration or of their home country. the project recognizes and addresses the fact that, across the world, archival materials are dispersed, fragmented, and in many cases endangered. creating linked digital resources greatly enhances the usability and value of the separate resources, and linking them across countries opens up completely new possibilities for the interpretation of the experience of migration. it allows the movement of people across space and time to be more effectively contextualized, and it provides a framework for accessing the interconnected social, material, and temporal dimensions of private and public migrant archival holdings around the world. there are dynamic links and interdependencies to be discovered among collections, and among the scattered fragmentary records that are incorporated into the databases and given a safe haven for potential future deeper analysis, when connections may be made with other migrant stories or other relevant databases. this approach will inspire as well as facilitate new research that can unpack the multiple shifting configurations of migration that occur on and over multiple scales and time frames. fundamental to its success is collaboration. in addressing the challenges of connecting dispersed collections from many different libraries, archives, and museums as well as private collections from the community, a joint effort is required from cultural heritage owners, cultural heritage experts, humanities and digital humanities scholars, and computer science researchers. the mmc project—with its sound base of coherent core data and its strong history of transnational research collaboration and mutual support—is an example that points to multiple possibilities and has already engendered pride and community awareness in the intertwined dutch-australian history of migration. references arthur, paul longley. . “digital biography: capturing lives online.” auto/biography studies ( ): – . doi: . / . . . ———. . “memory and commemoration in the digital present.” in contemporary approaches in literary trauma theory, edited by michelle balaev, – . london: palgrave macmillan. ———. . “introduction: transcultural studies in australian identity.” in migrant nation: australian culture, society and identity, edited by paul longley arthur, – . london: anthem press. migrating people, 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heritage journal of the japanese association for digital humanities, vol. , no. , p. williams, katarzyna kwapisz. . “between utopia and autobiography: migrant narratives in australia.” in migrant nation: australian culture, society and identity, edited by paul longley arthur, – . london: anthem press. digital humanities in the memory institution: the challenges of encoding sir hans sloane’s early modern catalogues of his collections article how to cite: ortolja-baird, a, et al. digital humanities in the memory institution: the challenges of encoding sir hans sloane’s early modern catalogues of his collections. open library of humanities, ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /olh. published: june peer review: this article has been peer reviewed through the double-blind process of open library of humanities, which is a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. figures & excepted from the creative commons license and are public domain in most countries except the uk. open access: open library of humanities is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /olh. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / alexandra ortolja-baird, et al. ‘digital humanities in the memory institution: the challenges of encoding sir hans sloane’s early modern catalogues of his collections’ ( ) ( ): open library of humanities. doi: https://doi.org/ . /olh. article digital humanities in the memory institution: the challenges of encoding sir hans sloane’s early modern catalogues of his collections alexandra ortolja-baird , victoria pickering , julianne nyhan , kim sloan and martha fleming british museum, uk ucl, uk corresponding author: julianne nyhan (j.nyhan@ucl.ac.uk) catalogues are the core documents of museum structure and meaning. yet no significant computational analysis has been made of how catalogues from the early modern period are constructed or of the way their structure and content relate to the world from which collections are assembled. the leverhulme-funded ‘enlightenment architectures: sir hans sloane’s catalogues of his collections’ ( – ), a collaboration between the british museum and university college london, with contributing expertise from the british library and the natural history museum, seeks to change this. the enlightenment architectures project is analysing sloane’s original manuscript catalogues of his collections to understand their highly complex information architecture and intellectual legacies. in this article we explore some of the challenges of seeking to integrate the methods of digital humanities with those of cataloguing, inventory, curatorial and historical studies and of bringing such interdisciplinary approaches to bear on early modern documentary sources. we do this through two case studies that highlight the approaches to encoding sloane’s catalogues in tei that enlightenment architectures has employed and the major challenges that these have brought to the fore. https://doi.org/ . /olh. mailto:j.nyhan@ucl.ac.uk ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution introduction what are the challenges of seeking to integrate the methods of digital humanities with those of cataloguing, inventory, curatorial and historical studies and of bringing such interdisciplinary approaches to bear on early modern documentary sources? what kinds of productive collisions and misalignments occur when the aforementioned fields’ understandings of early modern documents and information meet the technical demands of present-day computational modelling? what barriers must be overcome in order to use the methods of the digital humanities to develop new understandings of the early modern period? we will explore these questions by drawing on our research from the leverhulme-funded project ‘enlightenment architectures: sir hans sloane’s catalogues of his collections’ ( – ), a collaboration between the british museum and university college london, with contributing expertise from the british library and the natural history museum. enlightenment architectures is blending research in the fields of cataloguing and inventory studies with curatorial studies and digital humanities to ask otherwise unanswerable questions about how sir hans sloane’s ( – ) manuscript catalogues of his collection were written, organised, annotated and used. sloane’s manuscript catalogues are ‘paper tools’ that allowed him and his amanuenses to classify, cross-reference and document his collections and library. they were also instruments through which enlightenment knowledge was produced and circulated, and reifications of how sloane and others understood the world in the early modern period. the enlightenment architectures project is analysing sloane’s original manuscript catalogues of his collections to understand their highly complex information architecture and intellectual legacies. we place particular focus on the informational units of which the catalogues are composed and wish to understand the structural relations between these informational units. to support this, we are encoding, or marking up, sloane’s catalogues in line with the guidelines of the text encoding initiative (tei). the tei guidelines set out xml-based encoding methods for making texts of the humanities, social sciences and linguistics machine readable. tei is a de-facto standard (jannidis, : ). it has been described as being among the ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution ‘most significant intellectual advances that have been made in [digital humanities] and [tei] has influenced the markup community as a whole’ (hockey, : ). in recent years, a number of projects with strong digital humanities elements have focused on catalogue descriptions of manuscripts, for example, fihrist (union catalogue of manuscripts from the islamicate world) (fihrist, n.d.). evolving out of the pilot islamic manuscript catalogue on-line (ocimco, n.d.), which built ‘a sustainable data format using a tailored schema for the open source tei/xml metadata standard and incorporating established library standards for description’, fihrist is now a uk-wide union catalogue, whose schema is open for use by other tei catalogues (fihrist, n.d.). important work has also focused on harvesting bibliographical information about geographically dispersed manuscripts and federating this information in new catalogues and databases. manuscriptorium, for instance, is a freely accessible digital library of manuscripts, old printed books and other documents. the catalogue assembles descriptive metadata about these works in xml and directs users to their respective complex digital documents (cdd) (manuscriptorium, n.d.). though enlightenment architectures seeks to contribute to the conversations opened by such projects, it differs from them fundamentally. in this project we do not view the creation of a new digital representation of sloane’s catalogues as an end in itself; rather, our focus is on identifying and analysing the information architectures of sloane’s catalogues and his, and his amanuenses’, cataloguing practices. we are modelling the catalogues and encoding them in tei in order to study this. our focus is therefore as much on the act of modelling as it is on the resulting computational model, and we view sloane’s catalogues as ‘bifocal data’–a window frame that we must concurrently look ‘at’ and ‘through’ (sperberg-mcqueen, ). this requires us, as far as it is possible, to privilege a historically-accurate representation of the informational entities of sloane’s catalogues over achieving conformance with the views of information that are implicit in st-century encoding specifications like tei. as a result, we believe that the difficulties that we are encountering are productive and meaningful and that our work is casting new light on epistemologies ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of the digital in the context of the early modern while pointing to the particular demands that are made on digital methods and tools by early modern collections and situated, humanistic knowledge. this article discusses the specific example of sloane’s early modern catalogues and the challenges that we have encountered when seeking to use tei to encode this material. our work nevertheless has resonance for the institutions, individuals and communities across the globe who manage, research, curate, archive and simply even browse the many and extensive digital heritage collections that are available online. poole ( ) has observed: when, in , an expert cataloguer looked at an object and made a few marks about it on a postcard-sized catalogue card, they would little have expected that one day the information they were creating would form the basis of a rich, complex and interwoven cultural experience on the world wide web. but fast-forward years, and that is exactly what has happened. the digitisation and publication of digital ‘collections’ (including, for example, digital images, d representations of objects, catalogue records and machine actionable metadata about objects) has been shown to benefit heritage institutions, researchers, educators, specialist communities like the media, the creative industries and the general public in many ways. collections online can: support, inter multa alia, new opportunities for research and teaching on and with previously inaccessible collections (see e.g. hughes, : – ); offer heritage institutions new opportunities to work with communities, like community-based heritage groups (roued-cunliffe and copeland, ); and support the creation of new knowledge by, for example, enabling previously dispersed collection records and surrogates to be interlinked and visualised (dietrich and pekal, ). alone, the aggregator europeana, for example, currently provides access to more than million ‘art works, artefacts, books, films and music from european museums, libraries, galleries and archives’ (europeana, n.d.) ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution simple digitisation and publication of unstructured text is rarely sufficient for allowing online collections to be used and transformed in the ways suggested above (stork et al., ). rather, it is necessary to make machine readable information that a computer usually cannot decipher unaided. this can include information in and about a digitised object; for example, that the string of letters ‘red’ in a catalogue is actually a colour name or that a given catalogue was written by hans sloane. it is necessary to do this to support the sophisticated search, interlinking, remixing and other actions that collections online can ideally support. languages like the xml- based tei, which is the focus of this article, are thus crucially important pillars of digital collections because they can: [make] it possible for people to embed additional knowledge in the text, including interpretative material. the purpose of text tagging is to facilitate retrieval and representation through applying what is essentially a controlled vocabulary of tags. a collection with an interpretative level of tagging is one where information is included in the tags that is otherwise not available in the text. (ruecker, radzikowska & sinclair, : ) thus, a reader may ask ‘why is tei important? why is it important to understand the benefits and complexities of applying tei to early modern catalogues like that of sloane?’. our response is that tei plays a crucial role in allowing sophisticated research questions to be asked of sloane’s catalogues and, in turn, it shapes the extent to which sloane’s catalogues can be intermeshed with the wider digital cultural heritage ecosystem that is discussed above. through the following case studies, we will discuss the approaches to knowledge representation that enlightenment architectures has employed and the major challenges we have encountered when seeking to apply tei to early modern catalogues. in case study we present examples of how we have customised and extended tei so that it can better represent our historically-sensitive readings of sloane’s catalogues. in case study we discuss the difficulties that we faced when ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution seeking to model object names and encode them in tei. at stake, we argue, is not only how we can best use the methods of digital humanities to represent early modern catalogues but also the current limits of humanities and curatorial knowledge about such catalogues. about sloane the globally significant collections of sir hans sloane ( – ) were the foundations of three of the united kingdom’s national institutions: the british museum, the natural history museum and the british library. sloane’s collections of books, manuscripts, natural history, art, antiquities and ethnographic materials from around the world were a pivotal site of knowledge production and circulation during a period from the s to s and indeed in the british museum after his death. representing possibly the largest and most extensively documented of such collections, sloane’s handwritten catalogues are arguably among the first sustained attempts at collection management and information studies in the western world: as such, their intellectual legacies are unparalleled. as a royal physician, natural philosopher of apparently unlimited curiosity and both secretary and president of the royal society, sloane attempted to encompass the world and its knowledge through the creation of an encyclopaedic collection that would be left to the nation upon his death in . catalogues of collections were characteristic of early modern natural philosophy and went beyond a simple list or record of museum content (findlen, ). in catalogues like sloane’s are the origins of modern methods for managing scholarly information (blair, ). they can be conceptualised as ‘human search engines’ (delbourgo, ). sloane’s catalogues are vital keys to unlocking not only his collection but also a greater understanding of the way knowledge was developed and produced. the differing priorities, rhetorics and documentation conventions of these catalogues provide rich information about the contribution of collecting to systems of ‘rationality’ that emerged in sloane’s era (greenhill, ). blakeway’s research exemplifies the new knowledge that can be created through a close study of even a single subset of sloane’s catalogues (in this instance his library) (blakeway, ). she ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution demonstrates how much work was involved in the act of cataloguing, by identifying through their handwriting the multiple authors of sloane’s library catalogues over time, the numbering and shelving systems adopted, and both contemporaneous and later chronology and re-ordering of the catalogue entries. most recently, kusukawa ( ) has examined inventory lists penned by william courten which are held in sloane’s personal papers at the british library and raises questions of how these items were re-listed and integrated into sloane’s catalogues once he acquired courten’s collection. jones ( ) attempted to number and identify the present location of the original sloane manuscript catalogues and caygill summarised their contents and potential for reconstructing ‘the dazzling spectacle which amazed sloane’s visitors—to take a virtual tour of sloane’s museum, inspecting cabinets and opening drawers’ ( : ). yet, few of these publications have transcribed catalogue contents or analysed the evolving constituent parts of their structure and all emphasise the necessity of further research. inventory and cataloguing studies have been developed by historians of collecting for well over a century. yet this research has often been carried out within a single discipline, such as art history (keating and markey, ). sloane’s th- and th-century manuscript catalogues present considerable research challenges to existing paradigms. no longer directly or consistently connected to his widely dispersed physical collections, they are far too extensive and complex to be studied without computational assistance. they also require broader disciplinary reach due to the encyclopaedic knowledge they represent (macgregor, ). sloane’s catalogues and their complex, heavily annotated and indexical structures have consequently remained little understood and unanalysed; this project aims to change that. enlightenment architectures focuses on five of sloane’s catalogues: two volumes of ‘fossils’, one volume of printed books and ephemera, one of ‘miscellanies’, and one of his collection of manuscripts. all have been transcribed and we use this sub-set as a lens through which to best understand how collections and their documentation the titling of sloane’s manuscript catalogues is complex and current reference titles are not always those that were assigned by sloane himself (see caygill, ). ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution together formed a cornerstone of the laboratories of the emergent enlightenment. to achieve this we are bringing cataloguing, inventory and curatorial studies into conversation with digital humanities and aim to devise and implement an interdisciplinary method bundle or bricolage that can create new knowledge about how sloane’s catalogues were written, organised, annotated and used. a cornerstone of our approach is the computational modelling of the catalogues, including making cataloguing-, inventory- and curatorially-informed readings of the catalogues machine readable, in line with the guidelines of the tei. we will now describe this process in greater detail. digital humanities approaches data modelling is emblematic of computing. this is because: models provide formalized perspectives on their subjects, expressed in a way that makes it possible to gather specific information about the subject. in short, the formalized model determines which aspects of the subject will be computable and in what form (flanders and jannidis, : ). modelling is accordingly a central activity of digital humanities and one of the main ways that it seeks to form and transform knowledge. in the main, it is ‘modelling for’ that is undertaken in digital humanities and this analytic approach aims to ‘figure out how something works by taking it apart’ (mccarty, : ; : – ). though such analytical work has a long history in the humanities (orlandi, ), the use of the computer as a partner in this process changes it substantially. when using a computer to model a catalogue such as that of sloane, the model must be expressed within the constraints of computing technology: complete explicitness and consistency is required. in this way, computational modelling demands that humanities scholars identify and express interpretations of relevant textual features with an often-unprecedented degree of systematisation. paradoxically, though, it has been argued that the greatest successes of modelling are to be found in its failures, or ‘via negativa’: ‘[modelling] gives us a tool for isolating that which will not compute and thus forces the epistemological question of how it is that we know what we really ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution know in the humanities’ (mccarty, : ). this will be exemplified in case study below with respect to the ‘problem of the object’ in sloane’s catalogues. consequently: models of whatever kind are far less important to the digital humanities than modelling. modelling is crucial. if you only remember a single sentence from this brief essay, remember this one: the word ‘computing’ is a participle—a verbal adjective that turns things into algorithmic performances (mccarty, : – ). thus, the ideal role of the computer and the purpose of computing in digital humanities is not to make research better, faster and/or cheaper. on the contrary, as a number of writers have argued, computing should be about making problems more difficult, more complex, more thrilling—computing is, or can be, ‘a telescope for the mind’ (masterman, ). different approaches to the use of such a ‘telescope’ tend to be pursued in the institutions that specialise in cultural heritage and text-based humanities, or in the memory institution and the university. as a result, various studies (eide, ; ore and eide, ) of how to bridge their modelling activities have been conducted: computer based modelling in cultural heritage has focused on database development, generalised as data standards and, since the s, also formal ontologies. modelling in digital humanities has had its core in textual scholarship, including close reading and text encoding of literary and historical sources as well as models of text corpora, usually relying on statistical methods (ciula and eide, : ). as stated above, we are implementing the digital humanities modelling of sloane’s catalogues largely in line with tei. this is an authoritative set of guidelines for making humanities texts machine readable and is endorsed by agencies such as the neh, ahrc and the eu’s expert advisory group for language engineering (tei consortium, n.d.). given that the primary location of the enlightenment architectures project (the british museum) and that the locations of the objects that ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution are described in the catalogues are memory institutions, we carefully considered using a formal ontology such as cidoc crm rather that tei as the basis of our work. cidoc crm is a conceptual model designed to provide ‘definitions and a formal structure for describing the implicit and explicit concepts and relationships used in cultural heritage documentation’ (cidoc, n.d.). however, we concluded that tei would be better for maintaining the integrity of sloane’s formally unstructured and continuous handwritten text, whilst exploring its information structures and its discursive development over time. this is because the aim of our modelling is to accurately represent the information architecture of sloane’s catalogues rather than to reconcile those information architectures with the concepts set out in a st-century encoding languages or ontologies. in cidoc crm, for example, ‘[t]he central idea is that the notion of historical context can be abstracted as things, people and ideas meeting in space-time’ (ore and eide, : ). this is not a view of the catalogues that we were happy to commit to at the beginning of this work. of course, implicit conceptual models underpin tei too, but arguably not to the same extent and they are not articulated as such: ‘the tei guidelines are focused on how to annotate texts and do not prescribe any specific conceptual model’ (ore and eide, : ). after careful consideration, we decided to use tei as the master format for the project and integrate our annotations with that of an appropriate ontology at a later date, as other projects have done (e.g. ciula, spence & vieira ). nevertheless, the process of adapting and extending tei to encode our material has presented significant challenges. though internationally recognised, tei has been criticised from various angles. earlier debates often centred on the theories of textuality that underpin it (e.g. derose et al., ; renear, ; renear, mylonas & durand ) and concerns of postmodern criticism, like performativity, that it poorly accommodates (caton, ; mcgann, ; : – ). the appropriateness of embedded markup for cultural heritage texts has been questioned (see schmidt, ). a recurrent point of concern is the complexity of tei (e.g. burghart and rehbein, ; dalmau and hawkins, ; dee, ), and the need for more user-friendly, tei-compatible ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution tools. communities like epidoc have developed specialist subsets of the overall guidelines for the encoding of epigraphic documents (epidoc, n.d.). in addition to the transcription and editorial treatment of texts, epidoc also addresses the history and materiality of the objects on which the texts appear (i.e., manuscripts, monuments, tablets) (elliott et al., ). work is also being undertaken on the visualisation of tei (del turco et al., ) and on developing more user-friendly digital work environments for working with it (dumont and fechner, ). though tei has maintained a distinction between ‘document’ and ‘text’, and shown an orientation towards the latter, the most recent iteration of the guidelines facilitates manuscript description (driscoll, ; the text encoding initiative ) and a facsimile module has been added (wittern, ciula, & tuohy, ). nevertheless, the difficulties of using tei to encode handwritten documents, including early modern manuscripts, is much discussed, as are special characters and abbreviations. the online edition of the book of margery kempe has consequently: established methods for embedding a custom font directly in a web page—enabling private use area character references to be used alongside their unicode counterparts and resulting in the reliable display of special characters and abbreviations across web browsers and operating systems (fredell, borchers iv, & ilgen ). the tei additions needed to successfully encode arabic manuscripts have resulted in proposed elements close to the ‘semantic reality of the studied field (for example, a transliteration element and a copyist element which may be used similarly to the standard author element)’ (soualah and hassoun, : ). additionally, in addressing the difficulties of encoding the particular semantics of historical financial records, tomasek and bauman ( ) propose an encoding system not unlike the contextual markup of prosopographies or gazetteers using tei p . a number of recent projects have also demonstrated how tei can be extended to create rich digital scholarly editions. the chymistry of isaac newton (the chymistry ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of isaac newton, n.d.) online edition of newton’s alchemical manuscripts encodes newton’s texts in tei/xml so that they can be viewed in both diplomatic and normalised versions, and provides translations for latin and other non-english texts as well as page images of the original manuscripts. the newton project (the newton project, n.d.) likewise provides similar usability, as well as encoding newton’s writings on the exact sciences with a combination of mathml and tei-p . a different approach is taken by the map of early modern london (the map of early modern london, n.d.) which comprises four distinct, interoperable projects (map, gazetteer, library and survey) whose databases share a common tei tagset, thus enabling users to ‘visualize, overlay, combine, and query the information in the moeml databases’ (jenstad, ). a number of projects have also sought to use tei to interrogate historic or current catalogues. adopted by libraries in particular, for example the bodleian in oxford, tei has become a common framework for exploiting digitised catalogues. another project, the digital ark, is: a web-delivered virtual museum of collections of rarities and curiosities in england and scotland from to , comprising documentary and graphical representation of up to , specimens and artifacts collected in that period, some of them surviving in museums in england today (nelson, ). similarly, the asch project aimed to develop a metadata model to allow the contextualisation of different types of digitised resources (asch, n.d.). using objects from the von asch collection at the university of göttingen, the project used tei to encode the documents, such as letters and inventories, which referenced the objects, which were then linked to the metadata descriptions of the objects themselves. however, enlightenment architectures fundamentally differs from these projects as it does not seek to address questions of provenance primarily, but rather of the organization of the information that is recorded in sloane’s catalogues. in the next sections we will discuss the difficulties that we have encountered when trying to ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution use tei to encode the catalogues of sir hans sloane, along with our current working solutions to such issues. case study : applying and extending tei upon his death in , sloane’s library was estimated to contain some , volumes, over of which were books and albums of prints and drawings and , were volumes of manuscripts–the rest were printed books (see nickson, ). ms. c vol. vi is one of eight original volumes that contain the catalogue of sloane’s books and printed ephemera, now held at the british library. comprising folio pages, in a variety of sloane’s and amanuenses’ hands, it captures some of the richness of his library. it comprises catalogue entries for monographs, atlases and bound volumes of printed materials such as dissertations, treatises, proposals, letters, accounts and ephemera. the majority of the catalogue’s pages follow the entry layout in figure . in the left-hand margin is the alphanumeric catalogue number, often crossed out, sometimes more than once, and replaced with a new number. to the right of this is the catalogue entry, which contains purely bibliographic detail: author, title figure : extract from sloane’s manuscript catalogue of printed material, sloane ms c vol. vi, f. v, british library (public domain in most countries except the uk). these entries are in the hand of johann gaspar scheuchzer, sloane’s amanuensis – . figure excepted from the creative commons license and is public domain in most countries except the uk. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution and sometimes edition or volume numbers. the right-hand margin holds further bibliographic detail of place and date of publication and the physical size of the text in abbreviation, such as folio (f°) or quarto ( °). other important and common information includes underlining, pencil strikethroughs and the use of crosses and long dashes, as well as ‘hands’ other than that of sloane. sloane’s catalogues of other kinds of collections are frequently broken down by object type; here with printed books, material is catalogued without the use of common structural elements like subheadings or page breaks to separate by form or genre. the exception is the final folios of the catalogue, which contains the ‘min’ entries documenting sloane’s ‘books of miniature, painting, designs &c’ (sloan, ). ms c vol. vi can be distinguished from those recording other parts of sloane’s collection by both the content and style of its catalogue entries. unlike the ‘fossils’, ‘miscellanies’, antiquities or botanical specimens, the descriptions of which were related to observations and to early modern qualia, the objects represented in these bibliographic entries had standardised, printed characteristics. this difference between the unique objects in one set of catalogues and the relatively standardised objects that are printed books means that these catalogue entries only rarely include supplementary subjective descriptions of the text’s content, condition, appearance or record of how it entered into sloane’s possession. early modern handwritten and printed library catalogues have been extensively studied by historians of science, the book and bibliography (see walsby and constantinidou, ). more importantly for this project, the general history of th- and th-century private library practices, book collections and the collecting habits of sloane’s contemporaries have been richly documented (loveman, ; edgington, ; poole, ). tei and other xml languages have been used extensively to digitally render historic book and library catalogues. projects such as ricabim: repertorio di inventari e cataloghi di biblioteche medievali (ricabim, n.d.) and thecae (thecae, ) have collated repertoires of catalogues, inventories and lists of books, incunabula and manuscripts in order to better understand the circulation and availability of these sources in the medieval and early modern periods. moreover, in collaboration with biblissima (biblissima, n.d.), thecae’s searchable database of tei ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution encoded inventories of medieval and modern books has been at the centre of the creation of new tei standards for the encoding of ancient inventories and catalogues. however, there is a gap in digital research on the materiality of catalogues, inventories and lists. to date, tei has rarely been used to describe catalogues as objects in themselves, as opposed to vectors of bibliographic data. as tei currently stands, it has an extensive capacity for the encoding of books, manuscripts and bibliographic detail more generally; however, more work is needed so that it can readily enable the encoding of the catalogue both as object and carrier of ‘object detail’. the complex nature of sloane’s catalogues has meant that enlightenment architectures has faced productive conceptual and technical dilemmas in its markup activities. one of the most fundamental difficulties encountered was in the selection of appropriate tei elements and the need to customise tei in the absence of such elements: customisation has been crucial as it aids us in our bid to create an accurate representation of the catalogue and its descriptions. in customising some important features of markup for sloane’s catalogues, we anticipate that our research may help others working with other early modern printed and handwritten catalogues. one such example is the or ‘catalogue entry’ element, which has been created by enlightenment architectures in response to sloane’s catalogues. this tag serves to group all the information, be it descriptive, graphical or spatial, that corresponds to each catalogue number. this includes such varied information as the description of the object listed—its size, shape or condition; its provenance (person and place); the price paid for it; and many other details. importantly, it can also contain the descriptions of multiple objects, all of which have been purposefully documented by sloane and his amanuenses under one catalogue number. although individual elements such as (as in a geographic location) or (a reference to a location of any kind) are also tagged within the catalogue entry, we group these elements together within the in order to convey the original cataloguer’s choice to include this particular information when describing the object at hand. the information recorded (and not recorded) in the catalogue entry reflects how the individual perceived the object and the knowledge that they had about it. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution various possibilities exist for encoding this information in line with tei. for example, we considered using a generic element (a ‘(text division)[that] contains a subdivision of the front, body, or back of a text’ (tei consortium, b)) with an attribute to specify which kind of division is being referred to, for example, . yet we rejected this for a number of reasons. firstly, the information that is supplied in the type attribute is crucial: first order information rather than qualifying information. though the question about when to use attributes versus elements is one that is contested by xml experts (cover, ) there is some consensus that, where possible, first order information should be recorded as an element (e.g. w schools, n.d.). this verdict is also linked to the semantic limitations of xml, where relationships can be deduced from the nesting of elements but not from the order of attributes (antoniou and van harmelen, : ). so too, attributes can be more difficult to process than elements. as we do not see the encoding of the catalogues as an end in itself, but rather as something that can support the further interrogation of the catalogues, we concluded that it was therefore appropriate to devise a specialist element to encode this data. another option could have been to adapt elements currently found in the tei header to apply to the content of the manuscript catalogue. for example, the tei guidelines provide (‘describes the intellectual content of a manuscript or manuscript part, either as a series of paragraphs or as a series of structured manuscript items’ (tei consortium, d)) and (‘describes an individual work or item within the intellectual content of a manuscript or manuscript part’ (tei consortium, e)). however, not only are the decisions of the original cataloguer lost through the use of these elements, which do not strictly include the entire content of the catalogue entry, but crucially, the semantic import of an ‘individual work or item’ would not produce the necessary dataset for understanding the structure of the catalogue and its entries. the element is thus a vital innovation for those who are not only seeking to extract data from catalogues but also attempting to understand the internal structure of the catalogue itself. related to is the or ‘catalogue number’ element that we have also created. this element serves to identify each catalogue number ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution listed in the catalogues. the tei guidelines suggest that (‘supplies any form of identifier used to identify some object, such as a bibliographic item, a person, a title, an organization, etc. in a standardized way’ (tei consortium, c)) or (‘contains an alternative or former structured identifier used for a manuscript, such as a former catalogue number’ (tei consortium, a)) would suffice for this purpose. figure demonstrates how another catalogue could be embedded with the and tags. the same logic could be applied to sloane’s catalogues. however, without any certainty as to whether the objects he listed have a new since being dispersed from his collection, the original catalogue number is the only identifier available, even though it is theoretically an . curators at the british museum who can match an object with a sloane catalogue entry give it a sloane registration number, which includes this catalogue number, which becomes its primary unique identifier. by contrast, sloane’s printed books at the british library have been given a new shelfmark, which has resulted in the effective ‘loss’ of his collection ‘in plain sight’ within the library itself (walker, ). thus, in order to demonstrate the importance of these catalogue numbers as not just one identifier among several, but rather the only record which connects these objects to both the catalogue and also one another, the element has been created in order to underscore figure : extract taken from the tei consortium guidelines ( : section . , figure . ). ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution the significance of these catalogue numbers. this is particularly important as it is speculated that these numbers themselves can potentially aid our understanding of how sloane acquired materials chronologically, and catalogued and grouped his items, and perhaps even how they were physically arranged in his house, both visually and for access and use, thereby allowing us to consider how sloane and his contemporaries ordered and understood the world around them. in other instances, we have made changes to tei that have a more limited scope. catalogue c vol.vi, for instance, contains the element , which builds upon (‘contains any form of unstructured alternative name used for a manuscript, such as an ‘ocellus nominum’, or nickname’ (tei consortium, f)) to indicate those printed texts listed in the catalogue under a title which cannot be found by the same name elsewhere. as with , in these instances the is the only identifier that exists. we therefore wish to be able to identify that these are published, if currently untraceable with the titles that sloane gave them, even if we have no current record for them. the markup of ms c vol. vi the tei markup of ms c vol. vi captures the most important bibliographic content of the catalogue entries, as well as key physical and graphical elements (see figures and ). table shows the elements that are included in the markup (generic tei structural elements such as and are not listed here). this markup effectively captures the core details of the catalogue in line with our historically-informed readings of them. at present, though, we are not encoding the particular language in which a title or other information is given; some of these instances might well be published items which have been incorrectly recorded by the original cataloguer. the potential reasons as to why a text was recorded in an unstandardised way raise bibliographic questions regarding the editions, pirated copies, printed commentaries on texts, short titles and other sources which may have been available at sloane’s time and these original entries may contribute to our understanding of contemporary book cataloguing practices, the availability of texts during sloane’s lifetime and possibly even the book trade more generally. while most of sloane’s catalogues are predominately written in english and latin, the many languages found in c vol. reflect the general composition of his library, a quarter of which only, it is speculated, comprised english language books. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution neither time nor resources allow this. there is one exception to the decision to disregard foreign languages, which is the tagging of multi-language place names. the network of places from and through which sloane’s collection reached him stands to be a profitable line of enquiry and for this reason the names of publication places in different languages, such as london/londra/londres/londinium, will be linked to one single georeferenced location. while this will not reflect the language composition of sloane’s library more broadly, it does ensure that this crucial information which links sloane to the wider world around him is made identifiable and analysable. table : catalogue features of ms c vol. vi and their xml markup. catalogue feature ea-defined elements catalogue number text name catalogue entry catalogue feature tei-defined elements bibliographic reference title author <author> publisher <publisher> editor/praeses/other responsibility in text production <respstmt> <resp> <name> publication place <pubplace> publication date <date> book size <dimensions type= (“folio”/ “quarto”/ “octavo”/ “duodecimo”)> volume <biblscope= “vol”> edition <edition> graphical additions <!—(comment) --> ibid/ejusdem etc. <ref> underline <hi rend= “underline”> strikethrough <del rend= “strikethrough”> ticks <add rend=“pencil”></add> ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution this case study has raised fundamental questions about the conceptual limits of tei and its capacity to support historically sensitive encoding. in spite of our experience of the limitations of tei we have been able to propose workable solutions which will enable people to conduct a search of the catalogues that is not determined by contemporary concepts and categories. figure : ms c vol. vi, f. . british library (public domain in most countries except the uk). an annotated extract from sloane’s catalogue of printed material showing composite parts of individual catalogue entries. for readability we have dropped the enlightenment namespace prefix. the markup of the transcription of this extract appears below in figure . figure excepted from the creative com- mons license and are public domain in most countries except the uk. figure : the expanded tei mark up of ms c vol. vi, f. . ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution case study : the object problem sloane produced separate catalogues for different types of natural history, according to taxonomies significant at the time of each catalogue’s production. of the catalogues being studied by enlightenment architectures, ‘fossils ’ consists of numbered folios containing , entries, which are divided across six sub- headings: ‘coralls’, ‘serpents &c.’, ‘echini’, ‘crustacea’, ‘starrfishes’ and ‘humana’ (catalogue of ‘coralls, sponges & some other submarines’, n.d.). sloane’s catalogue of miscellanies comprises , object descriptions. they are grouped under the headings of ‘miscellanies’, ‘antiquities’, ‘bronzes’, ‘impressions of seals’, ‘pictures &c.’, ‘mathematical instruments &c.’, ‘agate handles’ and ‘agate cups, bottles, spoons &c.’ (catalogue of ‘miscellaneous things’, n.d.). the respective catalogues are composed of a series of chronologically consecutive numbered entries that describe an object and, where possible, sloane includes other sorts of information including colour, size, material, provenance, names, uses and bibliographic references. much like his other natural history catalogues, but unlike those of his library material, sloane wrote the majority of these descriptions himself and was actively engaged in the process of recording and managing information about these natural and ‘miscellaneous’ objects. the natural history catalogues of sloane and his contemporaries have been described as interpretive ‘repositories of multiple intersecting stories that textualized and contextualized each object’ (findlen, : , note ). the crux of these stories was the lengthy object descriptions given in each entry. they appear to have been part of a method of ‘verbal description’ (wragge-morley, ) that was used by sloane and others to make the ever-expanding world knowable (not just by possessing the object itself, but by creating and retaining written information about its source and use). early modern techniques for understanding the natural world included close observation of differences between specimens and the rendering of these differences in text form. producing or reading these descriptions had a particular cognitive value that was central to understanding what was being described, especially for those without access to a collection. as descartes enthused, the purpose of a worthy description is to cause a sensory impression and create correspondent images in the ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution imagination: something that can be effectively done by words alone (wragge-morley, ). this is implicit in the writings of nehemiah grew, a contemporary of sloane (wragge-morley, ). grew wanted his account of the royal society’s repository, musaeum regalis societatis, to be comprehensive and offered the following reason for his detailed descriptions: if any object against their length: perhaps they have not so well considered the necessity hereof, for the cleer and evident distinction of the several kinds and species, in so great a variety of things known in the world […] besides, that in such descriptions, many particulars relating to the nature and use of things, will occur to the authors [sic] mind, which otherwise he would never have thought of. and may give occasion to his readers, for the consideration of many more (grew, : preface). as discussed above, sloane’s catalogue entries consist of a catalogue number and an object description along with various annotations. tei markup has been used by enlightenment architectures to encode a wide range of this information. for example, the standard element <name> is used to identify names and to distinguish them from additional information about a person. the element <addname> allows for references to nicknames and aliases, and is particularly useful for variant spellings of names. in addition, tei offers various options for encoding the provenance of an object such as <placename>, which identifies an absolute place name, and <geogname> for the identification of more specific geographical features. similarly, the element <date> allows a date (in any form) to be tagged, which is useful for establishing the timelines of sloane’s catalogues. additional information such as pencil location codes, monetary values, brackets, drawings and much later curators’ comments can also be marked-up. for example, <add rend=“pencil”> and <add rend=“red”> encode ‘additional’ comments appearing in pencil and red ink. capturing these (and what are thought to be location codes) in the margins of the catalogues is crucial to understanding sloane’s methods of arranging objects in his own home whether by theme, use, material or size, for example (see caygill, ). ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution at an early stage of the project we identified the benefits that would result from encoding the objects that are described in sloane’s catalogues. the encoding of an object name in historical sources enables both humans and machines to identify and manipulate such names and, for example, to identify patterns in their descriptions and expand the potential for reuniting objects in the memory institution. indeed, identifying a string of text that can function as a verbal signifier of an object is central to treating a historical document like a manuscript catalogue with ‘curatorial sensibility’ (nelson, ). as we will show in this case study though, what has proved most difficult about attempting to encode object descriptions is not the application of tei but a more fundamental issue—namely the problem of how to consistently and reliably identify references to individual objects and to identify the boundaries that exist between ‘object names’ and their qualifying descriptions. we asked ourselves, might it be better to side-step the issue of identifying the boundaries of the object and instead encode only the catalogue number, which keys the entry back to the physical object? take, for example, ‘red corall growing on a rock wt. shells’(catalogue of ‘coralls, sponges, & some other submarines’, n.d.: entry no. , f. ). in this example, the boundary between the object that is being described and additional descriptive information about that object is difficult to identify. which, if any of the following suggestions specifies the object name? corall red corall red corall growing on a rock red corall growing on a rock with shells this problem has also been discussed by nelson who has argued: we must be able to determine and define the limits of what constitutes a mention of an object. this is crucial so that we retain all information that is immediately relevant to that object, but (ideally) no more than is pertinent. … we must be able to define the relevant and relative contexts of each mention ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of an object: … to enable an articulation of an object’s place in a hierarchy; … to enable identification of relevant and related information; and … to enable the articulation of events involving other entities (e.g., people, places, and other objects) ( ). in his discussion of the difficulties of identifying the boundaries of object names and their descriptions, nelson ( ) mentioned various document-dependent factors, including the fact that catalogue entries of the period often do not deal with proper nouns, ‘the question of when an inventory becomes a catalogue’ and the tendency to embed the object in continuous descriptive prose. however, we also wondered whether the problem of disambiguating the object from the surrounding text was fundamentally rooted in current forms of disciplinary knowledge rather than in understandings we were coming to through our document analysis. to explore this, we contacted five domain knowledge experts in separate but complimentary knowledge domains including natural history, collecting history, digital humanities and curatorial studies; all are areas pertinent to the ea project. we provided them with the following examples of object descriptions from fossils and ‘miscellaneous things’: . red corall growing on a rock with shells (entry no. , f. ). . the large claw of the triangular crab with tubercles from jamaica (entry no. , f. ). . two slates between which lives a shrimp (entry no. , f. ). . a piece of the keel of a ship eat by the worms (‘catalogue of “miscellane- ous things”’, n.d.: entry no ). we asked them to identify the ‘object’ in a longer description and to indicate which words should be marked-up as the object. these entries were chosen because they highlight the complexities of trying to disambiguate and encode an object in sloane’s catalogues. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution respondent , a digital humanities expert, saw the solution to tagging the object as relatively simple: ‘each of these descriptions is grammatically a noun phrase, and as a general rule i think the head noun of the phrase is as good a candidate for identifying the object [that hans sloane] (or his assistants) saw as the object being described’. the head noun in each example then, is the one on which everything else in the noun phrase grammatically depends and this would change depending on how the description is phrased. in example , ‘corall’ is the object and in example , ‘claw’ is the object. in those instances where the head noun denotes a measure, as with example , ‘the head noun and the prepositional phrase identifying the whole from which the part is taken is referred to as the object’. even with this rationale it remains challenging to be consistent in the identification of the object name. with regard to example , we remain unsure whether it is the ‘keel’ or the ‘piece’ that should be tagged. however, the historians of science, collecting and natural history whom we consulted reiterated an earlier argument, one of context. they consider grammar alone as insufficient for identifying an object. as respondent , a historian of science, argued, ‘if we want to be as “historically sensitive” as possible, then for sloane, the entire entry is the object’. this means that all of the words that detail colour, material and size were chosen specifically by sloane to describe the details of the object. their order and place within the catalogue had meaning for sloane. respondent , a historian and philosopher of science, likewise argued that ‘in all four cases it is the whole phrase that designates the object’. this is because the phrases are descriptive: they describe the objects but do not contain names in a technical sense that could be considered as labelling or indexing the object in question. what we find instead, are generic nouns like ‘corall’. but no analysis of what the object is can stop here, at the juncture between marking up one head noun or marking up the entire description. indeed, what becomes clear is the difference in current interpretive analysis depends on domain knowledge but also on the potential end use of the data. take for example the topic ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of species and taxonomy. respondent argued that, if the object ‘is the kind or species that the specimen is supposed to represent, [then the] “red coral” is the object, because corals were often distinguished by their colour’. likewise, respondent , a botanist, noted the importance of capturing ‘red coral’ for the purpose of indexing: ‘an index entry might read “corall, red” because of the need to alphabetise the index entries’. here the interpretive analysis takes into consideration the object as well as its features, such as colour, or its ecology. if the information found in these catalogues is to form part of an institution’s database, such as that of the british museum, context is still important, especially in terms of what object categories might mean, both then and now. respondent , a museum documentation expert, observed that ‘nuances are lost if only specific words can be tagged or highlighted and so there are “multiple key wording facilities” available that an institution like the british museum “consider essential”’. this would mean that ‘red corall’, ‘rock’ and ‘shells’ would all be tagged. in the case of example four, this becomes ‘tricky’, according to respondent , because it is the context of the description that alludes to why the object has been collected in the first place. while the british museum database would include ‘keel of the ship’ as the object, it is the addition of ‘eat by the worms’ that makes the object interesting, both then and now– even if for different reasons. moreover, as a result of such treatment, the object name loses its th-century meaning and context as it is divorced from the particulars of how sloane described and organised the knowledge contained in his catalogues. overall then, while it would be possible to align our encoding of the object with a particular current disciplinary understanding of the data, each of the four views expressed bring complexities. with regard to the grammatical approach, for example, it can still get complex and such interpretive analysis is time consuming. different researchers, whether they are historians, scientists or professionals working in galleries, libraries and museums, will always be interested in different aspects of the object being described. but as respondent pointed out, one cannot do everything in a finite life, let alone in a time- and resource-limited research project. therefore, one suggestion is to prioritise the xml markup so as to focus on ‘aspects ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution of a catalogue entry which would yield information that is difficult to gain otherwise at a discrete level’ (respondent ). in other words, it is the information about issues like organisation (information about drawers and cabinets) that would yield the most conducive data for understanding the intellectual structures of these catalogues and their context. tagging provenance for example, would allow for mapping or visualisation of source networks and object movements such as with six degrees of francis bacon (six degrees of francis bacon, n.d.) while encoding collection locations would eventually allow for the ‘reconstruction’ of what kind of objects were placed together in a drawer or cabinet. at an earlier stage of this project we defined a new element <ea:objectdescriptor> for encoding descriptions of individual objects within entries. yet the difficulties of attempting to apply this element, which are further validated by the varying responses that we received from the experts we surveyed, show that we are still left questioning what the object name is. while some would suggest that the object can be defined by one head noun, others find this insufficient. either way, there is agreement that we must always consider context and be as historically sensitive as possible. in this way, our failure to model the object has opened mccarty’s ‘via negativa’ (discussed above) for the project. drucker has described how this approach can be understood as ‘a rigorous approach to the study of knowledge through attention to ignorance, that pushes at assumptions to lay them bare’ ( ). thus, our failure to satisfactorily model the object has forced us to consider our implicit understandings of object descriptions and their boundaries and to interrogate the nature of the object with a rigour that is not necessary when undertaking more traditional scholarship. it has also helped us to refocus our research questions by recognising that our task does not depend on defining what the object is, but on understanding how sloane’s descriptions have been constructed. by doing this, we can begin to understand how sloane and his contemporaries were managing, organizing and producing knowledge about the world around them. in this case study we have reflected on our efforts to model and encode the object names that are recorded in sloane’s catalogues. while we initially understood the ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution challenge of encoding object names in sloane’s catalogues to be a question of how to use tei appropriately, we came to realise that we faced something more fundamental, namely the challenge of computationally modelling highly interpretative historical information. we have argued that this issue raises important questions about the computational representation of early modern knowledge. at stake is not only how we can best use the methods of digital humanities to represent early modern catalogues such as that of sloane but also the current limits of humanities and curatorial knowledge about early modern catalogues. conclusion collections documentation has often been described as making the difference between a museum and a junk shop. catalogues are the core documents of museum structure and meaning, yet no significant computational analysis has been made to date of how catalogues from the early modern period are constructed or of how their structure and content relate either to the world from which collections are assembled or to the museums they form. enlightenment architectures is undertaking this task on some of the oldest, most detailed and most significant museum catalogues in the english-speaking world. the interdisciplinary approach that we are devising to pursue this in the context of sloane has the potential to enable us to model the information structures of sloane’s catalogues computationally and interrogate them in ways that would otherwise be impossible. our research, and the new directions opened by it, will profit the communities of researchers, curators and information professionals who are addressed in this article. we expect that historians and curators will benefit from the ability to digitally search the catalogues in ways that would be impossible using paper catalogues alone, such as being able to search according to the colours, materials, weights and sizes that are mentioned in respective entries. it will also be possible for researchers to download the tei-encoded versions of sloane’s catalogues and to extract, map and visualise information that is included in them. the tei extensions and customizations that we have proposed can also be taken up by other projects working on early modern ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution archival materials. finally, the more fundamental questions that we have raised about digital approaches to the modelling of early modern information may open new conversations between curators and digital humanists about current approaches to cataloguing and placing collections online. it is widely understood that early modern catalogues such as those of sloane are ‘not simply lists that can be taken at face value’ (keating and markey, : ). rather, they are ‘authored documents compiled under particular temporal, legal, political, and social constraints that affected their organization and the ways in which the objects they list were described’ (keating and markey, : ) as such, they are sites where narratives of power and knowledge are made, unmade, silenced and sometimes imagined anew. this is no less true of the digital models of sloane’s catalogues on which the enlightenment architectures project is at work. the object problem that we have discussed above points to parallels between early modern and current classification systems. we still struggle, despite our “sophisticated” systems of classification, to determine what things are, where they belong and how to classify them. while we don’t necessarily understand sloane’s cataloguing epistemology fully, we share his struggle regarding how best to use words to describe objects. the digital representations that enlightenment architectures is creating will contribute to what poole described as the ‘rich, complex and interwoven cultural experience on the world wide web’ ( ). therefore, it is crucial to interrogate the potential and limits of encoding languages like tei for representing early modern catalogue materials, as we have done in this article. bowker has written of the totalizing imperatives of data-driven fields such as biodiversity and of how such efforts to homogenise and standardise data can make it incompatible with the user-generated datasets organised by ‘local data cultures’ ( ). we understand the work that we have undertaken in the enlightenment architectures project, and digitally-mediated research on the early modern period more widely, as indicative of a ‘local data culture’ and this article has demonstrated the nuance this research can contribute to a digital humanities that is sometimes ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution portrayed as totalising and elitist (e.g. grusin, ; pannapacker, ). of the black-boxing effect of technology more generally, latour has written of: the way scientific and technical work is made invisible by its own success. when a machine runs efficiently, when a matter of fact is settled, one need focus only on its inputs and outputs and not on its internal complexity. thus, paradoxically, the more science and technology succeed, the more opaque and obscure they become ( : ). in this article, we have pushed against the black box to reveal some of the ‘internal complexity’ of the enlightenment architectures project. we have shown the importance of attention to ‘internal complexity’ when thinking about the potential of interdisciplinary research across the digital humanities, history of knowledge, the library and the museum, especially in terms of the digital collections that such work can give rise to. ethics and consent the aspects of this research that have involved human subjects have been carried out in accordance with the declaration of helsinki. our work was given ethical clearance by the research director of the british museum, in line with institutional norms. informed consent was sought from participants and their identities have been anonymised. acknowledgements the research that underpinned this article was funded by a leverhulme trust research project grant ( – ). we wish to thank most sincerely the individuals who agreed to be interviewed during the course of this research. we also wish to thank alexandra ault (british library) and mark carine (natural history museum) for their assistance with, and comments about, various aspects of this article. errors and omissions are, of course, ours. competing interests the authors have no competing interests to declare. ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution sloane’s manuscript catalogues catalogue of ‘coralls, sponges, & some other submarines’ (fossils i), ms slo, paleontology library, natural history museum catalogue of ‘miscellaneous things’ (miscellanies), africa, oceania and the americas library, british museum references antoniou, g a and van harmelen, f a semantic web primer. cambridge, mass: the mit press. biblissima (n.d.) 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(last accessed july ). doi: https://doi.org/ . / http://webapp .dlib.indiana.edu/newton/ http://webapp .dlib.indiana.edu/newton/ http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/ http://mapoflondon.uvic.ca/ http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/ http://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/ http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ms.html#msdesc http://journals.openedition.org/jtei/ http://journals.openedition.org/jtei/ https://doi.org/ . /jtei. https://doi.org/ . /jtei. https://www.w schools.com/xml/xml_dtd_el_vs_attr.asp https://www.w schools.com/xml/xml_dtd_el_vs_attr.asp https://doi.org/ . / _ https://doi.org/ . / _ https://brill.com/view/title/ https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqp https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqp https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / ortolja-baird et al: digital humanities in the memory institution how to cite this article: ortolja-baird, a, pickering, v, nyhan, j, sloan, k and fleming, m digital humanities in the memory institution: the challenges of encoding sir hans sloane’s early modern catalogues of his collections. open library of humanities, ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /olh. published: june copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access open library of humanities is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://doi.org/ . /olh. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / introduction about sloane digital humanities approaches case study : applying and extending tei the markup of ms c vol. vi case study : the object problem conclusion ethics and consent acknowledgements competing interests sloane’s manuscript catalogues references figure figure figure figure table umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities doi: http://doi.org/ . /issn. - / digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice-based teaching methods for the digital humanities stefano calzati tallinn university of technology, estonia stefano.calzati@taltech.ee abstract in higher education we witness a unique conjuncture: on the one hand, students who attend academic courses are the first generation to have fully grown in a digitalized world; on the other hand, teachers, while having grown and studied in a still largely analogue world, have witnessed the evolution of today’s techno-society since its infancy. by connecting the field of the digital humanities with education, this article discusses the conception, design and results of two practice-based teaching experiences which were aimed at exploring the tensions embedded in our daily use of digital technologies, as well as in today’s techno-society as a whole. the first one is a “digital autoethnography” developed at the city university of hong kong; the second one refers to the course “anthropology of communication” – co-delivered at politecnico of milan – which adopted a “connected intelligence” approach to urge students to reflect on tomorrow’s techno-society in a collaborative way. while the first experience was chiefly a self- reflexive study on the impact of social media on the individual, the second one mapped the main criticalities of techno-society as a whole, according to seven macro-themes, and asked students to elaborate possible solutions. both courses considered students as active learners/users, insofar as they at the forefront of today digital revolution, but also the subjects most in need of critical tools to face it. oggi, nell’università, assistiamo a una congiuntura unica: da un lato, gli studenti che frequentano i corsi accademici sono la prima generazione ad essere completamente cresciuta in un mondo digitalizzato; dall’altro lato, i docenti, pur essendo cresciuti e aver studiato in un mondo ancora in gran parte analogico, hanno assistito all'evoluzione della tecno-società odierna sin dalla sua infanzia. promuovendo un dialogo tra le digital humanities e la didattica (accademica), questo articolo discute la concezione, progettazione e i risultati di due esperienze di insegnamento practice-based mirate a esplorare le tensioni implicite nel nostro uso quotidiano delle tecnologie digitali, nonché nella tecno-società odierna nel suo insieme. la umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , prima esperienza è una “autoetnografia digitale” sviluppata presso la city university di hong kong; la seconda è collegata al corso “anthropology of communication” – tenuto al politecnico di milano – nella quale abbiamo adottato l’approccio dell’“intelligenza connessa” per stimolare gli studenti a riflettere collaborativamente sulla tecno-società di domani. mentre la prima esperienza è stata principalmente uno studio autoriflessivo sull'impatto dei social media sull’individuo, la seconda ha mappato le principali criticità della nostra tecno-società, a partire da sette macro-temi, al fine di elaborare possibili soluzioni. entrambi i corsi considerano gli studenti come utenti attivi, giacché sono in prima linea nell’uso delle nuove tecnologie, ma sono anche coloro che necessitano maggiormente di un solido bagaglio critico per usarle/svilupparle al meglio. introduction this paper explores, through a qualitative approach, the field of the digital humanities – or better, its “outer ring”, as fabio ciotti put it during his keynote lecture at the aucid conference – in connection with education and teaching practices. notably, it does so by maintaining a critical standpoint (in the broad sense of the term) towards the impact that digital technologies are having on today’s teachers and students. to be sure, here “digital technologies” loosely refers to both web services – such as apps, platforms, social networks (snss) – as well as hardware devices, especially mobile phones. at the same time, it is, above all, higher education to be at the centre of the present discussion, although it would certainly be useful to promote a debate intersecting teaching, learning and digital technologies which spreads across all levels of education. as one last addendum, it is necessary to specify that the focus of this article is not on the (impact of the) use of digital technologies within a teaching- learning context. on this topic, literature is already consistent, involving all levels of education, as well as a variety of subjects ([ ]; [ ]; [ ]; [ ]). by contrast, this article makes digital technologies the subject of attention, highlighting the importance of developing new digital tech literacies, able to bring to the surface how digital technologies affect the individual and our daily life. a practice-based orientation towards the teaching of new digital tech literacies – of which we are increasingly in need, given where society is heading – is outlined. concrete examples concerning two courses developed by the author, in conjunction with colleagues in italy and abroad, will be provided. firstly, the discussion will dwell upon the design and pedagogical goals of these courses; secondly, the research insights coming from these experiences will be presented; lastly, future developments and research lines will be sketched. as a side note, it is important to stress that, although these two courses are reviewed together, their projectuality and objectives are different; as a consequence, their results, as we will see, cannot be comparable. s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities crucial times in higher education if we take as a starting point for the present discussion the mass diffusion of the web in the mid- s (alongside that of mobile phones, although initially they were not smartphones yet), we realize that by now the generation of digital natives born out of that milieu has reached the stage of undergraduate or postgraduate education. this means that these students have grown up, at least since their first cycle in schools, in an increasingly digitalized world, and certainly one in which digital technologies have had a progressively radical impact on daily life. education, however, has often been reactive, rather than proactive, towards this paradigmatic shift: most of the times, digital technologies have been implemented in curricula of primary and secondary schools as “mere” tools of support to otherwise unchanged teaching practices, rather than as technologies with unique features to be exploited ([ ]). it is only over the last five-ten years that this power relation has been rebalanced, with technology gradually taking the lead in a process of reconceptualization of teaching practices ([ ]). this rebalancing, after all, has become a necessity by now, insofar as digital natives represent the pulling force of digital technology’s (r)evolution. in fact, they are both the main target (as consumers) of tech companies and services as well as the main producers of digital content, providing an epitomizing example of what is meant by the term “produsers” (see, among others, [ ]; [ ]). according to recent statistics ([ ]), people aged between and years old are those using smartphones the most – % – while the percentage decreases to % for to year-old people. concerning social media, surveys ([ ]) show that users from to years old are the most active. if we look at facebook and instagram – two of the most popular social media platforms – we see that the percentage is respectively at % and %; at the same time, these two data drop to % and % in the users population aged - . on a similar note, it is interesting to remark that user-generated content (ugc) is mainly produced by millennials, who contribute to over the % of all ugc found online ([ ]). in contrast to this picture, today’s teachers and scholars are still, by and large, members of earlier generations, i.e. generations that, to various degrees, have transited from an analogue to a digital society. in italy, for instance, the average age of tenure-track professors is ; the age of associated professors is , while researchers are on average years old ([ ]). this means that academics were largely born and educated within a radically different socio-technological framework from the one we live in today; most importantly, the underpinning pedagogical vision of this framework privileged written words over moving images, syntagmatic step-by- step approaches to knowledge over paradigmatic hypertextual ones, and individual reading and memorization over interactional learning practices ([ ]; [ ]). under these conditions, teachers represent a cornerstone within today’s education system for motives that go well beyond mere pedagogical issues and point, rather, to their generational bridging role within the class. indeed, teachers literally keep one foot in an epoch that predates the digital revolution, while the other foot is now solidly grounded on today’s technologized society, which they have seen growing since its birth and of which they can pinpoint, for this very reason, both potentialities and shortcomings. in other words, today’s teachers are the public owners of a “knowledge heritage” umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , about technology that is unique – due to demographical circumstances – and which is now crucial to pass on to younger generations, in order for them to become aware of the roots and evolution of that technological shift which, to their eyes, appears as nothing more than a conditio de facto. the reason for reinstating what is maybe obvious, although sometimes overlooked – i.e. the encounter in class of two generations that have radically different approaches towards digital technologies – is crucial for highlighting the potential fruitfulness that can spring out of the synergy between today’s teachers and students in university. to be sure, this fruitfulness also comes with a responsibility, i.e. the need – now more than ever – to rethink teaching and learning as really interactive and mutually beneficial processes for all actors involved. students are certainly the subjects who more easily enter in contact and familiarize with (new) digital technologies, precisely because these are conceived for them in the first place. and yet, students largely lack – as one of the two teaching experiences discussed below will show – the tools for critically engaging with and using these technologies. teachers, by contrast, can help students to both put things into perspective – e.g. to investigate the archaeology of new media – and develop practical and critical skills for de-commoditizing technology and make a wiser use of it. at the same time, it is through constant dialogue with the students that teachers can remain abreast of technological innovation, which, for its very nature, tend to reach older generations only when it has already consolidated. in other words, the class becomes a space of negotiation for fruitfully engaging with what ragnedda ([ ]) has called “second digital divide”, meaning by that the needed competences and skills for an effective use of technology (rather than the mere access, which is described as “first digital divide”). above all, it is important to stress that the class remains the privileged environment where this encounter and exchange can mature at best. this is so because it is only through the collective sharing of the same teaching-learning horizon that knowledge transfer can occur most productively. on this point, studies ( [ ]) show that blended courses – i.e. courses that combine in-class and distant, technologically- mediated learning – are those leading to the best results for students; and yet, it is only when the in-class component is in the equation that we witness, in fact, an effective knowledge transfer in the long run. the risk with distant learning courses fully conceived as mediated by technology – which is a consequence of the evolution of digital platforms – is to witness what van dijck, poell and de waal ([ ]) call “learnification”, that is, the fragmentation and parcelling of the learning process into self-contained units, which eventually miss to entice an effective acquisition. building on stephen krashen’s ([ ]) distinction between “learning” and “acquisition”, it could be said that this process of fragmentation and parcelling tend to be apprehended on a superficial level, rather than acquired in depth, precisely because technology still functions as a barrier or, at best, as a form of mediation of the learning process, to which a shared collective dimension has been subtracted. here, the distinction made by german philosopher walter benjamin ([ ]) between two different kinds of experience – “erfahrung” and “erlebnis” – might be of help to clarify the point. according to benjamin, “erfahrung” is a collective, qualitative experience that leads to forms of shared reflection, knowledge, and understanding across individuals, while “erlebnis” is a kind of immediate experience that is focused on the moment and is lived through momentarily by the single subject. according to benjamin, the passing from oral storytelling to written storytelling and further down to the s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities technologized information conveyed by mass media has produced a decay of “erfahrung” in favour of a blossoming of parcelled and individually lived experiences as erlebnisse. the latest occurrence along this line – although benjamin could not foresee that – might well be considered the kind of information and socialising practices fuelled by today’s digital technologies. such premises are crucial to pave the way to the present discussion. in fact, they highlight the need, at all levels of education, to foster collaboratively shaped (teacher-students) new digital tech literacies which consider digital devices not only as tools, but as the subject of a critical reflection to be performed also, but not exclusively, through them, in the context of a broader discussion concerning the individual, technology and society as a whole. in this respect, digital tech literacies are framed within the fields of philosophy of technology (e.g. [ ]), critical media studies ([ ]) and digital cultures ([ ]) and their coming to being has to be regarded more as a synergetic ongoing praxis involving all actors, than as a set of guidelines for the understanding of what technology can do for education and pedagogical purposes. digital autoethnography & connected intelligence the theoretical-critical premises outlined above were at the core of two practice-based teaching experiences aimed at exploring, in innovative ways, the tensions embedded in our daily use of social networks and in today’s techno-society. overall, the shared common goal of these experiences was to enhance students and teachers awareness about the impact that digital technologies can have on the single individual, as well as on society in its entirety, thus stressing the relevance that digital tech literacies play (and will increasingly play) for all actors involved in the fostering of tomorrow’s society, from scholars to students to professionals. in order to do so, such technologies were put at the centre of two academic courses and approached, at once, as subjects and objects of a critical reflection connecting both teachers and students. in this way, the teaching-learning experience really allowed for the emergence of collaboratively built digital tech literacies. as we will see, this approach led, in one case, to reshape students’ attitude towards social media use; and, in the other case, to the design of projects meant to concretely tackle the tensions implied by today’s technologization of society. the following section is dedicated to the description of the conception and design of both experiences, after which a discussion on their results will follow. this will lead to stress strengths and weaknesses of both experiences as potentially replicable courses aimed at fostering digital tech literacies at university level. digital autoethnography the first experience was a course in new digital literacies – titled “facebook and autobiography” – that was delivered at the city university of hong kong in the fall semester of by myself together with prof. roberto simanowski. the goal of the course was to umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , explore the practices of self-representation on social networks (i.e. facebook and instagram ) and assess how these differ from traditional forms of written self-representation, such as traditional diaries. most importantly, we aimed to do so by putting the students enrolled in the course at the centre of the analysis and the learning experience so that they could capitalise on it in terms of critical insights about technological subjugation. overall, students were involved. methodologically speaking, beyond the delivery of typical lectures focused on autobiographic writing across old and new media (e.g. [ ]; [ ]; [ ]; [ ]), we elaborated a “digital autoethnography”, defined as the study of “the discourses that emerge at the intersection of online/offline and the offline context through which the online worlds are entered” ([ ]). in fact, the digital autoethnography consisted of a double-sided analysis. on the one hand, as researchers, we entered facebook and instagram via the creation of profiles that students befriended, on a voluntary basis, in order for us to monitor their activities over a period of five weeks; on the other hand, we instructed our participants to self- reflect upon their snss use through a number of assignments, whose assessment was part of the final evaluation for the course. the assignments were designed, together with three other colleagues from germany, during a workshop held at the university of wuppertal in july (thus prior to the beginning of the semester). to begin with, students were asked to answer a first round of questions aimed at providing us with a general understanding of their use of facebook. questions were: a) “why do you use facebook?”; b) “to what extent would you say that your profile reflect yourself?”; c) “what is a diary for you?”; d) “does facebook work as a diary for you? (why or why not)”; e) “what do you look up on facebook?” students had to write down the answers and they could elaborate on them as freely as they wished. secondly, they had to parse all of their facebook posts over five weeks and tag them by using a set of previously elaborated tags. we developed four categories of tags which respectively referred to a) the type of posts’ content; b) the authorial stance responsible for the posts and its relation to the user’s self-representation; c) the mood of the posts; d) if/how posts had a time- related connotation or interrelation with other posts on the user’s timeline. specifically, the first category was inspired by roman jakobson’s ([ ]) communication functions. participants were instructed that posts would have a “referential function” whenever the facebook’s user, or one of his/her friends, geolocated themselves or tagged other friends; posts (and comments) bore an “emotive function” when they overtly expressed the user’s emotion or state of mind; posts (and comments) had a “phatic function” when they were meant to simply keep in contact with friends (this function comprised emoticons, bare expressions of agreement/disagreement, likes and similar reactions). the second category of tags moved along the self-other axis: we asked participants, on the one hand, to identify if they had published the post themselves (“self-authored”), or if this activity had been outsourced (“other-authored”, further disentangled as “shared by user”, “shared by other friends”, or “frictionless sharing” by external apps); on the other hand, we wanted to know whether the content of the post directly referred initially, our focus was solely on facebook, as this is the most widely used social network. then, through in-class debates, we realized the necessity to also include instagram into the picture, as this social network is increasingly popular especially among young adults. s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities to the user (“self-related”) or to a different topic/issue (“other-related”, such as news, commercials, entertaining content, etc.). the third category addressed the mood of the posts: “euphoric” (positive content), “dysphoric” (negative content), or “neutral”. under the fourth category fell those tags that dealt with time. in fact, we were interested in exploring if/how posts connected to each other along one’s timeline, as well as in those occurrences where a single post contained a “small story” within itself. from here we defined three tags: “temporal”, which signalled the centrality of time (either as a single moment or a duration) with respect to the action/event described in one or several posts (e.g. journeys, anniversaries, timeframe of the semester, etc.); “hermeneutic”, in which posts (or comments) displayed an effective process of understanding among users (it is the case of posts and comments that contain questions and answers); “cause-effect”, when posts on the timeline were linked by a clear cause-effect relation (e.g. when a post is published as a critique or in support of precedent posts or comments). since, in practice, these tags overlap and can be co-present, we instructed students that each post could well be labelled with more than one tag belonging to the same category. thirdly, alongside the tagging of the posts – which we also observed and captured with screenshots – we asked the participants to keep a written diary in which they jotted down, on a weekly basis, reflections about their snss diet and all their activities on facebook and instagram, from posting, to sharing and liking, to commenting. the goal, in this regard, was to let participants digest their daily snss use and prompt a “distanced” reflection – via the traditional act of writing – which could trigger a retrospective assessment of the users’ snss activities. lastly, because the befriending of our avatars was on a voluntary basis, a distinction was made. those students who did befriend our avatars – thus allowing us to closely monitor their activity – had to answer at the end of the five weeks a second round of questions that were tailored on their specific timelines and aimed at understanding the underpinning reasons of their snss posting. the students who opted for taking part in the experience but not revealing their own profiles to us were required to write a final essay which reflected upon the whole experience of having kept a written diary alongside their daily snss use. eventually, two groups were constituted: group a ( students) submitted a diary, the tagging, and a final essay. group b ( students) – those who befriended us – submitted a diary, the tagging, and answered a second round of questions at the end of the five-week survey period. by comparing the insights derived from our monitoring of snss and the assignments of the students it was possible to better understand how participants represent themselves on snss (indeed, a fragmented representation across different media platforms, as we will see) and, most importantly, to sharpen the students’ awareness concerning their online self-projection, which is, in fact, an almost unperceived drowning, rather than a conscious and controlled exposure. in this respect, the experience did bring to the surface the embedded tensions involved in the technological subjugation to which individuals are exposed when using snss. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , connected intelligence the second teaching experience refers to the course “anthropology of communication” which i co-delivered during the fall semester together with prof. derrick de kerckhove at politecnico of milan. by addressing seven macro-themes – ethics, education, ecology, politics, economy, urbanism, and technology – the aim of the course was to map the status of today’s techno-society and provide students with new critical insights and tools for consciously reflecting upon its evolution for eventually elaborating possible alternatives. in order to do so, the students enrolled in the course (curriculum in “design of communication”) were put at the centre of the learning experience, being aware that they are, indeed, the pulling force of today’s techno-society and the designers of tomorrow’s. in fact, the overreaching goal of the course was to make students conceive and design a technologically sustainable village, intended as a community space – of the dimension of a neighbourhood or a small city – in which technology was at once tool and framework of the citizens’ daily life, on the wave of martin heidegger’s ([ ]) well known idea that technology is instrumental to the individual but always, inevitably, also “enframing” him/her. by “technologically sustainable” we meant a village in which technologically delivered services were free to access, fair in their algorithmic functioning (i.e. unbiased, see discourses on algorithmic and data justice: e.g. [ ]; [ ]; [ ]; [ ]) and respectful of privacy (e.g. private data ownership, or also the possibility of withdrawing from the use of technology, without losing access to services and rights; see discussion on the ethical boundaries of the digitalized society, e.g. [ ]; [ ]). more concretely, the course was inspired by the then recent news of google’s goal to plan and build a fully smart neighbourhood in an area of the city of toronto. given the corporate-driven conditions behind google’s project – which led to harsh critiques from various actors both within and outside of the project – our course also came to have a meta-political relevance, especially with regard to the repurposing of technology as a public utility. hence, while we, as teachers, provided students with recent evidence of what has been called “surveillance capitalism” ( [ ]), the project aimed – at a broader level – to confront students with the need to rethink the relation between technology, individuals and collectivity, renewing the debate on what it means to acquire (and put to use) tech competences. methodologically, apart from traditional lectures focused on various topics revolving around critical data studies ([ ]), digital cultures ([ ]; [ ]; [ ]), transhumanism ([ ]) and digital methods (rogers ), as teachers we provided the conceptual framework of the course, which took the form of a wiki cloud of keywords (figure ) that helped students navigate today’s techno-society (examples of keywords are: “participatory democracy”, “datacracy”, “digital twins”, “deep learning”, “smart city”, “social credit”, “transparency”, “net neutrality”, “big data”, “algorithmethics”). for each keyword a short definition was given, together with a couple of references for further exploring the concept, as well as links to its most closely related keywords. beyond this initial setting, we relied upon a “connected intelligence” approach for the development of the course, which meant to leave students autonomously manage their https://www.citylab.com/solutions/ / /alphabet-sidewalk-labs-toronto-quayside-smartcity- google/ / https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- https://www.bbc.com/news/technology- https://www.citylab.com/solutions/ / /alphabet-sidewalk-labs-toronto-quayside-smartcity-google/ / https://www.citylab.com/solutions/ / /alphabet-sidewalk-labs-toronto-quayside-smartcity-google/ / s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities research work (albeit supervised). such approach was articulated on three different and interconnected levels. initially, we asked students to pick one keyword and research upon it by expanding its definition and the reference list. in so doing, each student became an expert of his/her own keyword. subsequently, students gathered in groups of three to four (coordinated by us in order to avoid the formation of too big groups) depending on the similarities among the owned keywords and the researches conducted individually. as part of this second stage we asked students, in groups, to deliver weekly in-class presentations that highlighted the interrelation across the three/four keywords, according to one of the seven macro-themes identified at the beginning of the course. so, for instance, we had the students focusing on “big data”, “algorithm” and “blockchain” working together under the macro-theme of technology insofar as their individual researches led them to explore the technical/operative side of the keywords. thirdly, over the last three weeks of the course, students clustered in seven bigger groups composed of six to nine members, always following the affiliation of their keywords to one of the macro-themes. this enlarged grouping allowed a cross-fertilization of ideas based upon the research conducted up to that stage. in fact, the principle at the basis of the “connected intelligence” approach – differently from pierre lévy’s ([ ]) idea of “intelligence collective” – is to favour innovation through collaboration and sharing. as a matter of fact, “connected intelligence” is neither “owned” by the single individuals, nor it is simply the sum of the link connecting them, rather; it is the outcome/surplus that derives from such rhizomatous connectivity ([ ]). eventually, the objective for each macro-group was to elaborate a project that either outlined the conception of a product or service that addressed one key issue of the afferent macro-theme – e.g. the unwilling circulation of private data on digital platforms, tackled by the technology group – or defined a manual of good practices for the design/use of technology (as it was the case with the ethics macro-group, whose work remained inevitably on a more conceptual level). in so doing, not only students became more aware of the criticalities of technological innovation, but also learnt to think collaboratively in view of possible solutions for making tomorrow’s techno-society (more) sustainable. figure : the wiki cloud of keywords. the font size was randomly assigned. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , results in the following section the main findings of the teaching experiences are presented and discussed in light of the debate on the use of digital technologies in/for today’s techno-society, as well as in connection with an assessment of the achieved results for the enhancement of digital tech literacies and tech-related awareness in both students and teachers. in the last part of the article the main limitations of these experiences and possible future developments will be addressed. digital autoethnography the teaching experience in hong kong provided valuable insights in two respects (see also [ ]): ) how young adults choose and use snss for self-representation; ) the (often surreptitious) impact that snss have on users’ cognitive and social self-perception. concerning the first point, in her work on small life stories on facebook, ruth page ( [ ]: ) notes that, despite the fact that updates are “self-contained units rather than the bricks of an ongoing narrative”, it is still possible for readers to “fill the gaps” between statuses and reconstruct small stories about the user. by contrast, we highlighted an increasing difficulty in identifying a coherent self-representation of the user on facebook. one main explanation for our diverging conclusion has likely to do with the renewed medial and technological affordances of the platform. when page conducted her study, facebook had not yet introduced the timeline; now, as also noted by mcneill ([ ]) a few years later, the platform has completely changed its design and, consequently, the use its users make of it. first of all, we witnessed a rather limited frequency of posting. we reported a total of posts, which means an average of . posts/user over five weeks, i.e. a bare . posts/user per week (in line with the tendency of young adults to shift towards the use of instagram and also snapchat). moreover, of these posts the majority ( . posts/user) were tagged as “phatic”, thus reasserting the primary function of “keeping in contact” rather than providing insightful information about one’s own life ( . posts/user were tagged as “referential”, . as “time-related”, and . posts/user as “emotive”). the phatic dimension of facebook’s communication appears more vividly in relation to comments: out of a total of comments reported, simply consisted of emoticons or phatic expressions. secondly, we noted the tendency to post or share content that was “other-related” and “other-authored” – such as news, entertaining videos, or advertisements – rather than “self-related” and “self-authored”, that is, produced by the users and directly pertaining to their lives. in fact, taken individually, the tag “posted by user” is the one that recurs slightly more often than the other two: . posts/user against . (“shared by others”) and . (“shared by user”). and yet, as soon as we add up all posts that are not authored by the timeline’s owner (“shared by user” and “shared by others”) they amount to almost two thirds of the total. this means that, for the greatest part, the timelines of our participants are already an outsourced projection of them; one that produces a sort of depersonification of their representation and perception (it is in this respect that franco berardi ([ ]: ) warns against the reduction, brought about by technology, of the uniqueness of the subject to “a set of components, or a format”). in fact, the gradual withdrawal of users from s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities facebook – which is considered, more radically than instagram and snapchat, as a public space rather than a diary, according to the majority ( ) of our participants – is, at once, cause and effect of the platform’s shift from being user-focused to functioning as a news-aggregator (with all the related issues concerning the control of fake news and publishers’ copyrights). this finding can be also derived from the replies of our students to the first round of questions. in particular, to the question “what do you look up on facebook?” % of the students ( ) responded, “news,” among whom twenty-six coupled “news” with “entertaining stuff,” highlighting the extent to which “hard news” and “entertaining content” are perceived as overlapping. moreover, from the participants’ essays and replies to the second round of questions we realized that for our students facebook constitutes just one platform of a more conspicuous snss diet. overall, our participants claimed to post on facebook only very relevant life events or episodes of public interest, delegating the bulk of social interactions to other snss, namely instagram and snapchat. more precisely, snapchat is where users tend to be more authentic and unreflexive, facebook is where they choose to present a strongly and positively crafted self, and instagram works as an in-between semi-private form of photographic diary. these are the words of a student: “i use snapchat almost on a daily basis whereas my instagram posts depends on when i go out […] so i would post at least once or twice every week in instagram, whereas i have almost stopped using facebook”. this means that, across the three platforms, there is a quantitative narrowing down as well as qualitative discrepancies concerning what is being posted. hence, if we are to look for coherent self-representations, we need to conceive of a comprehensive approach to snss in that “to fill the gaps,” has become a matter of collation among different platforms. concerning the impact that snss have on users’ cognitive and social self-perception, by collating our monitoring of the posting with the participants’ diaries, we realized that users: ) often share materials and reply to comments uncritically (i.e. without really checking the content of the posts shared or commented on); ) forget by and large what they have liked/shared after a few days. these phenomena are symptomatic of broader tensions affecting the relation between users and social media. an example of the first kind can be found in the video, shared by a female participant, in which a woman jokingly pretends to be against public breastfeeding. the irony of the video is quite evident in that the woman’s supposed puritanism is contrasted with images showing the fetishization of the female body, which goes well beyond the exposure of breasts. what is significant is that one of the user’s friends did not perceive at all the irony of the video and commented disappointedly on the post. when asked to elaborate on that, the student said: “i suppose my friend didn’t reflect enough when watching the video and concluded that the woman in the video was serious”. it seems, then, that not only did the user’s friend not interpret the “hidden” ironic meaning of the video, but she also felt the urge to intervene, without much consideration. on the other hand, an example showing the process of forgetfulness triggered by social media is particularly acute with regard to liking. in fact, such act remained largely untracked by the majority of participants in their written diaries. prompted by our question, one student umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , reported that “out of my expectations, when checking my activity log i discovered that i liked an overwhelming number of posts in five weeks!” the main problem is that, while users tend to quickly forget what they liked, it is not so for the platform, which tracks and remembers everything they do on it. more broadly, the technology’s erosion – through the unreflexive actions it promotes – of the (human) ability to remember, opens the way to what benjamin ([ ]) defined precisely as an “impoverishment of experience” (as “erfahrung”) brought about by technology: as soon as users are led, by technology itself, to act mechanically, their acts are deprived of a shared value and turned into solipsistic “erlebnis” (in this regard, bernard stiegler ([ ]: ) talks of a “mercantile production” of memory). the experience in hong kong allowed us (as teachers/researchers) as well as the students (as the main actors of the experience) to bring these tendencies to the surface, in order to become fully aware of them via direct experience. the most relevant result was achieved when such consciousness triggered a counter-action in the way of using snss. we were glad, for instance, to witness one student discussing how the keeping of a written diary affected his reflection about potential upcoming posts: “i can’t deny that keeping a written diary affected my posting: i became more aware of things or moments around me and i wondered whether i would really like to share them with others.” another participant confessed: “over the five weeks of logs, i changed some of my views toward my use of facebook and other snss. i have always thought that i kept a very low profile on social media. however, after this self-tracking, i found that i don’t keep at all a low profile.” these testimonies definitely attest to the synergies between the online and offline realms and the distanced (more aware) self-perception that the autoethnography triggered with regard to online modes of self-representation. connected intelligence the teaching experience in milan led to the elaboration of seven macro-projects (thematically clustered), which were presented and discussed in class during the last week of the semester. what is most interesting to remark is the interconnection among the various projects, as a result of the “connected intelligence” approach adopted during the whole course. this is particularly evident in the final project of the technology group. being this group focused on the “stuff ” itself – i.e. technology – that traversed also all the other macro-groups, its members decided to conceive a tech space on which the other projects might converge. more specifically, the technology group designed a mockup platform, named village technology service (vts), which addressed the issue of data security and data privacy, by allowing citizens/users to re- appropriate their own data created through multiple interactions with digital services and devices. in the words of the students, the platform “compiles the history of all our data transactions, allowing each citizen to easily manage her own data”. in so doing, this project came to be connected in particular to the ethics and education macro-groups, although politics and ecology groups were also involved. concerning the ethics project, the group drafted a chart discussing the pros and cons of a more transparent society, based upon the open circulation and access of data made public either necessarily by services and companies, or voluntarily by users/citizens. by offering a critique of china’s top-down social credit system, the group advanced a collective assessment of services through publicly relevant data, leading to forms of s. calzati – digital autoethnography & connected intelligence: two qualitative practice- based teaching methods for the digital humanities rewards and/or disincentives for both services and users (so that social responsibility is double- sided). concerning education, the group focused its attention on the ethical and practical implications of the emergence of digital twins, that is, the datafied doppelganger of the individual, made up of the collection of all its (so far dispersed) data. in their own words, the group explored what it means to have “a digital twin serving the individual as a personal assistant and a digital face in society” and how to think of and frame its coming into being (i.e. through which data and under which conditions of liability). as for the politics group, their project elaborated on the concept of “epistemocracy”, i.e. the idea that processes of democratic/participative decision-making, especially on local matters, should be based upon the acquisition of prior knowledge. to advance this idea the group designed an e-governance online service for promoting the direct participation, collaboration and voting of citizens on a number of proposals. in the cases envisioned by the group, before voting online, citizens are required to pass a test focused on the debated proposal and meant to assess the citizen/user knowledge of its key tenets (and s/he can only try the test twice). subsequently, we have two projects that offer concrete examples for a more sustainable circular economy based on e-services. the ecology group conceived the mockup of an app called “veg- eat-ables” for launching fair practices in the production and consumption of local food. in this spirit, vegetables are grown in collectively managed gardens – at the level of streets or neighbourhoods (see also the urbanism group) – its consumption is meant for self-subsistence and, if needed, the app put in contact members of different neighbourhoods for the recirculation of leftovers (which can be given in exchange for other small social services, see economy group). the app also contains a section with information on how to preserve food, limit packaging, and recycle organic and inorganic waste. strictly connected with the ecology group is the economy group, which came up with a platform for the sharing of (voluntary) services based on the logics of time banking. time banking is, indeed, a grassroots way of trading – close to bargain – where the currency is actually time. the economy group, then, collaborated closely with the ecology group for implementing a sustainable model intersecting the working hours in the collectively managed gardens with the possibility of receiving food (or getting lower utility bills, see also urbanism group) by cumulating a “time capital” for the provided social work. last, the project of the urbanism group addressed three layers – building, mapping and mobility – which were deeply interwoven and eventually described via few renderings at micro level (e.g. single houses and streets), meso level (e.g. neighbourhoods, social spaces, natural areas) and macro level (the whole village). to link the three layers was an environmentally sustainable mobility plan, which also included tech connectivity and free wifi. more in detail, the group planned house building using both renewable materials and d printing, as well as designing them to be energetically sustainable (reducing, if not zeroing, utility bills); the topographical organisation of the village included modularly-planned streets and neighbourhoods hosting canals, green areas, public spaces and buildings, as well as info points describing the overall conception of the village; mobility was based on pedestrian zones, bike sharing and electric car sharing fuelled by renewable energies (obtained by allotting communal areas for solar panels and windmills). https://cmte.ieee.org/futuredirections/ / / /digital-twins-where-we-are-where-we-go-vii/ https://cmte.ieee.org/futuredirections/ / / /digital-twins-where-we-are-where-we-go-vii/ umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , overall, the projects presented different levels of accuracy and depth. and yet, they all did rely upon existing technologies for their conception, design and implementation of the proposed solutions, thus stressing the importance of creating synergies across sometimes distant areas (such as politics and technology, or economy and ecology) in innovative, tech-based ways. most importantly, by building upon their practical skills as designers, students demonstrated to be able to cut through the critical discourses surrounding digital technologies and techno-society, in order to pragmatically address (if not solve) some of the most relevant issues connected to them. limitations and further developments the experience in hong kong brought to all actors involved a more “distanced” perception of the use of snss (and how these, in turn, impact surreptitiously on the user’s life). this is certainly significant in light of the goal to foster critical awareness as far as our daily social media diet is concerned. however, given the small cohort of participants and its socio- demographic uniformity (all asian students between and years old), the findings would require further testing to be confirmed. no doubt, the research would greatly benefit from the replication of the digital autoethnography in a different cultural context (e.g. europe) and with the involvement of a larger and more varied group of participants. the experience in milan, on its part, represented a very proactive approach towards the status of today’s techno-society, the unveiling of its shortcomings and potentialities and the reflection upon possible more sustainable directions it can take. in fact, students had the chance to not only discuss cutting edge issues related to the pervasiveness of technology in our society, but also be at forefront of innovative solutions to be conceived and implemented collaboratively. and yet, the breadth of the macro-themes likely constituted a major limitation to the students’ effective elaboration of their final projects, especially given the short span of time they had. in this respect, the possibility of linking this course to a second one, either in the same semester or in a subsequent one, might represent a viable option leading to finalize sounder projects. this would also be enhanced by connecting students in dh with peers studying computer sciences: the collaboration would certainly favour the conception of more feasible projects, possibly ready to be presented and implemented at municipality level. references [ ] benjamin, walter. 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[ ] zuboff, shoshana. . the age of surveillance capitalism: the fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. new york: public affairs. https://www.universita.it/universita-calo-professori-ricercatori/ https://www.universita.it/universita-calo-professori-ricercatori/ https://stackla.com/resources/blog/ -statistics-about-user-generated-content-you-need-to-know/ https://stackla.com/resources/blog/ -statistics-about-user-generated-content-you-need-to-know/ https://digitalreality.ieee.org/images/files/pdf/transhumanism.pdf https://doi.org/% . / abstract introduction crucial times in higher education digital autoethnography & connected intelligence digital autoethnography connected intelligence results digital autoethnography connected intelligence limitations and further developments references [pdf] discovering relationships from imperial court documents of qing china | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: discovering relationships from imperial court documents of qing china @article{hsiang discoveringrf, title={discovering relationships from imperial court documents of qing china}, author={j. hsiang and shih-pei chen and hou ieong ho and h. tu}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } j. hsiang, shih-pei chen, + author h. tu published history, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. the qing imperial court documents are a major source of primary research material for studying the qing era china since they provide the most direct and first-hand details of how national affairs were handled. however, the way qing archived these documents has made it cumbersome to collect documents covering the same event and rebuild their original contexts. in this paper, we describe some information technology that we have developed to discover two important and useful relations among these… expand view via publisher thdl.ntu.edu.tw save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations methods citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper figure table figure table figure figure table figure table figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables text mining digital library historical document diagram archive citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency discovering land transaction relations from land deeds of taiwan shih-pei chen, yu-ming huang, j. hsiang, h. tu, hou ieong ho, ping-yen chen business, computer science lit. linguistic comput. pdf view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed a chinese ancient book digital humanities research platform to support digital humanities research chih-ming chen, c. chang computer science electron. libr. save alert research feed application of taiwan's human rights-themed cultural assets and spatial information shuhui lin sociology, computer science complex. pdf save alert research feed visuality in a cross-disciplinary battleground: analysis of inscriptions in digital humanities journal publications rongqian ma, kai li computer science pdf view excerpts, cites methods save alert research feed a bibliographic analysis of scholarly publication in the emerging field of digital humanities in taiwan k. chen, muh-chyun tang sociology save alert research feed references showing - of references methods for identifying versioned and plagiarized documents t. c. hoad, j. zobel computer science j. assoc. inf. sci. technol. pdf save alert research feed collection statistics for fast duplicate document detection abdur chowdhury, o. frieder, d. grossman, m. mccabe computer science tois pdf save alert research feed related papers abstract figures, tables, and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students doi: http://doi.org/ . /issn. - / students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students floriana carlotta sciumbata università di trieste, italy floriana.sciumbata@gmail.com abstract questa indagine riguarda le conoscenze digitali di studenti universitari, nativi digitali di ultima generazione, iscritti a corsi in materie umanistiche, in cui le competenze digitali e l’informatica rischiano spesso di passare in secondo piano sia per quanto riguarda l’interesse degli studenti sia nell’offerta formativa. l’obiettivo è capire come gli studenti percepiscono il proprio livello di competenza digitale e se esista una discrepanza tra il livello percepito tramite autovalutazione e la conoscenza effettiva. gli studenti hanno perciò risposto a un sondaggio di quattro sezioni contenenti domande conoscitive, due sezioni di autovalutazione e una comprendente domande a risposta multipla, basate sul quadro europeo delle competenze digitali, su aspetti pratici e teorici del lavoro al computer utili in ambito universitario e professionale. i risultati evidenziano che i partecipanti tendono a sopravvalutare le proprie competenze e che le loro conoscenze presentano diverse lacune anche su aspetti basilari. oltre che per tracciare il profilo delle capacità digitali degli studenti universitari, il sondaggio indica quali conoscenze, spesso date per assodate da docenti e istituzioni, dovrebbero invece essere potenziate per fornire agli studenti strumenti adeguati ad affrontare il loro percorso accademico e, più avanti, quello professionale, ma anche l'uso quotidiano degli strumenti digitali. this paper presents a study carried out to survey the digital skills of italian students belonging to the latest generation of digital natives and currently enrolled in university courses of humanities, in which it and digital skills risk to be neglected both by the students’ interest and the range of courses that are offered. the study aims to understand how students perceive their level of digital skills and whether there is a discrepancy between their self-assessed level and their actual knowledge. participants answered a survey of four sections, including preliminary questions, two self-assessment parts and a section containing multiple-choice questions, based on the european framework of digital competences, on both theoretical and practical aspects of it and digital skills. results show that participants tend to overestimate their digital skills and that they lack knowledge of basic topics. besides outlining the digital competences of italian humanities students, this study points out digital skills that should be strengthened, whereas they are often taken for granted by teachers and institutions, although students need those skills in their university and professional life, but also for their daily digital needs. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , introduction in his infamous work digital natives, digital immigrants, published in , mark prensky states that “our students today are all “native speakers” of the digital language of computers, video games and the internet” ([ ]) and defines them ‘digital natives’. at first, the term indicated the first generation born and raised after the spread of digital technologies (i.e. after ) such as “computers, video games, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age” ([ ]), and the term is still commonly used today to designate younger generations that always lived in contact with digital tools. there is a misleading assumption that generations born and raised in a digital environment are naturally skilled that might lead to overestimating the digital skills of digital natives. however, “in the seminal literature on digital natives these assertions are put forward with limited empirical evidence (e.g. [ ]) or supported by anecdotes and appeals to common-sense beliefs ([ ])” ([ ]). according to the same authors, literature “demonstrates a clear mismatch between the confidence with which claims are made and the evidence for such claims”. indeed, living with digital tools and using them daily does not necessarily determine tech- savviness, as confirmed by several studies. italian students belonging to the digital native generation are not an exception. according to a study carried out in italian schools, - -year- old italian students can perform more technical and procedural activities using computers, although they have very low skills in more complex tasks such as using logical operators or distinguishing between tasks that can be accomplished or not by computers ( [ ]). more importantly, the same study found that the sample does not spontaneously doubt the reliability of internet information, a much-needed skill in the era of fake news. furthermore, an oecd- pisa survey found out that italian students “do not learn how to plan and execute a search, how to evaluate the usefulness of information, or how to assess the credibility of sources” and they seem to receive little help from italian schools in developing those increasingly important skills ([ ]). additionally, italian university students have “an erroneous perception of the level of it security knowledge, even amongst respondents studying technical subjects” ( [ ]). finally, the istat ([ ]) report found out that . % of italian internet users have low digital skills. although the aforementioned studies were carried out mainly with italian teenagers, it can be assumed that students enter university with lacks in their digital skills. in the “digital turn in higher education” ([ ]) is therefore important to identify them to assess the actual level of knowledge and plan better teaching syllabi according to the results. the survey this study explores the digital skills of university students born after and currently attending humanities courses in italy. indeed, in such courses students often seem not also see [ ] for more ‘myths’ regarding digital natives. see, among others, [ ], [ ]; [ ]; [ ]. other data are reported in [ ]. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students particularly interested in digital skills and icts (information and communication technologies), that can be limited or even neglected in the range of courses offered by universities. in other cases, applied it courses (applied to humanities, to translation, courses on digital humanities applications, practical courses on specific software, etc.) are offered, but they do not focus on basic it and digital skills. nonetheless, digital skills are nowadays fundamental (or, at least, extremely helpful) in any field of knowledge, and required for most jobs. it is therefore important to understand the students’ level of knowledge to determine which skills, useful at an academic, professional, but also personal level, should be strengthened during the students’ training. for this study, students born after were considered as, first of all, they represent the generation currently enrolled in both bachelor’s and master’s degrees in italy. furthermore, students born after are often referred to as the ‘google generation’ ([ ]) or ‘i-generation’ and are often considered the ‘actual’ digital natives since they have grown up in a web . environment ([ ]). the aims of the survey are: • outlining the digital skills profile of italian university students of humanities; • understanding if there is a discrepancy between their self-assessed level of digital skills and the actual level of knowledge; • identifying specific skills that should be improved in order to give students better tools for their academic, personal and professional use of digital tools. structure the survey is divided in four parts. the first part contains preliminary questions to outline the data set, including complete responses, graphs, python and r scripts, can be found at https://github.com/flometis/informaggio (last consulted on / / ) those courses are undoubtedly useful. however, they often require some previous knowledge that students do not have. for instance, in my experience as a teacher of it applied to translation, i have noticed that students do not have any previous knowledge of file formats, encodings, ocr, text formatting, ‘conscious’ google searches: all useful tools when it comes to compile corpora, tag them, or use cat (computer-assisted translation)-tools. students even struggle with standard software interfaces or keyboard shortcuts, which suggests that they are not very familiar with using those tools. the survey is still available at https://www.zorbaproject.org/informaggio/ (last consulted on / / ). the first section and the following ones can be consulted (in html format and in italian) and downloaded at https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario- informaggio.html (last consulted on / / ). they can be also viewed at the url in footnote . the first part also contains what software developers and videogamers would call an ‘easter egg’. the privacy note at the beginning of the survey asked participants to write “accept” in the text box and listed a “read more” option. it contained more details about the privacy policy, but also a part that https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio.html https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio.html https://www.zorbaproject.org/informaggio/ https://github.com/flometis/informaggio umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , the profile of the respondents. first, it contains general questions aimed to understand the demographics of respondents (year of birth, gender, region of origin, university, degree course, etc.). the following questions focus on the ‘user profile’ of participants, including how long they have been using computers and the internet, if they own a computer, which operating system they use, which device they use more often. there are also questions regarding their attitude towards icts and the digital world that investigate if participants are interested in them and if they have ever fixed or changed a computer part (such as ram, internal hard disk, video card, etc.). then, participants are asked if they got an ecdl certification , if they feel that they know more about computers than their high school/university teachers, and finally if they help friends and family to solve their problems with their devices. the second section includes a single self-assessment question that asks participants to place their skills on a -grade scale going from insufficient to excellent without giving further details. the goal of this section is to understand how participants evaluate their skills overall. moreover, its results will be compared to the answers to the following section. the third section contains a second self-assessment set of questions based on the european digital competence framework . (digcomp). the framework identifies the key components of digital competence in five areas, described as follows: • information and data literacy: to articulate information needs, to locate and retrieve digital data, information and content. to judge the relevance of the source and its content. to store, manage, and organise digital data, information and content. • communication and collaboration: to interact, communicate and collaborate through digital technologies while being aware of cultural and generational diversity. to participate in society through public and private digital services and participatory citizenship. to manage one’s digital identity and reputation. • digital content creation: to create and edit digital content to improve and integrate stated “if you read this, please write ‘read’ instead of ‘accept’ in the text box, otherwise you shall give a case of ipa beer to the administrator of this survey”. out of all the participants only one spotted the easter egg by underlining that “a case of ipa is an ambiguous reference for a linguist”, so now i should have ipa cases in my fridge. with regard to this, see the experiment ran by f-secure (described in [ ]) concerning free wifi terms and conditions. the team set a free hotspot, but customers where asked to sign terms and condition that contained the “herod clause”, stating that “the recipient agreed to assign their first born child to us for the duration of eternity”. ecdl is the european computer driving licence, now known as international computer driving licence. it is a computer literacy certification often promoted by italian schools, especially in the first decade of s. see the url linked in footnote . https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html (last consulted on / / ). the descriptions were retrieved from the digcomp official website: https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/digital-competence-framework (last consulted on / / ). https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/digital-competence-framework https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students information and content into an existing body of knowledge while understanding how copyright and licences are to be applied. to know how to give understandable instructions for a computer system. • safety: to protect devices, content, personal data and privacy in digital environments. to protect physical and psychological health, and to be aware of digital technologies for social well-being and social inclusion. to be aware of the environmental impact of digital technologies and their use. • problem solving: to identify needs and problems, and to resolve conceptual problems and problem situations in digital environments. to use digital tools to innovate processes and products. to keep up-to-date with the digital evolution. participants are asked to read the descriptions of the framework levels as they appear in the europass cv self-assessment of digital competencies and choose to which level they feel they belong for each area (basic, independent or proficient user). two more options are added and participants can also choose “i am not competent enough and i do not fit in any of the levels listed above” or “i am more competent than all the levels listed above”. finally, the fourth section represents the core of the survey. it comprises fifteen multiple- choice questions that try to investigate the actual knowledge of participants. the questions are based on the european framework and refer to theoretical and practical aspects of working with it and digital tools. they include the following topics: ) definition of rar files; ) creation of pdf files; ) identification of mark-up languages; ) identification of hardware items; ) definition of duckduckgo (alternative search engine); ) identification of reliable websites containing news/information; ) identification of encrypted websites; see the descriptions of the single levels at https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/resources/digital- competences (last consulted on / / ). the names of the areas vary from the digicomp ones and correspond to information processing, communication, content creation, safety, and problem solving. https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html (last consulted on / / ). questions were categorised according to the five digcomp areas for scoring purposes, although some questions overlap two categories. question , , , , and belong to the “information and data literacy” area. questions and belong to the “communication and collaboration” area. questions , , and belong to the “digital content creation” area. questions , , and belong to the “safety” area, whereas the “problem solving” area only includes question . question was not inserted in any of the previous categories. https://github.com/flometis/informaggio/blob/master/sondaggio/questionario-informaggio- .html https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/resources/digital-competences https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/resources/digital-competences umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , ) functioning of ‘allinurl:’ on google; ) privacy of content on social media; ) password management; ) reaction to phishing e-mails; ) understanding of how search engines work; ) sending big files; ) sharing documents with others; ) solving problems related to safety (viruses, spyware, etc.). all the questions have four or more answers, always including an “i don’t know” option, and some had more than one correct answer. for example, the question “which of the following items are hardware?” lists the following answers, with four correct options (hard disk, printer, ssd memory device, hdmi cable): • hard disk • operating system • printer • ssd memory device • cloud computing • hdmi cable • browser • ip address • i don’t know some trick answers are present to ‘mislead’ participants and assess their actual knowledge on certain topics. for example, answers to the question “which of the following are safe (encrypted) websites?” are: • https://www.pornhub.com • http://units.it/ • https://musicagratis.ita • http://mail.google.com • https://www.unicredit.com the correct answers are, of course, the urls containing the ‘https’ protocol, whereas the here, the second-level domain can be translated in english as ‘freemusic’. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students second level domains (meaning the names preceding .it, .ita or .com) used here might trick respondents because they can be associated to safe or malicious websites. a similar technique is used in the question “which of the following contain reliable information?”: • il fatto quotidaino • facebook • ansa • wikipedia • corriere della sera • retenews • treccani while three of the listed sources are reliable (corriere della sera, ansa, and treccani), il fatto quotidaino and retenews were popular fake news websites. the former mimicked the italian newspaper il fatto quotidiano (note the imperceptibly reversed vowels), the latter recalls a tv news channel named rainews . distribution the survey was distributed through social media by posting its url on facebook groups of italian universities, with a focus on departments and degree courses of humanities. respondents answered anonymously. the system registered responses from participants coming from italian universities and enrolled in several degree courses of humanities including languages, literature, translation and interpreting, art, history, philosophy and so on. results responses were collected between november and january and were later filtered by using a python script that discarded the incomplete ones and excluded respondents who did not meet the requirements of being born after or enrolled in a relevant degree. the ansa is the leading italian wire service. corriere della sera is a well-known italian daily newspaper. treccani is a renowned italian encyclopaedia. a detailed study on italian fake news can be found in [ ]. the complete list of groups can be found at https://pastebin.com/ggbkg h (last consulted on / / ). the answer collection system encrypted the respondents’ ips using a hash md algorithm. https://pastebin.com/ggbkg h umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , filtering process resulted in valid responses. another python script automatised the data processing phase, and to weigh the answers registered in section of the survey. every right answer gave point if correct, or . points for answers that can be considered partially correct. wrong answers corresponded to - or - . point, and not answered questions or “i don’t know” answers mark points. the maximum possible score is points. after calculating the results, an r script automatically generated charts and graphs. the overall result is quite complex and several correlations between data can be made, however, only the most relevant ones will be discussed here. profile first of all, the preliminary questions of the first section found that respondents are mostly female ( out of ). their years of birth range from to and are distributed as shown in figure . figure : years of birth of the respondents f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students most participants come from the northern regions of italy, especially veneto ( respondents), lombardy ( ), and friuli-venezia giulia ( ), that virtually cover half of the sample. other regions can be seen in the chart in figure . gender and origin are interesting starting data that might play a role in the performance of the participants in this survey. indeed, according to studies, there is a digital divide between male and female users, with the latter showing a disadvantage. on the other hand, respondents come mainly from the northern part of italy, less affected by regional digital divide ([ ]). students are currently enrolled in a bachelor’s degree, with several degrees represented (translation, interpreting, languages, history, philosophy, literature, art, pedagogy…). many of them are attending the university of trieste ( ), whereas milan ranks second ( ) and bologna third, with respondents. less than half ( ) already attended an it course at university, although age and the fact that many respondents are enrolled in the first year of university must be considered in this case. only respondents have an ecdl certification. figure and figure shows the years of usage of computers and the internet respectively. an overview can be found in [ ]. see also [ ]; [ ]; [ ]. figure : regions of origin of the respondents umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , as the charts show, the majority of respondents have been using computers for at least ten years, whereas they have been generally surfing the internet for less time. figure : years of usage of computers. figure : years of usage of the internet. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students almost all the respondents own a computer ( ), of which use windows, macos, and linux as their operating system. laptops seem to be the most used device according to respondents, while smartphones are preferred by , tablets by , desktop computers by , and other devices by . devices are mostly used for studying ( ), entertainment ( ), communication ( ) and work ( ). almost two-thirds of the respondents declare that they are not interested in itc ( ), and have never tried to change a computer part. the majority of participants still believe that they are more expert than their high school teachers ( ), whereas fewer respondents think that they are more expert than their university teachers ( ). finally, three out of four respondents ( ) help their friends and family if they have any issues with their devices. first self-assessment when asked to measure their knowledge on a -grade scale including insufficient, poor, average, good, and excellent, respondents answered as illustrated in the graph in figure . almost half ( ) answered that their knowledge is good, with ‘good’ being the second-top grade of the scale. think that their knowledge is average, that it is poor, that it is insufficient and that it is excellent. it can therefore be assumed that respondents generally believe that their level of skills is high but not perfect, while many are aware of their low-level skills. figure : self-assessed overall level of digital skills umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , second self-assessment based on the digcomp framework while students seem to have a quite good overall opinion about their skills, the third section of the survey shows a slightly different picture. indeed, the descriptions used in the european digital competence framework . give more contextualised definitions of what digital skills are and how they can be evaluated. responses to this section are summarised in figure . more than half feel that their description corresponds to the independent user one when it comes to information and data literacy. respondents feel proficient, and respondents feel less competent than the described profiles. only consider themselves basic users. respondents feel even more self-confident in the communication area. as easily predictable in the communication era, the vast majority of respondents seem to be quite positive about their skills, with independent, advanced, and basic users. on the contrary, the self-assessed level in the content creation area appears quite different, as most respondents ( ) declare to be basic users, while are independent users. according to respondents, their skills are too low and they do not fit in any of the descriptions. finally, only users are proficient. a similar scenario appears in the problem solving area. indeed, as in the previous area, most respondents ( ) are basic users, are independent users, are extremely-low-skilled users, whereas only are proficient. finally, in the safety area, the majority of respondents are independent users. however, almost for a more comprehensive study on italian university students and safety, see [ ]. the study figure : respondents' digcomp self-assessed levels f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students the same amount of respondents declare to be basic users, whereas are proficient. in the first self-assessment phase (section of the survey), almost half of the respondents reported having a ‘good’ level of skills, which might correspond to an independent to proficient user profile. however, the participants’ self-perceived level downsized simply by giving them a more punctual definition of the areas connected with digital skills. although in two areas out of five (content creation and problem solving) basic users prevail, respondents still perceive that their level of skills is good. it is also interesting to note that some users believe that their level is so low that it does not correspond to any of the profiles described in the european framework. multiple-choice questions as mentioned, the fourth section represents the core of this survey and comprises fifteen multiple-choice exploratory questions that test the actual knowledge of the participants. the questions are based on the five areas of the european framework and refer to theoretical and practical aspects of working with it and digital tools. answers were weighed using a scoring system (+ or + . to correct answers, - or - . wrong answers, and points for empty or “i don’t know” answers), with the maximum possible score corresponding to points. the respondents obtained the scores represented in figure . although only few respondents reach a negative score, the graph shows a peak on , with concluded that “there is an erroneous perception of the level of it security knowledge, even amongst respondents studying technical subjects”. figure : respondents' scores umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , respondents who obtained that mark. the score distribution is clearer in figure , representing the scores divided into -point ranges. the graph demonstrates that more than half of the scores (about %) concentrate between and points. moreover, only respondents got a score higher than points and no one reached the maximum score of . the high incidence of scores could suggest that respondents often resorted to the “i don’t know” option. although out of respondents answered “i don’t know” at least once while filling out the survey, “i don’t know” answers represent only % of the total given answers. low scores are therefore caused mainly by incorrect answers. figure shows how respondents scored according to their first self-assessment. figure : respondents' scores represented in -point ranges f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students self-declared ‘good’ users still peak on points, while several ‘excellent’ users got low marks. the graph suggests that many users tend to overestimate their skills, except for a ‘poor’ user reaching one of the highest scores. respondents who already took an it course at university show slightly better results, as shown in figure . figure : scores according to the respondents' first self-assessment figure : scores represented according to whether participants already took an it course at university umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , note that all the highest scores were reached by students who already took a course. nonetheless, most still get low results, which might suggest that it courses currently offered help but are still not enough to enhance many skills described in digcomp. scores can also be analysed by categorising them according to digcomp, as shown in the following figures, in order to identify the most problematic areas. see footnote for more details on how questions were categorised. the graphs show the minimum and maximum score that could be reached in the five areas and the percentage of respondents for each score. figure : scores referred to the digcomp communication area figure : scores referred to the digcomp content creation area figure : scores referred to the digcomp problem solving area figure : scores referred to the digcomp information area f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students respondents seem to lack knowledge in all the areas, as they generally score low or even negative. the most problematic area is the information-related one. indeed, few respondents got points while the maximum score is . although most respondents declared to be independent users, they seem to lack knowledge in the safety area, where they got several negative marks and never reached the maximum of . points. moreover, despite the fact that participants seemed very confident in the digcomp self-assessment section regarding the communication area, they showed some gaps in their knowledge, and % reached a score of while the maximum score is . finally, it is interesting to analyse some striking answers to single questions. for instance, respondents out of reported that they do not know what a .rar file is. only indicated correctly that ‘allinurl:’ on google is an operator to narrow search queries but do not know what it is, and this probably indicates that they do not know any of the advanced search operators all ending with a colon that can be specified in the google search bar. the meaning of ‘https’ seems clear to respondents who chose all three correct answers. only identified correctly all the listed mark-up languages, while out of identified html and only know that latex is a mark-up language. it is also surprising to see that most students do not even understand a basic concept as the differences between hardware and software. while correctly indicated that hard disks belong to hardware (possibly because of the two sounding similar), consider operating systems as hardware, and do not know. no one checked all the correct answers in the question. figure : scores referred to the digcomp safety area umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , conclusion this exploratory study was conducted on a diverse sample, although not statistically significant. however, it still gives some ideas on how italian university students of humanities perceive their skills, whether they lack some competencies, and whether there is a gap between their self- assessed level of knowledge and the actual one. indeed, there is still a need for further studies involving other populations, as well as a more extensive and more balanced set of questions including other topics. students of humanities who participated in this study have a very good opinion about their digital skills: most of them consider themselves ‘good’ users overall, and ‘independent’ users in three out of five digcomp areas. however, when tested, they showed significant gaps in their knowledge in all the areas, indicating that they tend to overestimate their skills, as a study published by the ecdl foundation ([ ]) already stated. in particular, the areas related to safety and information are problematic. furthermore, while students feel very confident in their communication digital skills, they seem to be lacking knowledge in this field, too. as argued by selwyn ([ ]) “many young peoples’ actual use of digital technologies remain rather more limited in scope than the digital native rhetoric would suggest”. when thinking that their skills are good or even excellent, students are not motivated to strengthen them as they do not feel the need to. furthermore, they do not understand the potential of using digital skills in their everyday, academic, and work life. this can also be one of the reasons why they tend to overestimate their skills, as they do not know the potentialities of using digital tools and do not perceive any gap in their knowledge. there are also other risks associated with the fact that digital skills are taken for granted. for example, teachers will not feel the need to teach basic aspects and will rather go for more advanced ones, employers will still expect their employees to have certain digital skills, maybe the ones declared on their cvs based on a self-assessment like digcomp, and governments will not allocate enough resources as they do not feel the urge to do so. nonetheless, digital skills are gaining importance and represent a key factor in every aspect of our lives. it is therefore important to reconsider how digital skills are passed down to younger generations in order to avoid a future gap. there is a need to rethink how digital skills are taught, first of all, in early education, then in humanities (and other) courses, besides finding effective ways to assess them and to make students more self-aware. another issue is the lack of interest that this study found, which can compromise the students’ will to improve their knowledge. a good starting point for humanities courses could be considering to enhance basic it/digital courses before applied ones in order to improve fundamental skills before giving students more advanced tools. demonstrating that the skills that students acquire can actually help them to work better and more efficiently might help to spark their interest in the subject. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students acknowledgements i thank luca tringali, programmer and specialised journalist, for his valuable help with r and python and throughout all the phases of this study. references [ ] bennett, sue, karl maton and lisa kervin. . “the “digital natives” debate: a critical review of the evidence.” british journal of educational technology ( ): – . 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[ ] helsper, ellen. . “digital natives and ostrich tactics?: the possible implications of labelling young people as digital experts. bristol: futurelab. http://www.beyondcurrenthorizons.org.uk/. umanistica digitale - issn: - - n. , [ ] istat. . ‘cittadini e ict’. https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/ . [ ] jackson, linda a., yong zhao, anthony kolenic, hiram e. fitzgerald, rena harold, and alexander von eye. . “race, gender, and information technology use: the new digital divide.” cyberpsychology & behavior ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /cpb. . . [ ] kergel, david, birte heidkamp, patrik kjærsdam telléus, tadeusz rachwal, and samuel nowakowski, eds. . the digital turn in higher education. wiesbaden: springer fachmedien wiesbaden. https://doi.org/ . / - - - - . [ ] kirschner, paul a., and pedro de bruyckere. . “the myths of the digital native and the multitasker.” teaching and teacher education (october): – . https://doi.org/ . /j.tate. . . . [ ] li, yan, and maria ranieri. . “are “digital natives” really digitally competent?-a study on chinese teenagers: chinese teenagers’ digital competence.” british journal of educational technology ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x. [ ] lokar, alice, stefano ondelli, fabio romanini, and elia silvestro. . credibile ma falso. come riconoscere le fake news (quasi senza leggerle). trieste: eut edizioni università di trieste. https://www.openstarts.units.it/handle/ / . [ ] mcshane, ian, mark a gregory, and christopher wilson. . “practicing safe public wi-fi: assessing and managing data-security risks.” ssrn electronic journal. https://doi.org/ . /ssrn. . [ ] oecd. . students, computers and learning: making the connection. pisa. https://doi.org/ . / -en. [ ] oecd. . bridging the digital gender divide: include, upskill, innovate. https://www.oecd.org/going-digital/bridging-the-digital-gender-divide-key- messages.pdf. [ ] prensky, marc. . “digital natives, digital immigrants part .” on the horizon ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . [ ] rowlands, ian, david nicholas, peter williams, paul huntington, maggie fieldhouse, barrie gunter, richard withey, hamid r. jamali, tom dobrowolski, and carol tenopir. . “the google generation: the information behaviour of the researcher of the future.” in aslib proceedings, : – . emerald group publishing limited. [ ] selwyn, neil. . “the digital native – myth and reality.” aslib proceedings ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . [ ] tapscott, don. . growing up digital: the rise of the net generation. new york: mcgraw-hill. f. sciumbata – students of humanities and digital skills: a survey on italian university students [ ] tech and law center. . security of the digital natives. http://www.techandlaw.net/wp- content/uploads/ / / _tlc_sdn_report-eng.pdf. abstract introduction the survey structure distribution results profile first self-assessment second self-assessment based on the digcomp framework multiple-choice questions conclusion acknowledgements references deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa research how to cite: yékú, james. . “deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa.” digital studies/ le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / dscn. published: december peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / yékú, james. . “deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa james yékú university of kansas, lawrence, ks, us jyeku@ku.edu this article explores the relationship between the forms of representation and the modes of production of african online writing, rendering visible an appreciation of the digital contexts that have occasioned new experimentations with regard to genre, style and the formation of digital publics. but it’s the bibliographic form and materiality of african digital texts that interest me the most. the medium of african literature, profoundly transformed since the arrival of the internet, conditions the transmission, reception of meaning and the constitution of reading publics and the identity of audiences. more so, the new textual environment of african writing and creatives expressions such as digital networks and literary blogs are terrains of discursive contestations that activate these digital fields of cultural production in africa as materially connected to prior literary forms. deploying several examples, including the recent ‘transition’ of saraba magazine to print and mike maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl, i argue that, despite the widespread uses of digital media forms in new african narratives, there is a lingering print imaginary in the digital articulations of african literary texts. while this tension between print and digital forms shapes textual meanings, it signals new directions in african literary studies more broadly. keywords: materiality; african literature; digital media; textuality; print cet article explore la relation entre les formes de représentation et les modes de production de l’écriture africaine en ligne, en rendant visible une appréciation des contextes numériques qui facilitent de nouvelles expérimentations en ce qui concerne le genre, le style et la formation des publics numériques. c’est pourtant la forme bibliographique et la matérialité des textes africains numériques qui m’intéressent le plus. le média de littérature africaine, profondément transformé depuis l’arrivée de l’internet, conditionne similairement la transmission, la réception de la signification ainsi que la composition de publics de lecteurs et l’identité d’audiences. en outre, le nouvel environnement textuel de l’écriture africaine et les expressions créatives, tels que les réseaux numériques et https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:jyeku@ku.edu yeku: deference to paperart. , page of les blogs littéraires, sont des terrains de contestations discursives qui stimulent ces domaines numériques de production culturelle en afrique, liés matériellement à d’anciennes formes littéraires. en me servant des exemples de la « transition » récente vers la presse écrite de la saraba magazine et le journal d’une fille zulu par nkululeko maphoto, j’argumente que, malgré les usages répandus des formes numériques de média dans de nouvelles narrations africaines, il existe une anxiété persistante imaginaire ou archiviste dans les articulations numériques de textes littéraires africains. pendant que cette tension entre les formes imprimées et numériques façonnent les sens textuels, cela indique plus généralement de nouvelles directions dans les études littéraires africaines. mots-clés: matérialité; littérature africaine; médias numériques; textualité; écriture imprimée introduction few studies on postcolonial african literary productions online have focused on the digital environments and materialities of many born-digital literary texts by african writers. for scholarly works that present critical analyses of these important domains, the emphasis is more on content than on the form and physical features of the medium of expression. ideas from bibliographic and textual criticism can be beneficial to studies of the african digital literary spaces that produce multiple textual forms, and which remain strongly linked to print culture. i use “textual criticism” not as a synonym for “literary criticism,” but in the sense of thomas tanselle ( ) who in “textual criticism and deconstruction” writes of the ambiguity that emerges when both are used interchangeably. for him, “textual criticism” has traditionally meant the scholarly activity of studying the textual histories of verbal works in an effort to propose reliable texts of those works according to one or another definition of correctness. as i will show throughout this paper, my interest is not to focus on a single digital text or the remediated form of a print text for my analysis; the point is to use several examples which signal the material implications of an enduring print consciousness permeating african digital spaces. it is thus imperative to begin a conversation on new works that exist purely through the medium of the web, texts whose ontology is shaped by digitality and that later appear as printed texts. as the internet is increasingly central for the circulation of african creative yeku: deference to paper art. , page of expressions in web . spaces like literary blogs and social media, we need to explore connections between the material form of these spaces and the variations of the texts produced. in her work on the emergence of digital literary studies, amy earhart writes that a unique approach of the digital humanities is the decentering of print scholarship which is “beginning to wield less power in shaping the area as blog posts, tweets, listserv discussions, and digital projects gain attention” ( , ). while a similar situation may be found in digital literary studies in africa, print culture lingers as a solidified aspiration of digital literary writers who mostly encounter the digital as an experimental space for their creativity. if as karin barber suggests, “literature is a social product and bears the imprint of the conditions of its production” ( , ), we can seek to understand the ways in which digital technologies shape the form, genres and texts of african literary texts circulating online. the platformization of african literature, evident in several literary blogs devoted to publishing new writers, has meant that spaces such as saraba and jalada have become central in the recent invigoration of literary sensibilities on the continent. the importance of the digital moment in african literature is asserted by established writers like chimamanda adichie ( ) who not only experiments with literary blogging in her novel, americanah but also makes digital affordances central narrative techniques. structured around social media as a meta-fictional space from which her protagonist, ifemelu expresses grim perspectives about race, the novel demonstrates a range of textualities that highlight how print and digital poetics actually converge, rather than displace each other in contemporary works from the continent. new platforms of african writing not only assure the visibility of new names, but also accommodate novel forms of authorial agency that enriches african cultural productions more generally. theoretically, the field of african digital literary studies itself is responding to this digital explosion of literary agency, with an increased engagement with the internet as the medium of new literary voices. shola adenekan’s inaugurating dissertation in the area frames this process as “the internetting of african literature” ( ) and is the basis for his forthcoming monograph on african literature in a digital yeku: deference to paperart. , page of age. the new volume addresses class and sexual politics in online writing from kenya and nigeria and provides an analysis of digital literary networks and their importance to the understanding of literary history in both countries (adenekan ). in the study, adenekan argues that the platformization of literary craft in the kenyan and nigerian literary contexts arguably started from the mid to late s when writers seeking to draw attention to their printed work started posting poems and short stories on e-mailing lists, such as krazitivity and ederi, and other similar listservs hosted by the likes of yahoo and the now defunct geocities. in more recent years, newer online spaces, such as brittlepaper and africaisacountry have appeared as platforms from which new writers produce literary and cultural discourses on africa. in the last ten years, brittlepaper, in particular, as an afrocentric space of literary circulations has consolidated its status as the most formidable literary portal into creative writing on the continent. in line with adenekan’s work, i analyzed an online fan fiction of chinua achebe’s novel things fall apart that was published by brittlepaper in , demonstrating that these digital platforms of african literature have created new roles for readers of african fiction who “recast the monologic frame and individual authority of print,” resulting in “a decentered medium, structured on the logics of interactivity and participatory culture” ( , ). the reading experience is now such that allows people to easily respond to literary texts and even engage directly with other writers themselves, even as new reading habits are formed. my goal in that article was to show that the structure and design of web . platforms and applications, such as blogs and social media, democratize and decenter authorial space, opening up more user-focused engagements and reformulations of traditional modes of cultural representations. around the same time, zahrah nesbitt-ahmed ( ) likewise argued that an explosion of new technologies has meant a completely new way of reaching and interacting with an african audience that not only changes the traditional gatekeepers of literature on the continent but enables creators and consumers of african literature to reclaim—and then reframe—their own narratives ( ). a more recent paper stresses the role of social media in amplifying yeku: deference to paper art. , page of articulations of reader agency in african literary texts. exploring the intersection of digital culture and african writing on the internet, another study uses social media commentary discussions and reader responses to china achebe’s war memoir, there was a country to track the nature and functions of the digital publics of african literature (yékú , ). i have outlined these studies to acknowledge the existing theoretical engagements with a rapidly expanding field of african literature in a digital age and to counter critical any tendencies that obfuscate the presence of african digital subjects both as producers and critics of new digital genres. indeed, stephanie santana’s brilliant exploration of serialized fiction from southern africa published on facebook and blogs show that the digital is ‘helping to foster multiple cyberplaces in which new literary forms and indigenous languages are thriving’ ( , ). in a work that is closest to the topic i examine in this article, digital literary forms are asserted as influencing from local, national, and regional zones, with diverse audiences of these online fictional forms drawing from broader african, diasporic, and global audiences. also, this theoretical excursion gestures towards the relevance of my present interest— that the close connection of print culture to the digital informs different forms of textualities which mandate an appreciation of bibliographic and textual criticism— areas that are undertheorized in african literature more generally. the making of literary texts, in terms of, for example, the archival materials and manuscripts drafts of several pioneering african writers, offers a glimpse of the changes that occur in the process of textual production and circulations. one recent iteration of this materialist approach in african literature is nathan suhr-sytsma’s essay “christopher okigbo’s materials,” a work that investigates the poetics and compositional practice of the nigerian modernist writer christopher okigbo through unpublished drafts ( ). for my own reflection, i am interested in the conceptual implications of the bibliographic variations that emerge when africa literary texts first exist online and later in print. after examining the “transition” of saraba magazine ( ) to print, i will proceed to use mike maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl ( ), to reflect on how different yeku: deference to paperart. , page of platforms of african online writing both shape reading of literature and provoke new textual forms. i am hoping to use this article to explore the relationship between the forms of representation and modes of production of online african writing, showing how print and digital platforms can complement each other in a context in which print remains an unconscious or perhaps tactical objective. as several african creative writers connect and nurture relationships with readers by effectively leveraging social media and real-time collaboration tools, we are invited to appreciate why the internet “serves as a test-bed for work that may later go into print” (adenekan and cousins , ). this possibility that works produced online may end up in print is what i set out to explore in this article, particularly in the framework of how ideas in textual and bibliographical criticism intersect with the african writing online. some of the ideas expressed here are of course not new, but i do wish to restate what i believe is a lingering print imaginary in the digital articulations of african literary expressions. this is necessary in the framework of african digital studies in which conversations around the text, in either its print or digital iteration, are limited in terms of their materiality and bibliographic form. a print imaginary refers to the ways in which print practices continue to undergird and inform digital expressions of literary agency. this persistence of print is informed by the popular notion that the digital realm is a domain of impermanence and instability. as katherine hayles writes, a print-centric perspective in the ways electronic writing and textuality are discussed (hayles , ). this is evident among african writers online. i am interested in how these oft-repeated arguments in the digital humanities manifest in the particular contexts of online writing from several african countries. a print consciousness continues to shape the digital expression of works produced via electronic platforms, despite the tendency to romanticize the digital that we see in ideas of nigerian online literary critic ikhide ikheloa. i am suggesting that the mobility from the digital to print is itself something we need to investigate since print in african writing remains pervasive despite our celebratory posture toward the digital. because of the vast amount of literary data from blogs and platforms on african content, it is reasonable to assume that currently, the digital is the chief medium yeku: deference to paper art. , page of of literature. however, considering present realities that show the simultaneous investments in both print and online writing, this may be a tad essentialization of digital media, one that is impervious to the class politics of the digital divide on the continent. according to data from the itu, a united nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies, . billion people around the world still lacked online access, with africa as the region with the lowest ( . per cent). the itu data revealed a growing internet uptake, with . billion people now online, but also a widening digital gender divide. while we need to acknowledge the important contributions of literary blogs and platforms that give prominence to previously unrecognize creative voices, we need to avoid fetishizing views on the medium as the new mainly uncontested space of creative writing. that writers use digital media as creative and experimental terrains for rendering visible their creative genius has received attention from others. new african voices online “use this space to overtly attack the ‘single story’ of african representations outside africa through the modality of “their facebook status updates and in much of the online fiction they post on social media networks” (adenekan and cousins , ). while the focus on saraba magazine enables me to reflect on this persistence of print, maphoto’s experimentation with his literary blog allows me to examine more fully the ways in which the interactions of both print and digital platforms can structure meanings differently. saraba magazine’s “deference to paper” saraba as a literary magazine published its first online issue in and has since then aimed to “create unending voices” by publishing the finest emerging writers, with focus on writers from nigeria, and other parts of africa. what i undertake in this section is to use an important digital literary space in africa to make a point about print, rather than use the magazine’s foray into print to undermine the platform. a major platform’s turn to print proves the point that the digital only serves as a testbed for their literary works that ultimately aspire to print. from the editorial page of its first printed issue, the magazine expresses their commitment to “publish at least one print issue each year,” writing that “the idea, as we have done here, is to anthologize yeku: deference to paperart. , page of new writing, squarely on the premise of promise; as though this is a document with which readers might return to understand how the featured contributors have prospered in their calling as writers” ( ). i am using this saraba example to make legible the many other literary works that circulate on blogs and social media which, though are born-digital, desire the conditions of print since the digital, as testbed for the imagination, produces writing as an aesthetic of contingency. contingency manifests as writing emerges through parameters of transience that subject online texts to constant emendations. this is particularly the case as texts evolve because of the multiplicity of those participating in its emergence. although this particular saraba example may seem to be only one instance, there are other similar gestures in africa’s literary communities on the internet. for instance, we may think about another platform, african writing online which published some of today’s most important writers in contemporary african literature long before web . became a converging point for cultural productions on the continent. the nigerian writer chuma nwokolo one of the pioneering founders of the platform told me via social media on april , that their platform “was always meant to be hybrid” in the sense that digital works could later be published in print as a strategy of making african writing online “more sustainable without depending on grants and the like” from patrons (nwokolo ). therefore, although it is a foundation platform of african online writing, the magazine has had about five print issues and literary texts from many of its writers have appeared in print. the material differences between online poems by niyi osundare or jack mapanje and their print iterations deserve more scholarly attention than what we currently have. saraba indicates that print is still very much entangled with digital environments, thus enabling a richer understanding of the production of texts in a material and bibliographical sense. as figure indicates, what they call a “deference to paper,” which i explore more below, provides a sufficient metaphor for the kind of conversations and analyses on african bibliographical criticism which we need to be having as texts move back-and-forth between print and digital platforms. we can begin unpacking the implications of this post by saraba magazine by examining how the editors imagine a reader who dives “into something of beauty” yeku: deference to paper art. , page of as a gross misunderstanding of the act of reading in a digital environment. the language the editors employ invokes the physical affordances of print as a domain the reader dives into. on the other hand, digital reading is an interaction with a screen environment that transforms perception and the acts of comprehension and interpretation. readers express the cognitive demands of print reading differently in a digital space in which non-linearity, speed reading, and browsing are reading strategies typically employed by digital natives. in the light of their desire to treat “the magazine as an aesthetic object” the editors at saraba reinforce the idea that figure : saraba magazine. “the transition issue – a note from the editors.” (see saraba magazine ). yeku: deference to paperart. , page of digital reading does not offer the kind of stability and permanence associated with reading print. the assumption here is that electronic texts are not as stable as printed works, even if the supposed fixity of print is an idea many scholars including matthew kirschenbaum ( ) have challenged. in what they acknowledge as their “deference to paper,” the editors at saraba suggest that literary meaning in digital texts may be diminished and, in fact, not organized around any aesthetic impulse. what could become evident is an untended and ironic devaluation of the literary merits of the works on platforms like saraba itself. again, this language offers the sense that in a digital environment, a reader or user cannot possess “a lingering touch” or “a felt presence” that is enabled by the reading experience of print technology. it is mere subjective speculation to propose, for instance, that a kindle edition of ayobami adebayo’s debut novel, stay with me ( ) presents a less “lingering touch” than its various print editions. whether it is print or digital, the materiality of both media offers different textual opportunities that constitute the reading experience, although materiality in a digital space is apparently of a haptic yet intangible kind. also, the idea of “a lingering touch” invokes narratives of materiality regarding the digital text. matthew kirschenbaum ( ) calls this supposition that a digital text or artefact cannot be material because you cannot reach out and touch them an instance of tactile fallacy ( ). kirschenbaum, alongside other members of the textual community, such as johanna drucker ( ) invite critics to understand the differences between print and electronic texts, arguing for a thorough understanding of their materiality. scholars that imagine the role-playing game narrative bioshock or world of warcraft as important expressions of digital literature can hardly be convinced that there is not a felt presence in these interactive narratives. beyond an uncritical suggestion that consolidates a bias for print, saraba’s turn to a printed edition is in fact “a deference to paper” that emanates from the assumption that electronic literature cannot constitute a sufficient textual aesthetic for readers. their view restates problematic ideas that digital environment is problematic for literature. rather than the assumption that the internet reduces literary texts to the surface spectacles of digital interfaces and typefaces, or to any other material structure of the electronic medium, the digital does not depend solely on language yeku: deference to paper art. , page of for the conveyance of its aesthetics and narratives. it also looks to its own materiality and navigational apparatus as part of semantic transmission, to the visual strategies of presenting data and metadata, and to the media itself. in other words, we need to pay more sufficient attention to how the materiality of the text is central to the aesthetics and the reading experience of the reader. in a email interview in which i asked rasak malik gbolahan what he thought about saraba’s print edition and his own reading practices and preferred medium, the nigerian poet rasak malik gbolahan who uses social media to circulate his works and has published his poetry on saraba elaborates on this idea of print culture as a more enduring space: there is something magical about holding a book. the magic emanates from the smell of each page, the letters gracing each page, and the book in its entirety. also, i prefer to carry books around with me. they are like passports to a new city, to a world inhabited by people intoxicated by the opium of stunning sentences. when i hold a book, i feel a certain connection to it. this extends to every genre. for instance, in reading a poetry book, i find it easier to mark a page, or underline a line. i am quite focused in reading a print book than reading online. this is not to undermine the power of digital literature, but hard copies are always tugging my heart, offering me the liberty to embrace them (gbolahan ). although it appears a mystifying logic of fetishization is being extended to print technology, gbolahan’s argument may suggest that the transitioning of literary texts from their original digital domain to print is symptomatic of a larger practice in african digital literary culture: the persistence of print in the imaginaries of cultural producers, one that is probably undergirded by an unstated capitalist impulse to circulate print copies and recoup investments. though also evident in other cultural and writing traditions elsewhere, it undercuts the sometimes unacknowledged, over- celebration of digital platforms in african literary discourses. what is at stake here is perhaps an unwillingness to appreciate the ways in which linguistic texts, images and other formal transmitters of meanings can have narrative power based on a graceful form that does not hinder the fullest expression of aesthetic content. it is yeku: deference to paperart. , page of ironic, though, that the presentation of content on the saraba website is carefully designed to render graphic as an aesthetic appeal that contributes to the semiotics of the creative works posted on the online magazine. put simply, despite the numerous sites, blogs, platforms and data on african online literature, a deference to paper by one of africa’s leading online literary platforms aptly symbolizes the persistence of print in an otherwise saturated digital environment. this is not to suggest that saraba magazine is denouncing the digital or that it does not trust the aesthetic abilities of digital technologies. while the editors may not necessarily romanticize the printed version, their transition does suggest the fixation with print that i argue is still largely to be found among some digital actors. being able to access the printed version in digital format on online publishing platforms like okadabooks can also mean that the material complexities of both the printed and the digital versions warrant an exploration of the texts produced from a perspective that recognizes the physical peculiarities of both platforms. diary of a zulu girl my second example is nkululeko maphoto’s literary blog dairy of a zulu girl which started in as a fictionalized presentation of sexual politics and crime in urban south africa. this online diary presents the opportunity to explore the re/imagination of african literary practices on web . platforms, enabling a focused attention on the many ways social media and literary blogs signify as new media spaces in which new african writers express literary talents. maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl is an important work of popular culture that stages the materiality of the text of online african writing in fascinating ways, aside from its alertness to the poetics of the medium and the dialogic possibilities of social networks. the diary of a zulu girl is a fictional blog about -year-old thandeka mkhize who leaves her small town in mooi river to study law at wits university in south africa. the diary details her experiences in the big city, where she is introduced to older men, from nigeria mostly, who buy her drinks and expensive clothes in order to exploit her sexually. the diary chronicles the story of the average cosmopolitan girl who must navigate the social pressures of living in urban south africa. maphoto’s narrative is in the form of an online diary, serialized as a blog, and therefore gets his readers to interact both with the story, and with one yeku: deference to paper art. , page of another. like many other recent expressions of african online writing that use the authorial affordances of social media to produce and sustain “networked publics” (ito ), the diary of a zulu girl brings readers and the writer in a shared media space in which the boundaries between author and reader are almost nonexistent. whether it is on maphoto’s blog or on his social media accounts, the medium structures literary meaning and conditions reader behavior and responses. in the seventh chapter of the e-book, which almost appears to reproduce the entry in the original facebook post, thandeka the protagonist is made aware of the dialogic space in which she has been constructed when she appears to step outside of her original fictive environment and negotiates some dignity for herself: by the time i went to university i had slept with two guys and yes that sounds sluttish to some but count how many people you have slept with before you judge. if you have more than in five years then i guess we in the same boat (maphoto ). in this passage, thandeka mkhize asks her readers and the potential moral judges of her sexual choices to look at themselves in the mirror before judging her erotic proclivities. maphoto presents a character that is aware of the readerly gaze of the online reader glued to the screen of a mobile phone or a desktop. thandeka is rendered conscious of a need for a dialogue with the readers of the story in which she exists and signifies an awareness of the medium in which her subjectivities have been constructed. while both the initial facebook entries and e-book version have an easy- flowing style, the obvious spelling and grammar errors reveal maphoto’s story has not been well edited, indicating the fluidity and mutability of a work whose language is in a perpetual state of flux. also, as evident in this narration by the protagonist in the seventh chapter of part , the original blog entries were riddled with grammatical glitches and stylistic incongruities that are more effectively presented in the print edition: “i was not born poor but i cant say i was born rich either. my parents are both teachers in mooi river halfway between johannesburg and durban…yes i do not stay in the rural parts of it but its still deeply cultured with rules and traditions that go deep.” yeku: deference to paperart. , page of aside from the fact that the print edition polishes the linguistic glitches of the digital versions, another major difference is the difference in material and physical properties. as stephanie bosch santana reveals, in general, the success of maphoto’s blog is due to its “exploitation of strategies associated with both the digital and print realms ” employing the anonymity of the online space to gain initial traction for the diary began, maphoto later revealed his identity, and cast himself in the more traditional role of “author” rather than “blogger” (santana , ). what is significant from the perspective of bibliographic and textual criticism is how his fictional work usefully illustrates how the book object, or the text, is usually open to emendations. seeing the edited print version of the diary as merely polishing the unofficial language of the web version sequesters the changes in both. accounting for these textual alterations is important. traditionally, emendation is designed to arrest the influx of error and corruption in textual transmission. it is the editorial intervention a text is made to have when it is disturbed by a fault. emendation eliminates errors and repairs the text where its record of authority is deemed to be interrupted and broken (hans gabler , ). the print edition of the diary of a zulu girl ( ) introduces variations and corrections since there are significant changes and substantives to both blog versions and digital editions of the original text. the textual critic of this text would, therefore, be interested in how the transmission of writing from digital formats to print texts affect the different versions and editions of these texts. a digital critical edition of maphoto’s diary of a zulu girl, for instance will attempt to examine how the book differs considerably in its material form from the blog. such materialist reading of the book as an object that has physical properties which contribute meaning is not common in african literary circles and it is one that i hope the imbrications of print and digital media can facilitate. as maphoto’s online fiction morphs into a printed book, as well as a planned television drama that is still being expected, it forces us to appreciate how a text can change its form and, hence, its meaning, and audience when its medium of expression changes. in figure , we get a sense of the text on both facebook and wordpress. yeku: deference to paper art. , page of maphoto’s blog has been described as “something of a digital literature phenomenon” (santana ). literary forms such as the diary proliferate on social media and blogging as a genre of popular culture that asks us to rethink the ways african writing is being reconfigured by web . platforms. areas impacted include author-reader interactivity as well as the digitally enabled fluidity of these identities. it invites us to appreciate anew how traditional authors use platforms, such as facebook pages and profiles as alternative spaces for the articulation of creative expressions. in a conversation with jeanette chabalala of city press, maphoto explains that “readers have not stopped lapping it up and keep begging for more of the sex, drugs, lies and betrayal that fuel the story lines... what is fascinating is that parents contacted me and requested the blog to be turned into a book because they could not read it on their phones.” (chabalala ). that parents “requested the blog to be turned into a book” may be read along with the many responses to the fictional diary as demonstrating the spontaneous nature of interactions on social media, but it also raises a question of age and class since the reading space of the net could be tenuous for older people with limited access to the internet. in another context, the request for book also recalls ikhide ikheloa’s question about books in african writing: “how is africa viewed everywhere, if not primarily through hard-copy books?” ( ). while it is productive to imagine ikheloa’s figure : screen grabs of facebook and blog versions of maphoto’s dairy of a zulu girl (see maphoto ). yeku: deference to paperart. , page of question as an exploration of the persistent focus on print culture as the major medium of the canons of african literature, it is also essential to discern the logic of materiality and the changing modes of the production of texts inherent in his question. in his response, ikheloa locates his concerns not only within a trajectory of a book history in africa that is unsettled by the intractable problems of indigenous publishing houses in africa, but also in a hasty dismissal of print culture to coherently represent the african condition. ikhide ikheloa argues on the usa-africa dialogue listserv that “the book [understood as print] is an inappropriate gauge of africa’s stories, history and circumstances. you would have to look to the great book in the sky, the internet, to have a well-rounded view of our world, not just africa” (ikheloa ). while ikheloa, in the tradition of several other techno-optimists, does indeed fetishize the net and essentialize “the great book in the sky” in his reflection on the medium of africa’s stories and narratives, his observations are largely reasonable in signaling a need to recognize the close associations between print and digital texts. the materiality of text as the work of karin barber ( ) shows, african theories of textuality often invoke oral poetics, something that is relevant in the framework of the regeneration of meanings in literary texts both in print and digital realms. the major moments of textual representations in african knowledge productions includes the oral text best demonstrated by its context of performance, the printed text that emerged in the early twentieth-century africa through the works of early publications, and finally, an electronic textuality of african literature that is gaining traction among scholars of what walter ong ( )refers to as secondary orality. an expanded perspective of the text as any site of discourse, therefore, finds precedent in african oral frameworks that identify the text as a mutable entity produced by social and technological developments that affect its aesthetic and literary production and appreciation (olorunyomi , ). in terms of digital texts, shola adenekan ( ) reckons that the movement of texts and writers across different mediums signals “an important way through which some of the emerging african voices negotiate the relationship between their works, themselves, africa and the outside world” ( ). adenekan’s yeku: deference to paper art. , page of argument is a useful commentary on the nature of textuality in contemporary african literature. that said, there are more significant bibliographical issues the textual critic might be interested in, including what this “movement of texts and writers across different mediums” means for literary interpretation. that seems to me to be pertinent for an appreciation of the material history of the african literary text today. his work highlights the emergence of online literary magazines which focused principally on the publication of short stories, essays and poems that appeal to a reading public that is equally online. blogging and social media sites also give young african writers more platforms to publish works that did not exist previously outside of the computational space. critical evaluations of such work must be mindful of the structure and materiality of their new medium. this seems to me a crucial point to emphasize as it points to what mathew kirschenbaum identifies elsewhere as first-generation objects. a “first generation electronic object,” writes kirschenbaum “is one that enjoys no material existence outside of the electronic environment of a computational file system-though this is not…to say that such objects enjoy no material existence at all” ( , ). in relation to african literature, it is important to engage more conceptually with not just works that exist purely through the medium of the web but also the forms of textualities propelled by digital technologies, particularly in terms of their ontology and materiality. texts, whether written, oral, or digitally transmitted, can help us understand the political contexts of their producers as well as the publics that emerge from and cohere around them. however, beyond questions of class and the political touchstones of texts online, the various formal changes that accrue from a digital-to-print move need to be foregrounded too. significant emendations involving a wide range of accidentals and substantives are therefore usually present in the transformation from electronic formats to print texts. adenekan explains that this process of textuality “involves reshaping the text for different formats, and in the process the creative piece is unfixed” ( , ). this idea of an unfixed, sliding, and impermanent textuality that is obvious in the saraba example is reiterated in the view that these digital texts may later appear in print. yeku: deference to paperart. , page of the traditional obsession with “canonical texts has blocked our view of the real historical processes at work in the emergence and spread of literary forms” (karin barber , ). there is a sense here in which barber’s assertion calls for a study of genre and textuality that is wide and varied in its orientation. this view can inform an appreciation of the ways a book’s production history, and its various editions also help to understand the sociocultural contexts of writers and their works, the form and physical shape of the text itself is the focus of my analysis. karin barber’s argument connects well to d.f mckenzie’s description of text. in the framework of textual bibliographical criticism, d.f mckenzie ( ) broadly conceptualizes the term in the famous pannizi lectures. mckenzie ( ) defines ‘texts’ to include verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information ( ) mckenzie’s perspective on textuality may be read alongside other theories of textualities in the core digital humanities tradition, including perennial names, such as katherine hayles ( ) and jerome mcgann ( ). for some of these early dh, scholars, a textual object, whether in a print or an electronic context, needs to be alert to not only materiality, design, and physical features but also the social contexts that inform the texts. in other words, our engagement with the physical hardware of the text is essential to understanding its semiotic transmissions and diverse economies of meanings. items, such as page size, fonts, binding and other “bibliographic codes” are as important as the linguistic codes and social context of the work. these ideas were originally put forward by jerome mcgann ( ), who in his discussion of the production of the scholarly edition of the rossetti archive, asserts: the apparitions of text—its paratexts, bibliographical codes, and all visual features—are as important in the text’s signifying programs as the linguistic elements; second, that the social intercourse of texts—the context of their relations—must be conceived an essential part of the ‘text itself’ if one means to gain an adequate critical grasp of the textual situation.” (mcgann , ) yeku: deference to paper art. , page of this view of textuality suggests that the text has a constructed character, and together with “documents are fields open to decisive and rule-governed manipulations” (mcgann ). a description of the textual situation of chinua achebe’s canonical text things fall apart, for instance, would include numerous editions that present a wide array of bibliographical codes and visual features that form part of the algorithms and rules which control the text as a literary work that transmits meaning. the first edition of achebe’s novel was published in by heinemann publications in london. because of its significance as a strategic postcolonial response to the history of colonial discourse in africa, many other editions of things fall apart have been published and circulated since then. in , anchor canada published a -page paperback edition of the novel, adding to several other paperback editions by penguin, oxford, and norton, although these various editions obviously differ significantly from the first edition by heinemann in terms of material and physical features, there is not much critical work by achebe scholars that foreground how these bibliographical variations—in terms of design, page number and paper textures—can be one of the determinants of the text’s semiotic impulses. the production of meanings in the text can no longer remain only at the level of close reading of linguistic content; it needs to be extended to the various physical elements that constitute the text. a scholarly critical edition of, say a kindle edition of things fall apart, would be interested in how it differs from earlier printed texts from the perspective of its electronic features, interface, and other aspects of its physical design. to be interested in a physical description of this kindle edition is to take seriously how the presence of substantive elements, such as coding structure and paratextual features make this digital edition different from earlier editions. the code of this kindle edition has a material existence whose structure is central to the ways online writing articulate meaning. these questions of form and physical elements are significant considerations in terms of the materiality and form of the text of african writing in the age of the internet. in my article on kiru taye’s thighs fell apart,’ an online fan fiction of things fall apart, i demonstrate that an established african text is reconfigured by a work of digital yeku: deference to paperart. , page of literature that “articulates a paradigm of erotic fantasy not too familiar in canonical african literature’ ( ). the gendered politics of achebe’s original text is revisited by an online subject whose reading reproduces and extends the text’s narrative boundaries. for instance, “the spectacle of okonkwo’s wrestling with amalinze the cat in things fall apart “is recast in ‘thighs fell apart’ as sexual contest in which bodies clash in an ideological force field, with phallocentric might triumphing over female desire,” forcing a rereading of one of africa’s famous fictional heroes. what is of more interest to me here is that by using blogging to produce a new text that remediates okonkwo’s identity, kiru taye also use digital technology to materially reshape the original text. a critical edition of achebe’s novel may be linked with taye’ short story to complicate and trouble textual meanings in the original work. another helpful example of the material transformations of textuality in the making of african literature is probably evident in the digital copies of literary pamphlets in the tradition of the famous onitsha market literature. these pamphlets, produced by local publishers in a popular nigerian trading center of the s, are composed of moral narratives, social discourses, plays, advice, and other popular stories, and have been recently digitized in different library holdings in the us. emmanuel obiechina traces the development of the onitsha literature to the concentration of large numbers of locally-owned and operated printing presses in the town, writing that “the influx in the s of indian and victorian drugstore pulp magazine fiction that also shaped the format of pamphlet literature ( , ). several digitized versions of the onitsha market pamphlets that appear in the digital collection of university of kansas libraries are held at the spencer research library at the university of kansas. the onitsha market pamphlets are a legacy of colonialism in nigeria, representing, as charlotte nunes’s article imagines, “the culturally textured crossroads of british colonial influence and the print record of a traditionally oral regional narrative tradition” ( , ). the digital archives at the spencer library hold digital copies of the pamphlets (see figure ) which are important in the context of this essay because they demonstrate how the production of a new text, or even a remediated one propel new material conditions that can enable a better appreciation of cultural meanings. yeku: deference to paper art. , page of katherine hayles’s notes that “the navigational apparatus of a work changes the work,” and constitutes a “part of the work’s signifying structure” ( , ). this suggests that an appreciation of these digital manuscripts and their meanings is also now dependent on the functional designs and algorithmic structures that shape them. digital environments, as hayles intimates, do not merely provide us with ways of encountering the texts, they are central to our critical reading of the texts themselves. this idea that meaning is altered when the medium is translated may not be new in the study of textuality in an african context; yet, considered from the framework of digitality, there is an enrichment of the discourse of african literary studies itself. the materiality of the new digitized pamphlet offers the most obvious example of difference since the reading experience is now dependent on other textual codes and physical properties not evident in the original printed versions. also, since the original print copies of the pamphlets are different in terms of meaning and interpretations from the digital copies, our reading experience of the text becomes varied. in how we think: digital media and contemporary technogenesis, katherine hayles describes reading types in terms of a close reading that “correlates with deep attention” and a hyper reading that “includes skimming, scanning, fragmenting, and juxtaposing texts, and is “a strategic response to an information-intensive environment” we find ourselves in ( , ). hyper reading produces a cognitive figure : digitized copies of the onitsha market literary pamphlets from the university of kansas library’s special collections (see onitsha market literary pamphlets ). yeku: deference to paperart. , page of mode that eschews boredom in its preference for different information streams a high level of stimulation. the onitsha market pamphlets as print texts have animated research on african popular culture and print culture, but not much work exist on their iterations as digital text. from figure , i am currently creating an archive based on digital critical editions of several of the pamphlets, using jekyll and ed to repurpose digitized copies of the pamphlets from the university of kansas special collections, jekyll is a preservation-friendly website generator that requires no database since it is static, with all stored information displayed on a webpage contained in an html file for the webpage. ed as a jekyll theme is based on minimal computing principles and was designed for textual editions. my goal with this project is a scholarly digital edition that makes available a large corpus of text which yields more insights on nigerian market literature, while offering ideas on what the digital transmission of texts may look like in the context of african literatures. the textual situations of the new literary pamphlets produced will have to incorporate the entire digital contexts and materiality of the new works. figure : a jekyll-based project on market literature from nigeria (see onitsha market literature . ). yeku: deference to paper art. , page of conclusion the need to examine how the impact of the physical properties of the text on the transmission of meaning has been the central idea of this work. to recast the title of amy earhart’s book, the old is not just a mere trace in the new digital contexts of african online writing, it appears to be a desired condition. despite a massive growth of digital publications in africa, print culture not only remains solid as a major goal for writers who deploy digital technologies to circulate their works but also impels us to see how the reverse movement from digital to print create multiple texts with different physical features. the medium of the text of african literature in the present moment has to be understood beyond the print technology that continues to permeate digital discourses. when shola adenekan and helen cousins argue in their discussion of class and online african writing that “cybertexts are not permanent,” and that “like orature, the meaning of cybertexts is unfixed and subject to multiple interpretations ( , ), they restate an assumption about the materiality of both print and electronic texts that needs to be highlighted: indeed, they praise impermanence, but this is only to the extent that it is the condition that makes the transition to print possible. whether the medium is oral, print, or electronic, texts transform and are transformed by alterations in their technological conditions. how the materiality of african texts harbor part of their meaning signals an alertness to the importance of the medium. the new digital spaces of african literature alter several aspects of literary conversations and interactions in africa, even as they recall several poetics from oral tradition. there are several ideas one can uncover when reflecting on the critical implications of the digital reconfiguration of literary expressions in contemporary africa. it is apparent that writers based on and outside of the continent are using digital media to alter the form of their writing and that the platforms of creative expressions can inform the relationship between form and content, while transforming the relationship between writers and their publics. on different web . environments, writers connect with other writers, and with new audiences who in turn share and transmit their works in their own digital networks. indeed, the platforms themselves as well as the workings of algorithmic protocols and databases play an active part in yeku: deference to paperart. , page of the networked ecologies of social media. there is a democratization, a decentering, of authorial space, as african literature and its audiences are reconstituted in a dialogic space that assures a polyphonic assemblage of new authorial perspectives and reading publics in rhizomatic networks of literary relations and socialities. the interactive and connective logics of social media implicate these social arenas of literary networks and affinities as cultural terrains that consolidate interactive performances of writerly agency. editorial contributions dscn go::dh issue special editors: barbara bordalejo (university of saskatchewan, canada), and juan steyn (north-west university, south africa). section editor/copy editor: darcy tamayose, the journal incubator, university of lethbridge, canada. bibliography manager: shahina parvin, the journal incubator, university of lethbridge, canada. competing interests the author has no competing interests to declare. references achebe, chinua. . things fall apart. new york: anchor books. adebayo, ayobami. . stay with me. edinburgh: canongate. adenekan, shola. . african literature in the digital age: class and sexual politics in new writing from nigeria and kenya. phd dissertation, university of 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writing in a digital age.” journal of african cultural studies, ( ): – . doi: https:// doi.org/ . / . . ———. . “chinua achebe’s there was a country and the digital publics of african literature.” digital scholarship in the humanities. doi: https://doi.org/ . / llc/fqz how to cite this article: yékú, james. . “deference to paper: textuality, materiality, and literary digital humanities in africa.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: july accepted: august published: december copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://www.facebook.com/sarabamag/ https://doi.org/ . /camqtly/bfaa https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqz https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqz https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. introduction saraba magazine’s “deference to paper” diary of a zulu girl the materiality of text conclusion editorial contributions competing interests references figure figure figure figure perseids: experimenting with infrastructure for creating and sharing research data in the digital humanities codatacodata ii ss uu almas, b perseids: experimenting with infrastructure for creating and sharing research data in the digital humanities. data science journal, : , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dsj- - practice paper perseids: experimenting with infrastructure for creating and sharing research data in the digital humanities bridget almas perseids project, tufts university, the green, medford, ma , us balmas@gmail.com the perseids project provides a platform for creating, publishing, and sharing research data, in the form of textual transcriptions, annotations and analyses. an offshoot and collaborator of the perseus digital library (pdl), perseids is also an experiment in reusing and extending existing infrastructure, tools, and services. this paper discusses infrastructure in the domain of digital humanities (dh). it outlines some general approaches to facilitating data sharing in this domain, and the specific choices we made in developing perseids to serve that goal. it concludes by identifying lessons we have learned about sustainability in the process of building perseids, noting some critical gaps in infrastructure for the digital humanities, and suggesting some implications for the wider community. keywords: infrastructure; digital humanities; data sharing; interoperability; research data overview the perseids project provides a platform for creating, publishing, and sharing research data, in the form of textual transcriptions, annotations and analyses. an offshoot and collaborator of the perseus digital library (pdl), perseids is also an experiment in reusing and extending existing infrastructure, tools, and services. this paper discusses infrastructure in the domain of digital humanities (dh). it outlines some general approaches to facilitating data sharing in this domain, and the specific choices we made in developing perseids to serve that goal. it concludes by identifying lessons we have learned about sustainability in the process of building perseids, noting some critical gaps in infrastructure for the digital humanities, and suggesting some implications for the wider community. general approaches what constitutes infrastructure, and how does it facilitate data sharing in the domain of dh, and in the perseids project in particular? according to mark parsons, secretary general of the research data alliance (rda), infrastructure can be defined as ‘the relationships, interactions and connections between people, technologies, and institutions that help data flow and be useful (parsons ).’ in the realm of dh, any of the following might be considered infrastructure: original digital collections, linked data providers, general purpose and domain-specific platforms, content management systems (cmss), virtual research environments (vres), online tools and services, repositories and service providers, aggregators and portals, apis and standards. table provides some specific examples of these in the dh and digital classics (dc) communities, illustrating the diversity and breadth of infrastructure in this community. enabling data sharing includes ensuring that data objects have persistent, resolvable identifiers, providing descriptive and structural metadata, providing licensing and access information, and using standard data formats and ontologies. the recent w c recommendation ‘data on the web best practices’ (loscio, et. al. ) cites many strategies such as providing version history, provenance information, and data quality information. https://doi.org/ . /dsj- - mailto:balmas@gmail.com almas: perseidsart. , page of infrastructure type examples in dh and dc original digital collections pdl, papyri.info, nines, digital latin library, coptic scriptorium, roman de la rose linked data providers and gazetteers pleiades, periodo, syriaca.org, viaf, getty, trismegistos, dbpedia general purpose platforms, cms, vres, tools and services omeka, mediawiki, heurist, textgrid, voyant, mirador, collatex, juxta, neatline domain-specific platforms, cms, vres, tools and services perseids, recogito, symogih, pece repositories and service providers clarin, dariah, eudat, mla commons/core, humanum, hathi trust research center, california digital library aggregators and portals europeana, digital public library of america, huni, ehri apis and standards iiif, oa, tei, oauth, shibboleth/saml, cts table : examples of infrastructure in digital humanities and digital classics. above and beyond this, ensuring that adequate editorial and/or peer review has taken place before data is shared is often an important criteria for data sharing in the humanities. background perseids evolved to fill a critical need of the digital classics community of scholars and students (bodard and romanello ): infrastructure that supports textual transcription, annotation, and analysis at a large scale, with review, in both scholarly and pedagogical contexts. such infrastructure would give us the ability to work with text-centric publications containing a variety of different data types, and would include: • stable, persistent identifiers for all publications; • a versioned, collaborative editing environment; • the ability to extend the environment with data type-specific behaviors and tools; • customized review workflows. perseids is, in part, a successor to a prior ambitious, but ultimately unsuccessful, infrastructure effort in the humanities, project bamboo (dombrowski ). one of the aims of project bamboo was to develop a service oriented architecture (soa) that could serve a wide variety of use cases and requirements for textual analysis and humanities research. this accorded with the goal of the pdl: to begin to decouple the many services making up the perseus application, so that they could be recombined and reused to build new applications (almas ). the pdl’s contribution to bamboo included development (and implementation) of service apis for morphological analysis and syntactic annotation. these services, intended to be shared on the bamboo services platform, reused code from two main sources: the pdl’s web application and the alpheios project’s reading environment, and were designed to be easily extended to serve additional languages and use cases. they provided essential functionality for textual analysis and annotation. at the same time, we also began separately investigating development of a scalable solution for engaging undergraduate students in the production of original transcriptions and translations of medieval latin manuscripts and greek epigraphy. this work was inspired by, and involved reuse of architecture and tools from, two major projects in digital classics, the homer multitext and papyri.info (almas and beaulieu ). one thing that prevented bamboo from succeeding was the assumption that scholars would be willing to give up their domain-specific tools and services for a more general infrastructure to which everyone would contribute (dombrowski ). humanities use cases at the time appeared too diverse for that, and t echnologies were moving very fast. it is unclear whether or not bamboo could have succeeded but the project ended before we could develop a critical component needed for our own use cases, a platform for management of the data and scholarly workflow which would allow for full peer and professorial review. perseids took up in part where bamboo left off, but with a more modest goal of providing infrastructure for our own specific set of use cases. we reused the services we built for bamboo in perseids, and also reused http://www.syriaca.org/ almas: perseids art. , page of an existing piece of infrastructure from another project, the son of suda online (sosol), to fill the role of managing the data and review workflows. drawing on the experiences of bamboo, we decided that perseids would support a looser coupling of existing tools and services. one goal of infrastructure is to connect what already works, adding value and capacity without reinventing solutions. our development approach for perseids was thus based on three principles: . data interoperability; . flexibility and agility; . tool interoperability. we wanted not only to support our scholarly workflows, but also to be sure that the outputs would be fully sharable and preservable. perseids currently serves an active user base, averaging between one and two thousand sessions by at least five hundred unique users per month during the academic year, the majority of which come from six active dh communities: tufts, the university of nebraska at lincoln, the college of letters and science of the sao paulo state university, the university of leipzig, the university of lyon, and the university of zagreb. several external projects also connect to perseids’s tools and review workflow via its api. functionality use cases perseids offers functionality for creation, curation and review of texts, translations and annotations. it enables its users to: . create and edit a new text transcription. . edit an existing text transcription. . create and edit a new text translation. . edit an existing text translation. . create and edit a new commentary annotation. . create and edit a new treebank annotation. . create and edit a new text alignment annotation. . ingest and edit simple annotation data from external sources. . create and edit simple annotations on texts. the process of creating a publication on perseids involves workflows fulfilling one or more of these use cases (figure ). workflows a workflow, in this context, is a series of actions carried out by a user to achieve some goal. in a typical workflow on perseids the user creates a publication containing one or more of the supported data types. she uses an editing tool appropriate to the data type to edit and curate her work and then submits it to a review board for acceptance. for example, she may choose to create and edit a treebank annotation using the arethusa editing tool (figure ). if the work is being done in the context of a pedagogical assignment, the review board is likely to be made up of the professor and teaching assistants for the class. if the work is being done in the context of a specific project or community, the review board will be composed of peers or expert members of an editorial team (figures and ). the ability to support peer-review functionality is a distinguishing feature of the perseids infrastructure, and an important driving factor behind the architectural decision to built it upon the sosol platform. as we discuss further below, a common driver for external projects to integrate with perseids is to take advantage of the flexible review workflow features it offers. annotation of morphology, syntax and sentence structure. n-to-n word-level alignment across two texts. almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : the perseids home screen, showing a variety of data types and actions. figure : annotating a treebank in arethusa. figure : perseids user interface – voting on a publication. almas: perseids art. , page of figure : perseids review workflow. architecture the perseids architecture (figures – ) supports these workflows through a complex sequence of interactions between its core components, hosted tools and services, rd party applications and platforms and external identity providers and content repositories. sosol is the core of the perseids platform. it is a ruby on rails application, built on top of a git repository, that provides an open-access, version-controlled, multi-author web-based editing environment that supports working with collections of related data objects as publications. sosol was developed for the papyri.info site by the integrating digital papyrology project, a multi-institution project aimed at supporting interoperability between five different digital papyrological resources (baumann ) and is now maintained jointly by the duke collaboratory for classics computing and the perseids project. a git repository provides versioning support for all documents, annotations and other related objects managed on the platform. sosol also provides additional functionality on top of git’s, including document validation, templates for documentation creation, review boards, and communities. it uses a relational database (mysql) to store information about document status and to track the activity of users, boards, and communities. sosol uses the openid and shibboleth/saml protocols to delegate responsibility for user authentication to social or institutional identity providers. social identity providers (idp) are supported through a third-party gateway, currently janrain engage. the perseids deployment of sosol incorporates the canonical text services (cts) protocol. the cts specification defines an api protocol and a urn syntax for identifying and retrieving text passages via machine-actionable, canonical identifiers (smith and blackwell ). to support cts, as well as provide features such as tokenization of texts, the perseids deployment of sosol delegates some functionality to external databases and services. the sosol application itself provides lightweight user interfaces for creating and editing documents and annotations, but in order to support an open-ended set of different editing and annotation activities, we rely on integrations with external web-based tools for editing and annotating. these integrations are enabled by api interactions between the tools and the sosol application. the perseids client applications component acts as a broker between the end-user, the sosol platform, external repositories and services, and the web-based editing and annotation tools. built on the python flask framework, this component implements a client-side workflow for the creation of new annotations of text passages identified by cts urn. it uses the cts abstraction libraries from capitains infrastructure for cts urn resolution and processing, as does the nemo browsing interface, which offers a discovery interface for identifying texts to annotate and an anchoring point for front-end annotation tools and visualizations. the perseids client applications were co-developed by perseids and the humboldt chair for digital humanities at the university of leipzig. almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : perseids core components. figure : perseids infrastructure and ecosystem. a recent addition to the platform is a flask based github proxy service which enables us to send data directly to external github repositories after it has been through the review workflow. (see the ‘tool interoperability’ section below for further details on these scenarios.) the role that each component of the architecture and ecosystem plays in supporting the workflow is described in the ‘tools interoperability’ section below. development of this component was supported by an neh-funded collaboration with the syriaca.org project. http://www.syriaca.org/ almas: perseids art. , page of information model data publications produced on perseids are collections of related data objects of different types. the sosol information model was designed for this type of publication. the “publication” is the container for a collection of data objects belonging to a parent abstract class of “identifier.” different type object types are implemented as derivations of the “identifier” class, which add type-specific behaviors and properties, such as schema validation rules. figure shows how this design applies in perseids. however, perseids publications can also be thought of as research objects (bechhofer, et. al. ), where the object of the research is a passage or passages of canonically-identifiable text. figure shows our original vision for a cts-focused publication on perseids (figure ). tool interoperability decoupling data creation tools from the sources and destinations of the data was a key part of our design approach. apis and standards are critical components of infrastructure, and integration and sharing require that data be retrievable from and persistable to any source (hilton ). perseids offers an api for create, read, update, and delete update operations for all data types supported by the platform. api clients can authenticate using the oauth . protocol (hardt ) or co-hosted tools have the option of using a shared session cookie. these approaches enable integration with specific tools and services, such as the arethusa annotation framework and the alpheios alignment editor, as well as external projects such as sematia (vierros and henriksson ) and the syriaca.org gazetteer (figure ). perseids also uses external apis to pull data from other infrastructures. we use the canonical text services urn protocol and api (smith and blackwell ) to identify and retrieve textual transcription, translation, and annotation targets (figures and ). the vision in figure has largely been implemented, with the exception of cite collections server component. we now expect this function to be filled by an implementation of a multidisciplinary collections api we are working on as part of the research data alliance’s research data collections working group. figure : perseids hosted tools and services. http://www.syriaca.org almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : perseids information model. figure : perseids publication as a cts focused research object. almas: perseids art. , page of figure : creating and submitting a publication from an external application using oauth . figure : sequence of api interactions for creating and editing a cts-focused annotation template using the perseid client apps and a locally hosted editing tool. we also offer a lightweight url-based api which lets individual scholars and smaller projects, particularly those without the time or skills to develop client software, pull their own data in or integrate perseids with their application. professors such as robert gorman at university of nebraska lincoln (gorman and gorman, forthcoming) are using this feature to produce templates for new annotations that they publish on their university learning management systems (lms). they then include links to perseids in their syllabi that instruct perseids to pull the templates from the lms to create a new annotation publication (figure ). almas: perseidsart. , page of figure : using the perseids client apps to create a new translation alignment annotation in perseids for editing via the alpheios alignment editor. texts available for use are populated via a call to the cts api. figure : sequence of actions for creating a publication from an lms-hosted syllabus and annotation template. other applications such as digital athenaeus use perseids’s url api to offer links to perseids with specific content already identified for transcribing, translating, or annotating (figures and ). we also implemented a workflow for marie-claire beaulieu’s journey of the hero course which allows students to use the hypothes.is annotation tool to annotate named entities and social networks of mythological characters from smith’s dictionary of greek names. this workflow uses the hypothes.is api to pull the annotations into perseids for review and publication (figure ). https://hypothes.is/ https://hypothes.is/ almas: perseids art. , page of figure : screenshot of the digital athenaeus interface (at http://www.digitalathenaeus.org) showing the links to annotate in perseids. figure : perseids hypothes.is workflow. figure : sequence of actions for creating a cts targeted text annotation publication from a link from digital athenaeus. http://www.digitalathenaeus.org/ https://hypothes.is/ almas: perseidsart. , page of the perseids/eagle integration uses a combination of both of these pull strategies: links from eagle to perseids identify a resource on the eagle site, and trigger a callback to the eagle mediawiki api to pull metadata and data from that resource into new translation publications on perseids (figures and ). we also use external apis to push data to external repositories. for the eagle project integration, perseids uses the mediawiki api to publish data to the eagle repository once it has passed through a review workflow. through a new neh-funded collaboration with the syriaca.org project, we have developed a service which allows us to push data to external github repositories at the end of the review workflow (see figure , step b). eventually we’d like to be able to support pushing data to any external api endpoint. figure : perseids/eagle workflow. figure : screenshot of the eagle portal (http://www.eagle-network.eu/wiki) showing a link to edit a translation in perseids. http://www.syriaca.org/ http://www.eagle-network.eu/wiki file:// . . . /typesetting/silicon% chips/up_journals/ _dsj/application% cs . / /dsj- _almas\ file:// . . . /typesetting/silicon% chips/up_journals/ _dsj/application% cs . / /dsj- _almas\ almas: perseids art. , page of designing for flexibility and agility from the outset, we have taken an agile approach to development of perseids. while we do not use official sprints and strictly scheduled iterations, we approach planning in short increments, guided by a long-term vision and goals. in addition, we aim to deploy features to users as quickly as possible, so that we can get feedback from them. we do this not only for internal-facing features, but also to prototype new integrations with external services and projects. this flexibility allows us to try many things, keeping those that work and prove to be useful and deprecating those that do not. to support this approach, we could not commit to a specific set of hardware requirements in advance, as we needed the flexibility to extend and reduce resources used as development proceeded. we therefore chose to budget for cloud-based resources on the amazon web services (aws) platform rather than using university it resources. full ownership and control over our infrastructure allowed us to experiment with features and integrations that otherwise would not have been possible; however, it did have some drawbacks and unexpected costs. these are described in the ‘sustainability’ section below. standards for data data interoperability a strategic principle in our development is to take steps to ensure data interoperability through the use of stable identifiers and standard formats. we use cts urns to identify both texts and annotation targets. these urns can be considered stable identifiers, but do not quite qualify as persistent identifiers as they are not universally resolvable or guaranteed to be available. other identifier systems, such as handles (sun et. al. ), are designed for persistence, and one approach we might take in the future to address this would be to map cts urns to the handles (almas and schroeder, ), but in the absence of this piece of infrastructure, the cts urns do provide stable, machine actionable identifiers that are technology independent. we also use other types of stable identifiers within our annotations and texts, including the uris published by the pleiades gazetteer. we are working towards ensuring that any data published by the platform has a persistent identifier as well. we are therefore participating in the research data alliance’s research data collections working group to develop a multidisciplinary, collections-based approach to data management that supports persistent identifiers for the collections themselves, and for the items within a collection. we also strive to use standard data formats and ontologies for our data and to validate all objects against these. the primary data format standards supported on the platform include the tei epidoc schema for textual transcriptions and translations, the open annotation protocol for annotations, the aldt/algt schemas for treebank data, the alpheios alignment scheme for translation alignments, and the snap ontology for social network annotations. provenance and preservation incorporating provenance information in our publications is an important enabling factor for data sharing. we have taken steps in this direction, for example by supporting shibboleth/saml protocol for authentication on perseids in order to to be able to ensure a chain of authority for university repository systems. we have also included provenance information for tokenization services and tools in our annotation documents, and have explored models for more comprehensive approaches (almas, berti, et. al. ). however, capturing and recording provenance information reliably across a diverse ecosystem of tools and services is difficult, and we need general-purpose solutions that we can reuse. as articulated by padilla ( ): “a researcher should be able to understand why certain data were included and excluded, why certain transformations were made, who made those transformations, and at the same time a researcher should have access to the code and tools that were used to effect those transformations. where gaps in the data are native to the vagaries of data production and capture, as is the case with web archives, these nuances must be effectively communicated.” we recognize that we fall short of meeting these goals currently and aim to do a more complete job of this in the future. it is also very important to us that the research data produced with perseids be preserved. however, our data models and approach to publications are constantly evolving, making coordination with the university library to preserve this data challenging, as they don’t necessarily fit the data models the library is already able to support. as a publicly available and open infrastructure, we also have many users from many institutions across the world, and it is not clear what responsibility tufts, the university hosting the infra- structure, should have for data created by external users. we mitigate this with perseids by providing links almas: perseidsart. , page of that users can use to access and download their data, and encouraging them to take responsibility for publishing and preserving it on their own. we continue to explore general models such as the research object (belhajjame, et. al. ), or bagit, which will enable users to export data in a format that is ready to store in a repository. another question is that of software preservation (rios ). as the perseids software is under active development, it is difficult to keep the code for digital publications up to date with all the underlying services providing the data (rios and almas ). we need to plan better for this preservation, including taking into account the need to represent interdependencies between visualizations and the underlying services and software (lagos and vion dury ). sustainability human and governance factors we have learned much about infrastructure building throughout the course of this project. the technical hurdles to interoperability and sharing are usually much less difficult to overcome than those of social issues, funding, and governance. even where there was a clear interest in interoperability and it was technically possible, we failed sometimes to implement or sustain an integration because doing so wasn’t in the funded mandate of the partner project. this was the case for us with the recogito application from the pelagios project. but even where explicit funding support doesn’t exist, interoperability can still succeed if one project can fill a key gap in another, and if there are people willing to champion the effort to ensure its success. one example was our integration with the eagle project, where perseids provides a review workflow for eagle, and which was implemented without being a funded deliverable for either project, but it remains to be seen if we can sustain it indefinitely. this is an area where more formal governance structures, such as those offered by larger research infrastructures such as clarin and dariah (lossau ) could be useful. the key challenge for the community is to encourage and support ad-hoc collaborations to get initial solutions working, and then move from there to more formal agreements to ensure sustainability. hardware and software factors laura mandell talks about the various models being considered for where and how to position dh, and points out that the question of how to support diverse infrastructure needs is still unsolved (dinsman ). a second lesson we have learned from our experience on perseids is that for development of interoperable infrastructure to succeed and be sustainable, we need better collaborative models for working with our university information technology departments and libraries. we knew we needed the flexibility to change our hardware requirements as we developed, and to deploy new code and services quickly to support rapid prototyping. this allows us to develop and try out new solutions more rapidly than we would have been able to if we had to go through university policies and procedures, but it also involved a lot of extra system administration work we had not anticipated, leaving us with a somewhat over-complicated infrastructure at the end of the first phase of the project. accordingly, in the second phase we built in funding for a devops consultant, who helped us move to a fully configuration-managed system, so that the perseids platform can be deployed easily by others and sustained for the long term. this is a critical characteristic for software-related infrastructure - in order for it to be reproducible by others, building and deploying it must be automated. in hindsight, having such consultancy from the outset would have been beneficial; collaboration between developers and the it staff responsible for deploying and sustaining software is a more viable model than throwing code ‘over the wall’ at the end of a project (arundel ). as cloud computing becomes increasingly cost-efficient, and new models of deployment, such as container- based solutions, are introduced, there is a need for models in which university it departments can partner with projects to provide expertise and facilities (for example, private cloud or container infrastructure, or extending university infrastructure to the public cloud). conclusion with perseids, we have explored an agile approach to infrastructure development, emphasizing reuse of both software and data. this has been successful on many levels. reuse of existing infrastructure compo- nents leads to collaborations which increase the chances of sustainability, such as the joint maintenance of the sosol application. agile approaches to prototyping cross-project integration also benefit all parties involved. however, transitioning to more formal governance models and increased engagement with host institutions will be essential to longer term success. almas: perseids art. , page of acknowledgements the author wishes to thank her colleagues, john arundel, frederik baumgardt, marie-claire beaulieu and thibault clérice for contributing their energy and ideas in reviewing this paper. competing interests the author has no competing interests to declare. author information bridget almas is the software architect and co-director of the perseids project at tufts university. bridget has worked in software development since , in roles which have covered the full spectrum of the software development life cycle, focusing since in the fields of digital humanities and pedagogy. bridget served as an elected member of the technical advisory board of the research data alliance (rda), from – , and 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( ). las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades digitales «silenciadas» en el cine de animación. index.comunicación, ( ), - . | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional abstract. one of the main ways of controlling power is to prohibit access to speech. indoctrination through silence places women in a lower stratum in the digital narrative of animation film and, therefore, in society. this article reflects —from a qualitative perspective— on various aspects of disney princesses' children's cinematography: the images of their characters, their representations, their speeches and their silences are analyzed with the intention of denaturing this type of fictions, since education, participation, transgression, perverse reading and the alternative view are the basis for recovering the freedom to crea- te stories and identities. we start from making visible the mechanisms of audio- visual creation and the ways of suggesting to the public that they are essential elements to avoid manipulation and we conclude with the need to provide lite- racy in the media from schools so that the digital humanities can be built with such solid pillars as equality, critical thinking and humanist values, with which to give coherence to our existence. keywords: digital storytelling; animation film; media literacy; digital humanism; culture of silence. . introducción: de la comunicación a la participación afectiva la comunicación es una de las características más distintivas y definitorias del ser humano. a través de este proceso se establece una relación entre dos o más personas que interactúan para compartir información en un proceso de transfor- mación continua (aparici, ). el devenir comunicativo es más eficaz cuan- do el medio utilizado para transmitir la información está apoyado en un relato, ya que el cerebro humano está concebido para contar y escuchar historias. en cualquier parte del mundo, desde hace miles de años, el ser humano siempre ha utilizado la narración de historias para compartir el conocimiento, los valores y las creencias. hoy en día, las historias siguen siendo las herramientas más poderosas para la comunicación, puesto que provocan un estado de atracción y entretenimiento con una fuerza capaz de conectar a las personas entre sí y con el medio que las rodea. existe una conexión permanente entre las prácticas discursivas de nuestro entorno comunicativo y la sociedad. en el caso concreto de la infancia, el estu- dio de las imágenes y los mensajes que proliferan desde las más diversas repre- sentaciones son el punto de partida para construir valores y normas, así como desarrollar las capacidades reflexivas necesarias con las que se consolidarán las humanidades digitales en la sociedad del siglo xxi. el estudio de la narra- tiva digital es esencial para saber valorar y juzgar qué transmiten este tipo de discursos mediáticos. por tanto, conocer los mecanismos de creación audiovi- sual y las formas de sugestionar al público son buenos comienzos para evitar la manipulación informativa y, al menos, suponen el principio para su detección. index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | el semiólogo y teórico cinematográfico christian metz ( ) estable- ció una nueva vía para separar las metodologías utilizadas en los análisis del lenguaje del cine, diferenciando lo «fílmico (técnica, industria, directores, censura, público, actores, etc.) de lo cinematográfico (estudio interno de la mecánica de las películas, aisladas de todo contexto, cómo se construyen y transmiten sentidos, y cómo una película, o un grupo de ellas, tiene significa- ciones especiales)» (intef, ). en este artículo analizamos la cinematografía de las princesas disney desde una doble perspectiva, que tiene en cuenta: el aspecto mercantilista de la multinacional disney, así como los símbolos de sus mensajes, que son el fundamento de una ideología androcéntrica, representada en códigos con una potente carga de significados. partiendo de la apertura evitamos rechazar o magnificar los posibles prejuicios con los que contaminar este estudio, plan- teado desde una perspectiva cualitativa, para proponer pautas de análisis del lenguaje audiovisual que eduquen en la lectura e interpretación de las actuales narrativas y con los que obtener herramientas para desnaturalizar estas lectu- ras que nos permitan dejar de considerarlas inocentes. de lo contrario, se nos condenará a una domesticación audiovisual que bloqueará el desarrollo de la dimensión humana. en un primer instante, encontramos que las industrias del entretenimiento son un agente educativo muy eficaz para transmitir y mantener los valores dominantes en la sociedad. sin embargo, las empresas de medios se encuen- tran en manos de gigantes mediáticos globales con los que comparten cosmo- visión, criterios comerciales y valores. en estos valores es donde la juventud y la infancia puede descubrir sus verdaderos modelos de conducta (garabedian, ). georges orwell afirmaba en su novela que «quien controla los medios controla el mundo» y actualmente la mayor dominación la ejercen los sistemas de comunicación más poderosos de la historia que, desde la más tier- na infancia, inculcan qué pensar, cómo vivir y qué imagen mostrar al mundo. la cuestión consiste en tener el poder para utilizar instrumentos con los que crear «patrones de pensamiento, conjuntos de imágenes e ideas y marcos de referencia para entender cómo se debe vivir la vida» (mander, : ). en cuanto a los aspectos comunicativos, encontramos que la narrativa digital establece un modelo interactivo, en el cual los papeles de quién emite y de quién recibe el mensaje puedan intercambiarse, accediendo ambos en las mismas condiciones materiales al canal comunicativo y compartiendo la misma situación temporal. la organización de la narrativa establece las rela- ciones entre la historia y sus audiencias a partir de dos dimensiones: ¿qué contar? y ¿cómo contarlo? el reto radica en aproximar el argumento al público | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional mediante una narrativa y un medio que lo transforme en realidad. la cuestión es que sea un relato creíble, pues «las narrativas nos rodean, pero también deambulan por los recovecos de nuestra mente» (scolari, ). la participación afectiva del público en los relatos siempre ha sido un tema de interés entre todos los movimientos artísticos. sin ir más lejos, en la década de los años cincuenta del siglo xx encontrábamos representaciones multidisciplinares y provocativas como el performance art o el happening artístico, instando a la concurrencia a abandonar su posición pasiva ante la historia narrada. en la actualidad, este espíritu provocativo lo localizamos en la narrativa digital, un contexto cambiante en el que las historias adoptan dife- rentes aspectos, discurren por contextos variables, con diferentes grados de interacción y participación, se adaptan a múltiples dispositivos y nos ofrecen una visión heterogénea de una realidad, de la que también seremos parte acti- va (cantillo, a). desde la aparición de la fotografía, las técnicas usadas para hacer partí- cipe a la audiencia han ido evolucionando, se han ido introduciendo provo- caciones estéticas cada vez más sofisticadas que, enfocadas hacia el reino de las emociones, han explosionado para dejar atrás la mera exégesis del hecho cotidiano. las narrativas digitales han sido un valor añadido para el público espectador, pues, al movimiento intrínseco que ya tenía la imagen cinemato- gráfica le han agregado elementos nuevos para motorizar su activa pasividad. en la misma línea que la participación está el factor afectivo, que condicio- na la comprensión de la información, debiendo prestar especial atención a la fuerza de los apegos emocionales que generan determinadas imágenes, ya que este fenómeno contiene un inmenso potencial para estandarizar nuestro pensa- miento y resulta preocupante cuando se dirige al público infantil, carente de recursos para detectar la influencia de las imágenes que contempla. existe un debate abierto sobre los afectos de estas narrativas, pues resulta imposible sepa- rar las emociones de la sugestión afectiva que transmiten imágenes inocentes utilizadas por multinacionales como disney, con un poder de atracción indiscu- tible. giroux ( : ) nos advierte de que «debemos prestar especial aten- ción a cómo los niños utilizan y comprenden estas películas y medios visuales». por tanto, tendremos que detenernos en esos aspectos cinematográficos, donde las narraciones fílmicas reconstruyen una experiencia que sólo conoce nuestra imaginación y que nos traslada a un mundo mágico que seremos capaces de visualizar, sin apenas sorprendernos. es alarmante comprobar la facilidad con que los estados de ánimo influyen en la interpretación de la realidad y la toma de decisiones, esta asociación emotiva va a condicionar la valoración que se haga de la misma, ya que, «las emociones pueden distorsionar el pensamiento y el index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | pensamiento puede distorsionar las emociones. siempre a través de asociacio- nes falsas, o al menos, arbitrarias» (ferrés i prats, ). . metodología de la investigación: las relaciones de poder y el conocimiento (en el mundo disney) para establecer objetivos y delimitar el universo de estudio la marca distintiva de las relaciones de poder es la dominación. este poder lo ostentan las instituciones y los organismos encargados de proporcionar infor- mación y conocimiento a la sociedad. aunque, el mayor riesgo de dominación se encuentra en nuestro desconocimiento, el cual impide detectar este poder y, por tanto, encontrar sus efectos en la infancia. pierre bourdieu ( : ) califica a esta violencia como simbólica, amortiguada e invisible, porque pasa desapercibida para sus propias víctimas y «se ejerce esencialmente a través de los caminos puramente simbólicos de la comunicación y el conocimiento o, más exactamente, del desconocimiento»; paulo freire ( : ) también encontra- ba una explicación a esta relación cuando afirmaba que «lo que pretenden los opresores es transformar la mentalidad de los oprimidos y no la situación que los oprime. a fin de lograr una mejor adaptación a la situación que, a la vez, permita una mejor forma de dominación”. los medios de comunicación, actualmente, son las herramientas con mayor autoridad para ejercer el poder y establecer el orden simbólico en el imaginario infantil. en este proceso de formación y adoctrinamiento ocupan un lugar privi- legiado las multinacionales que tienen unos intereses privados y particulares. las tecnologías unidas a la cultura del entretenimiento han modificado la forma de contar historias en el público infantil. vemos cómo los personajes de los cuentos van proliferando por medios y plataformas, con discursos que se apoyan en la lógica del espectáculo y la dramatización. a través del tamiz del cine y de los más variopintos dispositivos han pasado todos los cuentos clásicos para ofrecer una imagen renovada que se ajuste al público del momento. además, los discursos van dirigidos hacia las emociones y ejercen una violencia simbólica a sujetos de escasa edad y con unas estructuras mentales en construcción y que, fácilmente, pueden ocupar la posición dominada. varios estudios (llorens-maluquer, ; albarrán, ; gomery, ; cantillo, ) nos revelan que estamos ante multinacionales que, en su esen- cia empresarial, anteponen su lógica comercial a los contenidos educativos, [ ] nich nicholas, expresidente de time inc, cuando firmó la fusión con el grupo time warner en marzo de comentó: «la industria del entretenimiento y los medios estará constituida por un limitado número de gigantes globales. estas empresas estarán integradas verticalmente, serán suficientemente grandes como para producir, comercializar y emitir mundialmente, y suficientemente flexibles como para asumir los costes de tales actividades a través de una vasta y cada vez más creciente red de distribución» (citado en llorens-maluquer, : ). | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional con el agravante de que tenemos delante narrativas que discurren por dife- rentes ámbitos, así que estamos frente a un problema muy serio y mucho más grave de lo que podamos percibir. el control que ejercen este tipo de empre- sas sobre los medios adquiere tal magnitud que los productos y juegos que la infancia utiliza para internalizar los valores están en manos de unas pocas empresas que controlan el universo transmediático (la televisión, las emisoras de radio, las revistas, los cómics, las redes sociales, los videojuegos, las edito- riales, las productoras cinematográficas, la distribución de películas, etc.). se trata de la mayor concentración de poder y apropiación de la propiedad inte- lectual de la historia, y lo más peligroso de todo esto es que este poder no se ejerce sobre los productos, sino sobre las conciencias, en este caso, infantiles, las más maleables y fácilmente dominables. . métodos y análisis del material audiovisual partimos de la idea de que toda investigación que pretenda incidir sobre las narrativas audiovisuales ha de iniciarse con el estudio de la imagen como un elemento decisivo en el desarrollo de la historia cultural. frazer ( ) propone una catalogación de las operaciones mágicas de las imágenes que nos permi- te conocer: en el plano figurativo, cómo son sustituidas o prolongadas por el pensamiento humano y, en el plano performativo, provocan los efectos que de ellas se pretenden (gubern, ). pues, es tan importante investigar lo que las imágenes muestran, como todo lo que esconden, ya que toda imagen constitu- ye un comentario que, unas veces está implícito y otras explícito; para lo cual, deberemos dedicar un interés especial a la atribución performativa de las imáge- nes que estas narraciones suscitan en su joven público, puesto que al exhibir a personajes capaces de realizar prodigios, princesas dignas de ser adoradas, etc. se transmite no sólo una ideología, sino que se construye el imaginario infantil con unos mapas de significado que les harán conferir sentido al mundo. en definitiva, estamos ante imágenes que construirán identidades con las que niños y niñas encontrarán un lugar en el mundo adulto; por tanto, para conocer los diferentes modos en que se presentan los personajes según sea su sexo creemos necesario realizar un análisis de los discursos que tienen lugar en las películas, de la narrativa audiovisual, de los gestos de los personajes y todo lo que comunique emoción y sentimientos al público espectador, ya que consideramos que el lenguaje tiene capacidad para producir o reproducir las relaciones de poder de la sociedad. de este modo, visibilizaremos las peculia- [ ] román gubern, en su obra patologías de la imagen, menciona las funciones de las imá- genes utilizadas en las prácticas mágicas, citando las categorías establecidas por frazer ( ) en su obra the golden bough: a study in magic and religion. index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | ridades que rodean a las situaciones comunicativas representadas, ya que «el problema no está en las características del discurso, sino en que un discurso de tales características circule y se haga dominante» (alonso y callejo, : ). . establecer objetivos en la filmografía de disney se pueden encontrar historias edulcoradas donde las princesas al final encuentran a su príncipe (su premio). estas narraciones transmiten información de los papeles propios de cada sexo y que su público irá asimilando, de forma inconsciente, hasta integrarla como algo natural en su comportamiento, reproduciendo los estereotipos sexistas al ser sus personajes imitados desde la infancia. esta hipótesis y los antecedentes mencionados en el apartado anterior nos llevan a establecer el objetivo principal del presente estudio, fijando esta investigación en interpretar las imágenes y los discursos del material audiovisual de las princesas disney para hacer visibles las posturas de poder de los oligopolios mediáticos que propagan entre el público femenino una «cultura del silencio» prescrita por sus opresores y positivada en formas de dominación androcéntrica. este objetivo principal nos conduce a un segundo objetivo, no por ello menos importante: resaltar la necesidad de introducir un análisis crítico de las narrativas audiovisuales en la infancia para impedir la manipulación y adoctrinamiento. mediante estos objetivos podremos reflexionar sobre cómo se adultera la realidad en las representaciones de las princesas disney. así, verificarermos si se cumple otra hipótesis de partida: «la narrativa audiovisual escoge un punto de vista determinado y anula otros; por tanto, se adultera la realidad. tras la representación de la realidad hay una ideología» cuyo calado en la identidad adulta se propaga a través de las emociones. los personajes ficticios dejan de serlo en el momento que se personifican en nuestra realidad, una realidad que nuestros sentidos perciben, pero que nuestro cerebro procesa con base en los recuerdos y las emociones. de ahí la influencia que estas imágenes inocen- tes pueden provocar en la conducta, ya que ejercen un desmedido poder de adoctrinamiento que trasciende el ámbito informal y que tiene una fuerte incidencia en la construcción de la humanidad digital del siglo xxi. para alcanzar estos objetivos mostramos algunos análisis de cómo se ven representados los principales personajes, cómo se relacionan entre sí los elementos figurativos de la ficción, así como las diferencias entre estas figu- ras y lo que representan en la realidad, y así reflexionamos acerca de algunas acciones reflejadas en la filmografía. | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional . delimitar el universo de estudio para realizar este estudio se han tenido en cuenta los documentos gráficos de una parte muy concreta de la filmografía de disney; al centrar el estudio en los este- reotipos de género se han elegido los personajes de las princesas como universo de la investigación. se escogen las películas en las que estas aparecen, desde la primera estrenada en , blancanieves y los siete enanitos ( ), hasta la más reciente frozen: el reino del hielo ( ). la filmografía de disney es extensa y en muchas más películas pueden analizarse los estereotipos sexistas, aunque se ha partido de un patrón común donde el personaje principal a analizar tuviese el mismo peso específico en la película; esto se ha conseguido al elegir sólo los filmes donde el personaje principal estuviese interpretado por una princesa de facto, o una joven que adquiere esa condición al contraer matrimonio con un príncipe; y se excluyen las cintas en las que su protagonista era un animal, por no responder al perfil de persona que pudiese formar parte del imaginario infantil. . resultados: perdimos la libertad… y hasta la voz una de las principales formas de controlar el poder consiste en prohibir el acceso a la palabra. para demostrar este argumento, en este apartado recordamos algu- nos momentos, escenas, diálogos, etc. que utilizan el silencio femenino como elemento narrativo para posicionar a los personajes del film en un espacio deter- minado de la historia. así nos preguntamos: ¿qué nos dicen los discursos de las mujeres? esto se visualiza, sobre todo, en los comienzos de cada película a través de la narrativa audiovisual utilizada, en los gestos de los personajes, sus expresiones y sus discursos. en este sentido, las sensaciones transmitidas mediante las escenas que representan los personajes animados han sido analizadas para comprobar que estos supuestos movimientos de cámara consiguen imprimir una carga emocional que involucra al público en el relato. por ejemplo, hemos asimilado los movimientos de grúa al efecto visual que se pretende transmitir al sorpren- der a jasmine robando en el bazar, o también un travelling de acompañamien- to que resalta la imagen dulce de jasmine cuando aparece por primera vez en la película, por considerar que muestran claramente la posición de indefensión que se confiere a los personajes femeninos, aunque sean principales, en este tipo de películas. el código gestual de las princesas cuando se muestran la primera vez ante la cámara es dulce e inocente o, en todo caso, su gesto es de estar sufriendo, esperando o realizando tareas domésticas. la introducción en la narración se hace mediante una voz conductora del relato. su incorporación a la escena index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | es a través de planos generales que de un modo descriptivo van mostrando la figura de las princesas, poco a poco, y mediante travelling de acercamiento se llegará hasta primeros planos que presentan la belleza y dulzura de estos personajes. figura : escenas de la película aladdín ( ). sin embargo, los personajes masculinos son presentados mediante trave- lling de acompañamiento y primeros planos que demuestran el carácter supe- rior del género dominante, por tanto los valores de valentía, lucha, etc. quedan reforzados desde el principio de la narración. es interesante el análisis realizado acerca de los códigos gestuales de los personajes protagonistas, ya que encontramos a bella, en la bella y la bestia ( ) en una actitud soñadora; y a bestia, a quien no podemos considerar como antagonista de ésta ya que será su príncipe, pero que actúa brutalmen- te y muestra un código gestual agresivo en toda la narración fílmica. como en la publicidad, se le concede a la imagen un poder en la comunicación de emociones estereotipadas «la imagen ocupa una función esencial, un valor de comunicación que ha sustituido el razonamiento argumental por una retórica visual fundamentada básicamente en estereotipos» (correa, : - ). figura : escenas de la bella y la bestia ( ). | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional al presentar a la protagonista en los primeros comentarios se revela la sumisión femenina. una posición consustancial a la mujer en la sociedad patriarcal, aunque queda remarcada en los comentarios que realizan cuando están ante la presencia de hombres. blancanieves al llegar a la casa de los enanitos exclama: «¡cuánto polvo!» o «¡qué montón de platos sucios!» y, una tras otra, va repasando las tareas domésticas que están descuidadas. después, por inducción, va construyendo una realidad que se reproduce en su mente androcéntrica y que se reconstruye en el imaginario de la audiencia: «¿creéis que su madre?... a lo mejor no tienen madre...» hasta llegar a ofrecer su trabajo a cambio del alojamiento «y, si dejáis que me quede, limpiaré la casa, fregaré y también cocinaré...». figura : escenas de blancanieves y los siete enanitos ( ). mulan ( ) también comienza recordando las cualidades que toda mujer debe poseer: «callada y recatada, elegante, refinada, educada, delicada, desen- vuelta, puntual...» y siempre dejando clara la posición de vasallaje en relación a los hombres: «para complacer a tu futuro suegro» (estos son los consejos para agradar y casarse que recibe por parte de sus mayores). el caso de silenciamiento más perverso se da en la sirenita ( ), cuan- do la bruja del mar pide a ariel que le dé su voz, interpretando esta canción: «hablando mucho enfadas a los hombres… se aburren y no dejas buen sabor, pues les causan más placer las chicas que tienen pudor, admirada tú serás, si callada siempre estás». a todas luces, lo que se pone de manifiesto en estas representaciones es la capacidad comunicadora y transmisora que los excelentes arreglos musica- les confieren a las escenas, dándoles ese toque emocional que hace percibir como humanas las experiencias representadas por los dibujos animados y que disney utiliza para transmitir su ideología conservadora y sexista. la narración del relato nos introduce en una historia donde la mujer es una proyección de los propios fantasmas masculinos, donde la imagen de «lo otro» postulada por simone de beauvoir no se emite como la de un sexo diferente e index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | independiente, sino como una proyección hacia fuera de sus instintos reprimi- dos (mantelli, ). por ejemplo, así encontramos a ariel, la sirenita ( ) transformada en pantalla muda reflectora de los propios temores masculinos, en imagen de una masculinidad terrorífica en que la cola (miembro viril) es reemplazada por unas piernas y su singularidad como sirena (mujer indepen- diente) deviene sumisión del falo castrador. ariel se transforma en una sirena silenciosa, y un eje mudo que la exhibe indefensa ante el hombre, puesto que, al no hablar, permite el libre juego del deseo masculino. es significativo este silencio impuesto por disney al personaje de la sirena, ya que según la leyen- da, las sirenas no eran silenciosas, sino que seducían a los hombres con sus cantos mortales. aunque, al privarla de voz, se niega la posibilidad de inde- pendencia de la mujer. esta figura muda de una sirena revela una función de signo imaginado por y para el hombre (cantillo, b). la habitación de elsa, en frozen: el reino del hielo ( ), también se caracteriza por su silencio: un silencio discreto y avergonzado que da un aire solemne a la escena, dejando traslucir ese deseo mudo de una sexualidad prohi- bida que se expresa con un aislamiento y una altivez impuesta. este silencio es lo que también le permite al mundo femenino de rapunzel (enredados, ) servir de blanco al deseo masculino, llamando la atención masculina ante un cautiverio y alejamiento por no se sabe qué causas. de ahí que este mundo femenino represente una «esfera mágica» o «atmósfera mística», misticismo no en el sentido del lenguaje religioso femenino que se expresa a través de sus silencios, sino en el sentido de constituir una pantalla muda sobre la cual se proyecta el deseo masculino en la ficción narrativa. figura : escenas de frozen: el reino del hielo ( ). en líneas generales, el elemento más llamativo que recorre todos los discursos, tanto hablados como cantados, es el uso del masculino genérico para referirse tanto a hombres como a mujeres (por ejemplo, en la sirenita, Úrsula le comenta a ariel: «... para conseguir lo que quieres, debes convertirte en humano...», o en la bella durmiente ( ), cuando hablan los padres sobre la boda de sus hijos: «los chicos necesitan un hogar propio, un sitio donde | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional criar a sus polluelos...». en pocahontas ( ), se refieren a los «hombres blancos», no dejando lugar a las mujeres en su discurso, etc.). de igual forma, el lenguaje del discurso de una narrativa que limita el acceso a la palabra femenina aparece en momentos cuidadosamente meta- forizados, está presente en lo que no dice o no puede decir la mujer y donde los personajes fílmicos se verán atravesados interna y externamente en una borrosidad androcéntrica que denota un vacío, que revela la inexistencia de un espacio neutral en el plano interpretativo y semántico. a lo largo de la historia literaria y social, cuando se habla de humani- dad, no se incluye a todos —varones y mujeres— sino que se alude o se sintetiza el pensamiento de un grupo de varones que hace prevalecer su imaginario dominante y parcializado (mantelli, : ). tanto en la literatura como en la cultura popular se valora el arquetipo de la mujer enigmática y silenciosa por encima de la irritante mujer charlatana, que cuando aparece lo hace como un personaje chistoso que aporta comicidad a la narración. aquí encontramos que la «cultura del silencio» es otro paradig- ma adoctrinador utilizado en las narrativas cinematográficas como un agen- te propagador de la ubicación de la mujer en la sociedad. el silencio, según christian salmon, está asociado a diferentes cualidades: la modestia, el respeto a los demás, la prudencia, el saber vivir. por culpa de reglas de decoro profundamente arraigadas, la gente se calla para evitar los problemas, los conflictos y otros peligros percibidos. las virtu- des sociales del silencio están reforzadas por nuestros instintos de super- vivencia (salmon, : ). la mujer acepta su papel de objeto mudo. su palabra se ha secuestrado y el sentido de estas, si llegaran a emitirlas, también se ha asumido por las ideologías dominantes (androcéntricas) para travestir y constituir algo inherente a la dialéc- tica entre opresores y oprimidos. la mujer ni siquiera ha tenido la posibilidad de comunicarse, estando silenciada y, cuando ha podido ejercer este derecho, ha utilizado una palabra robada que ha sido reemplazada «por otra que conlleva la idea de transmisión […] el robo, entonces, [el poder hegemónico ha cumplido] el objetivo: secuestrar el significado de las palabras más hermosas de nuestra lengua: la comunicación» (aparici, : ); por tanto, habrá que sospechar de una falsa posibilidad de comunicación otorgada a la mujer, ya que formaría parte de una «ideología difusa» que sirve para justificar el poder y sus prácticas. index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | todos estos discursos (y la ausencia de ellos también) encasillan y atrapan a las mujeres en unos esquemas mentales de dominación, sin saber por qué se sentirán sufridoras y formarán parte de las relaciones de dominación eterna, puesto que «los dominados aplican a las relaciones de dominación unas catego- rías construidas desde el punto de vista de los dominadores» (bourdieu, ). en todas estas películas encontramos los arquetipos de la mujer sumisa y obediente, que se guía por sus emociones, se orienta al amor y al matrimonio, es la que cuida de la familia y de la casa y en muchas ocasiones se presenta o en el rol de mujer «malvada» o en el de la niña «inocente» (giroux, ). los personajes animados pueden llegar a ser arquetipos, ya que ofrecen la imagen de un mundo desconocido para el público espectador, que sentirá atracción hacia su carácter insólito. el «mérito» a la hora de convertir un personaje de ficción en un modelo arquetípico estriba en hacer que esa historia exótica adquiera un carácter absoluto y se presente como un nuevo modelo de referencia. en lo relativo a la expresión de las emociones, encontramos una ebulli- ción de emotividad en los papeles femeninos que suelen hacer caso a impul- sos afectivos irracionales, en contraposición con el equilibrio y pragmatismo de los masculinos. por ejemplo, en la sirenita ( ) aparecen dos perso- najes femeninos: ariel y Úrsula, protagonista y antagonista respectivamen- te, [la mujer es sumisa y obediente, se guía por sus emociones, se orienta al amor y al matrimonio... se presenta en el rol de mujer «malvada» o en el de niña «inocente»] (giroux, : - ) y, cuatro masculinos: el rey tritón, príncipe eric, grimsby el mayordomo y el chef louis, quienes tienen un claro reconocimiento en función de su posición socio-laboral, configuran- do su perfil en la escena en relación con sus acciones. incluso en las relaciones afectivas se reserva una posición pasiva para la mujer, otorgando la iniciativa al hombre y el papel de espera pasiva a la mujer. por este motivo, se escucharán comentarios por parte de personajes femeni- nos como: «¡qué tonta es! ¡está loca!, ¡es tan lindo!», quienes no dan crédito a que una mujer no entre en el juego de la seducción masculina, donde el movimiento siguiente, en la bella y la bestia ( ), supondría la concesión progresiva de los favores de bella hacia gastón. el amor para una mujer y las prácticas de cortejo de un hombre hacia ella, le hacen conceder un lugar secundario a toda la actividad que ésta viniera realizando, se abre ante sí la esperanza de escapar del desierto al que se ve abocada por ser mujer, de alcanzar la felicidad gracias a la compañía masculi- na y de poder concebir así una vida más intensa. trabajos relacionados con el neuromarketing (braidot, ; damasio, ), ponen de manifiesto la importancia de la estimulación de las emocio- | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional nes en la ficción, hasta llegar al punto de ser equiparadas con situaciones vivi- das en la realidad. las emociones influyen en la construcción de la identidad y en la cimentación de la memoria. a las emociones van dirigidos los relatos infantiles que, con una finalidad mercantilista, pretenden conseguir un acer- camiento del público hacia sus productos, pero las técnicas utilizadas por la mercadotecnia tergiversan la realidad, provocando una potenciación del esta- do hipnótico encargado de automatizar la toma de decisiones. la visión de las imágenes infantiles de disney suele erigirse como un escenario poderoso, estratégicamente construido para «formatear las mentes» infantiles, donde se encuentran representados los sueños y las esperanzas. incluso, en el margen más machista de los relatos hemos encontrado discursos donde se muestran, bajo apariencia divertida, verdaderas escenas de violencia hacia las mujeres, pero que al envolverse en un halo de chascarrillo pasan desapercibidas, pues «como tendencia, la ficción tiende a hacerse amable y busca edulcorar los sucesos. al fin y al cabo, la primera y primordial función de la ficción es esa: entretener» (marta-lazo, c. y abadía urbistondo, a., ). conocida es la habilidad de walt disney para conectar con las emociones del público (infantil y adulto), unida esta destreza al poder del cine, puesto que «influye en nuestras emociones directamente, sin necesidad de pasar por el intelecto» (ferrés i prats, ), constituye un montaje de imágenes en sus películas que genera un relato atrayente con el que también alcanzará esa asociación emocional y, a través de la cual, se transmitirán ideas y creencias. cuando la política se reviste con la imagen de la inocencia, está en juego algo más que el simple engaño. se trata de la cuestión del poder cultural y de cómo influye en las formas públicas de comprensión del pasado. la inocencia en el mundo de disney se convierte en el vehículo ideológico a través del cual la historia se escribe de nuevo. [...] la disney company no ignora la cultura, la reinventa como un instrumento pedagógico y político de sus propios intereses, autoridad y poder (giroux, : ). en las últimas producciones de disney, sin embargo, encontramos cómo se incita al público espectador a controlar sus emociones (quizás aquellas que no se ajustan a un modelo establecido) para no alterar el orden natural. así, el triunfo de elsa como reina, en frozen: el reino del hielo ( ) es aprender a controlar sus emociones que estimulan su crioquinesis. esto sugiere que cuando las mujeres poderosas necesitan capacitación, no es para desarrollar sus habilidades sino para evitar abusar de su poder (streiff, ). index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | . discusión y conclusiones: cuando la narrativa digital silencia y esclaviza el cine es un vehículo de valores y de contravalores, se puede considerar el mejor medio para influir en la educación integral del ser humano. una película puede ser un ejemplo de lo correcto y socialmente establecido o, por el contrario, se puede convertir en un elemento destructor, todo dependerá de las referencias, de cómo se proyecta su narrativa y del contexto en donde sea exhibida. (cantillo y gil-quintana, ). la naturaleza del silencio no tiene voz propia y esta voz tiene el reflejo del hombre y se muestra legitimando un determinado producto cultural, al representarlo como objeto natural que no puede ser de otra manera; es decir, el silencio naturalizado de la mujer. trasladando este enmudecimiento (tácito o explícito) a la narrativa del cine infantil, encontramos que las princesas disney también suelen aparecer silenciadas y condenadas a un mutismo con el que se transmitirá su sumisión femenina, actuando, estas figuras, como «máquinas de enseñar» apoyadas sobre el registro del aislamiento comunicativo de la mujer. sus personajes son silenciados sin tener en cuenta que el silencio puede tener un coste psicológico enorme en los individuos, al crear sentimientos de frustración y aislamiento. estas historias están perfectamente narradas para que penetren en las mentes infantiles y sean absorbidas sin apenas percibirlo (salmon, ). se introducen en el imaginario infantil como una muestra más de domina- ción masculina, ya que las palabras (o su ausencia) forman el lenguaje que contribuye a la aceptación de la realidad; es decir, se sigue naturalizando la cosmovisión androcéntrica como representación del orden social, donde el lenguaje es patrimonio masculino y el silencio es femenino. estas asimetrías impuestas, desde los ámbitos de la fantasía, suponen que la abnegación, la resignación o el silencio han sido virtudes negativas aprendidas de forma dife- rencial por niños y niñas del currículum oculto y manifiesto de la pedagogía androcéntrica, de tal forma que llegan a ser asumidas como pertenecientes al orden natural de las cosas (correa, en aguiar y farray, : ). la narrativa digital del cine de animación ha reproducido el silencio y el encierro femenino como otro ejemplo cultural más que establece los espacios propios de los géneros. su lenguaje universal ha ido evolucionando, desarro- llando una capacidad comunicativa en diversos sectores y ha dado lugar a que su narrativa se haya convertido en un factor clave en el mundo de la comunica- ción actual, puesto que la gran mayoría de las propuestas audiovisuales toman como base su estructura expositiva. la energía creativa de la narrativa cine- matográfica consolida la jerarquía de los seres humanos universales y propaga las realidades culturales particulares que se considerarán como naturales. | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional el poder que se otorga a las imágenes de las mujeres subyugadas y prisio- neras, junto a las palabras (no pronunciadas) nos lleva a idealizar a los perso- najes y a internalizar ciertos estilos de vida. encontramos contradicciones en un discurso que representa a la vez la voz de la mujer sumisa y la de la hembra vigorosa, dejando ver «lo femenino» a través de los silencios de un discurso contradictorio y no como una realidad esencial. en el caso de las narraciones de las películas infantiles de dibujos anima- dos, tal y como hiciera vladimir propp ( ) con los cuentos maravillosos, podemos aislar sus partes constitutivas para analizarlas según la aplicación de unos patrones particulares y ponerlas en relación para descubrir la descripción exacta de la trama narrada. entre las funciones establecidas por este autor para analizar los cuentos se encuentra la de proferir una proclama donde «un prisionero pida al héroe que le libere», también paulo freire nos traslada a que la causa de la liberación es un compromiso de carácter amoroso, dialógico y «por esta misma razón, no pueden los dominados, los oprimidos acomodar- se a la violencia que se les imponga, sino luchar para que desaparezcan las condiciones objetivas en que se encuentran aplastados» (freire, : ). sin embargo, «los oprimidos, como objetos, como ‘cosas’, carecen de finali- dades. sus finalidades son aquellas que les prescriben los opresores […] que los explotados casi siempre llevan consigo, condicionados por la “cultura del silencio”» (freire, : ). afortunadamente, y gracias a la interacción y la participación que nos ofrecen las redes sociales digitales «la ciudad comienza a percibir su propio potencial comunicativo a escala local y global, a tal punto que están creando redes informativas paralelas, y muchas veces independientes, a las que esta- blecen los grandes medios de comunicación y las industrias de la cultura» (aparici y osuna-acedo, ). hemos llegado a un nuevo umbral diegético que nos sitúa ante un siste- ma de intercambio simbólico audiovisual que invierte los papeles de la cons- trucción de la realidad. la sociedad de consumo actual ofrece «una gran diversidad de productos para escapar a las presiones y angustias de la vida cotidiana, para evadirse a través del juego y del entretenimiento, para inten- tar satisfacer las esperanzas y los deseos secretos» (romano, : ). en este sentido, pensamos que el estudio de las humanidades digitales no puede quedar en el mero análisis de las narrativas infantiles o «en el simple análisis de las producciones; nuestra atención se ha de fijar en el modelo comunicativo llevado a cabo, convirtiéndose en el elemento determinante de nuevas formas de narrar» (gil-quintana, : ). index.comunicaci�n las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | la construcción del sujeto femenino que se lleva a cabo en la pantalla configura la no-presencia (la ausencia) y la no-estimación (insignificación). a través de sus silencios se las caracteriza como algo marginal, unos perso- najes sometidos en la narrativa digital a unos estereotipos que se empeñan en delimitarlas y que las ciñen a la mirada masculina que será la que configurará la identidad femenina. luce irigaray en spéculum de l’autre femme ( ) sostiene que el reflejo está íntimamente unido a la percepción y a la formu- lación de esta percepción, su exigencia incluye un nuevo lenguaje que sería el de la subversión, por tanto, sólo podrá librarse del estigma de espejo que le provoca la mirada viril, sobre la que se valora y construye su identidad, si consigue la mirada interior, donde encuentra sentido al espacio vacío que es su ser interior. si, como decía paulo freire ( : ) ,«la existencia, en tanto humana, no puede ser muda, silenciosa […] existir, humanamente, es “pronunciar” el mundo, es transformarlo […] los hombres [y las mujeres] no se hacen en el silencio, sino en la palabra, en el trabajo, en la reflexión». una posible solución para evitar que con estos mensajes se construyan humanidades digitales silenciadas pasa por la alfabetización mediática, respaldada por profesionales que nos hagan saber cómo reaccionar ante una industria, que, aunque ya suponemos que está detrás de estas prácticas, no existen cauces legitimados para entablar una lucha contra estos mensajes adoctrinadores y que estandarizan nuestras conciencias. en definitiva, replan- tearnos la narrativa digital con miradas alternativas que se sitúen en lo más profundo de las significaciones. . bibliografía albarrán, a. ( ): media economics: understanding markets, industries and concepts. ames, iowa: iowa state university press. alonso, l. e. y callejo, j. ( ). el análisis del discurso: del postmodernismo a las razones prácticas. revista española de investigaciones sociológicas, , - . madrid: centro de investigaciones sociológicas. recuperado desde: http://www.reis.cis.es/reis/pdf/reis_ _ .pdf aparici, r. (coord.) ( ). comunicación educativa en la sociedad de la infor- mación. madrid: uned. aparici, r. y osuna-acedo, s. ( ). la cultura de la participación. revista mediterránea de comunicación, ( ), - . bourdieu, p. ( ) la dominación masculina. barcelona: anagrama. braidot, n. p. ( ) neuromarketing, neuroeconomía y negocios. madrid: puerto norte-sur. http://www.reis.cis.es/reis/pdf/reis_ _ .pdf | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional cantillo valero, c. 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( ). sociedad de la información, educación para la paz y equidad de género. la coruña: netbiblo. damasio, a. ( ). el error de descartes. la emoción, la razón y el cerebro humano. barcelona: crítica. ferrés i prats, j. ( ). las pantallas y el cerebro emocional. barcelona: gedisa. freire, p. ( ). pedagogía del oprimido. méxico: siglo xxi. garabedian, j. ( ). animating gender roles: how disney is redefining the modern princess. james madison undergraduate research journal, ( ), - . web. recuperado desde: http://commons.lib.jmu.edu/jmurj/vol /iss / / gil-quintana, j. ( ). narrativa digital e infancia: es la hora de la generación cc. revista mediterránea de comunicación, ( ), - . recuperado desde: http://mediterranea-comunicacion.org/. http://dx.doi.org/ . /medcom . . . giroux, h. a. ( ) placeres inquietantes. aprendiendo la cultura popular. barcelona: paidós. giroux, h. a. ( ) el ratoncito feroz: disney o el fin de la inocencia. madrid: fundación germán sánchez ruipérez. gomery, d. ( ). who owns de media?. en alexander, a.; owers, j. y carveth, r. (ed.). media economics. theory and practice (pp. - ). hills- dale nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. gubern, r. ( ). patologías de la imagen. barcelona: anagrama. intef. instituto nacional de las tecnologías educativas y de forma- ción del profesorado ( ). el cine como recurso didáctico. módulo b: lenguaje cinematográfico: teorías. semiótica. recuperado desde: http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/ /cd/m _ /semitica.html index.comunicaci�n http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/tesisuned:educacion-ccantillo/cantillo_valero_carmen_tesis.pdf http://commons.lib.jmu.edu/jmurj/vol /iss / / http://mediterranea-comunicacion.org/. http://dx.doi.org/ . /medcom . . . http://www.ite.educacion.es/formacion/materiales/ /cd/m _ /semitica.html las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades... | carmen cantillo valero | irigaray, l. ( ) spéculum de l’autre femme. parís: les Éditions de minuit. llorens-maluquer, c. 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( ). storytelling. la máquina de fabricar historias y formatear las mentes. barcelona: península. scolari, c. ( ). narrativas transmedia. cuando todos los medios cuentan. barcelona: planeta. streiff, m. y dundes, l. ( ). frozen in time: how disney gender- stereotypes its most powerful princess. social sciences, , . recuperado de: http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /htm . filmografía conli, r. (productor) y greno, n. y howard, b. (directores) ( ). enredados [película]. estados unidos: walt disney animation studios y walt disney pictures. disney, w. (productor) y hand, d.; cottrell, w.; morey, l.; pearce, p. y sharpsteen, b. (directores) ( ). blancanieves y los siete enanitos [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures. disney, w. (productor) y geronimi, c.; clark, l.; larson, e. y reither- man, w. (directores) ( ). la bella durmiente [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures. disney, w. (productor) y clements, r. y musker, j. (directores) ( ). la sirenita [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/ / http:// -www.ebrary.com.jabega.uma.es https://www.persee.fr/doc/comm_ - _ _num_ _ _ http:// -www.ebrary.com.jabega.uma.es http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /htm | index.comunicación | nº ( ) | número especial educación mediática y factor relacional disney, w. (productor) y wise, k. y trousdale, g. (directores) ( ). la bella y la bestia [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. disney, w. (productor) y clements, r. y musker, j. (directores) ( ). aladdín [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. disney, w. (productor) y cabriel, m. y goldberg, e. (directores) ( ). pocahontas [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. disney, w. (productor) y cook, b. y bancroft, t. (directores) ( ). mulan [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures y walt disney feature animation. sarafian, k. (productora) y andrews, m.; chapman, b. y purcell, s. (directores) ( ). brave. indomable [película]. estados unidos: walt disney pictures, pixar. vecho, p. del (productor) y buch, ch. y lee, j. (directores) ( ). frozen: el reino del hielo [película]. estados unidos: walt disney animation studios y walt disney pictures. para citar este artículo: cantillo valero, c. ( ). las princesas disney y la construcción de humanidades digitales «silenciadas» en el cine de animación. index.comunicación, ( ), - . index.comunicaci�n reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale - this is a repository copy of reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale - . white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: accepted version article: bibby, p.r. ( ) reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale - . international journal of arts and humanities computing, ( ). pp. - . issn - https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. the copyright exception in section of the copyright, designs and patents act allows the making of a single copy solely for the purpose of non-commercial research or private study within the limits of fair dealing. the publisher or other rights-holder may allow further reproduction and re-use of this version - refer to the white rose research online record for this item. where records identify the publisher as the copyright holder, users can verify any specific terms of use on the publisher’s website. takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. mailto:eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization of a pennine fringe township through computational chaining of land tax records: mottram in longdendale – peter bibby abstract this paper uses land tax records to attempt to reconstruct the pattern of urbanization in a pennine fringe township which formed part of the lancashire cotton complex during the early industrial revolution. it uses logic programming to articulate rules to develop a longitudinal approach which chains together individual land tax records for successive years to identify perduring property objects, which are then located geographically using the pooled descriptors drawn from the returns. it investigates not only house repopulation, but also the character of new property development, of sub- division and amalgamation of holdings and the changing control of housing. it allows a remarkably detailed reconstruction of change in the particular locality, revealing events that have gone unnoticed. pent-up demand associated with proto-industrialization combined with the self-interest of a major absentee landlord to allow a flurry of small scale construction between and ; property then converted to workers’ housing with the onset of industrial urbanism. more generally, it is suggested that a computational approach of this sort allows for a more serious engagement with a source all too often dismissed as unpromising. the paper concludes by drawing out implications of the work for more traditional approaches to interpreting land tax returns. keywords: land tax, logic programming, house repopulation, pennines, proto-industrialization international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press www.euppublishing.com/ijhac http://www.euppublishing.com/ijhac http://www.euppublishing.com/ijhac august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby introduction this paper explores the feasibility of using land tax returns to examine urbanization of a particular locality over the period – . it attempts to chain together individual land tax records for successive years to identify enduring property objects, and to locate them geographically using any of the pooled descriptors within the returns. it also seeks to identify change and development as these property objects divide or combine. more tentatively it attempts to move beyond the phenomenal level, beginning to examine the relationship between these physical chnges and broader changes in economic organization. urbanization universally involves a reduction in direct economic dependence upon the land through the adoption of more indirect methods of production, and also the accretion of buildings. the form of any urbanization- that is the scale and configuration of the physical effects, the balance of working time assigned to direct agricultural production and the organization of all forms of production is historically specific. the particular locality of concern - mottram-in-longdendale- a township in the pennine fringe in the north eastern ‘panhandle’ of the former county of cheshire perhaps epitomized in the mutual dependency of domestic textile production and dairying. a ‘cold and inclement’ place, where ‘the herbage is sour and turns to rushes’ if not sufficiently limed , mottram shared the archetypal preconditions for the emergence of the classic dual economies discussed by thirsk . its place in the geographic division of labour did not entail severance from the land, but a system of land use and development similar to that held by defoe to typify the country around halifax in which ‘as every clothier must keep a horse, perhaps two, to fetch and carry for the use of his manufacture . . . then every manufacturer generally keeps a cow or two, or more, for his family, and this employs the two, or three, or four pieces of enclosed land about his house’ it has long been appreciated that by the late eighteenth century the pennine fringe was studded with cottages and adjoining crofts, intercalated within a mosaic of larger holdings -still too small to provide adequate income by agriculture alone . dependence on agriculture had been reduced not only through domestic spinning and weaving, but engagement in crafts and trades such as tailoring and shoemaking. population growth had been accommodated ‘not so much [by] an urban increase but a thickening of the population over the countryside’ as farm units were successively fragmented , a process which continued by the s producing spaces august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbaniza tion ‘dotted with villages and groups of dwellings, and white detached houses, and manufactories presenting an appearance somewhat like that of a vast city scattered amongst meads and pastures, and belts of woodland’ such specific configurations might be seen through the lens of the proto- industrialization thesis, their dispersed domestic industry reliant on distant markets, their need for greater capital inputs and changes in the organization of production driving subsequent industrialization . indeed, mottram formed part of the south east lancashire cotton complex, producing for markets in ireland, america and europe and considered by walton to bear all the ‘stigmata of the classic proto-industrial model’ . a specifically proto-industrial perspective on this dual economy might suggest that this landscape might be subject to intense demographic pressure and raise questions about the lines of continuity with an emerging industrial urbanism, although the grand narratives turn away from such patterns of economic organization (and physical development) after , as walton has argued proto-industrialization without industrial urbanism was not necessarily a ‘dead-end’ . moreover, because the mechanization of weaving lagged so long behind the spinning branch, weaving continued to be undertaken by ‘nearly identical household units of production’ which composed bamford’s vast scattered city. nevertheless, at least one local family active within the traditional dual economy- the sidebottoms – became a major industrial capital within the township. part of the challenge in this current paper involves attempting to assess how changes in patterns of land-use and development that might be imputed from the land tax returns might variously have contributed to intensification of a proto-industrial pattern or to the constitution of an urban- industrial ensemble. within the confines of a single township, however, competition for land implies that development of one form necessarily excludes others, and the perspectives of specific landowners become important. despite levine’s view that a landlord-dominated proto-industrial village would be a contradiction , two thirds of the land in this particular township was controlled by a single absentee landlord. the tendency to fragmentation of farm units found here and frequently associated with proto-industrialization cannot be ascribed in this instance to partible inheritance. it must be understood in relation to the tollemache family’s perception of their interests, to the perceptions of their stewards, which are central to what follows, and also in relation to the contemporary discourse of estate management which ran seamlessly into political economy. practice on the tollemache estate ran counter to contemporary conventional wisdom regarding the proper size of cottage grounds and the desirable size of farm units on landed estates which usually favoured large farm units. although a counter position was championed by nathaniel kent and the potential of an alternative ‘cow and cottage economy’ was august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby promoted by the society for bettering the condition of the poor, this was denounced by malthus as it might lead to a general diminution in means of subsistence, and feared by others because of its association with jacobinism . much of what follows therefore is concerned with attempting to identify different moments of urbanization variously associated with different patterns of social organization, in circumstances where physical property was continually being put to new uses. running through this long period of adaptation is an intriguing idealistic continuity between the principal landlord’s fragmentation of holdings in the last two decades of the eighteenth century and the celebrated advocacy of cottage farms by his successor, lord john tollemache. this paper does not prioritize the views of the tollemache estate, but inclines towards a market perspective, imagining a marketized cottage economy. tollemache interests shaped the supply of land, but the pattern of demand was driven by the same forces that led to fragmentation under proto-industrialization. no common remained in the township, and the pressure to proletarianization is seen as the squeezing out of particular households’ claim on land, through the market. investigation of these possibilities proceeds by attempting to infer physical change and change in the organization of holdings by chaining land tax records, and by attempting to impute the function of property by gathering information about occupiers through nominal record linkage to a range of further sources. the following sections first introduce the land tax returns and the idea of chaining them, sets out the relations to previous studies, and the centrality of the value of the sum assessed in constructing chains and the need to link to the physical. subsequent sections seek to identify the influence of first national legislative and second local administrative practice on the values assessed, so as to filter out extraneous influences not attributable to physical change or change in occupancy. land tax and land tax chains: introduction to readers familiar with the land tax returns, the foregoing may seem quite unreasonably ambitious. any attempt of this sort requires a detailed understanding of the land tax assessments for the period, described in some detail by ginter . land tax was introduced in great britain in , initially being levied not only on the annual rental value of real property, but on assessments of (personal) sources of income other than land and buildings. from the returns were used to establish entitlement to vote in county elections, and as clerks of the peace for counties were between and required to keep copies for electoral purposes, they survive in large numbers for that period in county record offices. the information within the returns is minimal (see figure ). adopting ginter’s terminology, these ‘duplicates’ for any year and township comprise a series of ‘line entries’ providing the name of the proprietor, august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization a) b) shows least detail; providing occupier and sum assessed only provides fuller property descriptions than all other years. source: land tax returns, mottram-in-longdendale, qdv/ / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. figure . land tax duplicates (extracts); mottram-in-longdendale township; a) ; b) . the occupier, the sum for which they were liable, and very often a description of the property ‘bundle.’ the returns do not appear to have been used to explore urbanization, let alone competing forms. indeed turner and mills’ collection of studies based on the land tax maintained a clear distinction between urban applications and rural applications . the crux of the present work involves matching the line entries longitudinally into chains, gathering together the scanty information about particular holdings to reveal their successive occupiers, to identify new development and to track the reconfiguration of individual holdings over time. although land tax returns have often been used in local studies to point to changes in occupation of particular properties of interest , they have rarely been used systematically to enrich information about enduring entities. there are exceptions. hunt, for example, attempted to track holdings over time to identify tithes (where this was not stated) ; henstock linked land tax line entries over time more systematically to examine ‘house repopulation’ in ashbourne, a derbyshire market town . there do not, however, appear to have been studies which attempt to reconstruct the changing pattern of physical development and occupation of land and property by tackling the far more difficult task august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby of examining the amalgamation or subdivision of particular bundles, and the systematic identification of new property. this study attempts that task, through a computationally realized extension of henstock’s approach. while henstock’s study was designed to examine the succession of occupiers of a fixed set of property objects, deliberately excluding the rural area and abstracting from land parcellation, the present work allows for far more complex patterns of succession. one way of visualizing the central task is to imagine the individual line-entries as a set of vertices; and then consider the problem of specifying a set of edges, that is linkages between line entries for successive years, so as to construct a directed graph showing the history of the various property objects within the township. under the idealized fixed property objects assumption, each line entry would refer to one of a fixed number of unchanging properties. each separate property could be represented by a disjoint subgraph, a simple ‘chain’, with only the occupiers changing (suiting henstock’s prime purpose). with physical development and reorganization of agricultural holdings, however, the township ‘land tax graph’ and the constituent sub graphs for different holdings take the form of ‘trees’. when tracking individual bundles, any tendency for yeoman holdings to give way to large scale capitalist farms would imply tree structures, with fewer disjoint graphs, different chains joining together over time as holdings were combined. conversely, when tracking individual properties, if there was a tendency for holdings to fragment (in a manner frequently associated with proto- industrialization), the number of disjoint subgraphs would be maintained, though more would take the form of trees. this paper sketches out a method for reconstructing the entire land tax graph for the township as a set of chains, each chain corresponding to a series of line entries. when properties are combined, chains join (or more strictly one is absorbed into the other). when a property is divided, loosely speaking a chain splits; strictly a new additional chain begins. not surprisingly, when reconstructed, the actual graph for the township proves to be a hybrid, though the tendency to fragmentation dominates (as will become evident in figure a). identification of the succession of line-entries forming any particular chain rests principally on the limited information which they themselves contain, and it is important that the character of this information is understood. it is the identification of enduring property objects which is crucial, and although the bundle descriptions might seem the most obvious indicators of continuity, returns for many years include no such description. where they are present, most descriptions take relatively uninformative generic forms such as ‘house and land’ or ‘cottage and croft.’ moreover, in a given year the same property name (eg ‘hague farm’) may occur in several line entries. hence continuity must also be sought in the names of proprietors and occupiers and in the sum assessed. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization the approach to forming chains taken here rests crucially (but not solely) on consideration of the sum assessed. under idealized conditions, unchanging property bundles should be expected to have unchanging tax liability, whatever changes of ownership or tenancy might occur. similarly, one might expect that where two bundles had been amalgamated, the corresponding line entries would be replaced the following year by a single one with sums assessed combined. where a bundle had been divided, it would likewise seem reasonable to anticipate that in the following year new line entries would show apportioned liabilities. the approach developed centres on the articulation and testing of rules expressing such continuities. these idealized conditions include the maintenance of a stable legal and administrative system, fixity of valuations and poundages and fairness and consistency of local practice. the fundamental assumption (implicit in henstock’s study) that liability can be added and divided as suggested rests on a principle embedded in english law and custom from the time of commutation of feudal services into money values. the principle is set out as a dialogue in an early nineteenth century commentary: ‘q: what if the tenant since that statute enfeoff a stranger of part of the land? a: then the stranger shall hold of the lord per particular [sic] morum, viz. the rent shall be apportioned; as if there be twenty acres of land, and twenty shillings rent, the purchaser shall hold by three shillings rent, for three acres: but if there be an entire service that cannot be apportioned, as a horse, a hawk, the lord shall have the whole’ . in this particular locality, evidence of such apportionment is found at least from the s . the next sections consider firstly stability and change in the land tax regime over the period in question and secondly the nature of valuation and administrative practice in the particular township. together they form a basis for identifying potential discontinuities and for constructing modified and augmented line entries, compensating where possible for administrative changes and hence exposing substantive changes in value. influences on individual assessments: the land tax regime critical aspects of the statutory provisions and their implications for the present work are summarized in table . in principle at least, the greatest difficulty in interpreting any individual land tax assessment lies in understanding its place within a system in which individual townships were required to return a fixed sum in accordance with a hierarchy of quotas, irrespective of physical change. county quotas were set in statute (annually before ), while commissioners at county level were statutorily required to set quotas for hundreds or divisions in proportion to assessments of , and to set township quotas without statutory instruction. these quotas are usually regarded as having been fixed in practice from a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y table . potential sources of change in reported land tax liability. change in liability arising from issue note significance and treatment changed valuation prerogative of local assessors local revaluation in . specific adjustments applied (see text) changed poundage % statutory maximum; otherwise prerogative of local assessors imputed from returns; standardised values calculated (see text) change in asset classes recorded treatment of property worth less than £ redemption of liability and exoneration redemption of liability by third party provision for redemption by ecclesiastical and other bodies land, buildings, tithes and official salaries identifiable in the township returns. no effect on quota locally. statutory provisions refer to wealth of individual; not value of parcel. lower assessments are recorded locally individuals buying out their liability were exonerated from further payment and property not subject to reassessment. those exonerated are listed in the township returns in principle, property on which liability was redeemed but where owners or occupiers were not exonerated remained listed and subject to reassessment provisions made under various statutes for ecclesiastical and other bodies to sell property in order to redeem land tax liability official salaries and tithes excluded from analyses property included in analyses regardless of value; inconsistencies investigated (see text) exoneration of sidebottom bros means the development of the broadbottom colony cannot be tracked no known instances in the township church’s liability locally redeemed from , and further change not traceable. possible land sale a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion reduced liability following appeal double taxation of roman catholics revaluation of individual properties to reflect in situ change complete omission of influential owners or occupiers clear provisions for appeal against assessment throughout but no surviving local appeal documentation roman catholics were in principle liable to double taxation, though this may not have occurred in practice. there were no known catholic households locally occurred in principle, but doubted in practice by contemporary commentators and later analysts occurred in principle, but doubted in practice by contemporary commentators and later analysts some falls between and might result from appeal after revaluation ignored very large number of upward in-situ revaluations evident (see text) august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby generally, reconciling physical growth with fixed quotas represented a significant challenge. the geographically inequitable nature of quotas which took no account of population shifts since the s was much discussed . although this poses major problems for comparing assessments between townships, for present purposes it is more important to understand how or if equitable treatment of those with interests in new and existing property might be achieved within a township. writing in , lord fitzwilliam believed: it occurs most frequently that a land tax rate levies a sum considerably beyond the sum payable to government as the land tax of the district. this has arisen from various causes, but principally from new property arising within the district, as for instance a house is built. the house immediately becomes liable to bear its proportion in the landtax of the district. the assessors rate it regulating the sum, we suppose, by the known standard of some antient house of equal size. to keep the levy down to the precise demand of government upon the district every article of taxed property within the district ought to be relieved in its just proportion on such an occasion, but this has not been the practice.’ other commentators, by contrast, were quick to suggest that new property avoided the tax and that newly developing areas contributed little. in principle, local revaluations and adjustment of local poundages might have been used to bring the township quota and assessments of individual properties into alignment. specific local adjustments evident in the mottram returns are examined in the next section. beyond the general difficulties implied by fixed quotas, account must be taken of discontinuities arising from arrangements introduced from allowing the redemption or purchase of land tax liability in order to ease the debt crisis arising from engagement in the napoleonic wars. at this time, the land tax formerly agreed annually became perpetual, the quotas became statutory, and a series of further measures was introduced to encourage redemption of debt in return for lump sum payments. the main consequence for the present investigation is that incremental development of particular sites in the township was obscured where land tax liability had been redeemed. apart from the church (after ), only two land holders in the township bought exoneration; john bostock and the sidebottom brothers. from they redeemed their liability respecting holdings at the southern limit of the township, precluding the use of the returns to track development year-on-year within the sidebottom’s cotton works and their adjoining broadbottom colony. when the sidebottoms later secured further land, they again redeemed their land tax liability, and so subsequent incremental development was again obscured. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization table draws attention to additional aspects of the legislation which might potentially introduce discontinuities and affect the possibility of completing land tax chains. no substantial effects are identified, but the significance of the approach taken in this study (regarding treatment of tithes and official salaries; and of properties with an annual value of less than £ ) is considered further in the course of the work. influences on individual assessments: locally determined changes in poundage and valuation previous work, particularly that due to ginter, stresses the extent of the variation in local practice, indicating that localities had considerable autonomy to undertake valuations, to set poundages, and to alter timing of collection and so forth. this section seeks to identify any such changes which might have to be accounted for in attempting to construct land tax chains. in the absence of surviving documentation explicitly discussing practice within mottram township, the following paragraphs draw inferences from the returns themselves. systematic changes in poundage are found between and . inspection reveals that assessments of individual properties in the township vary in a predictable manner year-on-year. thus any property taxed at / d in might be expected to be assessed at / d in , / d in or / d in , signalling changes in local poundage. from until , local poundage appears fixed at s d in the pound (ie . %). this conclusion is permitted by the inclusion of ‘annual values’ for each property on return. in forming the chains, therefore, annual multipliers are used to estimate standardized liability for the years – on the basis of the local poundage. the source of the annual values shown in the return is unknown, although both the modern and contemporary literature suggest that it is likely to be the survey of which formed the original foundation for the quotas. the valuational rents implied by the annual land tax assessments are referred to below as notional annual value (or nav by way of shorthand). in analysing and discussing development and change it proves more convenient to refer to these implied values rather than the land tax payment due. nav for a bundle is typically about half the rateable value for the corresponding property in (the only year in the period considered for which a rating list survives) . the specific values of nav recorded usually increase in steps of s (£ . ), suggesting the rough and ready character of the valuation. nav for a cottage and ‘croft’ (a small parcel of land) was typically £ exactly, with few bundles showing lower values. in the spirit of lord fitzwilliam’s comment above, new property might be easily rated by local assessors. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby from , although the township quota remained fixed, the basis of the individual assessments changed significantly. the assessments of have no arithmetic relationship to those of earlier years (except in the case of properties where liability was exonerated which remained constant). quite different valuation principles are implied which remained in place until , shifting the relative values of land and buildings and transferring a greater part of the burden of the tax onto the manufacturing interest. the valuation(s) underlying the new land tax assessments of do not survive, but their principles are presumed similar to those underlying the surviving rating valuations of , to which they are closely related statistically. there is, however, a sharp contrast between the rough and ready valuations of nav and the number of gradations in value found from (referred to here as nav ) . perhaps it is no coincidence that this shift occurred the year after the death wilbraham tollemache, earl of dysart, the principal landowner since . certainly, this discontinuity was limited to the township, not affecting the neighbouring townships or stockport division more generally. because of the changed valuation principles applied after , a different approach must be taken to standardization. to extend the chains beyond in a consistent manner, a specific assessment conversion factor is used for every – transition. these factors are also used to produce estimates of nav for each bundle from onwards, by applying them to the later land tax assessments. in the few cases where new property was built after , the value of nav is set at % of the nav value overall change in aggregate assessment – on the basis of the foregoing, a modified version of the line entries was produced including standardized assessments and nav estimates. aggregations of these provide an initial picture of the overall trajectory of development (see figure ). series a represents the constant quota. the actual sum of the individual assessments represented by series b (unadjusted and including liability in respect of tithes and salaries) in fact diverged from the quota even where this was not reflected in the reported totals. ginter treats such returns as ‘defective’ and warns against their use. nevertheless, it is clear that these divergences were transparent and approved by those commissioners serving the stockport division who allowed the assessments. subsequent analyses of the chains, in fact confirms the internal integrity of the aggregations. it is suggested that the latitude displayed should be seen as part of the actual approach to accommodating the tension between fixed quotas and local equity in circumstances of growth. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization figure . land tax aggregates; mottram-in-longdendale township; – . series c shows the total sums actually assessed in respect of land and buildings alone, highlighting the effect of the shift to a new valuation in . excluding tithes and official salaries seems desirable in principle, as explained above. in this specific instance their exclusion seems straightforward. they had not been commuted into land, were owned by the bishop of chester, and were leased to absentees. from time to time, excisemen were resident in the township, and in principle there is a possibility that as their contribution to meeting the quota rose and fell, the contributions of other taxpayers might alter correspondingly. it is clear, however, from figure that no such adjustments were made. series d adjusts c, removing the effect of local variations in poundage, all occurring before . series d summarizes the core facts represented by the adjusted line entries used to generate the chains. the final series shown, nav , tracks the imputed notional value of property on the basis of the old valuation. these initial analyses clearly demonstrate that at least some new physical development was recorded year on year, and reveal a continual rise in aggregate valuational rent, contrary to initial expectations given fixed quotas. changes in local poundage aside, two of the possible forms of local revaluation discussed august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby by ginter are found ; the one-off revaluation of , and the continual reassessment on which the following analyses depend. nature of the physical objects corresponding to the line entries having attempted to ensure as far as possible that any change in the standardized values reflects either a physical change or a change in occupancy, the next step is to attempt to understand the likely physical character of bundles with a particular value in order firstly to link the land tax records to other information, and secondly to gain an appreciation of the character of unlinked bundles. general principles distilled from ginter’s analysis form the starting point: i) bundles cannot be assumed to be either functional ‘wholes’ (such as farm units), or geographically contiguous parcels, ii). specific buildings cannot be assumed to be individually represented; but may instead be ‘clumped’ and represented in line entries along with other buildings (whether contiguous or scattered), and iii). there may be an untaxed residuum and hence many buildings may not be included (either individually or within a composite line entry). on the initial assumption that a bundle will usually correspond to a ‘holding’ defined by a specific lease or deed, information about its physical character - in the case of property owned by the principal landlord- might be found within tollemache estate documentation. nearly all holdings on that estate fell into one of three types; property let on fourteen-year leases, property let on annual ‘cottage tenancies’, and property leased for years determined by three lives. very little documentation survives for the annual cottage tenancies though it appears that they typically included more than one dwelling and encompassed small parcels of land, the tenants serving as gatekeepers, subletting property and controlling access to clusters of dwellings. the legal power to grant - year leases was only secured by the principal landlord in by a private parliamentary bill, which proved a pivotal moment in the physical development of the township. in the case of agricultural land leased from the tollemache estate, the relation between the physical character of a bundle and its assessment is readily understood. property held on -year lease included parcels of agricultural land which themselves might or might not be contiguous and which might include disjoint cottage property. these leases ran concurrently, the period examined being covered by five allocations or ‘tacks’ made in , , , , and with associated surveys being undertaken in the preceeding year. for years when a survey took place, the land tax liability of a bundle may be compared with the area and rent of the corresponding holding. restricting attention to and cases where a one-to-one match between a holding and a line-entry can august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization be identified, a strong correlation between assessment and rent is found ( . ), but a much stronger one with acreage ( . ). a rate of tax per hectare for the township may be estimated by regression using area measures for holdings on the tollemache estate in : t = + a + where t represents the land tax assessment, a is the area of undeveloped parcels let, and are parameters to be estimated, and is an error term lt ax = . + . *hectares statistically, variation in acreage accounts for . % of the variability of the land tax assessment (or equivalently of nav ). with tax payable estimated at . p per hectare as above, the notional annual value (nav ) of agricultural land in the township would be $ . per hectare (or p per acre). this relationship is used to guide the matching of land tax and estate documentation more generally and to make rough estimates of the acreage of holdings outside the tollemache estate for the period up to . the intercept in the above expression ( . pence) is interpreted here as the land tax typically payable on the built property within a holding leased for fourteen years- equivalent to an annual value of £ . (nav ), representing say . bays of building. although the value of buildings has been largely ignored in estimating area equivalent land tax assessments, it should not be discounted. gregory king’s estimates imply that in the assessed value of land and buildings were in the ratio : . in the pennine fringe, where holdings were typically very small, this lack of attention seems difficult to justify. only limited inferences can be made about the nature of built property, especially property with £ . nav (the usual minimum in the township). this is because very few holdings leased for terms of years had values as low as this, and no descriptions of annual cottage property survive. the area/tax relationship discussed above suggests that one form might be a one-bay cottage with three acres of land. some other possibilities appear. descriptions of phoebe stead’s -year holding grandiosely styled taylors hospital stands as an example- a house, a shop, a cottage and a wash house (with a nav of £ ) beside the turnpike road at the lane end tollhouse, makes no explicit reference to a croft or any garden ground. it is clear that some property went untaxed. the potential scale and nature of this untaxed residuum might be crudely gauged by comparing receipts for cottage rentals for the tollemache estate in with land tax entries for the same year. assuming that any bundle represents a holding, and that the ‘tenant’ and the ‘occupier’ should always be identical, any cottage tenancy without a corresponding line entry might be considered to have gone untaxed. of the august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby tollemache cottage tenancies of , can be found immediately on the land tax returns. some of the mismatch should be expected to be attributable to divergence between recorded occupiers and tenants, and the accuracy with which the residuum can be measured depends on the approach to matching. tollemache cottage tenancies without a corresponding a line entry all have a (market) rent of £ per annum or less, and three of these six have a rent of under £ . as all the property on -year lease can be matched, and most of the cottage tenancies, for that portion of the rental income for the estate attributable to property identifiable in the land tax returns accounts for . % of the total. the untaxed residuum would therefore appear of no significance in terms of aggregate rental value, although it may be of more significance in terms of tracking development. the untaxed residuum might result from a particular interpretation of statute, from deliberate local policy, from oversight or from the simple play of power. these possibilities have slightly different implications for the attempt to construct land tax chains. any principle that bundles with an annual value less than £ were exempt from land tax either from or throughout- supposedly grounded in statute- is disputed, and the practice in mottram township was evidently to tax such parcels in some circumstances both before and after . over the entire period, entries are found with values of nav less than £ , the smallest value being s (£ . ) for ‘part of brick croft’ in . even assuming that market rent rather than valuational rent were the appropriate measure and that this might be four times higher, the £ threshold would still not be exceeded in that case. a literal interpretation of successive statutes would suggest that the value test should be applied to the entire property of the person assessed, rather than the specific bundle. on this reading, the undeveloped houseplot at brick croft was liable because of the value of the occupier’s entire holding (which amounted to £ nav within the township). subsequent sections take this further by exploring circumstances where chains appear to break down as existing property ceases to be or starts to be taxed. constructing chains: overview assembly of the chains, and establishment of the links between them to construct the entire land tax graph is achieved by applying a series of a ‘rules’ to ‘facts’ drawn primarily from the line entries. the facts and rules together might be thought of as a knowledge base, coded in the logic programming language prolog which serves as an ‘inferencing engine’. it might be thought of as a computational theorem prover which can be made to draw out the implications of knowledge of very different forms (including topological, geometric and grammatical relations) provided that knowledge can be expressed either as facts or rules. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization the ‘facts’ derived from the line entries with some preprocessing take the form landtax(case,year,proprietor,occupier,bundle,tax), for example landtax( , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, shaw], [], . ). landtax( , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [widow, stead], [cottage], . ). landtax( , , [john, bostock], [john, bostock], [broadbottom], . ). spellings of personal names are standardized at the outset. where the line entry records the occupier as ‘tenants’ or similar, this is replaced by the proprietor. tax is expressed in pounds, the standardized measure being used for the years – . as shown above, proprietor, occupier and bundle description are represented as prolog lists, allowing various required natural language processing tasks using definite clause grammars. an empty list, [], indicates that the line entry has no property description. where possible, property descriptions are added to line entries originally lacking them by recursively copying descriptions from the previous (or following) year, provided that the specific combination of occupier name and (standardized) tax matches uniquely. facts based on the line entries are supplemented by further prolog facts based on a body of other material (summarized in table ) which might are used both to locate the bundles to which particular line entries refer, and to guide the construction of chains. this encodes some estate documentation, facts recording familial relationships derived from parish registers, enumerators’ books from the census and the tithe apportionment survey of . other historic sources, such as wills, have been used to corroborate linkages, confirming reconstructed events, but are not stored as prolog facts. most of the effort in the project lies in the specification and re-specification of rules. taken together the rules seek to identify the most likely successor(s) to any line entry. in terms of the graph metaphor, this involves identifying the ‘edges’ most likely to link line-entries (vertices). a bundle in year t might be succeeded by one or more bundles in year t+ if their aggregate values were equal (subject to some tolerance). from the various sets of linking arcs that meet this minimal condition, further rules are designed to identify the most likely links by scoring potential arcs principally in terms of continuity - a composite based on continuity of occupier, of proprietor and of bundle continuity. each time the procedure is run, (that is the rules are applied to the facts), links are made and chains are extended computationally if the scores merit. where two or more candidate links score equally as potential ways of extending a chain, or where no candidates score sufficiently highly, no link is made, but documentary evidence is reconsidered or more sought. as possibilities are resolved, linkages between line entries in these uncertain cases are recorded as specific facts and assigned superior scores. incomplete matches (ie those which do not maintain value in full) can also be recorded by the analyst as specific facts, ‘pseudobundles’ being a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y table . detailed sources of supplementary information. topic scope dates content source application valuation, surveys, tollemache estate , , names, areas, cheshire cro locating land particulars of estates , rents, tenants of tax bundles land parcels leases ( years) tollemache estate onwards date, lessee, cheshire cro identifying expected property description new construction register of leases tollemache estate , date, lessee cheshire cro identifying assignees cottage rentals tollemache estate cheshire cro tithe apportionment township cheshire cro locating land tax bundles census enumerators’ books township locating land tax bundles household heads township – dates of marriage, burial, parish registers assessing continuity business partnerships wives township – parish registers assessing continuity children township – dates of baptism, parish registers assessing continuity link to hoh tollemache estate map tollemache estate - reconstruction locating land tax bundles sale plan part of tollemache estate cheshire cro locating land tax bundles highway rate book township tameside archives and local studies toponomy township throughout subareas all the above restricting chain formation created to account for discrepancies. by repeated application of the procedures problems reduce and chains are defined. the rule-based inferencing deployed has parallels with the approach of expert- systems , but crucially the rules used must rely largely on consideration of statute, contemporary texts and modern scholarship rather than ‘expertise’. an assessor’s awareness of local practice and his understanding of matters taken for granted in everyday life are all missing. posited rules rely instead on abduction - ie on positing a hypothetical relation (concerning admissable arithmetic mismatch, for example) and then testing it by applying it to the facts. to develop rules in this manner is to explore what must be true for the particular outcomes to be possible and this extends from admissable arithmetic mismatch towards the more general tacit knowledge at the core of social relations. if posited rules admit too many possibilities, they are of little immediate value as they suggest too many plausible chains. if they admit too few possibilities, chains will not form at all. progress depends on repeatedly respecifying rules, which serves not only to construct the chains, but also to reconstruct some of this tacit knowledge to a limited degree as discussed below. not only therefore is there a symmetry between the specification of rules and the resulting outcomes, but the rules provide pointers to how language and legal provisions must have been interpreted. at any particular stage in the analysis, there may be competing ways of extending a chain, and this opens up new approaches to making sense of undated endorsements, crossings out and annotations in estate documentation for example. potential paths may be supported by and illuminate such minutiae. the approach, however, is very unforgiving. chains break down where posited rules cannot be satisfied. this might result from failure to identify consistency in local practice correctly, from the inconsistent practice of assessors, or simply from error in data preparation. in more familiar quantitative analyses of land tax concerned with aggregates, to overlook a single line entry, to duplicate one or to mistype a value, though undesirable, is of relatively little consequence. in attempting to chain individual records, the emphasis is largely on the difference between line entries and such errors are crucial. the overall approach demands the presumption of order is absolutely maintained until it is no longer possible. following the value: introduction the first group of rules express principles for defining summations of individual land tax assessments for a given year to compare with a specific assessment the following year. each line entry is assigned a unique identifier, and considered to denote a property bundle with the same identifier. in terms of the graph, this corresponds to a specific vertex (node). on the basis of very restrictive assumptions about how property may be broken up, an initial identity [ ] is august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby posited in which lj, the land tax liability in respect of bundle j, can be related to liability with respect to bundles present in the previous year by the expression: lj = li + lk − ll + cj −dj +rj +aj + zj ( ) where k栗m l栗s m is a set of bundles merged with i, s is a set of bundles split from i, cj represents liability in respect of new development observed in bundle j dj represents a reduction in liability corresponding to physical change (devalorisation of capital) in bundle j, or the outcome of an appeal in respect of property forming (part of) that bundle, rj is a revaluation adjustment that takes a specific parcel for all bundles dated and is otherwise, aj represents an adjustment for rounding errors and other very small changes in liability, and zj represents an adjustment for all other attributes of bundle j, its proprietor and its occupier which affect change in liability from one year to the next. the following sections elaborate the principle underlying [ ], and extend it, first relaxing the assumptions about property subdivision and second accommodating matters of administrative practice which emerge. identity [ ] considerably extends the logic implicit in henstock’s study of ashbourne , which presumes that almost invariably an (important) special case of [ ] will hold, in which there will be no material change in physical character from year to year. in this fixed property object case, a single line entry j for a particular year would be found in place of entry i the previous year and (without wholesale revaluation), li and lj would be identical and all the other terms on the right hand side of [ ] would be . even in the ashbourne study, however, it was necessary to recognize ‘occasional subdivision of properties’ and one case of amalgamation, and hence to identify bundles corresponding to sets m and s in [ ], and in these cases, the principle that liability could simply be summed and divided (‘and resolved by simple arithmetic’) was implicitly accepted. it should be appreciated that in equation [ ], the distinction between bundle i (the predecessor) and bundles in the set m is one of convention. identity [ ] moves beyond the fixed property object case by considering change in the building stock. in the case of construction of a new cottage all terms on the right hand side other than cj will be . by dj, the possibility of devalorization, or of successful appeal is admitted, but without any expectation that these effects would be substantial. the tolerance, aj, avoids including changes which might be considered de minimis. initially set at ±£ . ( d), it was later reduced to ±£ . , ‘filtering out’ change with a notional annual value (nav ) of less than / d august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization identity [ ] allows that bundles may be combined or split, but only in very restricted ways. under [ ] a bundle found in any particular year must either comprise one or more bundles recorded in the previous year, or be part of a single bundle from the previous year. it is, however, quite possible that a bundle comprises parcels which were never explicitly represented as bundles. it is far from adequate, however, as it does not admit the possibility that a parcel might cease to be part of one bundle and become part of another. a totally general solution would be to treat any land tax bundle as a mereological sum of atoms of real property at an instant in time . identity [ ] would be re-written without a specific ‘predecessor’ li and replacing sets m and m by sets of infinitessimal property elements. within mereological calculus any objects may have a sum, though following quine those which are not useful are discounted. implementation would obviously be impractical and moreover the formulation would suggest a world that were infinitely and immediately plastic. a less comprehensive approach might define potentially useful sums by recognizing that property transfers may be hidden wherever (subject to some tolerance) some set of bundles found in one year carries the same aggregate land tax liability as another set of bundles the following year. this would imply a large but finite set of sums, rather than an infinite set of combinations of atoms of real property. in the work reported, a more modest extension of [ ] has been applied. ‘useful sums’ have been defined only in three very restrictive sets of circumstances: • when there is a possibility that property objects would (from an endurantist perspective) be treated as changing in value (eg where a taxpayer name or bundle name remains constant) • when the specific value of a bundle suggests that an apportionment has occurred (ie falls outside the set values usually encountered), and • when the value of a particular bundle cannot be expressed as the sum of the values of a series of bundles in the year previous or following. relaxing the highly restrictive assumptions of identity [ ], lj , the land tax liability in respect of bundle j might be related to liability with respect to bundles present in the previous year by summation of liability for ‘property elements’ or simply ‘elements’ for short. an element may be either a bundle as [ ] or part of a bundle recognized as a ‘useful sum’. on this basis, a revised identity is defined: where lj = k栗m vk − l栗s vl + cj −dj +rj +aj ( ) and vk = ln pnk august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby m is a set of elements merged with i, s is a set of elements split from i, vk is the liability assigned to element k, ln is the standardised liability carried by bundle n, pnk is the proportion of the standardized liability for bundle n assigned to element k inter-temporal adjustments in applying [ ] and [ ] it became clear that modification was necessary to capture intertemporal adjustments made by local assessors, which frustrate the formation of chains and shift the interpretation of individual line entries. at least three such types of adjustment are found. the first accounts for vacant property. a second form of adjustment, entirely unanticipated within the literature, is found to occur in some circumstances after the death of an occupier, and is assumed to allow for an executor to settle an individual’s affairs. in these cases an occupier’s name may disappear from the land tax return, but one or more lagged assessments may subsequently be recorded after a gap (in the name of the deceased and at the former level). hence following ten deaths in for example, new occupiers for the respective bundles are recorded in both and , before a final lagged assessment for the deceased occupier is recorded in . third, it appears that further lagged assessments were recorded, consequent on the second group. in these cases the liability of those entering on property vacated on the death of the previous occupier was set at the level appropriate to the bundle that they themselves had previously occupied. (beside these three sets of adjustments are very small year-on-year changes where occupancy appears continuous, which are filtered out in equations [ ] and [ ] by the aj tolerance). likelihood scores in principle (though not procedurally), the computational exercise is concerned to identify for each particular line entry, all summations which might satisfy [ ]. the attempt to reconstruct change involves choosing between them, which demands further rules, and perhaps suggests a probabilistic approach. although such an approach was not finally preferred, consideration of probability forms a useful stepping stone to explaining the procedures adopted. restricting attention to the fixed property object case, and without any further information, the probability that line entry j (dated y + ) with liability lj would succeed line entry i (dated y) might be considered to depend on n, the number of line entries dated y + with a liability equal to lj. the probability pij that j would succeed i might be estimated as if lj i= li or /n otherwise. this might be thought of as a uniform prior probability of succession. given the crude nature of the valuations, there are many cottages assessed at £ , while far fewer smallholdings august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization share a specific value. the prior probabilities of succession under these assump- tions are thus far higher in the latter case. this principle is easily extended to consider not only the frequency with which a particular value is recorded, but the number of bundles with that value owned by a particular landowner. of course, the line entries provide substantive evidence relevant to assessment of the probability of a particular linkage. in the spirit of henstock, it is assumed that the similarity of line entries year-on-year should influence the degree of belief that occupation continued. a bayesian approach to assessing the probability of a particular linkage developed on this basis might consider not only the prior probability of succession, but estimate two further probabilities. the first would be that of finding the observed degree of similarity between line entries if they really did represent the same property. technically, this is the likelihood that the succession occurred. the second would be the probability of finding that degree of similarity otherwise. on the basis of these three values, the probability of the particular transition might be estimated . although henstock judged the similarity of line entries year on year (implicitly allied to the likelihood of the transition), he did not consider the three probabilities. estimation of the likelihood of specific transitions was attempted in the present study, but this proved impractical. moreover, as the work progressed it appeared that rather than assigning a probability to each potential succession, it might be possible and preferable to identify a single most likely solution. indeterminacy, rather than being commuted into probability, has driven the search for additional evidence. the approach taken does not estimate likelihood as such, but assigns a likelihood score to each potential succession based primarily on similarity. the likelihood score for a particular summation rests on four groups of considerations; similarity, structural priority, the broader evidence of related lagged summations and the ordering of the line entries within the return. each of these considerations is outlined below. the values taken by the scores are illustrated in table and examples of scores assigned to particular potential transitions are provided in table . an overall succession score is calculated for any summation, by combining the likelihood score with the prior probability of the transition (which varies with the prevalence not only of the sum assessed, but of the other details - the proprietor being particularly significant in practice). the goal is to find the best overall succession score for each bundle. it should be understood, however, that identification of the ‘best’ summation of elements in year t corresponding to any particular line entry i in year t- does not depend solely on the overall succession scores for line entry i. it also depends on the scores associated with all other summations, such as that for line entry k, in year t- which might ‘compete’ for the same elements in year t. potential changes involving the same bundle or element are mutually exclusive; if a given bundle or sub-bundle forms part of one summation, it cannot participate in another. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby table . similarity component scores. sequence related simplicity proprietor occupier bundle continuity parts similarity similarity similarity score possible values minimum −轡轡 maximum forced − calculated values for all tested summations average . . − . . . . . minimum − maximum calculated values for best tested summations average . . . . . . . minimum − maximum values for best tested summations (including forced) average . . . . . . − . minimum − − maximum notes scores for individual components increase with similarity. values under ‘all tested summations’ refer to the scores for the relevant components of similarity between any given line entry and all its potentially matchable line entry summations (ie those for which land tax liabilities are equal subject to a tolerance, and which do respect all other constraints). values under ‘best tested summations’ refer to the scores for the relevant components of similarity between any given line entry and the potentially matchable line entry summation (s) with the best (ie lowest) continuity score (combining similarity and structural priority). values under ‘forced’ summations refer to the scores assigned to the relevant components of similarity between any given line entry and that identified by the analyst as the preferred line entry summation (to which a continuity score of − assigned). a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion s tr uc tu re s eq ue nc e r el at ed p ar ts s im pl ic it y p ro p ri et o r o cc up ie r b un dl e s co re table . similarity scores; examples. type line entry potentially matching summation split [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [cottage, and, croft], . ]] continuation [[ , , [edward, hollingworth], [william, heap], [part, of, roe, cross, farm], . ]] continuation [[ , , [john, swindells], [john, swindells], [summerbottom, and, lands], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [wilbraham, tollemache], [brick, croft], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [occupation, [plasterer], thomas, harrop], [house, and, garden], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [kelsall, farm], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jonathan, hadfield], [hurstclough, farm], . ]] merge [[ , , [john, bostock], [john, bostock], [broadbottom], . ]] merge [[ , , [widow, wood], [widow, wood], [silver, spring], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, langwith], [foundry], . ]] split [[ , , [widow, wood], [widow, wood], [silver, spring], . ]] split [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, harrop], [], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [john, roberts], [james, heap], [part, of, roe, cross, farm], . ]] [[ , , [john, dale], [john, dale], [summerbottom, and, lands], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [thomas, hill], [part, of, brick, croft], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [ann, harrop], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [kelsall, farm, and, cottage], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jonathan, hadfield], [hurst, clough], . ]] [[ , , [john, bostock], [john, bostock], [broadbottom], . ], [ , , [john, bostock], [william, and, george, sidebottom], [broadbottom], . ]] [[ , , [widow, wood], [john, harrison], [roe, cross], . ], [ , , [widow, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, langwith], [], . ]] [[ , , [joseph, wood], [john, harrison], [roe, cross], . ], [ , , [joseph, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jonathan, bowers], [], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [senior, james, harrop], [], . ]] a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y s tr uc tu re s eq ue nc e r el at ed p ar ts s im pl ic it y p ro p ri et o r o cc up ie r b un dl e s co re table . continued. type line entry potentially matching summation continuation [[ , , [edmund, kershaw], [nathan, bowers], [[ , , [william, and, george, sidebottom], [william, [harryfields], . ]] and, george, sidebottom], [harryfields, farm], . ]] continuation [[ , , [edward, hollingworth], [daniel, mercer], [[ , , [edward, hollingworth], [robert, heap], [roe, [roe, cross], . ]] cross], . ]] merge [[ , , [james, hurst], [james, hurst], [], . ]] [[ , , [james, hurst], [occupation, [innkeeper], thomas, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ], [ , , [james, hurst], [occupation, [innkeeper], thomas, chadwick], [roe, cross, land], . ]] invention [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [edward, moss], [], [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [wilbraham, . ]] tollemache], [], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [neddy, holt], [], . ]] continuation [[ , , [joseph, bardsley], [joseph, bardsley], [house, [[ , , [joseph, bardsley], [joseph, bardsley], [house, and, garden], . ]] and, garden], . ]] lagged continuatio n [[ , , [widow, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, [[ , , [joshua, wood], [edward, chadwick], [roe, cross], . ]] cross], . ]] split − [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [robert, bennett, and, james, harrop], [house, and, land], . ]] lagged merge [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [widow, stead], [cottage, and, croft], . ]] continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, shaw], [garlick, cottage], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, swindells], [hodge, mill], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [cottage], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [james, stead], [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [robert, bennett], [late, hills, barn], . ]] lagged continuation [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [samuel, doxon], [], [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [joel, howard], . ]] lagged continuation [[ , , [john, reddish], [john, reddish], [cottage], . ]] lagged merge − [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, reddish], [house, and, land], . ]] [house, and, land], . ]] [[ , , [john, sidebottom], [robert, bennett], [silent, mill], . ]] [[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [robert, bennett], [harrops, land], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [thomas, lowe], [cottage], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [enoch, bretnor], [croft, late, woolley], . ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [john, lee], [cottage], . ]] august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization the overall succession score for the ‘best’ summation for any bundle is assessed against a threshold. where the threshold is satisfied, necessary new links are created to extend the chain(s). where the overall score is not considered determinate, no links are made but more evidence has been sought from other documentation. similarity: proprietor and occupier names three dimensions of similarity - of the names of the proprietor, of the occupier and of the bundle description - are assessed, extending to the several occupiers of the several potential bundles or elements in the case of merges and splits. assessment of similarity makes use of elementary natural language processing techniques using the definite clause grammars (dcg) extension of prolog. each dimension of similarity is assigned a score between (no similarity) and (identity). the limited value of the bundle descriptions underlies the emphasis on proprietor and occupier names. assessment of the similarity of personal names extends beyond direct matching to consider possible transfer to family members, business partners, and in the case of -year leases, assignees using sources referenced in table . well-understood problems of nominal record linkage apart, matching proprietor names proves straightforward, save insofar as account must be taken of tollemache long leaseholders, who were not consistently treated as proprietors. as the principal landowner did not dispose of the freehold property in the township over the period, a specific rule discounted any summations implying such transfers. using similarity of occupiers’ surnames to frame judgments about likelihood of succession makes implicit assumptions about security of tenure. locally, where property was held on fourteen year lease, there seem to be strong expectations of tenant right of renewal, and of nominating a successor, which seem matched by equally strong presumptions in contemporary treatises on estate management. this is not clear in the case of annual tenants. similarity: bundle descriptions comparisons of bundle descriptions may entail assessment of the compatibility of generic property descriptions with each other, of the compatibility of generic descriptions with topographic proper names (definite descriptions), and of the compatibility of topographic proper names with each other. particular attention is given to the compatibility of parts with each other (where property units are being divided or combined). generic property descriptions are recognized as such and compatibility of pairs of generic property descriptions is assessed by decomposing noun august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby phrases (eg ‘house, mill and land’) into their components and applying similarity constraints based on implied physical changes. this prevents, for example, any built property being part of a summation corresponding to an undeveloped bundle (described as say ‘lands’). as work progressed, these ‘physical’ constraints were loosened (allowing compatibility of ‘cottage’ with ‘house’ or ‘cottages’, for example) in recognition of the far from precise way such generic terms were actually used. topographic names are treated as a special class of noun phrases. they are regarded as attributes of the places to which they refer rather than as rigid designators , so several bundles in one year may be described as ‘hague farm,’ while ‘harrop edge’ is treated as identical to ‘part of harrop edge’. the tendency for the referents of names to drift implies that allusions to topographic features, holdings and localities are not easily distinguished. few presumptions are therefore made about the assumed extent of places denoted (for example, ‘nogon,’ or ‘lane end’). for this reason too, the phrase ‘in mottram’ in the township returns was treated as having no specific import (ie ‘x in mottram’ or ‘x at mottram’ are treated identically to ‘x’ alone). assessment of the similarity between a topographic name and a generic description is relatively straightforward where the proper name has both a proper element and a generic element which indicates a building (eg ‘woolley cottage’), or takes a related form (such as ‘a cottage, late platts’). by analogy with the matching of personal names above, a similarity score of is assigned to matches such as that between ‘woolley cottage’ and ‘wooleys cottage’, but a score of is assigned to that between ‘woolley cottage’ and ‘cottage’. in treating names of this specific type, comparisons are also made between the proper element of the bundle description and the name of the preceeding occupier (potentially allowing a higher score of to be assigned). this form can even justify merges (in the case of the description ‘barbers cottage, bretnors field’). acknowledging once again typical transference of reference from landscape features to buildings, there is, however, no assumption that topographic names such as ‘harrop edge’ or ‘dolly meadow’ necessarily denote parcels of undeveloped land, and so matches including built property are permitted. thus the score for a match between such a name and a generic cottage, house or land remains . a specific approach to topographic matching was designed to exclude the implausible without attempting an exhaustive assignment of bundles to geographic locations which patchy knowledge would not permit. a difficulty particularly of historic applications of gis is that it can be difficult to hold information that is not placeable. to make best use of the locational information inherent in such terms as ‘at lane end’, a number of sublocalities were identified with which particular bundles might be associated (deliberately without any further definition). hence ‘mudd,’ ‘new mudd’, ‘mudd island’ and also ‘dolly august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization meadow’ were treated as having the property of association with the sublocality, mudd. most bundle descriptions do not imply association with any sublocality, but when two line entries are compared, both of which can be associated with sublocalities, a match is considered implausible if the implied sublocalities differ. this allows use to be made of locational knowledge while maintaining the overall strategy of building relationships between historic textual data while permitting locational reference to be deferred. structural priority in casually comparing two line entries for successive years believed to refer to the same proprietor and occupier, higher liability in the later year might be attributed either to development or expansion. both possibilities fit the endurantist intuition that the value of a persisting object had increased. contrarily, it would also be consistent with an individual having relinquished occupation of one bundle and entered into another comprising entirely different property. structural priority refers specifically to the following predispositions about which changes in landscape and occupancy are more or less likely: i) a there is no evidence in the tollemache estate documentation of any abandonment of buildings a ‘fall’ in liability is presumed to imply transfer of property, unless it is impossible to identify any plausible set of corresponding increases; ii) while the ossibility of loss of value or appeal are admitted, they are treated as outcomes of last resort; iii) give relative values of land and buildings, and on the evidence of property constructed, any increase in the value of an apparently continuing holding greater than £ (nav ) is presumed to result from transfer rather than construction and must be offset by a fall in liability of another holding; iv) give the overall precedence accorded to transfers over new development, a penalty of applied to any other in situ development; and v) although ummations that satisfy [ ] might include any number of property elements and imply any configuration of property, a penalty is imposed which increases with the number of property elements combined within or carved out of a bundle. the penalties associated with summations not preferred by principles i, ii and iii prevent the associated linkages being formed automatically. in the absence of preferable options chains will remain incomplete and further review will be necessary. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby ordering the ordering of line entries within a return played an important role in henstock’s longitudinal matching, as before the ashbourne returns followed a consistent street sequence. ordering is of much less significance in the present study because (alphabetic listings apart) different topographic orderings were followed in different years. the sequence numbers added to each line entry allow order to be exploited, however. for any line entry, expected sequential positions for the previous and following years may be calculated. when the expected position differs from the actual position by less than three entries, the likelihood score is adjusted. lagged summations when considering succession from or to a particular line entry, summations are identified and likelihood scores calculated not only for entries in the year immediately following (or preceeding), but also for more distant years (termed ‘lagged summations’). this allows identification of the various intertemporal effects outlined and assists in identifying those holdings repeatedly divided and recombined, or whose occupiers alternate. the scores assigned preclude lagged summations ever being preferred to non-lagged ones (thereby preventing jumping through time). results: chains, geographic reference and audit each time the procedures are run, (ie the rules are applied to the facts), a series of chains is created, together with the link information required to produce an entire graph. each chain represents a continuous path between bundles through time. an example of a chain is provided in box , while the entire reconstructed graph is illustrated in figure a (a, b and c), the thickness of the edges in figure a being proportional to the associated notional annual value (nav ). the information associated with each chain includes together with the successive estimates of nav , the content of the line entry corresponding to successive vertices (and also a reference to its geographic ‘patch’ as described below). it also includes the imputed circumstances of the chain’s origin, of its termination, and of critical events within it (such as gaining value from, or losing value to another chain) together with matched information from tollemache estate documentation where applicable (as in box ). each chain is identified by the number of its starting vertex, that is the unique reference of the specific line entry. a chain may originate by being ‘split from’ another chain, or be treated as ‘expected built’ in the case of properties matched with a tollemache -year building lease. the origin of chains starting in a ugust , t im e: : p m ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion figure a. mottram-in-longdendale land tax graph – ; tollemache estate; larger properties extant in . a ugust , t im e: : p m ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y figure b. mottram in longdendale land tax graph - ; tollemache estate; smaller properties and holdings created after . a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion freeholds : cresswell (lowe from ); kershaw; bostock; harrison; parish; stamford & warrington; church; shaw chains (shaw ) and (hill ) are included in figure a (as in some years land tax liability for a constituent bundle also includes property subject to tollemache freehold) numbers on the horizontal axis denote year of assessment; numbers in grey for indicate the 'patch' occupied by the chain in that year (see text). all other numbers denote the start of specific chains. a number in a rectangular box denotes a chain originating with new construction; numbers in red indicate that property appears to have been previously untaxed. italic script indicates a chain representing only an inter-temporal adjustment associated with liability of a deceased occupier. bundles (vertices) are represented by black points. the thickness of edge is proportional to the notional annual value of property (nav ) transferring to the bundle at its right hand side an arrowhead on an edge indicates that liability in regard to the bundle on the right is exonerated and hence changes in value (nav ) arising from new physical development cannot be traced figure c. mottram-in-longdendale land tax graph - ; bundles controlled by other freeholders. a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex p eter b ib b y box : a specific chain: chain ; cooper holding at hague; tollemache estate h each chain is represented as a prolog list. each element in that list provides information for a specific year. each element is itself a list which takes the form [identifier,year.proprietor,occupier,bundle, tollemacheparcels, sum_assessed, nav , patch].where a bundle corresponds to a series of parcels on the tollemache estate, these appear as a list in the tollemache parcels slot (italicized here), otherwise [] appears. the information about any tollemache parcel is also ordered as a list of the form [identifier, alpha, num, parcel, sqmetres, value]. alpha and num together (eg h ), refer to the missing estate map. the reconstructed version of this map forms a key source for the map of land tax patches for included as figure .chain remained with the cooper family, throughout but was augmented by addition of william oldham’s old gate in (involving an intertemporal adjustment).[[ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [[ , h, , [great, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [little, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [long, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [dodds, butts, and, little, brow] , . , ], [ , h, , [top, of, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [wheat, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [wall, hey, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [sick, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [new, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [brow, above, house, and, homesites], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lower, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lowermost, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [catt, tor, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [farmost, field, and, wood], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, field], . , ]], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [[ , h, , [farmost, field, and, wood], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, field], . , ], [ , h, , [great, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [little, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [long, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [dodds, butts, and, little, brow], . , ], [ , h, , [top, of, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [wheat, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [wall, hey, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [sick, meadow] , . , ], [ , h, , [new, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [brow, above, house, and, homesites], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lower, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lowermost, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [catt, tor, meadow], a ugust , t im e: : pm ijhac. . .tex r eco n stru cting u rba n iza tion . , ]], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [hague, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [cottage], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [cottage], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [william, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [jo, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [[ , h, , [catt, tor, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [farmost, field, and, wood], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, field], . , ], [ , h, , [great, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [little, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [long, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [dodds, butts, and, little, brow], . , ], [ , h, , [top, of, arney, road], . , ], [ , h, , [wheat, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, croft], . , ], [ , h, , [wall, hey, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [sick, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [ new, meadow], . , ], [ , h, , [brow, above, house, and, homesites], . , ], [ , v, , [old, gate], . , ], [ , h, , [higher, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [middle, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lower, banks], . , ], [ , h, , [lowermost, banks], . , ]] , . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [wilbraham, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [house, and, land], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [houses, and, farm], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [betty, cooper], [houses, and, farm, at, hague], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [thomas, and, holland, cooper], [houses, and, farm, at, hague], [], . , . , ], [ , , [john, tollemache], [thomas, and, holland, cooper], [houses, and, farm, at, hague], [], . , . , ]] august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby is described as ‘censored.’ all other chains are initially considered to have an ‘unknown’ origin, though most have subsequently been reclassified as ‘new built’. chains may end when they are merged into another chain, or in after which they are ‘censored’, or in ‘unknown’ circumstances. the extent and character of these unknown origins and terminations is considered below. inherent within each chain is an imputed development history, complemented by a locational history. a chain comprises one or more subchains each corresponding to a geographic patch. the geographic footprint of a chain obviously alters as holdings are combined or divided, but each of the subchains that stretch between such events corresponds to a fixed (though initially unknown) geographic patch. the specification of subchains, and hence of patches, rests on the separation of those changes in notional value arising from change in geographic extent from those others due to physical development and intertemporal adjustments. potentially, therefore, a chain might be thought of not as a one dimensional object attenuated through time, but a three dimensional object - the additional dimensions allowing representation of its footprint at the time of each successive land tax assessment. the final processing step - locating the patches geographically - is largely distinct from generation of the chains, and predominantly involves clerical rather than computational effort. this matching rests on the one hand on the information in the chains themselves, and on the other the availability of appropriate cartographic sources. the locational evidence attached to the chains is of two forms. the first derives from matches with estate documentation which (where appropriate) associate the names of parcels held on -year lease with specific patches, and from matches with property subject to -year lease. the second comprises the successive descriptions of enduring features provided by the chains themselves. although many individual bundle descriptions (when present) may be uninformative (eg ‘cottage’) or now untraceable, an entire chain frequently provides one or more recognizable descriptions (eg ‘cottages on pingot lane’). problems remain in locating cottage property which are discussed below. as in henstock’s study of ashbourne, there is some reliance on the tithe map (of in this case). a computational reconstruction of a lost tollemache estate plan produced for a sister project relying on higher quality plans of the s and a range of other material provides the other principal cartographic resource. audit: can the chains be completed? although later sections attempt to draw out emergent understandings of urbanization prompted or supported by the reconstructed chains, the present concern is simply with the extent to which it is possible to complete them. this proves very satisfactory; table provides some summary statistics. there are august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization table . completion of chains; number of bundles in chains by status. termination known unknown total known number origin pct . . . unknown number pct . . . total number pct . . . table . chains ending unexpectedly. origin term occupier property nav chain comment unknown bundles year (years) origin? john richardson [] £ wealth? j joseph dewsnap [] £ lost .. samuel richardso n cottage £ wealth? j james shaw silent mill £ lost .. joseph band [] £ wealth? j all bundles in total, each representing a property object at a point in time, which using the methods outlined can be arranged into chains, defining the land tax graph in figure a(a,b,c). in contrast to the fixed property objects case, only five chains simply continue with a constant notional value from through to (implying both unchanging boundaries and the absence of material development affecting land tax assessment). overall, bundles ( . %) occupy a place in a chain for which the circumstances of origin and termination are both known. thirty six bundles ( . %) form part of a chain where neither the circumstances of origin or of termination are clear. in , the township was assessed as sixty bundles (excluding tithes and official salaries), fifty three of which define chains which can be traced directly through to . seven of the remaining ten were merged into others and two incurred some radical rupture. none of the chains beginning in become untraceable. chains begin or end unexpectedly when the logic set out above fails to capture the practices of the assessors. they may also begin unexpectedly when new property is built. problems of continuity are thus more easily understood by focussing on chains that end unexpectedly (which are listed in table ). august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby though the inconsistencies seem modest, most of the broken chains appear to arise from changes in the untaxed residuum. sometimes such changes seem to result from the personal circumstances of an occupier, consistent with the interpretation of statute in table . thus while let to samuel richardson, a tollemache cottage with an unusually low nav (£ ) was assessed for land tax, but ceased to be traceable after his death. more convincingly, a tollemache - year let with an unusually low rent was not assessed for land tax while occupied by jacob jackson but became so once it was occupied by the wealthy attorney, robert bennett . other broken chains seem to reflect possibly systematic changes in the margin of the untaxed residuum. thus in when the assessment seems especially assiduous, two additional holdings were assessed for the first time although they had been built some years earlier, though given the values of the property their previous exclusion might have been a matter of policy. moreover, with the local revaluation of , the earl of stamford and warrington’s plantation appears for the first time, which might be more likely to be oversight. nevertheless, it seems clear both that these inconsistencies are modest, and that the method adopted goes quite a way towards unravelling them. audit: can the chains be placed - and with what degree of precision? each of the individual bundles was assigned to a patch, thereby defining distinct patches. some ( . %) of them can be located. for the remaining ( . %), different solutions are possible. figure illustrates the extent to which it proves possible to locate the patches by mapping (where possible) the footprint of the chains in a single year- . each number shown on figure corresponds to a chain shown on figure a(a, b or c) at that particular stage. the ease or difficulty of locating a particular patch depends fundamentally upon the richness of the cluster of descriptions associated with the chain on the one hand and the cartographic resource on the other. there are, however, two mediating considerations: the geographic configuration of the patch itself, and the extent of changes in occupancy between , and the time at which cartographic survey was undertaken. these are considered in turn. as the amount of descriptive matter brought together within a chain increases, the chance of locating the patch improves, even though many individual bundle descriptions may be either entirely uninformative (eg ‘cottage’, or ‘house and land’) or now untraceable (‘badgers hall’, ‘bolton hill’, ‘baron (or barren) alley’). cottages traceable only by their occupier are thus hard to place and hence only . % of patches with a nav of £ or less can be located as opposed to . % of other patches as table shows. locating such august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization to manchester roe cross lane end to woodhead to stockport hodge broadbottom hodge : part of stamford estate which cannot be assigned to a specific patch - : untaxed land (stamford plantation and places of worship) parts of tollemache estate which cannot be assigned to a patch are shaded yellow figure . land tax patches: mottram-in-longdendale . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby table . percentage of all patches traceable – ; by circumstance. stamford estate other freeholds all traced . . . untraced . . . all . . . entire township cottage holdings larger holdings all traced . . . untraced . . . all . . . township excluding stamford estate cottage holdings larger holdings all traced . . . untraced . . . all . . . patches depends largely on continuity of occupancy between and the time of the tithe commutation survey. the range of cartographic resources is obviously critical. for patches within the tollemache estate, the availability of a digital plan reconstructed on the basis of the tithe map, surviving books of reference and other textual and graphical sources proves very valuable. chains are linked directly to parcels on -year lease as reconstructed. for patches within the stamford and warrington estate, no special cartographic sources are currently available and this proves a problem. in the case of the other minor freeholds, the chains derived are not complex and hence the tithe map suffices. configuration of holdings has less obvious effects. where a freeholding (for which no estate map is available) comprised several contiguous patches with different occupiers, the possibility of defining their limits depends entirely on the extent of changes in occupancy between and the tithe commutation survey of . the configuration of patches corresponding to -year tollemache leases also cause difficulties. although the location of the agricultural parcels included in such leases is known from the reconstruction (however scattered they may be), the location of disjoint cottages is not known. once again, the feasibility of locating such cottages depends on the extent of changes in occupancy between and . ultimately, therefore, where the tithe map is the only cartographic resource, the most critical consideration is the extent of changes in occupancy between and . turnover of tenants on the stamford and warrington estate was august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization such that it proves possible to locate only seven of its patches ( . %). the specific pattern of turnover on the tollemache estate in that period allows that % of cottage holdings can be located (but this should be compared with % of larger holdings). reconstructing urbanization: the pattern of land allocation and development the chains derived from surviving land tax records expose a period of substantial change, revealing the chronology and pattern of development in remarkable detail. they establish the succession of occupiers of a changing mosaic of holdings, and of an expanding stock of building, providing a framework for organizing and making sense of further materials. overall, they reveal three phases: phase : – ; a ‘considerable increase:’ development of village by petty capitalists guided by the landed interest, with active subdivision of small farms, creation of new cottage farms and the establishment of first generation machine spinning factories; phase : – ; the ‘finished town:’ establishment of second generation spinning and calico printing factories, with intensification of housing, and the transfer of control of cottage property to larger capitals; phase : – ; minor dispersed development; resumption of small- scale development on the tollemache estate. phase : – ; a ‘considerable increase’: unlike neighbouring townships, mottram had experienced little of the rapid demographic growth typical of proto-industrialization. aiken in observed that ‘it is only of late years that the town has had any considerable increase, which has been chiefly at the bottom of the hill, but some latterly on the top . the chains allow that period of increase to be reconstructed and more surprisingly point towards some of the processes underlying his observation. chaining indicates that this growth was almost entirely within the tollemache estate. chains begin as the -year leases of come to an end, making way for the ‘tack.’ it was also in that wilbraham tollemache secured the parliamentary act allowing him to grant long leases on his mottram estate (overcoming limitations of tenure shared with other major landowners). the new ‘tack’ provided an opportunity for change, and the power provided by the act was critical to the program of subdivision and physical development shown by the land tax chains (see figures a and b respectively). neither a record of the ‘tack’ nor a contemporary survey survive, but the chains reveal its effects. opportunity was taken to break up the two tenant august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby farms to the east of the manchester turnpike (chains and ), releasing plots immediately adjoining the road for development, the remaining parcels either being packaged into smaller bundles (chains , or ) or assigned to other very small scale holdings (augmenting chains , , and ). single parcels of land adjoining the woodhead and stockport turnpikes were separated from former holdings and assigned to publicans (chains (bennett) and (goddard)). elsewhere, cottages were severed from the small farms with which they had been previously let (reducing chain ). the overall effect of the changes across the tollemache mottram estate was to re-configure holdings in a form more attuned to the pattern of demand, reducing their typical size and presumably contributing to the increase in rents per acre discussed below. moreover, the apparent rigidity of -year leases did not prevent further subdivision after . between and , thomas cardwell’s farm (chain ) was divided so as to create four ‘cottage farms,’ (chains , , , ), at minimal expense to the landowner as existing buildings provided the dwellings . developers of the ‘middling sort,’ representing a specific ’combination of work and property’ (in the spirit of lubow ) re-centred the village. new housing built on the roadside plots by the surgeon james stead (chain ) and by thomas chadwick, a woollen clothier (chain ) became subject to land tax by . by the same year, william garside, a shopkeeper, had built his ‘baron alley’ (chain ) in what was becoming the core of the village near the junction of the three turnpikes. alongside, the tailor robert hamilton completed the property subsequently styled ‘grocers’ hall’ (chain ), and wagstaffe’s mill (chain ) was built adjoining a farm house built a century before, a remnant of a holding evidently divided before the period examined. all these had the benefit of -year leases; the market was unmuzzled, but regulated by the aspirations of the tollemache estate. chaining shows how the release of further parcels by the principal landowner allowed for thickening and extension of this core (see figure b). housebuilding by the publican-farmer samuel cook on the pit croft by (chain ), drew it southwards on the stockport turnpike, while development by the weaver joseph bardsley (chain ) extended it northwards on the stalybridge road. by , thomas cardwell, the farmer whose holding had been divided into cottage farms, had completed the first housing on ‘brick croft’ (chain ), the remainder being incrementally built-out and subdivided, changing hands repeatedly before development was ultimately completed in . while most of this activity contributed to the formation of a minor commercial centre - ‘a sort of market’ as aiken put it, at its peak in , building started at the hamlet of mudd - the top of the hill which he described. thomas shaw’s houses (chain ) and jonathan hadfield’s badgers hall (chain ) of were followed by joshua binns’ bolton hill (chain ) from . again the august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization developers were of the middling sort, but rather than the craftsmen-shopkeepers of the new village core, two of the three (binns and shaw) were cotton spinners and aspirant industrial capitalists who in together secured a lease for an ambitious scheme to create a water-powered cotton mill at hodge never in fact built. chaining also indicates the attenuated period of incremental development on individual plots. setting the evidence of the chains alongside documentary and photographic material, it becomes clear that the basic development units of the period were usually single houses or pairs, frequently abutting existing buildings (see figures and ). within any particular land tax chain, incremental development appears as increases in nav of between shillings (£ . ) and £ not attributable to transfer of property from others. figure shows the aggregate value of these incremental changes year by year, highlighting their significance in the late s and into / . much of the property built in this way at the village core was evidently poor, and was demolished in the early years of the twentieth century. at mudd too, incremental accretion once again produced ‘a number of irregular tumble-down houses’. closely spaced parallel terraces played no part in this form of urbanization (although they typified the later broadbottom colony). indeed, the building plots released on -year lease were too narrow to permit this. instead, the discontinuous ribbon of development meant occupiers of the new property might still occupy garden land and grazing land rented separately. in the absence of property it was not possible - in malcomson’s terms - to provide ‘for one’s own needs by one’s own efforts, without the mediation of wage-employment’ , but access to means of subsistence was possible. the development forms of the township in the s and s thus had no necessary direct connection with proletarianization. they were consistent with the extension of a mixed marketized cottage economy, and the small-scale developers frequently occupied (adjoining) land for fourteen-year terms, allowing them or their tenants the possibility of cow keeping. moreover, the particular pressure of demand for small areas of pasture and grazing abutting the village is strongly suggested by the pattern of tollemache rents and increases in those rents. alongside those changes in the closing years of the late eighteenth century that appear to reflect the late flowering of a proto-industrial economy - or rather one based on pluriactivity - the land tax chains also track the onset of industrialization proper. on the tollemache estate, chaining shows both minor textile development intercalated in the village and larger-scale machine spinning on riverside sites at the southern limit of the township. chaining shows the severance of an old fulling mill - hodge mill (chain ) - from a small farm (chain ) subdivided in the ‘tack’ (also forming chain ). it shows the succession of its occupiers and following realignment of business interests, the construction of an adjacent factory - wharf mill (chain ) - by . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby figure . incremental development. building a with three steps predates the rebuilding, appearing on a lease plan of as a saddler’s shop and is part of chain . the property which extends it, b, is accounted for within chain , its construction presumably corresponding to an increase in its annual value of £ in , or a further increase of £ in . property c occupies a site accounted for within chain . a notional value of £ . in increased to £ by , and £ . by . the site was granted a -year lease in , including an area where development had taken already taken place (source: tameside image archive; copyright tameside mbc). beyond the limits of the principal landlord’s estate, the land tax chains track the construction of thomas lowe’s mill (chain ) on his family’s freehold by , and its absorption once again into chain on the death of his father. chaining shows, however, that even the reconfiguration of land uses and the pattern of development accompanying machine spinning did not begin to constitute urban forms typified by ‘confined streets’. alongside a demand for workers’ housing, machine spinning induced a demand for land for grazing august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization figure . incremental development. samuel cook’s development first appears as chain in with a notional annual value of £ , being subject to a -year lease from wilbraham tollemache dated january . with incremental development, the value rose to £ in , and to £ . in . in , the property was split forming two further chains- and (copyright: author). horses, pasturing cattle and growing fodder crops, leading to displacement of households engaged in more traditional activity. in the case of hodge mill, a single terrace was built unrelated to a street system, in nearby pastureland, accommodating workers and collective loomshops (chain ). chaining tracks the block’s initial construction on land taken from the holding of farmer-clothier john lees (chain ), its later extension and the subsequent increase in notional value as adjoining land was transferred from lees (presumably a cow ground for the benefit of the occupiers) . chaining shows that through the s the demand of incipient cotton capitals for ‘agricultural land’ prompted the displacement of long-settled families - bowers (chains and ) and lees (chain ) - who perhaps epitomised the traditional dual economy, culminating in the subdivision of lees’ hurst clough farm in the tack of , and august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby ‘further development’ refers to the notional value of built development undertaken within any bundle, other than development in the year the bundle first became taxable. ‘all development’ refers to the notional value of all built development undertaken in any given year, including development within taxed for the first time and ‘further development as defined above. figure . notional annual value of new built development: mottram-in- longdendale - . assignment of a further portion to moss (chain , ), the cotton spinner who controlled wharf mill. thus although in this locality land ownership was highly concentrated, the demand of both craftsmen and of machine spinners had continued to stimulate fragmentation of holdings in contrast to pervading trends and the conventional wisdom of estate management. phase : – ; the ‘finished town’: analysis of the chains suggests a marked change in the pattern of development and the organization of housing with the opening of the nineteenth century. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization apart from change at hodge discussed, the ‘tack’ of involved little further subdivision of holdings. for whatever reason, possibly an active policy of restraint, new housebuilding ceased on the tollemache estate, and mottram became a ‘finished town’. the remaining plots on brick croft (chains and ) transferred between petty capitalists without development until construction on of chain in by the publican william warhurst. with restraint came intensification and escalation of rents, with rents of cottages securing twice their rateable value by , and yields on cottages double expectation by . the balance of forces driving change in the new century, and the physical character of development, seem quite different. factory-based industry came to the fore, while some of the first generation machine spinning businesses disappeared. most significantly, the sidebottom brothers - locally rooted major capitals - established broad mills and the adjoining broadbottom colony outwith the tollemache estate at the southern limit of the township (chain ). although chaining cannot trace subsequent development because of exoneration, other evidence highlights the stark difference between the physical configuration of housing in the colony and that elsewhere in the township. these parallel terraces in their tightly confined complex, emblematic of proletarianization, were the principal addition to the housing stock in the period. while physical development was restricted, the township’s economy grew, becoming dominated by large-scale textile manufacture. development by the sidebottoms apart, the land tax chains show that opportunities offered by the early mechanization of calico printing were realized by samuel matley and co who took over tollemache property at hodge following the collapse of the earlier spinning partnership (chain ). despite the scale of the physical investment by this second major capital which the chains suggest (an increase of £ . nav in – ), the matleys built no further workers’ housing. rather they intervened in the supply of housing space by buying up property built on long lease in the preceeding period. besides the block controlled by their predecessors at hodge (chain ), its second floor loomshops divided to provide further accommodation, they acquired housing constructed at the height of the boom by jonathan hadfield at mudd (chain ). although chaining shows that building had virtually stopped on tollemache land, successive censuses ( , , ) demonstrate that the number of households in the township continued to grow at levels outstripping building by the sidebottoms. property use thus intensified. much of the building developed by the boom which tollemache had promoted was bought up to provide workers’ housing. the chains show that the interests involved were not limited to industrialists such as matley, who might be motivated at least in part by their own need to secure labour power. centrally, chaining exposes the hitherto unrecognized market-making role of the local attorney and rentier, august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby robert bennett. evidently a man of substantial means holding bank of england debt, by the close of the eighteenth century he had become actively involved in its growth. he had played a transitory role in silent mill (chain ), an enterprise of john sidebottom, two of whose sons controlled the broad mills complex. by , bennett had both himself built new property on -year lease (chain ), and engaged in a series of transfers allowing further subdivision of harrop’s holding and creation of housing out of its stable (chain ). chaining shows bennett’s transitory direct involvement before the property passed to the manchester liquour merchant, henry cardwell, while bennett’s account book shows that he retained an interest as cardwell’s mortgagee. after , bennett’s role grew as he acquired properties demised by tollemache for years, including housing developed in the preceeding spurt of growth by the woollen clothier thomas chadwick (chain ) and the cotton spinner thomas shaw (chain ). he took older cottage property demised to john sykes (chain ), and that property demised to the publican edmund hill, creating further housing out of his barn (chain ). bennett, moreover, played an important role in providing mortgage finance for the final developments on building leases granted in the period of expansion (eg chain ). renting out land that he held from tollemache on -year lease (including chains and ) - not merely parcels of meadow but gardens and pigcotes gave bennett further income streams, and influence over what remained of the ‘cow and cottage’ system in its continuing form, and the provision of housing space with no land at all. the land tax chains show, moreover, that the major cotton spinning and calico printing capitals also came to control substantial areas of pasture land and grazing. the sidebottom brothers succeeded to freehold land formerly held by two lesser freeholders - lowe (through chain ) and kershaw (chain ), but leased nothing from the principal landlord. subsequent development on those freehold bundles (limited in fact to substantial mansions for their own occupation) cannot be traced through the land tax returns, because they purchased exoneration once they came into possession of the property. matley secured tollemache land including not only that leased to the spinners that preceeded them (chain ), but took the adjoining hurst clough holding (chain ) from and the farm previously occupied by the publican samuel cook (chain ) from . phase : after : ‘minor dispersed development’: the final years of the surviving land tax record form a codicil to this account, indicating a new period of construction on the principal landlord’s estate (chains ?, , , ), following a flurry of building leases. an estate survey of , preparatory to a new tack, perhaps signalled this change, noting that august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization matley’s houses at hodge (chain ) made a return of % per annum, roughly double that expected. the pattern of land release was similar to that of the period before , with the blocks longer, but still widely dispersed. the land tax chains show development in on tollemache land near, but distinctly separate from, the broadbottom colony. john clayton, a publican-shopkeeper, developed haven house m to the west. william loughridge’s terrace was built metres to the north, surrounded by pasture land which the chains show was taken from brown road farm (chain ). any suspicion that this continues a pattern of thirty years before seems confirmed by roughly contemporary comment that ‘loughridge wants a cow-keeping out of i ’ in an estate notebook. urbanization: summary in summary, therefore, chaining allows the construction of a history of changing land-use and development at the simple, phenomenal, level. it reveals a period of subdivision, and rapid village development, whose character and sudden ending remain unrecognized. at this level there are significant gaps - most obviously problems arising from exoneration, rendering the account offered of the sidebottom cotton enterprise seriously deficient. understanding the nature and extent of the untaxed residuum also remains a problem, despite the possibility of noting changes under the longitudinal approach. moreover, these changes at the phenomenal level can be seen to have contributed to attenuation of a proto-industrial configuration, creating cottage farms, stimulating pluriactivity, accommodating crafts and trades, and satisfying pent-up housing demand. their significance within the constitution of an urban-industrial ensemble can also be appreciated; there is direct evidence of construction and expansion of mills, printworks, and (though occluded) of a factory colony. while other sources show more clearly the nature of the sidebottoms’ starkly class-divided locale, chaining reveals some of the less obvious aspects of this urbanization, including the manner in which the substantial capitals secured control of undeveloped land, and the control and intensification of previously developed housing. chaining exposes the role of robert bennett which seems totally unknown. the capacity of the land tax chains to track the building stock (subject to exoneration) assists obliquely in appreciating facets of proletarianization, provided one recalls that it does not track numbers of households. the present study qualifies the nature of this urban-industrial ensemble. it stands as a warning against simplistic imagining of this form of urbanization as a force ‘that covered the hills and valleys of lancashire and the west riding with the factory towns that were to introduce a new social type for the world to follow’. in the township examined, physical urbanization after august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby did not engage forces strong enough to increase the flow of housing output substantially. the present study shows the modest scale of the particular physical developments that contributed to urban growth and their configuration relative to each other. it points to the persistence of the cottage farms and the demand of industrial capitalists for grazing and pasture, which partly underpins this intermingling of agriculture and industry. mottram became part of the vast scattered city that bamford described in , a place where people, although deeply engaged in urban social movements did not spend their ‘lives in the confined streets of large towns, shaded alike from the winter’s wind and the summer’s sun’ as in the imaginings of john revans, scourge of the chartist land plan. although portrayed by a royal commission in that same year as part of the third largest town in the country outside london, its households were as deeply rooted in small scale agriculture as in textiles, and the large town merely a geostatistical artifact . the evidence of the land tax chains allows for reflection on the strategies open to specific actors, and shows before , tollemache and his steward apparently pursuing a form of planning barely discussed. favouring subdivision of holdings, and turning their backs on conventional wisdom they pursued an approach to promoting cottage farming far removed from any sort of paternalism, and avoiding all capital expenditure, but employing regulation in a period of local economic expansion. moreover, they seem to have recognized that while issuing ninety-nine year building leases would generate only modest income, it unlocked development potential, in turn stimulating increased economic output, a portion of which would accrue to the estate in the form of rack rent on the adjoining land. whatever the ideological position, the material benefits to the landlord of extending the ‘cow and cottage’ system outweighed those offered by industrial urbanism. conclusions finally, some broader conclusions are offered about aspects of the land tax returns and the nature of social relationships implied which are thrown into high relief when the methods developed here are adopted. although the chain perspective deploys an interpretative strategy which emphasizes the relation between line entries in successive returns rather than the individual line entries alone, its insights carry implications for more familiar approaches to the land tax. it demonstrates, for example, that without an understanding of the pattern of assessments across a township it is not possible to interpret change at individual properties. . chaining reveals, moreover, the variety of linguistic descriptions which may be applied to the same enduring referent, and thus stands as a warning against overly nice interpretation of particular terms. it shows in the context considered that terms such as ‘house’ and ‘cottage’ do not clearly pick august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization out different property types. neither can ‘a cottage’ be distinguished from ‘a cottage and croft’ or a ‘house’ from a ‘house and land’. (in the circumstances, both should be understood to include small areas of land). such variant terms are variously applied in different years without any change in the proprietor, occupier or most critically the notional annual value of the property described. no more can a ‘cottage’ be distinguished from ‘cottages’, though the plural is rarely used. in fact, comparison with estate documentation shows that reference to ‘a cottage’ in a line entry may include a number of dwellings, and typically denotes more than one. chaining also indicates that assessors were varyingly assiduous in carrying out their duties, and more significantly points to limited systematic local change in the use of language over time. in some years, sharper (although not necessarily definite) descriptions are provided (eg ‘a croft, late woolleys;’ or ‘barber’s cottage; bretnor’s field’). for other years, particularly in the s when development was locally very limited and holdings static, bundle descriptions (though present) are very bland. in the mottram returns, the manner in which the use of the term ‘farm’ shifted as the mixed economy developed, however, is of more significance. as subdivision continued, the term ‘farm’ came to be subordinated to ‘house’ within the returns (as in the entry ‘house and farm’), and to refer to smaller and smaller holdings, denoting perhaps a single close. it seems no accident that the description ‘barber’s cottage; bretnor’s field’ later became ‘barber’s cottage; bretnor’s farm’, and that the field in question had been divided into two. despite the fact that only four of the households in the township in were primarily dependent upon agriculture , by , the land tax returns describe units within the township as ‘x farm . . . ’ or ‘house and farm ..’ and a further ten as ‘part of farm . . . ’ crucially, however, the sustained investigation demanded suggests that at least in this case the returns have more integrity than either mingay’s entirely dismissive view or even noble’s more detailed examination might incline us to believe. the prime purpose of the returns was to communicate liability as economically as possible, and if our intentions are different, it seems reasonable that we should pay the price. the present approach makes great demands of the returns and of related sources. in its pursuit, mismatches between the land tax returns and estate documentation have repeatedly been found to be explicable, and the sources to have different but complementary strengths. difficulties stem from the extended pyramidal nature of property-holding and occupancy which eludes the simple distinction between ‘proprietor’ and ‘occupier’ of the land tax returns, and occasional legal uncertainties. as local practice in mottram treated the earl of stamford and warrington’s lifeholders as proprietors for land tax purposes, the freeholder went almost unrecorded in the returns. the local assessor’s unexpected identification of the earl as proprietor in a line entry for in chain proves consistent with the agent’s supposition that the property august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby was likely to be forfeit following the death of the tenant in . line entries for the years until reflect actual occupation and shifting assumptions of ownership, until it became clear that another of the three lives had survived. those holding from the tollemache estate ninety-nine year leases determined by lives were not, however, consistently treated as proprietors. these anomalies are, however, a characteristic of the complexity of land ownership not the inadequacy of the returns. difficulties in matching ‘occupiers’ from the land tax returns with ‘tenants’, from estate documentation are thus to be expected. occasional notes in estate records serve as a reminder of the depth of the landholding pyramid. given a reference to property let by tollemache ‘occupied by joshua wagstaff and benjamin holdgate under james shaw under john reddish’, it is not clear which ‘occupier’ should be expected in the land tax returns. the repeated instances where leases are granted in the name of one partner while another is recorded as occupier should not occasion surprise. alternating occupiers may also be expected to appear in the land tax returns in such circumstances, and the inter- temporal adjustments noted provide a further reason for alternating occupancy. divergences between tenancy and occupation may be expected to carry meaning even if it cannot always be recreated. the mottram land tax returns record john harrison as the occupier of tollemache’s titterton farm (chain ) in , but robert bennett is recorded as lessee in the ’tack.’ in this case, bennett’s own account book survives showing the terms on which it was indeed sub-let to harrison. neither is john hadfield found in estate documentation through the s, despite appearing as the occupier of tollemache land in the land tax returns. in this case, however, a later note in an estate document claims that ‘john hadfield, joiner, has held w , w and w for all the present lease’ - again showing the distinction between the lessee and the occupier . there seems a very real possibility, at least in the township considered, that the land tax returns provide a more accurate record of actual occupation than the evidence of leases. it is presumably easier for the modern-day analyst observing mismatch to conclude that the returns are deficient than for the assessor or collector of the land tax to justify a baseless demand. ultimately, this investigation begs the question of what must be true of the organization of society at the time in question for this manner of reconstruction to be possible, and what aspects of that social organization underlie the difficulties and limitations. obviously, despite the contemporary belief that many went untaxed, in the locality considered regular partial updating of valuations allowed for inclusion of newly built property, local changes in poundage were applied and local comprehensive ‘revaluation’ in systematically shifted the relative value of agricultural, domestic and industrial property. the possibility of forming the chains, however, demands much more - requiring (and hence providing evidence of) a high degree of consistency in practice at local level in a time of august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization change. where chains are broken, sustained investigation has usually resolved the problem, demonstrating that this is more usually the result of complexity rather than oversight. this implied order and stability, rests on the mentality of part-time assessors of a ‘middling sort’, whose common sense also provided for the local administration of the elizabethan poor law. it was this mentality which compensated for the deficiency of the land tax returns as a ‘technology of power’. the mechanisms of government were crucially undeveloped. government’s lack of awareness of or concern for the operation of the land tax at local level as late as the s is amply demonstrated in the evidence provided to a royal commission by the officials responsible at national level. governing at a distance was hardly possible. the pennine fringe at the end of the eighteenth century was barely a ‘geocoded landscape’: the ‘spatial regime of inscriptions’ in rose-redwood’s terms was poorly developed . the underdeterminancy (and occasional inaccuracy) of the line entries, however, would only have prejudiced the original purpose of a return in the absence of collectors and occupiers whose local knowledge allowed them to appreciate its assumptions and draw necessary inferences, resolving the problems of reference both personal and geographical. in the terminology of relevance theory, the message of each line entry is linguistically communicated, but not (fully) linguistically encoded. the core challenge of the current paper has lain in the attempt to compensate for that tacit knowledge, and to reconstruct it to a degree. this, however, is only possible because of an original order. end notes aikin, j., description of the country from thirty to forty miles round manchester. , london: stockdale, p . thirsk, j., ‘industries in the countryside’ in the rural economy of england, j. thirsk, editor. , hambledon press: london. defoe, d., a tour through the whole island of great britain. , london: dent. p . wadsworth, a.p. and j.d.l. mann, the cotton trade and industrial lancashire – . , manchester: manchester university press, p – ; walton, j.k., proto- industrialisation and the first industrial revolution: the case of lancashire, in regions and industries: a perspective on the industrial revolution in britain, p. hudson, editor. , cambridge university press: cambridge. p. – , p stobart, j., the first industrial region: north-west england, c. – . b, manchester: manchester university press, p , p ; also aiken, description of the country from thirty to forty miles round manchester, p wadsworth and mann, the cotton trade and industrial lancashire, p bamford, s., walks in south lancashire. , blackley: s bamford, p see p of marfany, j., is it still helpful to talk about proto-industrialization? some suggestions from a catalan case study. economic history review, . ( ): p. – august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby see p and p of walton, j.k., ‘proto-industrialisation and the first industrial revolution: the case of lancashire’, in regions and industries: a perspective on the industrial revolution in britain, p. hudson, editor. , cambridge university press: cambridge. p. – . ibid. p . levine, d., reproducing families : the political economy of english population history. , cambridge: cambridge university press, p ibid. p see for example van bavel, b.j.p., ‘early proto-industrialization in the low countries? the importance and nature of market-oriented non-agricultural activities in the countryside in flanders and holland, c. – ,. belgisch tijdschrift voor filologie en geschiedenis/ revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, . : p. – ; gray, j., spinning the threads of uneven development: gender and industrialization in ireland during the long eighteenth century. , lanham: lexington.; hudson, p., ‘proto-industrialization in england’, in european proto-industrialization, ogilvie; s.m. cerman, editor. , cambridge university press: cambridge. kent, n., hints to gentlemen of landed property. , dublin: lawyer’s and magistrate’s magazine see marshall, w.h., on the management of landed estates: a general work for the use of professional men. : printed for longman, hurst, rees, and orme. ginter, d.e., a measure of wealth: the english land tax in historical analysis. , london: hambledon press. turner, m., mills,d (eds.), land and property: the english land tax – . , gloucester: alan sutton examples for this locality are found in nevell, m. and j. walker, tameside in transition. , ashton-under-lyne: tameside metropolitan borough council; and haynes, i., the cotton industry in hollingworth and mottram-in-longdendale. , ashton-under-lyne. hunt, h.g., ‘land ownership and enclosure – ’, economic history review, . : p. – henstock, a., ’house repopulation from the land tax assessments in a derbyshire market town, – ’, in land and property: the english land tax – , turner, m., d. mills, editors. , alan sutton: gloucester. p. – . this was a particular concern of writers such as gray, h.l., ‘yeoman farming in oxfordshire from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth’. quarterly journal of economics, . : p. – and davies, e., ’the small landowner, – , in the light of the land tax assessments’. economic history review, . : p. - . noy, w., the principal grounds and maxims: with an analysis of the laws of england. , london: sweet, p harrop, j., p. booth, and s. a. harrop, extent of the lordship of longdendale , , record society of lancashire and cheshire, p xxxiii. on statutory provisions and practice see evidence of wood and garnett included within second report from the select committee appointed to inquire into the state of agriculture; with the minutes of evidence, and appendix, , ( ), p . mottram was included within and subject to quotas for the stockport division of cheshire. see ginter, d., ‘the incidence of revaluation’ in land and property: the english land tax – , turner, m., d. mills, editors. , alan sutton: gloucester. p. – . despite frequent claims that the land tax poundage was fixed at s in the pound ( %) from , this appears to be a statutory maximum. see miller, s., the laws relating to the land tax its assessment collection redemption and sale. , london: sweet, p . latitude august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization at township level to alter both poundage and valuation is discussed in ginter, a measure of wealth. between and land tax fell almost entirely on real property. tithes, in principle analogous to rent, remained subject to land tax and have been variously treated by previous analysts. gray ‘yeoman farming’ ignored them; hunt ‘land ownership and enclosure’ attempted to exclude tithes in situations where before enclosure they were received in kind. ginter, a measure of wealth systematically included tithes. tithes would be pertinent to this study only if commuted into land, which does not appear to be the case. a small range of specific income streams remained liable to land tax including official salaries (at a nationally constant poundage of s in £ (ie %)). see evidence of wood and garnett in second report p ). some line-entries in the mottram return refer to the salaries of excise officers. despite claims (by authorities including miller the laws relating to the land tax, p ) that property with an annual value of less than £ ceased to be liable from , the stipulation of s of the act refers to the exemption of persons whose entire real property is worth less than £ , and merely extends previous provision. see for example burn, r., the justice of the peace, and parish officer. , london: cadell, p ). there appear to be no consequent changes in line entries in mottram in the years immediately after , and it is clear that locally property bundles with lower annual values were taxed although the aggregate values of property held by those liable exceeded £ . from , when land tax became perpetual, proprietors or occupiers (other than tenants at rack rent) were allowed to redeem their liability by payment of a lump sum (equivalent to fifteen year’s purchase). see p of hunt, h.g., ‘land tax assessments’. economic history review, . ns : p. – . they were thereafter ‘exonerated’, and although still listed in the returns, subsequent assessments of the annual value of their property remained constant, and so further development cannot be traced. from , further provisions allowed that if an owner did not redeem their land tax, another private person or group of people (‘the redemptioner’), could redeem but not exonerate that tax. under this arrangement the government received the lump sum as if the land tax had been exonerated, but continued collecting the tax for the redemptioner. (these arrangements were repealed in ). property subject to these arrangements were still liable to reassessment. see wood and garnett’s evidence in second report, p ). at least locally, such property was not separately identified in the returns. an act of confirmed and amended by further statutes allowed ecclesiastical and other bodies to sell property in order to redeem land tax liability. see miller the laws relating to the land tax, p ). from , the church’s liability with respect to both the glebe land and the tithes in mottram township were exonerated. provision for appeal is found in the statutory timetable for administering the tax as discussed by beckett, j.v., ‘land tax administration at the local level, – ’, in land and property: the english land tax – , m.t.d. mills, editor. , alan sutton: gloucester. p. – . in some cases the returns themselves indicate provision for appeal. although catholics who had not sworn an oath of allegiance and supremacy and who refused to do so were liable to double tax, beckett, ’land tax administration at the local level’, p , suggests that this did not usually occur in practice. national administrators doubted that liability was revised as development occurred, and assessors might have avoided reassessment ‘in the interests of local harmony’ (beckett ’land tax administration at the local level’, p ). ginter, ‘the incidence of revaluation’ and ginter a measure of wealth points to the frequency of reassessment of individual property. this possibility is raised in beckett, ’land tax administration at the local level’,p . note also that case law established that while the tenant might deduct the land tax from his rent, the amount deducted could only be the sum for which the property would be liable had it remained august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby in the form it was when the tenancy began, with liability for any improvements falls upon the tenant. eg sayer, b., an attempt to shew the justice and expediency of substituting an income or property tax for the present taxes .. , london: hatchard and miller, the laws relating to the land tax lord fitzwilliam, letter to laurence french , th or th dec , box x / , milton manuscripts, northamptonshire record office quoted in ginter, a measure of wealth p . beckett ’land tax administration at the local level’, p . the validity of this procedure can be tested by considering the frequency with which the standardized assessment remains constant from one year to the next in circumstances where the owner, occupier and description of the ‘property bundle’ remain the same. in , such cases the hypothesis of constancy holds; in it does not. those cases appear to reflect substantive change of the types of concern, allowing the conclusion that the fundamental stability of the (standardized) assessments provides a basis for identifying material change. miller, the laws relating to the land tax highway rate book for the township of mottram, – , dd / a, records of the heginbottom family, tameside local studies and archives, ashton-under-lyne. most land tax payers’ liability fell slightly, but the assessment of samuel matley’s printworks almost doubled, and that of beckett’s hodge mill increased by over %. land tax due on the larger of the township’s small farms in typically fell to two-thirds of the assessment, while the sum due on blocks of cottages with little associated land either remained almost constant or increased slightly. given the large number of distinct property values recorded, and the very low likelihood that a new survey had been undertaken, it seems possible that the ‘valuations’ underlying the land tax assessments for onward rests on a combination of more than one source. . limiting consideration to cases where the sum assessed was less than s (implying £ nav ) regressions was used to estimate nav on the basis of nav for chains starting in different circumstances (censored, expected built, split), with estimated values of nav ranging from % to % of nav ( . % for expected built property). on this basis, nav for new property has been treated as being . of the value of nav . ginter, a measure of wealth p . tithes were leased from to to william ulithorn wray, rector of darley, derbs, and afterwards to his widow. see lease for lives (copy nov ), , p / / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. from time to time, excisemen were resident in the township, and in principle there is a possibility that as their contribution to meeting the quota rose and fell, the contributions of other taxpayers might alter correspondingly. it is clear, however, from figure that no such adjustments were made. ginter, ‘the incidence of revaluation’ p . see ginter, ‘the incidence of revaluation; ginter, a measure of wealth. references to numbers of cottages, undertenants etc are found in tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, dtw series, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. local assessors were not consistent in their treatment of holdings of this last type- lessees being considered as proprietors in some years and in some cases, but not all. this notional value is very much less than the actual rental value, though this was not material to the local operation of the land tax in the period in question (or of consequence for estimation of area equivalents). august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization unfortunately, although there are good descriptions of the buildings in holdings leased from tollemache for years from , the range of descriptors seems too variable to provide useful measures of influences on the assessed value of built property. in some cases the number of houses or cottages is included, in others the numbers of bays of building together with their age and quality. these are shown in hilditch, r., aristocratic taxation: its present state origin and progress with proposals for reform. , london: simpkin and marshal, p any principle that bundles with an annual value less than £ was exempt from land tax either from or throughout - supposedly grounded in statute - is disputed (see endnote ). it is also possible that local assessors might seek to avoid taxing the least valuable cottages, even though this was not a legal requirement as the steward of a major landowner (treating aggregate tax liability of tenants as a deduction of total rent) might seek to determine the share of an estate’s land tax liability to be placed on each tenant. this practice is advised in mordant, j., the complete steward. , london: sandby. mordant’s exemplar estate accounts place no land tax responsibility on cottage tenants (vol , p – ). although he recommends this on the basis that the manor includes all the property within the township, he adds that ‘where the lord owns only part of the land .. the tax is to be proportioned to each tenant exactly (if he pays it) or if not to the value of the whole estate compared with others &c by the rule of proportion’ ibid p . if very small potential liabilities are spread across the entire estate, an untaxed residuum will exist, but the distinction between clumping and omission becomes a fine one. see bratko, prolog programming for artificial intelligence. , boston: addison- wesley. see pereira, f.c.n. and s.m. shieber, prolog and natural-language analysis. , brookline ma: microtome publishing. see siler, w. and j.j. buckley, fuzzy expert systems and fuzzy reasoning. , new york: wiley key sources amongst these are miller, the laws relating to the land tax and ginter, a measure of wealth. peirce, c., s, ‘harvard lectures on pragmatism’, in collected papers of charles sanders peirce, in hartshorne, c. and p. weiss, editors. , p – ) henstock . ‘house repopulation’ ibid. p . various land tax statutes specify that sums less than a halfpenny should be spread between years. see miller the laws relating to the land tax. comparison of line entries for tollemache property held by john goddard and samuel cook in and provides a simple illustration of this. between and cook’s liability for land tax fell by precisely the same amount as goddard’s increased, consistent with the possibility that property transferred between them. in this case, there is evidence from estate documentation that in fact cook’s occupation of marled field gave way to occupation by goddard. no bundle, however, corresponds to marled field; it passed from being part of one bundle to being part of another. it therefore cannot be sufficient to suggest that bundles in one year can be represented as combinations of bundles in adjacent years or that the land tax liability carried by a bundle can be decomposed as in [ ]. it is possible to define a set of differences that together with the values for the bundles themselves in contrast to [ ] exhaust all the ways in which any specific bundle could be composed. without any other information, it is possible (though very far from likely) that if any set of bundles in year y (for example [c’,g] in ) carried the same aggregate liability as another set in year y+ (eg [c,g’]) that they comprised the same property. in some of these cases, however, if for example c’ represented cook’s bundle in (ie with marled field), g represented goddard’s holding august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby in that same year and c and g’ represented their respective holdings in the following year (g’ including marled field), then the two sums c’-g and c-g’ would represent sums useful for present purposes, and the liability carried by the hidden part can of course be found by subtraction. cf quine, w.v o., word and object. , cambridge ma: mit press; heller, m., the ontology of physical objects: four-dimensional hunks of matter. , cambridge: cambridge university press, and jubien, m., ontology, modality, and the fallacy of reference. , cambridge: cambridge university press. quine, word and object. in principle, it would be appropriate to combine such simple prior probabilities with further subjective probabilities based on the evidence of the strength of similarity of the line entries. in the example above, the prior probability, p(h) might be seen as the degree of belief in the proposition that when tenant t surrendered his lease, s occupied his cottage, without knowing the identity of s or t. assessment of the similarity of the line entries provides some additional evidence, which might potentially be combined with p(h) allowing the subjective probability to be revised. according to bayes theorem, the revised probability p(h|e) given the evidence of similarity(e) is p(h|e) = p(e|h) 侹 p(h) p(e) where p(e|h) is the probability of finding that similarity given the proposition, and p(e) is the overall probability of such evidence of similarity being found. p(e) must be estimated as the sum of two components; the probability of finding the evidence of similarity if the hypothesis of continuity were true p(e|h) and the probability of finding that evidence if it were not p(e|∼h). the actual pattern of transitions that occurred cannot be known. moreover as an element of property can only pass to one chain, there are strong interactions between the probabilities. it combines seven sub-scores modified by a score for sequence within the line entries, inclusion of continuing parts and a penalty for complexity. in the middle of the range, a likelihood score of is assigned to a possible linkage between two unmatched line entries for successive years sharing the same liability and proprietor but different occupiers. reference to occupier names may be the only way to identify a specific bundle. indeed contemporary legal opinion held that ‘the names of the tenants were only inserted in order to shew for what property the landlords were rated’ (lord kenyon cj r v the inhabitants of folkestone michaelmas term ). see durnford, c, sir edward hyde east, term reports in the court of king’s bench, volume , london: butterworth. it is very important, however, that a circumstance where a tenant relinquishes one tenancy and takes on another is not mistaken for a change in the nature of a holding. see bequest of -year interest in tollemache land ‘with the tenant right and benefit of renewal thereof’: will of samuel radcliffe of mottram in longdendale, , ws ,cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. more generally see mordant, complete steward, p – or marshall, on the management of landed estates, who asks ’what superintendent who knows the difficulty of procuring a good tenant would wish to discharge him? and no such tenant will readily leave the farm he is settled upon if he find proper treatment’ (p ). the term rigid designator was introduced in kripke, s., naming and necessity. , cambridge ma:harvard university press to characterize the relation between a name and its referent. the less orthodox approach here, resting on jubien, ontology, modality, and the fallacy of reference proves helpful in dealing with changing objects of uncertain extent. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization this might be thought of as analogous to treating perduring objects as a series of stages rather than a d space-time worm as in sider, t., ‘the stage view and temporary intrinsics’. analysis, . : p. – bennett held a wide range of financial assets including bank of england debt and a mortgage portfolio in addition to substantial real property interests including the freehold of substantial cotton mills. see also endnote . in a printed form was used in mottram for setting out land tax liabilities, annual values were recorded for the first and only time, and care was taken to identify tollemache -year leaseholders accurately, consistently treating them as proprietors. two additional holdings were assessed for the first time (both at £ nav ), both of which were subject to -year leases granted some years before (to band( ) and marshall ( ), one on an existing cottage with an unusually low rent. assessment of one of these (band) ceased after , ending the chain, but resumed in , the year of the local revaluation. there are three groups of circumstances a patch cannot be located with sufficient precision to identify a land parcel that could be projected on to the national grid. in the first, a series of patches will be known to correspond to an area of land, but the portions of that land belonging to each patch cannot be known. this is typical of patches on the stamford and warrington estate, but the bounds of the two patches created by temporary division of tollemache estate c from , for example, are similarly unknown. the second circumstance involves cottage property (with any associated land) of unknown extent. such patches might be thought of as occupying unassigned cottage space (the overall distribution of which can be approximated). in principle, the location of property of this second type might be taken further by first representing unassigned cottage space as a grid of probabilities (having taken account of assigned space within the township and various sketch maps and drawings). having probabilistically represented the entire unassigned cottage space, a particular patch might then be probabilistically located by reference to ordering information from the land tax returns and the notional annual value. the third circumstance is where cottage property of this type represents part of a patch. aiken, description of the country from thirty to forty miles round manchester, p . see chalkin, c.w., ‘the provincial towns of georgian england: a study of the building process, – ’. , london: edward arnold. the holding broken up in included messuages - far more than any other holding within the mottram estate cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester lubow, l., b, ‘from carpenter to capitalist: the business of building in postrevolutionary boston’. , boston: northeastern university press p the lease is amongst counterpart leases and expired and leases, mottram, – , dtw/ /f/ , tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. in , bretnor’s or brow cottage is also found away from the village. chadwick, w., reminiscences of mottram. , stalybridge p . malcolmson, r.w., life and labour in england, – . , london: hutchinson, p between and the tenants of hodge mill were marsland, holt (bankrupt), moss and swindells with a vacant spell between holt and moss when tollemache himself became liable for the land tax. john swindells and his partner john dale are alternately reported between and . the partnership between moss and swindells was dissolved in , after which moss with other partners developed wharf mill. cow keeping had been used to attract skilled labour by samuel greg at styal. see also redford, a., labour migration in england, – . , manchester: manchester university press, chapter . august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby ‘mottram-in-longdendale has often been spoken of as a finished town, as few, if any one, could speak of new houses being erected, except in place of other houses or repairs’. the manchester times and gazette (manchester, england), saturday, july , ; issue . ‘finished town’ seems to have been in fairly frequent use in the nineteenth century. in rents on properties shown in ‘rent accounts for premises, mainly cottages and small houses in mottram, hattersley and glossop co. derby, – , ddx / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester) were typically double the rateable value (notionally a measure of annual value) shown in the mottram highway rate book for that year (see endnote ). a comment in a survey of dtw/ tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester confirms the unexpectedly high yield of cottage property. the land tax shows virtually no development on the tollemache or stamford and warrington estates on this period, nor does the tollemache archive in chester record office (dtw) tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. the sidebottom brothers were recorded as owners of units (all built since ) in the highway rate book (see endnote ). expansion of the sidebottom enterprise between and , with the operation of a second mill on the site from and a third from is summarised in their evidence to the royal commission of employment of children in factories of factories inquiry commission. supplementary report of the central board of his majesty’s commissioners appointed to collect information in the manufacturing districts, as to the employment of children in factories, and as to the propriety and means of curtailing the hours of their labour, ( ). its scale relative to other local cotton mills can be gauged by the crompton census of – . the expansion of the matley’s hodge printworks can be gauged in part from the land tax returns, but its employment cannot be estimated before (resolution of confidence in richard cobden and his work towards the repeal of the corn laws, , employees in the calico printing works of richard matley of hodge. signatures, cobden/ ,west sussex county record office, chichester). the block at hodge (chain ) is described in p – of nevell, m., the archaeology of industrialisation and the textile industry: the example of manchester and the south-western pennine uplands during the th century (part )’. industrial archaeology review, . ( ): p. – . the ‘houses’ of the census for mottram township should be compared with the of the census and the separately rated properties in the mottram highway ratebook (see endnote ), of which were owned by the sidebottom brothers. see rent accounts and papers relating to the affairs of john [sic] bennett of mottram in longdendale, solicitor and property owner, – , ddx / , cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. his role subsumes those discussed by anderson, b., l, ‘the attorney and the early capital market in lancashire’, in liverpool and merseyside, j.r. harris, editor. , cass: london. p. – . apart from bennett’s control of the titterton farm he received rents on the ‘cottages by the church yard side’ that estate documentation indicates had been let with it. whatever his relationship with kershaw’s freehold at harryfields, his account book shows a stream of rents coming from bowers its tenant, and this role continued when ownership of the harryfields freehold shifted to the sidebottom brothers. dtw / , tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester. despite the availability of a recently commissioned series of local studies, and despite the fact that property remaining from the boom of – lends the present day village much of its physical character, a recent conservation area appraisal (tameside ) demonstrates that this decisive episode in its development remains unknown. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex reconstructing urbanization these events are, however, documented in nevell and walker, tameside in transition; sayer, m., broadbottom – : a history. , broadbottom: broadbottom community association, and haynes, the cotton industry in hollingworth and mottram-in-longdendale. the current narrative could be potentially enriched by sustained analysis of bennett’s account books, ddx ) cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester but this would be difficult without the organizing framework of the land tax chains. hammond, j. and b. hammond the skilled labourer. , london: longmans, green & co, p . the phrase is from revans’ evidence in fourth report from the select committee on the national land company; together with the minutes of evidence, – ( ), p . appendix of first report of the commission on the state of large towns and populous districts, – , ( ), provides population and mortality statistics for the ashton and oldham registration district (appendix p ). this area had a population of almost , - much greater than birmingham or leeds, but only , people (ie %) lived in ashton itself - the ‘large town’ examined subsequently. the area included both mottram and bamford’s middleton km’s away (see endnote ); the true character of bamford’s vast scattered city being evident from the ordnance survey six-inch maps of lancashire of c. . the specific case is discussed tangentially in mathews, s., ‘the cheshire estates of john tollemache of peckforton, – ’. transactions of the historic society of lancashire and cheshire, . : p. – . that examination is critical of the consequences of granting year leases, wrongly assuming that they covered agricultural land rather than building plots. one local example of failure to overlooks total local revaluation in and treats change at the hodge printworks as vast investment (haynes, the cotton industry in hollingworth and mottra m-in-longdendale). given concern with the provision of shelter, and the frequent references in tollemache estate notebooks to the effect that dwellings have be sub-divided (‘house in two dwellings’) or recombined, the lack of concern with numbers of units is easily understood. the work reported here indicates that at least in this particular circumstance it is possible to track the creation of dwelling space, but not the number of dwelling units. abstract of the answers and returns made pursuant to an act, passed in the first year of the reign of his majesty king george iv, intituled,"an act for taking an account of the population of great britain, and of the increase or diminution thereof. ( ) mingay, g.e., ‘the land tax assessments and the small landowner’. economic history review, . : p. – . noble, n., ‘the land tax returns in the study of the physical development of country towns’, in land and property the english land tax – , m.t.d. mills, editor. , alan sutton: gloucester. stamford property was held by tenants on leases for three lives, rather than for a fixed term (cf clay, c., ‘lifeleasehold in the western counties of england – ’. agricultural history review, . : p. – ). on payment of a fine, on the death of the first or second life tenants might make up their three lives again. this is a form of tenure distinct from that of ‘leasehold for lives-determinable-on-years’ found after on the tollemache estate and which occupied an intermediate position between lifehold and a lease for a fixed term. divergence between land tax and estate documentation in this particular case arises from uncertainty over the whereabouts of an individual who deserting his wife surreptitiously left the district more than years before. see letter, joshua hegginbottom to worthington & nicholls, , hattersley building grounds, box no : hill : – , ashton- stalybridge from enville, tameside local studies and archives, ashton-under-lyne. august , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex peter bibby valuation (detailed) of the mottram, micklehurst and arnfield tollemache estate, , dtw / , tollemache (wilbraham of woodhey) collection, cheshire archive and local studies service, cheshire record office, chester the term is used in the sense of rose-redwood, r., and a. tantner, ’introduction: governmentality, house numbering and the spatial history of the modern city urban history, . : p. . wood and garnett ’s evidence in second report p – . cf miller, p. and n. rose, ‘governing economic life’, economy and society . : p. – ;.barry, a., ‘lines of communication and spaces of rule’, in foucault and political reason: liberalism, neo-liberalism and rationalities of government, in barry, a., t., osborne and n. rose editors. , university of chicago press: chicago. p. – ; and rose, n., powers of freedom: reframing political thought. , cambridge: cambridge university press. rose-redwood, r., ‘governmentality, geography, and the geo-coded world’. progress in human geography, . ( ): p. – , esp. p . eg sperber, d., and d. wilson, relevance: communication and cognition. , oxford: blackwell. assessing and improving human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- v submitted on feb hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. assessing and improving human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation pauline maurice, vincent padois, yvan measson, philippe bidaud to cite this version: pauline maurice, vincent padois, yvan measson, philippe bidaud. assessing and improv- ing human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation. international journal of computer integrated manufacturing, taylor & francis, , ( ), pp. - . � . / x. . �. �hal- v � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- v https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr assessing and improving human movements using sensitivity analysis and digital human simulation pauline mauricea,b,d, vincent padoisb,c, yvan meassond and philippe bidaudb,e auniversité de lorraine, cnrs, inria, loria, f- nancy, france; bsorbonne université, cnrs umr , institut des systèmes intelligents et de robotique, isir, f- paris, france; cinria, centre bordeaux sud-ouest, équipe auctus inria / ims (univ. bordeaux, cnrs umr ), f- talence, france; dcea, list, interactive robotics laboratory, gif-sur-yvette, f- , france; eonera, palaiseau, france abstract enhancing the performance of technical movements aims both at improving opera- tional results and at reducing biomechanical demands. advances in human biome- chanics and modeling tools allow to evaluate human performance with more and more details. finding the right modifications to improve the performance is, how- ever, still addressed with extensive time consuming trial-and-error processes. this paper presents a framework for easily assessing human movements and automatically providing recommendations to improve their performances. an optimization-based whole-body controller is used to dynamically replay human movements from motion capture data, to evaluate existing movements. automatic digital human simulations are then run to estimate performance indicators when the movement is performed in many different ways. sensitivity indices are thereby computed to quantify the influence of postural parameters on the performance. based on the results of the sensitivity analysis, recommendations for posture improvement are provided. the method is successfully validated on a drilling activity. keywords digital human simulation, dynamic motion replay, sensitivity analysis of human motion, ergonomics. . introduction performance enhancement in technical postures or movements has always been of great concern. in numerous applications the overall performance is twofold, consist- ing of both the achievement of some operational goal and the minimization of the biomechanical demands experienced by the person. workstations designers now often take into account the exposure to musculoskeletal disorders risk factors in addition to workers’ productivity (schneider and irastorza ; nrc ). in sports, coaches aim at finding the right movement to improve athletes’ results while preventing in- juries (fortenbaugh, fleisig, and andrews ; robinson and odonoghue ). in rehabilitation, knowing which motion patterns alleviate the stress on a weakened body part helps provide exercises or recommendations to prevent further injury (sturnieks et al. ). the assessment and improvement of a movement are usually conducted under the supervision of an expert (e.g. ergonomist, physiotherapist) who observes the person corresponding author: pauline maurice. email: pauline.maurice@polytechnique.org. performing the activity and provides recommendations based on his/her knowledge and experience. the availability of experts may however be limited. besides, obser- vational methods provide only qualitative measures of the biomechanical demands experienced by the person. digital human software (software in which human motions are reproduced with a digital human model) have therefore been developed to as- sist and supplement experts (e.g. opensim (delp et al. ), anybody (damsgaard et al. )). such software enable easy access to detailed force and motion-related biomechanical quantities, which otherwise can only be measured on real humans with complex instrumentation, if at all (e.g. muscle or joint forces). however, the relia- bility of these biomechanical measurements is questionable (hicks et al. ). one key factor is the mapping of the human motion onto the digital model: the resulting motion should be dynamically consistent (i.e. respect the laws of physics) to enhance the reliability of force-related quantities. yet, existing software do not guarantee such consistency (hicks et al. ). the other difficulty in improving technical movements lies in the identification of suitable modifications which will enhance the performance (fig. ). relations between the macroscopic parameters of the movement (i.e. adjustable parameters defining the way the movement is performed) and the resulting performances are often complex. therefore, despite advances in human biomechanics and modeling tools, successful modifications generally still result from an intensive trial-and-error process. in (demir- can ), demircan proposes a tool for analyzing the relation between novice and expert athletes’ movements and the resulting performances. this tool reveals the fea- tures differentiating an efficient movement from a non-efficient one, but cannot provide explicit recommendations for an optimal execution. besides, a single performance cri- terion is considered (tool acceleration), whereas a detailed assessment of biomechanical performances relies on several quantities which may be differently affected by a same parameter of the movement (e.g. joint loads, joint positions, energy consumption). this paper presents a framework to assess the performance of a technical movement and easily identify how to improve it, while addressing the aforementioned concerns. the proposed framework consists of two components: • a method for replaying pre-recorded human motions while ensuring the dy- namic consistency of the resulting motion. this dynamic replay relies on an optimization-based controller which enables to track subjects’ motion in oper- ational space, while imposing dynamic and biomechanical constraints. existing situations can thus be evaluated. • a method for analyzing the dependence between parameters and performances of the movement. a variety of situations are automatically created and evaluated using an autonomous digital human model (no motion capture), and a sensitivity analysis is conducted on the simulation results. the critical parameters of the movement can thus be identified and tuned, using only little input data. the paper is organized as follows. section presents the two components of the framework, with an emphasis on the dynamic replay method. the sensitivity analysis part has already been published in (maurice et al. ) and is only briefly described here. section describes the experimental set-up which is used as a proof of concept of the proposed framework. the results are presented in section and discussed in section . . method human motion is often captured through optical motion capture techniques, in which markers are positioned on the human body and cameras record the markers d posi- tions. the recorded markers trajectories are then mapped onto a digital human model (dhm) to estimate movement-related biomechanical quantities. despite their exten- sive use, the current mapping techniques still lack physical consistency, especially when the motion is highly dynamic and/or involves significant interaction forces with the environment. note that the retargetting problem (i.e. mapping the motion of a subject onto an avatar with a different morphology is not considered here. this work assumes that the dhm morphology can be adapted to each subject, and that its kinematics is very similar to the human body kinematics. . . dynamic replay of human motion: related work recorded human motions are commonly mapped onto a dhm with inverse kinematics techniques (ik), which convert markers operational (i.e. cartesian) space trajectories into joint space trajectories. with ik, kinematic quantities such as joint positions and velocities can be measured. conversely, the estimation of the driving forces (joint torques or muscle forces) requires an additional inverse dynamics (id) step, in which forces are computed from the dhm dynamic model and the joint space trajectories resulting from ik. though widely used, the ik+id process has several drawbacks. first, the ik step can be time consuming. second, the ik solution is not unique, so the resulting motion may not be plausible. many authors address this concern by using a modified ik to match the resulting motion with a given set of constraints (lee and shin ; grochow et al. ). however, the dynamic properties of the human body are not considered so the computed motion is not dynamically consistent (such techniques are especially used in computer animation, where the visual realism is the primary concern). this inconsistency prevents the force equilibrium in the id step when experimental external forces are added (e.g. ground reaction force). in opensim, for instance, this inconsistency appears in residual forces (hicks et al. ). in order to improve the dynamic consistency of the replayed motion, some studies include dynamic considerations in the motion computation. multon et al. (multon et al. ) combine ik with dynamic corrections, modifying motion capture data to respond to physical collision forces. da silva et al. (da silva, abe, and popović ) and muico et al. (muico et al. ) directly use controller-based techniques including dynamic constraints to animate a dhm, but they still require the joint trajectories resulting from ik as an input. to avoid the ik step, some authors work directly in the operational space. john and dariush (john and dariush ) use a task space kinematic control method (closed- loop inverse kinematics) and dynamic constraints to track the motion directly in task space. ott et al. (ott, lee, and nakamura ) connect the markers to the dhm body with virtual springs, and use the generated forces to compute the dhm motion through the dynamic model equation. demircan et al. (demircan et al. ) use an operational space approach based on null-space projection (khatib ) to track the cartesian markers trajectories. however, these techniques cannot explicitly take into account certain constraints of the movement. specifically, inequality constraints such as joint limits cannot be included in null-space projection techniques. instead, authors resort to suboptimal heuristics to account for inequality constraints through avoidance tasks (sentis and khatib ), or simply dismiss these constraints. . . dhm controller the dynamic replay method presented in this work is based on a direct control of markers in the operational space through an optimization-based controller. unlike analytical techniques such as explicit null-space projection (khatib ), numerical optimization-based techniques enable to solve the human kinematic redundancy while explicitly taking into account both equality and inequality constraints. the dhm used here is a rigid body model which does not include muscles. each joint is controlled by a single ideal rotational actuator, so the actuation variables are the joint torques. though muscle-related quantities cannot be measured with such a model, biomechanical demands can be estimated with quantities such as joint loads, joint dy- namics, or mechanical energy. besides, while musculoskeletal models have proved valid and insightful in specific cases, no general criterion has been established yet to solve the muscle recruitment problem. this is a concern for the reliability of muscle-related measurements (hicks et al. ; thelen, anderson, and delp ; damsgaard et al. ; chaffin, andersson, and martin ). the questionable gain of information and the significantly higher computational cost therefore reduces the interest of mus- culoskeletal models in the current context. the dhm motion is computed with the linear quadratic programming (lqp) con- troller framework developed by salini et al. (salini, padois, and bidaud ). lqp handles the optimization of a quadratic objective that depends on variables subjected to linear equality and inequality constraints. the variables are the joint torques, but also the contact forces. the ground reaction force (grf) is therefore computed in the optimization process, and does not need to be recorded beforehand to replay the motion. the grf estimation is a significant advantage over most of the other motion replay techniques since it simplifies the experimental set-up. the control problem is formulated as follows: argmin x ∑ i ωiti(x) s.t.   m(q)ν̇ + c(q, ν) + g(q) = s τ − ∑ j jtcj (q)wcj gx � h ( ) where τ is the vector of joint torques, wcj the contact wrench of the j-th contact point, q the generalized coordinates of the system (i.e. joint angles), ν the generalized velocity concatenating the free-floating base twist and the joint velocities q̇, and x = (τ t , wc t )t . the equality constraint is the equation of motion; m is the inertia matrix of the system, c the vector of centrifugal and coriolis forces, g the vector of gravity forces, s the actuation selection matrix due to the free-floating base, and jtc the jacobian of contacts. the inequality constraint includes the bounds on joint positions, velocities, and torques formulated in τ , and the contact existence conditions for each contact point according to the coulomb friction model: ccj wcj ≤ ∀j jcj (q)ν̇ + j̇cj (ν, q)ν = ∀j ( ) where ccj is the linearized friction cone of the j-th contact point. the objective function is a weighted sum (weights ωi) of tasks ti representing the squared error between a desired acceleration or wrench and the system accelera- tion/wrench. the solution is a compromise between the different tasks, based on their relative weights (the proposed method could however easily be adapted to a strict priority strategy such as hierarchical quadratic programming (escande, mansard, and wieber )). four categories of tasks are defined by the following errors: • operational space acceleration ‖jiν̇ + j̇iν − ẍ∗i‖ • joint space acceleration ‖q̈− q̈∗‖ • operational space wrench ‖wi −w∗i ‖ • joint torque ‖τ −τ ∗‖ where ẍi is the cartesian acceleration of body i, and wi the wrench associated with body i. the superscript ∗ refers to the desired acceleration/wrench/torque. the desired acceleration is defined by a proportional derivative control: z̈∗ = z̈goal + kv(ż goal − ż) + kp(zgoal −z) ( ) where z stands for x or q, and kp and kv are the proportional and derivative gains. the superscript goal indicates the position, velocity and acceleration wanted for the body or joint (reference trajectory). note that the acceleration variable ν̇ can be expressed as a function of x using the equation of motion. . . tasks for motion replay the recorded motion is mapped onto the dhm by creating an operational accelera- tion task for each marker placed on the subject’s body, and using the recorded marker trajectories as reference trajectories (fig. ). due to unavoidable differences between the human and dhm kinematics, the markers tracking tasks alone are often not suffi- cient to maintain the dhm balance (the balance is in open-loop control and the dhm falls). a center of mass (com) acceleration task is therefore added to control bal- ance. the reference com acceleration is computed with a zero moment point (zmp) preview control method (kajita et al. ). additionally, if the activity includes ex- erting intentional force on the environment (e.g. pushing an object), an operational space wrench task is created at the hand. the original zmp preview control scheme is modified to take into account these known external forces acting on the dhm. unlike the grf, the intentional reference force must be given as an input to the controller (e.g. from force sensor measurement or known object features). in order to obtain a natural posture even when some body segments are not entirely constrained by the markers tracking tasks, preferred joint angles are specified with joint acceleration tasks (corresponding to a standing posture arms along the body). eventually, joint torque minimization tasks are added to prevent useless effort and ensure the uniqueness of the solution to the optimization problem. given the high number of tasks in the controller and the differences between the hu- man and dhm kinematics, not all tasks can be fully fulfilled. the weighting strategy of the controller allows to deal with conflicting objectives, but tasks weights nevertheless affect the resulting motion. the balance task, for instance, is required to prevent the figure . two different ways of pushing a heavy object, resulting in different biomechanical demands on the human body (inspired from (demircan )). positions velocities accelerations forces torques physical consistency dynamic replay balance markers manipulation force posture - effort lqp controller operational space acceleration task operational space wrench task joint torque task joint space acceleration task figure . joint space and operational space tasks used in the lqp controller for the dynamic replay of human motion. dhm from falling, but alters the lower and mid-body markers tracking tasks. approx- imate values of tasks weights are first determined from common sense. in accordance with demircan et al. (demircan et al. ), distal markers tasks are assigned larger weights than proximal markers tasks to reduce the effect of cumulative errors in pre- ceding joint positions. joint space tasks (torque minimization and preferred posture) have the lowest weights since they are background tasks. weights are then manually tuned by trial-and-error. though time consuming in the first place, the tuning process does not need to be repeated; the weights obtained are general enough to be used for successfully replaying many different activities. the weights values are given in table . . . sensitivity analysis of human performances the dynamic replay method allows easy measurement of operational and biomechani- cal performances with a dhm. but these measurements alone do not give information about the postural changes which would enhance the overall performance. providing postural recommendations requires to know the influence of the adjustable postural parameters on the movement performance. most of the time, however, no straightfor- ward analytical relation between parameters and performances is available. this work therefore proposes to establish parameter-performance influence through a statistical sensitivity analysis. the sensitivity analysis method has already been published in (maurice et al. ) in the context of collaborative robots assessment. the method is summarized below, with a focus on its application to movement improvement. statistical sensitivity analysis relies on numerical evaluation of the output (indi- cators of performance) for numerous values of the input parameters (saltelli, chan, and scott ). given the large number of trials required, movements are simulated with an autonomous dhm so that many situations can rapidly be tested without the need for any human subjects. unlike motion capture and replay, the motion of an autonomous dhm is automatically generated from high-level descriptions of the tasks to execute. the whole process for analyzing the dependence between the postural pa- rameters of a given movement and the resulting performance is summarized as follows (fig. ): ( ) define the adjustable parameters characterizing the way the movement is per- formed (e.g. position/orientation with respect to the environment, initial pos- ture), and select among all the possible combinations the values that should be tested. ( ) simulate the movement with an autonomous dhm for each selected combination of parameters values, and measure the associated performance indicators. ( ) compute sensitivity measures for the performance indicators, based on their values in all the tested cases. in step , the adjustable parameters and the numerical bounds within which these parameters are allowed to vary depend on the movement that is considered. as such, their choice is not addressed by the method described here. instead the choice is left to the user. appropriate numerical values to test for each of the selected parameters are determined according to the experimental design of the extended fast method (fourier amplitude sensitivity testing) (saltelli, tarantola, and chan ). the fast exploration method is a good compromise between the comprehensiveness of the space exploration and the number of trials. in step , the dhm is animated with an lqp controller similar to the one used table . numerical values of the tasks weights used for dynamic re- play. task weight balance m a rk e rs back head . shoulder . elbow hand knee ankle p o st u re back − neck − scapula − shoulder − elbow − wrist − hip − knee − ankle − torque minimization − task description parameters set #nparameters set # human and task parameters selection ... analysis relevant indicators influential parameters indicators set # indicators set #n... dynamic simulation manikin controller lqp figure . flow chart of the method for analyzing the dependence between postural parameters of the task and resulting operational/biomechanical performances. for motion replay, but the markers tracking tasks are replaced by hands and/or feet operational acceleration tasks (depending on the goal of the movement). the reference trajectory – or at least the start and end points – must still be given as an input to the simulation. a detailed assessment of biomechanical performances requires several indicators to account for the different demands (e.g. posture, effort, energy). the number of performance indicators should however be limited to facilitate the analysis, while suf- ficiently accounting for the overall performance. hence, step aims at identifying both the most relevant performance indicators and the most influential parameters (i.e. the parameters that have the strongest effects on the relevant indicators). in the context of performance improvement, the relevance of an indicator is not related to its value but to its variations when the movement is performed in different ways; if the value of an indicator remains unchanged whichever way the movement is performed, this indicator is not useful to compare different situations. therefore indicators are ranked according to their variance, after they have been normalized to make the variances comparable. the number of indicators that should be kept is then chosen according to the scree test (jolliffe ). eventually, the influence of each parameter on the relevant performance indicators is estimated by computing sobol indices which measure the percentage of variance of an indicator that is explained by the parameter (hoeffding ; sobol ). sobol first order indices si and total indices sti are used because they give information about the ith parameter xi independently from the influence of other parameters (homma and saltelli ). a high si means that xi alone strongly affects the performance indicator, while a small sti means that xi has very little influence, even through interactions. this method allows to identify which parameters should mainly be tuned to improve the overall performance. it should be noted that sobol indices represent relative contributions, i.e., they inform on the influence of a parameter compared to all parameters within the tested set. . experiment this section presents an application of the method for guiding performance enhance- ment presented in the previous sections. human motions are recorded and replayed to evaluate the dynamic replay method. the sensitivity analysis is then applied to the considered movement, and the results are used to provide postural recommendations. the improved situation is compared to the original one to ensure that the proposed recommendations do enhance the performance. it should be noted that the application presented here is a proof of concept of the method proposed in this paper. . . task description an industrial manual task requiring significant effort is used as a test case. the tasks consists in drilling six holes consecutively in a vertical slab of autoclaved aerated concrete (dimensions: × cm) with a portable electric drill. the locations of the holes are imposed and depicted on fig. . the drill weighs . kg. the average force needed to drill a hole in these conditions is around n (measured with a force sensor embedded in the drill). the task duration is not constrained, but it takes about min to perform the whole activity (take the drill, drill the six holes, put the drill down). aside from the task correct execution (i.e. localization and depth of the holes), the main concern is the biomechanical performance: biomechanical demands should be minimized in order to decrease the risk of disease or injury. . . motion capture set-up . . . participants five right-handed healthy students ( males and females) aged to years take part in the experiment (average size . ± . m; average body mass index . ± . kg.m− ). all participants gave informed consent before starting the experiment. each participant performs the task ten times, with a resting period between each trial. the drill is held with the right hand only. participants choose their feet positions; they are allowed to move their feet between each trial but not within a trial. . . . instrumentation participants’ motions are recorded with a codamotion system at hz. participants are equipped with markers spread all over their body (both legs, both arms, back and head). they stand on an amti force plate while performing the task to measure the grf (for validation purpose only). a axes ati force sensor is embedded in the drill handle to measure the drilling forces (fig. ). the recorded data are filtered with a zero-phase hz low pass th order butterworth filter. all recorded data are available upon request. . . . replay the recorded motions are replayed with a dhm using the dynamic replay method described in section . . the drilling force measured with the force sensor is used as an input to the simulation, whereas the grf measured with the force plate is used for validation purpose (in the simulation the grf is automatically computed by the dhm controller). simulations are run in the xde dynamic simulation framework developed by cea- list (merlhiot et al. ). the dhm consists of rigid bodies linked together by compound joints, for a total of degrees of freedom (dofs), plus dofs for the free-floating base. each dof is a revolute joint controlled by a single actuator. given each participant’s size and mass, the dhm is automatically scaled according to average anthropometric coefficients . each body segment can be further manually modified to match the participant’s morphology when needed. . . sensitivity analysis set-up . . . postural parameters in manual tasks, postural parameters that can be adjusted are generally related to participants’ position/orientation with respect to the environment. for the drilling www.codamotion.com http://www.amti.biz/ http://www.ati-ia.com/products/ft/ft_models.aspx?id=gamma segments lengths: http://www.openlab.psu.edu/tools/calculators/proportionalityconstant, segments masses: http://biomech.ftvs.cuni.cz/pbpk/kompendium/biomechanika/geometrie_hmotnost_vypocet_en www.codamotion.com http://www.amti.biz/ http://www.ati-ia.com/products/ft/ft_models.aspx?id=gamma http://www.openlab.psu.edu/tools/calculators/proportionalityconstant http://biomech.ftvs.cuni.cz/pbpk/kompendium/biomechanika/geometrie_hmotnost_vypocet_en task, nine parameters are defined and listed in table , along with their user-defined limits. they include morphology-related parameters to check whether the formulated recommendations should depend on the the person’s morphology or not. note that the parameters used in this work are specific to the task addressed. the proposed analysis method is generic and can be applied to any movement, however the list of parameters and their bounds are movement-specific. the r software sensitivity toolbox is used to select, within the user-defined nu- merical bounds, the parameters values that need to be tested for the extended fast analysis. the sample size and set of frequencies are chosen based on the number of parameters, according to the recommendations of saltelli et al. (saltelli, tarantola, and chan ). they result in a total of simulations. one simulation takes approximately min (real time: s) on one core of a . ghz intel r coretm i laptop. the simulations are parallelized on cores. . . . simulations the drilling task is simulated in the xde framework with the autonomous dhm. only the right hand trajectory and force are explicitly specified. the reference hand trajectory and drilling force profile are estimated from the data recorded for the replay step. the dhm feet do not move during a simulation, except if balance cannot be maintained and the dhm falls. the correctness of the drilling task execution is ensured by checking the hand actual trajectory and force in each simulation. . . . performance indicators indicators are measured to assess the biomechanical performance. they are chosen to quantify as exhaustively as possible the effects of all kinds of physical demands, including dynamic phenomena (see maurice et al. for a detailed description of the indicators (maurice et al. )). indicators are local quantities which directly estimate joint demands: joint position, velocity, acceleration, power and torque for the right arm, left arm, back and legs respectively. indicators are global quantities which represent the ability of a person to comfortably perform certain actions. the force ( resp. velocity ) transmission ratio of the right hand estimates the capacity to produce force (resp. movement) in the drilling direction (chiu ). the sum of the square distances between the center of pressure (cop) and the base of support boundaries (balance stability margin) (xiang et al. ), and the time before the cop reaches the base of support boundary (dynamic balance) estimate the balance quality. the kinetic energy of the whole body estimates human power consumption due to movement. in order to make the variances comparable, the indicators must be scaled because they have non-homogeneous units and different orders of magnitude. experimentally obtained reference values are used for the scaling (see (maurice et al. ) for more details). to summarize each time-varying indicator in a single value, time-integral values over a whole simulation are used. it should be noted that these biomechanical indicators are independent from the method presented in section . the method can be used with any indicators of human performance that can be measured on a dhm. http://www.r-project.org http://www.r-project.org motion capture camera force platemotion capture markers embedded force sensor x y z figure . motion and force capture instrumentation for the drilling task. a commercial drill has been modified to embed a force sensor. the red circles on the slab represent the drilling points. table . parameters definition and limit values for the drilling task. the total horizontal distance between the pelvis and the stab center is equal to the value of the corresponding parameter plus the arm length of the dhm. the right foot is front when the inter-feet distance in the sagittal plane is positive. the influence of the person’s morphology is taken into account both directly (with the dhm size and body mass index parameters) and indirectly since some parameters are partly calculated based on the dhm size (inter-feet distance in frontal plane, vertical distance between shoulder and stab center, horizontal distance between pelvis and stab center). parameter minimum maximum dhm size (m) . . dhm body mass index (kg.m− ) . . preferred elbow flexion angle (◦) inter-feet distance in frontal plane (% of hip width) inter-feet distance in sagittal plane (m) - . . orientation of drill handle w.r.t. vertical (◦) pelvis horizontal orientation w.r.t. normal to stab (◦) - vertical distance between shoulder and stab center (m) - . . horizontal distance between pelvis and stab center (m + dhm arm length) - . . . results this section presents the comparison between the recorded and replayed motions (fig. ), the output of the sensitivity analysis, and the comparison of the initial and improved situations. . . dynamic replay validation . . . motion the reliability of the replayed motion is assessed by comparing the d cartesian posi- tions of the experimental markers (recorded with the codamotion) with the simulated ones (points on the dhm body). the rms errors between the experimental and simulated markers positions are presented in table . the tracking error is smaller than cm for all markers except the knee and right shoulder markers. the tracking error is smaller for the distal body parts, in accordance with the tasks weights distribution in the controller (higher weights for distal body parts). the tracking is better for the left arm than for the right arm because the left arm remains almost still. the right hand tracking error is nevertheless satisfactory (around cm), given that the overall length of the hand trajectory is about m. the results are consistent across participants. . . . force the reliability of the force data should be assessed by comparing the dhm joint torques computed with the controller with the human joint torques estimated from muscle forces. however, getting reliable human joint torques measurements is a practi- cal issue. conversely, the grf is easily measured and provides an indirect estimation of the joint torques through the equation of motion (equality constraint in eq. ). the experimental grf (measured with the force plate) and simulated grf (computed with the dhm controller) are therefore compared. the pearson’s linear correlation coefficient r between the experimental and simu- lated grf components is given in table . a good correlation is observed for each grf component (four components with r ≥ . , two components with r ≥ . ). no significant permanent force/moment offset is observed (fig. ). fy (direction of drilling) shows a better correlation than fx and fz because the variations of fy have a larger amplitude (fig. ). there are no significant differences across participants, except for the vertical force fz. the disparity of the fz results might however be due to the lower precision of the force plate in this direction, because of the higher load. . . sensitivity analysis out of biomechanical indicators, are identified as relevant for the drilling task by the sensitivity analysis. these relevant indicators are given in table . together they account for % of the total variance information, so little information is lost by not taking into account the other indicators. the presence of the upper-body torque and position indicators among the relevant indicators is consistent with the physical demands of the drilling task (exerting a significant force with the right hand while covering an extended area). the absence of any velocity and acceleration indicators is expected since the drilling task does not require fast motions. figure . motion capture (left) and dynamic replay with the lqp controller (right) of the drilling task. a video of the recorded and replayed motions is available in the supplementary material. table . average rms error between the experimental and sim- ulated d markers positions across the trials, for the partici- pants (si stands for subject i). several markers are placed on each body/joint, but only the largest rms error of all markers placed on a body/joint is given. position rms error (cm) s s s s s mean sd ankle . . . . . . . knee . . . . . . . back . . . . . . . head . . . . . . . right shoulder . . . . . . . left shoulder . . . . . . . right elbow . . . . . . . left elbow . . . . . . . right wrist/hand . . . . . . . left wrist/hand . . . . . . . table . average pearson’s correlation coefficient be- tween the simulated and experimental grf components across the trials, for the participants (si stands for subject i). x is the sagittal axis, y the frontal axis (drilling direction), and z the vertical axis. force moment fx fy fz mx my mz s . . . . . . s . . . . . . s . . . . . . s . . . . . . s . . . . . . average . . . . . . sd . . . . . . a b c d e f figure . time evolution of the experimental and simulated grf components, for one trial of participant no. . a: force fx . b: force fy . c: force fz . d: moment mx . e: moment my . f: moment mz . the force and moment errors of this trial are representative of their average values across all participants and trials. the moments are given at the center of the feet. table also gives the value of sobol indices for the relevant indicators. some parameter-indicator relations represented by these indices are expected and confirm the consistency of the proposed analysis (e.g. strong influence of the inter-feet frontal distance on the balance stability margin indicated by the high value of sobol first order index). other relations are less straightforward and could not easily be guessed without the sensitivity analysis, for instance the influence of the pelvis orientation on the right arm torque indicator. overall, sobol first order indices indicate that the pelvis orientation, the inter-feet sagittal distance, and the desired elbow flexion have a significant influence on several of the relevant indicators. these parameters should primarily be optimized to enhance the biomechanical performances. conversely, low values of sobol total indices indicate that the influences of the stab height and the pelvis-stab distance are small. the values of these parameters can be freely chosen by the person performing the activity. surprisingly at first, the dhm morphological parameters are not identified as influent according to sobol indices. this phenomenon can however be explained by the fact that other parameters are scaled based on the dhm size. therefore, the set-up is adjusted depending on the dhm size, which likely reduces the influence of the morphological parameters on the biomechanical demands. . . posture modification sobol indices provide quantitative information about the magnitude of the parame- ters influence, but they do not inform on the detail of the indicators vs. parameters evolution. such evolution can be estimated with a metamodel (box and draper ), but building a metamodel requires many more trials. as such, sobol indices are not useful to find the parameters optimal values. however, trend curves can be obtained from the large number of trials performed for the sensitivity analysis, and used to identify well-performing parameters values. for each parameter, the optimal value is determined by considering only the associated relevant indicators. recommendations for the drilling task are provided in table . pure morphological parameters (dhm size and body mass index) are excluded since they do not have a significant influence on the performance according to table . the modified activity is compared to the initial one to validate the benefit resulting from the proposed recommendations. as a first validation, both the initial and the modified situations are evaluated with the autonomous dhm simulation (a complete validation would require the recording and replay of the movement performed by a human subject following the recommendations). the initial and recommended values of the parameters are displayed in table and the corresponding situations are illustrated in fig. . the values of the relevant indicators measured in both situations are presented in table . out of the relevant indicators, are significantly improved by the proposed modifications, while the last one is only slightly worsened. biomechanical demands associated with the right arm torque, legs position, right arm position, force transmis- sion ratio and balance stability are reduced by , , , and % respectively, whereas the back torque demand is increased by %. importantly, the significant re- duction in biomechanical demand is achieved even though the range of variation of the adjustable parameter is limited. this result advocates for the use of the proposed method which can identify minor changes with a major impact. the evolution of the shoulder flexion and rotation torques during the drilling move- ment are plotted in fig. to illustrate the reduced physical demands on more detailed table . sobol indices for the biomechanical indicators identified as relevant for the drilling task. for each parameter and indicator, the upper value is the first order index, the lower value is the total index (sobol indices can range from to ). the biomechanical indicators are presented in decreasing order of importance (decreasing variance) from left to right. the percentages below their names correspond to the percentage of the total variance they explain. ftr stands for force transmission ratio. numbers are colored from blue (minimum) to red (maximum), to facilitate the reading. relevant biomechanical indicators right arm legs right arm back ftr drilling balance stability torque position position torque direction margin % % % % % % p a r a m e t e r s dhm size − . − . . . . . . . . . dhm bmi − − − . . − . . . . . . elbow flexion . . . − . − . . . . . . inter-feet sagittal . . . . − . distance . . . . . . inter-feet frontal − − − . − . distance . . − . . . drill . − . − − − orientation . . . . . . pelvis orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . stab height . − . . . − . . . . . . pelvis distance . . . . . − . . . . . . table . initial and recommended parameters values for the drilling task. the parameters which have the largest influence on the performance are highlighted in bold. the values for the initial situation are measured on participant no. . parameter initial recommended preferred elbow flexion angle (◦) inter-feet distance in frontal plane (% of hip width) inter-feet distance in sagittal plane (m) - . orientation of drill handle w.r.t. vertical (◦) pelvis horizontal orientation w.r.t. normal to stab (◦) - vertical distance between shoulder and stab center (m) - . horizontal distance between pelvis and stab center (m + dhm arm length) . table . values of the relevant biomechanical indicators measured in the initial and modified situations. ftr for force transmission ratio. for each indicator, the value displayed is the percentage of the indicator reference value used for the scaling. right arm legs right arm back ftr drilling balance stability torque position position torque direction margin init. modif. biomechanical quantities. both joint torques are reduced in the modified situation, and the dhm simulation allows a quantitative estimation of this reduction. . discussion the results presented in the previous section demonstrate the usefulness of the pro- posed method. on one hand, the dynamically replayed motion is very similar to the original one, and the simulated grf is consistent with the experimental one. on the other hand, the situation modified according to the sensitivity analysis results exhibits enhanced performances, confirming the benefit of the postural modifications. never- theless, the application of the proposed method should be considered carefully because of some current limitations of the human model and control. such limitations are dis- cussed thereafter, along with leads on future research directions which may help lift those limitations. . . accuracy of dynamic replay the tracking error of the markers d trajectories obtained with the dynamic replay method is similar to the tracking error reported for other replay methods including dynamic considerations (table ). demircan et al. report a tracking error between and cm depending on markers, when replaying a throwing motion (demircan et al. ). john and dariush report an rms tracking error of cm for the worst marker, when tracking a set of markers (john and dariush ). this latter study however addresses seated motions where balance is less of an issue. though good, the replayed motion is nonetheless not exact (non-zero tracking error). in addition to soft tissue deformation and uncertainty on markers placement, the tracking errors are mainly due to differences between the human and dhm kinematics. for instance, the complexity of the human shoulder (de sapio ) is not rendered in the dhm kinematics, hence the right shoulder tracking error. the balance task in the controller also alters the accuracy of the replayed motion. due to differences between the human and dhm kinematics and the lack of decision skills of the dhm regarding how to recover balance, the zmp preview control scheme in the balance task is tuned to be conservative. most unstable situations are thus avoided as long as the original motion is not too unstable. however, the balance improvement is achieved at the cost of a modified motion, hence a less accurate replay. this partly explains the knee tracking error observed despite the small displacement of the knees during the drilling movement. the kinematic differences between the human and the dhm can be minimized with more complex musculosketetal models, but they remain unavoidable and necessarily affect the quality of the replayed motion and forces (hicks et al. ). these differ- ences are, however, not specific to the dynamic replay method, but affect any kind of motion replay. moreover, the replay method presented in this paper with a basic human model could also be used with more accurate musculosketetal models – though at a larger computational cost – to reduce model-induced errors. a b figure . snapshots of the initial (a) and modified (b) drilling movement simulated with the autonomous dhm. sh ou ld er f le xi on to rq ue ( n .m ) time (s) initial modified - - - - time (s) sh ou ld er r ot at io n to rq ue ( n .m ) initial modified a b figure . time evolution of the shoulder flexion (a) and rotation (b) torques in the initial and modified situations. the grey areas correspond to the drilling periods. . . musculoskeletal model and motor control unlike the muscular actuation of the human body, the actuation of the dhm is de- scribed at joint level only, with each dof controlled by a single actuator. the biome- chanical quantities measured with such a model are necessarily less detailed than what could be measured with a musculoskeletal model. moreover, the dhm joint torques do not fully represent the physical effort exerted by a person. due to the redun- dancy of human actuation, different combinations of muscle forces can result in a same joint torque. when simultaneously contracting antagonist muscles (co-contraction phe- nomenon), a person can generate forces which do not produce any net joint torque. these ”internal forces” do not have any equivalent in the dhm and are not accounted for in the evaluation. co-contraction of antagonist muscles aims at increasing joint impedance to withstand perturbations arising from limb dynamics or external loads (gribble et al. ); though especially important in high accuracy motions, it is nev- ertheless present in all motions. not taking co-contraction forces into account therefore leads to an under-estimation of the human effort. nevertheless, the motion replay method presented in this work is modular, in that it decouples the rigid body dynamics from the actuation dynamics. the output of the dynamic replay fully describes the evolution of the system dynamics in terms of state [ qt (t), q̇t (t) ]t , joint torques τ (t) and applied external wrenches wc(t). given this evolution, the use of an inverse musculoskeletal model (mm) could give access to the evolution of muscle activations um(t) = f − (q(t), q̇(t), τ (t), wc(t), mm). muscle-related performance indicators could thus be estimated. however the question of muscle recruitment in the mm – especially regarding co-contraction – remains an open issue. . . autonomous motion generation the sensitivity analysis being based on dhm simulations, the biomechanical reliabil- ity of the results depends on the realism of the autonomous dhm motion. simulating highly realistic human motions requires a model of whole-body motor control which accounts for the redundancy of the human musculoskeletal system and for the slow dynamics of human muscle activation. the slow dynamics is particularly limiting as it requires to consider the motor control problem from an optimal control perspective rather than from a purely reactive perspective. the first consequence is a large increase in the computational cost, which is not compatible with running thousands of simula- tions in a reasonable amount of time. moreover, solving this optimal control problem requires to understand the psychophysical principles that voluntary movements obey. though many studies have been conducted to establish mathematical formulae of such principles (e.g. fitt’s law (fitts ), minimum jerk principle (flash and hogan ), two-thirds power law (viviani and flash )) and some have been success- fully applied to dhm simulations (de magistris et al. ), these formulations remain largely limited to reaching motions. indeed, driving principles are not yet known for all kinds of whole-body motions, especially when significant external forces are at play. transposed to a dhm, determining the underlying principles of human motion comes down to establishing which mathematical quantities are optimized when human-like motions are performed. optimality criteria can be investigated through inverse opti- mization techniques – as proposed by clever et al. (clever, hatz, and mombaur ) for human locomotion or by berret et al. (berret et al. ) for reaching motions – but they remain an open research problem. nevertheless, the sensitivity analysis method in itself is independent from the dhm control. if an improved control law is available, it can be used to generate more realistic motions, while the analysis method remains the same. . conclusion this paper presents a framework to easily assess and enhance the performance of human postures and movements, based on dynamic dhm simulations. existing situ- ations are replayed from motion capture data with an lqp controller. this method guarantees the dynamic consistency of the replayed motion and forces, unlike what is currently achieved with most existing replay methods. the reliability of the biome- chanical measurements taken on the dhm is thus increased, without requiring exper- imental grf measurement. then a sensitivity analysis of the movement is conducted with autonomous dhm simulations to identify the most influential parameters of the movement, and thereby provide recommendations for improvement. because the dhm motion is automatically generated in this step, only little input data are needed to carry out the analysis. in particular, there is no need for human participants to per- form multiple repetitions of the motion. the proposed method is applied to a drilling movement. experiments carried out on participants show that motions and forces are reliably replayed. the sensitivity analysis allows to highlight and rank some non trivial phenomena, which cannot be quantified a priori. finally, the assessment of the modified situation shows significant improvement in performances compared to the initial situation, demonstrating the usefulness of the proposed method. futur work includes presenting the movement improvement tool to a human move- ment expert (e.g., ergonomist) to receive his/her feedback and compare the optimal movement obtained with the method proposed in this work to his/her own recommen- dations. future research will also be directed towards coupling the developed tool with more detailed human models, such as musculo-skeletal models. such a coupling will allow to measure quantities that more accurately represent the physiological demands during the movement. this will require investigating optimal coupling between the fast rigid-body simulation presented here and computationnally expensive musculo- skeletal models, in order to keep the simulation time compatible with the execution of multiple simulation instances. to conclude, though the application presented in this paper focuses on biomechan- ical performance, the method is more general and can be applied to other domains, such as rehabilitation. funding this work was partially supported by the rte company through the rte/upmc chair ”robotics systems for field intervention in constrained environments”, held by v. padois. p. maurice is supported in part by the european union’s horizon research and innovation program under grant agreement no. 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accuracy of dynamic replay musculoskeletal model and motor control autonomous motion generation conclusion from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development of digital forensics from law enforcement to archival authority research article from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development of digital forensics from law enforcement to archival authority corinne rogers published online: march # springer nature switzerland ag abstract the field of digital forensics seems at first glance quite separate from archival work and digital preservation. however, professionals in both fields are trusted to attest to the identity and integrity of digital documents and traces – they are regarded as experts in the acquisition, interpretation, description and presentation of that material. archival science and digital forensics evolved out of practice and grew into established profes- sional disciplines by developing theoretical foundations, which then returned to inform and standardize that practice. they have their roots in legal requirements and law enforcement. a significant challenge to both fields, therefore, is the identification of records (archival focus) and evidence (digital forensics focus) in digital systems, establishing their contexts, provenance, relationships, and meaning. this paper traces the development of digital forensics from practice to theory and presents the parallels with archival science. keywords archivalscience.digitalforensics.digitalrecordsforensics.digitalevidence introduction the field of digital forensics seems at first glance quite separate from archival science and digital preservation, but these disciplines have overlapping histories and legacies deriving from similar goals, common challenges, and shared theoretical perspectives (rogers and john ). in the s forensic investigation of computer crime was largely unknown – indeed, some questioned whether computer crime existed. at the same time, archivists were beginning to discuss the characteristics and implications for practice of machine-readable records. today, crime involving digital evidence is the norm and digital forensics is a growth industry in legal investigations. archives and international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y * corinne rogers cmrogers@mail.ubc.ca school of library, archival and information studies, university of british columbia, vancouver, canada http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -y&domain=pdf mailto:cmrogers@mail.ubc.ca records are increasingly born digital, and archivists need new tools to access digital sources, and assist in processing archival material. elizabeth diamond foreshadowed these developments when she wrote in : “[i] f the historian is the lawyer in the court of history, then the archivist is the forensic scientist” (diamond : ). both fields are concerned with discovering, understanding, describing, and present- ing or making accessible digital material. digital forensics was developed to assist law enforcement in investigations of crimes using computers in order to bring digital evidence to trial and is concerned with the authenticity, reliability, and accuracy of digital material. archival science traces its roots to administration and law, and studies the relationships between records, the persons, procedures, actions, and means through which they are created. archivists support accountability and trustworthiness of records by establishing their identity and assessing their integrity, reliability, and accuracy through analysis of records and record aggregations. but digital records require the mediation of technology to read and understand them, and so present the archivist with new layers of abstraction for analysis. in recent years, archivists have adopted and adapted digital forensics tools in service of accountability and preservation of societal memory (c.f. kirschenbaum et al. ; lee ), and digital forensics practitioners have noted similarities between their work and records’ management (c.f. irons ). much of the published material about digital forensics focuses on the techniques and tools of practice, and is highly technical, falling within the realm of computer science and mathematics. the purpose of digital forensics is predominantly in service of legal evidence, admissible in court, incident response and security. but throughout the development of the discipline, there has been a small but steadily growing body of literature that calls for digital forensics research to be situated within a broader social and theoretical framework (palmer ; mocas ; irons ; duranti ; duranti and endicott-popovsky ). while the tools and techniques of digital forensics are necessarily technical, the conceptual underpinnings of the discipline can be examined through the lens of archival science, diplomatics, and law. the following review of predominantly non- technical literature endeavors to understand the genesis and evolution of digital foren- sics as law enforcement practice and academic discipline in order to explore parallels with archival science. this paper traces the chronological development of digital forensics from its evolution in the s to the present through the issues that have shaped it. these issues include the evolving challenges presented by society’s increasing reliance on computer technology, a collaborative approach by legal personnel, law enforcement, and it specialists in identifying and solving these challenges, the spread of digital forensic practice from law enforcement to other domains, specifically archival practice. a note about terminology: early practitioners referred to the practice of computer forensics. as digital devices became ubiquitous and were not necessarily traditional computers, the term “digital” began to replace “computer” (c.f. whitcomb ). however, there is little consistency even today. while the tendency may be to prefer- ence “digital”, the term computer forensics is still in use. c. rogers the legal context digital forensics and archival science both have roots in law. the nature of archives and the responsibilities for their care and custody are discussed in the justinian code of ancient rome, and in the literature of the jurists of the eleventh century (duranti ). archival research focuses on establishing the evidentiary capacity of records and documents. according to menne-haritz, ‘(e)vidence means patterns of process- es, aims and mandates, procedures and results, as they can be examined. it consists of signs, of signals, not primarily of words. … all those are nonverbal signs that must be interpreted in context to disclose their meaning. to one who understands them, they will tell how processes worked and who was responsi- ble for which decision’ ( , ). digital forensics developed in response to the needs of law enforcement to inves- tigate computer crime. it has been defined as the use of scientifically derived and proven methods toward the preservation, collection, validation, identification, analysis, interpretation, documentation, and presentation of digital evidence derived from digital sources for the purpose of facilitation or furthering the reconstruction of events found to be criminal, or helping to anticipate unauthorized actions shown to be disruptive to planned operations (palmer ). while admissibility requirements for traditional documentary evidence have a long- established history and are well understood, digital evidence has raised a host of problems that the judicial system, regardless of jurisdiction, was (and in some cases may still be) ill equipped to handle. the inadequacies and inconsistencies of the law of evidence and rules of court to deal with digital media despite the passage of new laws to address it, the explosive increase in quantity of potential evidence to be examined, lack of understanding of the nature of digital media and its differences from traditional media all contributed to the need for a scientific and theoretical base for digital forensics. the legal context has been approached in the digital forensics discourse in one of two ways. first, those concerned with the development of the discipline have sought, through standards, principles and guidelines, a scientific basis for practice. second, several practitioners have advocated for the development of open source tools which, by nature of the availability of their source code, would support the forensic expert witness in asserting their reliability (carrier b; kenneally ). while it is not within the scope of this paper to address the legal context in full, it is worth citing a few milestones. in the ruling in daubert v. merrell dow pharma- ceuticals, u.s. changed the law with respect to the admissibility of scientific evidence and expert testimony. daubert required that scientific evidence be based on theory and technique that has been reliably tested, subject to peer review, with known or potential error rates, and generally accepted as a standard in its particular scientific community. these requirements were expanded in kumho tire v. carmichael ( ) to include technology expertise. because digital evidence is extracted from digital media, its reliability and integrity depends in part on the means of its extraction, which must be conducted and accounted for according to scientific principles. these two cases have, therefore, had a profound impact on the development of the digital forensics discipline (marsico ). from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... a brief history of digital forensics: looking back to look forward at the end of the s, three short historical retrospectives captured past development and predicted future directions of digital forensics (charters ; pollitt ; garfinkel ). these articles are important first-hand accounts of the evolution of the discipline and predictions for future growth reflecting the perspectives of the intelligence community, law enforcement and academic researchers. each author has been and continues to be influential in shaping the field. each has approached the task from his particular point of view, and yet there are similarities. all accounts track the changes in computer technology, which have driven the course of digital forensics, and arrive at complementary yet distinct conclusions about future directions. ian charters’ background is in it security and information assurance spanning more than years in the united states’ intelligence community. he describes the devel- opment of computer forensics in terms of stages of evolution – the ad hoc phase, the structured phase, and the enterprise phase. he suggests that these phases are cyclical, repeating as developments in technology offer new opportunities for criminality and introduce new challenges for investigators. charters explains the development of digital forensics through the development of policy, procedure, and forensic tools. he char- acterizes the ad hoc phase by shortcomings in investigative structure, goals, policies and procedures, and lack of accuracy of forensic tools. the resulting confusion of the ad hoc phase gives way to the imposition of structure expressed in policy-based programs, defined and coordinated procedures closely aligned with the policy, and a requirement for – and development of – more forensically sound tools – the structured phase. the enterprise phase is characterized by real-time collection, tailored field tools and forensics-as-a-service, built seamlessly into the technological infrastructure. the future, he predicts, will be aimed at greater automation and interoperability, proactive collection and analysis, and increased focus on standards in software architectures and reporting. mark pollitt begins his paper a history of digital forensics with an apology. his is not, he claims, a fully-informed, objective and unbiased account of the rise of digital forensics, but his personal story – the journey of a digital forensic investigator (pollitt ). one may argue, of course, that there is no such thing as an objective and unbiased account. no matter one’s intention to present “the facts and nothing but the facts,” every narrator chooses what to include and what to ignore in the telling of a story, and in so doing shapes that story through the material she choses. pollitt’s personal account is nevertheless a particularly clear summary of the development of the field, outlining the salient characteristics of the practice and the profession. he presents the history of computer forensics through the notion of epochs, beginning with pre-history, and then adopting a lifecycle model, moving from infancy through child- hood and adolescence, with maturity still to come. within that framework, he defines the discipline through the elements of people, targets, tools, organizations, and the community as a whole. pollitt, a former military officer with over twenty years’ service experience as a special agent of the federal bureau of investigation, approaches the history from the perspective of law enforcement. his experience spans the epochs he describes, and his influence is evident in the development of standards, and the recognition of digital forensics as a forensic discipline by the american society of crime laboratory directors/laboratory accreditation board. c. rogers simson garfinkel is an academic practitioner who has developed computer forensics tools, conducted computer-related research and authored books and articles published in the academic and popular press. in digital forensics research: the next years ( ), he suggests a research agenda that will carry digital forensics into the next phase of development, and sets the stage by summarizing the characteristics of past phases. he argues that marks the approaching end of a “golden age” of computer forensics, characterized by relative stability of operating systems and file formats, examinations largely confined to a single computer system, removable storage devices, and reasonably good and easy-to-use tools coupled with rapid growth of research and increasing professionalism. an impending crisis looms, brought on by advances and fundamental changes in the computer industry – specifically increased storage capacity, proliferation and diversification of devices, operating systems and file formats, pervasive encryption, use of the cloud for remote processing and storage, and increasing legal challenges to search and seizure that limit the scope of inves- tigations. current forensics tools are challenged to meet these needs for law enforcement because they focus on finding specific pieces of evidence for presentation in court. however, this evidence-oriented model – what garfinkel calls the ‘visibility, filter, and report model’, is well suited to archival process- ing needs, if not all law enforcement needs. garfinkel has contributed to the development of forensics tools for archivists through his participation in the bitcurator project that supports digital forensics practices in libraries, archives, and museums (lee ). a view from the field – the s and s clifford stoll’s book, the cuckoo’s egg: tracking a spy through the maze of computer espionage, is an early account of finding a computer hacker and bringing him to court (stoll ). an astronomer supporting the computer systems at a california research laboratory in the mid- s, stoll stumbled upon a hacker when he investigated a -cent discrepancy in the accounting charges for computer use time in his lab. this led him on an intercontinental cyber chase that lasted over a year through the networks that linked research and military computers in europe and the united states. law enforcement and military personnel alike were slow to take interest; because there was no financial or other damage, they could not determine if a crime was being committed. nor, until they could locate the hacker’s point of origin, could they agree on jurisdictional responsibility. this story highlights the characteristics of intentional computer misuse and response in the late s: uncertainty about what constituted a crime using computers; the practice of a lone investigator working on his own, often with little support; and use of tools adapted or created by the investigator for a specific incident. as early as , some law enforcement agencies had begun to develop programs to examine computer evidence. the computer analysis and response team (cart), developed by the fbi, was duplicated in law enforcement agencies in north america and europe (noblett et al. ; whitcomb ). however, while some progressive investigators delved into the new frontier of digital evidence, there was also reluctance, as stoll’s experience illustrates. the inspection service lab of the us postal service from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... expressed dismay when first confronted in the late s with a request for an examination of a computer – “what should we do with this?”, they asked. they questioned how they could secure and preserve digital evidence, how they could collect it without changing it, what practices would withstand the scrutiny of the court, and what examination protocols they should follow. however within ten years the postal inspection unit had not only established a computer forensic unit, but considered changing the name to digital evidence unit to reflect the growing variety of digital sources of evidence. the first published use of the term “computer forensics” in the academic literature appeared in an article entitled a forensic methodology for countering computer crime (collier and spaul ). the authors proposed the term ‘computer forensics’ as a label for ‘existing but very limited activities amongst the police and consultancy firms’ ( ) and advocated for its inclusion in the realm of traditional forensic sciences. they identified the skills required of a computer forensic expert to be multi-disciplinary, including investigative capacity, legal knowledge (including the law of evidence, rules of hearsay and admissibility), courtroom presentation skills as well as knowledge of computers. the bulk of published material begins in the mid- s, originating from interna- tional gatherings of law enforcement. some of these, like the fbi international confer- ences on computer evidence, were symposia devoted to computer crime (noblett et al. ). others were long-established gatherings that began to include sessions on computer forensics, such as interpol’s international forensic science symposia (internet / home - interpol n.d.). mark pollitt’s frequent reports and presentations to international law enforcement in the s give a clear picture of the state of development of the discipline. through observation and experience, pollitt developed one of the first high-level models of the computer forensic process, reflecting the common principles that guide the conduct of an examination. his “three-tiered approach” consists of principles, methodologies (practices), and procedures. with this three-tiered model he formulates a basis for standards development. moving from the general to the specific, he identifies universal principles: that evidence should not be altered; that examination results should be accurate; and that the results are verifiable and repeatable (pollitt a, b). this model was further developed in a later article (noblett et al. ) and has been the foundation of many subsequent models. digital evidence was recognized as a principle type of evidence at interpol’s international forensic science symposium in (pollitt ) and each subsequent conference has received a report on the status of digital evidence collection and analysis, as well as areas of growth and challenge. the reports outline the growth of community through working groups, professional organizations, and scientific bodies (diclemente et al. ); challenges and concerns such as increased workload, and need for accreditation and certification balanced by professional maturity and methodology; and the increasing complexity of computer crime with its parallel demands on computer forensics, and the spread beyond its original stakeholders (reedy et al. ). in a sobering picture was presented of a ‘coming digital forensic crisis’ caused by rapidly increasing storage capacity, data volume on networks, an expanding variety of computing devices, growing case loads, and limited resources (garfinkel , s :). c. rogers definitions, standards, and the building of community early in the evolution of digital forensics practice, the need for standards to guide and regulate the discipline and increase the acceptance of digital material offered as evidence in court became an important subject of discussion. standards were recog- nized as instruments that ensured quality and served as a guarantee of reliable results, dictated a minimum acceptable level of performance, ensured proper training of examiners, and limited liability for the actions of both examiner and examining organization (pollitt a). however, some questioned the ability to develop standards for digital forensics because of the variety and pace of change of technology. the challenge was to build in sufficient flexibility to balance meaningful standards with rapid change and individual investigative approaches. digital forensics working groups sought to develop universal principles that could be applied irrespective of the media under investigation. in the us federal crime laboratory directors group established the scientific working group on digital evidence (swgde), with a mandate to explore digital evidence as a forensic discipline (pollitt ). shortly after it was formed, the swgde proposed draft definitions and, on the principle that digital evidence must be ‘collected, preserved, examined, or transferred in a manner safeguarding the accu- racy and reliability of the evidence’, a draft standard was presented to the international hi-tech crime and forensics conference in october (swgde and ioce ). the draft defined digital evidence as information of probative value stored or trans- mitted in digital form, and identified that its acquisition begins when information and/or physical items are collected or stored for examination purposes. the process of collecting evidence should be conducted according to the rules of evidence in the relevant jurisdiction. data objects are defined as information of potential probative value that are associated with physical items, and may occur in different formats without altering the original information. the draft standard also distinguished original digital evidence from duplicates or copies. original digital evidence is defined as the physical items and data objects associated with such items at the time of acquisition or seizure. duplicate digital evidence is an accurate digital reproduction of all data objects contained on an original physical item, while a copy is an accurate reproduction of information contained on an original physical item, independent of the original physical item. other organizations were also pursuing the development of standards and best practices. in the united kingdom, the association of chief police officers (acpo) drafted good practice guidelines for search, seizure and examination of digital evidence. the original four principles of digital forensics examination still stand today, in the fifth edition of their guidelines (association of chief police officers (acpo) ). they require that no action taken by law enforcement agencies or their agents should change data held on a computer or storage media which may subsequently be relied upon in court; that in exceptional circumstances, a competent person may need to access original data held on a computer or on storage media and must be able to give evidence explaining the relevance and the implications of their actions; that an audit trail or other record of all processes applied to computer based electronic evidence should be created and preserved, and an independent third party should be able to examine those processes and achieve the same result; and that the person in charge of the investigation (the case officer) has overall responsibility for ensuring that the from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... law and these principles are adhered to. standards and practice guidelines continue to be updated as the field matures. with standards and principles drafted for forensic investigations related to law enforcement, the discipline was ready to explore a more theoretical focus and build a multi-disciplinary community. in the first digital forensics research workshop (dfrws) was convened in utica, new york. the conference represented the nucleus of a multi-disciplinary digital forensics community that included law enforcement, military and civilian partners; participants included academics and digital forensic practitioners, with keynote speakers from law enforcement, military operations, infra- structure protection, industry, academia and government. these domains each employed a difference paradigm for forensic analysis––prosecution (law enforcement), security and continuity of operations (military), and availability and security of service (business and industry) (palmer ). the report from that conference provides an important benchmark of the profession––a synchronic snapshot of digital forensic science at that moment, and a blueprint for future research. it provides a base from which much of the subsequent literature derives. participants agreed that to be considered a discipline, digital forensics must be characterized by a combination of theory, abstractions and models, elements of prac- tice, a corpus of literature and professional practice, and confidence and trust in results. they also agreed that these areas had not all yet been adequately addressed. the keynote speakers expressed strong concern for development of the profession that goes well beyond the solely technical aspects. this “full-spectrum” approach does not rest on technology alone, but draws on the procedural, social and legal realms to create a holistic body of knowledge that both informs and supports the primary objectives of forensic analysis and leads to an integration of “forensic hooks” into live computer and network systems and away from the “current band aid approach that produces point solution tools.” lack of standardization of analytical procedures, protocols and termi- nology; issues of accuracy, efficiency and retention of extracted material; the conflict between individual privacy rights and data collection requirements were all identified as holding back the development of the profession. participants agreed that future research should build on collaboration. important foci included work to define terms and develop taxonomies and ontologies that would make communications more effective and research more applicable, increasing opportunities for training and certification, and continuing to work on standards and standardized procedures, among many more specific goals. towards a theory of digital forensics theory develops through contemplation of practice intended to uncover general or abstract concepts, which are modeled and tested, and eventually transcend the specific, returning to inform and guide practice. in relation to disciplined knowledge creation, theory ‘denotes systematic ideas to explain or account for observed facts or phenom- ena’ (eastwood , ). digital forensics is practiced in an investigative context, regardless of the domain of the investigation. the roots for the development of a theory of digital forensics, then, may be found in the early practice guidelines and principles developed by law enforcement and technical working groups (mocas ). c. rogers the call for development of a theory of digital forensics was first broadly articulated in the dfrws report (palmer ; carrier and spafford ). the framework proposed by the dfrws modeled a typical investigation: identification, preservation, collection, examination, analysis, presentation and decision (palmer ). models have been proposed that elaborate on the stages of investigation, outline incident response, frame the process through a particular lens, or define the discipline through abstracted concepts (c.f. pollitt a; noblett et al. ; palmer ; reith et al. ; carrier a; carrier and spafford ; ciardhuáin ; beebe and clark ; ieong ; selamat et al. ; blackwell ). they share similarities as they present more or less detailed abstractions of investigative steps. there is no consensus about the maturity of the models that have been proposed, or a universally accepted theory. perhaps there can never be, as process models are subjec- tive, and must be evaluated with respect to scalability for future technologies and applicability to different types of investigations (carrier and spafford ). they are descriptive in nature, presenting in greater or lesser detail the elements of an investi- gation in linear detail as it unfolds. proposed theoretical foundations begin to enter the literature with the search for functional requirements that a process model must meet. carrier and spafford propose five requirements: that the model be practical and follow the steps of an investigation, that it be technology-neutral, but allow enough specificity to support technology requirements for each phase, that it be based on existing theory for physical crime investigations, and that it must apply across domains to law enforcement investigations, corporate investigations and incident response. they approach the development of a model from a particular perspective––that the computer or system under investigation is analogous to a physical crime scene. this offers a way of organizing the steps of the process into five categories: readiness phases; deployment phases; physical crime scene investigative phases; digital crime scene investigative phases; and review phase. this model contributes to developing knowledge in several ways. its foundation in the theory of physical crime scene investigation is intended to enhance credibility in the eyes of the court. considering the digital environment as a crime scene rather than simply an object of physical evidence supports a richer and more holistic analysis, and identifies interaction between the physical and digital investigation. the model is abstract enough to be generalized to any investigative situation (carrier and spafford , ). . digital forensics concept models and functional requirements descriptive process models, however, are necessarily limited in their ability to suggest a theory of digital forensics that identifies concepts and functional requirements of the discipline. the goal is to develop a conceptual model that is based on more than “investigative experiences and biases” (carrier and spafford ). a model that succeeds in this will conceptualize the requirements for “forensic soundness,” and support the development of procedural methods and tools (casey ). rather than propose a model for the forensic process, sarah mocas defined a set of organizing principles for the development and evaluation of digital forensics research ( ). she identified five abstractions, or properties, through which the researcher can frame questions, model behaviors and evaluate procedures. integrity, authentication, from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... reproducibility, non-interference, and minimization also define what properties are necessary and/or sufficient for evidence to be viable in a specific investigative context. these properties are considered within that context, including reasons for the investi- gation, constraints on its scope, and a set of potential and desired outcomes that provides the framework for the model. the reasons-constraints-outcome framework and the necessary/sufficient digital forensics properties, she claims, can be adapted to any domain. michael andrew has proposed further theoretical considerations ( ). he outlines the overall forensic process as acquisition-preservation-analysis, and focuses in par- ticular on formalizing the analysis phase. starting with basic system concepts (that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, the whole determines the nature of the parts, the parts cannot be understood if considered in isolation from the whole, and the parts are dynamically interrelated or interdependent), he argues in favour of analysis in context, rather than isolating information items. starting with two principles of well designed systems – the principle of consistent results (a well designed system will produce consistent results from any given action unless corrupted by an outside force) and the principle of static storage (data at rest will remain at rest unless accessed for a directed purpose), he poses five requirements (stated as laws): association (data must be correctly associated with the processes that created it and the source that initiated the process), context data can only be interpreted correctly in context, internal and exter- nal), access (it must be demonstrated that the individual had access to the device at the time the data was created), intent (it must be demonstrated that the data was created as the result of an intentional action taken by the user), validation (the integrity, authen- ticity, and accuracy of the data must be validated before it can be presented as evidence in support of conclusions and opinions). the parallels with archival science are clear, and discussed below. . interdisciplinarity legal theory, computer security and information assurance, and computer science (systems architecture and computer history models) have all driven the development of digital forensics. several writers, however, look beyond digital forensics’ traditional partners to find similarities and mutual affordances in other disciplines: information theory (hama and pollitt ), records management (irons ), archival diplomatics (duranti ; cohen ), and archival science (kirschenbaum et al. ; duranti and endicott-popovsky ; john ; dietrich and adelstein ). alistair irons made explicit the parallels and complementarity of digital forensics and records management in his analysis of the principles of computer forensics in the context of record characteristics of authenticity, reliability, integrity and usability. ‘computer forensics’, states irons, ‘should be based around the characteristics of good records, levels and nature of access and an indication of the completeness of the records’. (irons , ) likewise, computer forensics techniques can help the records manager monitor the integrity, authenticity, reliability and completeness of records. irons also proposed that computer forensics could benefit through the appli- cation of theoretical models of the record. in digital forensics and born digital content in cultural heritage collections, michael kirschenbaum, richard ovenden, and gabriela redwine examine the c. rogers relevance of digital forensics for archivists, curators, and others working in the field of cultural heritage. one purpose of the report was to promote interdisciplinarity between fields increasingly recognized as having converging interests ( ). the digital records forensics project, conducted at the university of british columbia from to and funded by the social sciences and humanities research council of canada studied the challenges presented by digital technology to the records management, archival and legal professions, including the identification of records among all the digital objects produced by complex digital systems, and the determination of their authenticity when they are removed and stored outside of their originating systems. the interdisciplinarity explored by the project is represented in fig. (rogers ). one of the research objectives of the drf project was to develop the theoretical and methodological content of a new discipline, called digital records forensics, resulting from an integration of archival diplomatics, digital forensics, and the law of evidence (duranti ; rogers ). the project also led to a new proposed academic curriculum that weaves the complementary knowledge from archival science and digital diplomatics with digital forensics and information assurance (duranti and endicott-popovsky ). a course entitled digital diplomatics and digital records forensics (arst h) taught in the master of archival science program at ubc addresses the convergence of digital forensics and archival science for the purpose of furthering digital archival work. digital forensics and archival diplomatics – pulling it all together archival science and digital forensics are, first and foremost, applied sciences. both evolved out of practice and grew into established professional disciplines by develop- ing theoretical foundations, which then returned to inform and standardize practice. they have roots in law and legal practice, and professionals in both fields are trusted to attest to the identity and integrity of the materials for which they are responsible – they are regarded as experts in the acquisition, interpretation, description and presentation of that material. a significant challenge to both fields, therefore, is the identification of records (archival focus) and evidence (digital forensics focus) in digital systems, establishing their contexts, provenance, relationships, and meaning. the digital archivist is concerned with identifying records among all the digital objects present in digital media, and assessing their reliability, authenticity, and accu- racy. when an archivist acquires records contained in a digital storage device for appraisal and accessioning (ingest) into a repository, it is critical that she be able to identify the records on the device, analyze them to ascertain their provenance, assess their authenticity and accuracy, establish whether there are issues regarding intellectual property or copyright, privileged communication, or personal information that will be subject to redaction, data privacy protection, or access restrictions. the digital forensics investigator is similarly concerned with identifying digital objects that may serve as diplomatics is a discipline first developed in the seventeenth century to assess the authenticity of documents, taught in faculties of law and archival science in europe, and subsequently applied to modern office documents and digital records (duranti and thibodeau, ). from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development ... evidence of criminal or other activity, and analyzing those objects for their evidentiary capacity, that is, their attribution, integrity, and verifiability. privileged information must also be identified and protected from unauthorized disclosure (rogers ). archivists and digital forensics practitioners share the challenges of appraising and analyzing large volumes of digital material. the core archival functions are appraisal and acquisition, arrangement and description, retention and preservation, management and administration, reference and access (duranti and giovanni ). the ability to preserve digital records that are authentic and reliable over time and across technolog- ical change also depends on the circumstances of records creation and record keeping, thereby extending the archival functions across the entire life of the records. this compares with the functions of digital forensics practice: identification, preservation, collection, examination, analysis, presentation and decision (palmer ). at the root of each is investigative research into the material in question – namely the story revealed by analyzing the digital objects and traces of activities, and the relationships of those objects and traces to the actors and actions that gave rise to them. the archival first principle is respect des fonds, essentially equivalent to the principle of provenance and the principle of original order. these principles demand that the records of one creator are maintained separately from another creator, and that a creator’s records are kept in the same order in which they were created and used. when they are respected and articulated through archival description, the authenticity of the record aggregations is protected (macneil , ; millar ). a pre- sumption of authenticity derives from the context of creation and chain of custody, and the processes of establishing intellectual, administrative, and usually, physical control – appraisal, accessioning and archival arrangement. description is the primary means of illuminating provenancial and contextual relationships that are at the heart of the principles. archival description is the expression of the essence of the archivist’s accountability, which confers authority, and in court, affords the status of expert witness. records offered in evidence must be authenticated, and the archivist who is responsible for the records has that authority. by exerting intellectual control over the records through fig. interdisciplinary approach c. rogers archival description, the archivist becomes accountable for the records and can speak with authority to their identity and integrity––to their trustworthiness. the archivist is recognized as a trusted custodian and confers trustworthiness on the records by virtue of his or her accountability. the digital forensics practitioner, confronted with a digital crime scene, may be compared with the archivist, who, when processing a new acquisition by the archives, must approach the task of arrangement and then description of these records, which have been removed intellectually and physically from their creator, that is from their functional, documentary and technological context, and placed in the context of the investigation. we have seen that accountability is intertwined with responsibility, authority, and trust (millar ). just as the archivist acquires the status of trusted custodian through accountability for the records, digital forensics practitioners are called upon as expert witnesses to account for and report their investigative process. digital forensics practitioners act as expert witnesses because of their accountability to the investigative process. they are bound, however, by a different set of demands than archivists: theirs is scientific testimony given to justify their tools and techniques in identifying and authenticating digital evidence. scientific testimony may be tested for credibility in a daubert hearing. digital objects are examined not as documentary residue of business activity, but as latent trace evidence of digital processes. they are bound not by business rules and procedures, but by ‘the physics of digital information’, which governs ‘the artificial digital world of bits and machines that operate on them’ (cohen ). it is the physics of digital information that is the scientific grounding of the digital forensics practitioner. the authority conferred upon these professionals has different roots deriving from the particular ontological view of the evidence they seek to authenticate. however, despite the different vantage points of the archival and digital forensic analysis of digital evidence, the goals are the same: to identify and authenticate digital evidence. to that end, the examiners from either profession must establish, document, and be prepared to justify, or account for, the identity, integrity, and context of the evidence and their role in discovering and describing it. as cohen has shown, there can be a crosswalk drawn between the concepts of diplomatics and the elements of forensic examination (cohen ). records are considered trustworthy if they can be shown to be authentic (by establishing their identity and assessing their integrity), reliability, and accuracy. in the digital environment, archivists benefit from also incorporating concepts from digital forensics: concepts of authentication, reproducibility, non-interference, and minimiza- tion (mocas ), and laws of association, context, access, intent, and validation (andrew ). references andrew, m. 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( ). digital evidence: standards and principles. forensic science communications ( ). http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april /swgde.htm/. accessed april, . whitcomb, c. ( ). an historical perspective of digital evidence: a forensic scientist’s view. international journal of digital evidence ( ). http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/ c e b- b - - e bb .pdf. accessed april, . c. rogers http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april /swgde.htm/ http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/ c e b- b - - e bb .pdf http://www.utica.edu/academic/institutes/ecii/publications/articles/ c e b- b - - e bb .pdf from time theft to time stamps: mapping the development of digital forensics from law enforcement to archival authority abstract introduction the legal context a brief history of digital forensics: looking back to look forward a view from the field – the s and s definitions, standards, and the building of community towards a theory of digital forensics digital forensics concept models and functional requirements interdisciplinarity digital forensics and archival diplomatics – pulling it all together references [pdf] will it come here? using digital humanities tools to explore medical understanding during the russian flu epidemic, – | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /mdh. . corpus id: will it come here? using digital humanities tools to explore medical understanding during the russian flu epidemic, – @article{ewing willic, title={will it come here? using digital humanities tools to explore medical understanding during the russian flu epidemic, – }, author={e. thomas ewing}, journal={medical history}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } e. thomas ewing published medicine medical history on december , , the detroit free press asked an intriguing question in the headline: ‘will it come here?’ the ‘it’ in the headline was the so-called ‘russian flu’, an outbreak of influenza that was first noticed on a global scale in st petersburg, the capital of russia. as this disease spread across europe, american medical authorities as well as the popular press expressed increasing concern about whether the disease would cross the atlantic and reach the united states. to answer this… expand view on cambridge press cambridge.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the review of past pandemics to predict what to expect after covid- emmanuel oppong peprah medicine pdf save alert research feed la grippe or russian influenza: mortality statistics during the epidemic in indiana e. ewing geography, medicine influenza and other respiratory viruses save alert research feed talking about research : applying textual analysis software to student interviews sarah e. wagner, ann marshall pdf save alert research feed related papers abstract citations related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue can forward dynamics simulation with simple model estimate complex phenomena?: case study on sprinting using running-specific prosthesis murai et al. robomech j ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e can forward dynamics simulation with simple model estimate complex phenomena?: case study on sprinting using running-specific prosthesis akihiko murai* , hiroaki hobara, satoru hashizume, yoshiyuki kobayashi and mitsunori tada abstract surpassing the world record in athletic performance requires extensive use of kinematic and dynamic motion analy- ses to develop novel body usage skills and training methods. performance beyond the current world record has not been realized or measured; therefore, we need to generate it with dynamics consistency using forward dynamics simulation, although it is technologically difficult because of the complexity of the human structure and its dynamics. this research develops a multilayered kinodynamics simulation that uses a detailed digital human model and a simple motion-representation model to generate the detailed sprinting performances of individuals with lower extremity amputations (ileas) aided by carbon-fiber running-specific prostheses (rsps), which have complex interactions with humans. first, we developed a digital human model of an ilea using an rsp. we analyzed ilea sprinting based on experimental motion measurements and kinematics/dynamics computations. we modeled the rsp-aided ilea sprint- ing using a simple spring-loaded inverted pendulum model, comprising a linear massless spring, damper, and mass, and we identified the relevant parameters from experimentally measured motion data. finally, we modified the sprint motion by varying the parameters corresponding to the rsp characteristics. here, the forward dynamics have been utilized to simulate detailed whole-body sprinting with different rsp types (including simulated rsps not worn by the subject). our simulations show good correspondence with the experimentally measured data and further indicate that the sprint time can be improved by reducing the rsp viscosity and increasing stiffness. these simulation results are validated by the experimentally measured motion modifications obtained with different types of rsps. these results show that the multilayered kinodynamics simulation using the detailed digital human model and the simple motion-representation model has the capacity to generate complex phenomena such as rsp-aided ilea sprinting that contains complex interactions between the human and the rsp. this simulation technique can be applied to rsp design optimization for ilea sprinting. keywords: digital human technology, running-specific prosthesis, motion modification simulation © the author(s) . this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. introduction we have measured the kinetic and physiological aspects of human performance using an optical motion cap- ture system, force plate, etc., and applied kinematics and dynamics analyses to compute the joint angles and torques and estimate muscle activities, in the fields of biomechanics and sports science. this method has real- ized excellent athletic performances and clarified injury mechanisms, although it cannot analyze the perfor- mances that have not been realized, for instance, a per- formance that surpasses the current world record. we usually generate the motions of robots, for instance, a grounded manipulator with dynamic consistency, by ( ) joint angle or task-based motion generation and ( ) forward dynamics simulation. however, applying this open access *correspondence: a.murai@aist.go.jp digital human research group, national institute of advanced industrial science and technology (aist ), - - , aomi, koto-ku, tokyo - , japan http://orcid.org/ - - - http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : technique to human whole-body motion generation is considerably difficult, because ( ) humans have many more degrees of freedom and a much more complicated structure compared to robots, and ( ) humans are float- ing systems; therefore, we need to estimate the contact forces that can easily become unstable, especially during dynamic motions such as sprinting [ – ]. this research solves these problems by developing a multilayered kino- dynamics simulation that uses a detailed digital human model and a simple motion-representation model, which parametrically represents human motion mechanisms. here, kinodynamics represents the discipline that tries to solve kinematic constraints and dynamic constraints simultaneously, as defined in [ ]. in this study, we ana- lyzed and modelled the sprinting performances of indi- viduals with lower extremity amputations (ileas), aided by carbon-fiber running-specific prostheses (rsps), which entail complex interactions between humans and rsps that form the kinematic and dynamic constraints, to improve the rsp-aided ilea sprinting performance. carbon-fiber rsps have enabled ileas to realize hith- erto unachieved degrees of high-level sprinting [ ]. while the running mechanics in able-bodied sprinters and ileas have been previously examined, these researches were mainly limited to biomechanical studies [ , ]. fur- ther, many studies have investigated the rsp behavior and performance during sprinting through rigid-body dynamics [ ] and finite element analysis [ ], but the relationship between the rsp characteristics and sprint performance remains unclear. in particular, rsp-aided ilea sprinting involves humans and rsps, as well as the kinematic and dynamic interactions between them, and its kinematics and dynamics analyses are techni- cally complex compared with those of general rigid body systems that are often analyzed in the robotics field. we generated the rsp-aided ilea sprinting motion, which contains the complex interactions between humans and rsps, by developing a multilayered kinodynamics simu- lation, which uses a detailed digital human model and a simple motion-representation model that parametrically represents human motion mechanisms. digital human models have been developed to study body kinematics and perform dynamics analyses. these models have been developed based on the knowledge of human anatomy, and they can estimate and ana- lyze human motion through kinematics and dynamics computations [ – ]. we extended the spring-loaded inverted pendulum (slip) model for the simple motion- representation model that parametrically represents human motion mechanisms. the sprinting motion is often simplified using the slip model, which models the entire human body as a spring-mass model and describes the spring-like leg movement during sprinting [ ]. we applied a unilateral slip model with a spring, damper, and mass, similar to the one used in [ ], to model the rsp-aided ilea sprinting motion. figure shows the concept of multilayered kinodynamics simulation. this simulation consists of (a) simplification of sprint motion by using the slip model comprising a spring, damper, and mass, and identification of the relevant parameters from experimentally measured motion, (b) modification of the sprint motion by varying the slip model param- eters and simulation of its forward dynamics, and (c) reconstruction of the detailed whole-body sprint motion from the simulated slip model motion. our approach realizes the simulation of the detailed whole-body sprint- ing of the specific subject using different rsp types and properties (including simulated rsps not worn by the subject). we evaluated our simulation results by com- paring them with the experimentally measured motion, and both result sets showed good correspondence. this modeling and simulation technique can contribute to the quantitative evaluation and design of rsps to realize higher levels of rsp-aided ’ilea sprinting’ performances. methods we first modified our anatomographic digital human model [ ] by adjusting the surface shape and skeleton, so that the model represented the kinematic and dynamic characteristics of the ileas using the rsps. the able- bodied individual and ilea models consisted of and bones, respectively. each bone was represented as - simplify sprinting motion with slip model - identify model paremters - reconstruct detailed whole-body motion - modify model parameters - simulate forward dynamics - compare/evaluate motions - apply to rsp designing, sports training, etc. experimentally measured motion motion that has not been performed by subject a) b) c) fig. concept chart of multilayered kinodynamics simulation of motion modification. this simulation consists of three steps: a sim- plify the sprinting motion with the slip model and identify its param- eters using experimentally measured motion, b modify the identified model parameters and simulate the forward dynamics of the simple model, and c reconstruct the detailed whole-body motion from the motion of the simple model page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : a rigid-body linkage with inertial parameters, and the bones were connected to each other via spherical joints. figure shows the digital human model of an able-bod- ied individual and an ilea with unilateral transfemoral amputation wearing an rsp (sprinter e , ottobock, duderstadt, germany, and xtreme, ossur, reykjavik, ice- land) with a prosthetic knee joint ( s , hydraulic single- axis knee joint, ottobock, duderstadt, germany) (male, height . e+ m and weight . e+ kg for an able- bodied individual and . e+ kg for the ilea). next, ilea sprinting with the unilateral transfemo- ral amputation was captured by means of a commer- cial marker-based optical motion capture system with cameras (vicon, oxford, england) operating at a frame rate of hz. the subject wore two types of rsps (sprinter e and xtreme) with the prosthetic knee joint ( s ). the subject was free from any injuries at the time of data collection, and our study protocol was approved by the local institutional review board and conformed to the guidelines outlined in the declaration of helsinki ( ). the subject wore markers, whose locations were determined based on an improved ver- sion of the helen hayes hospital marker set. further, additional markers were attached to each rsp to capture the detailed rsp deformation. the positions of the mark- ers are indicated in fig. by means of white spheres. we also recorded the contact force between the ilea and the floor using seven force plates (amti, ma, usa), each of which measured the six-axis contact force and momentum at a rate of khz. the inverse kinematics was computed with dhaibaworks [ ], and the inverse dynamics was solved with opensim [ ]. the multilay- ered kinodynamics simulation for motion modification consisted of the following three steps (fig. ). (a) simplification of sprint motion using the slip model and identification of relevant parameters the sprinting was analyzed with simplified models to extract the kinematic and dynamic characteristics to realize stable dynamic simulations. the slip model, which represents the entire human body as a spring- mass model, has been previously applied to describe the spring-like leg movement during locomotion and sprint- ing [ ]. in this study, we applied the unilateral ’spring- damper-mass slip model’ to represent rsp-aided ilea sprinting (fig. ). here, the whole body was modeled as a mass supported by a spring and damper connected in parallel. next, we identified the relevant parameters of this model using experimentally measured motion data. the natural length of the leg ( lleg, ) and the spring and damper parameters ( kleg and dleg , respectively) were identified for the intact limb and the rsp, respectively, by mathematical optimization. this optimization minimized the error between the spring and damper forces and measured the contact force between the ground and the intact limb or the rsp, as given in the following equation: ( ) ef = t∑ t (fleg(t) − (kleg(lleg(t) − lleg, ) + dleg ˙lleg(t))) , able-bodied model rsp (sprinter e ) rsp (xtreme) fig. digital human models of an able-bodied individual and ilea fitted with an rsp. left: digital human model of the able-bodied individual, mid- dle: model of the ilea fitted with sprinter e , and right: model of the ilea fitted with xtreme page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : where fleg is the measured contact force, lleg is the meas- ured length of the leg, and ˙lleg is its velocity. we also computed the height ( h ) of the center of mass (com) and the contact angle ( θ ) at forefoot strike for each case from the experimental data. (b) modification and simulation of the forward dynamics of rsp‑aided ilea sprinting the kinematic and dynamic characteristics of an rsp can be modified by changing its shape and material. we varied the slip model parameters that correspond to the rsp characteristics, ( kleg and dleg ). here, we remark that rsp-aided ilea sprinting is the result of complex interactions between the human controller and the rsp characteristics. the identified parameters in "results and discussion" (table ) indicate that all the parameters, except the rsp characteristics ( kleg and dleg of the pros- thesis), yield similar values during sprinting with differ- ent rsps. therefore, we assumed that this specific subject utilizes the same control strategy for all rsps, and only the parameters corresponding to the rsp characteris- tics change when the individual wears a different type of rsp. we simulated ilea sprinting using different types of rsps by modifying kleg and dleg of the prosthesis and computed the forward dynamics. here, we computed com acceleration ( acom(t) ) in the following process. if state == flight & pcom,y(t) < h state = stance pcop,x = pcom,x + pcom,y/tanθ pcop,y = if state = stance fleg = kleg(lleg(t) − lleg, + dleg) ˙lleg(t) if fleg > state = flight if state == flight acom,x(t) = acom,y(t) = −g else acom,x(t) = (pcop,x − pcom,x(t))fleg(t)/lleg(t)m acom,y(t) = (pcop,y − pcom,y(t))fleg(t)/lleg(t)m − g where state represents the phase of sprinting and m rep- resents the total mass of the body. kleg and dleg change depending on whether the intact or the prosthetic leg is in contact with the ground. the time integration of acom(t) computes the trajectory of com and cop in this forward dynamics simulation. (c) reconstruction of detailed whole‑body motion from the simulated slip model motion we reconstructed the detailed whole-body motion from the simulated simple slip model motion for detailed kinematics and dynamics analyses and visualization. the trajectories of all markers, which were experimentally measured, were represented using the quadratic form of the slip model status. the parameters of this mapping function from the slip model status to the trajectories of all markers were optimized by minimizing the follow- ing function: where pmar is the measured marker position, i is the marker id, j ∈ (x, y, z) , and m is the quadratic form of the com position ( pcom ) and the position of the center of pressure (cop) ( pcop ), as given in the following function: we optimized the parameters α and β to minimize the evaluation function em . the trajectories of the mark- ers were reconstructed from the slip model motion in the forward dynamics simulation, the abovementioned parameters, and the kinematics constraints arising from the cop position using this m(pcom,j, pcop,j) . this step ( ) em = t∑ t (pmar(i, j, t) − m(pcom,j(t), pcop,j(t))) , ( ) m(pcom,j(t), pcop,j(t)) = (α(pcom,j(t) − pcop,j(t)) + β) . h θ pcop(t) pcom(t), vcom(t) fleg(t) flight phase stance phase flight phase x y kleg dleg fig. slip model for rsp-aided ’ilea sprinting’ table parameters for the rsps and intact leg in the slip model prosthetic intact sprinter e xtreme sprinter e xtreme lleg, (m) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ kleg (n/m) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ dleg (ns/m) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ h (m) . e− . e− . e− . e− θ (rad) . e+ . e+ . e+ . e+ page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : significantly contributes to the detailed kinematics and dynamics analyses. the whole-body joint angles were estimated using the inverse kinematics computation per- formed using these marker trajectories and the detailed digital human model. the whole-body joint torques were estimated using the inverse dynamics computation per- formed using these joint angles and the contact forces that were estimated in step (b) using the slip model. results and discussion we can observe the following points from the experi- mental results: . figure shows the analyzed motion of rsp-aided ilea sprinting (sprinter e ). our model simu- lates the com trajectories with an average error of . e+ mm during the stance phase of sprinting. the kinematics and dynamics of the digital human model compute both the human joint torque and bending torque of the rsp during sprinting using its shape and the external force acting upon it. figure illustrates the bending moment at each point of the rsps. with regard to step (a) in "introduction", table lists the parameters identified from the stance phases of the sprinter e and xtreme rsps and the intact leg. the values of the prosthetic parame- ters kleg and dleg exhibit apparent differences, which correspond to the rsp characteristics, although the other parameters yield similar values. . our model identifies these parameters with average errors of . e+ ± . e+ % and . e+ ± . e+ % (average ± sd) in the contact forces for sprinter e and xtreme, respectively. in step (b), the com trajectories during the rsp-aided ilea sprinting (sprinter e ) was simulated (fig. ). our model simulated the com trajectories with error of . e+ ± . e+ mm (average ± sd) during the stance phase of sprinting. in step (c), we reconstructed the whole-body -marker posi- tions through steps (a to c) without changing the slip model parameters. our method reconstructed the marker positions with an error of . e+ ± . e+ mm (average ± sd), whose maximum errors ranged from . e+ mm on the marker of the right tragus to . e+ mm on the marker of the top of the rsp during the stance phase of sprint- ing. . figure shows the detailed whole-body motion and com trajectories of ilea sprinting with differ- ent rsp types and properties. figure shows the hip joint torques at the sides of the rsp during the stance phase of ilea sprinting with different rsp types and properties, which are the results of the kin- ematics and dynamics analyses of the detailed whole- body motion. figure shows the -m sprint time obtained with different types of rsps. these results have three implications: . the appropriate digital human model, motion meas- urements, and kinematics and dynamics computa- tions aid in realizing dynamics analysis. figure represents the bending moment at each point of the rsps during ilea sprinting. the radii of these curva- tures fit well with the values listed in [ ]. the slip model with the spring, damper, and mass suitably represent the kinematics and dynamic characteristics fig. synthesized motion of ilea sprinting using rsp ( fps). blue: measured center of mass (com) trajectory; green: simulated com trajectory . . p p p p p p time [s] sprinter e xtreme jo in t t or qu e [n ·m ] p p p p p p p p p p p p fig. rsp torques during sprinting. horizontal axis: time, the origin of which represents the instant of the left forefoot strike, and vertical axis: flexion/extension torque whose positive value represents flexion. left: sprinter e and right: xtreme. each line corresponds to a point shown in the corresponding figure at the bottom page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : of the experimentally measured ilea sprinting using an rsp for both the intact limb and the rsp. . the forward dynamics simulation with the simple slip model realizes the kinematics and dynamics analyses of the motions that were not performed by the subject. figure shows the com trajectories of ilea sprinting with different properties of the rsps. the rsps with stiffness values of and % were not worn by the subject during the measure- ments; they were simulated. the simulation results show that both types of rsps exhibit similar patterns: the subject moves upward when kleg increases and downward when kleg decreases. figure shows the hip joint torques at the sides of the rsps during the stance phase of the rsp-aided ilea sprinting with different rsp types and properties, which were the result of the detailed whole-body kinematics and dynamics analyses. the rsps with stiffness values of and % were not worn by the subject during the . × kleg, xtreme kleg, xtreme . × kleg, xtreme . × kleg, sprinter e kleg, sprinter e . × kleg, sprinter e fig. simulated whole-body sprint motion and com trajectory during the stance phase with different rsps. top row: sprinter e , bottom row: xtreme, left (red): % of kleg , middle (green): % of kleg , and right (blue): % of kleg - % of stance phase sprinter e xtreme jo in t t or qu e [n ·m ] . kleg, sprinter e kleg, sprinter e . kleg, sprinter e . kleg, xtreme kleg, xtreme . kleg, xtreme fig. simulated left hip joint torque during the stance phase with different types of rsps. left graph: sprinter e , right graph: xtreme, red dotted line: % of kleg , green solid line: % of kleg , and blue dashed-dotted line: % of kleg page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : measurements; they were simulated. the simulation results show that both types of rsps exhibit simi- lar patterns: the required hip joint torque increases when the rsp stiffness ( kleg ) increases. here, we note that the relationship between the rsp stiffness and the required hip joint torque is not a simple lin- ear relationship. the complex relationships in the temporal and amplitude directions appear because of the kinematic and dynamic interactions between humans and the rsps. the multilayered kinodynam- ics simulation using the detailed digital human model and simple motion-representation model represents these complex interactions and realizes the non-lin- ear complex relationship between the rsp stiffness and the hip joint torque that is necessary for sprint- ing using the same control strategy. . from fig. , we note that the -m sprint time is significantly improved with decrease in dleg , and the model falls down ( pcom,y(t) becomes ) when dleg increases drastically. an increase in kleg also contributes to slightly reducing the sprint time. the sprint time was . e+ s when kleg = . e+ n/m, dleg = . e+ ns/m (sprinter e ), and . e+ s ( . e+ % slower) when kleg = . e+ n/m, dleg = . e+ ns/m (xtreme). the experimentally measured sprint speeds were . e+ m/s and . e+ m/s ( . e+ % slower) for sprinter e and xtreme, respectively. here, we first note that the simulated -m sprint times were relatively short because of the limitations in our model. one limitation was that a fatigue model was not considered in these simulations. in addition, there were certain dynamic and physical limitations; for instance, the friction parameter and maximum muscle tension have not yet been implemented in our slip model. regardless of the above limitations, our results indicate that the forward dynamics simu- lation with the simple slip model agrees satisfac- torily with the measured data at the point that the ratio between the simulated -m sprint times using rsps whose kleg and dleg correspond to sprinter e and xtreme is close to the ratio between the measured sprint speeds using the corresponding rsps. the simulation results indicate that an increase in kleg improves the sprint time; therefore, this prin- ciple can be applied to rsp design to improve the ilea sprinting performance. these results, how- ever, are limited to one ilea sprinter with unilateral transfemoral amputation and using several types of rsps. further, we have also assumed that the subject adopts the same control strategy when using differ- ent types of rsps. conclusion in conclusion, our multilayered kinodynamics simula- tion realized stable forward dynamics simulation of ilea sprinting with an rsp on a specific subject, and estimated the detailed kinematic and dynamic characteristics of this complex phenomena. we believe that our approach can contribute to simulating performances that surpass human performances, and particularly contribute to the optimization of rsp design for ilea sprinting. authors’ contributions in this study, am performed the model development, kinematics/dynamics computations, and data analysis, and participated in acquiring the measure- ments. hh, sh, and yk performed the measurements and helped in drafting the manuscript. mt performed the software development. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. acknowledgements this research was supported by a grant-in-aid for young scientists (a) # h and scientific research(a) # . competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. ethics approval and consent to participate written informed consent was obtained from the patient for the publication of this report and any accompanying images. funding this research was supported by a grant-in-aid for young scientists (a) # h and scientific research(a) # . . . . . . kleg [%] d le g [% ] . . . . . . . time [s] . fig. time taken for -m sprint for the slip model with varying kleg and dleg values. horizontal axis: kleg , vertical axis: dleg of sprinter e . the -m sprint time with the rsp having the corresponding parameters is represented in a color scale ranging from blue to yel- low. the color red indicates that the model falls down before crossing m page of murai et al. robomech j ( ) : publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- lished maps and institutional affiliations. received: january accepted: may references . taylor gw, hinton ge, roweis st ( ) modeling human motion using binary latent variables. in: nips’ proceedings of the th international conference on neural information processing systems. pp – . safonova a, hodgins jk, polland ns ( ) synthesizing physically real- istic human motion in low-dimensional, behavior-specific spaces. acm trans graph (tog) : – . yamane k, nakamura y ( ) dynamics simulation of humanoid robots: forward dynamics, contact, and experiments. in: the th cism-iftomm symposium on robot design, dynamics, and control . 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lengths. j appl biomech : – . endo y, tada m, mochimaru m ( ) dhaiba: development of virtual ergonomic assessment system with human models. digit hum model : – . funken j, willwacher s, böcker j, müller r, heinrich k, potthast w ( ) blade kinetics of a unilateral prosthetic athlete in curve sprinting. in: international conference of biomechanics in sports can forward dynamics simulation with simple model estimate complex phenomena?: case study on sprinting using running-specific prosthesis abstract introduction methods (a) simplification of sprint motion using the slip model and identification of relevant parameters (b) modification and simulation of the forward dynamics of rsp-aided ilea sprinting (c) reconstruction of detailed whole-body motion from the simulated slip model motion results and discussion conclusion authors’ contributions references reyna interested in family history, boston (usa) degree in economics experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, reyna wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license carlos digital humanities student, valencia (spain) third year college student experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, carlos wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license paul history teacher, manchester (uk) king david high school experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, paul wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license lis wikimedian in residence, berlin (germany) deutsche nationalbibliothek experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, lis wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license maria museum curator, são paulo (brasil) são paulo museum of modern art experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, maria wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license veena digital humanities researcher, punjab (india) postdoctoral fellow at university of chicago experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, veena wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license abasi data scientist, cairo (egypt) institut français d’archéologie orientale du caire experience with biographical data unaware reluctant limited confident goals related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. challenges related to dh research . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. . ……………………………………………….. behavior matrix “in relation to digital humanities, abasi wishes to ………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………” source: mediawiki personas for product development - creative commons attribution-sharealike license steve phd 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creative commons attribution-sharealike . unported license. based on a work at www.martineve.com. alan liu, local transcendence: essays on postmodern historicism and the database (chicago: university of chicago press), pp., £ . (paper), £ . (cloth) 'keep cool but care' wrote thomas pynchon in his first novel, v.; an acknowledgment of the tension between the individual and the masses, an invitation to consider concepts of freedom and control, passion and apathy. it was also an invitation framed by the turbulence of an impending digital era, the 'flip' and 'flop' of these dichotomies corresponding to the zeros and ones of a 'computer's brain'. extending his previous work on romanticism and – more obviously from this context – 'cool', alan liu's latest collection is a volume that offers an insightful and much needed digital-era revision of cultural criticism since the s, while also exhibiting a playful side in which the work frequently posits a structural counter-irony to the obverse line of thought. containing an almost cartographic overview of liu's work from to present – from the new historicism to the spruce goose – local transcendence also provides, in its final two essays, 'transcendental data' and 'escaping history', a solid rationale for an extension of such cultural criticism into the digital humanities projects of the last decade. in contrast to many essay collections amalgamating such spans of work, liu's volume amounts, through the combination of cumulative argument and the constant structural plays on immanent transcendence, to more than the sum of its components; while this book has strong reference value it is thomas pynchon, v. (london: vintage, ), p. . http://www.informaworld.com/openurl?genre=article&issn= - x&volume= &issue= &spage= http://www.martineve.com/publications/martin% paul% eve% -% review% of% alan% liu,% local% transcendence:% essays% on% postmodern% historicism% and% the% database% (chicago:% university% of% chicago% press)% -% preprint.pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / http://www.martineve.com/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/ . / in the totality of its trajectory that it truly shines. to begin with this in mind, it is perhaps apt to remark that the subtitle, 'essays on postmodern historicism and the database', appears, for much of a first reading, somewhat misplaced, for it is only in the final essay, 'escaping history', in which liu combines historiography with the database. indeed, the early works in the collection – offering critique of, among others, the new historicism's angst regarding 'the marginality of literary history' (p. ) and welsh colonial discourse in relation to wordsworth, recusancy, patriotism and the new historicist subversion/containment dichotomy – leave the reader with a sense of disjointedness and an impression of a telos-less wandering. however, it emerges that this is integral to the very performativity of liu's writing; can one claim to have thoroughly covered, for example, the topic of anti-methodology in cultural criticism, if one's structural movement does not also query this model? liu, it would seem, thinks not: his critique of lists takes the form of a list; his damnation of new historicism's overemphasis on supposedly representative theatrical moments begins with a representative theatrical moment; the unacknowledged dangers of extensible markup language (xml) encoding for artistic practices are encoded within such a schema. while this could degenerate towards gimmickry, liu pulls it off as a serious methodological undertaking, for mirrored in the synthetic resolution of these structural dialectics is a parallel to liu's critique of 'that which the postmodern interpreter champions as subversive', the element which 'sympathizes with ourselves' (p. ). in proposing, and then undermining, a structurally 'subversive' element, local transcendence sidesteps the pitfalls of methodological hypocrisy that lie in wait for such meta-textual performativity and reveals a distinct path. this debate on form and content – so tired in other spheres – is further revived by liu in his digital humanities work. in the penultimate piece, 'transcendental data', liu argues that the increasing prevalence of content-transmission-consumption models (pp. - ) built upon standards such as xml, which aim to separate content from presentation, poses a threat to artistic modes that rely upon the blurring of this distinction. yet, is this pushing the implication of these technologies too far? after all, % of artists working in a digital medium are not currently exposed to xml, but rather constrained at the level of the user interfaces within which they must operate. the % who do encounter this medium will likely have the technical ability to craft a presentation layer – to borrow marshall mcluhan's phrase – that would transform it to the message. while xml is, indeed, designed for presentational re-construction at the consumer-end, specifying procedures and constraints for this reception – and thereby circumventing the problem of which liu writes – would be no different to the outcry at the tate modern when, in , a mark rothko painting was accidentally hung, against the artist's instructions, upside down. furthermore, it is possible that such a content/form dichotomy, in which each element must be separately considered, could lead to a culture of artistic practice which places a greater emphasis on the self-aware consideration of this distinction; surely a positive turn. from this mention of auto-consciousness, it is fair to state that liu's self-aware, self-criticism marks the strongest point in this volume. in knowledge of his earlier complicity with the new historicism, liu's work on romanticism and, in particular, wordsworth, wastes no time on preliminary synopsis and assumes a familiarity with the field, allowing his analysis of cultural criticism to shine through. when writing on the digital humanities, however, liu digresses into lengthy exegeses of what are, to figures in the computer science arena, trivial aspects of database theory (p. - ). this discrepancy somewhat betrays liu's objective to 'rethink thinking' (p. ) as regards interdisciplinarity. such an assumption of familiarity with the literary, and an opposing presumption of ignorance of the technological seems, at times, to recross the boundary of pragmatism back to a home discipline seeking 'some more absolute validation' (p. ) in the exotic other. these relatively minor critiques are outshone, however, by the majority of the book, none more so than in liu's approach to the academy itself. building on the premise that 'an adequate discussion of literary history must at some point cite the history of the academy' (p. ), local transcendence is topical and relevant, especially in its dealings with the already touched-upon interdisciplinary studies. situating this term within the military metaphor aptly applied to disciplinarity, liu covers the field with focus on the fishean critique of epistemological boundaries, acquiescing to a degradation of the interdisciplinary to a mere rhetorical trope, yet simultaneously offering a means of redemption. in the recognition that interdisciplinarity is a mode whose quest for knowledge risks a fall towards this rhetorical formation, liu sees the potential for a counterforce who, re-appropriating lyotard, would deny the 'consensus of good taste'; a war machine that reverts to a deleuzian horde, rather than a monolithic entity (pp. - ). similarly, the discussion on literary history as the management of presentations of literature – while having a wittgensteinian feel to its motif of 'citation-as-seeing' as opposed to 'citation-as-calling' (p. ) – also has a role in the practicalities of course design and pedagogy. although liu lacks the space, or perhaps inclination, to develop this into a full pragmatic paradigm, it is hinted that while the academy's current mode may permit plurality within its meta- structure, a move to a new literary history would involve – couched by liu in the terminology of packet switching and, even, patchwork quilting – less credulity towards these meta-narratives. from this description, one might be tempted to believe that local transcendence has scarcely advanced since the heyday of high postmodernism; be assured that this is not the case. while in both structure and content liu explores the bounds of knowledge that so pervaded this era, this collection is an entirely historicized account of the period which covers, ultimately, the unacknowledged tension between contingency and freedom, between the academy and its objects of study, between digital threat and digital redemption within the discourses of postmodern historiography. © copyright martin paul eve, university of sussex alan liu, local transcendence: essays on postmodern historicism and the database (chicago: university of chicago press), pp., £ . (paper), £ . (cloth) js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources judaica librarianship volume - - - js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources michelle chesner columbia university, mc @columbia.edu follow this and additional works at: https://ajlpublishing.org/jl recommended citation chesner, michelle. . "js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources." judaica librarianship : - . doi: . / - . . https://ajlpublishing.org/jl?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://ajlpublishing.org/jl/vol ?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://ajlpublishing.org/jl/vol /iss / ?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://ajlpublishing.org/jl?utm_source=ajlpublishing.org% fjl% fvol % fiss % f &utm_medium=pdf&utm_campaign=pdfcoverpages https://doi.org/ . / - . js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources the world in which we live is probably best described as a hybrid between the physical and the digital. as librarians working closely with the humanities, we encounter this dichotomy on a daily basis, purchasing both print and e-books via our computers, teaching the use of citation software and academic writing, and using an online catalog to access print monographs. increasingly, the use of the digital, and the multi-faceted term “digital humanities,” is becoming part of our daily conversation. at its simplest definition, writing this article could be considered digital human- ities, since it is written on a computer, in digital form, and describes a field of the humanities. however, as scholars and librarians (and librarian scholars) are producing more and more com- plex digital works of scholarship and bibliography or reference, there is a need to evaluate them, just as we evaluate print scholarship and reference works. following the lead of other scholarly resources, judaica librarianship will be premiering this new column to evaluate digital projects. librarians, especially those who provide reference assistance on a consistent basis, have to be familiar with all the resources (or those resources that identify the resources) in the field that they serve. many universities have some form of “digital center” in their libraries, but librarians not working directly with the centers are too often not familiar with the kinds of services they provide. even if one has never heard words like html, python, django, ruby, github or the many others that encompass the jargon of tech-speak, digital humanities projects should still be essential to librarians who work with researchers. like any other resources, we need to ensure that we are familiar with digital humanities resources—those grassroots projects that are gen- erated by scholars rather than vendors, and are often very useful, even in their “beta” versions. it was for this reason that i began aggregating sites that i called “dh jewish,” i.e. those sites that use digital techniques to advance scholarship in the field of jewish studies. this new column a new column reviewing digital humanities projects in the field of jewish studies. to submit a project for review, or to request to review a project, please contact michelle chesner at mc @columbia.edu. see, for instance, a recent report of the coalition for networked information (cni) on a workshop arranged by cni and the association of research libraries, and attended by a hundred librarians from academic libraries around the country (goldenberg-hart ). another important collection of articles on digital humanities in the library is christian-lamb et al. ( ). digital humanities in the library is beyond the scope of this column, but for those with interest in this area, the dh+lib website, hosted by the association of college and research libraries (http:// acrl.ala.org/dh), and associated publications such as an email roundup of research scholarship are quite informative. the data can be found at http://bit.ly/jewishdhprojects (accessed december , ). it is a google spreadsheet populated by a form (hosted at http://www.thedigin.org/jewish-studies-dh-projects/) that still receives submissions. i created the spreadsheet for myself because i could not find an aggregated collection of dh projects in jewish studies. as far as i know, this is the only “database” of jewish studies dh projects in existence. please contact me if you know of a more formal repository for these projects, and i would be happy to submit the information that i have collected. note that the aggregated collection of digital projects includes standard digitization projects, which are out of the scope for this column. m. chesner / judaica librarianship ( ) – mc @columbia.edu http://acrl.ala.org/dh http://acrl.ala.org/dh http://bit.ly/jewishdhprojects http://www.thedigin.org/jewish-studies-dh-projects/ will provide reviews and information about these resources in the digital field. as far as this column’s scope, digital humanities means projects that use digital technology to advance research in a way that could not have been done before the digital age. we will not be reviewing sites that solely feature digitized manuscripts or other digital facsimiles from one collection, unless there is a unique factor to the digitization or display that adds value to re- search beyond a digital reproduction of the item. such exceptions include sites like the british library’s polonsky foundation catalog of digitized hebrew manuscripts. this comprehensive site includes all of the metadata for the manuscripts (both electronic and physical), which can be used as a resource for a slew of various kinds of visualizations (mapping, timelines, genre breakdowns, etc.). another, older, example is the bezalel narkiss index of jewish art, which has aggregated a quarter of a million images of visual materials from about seven hundred collec- tions around the world to create a resource for teaching and studying jewish art. the friedberg genizah project, now one of many projects on jewishmanuscripts.org, went through many iter- ations before reaching its present state, and was one of the first digitization projects to utilize digital technology to allow new kinds of research in jewish studies. jews in america is also an aggregation project, allowing people to search over , items from nearly four hundred col- lections, all of which relate to american jewish history. the european holocaust research infrastructure (ehri) is an aggregation project as well, gath- ering and providing access to resources on the holocaust, but it also sponsors workshops, sym- posia, and other events to build a community of scholars around the study of the holocaust. another community of scholars can be found in the digital yiddish theatre project. the dytp is essentially an encyclopedia-in-process, with short and long articles about performers, theater groups, genres, and other topics. like ehri, it sponsors academic events surrounding yiddish theater, bringing people together in their shared topic of study. other kinds of digital humanities projects include text-based initiatives, like poetrans, the index of poetry translations into hebrew. this is a kind of digital reference book, something that would have been published as an index in the past, but is far more accessible in digital form. sefaria allows users to jump from text to commentary or other references, and then back again with just a few clicks. the digital mishna project, on the other hand, is working on creating a digital critical edition of the mishna based on many witnesses. this is an in-process project, and so we will be watching to see what it produces. yerusha is another great example of an in-process project that will become a remarkable resource for scholars upon its completion. its goal is not the digital publication of primary sources per se, but rather to provide information about collections scattered across europe so scholars know what the primary sources are, where they can be found—and, most importantly, how to access them. footprints is similar in that way, collecting scattered data about the movement of jewish all of the projects listed in this article come from the “dh jewish” list and are described in further detail there. m. chesner / judaica librarianship ( ) – https://www.bl.uk/hebrew-manuscripts http://cja.huji.ac.il/browser.php http://www.jewishmanuscripts.org/ http://www.jewishmanuscripts.org/ http://jewishmanuscripts.org http://www.jewsinamerica.org https://ehri-project.eu https://yiddishstage.org/ http://www.poetrans.org/poetrans http://sefaria.org http://www.digitalmishnah.org/ http://yerusha.eu http://footprints.ccnmtl.columbia.edu books into a format that allows researchers to locate materials that otherwise may not have been identified as relevant resources. the relatively new digital dh at the penn libraries has been working some incredible projects very recently, such as the “geniza scribes” collaboration with zooniverse to identify paleographical scripts in genizah fragments. but the purpose of this column is not simply to describe the various projects in existence. initial- ly inspired by the american historical review’s recent commitment to review digital projects as academic publications (lichtenstein ), this column should be viewed as a partner to the reviews section in this journal. it is a place for long-form essays describing the merits and drawbacks of a digital project. since digital projects are often iterative and published in “beta” versions, it is also a place to provide productive feedback to a project creator. where relevant and possible, we will publish a response from the project creator to provide context or future plans for a project. to allow the broadest access for both viewers and readers, only freely available digital human- ities resources will be reviewed in this column. this is not a venue to advertise or critique data- bases for purchase or subscription, as that can be done in the reviews section of this and other journals. in an age of digital information, new resources seem to pop up daily. it is the job of librarians to evaluate these sources to decide what is best for research and their users. when one is not familiar with the environment or the medium of the resource, however, evaluation of sources, and sometimes the source itself, is left out of the scholarly conversation, causing researchers to overlook important sources for their work. it is my hope that this column will go a long way in assisting its constituents with this daunting task. sources christian-lamb, caitlin, zach coble, thomas padilla, et al. . “digital humanities in the library / of the library: a dh+lib speical issue.” accessed january , . dh+lib: where the digital humanities and librarianship meet. http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ -spe- cial-issue/. goldenberg-hart, diane. . “report of a cni-arl workshop: planning a digital schol- arship center .” accessed january , , https://www.cni.org/wp-content/up- loads/ / /report-dscw .pdf. lichtenstein, alex. . “introduction.” the american historical review ( ): – . doi: . /ahr/ . . . this is a project i co-direct, with adam shear, josh teplitsky, and marjorie lehman. m. chesner / judaica librarianship ( ) – https://judaicadh.github.io/about http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ -special-issue/ http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ -special-issue/ https://www.cni.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /report-dscw .pdf https://www.cni.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /report-dscw .pdf https://doi.org/ . /ahr/ . . judaica librarianship - - js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources michelle chesner recommended citation js/dh: an introduction to jewish studies/ digital humanities resources sources review: ellas tienen nombre reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre sylvia fernández quintanilla university of kansas published on: sep , updated on: sep , doi: . / e f f.bc e a license: creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre proyecto ellas tienen nombre: cartografía digital de feminicidios autor del proyecto ivonne ramírez ramírez, investigador independiente liga del proyecto https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ evaluadora del proyecto sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas traducción sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas desc ri pc i ón del proyec t o ivonne ramírez ramírez ellas tienen nombre es un proyecto de mapeo feminista cuya información se puso a disposición en marzo de , en el marco del día internacional de la mujer. el objetivo se centra en las víctimas de femi(ni)cidio en ciudad juárez, méxico, monitoreando y georreferenciado los lugares donde los cuerpos de niñas y mujeres se han encontrado asesinadas, además de desglosar las especificidades y datos de cada uno de los casos. mi perspectiva feminista del proyecto ha variado porque ha sido un aprendizaje continuo. es por eso que el mapa ha pasado por varios procesos, visualizaciones, metodologías, dilemas teóricos e incluso éticos desde entonces, aunque tengo cierta formación, formal e informal, en estudios feministas, no me especializo en humanidades digitales. por ejemplo, en vista de que google cerró sus tablas dinámicas (fusion tables) aún tenemos que actualizar los datos de los últimos meses de y hasta la fecha, por lo que estamos averiguando cómo implementar una nueva infraestructura técnica. por sus fuentes bibliográficas y cuestiones teórico-metodológicas, la información en este mapeo digital consta de dos f ases: la primera etapa corresponde de a . para el registro de feminicidios cometidos en estos años, me apoyé en expedientes de la fiscalía y otras agencias gubernamentales, en archivos de organizaciones sociales no gubernamentales, prensa, libros dedicados al tema, así como en información recopilada por mujeres, activistas, feministas, escritoras/es, todos aquellos especialmente de la región. sin degradar en modo alguno el trabajo hecho por todos/as los/as https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre reiterando que cada uno de estos casos tiene sus especificidades y que hay niñas y mujeres más vulnerables que otras, este mapa intenta mostrar que los feminicidios son una violencia extrema que afecta a todas las clases sociales, edades y espacios geográficos, ya que el mapa denuncia visualmente en primera instancia que, en toda la ciudad, hombres han matado a niñas, mujeres y mujeres transgénero. el proyecto pretende ser un instrumento complementario con el que podamos alertar sobre la gravedad de la violencia en contra de niñas y mujeres. parece que el impacto visual con el mapa y las fotografías es diferente a compartir información a través de estadísticas con gráficas. mediante la visualización del mapa en correlación con los feminicidios, también se puede imaginar, investigar y ahondar en cómo el contexto, las políticas públicas, la situación social, el régimen político, los sistemas opresivos, la cultura, etc. afectan a las personas (en este caso, niñas y mujeres) que viven en lugares geopolíticos particulares. dos personas colaboran en este proyecto: debido a una postura político-ideológica relacionada con el contexto histórico en ciudad juárez por los feminicidios, hasta ahora no he buscado y no he querido recibir fondos o apoyo financiero para este proyecto. esto puede cambiar en algún momento. investigadores/as en los que baso mi investigación, esta información previa publicada en la bibliografía, son datos sobre feminicidios difícil de consultar para muchas personas o el proceso de consulta es complejo y de alguna manera inaccesible para personas no académicas. ellas tienen nombre recopila los datos y la información que ya estaba ahí y los libera, aprovechando las posibilidades y herramientas que brinda el internet. la segunda parte comprende desde hasta la fecha. en esta parte he monitoreado diariamente la prensa escrita y digital (mayormente digital), así como redes sociales. también he recibido correos electrónicos donde las mujeres comparten conmigo información sobre feminicidios que yo no tenía registrados en el mapa. asimismo, intento utilizar fotografías respetuosas de las víctimas cuando estaban en vida para identificar cada uno de los casos, si no las obtengo incluyo fotografías de las víctimas no explícitas o de la escena del crimen. maestra ivonne ramírez (ciudad juárez -). activista cultural y feminista. fundadora del proyecto. gustavo ramírez (ciudad de méxico -). ingeniero en sistemas. trabaja en el código que permite tener una plantilla fija que se utiliza para completar la base de datos y para la visualización final (interf az frontal y trasera) reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre r evi si ón del proyec t o sylvia fernández quintanilla marcela lagarde de los ríos en el pref acio de terrorizing women, “feminist keys to understand feminicide” define: violencia feminicida, como “lo extremo, la culminación de muchas formas de violencia de género contra las mujeres que representa un atentado a sus derechos humanos y que dirige a diversas formas de muerte violenta” (xxi); y, el feminicidio, como “ una de las formas extremas de violencia de género; está constituido por todo el conjunto de actos misóginos violentos contra las mujeres que impliquen una violación de sus derechos humanos, representan un atentado a su seguridad y ponen en peligro sus vidas” (xxiii). ellas tienen nombre es un proyecto de mapeo digital feminista que documenta la violencia feminicida y los feminicidios desde hasta la actualidad en la frontera de cd. juárez, chihuahua. es un proyecto que, imagina, investiga y profundiza en los feminicidios a través de un contexto geopolítico — una región fronteriza gobernada por dinámicas nacionales, transfronterizas, binacionales y transnacionales. fue fundado por la maestra ivonne ramírez para contrarrestar la f alta de información disponible y accesible a distintos públicos interesados en el tema. ramírez inició este proyecto en marzo de recopilando y visualizando datos de las niñas y mujeres desaparecidas en el área fronteriza de donde es ella. el proyecto consiste en identificar datos específicos de cada uno de los casos y la georreferenciación de los lugares donde se han encontrado los cuerpos. además del mapa digital, el proyecto visualiza casos de estudio para mostrar la relación de algunos de los feminicidios cometidos, mediante la presentación de imágenes e información específica de niñas y mujeres. un ejemplo es el registro de jóvenes lesbianas o bisexuales desaparecidas y asesinadas en . esta iniciativa se sustenta de forma independiente y autónoma, a raíz de la postura ideológica-política relacionada con el feminicidio en esta región. ellas tienen nombre responde a las preocupaciones que lagarde de los ríos explica: “las autoridades no han revelado ninguna información sobre sus investigaciones o lo han hecho solo de manera parcial, incompleta y confusa...las autoridades se contradicen casi todo el tiempo. no hay certeza en muchos de los casos de que las víctimas corresponden a los cadáveres no identificados” (xiv). desde los primeros registros oficiales de feminicidios cometidos en esta frontera, las autoridades y una serie de representantes políticos han abordado estos casos de forma negativa. ellos han presentado informes en tonos misóginos e incongruentes que luego se transfieren a la forma en la que se trabaja con los datos. de al , los datos del proyecto consisten en información oficial de agencias gubernamentales, organizaciones no gubernamentales, asociaciones civiles, periódicos, así como información que activistas, escritoras, mujeres y feministas recopilaron previamente. de hasta la fecha, los datos reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre han sido monitoreados y registrados diariamente por ramírez a través de la prensa digital y análoga, en redes sociales y de reportes que le han enviado directamente por correo electrónico. los aspectos técnicos del proyecto han pasado por varias iteraciones a medida que ramírez ha evolucionado en su propio aprendizaje de nuevas metodologías, aspectos teóricos y éticos, así como nuevas tecnologías. actualmente el ing. gustavo ramírez supervisa el código para completar la base de datos y crear las visualizaciones. el proyecto está alojado en un portal creado en html y está compuesto por apartados: “projecto”, descripción en formato bilingüe (español e inglés); “mapa”, la cartografía digital creada con mapbox; “ ”, una serie de visualizaciones con imágenes e información de algunos de los casos particulares de niñas y mujeres asesinadas; “contacto”; y, “enlaces relacionados”, un listado de otros recursos digitales de los casos en cd. juárez y mapas digitales de feminicidios en otras partes de méxico y el mundo. ellas tienen nombre contribuye a las prácticas feministas y al trabajo de justicia social de la comunidad de madres y activistas que siguen buscando a sus hijas. esta comunidad participa haciendo rastreos por el desierto en busca de los restos de sus hijas. el uso de una cartografía local expone el modus operandi de los feminicidios fronterizos. el mapa muestra la complejidad de los casos más extremos de violencia de género permitiendo filtrar los datos de forma grupal, individualmente, así como de forma geoespacial y temporal. este enfoque indica la ética feminsita de ramírez al resaltar la subjetividad de estas mujeres al evitar presentarse como víctimas, objetos o cuerpos desechables. las limitaciones de este enfoque, sin embargo, están ligadas al estado del récord físico y digital que sigue controlado por poderes hegemónicos-patriarcales que intervienen en qué información está disponible. asimismo, las ausencias/silencios en los datos muestran cómo el problema estructural-sistemático prevalece a nivel institucional y social limitando el acceso o borrando la evidencia. al revisar este proyecto, es importante recordarles a los lectores la fuerte influencia hacia el lado mexicano y las intervenciones provenientes de estados unidos y otras partes del mundo, como parte de las principales causas de violencia de género y feminicidas en esta región. con esto en mente, este proyecto podría incluir datos de niñas y mujeres, víctimas de feminicidios, que han ocurrido en el lado estadounidense de la frontera y añadir información de cuando el feminicida/agresor está relacionado con los estados unidos o una institución que sea parte de este sistema binacional/transnacional. esto permitirá una comprensión más profunda de la realidad poscolonial de lo que es la frontera, donde poderes hegemónicos de ambos países y de terceros gobiernan y las mujeres deben navegar entre estos diferentes sistemas y culturas patriarcales. en general, este proyecto feminista cumple su misión al crear recursos digitales para hacer que los datos de niñas y mujeres, víctimas de feminicidios en cd. juárez, estén disponibles y accesibles. asimismo, desarrolla una mayor conciencia sobre la situación que enfrentan las mujeres fronterizas, así como la necesidad de compartir esta información al público en general, ya que es un tema que reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre forma parte del presente y la memoria histórica de la región. en esta línea, artistas, académicas/os de diversas partes del mundo, activistas y medios de comunicación han utilizado este proyecto para crear nuevas iniciativas artísticas, testificar ante las autoridades y abogar por políticas de justicia y equidad. cabe señalar que el esfuerzo y tiempo, no remunerado, que mujeres como ramírez o maría salgado (autora del mapa digital de feminicidios en todo méxico) le han dado a este tipo de proyectos independientes, es un trabajo humanitario crucial que merece de mayor reconocimiento y apoyo para mantener con vida este tipo de material digital que trabaja para representar las voces de protesta, demandar justicia y movilizar la solidaridad. bibliografía lagarde de los ríos, marcela. pref ace. “feminist keys for understanding feminicide: theoretical, political, and legal construction”. terrorizing women: feminicides in the americas, editor por rosa linda fregoso y cynthia bejarano, duke university press, , xi-xxvi. project ellas tienen nombre: cartografía digital de feminicidios project director ivonne ramírez ramírez, independent scholar project url https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ project reviewer sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas translator sylvia fernández quintanilla, university of kansas p roj ec t overvi ew ivonne ramírez ramírez ellas tienen nombre is a feminist mapping project using information made available in march , within the framework of international women's day. the objective is to focus on the victims of femi(ni)cide in ciudad juárez, mexico, monitoring and georeferencing the places where the bodies of https://feminicidiosmx.crowdmap.com/ https://www.ellastienennombre.org/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ https://sylviafernandezq.wordpress.com/ reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre murdered girls and women have been found, as well as breaking down the specificities and data of each of the cases. my feminist perspective of the project has varied because it is a continuous learning process. that is why the map has gone through various iterations, visualizations, methodologies, and theoretical and even ethical dilemmas since, although i have some formal and informal training in feminist studies, i do not specialize in digital humanities. for example, because google shut down its fusion tables, we have yet to update the last months of and year to date, so we are figuring out how to implement a new technical infrastructure. due to its bibliographic sources and theoretical-methodological issues, the information in this digital mapping consists of two phases: stressing that each of these cases has its specificities and that there are girls and women more vulnerable than others, this map tries to show that feminicides are extreme violence that affects all social classes, ages, and geographic spaces since the map visually denounces in the first instance that throughout the city, men have killed girls, women, and transgender women. the project tries to be a complementary instrument that communicates the gravity of violence against girls and women. it seems that the visual impact of the map and photos is different from sharing information through statistics with graphs. through the visualization of feminicides on the map, we could also imagine, investigate, and delve into how the context, public policies, social situation, the first stage corresponds with to . for the data on femicides committed in these years, i relied on files from the prosecutor's office and other government agencies, files of non- governmental social organizations, press, books dedicated to the subject, and information collected by women activists, feminists, writers, all of them specifically from the region. without criticizing the work i base my research on, this previous information, written in published bibliographies, made the data on femicides difficult for many people to consult or perhaps made the process of understanding the data more complex and somehow inaccessible for regular people. ellas tienen nombre collects the data and information that was already there and makes them available by taking advantage of the possibilities and tools provided by the internet. the second part comprises to date. for this part, i monitor daily the digital and written press (mostly digital), as well as social networks. i have also received emails where women share with me information about feminicides that i did not have registered on the map. likewise, i am trying to use respectful photos of the victims when they were alive to identify each of the cases, or, if i do not obtain them, non-explicit photos of the victims or of the crime scene are included. reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre political regime, oppressive systems, culture, etc., impact people (in this case, girls and women) who live in particular geopolitical areas. two people collaborate on this project: ● ma ivonne ramírez (ciudad juárez - ). cultural and feminist activist. head of the project. ● gustavo ramírez (ciudad de méxico - ). software engineer. he works on the code that allows me to have a fixed template that is used to fill out our database and for the final visualization (back end and front end). the project arises from the idea that this information should be available to all types of audience interested in the subject and with internet access. due to a political-ideological stance related to the historical context of ciudad juárez regarding feminicides, so f ar, i have not searched and did not want to receive funds or financial support for this project. this may change at some point. p roj ec t r evi ew sylvia fernández quintanilla in the pref ace of terrorizing women, “feminist keys to understand feminicide,” marcela lagarde de los ríos defines feminicidal violence, as “the extreme, the culmination of many forms of gender violence against women that represent an attack on their human rights and that lead them to various forms of violent death” (xxi). she defines feminicide, as “one of the extreme forms of gender violence; it is constituted by the whole set of violent misogynist acts against women that involve a violation of their human rights, represent an attack on their safety, and endangered their lives” (xxiii). ellas tienen nombre is a feminist digital mapping project that records feminicidal violence and feminicide from to the present in the border of cd. juárez, chihuahua. it is a project that, imagines, investigates, and delves into feminicides through a geopolitical context — a border region governed by national, cross-border, bi-national, and transnational dynamics. it was founded by m.a. ivonne ramírez to counter the lack of publicly available and accessible information from the different publics interested in the subject. ramírez began this project in march by collecting and visualizing data about the missing girls and women in the area of the border that she is from. the project consists of identifying specific data of each of the cases and georeferencing the places where the bodies have been found. in addition to the digital map, the project includes case studies that show the relationship between femicides committed by displaying images and specific information of girls and women. an example is the registry of reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre lesbian or bisexual youth disappeared and murdered in . this initiative is supported independently and autonomously, as a result of the political-ideological stance related to feminicide in this region. ellas tienen nombre speaks to the concerns of lagarde de los ríos who explains: “authorities have f ailed to disclose any information on their inquiries or have done so only in a partial, incomplete, and confused manner…the authorities contradict themselves almost all the time. there is no certainty in many cases that the victims correspond to unidentified corpses” (xiv). since the first official records of femicides committed in this border region, an array of authorities and political representatives have dealt with these cases in a negative way. they present reports with misogynistic and incongruous overtones, which then transfers as ways of working with this data. from to , the project’s data consists of official information from government agencies, non- governmental organizations, civil associations, newspapers, as well as activists, writers, women and feminists who previously collected this information. from to date, data has been monitored and recorded daily by ramírez through digital and analog press, on social networks and that have been sent to her directly via email. the technical aspects of the project have gone through various iterations as ramírez evolves in her own learning of new methodologies, theoretical, and ethical aspects, as well as new digital technologies. currently, ing. gustavo ramírez oversees the code for the database and creates the visualizations. the project is hosted in a portal created in html and is made up of sections: “projecto,” description in bilingual format (spanish and english); “mapa,” the digital cartography created with mapbox; “ ,” a series of visualizations with images and information of some of the particular cases of murdered girls and women; “contacto”; and, “enlaces relacionados,” a list of other digital resources of the cd. juárez cases and digital mapping of femicides in other parts of mexico and the world. ellas tienen nombre contributes to feminist practices and social justice work via the community of mothers and activists who continue to search for their daughters. they participate by doing crawls in the desert searching for remains of their children. the use of local cartography exposes the modus operandi of the border femicides. the map shows the complexity of the most serious cases of gender violence allowing users to filter the data as a group, individually, and in geospatial and temporal ways. this approach indicates ramírez's feminist ethic by highlighting the subjectivity of these women. it avoids presenting them as victims, objects, or disposable bodies. the limitations of this approach though are tied to its relationship to the physical and digital record still controlled by hegemonic- patriarchal powers that intervene in what information is available. likewise, the data absences/silences show how the structural-systematic problem prevails at the institutional and social level, limiting the access or erasing the evidence. reviews in digital humanities review: ellas tienen nombre in reviewing this project, it is important to remind readers of the strong influences and capitalist interventions coming from the united states and other parts of the world towards the mexican side of the border, which are among the main causes of gender and feminicidal violence in this region. with this in mind, this project could include data of girls and women, victims of feminicides, that have occurred on the us side of the border and add indicate when feminicides are related to the united states or an institution that is part of this bi-national/transnational system. this will allow a deeper understanding of the postcolonial reality of the border, where hegemonic powers of both countries and third parties rule and women must navigate these different systems and patriarchal cultures. overall, this feminist project fulfills its mission by creating digital resources to make the data of girls and women, victims of femicides in cd. juárez, available and accessible. likewise, it has generated greater awareness of the situation f aced by border women, as well as the need to share this information to the general public, since it is part of the present and historical memory of the region. in this vein, artists, academics from various parts of the world, activists and the media have used this project to create new artistic initiatives, testify to authorities, and advocate for justice and equity policies. it should be noted that the effort and time, unpaid, that women like ramírez or maría salgado (author of the digital map of feminicides in méxico) have given to these types of independent projects, is crucial humanitarian work that deserves more recognition and support to maintain digital material that works towards the representation of voices of protest, demands justice, and mobilizes solidarity. bibliography lagarde de los ríos, marcela. pref ace. “feminist keys for understanding feminicide: theoretical, political, and legal constuction.” terrorizing women: feminicide in the americas, rosa linda fregoso and cynthia bejarano, editors, duke university press, , xi-xxvi. https://feminicidiosmx.crowdmap.com/ microsoft word - anm_revised_paper_for_repository.docx accepted, pre-published copy for university repository richard hetherington and rachel mcrae. make-believing animated films featuring digital humans: a qualitative inquiry using online sources. animation: an interdisciplinary journal vol. , issue , pp. xx-xx. copyright © (sage publishing). reprinted by permission of sage publications. corresponding author: richard hetherington, school of computing, edinburgh napier university, colinton road, eh dt, uk. email: r.hetherington@napier.ac.uk make-‐believing animated films featuring digital humans: a qualitative inquiry using online sources richard hetherington and rachel mcrae school of computing, edinburgh napier university, uk abstract a qualitative inquiry of reviews of films featuring digital humanlike characters was performed by sampling user comments from three online reviewer aggregator sites: the internet movie database, rotten tomatoes and metacritic. the movies chosen for analysis were: final fantasy: the spirits within ( ), the polar express ( ), and beowulf ( ), all produced using cgi animation, together with a scanner darkly ( a) whose visuals are depicted by rotoscoping using bob sabiston’s rotoshop software. our analysis identified individual differences in the viewing experience, particularly in relation to the uncertain ontology of the humanlike characters created using cgi (cgi-humans). we found examples of reviews indicating an inability to distinguish between real and cgi-human actors, observations of characters transiently exhibiting realism before returning to their artifice, and of characters being viewed as eerie (analogous to the uncanny valley) thus illustrating a complex and dynamic response to this phenomenon. in some situations character uncanniness was related to the presence of an atypical feature such as movement of the eyes. whilst specifically for beowulf, perceptions became more problematic when there was familiarity with the actor playing the cgi-human character, with some reviewers describing difficulties in categorising the character as either real or animated. cgi-human performances were also characterised by a lack of, or inappropriate social interaction. online reviewers did not perceive characters depicted using rotoshop (rotoshop-humans) as eerie and rotoscoping was found to preserve, and possibly enhance, the natural social interactions between actors recorded from the live-action film used as the source for the animation. our inquiry also identified user motivations for viewing these movies and the importance placed by reviewers on the form of display when viewing the cgi films. we situate our interpretation of these findings in relation to walton’s make-believe theory (mimesis as make-believe: on the foundations of the representational arts, ) revealing its application to our understanding of the viewing experience of animated films featuring digital humans. keywords make-believe, digital humanlike characters, cgi, rotoshop, uncanny valley, viewer experience. introduction in this article we differentiate between two distinct processes used to create digital humans in animated movies: in the first, characters were created using d computer- generated imagery (cgi) and animation techniques including motion or performance capture (mocap). such characters feature in works that are intended to be perceptually realistic (prince, ) and have been referred to as ‘hyper realistic’ (mcclean, ), ‘synthespians’ (aldred, ), or simply - cgi characters (sobchack, ); and are featured in movies including: final fantasy: the spirits within ( ), the polar express ( ) and beowulf ( ). we shall refer to these characters as ‘cgi-humans’. in the second process, humanlike characters were created by a digital implementation of rotoscoping – a technique whereby animators create an animated film by drawing frame- by-frame over a live-action source. the film we examined was a scanner darkly ( a), which was created using the rotoshop software developed by bob sabiston (flat black films, n.d.) and we use the prefix ‘rotoshop-’ or ‘rotoshopped-‘ to refer to digital humans depicted by this process. though all of these films are positioned towards realism, the outcomes produced from cgi techniques and rotoshop are aesthetically distinct from each other and have been the subject of much academic research and critical review, with attention frequently directed toward the uncertain ontological nature of the digital humans featured (e.g. aldred, ; sobchack, ; plantec, ; ruddell, ; honess roe, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen, and takala, ). a common experience when viewing the cgi films mentioned above is the eerie or uncanny nature of the cgi-humans they feature. these characterstics have been variously described as ‘lifeless’, ‘creepy’, ‘eerie’ and ‘zombie-like’ (aldred, ; plantec, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen, and takala, ); and as such are considered to occupy the ‘uncanny valley’ - a situation described by mori ( ) where near humanlike artefacts (e.g. a humanoid robot, bunraku puppet, prosthetic hand) prompt strong negative reactions in an observer (macdorman and entezari, ). a preliminary study revealed some viewers perceived the rotoshopped bob arctor character in a scanner darkly also to be eerie (hetherington, ). honess roe ( : ) describes the talking-head interviews created with rotoshop by bob sabiston as ‘an uncanny sense of reality haunting the animated image’. however, it remains unknown how generalisable the experience of characters being uncanny is when considering the reception of these films by viewing audiences. macdorman and entezari ( ) have reported individual differences in the perception of videos of androids exhibiting varying levels of human likeness and eeriness, concluding that sensitivity to the uncanny valley is associated with sociocultural constructions and biological adaptations related to threat avoidance. it seems clear that we cannot confidently extrapolate individual critical analyses of these movies to the wider viewing audience. in addition, the uncanny nature of these characters appears likely to form only part of the overall viewing experience. when asked to consider another dimension of the viewing experience of humanlike characters – their believability - participants identified a number of influences operating within and also beyond their direct experience of the character in the film, including references made to technical aspects of character creation and animation, the visual integration of the characters within their background and their interaction with props, previous experience of playing video games, narrative expectations, and familiarity of the actor connected with the animated character’s performance (hetherington, ). these observations motivated us to conduct the present study in order to gain a wider understanding of viewer responses to films featuring digital humans. the internet has become an increasingly important means to support the understanding of media. cresswell ( ) has discussed the pros and cons of qualitative data collection via the internet: problems include ethical issues over privacy, ownership and use of data, establishing the authenticity of data, and the requirement for participants to have computing skills. potential advantages include: cost and time efficiency, a more amenable environment for data generation and collection, and ease of accessibility to target groups and in providing data. successful examples of use include using social media to recruit participants and interview them using internet video chat for a qualitative inquiry of player-avatar relationships (banks, ), and the analysis of online collaborative discourse generated by fans of progressive rock music (atton, ). in this article we use openly available online film review aggregator sites as a source of qualitative data for our inquiry. three review aggregators were chosen as data sources for our qualitative inquiry: the internet movie database (imdb, www.imdb.com), rotten tomatoes (www.rottentomatoes.com) and metacritic (www.metacritic.com). all sites publish ratings and reviews of movies submitted by users and critics and typically receive to million unique monthly visitors (imdb, ; quantcast, ; trafficestimate.com, ). all the sites claimed to implement moderation and consistency checks by staff and reviewers to ensure reliability and accuracy of information. the distinction made between critic and user reviews on these sites prompted us to consider what would be the most appropriate sampling strategy for the present study. differences in ratings between critics and users have been noted with critics showing greater variability and harshness in their judgments (follows, ). an analysis of the content of online film reviews by professional critics or consumers found consumers to predominantly evaluate the films and write from a personal perspective, whereas reviews written by critics described the film instead of evaluating it (de jong and burgers, ). film critic todd mccarthy notes that reviews written by online pundits who aren’t recognised film critics are becoming increasingly prominent and influential (mccarthy, ). a film evaluation study by chakravarty, liu and mazumdar ( ) comparing the impact of online user comments with reviews by film critics revealed infrequent filmgoers to be more influenced by user reviews, while frequent filmgoers were more influenced by the reviews written by the critics. as the aim of our study was to collect information to help us understand how viewers experience films we concluded that the more useful source of experiential information would be online user comments. we have chosen to situate our interpretation of user comments of these films in relation to the characters’ believability - a recognised objective of many animated films including those examined here. in order to engage with animated works the audience is often assumed to ‘suspend their disbelief’ i.e. to make-believe. kendall walton’s theory of make-believe (walton, ), also known as pretend theory, proposes that representational artworks including paintings, plays, novels and movies serve as ‘props’ which prescribe specific imaginings and are analogous to the role toys serve in children’s games, enabling entry into a fictional world . recently, bateman ( and ) has applied make-believe theory to engagement with games and videogames. however, to our knowledge, animated movies per se have not been examined even though believability is an important quality of the viewing experience. in view of the reported eerie nature of the characters, we contend that the films chosen in this study make interesting candidates to examine make-believe and its possible limitations. qualitative inquiry random samples of user reviews were taken from each of three online reviewer aggregator sites (imdb, rotten tomatoes and metacritic) for three cgi films (final fantasy: the spirits within, the polar express and beowulf) and a film animated by interpolated rotoscoping using rotoshop (a scanner darkly). at this stage, determining a sample’s demography for imdb was problematic due to the cryptic nature of many usernames making it impossible to accurately determine reviewer gender. this was less of a problem for the other two sites as user profiles typically contained a first name and often a photograph of the reviewer. using only unambiguous reviewer usernames revealed a male to female ratio of around three to one (n = ). if we were to assume that site visitor demographics reflected those of reviewers, data for rotten tomatoes indicate a male to female ratio of . : with the majority of visitors being in age groups of - yrs and - yrs (quantcast, ). another issue we encountered was only being able to access the more recent user comments posted from rotten tomatoes. movie viewing information was garnered by a thematic analysis assisted by computer software (nvivo , qsr international). the analysis involved induction, interpretation and iteration of data in order to identify relevant themes, bracketing any prior knowledge from articles read and our own viewing experiences of these films. only data considered relevant to the description of the viewing experience were included in our analysis, which proceeded by identifying individual coded references. a coded reference represents a discrete thought or observation and may take the form of a phrase, sentence, or paragraph in a review - a ‘unit of meaning’. these thoughts are captured and aggregated through the process of coding into categories of information (codes) that were allowed to emerge naturally and from which themes were identified and developed. coding was done by repeatedly reading film reviews to give an initial set of coding categories, which after several reflexive iterations were re-structured into a working set of main categories covering comments relating to: actors and acting, aspects of production, character, writing, believability, interpretation; and other aspects of the viewing experience including time and location of viewing, emotional response, memorability, immersion, atmosphere and mood. several main categories were differentiated into sub-categories. for example, an ’aspects of production’ category was broken down into recognised elements of production including: cinematography, effects, animation, sound design; ‘actors and acting’ was subdivided into comments relating to performance, the cast, and comments relating to real versus computer-generated actors. the ‘character’ category contained a diverse range of comments which were broken down into sub-categories including: visual appearance, relationship to other characters, movement, voice, perceived depth and development, portrayal of emotions, and interaction with the environment and props. any unit of meaning belonging to more than one category or sub-category was coded to all relevant categories or sub-categories. when the coding system was considered stable, inter-rater reliability was tested for a random sample of five reviews from each movie (n = ) coded independently by two researchers. the percentage agreement was % and the value of cohen’s kappa coefficient was . indicating a substantial level of agreement and reliability for the coding process (landis & koch, ). reviews sampled for each movie varied considerably in quality and length. in some cases there were few words of relevance to the study, whilst in others several paragraphs of relevant discourse were found. meaningful data were recovered from all the review aggregator sites, the imdb being the most prolific source, and on completion of the process around - coded references were obtained for each film in total. in situations where data is collected through participant interviews (for example in phenomenological research), interviewing typically continues until a point of information saturation has been reached. in our study, the order of analysis of the databases was randomly determined as: imdb, rotten tomatoes and metacritic and by retrospective examination we suggest an equivalent point had been reached after data gathering from the first two databases had been completed (the order of analysis being a significant factor in this estimate). further analysis of coded references often led to the identification of higher-level themes frequently informed by data clustered from different coded categories. those themes considered relevant to the viewing experience were: how films were viewed, reviewer expectations, individual differences, character perceptions and actor-character relationships. an example of the relationship between an identified theme, its related categories and sub-categories and corresponding reviewer data is shown in table . table . selected example of an identified theme, its related categories and sub- categories and corresponding data. theme code category: sub- category reviewer comment excerpts ‘character perception’ character: appearance ‘unfortunately, the cg characters were not quite realistic enough, and looked like zombies’ – ‘franzh’, ( ) character: character relationships ‘the eyes of the characters often seem to 'stare into space' rather than effectuating eye contact with one another’ – ‘eternality’, ( ) ‘when the heroes, grey and aki, finally kiss, it's almost pornographic in its lack of emotional commitment’ – ‘awjonesjr’, ( ) acting and actors: actors – real versus computer- created ‘…the motion captured animations that are used in many of the action sequences are great and at times are so life like you are fooled and for a second here and there and it looks as if it is a real actor running’ – ‘joltjohn’, ( ) ‘this is a groundbreaking milestone in the history of animation and it answers a question as old as time: can we really animate realistic human beings? the answer is, i am happy to report, yes’ – ‘crowrobot’, ( ) acting and actors: performance ‘for me the most disappointing part of the film was actually ray winstone as the titular character - he was fantastic when talking in a low growl, however the film really suffers when he shouts in full cockney accent. “i will kill your monstah!”’- ‘cdemw’, ( ) make-believe and the viewing experience background propositions and principles of generation make-believe can be viewed as exchanging one worldview with an alternative whilst still being aware of this substitution, which makes it useful to consider what brought viewers to voluntarily engage in the fictional world of the animated film. the reviews sampled presumably originate from individuals motivated to engage in the fictional worlds of these films for various reasons, and an examination of these motivations or expectations may inform our understanding of the viewing experience. reviews revealed viewer expectations came from prior knowledge of either the reputation of director or actors, or of interest in the technology used to create the movie (e.g. cgi, motion capture), or of the prospect of seeing a new representation of the story. the narratives in the featured movies originated from or were inspired by an earlier source, such as a novel, epic poem, or videogame. so through intertextuality, prior knowledge may serve as a ‘scaffolding’ to support make-believe in the fictional animated world. walton’s theory of make-believe (walton, ) refers to ‘background propositions’ imported by the viewer to enhance the fictional world, making it easier to imagine and participate in. the importance of such propositions is illustrated by comments of a scanner darkly where some reviewers noted challenges engaging with the story. ‘reviewer_a’ ( ) wrote: ‘this film is a jigsaw puzzle. it's certainly not for everyone, and it requires patience and possibly repeat viewings in order to be fully understood and enjoyed’. some reviews criticised the clarity and pacing of the plot, with cases of disengagement from the film due to boredom. while other reviewers familiar with the original novel praised its representation in animated form, commenting on the appropriateness of its depiction through rotoscoping. as a film inspired from a videogame, the anticipated release of final fantasy: the spirits within seems to have raised expectations from gaming fans that the film would reflect the stories encountered in the videogame. the outcome was commonly disappointment. ‘reviewer_b’ ( ) wrote: ‘fans of the videogame series will be disappointed to see this film has very little in common with any plot from the games, nor does its world fit with the final fantasy cosmos.’ another fan elaborated: ‘… i learned a painful fact: the movie was to be set on earth, a final fantasy no-no as any die hard fan will tell you’ (‘reviewer c’, ). reviewers not having prior knowledge of the videogame tended to regard the film’s story more favourably. similar condemnations of how the original story had been represented were found for some of the other movies. in the case of the polar express the extension of the plot from the original book in order to produce a feature length film was criticised (‘theshadow ’, ). while for beowulf, ‘cinderellakt’ ( ) stated her disgust at the terrible job that was done in ‘conveying the real meaning of the poem’. walton ( ) contends that what is prescribed to be imagined by a prop (in this case the animated film) is governed by certain conventions, understandings or agreements termed ‘principles of generation’ of which there are two: the reality principle is based on similarities to the real world, while for fantastic worlds the mutual belief principle applies and is based on a tacit agreement between the creator of such worlds and those who engage in them. the films examined here are to varying extents fantastical and importing ‘narrative scaffolding’ into the viewing experience; this may be an important factor in establishing make-believe for a scanner darkly. for final fantasy: the spirits within, the polar express and beowulf many viewers appeared to have this scaffolding in place from either playing the video game or reading the relevant text, but on viewing the movies were often disappointed when their expectations, particularly in relation to the story, weren’t met suggesting that the mutual belief principle was compromised. depiction knowledge of how a phenomenon is experienced forms an important part of the overall understanding of it. comments made by many reviewers included information relating to the media used to view the movies, which included dvd, television, and various forms of cinema viewing. the need to attend a cinema viewing was highlighted in reviews specifically for the cgi movies, which at the time represented the technological state-of- the-art in use of production and display technologies. final fantasy: the spirits within was released in and online reviewers praised the visual spectacle created. movie critic roger ebert described the look of the film as ‘revolutionary’ (ebert, ). the polar express and beowulf were both directed by robert zemeckis - an enthusiastic early adopter and developer of digital technologies, most notably mocap (bestor, ). this enthusiasm was also evident by the director’s choice to render beowulf and the polar express in imax (image maximum – a high resolution, large-frame format requiring specialist capture and display technologies) imax- d and d cinema formats: …it was a pleasure to view the film [beowulf] in imax- d. zemeckis utilizes the technology well, giving us moments of true depth. whether flying through the tree branches, having a spear frozen in front of our eyes, watching bodies fall and flip towards us, and seeing blood splattered in our faces, we are thrown smack dab in the middle of the action. (‘jaredmobarak’, ) ‘robert d’ compared his viewing of beowulf to ‘a rollercoaster ride, i was jumping, and moving with the camera’ (‘robert d’, ). in make-believe theory, walton identifies two ways in which representations can be created: they could be perceptual in nature invoking one or more of our senses and are considered as depictions, or as verbal representations as in the case of novels and are mainly narrative in nature. walton ( ) defines depiction as ‘a representation whose function is to serve as a prop in reasonably rich and vivid perceptual games of make-believe’, referring to representations where it is relatively straightforward for a viewer to deduce that what they are looking at is the intended representation. consequently, the additional depth cues, wrap-around vision, and improved visual and aural fidelity provided by imax, imax- d and d cinema suggest these modes of presentation could act as more effective depictive props into the film’s fictional world, as well as providing added spectacle. this situation doesn’t hold with all viewers however: for beowulf, one reviewer expressed concern that this mode of presentation may overburden their experience and impede them in engaging with the story and its themes (‘aaronn’, ). in another case a reviewer points out: ‘...the big problem i had was that the movie tried too hard to make the audience remember it's in d’ (‘the_amazing_spy_rises’, ). a preoccupation with the medium, particularly the medium chosen for viewing was a characteristic of reviews of the three cgi movies, the previous examples describing highly embodied experiences. the enhanced visual and aural stimuli provided in imax- d possibly contributing to a greater sense of presence by placing the viewer more in the diegetic world. the uncertain nature of digital humans online reviews revealed some viewers to express confusion and uncertainty about the ontology of the cgi-human characters. one feature of this being the perceived eeriness of characters which is consistent with them occupying the uncanny valley (see macdorman and entezari, ). some reviewers directly referenced the uncanny valley , but it was more common to find reviewer descriptions consistent with this phenomenon. ‘franzh’ provides a suitable encapsulation: ‘unfortunately, the cg characters were not quite realistic enough, and looked like zombies. i spent too much time noticing how creepy they all looked’ (‘franzh’, ). this comment was directed towards beowulf, but similar observations were found in the other cgi movies, with characters being variously described as ‘animated dead people’, ‘zombie-like’, ‘ghoulish’, ‘mummified’ and ‘doll-like’; which are consistent with several studies (e.g. aldred, ; sobchack, ; plantec, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen & takala, ). as noted in earlier work, features contributing to a character’s uncanniness predominantly related to facial animation, in particular the character’s mouth and hair movements in final fantasy: the spirits within, and the eyes for beowulf (see figure ): there's a jarring problem though - the eyes of the characters often seem to 'stare into space' rather than effectuating eye contact with one another; it's the main reason there's low chemistry among the characters, and also why we feel the presence of a vacuum between viewer and character. (‘eternality’, ) figure . example of ‘staring’ character appearance: ‘unferth’ played by john malkovich in beowulf ( ). screen grab from dvd [beowulf, robert zemeckis]. ‘eternality’ ( ) makes the connection between this deficiency and its impact on the social interaction between characters. in a related instance for final fantasy: the spirits within the misinterpretation of social interaction produced a confused message: the computer technology can reproduce the mechanics of acting, but not the ineffable qualities that make you care about the characters. when the heroes, grey and aki, finally kiss, it's almost pornographic in its lack of emotional commitment -- rather like sculptures being molested by puppets (‘awjonesjr’, ). the cgi-humans featured are part of a group of stimuli, all related by their human likeness which is able to elicit an uncanny experience, the result often being some form of aversion. however beyond this, what characterises the feeling that something is uncanny is ‘left unspecified by the experience itself’ (mangan, ). in his essay, jentsch concludes the uncanny arises from ‘intellectual uncertainty’ and refers to the uncertainty in terms of whether an apparently living being is animate or not, or whether a lifeless object may in fact be alive. he continues to suggest ways in which the uncanny can be achieved including interpreting a lifeless thing anthropomorphically as part of an organic creature – ‘a rafter covered in nails becomes the jaw of a fabulous animal…the outline of a cloud or shadow becomes a threatening satanic face’ (jentsch, / ) - descriptions similar to those encountered in childhood pretence in make-believe games. freud concluded the uncanny as being something familiar (heimlich) while at the same time unfamiliar (unheimlich) (freud, / ). a viewer observing a character that is both familiar and unfamiliar may be simultaneously attracted and repulsed, and may experience cognitive dissonance (festinger, ) which could lead to outright rejection and disengagement from the experience. plantec ( ) has proposed cognitive dissonance to account for the uncanniness of the cgi-human characters found in the films examined here. the uncanny valley has also been examined empirically, with a review of relevant studies revealing two main groups of theories to explain it: category uncertainty and perceptual mismatch (kätsyri et al, ). category uncertainty theories propose uncanniness is caused by doubt about what an entity is. the theories of jentsch ( / ), freud ( / ) and reports of cognitive dissonance belong to this category. perceptual mismatch theories relate uncanniness to a feature of an entity being atypical including disparities between specific visual, aural and motion character traits, for example reports about the eyes for the beowulf characters. however, it should be noted that uncanny experiences were described in less than a quarter of reviews sampled and significantly there were a number of instances, particularly for final fantasy: the spirits within, where comments revealed reviewers believed they were watching a real as opposed to an animated character: this is a groundbreaking milestone in the history of animation and it answers a question as old as time: can we really animate realistic human beings? the answer is, i am happy to report, yes….. during some scenes, i was thoroughly and utterly convinced i was watching a "real" movie (‘crowrobot’, ). other reviewers noted a transient aspect of this experience where their perception of a character appeared to fluctuate between that of a real and a cgi-human actor: …the motion captured animations that are used in many of the action sequences are great and at times are so life like you are fooled and for a second here and there and it looks as if it is a real actor running around in armor and not a creation of an artist (‘joltjohn’, ). it appears character uncanniness may form a significant part of the overall viewing experience for some viewers and be entirely absent for others, or a transient state exists in perception between the real and the animated. we consider these observations of inconsistencies in perceiving characters as real or animated to be an important part of the audience experience, and the above comments may help to explain findings of greater variability in viewer ratings of uncanniness and believability of these characters (hetherington, ). in comparison to cgi-humans, reviewers reported a different experience of rotoshopped characters in a scanner darkly. references to creepy or eerie characters were absent, leading us to question whether character uncanniness is a recognised experience when viewing this film. an earlier study revealed that when participants were asked to rate the eeriness of protagonists in films featured here, the rotoshopped character of bob arctor was rated as more eerie than any of the cgi-humans. analysis of comments made suggested the unease may be due to the way in which the character’s skin and beard kept moving and changing shape of their face (hetherington, ). a prescribed style guide was followed by animators in a scanner darkly, including instructions of how character facial features were to be rendered (a scanner darkly, b), the result being a painterly aesthetic (ward, ) closely resembling a graphic novel (materna, ). a comparative functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) study of a related film waking life ( ), with its live-action source, found that in the rotoshopped film, viewers found it harder to detect intentionality of characters, but found the films more rewarding to view (mar et al., ). in her aesthetic analysis of the visual style of waking life and a scanner darkly, ruddell draws attention to the dynamic relationship between the animated line and the live-action footage it is based upon, which seems to create a categorical uncertainty in the viewer as to whether these films should be regarded as live-action or animation (ruddell, ); this may help to explain any perceived eeriness of the characters. honess roe describes rotoshop animation as an ‘aesthetically liminal style’ creating ‘a pleasurably complex and challenging epistemological and phenomenological viewing experience’ (honess roe, : ). within the context of a scanner darkly, online reviewers often considered their feelings of strangeness and creepiness as an appropriate representation of the fictional world as intended by the novel’s author philip k. dick . the visual style of rotoshopped characters is less photorealistic than the highly textured and complexly shaded cgi- humans. using modified sets of isolated static cgi faces macdorman et al ( ) found that the closer to photorealism facial surface textures became the more humanlike they were perceived to be, with the consequence of this increased fidelity being a heightened sensitivity to uncanny facial features. consequently, the more stylistic look of rotoshopped characters may operate in their favour by being less likely to induce eerie feelings in viewers. actor-character relationships a review of keanu reeves’ performance as the protagonist in a scanner darkly noted: ‘maybe it's the rotoscoping, but here he delivers a touching and moving performance, something of the conflicted hero, a damaged and flawed presence, a complexity i didn't think i'd see from this actor’ (‘dribbleglass’, ). another reviewer continues: the acting is superb from all the cast, but robert downey jr.'s performance stands out as the best by far. the animation style adds to the surreal atmosphere and matches the disturbing dystopian setting perfectly. it is done in such a way that it doesn't detract from the story or any actor's performance at all, …(‘reviewer_a’, ). a similar depth and quality in acting was found in situations where there was interplay between the main characters. ‘legendarydrunkenmaster’, ( ) wrote: truly amazing. i love the banter between robert downey jr and woody harrelson, pure comic genius. i love all the little subtle things i missed the first time around and how almost everything had meaning taken collectively, the above comments reveal that the depth of character performance, both individually and socially, captured in the live-action source movie, was preserved and possibly even enhanced by rotoshop. the quality of social interaction observed between characters in this situation is in sharp contrast with that described previously for the ‘intimate’ scene in final fantasy: the spirits within. furthermore, in contrast to a scanner darkly, the presence of recognisable actors playing cgi-human characters in beowulf often created a negative viewing experience with the viewers’ familiarity of the actor in the character creating another dimension of eeriness: it is a very strange sensation to watch a film where the cast comprises largely imitations of the people in the cast: watching anthony hopkins occupy a replica of himself is profoundly weird. the experience then becomes even weirder when the character inhabited by the larger than life persona of ray winstone isn't winstone! (‘neil welch’, ). inconsistencies in the visual representation between different actors and the character they played was found to be disconcerting, further compromising their believability: …this search for realism brings to the spotlight a major problem: the quality of the animation doesn't look constant, as while some characters do look amazingly like the actors that play them (grendel's mother being the most notorious), others look extremely fake (wiglaf and hrothgar for example), so the contrast between them is glaringly obvious, and that's really bad (‘jluis ’, ). beowulf seems to have been particularly problematic with regard to the acceptance of characters. one reviewer reflected upon not recognising some of the main actors (anthony hopkins and john malkovich) while another commented: ‘why did ms. robin wright's eyes look so distorted? …. this movie distorted her appearance so much that it detracted from the story line (‘mary p’, ). another reviewer went further: i almost wish all the characters were devoid of any likenesses to their real- life counterparts like our lead. it is just too distracting, leading my mind to wander and think of how the cgi person differs from the actor. this is especially true with john malkovich's unferth. they try to make him different enough, but the face is still there (‘jaredmobarak’, ). plantec reports a similar case for characters tom hanks played in the polar express, suggesting this familiarity intensifies the uncanny valley situation (plantec, ). returning to theories of the uncanny valley, the above examples reveal some viewers appearing to have an uncertainty in categorising these digital humans: the actor playing the character is familiar, yet is somehow unfamiliar creating cognitive dissonance with the potential of experiencing an emotional state of discomfort and unease the viewer may be motivated to reduce (elliot and devine, ). as the causal factor of this dissonance is perceptual in nature, one possible way of reconciling the situation is through rejection or avoidance of the situation causing it as was found for this review of beowulf: i've walked out of fewer than five movies in my entire life, and this was one of them. ….and here's the real problem... cgi is getting so realistic it's almost good enough to fool you into believing the animated characters are real people. why do we want to do this? is there some hidden virtue getting to this point? (‘reviewer_d’, ) considering the comments that lend support to the idea of eeriness arising from uncertainty in the viewer as to how to categorize these characters (category uncertainty theory), together with earlier ones suggesting it is the jarring nature of the eyes of characters which is the cause of eeriness (perceptual mismatch theory) suggests viewers may experience the uncanny nature of characters differently. in addition to visual and motion features described earlier, an inconsistency in ray winstone’s voice for beowulf was commented upon with one reviewer noting ‘the film really suffers when he shouts in full cockney accent “i will kill you monstah [sic]!”’ (‘cdemw’, ). regardless of the precise nature of their uncanniness, films featuring cgi- and rotoshopped-humans were capable of eliciting negative feelings in some viewers. in an earlier study, when shown selected excerpts featuring the protagonists in the films examined here, just over half of the participants reported experiencing at least one of the primary emotions of fear, happiness, surprise, anger, disgust or sadness (hetherington, ). the emotional impact of a film is what may give it its appeal. using fear as an example, walton proposed that any emotions experienced during make-believing fictional truths in a fictional world are distinct from those experienced in reality, referring to them as ‘quasi-emotions’ (walton, ). this contentious view brings to light the ‘paradox of emotional response to fiction’ that responding emotionally to fictional characters that do not exist is irrational yet highly familiar (radford, ). putting the nature of these emotions aside, it is indisputable that engagement in fictions can produce an affective response and one aspect of the viewing experience this argument reminds us of is the nature of the affective response from being involved in a work of fiction as opposed to when examining it with ‘aesthetic distance’ (neill, ). also, of possible relevance to this argument is the observation that similar patterns of brain activity can be observed in viewers when emotional avatar faces look highly similar to human faces, suggesting that at least under certain conditions the emotional response to real and digital humans can be similar when determined by neuroimaging (de borst and de gelder, ). the difference in quality of social interaction between cgi- and rotoshopped- humans is an interesting finding from this study. both forms of animation are characterised by the involvement of an actor in the character’s performance. in the case of the cgi movies, character movement was predominantly created using mocap, whereby motion data from the body and face (if performance capture) is captured and abstracted from the performing actor and applied to a cgi model, which may or may not physically resemble the original actor. animators are usually involved in this process, as the data often requires ‘cleaning-up’ and augmenting; or in some cases, character movement may need to be created which is physically impossible for the actor to achieve. in the case of a scanner darkly the film was shot entirely as a live-action production. the film was then locked and handed over to the animators who used interpolated rotoscoping computer software (rotoshop) to create the final animated film. acting is a form of pretending, and clearly takes a very direct role in creating character performances in the films examined here. walton makes the distinction between different types of prop in authorised versus unofficial games of make-believe. in authorised games, the function of the prop is to prescribe a very specific imagining. this would be the case for representations including animated films where the imaginings of the viewers are to be in accordance with the creator’s intentions. in contrast, unofficial games of make-believe occur where the relationship between the prop and the imagining is less prescriptive (walton, ). an example would be the function of a stick in children’s make-believe play which could serve as a sword, machine-gun, magic wand, light sabre etc depending upon rules employed in the game. we suggest it is the form, availability and functioning of props available to actors in these movies that may assist in explaining the differences in audience perception of the social behaviours of these animated characters. in a scanner darkly the referent used for rotoscoping was the live-action movie, which from the perspective of the actor meant that they had the entire range of make- believe props to facilitate their imaginings of the fictional world their character was a part of including: costumes, props (as in the theatrical sense), other actors to act with, as well as being present on set and immersed in the story’s environment. knowing that the film was to be rotoscoped, the main actors when interviewed alluded to using exaggeration - an established animation principle. this can be seen in the facial expression of ‘freck’ played by rory cochrane (see figure ), with the rotoshop technique also being capable of enhancing any gestures made by the actors (ruddell, ). woody harrelson playing the luckman character states he went a little more ‘over the top’ with his acting technique because he knew the film was going to be animated and keanu reeves described ‘making a move a little bigger’ at times (a scanner darkly, b). this situation contrasts markedly with actors whose performance has been mocapped where many make-believe props were absent: instead of being in-costume with makeup, the actor has to wear a skin-tight suit with markers on it for capturing motion data and if facial data are required wearing a headset and facial markers; they are physically situated on a motion capture stage removed from the diegetic environment and often from the other actors involved in the scene thereby depriving them of any spontaneity and natural social interaction. so for example, rather than being able to establish eye contact naturally with another cast member, the actor may be required to fixate on some form of marker. furthermore, a drawback of motion capture is the inability to capture accurate, context-sensitive eye movement (for example, saccades) which may also have contributed to observations of characters staring into space (see figure ); any eye movement has to be supplied by an animator in post-production. in final fantasy: the spirits within, ming-na, the actress who played aki ross the female protagonist, expressed her difficulty at not having another actor’s performance to work off (ryan, ). acting knowledge and ability is also the province of the animator (hooks, ) and in the case of the films examined here the animator adds a secondary performance offering an additional opportunity to modify a character’s performance and its believability – a process which could preserve, augment or obscure the actor’s original dramatic intention. figure . exaggeration of facial expression in the ‘freck’ character played by rory cochrane in a scanner darkly ( ). screen grab from dvd [a scanner darkly, richard linklater]. conclusion and discussion wells points out a scarcity in studies of audience reception of animated films over ‘particular historically determined periods’ (wells, ) prompting us to attempt a qualitative inquiry using online film review aggregator sites as a source of data for the present work. moreover, the increasing importance and authority of online movie reviews written by ‘non-critics’ (mccarthy, ) and the potential consequences for a film’s commercial success provides an added dimension to the value of such studies. the films chosen were characterised by their use of digital humans as animated characters created either by cgi techniques or using bob sabiston’s rotoshop software. in terms of cgi, the three films chosen (final fantasy: the spirits within, the polar express and beowulf) represent a time span from to where many cgi and animation techniques were in a rapidly evolving phase of development contributing to the distinct aesthetic of these films. contemporary to this was the release of a scanner darkly, a film with it’s own distinct realistic yet painterly aesthetic created by interpolated rotoscoping of a live-action film with rotoshop. we also contend that these films have served as interesting examples to examine and apply walton’s make-believe theory on engagement with representational artworks (walton, ). the present work has demonstrated that online reviewer aggregator sites can provide a rich source of phenomenological content that contributes to our understanding of the viewing experience/audience reception of the films examined. we were able to identify that a significant motivation to view a film was previous knowledge of its story or characters from another form of media such as a novel or videogame, and the anticipation of experiencing it in a different form of representation. the viewers’ initial experience of the story often served as a benchmark from which to judge the film. for the cgi films, the nature of the viewing medium was also an important factor in motivating the viewer and providing them with an enhanced experience when displayed in d, imax or d-imax format with suggestions of the viewing experience moving from that of ‘looking at’ to one of more ‘being in’ the story world. for some reviewers, the viewing medium appeared to be the more memorable part of the viewing experience with d or imax technology offering the possibility of greater immersion into the diegetic world. the introduction of the dx film format may enable the experience to be further augmented through use of haptic and olfactory stimuli. our qualitative inquiry also highlighted the importance of taking account of individual differences in the viewing experience particularly in relation to the uncertain ontology of digital human characters. the eerie nature of cgi-human characters and their falling into the uncanny valley has been commented upon previously (aldred, ; sobchack, ; plantec, ; hetherington, ; kätsyri, mäkäräinen, and takala, ) and macdorman and entezari have reported individual differences in sensitivity to the uncanny valley (macdorman and entezari, ). rotoshopped-humans perceived to be eerie have also been reported in the literature (ward, ; hetherington, ), but we were unable to find supporting evidence of this from online reviews. the basis of the uncanniness may be related to the presence of an atypical feature of the character such as the eyes in cgi-humans or the movement of visual elements on the face in rotoshopped- humans, both of which favour the perceptual mismatch hypothesis (kätsyri et al, ). another interesting finding from this study was how character perceptions became more problematic when there was familiarity of the actor playing the cgi character in beowulf. in this case we propose that a different form of eeriness is operating where the viewer experiences difficulty in categorising the character as a complete entity (category uncertainty hypothesis); for one viewer this was enough for them to abandon their engagement with the fictional world. we found reviews ranging from an inability to distinguish cgi-human characters from real humans; observations of characters fleetingly exhibiting realism before returning to their artifice and cases of characters being viewed as eerie. such observations illustrate the complexity and the dynamic nature of this phenomenon. we also encountered examples of reviewers abandoning their viewing of beowulf, the polar express or a scanner darkly due to boredom. in the case of the latter, the breakout from make-believe appeared to be caused by difficulties with comprehending the story. in other instances, reviews didn’t identify the cause of boredom meriting further work to identify causation. in addition to confusing and inconsistent individual character traits, cgi-human character performances were often characterised by inappropriate or misunderstood social interaction. examples included characters not maintaining eye contact with each other in beowulf and a confused kiss in final fantasy: the spirits within. we suggest the lack of appropriate social interaction between characters could be due to the limitations and nature of the motion capture process where the actor is deprived of make- believe ‘props’ which prescribe specific imaginings assisting the actor in their performance (or game of make-believe). no reviews were found describing inappropriate social interaction between characters for rotoshopped-humans. furthermore, comments frequently identified and praised the ‘chemistry’ between the actors, with some speculating that the technique had enhanced the performance in some instances. rotoshop uses a live-action movie as its referent with the actors having access to all the necessary make-believe props to facilitate their imaginings of the fictional world (costumes, makeup, presence of other actors, mise en scène). moreover, the use of this technique in a scanner darkly appears to have conserved the performances captured in live-action. reviews consistently referenced performances in relation to the actors involved and didn’t reveal any evidence of the confusion in actor-character identity found with the cgi-humans. carruthers ( ) argues that adult creative thinking and problem solving draw upon the same cognitive resources as those utilised in childhood pretend play and that the role of childhood pretending is to practice and enhance adult forms of creativity. in animation practice, scripts, storyboards and concept artwork serve as make-believe props aiding the imagination in understanding and considering the proposed fictional world. acting also has an association with make-believe and hooks ( ) asserts that it isn’t enough to make a character move in a believable way unless they are animated with theatrical intention and purpose . actors and animators tend to acquire their acting skills differently: actors work in the present, responding to each other and the audience through workshops and performance. while animators learn acting largely through observation and discussion creating a single character performance in their mind (hooks, ). the films examined here serve as an interesting selection of case studies for examining the influence of actor versus animator on a character’s performance and believability. ideas from animation and drama have served as inspiration in artificial intelligence (ai) where the goal has been the creation of believable embodied agents and humanlike robots that offer the possibility of natural interaction between human and machine. in this context, consistency in narrative, verbal and non-verbal behaviour, and sociocultural context is seen as central to achieving believability (simmons et al, ). the abstract nature of believability has led gomes et al ( ) to propose a number of dimensions of believability for characters in interactive narratives including: visual impact, coherence and understandability of behaviour, personality (covering details of behaviour, thought and emotion), emotional expressiveness and social competence. these dimensions have been repurposed into metrics, some of which could be applicable in identifying relevant traits of animated characters in audience reception studies. in relation to narrative, we found a few cases of abandonment of the animated fictional world (e.g. a scanner darkly) or disappointment in the representation of the narrative by the movie (e.g. final fantasy: the spirits within, beowulf and the polar express). previous experience of a narrative is what walton refers to as ‘background propositions’ (walton, ) which are imported by viewers to extend the content provided and reveals a schematic nature to make-believe. schemata can be manifest as genres, recurrent plot devices (tropes) and various background assumptions or propositions (turner et al, ). however, in this situation rather than augment the experience, conflict has resulted where the new information garnered from the movie does not fit the viewer’s existing schema. when this happens a common reaction is rejection, or to quickly forget the new information (taylor and crocker, ). it seems likely that accommodating any existing schema, or creating a new one to address any inconsistencies that have arisen (restructuring), requires effort and it is tempting to relate this to wells’ observation of there being an essential ‘tension’ between belief and disbelief in the experience of viewing an animated film (wells, ). work by gerrig and colleagues relating to the cognitive psychology of engagement in literary fictional worlds may also be of relevance in this respect. gerrig and egidi suggest cognitive processing of written fictional texts occurs on a continuum with intuitive processes dominating at one end and reflective processes at the other. intuitive processes are rapid and effortless, while reflective processes are deliberate, slow and effortful. individual readers may occupy different positions on that continuum and may move along it depending upon the details of the story (gerrig and egidi, ). the amount of cognitive effort required is important in determining the ease of transport into the fictional world, the less effort required the greater the chance of engaging and remaining engaged in that fictional world. a number of studies have revealed that narrative experiences are predominantly guided by intuitive processes and that readers more easily believe rather than disbelieve fictions as less cognitive effort is required (prentice and gerrig, ; gerrig and rapp, ). importantly, gerrig and rapp ( ) propose this situation to be generalisable to any fictional narrative. the discussion above prompts a re-evaluation of samuel taylor coleridge’s ‘willing suspension of disbelief’ (coleridge, / ) which has been generalised to describe our engagement in all fictional worlds. the term seems often clichéd in its use and implies that our default state when approaching fiction is disbelief that must somehow be overcome to enable transportation into a fictional world. however, the work of gerrig and colleagues reveals a different situation – it is much less effort cognitively to adopt a state of belief as the default state as disbelief must actively be constructed (gerrig and egidi, ; gerrig and rapp, ). given the capacity of animation to create engaging, vivid and believable fictional worlds; the use of display technologies that have the potential to offer more immersive experiences for the viewer; and the pervasive nature of make-believe as a critical part of our development from child into adult, perhaps the notion of a state of belief rather than disbelief as the starting point for engaging with animated fictional worlds isn’t so surprising? acknowledgements we would like to acknowledge caroline ruddell, suzanne buchan, chris atton and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful advice during the writing of this article. we also thank the internet movie database (www.imdb.com), rotten tomatoes (www.rottentomatoes.com) and metacritic (www.metecritic.com) for permission to quote user reviews. part of this research was completed with the award of a university research internship to rachel mcrae. funding this research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. notes . mori’s original article became popular after its translation from the original japanese. in earlier versions the uncanny valley was shown graphically as the relationship between human likeness (x-axis) and familiarity (y-axis). however, upon re-examination it is now believed that mori’s intended meaning relates to affinity rather than familiarity. a complete description of the relationship can be found in macdorman and entezari ( ). . bracketing or epoche is applied in phenomenological-based qualitative research in order to alleviate any potentially damaging effects of preconceptions that may devalue the research undertaken. . walton’s consideration of make-believe is a relatively rare example of its application to adult cognition. the treatment of pretending in psychology is largely confined to its role in childhood where it has been implicated in social, affective and cognitive development. . a comprehensive discussion of the uncanny valley and related writings on the uncanny is beyond the scope of this article. royle ( ) provides a historical account of critical and cultural theory relating to the uncanny, and more recently tinwell has examined the uncanny valley theory in games and animation (tinwell, ). a recent review of empirical studies on the uncanny valley has been conducted by kätsyri et al. ( ). . dick pk ( ) a scanner darkly. london: gollancz. . the view expressed by walton ( ) that make-believing fictional worlds can lead to the generation of quasi-emotions has been refuted. noel carroll ( ) for example, questions the accuracy of walton’s description maintaining that an authentic rather than quasi-emotional state exists when we are moved by a work of fiction. alex neill’s article gives a succinct analysis and criticism of the ‘fear scenario’ offered by walton in support of quasi-emotions (neill, ). . an example of the conscious effort made to create believability in animated cartoons comes from the work of disney studios during the golden age of american animation (thomas and johnston, ) and is discussed in relation to pretending in turner et al ( ). references ‘aaronn’ ( ). beowulf. available at: http://www.rottentomatoes.com/user/id/ /# (accessed april ). aldred j ( ) from synthespian to avatar: re-framing the digital human in final fantasy and the polar express. available at: http://www.tft.ucla.edu/mediascape/winter _avatar.pdf (accessed may ). atton c ( ) listening to ‘difficult albums’: specialist music fans and the popular avant-garde. popular music, : - . a scanner darkly ( a) [film] usa: richard linklater. a scanner darkly ( b) the weight of the line: animation tales. 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( ). schematic bases of social information processing. in e. t. higgins, c. a. herman, & m. p. zanna (eds.), social cognition: the ontario symposium on personality and social psychology hillsdale, nj: erlbaum, pp. - . ‘the_amazing_spy_rises’ ( ) a legendary story suffers a legendary butchering. available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt /reviews- (accessed april ) the polar express ( ) [film] usa: robert zemeckis. ‘theshadow ’ ( ) terrible. the book is much better. available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt /reviews?start= (accessed april ). thomas f, johnston o ( ) the illusion of life. new york: disney editions. tinwell a ( ) the uncanny valley in games and animation. boca raton: crc press trafficestimate.com ( ) metacritic.com website traffic and information | trafficestimate.com. available at: http://www.trafficestimate.com/metacritic.com (accessed may ). turner p, hetherington r, turner s and kosek m ( ) the limits of pretending. digital creativity, doi: . / . . waking life ( ) [film] usa: richard linklater. ward p ( ) rotoshop in context: computer rotoscoping and animation aesthetics. animation journal : - . ward p ( ) independent animation, rotoshop and communities of practice: as seen through a scanner darkly. animation: an interdisciplinary journal ( ): - . walton k ( ) mimesis as make-believe: on the foundations of the representational arts. cambridge, massachusetts: harvard university press. wells p ( ) understanding animation. london: routledge. the value of plurality in 'the network with a thousand entrances' | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijhac. . corpus id: the value of plurality in 'the network with a thousand entrances' @article{siemens thevo, title={the value of plurality in 'the network with a thousand entrances'}, author={r. siemens and a. arbuckle and lindsey seatter and randa el khatib and tracey el hajj}, journal={int. j. humanit. arts comput.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } r. siemens, a. arbuckle, + authors tracey el hajj published history, computer science int. j. humanit. arts comput. this contribution reflects on the value of plurality in the ‘network with a thousand entrances’ suggested by mccarty (http://goo.gl/h hafs), and others, in association with approaching time-honoured annotative and commentary practices of much-engaged texts. the question is how this approach aligns with tensions, today, surrounding the multiplicity of endeavour associated with modeling practices of annotation by practitioners of the digital humanities. our work, hence, surveys annotative… expand view via publisher hcommons.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures and topics from this paper figure figure figure figure digital humanities wikipedia altran praxis endeavour (supercomputer) citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency towards open annotation: examples and experiments lindsey seatter computer science save alert research feed examples : tools for collaborative , text-based annotation example one : annotation studio flexibility : excellent lindsey seatter pdf save alert research feed “when i saw my peers annotating”: student perceptions of social annotation for learning in multiple courses jeremiah h. kalir, esteban morales, alice fleerackers, juan pablo alperin psychology save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency from text to work: digital tools and the emergence of the social text j. mcgann art, sociology save alert research feed automatic annotation of bibliographical references in digital humanities books, articles and blogs young-min kim, p. bellot, elodie faath, marin dacos computer science booksonline ' pdf save alert research feed creating scholarly tools and resources for the digital ecosystem: building connections in the zotero project d. j. cohen computer science first monday save alert research feed measuring researchers’ use of scholarly information through social bookmarking data: a case study of bibsonomy Ángel borrego, j. fry computer science j. inf. sci. pdf save alert research feed beyond browsing and reading: the open work of digital scholarly editions jon saklofske, jake bruce computer science pdf save alert research feed a framework for retrieval and annotation in digital humanities using xquery full text and update in basex c. mahlow, c. grün, alexander holupirek, m. scholl computer science doceng ' pdf save alert research feed user-defined annotations: artefacts for co-ordination and shared understanding in design teams jean-françois boujut computer science save alert research feed collaborative bibliography david g. hendry, j. jenkins, j. mccarthy computer science inf. process. manag. pdf save alert research feed modeling social annotation: a bayesian approach a. plangprasopchok, kristina lerman computer science tkdd pdf save alert research feed phrase detectives: a web-based collaborative annotation game j. chamberlain, massimo poesio, udo kruschwitz computer science pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract figures and topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue tutkimusdatan määrittelyn ja aineistonhallinnan ongelmat ihmistieteissä lyhyt katsaus i hmistieteiden (so. humanistis-yhteiskun- tatieteellisen tutkimuksen) ongelmallista suhdetta tutkimusaineistojen hallintaan ylläpitää käsitteellinen sekaannus. tämä tulee esiin usein toistuvina kysymyksinä esimer- kiksi helsingin yliopiston kirjaston järjestämis- sä aineistojen käsittelyyn liittyvissä tutkijatyö- pajoissa. tutkijoita mietityttävät muun muassa seuraavat yksityiskohdat: mitä data on, onko minun tutkimusprojektissani dataa, miten da- ta eroaa tutkimusaineistosta, mitä tarkoittaa me- tadata, entä sen standardit. erityisen hämillään rahoittajien vaatimien aineistonhallintasuunni- telmien edessä ovat tutkijat, joiden työ perus- tuu täysin käsitteellis-teoreettisen viitekehyksen kehittämiseen tai vain aiemman kirjallisuuden tai historiallisten tekstien tarkasteluun. lainasana data on vakiintunut kuvaamaan lähinnä määrällisiin ja laskennallisiin menetel- miin soveltuvaa numeerista aineistoa. tästä huo- limatta data pitäisi ymmärtää yleiskäsitteenä, johon pitää erikseen liittää sitä selittävä määre; määrällinen, laadullinen, laskennallinen, tulkit- tu ja niin edelleen. termin data ja sen suomen- kielisen vastineen, aineisto, epäyhteensopivuus heijastuu ihmistieteiden tutkijoiden ongelmis- sa kuvailla oman tutkimusaineistonsa yksityis- kohtia selkeästi. termien epäselvyys ylläpitää myös keinotekoista vastakkainasettelua määräl- listen ja laadullisten tarkastelutapojen välillä. usealla ihmistieteiden tutkijalla on siis oman työnsä käsitteellistämiseen liittyvä ongelma. näyttää siltä, että koska systemaattinen ja tie- toinen aineiston käsittely ei ole menestyksek- kään tutkimuksen tekemisen välttämätön edellytys, on keskeisten, hyvää tieteellistä käy- täntöä noudattavien toimintatapojen harjoitta- minen rapistumassa. pohdin esityksessäni yllämainittuja ongelmia oman tutkimusprojektini näkökulmasta. esi- merkkinä käytän helsingin yliopiston elektroa- kustisen musiikin studion äänitearkiston digitointi- ja masterointiprojektia (ks. esim. oja- nen ) sekä historiallisen tutkimukseni laa- jaa aineistokokonaisuutta. konkretisoin käytän- nön työhön liittyviä ongelmia käyttäen hyväksi muutaman kuukauden aikana kertynyttä koke- mustani aineistonhallintasuunnitelmatyökalu tuulin parissa. työskentely aineistonhallintaan liittyvällä työkalulla on auttanut yhtäältä jäsen- tämään omaa tutkimusaineistoani ja toisaalta ymmärtämään paremmin jopa omaa tutkimus- mikko ojanen tutkimusdatan määrittelyn ja aineistonhallinnan ongelmat ihmistieteissä mikko ojanen, orcid.org/ - - - , helsingin yliopiston kirjasto, mikko.ojanen@helsinki.fi ojanen: tutkimusdatan määrittelyn... informaatiotutkimus ( ), kohdettani ja erityisesti historiankirjoituksen epistemologisia ongelmia. alan käsitteistöä ja erityisesti oman aineisto- kokonaisuuteni ymmärtämistä kehitän suun- nitteluasteella olevassa finears (finnish electroacoustic resourcess) -projektissa, jonka tarkoituksena on esitellä suomalaisen elektroa- kustisen musiikin historiankirjoituksen ja ana- lyysin taustalla olevia arkistoaineistoja. nyt alkavassa ensimmäisessä vaiheessa projekti on väitöstutkimukseni (ks. ojanen ) verkko- liite, jota päivitän helsingin yliopiston ylläpitä- mässä blogipalvelussa . jatkossa projekti on tarkoitus laajentaa käsittelemään samantyyppi- siä kysymyksiä, ongelmia ja mahdollisuuksia kuin erityisesti ihmistieteiden aineistonhallin- nassa tai esimerkiksi digital humanities -pro- jektissa on kohdattu. vaikka digital humanities -projekteissa painotetaan digitaalisten menetel- mien soveltamista erityisesti laajoihin tietoai- neistokokonaisuuksiin, voivat ihmistieteiden tutkijat hyötyä myös digitaalisten aineistomuo- tojen mahdollistamista laadullisista ja kuvanta- mismenetelmistä, joita sovelletaan yksittäisten kulttuuriperintöobjektien tarkastelussa. otta- matta tässä tarkemmin kantaa tieteenalojen mää- rittelyyn huomattavaa on, että rajanveto digitaalisten ihmistieteiden ja perinteisten, di- gitaalisia työkaluja käyttävien ihmistieteiden vä- lillä on ollut epämääräinen ja erityisen pohdinnan aihe – kaikissa tapauksissa jälkim- mäisiä ei ole määritelty kuuluvan digitaalisen ihmistieteen ydinalueeseen. (tarkemmin digi- taalisista ihmistieteistä – erityisesti suomessa ks. esim. sinnemäki & tolonen ; haveri- nen & suominen ; tolonen & lahti .) yksi finears-projektin tavoitteista on te- hostaa työprosessien kulkua ja hyviä aineiston- hallinnan käytäntöjä. erityisiä näihin liittyviä ongelmia ovat yksityisyyden suojan turvaami- seen ja tekijänoikeuksien kunnioittamiseen liit- tyvät toimintatavat. projektin päätavoitteena on lopulta tarjota mahdollisimman avoin tietoar- kisto elektroakustisen musiikin tutkimuksen raakamateriaaleille, tutkimusdatalle ja -aineis- toille sekä teosanalyyseille ja analyysimateriaa- leille. vastaava kansainvälinen esimerkki analyysien ja analyysimateriaalien tietoarkistos- ta on brittiläinen orema . lähteet haverinen, a. & suominen, j. ( ). koodaamisen ja kirjoittamisen vuoropuhelu? – mitä on digitaalinen humanistinen tutkimus. ennen ja nyt. / . http://www.ennenjanyt.net/ / /koodaamisen- ja-kirjoittamisen-vuoropuhelu-mita-on-digitaali- nen-humanistinen-tutkimus/ ( . . ) ojanen, m. ( ). mastering kurenniemi’s rules ( ): the role of the audio engineer in the mas- tering process. journal on the art of record pro- duction, ( ). http://arpjournal.com/mastering-kurenniemis-ru- les- -the-role-of-the-audio-engineer-in-the- mastering-process/ ( . . ) ojanen, m. ( ). electronic music and electronic musical instruments by erkki kurenniemi: a fra- mework for technologically oriented music pro- duction and composition processes. description of research and teaching, abstract for a ph.d. disser- tation. https://tuhat.halvi.helsinki.fi/portal/en/per- son/miojanen ( . . ) sinnemäki, k. & tolonen, m. ( ). digitaaliset ihmistie- teet tutkimuskartalle. tieteessä tapahtuu. / . http://ojs.tsv.fi/index.php/tt/article/view/ / ( . . ) tolonen, m. & lahti, l. ( ). aatehistoria ja digi- taalisten aineistojen mahdollisuudet. ennen ja nyt. / . http://www.ennenjanyt.net/ / /aa- tehistoria-ja-digitaalisten-aineistojen-mahdollisuu - det/ ( . . ) . http://blogs.helsinki.fi/miojanen/finearsintroduction . http://orema.dmu.ac.uk http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學 journal of educational media & library sciences http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vol. , no. (winter ) : - 應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統 applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory 林信成* sinn-cheng lin* professor e-mail：sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw 陳美聖 mei-sheng chen research assistant english abstract & summary see link at the end of this article mailto:sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw� http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) : - doi: . /joemls. . / .rs.cm 研究論文應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統林信成a*　陳美聖b 摘要淡水自古即為台灣歷史發展之重鎮，淡水史可謂台灣史極重要的部分，四百餘年來豐富多元的文化資產、歷史風貌，非常值得加以有組織、有系統的研究、保存、推廣與應用。本研究本著大眾史學的精神，藉由與專業史家、大眾史家和網路社群共同合作，善用數位科技、影音媒體、空拍技術等，並結合web . 中的wiki平台，攜手建構一個可供眾人參與淡水學書寫的數位人文協作系統，發揮大眾共寫淡水地方史的能量，共建淡水記憶，使淡水學知識建構工作能更有效開展。本系統可協助歷史學者、文史工作者、史蹟導覽者及社會大眾，更有效率的探索淡水在地知識、文化源流、社會變遷、地景地貌、生態環境與重要歷史事蹟；同時亦期望其成果可供相關研究者做為學術研究之參考。關鍵詞：數位人文，大眾史學，淡水學，wiki協作前　　言人類文明發展史上，知識的建構曾經一度掌握在少數菁英與貴族手中，隨著時代的變遷才逐漸普及至社會各階層。黃光國教授曾指出「生活世界」的知識，是由長期生活在同一文化中的群體，透過「主／客」不分的「參與式建構」（participative construction）過程共同創建的；而「科學微世界」的知識，則是由學有專精者採用技術性思考（technical thinking），透過「主／客」二元對立的「宰制式建構」（dominative construction）過程創建的。圖書館界長期強調所有服務應以滿足讀者為優先；可用工程（usability engineering）領域更是將使用者為中心（user-centered design）的設計理念奉為圭臬。史學界更是隨著社會運動的蓬勃發展，而興起「大眾史學」（public history）領域，強調歷史不應只由少數專業學者執筆，大眾的文化、大眾的歷史也值得重視、研究，人人都可參與歷 a 淡江大學資訊與圖書館學系教授 b 淡江大學資訊與圖書館學系研究助理 * 本文主要作者兼通訊作者：sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw / / 投稿； / / 修訂； / / 接受 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 史的書寫工作。如今，隨著web . 眾多應用蓬勃發展，許多社群軟體（social software）以「公眾協作」方式提供了「參與式建構」管道，讓知識的建構回歸到「生活世界」的本質，網路社群運作更像實體社會，傳播者與閱聽人隨時可以角色互換，讓資訊內容更貼近大眾所需。淡水舊稱滬尾，是個擁有四百多年歷史的城鎮，位於台北盆地西北方，環繞於大屯山系與淡水河域之間，兼具山城與河港特色，景緻優雅，人文薈萃。歷經西班牙人時期（ ~ ）、荷蘭人時期（ ~ ）、明鄭時期（ ~ ）、清治時期（ ~ ）、日治時期（ ~ ）、中華民國時期（ ~迄今），歷史悠久，至今依然保留著許多彌足珍貴的文化遺跡。其豐富多元且特有的文化資產、歷史風貌，非常值得加以有組織、有系統的研究、保存、推廣與應用。以往，雖然已有許多歷史學者、文史工作者或文物收藏者，陸續對淡水的歷史文化、古蹟建築、風土民情、地方特色⋯⋯等進行考證與探查，然而，結合資訊科技、大眾史學、公眾協作等概念，進行淡水地方史之參與式建構的研究則相對較少。淡江大學位於淡水，從事淡水的在地歷史文化研究，相較於其他地區而言，不僅佔地利之便且具相對意義；再者，從大學與在地社區互動的角度觀之，更肩負著責無旁貸的學術使命。若能進一步藉由資訊科技之助，利用數位工具結合在地的歷史學者、文史工作者或文物收藏者，進行歷史與人文之研究，運用於淡水地方史之知識建構與探索，則必能收相輔相成之效。因此，本研究希望本著大眾史學的精神，藉由與專業史家（professional historian）、大眾史家（public historian）和網路社群共同合作，應用數位典藏概念、web . 的特性，攜手建構一個可供眾人參與淡水地方史書寫的數位人文協作系統，達成「淡水記憶‧數位共筆」之目標，以發揮大家來寫淡水史的能量，重建淡水記憶，更有效地開展淡水地方史之知識建構工作，協助歷史學者、文史工作者、文物收藏家及對此一課題有興趣之人士，更有效率的探索淡水在地知識、文化源流、社會變遷與重要歷史事蹟；同時，亦期望其成果可提供相關研究者做為學術研究之參考。二、相關研究本研究以「淡水記憶‧數位共筆」為目標，建置數位人文協作系統，涉及之領域包含淡水學相關研究，屬專業史學範疇；另一方面亦期望能貼近大眾生活與記憶，從下而上由大眾角度來書寫，此為大眾史學所關注的面向；而隨著數位典藏與數位人文之發展，我們認為大眾史學撰寫工具不應再侷限於傳統紙筆，可選擇合適的公眾協作平台作為數位共筆工具。因此，本單元分別從大眾史學與淡水學研究、數位典藏與數位人文、web . 與公眾協作平台三部分，簡要描述與本文相關之研究概況。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統㈠大眾史學與淡水學研究年代以來，隨著歐美社會運動的蓬勃，人們開始認為歷史不應只由少數專業學者執筆，大眾的文化、大眾的歷史也值得重視與研究，人人都可參與歷史的書寫工作，於是年代便興起了所謂的大眾史學領域。大眾史學的發展是希望將長期以來由專業史家對歷史知識進行的「宰制式建構」，釋放出來由大眾史家共同進行「參與式建構」。逢甲大學周樑楷教授認為大眾史學的精神是： . 書寫大眾的歷史（history of the public） . 為大眾書寫歷史（history for the public） . 由大眾書寫歷史（history by the public）換言之，大眾史學強調從民間底層由下而上，不拘形式大家分別表述集體記憶或共同歷史，可讓歷史成為自己過往經驗與記憶的拼圖，而不僅是與自己無關的知識。而大眾史學傳達或表述的形式、媒體是多元的，可以是文字的、影像的、語音的、文物的，甚至數位化的、多媒體的。因此，本研究希望能藉由數位協作平台之助，發揮大眾史學精神，讓大家能共同對淡水史進行數位書寫。淡水是台灣發展史上極重要的門戶之一，具有多元文化與悠久歷史，藉由「淡水學」的研究，可使人們進一步了解淡水的歷史記憶與當代樣貌。「淡水學國際學術研討會」是目前「淡水學」研究極重要的學術論壇，自年至今已舉辦過五屆，除了歷史、文學、地理之外，還有土木建築、水利環境工程等學者，亦有文史工作室之田野調查、影像專家等專業人士參與。涵蓋議題包含中央與地方、軍事防衛、人物研究、聚落發展、淡水印象、生態環境、清法戰爭、古蹟建築、國際觀點、淡水河沿岸、教育藝文、宗教文化、田野調查、文化資產、產業經濟等面向。周宗賢淡水輝煌的歲月一書，除匯集了作者發表過與淡水有關的學術性文章，更收錄了許多古蹟照片、老照片與地圖資料。在地方上的淡水學相關研究，過去滬尾文史工作室曾發行不定期刊物滬尾街，其創刊宗旨為「探討淡水的過去、現在和未來，報導、記錄、見證，和評論其人、地、事、物，以落實本土文化為原則，一切資源取自民間和市場」，刊物內容邀請地方耆老、文史專家、建築史家撰寫，包含淡水開發史、寺廟、古蹟、人物軼聞與淡水環境風景等相關文章，同時也進行各種口述歷史，自年創刊至年最後一期，在六年期間總共發行九期。在網路上有網頁紀錄保存了第一期至第四期的內容全文。另有淡水文化基金會發行的文化淡水社區報，主要內容包含要聞、社論、專題、論壇、短訊以及社群營造、藝文活動相關報導或資訊等面向。在其中的「要聞」是攸關淡水的重大訊息為主，「專題」是針對特定主題深入探討，「論壇」開放給各界讀者的公共園 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 地；「生活」是屬於淡水人文、藝術訊息的報導。在每期的文化淡水中大致會反映出時下與淡水切身相關之議題。淡水古蹟博物館於年開始發行館刊博物‧淡水，內容結構包含封面專題、博物館實務與博物人文散記，封面專題除了專題內文與對專題的聚焦，亦收錄產官學三方之論述與他山之石借鑑，除了呈現學術研究價值，也將文化資產保存的概念傳達給社會大眾。林呈蓉在〈「淡水學」研究的回顧與展望〉中提到對於淡水歷史的書寫應跳脫過去「國家」、「中央」權力的觀點看待地方學研究。這與大眾史學強調的大家來寫歷史的概念是相通的。淡水發展四百餘年來雖累積許多具有歷史、文化、藝術、科學等價值之古蹟、聚落、遺址、歷史建築、文化景觀、傳統藝術、民俗文物、自然地景等文化資產，以往也已有許多鑽研淡水史之歷史學者、文史工作者、作家或文物收藏者，陸續對淡水的歷史源流、人物事蹟、建築遺址、文化特色等進行考證與探查，然而，結合資訊科技、大眾史學、公眾協作等概念，進行淡水史之參與式建構的研究則相對較少。這也是本研究相對重要之處。㈡數位典藏與數位人文近年來拜數位科技與網路發展之賜，以資源共享（resource sharing）理念為核心的數位典藏，不但賦予舉世文化資產全新生命力，也使得傳統文獻、史料、書畫、器物、典籍、建築、標本、藝術表演、民俗節慶⋯⋯等，得以透過無遠弗屆的數位網路，突破時空限制，提供大眾查閱、觀賞、研究與學習。世界各國近二十餘年來，不遺餘力推動以數位典藏技術為核心的數位圖書館或數位博物館計畫，如美國的「美國記憶」（american memory）計畫、「國家數位圖書館計畫」（national digital library program）；加拿大的「加拿大文化資產資訊網路」（canadian heritage information network，簡稱chin）；澳洲的「澳洲數位圖書館先導計畫」；聯合國教科文組織和美國國會圖書館推動的世界數位圖書館（world digital library，簡稱wdl）計畫等。台灣則於年起，持續推動「數位博物館專案計畫」、「國際數位圖書館合作計畫」、「國家典藏數位化專案計畫」，直至年合併為「數位典藏國家型科技計畫」（national digital archives program，簡稱ndap），年結合數位學習成為「數位典藏與數位學習國家型科技計畫」（taiwan e-learning and digital archives program，簡稱teldap）。數位人文是一個新興的、內涵仍在變遷中的領域，廣義而言只要是藉由數位科技而進行的人文研究即屬之。項潔等人認為繼數位典藏累積大量數位資料之後，新興的數位人文領域，著眼於如何更有效的融合資訊科技與人文關懷，進而從數位化材料中耙梳出新的現象與脈絡，以運用於人文社會學科領域進行知識探索。數位人文研究的基礎是大量的數位資料，除了原生數位（born http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統 digital）資料外，也有賴從實體轉換而來的數位化資料。因此數位人文既可說是一個新興的領域，也可說是從既有的領域，如人文計算（humanities comput- ing）和數位典藏（digital archives）演化而來，而非無中生有。本研究基於我們長期投入數位典藏研究的經驗與基礎上，進一步發揮大眾史學精神，藉由與專業史家（歷史學者）與大眾史家（文史工作者、文物收藏家、網路社群）共同合作，攜手強化數位典藏系統之設計，使其轉化為數位人文協作與研究平台，促進淡水史料與文化資產的累積、傳承、研究與應用。㈢ web . 與wiki協作平台 web . 一詞源於o’reilly和medialive公司的腦力激盪會議，並於年月召開以web . 為名的研討會、年發表名為「what is web . design patterns and business models for the next generation of software」的文獻後而廣為人知。但web . 的時代其實早在年代便已悄然展開，許多web . 的應用基本上仍來自於年代中期之後的眾多技術，如xml、dhtml、metada- ta、semantic web、open apis、rdf、rss、soap⋯⋯等，並體現於社群軟體或內容管理系統（content management systems）之中，如blogs、wikis、im⋯⋯ 等。markus angermeier認為web . 具有七項核心特性：參與（participation）、匯流（convergence）、重混性（remixability）、標準化（standardization）、設計（de- sign）、經濟（economy）、可用性（usability）。其核心精神不外乎鼓勵網路社群於知識建構過程中，更積極的參與、互動、交流、分享，於是「全民上網」轉化為「全民織網」，「專職作者」普及成「全民作者」。因此，web . 如同開啟了另一個由眾人共同參與知識建構的新里程。大眾史學強調「參與式建構」，web . 讓眾人共同參與知識建構，如同大眾史學的參與式建構。而在web . 的眾多技術中，wiki協作系統（wiki collaboration system）是一種以web為基礎、可自由擴展且相互連結的資料庫系統，每個頁面皆能開放任何使用者編輯，只要藉由web瀏覽器即可進行協同創作（collaboration）。全世界第一個wiki系統—「維基維基網」（wikiwikiweb） —是由ward cunningham為了方便社群交流於年創立，並用它建立了「波特蘭模式知識庫」（portland pattern repository），以推動模式語言（pattern lan- guage）的發展。目前wiki技術已被廣泛應用到許多不同領域，如：百科類的維基百科、圖書館類的library success、檔案類的archivopedia、醫學類的醫學快紀、電腦資訊類的mozilla taiwan、旅遊類的背包攻略、運動類的台灣棒球維基館⋯⋯等。由於wiki提供了集結群體智慧（collective intelligence）的平台，具有自由開放的特點，能協助人們在社群內共享領域知識（domain knowledge）、參與建構知識，達成大眾史學「由大眾書寫歷史」的精神，因此極適合作為本研究建 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 構公眾參與書寫淡水地方史協作平台的共筆工具。三、研究問題與方法本研究運用大眾史學概念，以web . 技術實踐數位人文協作系統之建置，以下分別說明本研究之研究問題與研究方法。㈠研究問題本研究之研究目的有三：「建構數位協作平台輔助人文研究」、「研擬協作模式產出與徵集數位內容」、「探討與評估數位協作平台的使用情況」，依上述目的設計以下研究問題： . 在大眾史學概念下，如何建置數位人文協作系統？ . 本數位人文協作系統，如何在大眾史學精神下產出或徵集數位內容？ . 本數位人文協作系統，其使用情況及可能遭遇的問題為何？㈡研究方法為達上述研究目的，本研究採用理論與實務並重之行動研究法（action research）為框架，搭配系統實作法、田野調查法、焦點團體法、記錄檔分析法等研究方法加以進行。本研究以行動研究法為主，在過程中為達成本研究目的之一「建構數位協作平台輔助人文研究」，將輔以系統實作法進行淡水數位人文協作平台之開發；而為達成本研究目的之二「研擬協作模式產出與徵集數位內容」，將綜合運用焦點團體法、田野調查法等方式進行；而對於研究目的之三「探討與評估數位協作平台的使用情況」，以達到品質提升、系統成功、使用者滿意的目標，則運用焦點團體法、記錄檔分析法進行。以下概述行動研究及配合運用到的研究方法。 . 行動研究法是以實際問題為題材、以解決現實問題為目的，具有「行動者即研究者」、「行動與研究結合」的特性。強調由實務工作者在實際工作情境中，依據自身遭遇的問題，結合「行動」與「研究」，有系統的收集資料，分析規劃，研擬出解決問題或改變現狀的行動策略，並付諸實際行動，進而觀察、評估、回饋、修正，以解決問題。kurt lewin認為行動研究是由許多迴圈形成的反省性螺旋（reflective spirals），包含了計畫（planning）、行動（acting）、觀察（ob- serving）、反思或評估（reflecting or evaluating）等步驟的演化循環。藉計畫→ 行動→觀察→反思的循環過程，使實務工作情境中遭遇的問題得以解決，現狀得以改善，品質得以提升。本研究將此循環稱為paor循環。本研究屬於實證應用，過程中須結合數位科技實務與大眾史學研究，有許多問題發生在實踐行 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統動中，非常適合採用強調「以研究提升行動品質」的行動研究法，本研究於達成三項研究目的過程中，皆以行動研究循環為主架構做設計。 . 系統實作法本研究採系統實作法開發能與淡水歷史研究者、文史工作者、網路使用者共同分享研究成果，增進研究便利性之協作平台。在目前為數眾多的系統開發模式中，本研究參考較常被提及和採用的雛型模式，以順利完成淡水數位人文協作平台之開發工作。「雛型模式」系統開發法興起於年代初期，主張從局部需求著手，強調在限定期限內，以最經濟且快速的方法開發出系統的雛型，以便及早澄清或驗證不明確的系統需求。雛型模式是一種循序漸進、反覆改善的系統開發方法，其核心精神與行動研究法極為相符。本研究以行動研究配合雛型模式，首先建立數位人文協作平台之雛形，由研究者與協作團隊成員直接進行編輯、操作與使用，觀察平台使用狀況與問題，透過反思進行檢討修正，持續使用、觀察、反思後修正，藉此達成平台之建置。 . 田野調查法本研究由研究者偕同歷史學家或地方文史工作者，實地參與淡水地區的歷史文化探勘與調查工作，以蒐集和記錄相關資料，並轉換為研究成果。本研究邀淡江大學文學院相關教師進行跨領域合作，組成研究顧問團，對淡水具有歷史、文化、藝術、觀光等價值之古蹟、建築、聚落、遺址、民俗節慶、文化景觀、傳統藝術、人物事蹟、自然生態等，進行以下型態之資料蒐集與記錄： ⑴採訪記錄：藉由對淡水耆老進行口述歷史，蒐集最直接的影、音記錄，並整理成文字稿，再將這些最忠實的田野採訪紀實，以數位文字影音方式呈現於本研究建置之系統平台上。⑵拍攝記錄：針對淡水地區的歷史建築、古蹟遺址、造型藝術或重要人物進行攝影記錄、地景空拍，對民俗節慶、文化活動進行紀錄片錄攝、後製，蒐集第一手的影像圖照資料，再將這些田野紀實數位圖像呈現於本研究建置之系統平台上。⑶翻製記錄：對於淡水昔日的文獻、古籍、圖稿或老照片等珍貴資料，若能徵得原收藏者同意，翻印或翻拍，並分享於本研究建置之系統平台上，更可成為日後進一步進行淡水學研究的基本材料。本研究在田調過程不僅借助歷史學家、相關領域教師，更借助地方文史工作者與其他專業人士之力，讓所徵集之資料不只有專業的歷史，更涵蓋大眾的歷史。 . 焦點團體法主要由數名對共同議題有興趣之參與者群聚討論，經由參與者的互動而得知彼此的反應及想法。大眾史學是書寫大眾的歷史，因此本研究邀請淡水學歷史研究者及地方文史工作者參與，同時加入資訊系統人員共同組成專家團體進行焦點座談。藉由討論過程以了解歷史研究者、地方文史工作者之資訊需求，並對徵集之數位內容、開發之系統功能提出針砭；另一方面，也藉此讓歷史研究者、地方文史工作者對本研究計畫與系統平台有更進一步之互動與了解後， http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 願意提供研究資料，在本系統平台上進行分享、研究、交流。而對於本系統不熟悉之歷史研究者或文史工作者，本研究也透過焦點團體，研擬更適用的數位資料與資訊代理協作模式，以取代一般慣用的直接協作模式，使數位史料的匯集能更順利。 . 記錄檔分析法藉助數學計量方法對紀錄檔進行分析，是系統使用評估或使用研究的有效方法之一。紀錄檔通常是指資訊系統處理使用者檢索需求的歷程資料，一般都以特定格式紀錄在電腦內部，作為系統人員分析資訊系統使用狀況的資料來源。hamid r. jamli等人認為資訊系統中的紀錄檔能提供關於使用者資訊尋求行為的不同層面，例如：使用的時間、使用的資料類型、瀏覽的模式等，相當適合用來研究和比較資訊系統的使用者行為。本研究以我們應用大眾史學概念所建置的淡水數位人文協作系統為對象，運用紀錄檔分析法了解使用者的資訊行為，檢視系統運作、使用者參與情況，藉以對系統進行品質評估與系統改善，達到提升系統品質與使用者滿意度及參與程度。四、研究成果大眾史學之概念，強調「參與式建構」，其精神是以大眾的歷史為主體，本研究選擇wiki協作系統達成參與式建構，透過結合專業史家、地方文史工作者及資訊系統人員之團隊，進行建置、規劃與內容徵集等。在研究成果部分，本研究藉由行動研究之「計畫→行動→觀察→反思」循環過程，解決在系統建置、運作等實務工作過程遭遇的問題。依據前述之研究問題，並搭配焦點團體法、系統實作法、田野調查法、記錄檔分析法等研究方法，擬定如下行動計畫，依序進行完成任務：㈠進行淡水數位人文協作系統實作；㈡籌組協作團隊並舉辦專家座談會；㈢以多元協作模式促進各方合作廣徵數位內容；㈣進行淡水文史研習、史蹟踏查與地景空拍；㈤推動「大家來數位書寫淡水史」協作活動；㈥進行數位協作平台系統評估與使用研究。茲分述如下：㈠進行淡水數位人文協作系統實作本研究建置之系統，係因應數位人文發展，以數位協作平台作為大眾史學共筆工具。在進行系統雛形建置初期，本研究針對參與合作之人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者、系統人員、內容協作者以焦點團體方式進行初步需求調查，確認初期的基本需求，再著手系統分析設計、開發工作雛型、進行系統實作。本協作平台之系統實作過程包含軟體選擇與系統建置、網站架構規劃與功能介面修改、相關擴充套件（extension）安裝等。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統網站軟體選擇部分，本文作者曾針對wiki之父ward cunningham列出top ten wiki engine的其中八種進行比較分析，並依據各系統功能面及中文支援能力綜合評估，最後以mediawiki最高分。而目前華文世界最大的維基網站「中文維基百科」，與單一主題維基網站中經營較為成功的「台灣棒球維基館」，亦是以mediawiki作為架站軟體。由於mediawiki可參考之資源較豐富，往後網站維護與管理皆能作為借鑒，因此本研究選擇採用mediawiki架設協作系統，並命名為「淡水維基館」。同時依據大眾史學之精神，在主要內容編輯權限的設定上採完全開放，即使用者不須註冊帳號也能夠對主要內容頁面進行編輯修改。為了配合網站主題、管理需求或者為增加文字描述、超連結及輔助說明等，通常需修改mediawiki系統之介面顯示。管理者可由網站上的「特殊:系統介面」頁面瀏覽或修改網站之系統介面，所有修改皆對應於頁面名稱有一前綴字為「mediawiki:」的名字空間（namespeace），且在系統介面頁中做的修改會影響到網站相關位置的文字或排版顯示。至於mediawiki外加套件選擇部分，考量網站內容頁面若涉及景點，如古蹟或歷史建物等，需要能在頁面內容中加入地圖標示景點或古蹟位置；而在文化活動或紀錄片相關頁面，需嵌入相關的影片，依據這兩項需求，本研究需安裝能夠在wiki頁面上加入地圖與影片之套件。mediawiki套件中屬於地圖類者共種，標示為穩定版本（release status: stable）之套件共種，功能較完整且近期仍有更新的套件分別為maps以及semantic maps二種。但就語法便利性而言，後者在使用的語法上較為複雜，因此本研究選擇以 maps作為網站嵌入地圖之套件。另，mediawiki中可嵌入youtube影音之套件共種，標示為穩定版本的共種，近期有更新之套件為e m b e d vi d e o與 yo u tu b e二種。經本研究評估之後，認為以embedvideo在編寫時較為便利，只需以「|」符號隔開，而youtube則是採用html語法形式編寫，需寫出 <youtube></youtube>開頭與結尾之標籤。影音播放服務的支援上，embedvideo 可支援嵌入包含youtube影音在內十種影音播放服務，對未來若需嵌入其他影音服務的影片時易於變更，而youtube則只限於嵌入youtube影音。因此本研究選擇安裝embedvideo作為網站之影音嵌入套件。在初步系統架設完成後，透過系統介面修改、內容樣式呈現、網站架構及內容分類架構的建立，完成協作平台基本雛型架構，再由參與編輯之協作者的實際操作經驗、感想，對網站提供調整、修改意見，不斷修正網站介面、內容與架構。本研究採用此種反覆式、循序漸進的系統開發方法，強調以雛型系統作為人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者等使用者與資訊人員需求溝通與學習之工具，雙方可透過雛型之操作與回饋，以釐清、修改及擴充需求，並藉以改善系統；不僅系統的建置及修改非常快速，同時可藉由提高人文學者、歷史 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 學者、文史工作者的參與度，使得本研究開發的系統更能滿足使用者的需求。完成的系統首頁如圖。圖　淡水數位人文協作平台：「淡水維基館」首頁㈡籌組協作團隊並舉辦專家座談會本研究之核心團隊係由資訊與圖書館學專業背景師生組成，由本文作者帶領若干研究生與大學部學生組成協作小組。此外，為了進一步與專業史家和大眾史家攜手合作，於是廣邀淡江大學對淡水人文、歷史文化、社區營造有研究之學者組成專家協作團，並邀請淡水在地之文史工作者共同組成專家顧問團，以輔助研究之進行。在歷史學者方面，邀約了身為淡水學、台灣史及古蹟維護權威的歷史系周宗賢老師；長期進行淡水田野調查的中文系周彥文老師；紀錄片歷史與美學專家且持續拍攝淡水紀錄片的大傳系王慰慈老師；積極投入淡水文史研究與踏查的歷史系黃繁光老師；深入淡水社區結合在地文化與服務學習的資傳系楊智明老師、賴惠如老師；長期投入建築研究與社區營造的黃瑞茂老師；專研攝影美學與藝術的馮文星老師等。而在長期關懷地方的文史工作者方面，邀約的合作對象有：曾任淡水社區大學主任且持續關注淡水發展議題的張建隆老師；現任淡江中學校史館館長且熟稔馬偕與淡水歷史的蘇文魁老師；現任殼牌故事館館長且投入在地文化關懷與保存的謝德錫老師；現任滬尾田野工作室文史工作者且搶救古蹟文物和歷史建築不遺餘力的紀榮達老師⋯⋯等。上述協作團和顧問團成員與本研究之資訊專長人員進行跨領域合作，所有成員既 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統是本研究仰賴的內容專家，也是本系統的前導用戶。本研究於籌組專家顧問團後，陸續藉由焦點團體法於年月至年月期間舉辦了四場專家座談會。與會者人數分別是位、位、位、位，共計人次，背景涵蓋淡水學專家學者、地方文史工作者、數位典藏相關人員、攝影工作者、藝術工作者、社區營造團隊等。與會者就內容與在地連結、紀錄不同的淡水、網站典藏的內容、特殊資料的呈現和不同語言的詮釋等方面，提供許多寶貴意見與建議，整理如下。 . 內容與在地連結關於網站典藏內容的未來方向，與會者建議可由淡江大學在過去學生生活過的痕跡、走過的路線作為主題式呈現。行銷網站的部分也可用說故事的方式進行，連結淡江與淡水在地、學術與地方的結合。在網站建置過程，如果只是單純將收集之資料、文獻寫入網站，就會演變成單方面的數位典藏紀錄，學校是學校的資料、地方有地方的資料，雖都存在網站中，但互相間沒有互動與關聯。然而網站的宗旨目的是要記錄淡水的一切，就須讓學校記憶跟淡水生活連結，藉此也能讓淡江學生對自己生活的地方有更多了解，將這兩方的力量跟記憶匯流，形成一股力量才能夠長期永續的經營下去。 . 紀錄不同的淡水不同領域、不同角度視野，形成不同面貌的淡水，我們最基本看的是歷史、文化的淡水，在座談討論中更進一步看到自然風景、地理，甚至文學、畫家、音樂都能看到淡水各個面向的發展、痕跡。與會者認為在網站建置過程，有考量影像的需求而安裝了嵌入影音的套件，網站預設有插入圖片，以及用畫廊方式呈現大量相片之功能，使得網站內容可以透過影音、相片等方式呈現各頁面與淡水的風貌，是很好的設計。建議未來對於更多不同面向的淡水，如各種文學或繪畫，或者淡水地方文史工作者發起的一些運動、活動，能呈現淡水在發展過程的面貌，未來可搜集關於這些方面的資料，以主題或故事形式呈現於網站。 . 網站欠缺的內容網站初始資料畢竟內容涵蓋有限，對於內容之強化，與會者提出目前較為缺乏、未來可以增加的方向。與會者建議，現存資料在中正路老街、捷運站這一帶鬧區已經算相當豐富的，但缺乏山區等偏鄉地方的資料。除此之外，另一種被忽略的是淡水「自然景觀」方面的記錄，在開發的過程中默默地消失，同時也指出網站中缺少與淡水過去歷史背景相關的產業活動，例如淡水漁業的資料與相關頁面。觀光或官方之資料大多敘述為淡水古蹟、歷史建築、著名店家等皆有許多資料敘述，較少見對其他淡水地方文化特色、還存在的淡水老店家的描述介紹。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) . 特殊資料的呈現針對網站之資料蒐集方向，除了影音、相片或文獻資料等，有一些較為特殊的資料亦可作為未來網站典藏整理的方向。與會者由歷史的角度出發，提到淡水史與台灣史，進一步提出關於「戶籍資料」的重要性，戶籍資料可以看出過去淡水的人口情況。而過去的「地籍資料」，則可以看見過去的發展情況，透過疊圖、套圖方式，更進一步重現歷史脈絡與相關位置。 . 不同語言的詮釋淡水豐富的歷史人文背景，過去曾有西班牙人、荷蘭人、日本人、漢人等在此生活，也留下不同的民族與語言寫下該時期的歷史資料。亦有與會者建議未來也許能夠透過其他語言來詮釋淡水在地文化，或藉由不同語文的翻譯，讓外國人能夠更了解淡水，感受淡水的歷史文化故事。㈢以多元協作模式促進各方合作廣徵數位內容本研究合作之人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者等，皆是研究「淡水學」一時之選的專家學者，長期投入淡水地方學之研究，擁有許多一手資料，這些皆是本研究要徵集的數位資料來源之一。由於大多數的人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者並非資訊科技專家，對本系統之操作模式可能感到陌生。為了克服此一問題，本研究研擬了兩種資訊協作模式，以達到多方徵集數位內容，重建淡水在地記憶的目的： . 直接協作模式此模式係由內容提供者直接將數位內容上傳至本平台。採用此模式之內容提供者須熟稔系統平台之編輯介面、操作指令與系統語法。著名之維基百科、台灣棒球維基館等wiki平台皆採用此一模式。 . 間接協作模式此模式係由內容提供者透過代理人間接將數位內容上傳至本平台。對於與本研究合作之人文學者、歷史學者或文史工作者等，本研究核心團隊可藉由間接協作模式安排具專業訓練之代理人，協助其完成數位內容之編輯與上傳工作。實務上，上述兩種模式可混合運作、靈活應用，成為「混合協作模式」。以本系統（淡水維基館）為例，至本文撰稿為止（年月），已靈活混合上述兩種協作模式完成近 , 頁之內容。舉例而言，本系統初步之資料來源之一淡水學用語辭典電子書，係由本文作者林信成教授帶領之團隊與本研究專家協作團成員歷史系周宗賢教授帶領之團隊合作完成，內容分類涵括人物、神祇、文化歷史事件、古蹟與歷史建築、民俗技藝與節慶活動、街道地區、機構協會、創作、特產景點、其他等，共個詞條。該書之內容授權本研究團隊以間接協作模式代為編排上網，先將各詞條依本系統設計之頁面結構一一建立初 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統稿，再由本研究團隊逐步檢視原始詞條不足之處，後續再以直接協作模式進行內容之增補。如圖即「紅毛城」頁面最初詞條僅有文字內容，及後續逐步編排與增補照片、地圖之頁面對照。圖　協作內容之一例：〈紅毛城〉頁面茲再舉一例，本系統內容協作另一重要資料來源大淡水地區紀錄片系列，係由本研究專家協作團成員大傳系王慰慈老師、資傳系賴惠如老師、楊智明老師分別帶領所屬團隊進行拍攝，三年內共完成人物志部、食貨志部、風土志部、屯山故事部，及黏稠記憶與系友大愛部，共計部紀錄片。這些紀錄片及其相關資料，皆授權本研究團隊以間接協作模式代為編排上網，內容包含專訪文稿、訪談照片與剪輯完成的紀錄片。本研究團隊逐步進行版面設計與編排，並檢視資料內容若有不足之處，再透過實地訪查、拍攝，以及與專家學者聯繫是否有相關文獻、古籍、圖稿或老照片等加以增補，如圖即為協作內容另一例：大淡水地區全紀錄人物誌其中一部紀錄片我心中尚未崩壞的淡水。本研究依據擬定的直接協作與間接協作兩種模式，加以混合運作、靈活應用，逐步增加建立與淡水相關之人事物資料，加強平台之內容範圍與深度，並將相關圖文影音資料置於首頁，方便使用者取用（圖）。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 圖　協作內容另一例：《大淡水地區全紀錄人物誌》紀錄片頁面圖　首頁放置與淡水相關之圖文影音等成果資料 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統㈣進行淡水文史研習、史蹟踏查與地景空拍淡水學的知識範圍相當遼闊而多元，若欲詳盡研究，必須長期投注時間、人力與經費，才能讓不同時代散布四方的知識與史料文獻趨近完整性。因此本研究藉助專家協作團與顧問團之力，舉辦「淡水歷史文化探究與踏查」研習活動，分四個方面進行研習，以培訓淡水數位人文協作者： .淡水史：涵蓋淡水政治史、經濟史、社會史、軍事史面向。 .淡水古蹟文物：涵蓋歷史久遠各種傳統與西洋交會的建築。淡水經歷西班牙人、荷蘭人、英國人、日本人管理，加上漢人移民的傳統建築及寺廟古蹟，淡水呈現出漢洋雜處的風情，訴說著河港的過往，走過中正路的福佑宮，到馬偕街上的滬尾偕醫館、禮拜堂與馬偕的故事，得忌利士洋行可見當時的輸入品倉庫、建物模型等。 .淡水歷史人物：長久發展的淡水為大台北地區的咽喉，聚落、街肆、商貿、稅務、農作等皆發達，歷史上各類人物眾多，各行各業秀異人士輩出。 .淡水日常生活：淡水伴河成港，街肆聚落格局自成，食衣住行顯現淡水庶民生活百態。如渡船頭附近老街的人文地景及各種小吃，魚酥、魚丸、海鮮、肉包、阿給、鐵蛋、酸梅湯等，長年作為淡水在地民眾之生活飲食，日經月累，今皆已是深具聲名之台灣飲食，亦是觀光賣點；淡水日常生活秩序、制度與內容皆值得論述。本研究擇要進行研習、踏查與探訪，藉此可了解過去歲月遺留的痕跡。 . 文史研習歷史部分，邀請歷史系周宗賢老師講述「淡水發展史」，從滬尾街市形成、河港貿易興起，講述淡水的發展過程與歷史沿革。「淡水重建街的人文情懷」則講述淡水第一街「重建街」的故事與早期生活樣貌，過去生活一條街，有著各式店家能滿足生活上的需求，且是連接山上與山下的道路，再從老照片看重建街道的變遷。影像部分，邀請馮文星老師分享「從圖片影像看淡水的今與昔」，藉由馮老師蒐集與拍攝的照片，看淡水的景色變換，以及「因緣今昔∼ 從老照片說淡江的故事」，由老照片講述淡江大學最初館舍的外貌、周遭地景，可遠眺觀音山與淡水河，以及早期存在而今已消失的教室、水池等景色。透過對地方今昔的認識了解，加深網站撰寫的深度與廣度。 . 史蹟踏查邀請歷史系黃繁光老師帶領，實地踏查「鄞山寺」、「殼牌倉庫」、「紅毛城」與「海關碼頭」等古蹟。藉由了解各古蹟之人、事、時、地、物，如古蹟建立重修的時空背景、發展的歷史沿革、發生過的事件與周遭環境相關的故事等，讓協作者更能夠感受淡水的歷史人文，在撰寫頁面時能有真實感。並藉著踏查過程，拍攝、蒐集影像資料，做為網站典藏之影像內容。 . 地景空拍為了以不同視野看淡水，本研究更藉由資訊科技之助，以無人飛行載具攜帶高解析度攝錄影機，空拍淡水地景地貌（圖），飛越淡水的山、海、河港 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 與街市，由不同角度記錄淡水之地景、地貌，其成果包含照片、影片及可供量測之正射影像，除可擷取靜態影像、景點之鳥瞰影像，作為網站典藏內容外，亦提供給協作團隊剪輯成紀錄片畫面。目前本研究已拍攝包含大屯溪、六塊厝漁港、淡水山區有機農場、淡金海岸沿岸現存可見之石滬，觀音山、淡水河與淡水街市之遠景，以及淡水特殊地形五虎崗。其中，淡水五虎崗是大屯山脈火山熔岩蜿蜒流至「虎頭山」分為五條尾稜，形成五條如虎爪般的丘陵，目前已因都市開發難以窺其原貌。淡水的地景、地貌隨著時代變遷不斷改變，有許多已不復見，本研究在無人飛行載具輔助下，透過空拍盡可能的保留現今淡水的樣貌，且由鳥瞰畫面，讓大家進一步認識不一樣的淡水。圖　以無人載具高解析度空拍淡水地景、地貌㈤推動「大家來數位書寫淡水史」協作活動在「大家來數位書寫淡水史」活動方面，本研究團隊於年月舉辦「淡水維基館wiki寫作工作坊」，藉著工作坊教導參與者如何以維基協作系統共同參與「書寫淡水」，主要內容包含wiki編輯語法編輯與實作，帳號註冊、基本頁面編輯方式，照片上傳並引用至頁面中等教學與實作練習，期望讓網站的編輯能有外部的、在地的力量加入。㈥進行數位協作平台系統評估與使用研究本研究之系統與內容建置告一階段後，為進一步了解本系統（即「淡水維基館」，或簡稱本館、本網站）被使用之狀況，我們透過google analytics收集 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統資料，並搭配系統本身之資料進行紀錄檔分析與統計，以了解使用者之造訪、瀏覽、搜尋等數據與行為，以及使用者關注之關鍵詞、熱門主題等。 . 整體使用狀況調查本系統自年月網站初步建置起，至年月本文撰稿期間，共計年個月（個月或天）的整體使用狀況，分析結果如附表。由表可知此期間，本網站共累積了 , 頁的網頁瀏覽量，使用者總數則有 , 人，總造訪次數（新版google analytics稱為「工作階段」）達 , 次。換言之，若以每月平均數計算，則每月平均瀏覽量約為 , 頁/月，平均使用者則有 . 人/月，平均造訪次數則為 . 次/月。如果再細算至每日平均數，則每日平均瀏覽量約為頁/日，平均使用者約有人/日，平均造訪次數則為次/日。再以使用者造訪及瀏覽行為數據看，每次造訪約瀏覽 . 頁，停留分秒，而每位使用者平均造訪次數約為 . 次。若進一步分析網站每月之瀏覽量、使用者以及造訪次數（詳見附表），單月瀏覽量最高峰在年月達 , 次，第二為年月 , 次，第三則是年月 , 次；使用者部分，年月單月使用者人數達 , 人，創下最高紀錄；而造訪次數部分，單月造訪次數最高在年月，有 , 次。若進一步將每月瀏覽量、使用者、造訪次數繪製成折線圖（圖），可清楚的看見使用者與造訪次數之變化呈現高度正相關，經計算兩者pearson相關係數高達 . ，且皆存在大約以每半年為一週期的規律性循環：每年上半年從低點逐步上升到月達到高點，之後略微下降又再度上升，到月達到另一高點後又下降，然後開始另一週期性循環。每一週期高點落於月和月，低點則大約在寒暑假期間。至於造成此週期性循環的原因則有待日後進一步探討。另一方面，從圖也可清楚發現，瀏覽量基本上亦隨著使用者造訪次數呈現正相關之高低變化，相關係數也有 . 。其中比較特別的是在年月，當月使用者人數與造訪次數並不高，但瀏覽量卻是最高峰的 , 次，這是因當時處於網站建立初期，本研究團隊成員大量輸入、瀏覽、編輯網站之初始資料所致，此為創站初期的過渡現象。 . 網站熱門頁面 mediawiki提供「特殊：熱門頁面」之功能，以統計網站最常被瀏覽頁面，表顯示本網站熱門頁面前名，其中以「首頁」的瀏覽次數最多，達 , 次，其次為「淡水大事記」 , 次，緊接著分別是「紅毛城」 , 次、「淡水清水祖師廟」 , 次、「淡水海關碼頭」 , 次、「淡水女學堂」 , 次、「重建街」 , 次、「淡水學用語辭典」 , 次、「新北市私立淡江高級中學」 , 次、「淡水藝術工坊」 , 次。其中仍以古蹟、建築或具歷史文化意涵的街市頁面瀏覽量較高，這也與專家座談會中與會者觀察到的現象與意見相符，亦即 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 多數焦點集中於中正路老街、捷運站周邊、埔頂古蹟區一帶，山區等偏鄉地方或自然景觀方面的資料則較少受到關注。這也是本網站日後可努力加強的方向。 . 網站編輯量統計依據網站之「使用者列表（依編輯量排序）」功能，表顯示自建站以來的註冊使用者編輯量排序前位，皆為本研究培訓之協作團隊成員。外部註冊編輯者與匿名編輯者的編輯量極少，主要可能因網站編輯門檻較高，需要學習基本的wiki語法，以及對於網站可編輯之內容不清楚，不知可以編寫那些資料等，這也是本研究日後可再努力加強的地方。圖　每月瀏覽量、使用者、造訪次數折線圖表　網站熱門頁面前頁排序頁面名稱瀏覽次數首頁 , 淡水大事記 , 紅毛城 , 淡水清水祖師廟 , 淡水海關碼頭 , 淡水女學堂 , 重建街 , 淡水學用語辭典 , 新北市私立淡江高級中學 , 淡水藝術工坊 , http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統表　使用者列表（依編輯量排序）排序 id 編輯量 , , 五、結　論本研究本著大眾史學的精神，藉由與專業史家、大眾史家和網路社群共同合作，攜手建構一個可供眾人參與淡水地方史書寫的數位人文協作系統，以發揮大家來寫淡水史的能量，重建淡水記憶，更有效地開展淡水地方史之知識建構工作。㈠應用大眾史學概念建置數位人文協作系統大眾史學強調參與式建構，其精神包含書寫大眾的歷史、為大眾書寫歷史、由大眾書寫歷史。本研究與合作之人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者、系統人員、內容協作者，以焦點團體方式進行初步需求調查，確認基本需求後，著手系統分析設計、開發工作雛型、進行系統實作。在系統方面，本研究選擇以能夠實現參與式建構的wiki協作系統，作為數位時代符合大眾史學精神之共筆工具，其成果網站命名為「淡水維基館」，同時將主要內容之編輯權限完全對使用者開放，供大眾進行編輯修改。且以初步完成之雛型系統，作為人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者等使用者與資訊人員需求溝通與學習之工具，雙方透過雛型之操作與回饋，以釐清、修改及擴充需求，藉以改善系統，加快系統建置與改善過程，也藉此提高人文學者、歷史學者、文史工作者的參與度。㈡大眾史學精神下之數位內容產出與徵集藉由研擬出數位人文協作系統之資訊協作模式，以及相關活動舉辦來增加參與程度，讓大眾成為系統之內容提供者，達成大眾史學強調的參與式建構，也是由大眾來書寫歷史的一部分。本研究籌組協作團隊並舉辦專家座談會，廣納專業史家與大眾史家之意見與資料，並透過系統建置過程及座談會之交流，研擬數位人文協作系統的兩種資訊協作模式為： .直接協作模式：由內容提供者直接將數位內容上傳至本 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 平台； .間接協作模式：由內容提供者透過代理人間接將數位內容上傳至本平台。而在實務上本研究建置之「淡水維基館」是將兩種模式混合運作的「混合協作模式」，至本文撰稿為止（年月）已完成近 , 頁之內容，結合了專業史家、大眾史家所提供的內容，以及由本研究團隊實際研究調查或實地探勘所產出之內容，如淡水文史研習、史蹟踏查與地景空拍等。本研究更進一步以「大家來數位書寫淡水史」協作活動的舉辦，引導參與者加入「淡水記憶‧數位共筆」行列。㈢應用大眾史學概念建置數位人文協作系統之使用情況本研究於系統建置完成後，透過google analytics收集資料，並搭配系統本身之資料進行紀錄檔分析與統計，以了解使用者參與之情況如造訪、瀏覽、搜尋等數據與行為，以及使用者關注之關鍵詞、熱門主題等。大眾史學的三項精神：為大眾書寫歷史、書寫大眾的歷史，最後由大眾書寫歷史。在目前這個階段，已達成由本研究籌組核心團隊「為大眾書寫歷史」及「書寫大眾的歷史」，讓歷史與大眾更加接近，未來將加強推廣協作平台之編輯教學，讓更多社會大眾參與，達成「由大眾書寫歷史」的終極目標。本研究是一個持續進行的長期計畫，未來仍將本著行動研究精神，進入 paor下一循環，無論是系統建構、內容協作或使用評估方面，都將進一步進行更深入之探究，以使本系統平台更貼近使用者之需求。誌　　謝本研究感謝科技部編號most - -h- - -my 研究計畫、淡江大學文學院重點研究計畫經費補助，專家協作團及顧問團成員周宗賢教授、周彥文教授、王慰慈教授、黃繁光教授、楊智明教授、賴惠如教授、黃瑞茂教授、馮文星老師、張建隆老師、蘇文魁老師、謝德錫老師、紀榮達老師⋯⋯ 等，以及許多無法一一列舉的社會賢達、在地人士、師生團隊齊力合作，不吝提供資料、建議與協助，使得本研究得以順利進行，在此一併致謝。註　　釋 . vincent shen, confucianism, taoism and constructive realism (wien: wuv- universitätsverlag, ), accessed october , , http://www.crvp.org/book/series /iii- / chapter_viii.htm；黃光國，「現代性的不連續性假說與建構實在論：論本土心理學的哲學基礎」，香港社會科學學報，期（年冬季）： - ；黃光國，「心理學本土化運動的過去、現在與未來」，人文與社會科學簡訊卷，期（年月）： - 。 . 周樑楷，「大眾史學的定義和意義」，在人人都是史家：大眾史學論集第一冊，周樑楷主編（台中市：采玉，），，檢索於年月日，http://myweb. fcu.edu.tw/~t / /paper /public history.pdf。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統 . 同上註。 . 同上註，。 . 林呈蓉，「『淡水學』研究的回顧與展望」，（論文發表於年第七屆台北學暨第九屆北投學學術研討會－臺灣學內涵的建構，台北市，年月日）， - ，檢索於年月日，http://www.btcc.org.tw/web/ tc/ .pdf。 . 周宗賢，淡水輝煌的歲月（台北市：臺灣商務，），iii-vi。 . 滬尾文史工作室，「滬尾街」，淡水，無日期，檢索於年月日，http:// tamsui.yam.org.tw/hubest/hubest .htm。 . 財團法人淡水文化基金會，「文化淡水社區報」，淡水文化基金會，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://www.tamsui.org.tw/culture/。 . 林信成，開放式數位典藏系統之研究（台北市：文華，）， - 。 . the library of congress, “american memory,” n.d., accessed october , , http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html; canadian heritage information network, “about us,” n.d., accessed october , , http://www.rcip-chin.gc.ca/apropos-about/index-eng. jsp; renato iannella, “australian digital library initiative,” d-lib magazine, december , accessed october , , http://www.dlib.org/dlib/december / iannella.html; the library of congress, “world digital library,” world digital library, n.d., accessed october , , http://www.wdl.org/. . 中央研究院，數位典藏與數位學習國家型科技計畫，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://www.teldap.tw/。 . 項潔編，從保存到創造：開啟數位人文研究（台北市：國立臺灣大學出版中心，）， - 。 . tim o’reilly, “what is web . : design patterns and business models for the next generation of software,” o’reilly media, september , , accessed october , , http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/web /archive/what-is-web- .html. . markus angermeier, “the huge cloud lens bubble map web . ,” kosmar, no- vember , , accessed october , , http://kosmar.de/archives/ / / /the-huge- cloud-lens-bubble-map-web /. . bo leuf and ward cunningham, the wiki way: quick collaboration on the web (boston: addison-wesley, ), . . “wikiwikiweb,” cunningham & cunningham, december , , accessed october , , http://c .com/cgi/wiki; “portland pattern repository,” cunningham & cunningham, november , , accessed october , , http://c .com/cgi/wiki?portlandpatternreposi- tory. . wikipedia, s.v. “wikipedia,” accessed october , , http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ wikipedia; meredith farkas, “library success: a best practices wiki,” library success, last modified october , , accessed october , , http://www.libsuccess.org/; archivope- dia, accessed october , , http://archivopedia.com/；「醫學快紀」，wikia，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://medicine.zh-tw.org/；mozilla taiwan, “mozilla taiwan com- munity,” moztw wiki, last modified december , , accessed october , , http:// wiki.moztw.org；「背包攻略」，背包攻略，最後更新於年月日，檢索於年月日，http://www.backpackers.com.tw/guide/；「台灣棒球維基館」，台灣棒球維基 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 館，最後更新於年月日，檢索於年月日，http://twbsball.dils.tku.edu. tw/。 . 張春興，張氏心理學辭典（台北市：東華書局，），。 . robin mctaggart, ed., participatory action research: international contexts and consequences (albany: state university of new york press, ), . . center for technology in government university at albany/suny, “a survey of system development process models,” , accessed october , , http://www.ctg; jus- tus d. naumann and a. milton jenkins, “prototyping: the new paradigm for systems devel- opment,” mis quarterly , no. (september ): ；季延平、郭鴻志，「系統分析與設計 -prototyping: 雛型方法」，國立中興大學，無日期，檢索於年月日，http:// web.nchu.edu.tw/~jlu/classes/ooad/proto.html。 . hamid r. jamali, david nichlas, and paul huntington, “the use and users of schol- arly e-journals: a review of log analysis studies,” aslib proceedings: new information per- spectives , no. ( ): - . . “top ten wiki engines,” cunningham & cunningham, september , , accessed october , , http://c .com/cgi/wiki?toptenwikiengines；林信成、陳瑩潔、游忠諺，「wiki協作系統應用於數位典藏之內容加值與知識匯集」，教育資料與圖書館學卷，期（年月）：。 . 「淡水維基館」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://tamsui. d i l s . t k u . e d u . t w / i n d e x . p h p / % e % % b % e % a e % a : % e % % % e % c % % e %bf%a %e % %af。 . “category:map extensions,” mediawiki, n.d., accessed feb , , http://www.me- diawiki.org/wiki/category:map_extensions. . “category: youtube extensions,” mediawiki, n.d., accessed feb , , http:// www.mediawiki.org/wiki/category:youtube_extensions. . 「熱門頁面」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http:// tamsui.dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/特殊:熱點頁面。 . 「使用者列表（依編輯量排序）」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://tamsui.dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/特殊:listusersbyedits。 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 林信成、陳美聖：應用大眾史學共建淡水記憶之數位人文協作系統附　錄附表　網站整體使用狀況統計表項目數量說明瀏覽量 , 頁網頁的總瀏覽數（page views），即網站中被瀏覽的所有頁數總和使用者 , 人與網站互動的使用者，通常以不重複ip計算，因此，以同一ip進行的造訪會被視為同一人工作階段（造訪次數） , 次工作階段是指使用者積極與網站互動的這段期間，亦即自連線上該網站起，至離開該網站止，每一工作階段可視為一次造訪單次工作階段頁數 . 頁瀏覽量／工作階段平均工作階段時間長度：：自連線上該網站起，至離開該網站止的時間記為一次工作階段（造訪）時間。將每次的工作階段時間加總即為總工作階段時間。因此，平均工作階段時間＝總工作階段時間／工作階段跳出率 . % 瀏覽一頁即離開的比率新工作階段 . % 第一次造訪的比率單月暨單日平均數每月平均網頁瀏覽量 , 頁/月瀏覽量／統計總月數每月平均使用者 . 人/月使用者／統計總月數每月平均工作階段（造訪次數） . 次/月工作階段（造訪次數）／統計總月數每日平均網頁瀏覽量約頁/日瀏覽量／統計總日數每日平均使用者約人/日使用者／統計總日數每日平均工作階段（造訪次數）約次/日工作階段（造訪次數）／統計總日數 http://joemls.tku.edu.tw 教育資料與圖書館學　 : (winter ) 林信成 - - - 陳美聖 - - - 附表　每月瀏覽量、使用者、造訪次數年月瀏覽量使用者造訪次數 / , / , / , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , / , , , http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : (winter ) : - doi: . /joemls. . / .rs.cm r es ea rc h a rt ic le applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory sinn-cheng lina* mei-sheng chenb abstract tamsui is the most important part of taiwan’s history, four more than a century, rich and diverse cultural assets, historical style, very worth to be organized and systematic research, preservation, promotion and application. this study in the spirit of public historiography, by working together with professional historians, public historians, and the internet community, using digital technology, audio and video media, aerial photography technology, combined with web . in the wiki platform, to construct a for everyone involved in tamsui science writing digital humanities collaboration system, to play the public co-write energy fresh local history and build a fresh memory, construction work so fresh knowledge more effectively. this system can help historians, cultural workers, and the community’s cultural tour, more efficiently explore tamsui’s local knowledge, cultural origins, social change, landscape, ecological environment and important historical deeds; but also can provide the desired outcomes researchers academic research as a reference. keywords: digital humanities, public history, tamsui study, wiki collaboration summary tamsui, formerly called hobe, is a town with a history of four hundred years. located in the northwest part of taipei basin, wandering around datun mountains and tamsui river, tamsui is with features of both a mountain town and a river port, and has kept lots of precious culture heritages, worth researching, conserving, promoting and utilizing in an organizational and systematic way. this study is based on concepts of public history and features of digital archives and web . , involving collaboration among professional historians, public historians and participants in social media, to build a digital archive of tamsui local a professor, department of information and library science, tamkang university, taipei, taiwan b research assistant, department of information and library science, tamkang university, taipei, taiwan * principal author for all correspondence. e-mail: sclin@mail.tku.edu.tw http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : (winter ) histories, for everybody to contribute writing about tamsui histories and rebuild memories about tamsui. the results could be used to construct knowledge of tamsui local histories, and help historians, cultural and history workers, culture relic collectors, as well as anyone who is interested, to explore tamsui local knowledge, cultural origins, social changes and important historical events in a more efficient way. the results could also be a valuable reference for scholars in related academic fields. research questions and methodology the research questions of this study include: ( ) how to build a digital humanities collaborative system based on concepts of public history? ( ) how does this digital humanities collaborative system produce or collect digital content responding to the calls of public history? and ( ) what are the usages and possible challenges or issues related to this digital humanities collaborative system? the action research method balancing between theories and practices is adopted as the theoretical framework for this study, with assistances of methods including system construction, field study, focus group, and log analysis. the goal is to construct a digital collaborative platform for assisting humanities studies, to develop a collaborative model for producing and collecting digital content, and to investigate and evaluate the usages and usability of digital collaborative platforms. this study is based on the wiki collaborative system to develop participative construction. through the circulative process of action research—planning, acting, observing, reflecting (paor)—problems encountered in system building and working are solved. based on our research questions and methodology mentioned before, action plans are developed and implemented step by step. . actually constructing a digital humanities collaborative system of tamsui a digital collaborative platform is adopted as the tool for collaborative writing about public history. at the first stage of building the system prototype, scholars who participate in this collaboration are elicited about their basic needs through focus group surveys, and then the researchers engage in system analysis and design, develop system prototype, and implement system construction. based on concepts of public history, the end product, tamsui wiki website, is open for the public to participate in contributing and editing the content. . recruiting a collaborative team and holding professional seminars the core team consists of teachers and students in the field of library and information science, and the researchers lead a collaborative team consisting of several graduate and undergraduate students. a collaborative expert panel is set up consisting of scholars at tamkang university in the fields of tamsui http://joemls.tku.edu.tw lin and chen: applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory humanities, history and culture, and community development. an advisory board consists of tamsui local cultural and history workers, for assisting in conducting this study. through the focus group method, four professional seminars were held between june of and may of , with , , , and participants respectively, and a total of participants. these participants offer their opinions and suggestions on recording different aspects of tamsui, building the content of a digital archive, presenting special materials, and interpreting different languages. . collecting digital content through a collaborative model that involves professionals from multiple and diverse fields humanities scholars, historians, and cultural and history workers who participate in this study have engaged in studying tamsui local chronicles for a certain amount of time and collected lots of first-hand historical materials, which are one of information sources that could be collected into the archive of this study. meanwhile, to overcome the threshold of system operation, two information collaborative models are developed for achieving the goal of collecting digital content from multiple and diverse sources. one is the direct collaboration model, in which the content providers upload the digital content unto our digital platform, and the other is indirect collaboration model, in which the digital content is uploaded to the platform by agents. these two models are used interchangeably in this study in a flexible way. . conduct tamsui culture and history workshops, historical site visits and aero photo shooting at landscapes through the efforts of the collaborative expert panel and the advisory board, the historical and cultural exploration and investigation seminar is held, with four major features, including tamsui histories, tamsui historical sites and cultural artifacts, tamsui historical figures, and tamsui daily routines. research methods used in this seminar include historical and cultural studies, visits of historical sites, and aero-snapshots of landscapes. . promoting the collaborative writing event of “everybody comes to digitally write about tamsui histories” our research team held a “writing workshop for tamsui wiki” in may , in which we taught participants to write about tamsui histories through the wiki collaborative system, involving skills and techniques include account creation, wiki page editing, and uploading and hyper-linking images unto pages. the goal is for the tamsui wiki to have both external and local inputs. . conducting the evaluation and usability study of the digital collaborative writing system based on google analytics, as well as the log analysis and statistics of our system, it is found that from the first stage of website building in september http://joemls.tku.edu.tw journal of educational media & library sciences : (winter ) to the writing of this article in september , during a total of months, the overall number of page views has reached , , with a total of , users and , visits. based on the free software mediawiki, the top three most viewed pages are main page (with a total of , visits), tamsui chronicles ( , visits), and fort san domingo ( , ). the most visited pages involve historical sites, architecture, and streets of cultural and historical meanings. this fact is consistent with what is observed by participants in professional seminars. pages about information on mountain and rural areas or natural landscapes are relatively less visited. users who highly engaged in editing pages are mostly members of the collaborative team trained for this study. external users rarely engage in editing pages, either with a registered account name or in anonymous status. this might be resulted from the fact that page editing involves learning basic computer grammars, which places a higher threshold for editing, or just because users are not clear about what content could be edited. these little drawbacks involving using the tamsui wiki could be improved in the future. conclusion participative construction is emphasized in the field of public history, thus in this study we develop a digital humanities collaborative system based on concepts of public history, and make this system open to the public for them to contribute and edit the content. direct, indirect and mixed collaboration models are adopted in this study for the production and collection of digital content, also based on concepts of public history. related activities are held for enhancing participation of the public, for them to become providers of content. based on the data from google analytics and the website’s log analysis, statistics on users’ participation (such as visiting, viewing, searching) and keywords and hot topics that users attend are used to investigate the usages of a digital humanities collaborative system based on concepts of public history. this is a long-term study project. in the future, the researcher team will advance to the next round of action research process (planning, acting, observing and reflecting), and further investigate issues on system construction, content collaboration and usage evaluation, for this system to be more satisfying regarding user needs. romanized & translated notes for original text . vincent shen, confucianism, taoism and constructive realism (wien: wuv- universitätsverlag, ), accessed october , , http://www.crvp.org/book/series /iii- / c h a p t e r_v i i i.h t m；黃光國，「現代性的不連續性假說與建構實在論：論本土心理學的哲學基礎」，香港社會科學學報，期（年冬季）： - ；黃光國，「心理學本土化運動的過去、現在與未來」，人文與社會科學簡訊卷，期（年月）： http://joemls.tku.edu.tw lin and chen: applying public history to co-build the digital humanities collaboration system of tamsui’s memory - 。【vincent 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(in chinese)】 . 「使用者列表(依編輯量排序)」，淡水維基館，無日期，檢索於年月日，http://tamsui.dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/特殊:listusersbyedits。【“shiyongzhe liebiao (yi bianjiliang paixu),” tamsui wiki, n.d., accessed october , , http://tamsui. dils.tku.edu.tw/wiki/index.php/%e % %b %e %ae% a:listusersbyedits. (in chinese)】 sinn-cheng lin - - - mei-sheng chen - - - adp b.tmp journal of educational media & library sciences http://joemls.tku.edu.tw vol. , no. (winter ) : - summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( – ) september www.neh.gov/odh summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ table of contents acknowledgements ..................................................................... introduction................................................................................ start-up awards by project director’s discipline ........................ start-up applicants from universities ......................................... start-up applicants from non-universities.................................. start-up funding by year............................................................ map of awarded start-up grants................................................. summary findings, – ................................................. outcomes .......................................................................... unanticipated problems .................................................... implications ...................................................................... future plans ...................................................................... conclusion......................................................................... attachments a. list of websites............................................................ b. software or tools ......................................................... c. blogs/media/press ...................................................... d. publications ................................................................. e. exhibits, workshops, and conferences ......................... summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ acknowledgements first, a big thank-you to the staff of the office of digital humanities who read many hundreds of draft proposals, chaired the bulk of the panels, championed projects, and made this program a success: michael hall, jason rhody, and jennifer serventi. also, thanks to the many guest program officers from other neh divisions and offices who volunteered their time chairing start-up panels: barbara ashbrook, julie goldsmith, karen mittelman, julia nguyen, tom phelps, danielle shapiro, stefanie walker, david weinstein, and joel wurl. a special thanks to fred winter, who wrote the original guidelines for the start-up grant program and jerri shepherd, from the neh’s office of grant management, who awarded, processed, and managed all the successful projects. the front cover image was created using jonathan feinberg’s wordle software. it is a word cloud taken from the abstracts of all the funded start-up grants. lastly, thanks go to kathy toavs, neh management and program analyst, who surveyed all our grantees from – and wrote the summary findings that form the bulk of this report. http://www.wordle.net/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ introduction on march , , the neh invited a number of scholars to our offices in washington to help us brainstorm on how the agency might best help the field when it came to the digital humanities. we dubbed this meeting the “digital humanities mini-conference” and had a day-long conversation with a number of neh-funded scholars who had done pioneering work in digital scholarship. in attendance were john unsworth, michael mcrobbie, david bodenhamer, bernard frischer, janet murray, ken price, worthy martin, vernon burton, and tom scheinfeldt. lisa spiro, clifford lynch, and roy rosenzweig sent us suggestions via e- mail but were unable to attend in person. the group discussed the increasing impact of technology across all humanities disciplines. several themes seemed to emerge from the conversation. one important point was that the stuff that humanists study (books, newspapers, music, images) were increasingly becoming available in digital form. this increased access had many advantages but also had implicit dangers. to paraphrase historian roy rosenzweig, we seemed to be headed for an age of abundance, as literally millions of pages of materials were being put on the web, forever changing the methods of scholarship. this led to the second point, which is the importance of “digital humanists” in the overall humanities landscape. that is, people who are comfortable both in the humanities disciplines and in the disciplines of library and information science, computer science, and other technical areas who can help to build the humanities archives, libraries, and research tools necessary for the field. there was a feeling that the well-established system of humanities graduate training wasn’t currently emphasizing this new breed of scholar nor recognizing how important they would be over the coming years. nor did the entrenched promotion and tenure system reward scholars who worked collaboratively with others outside of their discipline on projects that were heavily technology focused. the group suggested that the neh might be well-suited to use our imprimatur to help move the humanities forward in this regard and to start a much more sustained conversation around the topic of digital humanities and the importance of building what the acls (american council of learned societies) would later refer to as a humanities “cyberinfrastructure;” that is, the technology tools, standards, best practices and, most importantly, people and organizations capable of guiding the humanities through the digital era. across campus, we have already seen how technology has greatly changed the way scientists do their work. it has not simply allowed for faster or more efficient research; rather, it has allowed for research that could not take place before. the humanities needed to play a role in building its own technology infrastructure and, the group argued, the neh could play a role in making that happen. one specific suggestion the group had was for an neh grant program that funded innovative new methods but that cut across our traditional divisions. the group noted that technology was breaking down walls between research, education, public programs, preservation and access. a digital edition, for example, may well contain a public programming element, be assigned in a classroom setting, be used by researchers, and also provide better access to materials. so where does it fall? the group felt that a grant program that focused on the digital scholarship and cut across the traditional program boundaries might be an excellent way to spur innovative work. immediately after the conference, the neh formed a digital humanities working group to discuss ways in which we might address the issues raised at the mini conference. this group included representatives from across the endowment. in just a matter of weeks, this http://www.acls.org/programs/default.aspx?id= summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ working group put together the guidelines for the digital humanities start-up grant program which was officially announced to the public in the summer of . the start-up grant program had a number of interesting features. it would be cross- cutting; that is, the work proposed could involve aspects of research, education, public programming, preservation, or access. the work could also focus on new methods, on specific humanities content, or a combination of both. this methodological focus proved to be a key, as many digital humanities projects focus on developing the underlying methods of scholarship. the hope was to give projects an opportunity to develop these new methods, tools, and technologies so that, down the road, they could be used in a wide variety of humanities settings, e.g. in a research project, in an education project, or in a museum or other public venue. another interesting feature of the start-up grant program was a focus on innovation, future potential, and “high risk/high reward.” like a basic research grant program in the sciences, the guidelines were designed to encourage applicants to propose innovative projects that had long-term potential but in the short term needed funds to do preliminary work, to test out ideas, to develop prototypes, to get their planning in order, and perform other tasks necessary for the successful implementation of a digital project. we recognized the fact that digital projects can be expensive – not necessarily because of the technology, per se, but rather because of the people involved. unlike the stereotypical single-authored monograph project in the humanities, digital projects are almost always collaborative. the best projects bring together people from multiple specialties, including scholars, librarians, information scientists, computer scientists, museum professionals, and others. one hope was that this start-up program would be an opportunity for the team to use the modest start-up funds to test out some ideas, bring the right team together, meet with other scholars, and basically do the legwork that would later put them in better position to win a larger award from another neh grant program (or, for that matter, from another funder). the program also encouraged projects that studied the impact of technology, both on our culture as well as on the practices of the academic humanities itself. due in part to the important involvement of libraries in digital humanities projects, our colleagues at the institute of museum and library services agreed to contribute some funds to the start-up grant program. (the chart on page breaks down each agency’s contribution). since the announcement in , the “sug” program, as it is fondly known, has quickly grown into one of the most popular programs at the neh. the sug program has two deadlines per year. while having two deadlines is more work for staff, it enables applicants to hear back quickly and gives them time to revise and resubmit their application to the next deadline. this is our attempt at keeping up with “internet speed.” all sug awardees, as of , are required to submit an end-of-grant “white paper” which is posted on the neh’s own web site. this white paper, freely shared with the public, is an opportunity for these projects to share their lessons learned with their colleagues and the general public. building an infrastructure is not a solitary task; our white paper library of funded projects is becoming a valuable resource for the field. at the conclusion of the fourth year of the sug program, we have received a total of applications and made awards (meaning a very competitive % funding ratio). over that time, we brought in peer reviewers to evaluate the applications. it is important to note that we’ve rarely had a peer reviewer serve more than once, as interest in serving on a digital humanities panel continues to grow. in the pages immediately following, we have summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ put together some charts demonstrating what kinds of institutions are submitting these applications. the bulk of this summary report reflects work done by the neh’s kathy toavs who got in touch with of the project directors from the first two years of the program ( and ). we chose just the first two years because we wanted to talk to project directors who had concluded their work to find out more about outcomes. kathy provides an overview of her research including a thorough discussion of the many publications, conferences, web sites, and software tools that emerged from the first two years of the sug program. she also asked the project directors for their feedback on the program and kathy provides an excellent summary of their thoughts. on the whole, we have been delighted with the direction of the sug program and very encouraged about the fact that many of the projects have not only produced excellent results but also used the grant as a stepping-stone to further funding. we have seen many examples of this. recently, the acls announced the winners of their prestigious digital innovation fellowships and we were pleased to see that three of the five awardees were former sug projects. we’ve seen other projects graduate from the sug program and move on to major funding at other agencies like the nsf and private funders like the andrew mellon foundation. other sug projects have moved on to larger grants in neh programs offered by other offices and divisions. also useful to hear was the project directors’ thoughts on the impact of the sug program on their career and on the field in a larger sense. many of the project directors quoted in this report make mention of the importance of the neh imprimatur for their careers in the nascent digital humanities field. in a bit of late-breaking news, i was quite surprised and encouraged to see a front-page story in the new york times on august , entitled “scholars test web alternative to peer review” that focused on two of the start-up grant projects. many start-up grants receive media coverage, of course (see attachment c), but the fact that this piece peaked as the number one most-emailed article on the times’ website seems to demonstrate wide interest. while small, we feel these grants have had an impact larger than their budgets might suggest and we look forward to watching them continue to develop over the coming years. brett bobley chief information officer director, office of digital humanities national endowment for the humanities bbobley@neh.gov http://www.acls.org/research/digital.aspx?id= http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/ peer.html http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /arts/ peer.html summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ digital humanities start-up grant awards sorted by project director discipline american history ( ) hd- - university of central florida, orlando project director: lori walters come back to the fair hd- - university of virginia project director: scot french and bill ferster jefferson's travels: a digital journey using the historybrowser hd- - university of richmond project director: andrew torget visualizing the past: tools and techniques for understanding historical processes hd- - connecticut humanities council project director: bruce fraser connecticut's heritage echosystem: resolving the challenges to interoperability across disparate digital repositories hd- - university of illinois project director: s. edelson the cartography of american colonization database project hd- - university of california, riverside project director: steven hackel the early california cultural atlas hd- - kansas state university project director: bonnie lynn-sherow lost kansas: recovering the legacy of kansas places and people hd- - marist college project director: ron coleman a digital pathfinder for historic sites hd- - western reserve historical society project director: edward pershey (ai) artificially intelligent artifact interpreter hd- - university of richmond project director: edward ayers landscapes of the american past: visualizing emancipation hd- - bank street college of education project director: bernadette anand civil rights movement remix (crm-remix) hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: david lester mith api workshop hd- - montana preservation alliance project director: kathryn hampton the touchstone project: saving and sharing montana's community heritage hd- - university of california, riverside project director: steven hackel the early california cultural atlas american literature ( ) hd- - university of texas, austin summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ project director: samuel baker the ecommentary machine project hd- - hofstra university project director: john bryant melville, revision, and collaborative editing: toward a critical archive hd- - american association for state and local history project director: matthew gibson online encyclopedia best practices and standards hd- - university of nebraska, lincoln project director: andrew jewell the crowded page hd- - suny research foundation, college at purchase project director: m. jon rubin internationalizing humanities education through globally networked learning hd- - cuny research foundation, nyc college of technology project director: matthew gold looking for whitman: the poetry of place in the life and work of walt whitman hd- - electronic literature organization project director: joseph tabbi electronic literature directory: collaborative knowledge management for the literary humanities hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: tanya clement professionalization in digital humanities centers american studies ( ) hd- - duke university project director: matthew cohen interface development for static multimedia documents hd- - lake forest college project director: davis schneiderman virtual burnham initiative ancient literature ( ) hd- - university of california, berkeley project director: niek veldhuis berkeley prosopography services: building research communities and restoring ancient communities through digital tools anthropology ( ) hd- - washington state university project director: kimberly christen mukurtu: an indigenous archive and publishing tool hd- - sweet briar college project director: lynn rainville african-american families database: community formation in albemarle county, virginia, - hd- - lewis and clark college project director: oren kosansky intellectual property and international collaboration in the digital humanities: the moroccan jewish community archives archaeology ( ) summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ hd- - cuny research foundation, brooklyn college project director: h. arthur bankoff cuneiform forensics - d digital analysis of cuneiform tablet production hd- - university of pennsylvania project director: david romano digital corinth synchronized database project hd- - mississippi state university project director: paul jacobs distributed archives transaction system hd- - university of chicago project director: nadine moeller digital documentation of a provincial town in ancient egypt hd- - state of vermont division for historic preservation project director: giovanna peebles creating a sense of place through archeology: moving archeology from deep storage into the public eye through the internet hd- - michigan state university project director: ethan watrall red land/black land: teaching ancient egyptian history through game-based learning architecture ( ) hd- - university of new mexico project director: jennifer von schwerin digital documentation and reconstruction of an ancient maya temple and prototype design of internet gis database of maya arch hd- - university of california, los angeles project director: lisa snyder software interface for real-time exploration of three-dimensional computer models of historic urban environments hd- - university of new mexico project director: jennifer von schwerin digital documentation and reconstruction of an ancient maya temple and prototype of internet gis database of maya architectur hd- - university of georgia project director: stefaan van liefferinge ai for architectural discourse archival management and conservation ( ) hd- - northeast historic film project director: karan sheldon finding and using moving images in context hd- - city of philadelphia, department of records project director: joan decker historic overlays on smart phones art history and criticism ( ) hd- - coastal carolina university project director: arne flaten ashes art: virtual reconstructions of ancient monuments hd- - old north foundation of boston, inc. project director: laura northridge tories, timid, or true blue? hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: amy gansell summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ identifying regional design templates of ancient near eastern ivory sculptures of women using computer technology hd- - alexandria archive institute project director: nada shabout the open modern art collection of iraq: web tools for documenting, sharing and enriching iraqi artistic expressions hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: paul kaiser spatialising photographic archives hd- - university of california, san diego project director: lev manovich interactive visualization of media collections for humanities research british literature ( ) hd- - university of california, berkeley project director: alan nelson records of early english drama: digital innovations for enhanced access hd- - new york university project director: robert squillace simonides: a student-centered humanities learning tool hd- - drew university project director: martin foys digital mappaemundi: a resource for the study of medieval maps and geographic texts hd- - early manuscripts electronic library project director: adrian wisnicki the nyangwe diary of david livingstone: restoring the text classics ( ) hd- - university of virginia project director: bernard frischer new digital tools for restoring polychromy to d digital models of sculpture hd- - university of virginia project director: david koller supercomputing for digitized d models of cultural heritage composition and rhetoric ( ) hd- - hope college project director: christian spielvogel living in the valley of the shadow: the creation of a web-based, role-playing simulation on the civil war hd- - michigan state university project director: william hart-davidson archive . : imagining the michigan state university israelite samaritan scroll collection dance history and criticism ( ) hd- - university of virginia project director: bradford bennett artefact movement thesaurus education ( ) hd- - university of nebraska, lincoln project director: brian pytlik zillig summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ evince visualization and analysis tool hd- - wayne state university project director: nardina mein the digital learning and development environment hd- - apprend foundation project director: laurel sneed crafting freedom along nc :discovering hidden history with mobile technology hd- - kent state university main campus project director: mark van't hooft the geohistorian project hd- - center for civic education project director: kaavya krishna project citizen casebase: strengthening youth voices in an open-source democracy hd- - publicvr project director: jeffrey jacobson egyptian ceremony in the virtual temple- avatars for virtual heritage english ( ) hd- - loyola university, chicago project director: peter shillingsburg humanities research infrastructure and tools (hrit): an environment for collaborative textual scholarship hd- - university of southern california project director: bruce smith and katherine rowe the cambridge world shakespeare encyclopedia: an international digital resource for study, teaching, and research hd- - cuny research foundation, nyc college of technology project director: matthew gold looking for whitman: the poetry of place in the life and work of walt whitman - level hd- - university of south carolina research foundation project director: george williams braillesc.org far eastern history ( ) hd- - university of california, santa cruz project director: alan christy eternal flames: living memories of the pacific war film history and criticism ( ) hd- - university of chicago project director: yuri tsivian cinemetrics, a digital laboratory for film studies. folklore/folklife ( ) hd- - university of kentucky research foundation project director: jeanmarie rouhier-willoughby russian folk religious imagination hd- - piedmont folk legacies, inc. project director: greg adams vernacular music material culture in space and time summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ french language ( ) hd- - old dominion university research foundation project director: betty facer the impact of academic podcasting: emerging technologies in the foreign language classroom hd- - university of chicago project director: robert morrissey dictionnaire vivant de la langue francaise (dvlf): expanding the french dictionary geography ( ) hd- - kohala center project director: karen kemp hawaii island digital collaboratory history ( ) hd- - university of california, irvine project director: patricia seed the development of mapping: portuguese cartography and coastal africa - hd- - eldridge street project, inc./museum at eldridge street project director: hanna griff-sleven illuminating the immigrant experience: level i digital start-up grant hd- - university of nebraska, board of regents project director: william seefeldt sustaining digital history hd- - george mason university project director: dan cohen scholar press hd- - university of north texas project director: andrew torget mapping historical texts: combining text-mining & geo-visualization to unlock the research potential of historical newspapers history and philosophy of science, technology, and medicine ( ) hd- - indiana university, bloomington project director: colin allen inpho: the indiana philosophy ontology project history of religion ( ) hd- - george mason university project director: sharon leon crowdsourcing documentary transcription: an open source tool humanities ( ) hd- - maine humanities council project director: brita zitin podcasting and the maine humanities council: integrating a new tool for public humanities education hd- - university of arizona project director: davison koenig virtual vault hd- - brown university summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ project director: julia flanders encoding names for contextual exploration in digital thematic research collections hd- - university of north carolina, chapel hill project director: natalia smith image to xml (img xml) hd- - itasca community college project director: timothy powell gibagadinamaagoom: an ojibwe digital archive hd- - university of north carolina, chapel hill project director: natalia smith main street, carolina: uncovering and reclaiming the history of downtown hd- - brown university project director: andrew ashton semantically rich tools for text exploration hd- - georgia tech research corporation project director: douglas (fox) harrell gesture, rhetoric, and digital storytelling hd- - brown university project director: julia flanders a journal-driven bibliography of digital humanities hd- - illinois state university, milner library project director: cheryl ball building a better back-end: editor, author, & reader tools for scholarly multimedia hd- - dartmouth college project director: mikhail gronas mapping the history of knowledge: text-based tools and algorithms for tracking the development of concepts hd- - st. louis university project director: james ginther the t-pen tool: sustainability and quality control in encoding handwritten texts interdisciplinary ( ) hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: michael newton building information visualization into next-generation digital humanities collaboratories hd- - university of virginia project director: worthy martin presenting progressions hd- - texas a & m research foundation project director: wei yan high dynamic range imaging for preserving chromaticity information of architectural heritage hd- - emerson college project director: eric gordon the digital lyceum: emerging frameworks for participation in live humanities events hd- - indiana university, indianapolis project director: david bodenhamer conceptualizing humanities gis: an expert planning workshop on religion in the atlantic world hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: daniel visel sophie search gateway summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ hd- - wheaton college project director: mark leblanc pattern recognition through computational stylistics: old english and beyond hd- - university of massachusetts, boston project director: joanne riley online social networking for the humanities: the massachusetts studies network prototype hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: bob stein where minds meet: new architectures for the study of history and music hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: douglas reside electronic broadway project hd- - ohio state university research foundation project director: h. lewis ulman and melanie schlosser reliable witnesses: integrating multimedia, distributed electronic textual editions into library collections hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: jennifer golbeck visualizing archival collections hd- - plymouth state university project director: casey bisson scriblio mu hd- - center for independent documentary project director: michael epstein murder at harvard mobile hd- - california state university, dominguez hills foundation project director: vivian price new approaches: tradeswomen archive project (tap) hd- - indiana university, bloomington project director: christopher raphael optical music recognition on the international music score library project italian literature ( ) hd- - university of oregon, eugene project director: massimo lollini oregon petrarch open book journalism ( ) hd- - loyola college in maryland project director: elliott king the journalism history hub: developing a research-based interdisciplinary social network and meta-conference languages ( ) hd- - university of alaska, fairbanks project director: siri tuttle minto songs library science, archival management, and conservation ( ) hd- - syracuse university project director: anne diekema enhanced access to digital humanities monographs hd- - drexel university summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ project director: robert allen automatic extraction of article metadata from digitized historical newspapers hd- - kent state university main campus project director: michael kreyche a bilingual digital list of subject headings hd- - new york university project director: brian hoffman mediacommons: social networking tools for digital scholarly communication hd- - willamette university project director: michael spalti bridging the gap: connecting authors to museum and archival collections hd- - university of virginia project director: bethany nowviskie and adam soroka neatline: facilitating geospatial and temporal interpretation of archival collections hd- - university of massachusetts, amherst project director: james allan ocronym: entity extraction and retrieval for scanned books hd- - university of nebraska, lincoln project director: katherine walter centernet: cyberinfrastructure for the digital humanities hd- - university of washington project director: ann lally collecting online music project hd- - columbia university project director: haimonti dutta leveraging "the wisdom of the crowds" for efficient tagging and retrieval of documents from the historic newspaper archive hd- - boston university project director: jack ammerman evolutionary subject tagging in the humanities linguistics ( ) hd- - unaffiliated independent scholar project director: richard cook the character description language (cdl) digital humanities start-up hd- - university of montana project director: mizuki miyashita computer-based data processing and management for blackfoot phonetics and phonology literature ( ) hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: douglas reside digital tools hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: matthew kirschenbaum approaches to managing and collecting born-digital literary materials for scholarly use hd- - university of south carolina research foundation project director: randall cream the sapheos project: transparency in multi-image collation, analysis, and representation hd- - pennsylvania state university, main campus project director: jacqueline reid-walsh summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ learning as playing: an animated, interactive archive of th- th century narrative media for and by children hd- - university of arizona project director: hale thomas-hilburn poetry audio/video library phase media-general ( ) hd- - university of virginia project director: johanna drucker artists' books online: from prototype to distributed community hd- - dartmouth college project director: mary flanagan digital humanities start up grant: metadata games -- an open source electronic game for archival data systems hd- - lower eastside girls club of new york project director: dave pentecost the lower eastside girls club girl/hood project medieval studies ( ) hd- - university of kentucky research foundation project director: abigail firey carolingian canon law project: a collaborative initiative hd- - john woodman higgins armory museum, inc. project director: jeffery forgeng virtual joust: a technological interpretation of medieval jousting and its culture. music history and criticism ( ) hd- - north carolina central university project director: paula harrell training to establish the north carolina central university/african american jazz caucus jazz research institute digital lib. hd- - university of texas, austin project director: robert freeman utunes: music . hd- - haverford college project director: richard freedman the chansonniers of nicholas du chemin ( - ): a digital forum for renaissance music books hd- - american university project director: fernando benadon the map of jazz musicians: an online interactive tool for navigating jazz history's interpersonal network. nonwestern religion ( ) hd- - university of california, riverside project director: justin mcdaniel digital humanities start-up grants: thai digital monastery project religion ( ) hd- - claremont mckenna college project director: daniel michon virtual taxila: a web-accessible, multi-user virtual environment (muve) of an ancient indian city summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ slavic languages ( ) hd- - university of georgia research foundation, inc. project director: victoria hasko telecollaborative webcasting: strengthening acquisition of humanities content knowledge through foreign language education spanish literature ( ) hd- - duke university project director: margaret greer manos teatrales: cyber-paleography and a virtual world of spanish golden age theater theater history and criticism ( ) hd- - university of maryland, college park project director: douglas reside camp: the collaborative ajax-based modeling platform hd- - university of california, san diego project director: emily roxworthy drama in the delta: digitally reenacting civil rights performances at arkansas' wartime camps for japanese americans hd- - buffalo and erie county public library project director: anne conable "re-collecting the depression and new deal as a civic resource in hard times" hd- - university of california, san diego project director: emily roxworthy drama in the delta: digitally reenacting civil rights performances at arkansas' wartime camps for japanese americans summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ types of universities that applied to sug program sug applicants (universitie s) associate's colleges bac. colleges--general bac. colleges--liberal arts bac./associate's colleges doctoral/research uni--extensive doctoral/research uni--intensive master's colleges & uni i master's colleges & univ ii other specialized institutions schools of engineering & tech teachers colleges summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ types of non-university applicants to sug program sug applicants (non-university) archives art museum arts related organizations center for advanced study/research institute community-level organization educational consortium general museum historic preservation organization historical site/house historical society history museum independent production company independent research library indian tribal organization libraries museums national organization non-profit educational center philanthropic foundation professional association professional school publishing school district science and technology museum state humanities council state/local/federal government television/station summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ start-up grant funding by year imls neh year summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ map of all awarded sug projects summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ summary findings from completed start-up grants ( – ) kathy a. toavs management and program analyst national endowment for the humanities the national endowment for the humanities digital humanities start-up grant program offers relatively small planning grants that encourage innovations in the digital humanities. the first applications for this program were accepted beginning in november , and the first grants were awarded in february . a two-year study was initiated by the office of digital humanities to assess the effectiveness of the program. to accomplish this, a survey of six questions was sent to the project directors who received start-up grants in and . the request was initially made on august , with follow-ups on september and september , . the survey questions were: ) what is the current status of your project? ) did your project lead to any of the following: a) a project website? (please provide links) b) journal articles or other publications? (please provide links) c) a museum exhibit or other public program? (please provide link) d) software or tool? (please provide links) e) a class, workshop, etc? (please provide information) e) mentions in the press/blogosphere? (please provide links) ) has your project continued beyond the start-up phase (if appropriate?) a) if yes, tell us how? b) did you receive money from any other funders? who? if so, did having an neh sug help you in obtaining further funding? c) if you were turned down for further funding, can you give us an idea why? what barriers did you encounter? d) if your project has not continued, please tell us why? (e.g. fully complete, no funding, etc) ) what are your general feelings about your project? a) did you accomplish the goals you set out to do? b) what lessons did you learn? (e.g. what worked? what would you do differently?) ) if you have now completed the start-up phase, have you sent the neh a white paper about your project to place in the odh library of funded projects on our website? ) what are you overall thoughts about the start-up grant program? was it helpful for your work? your career? summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ answers were provided by ( %) of the project directors, and details varied depending on the stage of the project. those project directors who had already completed their projects ( of the responders) were able to provide more detailed answers regarding the effectiveness and future direction of their work. because the survey was sent so close to the beginning of the academic year, many of the project directors were only able to provide short answers. others were limited because of travel, or felt they were not able to answer all the questions completely because their projects were still ongoing. almost all of the participants agreed that the start-up grants were beneficial and hugely successful. thirty ( %) of the responding project directors have created new websites (see attachment a); another one has expanded an existing site. seven others ( %) responded that they are in the process of developing new sites. twenty-four tools or new software have resulted from these grants; another six are planned or are in testing. for a list of some of these tools/software, see attachment b. at least of the projects have received press, media, or blogosphere coverage (attachment c). one project even received honors in for its podcasting research. over articles or chapters have been published as a result of the start-up grants; at least another are forthcoming or under review. for a list of publications, see attachment d. at least conferences, symposiums, or speeches (attachment e) have already taken place, although this is a conservative estimate. it is reasonable to assume that there are many more, as project directors tended to answer this question with “several” or “many”, and those answers were only counted once in tallying the survey results. also, at least eighteen classes, workshops, lectures, or podcasts have incorporated some element of the start-up grants; and others are forthcoming. as with the conferences, above, many of the project directors answered this question with “several” or “many”, so this is a rounded, conservative number. thirty-seven of the responders believed that they had achieved the goals as set out in the grants. another eleven, whose grants are ongoing, answered that they had not yet done so. the two remaining project directors did not answer this question, although both of their projects are still in progress. several noted that their goals had changed somewhat in the course of development, mostly for the better. one noted that the project would now be “more useful to users than what we initially thought we would accomplish.” beginning with the competition, grantees were expected to prepare a “lessons learned” white paper. twelve of the directors with grants stated that their papers had already been submitted. interestingly, many of the grantees, while not required to do so, indicated that they were planning to submit a paper as well summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ outcomes almost all of the project directors who responded to the survey thought that their projects had been very successful, and highly praised the neh digital humanities start-up grants program for giving them the impetus they needed to move forward. they emphasized the advantages of these grants, not only to their institutions, but to the larger humanities community. one director wrote, “this project exceeded our expectations in terms of the positive reactions and involvement of humanities professionals statewide.” some of the kudos for the program included such statements as, “the project fulfilled everything that we hoped that it would…the greatest value was in being able to quickly and effectively perform necessary (but usually hard to come by) preliminary research and networking on historical visualization work that will enable us to develop new software and research techniques for such work. that would simply not have been possible without the grant.” another wrote, “it was a fantastic opportunity to develop a really important educational initiative that will have legacy value for a long time to come.” most were satisfied that their teams were able to work together efficiently and productively. neh grant support for internships was indispensable in some cases. “we were able to successfully complete the project goals within the allotted time (plus a summer extension), in part because we had the wonderful advantage of a highly cooperative library environment…and terrific grad student (supported by the neh funds).” “the primary reason for success in my view was having two graduate students and an undergraduate programmer who combined a passion for the subject material with technical skills in computing, and thus we did not have the problems of communicating between content experts and technology experts that is often a barrier to such projects.” another boasted that, “we accomplished more than we had hoped. people everywhere…tell us they are shocked at the quality of work our students produce.” “the student development team thought outside the box and brought to the project a young peoples’ view of how things should work.” project team members expressed a variety of lessons learned during the grant period. one director stated that, “as with most issues in the field of humanities computing, the lessons learned involved technical, organizational and human behavior aspects. over the course of the project year, we learned a great deal about the benefits and challenges of incorporating free, online applications…into the operations of non-profit organizations. we also learned that humanities professionals are very willing to participate in an online network of this sort, when it is tuned to their professional interests and needs. however, it became apparent that many of them need a level of technical training before they feel comfortable with the online tools, and able to participate to the extent they desire.” many of the lessons learned had to do with technical issues, especially in learning how to navigate between the priorities and realities of the humanities scholar and various technical personnel. “on the technical side, we have gained much experience in navigating the sometimes tricky relationship between the highly-skilled consultants…and the rest of the project team. we have found it extremely beneficial to engage “technology translators,” those who have both a grasp on complex technical issues and the importance of practical solutions that help achieve project goals. technologists tend to get caught up in the challenge of the technology itself and need strong guidance on remaining in the “real” world. too, we’ve found the need to develop strong project management tools to help focus the technology consultants and keep them on track.” another project director noted that “finding a programmer who is thoroughly comfortable with the humanist inclination to have summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ inspirations or visions along the way is a real asset in the collaboration between the technical and humanistic personnel.” other comments regarding technical issues and lessons learned included the following: “we tried a few methods in the field first and not all of them were successful, we have to improve some of the data collection process.” “i learned that outsourcing some technical work is difficult and it should be done yourself.” “i would ask for technical support for website building.” “it is essential to build infrastructure on a flexible, open-source platform to avoid creating a mere boutique tool; that an in-house programmer can respond more fluidly to the changing needs of a complex process than a vendor; that it is essential for academics and it specialists to communicate fully about the nature of a project’s pedagogical goals and the systemic effects of individual technical choices.” “i learned that a software development project focused on integrating multiple applications requires a person in the middle to be actively engaged in all aspects of code development and testing.” “next time i’d really focus on creating one tool, or even just a set of guidelines: that way, the project could take its time to link together all of the different scholars and projects in the digital humanities world that are working on similar issues and create something even more broadly useful.” “i would build in additional opportunities for crowdsourcing. much of our content is housed on third-party platforms (google earth), and this seems to be much smarter that developing a database or presentation system that will be obsolete due to technological changes. and yet, i’d like to have even more content filter through third-party channels in partnership relations.” “i would encourage future applicants to look around to find better "off the shelf" solutions before reinventing the wheel.” the need to set goals was critical. “the main lesson i personally learned is that even in a short-term project it is necessary to put intermediate goals in writing.” one director “learned that it’s worth taking the extra time to define your terms as clearly as you can from the outset.” the need for teamwork and cooperation was needed at all stages of the process. one director noted that they had “learned more about the value of teamwork in complex technology projects and got better at working that way across disciplines.” other teamwork related comments included: “we learned that we have to work as a team, not as a set of individuals. once we had a good team ethic, the work really took off.” “weekly meetings of the project team proved vital to progress, review, and development.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ “collaborations with a variety of people (technologists, students, scholars) is crucial.” project directors learned that engaging the assistance of others, especially within the organization, had a large influence on how well goals were met. “partnering with museum and library professionals on the project encouraged us to develop the tool with both academic and general audiences in mind. we learned that students can be active collaborators on digital humanities start-up projects and produce exemplary work. finally, we presented the project at numerous workshops and conferences and recruited several “early adopters” to help in the development of the tool.” one of the directors expressed praise for workshops, “especially one that links technology and content. they allow projects to gain a quick start, but expanding the core is more difficult because other scholars bring different knowledge and potential different directions.” however, some directors learned that other personnel were not always available or willing to meet a projects needs or deadlines. “i learned that artists are difficult to work with, professional librarians and curators are not. i learned that funding is essential for interns because the workload of current library and museum professionals is so tight and they cannot add new tasks to their jobs.” another lamented that “it was difficult to achieve good “buy in” with other faculty and staff on the project, given the limited funding.” yet another complained that, “if there is a single lesson we have learned it is the need for a clear development structure with a concrete time commitment from the academic project participants. because our project focuses on faculty development in an area unfamiliar to the participating faculty, it was hard to define what we expected of them on a weekly basis and this made scheduling training workshops quite difficult. in the future we plan to support faculty by enrolling them in a training course with a more clearly pre-defined workload.” while setting goals and encouraging teamwork were necessary, a project also needed to plan for contingencies. this was especially clear when faced with changes in institutional personnel and job reductions “in the future, i will have contingency and alternate plans for each goal.” a technology-intensive project means that “everything takes longer than we think it should and everything is more difficult than it at first appears.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ unanticipated problems none of the survey participants cited any failures with their project, although several of the projects did encounter some unanticipated problems and issues. technical problems included frustration over proprietary issues. owners of data were reluctant to release data or allow permissions. “wide adoption of cdl font technology has been limited by the proprietary nature of the source code.” at least one project team became creative in working around this problem by the “writing of pseudo-agents” to include “data from sources outside the data sets of data owners”. another wrote, “…the goal of involving other holders of digital data into the project has been very slow in developing. though people express agreement that the idea of having a central place to use for collecting information is ideal, all too often there is a reluctance to release data to the use of other scholars and to the public.” other technical issues had to do with service providers (“we ran into technical challenges that arose from the online service provider changing its terms midstream”), and lack of institutional support (“we had trouble finding the technical support we wanted within the university. it may have been easier for us to start from scratch with a more common set of programming languages and tools than to stick with our original prototype and require a developer to work with that.”) still other problems cited had to do with issues of long-term preservation of complex digital projects, data collection issues, and finding/maintaining qualified/interested encoders/programmers. by far, the biggest problem encountered by project directors had to do with personnel issues, either internally or with outside collaborators. one project director wrote that “personnel issues made the project immensely frustrating, costing me and others immense personal time and psychological energy.” many realized that while their projects required library professionals and other support personnel, that assistance was not always timely or forthcoming. other problems cited included changes in personnel, job reductions, mandates, and time restraints. one director wrote “i spent an unwanted additional amount of time coping with fractious bureaucrats.” a co-director, faced with the economic recession, had to take another position, causing problems in communication between team members and a re-focus on priority issues. still another was not pleased with the role of the advisors to the project. other collaborations did not work out as well as planned (“involving the native american community was harder than i had thought. community members don’t typically attend meetings.”). other difficulties revolved around time and budget issues. some were concerned that the project took more time than was anticipated. eleven ( %) noted that they had been granted extensions by neh odh. “as is often the case, it was a lot more work than we anticipated…doing the work that we outlined as ‘preliminary’ in the grant turned out to be a huge project in itself.” others underestimated the amount of funding needed. “what we learned is that the funding (at the initial $ , cap for odh digital start-up grants) was really inadequate for the amount of effort, even with a modest investment in digital tools and technology,” stated one director. another explained that “…since i needed to collaborate with other institutions the high overhead rates cut deeply into the work i wanted done, and curtailed the amount which my team could have accomplished. summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ implications every project director citied benefits gained from the start-up grants. advantages included personal career enhancements, institutional enhancements, and broader implications for the broader scholarly community. personal most project directors thought that the dh start-up grants had been beneficial to them in some way. one project team claimed that the “project has been the “finest achievement of our pedagogical careers.” quite a few emphasized how useful the grants were in establishing some form of credibility and legitimacy, as well as enhancing their reputations in the field. “i have credibility in my own eyes and that of the digital community i would not have had without it.” “the grant provided legitimacy to my ideas to a skeptical traditional history department that is now looking to make digital a cornerstone of their nascent public history program.” “i am now recognized as a leader in providing a model for digital scholarship in my academic specialty, and the grant certainly confirmed for my department and college that digital scholarship is alive and well.” “it helps tremendously within our institutions that, though the funds are relatively small, they came for the neh. the external grant gives credibility to our project within our institution, even in the start-up phase.” “the willingness of neh to invest in our project, based on the recommendations of an independent scholarly review panel, provided us with external validation, so crucial to internal funding decisions and professional advancement.” others cited improvements to job satisfaction (“it’s given my work (and my career, i hope!) a tremendous boost”), promotions and tenure (“this grant was also helpful in my career, forming part of my promotion to full professor dossier”), and opportunities for future research and long-term career trajectories (“it has been extraordinarily useful for me. i’ve entered the world of digital humanities; i got a new “dream” job at uva, i think in part because the grant demonstrated my seriousness with digital humanities work; and i’ve simply learned a lot in doing this work that will benefit my own research”). another stated that “the sug has given me the chance to undertake innovative digital work that i’d be unlikely to undertake on my own.” only one gave a negative response to the question of whether the grant was beneficial to the director’s career. that person stated that the “real challenge confronting academic historians who do digital history is the fact that there is no tangible professional recognition for this work.” institutional benefits cited were not limited to the careers of the project team members. other beneficiaries of the start-up grants included students. one director explained that, “the start-up grant program enabled me to begin a digital project on our campus that will not only benefit our students but the "international" classroom.” yet another stated that, “the neh grant was helpful in promoting a new career path for our students, exposing this technology to the university, increasing the skills and knowledge of the grant personnel making them (and myself) more marketable in the workplace.” more impressive still were the comments offered by the director who boasted, “i view this as a legacy project before i retire in a few years that is of great benefit to the state.” similar claims were made by those who exclaimed, “the start-up grant we received was summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ indispensable to our work. it allowed us to attract the necessary interest and support to turn concept into reality and a small program’s dream into a university-wide vision that promises to spread out to many institutions.” citing the importance of neh to their institution’s future, another project director was pleased that , “although our university is late in beginning digital projects, the neh sug was instrumental in providing the first trained university personnel who can now continue work in this area.” broader scholarly community the start-up grants allowed for development and testing of new ideas, tools, and software beneficial to the international community. the following are just some of the comments related to broader implications: “this was an excellent opportunity for us to experiment on a small scale and develop procedures and prototypes that could be scaled up later on.” [we] “made significant progress in creating a new field.” “this was a wonderful opportunity to put into practice many of the new media ideas i had played with only theoretically. i made connections with numerous like-minded colleagues, and thought through enormously enjoyable technical issues.” “this start-up grant has become a model example on our campus for how to start a new interdisciplinary project and get external funding for them…we now have a queue of external scholars who are either directly trying our tools, modifying our software, and/or seek to collaborate so we can design and implement experiments in their area of the corpus.” “i think for the localized purpose of giving the community a way to get together, talk face-to-face, ask questions, debate answers, and come to some consensus on what we all need that can make our processes more efficient was more than well spent time and money.” “as a senior scholar in my field, it has also given me the chance to reach out to other specialists—at research universities and liberal arts colleges alike—in an effort to encourage collaborative work of a sort that is all too often absent in the humanities.” “it was very helpful for envisioning what is possible and for bringing together a group of researchers and technologists, some of whom continue to build out projects from those early ideas.” [this grant] “enabled us to begin important conversations among like-minded scholars scattered widely.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ future plans one of the survey questions asked if work was going to be continued on the grant once the start-up phase was completed. most of the project directors responded that they have continued, or plan to continue their projects. the grants were helpful in establishing credibility and “demonstrated that other people thought the project worth funding.” other awardees agreed, claiming that “having an neh start-up grant gave our project the imprimatur of a major humanities organization and served as external validation of the methods employed. it also helped convey the scholarly value of our work to chairs deans, provosts, and others in a position to support it.” wrote one director, “…without this support our project would not have moved forward.” yet others stated that the grants had been helpful in “demonstrating and promoting’ project goals, and served as a “gold seal of approval” for securing further funding. some other examples of how projects have expanded their original goals include: national and international collaboration several of the projects intend to expand their projects to include collaboration with other institutions, either to build functionality and content, or to disseminate findings in joint publications and conference presentations. one director claimed that, “further collaborations are also in the offing...we fully expect an international collaboration.” another professed that “we will be working over the next six months to share the product within our professional communities as well as asking some of the questions posed by our experience working across applications and communities of interest.” yet another director stated that, “several important one-of-a kind projects have been identified to produce after the completion of this project.” incorporation into established programs beyond the benefits already cited elsewhere for the university and students, other potential benefits were also mentioned. one explained that, “this project will be a permanent part of our digital library collections web site and is being incorporated into our permanent program of offerings.” another stated that, “the funding allowed us to complete preliminary work that was essential to establishing the basis for several possible projects, which are currently in the process of being put together for larger and more sustained grant possibilities.” several project directors, while admitting that they have not officially entered a new phase of development, stated that they have already exceeded their initial goals. one director explained that, “essentially we used the start up for much more than just starting up. we used it as implementation as well.” for those projects that have not continued, many of the project directors explained that, while they had an interest in continuing, they were stymied by their inability to procure additional funding. at least eight of the start-up projects were turned down by neh for further funding, some multiple times. only one project was successful in receiving another neh grant after an initial failure. one project director expressed frustration that that there is a “disconnect between neh’s desire for digital projects and yet reviewers who still have a traditional model of research.” citing comments from reviews, it seemed to the director that “the greatest single objection, however, seemed to be to the proposition that results (scholarly editions produced by users of our resources and tools) would appear in print format. the enraged (in some instances) comments suggest that there is an unfortunate summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ hardening of the divisions between scholars who still see value in print and those committed to digital humanities.” other reasons for projects not proceeding included problems with “social engineering” questions, hesitation on the part of granting agencies to fund projects that rely on undergraduate work, and issues of methodology. others felt that there were misunderstandings about the field and the related procedures, and fears that the projects were too ambitious, or the projects “did not sufficiently match the parameters of the granting agency.” “generally, granting agencies seem to be worried about funding projects that rely heavily on undergraduate work. i hope that our project can help to change that, because the product (completely designed and implemented by undergrads) is as professional as anything produced by graduate students or in the professional world.” one suspected that “funding of the boring part of the project (populating and refining a database) will be harder to come by.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ conclusion all of the project directors who answered the survey had the utmost praise for the neh digital humanities start-up grants program. most responded along the lines of the director who stated, “we feel this is an excellent program: the small scale of both the target projects and the funding application make it easy to try out ideas without committing enormous amounts of time.” another opined, “the startup grants are a great idea. humanities funding is so hard to get, this is a good way to spread it around and stimulate new projects.” “this is a wonderful program. it is so unusual to have such an opportunity to take risks in exploring cutting edge approaches to humanities education. it has served to help legitimize our method of post-secondary course internationalization and has seeded further research and training in this area.” “this grant program was a god-send! it provided us with the resources to experiment with a tool that had great potential, but which required time and focus from a wide variety of people in order to assess the scope of its usefulness for humanities professionals.” some likes and dislikes regarding the program included the following: several expressed satisfaction with the opportunity to gather together at the project directors’ meeting. one wrote, “although the day-long meeting was almost too much to grasp, i got a fuller sense of what a digital project might entail.” “the start-up grant was very helpful, and the project directors’ meeting in dc was especially good as it provided direct encouragement for our approach and the incentive to take the project further.” “we were very impressed by neh’s willingness to take risks here by investing in a broad spectrum of promising but preliminary approaches to the digitization and access of historical materials. one of the lasting memories of the project for me was the extraordinary sophistication of the projects funded under the start up program evident in your project directors’ meeting in washington, the enthusiasm of the group and the remarkable ways in which these projects promised to re-imagine and re-invigorate the disciple. it was a delight to be included.” suggestions for improvement included asking neh advice on how to create “a smooth way of creating ‘layers’ of participants—owner of site; editor for individual projects; and contributors who might pose questions or offer solutions. i am sure that other project directors supported by the odh have faced and solved this sort of problem, but in some ways i am at a loss to know exactly how to discover exactly who could help. i am confident that we will shape a workable solution, but wonder whether there might be some mechanism beyond the odh website for sharing solutions to this sort of problem.” on the program guidelines, one director questions the requirement for (c)( ) status of applicants.” i would think that this restriction reduces competition among applicants, and makes limited funding more limited (given excessive institutional overhead requirements).” however, the complaints about the neh digital humanities start-up grant program were minimal. although some of the projects encountered various obstacles, most of them were able to find solutions to their problems. one director, faced with job reduction in the it staff, was forced to reach out to another institution. as a result, “the subsequent partnership for technical guidance and development has been wonderfully creative and productive.” it was deemed “an extremely valuable program, and frankly perhaps the most innovative thing i've seen come out of the neh. the sug established legitimacy and credibility for our work, and was an important vehicle for allowing us to publicize what we were doing (which in turn put us into contact with other individuals who are attacking similar problems and with whom we can collaborate in the future. i very much hope to see summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ the dh sugs continue.” “i have always (and continue to) believed that the start-up grant program was extremely important in assisting humanities scholars to investigate whether their scholarship can be enhanced by technological developments. i believe that on a local level, a start-up grant can provide the motivation for the humanities scholar to seek out technologists at their institution and leeway for the technologists to allocate personnel resources to the scholar’s problem. i believe that the size of the grants makes it difficult to measure their impact in traditional ways, for example, the opening of effective communication lines between scholar and technologists may not yield documentable evidence, yet still have a sustained impact on the scholarship of the grantee.” “this comes as close as anything in the humanities to a broad-scale address to the problem of training, collaboration, and development in humanities computing. the resources and time involved in developing tools, debates, training, and archives in the humanities today are more similar to the resources and time needed in the natural sciences. this program recognizes that challenge, and it was crucial to allowing me to move forward in my digital work while also generating the kinds of traditional scholarship required for tenure in the literary humanities. again, the neh is providing an extremely valuable service to the nation by helping to spur the embrace and adoption of digital tools through the odh program. it has helped to provide a new window of perspective into our understanding of the humanities, as well as a new platform for sharing that understanding.” summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment a websites http://www.wenlin.com/cdl/ (character description language - hd - ) http://tdm.ucr.edu/ (thai digital monastery project - hd - ) http://www.rch.uky.edu/rfri (russian folk religious imagination - hd - ) http://www.artistsbooksonline.org/ (artists’ books online - hd ) http://corinthcomputerproject.org (digital corinth synchronized database project - hd - ) http://www.pmoca.org (portuguese cartography and coastal africa, - - hd - ) http://www.coastal.edu/ashes art (ashes art: virtual reconstructions of ancient monuments - hd - ) http://www.reed.utoronto.ca/downloads.html (records of early english drama- hd - ) http://movingimagesincontext.org (finding and using moving images in context - hd - ) http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu (inpho: the indiana philosophy ontology project - hd - ) http://lcsh-es.org (a bilingual digital list of subject headings -hd - ) http://www.asmodeus.ws/cohenlab/annotations.htm (interface development for static multimedia documents -hd - ) http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml (evince visualization and analysis tool - hd - ) http://utunes.utexas.org (utunes: music . - hd - ) http://sophieproject.org/ (sophie search gateway - hd - ) http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu (pattern recognition through computational stylistics: old english and beyond - hd - ) http://www.jeffersonstravels.org ; http://www.historybrowser.org ; http://www.viseyes.org (jefferson's travels: a digital journey using the historybrowser - hd - ) http://mastudies.ning.com (hd - ) http://www.datsproject.org/ (distributed archives transaction system - hd - ) http://vbi.lakeforest.edu (virtual burnham initiative - hd - ) http://www.people.virginia.edu/~msg d/idea (project temporarily housed at this site) (online encyclopedia best practices and standardshd - ) http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ (the chansonniers of nicholas du chemin ( - ): a digital forum for renaissance music books - hd - ) http://ccl.rch.uky.edu/ (carolingian canon law project - hd - ) http://dsl.richmond.edu/workshop/ (visualizing the past: tools and techniques for understanding historical processes - hd - ) http://libmedia.willamette.edu/acom/neh/ (bridging the gap: connecting authors to museum and archival collections - hd - ) http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ (creating a sense of place through archeology - hd - ) http://www.telledfu.org (digital documentation of a provincial town in ancient egypt - hd - ) www.literae.com/echo (prototype) (connecticut's heritage echosystem – (hd - ) http://www.wide.msu.edu (archive . : imagining the michigan state university israelite samaritan scroll collection - hd - ) http://www.wenlin.com/cdl/ http://tdm.ucr.edu/ http://www.rch.uky.edu/rfri http://www.artistsbooksonline.org/ http://corinthcomputerproject.org/ http://www.pmoca.org/ http://www.coastal.edu/ashes art http://www.reed.utoronto.ca/downloads.html http://movingimagesincontext.org/ http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/ http://lcsh-es.org/ http://www.asmodeus.ws/cohenlab/annotations.htm http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml http://utunes.utexas.org/ http://sophieproject.org/ http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu/ http://www.jeffersonstravels.org/ http://www.historybrowser.org/ http://www.viseyes.org/ http://mastudies.ning.com/ http://www.datsproject.org/ http://vbi.lakeforest.edu/ http://www.people.virginia.edu/% emsg d/idea http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ http://ccl.rch.uky.edu/ http://dsl.richmond.edu/workshop/ http://libmedia.willamette.edu/acom/neh/ http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ http://www.telledfu.org/ http://www.literae.com/echo http://www.wide.msu.edu/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment b software or tools http://www.wenlin.com/cgi-bin/wenlinsvghelp.pl (hd - ) http://www.pmoca.org/ (hd - ) http://www.flintbox.com/technology.asp?page= (hd - ) http://valleydev.cs.hope.edu; www.valleysim.com (hd - ) http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/ (hd - ) http://lcsh-es.org (hd - ) http://www.structuralknowledge.com/markup_demo/markup/ (hd - ) http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml (hd - ) http://www.historybrowser.org ; http://www.viseyes.org/edit.htm (hd - ) http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu (currently only available to developers) (hd - ) http://mastudies.ning.com (forthcoming sep ) (hd - ) http://mel.hofstra.edu/textlab/ (hd - ) http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ (hd - ) http://www.stoa.org: /cclxtf/search (hd - ) http://www.wide.msu.edu/content/archive/ (hd - ) https://source.sakaiproject.org/contrib/simonides/ (hd - ) www.telledfu.org (hd - ) http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ (hd - ) http://www.wenlin.com/cgi-bin/wenlinsvghelp.pl http://www.pmoca.org/ http://www.flintbox.com/technology.asp?page= http://valleydev.cs.hope.edu/ http://www.valleysim.com/ http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/ http://lcsh-es.org/ http://www.structuralknowledge.com/markup_demo/markup/ http://evince.unl.edu/index.html?file=../xml/base.xml http://www.historybrowser.org/ http://www.viseyes.org/edit.htm http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu/ http://mastudies.ning.com/ http://mel.hofstra.edu/textlab/ http://ricercar.cesr.univ-tours.fr/ -programmes/emn/duchemin/ http://www.stoa.org: /cclxtf/search http://www.wide.msu.edu/content/archive/ https://source.sakaiproject.org/contrib/simonides/ http://www.telledfu.org/ http://emergentmediacenter.com/vtarch/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment c blogs/media/press old dominion university’s research/innovations/breakthroughs quest, volume , issue , summer (hd - ) old dominion university’s center for learning technologies: video broadcast to prospective students on distance learning/podcasting technology. august , . (hd - ) the virginian-pilot, “ipod instruction,” by janette rodrigues, february , . (hd - ) http://movingimagesincontext.org/blog/ (hd - ) http://www.research.iu.edu/news/stories/ .html (hd - ) http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id= (hd - ) http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/queens/ / / / - - _time_warp_ _world_fair_to_make_web_comeback.html (hd - ) http://collocate.wordpress.com/ / / /experimental-spanish-version-of-lcsh/ (hd - ) http://bengu-cn.blogspot.com/ / /more-chinese-translations-of-ifla.html (hd - ) http://splconferences.blogspot.com/ / /at-last-bilingual-subject-access-to.html (hd - ) http://laureltarulli.wordpress.com/ / / /standards-are-like-toothbrushes-a-good- idea-but-no-one-wants-to-use-anyone-elses/ (hd - ) http://lumagoo.wordpress.com/ / / /session-thoughts-the-future-is-now-global- authority-control/ (hd - ) http://www.libraryjournal.com/blog/ /post/ .html (hd - ) http://www.uaf.edu/research/frontiers/studying/index.xml (hd - ) http://www.datsproject.org/blog/ (hd - ) http://grou.ps/digitalobjects/talks/ (hd - ) http://placebased.typepad.com/placebased_education/theory_and_practice/ (hd ) http://museum-musings.blogspot.com/ / /national-council-on-public-history.html (hd - ) http://mastudies.ning.com/" #ncph : pm apr rd (hd - ) http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/blog/?p= (hd - ) http://vbi.lakeforest.edu/press.html (hd - ) http://hangingtogether.org/?p= (hd - ) http://chronicle.com/article/archiving-writers-work-in/ (hd - ) http://news.haverford.edu/blogs/digitalduchemin/ (hd - ) http://movingimagesincontext.org/blog/ http://www.research.iu.edu/news/stories/ .html http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id= http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/queens/ / / / - - _time_warp_ _world_fair_to_make_web_comeback.html http://www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/queens/ / / / - - _time_warp_ _world_fair_to_make_web_comeback.html http://collocate.wordpress.com/ / / /experimental-spanish-version-of-lcsh/ http://bengu-cn.blogspot.com/ / /more-chinese-translations-of-ifla.html http://splconferences.blogspot.com/ / /at-last-bilingual-subject-access-to.html http://laureltarulli.wordpress.com/ / / /standards-are-like-toothbrushes-a-good-idea-but-no-one-wants-to-use-anyone-elses/ http://laureltarulli.wordpress.com/ / / /standards-are-like-toothbrushes-a-good-idea-but-no-one-wants-to-use-anyone-elses/ http://lumagoo.wordpress.com/ / / /session-thoughts-the-future-is-now-global-authority-control/ http://lumagoo.wordpress.com/ / / /session-thoughts-the-future-is-now-global-authority-control/ http://www.libraryjournal.com/blog/ /post/ .html http://www.uaf.edu/research/frontiers/studying/index.xml http://www.datsproject.org/blog/ http://grou.ps/digitalobjects/talks/ http://placebased.typepad.com/placebased_education/theory_and_practice/ http://museum-musings.blogspot.com/ / /national-council-on-public-history.html http://mastudies.ning.com/ https://twitter.com/search?q=% ncph https://twitter.com/publichistorian/status/ http://www.alexandriaarchive.org/blog/?p= http://vbi.lakeforest.edu/press.html http://hangingtogether.org/?p= http://chronicle.com/article/archiving-writers-work-in/ http://news.haverford.edu/blogs/digitalduchemin/ summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ http://chronicle.com/blogpost/archive-watch-good-samaritans/ / (hd ) http://www.archivesnext.com/?p= (hd - ) http://beyondwordsblog.com/ / / /archive- - -transforms-traditional-practices/ (hd - ) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus . (hd - ) http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section=news/localandid= . (hd - ) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus (hd - ) http://www.cal.msu.edu/samaritan.php.(hd - ) http://www.archives.gov/research/online-access-newsletter/ -december.pdf. (hd - ) http://www.lansingstatejournal.com/article/ /news / / /news . "msu newsroom." (hd - ) http://www.capitalgainsmedia.com/inthenews/texts .aspx. (hd - ) http://news.msu.edu/story/ /. (hd - ) peck, jim, prod. "samaritan scrolls." samaritan scrolls. big ten network. jan. . (hd - ) sorg, walt. ""archive . "" amlansing with walt sorg. -wils, lansing, mi. dec. . (hd - ) http://www.amlansing.com/amlansing/hart-davidson_ . .html. (hd - ) http://www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/story/bwire. . /gistory (hd - ) http://finance.yahoo.com/news/nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-bw- .html?x= &.v= (hd - ) http://www.tmcnet.com/viewette.aspx?u=http% a% f% fwww.tmcnet.com% fusubmit% f % f % f % f .htm&kw= (hd - ) http://www.freshnews.com/news/ /nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-portfolio-track- th-annual-sakai-conference (hd - ) http://www.reuters.com/article/pressrelease/idus + -jul- +bw (hd - ) http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlyw nzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /** http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html (hd - ) http://www.champlain.edu/emergent-media-center/projects/virtual-archeology- museum.html (hd - ) http://www.timesargus.com/article/ /features / / /features (hd - ) http://chronicle.com/blogpost/archive-watch-good-samaritans/ / http://www.archivesnext.com/?p= http://beyondwordsblog.com/ / / /archive- - -transforms-traditional-practices/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus http://abclocal.go.com/wjrt/story?section=news/localandid= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uavlts kqus http://www.cal.msu.edu/samaritan.php http://www.archives.gov/research/online-access-newsletter/ -december.pdf http://www.lansingstatejournal.com/article/ /news / / /news http://www.capitalgainsmedia.com/inthenews/texts .aspx http://news.msu.edu/story/ / http://www.amlansing.com/amlansing/hart-davidson_ . .html http://www.globeinvestor.com/servlet/story/bwire. . /gistory http://finance.yahoo.com/news/nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-bw- .html?x= &.v= http://finance.yahoo.com/news/nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-bw- .html?x= &.v= http://www.tmcnet.com/viewette.aspx?u=http% a% f% fwww.tmcnet.com% fusubmit% f % f % f % f .htm&kw= http://www.tmcnet.com/viewette.aspx?u=http% a% f% fwww.tmcnet.com% fusubmit% f % f % f % f .htm&kw= http://www.freshnews.com/news/ /nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-portfolio-track- th-annual-sakai-conference http://www.freshnews.com/news/ /nyu-and-unicon-present-sakai-portfolio-track- th-annual-sakai-conference http://www.reuters.com/article/pressrelease/idus + -jul- +bw http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlywnzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /**http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlywnzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /**http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=a geu.btbrpku bnzjxnyoa;_ylu=x odmtezdwlucgnmbhnlywnzcgrwb mdmtcey sbwnhyziednrpzanimtg xzc /sig= pvepl /exp= /**http% a//www.forbes.com/feeds/businesswire/ / / /businesswire .html http://www.champlain.edu/emergent-media-center/projects/virtual-archeology-museum.html http://www.champlain.edu/emergent-media-center/projects/virtual-archeology-museum.html http://www.timesargus.com/article/ /features / / /features summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ atttachment d publications “performantive metatests in metadata, and mark-up” in european journal of english studies, vol. , no. (august ), pp. - . (hd - ) speclab: digital aesthetics and speculative computing, university of chicago press, . (one chapter) (hd - ) academic podcasting and mobile assisted language learning: applications and outcomes. edited by betty rose facer and m’hammed abdous, scheduled to be published in . (hd - ) “mall technology: use of academic podcasting in the foreign language classroom.” recall, ( ), uk: cambridge university press (january ). http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid= d f e a c cf d a c.tomcat ?frompage=online&aid= (hd - ) “the impact of academic podcasting on students: learning outcomes and study habits” in research on e-learning methodologies for language acquisition, ed. rita marriott and patricia torres (new york/uk: information science reference/igi, july ). http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+f acer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=- ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty % rose% facer&f=false (hd - ) “the cone of africa…took shape in lisbon,” humanities magazine, nov . (hd - ) arne r. flaten and alyson gill, eds. and contributors, visual resources, an international journal of documentation, special edition: using digital representations in the humanities (london: taylor & francis/routledge, forthcoming december ); essays: “state of the discipline (gill),” and “ashes art: digital models of th century bce delphi, greece (flaten).” under contract. (hd - ) arne r. flaten, “ashes art as pedagogical experiment,” in peer-reviewed proceedings of computer applications & quantitative methods in archaeology th annual meeting, budapest; accepted. (hd - ) alyson a. gill, “’chattering’ in the baths: the urban greek bathing establishment and social discourse in classical antiquity,” in peer-reviewed proceedings of computer applications & quantitative methods in archaeology th annual meeting, budapest; accepted. (hd - ) arne r. flaten, “ashes art: digital collaboration in the humanities,” in book: new technologies to explore cultural heritage (washington and rome: national endowment for the humanities and the consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, ). (hd - ) alyson gill and arne r. flaten, “digital delphi: the d virtual reconstruction of the hellenistic plunge bath at delphi,” in the digital heritage: proceedings of the th international conference on virtual systems and multimedia, ed. m. ioannides, a. addison, a. georgopoulos, l. kalisperis, hungary: archeolingua, . (hd - ) http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid= d f e a c cf da c.tomcat ?frompage=online&aid= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayabstract;jsessionid= d f e a c cf da c.tomcat ?frompage=online&aid= http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=yhw_opo aa c&pg=pp &lpg=pp &dq=betty+rose+facer&source=bl&ots=kvnfn hqp &sig=o z d qfecuhltjzqfcpr oaq&hl=en&ei=-ssnstlwijlqlafitpmrbw&sa=x&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum= #v=onepage&q=betty% rose% facer&f=false summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ flaten and gill, “ashes art: collaboration and community in the humanities,” in first monday: peer-reviewed journal on the internet , ( august ). http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/index (hd - ) flaten and gill, “virtual delphi: two case studies,” in the isprs international archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, xxxvi- /c , ; also published in cipa international archives for documentation of cultural heritage, xxi- . (hd - ) rajan, p and yan, w. “cast shadow removal using time and exposure varying images”, proceedings of the th international conference for advances in pattern recognition (icapr), kolkata, india. . http://www.isical.ac.in/~icapr / (hd - ) yan, w. and rajan, p. “towards digitizing colours of architectural heritage”, proceedings of the conference on virtual systems and multimedia (vsmm) ' : dedicated to digital heritage, october - th, , limassol, cyprus. http://www.vsmm .org/ (hd - ) china in the world: a history since , published by cheng & tsui, . http://www.cheng-tsui.com/store/products/china_world [book & cd] (hd - ) “inpho: the indiana philosophy ontology”, american philosophical assn. newsletter on philosophy and computers ( ) : - . http://www.apaonline.org/documents/publications/v n _computers.pdf (hd - ) “answer set programming on expert feedback to populate and extend dynamic ontologies.” in proceedings of st flairs. aaai press, ; - . http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/ -inpho-flairs.pdf (hd - ) “the world is not flat: expertise and inpho.” first monday [online], volume number ( august ). http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/ / (hd - ) “working the crowd: design principles and early lessons from the social-semantic web.” in proceedings of the workshop on web . : merging semantic web and social web - (sw)^ at acm hypertext, turin, italy, . http://sunsite.informatik.rwth- aachen.de/publications/ceur-ws/vol- / (hd - ) cameron buckner, mathias niepert, and colin allen. from encyclopedia to ontology: toward a dynamic representation of the discipline of philosophy. in a special issue of synthese, springer-verlag, (forthcoming) http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/taxonomizingideas.pdf (hd - ) david bodenhamer, john corrigan, and trevor harris, eds., the spatial humanities: gis and the future of humanities scholarship (indiana university press), inaugural volume in a series on the spatial humanities, with bodenhamer, corrigan, and harris as general editors (two other titles under contract; another volume on religion and the atlantic world under development. http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?products_id= (hd - ) http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/index http://www.isical.ac.in/% eicapr / http://www.vsmm .org/ http://www.cheng-tsui.com/store/products/china_world http://www.apaonline.org/documents/publications/v n _computers.pdf http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/ -inpho-flairs.pdf http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/ / http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/publications/ceur-ws/vol- / http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/publications/ceur-ws/vol- / http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/papers/taxonomizingideas.pdf http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?products_id= summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ drout, m., kahn, m., leblanc, m.d., jones, a. ‘ , kathok, n. ‘ , and nelson, c. ’ . “lexomics for anglo-saxon literature.” old english newsletter, [in press] fall . (hd - ) drout, m., kahn, m., leblanc, m.d. (submitted june ). lexomic methods for analyzing relationships among old english poems. journal of english and germanic philology. (hd - ) [in progress] downey, s., drout, m., kahn, m., kisor, y., leblanc, m. ( ) “lexomic evidence for the relationship between guthlac and vercelli homily .” (hd - ) [in progress] downey, s., drout, m., kahn, m., kisor, y., leblanc, m. ( in preparation). “‘us gewritu secgað’: lexomic evidence for an unknown source for the lamech material in genesis a.” (hd - ) jacobs and holland, “sharing archaeological data: the distributed archives transaction system” (invited article) in near eastern archaeology, . (hd - ) jacobs, “getting data into the hands of archaeologists: dats” in proceedings of conference “co-operation networks for the transfer of know-how in d digitization applications” at the cultural and educational technology institute/”athena” r.c., xanthi. (hd - ) jacobs, “coroplastic studies, an argument for total publication” in coroplast studies interest group (csig) newsletter no. , summer . http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf (hd - ) holland, “a distributed archive for coroplastic research: www.datsproject.org” in coroplast studies interest group (csig) newsletter no. , summer . http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf (hd - ) connect, “simonides: a faculty-led, student-centered technology initiative” (forthcoming; november, volume , number ) (hd - ) http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf http://www.datsproject.org/ http://www.coroplasticstudies.org/images/csig_newsletter_ _ .pdf summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ attachment e exhibits, workshops, and conferences “spreading the word: reaching out to students and faculty.” iallt annual conference, georgia state university, atlanta, georgia, may , . (hd - ) “authentic materials as portable media content," at the summer institute - center for learning technologies, "web . : social networking at odu” at old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, may , . (hd - ) "academic podcasting for foreign language, literature, and culture," at the summer institute - center for learning technologies, "making the magic happen” at old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, may , . (hd - ) "academic podcasting technology," at the summer institute - center for learning technologies, "technology fair” at old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, may , . (hd ) “academic podcasting technology: the impact on foreign language acquisition.” research expo , “communities of research: discovery, innovation & entrepreneurship,” old dominion university, norfolk, virginia, april , . (hd - ) “the impact of academic podcasting on student learning outcomes.” calico with iallt annual conference, university of san francisco, san francisco, california, march , . (hd - ) “the impact of academic podcasting on student learning outcomes: emerging technologies in the foreign language classroom (neh-dhi).” seallt-maallt joint conference , pine crest preparatory school, ft. lauderdale, florida, february , . (hd - ) "ipods, podcasting and podagogy: the new generation of technology for foreign language education," at the summer institute “poducation: all about podcasting,” center for learning technologies at old dominion university, may , . (hd - ) conference presentation at http://www.vsmm .org/ (hd - ) presentation on “archive . ” at the european conference of digital libraries, september -october in corfu, greece on the panel “digital libraries, personalisation, and network effects - unpicking the paradoxes.” the full description is available here: http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl /pnl_per.php (hd - ) the jefferson’s travels demonstration project inspired an interactive exhibit in the new monticello visitor center and has led to collaborations on other historybrowser/visualeyes projects with the smithsonian institution www.viseyes.org/show/?base=smithson and the hagley library http://www.historybrowser.org/brower.php?id= (hd - ) http://www.vsmm .org/ http://www.ionio.gr/conferences/ecdl /pnl_per.php http://www.viseyes.org/show/?base=smithson http://www.historybrowser.org/brower.php?id= summary findings of neh digital humanities start-up grants ( - ) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ in addition to designing textlab, the project’s tasks were for hofstra to host a day-long mini-conference (called melcamp) on the shaping of the melville electronic library (mel) and for me to write an neh grant proposal for launching mel online.melcamp met on october , , with over twenty melville and digital scholars in attendance. the neh start-up grant provided some travel reimbursement. hofstra provided matching funds for travel and footed the food expenses for the day. in november, , i submitted a proposal for a scholarly editions grant to fund the launching of mel. it was provisionally accepted in may, , with the condition of budget downsizing. the revised proposal for $ , for two years was finally accepted in august. the new grant will begin in november, .(hd - ) digital humanities presentation http://www.mith .umd.edu/dh /?page_id= (hd - ) http://www.mith .umd.edu/dh /?page_id= – – journal of siberian federal university. humanities & social sciences ( ) – ~ ~ ~ УДК . from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and teaching samuel nowakowski and guillaume bernard* university of lorraine loria umr , nancy, france received . . , received in revised form . . , accepted . . in a world in which digital interfaces, dematerialization, automation, so-called tools of artificial intelligence aim to drive away the human or eliminate the relationship with humans! the way other beings see us is important. what would happen if we took the full measure of this idea? how would this affect our understanding of society, culture, and the world we inhabit? how would this affect our understanding of the human, since in this world beyond the human, we sometimes find things that we prefer to attribute only to ourselves? what impacts on education, learning, teaching? after having explored the field opened by these questions, we will bring an answer with a reinvention of the learning platform named koala (knowledge aware learning assistant). koala is a new online learning platform that comes back to internet sources. symmetrical and acentric, koala combines analyzes from the digital humanities and answers to the challenges of education in the st century. keywords: computer environments, lms, human values, digital support, teaching and learning. research area: psychology; pedagogy. citation: nowakowski, s., bernard, g. ( ). from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and teaching. j. sib. fed. univ. humanit. soc. sci., ( ), – . doi: . / – – . introduction “it’s our dreams that turn us from machines into full-fledged human beings.” k. dick why this quote? it is from one of philip k. dick’s last lectures, you know k. dick, you have certainly seen minority report, blade runner (obviously the version), © siberian federal university. all rights reserved * corresponding author e-mail address: samuel.nowakowski@univ-lorraine.fr; ippssfu@mail.ru this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international license (cc by-nc . ). – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… total recall, … in his end-of-life lectures, k. dick poses the question of the place of man and technology, of what makes us human beings. in this world of technology, this question is central today — not to ask it, it is to take the risk of entrusting to the machines our capacity to decide, to think, … our humanity … and without possible turning back (dick, )! first, a little digression! with a book entitled “how do forests think?” “as we settled down to sleep under the thatch of our hunting camp on the foothills of the sumaco volcano, juanicu warned me, ‘sleep on your back!’ if a jaguar comes, he will see that you can look back and he will not bother you. if you sleep on your stomach, he’ll think you’re aicha, a prey or literally meat in quichua and he’ll attack you” (kohn, ). “he said that if a jaguar sees you as a being able to look at him in return — a self like him, a you — he will leave you alone. but if he came to see you as a prey — one of them — you could end up dead meat. the way other beings see us is important. […] and more especially and more strongly in a world in which digital interfaces, dematerialization, automation, so-called tools of artificial intelligence aim to distance the human or eliminate the relationship with humans! the way other beings see us is important. what would happen if we took the full measure of this idea? how would this affect our understanding of society, culture, and the world we inhabit? how does this affect our understanding of the human, since in this world beyond the human, we sometimes find things that we prefer to attribute only to ourselves? why tell you this? because the question that animates me and must animate us today is what we are going to do with all the tools, more and more powerful, that we are developing. recall with plato or bernard stiegler, that any tool is a pharmakos, both remedy and poison, emancipator and destroyer, and our powerful tools from the digital do not escape! destroyers, these tools are, i want for proof their ecological impact. to take a concrete example, each consultation of a web page results in the emission of g of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and the consumption of centilitres of water. globally, the internet is a th continent that “weighs” annually twh of energy, million tons of greenhouse gases and . billion cubic meters of fresh water. about times the footprint of france! in addition to being colossal, the environmental impacts of digital are multiple: depletion of non-renewable natural resources, pollution of the air, water and soil inducing health impacts contributing to the destruction of ecosystems and biodiversity, emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change, etc. and they reinforce – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… each other. it is therefore essential to adopt a multi- criteria approach when studying these impacts and not to limit oneself to a single environmental indicator. these environmental impacts occur at each stage of the life cycle. but they are concentrated especially in the manufacture of equipment and their end of life. it is therefore essential to extend the active life of equipment by promoting their reuse and by pushing the inevitable stage of recycling as much as possible. it is therefore essential to put the human in the center! not to subordinate the intelligence to the tools, and not to forget it in the implementation of our tools. humanity and digital human beings obviously have genius to design, manufacture and use tools. our innate talent for technological invention is one of the main qualities that distinguish our species from others and one of the main reasons why we have taken such a hold on the planet and its destiny. but if our ability to see the world as a raw material, something we can alter and manipulate as we please, gives us tremendous power, it also carries great risks. the first risk is that we ourselves become a technical instrument, optimized and programmed, a technology among the others. the anxiety of seeing machines attack our humanity is as old as the machines themselves. max weber and martin heidegger have described how a narrow and instrumentalist vision of existence influences our understanding of ourselves and shapes the kind of societies we create. with our smartphones and other digital devices ubiquitous, most of us are permanently connected to the computer network (internet live stats, ). the companies that control the network seek to know as much as possible about the users to control their senses until their thoughts through the applications, sites and services that they “propose”. at the same time, the proliferation of connected objects, networked machines and devices, from home to workplaces always immerses us in computer environments designed to anticipate our needs (une rentree pour tout changer, ). there are of course many advantages to an existence more and more mediatized. many activities, once difficult or lengthy, have become easier, requiring less effort and reflection, and the risk of losing, if we are not careful, our ability to act on our own in the world. however, by transferring the initiative to computers and software, we give control of our desires and decisions to programmers and the companies that employ them. already, many people rely on computer programs to choose which movie to watch, which meal to cook, which news to follow, even which person to meet! – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… why think when you can click? by giving such choices to strangers, we inevitably open ourselves to manipulation. since the design and operation of algorithms is almost always hidden from us, it can be difficult, if not impossible, to know whether the choice made on our behalf reflects our own interests or those of corporations, governments or other third parties. we want to believe that technology strengthens our control over our lives and circumstances, but if it is used without consideration, technology is just as likely to turn us into puppets of those who master and deploy these technologies (zamiatine, ). thomas hughes’ “technological impetus” is a powerful force, and opposing this force becomes possible when we have a keen awareness of how technologies are designed and used. if we do not accept this responsibility, we risk going from creator to creature status. what will become of us when we install the externalization of the calculus in “rational” machines in a will to get rid of the uncertainties of the human “reason” which is fallible, unpredictable, submissive, subject to the feelings. this reduction of human contingencies to sequential protocols makes it possible to associate economic rationality with algorithmic rationality. philip k. dick expresses it very well: “to become […], for want of a more appropriate term, […] an android, [which] means, […] to be transformed into an instrument, to let oneself be crushed, manipulate, become an instrument without his knowledge or consent — it’s the same thing. but you cannot turn a human into an android if that human tends to break the law whenever he has the opportunity. androïdization requires obedience. and, above all, predictability. it is precisely when the reaction of a given person to a given situation can be predicted with scientific precision that the doors to the trojan horse are opened wide. for what purpose would a flashlight be if, when the button is pressed, the bulb only comes on once in a while? every machine must walk without firing to be reliable. the android, like any other machine, must walk on the finger and the eye (dick, ).” it would then be “like ray bradbury’s story in which a los angeles man discovers in horror that the police car chasing him has no driver — and that he pursues it of his own accord! what is frankly horrible is not that the car has its own tropism in pursuing the protagonist, but it is the fact that inside the car there is a void. an empty place. the absence of something vital — that is what is horrible! “the person, once gone, cannot be replaced in any way. whatever our feelings about her, we cannot do without them. and once gone, nothing can make her come back. what’s more, if this person is turned into an android, she will never come back to the human state either (dick, ).” – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… what is the human in a world increasingly machinized? what crossroads where to decide alone the path to take at the expense of the dream promise of the other way? remember that there is never “too much human” in a world of dehumanized multitudes. so how to find a way out? find a way out let’s take these words from etienne klein. “it’s not because there are frogs after the rain that we have the right to say that it’s raining frogs”. but why? because today, big data is erected as a means to access the ultimate knowledge! indeed, learning analytics in prediction, profiling in artificial intelligence, to profile, to induce from behavioral regularities, to model consumer behaviors, to identify regularities, we infer laws that we consider as general or even universal then even that they are only the digest of what has already been given! whereas only human thought alone can predict the existence of new dimensions of reality! let’s take a few examples! it is not thanks to big data but thanks to the equations of particle physics that we have been able to predict the existence of the higgs boson and allow its detection in ! it is not thanks to big data but thanks to the equations of gravitation that we have been able to predict the gravitational waves that were detected in , a century after their prediction by the general relativity formulated in by einstein. thus, the thought it alone makes it possible to go beyond the limits of the observable world, the empirical world, the world as it is given to us. thought cannot be dissociated from our nature of being situated and experimenting. the most demonstrative example is that of einstein who proceeded by “thought experiment”, that is to say by experiments capable of keeping the empirical world at a distance and prolonging, in a sort of elsewhere, the implications of a theory: what would happen in this or that situation that i can imagine, if this physical law was really accurate? what would the equations say if they could talk? big data is obviously a fantastic opportunity but may lead us to look only at correlations between the data that are available, or a correlation is not the same as a cause-and-effect relationship. the moral of this beautiful story is that a theory allows to emerge new data but the reciprocal is not true. data does not always make it possible to bring out a theory leading to understanding. so, to all the data gurus, to all who think to read our future in the marc of the algorithms, remember that without the thought in action, nothing – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… that you set up as new gods would exist! that mechanical intelligence, programmed, calculated, is in no way comparable to human intelligence. collecting and processing masses of data, to act intelligences cannot replace this ability of human thought to go beyond frames, to look beyond the hill blocking the horizon. a question of education — towards a reinvention? the understanding of all this necessarily involves learning, listening to nature and others (“we always learn alone but never without others” philippe carré). as science is the most effective method we have found to understand the world and the democratic modes that are the best way we have found to organize the collective decision- making process, education must be based on tolerance, debate, rationality, the search for common ideas, learning, listening to the opposite point of view, awareness of the relativity of its place in the world. in order to be aware that we can be wrong, to retain the possibility of changing our mind when we are convinced by an argument, and to recognize that views opposed to ours could prevail. every step forward in the scientific understanding of the world is also a transgression from what was happening before. so scientific thought always has something subversive, volutionary (a term that i borrow from alain damasio because a revolution always returns to the point of departure). whenever we redraw the world, we change the very grammar of our thoughts, the frame of our representation of reality. to be open to knowledge is to be open to the subversive. unfortunately, in school, on the contrary, science is often taught as a list of “established facts” and “laws” or as a problem- solving training. this way of teaching betrays the very nature of scientific thought (le guin, ). we must teach critical thinking, not the respect of textbooks. we must invite students to question preconceptions and teachers, not blindly believe them. science and thought must lead us to recognize our ignorance, and that in “others” there is more to learn than to dread. that the truth is to be sought in a process of exchange, and not in the certainties or the common conviction that “we are the best”. teaching must therefore be the teaching of doubt and wonder and we must be careful to put our tools at its service. – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… reinventing education? towards openness, the participative, the agile, the connected and the human martin luther king said in his sermon pronounced in new york on april , : “when machines, computers and the quest for profit are more important than people, the fatal triptych of materialism, militarism and racism is invincible.” what is more premonitory than such information? half a century away from a world in which the machine and materialism have never been so overwhelming! so, me too, in this present, in france today, i have a dream! i dream of a society in which industry, economy, democracy, education will be conceived in symbiosis. i dream to see people living in green cities, planted with bamboo oases that will purify the waters and produce biomass for a local industry and adapted to the needs. participatory workshops or fablabs will allow everyone to upgrade their skills, learn, learn to learn and accompany, to repair objects rather than replace them, to produce what is needed without passing by massive industrialization. i dream of a society in which we will have fewer objects. i dream of a measured and intelligent use of the internet, an internet whose resources will be relocated, adapted to the needs, an internet which will allow to share vehicles, various tools and any device with intermittent uses. i dream of a digital resource that will be local, “populated by artificial intelligences” accompanying, adaptable and benevolent. i dream of a sustainable internet, responsible and respectful of humans, life and the earth. i dream of a company where to rent phones and computers rather than buy them, will encourage builders not to promote planned obsolescence. a society in which the bulk of the goods would be made from recyclable materials, all within a circular economy. i dream of a society that can reduce, reuse, recycle, repair, rent, share in a logic of interconnectivity and preservation of diversity, diversity fostered by the education of a conscious citizen, enlightened, responsible and able to reject the clutches of silicon valley engineers, advertisers, media directors who seek to make them more vulnerable, impressionable and receptors of standardized thinking. so, i dream of a school where, from their early years, children are taught co- operation, in addition to mathematics, the digital humanities in addition to grammar and history, the art of communicating better with others express their needs and resolve conflicts instead of competition and coercion. i dream of an education that accompanies throughout life the citizen in his understanding of digital and its issues. i dream of a school that supports the construction of a digital culture accessible to all by facing the difficulty of the uses that have become – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… part of our professional and personal lives. i dream of a school that, beyond familiarity, recall the foundations of the digital sciences and human sciences. so, at a time when we agree on the importance for every citizen to have a critical spirit to escape all forms of obscurantism, i dream of a school that gives the keys to understanding issues related to digital, to avoid falling into a too angelic or too demonizing vision of the contributions of digital. i dream answers, tracks, alternative ways. i dream with ivan illich of a convivial society “which gives to man the possibility of exercising the most autonomous and creative action, using tools less controllable by others. productivity is conjugated in terms of having, usability in terms of being” (illich, ). i dream of a universe-city, imagining a friendly university society open to all and without distinction of sexes, ages and origins. i dream of a world in which one considers with deleuze, that “[…] to make your questions, [it must be] with elements coming from everywhere, from anywhere”. i dream of thinking of the actions that will create the conditions for the inclusion of the university in the city, a connected university, which makes it possible to “think, in things, among things, [that makes it possible] to make rhizome, and not root”. a university that “grows between and among other things (deleuze, parnet, )”. i dream of a universe-city that grows where you do not expect, interstices. i dream of doing universe-city, of working “from” and not “on the side”, of working from society, of these issues, of the needs and expectations of students, and not “beside” stakes of the beginning of the st century. it is careful not to “substitute the awakening of education for the awakening of knowledge” so as not to “stifle in man the poet, [and] freeze his power to give meaning to the world”. i dream of the university as an active part of the city to welcome, give a place, guide, accompany the student. i dream the universe-city open on the city, which give a role to the student by adapting and accompanying the project of all to the city. to universe-city is to consider that the learning and the construction of the personal and professional project does not take place only in formal teachings but, in a university involved in the city, in which a true university citizenship apply. to universe-city is to be free, not to live in a flock by thinking yourself free! to universe-city is to give the conditions for the emancipation of the individual! so my idea for france is to dare the universe-city to remember that people more important than “machines, computers and the quest for profit”! – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… our answer in a digital learning platform our answer is called koala, for “knowledge aware learning assistant”. based on the observations above, in the idea of giving meaning to the action of each, we make ours the statement of van jacobson in , “how to kill internet?” it’s easy, just invent the web. the educational platforms are not immune to this. we sought to introduce a new logic of definition of the authority, the states and the exchanges of roles between the actors of the educational act. our guiding principle is to work on the notion of commitment to all by proposing a space that facilitates commitment by enabling cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement, social engagement and emotional engagement. the goal is then to lead to emancipation, the re-enchantment of the educational act and the well-being in learning and teaching (smolyaninova, ovchinnikov, ). based on these observations and on the experience of previous projects and the challenges of the early st century of a learning society, we have developed a new platform that allows us to return to the sources of the internet. koala is a space for facilitating engagement by installing a new dynamic of the occupation of the learning and teaching space. koala will promote accessibility, continuity and porosity where the other platforms enclose. we thus have a vision that goes from centric to a-centered, from a-symmetrical to symmetrical. koala leaves a place on the periphery and puts another approach to the authority. access to educational resources, the realization of learning activities, the exercise of the educational relationship is built within the spaces that everyone fig. . koala-lms (learning management system) is now at the following address: https://www.koala-lms.org/fr/ – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… wants to invest, and that it will appropriate in its own way. koala is thus a living space that guarantees socially and physically situated actions. it promotes an action that fits in a lived and proxemic space and redefines the articulation between private / individual and the collective at the level of each user. moreover, koala authorizes the indeterminacy of the conditions of realization of an action: invention, freedom, autonomy, capacitive environment and potential of situation. in order to provide an answer to our questions, koala thus opens up a renewed approach to digital support that allows us to integrate the recommendation of content adapted to the needs, contexts, objectives of learning and training of each according to its needs. koala is then an ecology of the learning experience (fig. ). conclusion you know the story dr. frankenstein. dr. frankenstein “makes” a man, he “manufactures” it. an act so frightening that he himself abandons this creature who has no name. the monster as we call it, is monster because it is both similar to us and so different. the monster is therefore a creature who will make his education alone but will sink into violence when the abandonment of its creator will be combined with the stupidity of men. but what a foolish enterprise to want to make a human! yet this is what we strive for each time we want to “build a subject by adding knowledge,” or “make a student stacking knowledge.” we all want, more or less, to “do something with someone” after “doing something”. but like dr. frankenstein, we do not always quite understand what “something” and “someone” is, it’s not quite the same and we often do not know that this confusion condemns us, despite all the goodwill we can deploy, to failure, to conflict, to suffering, and sometimes even to misfortune. and in this world of connected machines, so-called “intelligent machines,” “the question of what it means to be human in the face of machines is no longer so trivial. we should not be so afraid of robots as we are afraid of becoming robots ourselves. we need to introduce human values into technology rather than technology introducing its values into our humanity. for this, one must be able to measure when a technology is dehumanizing or when humans do not think or behave in humans” (meirieu, ). in addition, today, some voices are raised, relayed by the higher authorities of power to say that learning can be explained only through measurable and optimizable mechanisms, by a procedural decomposability optimizable and modelable, by an – – samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… approach to optimal control of learning and especially forgetting the child as a human becoming and evacuating the political dimension of choices in terms of education. education is not just a process to be optimized. education is a social milieu, education is a political project of elaboration of society. what are we? a brain only, or a complex complex in perpetual construction who’s learning. to educate is not to manufacture! to educate is not to equip, to educate it is perhaps there in a few words in this text of the comité invisible: “do not wait anymore, do not hope anymore. do not be distracted anymore, unseat. breaking. return the lie to the ropes. believe in what we feel. act in consequence. force the door of the present. try. miss. to try again. to miss better. be proactive. attack. build. defeat, perhaps. in any case, overcome. go his way. live, then. now.” adopt koala, and join the experience! references deleuze, g., parnet, c. ( ). dialogues. in flammarion. p. dick, p.k. ( ). if this world displeases you … and other tests [si ce monde vous déplaît… et autres essais]. in eclat eds de l’. illich, i. ( ). convivality. chapter ii. internet live stats ( ). available at https://www.internetlivestats.com/ (accessed july ). koala-lms ( ). available at: https://www.koala-lms.org/fr/ (accessed july ). kohn, e. ( ). how forests think [comment pensent les forêts]. in editions zones sensibles. le guin, u. ( ). the dispossessed [les dépossédés]. in robert laffont. p. meirieu, p. ( ). frankenstein pedagogue [frankenstein pédagogue]. in editions sociales françaises. samuel nowakowski, guillaume bernard. from digital humanities to a renewed approach to digital learning and… smolyaninova, o., ovchinnikov, v. ( ). university electronic library for human resources development in siberia: school content. in th europen conference on elearning (ecel ), – . une rentree pour tout changer [a return to change everything] ( ). available at http://multimedia.ademe.fr/infographies/infographie- travail-ademe-logo- qqf/ (accessed july ). zamiatine, e. ( ). we [nous autres]. gallimard. p. От цифровых технологий к обновленному подходу в сфере цифрового обучения Самуэль Новаковски и Гильом Бернард Университет Лотарингии Франция, Нанси, , Лориа umr Мы живем в мире, где цифровые интерфейсы, дематериализация, автоматизация и так называемые инструменты искусственного интеллекта стремятся свести к ми- нимуму взаимоотношения между людьми. Но ведь то, как нас видят другие существа, очень важно. Что будет, если мы в полной мере осознаем эту идею? Как она повлияет на наше понимание общества, культуры и мира, в котором мы живем? Как изменится восприятие нами человека, тем более что в этом мире за пределами человеческого мы иногда находим то, что предпочита- ем приписывать только себе? Что влияет на образование, обучение, преподавание? Изучив очерченную этими вопросами область, мы дадим ответ: koala (knowledge aware learning assistant). Это новая образовательная онлайн- платформа, которая отсылает к интернет- источникам. Будучи симметричной и ацентрической, koala ведет анализ цифровых материалов в сфере гуманитарных наук и дает ответы на вы- зовы образованию в xxi веке. Ключевые слова: компьютерная среда, СДО, человеческие ценности, цифровая под- держка, преподавание и обучение. Научная специальность: . . — психологические науки; . . — педагогические науки. volume issue / c o m p u t e r v i s i o n a n d t h e d i g i ta l h u m a n i t i e s a d a p t i n g i m a g e p r o c e s s i n g a l g o r i t h m s a n d g r o u n d t r u t h t h r o u g h a c t i v e l e a r n i n g christoph musik st. pölten university of applied sciences institute of media economics matthias corvinus-straße st. pölten austria christoph.musik@fhstp.ac.at matthias zeppelzauer st. pölten university of applied sciences institute of creative media technologies media computing research group matthias corvinus-straße st. pölten austria matthias.zeppelzauer@fhstp.ac.at abstract: automated computer vision methods and tools offer new ways of analysing audio-visual material in the realm of the digital humanities (dh). while there are some promising results where these tools can be applied, there are basic challenges, such as algorithmic bias and the lack of sufficient transparency, one needs to carefully use these tools in a productive and responsible way. when it comes to the socio-technical understanding of computer vision tools and methods, a major unit of sociological analysis, attentiveness, and access for configuration (for both computer vision scientists and dh scholars) is what computer science calls “ground truth”. what is specified in the ground truth is the template or rule to follow, e.g. what an object looks like. this article aims at providing scholars in the dh with knowledge about how automated tools for image analysis work and how they are constructed. based on these insights, the paper introduces an approach called “active learning” that can help to configure these tools in ways that fit the specific requirements and research questions of the dh in a more adaptive and user-centered way. we argue that both objectives need to be addressed, as this is, by all means, necessary for a successful implementation of computer vision tools in the dh and related fields. keywords: digital humanities, computer vision, image understanding, machine learning, ground truth generation, explainable artificial intelligence, active learning mailto: christoph.musik@fhstp.ac.at mailto: matthias.zeppelzauer@fhstp.ac.at c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities i n t r o d u c t i o n with the constantly growing amount of visual and audiovisual data, the automated and computer-assisted analysis gains more and more attention. automated computer vision tools that are based on image processing algorithms (ipas) offer new ways of analysing audio-visual material in the realm of digital humanities (dh) and also in digital social sciences. while there are some promising results where cv tools can be applied and are used in dh and beyond , there are basic challenges one needs to carefully deal with in order to use these tools in a productive and responsible way. for instance, heftberger reported that “whenever semantics (image content) comes in, software is not able to detect and annotate it” automatically. a combination of manual and automated annotation and analysis is proposed. other challenges are algorithmic bias and its implications, or, the lack of transparency of algorithmic decision-making. when it comes to the socio-technical understanding of ipas and how different kinds of these operatively work in automated computer vision tools, a major unit of sociological analysis, attentiveness, and access for configuration (for both computer vision scientists and dh scholars) is what computer science calls ground truth. in short, we define ground truth as an interpretation template that instructs the automated decision of ipas and computer vision tools during learning. what is specified in the ground truth is the template or rule to follow, e.g. what an object looks like, where an object is located and which area of the image it covers. this paper brings to the fore the sociotechnical construction and basic modes of operation of ipas and their ground truths in order to understand and work on computer vision tools and their relation to the dh in an interdisciplinary manner. this article aims at, firstly, providing scholars in the dh with knowledge about how automated tools for image analysis work and how they are constructed, i.e. in the words of bruno latour we try to open up the black box of computer vision tools. secondly, based on these insights, the paper proposes an approach to configure these tools in ways that fit the specific requirements and research questions of the dh in a more adaptive and user-centered way. this especially refers to the approach of active learning and takes up discussions and challenges of explainable artificial intelligence (xai) , . we argue that both objectives need to be addressed, as this is, by all means, necessary for a successful implementation of computer vision tools in the dh and related fields. one reason for this is the narrow, inflexible and opaque nature of ready-made and off-the-shelf available computer vision tools, which may restrict their application in the context of dh and may further introduce unwanted bias in the analysis. this contribution represents a position and conceptual paper aiming at both a critical understanding of computer vision tools in their application in the dh and based on this, a constructive approach of how to apply computer vision in the dh in a more meaningful and responsible way. these two objectives are closely linked and do not contradict each other as they both address limitations and opportunities. it is a call neither simply for nor against the deployment of computer vision in the dh but a proposal for how it should be involved in a nuanced and reflexive way. the paper and its objectives are the outcome of the previous experience of the authors (a social scientist specialised in science and technology studies (sts) and media sociology, and a computer vision researcher) in interdisciplinary research at the interface between computer vision and different dh areas. in this regard both refer to practical work and empirical projects where they either worked on or analysed computer vision, ipas and ground truth construction. in the following, we first elaborate on the wider sociotechnical developments as well as debates framing the involvement of this paper. this refers to the age of visual big data and the social power of algorithms. in a second step, we provide methodological background information on the practical work and empirical ethnographic research maia zaharieva, dalibor mitrovic, matthias zeppelzauer, and christian breiteneder, ‘film analysis of archive documentaries.’ ieee multimedia, , , , pp. - . adelheid heftberger, ‘do computers dream of cinema? film data for computer analysis and visualisation’, in david m. berry, ed, understanding digital humanities, , p. . bruno latour, pandora’s hope: essays on the reality of science studies, harvard university press, , p. . bernard, j., hutter, m., zeppelzauer, fellner, d., sedlmair, m. ( ) comparing visual-interactive labeling with active learning: an experimental study. ieee transactions on visualization and computer graphics (tvcg), : ( - ), doi: . /tvcg. . , issn: - . tim miller, ‘explanation in artificial intelligence: insights from the social sciences.’ artificial intelligence, , , pp. – . amina adadi and mohammed berrada ( ). peeking inside the black-box: a survey on explainable artificial intelligence (xai). ieee access, , , pp. – . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities that shaped our position and thereby this conceptual paper. this also includes the example of automatic visual ‘fall detection’ that we focus on at the end of the main part of the paper. furthermore, we discuss different conceptual and basic levels of computer vision, including questions of difference between computer and human vision, and, visual expertise. following this, we address the sociotechnical construction of ground truth and its implications for the dh. this part completes with a discussion of algorithmic bias and error and of how this issue can be dealt with. in the final part of the paper, we propose an approach enabling user participation in the construction of ground truth and highlight the importance of explainable artificial intelligence in this context. t h e a g e o f v i s u a l b i g d a t a a n d t h e s o c i a l p o w e r o f a l g o r i t h m s in recent years, there has been a worldwide explosion of visual and audiovisual data. these data come from various sources such as images and video clips on social sharing sites (e.g. instagram or youtube), films and series on video-on-demand streaming platforms (e.g. netflix), live coverage on over-the-top services (e.g. dazn), a multiplicity of new digital linear television channels, and the digitalisation of analogue and historic moving image (e.g. film collections). there is no doubt that with the beginning of this decade we started living in the “age of big data”. for example, in an article published in (feb , “mining an information explosion”) the new york times officially welcomed this new age. the welcome call referred to the constantly growing amount of data and stated, quoting an estimation by idc, a technology research firm, that data is currently growing at percent a year, or doubling every two years. the most recent idc white paper on the data age , sponsored by the us data storage company seagate, estimates the amount of worldwide data to be , zb (that is bytes). idc forecasts see the amount of data growing up to zettabytes by . it is important to note that this data explosion is predominantly visual, with data deriving from various sources such as images, videos, and surveillance streams, with the moving image being in pole position when it comes to the quantity of global data. we thus live in the age of “visual big data”. idc estimates a constant growth of both entertainment data (image and video content created or consumed for entertainment purposes) and non-entertainment data (image and video content for non-entertainment purposes, such as video surveillance footage or advertising). figure . data creation by type. there is a strong pre-dominance of visual data (source: idc’s data age study). david reinsel, john gantz, and john rydning, ‘data age : the evolution of data to life-critical,’ an idc white paper, sponsored by seagate, april , https://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/our-story/trends/files/seagate-wp-dataage -march- .pdf https://www.instagram.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.netflix.com/ https://www.dazn.com/ https://www.nytimes.com/ https://www.idc.com/ https://www.seagate.com/ https://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/our-story/trends/files/seagate-wp-dataage -march- .pdf c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities the great quantity of (audio)visual data and its constant growth implies that coping with, and making sense of data, is not limited to numbers and textual data but does most of all refer to visual data. against this background, image processing algorithms (ipas) implemented in computer vision tools for automated image analysis and understanding are essential in making sense of this ever-growing amount of visual data. ipas can be considered as the basic technology behind all approaches that deal with the automatisation of analysing and understanding visual materials on different levels . since more and more scholars in the dh work with automated computer vision tools such as cinemetrics and videana, ipas are becoming increasingly more powerful societal actors in this regard . thus, it is important to understand exactly and reflect carefully on the production, processing, and interpretation of (digital) images by algorithms on a broader scope and not exclusively in the realm of computer sciences. algorithms challenge traditional human approaches of analysis in the humanities and other scientific disciplines as they provide a new perspective to the investigated problems and data as well as a new knowledge logic . this logic depends very much on the “proceduralized choices of a machine, designed by human operators to automate some proxy of human judgement or unearth patterns across collected social traces” . according to gillespie, this logic is competing with the ‘editorial logic’ in which the subjective choices of trained and certified experts (e.g. registrars, researchers) are dominant. the following questions remain: how do algorithms choose information? how do they select and “know”? how do they “see”? and, is there actually a difference between the ‘algorithmic logic’ and the ‘editorial logic’? the amount of (critical) literature regarding the role of algorithms in recent years in the fields of social sciences and humanities keeps growing constantly (see for example on “the ethics of algorithms” mittelstadt et al. , on the “ethics and politics of algorithms” matzner , or, on “algorithms as culture” seaver ). there is, however, a gap in critical literature reflecting on this topic and its relation to the dh from an interdisciplinary perspective. n o t e s o n m e t h o d s , m a t e r i a l s a n d b a c k g r o u n d this conceptual and position paper is the outcome of the research experience of the authors (a social scientist specialised in science and technology studies (sts) and media sociology and a computer vision scientist) in the interdisciplinary engagement on computer vision in the dh. the paper focuses on a conceptual and practical level of computer vision, computer vision tools, and their relation to the dh. this involvement is nevertheless informed by and grounded in different kinds of empirical analyses, case studies and practical interdisciplinary work in the context of computer vision and dh. therefore, we very briefly provide some basic information on the background of the authors and their work. we are well aware that especially ethnographic fieldwork is in need of proper contextualisation and reflection but the framework of this contribution does not allow for accounting this in-depth. the first author analysed the field of computer vision and the matter of ipas in different projects (some of these collaborative interdisciplinary projects) from the standpoint of sts over the course of the last ten years. this means, christoph musik, computers and the ability to see. understanding the negotiation and implementation of image processing algorithms, phd dissertation, university of vienna, . david beer, ‘the social power of algorithms,’ information, communication & society, , , , pp. - . tarleton gillespie, ‘the relevance of algorithms,’ in tarleton gillespie, pablo j. boczkowski, and kirsten a. foot, eds, media technologies. essays on communication, materiality, and society, , p. . tarleton gillespie, ‘the relevance of algorithms,’ in tarleton gillespie, pablo j. boczkowski, and kirsten a. foot, eds, media technologies. essays on communication, materiality, and society, , p. . brent daniel mittelstadt, patrick allo, mariarosaria taddeo, sandra wachter, and luciano floridi, ‘the ethics of algorithms: mapping the debate,’ big data & society, december , pp. - . tobias matzner, ‘grasping the ethics and politics of algorithms,’ in ann rudinow saetnan, ingrid schneider, and nicola green, eds, the politics of big data. big data, big brother?, , pp. - . nick seaver, ‘algorithms as culture: some tactics for the ethnography of algorithmic systems,’ big data & society, december , pp. - . http://www.cinemetrics.lv/ https://www.uni-marburg.de/fb /arbeitsgruppen/verteilte_systeme/forschung/pastproj/videana c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities based on approaches of ‘laboratory studies’ , and in particular on forsythe’s interpretative cultural anthropology approach , both computer scientists’ viewpoints and the everyday techno-scientific practice in computer vision laboratories and its surroundings were analysed by means of ethnographic fieldwork . while the paper at hand is able to also draw on many (formal and informal) interviews and collaborative projects with different computer vision scientists from around the world, the main part of this lab-based fieldwork took place in an austrian computer vision laboratory over a period of two months in . within this period, the first author was able to observe and be involved in the work on so-called automated fall detection. this involvement is the empirical basis for the example presented in the main part of this paper. the second author is a computer vision scientist with long-time experience in developing ipas. a specific focus of his work is the research and application of ipas in interdisciplinary problem settings, e.g. in cooperation with media scholars and film scholars . in previous joint research, we could identify both limitations and potentials of the application of ipas in the dh. from the joint research, we could gather in-depth information about the diverse requirements of researchers in the dh employing computer vision approaches in their research. in this paper, we discuss and elaborate on the basic findings and insights gained of the previous interdisciplinary research and develop ideas of how computer vision can be best integrated in dh research and studies. w h a t d o e s “ s e e i n g ” m e a n ? b e t w e e n c o m p u t e r v i s i o n a n d h u m a n v i s i o n to understand computer vision we need to understand human vision. computer vision and human vision are closely connected and intertwined, which stems from the fact that computer vision tries to imitate human vision. research in sts showed that the boundaries between humans and machines are constant subjects of discussion and negotiation. so are the boundaries between human vision and computer vision. it is crucial to note that questions addressing computer vision are simultaneously always questions addressing human vision, too. to put it briefly, this is because humans are inevitably involved in the design and development of computers that are able to see. but what does “seeing” actually mean? what understandings of seeing, and closely connected to it - recognising - do we have, especially when it comes to teaching computers to achieve sight? is there one universal way of seeing that is easily transferred to machines, or is seeing rather a diverse “situated” and cultural activity that hampers a simple and smooth transformation of this ability? from a sociological point of view, seeing is subject to change, both culturally and historically . in order to emphasise different forms of seeing in the context of artificial intelligence, collins distinguishes a formal (or pattern recognition) bruno latour, and steve woolgar, laboratory life. the construction of scientific facts. sage publications, . karin knorr-cetina, the manufacture of knowledge. an essay on the constructivist and contextual nature of science. pergamon, . diana e. forsythe, ‘engineering knowledge: the construction of knowledge in artificial intelligence,’ social studies of science, , , , pp. - . christoph musik, computers and the ability to see. understanding the negotiation and implementation of image processing algorithms, phd dissertation, university of vienna, . maia zaharieva, dalibor mitrovic, matthias zeppelzauer, and christian breiteneder, ‘film analysis of archive documentaries.’ ieee multimedia, , , , pp. - . matthias zeppelzauer, dalibor mitrovic, and christian breiteneder, ‘archive film material - a novel challenge for automated film analysis’ in catherine grant,ed, frames cinema journal, , . matthias zeppelzauer, maia zaharieva, dalibor mitrovic, and christian breiteneder, ‘retrieval of motion composition in film.’ digital creativity, , , , pp. - . lucy suchman, human-machine reconfigurations. plans and situated actions. nd edition, cambridge university press, , p. . regula valérie burri, and joseph dumit, ‘social studies of scientific imaging and visualization,’ in edward j. hackett, olga amsterdamska, michael lynch, and judy wajcman, eds, the handbook of science and technology studies. third edition. the mit press, , pp. – . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities model of seeing from an enculturational model . the formal model of seeing “involves recognizing what an object really is by detecting its distinguishing characteristics.” the enculturational model of seeing stresses that the same object may be seen as many different things. in this regard, goodwin’s analysis of the so-called ‘king trial’ and the video footage of police violence discussed and transformed in court is a good example for the enculturational model. in the ‘king trial’, four white police officers were charged with beating rodney king, an african-american motorist, who had been stopped for speeding in the us in . the incident had been videotaped (see video “rodney king beating video full length footage screener” below) and for the prosecutor it was clear, objective evidence showing uncontrolled and brutal violence against rodney king. however, the lawyers defending the police officers did not treat the tape as evidence that spoke for itself. rather, they were able to transform the perception of the tape from evidence to “a very disciplined and controlled effort to take mr. king into custody” . with the help of a coding scheme delivered by experts showing how police usually work, a ‘perceptual transformation’ was accomplished. goodwin concludes that “the perspectival framework provided by a professional coding scheme constitutes the objects in the domain of scrutiny that are the focus of attention” . video . “rodney king beating video full length footage screener” w h o i s t h e v i s u a l e x p e r t ? h u m a n v s . m a c h i n e o r : h u m a n a n d m a c h i n e ? reading and analysing audiovisual data in the humanities and in other scientific fields such as the social sciences is first of all about the understanding and interpretation of (moving) images. as such, it is an interesting subject of analysis for the approach of a “sociology of images” . this approach investigates the processes by which (scientific) image interpretation (e.g. what is depicted on an image, painting, x-ray, etc.) is interactively negotiated in social practices. this means that the focus is not only on the images and their content alone but also on the micro-practices and contexts of image production, interpretation and use (e.g. as evidence for an entity). this focus is similar to harry m. collins, tacit and explicit knowlegde. university of chicago press, , p. . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , pp. - . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , p. . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , p. . charles goodwin, ‘professional vision,’ american anthropologist, , , , p. . regula valérie burri, ‘visual rationalities: towards a sociology of images,’ current sociology, , , jan , pp. - . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sb wywiputy c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities what burri and dumit developed in their concept of the social studies of scientific imaging and visualisation (siv) . here, the sociotechnical negotiation of images and their meanings is central, because next to human interpreters and images there is a wide array of technical actors and influencing factors such as different algorithms and parameters (e.g. scale and resolution) involved in the processes of image production, interpretation, and use. what seems to be clear for techno-scientific fields, one example being the interpretation of magnetic resonance imaging (mri), is a rather new aspect when it comes to the dh and its use of computational tools whose influence in and on the analysis is often underestimated. a key question referring to both fields concerns the visual expertise: who is actually able to read images and who is allowed to read them because visual expertise is its own form of literacy and specialisation ? when it comes to the engagement with images, the focus is on the process of making visual data meaningful. this leads to the following questions: how is meaning addressed to images and by whom? are ipas, and if so to what extent, positioned or perceived as visual experts in this regard? these questions can only be answered adequately if we have a clear understanding of how much agency and authority is or can be ascribed to ipas and how these are integrated within sociotechnical assemblages . from our point of view, the question needs to be how human and machine vision can be synchronised in the best possible way, rather than if humans or machines have more visual expertise. a follow-up question is how to combine the mutual strengths of human and computer vision in a way that they attain synergies. c r e a t i n g g r o u n d t r u t h i n c o m p u t e r v i s i o n : i m a g e p r o c e s s i n g a l g o r i t h m s a s g r o u n d t r u t h m a c h i n e s an important observation in the described fieldwork, interviews and also apparent in the practical work in computer science is that a crucial requirement in the development of ipas is the creation of what computer scientists call “ground truth”. ground truth provides the definition of what should be learned by the algorithm, such as categories of objects, behaviour etc., and as such it is a significant societal element as it defines and standardises what is perceived to be real and true in the world. ground truth in this sense is a specific powerful form of an ‘interpretation template’ or even ‘truth template’. it is applied to visual material to analyse it in terms of specific categories of interest (e.g., people, faces, gender, age, facial expressions). thus, subject to its assumed authority, ground truth very much predetermines what people and faces look like, who is male, female, or different, how old people are and even how people might feel. in this sense, ipas are — to refer to the analytic term “truth machines”, introduced by lynch and colleagues in their analysis of the pattern recognition technology of dna fingerprinting — “ground truth machines”, i.e. powerful agents that follow ground truth-specific rules and make them applicable in a large scale to massive amounts of data. in short, ground truth is an essential element for ipas and computer vision. to become familiar with how a machine learning method actually learns different ground truth categories, we invite the reader to train their own classifier and for their own ground-truth categories by using the following online demo tool: https://teachablemachine.withgoogle.com/ major questions in the context of ground-truth are: how is it actually created, and by whom? with a first basic answer being that it is constructed in a sociotechnical way. that is, humans and technology work together. a more elaborated answer that we frame is: it is a process between the application of tacit and explicit knowledge and between specific computational scripts and experimental imaginations. regula valérie burri, and joseph dumit, ‘social studies of scientific imaging and visualization,’ in edward j. hackett, olga amsterdamska, michael lynch, and judy wajcman, eds, the handbook of science and technology studies. third edition. the mit press, , pp. – . regula valérie burri, and joseph dumit, ‘social studies of scientific imaging and visualization,’ in edward j. hackett, olga amsterdamska, michael lynch, and judy wajcman, eds, the handbook of science and technology studies. third edition. the mit press, , p. . lucy suchman, human-machine reconfigurations. plans and situated actions. nd edition, cambridge university press, . cf. the term “truth machines“ in michael lynch, simon cole, ruth mcnally, and kathleen jordan, kathleen, eds, truth machine: the contentious history of dna fingerprinting. university of chicago press, . https://teachablemachine.withgoogle.com/� c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities b e t w e e n t a c i t a n d e x p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e the basic resource for building ground truth is knowledge. a specific ground truth is not there from the beginning. creating ground truth requires existing knowledge about the entity of interest from the people who generate it (usually computer scientists, students or crowd workers). there is no general “truth” from which to start, i.e. the one and only ground truth in the literal sense of the word that one could draw on universally, but a specific “truth” that has to be negotiated and created by humans. that is, by human selection and interpretation, especially the selection of images, semantic content and the context of the given task. the algorithm has to be taught this knowledge therefore it needs to be fed with example data for training purposes. to give an example: if the task is to automatically recognise individual persons from their face (i.e. face recognition), computer scientists need to show the algorithm images of the corresponding persons. in addition, the scientist has to label this particular person with a name. in this case, the face identity represents the ground truth. a further example is to classify scenes shown in images as either indoor or outdoor scenes, a ground truth for image classification needs to be established that labels images into indoor and outdoor scenes. this means, the correct answer—what is indoor/what is outdoor—is provided explicitly in the training phase of the ipa. in this sense, a ground truth represents the correct or true assignment of input data to well-defined and pre-defined classes and concepts of interest they belong to in the real world. the crucial question is: who is actually able to give the correct answer? in our previous interdisciplinary research, we have observed different ways to obtain ground truth data. one way is to generate it automatically together with the data, e.g. if synthetic test data is employed. sometimes ground truth is already available, e.g. from previous manual investigations and it only needs to be converted into a machine-readable format. however, in most cases ground truth needs to be generated manually by annotating the corresponding objects of interest. this process of manual ground truth generation is often referred to as “annotation”, a process posing several challenges. annotating image data is a complex and time-consuming process that in the everyday practice of computer vision is a compulsory basic task. taking these characteristics into consideration, it is often the case that students or interns annotate images. sometimes this task is also outsourced to a crowd of people (crowdsourcing). this practice is particularly common in situations where computer scientists assume that no special expert knowledge is required to assign the classes or concepts of interest to the data. this form of “what everybody knows knowledge” corresponds to rather more informal, fluent and changing forms of knowledge that are called ‘tacit’ , or ‘non-explicit’ knowledge. an example from fieldwork observation is as follows: the ability to recognise whether something is machine written or hand written might be clear for most literate people that are used to both types of writing. there might also be tacit agreement about this recognition task, suggesting that expert knowledge for this specific recognition task would not be needed. the ability to recognise and differentiate between machine written and hand written texts does not appear as something specific, but as something self-evident (“what everybody knows”). another example for “what everybody knows knowledge“ might be gender recognition. as long as we assume that there is a clear distinction between male and female persons in a binary gender system, this task is indeed a matter of everyday tacit knowledge. however, as soon as this binary system is challenged by more elaborate systems of gender categories or any other form of disruption (e.g. masquerade in carnival), it might become a task for experts in gender recognition (e.g. human ethologists) or even an infeasible task. finally, in most cases the developing computer scientists have to make the decision whether to consult experts of a specific field (and if so, what kind). in any case, in theory there is need to use consistent annotation vocabulary and an annotation protocol must be defined which provides a detailed and explicit guide to the annotating person. the annotation protocol defines the classes or a taxonomy of classes, their corresponding labels, categories, characteristics, and their relationships. however, in practice—and this is a crucial point — different classes and concepts are often ambiguous and assessed diana e. forsythe, ‘engineering knowledge: the construction of knowledge in artificial intelligence,’ social studies of science, , , , p. . michael polanyi, the tacit dimension, doubleday & co, . harry m. collins, tacit and explicit knowlegde. university of chicago press, . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities subjectively by annotators due to cultural influences, different background knowledge and interpretation. especially for concepts with a certain level of semantic complexity, ambiguities in interpretation arise. an example stemming from previous research in the dh are scenes in a film . the segmentation of a film into scenes allows for different possible interpretations because there is no unique definition of a “scene” that covers all possible types of scenes that may occur in films and thus the boundaries between scenes can often not be clearly defined. furthermore, even for much simpler concepts, such as shot cuts which have low semantic complexity, ambiguities have been reported when it comes to concrete annotations . the major challenge in the creation of an annotation protocol is the specification of well-defined distinct classes or—sociologically speaking—“islands of meaning” to avoid ambiguities. in addition, experience has shown that it is beneficial for the process of ground truth generation to allow for annotators to highlight ambiguous cases with a predetermined label instead of forcing them to decide for one of the pre-defined categories. this approach helps to identify unclear cases, ambiguities and inaccurate definitions of categories early in the process and thereby fosters knowledge gain. b e t w e e n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l s c r i p t a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l i m a g i n a t i o n while still most computational tools used in the dh operate on a low-level (e.g. shot cut detection ) or mid-level of semantic complexity (e.g. gender recognition), a challenge for future tasks is the visual analysis at higher levels of semantic complexity. on this level, relations of objects and more complex actions of these objects need to be interpreted automatically . the human power of imagination generates an unlimited array of possible tasks to recognise automatically, such as the automated recognition of same-sex couples and their representation in films, the analysis of gait velocity in order to measure the historic development of acceleration in tv-series, or the recognition of kissing and killing and their relation in hollywood blockbusters. nevertheless, there might be limits to the realisation of automating these. on the one hand, these limits relate to the computational script. the computational script refers to the question of what can be realised with specific computer vision solutions and how does technology influence, restrict and prescribe the creation of a ground truth. on the other hand, these limits connect to the narrow universalisation of specific domains. every algorithm emerges in a specific context at a specific place and at a specific point of time. in addition to this, many ipas and therefore many ground truths are custom-made for specific tasks and data. a simple transfer to other contexts is often not possible without loss of scope or depth or this transfer might even create forms of bias. a simple process of universalisation is at least questionable. to demonstrate this and possible implications, we bring in the example of creating a ground truth for the task of automatically recognising the fall of people (that was observed during ethnographic fieldwork of the first author). the fall of persons might be a result of different events, such as being killed in a violent act or losing one’s balance as it frequently is the case with elderly people in their homes. while the latter is connected to environments of “ambient assisted living” (aal) and in-house surveillance cameras or visual sensors, the challenge remains the same once an ipa needs to recognise falls of people in the context of killing events. both scenarios make use of visual content for a similar type of action (i.e. falls). in the case of automated fall detection of elderly people in private homes, a challenge for computer vision is to differentiate between critical falls, which need emergency assistance, and other uncritical mitrovic dalibor, stefan hartlieb, matthias zeppelzauer, and maia zaharieva, ‘scene segmentation in artistic archive documentaries.’ hci in work and learning, life and leisure, lncs, , , pp. - , springer, berlin/heidelberg. anton fuxjäger, ‘wenn filmwissenschaftler versuchen sich maschinen verständlich zu machen - zur mangelden operationalisierbarkeit des begriffs “einstellung” für die filmanalyse,’ maske und kothurn, , . eviatar zerubavel, ‘lumping and splitting: notes on social classification,’ sociological forum, , , , pp. - . matthias zeppelzauer, dalibor mitrovic, and christian breiteneder, ‘analysis of historical artistic documentaries,’ in proceedings of the th international workshop on image analysis for multimedia interactive services, klagenfurt, austria, , pp. - . pavan turaga, rama chellappa,r., v.s. subrahmanian, and octavian udrea, ‘machine recognition of human activities: a survey,’ in ieee transactions on circuits and systems for video technology, vol. , no. , nov. , pp. - . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities actions, such as bending forward or lying down on a bed or couch for resting. this means, while the physical process of falling might look similar in many different cases, there is a wide array of what this physical process really means (e.g. critical fall or a part of lying down for taking a rest). in the aal case of elderly people falling in their homes, ground truth was constructed within the framework of the computational script of a microsoft xbox kinect sensor as well as through the ingenuity and creativity of the researcher in de-scripting , rewriting and making use of this specific hardware-software-data assemblage. the researchers used a kinect sensor because at that time it was considered a keenly priced and affordable hardware and to keep down future prices of an imagined commercial system. next to the relatively low price, the kinect sensor also had the advantage of delivering d information using a depth sensor, meaning it was possible to estimate distances. it was further privacy enhancing, since in depth images individual persons can hardly be recognised as only the body shape is outlined. the kinect sensor promised several advantages for the researchers in this specific case but in order to benefit from these it was necessary to first understand and then “de-script” its specific characteristics. so all that followed in the research process took place within this specific script of the kinect sensor. as such, the existing product microsoft xbox kinect and its configuration was “inscribed” into the ground truth and thereby implicitly into the entire process of fall detection. this strong dependency on a specific hardware and type of data (depth images) makes the approach specific to the problem at hand but hinders its application to other fall detection problems, for example fall detection in films. even if there is a solution to tackle the transformation problem of kinect d input data to d video data, the respective ground truth would hardly be transferable to the other problem because the nature of the falls, their visual appearance and the contextual embedding is different. the adaption of an algorithm to a certain problem always introduces bias with respect to the data and the targeted task. the other fundamental element observed in the construction of ground truth was an experimental investigation into the dynamics of falling within the context of aal environments as there was no substantial or applicable knowledge or even images or videos available of “real” or “realistic” falls of elderly people and thereby a lack of suitable training data. consequently, it was a matter of experimental imagination how “real” or “realistic” falls of elderly people look like. as there were no training sequences showing real falls of elderly people, the training sequences had to be created synthetically by the young computer scientists (by filming them simulating a fall) to train the algorithm. the ground truth was defined within this framework and a mathematical equation was formulated for the detection of falls. this equation was based on the relationship between two central visualized geometric elements; first, the orientation of the floor plane and second, a straight line visually representing the human body (medial axis) in the scene. the assumption was that the more similar the orientation of these two elements was, the more likely it was that a fall had occurred. once a specific critical threshold of this relation was reached, a fall was declared to be detected. from this observation can be concluded that ground truth, and connected to it the specific decision rules, should be generated for the specific material to avoid ambiguities as best as possible and to increase the likelihood of a correct detection. similarly, for detecting people in films being killed and hence falling, a specific training dataset and ground truth needs to be established to enable a robust detection. to sum up, the data-centric nature of ipas makes them less generalisable to other type of material or to the same actions in different contexts. this means, there is always a tradeoff between generalisation/universalisation and the accuracy of an algorithm. for the use of computer vision in the dh, this means that the more specific a given research topic or research question is, the more important it gets to actively participate in the generation of ground truth to improve the adaption of the tools to the actual problem. e m e r g i n g c h a l l e n g e s : e v a l u a t i n g e r r o r a n d b i a s in the sequel, problems of ground truth construction and ipas such as false negative and false positive detections and systematic biases are discussed. how can we actually know that the delivered results are “correct”; which leads madeleine akrich, ‘the de-scription of technical objects,’ in wiebe e. bijker, john law, eds, shaping technology/building society. studies in sociotechnical change. the mit press, , pp. - . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities to the follow-up question of how we can assess if the ground truth itself is correct? the crucial point is that evaluation depends on “consistent results no matter who is doing the coding” that help the method gain “…credibility as an accurate measure of reality.” thus, if human coders (the ones who previously annotated the visual material) initiating the evaluation come to an agreement that the tested algorithm was accurate in any random case, then the algorithm is accurate. therefore, it is a “closed loop” system that works “in terms of the system’s internal agreement—that is, whether the classification system consistently agrees with itself” . what is at stake becomes apparent when talking about false negative and false positive detections. false negatives are relevant cases (e.g. falls) that are not detected as relevant (i.e. missed). false positives are irrelevant cases (e.g. a curtsy) that are falsely detected as relevant. usually the performance of algorithms is measured by computing false negative rates and false positive rates. here it has to be noted that the concept of gathering false negative and false positive rates does always imply that there is one universal ground truth with which any domains of scrutiny are examined to evaluate accuracy. if in a specific case or context the detection rate of a certain class or object is rather low, this does not automatically mean that the specific class or object does not appear. it might be the case that the object is of course there but not detected because the algorithm has a systematic bias and is not able to detect it in the given context. to give an example: if a ground truth of people being killed (in films) was generated solely based on training images deriving from car accident scenes, sequences of people being killed in a shoot-out may not be recognized correctly. the goal in the development of ipas is always to achieve a large generalisation ability, i.e. to obtain robustness to different contexts, perspectives, scales, and appearances of the target entity. at the same time the number of false detections should be minimised, which is usually a conflicting goal to generalisability. thus, a tradeoff has to be found for each concrete task and application. furthermore, there is the risk of generating algorithmic bias. for example, introna and wood analysed the politics and implications of face recognition technologies . one of their central results was that facial recognition algorithms have a systemic bias: men, asian and afro-american populations as well as older people are more likely to be recognised than women, white populations and younger people . bias in gender and race was also discovered in a more recent evaluation of three commercial gender classification systems. using another image dataset, it was shown that darker-skinned females belong to the most commonly misclassified group with error rates of up to , % similarly, in the early years of speech recognition a constant bias of speech recognition systems towards male speech was observed. this bias originated from the fact that it was mainly men who developed those systems at this time and they used their own voices to record their training data (speech sequences) due to a lack of large training corpuses. this inherent tendency to bias bears the risk for a “new type of digital divide” that requires close attention in research. therefore, introna and wood call for “bias studies,” especially regarding the question of what can be done to limit biases. while there will be always be forms of algorithmic and human bias and we understand that an unbiased algorithm or world might not exist, it seems to be crucial to reduce bias in terms of transparency and algorithmic explanation possibilities as more and more political decisions are grounded in algorithms. another example for scholars researching and fighting bias in machine learning is joy buolamwini. kelly gates, our biometric future: facial recognition technology and the culture of surveillance, nyu press, , p. . kelly gates, our biometric future: facial recognition technology and the culture of surveillance, nyu press, , p. . lucas introna, david wood, ‘picturing algorithmic surveillance: the politics of facial recognition systems,’ surveillance & society ( / ): , pp. – . lucas introna, david wood, ‘picturing algorithmic surveillance: the politics of facial recognition systems,’ surveillance & society ( / ): , p. . joy buolamwini, timnit gebru, ‘gender shades: intersectional accuracy disparities in commercial gender classification,’ proceedings of the st conference on fairness, accountability and transparency, pmlr, , , pp. - . lucas introna, david wood, ‘picturing algorithmic surveillance: the politics of facial recognition systems,’ surveillance & society ( / ): , p. . c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities video . ted talk: joy buolamwini on fighting bias in algorithms (tedxbeaconstreet, november ) c o n c l u s i o n s : t o w a r d s u s e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d a c t i v e l e a r n i n g what are the consequences and implications for the digital humanities and for the use of automated visual analysis tools in this domain? while there are promising results to extract visual information on a low-level of semantic complexity, the higher-level interpretation of (moving) images is highly dependent on situation and context. drawing meaningful conclusions from situation and context is a major challenge for computer vision algorithms because it requires a high-level of understanding of objects, relations, diversity, ambiguity, situated actions and cultural local particularities (e.g. greeting rituals, political symbols). therefore, we argue in support of an integrated and critical approach to the use of computer vision tools, whereby we attach particular importance to transparency and the involvement of (expert) users (e.g. scholars in the dh) in ground truth creation and the training process of the algorithms. we argue that a major limitation for the application of existing (pre-trained) computer vision approaches in dh is their limitation to a certain and previously defined ground truth. research questions addressed in the dh often relate to specific high-level concepts, which are not covered by existing ground truths, making the training they received insufficient. since there is no unique and all-encompassing ground truth, we propose to move away from rigidly pre-defined ground truths to more flexible ground truths that adapt to the specific requirements of the actual expert users. we believe that this is a useful strategy in particular in dh-related research where highly complex and hitherto not analysed concepts are the subject of investigation. furthermore, the ground truth is often not known a priori and ground truth concepts may evolve or are discovered during the analysis of the visual content under consideration. such a flexibility should be provided by computer vision tools to support exploration and the establishment of hypotheses. a promising approach to enable a more flexible learning is “active learning” (al) , . in al the algorithm is not trained in an offline manner from pre-existing ground truth like in most existing approaches today. instead, the algorithm is lucy suchman, human-machine reconfigurations. plans and situated actions. nd edition, cambridge university press, . burr settles, active learning literature survey. university of wisconsin-madison department of computer sciences, . devis tuia, michele volpi, loris copa, mikhail kanevski, and jordi munoz-mari, ‘a survey of active learning algorithms for supervised remote sensing image classification.’ ieee journal of selected topics in signal processing, , , , pp. - . https://www.ted.com/talks/joy_buolamwini_how_i_m_fighting_bias_in_algorithms c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities trained in an online fashion by taking input from the user into account. thereby the (expert) user and her/his needs are directly integrated into the learning process, which replaces the need to define a ground truth explicitly. this is best explained with an example. imagine that a dh scholar wants to find political symbols (e.g. flags, graffiti, posters etc.) in a large corpus of videos (e.g. documentaries or news broadcasts). with a very high probability, no algorithm exists which has been trained for detecting such specific symbols. al can circumvent this problem. in al the user may provide one or a few examples of symbols that she/he is interested in for initialisation. starting with these examples, the algorithm tries to train an initial detector for the desired symbols. concerning symbols that the classifier is not certain about, it can ask the user who can then assign the symbol to a specific category. this queried feedback is used by the algorithm to improve its detection capabilities iteratively. additionally, the user may provide feedback on the relevance of detection results and communicate them back to the algorithm, i.e. whether a certain detected symbol is relevant or not for the user. this type of feedback mechanism is also referred to as “relevance feedback” and can easily be combined with al. more recent developments further extend the idea of al to interactive data exploration methodology (i.e. visual interactive learning, vial) to further enable the user to proactively select items for labelling to better guide the training process . the different strategies for incorporating user feedback into the training process makes the algorithm more adaptive to the actual data and thereby enables it to better fit to the actual research questions investigated by the user. al further circumvents the explicit and a priori definition of a ground truth. instead, the ground truth is defined implicitly from the expert user’s feedback. this approach makes it possible to adapt directly to the needs of the user and release her/him from the explicit definition of categories and typologies of classes, i.e. the annotation vocabulary. al can lead to a higher level of transparency and understanding of the algorithms by making the training data explicit to the user. the interactive nature of the al process empowers the user and enables her/him to learn from the data and to get a higher level of understanding of the problem as well as novel insights from the data. thereby, the “black box“ of today’s computer vision algorithms can be opened to a certain degree and transformed into a “grey box” which enables a basic level of transparency and documentation. in this regard, the methodology connects well to the research on explainable artificial intelligence (xai) , . the goal of xai is to explain the decisions of a machine-learned algorithm and how the trained model internally works. this enables verifying if the correct patterns (e.g. visual patterns in our case) are learned for a certain class and to answer the question if the algorithm “looks” at the right spots when making a decision (e.g. to eyes and nose when detecting a face). furthermore, explainability mechanisms enable us to identify biases learned from the data . an online visualisation tool for complex neuronal networks trained from image data is available under: http://shixialiu.com/publications/cnnvis/demo/. this demo shows what kind of visual patterns are learned in the individual network layers. another interactive online tool for the visualisation of the internals of a classifier is available under: http://scs.ryerson.ca/% eaharley/vis/conv/flat.html. here the user can generate input data themselves and trace how the decision of the classifier is made. we argue that the combination of xai techniques with al is especially promising as both types of approaches are likely to exploit mutual benefits. by integrating the user’s feedback into the process, the training can be better guided by the needs and intentions of the user. this in turn fosters the generation of more useful and targeted algorithms and tools for expert users . especially in the dh, where the research questions are often very specific and semantically complex, we believe that such a user-guided approach is a promising solution. the combination with xai approaches will be essential in the future not only to verify decisions made but also to discover biases learned from the data and to better understand false detections (false positives and false negatives). xiang sean zhou & thomas s. huang, ‘relevance feedback in image retrieval: a comprehensive review.’ multimedia systems, , , , pp. - . jürgen bernard, matthias zeppelzauer, michael sedlmair, and wolfgang aigner, ‘vial - a unified process for visual-interactive labeling.’ the visual issn (tvcj), , , pp. , springer: berlin, heidelberg. brian, hu zhang, blake lemoine, & margret mitchell, ‘mitigating unwanted biases with adversarial learning.’ proceedings of the aaai/acm conference on ai, ethics, and society, , pp. - . http://shixialiu.com/publications/cnnvis/demo/� http://scs.ryerson.ca/% eaharley/vis/conv/flat.html� c. musik and m. zeppelzauer, computer vision and the digital humanities b i o g r a p h i e s christoph musik, dr. phil. is a postdoctoral researcher at the institute of media economics at st. pölten university of applied sciences (austria). he is the lecturer in technology and society in the department of science and technology studies at the university of vienna and a lecturer at the institute of sociology at the university of innsbruck. since , he has been co-speaker of the section sociology of science and technology of the austrian association for sociology (Ögs). matthias zeppelzauer is a senior researcher at the institute of creative media technologies at st. pölten university of applied sciences (austria). he received his phd in computer science from vienna university of technology in with highest distinction. his research focuses on content-based retrieval, computer vision and machine learning with a special focus on active and user-centered learning. matthias received several performance scholarships from the vienna university of technology and was awarded by the austrian computer society for outstanding achievements in the area of pattern recognition. view journal of european television history and culture vol. , , doi: . / - . .jethc publisher: netherlands institute for sound and vision in collaboration with utrecht university, university of luxembourg and royal holloway university of london. copyright: the text of this article has been published under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial-no derivative works . netherlands license. this license does not apply to the media referenced in the article, which is subject to the individual rights owner’s terms. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /nl/deed.en_gb http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . .jethc _ref _ref _ref analysis of weight distribution in term of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human modelling analysis of weight distribution in terms of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human modelling zafar ullah*and shahid maqsood university of engineering and technology, peshawar , pakistan abstract construction activities performed by workers are usually repetitive and physically demanding. execution of such tasks in awkward postures can strain the body parts and can result in fatigue, back pain or in severe cases permanent disabilities. in view of this digital human modelling (dhm) technology offers human ergonomics experts the facilities of an efficient means of kinematics characteristics of lifting heavy weights in different postures. the objective of this paper is to analyse and calculate the forces and torques on the different body parts during lifting weights in four different postures using digital human modelling software. for this purposes four different lifting postures were analysed and the forces and torques were calculated. it was identified that changing the postures considerably minimize the redundant stresses on the body muscles. keywords: musculoskeletal disorders; lifting task; lower back pain introduction the international labour organization (ilo) estimates that some . million women and men around the world succumb to work-related accidents or diseases every year; this corresponds to over deaths every single day. worldwide, there are around million occupational accidents and million victims of work-related illnesses annually [ ]. over the years, manufacturing companies have taken ergonomics and usability as basic parameters of quality for their products [ ]. the design approach has been reviewed, giving to the end-users’ needs, requests, and limitations an extensive consideration. for this reason, an increasing attention is currently devoted to ergonomics and human factors evaluations even from the early stages of the design process [ - ]. digital mock-ups (dmus) provided by many computer aided engineering applications enable manufacturers to design a digital prototype of a product in full details, simulating its functions and predicting interaction among its different components [ - ]. the production of physical prototypes, which is a very time consuming task, is then deferred to the final stages of the design process [ ]. in order to take advantage of digital simulations to conduct ergonomic assessments (computer aided ergonomics), digital substitutes of human beings capable of interacting with the dmus in the simulation environment are required [ , ]. this has given birth to the so- called digital human modelling (dhm), which led to the development of many software tools [ , , ]. these tools are mainly used to study human-product and human-process interaction and to conduct ergonomic and biomechanical analyses, as well as manual process simulations, even before the physical prototype is available. dmus, together with digital human models, are increasingly used in order to reduce the development time and cost, as well as to facilitate the prediction of performance and/or safety [ ]. the ergonomic design methodology relying on digital human models makes the iterative process of design evaluation, diagnosis and review more rapid and economical [ , ]. it increases also the quality by minimizing the redundant changes and improves safety of products by eliminating ergonomics related problems [ , ]. furthermore, with the arising of the forth-industrial revolution (industry . ), the concept of the virtualization of the manufacturing processes has gained a greater importance. in this context, human simulation in production activities will certainly play a significant role [ ]. these digital humans, provided by many process simulation software, are essentially kinematic chains consisting of several segments and joints [ ]. in view of this the digital human modelling software helps to construct the jo ur na l of ergonom ics issn: - journal of ergonomics research article correspondence to: ullah z, university of engineering and technology peshawar , pakistan, tel: + ; e-mail: zafarullah @yahoo.com received: october , ; accepted: march , ; published: march , citation: ullah z, maqsood s ( ) analysis of weight distribution in term of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human. j ergonomics : . doi: . / - . . . copyright: © ullah z, et al. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: mailto:zafarullah @yahoo.com human replica within the software and analysis is made on the mannequins in lifting task to calculate the forces and torques. methodology digital human models are computer-generated prototype of human beings used for biomechanical analysis. the mannequins are design through human computer aided design (cad) software to mimic the real life industries workers posture. the facility of ergo tool is also available in the software which provides the static biomechanical stress on the different body parts. four different lifting postures were analysed for forces and torque calculation assigning kg concrete block to be lift. mannequin posture during lifting weight the mannequins were assigned kg weight to be lift in four different postures. through ergo tool in human cad mannequin pro were applied to calculate the forces and torques applied on different body parts. mannequin in figure , picking the kg load in semi standing forward bending position, in figure picking the same load in semi sitting position with align knee and hip position with hand more extended and neck bending slightly from frontal plane. similarly the mannequin in figure , loading the load with standing feet and hand extended, the mannequin in figure , picking the load with sitting position with one leg front support and one leg back support. figure : mannequin lifting block sitting with head extended down. figure : mannequin lifting block in semi sitting. figure : mannequin lifting block with forward extension with legs straight. figure : mannequin lifting block with one leg back with knee support. results of digital human modelling the detailed forces and torque is provided in the static biomechanics (tables - ). the postures taken is the replica of real life workers during lifting blocks. four mannequin were created and assign to pick kg concrete block and the masses act as a weights due to gravity. in the human cad the ergo tool of static biomechanics tool were applied and all the forces and torque are displayed on the window screen. the details of static biomechanical stress are given in the tables - . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . left foot . . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: left forearm . . left palm . . left shank . . left thigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . left foot . . left forearm . . left palm . . left shank . . left thigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . leftfoot . . left forearm . . left palm . . left shank . . left thigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . table : static biomechanical forces of posture . force(n) torque(nm) head . left arm . . left foot . . left forearm . . left palm . . leftshanke . . leftthigh . . pelvis . . right arm . . left foot . . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: right forearm . . right palm . . right shank . . right thigh . . thorax . . figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . table shows the static biomechanical stresses on different body parts, the highest force applied on pelvis ( . n) and the second most load bearing region is thorax ( . n). similarly the highest positive torque act on the thorax ( . nm) and secondly ( . nm) positive torque act on the pelvis. the line graph in figure shows that most of the stresses are concentrated on the pelvic region. results of forces of the four postures given in below table and comparing results of torque of the four postures given in below table . figure : static biomechanical graph of posture . table : comparing forces, comparing results of the four postures and results of forces of the four postures. figure (force(n)) figure (force(n)) (force(n)) figure (force(n)) head . . . . left arm . . . . left foot . . . . left forearm . . . . left palm . . . . left shank . . . . left thigh . . . . pelvis . . . . right arm . . . . left foot . . . . right forearm . . . . right palm . . . . right shank . . . . right thigh . . . . thorax . . . . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: figure figure torque(nm) figure torque(nm) figure torque(nm) figure torque(nm) head left arm . . . . left foot . . . . left forearm . . . . left palm . . . . left shanke . . . . left thigh . . . . pelvis . . . . right arm . . . . left foot . . . . right forearm . . . . right palm . . . . right shank . . . . right thigh . . . . thorax . . . . discussion musculoskeletal disorders are noted as a result of the presence of different risk factors, including contact stress, force, vibrations, repetition and jobs that put muscles under redundant physical forces. in the proposed study it is shown that changing the posture significantly change thee stresses. figure shows the comparative forces applied, the highest forces allied on posture in figure , followed by posture in figure . similarly in posture in figure a less forces is applied and the most ergonomically less stresses posture is in figure of posture . similarly is the case of torque produced in the body is concentrated in the pelvis region. as from figures and , it is clear that most of the forces and positive torque is concentrated in pelvis region and the pelvis region is the most sensitive region of the human skeletal system. figure : static biomechanical graph of the forces. figure : static biomechanical graph of the torques. conclusion through human cad tool the static biomechanical stresses distributions were calculated. in an industrially developing countries like pakistan the source of exposure to msds risks seem to be severe mainly because of the untrained workforce and due the absence of the labour laws implementation. the conclusion taken is that, though many studies have shown a significant relation between manual labour and msds, in an industrially developing countries, people are exposed to work without knowing the new job physical demand. in this regard, there is a dire need for medical and physical examination as a prerequisite for new jobs. in addition, workers should be trained on ergonomics basis before they are exposing to manual material handling. references . kaulio ma. customer, consumer and user involvement in product development: a framework and a review of selected methods. total quality management. ; : - . . stanton na, salmon pm, rafferty la, walker gh, baber c, jenkins dp. human factors methods: a practical guide for engineering and design. crc press. . shackel b. ergonomics in information technology in europe-a review. behav inf technol. ; : - . . martinsons mg, chong pk. the influence of human factors and specialist involvement on information systems success. human relations. ; : - . . de sa ag, zachmann g. virtual reality as a tool for verification of assembly and maintenance processes. computers & graphics. ; : - . . stark r, krause fl, kind c, rothenburg u, müller p, hayka h, et al. competing in engineering design- the role of virtual product creation. cirp journal of manufacturing science and technology. ; : - . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: table : comparing torque, comparing the results of torque of the four postures. . dolezal wr. success factors for digital mock-ups (dmu) in complex aerospace product development. technische universität münchen. . . mourtzis d, papakostas n, mavrikios d, makris s, alexopoulos k. the role of simulation in digital manufacturing: applications and outlook. int j comput integr manuf. ; : - . . whiteside j, bennett j, holtzblatt k. usability engineering: our experience and evolution handbook of human-computer interaction. elsevier. . . pelliccia l, klimant f, de santis a, di gironimo g, lanzotti a, tarallo a, et al. task-based motion control of digital humans for industrial applications. procedia cirp. ; : - . . magistris gd, micaelli a, savin j, gaudez c, marsot j. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis based on humanoid robotics techniques. int j digital human. ; : - . . di gironimo g, pelliccia l, siciliano b, tarallo a. biomechanically-based motion control for a digital human. int j interact des manuf. ; : - . . magistris g, micaelli a, evrard p, andriot c, savin j, gaudez c, et al. dynamic control of dhm for ergonomic assessments. int j ind ergon. ; : - . . ma l, chablat d, bennis f, zhang w, guillaume f. a new muscle fatigue and recovery model and its ergonomics application in human simulation. virtual phys prototyp. ; : - . . rasmussen j. skills, rules, and knowledge; signals, signs, and symbols, and other distinctions in human performance models. ieee transactions on systems, man, and cybernetics. ; : - . . maguire m. methods to support human-centred design. int j hum comput stud. ; : - . . demirel ho, duffy vg. applications of digital human modeling in industry. international conference on digital human modeling. springer. ( ) . macleod d. the ergonomics edge: improving safety, quality, and productivity. john wiley & sons. us. . . hai z. development of smart industry maturity model. university of twente. master’s thesis. . . aggarwal jk, cai q. human motion analysis: a review. comput vis image underst. ; : - . ullah z, et al. j ergonomics, vol. iss. no: de 内容 analysis of weight distribution in term of forces and torques during lifting weight using digital human modelling abstract introduction methodology mannequin posture during lifting weight results of digital human modelling discussion conclusion references ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies ucla ucla previously published works title ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ n h journal pmla-publications of the modern language association of america, ( ) issn - author carruth, allison publication date - - doi . /pmla. . . . peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ n h https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ in william pannapacker pronounced the digital human- ities to be “the first ‘next big thing’ in a long time” promising to reconfigure and reinvigorate the humanities. the same could now plausibly be said about the environmental humanities with the recent rise of dedicated academic centers (at, e.g., kth royal institute of technology, in sweden; princeton university; the uni- versity of california, santa barbara; and the university of utah), grant- funded projects (like the saw yer seminar on the environ- mental humanities at the university of california, los angeles, and the consortium humanities for the environment ), and faculty positions. if the digital and environmental humanities have been ascendant amid what christopher newield describes as the “un- making” of public higher education and what richard grusin terms the “crisis humanities,” such an assessment invites the question of whether the ecological digital humanities (ecodh) might serve to combine the most saleable facets of the digital humanities and the environmental humanities for university stakeholders who promote applied humanities work outside academia or, alternatively, a hybrid method for researching, teaching, and designing cultural responses to structures of ecological and social precarity (grusin ). while these potential futures of ecodh could unfold simultane- ously, i aim in what follows to pave the way for this hybrid method, by ofering a supplemental framework for connecting the environ- mental and digital humanities, which this essay terms ecological me- dia studies. a prompt for academic inquiry as well as collaboration outside academia, this framework combines scholarly attentiveness to the material ecologies of new media and digital computing with the participatory, playful media practices at work in twenty- irst- century environmental art and activism. he new materialist provo- cation to understand all bodies—human, animal, plant, mineral, microbial, machine, and inanimate—in their material and semantic lives and in their networked and individuated phases informs my conceptualization of ecological media studies by suggesting that the allison carruth , associate professor in the department of en glish and the institute for society and genetics at the university of california, los angeles, is affiliated with the university’s institute of the environment and sustainability. she is the author of global appetites: american power and the literature of food (cambridge up, ). the changing profession ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies allison carruth [ p m l a © allison carruth pmla . ( ), published by the modern language association of america ubiquity of ecological metaphors for the digi- tal (from data mining to media ecology itself) obscures the matter of digital technologies. the ecological digital humanities: genealogies and horizons in a primer, greg garrard deines eco- criticism capaciously as the literary and cul- tural study of ecological problems wherein rhetorical analysis is central. garrard ob- serves that the organizing premise of such an endeavor is the notion that “environmental problems require analysis in cultural as well as scientiic terms, because they are the out- come of an interaction between ecological knowledge of nature and its cultural inlec- tion,” or, more aptly, inlections ( ). in step with lawrence buell and ursula k. heise, garrard traces the history of ecocriticism from an initial focus on nature writing, wil- derness rhetoric, and local place- based identi- ties to widening concerns with environmental justice, urban ecologies, other- than- human bodies, and the environmental consequences of colonialism and globalization. ecocriticism by this measure has become a “convenient shorthand,” as heise puts it, for variegated ap- proaches that fall under the headings of “en- vironmental criticism, literary- environmental studies, literary ecolog y, literary environ- mentalism, and green cultural studies”—a catalog to which we could add theoretically and politically inlected ields such as post- colonia l ecologies, environmenta l justice cultural studies, and material ecocriticism (“hitchhiker’s guide” ). as ecocriticism has become more multiform over the last de- cade, so too have ecocritics resituated their work within the environmental humanities, deined to include literature, media studies, science studies, philosophy, history, art his- tory, cultural geography, and anthropology (not to mention the digital humanities). how- ever multidisciplinary, the environmental hu- manities arguably cohere in how they depart from what buell terms irst- wave ecocriticism (“ecocriticism”). namely, environmental hu- manities projects are expanding the param- eters of environmental culture by addressing not only literar y texts but also visual art, performance, new media, activist ephemera, popular science, ethnographies, and scientiic models; by imagining nature to include cities, food systems, diasporas, indigenous cosmolo- gies, and global energy networks along with wilderness sites and rural locales; and by de- veloping critical theories of the environment. two publications illustrate these intel- lectual trends and open onto the question of what imperatives and ideas are shaping (or might shape) ecodh. he irst is a criti- cal inquiry essay that has become required reading in the environmental humanities: the postcolonial historian dipesh chakrabarty’s “he climate of history.” organized around four theses, the essay posits that the science of anthropogenic climate change—which shows that with industrialization humans become geological agents and which accordingly sug- gests an epochal shit from the holocene to what has been provisionally termed the an- thropocene—requires a new historiographic practice. such a practice, chakrabarty con- tends, should start by jettisoning “the age- old humanist distinction between natural his- tory and human history” ( ). while critics of anthropocene discourse have cautioned against its tendency toward a universalism that elides the unequally shared causes and consequences of climate change, chakrabarty mostly avoids this pitfall in arguing that en- vironmental history—and by extension the environmental humanities—best responds to climate change by bringing “together intellec- tual formations that are somewhat in tension with each other: the planetary and the global; deep and recorded histories; species thinking and critiques of capital” ( ). his idea has particular implications for ecodh. if we fol- low chakrabarty’s argument, a ield sited at the convergence of ecological problems and . ] allison carruth t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n digital humanities methods should strive to interlace the timescales of “deep and recorded histories” with the compressed temporality of the digital (as in the real- time cadence of rapid prototyping, database querying, and media streaming) and to recognize not only the bodies of species and institutions of capi- tal but also the virtual networks that connect, track, and animate both. the second publication with insights for ecodh is bodily natures, by the femi- nist science studies scholar stacy alaimo, who has been at the forefront of the material turn. like the collections material feminism (which she coedited) and material ecocriti- cism (to which she contributed an essay), bodily natures takes nature seriously in its concrete multiplicities—presenting alaimo’s research on the science and culture of x- rays, toxic chemicals, deep -sea creatures, and plas- tic compounds. in doing so, it contests ten- dencies in poststructuralism, posthumanism, and certain strands of ecocriticism to abstract nature from its material and historical in- stantiations. to guide her research, alaimo develops a theory of transcorporeality, a the- ory rooted in the idea that “the material self cannot be disentangled from networks that are simultaneously economic, political, cul- tural, scientiic, and substantial ” and in the corollary notion that the “material environ- ment is a realm of oten incalculable, inter- connected agencies” ( – ; emphasis mine). putting cha k rabar t y’s sca le- shif ting historiography into dialogue with alaimo’s materia list feminism of fers anot her pos- sible direction to early adopters of ecodh (whether or not they would identify with the label)—from the humanities for the environ- ment–sponsored life overlooked, an archive that contains multimedia narratives of lora, fauna, and other bodies inhabiting the crev- ices of local places, to the interactive nature- hoods, a database of parks and other green spaces in three dozen cities in the united states that stanford university hosts and that employs spatial mapping as well as text- mining methods. scholars like chakrabarty and alaimo suggest the importance of histo- ricizing and materializing the digital technol- ogies that constitute the research apparatus of such ecodh projects by mapping those tech- nologies onto timescales slower than the real- time “interval” of “versions, updates, and . . . half- lives” and by apprehending them within material networks composed of biological and engineered bodies (raley ). the digital humanities: from computational techniques to material conditions i will return to chakrabarty’s and alaimo’s principles below in pivoting from ecodh to ecological media studies. as a bridge, i turn now to recent calls for the digital humanities writ large to examine and intervene in the ma- terial social conditions of network society and digital infrastructure. in dialogue with other scholars, n. katherine hayles locates the ori- gins of the digital humanities in decades- old humanities computing eforts to digitally pre- serve and parse text archives. these efforts laid the groundwork for the digital humani- ties to organize initially around “machine reading” techniques of encoding, mining, and analyzing lexical and generic patterns in large corpora of texts. taking stock of the present, hayles contends that the digital humani- ties are “morphing” as researchers “advocate a turn from a primary focus on text encod- ing, analysis, and searching to multimedia practices that explore the fusion of text- based humanities with f ilm, sound, animation, graphics, and other multimodal practices” ( ). gary hall reinforces this claim, noting that the digital humanities now encompass “interactive information visualization, science visualization, image processing, geospatial representation, statistical data analysis, net- work analysis, and the mining, aggregation, management, and manipulation of data” ( ). ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n such appraisals dovetail with alan liu’s blog post on the thorny question of whether the term digital humanities should be singular or plural. while liu acknowl- edges that when treated as singular the term names a coherent ield, he suggests that the digital humanities would do well to retain a plural sense of self by “engag[ing] in much fuller conversation with their affiliated or enveloping disciplinary fields (e.g., literary studies, history, writing programs, library studies, etc.), cousin ields (e.g., new media studies), and the wider public about where they it in, which is to say, how they contrib- ute to a larger, shared agenda expressed in the conjunction and collision of many ields” (“is”). liu echoes recent critiques of the digi- tal humanities (including his own) that query the growing professional divide between the production of computational algorithms, databases, and tools and the cultural study of digital media (grusin; hall; hayles; liu, “where”; raley). hese analyses of such a di- vide encourage a détente between praxis and criticism and between the digital humanities and the so- called interpretive humanities. holding up franco moretti ’s distant reading methodology for its capacity to pose cultural and sociological questions of large text corpora, liu envisions digital humani- ties approaches that integrate “text analysis and cultural analysis” (“where”). namely, he advocates for cultural analysis of the “instru- mentality” paradigm that shapes knowledge work in the information age, including the knowledge work of the digital humanities. elaborating on this idea, rita raley argues that the digital humanities have proved “par- ticularly useful” (or instrumental, as liu puts it) “in our current mercantile knowledge re- gime, with its rational calculus of academic value” ( ). she identiies a pressing need for “more critical ref lection upon, and ironic self- awareness about, the embedded place of digital humanities in the contemporary knowledge economy” ( ). for grusin, this project is vital, given that “the institutional structure of digital humanities threatens to intensify . . . the proliferation of temporary insecure labor that is rampant not only in the academy but throughout twenty- irst- century capitalism” ( ). in enumerating the forms that “critical relection” might take for the digital humanities, raley looks to the “self- ref lexivity about situatedness” in cultural studies and the “play ful inter ventions” of new media art practices that she has classed under the heading of tactical media ( , ). referring to exempla like the independent network wifi .bedouin, raley writes, “tac- tics are designed to produce open- ended questions rather than def initive answers, to lead to new discovery rather than diag- nostic evaluation, such that the researcher remains continually aware of the mechan- ics of knowledge production and attuned to the possibilities of alternative techniques, frames, and paradigms” ( ). his mode of tactical critique and countercultural engi- neering, raley suggests, could powerfully retool the digital humanities. ecological media studies: projects and prototypes he environmental humanities have a poten- tially unique contribution to make to such tactical digital humanities by delving into what we could term, building on raley’s for- mulation, the ecological materiality of digital “knowledge production” and by collaborat- ing on “techniques, frames, and paradigms” that model alternative labor conditions and alternative environmental ethics to those of late capitalism. i contend that ecological me- dia studies ofers a nimble rubric for doing just that. my thesis builds on the arguments that hayles, raley, tara mcpherson, patrick jagoda, wendy h. k. chun, and others have made for linking the digital humanities, me- dia studies, and multimodal media practices and thereby generating more robust methods . ] allison carruth t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n and theories by which the “materiality in me- dia” may be understood (hayles ). hayles teases this trope out on grounds that are especially resonant with ecological media studies. her work provides concep- tually rich histories of the embodied forms that digital technologies assume in literary narratives, visual media, scientiic research, engineered machines, and human- computer interfaces. her latest thinking along these lines swerves toward new materialism and, if tacitly, the environmental humanities. in how we think, she writes that to “gras[p] the complex ways in which the time scales of human cognition interact with those of intelligent machines requires a theoretical framework in which objects are seen not as static entities that, once created, remain the same throughout time but rather are under- stood as constantly changing assemblages” ( ). this argument chimes with alaimo’s concept of transcorporeality while calling to mind jane bennett’s description of assem- blages in vibrant matter. his sense of com- puting technologies as bodies embedded in material networks informs hayles’s related points about the geospatial materiality of digital production. “if time is deeply involved with the productions of digital media, so too is space,” hayles writes, explaining that “gis (geographic information system) mapping, gps (global positioning system) technolo- gies, and their connections with networked and programmable machines have created a culture of spatial exploration in digital me- dia” ( ). hayles’s arguments show that we think the digital not just through virtual programs and distributed networks but also through the extended, embodied “cognition” that human- computer interactions germinate and, critically, through the “larger networks that extend beyond” devices and users “into the environment” ( ). ecodh qua ecological media studies can lesh out these principles by addressing the nonhuman and nonmachine bodies of lora, fauna, rare earth minerals, earth and sea un- dergrounds, regional watersheds, and glob- ally networked energy ields that constitute both the environments and infrastructures of the digital. situated at the crossroads of the environmental humanities and media stud- ies, a number of projects have recently begun to model this undertaking. notable examples include sue thomas’s exploration of “tech- nobiophilia”; the essay collection ecomedia and its companion blog (rust, monani, and cubitt); heise’s account of “unnatural” eco- logical metaphors in media ecology (“unnat- ural ecologies”); richard maxwell and toby miller’s environmental history of old and new media and accompanying criteria for green media practices; stephanie lemenager’s in- clusion of print and digita l media in the “petroleum archive” she builds for her book living oil; nicole starosielski’s accounts of the media heat and undersea cables that help to power the internet (“materiality”); heather houser’s contemplation of how data visual- ization and information management tools operate across contemporary environmental media to disseminate “data sets that are too large, complicated, inaccessible, or tedious for [individuals] to comprehend ” ( ); an online storytelling platform about foraging ecosystems, cultures, and economies, known as matsutake worlds live; and, finally, the open- source app curatescape, designed to enable communities to exhibit site- specific histories (tebeau and cleveland state univ.). as this range of examples indicates, the emerging field of ecodh, which i am fur- ther delineating as ecological media studies, runs the gamut from peer- reviewed scholar- ship that draws on archival research, herme- neutics, and cultural history to experimental research that blends ieldwork, media aesthet- ics, and creative noniction to self- published sites that aggregate multimedia narratives with geolocated data. he projects share the investments identiied above as constitutive of ecological media studies. hat is, each endeav- ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n ors to provide material histories and theories of digital technologies and—whether through traditional scholarship, public projects, or both—to make visible the ecological as well as the sociocultural circumstances of networks. i hope that in the future ecological media studies—now a somewhat aspirational ield— will continue to bring further coherence to these multipronged eforts. here, starosiel- ski’s research on internet infrastructure (de- ined to encompass the mined metals, cellular towers, satellites, cables, servers, data centers, and networked devices that coproduce digi- tal networks) provides an exciting prototype. starosielsk i was arguably the f irst media studies scholar to develop an eco- centric ap- proach to the materiality of digital media and networks. he approach informs her research on the undersea cables that disturb coastlines around the world (“beaches,” “‘warning,’” and “critical nodes”). so too does it inlect her short history of the evolving hot- and- cold registers for diferent media (“materiality”). hat account ends with a relection on data centers and suggests that material as well as rhetorical links now exist between the inter- net and global climate change: “data centers and computer systems generate enormous amounts of heat, which in turn form one of the greatest threats to communications sys- tems. . . . an attention to the generation and redistribution of this heat connects media to the energy infrastructures on which they depend and, in turn, to the intensification of globa l warming” (“materia lit y” ). as starosielsk i concludes, t his at tention to virtual- biophysical exchanges (like the heat exchanges that attend the f low of data through networks) “help[s] us to better un- derstand how media both enfolds and gives rise to a set of broader environmental rela- tions and conditions for life” ( ). her con- clusion here dovetails with my own analysis of “the digital cloud” (or the internet in the era of apps, social media, mobile computing, cloud storage platforms, and the estimated ten billion network connections worldwide). observing that “the cloud’s apparent ubiquity makes it diicult to assume an outside, criti- cal perspective on its infrastructure,” i have elsewhere identified a lack of attention in environmental and media studies to the con- crete materials, and material consequences, of the internet’s growing footprint ( ). such inquiries underscore that it would be fruitful for ecological media studies to cultivate “an ecological ethic for storing, accessing, and sharing data that takes into account forms of digital power and disempowerment” ( ). in marshall mcluhan and quentin fiore asserted that in the information age any “un- derstanding of social and cultural change is impossible without a knowledge of the way media work as environments” ( ). while their assertion relegated biophysical environ- ments to the rhetorical status of metaphor (ironically, just as environmentalism was coming to life as a social movement), ecologi- cal media studies might return ecology to a literal register by taking up the matter of digi- tal technologies and the ecology of media. coda: ecological media praxis he intellectual contexts for ecological media studies posited above suggest how blurry the boundaries are becoming between the digital humanities and media studies. hese blurred boundaries stem partly from cultural work outside academia—including do- it- yourself maker culture, citizen science, new media art, tactical media, and hacktivism—that does not separate practice from theory, engineer- ing from critique. the existing projects we might tag as ecodh have of ten ta ken cues from and, in some cases, joined these communities of practice beyond the university. the hu- manities for the environment stands out on this score. an international mellon- funded consortium of humanities centers, it has in- volved an array of collaborators, including . ] allison carruth t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n historians, ecocritics, bioethicists, environ- mental justice scholars and activists, forest ecologists, creative writers, artists, and urban designers. one project in which public en- gagement and collaborative environmental media praxis coalesced was dinner , organized by the arizona state university team in the western observatory of the hu- manities for the environment. dinner adapted a design process used in architecture and urban planning known as charrette to convene local and visiting academics as well as artists, chefs, farmers, activists, and other community members to address the question “what should be on our plates for dinner in ?” (“dinner”). a creative and speculative exercise that digitally archived participants’ narratives, values, concerns, and hopes in response to that question, dinner was modeled on an actual public dinner that took place in the street along multiple blocks of downtown phoenix and that used media old and new (including vinyl illustrated place- mats) to galvanize conversation about the ecological prospects and possibilities for the region’s food system. keeping in mind the experimental and participator y structure of dinner , i would highlight another prototype for ecolog- ical media studies in which generating public engagement with a city’s ecological futures animates a participatory project that is at once artful and activist: play the la river. a project cofounded by the urban planner john arroyo, the designer and documentary pho- tographer barron bixler, the artist amanda evans, the historians catherine gudis and jenny price, and me (and in which lemenager, a coeditor of this special cluster, was an early collaborator), play the la river took shape as a mix of environmental outreach and so- cially engaged participatory art. grant kester deines “socially engaged” art as collaborative creative work outside the “international net- work of art galleries and museums, curators and collectors,” which adopts a “process- based approach” aiming to catalyze conversation, community, and social change (xiii, , ). play the la river can be described in kindred terms: a public call to communities across los angeles, especially those living along the ity- one- mile length of the los angeles river, to “enjoy, reclaim and reimagine the river as a civic space that can green and connect” ur- ban communities (“play”). he project sought to support ongoing environmental and social justice eforts and to widen the public sphere around those eforts through tactics—in ral- ey’s sense—that made use of print media, dig- ital tools, and community gatherings. he last of these tactics, which proved challenging to implement, centered on a single year (septem- ber to september ) of collaborative programming with other groups (in addition to social media prompts to spontaneous river excursions). this part of play the la river featured small- scale picnics and riverside zine- making workshops as well as exhibits of site- speciic student art and performance, among other events. at the project’s center was a playful and playable media artifact that dovetailed with these community eforts: an oversize deck of cards and an online interac- tive companion that each worked as a provi- sional and open- ended guide to ity- two sites along the los angeles river. his mix of print and digital media, live gatherings, and distrib- uted participation made play the la river an experiment in employing tactical media and participatory art to foster and make publicly visible community involvement and invest- ment in urban ecologies. projects like play the la river and din- ner demonstrate how the environmental humanities—in turning toward t he digi- tal—might turn outward to ecological media practices and publics. such projects expand the purview of ecological media studies be- yond the critical analysis and cultural study of digital materiality to include creative uses of digital technologies and new media, which in turn become lively materials for imagining ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n environmental crises, layered histories, and alternative futures. notes . buell, future and “ecocriticism”; buell, heise, and horn ber; heise, “hitchhiker’s guide,” sense, and “eco- criticism.” . inluential work in postcolonial ecocriticism in- cludes that of cara cilano and elizabeth deloughrey; deloughrey and george handley; graham huggan; and rob nixon; environmental justice cultural studies has been developed by, among others, joni adamson, mei mei evans, and rachel stein; t. v. reed; and michael ziser and julie sze. works cited adamson, joni, mei mei evans, and rachel stein, eds. he environmental justice reader: politics, poetics, and pedagogy. tucson: u of arizona p, . print. alaimo, stacy. bodily natures: science, environment, and the material self. bloomington: indiana up, . print. bennett, jane. vibrant matter: a political ecology of hings. durham: duke up, . print. buell, lawrence. “ecocriticism: some emerging trends.” qui parle: critical humanities and social sciences . ( ): – . print. ———. the future of environmental criticism: envi- ronmental crisis and literary imagination. oxford: blackwell, . print. buell, lawrence, ursula k. heise, and karen hornber. “literature and environment.” annual review of en- vironment and resources ( ): – . print. carruth, allison. “he digital cloud and the micropoli- tics of energy.” public culture ( ): – . print. chakrabarty, dipesh. “he climate of history: four he- ses.” critical inquiry ( ): – . print. cilano, cara, and elizabeth m. deloughrey. “against authenticity: global knowledges and postcolonial ecocriticism.” interdisciplinary studies in literature and environment . 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( ): – . print. tebeau, mark, and cleveland state univ. curatescape. center for public hist. and the digital humanities, . web. oct. . homas, sue. technobiophilia: nature and cyberspace. london: bloomsbury, . print. ecological media studies and the matter of digital technologies [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach browse explore more content repository ijdh shahrol .pdf ( . kb) crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach citedownload ( . kb)shareembed journal contribution posted on . . , : by shahrol mohamaddan, keith case human movement in a crowd can be considered as complex and unpredictable, and accordingly large scale video observation studies based on a conceptual behaviour framework were used to characterise individual movements and behaviours. the conceptual behaviours were free movement (moving through and move-stop-move), same direction movement (queuing and competitive) and opposite direction movement (avoiding and passing through). movement in crowds was modelled and simulated using an agent-based method using the gaming software dark basic professional. the agents (individuals) were given parameters of personal objective, visual perception, speed of movement, personal space and avoidance angle or distance within different crowd densities. two case studies including a multi-mode transportation system layout and a bottleneck / non-bottleneck evacuation are presented. categories mechanical engineering not elsewhere classified keywords agent-based modellingcrowd simulationobservational study history school mechanical, electrical and manufacturing engineering published in international journal of the digital human volume issue pages - ( ) citation mohamaddan, s. and case, k., . crowd simulation: a video observation and agent-based modelling approach. international journal of the digital human, ( ), pp. - . publisher © inderscience version am (accepted manuscript) publisher statement this work is made available according to the conditions of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international (cc by-nc-nd . ) licence. full details of this licence are available at: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / acceptance date / / publication date - - notes this paper was accepted for publication in the journal international journal of the digital human and the definitive published version is available at http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijdh. . doi https://doi.org/ . /ijdh. . issn - publisher version http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijdh. . language en administrator link https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/account/articles/ licence cc by-nc-nd . exports select an optionrefworksbibtexref. managerendnotedatacitenlmdc categories mechanical engineering not elsewhere classified keywords agent-based modellingcrowd simulationobservational study licence cc by-nc-nd . exports select an optionrefworksbibtexref. managerendnotedatacitenlmdc hide footeraboutfeaturestoolsblogambassadorscontactfaqprivacy policycookie policyt&csaccessibility statementdisclaimersitemap figshare. credit for all your research. provided by the author(s) and nui galway in accordance with publisher policies. please cite the published version when available. downloaded - - t : : z some rights reserved. for more information, please see the item record link above. title communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship:a review article author(s) cox, john publication date - - publication information cox, john. ( ). communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship: a review article. new review of academic librarianship, ( - ), - . doi: . / . . publisher taylor & francis link to publisher's version http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . item record http://hdl.handle.net/ / doi http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /ie/ communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship: a review article abstract academic libraries enable a wide range of digital scholarship activities, increasingly as a partner rather than as a service provider. communicating that shift in role is challenging, not least as digital scholarship is a new field with many players whose activities on campus can be disjointed. the library’s actual and potential contributions need to be broadcast to a diverse range of internal and external constituencies, primarily academic staff, university management, library colleagues and related project teams, often with different perspectives. libraries have significant contributions to offer and a focused communications strategy is needed to embed libraries in digital scholarship and to create new perceptions of their role as enabling partners. introduction digital scholarship has generated new roles for libraries in recent years. it spans all disciplines, ranging in terminology from e-science to the digital humanities. neat definitions of digital scholarship are elusive, however, and waters ( , p. ) notes hundreds of definitions even of digital humanities on three different websites. lynch ( , p. ) refers to a digital scholarship disconnect, questioning the need to describe scholarship as digital. he does, however, recognise digital scholarship as a term applicable to the transformation of most areas of scholarly work by technologies such as high-performance computing, visualisation and the manipulation of large datasets. computational, data-intensive science is seen as representing a new paradigm (lynch, , p. ; tenopir, sandusky, allard, & birch, , p. ). new methods of enquiry characterise digital scholarship, especially in the humanities. waters ( , pp. , - ) sees the defining feature of digital humanities as the application of digital resources and methods to humanistic enquiry, identifying three broad areas of investigation and tool sets: textual analysis, spatial analysis and media studies. sinclair ( ) observes that “new hybrid communities of inquiry are increasingly visual, collaborative, and spatial, or simply seek to make new connections possible in a digital world”, thanks to technologies such as data visualisation and mapping applications, to which can be added tools for text and data mining. new approaches to publishing findings and sharing data, often on an open access basis, are very much in scope across all disciplines too. digital scholarship relies on collections of information and data, along with a range of tools, infrastructures and, above all, people. libraries have embraced this opportunity to take on a variety of roles, encapsulated by calhoun ( , p. ), alexander ( ), vinopal ( , pp. - ) and sula ( , pp. - ), and including:  digitisation and digital preservation, often of archives and special collections  metadata creation and enhancement for linked data, exchange and reuse  assignment of identifiers to promote discovery  hosting of digital collections in library repositories  publishing of faculty-edited journals  open access dissemination of research outputs and learning materials  management of research data  curation of born-digital collections  advice on copyright , digital rights management and the application of standards  participation in text mining, data analysis and geographic information systems (gis) projects  provision of spaces, tools, equipment and training for digital scholarship these roles have represented a fundamental shift for libraries towards publishing of digital content and active participation in research projects. they bring with them many communication challenges in terms of the environment of digital scholarship, the diversity of audience interests, important messages to be communicated and the range of channels for doing so. a challenging communications space library roles to enable digital scholarship are multi-stranded, reflecting the field itself. rockenbach ( , p. ) describes digital humanities as “messy”, while she and others (lippincott, hemmasi, & lewis, ; schaffner & erway, , p. ; vandegrift & varner, , p. ) emphasise its experimental approach, indicative of a rapidly evolving field without clear boundaries. establishing and communicating a clear library offering in response is, not surprisingly, often difficult. an ithaka study of institutional models of support for digital humanities outputs (maron & pickle, , pp. - ) identifies some further characteristics, including piecemeal approaches, multiple players on campus and a lack of joined-up campus-wide strategies. the range of stakeholders with whom the library may need to communicate includes university leadership, administration, it services and the research office, as well as the different academic departments or research centres involved in digital scholarship, among whose ranks may be scholars, doctoral students, interns, web developers and programmers. achieving effective communication across all of these constituencies is problematic. the ithaka study (maron & pickle, , p. ), while urging regular communication, noted that dissemination is a function that is not owned by any unit and therefore sporadic, resulting in lack of awareness of projects in the absence, typically, of any directory of campus-wide projects (p. ). schrier ( ) too observes, somewhat depressingly, that digital collections “often remain obscure, unknown, and therefore inaccessible to their intended user populations”. there are many audiences and many perspectives. university leadership will want the benefits of digital scholarship for the institution’s research profile but may be unwilling to invest in understanding fully the range of activity involved in order to enable a coherent resourcing strategy to emerge. academic staff may embrace involvement by libraries or may be slow to ask, preferring a self-sufficient, independent and autonomous approach (schaffner & erway, , p. ). equally, library staff may fail to connect with their diverse audiences. an earlier ithaka study on the sustainability of digitised special collections (maron & pickle, , p. ) notes that “investments in understanding the needs of the audience are quite low”. this does not bode well for successful audience engagement with libraries’ digital scholarship activities. mismatches in perspective are particularly evident in the areas of open access and research data management. each is a hard sell to academics who may not see the need to engage, especially if they perceive that further work, primarily of an administrative nature, may come their way. pinfield ( , pp. - ) notes continued “significant levels of disinterest, suspicion and scepticism about oa amongst researchers”. he (p. ) and creaser et al. ( , pp. - ) report strong loyalty to the traditional publication system, and in particular to journals. calhoun ( , p. ) cites problems with the way that librarians talk to faculty about open access, often emphasising a subscriptions crisis that academics do not recognise as needing attention. similarly, librarians’ promotion of their roles in research data management may face barriers in the shape of researcher negativity towards data sharing (pinfield, cox, & smith, , p. ) . convincing library staff that libraries should adopt new roles to enable digital scholarship can also be an issue. the messy, unpredictable nature of digital scholarship asks questions of libraries in terms of agility and risk taking. its experimental approach, with projects prone to failure, may not sit well with libraries’ tendency towards orderliness and predictable outcomes (posner, , p. ). a clash of cultures is evident here. equally, the culture of easy creation of content and its publication to the social web may clash with librarians’ values of authority and authenticity (calhoun, , p. ), limiting their full engagement with social media and thereby with new modes of scholarship. library staff may not recognise the validity of adding a publishing role to existing offerings (huwe, , p. ). rockenbach ( , p. ) identifies tensions between traditional notions of library service and new models of user engagement. this is most manifest in a debate, further discussed later in this article, as to whether librarians should take a supporting role in digital scholarship or should see themselves as active partners. the support model is traditional but there is a strong body of literature which sees it as sub-optimal (posner, , p. ) and advocates an equal partnership approach, with some (vandegrift & varner, , p. ) adducing a problem of librarian timidity based on an inferiority complex in relation to academics. librarians’ lack of confidence in their own skills can hold back progress in areas such as research data management (tenopir, et al., , p. ). all of this creates a strong imperative for library leaders to communicate very effectively the strategic importance of new digital scholarship roles and initiatives to library staff as well as external audiences. the preceding paragraphs have focused on challenges, but there are great opportunities for libraries to broadcast a series of very positive messages about their contribution to digital scholarship. libraries have some real strengths to communicate and these are the focus of the next section. a recurring theme is the importance of relationships in this space (lippincott, et al., ; rockenbach, , pp. - ; vandegrift & varner, ) and libraries have a successful tradition of building good relations (pinfield, et al., , p. ; rockenbach, , p. ). uncertainties regarding the sustainability of digital scholarship projects and ongoing responsibility for them (arms, calimlim, & walle, ; kitchin, collins, & frost, ) can be turned to advantage by libraries through the more stable funding models they typically enjoy. the greatest strength for libraries, however, is that they have shared interests with their constituencies, and particularly with the humanities, in “collecting, organizing and preserving our shared collective memory”, helping to “remember the past, understand the present and build the future” (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). libraries and digital scholarship are, in fact, a natural fit and this should shape communications around them. key messages to communicate libraries have much to offer to digital scholarship and need to communicate these advantages strongly. sinclair ( ) argues that libraries are natural incubators for digital scholarship, and others (alexander, et al., ; rockenbach, , pp. - ) make a similar case in relation more specifically to the digital humanities. positive features include libraries as neutral, interdisciplinary spaces with staff who can bring together the many different and often disparate players on campus, at a minimum enabling dialogue but often also productive partnership between them. strong relationships with faculty and a habit of collaboration and connecting can be leveraged to the full in this regard. the library as place is a significant asset and there has been a move towards establishing digital scholarship centres in library buildings, with numerous examples in the united states in particular (sinclair, ). a particular advantage the library can offer is to make expensive technologies available for use and experimentation at an accessible and welcoming location by anyone on campus (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). the traditional skills of librarians and the areas of focus of libraries match well with the needs of digital scholarship. these include cataloguing, curation and sharing of information, translating in more recent times to metadata, digital preservation and open access. library collections, notably archives and rare materials, are the backbone of many projects, especially, but not only, in the digital humanities, and their digitisation enables new forms of enquiry (green & courtney, ). there are therefore vital human and documentary resources to offer and promote. another essential infrastructure, in which libraries are often lead investors on campus, is the hardware and software environment for digital preservation, publishing and presentation, as well as open access and data curation. experience and expertise with platforms such as fedora, open journal systems, omeka, dspace and dataverse places library staff in valued advisory and consultancy roles. academic staff and other stakeholders, including university leadership, whose perception of libraries can be somewhat dated, may not appreciate the key roles that the library can play in digital scholarship, so communicating them actively and effectively is essential. the concept of library as equal partner in digital scholarship is key and should be communicated clearly, with positive linkage both to success and sustainability. such partnership need not be seen as a departure from traditional research library strengths (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). the opportunity to move from established service-based approaches to research collaboration (brown, wolski, & richardson, , p. ) and co-contribution to the creation of new knowledge (monastersky, , p. ) should be embraced. librarians have clearly asserted this partner role in some areas, notably research data management, as at griffith university in australia (searle, wolski, simons, & richardson, ), while digital scholarship centres have enabled engagement with constituents as partners rather than clients (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). service models are limiting and library roles should more productively be marketed in terms of expertise (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). posner ( , p. ) emphasises the valuable digital humanities work that library professionals have conceived and performed and the importance both of ensuring it is credited and of promoting it as a vital and rare skill, “not a service to be offered in silent support of a scholar’s master plan”. the skills and resources libraries can bring to digital scholarship will be more effectively harnessed through partnership and this outlook should pervade library communications. partnership represents enlightened self-interest for all parties too. sustainability is a core issue for digital scholarship, often due to its experimental nature, and many projects encounter an uncertain future beyond any initial funding. it is no coincidence that the ithaka study on sustaining the digital humanities (maron & pickle, , p. ) places knitting deep partnership among campus units, including libraries, at the top of its list of success factors for developing a system to sustain digital humanities resources. the mutual support at the university of maryland between the libraries and the maryland institute for technology in the humanities is provided in the ithaka study as an example of good practice. the partnership model at digital scholarship centres has also been seen as likely to generate sustainable results and to involve the library in funding proposals and grant applications (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , p. ). faculty partnerships have proved vital to digitisation projects, as at the university of nevada, las vegas (lampert & vaughan, , pp. - ). libraries take a long view of digital resources and have a particular interest in promoting their sustainability and preservation. they can leverage their more stable budget model (schaffner & erway, , p. ) to advantage, both for others on campus and for themselves. in the latter context it is important to make a statement of intent by putting the library’s own digital scholarship engagements, staffing and infrastructures on a long-term footing (posner, , p. ). articulating to funders and stakeholders the benefits of digital scholarship, associated projects and the library’s involvement is key to the sustainability agenda. surprisingly, deficits have been noted in terms of dissemination of information about projects and resources (maron & pickle, , p. ), and the literature on marketing of digital collections is thin (schrier, ). failure to communicate the value of digital scholarship initiatives is likely to have negative implications in terms of funding and long-term sustainability. those benefits will vary from institution to institution but some are common enough and are well presented in a report on the impact of uk investment in digitised resources (tanner & deegan, ). this report outlines benefits for research, such as enabling new areas of enquiry and allowing scholars to concentrate on analysis instead of data collation, and for teaching through access to a more varied and rich range of materials (pp. - ). other benefits to be promoted locally may include text and data mining opportunities, wider access to the institution’s research, stronger interdisciplinary collaboration and partnerships with other institutions. communicating a clear value proposition is vital to sustainability (calhoun, , p. ; maron, smith, & loy, , pp. - ). this could focus on the unique features of a digital resource and the scholarship it enables or the time a new platform saves. equally, alignment with the institutional mission may be emphasised, for example higher rates of citation for open access publications or the institutional credit bestowed by the publication of high-quality digital resources such as the university of virginia’s valley of the shadow (http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/) project. communication strategies also need to look beyond emphasising immediate and local benefits. libraries have rightly begun to move away from a collection-centric focus (calhoun, , p. ) to a broader view of the positive social influence of digital initiatives, recognising that the collection is only a means to an end (schrier, ). wider, often global, benefits to promote include the advancement of knowledge, more equitable sharing of research outputs through open access, cultural engagement, economic benefits, bringing communities together and achieving long-term preservation (calhoun, , pp. - ; tanner & deegan, , pp. - , - ). the delos digital library manifesto captures well the social and intellectual function of digital libraries, emphasising their facilitation of communication, collaboration and other forms of interaction and placing them at the centre of intellectual activity (candela et al., ). http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/ returning to a local focus, a further area for communication is the library’s capacity to enable digital scholarship and how this will be managed relative to demand and expectation. as mentioned earlier, capacity can take the form of space (sometimes incorporating digital scholarship centres), equipment, storage, and hardware and software platforms. people, however, represent the most valuable resource the library can offer. telling the story of previous or current involvements and initiatives is a good indicator of success and potential for future engagement. identifying and promoting the teams, roles, skills and individuals available to participate in digital scholarship is important. job titles and team nomenclature can convey a lot. new library job titles have emerged, such as digital humanities librarian and digital humanities design consultant (rockenbach, , p. ), as have new teams, examples being the scholarly communications team at the university of edinburgh and the open access and data curation team at the university of exeter (corrall, , p. ). brown university (http://library.brown.edu/cds/) is interesting in that its center for digital scholarship represents a cross-departmental library team, led by a digital scholarship services manager and incorporating posts such as scientific data management specialist, manager of imaging and metadata services and data visualization coordinator, with other new posts on the horizon, including digital scholarship editor and information designer for digital scholarly publications, enabling partnership through all steps of the research cycle (maron, , p. ). managing the library’s involvement in digital scholarship is challenging and there needs to be clarity around what can and cannot be done within finite resources in a climate of high expectation and demand. digitisation, in particular, has created unrealistic expectations that any collection can be made accessible in digital format without consideration of cost, complexity or copyright, and librarians have to explain the need for selectivity (mills, , p. ). it is interesting to note the inclusion of a sub-section on managing expectation in an earlier version of the digitisation strategy of the university of manchester library ( , p. ). the management of expectations is a recurrent http://library.brown.edu/cds/ theme in the literature (maron & pickle, , p. ; schaffner & erway, , p. ; vinopal & mccormick, , pp. - ). strategies include publishing criteria for project selection, developing service level agreements, using scale solutions, implementing project and portfolio management, and cost recovery. some of these measures, especially when they involve saying no or levying costs, are unpopular. standing firm and communicating a clear position calls in particular on library leaders to take a strong and active role and to be decisive with regard to prioritisation (vinopal & mccormick, , pp. - ). without clear communication strategies, resources will be spread too thinly, or invested inappropriately, and the library’s reputation as a key player in digital scholarship will be compromised. communication strategies promotional campaigns could be regarded as the most likely way to broadcast the library’s capacity to deliver new value and new services, but communicating new library roles to enable digital scholarship poses different challenges. there is a stronger emphasis on understanding, having a facilitative mindset, being “of” the relevant communities, actively delivering, advocating effectively and using social media to build community delivering on digital scholarship projects and infrastructures is probably the best advertisement for what the library can do. resources and communication effort can, however, be misdirected without a full appreciation first of the local landscape. investment is vital in understanding the priorities of the range of audiences involved and recognising their diverse skills, culture, needs and challenges (lewis, spiro, wang, & cawthorne, ). calhoun ( ) rightly emphasises this point and it is no coincidence that in her table (p. ) of barriers to institutional repositories and possible responses the most common action recommended is conducting audience needs assessments. surveys have also proved to be valuable tools in understanding perspectives on open access (moore, ), including different disciplinary attitudes (creaser, ). they can helpfully inform the creation of digital collections (green & courtney, ) by elucidating the complex requirements of users and creating an understanding of how such collections are integrated into humanities scholarship. consultation engages users with the selection of digitisation projects (mills, ) and is essential to the development of policies for research data management (digital curation centre, ; pinfield, et al., , pp. , ). observation is also recommended in assessing the library’s level of engagement with digital humanities and noting gaps to fill (schaffner & erway, , p. ), while there is value in online forms of listening by following social media to learn of developments and to understand language and cultural norms (schrier, ). the mentality that libraries bring to digital scholarship underpins how they communicate their roles. it has already been noted that this field is multi-stranded, experimental and lacking clear boundaries. this calls for an agile outlook from libraries, characterised by “flexibility, inquisitive practices, collaboration, starting with "yes," and being courageous” (alexander, et al., ). a level of confidence, positivity and openness is implied, as is curiosity, which can manifest itself in a willingness to learn and to explore possibilities. it has been noted that the traditional reference interview offers an ideal foundation in this regard (vinopal & mccormick, , p. ). what is needed is to orient it in the direction of open-ended exploration instead of guidance towards specifics (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). a good understanding of user needs can generate a solutions-focused approach. libraries’ digital scholarship websites may communicate this “can-do” approach effectively. the emory center for digital scholarship website bills the center as providing “a one-stop shop for anyone at emory interested in incorporating digital technology into teaching, research, publishing, and exhibiting scholarly work” (http://digitalscholarship.emory.edu/). the website of the center for digital http://digitalscholarship.emory.edu/ scholarship (cds) at brown university has a section titled “how can i work with cds?” which shows what the center can do for users by translating its activities into typical actions for users, followed by photos of staff who can help, creating a very confident offering and a highly positive impression (http://library.brown.edu/cds/). there is no shortage of problems to solve, or user needs to be addressed, and libraries can productively focus their efforts and communications accordingly. for example, discoverability of their digital projects and publications is known to be a concern for scholars (calhoun, , p. ; schaffner & erway, , pp. , ). libraries have always been committed to discovery and have taken on new roles in minting digital object identifiers (dois) and promoting the use of author identifiers such as orcid to associate authors unambiguously with their content. these roles should be positively communicated as value-added solutions from the library. a participative mentality is also needed, and immersion into the digital scholarship community is an effective way of promoting the contributions of librarians. this happens readily when digital scholarship centres are based in libraries, encouraging also a social dimension (lippincott & goldenberg-hart, , pp. - ). any form of proximity certainly helps and co-location at national university of ireland (nui), galway, of the library’s archives and special collections with two major humanities and social sciences research institutes in a new research building has opened up new digital project collaborations (cox, ). going out of the library and having conversations with a range of stakeholders makes a statement of engagement and builds trust. this may involve attending digital scholarship events in academic departments or presenting papers at seminars and conferences outside the institution (vandegrift & varner, , p. ). libraries can host their own events with positive impact. examples of such events include a programme of digitisation workshops at university college dublin ( ), and a seminar on creating and exploiting digital collections at nui galway ( ) which brought together a number of players http://library.brown.edu/cds/ across the campus and promoted engagement with the library’s digital scholarship enablement strategy. actively participating in conversations is important and can advance the library role in research data management policy (erway, ) or prove the value of digital collections (schrier, ). relationships are of particular importance in digital scholarship (lippincott, et al., , pp. , ; rockenbach, , p. ), need investment by libraries (posner, , p. ) and can be mutually supportive (vandegrift & varner, ). ultimately, participation is communication. a track record of delivery on digital scholarship projects and infrastructures is the best credential for library capability. libraries commonly use their websites to advertise successful project involvements, examples being the digital humanities center at the university of rochester (http://humanities.lib.rochester.edu/) and the digital scholarship lab at the university of richmond (http://dsl.richmond.edu/). staff expertise is a vital strength and is prominently featured by, among others, the center for digital scholarship at brown university library (http://library.brown.edu/cds/). documenting progress and achievement through publications can be effective, as experienced at nui galway which has issued annual reports (http://tinyurl.com/legpsxk) of its project to digitise the archive of the abbey theatre (bradley & keane, ), focusing strongly on scholarly engagement with the digital archive. a compelling approach to communicating the library’s role is to link its contributions to all stages of the research lifecycle. good examples of this can be seen at king’s college london, (http://www.kcl.ac.uk/library/researchsupport/index.aspx ) and the university of california irvine (http://www.lib.uci.edu/dss/ ). the library can be a leader as well as a partner. librarians develop and lead their own digital humanities projects (posner, , pp. - ) and these need to be promoted. librarians have exercised leadership on campus in open access and, more recently, research data management. each of these areas is complex and in need of people who can advise knowledgeably on policy formulation, interpretation and implementation (briney, goben, & zilinski, http://humanities.lib.rochester.edu/ http://dsl.richmond.edu/ http://library.brown.edu/cds/ http://tinyurl.com/legpsxk http://www.kcl.ac.uk/library/researchsupport/index.aspx http://www.lib.uci.edu/dss/ ). librarians have established and communicated strong credibility, often as “resident experts in campus discussions” (fruin & sutton, , p. ). advocacy forms part of the communications strategy across all areas of digital scholarship. this is especially the case for open access and research data management the benefits of which, as already noted, may not be understood or embraced by faculty. promoting each successfully requires an appreciation of campus politics and cultivation of good relations with senior personnel such as research or it directors (pinfield, et al., , p. ), or respected academics who can partner in developing policy and be effective champions in selling it (fruin & sutton, , pp. - ). keeping documentation concise, clear and benefits-focused is important. an example of how this approach works was in the drafting of a two-page open access policy at nui galway (http://tinyurl.com/pfpslqd). language is significant too, and a very helpful guide to open access policies (harvard university) includes a section on “talking about a policy” which notes terminology to promote or avoid. the word “mandate”, for example, may prove problematic in creating a perception of institutional coercion. empathy with academic concerns and articulation of differentiated audience-specific benefits (calhoun, , p. ) will enhance communication and successful implementation. marketing techniques come into play too and branding can communicate important messages. nui galway’s library has published a digital scholarship enablement strategy (http://tinyurl.com/next cw) , deliberately choosing the word “enablement” rather than “service” or “support”. succinct branding is evident in “collaborate → iterate → discuss” for the university of virginia library’s scholars’ lab (http://scholarslab.org/), or “partnering to advance scholarship” at the digital scholarship lab in the j. murrey atkins library, university of carolina at charlotte (http://dsl.uncc.edu/). the latter institution also offers an example of the successful use of “joined- http://tinyurl.com/pfpslqd http://tinyurl.com/next cw http://scholarslab.org/ http://dsl.uncc.edu/ up” marketing campaigns to promote the library’s publishing services through a variety of channels, including campus conversations, newsletters, guides and a launch party to mark the publication of its first journal issue (wu & mccullough, , pp. - ). multi-faceted campaigns can be built around events such as international open access week (http://www.openaccessweek.org/) every october, the publication of a digital collection at harvard university (madsen, , pp. - ), or the establishment of a new research storage service at griffith university (searle, ). the use of social media has become a vital component of libraries’ communication strategies, enabling them not just to promote digital scholarship roles and resources but to engage users and build communities. usage of channels such as blogs and twitter is common enough but libraries’ exploitation of the full potential of social media has been limited by a collection-centric rather than people-centric worldview (calhoun, , p. ), with a tendency to promote collections rather than engage users (schrier, ). there has, however, been a definite shift in perspective in recent times from collections to networked communities, from repositories to social platforms and from content consumers to content creators and contributors, creating new roles for libraries on the social web and impacting scholarship more widely as well (calhoun, , pp. - ). researchers have embraced scholarly social networks such as researchgate, academia and mendeley as they enable sharing, discovery and new contacts. similar benefits are expected of digital scholarship platforms and institutional repositories have integrated rss feeds, altmetrics and social media functionality (marsh, , p. ). libraries have used social media optimisation strategies to make it easy to share, bookmark and comment on digital content (calhoun, , pp. - ). crowdsourcing approaches such as transcription, supplementing metadata and the identification and provenance of materials (peaker, ) have also actively engaged audiences and built communities around projects. examples http://www.openaccessweek.org/ include diy history (http://diyhistory.lib.uiowa.edu/) at the iowa digital library, which has engaged participation in the transcription of over , pages of handwritten archival material to date, and the university of pennsylvania libraries’ provenance online project (https://provenanceonlineproject.wordpress.com/) which sources information on the provenance of rare books. value-added participation by librarians in social media conversations around digital collections, and posting of contributions targeted at known areas of interest to a community, are also seen as ways of enhancing credibility, developing trust, building relationships and engaging support (schrier, ). finally, as noted earlier, library managers in particular need to communicate effectively with their own staff. library staff with traditional views of service boundaries may be sceptical about engagement with digital scholarship and the investment of resources in that direction, especially when this represents the replacement of positions formerly assigned to more established, possibly legacy, functions. a clear and ongoing articulation by library leadership of the strategic importance of new digital scholarship roles is needed (vinopal & mccormick, , pp. , , ), incorporating messages around vision, rationale, expectations, priorities and challenges. ensuring connectivity between digital scholarship staff and the rest of the library is important too. briefing sessions to all library staff about activities and initiatives are valuable. they have, in the author’s experience, proved effective at nui galway, enabling face-to-face communication and discussion. linkage with established areas like archives or research services is needed and can be cultivated. the number of library staff involved in digital scholarship is typically small relative to the whole library team and this creates its own pressure. such staff may be overextended, in need of guidance or direction, challenged by the evolving skillset required or frustrated by slow progress. they too need particular communication from library leadership to support, guide, reassure and encourage, http://diyhistory.lib.uiowa.edu/ https://provenanceonlineproject.wordpress.com/ as well as to commit the necessary resources, including training or development opportunities and even the permission to fail (posner, , p. ). effective communication structures within a digital scholarship team, including regular meetings, will ensure awareness of activities as well as sharing of, and learning from, experience. conclusion digital scholarship is a relatively new field of activity and is presenting both opportunities and challenges for libraries. the field is multi-stranded and the library response has mirrored this, with a wide range of initiatives and innovations in evidence. there are many communities involved in digital scholarship and a distinctive, experimental culture has developed, often resulting in a somewhat disjointed approach across the campus. libraries need to make their contribution and to communicate their roles in this environment, recognising and overcoming potential mismatches in culture and perspective. some big positives are the strong relationships that libraries have typically built with their academic communities, the natural fit between digital scholarship and the library mission, and the need for library contributions, both of themselves and to deliver sustainability. communication on campus and beyond about digital scholarship projects, by libraries and others, has not always been a strength. library roles may not be recognised and it is vital to get out important messages about people, skills, capabilities, collections, spaces and infrastructures, as well as the benefits delivered. these are valued, as is the move towards a partnership approach which can also be promoted in new job titles and team names. a specific communications strategy is needed, one that focuses on inserting the library into digital scholarship communities, mirroring their experimental mindset, and projecting a confident, “can-do” outlook. librarians need to participate, attend, present and converse, in general by being “out there”, communicating by doing and by sharing expertise. all of this must, however, be based on understanding the nature and needs of those involved in digital scholarship and their range of activities in order to communicate added value and to advocate effectively and sensitively. online communications are important, especially the strategic use of social media to build trust and community. engaging all library staff also needs effort so that they understand and can promote the library’s new roles as an enabling partner in digital scholarship. references alexander, l., case, b. d., downing, k. e., gomis, m., & maslowski, e. 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( ). first steps for a library publisher: developing publishing services at unc charlotte j. murrey atkins library. oclc systems & services: international digital library perspectives ( ), - . retrieved from doi:http://dx.doi.org/ . /oclc- - - http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/services-and-support/staff/teaching/services/digitisation-services/about/_files/digitisationstrategyfinal.pdf http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/services-and-support/staff/teaching/services/digitisation-services/about/_files/digitisationstrategyfinal.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://publications.arl.org/rli / http://dx.doi.org/ . /oclc- - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /oclc- - - project_muse_ the digital edition and the digital humanities amy e. earhart abstr act the legacy of early digital editions and their related scholarship reveals the textual founda- tion of digital literary studies, a foundation that emphasized form and materiality, in effect a representational rather than interpretative view of text. early digital editions were formed out of a “whole text” approach, a cohesive print-to-digital model that features interrelated textual materials, often in print book form, rather than an expansive and fragmented repre- sentation of text, as is increasingly the case with data-based practices. this article examines the ways in which the digital edition privileges the structure of the book, which is viewed as a self-contained entity with a naturalized means for displaying knowledge and replicated in most aspects of creating digital editions, from display to data treatment. in the early s, liter ary editor ial schol arship was in upheaval. conflict within, authorial intent versus the social construction of the text, and without, the devaluation of editorial work by the larger discipline, made the field extremely unstable. while textual studies work was considered a central aspect of literary studies during the early to mid century, by the s high literary criticism had driven textual studies to the borders of the field. post-structuralists rejected the materiality of the text that those invested in editorial work relished, broadening the con- cept of text to a definition far more amorphous than that embraced within the textual world. some, such as derrida, refused the physical constraints attached to text, arguing for “a ‘text’ that is henceforth no longer a finished corpus of writing, some content enclosed in a book or its margins, but a dif- ferential network, a fabric of traces referring endlessly to something other than itself, to other differential traces” (der r ida , ). harold bloom likewise rejected texts; “there are no texts [. . .] but only interpretations” (tanselle , ). while american textual studies scholars bemoaned . judith kennedy ( ) offers a clear and useful summary of the conflict within textual studies. amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | their increasing distance from the scholarly mainstream, internal tensions were also emerging between greg–bowers textual studies critics, such as g. thomas tanselle, and those who championed a reevaluation of the theo- retical framework of textual studies, such as jerome mcgann, d. f. mcken- zie, and david greetham. in addition to these challenges, the increasing constraints of scholarly publication began to make editors fear that the future of scholarly editions was bleak. by the mid s the scholarly pub- lishing market was already in decline. peter shillingsburg recognized that as the scholarly market contracted, the ability to publish textual editions would likewise diminish: a scholarly edition is a thick book (five hundred to a thousand pages) printed on acid-free paper guaranteed for years, in sturdy bindings, with a list of ten to twenty editors and advisory editors, published by a reputable academic press and costing a minimum of fifty dollars, but more often over one hundred. it contains a pure virgin text or, unironi- cally, a fully restored one. already a thick tome because of the histori- cal and textual introductions and textual apparatus, scholarly editions frequently exclude explanatory annotations because the space they require would add unduly to the cost (already out of the reach of ordi- nary mortals and nearly out of reach for the ordinary research library). (shillingsburg , ) shillingsburg predicted the decline of the scholarly edition based primarily on economics, which was verified by the mla ad hoc committee on scholarly publishing report. the committee report noted that declin- ing subsidies of university presses and decreasing library acquisition fund- ing has caused a substantial decrease of sales while the numbers of faculty who are required to publish a monograph for tenure and promotion has increased, putting undue pressure on the fragile system. the committee noted that scholarly editions, in particular, were under threat because of cost, time of production and neh funding cuts (mla ad hoc commit- tee , .). it was at this bleak moment that what we now call digital . the scholarly publishing industry has only become less stable since the mla report. scholarly presses, such as rice, are closing, and those that remain continue to struggle to find a sustainable economic model. additionally, library funding continues to contract while more and more universities and colleges demand monographs for tenure and promotion. | textual cultures . ( ) editing emerged as a potential solution to the increasing pressures on edi- tion production. as editors searched for ways to create a better edition and to reinsert editing into the core of literary studies, they began to consider digital tech- nologies as a possible helpmate. experimental digital editions, including the electronic beowulf, the canterbury tales project, and the piers plow- man, adopted a tool-based technology approach to enact best practices in the new environment and launched digital editing, a focus on what the mla committee on scholarly editions described as “the scholarly edi- tion’s basic task” — “to present a reliable text”. (mla commit tee for scholarly editing ). during this period groundbreaking scholar- ship was published that defined the direction of digital literary studies in english. from peter shillingsburg’s early scholarly editing in the computer age to jerome mcgann’s later radiant textuality, many textual studies scholars professed their investment in technology and the text. collec- tions, including the literary text in the digital age (finner an ) and electronic textual editing (bur nard, o’br ien o’keeffe, unsworth ), helped to define digital humanities with a textual studies slant. even the most traditional textual scholars recognized the need to con- front the digital, whether to embrace, to alter, or to reject the new tech- nology. richard finneran would call the digital a “fundamental paradigm shift” ( , ix) and david greetham argued that we “will need the facili- ties of electronic, reader-driven editions to achieve the flexibility and lack of closure that differance observes” ( , ). still other scholars of english literature, among them the aforementioned shillingsburg and mcgann, developed digital tools and editions, and contended that digital work was central to textual studies. g. thomas tanselle recognized that the digi- tal was useful to editorial work, though he posited a far more constrained view of the power of digitization: “computerization is simply the latest chapter in the long story of facilitating the reproduction and alteration of texts; what remains constant is the inseparability of recorded language from the technology that produced it and makes it accessible” ( , ). while these scholars did not agree about how the digital would be used . in this article i focus on those projects that emerge from the textual studies milieu. i exclude discussion of for-profit digitization projects, such as chadwyck- healey’s the english poetry full-text database, gale’s eighteenth century col- lection online (ecco), and e-text projects developed out of libraries. both models have different structures and concerns and it would be most beneficial to address these issues elsewhere. amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | within textual studies, they all acknowledged that the digital would have an impact on scholarship. the legacy of early digital editions and archival projects and their related scholarship reveals the textual foundation of digital literary stud- ies, a foundation that emphasized form and materiality. in scholarly editing in the computer age, peter shillingsburg notes that “editing is, above all else, a matter of forms”, and that the “forms, the details of presentation, are often thought to be the responsibility of editors” ( , ). the pat- terns and structure to which shillingsburg points are concepts that have transferred into the digital literary studies and are particularly apparent in the way in which interface represents the physical object. for many early edition projects, the digital interface is the book form, with digital design mimicking the traditional book structure including a table of contents, page display and index. the form, however, was a correlation of materi- ality, not a means of manipulation. in his foreword to electronic textual editing, tanselle ( , ) accepts that the digital is a useful medium in which to publish the edition, but warns that “when the excitement leads to the idea that the computer alters the ontology of texts and makes possible new kinds of reading and analysis, it has gone too far”. the binary that tanselle notes — digital as a tool versus the digital as a means to new forms, ontologies, reading or analysis — is a theme replicated across digital textual scholarship and projects. or, as speed hill has written, “i can live with technological change per se, but i fear the more fundamental shift in the aims and purposes of scholarly editing that threatens the work we invest in preserving the artifacts we cherish. technological change overvalues the new, the computer-hip, the gee-whiz factor, while devaluing editions that appear in the form and format of the traditional code” ( , ). david gants also sees the digital environment as a way to represent “a well- designed electronic edition” that “can exploit the flexibility of the digital medium and avoid the need to deform the text; it can shift and adapt to the . david greetham lambasted the decision to invite tanselle to write the intro- duction for the electronic textual editing volume, wondering: “[a]re the con- tributors aware that many of their arguments and practices are being undercut by the forward?” ( , ). while there is no doubt that tanselle spent a good portion of his career attacking the textual editors represented in the book, i would argue that there is much in the formulation of textual studies’ methods that is replicated in digital humanities work that matches tanselle’s methodolo- gies. however, it is the experimentation in the field, the work that forms new knowledge, that he rejects. certain kinds of digital editions that resemble print editions would not be challenged by tanselle. | textual cultures . ( ) needs of the individual user, encouraging us, as tanselle notes, to become collaborators” ( , ). in each of these representations of digital edit- ing the goal remains the same — “to avoid the need to deform the text” (cfr. mcgann ). even those who are some of the staunchest support- ers of digital innovation recognize that early digital editions did little more than replicate print structures. peter robinson, for one, acknowledges the imitative qualities of early textual studies projects: “the first missing aspect is that up to now, almost without exception, no scholarly electronic edi- tion has presented material which could not have been presented in book form, nor indeed presented this material in a manner significantly different from that which could have been managed in print” ( ). it is the digital edition’s apparent similarity to print that reassuringly runs through early digital editorial work; the hallmark of the early digital edition is the sense of stability and the reassurance of forms that look like a print text. and while those forms might remain stable, the digital allows for the creation of better-than-print editions. for example, the electronic beowulf project collects dispersed materials to allow scholars to view and manipu- late easily otherwise fragile materials. the focus of the edition interface is on the physical format of the primary manuscript source. in truth, the digital beowulf resembles the book, in the best of the print tradition, that medievalist editors dream of — beowulf collected and collated in its ancient form, rather than dispersed across multiple libraries and countries. pages are laid out side by side, and the tools are designed to manipulate the book- based image, rather than to deconstruct, separate, or treat blocks of text as data sets. traditionally philological in its approach, electronic beowulf includes the images of multiple manuscripts, transcriptions, and other types of support materials, effectively becoming a highly enriched facsimile edition. this method is reinforced by the editor kevin kiernan’s stated desire “to draw attention back to the manuscript, not to provide definitive solutions to problems that exist in the manuscript [. . .]. the edition and its glossary also draw attention to their source in the manuscript by providing citations to folios, folio-lines, and verse-lines” ([ ] ). joe viscomi, one of the editors of the blake archive, similarly sees the digital environ- ment as a way to resolve problems found in a traditional print edition. in the case of the blake archive this has meant even how to represent details such as the variations in the hand-colored poems. when previously faced with the limitations of print, editors either developed a text only edition, which was inexpensive, or monochromatic reproductions, which left out the details of the original, or published hand-colored collotypes, often pro- hibitively expensive (viscomi , ). the blake archive has developed amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | protocols to replicate the uniqueness of the individual texts in the digital environment, producing a stunning and groundbreaking archive. the end result is an edition that is as close to the printed original(s) as possible. the project was awarded the mla prize for a distinguished scholarly edition, an honor rightly bestowed on the edition for its use of the digital to make an accurate edition. at the same time, the success of the blake archive depends in large part on a recognizable association to print form that bridges the gap between printed editions and digital humanities. while editors have seen the digital as a tool to produce ideally expanded facsimile editions, they have continued, in this period, to bemoan the seemingly unstable environment of the digital. beyond the problems with the digital per se, where the files seem fragile, upgrades are unsteady and interoperability is unsure, textual studies scholars are hesitant about the way by which the digital leaves the text malleable. it is no surprise that early forms of digital editions were issued in cd forms. like a book, a cd could be published, distributed, and owned. it could be placed on a shelf, taken down and perused when needed. digital editions tried to create a representation that was as close to the original as possible, often center- ing the edition on a high quality image such as is the case with the blake archive. peter shillingsburg notes: “just as a researcher in a library request- ing the first edition of a work would reject a transcription of that edition as a basis for research, so a researcher using an electronic edition should also reject a transcript. an image is, after all, as close as one can get, electroni- cally, to the original. the transcript becomes a convenience for searching, while the original (or a good image of it) continues to be used as the real thing” (shillingsburg ). notice here that shillingsburg privileges the image over the editorial transcription, rejecting the transcription as not good enough or not authentic enough, in effect using the digital to produce a high-quality facsimile. projects of the mid- to late s like the walt whitman archive or rossetti archive are not imagined as mere facsimiles, but fluid and malleable textual materials, often treated, at the code level, as data sets, a view that clearly made editors like speed hill uncomfortable. hill rejected mcgann’s digital work which, he says, embraces “a device designed for and dedicated to the de-materialization — for that’s what the term ‘digitization’ really means — of that very same material artifact into a signal stream made up of zillions of offs and ons, wholly dependent on a complex infrastructure over which none of us has any control” ( , ). these same fears remain with us today, as reactions to the digital are often critical of any technological treatment of the text that manipulates the form. | textual cultures . ( ) the early period of electronic textual studies projects might be char- acterized as that of the “value added” edition, where textual scholars believed that technology “has a set of qualities that can be used to give the electronic text an added value towards the printed text” (k arlsson and malm , ). as long-standing print editorial projects, from the founding fathers’ documents to shakespeare, develop digital components, versions, or editions, and as presses in the united states now seem less likely to support large-scale editorial projects, it seems apparent that the future of editing is digital. early projects along these lines have been so suc- cessful that kenneth price has maintained that “digital work has achieved primacy only for editions” ( , ). but what if we flip price’s statement?: textual studies are central to digital humanities work. textual studies theo- ries, forms, practices, and methodologies have been and are interwoven into the digital humanities. but what, exactly, does the legacy of textual studies mean to the way in which we understand digital literary studies? in spite of the importance of digital editorial production, many prac- titioners of digital humanities lack an understanding of the theories, methodologies, and history of textual studies. editions are recognized early digital forms, yet issues of production that hinge on methodology in scholarly editing, from tei to interface design, have been integrated in the field without a clear understanding of their historical context. at the same time, some in the digital humanities community have begun to view digital edition building as technologically unsophisticated, in effect echoing ian small’s view of editing as “a largely pragmatic, unsophisticated activity” ( , ). amanda gailey and andrew jewell call this techno- logical hipsterism: “this shift in focus from content development to tech- nological innovation, a trend that sometimes seems driven by innovation for innovation’s sake, can at its worst seem to posit a ‘hipster ethos’ for the digital humanities community — that the quality of the work you do is not so important as staying at the edge of innovation, always one step ahead of the unfashionable masses” ( , ). we might wonder if digital humanities is potentially in danger of replicating the rejection of edition building years ago at the hands of literary critics? michael groden sums up the initial divide: “literary theorists and critics have tended to see edit- ing and bibliography as activities that are preliminary to criticism and the textual theorists and critics themselves as concerned only with empirical evidence, often with minute details (commas, watermarks)” ( , ). we must guard against a similar paradigm within the digital humanities by which editing would be viewed merely as preliminary to the “real work” of amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | interpretative technology in data mining. there is good reason to consider textual studies a central pillar of digital humanities work. the centrality of textual studies to digital humanities has helped to draw charges of a lack of critical rigor in digital humanities work. leroy f. searle has suggested that “[f]or an earlier generation, the vocation of edito- rial scholarship often seemed a haven (if not the very citadel) of intellec- tual probity, in which one could practice a science — mild and respectful, if sometimes dull — without being drawn into the relatively unregulated life of literary criticism and theory, where, as i. a. richards remarked after a lifetime of experience with it, ‘an indecent disregard of fact is still current form’” (searle , ). martha nell smith makes a similar argument regarding the conservatism of digital humanities, arguing that the repli- cation of traditional methodologies damages the possibilities contained within the new medium. in “the human touch: software of the highest order, revisiting editing as interpretation”, smith ( ) points to the way in which digital humanities has retreated into the modes of analytic, objective approaches as a “safe” alternative to the messy fluidities found in literary studies, noting: “[i]t was as if these matters of objective and hard science provided an oasis for folks who do not want to clutter sharp, dis- ciplined, methodical philosophy with considerations of the gender-, race-, and class-determined facts of life [. . .]. humanities computing seemed to offer a space free from all this messiness and a return to objective questions of representation” ( , ). the methodological histories of textual studies profoundly inform arguments voiced by searle and smith, and would be of great utility to digital humanists. perhaps the area of greatest impact of the historical traditions of tex- tual studies is the emphasis on what we might call a whole-text approach in the potential creation of a digital edition that is not deformed, that is a trustworthy text that has been subjected to strict editorial controls. peter shillingsburg has very vocally argued for such an approach to digital texts: “out of many (methodologies), one, but not a singularity of mono- lithic view — rather a general methodology of relational complexities: that can be the aesthetics of scholarly editing in the twenty-first century if we understand that the emerging oneness does not consist of simplification or elimination of the complexity but instead that it arises from our recogni- tion of the textual condition understood whole” ( , – ). the final outcome is still a centrality of the whole text, not text as discrete parts bro- ken into data chunks as we see, for instance, in approaches whose goal is data mining. as with the interfaces developed during the heyday of digital | textual cultures . ( ) edition building, a whole-text approach seeks to represent the text without intervention or deformation. as digital humanists experiment with data mining and visualizations, the treatment of the text is less about a repre- sentation and more about interpretation created through an algorithmic manipulation of the textual data points. such an approach is counter to those who championed the digital edition, but there remains no reason why such approaches cannot coexist within the larger digital humanities. one of the dangers of the loss of textual studies traditions is that we have not critically attended to the means by which certain approaches to digiti- zation have brought particularized assumptions into the field (small , ). tei’s limitations have received a great deal of attention, but the big data approaches are also flawed due to a lack of critical understanding of the processes of production and their methodological reasons in scholarly editing. as i have argued elsewhere, it is difficult to treat texts responsibly as “data” when much of our data set is inaccurate, whether because of faulty editing or because of the lack of digitization of certain types of texts, par- ticularly those by what we might think of as non-canonical authors. the tensions between such approaches threaten to create splits between digital editing and digital humanities reminiscent of the textual studies wars of the second half of the twentieth century. instead of envisioning scholarly textual editing as separate from inter- pretative approaches such as data mining, it might be useful to adapt the concept of the interface, which — as we recall — is in the primary para- digm of computer science a program that controls the display and allows the user to interact with the system. the majority of scholarly editorial work has focused on the interface as a display and interaction mechanism, as a single representation of the theoretical conception of editorial produc- tion. but what if we were, instead, to utilize the notion interface as con- structed by chemistry, creating a surface that forms a common boundary between two different phases? if we understand “interface” in this manner, then we might accept that the boundary necessitates multiple phases or approaches working in contact with each other, and that at those points of contact there is more interaction and interpretative flexibility. in this model, the interface allows seemingly contradictory items to coexist and work with one another. data sets and editions can coexist, but only if those from digital and textual editors can find bridges to those approaching digi- tal humanities from other traditions and with other goals. texas a&m university amy e. earhart : the digital edition and the digital humanities | works cited bur nar d, lou, katherine o’br ien o’keeffe, and john unsworth, eds. . electronic textual editing. new york: modern language association of america. der r ida, jacques. . archive fever: a freudian impression. chicago: university of chicago press. ezell, margaret j. m. . “editing early modern women’s manuscripts: theory, electronic editions, and the accidental copy-text”. literature compass . : – . finner an, richard j., ed. . the literary text in the digital age. ann arbor: uni- versity of michigan press. gailey, amanda, and andrew jewell. . “editors’ introduction to the first issue of scholarly editing: the annual of the association for documentary editing”. scholarly editing : – . gants, david. . “the cup ben jonson: ruminations of the electronic edition”. ben jonson journal : – . gr eeth am, d[avid] c. . “editorial and critical theory: from modernism to postmodernism”. palimpset: editorial theory in the humanities, edited by george b or nstein and ralph g. willi ams, – . ann arbor: university of michigan press. ———. . review of bur nar d, o’br ien o’keeffe, and unsworth . textual cultures . : – . groden, michael. . “contemporary textual and literary theory”. representing modernist texts: editing as interpretation, edited by george b or nstein, – . ann arbor: university of michigan press. hill, w. speed. . “editorial theory and literary criticism: lamb and wolf?” review : – . ———. . “from ‘an age of editing’ to a ‘paradigm shift’: an editorial retrospect”. text : – . k ar lsson, lina, and linda m alm. . “revolution or remediation?: a study of electronic scholarly editions on the web”. humanit . : – . kennedy, judith. . “‘a terrible beauty is born’: textual scholarship in the s”. victorian literature and culture : – . kier nan, kevin. 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pandemia eum rivista fondata da massimo montella dall’analisi al cambiamento della realtà paolo clini, ramona quattrini, umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile / digital humanities and commons: guidelines and recflections for a possible salvation «il capitale culturale», supplementi ( ), pp. - issn - (online); isbn - - - - doi: . / - / umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile * paolo clini, professore ordinario in disegno e rilievo, dipartimento dicea dell’università politecnica delle marche, via brecce bianche, ancona, email: p.clini@univpm.it. ** ramona quattrini, ricercatrice a tempo determinato in disegno e rilievo, dipartimento dicea dell’università politecnica delle marche, via brecce bianche, ancona, email: r.quattrini@univpm.it. alcune riflessioni e considerazioni presenti in questo saggio sono sostanziati e convalidati dalle applicazioni sviluppate e testate all’interno del progetto civitas, progetto strategico di ateneo di univpm. paolo clini*, ramona quattrini** abstract il covid- ha evidenziato in maniera drammatica la condizione di totale fragilità della cultura e, in particolare, del nostro patrimonio artistico e storico, tangibile e intangibile. una fragilità determinata sostanzialmente dall’assenza di relazioni, di cui invece il patrimonio vive nel susseguirsi storico delle società che lo conservano e lo condividono. ai tempi del covid- , in cui tutti i musei, i siti archeologici e i luoghi della cultura erano chiusi, si è posta con urgenza la riflessione su come mantenere vive queste relazioni, attraverso il digitale. l’articolo tratteggia riflessioni teoriche e metodologiche per un manifesto di buone pratiche operative e scientifiche, a partire dalle numerose esperienze condotte in ambito di umanesimo digitale. vengono esplicitati i quattro passaggi, intimamente connessi, su cui far leva per una filiera digitale consapevole e sostenibile: digitalizzazione scientifica, nuove forme di interazione virtuale, misurazione del gradimento dei pubblici, formazione di nuove competenze. paolo clini, ramona quattrini the pandemic crisis dramatically highlighted the fragility of culture and, in particular, of our tangible and intangible, artistic and historical heritage. a fragility determined substantially by the absence of relations, of which the heritage lives on in the historical succession of the societies that preserve and share it. in the days of covid, when all museums, archaeological sites and places of culture were closed, there was an urgent need to reflect on how to keep these relationships alive, through digital technologies. the article outlines theoretical and methodological reflections for a manifesto of good operative and scientific practices, starting from several experiences conducted in the field of digital humanities. the four closely connected steps on which to leverage for a conscious and sustainable digital supply chain are explained: scientific digitization, new forms of virtual interaction, measurement of public acceptance, training of new skills. . introduzione il covid- ha posto in maniera drammatica davanti ai nostri occhi la condizione di totale fragilità della cultura e, in particolare, del nostro patrimonio artistico e storico tangibile e intangibile. una fragilità determinata sostanzialmente dall’assenza di relazioni. il patrimonio vive quando agisce nei confronti delle società che nel loro susseguirsi storico lo conservano e lo condividono. questo è il suo autentico valore. ai tempi del covid- abbiamo vissuto un momento epocale. ci sono stati giorni in cui tutti i musei del mondo, tutti i siti archeologici, tutti i luoghi della cultura erano chiusi. non era mai accaduto, neanche durante la guerra. un silenzio inaccettabile perché testimoniava il silenzio della nostra civiltà. inaccettabile perché da tali situazioni l’uomo può morire, le stesse civiltà possono morire. oggi siamo quindi costretti a riflettere da un lato su come prevenire queste situazioni drammatiche, dall’altro su come trarre insegnamento e opportunità da questi passaggi storici che sempre più ci inducono a considerare il patrimonio come un bene comune vitale per il singolo individuo, per la comunità a cui esso appartiene, per la civiltà che lo ha generato. da sempre la tecnica ha costituito uno strumento indispensabile per compiere fino in fondo il percorso straordinario che si genera da un atto creativo. la tecnica ha assunto diverse denominazioni nell’evoluzione della nostra civiltà artistica. oggi la chiamiamo digitale: sicuramente una delle chiavi che ci possono aiutare a rinnovare il ruolo della tecnica nella sua simbiosi con la creazione artistica e porre le condizioni per una nuova forma di umanesimo. umanesimo digitale proprio in riferimento alle tecniche che permettono, oggi come nelle ricorrenze antiche e moderne, di rimettere l’uomo al centro dei processi creativi e artistici. questo attraverso processi che consistono nella possibilità di riprodurre sempre più fedelmente il nostro patrimonio, arricchendone da un lato le valenze di espressione artistica, dall’altro la possibilità di circolare e diffondersi all’interno della nostra civiltà in luoghi e contesti lontani da dove quel patrimonio è umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile collocato ma garantendone così la sua condizione indispensabile di bene comune, senza la quale sarebbe anche priva di significato la sua collocazione fisica in uno specifico luogo museale. una democrazia dell’arte essenziale alla sua stessa sopravvivenza e a quella della civiltà e delle civiltà che la producono e che la accolgono. come aveva ben intuito quasi un secolo addietro walter benjamin, pur non consapevole della straordinaria possibilità e accelerazione che il digitale avrebbe concesso a questo processo. . verso un manifesto sono sicuramente innumerevoli i documenti programmatici che indicano le ict o il digitale come soluzione o volano per rendere il patrimonio bene comune: l’ultimo che può essere citato è stato effettivamente scritto e pubblicato in piena crisi pandemica . l’europe day manifesto richiama infatti per le istituzioni europee un ruolo di primo piano nel patrimonio culturale digitale e il grande potenziale che esse presentano per andare avanti con le nuove tecnologie come l’intelligenza artificiale e l’apprendimento automatico, pur nel perseguimento di principi umanistici ed etici. nell’auspicare una accelerazione della trasformazione digitale, viene subito richiamata la necessità di ridurre il divario tra le istituzioni che sono digitalmente attrezzate e quelle che non lo sono. la necessità di democratizzare l’accesso al nostro patrimonio per sostenere diversità, inclusività, creatività e impegno critico nell’educazione, va di pari passo, come vedremo in seguito, con la promozione delle competenze digitali, per rafforzare il ruolo delle nostre istituzioni culturali. ma accanto a questo documento non possiamo non citare altri atti fondamentali di questo passaggio, tra cui segnaliamo: carta di siena , carta di londra , convenzione di faro , nuova agenda per la cultura e, per rimanere in ambito nazionale, il piano strategico per la digitalizzazione del turismo e il piano triennale per la digitalizzazione . documenti che evidenziano la consapevolezza a livello di autorità centrale di cogliere l’inevitabile trasformazione che il digitale genera sul nostro patrimonio. poco però è stato realizzato in questi anni. ad una consapevolezza culturale della trasformazione non è mai seguita una sistematica azione, anche economica, che abbia potuto portare i nostri luoghi della cultura a trasformarsi realmente e a cogliere la ricchezza di questo cambiamento. il european heritage alliance . icom italia . epoch . europe council treaty office . european commission . laboratorio per il turismo digitale (tdlab) . direzione generale musei – mibact . paolo clini, ramona quattrini covid- ne è stata la palese dimostrazione. infatti di fronte a questa emergenza si è scatenata una corsa a cercare forme digitali e virtuali alternative o sostitutive di quella cultura fisica cancellata. e così ci siamo resi conto di quanto valga un dipinto digitalizzato o un museo capace di mettere on line la sua collezione o uno spettacolo che non si esaurisce nel breve spazio della sua espressione. ma abbiamo anche capito di non essere pronti. perché un modo nuovo e diverso di continuare a fare e comunicare cultura lo si costruisce in tempo di pace e non di guerra. da anni parliamo di digitalizzazione del patrimonio ma davanti a questa emergenza abbiamo visto che molto poco era stato fatto, che addirittura i più grandi musei del mondo non avevano loro rappresentazioni virtuali degne di essere chiamate tali. e che alla fine tutti gli esiti digitali si risolvevano in un più marcato uso dei social; esiti che nulla hanno però a che vedere con la reale dimensione della digitalizzazione del patrimonio. e così abbiamo capito che la cultura virtuale o digitale, come la vogliamo chiamare, non è una pezza che mettiamo a un vestito rotto ma è una straordinaria opportunità affinché la bellezza che le nostre civiltà hanno prodotto e continuano a produrre, possano raggiungere ogni uomo che vive in questa terra, che vive in luoghi e in condizioni che non gli permetteranno mai di potere godere fisicamente di quell’opera. abbiamo scoperto che il nostro patrimonio non è digitalizzato scientificamente, che non abbiamo le competenze per gestire questi processi di trasformazione, che non sappiamo usare i mezzi più attuali per la fruizione del patrimonio digitale, che manca un confronto ed empatia tra patrimonio e utente, che non abbiamo dati che ci permettano davvero di capire come creare un rapporto profondo e personale con un visitatore alla ricerca di esperienze sempre più personali, proprio attraverso le potenzialità del digitale e dei nuovi mezzi di fruizione. molti di questi aspetti sono evidenziati e fotografati con chiarezza nel final report di nemo (network of european museum organisations) pubblicato nel mese di luglio . diciamo quindi che sul digitale è stata fatta in questi anni molta propaganda, che oggi forse il covid- interrompe o permetterà di superare. come è possibile rendere efficace e reale il nuovo umanesimo digitale? come è pensabile usare le nuove tecniche, ormai sufficientemente affidabili e pervasive, per ricreare la simbiosi tra arte e tecnica? come possiamo muoverci con passo sicuro nella tutela delle relazioni tra beni e uomini, se non cercando di mettere a punto concrete filiere operative rispetto a piani di trasformazione digitale dei nostri luoghi della cultura e di ingaggio digitale reale del nostro patrimonio. un manifesto di buone pratiche operative e scientifiche non può che ripartire da una filiera digitale fondata quindi su quattro passaggi tra di loro intimamente connessi, come illustrato in figura , e che sembrano proprio essere le grandi lacune mostrate in questi mesi di emergenza: – la digitalizzazione scientifica del patrimonio; nemo, szogs . umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile – le nuove forme di fruizione digitale: a sostegno dell’analogico, in situ e sostitutive o alternative, in remoto; – la misurazione e il monitoraggio del pubblico a cui è destinato il carattere di bene comune del patrimonio; – una profonda revisione delle competenze e dei percorsi di formazione per la gestione di queste filiere e del loro continuo rinnovamento. su questi passaggi e riconnessioni (fig. ) possiamo fondare un nuovo umanesimo digitale. ed è su ognuna di queste leve che nei nostri percorsi di ricerca e con le attività del gruppo distori heritage , attraverso l’integrazione di approcci storico-umanistici e tecnologici, abbiamo agito valorizzando e strutturando le competenze nel campo delle digital humanities (dh) cercando anche di definire, attraverso casi concreti, buone pratiche di aiuto alla scrittura di un manifesto/filiera digitale . digitalizzare scientificamente a partire dalle attività di ricerca che riguardano l’applicazione di nuove tecnologie di rilievo e documentazione digitale al patrimonio nelle sue varie forme – dall’archeologia ai dipinti e alle statue all’architettura, al paesaggio – sono state testate e validate varie forme e modalità di digitalizzazione, scientificamente fondate. il cardine di queste digitalizzazioni è senz’altro l’acquisizione tridimensionale, basata principalmente sulle nuvole di punti. al di là della ormai indiscussa e necessaria integrazione delle tecniche, ovvero l’utilizzo per la fase di acquisizione di fotografie, panoramiche, nuvole di punti da laser scanner terrestre (tls) e da fotogrammetria, anche con l’ausilio dei veicoli a pilotaggio remoto (apr); la bontà e duttilità dei facsimile digitali basati su nuvole di punti è principalmente dimostrata dai numerosi applicativi che ne risultano (fig. ). riportiamo qui ad esempio le digitalizzazioni che hanno riguardato i reperti archeologici del museo archeologico nazionale delle marche, poi confluiti in una libreria digitale che abilita una interazione intima con i reperti e varie tipologie di approfondimento nell’ottica di testare anche gli apprendimenti basati sulle ict . la libreria è stata anche premiata da icom nell’ambito delle installazioni interpretative, guadagnando la medaglia di bronzo al premio avicom svoltosi a shanghai . per quel che riguarda le digitalizzazioni tridimensionali in ambito di patrimonio costruito storico gli esempi sono innumerevoli: dai rilievi dei manufatti palladiani poi confluiti nei modelli della palladio library alla recente acquisizione www.distori.org. clini et al. . cfr. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tn xnrn a m&t= s>. gaiani et al. . paolo clini, ramona quattrini del palazzo ducale di urbino e della galleria nazionale delle marche , che potremmo definire omnicomprensiva: dal quadro al complesso monumentale del palazzo (fig. ). questa multiscalarità delle acquisizioni, prevista già negli intenti del progetto civitas (chain for excellence of reflective societies for digitization of cultural heritage and museums. a pilot case in palazzo ducale at urbino), si prefigge di affrontare le varie sfide di un grande museo, ospitato in un edificio storico di grandissimo valore, come accade in larga parte dei casi, mettendo a punto buone pratiche di trasformazione digitale per esso. inoltre digitalizzazioni complete e piene di significati sono altresì in grado di aprire a percorsi molto articolati di gestione attraverso le piattaforme hbim ma anche ad uno sfruttamento dei facsimili digitali d relativi al patrimonio storico basato sull’intelligenza artificiale, approccio sicuramente foriero di esiti molto promettenti in termini di sostenibilità per questa tipologia di dati. infine per quel che riguarda la scala del paesaggio, inteso nella sua accezione più recente come un unicum di territorio naturale e antropizzato costellato da beni e manufatti storici, di valore o meno, le sperimentazioni relative alla sua digitalizzazione hanno fatto largo uso, in aggiunta ai dati morfometrici, di acquisizioni low-cost che hanno dimostrato grande efficacia. si veda ad esempio l’efficace utilizzo di fotografie panoramiche e video a °, utilizzati sia per la documentazione del convegno en route landscape&archaeology , che per il racconto e la mappatura anche ai fini turistici. si riportano qui due buone pratiche di cui siamo stati ideatori ovvero il portale del dce distretto culturale evoluto della via flaminia , e il portale marcheology. nel primo caso, una piattaforma cloud-based collegata a dei luoghi pilot ha permesso la valorizzazione di una intera infrastruttura lineare e del paesaggio che la caratterizza, facendo largo uso di database sulle informazioni storiche e naturalistiche esistenti. esse sono state poi integrate da campagne di acquisizione dati dedicate (fotografiche e tridimensionali), utilizzando tecnologie all’avanguardia e/o standard (fotogrammetria, scanner laser, fotocamere , foto hd, rpas, ecc.). in questo modo è stato possibile effettuare un rilievo dell’intero paesaggio della via flaminia, da fano al passo scheggia. l’altro caso studio è marcheology , nato dal progetto musst archeogate: è un portale di archeologia, realizzato in collaborazione con il polo museale delle marche con la finalità di comunicare l’unicità del patrimonio archeologico e di rafforzare il valore identitario creando una rete tra luoghi della cultura. gli asset tecnologici innovativi creati sono clini et al. a. clini et al. b; nespeca . quattrini et al. . clini et al. . clini et al. . <https://www.marcheology.it/it/>; il portale è stato anche riportato nei link di successo della iniziativa culture@home della dg connect in <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/ cultural-heritage-home>. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile stati: una piattaforma multicanale per la fruizione dei beni con tecnologie di virtual reality (vr) di estrema portabilità, a stretto contatto con una rete di attori pubblico e privati del turismo locale. tale sistema tecnologico-culturale attua il coinvolgimento e radica nella comunità l’importanza del patrimonio archeologico per la propria memoria. anche in questo caso, si è fatto uso di contenuti multimediali immersivi e d per raccontare dei siti particolarmente significativi e dimostrare la facilità di nuove forme di rappresentazione per il web. accanto alla più tradizionale navigazione dei contenuti standard raccolti nel database, sono stati scelti luoghi pilot oggetto della realizzazione di contenuti multimediali e d, in linea con le più contemporanee forme di rappresentazione presenti sul web. infatti, la diffusione della vr fruibile da visori, ha democratizzato la visualizzazione immersiva in modalità ° e la piattaforma ha garantito una integrazione di contenuti scalabili, grazie a uno sviluppo dedicato. la vera novità, in un portale dal taglio turistico, è costituita dalla integrazione della libreria digitale d, dove si raccoglie una selezione scelta dei pezzi più rappresentativi delle collezioni archeologiche. i modelli d, realizzati tramite fotogrammetria digitale, sono navigabili grazie all’inserimento sulla piattaforma open sketchfab, che offre un ottimo visualizzatore d, leggero e intuitivo. la ricchezza e qualità dei contenuti digitali garantiscono il coinvolgimento degli utenti ma anche una prima formazione degli esperti archeologi che hanno collaborato alla selezione dei contenuti e alla loro progettazione. . fruire la creazione dei facsimili digitali tridimensionali fin qui raccontati, innesca poi la seconda leva ovvero la creazione e conseguente validazione, come vedremo nel paragrafo successivo, di modalità inedite di accesso ai saperi, offerte dalle potenzialità delle ict. in questa ottica è possibile promuovere e diffondere la conoscenza e valorizzazione del patrimonio culturale, che non vanno viste come disgiunte dalle necessità di sua gestione e conservazione. le metodologie non sono circoscritte alla ricerca individuale e strettamente accademica, ma tendono a massimizzare la collaborazione interdisciplinare estesa alla dimensione del territorio, alle sue aziende ma soprattutto alle sue istituzioni culturali, per fornire loro soluzioni testate e mature di fruizione realmente efficaci e rispondenti ai bisogni e alle caratteristiche dei beni culturali. non si tratta dunque di seguire la tecnologia emergente ma di verificarne l’efficacia e la portabilità in un ambito delicato e fragile come quello della cultura. da questo punto di vista la missione i luoghi pilot, scelti nelle province, sono: il museo archeologico “a. vernarecci” di fossombrone, la collezione paleontologica di serrapetrona, l’area archeologica di suasa, il museo archeologico “g. allevi” di offida, l’area archeologica “helvia ricina” a villa potenza, macerata, area archeologica di potentia a porto recanati, il museo archeologico nazionale delle marche. paolo clini, ramona quattrini delle università e dei laboratori di ricerca in dh si concretizza come una azione di ponte, utile allo sviluppo di una digital literacy più che mai necessaria, come vedremo nel quarto tassello del nostro percorso. la recente crisi pandemica ha messo in evidenza come, nell’impossibilità di far esperire la dimensione fisica dei luoghi, si sia cercato di surrogarla acuendo una cesura nelle modalità di accesso e fruizione del cultural heritage (ch), da on-site a unicamente on-line, che ha moltiplicato i tentativi di ‘messa online’ non ancora strutturati e colto impreparate le istituzioni, soprattutto sul piano dei contenuti prettamente digitali. tale impreparazione lascia in qualche modo sconcertati, se si pensa alle tante esperienze che si sono succedute a livello nazionale e internazionale, ma che evidentemente non erano vissute come parte integrante della vita del museo. per quel che riguarda il nostro lavoro, sono maturi i tempi per generalizzare e fornire degli standard, in tema di musei virtuali. È quanto si sta effettivamente facendo all’interno del progetto interreg it-hr remember , in cui stiamo coordinando l’implementazione di musei virtuali per il patrimonio tangibile e intangibile dei porti tra italia e croazia. in questo ruolo è stata sviluppata una metodologia portante per la realizzazione dei musei, con particolare riferimento alla combinazione di contenuti, sviluppo tecnologico e hardware correnti, per l’ottenimento di esperienze digitali scalabili a diverse tipologie di utenti e target group. a partire da esperienze di successo come quella del v-must , si è cercato di dare risposte in termini di fattibilità tecnica e standard qualitativi ed economici. ma l’altra faccia della medaglia, come vedremo nel prossimo paragrafo, è cercare di soddisfare le aspettative dei visitatori , e su questo c’è tanto da analizzare e sperimentare. si è fatto tesoro delle esperienze pregresse in materia di prodotti virtuali divulgativi, ma soprattutto di esperienze interdisciplinari di learning by interacting , in particolare della lunga collaborazione e sperimentazione sviluppata per i dipinti della galleria nazionale delle marche. l’applicazione ducale , in tutte le sue varie versioni, si incardina sulla possibilità di sfruttare la augmented reality (ar) per sviluppare esperienze coinvolgenti ed educative intorno alle opere d’arte, stando all’interno del museo. tuttavia il caso studio forse più efficace nella presente trattazione è un progetto, finalizzato proprio durante il lockdown e che ha portato a un primo prototipale risultato di museo virtuale: la pinacoteca civica di ancona “f. podesti”. in esso ci si è proposti di dotare il museo di uno strumento virtuale che si configurasse come alternativo nei casi eccezionali di chiusura totale e complementare nei casi di flussi limitati di visitatori. l’approccio si è configurato non solo come risposta contingente all’emergenza sanitaria ma come occasione per produrre valore aggiunto <https://www.italy-croatia.eu/web/remember>. <http://www.v-must.net/>. pescarin . clini a. clini b. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile rispetto al museo on-site in termini di narrazione inedita e di documentazione dei contenuti. questo lavoro è consistito nell’attivazione di una riflessione interdisciplinare, congiunta trai ricercatori e esperti (storici e operatori didattici) del museo, che ha condotto il gruppo di lavoro alla messa a sistema di una progettualità più ampia rivolta alla creazione di un prodotto digitale dalle spiccate potenzialità interattive ed esperienziali. si è così realizzato un virtual tour con panoramiche, immagini ad alta risoluzione (fig. ), modelli d e testi descrittivi, anche con commento audio, ma che fondasse un laboratorio di sperimentazione permanente atto a potenziarlo e aggiungere strumenti rivolti alla cura della relazione con le persone. in particolare i temi da approfondire nel futuro saranno: a) la accessibilità e l’inclusività, con strumenti di mediazione per vari target; b) l’intrattenimento, con un vero e proprio palinsesto virtuale; c) la fruizione multidisciplinare, integrando contenuti anche sui restauri, come già sperimentato altrove . la grande sfida di questo approccio è tendere a dimostrare che la tecnologia possa entrare nel mondo della fruizione dei beni culturali realizzando supporti che, a partire da una corretta digitalizzazione del patrimonio quale nuova forma di tutela e conservazione, implementino la funzione educativa mettendo in atto nuovi sistemi di interazione e possibili servizi rivolti al nuovo pubblico virtuale. . misurare in considerazione di quanto fin qui esposto, dopo aver assistito negli anni a applicazioni ict abbandonate dalle istituzioni dopo breve tempo o non manutenute perché percepite come inefficaci, nei prossimi anni è auspicabile che gli amministratori di siti archeologici e musei intraprendano un approccio completamente digitale per gestire e comunicare i loro beni. sebbene tecnologie all’avanguardia siano disponibili anche senza ingenti investimenti, mancano ancora metriche e possibilità concrete di misurare l’accettazione da parte dei pubblici: pochi lavori si stanno concentrando sul feedback dell’utente. recentemente è stato accettato un lavoro che testa diverse esperienze multimediali dal punto di vista degli utenti per valutarne il coinvolgimento. il lavoro mostra un flusso di lavoro per lo studio e l’analisi della soddisfazione quantitativa e qualitativa degli utenti riguardo a diverse applicazioni dedicate all’archeologia, su tre diverse scale: paesaggio, museo e manufatto archeologico. i risultati dimostrano che l’approccio proposto fornisce ad addetti ai lavori <https://www.mira-ancona.it/un-tour-virtuale-per-la-pinacoteca/>. quattrini et al. . quattrini et al. . paolo clini, ramona quattrini e curatori d’arte dati significativi per analizzare l’esperienza-utente e, di conseguenza, per modificare o migliorare la propria offerta . le prime sperimentazioni di ricerca in questo senso si sono dimostrate molto promettenti (fig. ) e hanno suggerito inoltre di avviare progetti di ricerca congiunti con aziende, in un’ottica di trasferimento tecnologico. ad esempio è possibile citare il progetto regionale c.o.me. (change your museum – analysis of behavior, emotions and reactions of museum visitors) da cui è poi nato il sistema memus , attualmente sperimentato a palazzo buonaccorsi di macerata e al museo omero di ancona. obiettivo del progetto era migliorare l’esperienza di visita dei musei tramite lo sviluppo e la sperimentazione di un nuovo sistema automatico di monitoraggio dei pubblici museali. il sistema di monitoraggio fa uso di tecnologie di tracciamento basate su flussi video e di analisi dei comportamenti di utenti e visitatori e ha agito con un approccio interdisciplinare, unendo conoscenze museologiche, museografiche e competenze nel settore delle tecnologie applicate alla retail intelligence e al neuromarketing. questa prima fase di trasferimento tecnologico è solo una parte dello cammino, infatti se n’è dimostrata necessaria una seconda, complementare, in cui l’università possa proseguire nell’ambito della ricerca e operare una personalizzazione e specializzazione dei metodi di misurazione alle sfaccettate realtà culturali dei territori. l’apertura verso il contesto socio-economico mediante la valorizzazione e il trasferimento delle conoscenze e le iniziative dal valore socio-culturale ed educativo sono alcuni dei punti di forza dell’approccio qui presentato. in situazioni impreviste come quelle nate dalla grave crisi della pandemia globale, la promozione di una strategia digitale condivisa e sviluppata nel corso degli anni offre opportunità di crescita per il settore culturale, evidenziando come nuove forme di conoscenza siano in grado di attivare processi innovativi e opportunità di contatto con i fruitori. . formare arrivando all’ultimo tassello della nostra filiera operativa, va detto che la formazione di nuove professionalità in ambito di digital cultural heritage è anche il tassello più significativo per dare sostenibilità futura alla digitalizzazione e innovazione in un intero comparto economico. fino a che non avremo professionisti preparati ad affrontare i piani trasformazione digitali, inseriti organicamente nelle istituzioni culturali, l’intero settore non potrà conoscere il suo nuovo umanesimo. quindi da una parte si necessita della formazione di queste figure, ancora percepite come ibride, dall’altra si necessità di un recentemente l’università politecnica delle marche ha organizzato con icom un webinar dal titolo “misurare per crescere ed innovare. i musei italiani nelle nuove sfide digitali dopo covid” attualmente consultabile su: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l iznoqmlm&t= s>. <https://www.memusmusei.it/>. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile ringiovanimento e potenziamento degli organici. sul primo fronte l’università e i centri di ricerca, in particolare i gruppi in digital cultural heritage, stanno facendo molto. in particolare è necessario contribuire all’affinamento delle expertise necessarie per operare in un settore in continuo aggiornamento ed evoluzione. nelle numerose collaborazioni già avviate, questo lavoro ha anche dimostrato di rispondere alla terza missione dell’università: il nostro approccio supporta e focalizza processi decisionali con importanti istituzioni incoraggiando processi di costruzione e condivisione degli indirizzi strategici: dalla scelta delle tecnologie più idonee in base al tipo di patrimonio, agli aspetti di gestione e sostenibilità degli strumenti messi in campo nel medio-lungo periodo. le buone pratiche e le iniziative messe in campo si sono dimostrate un punto di partenza per necessarie discussioni che prevedano, in accordo con i principi della resilienza e della sostenibilità, l’abilitazione di campagne di rilievo massive e l’integrazione di queste nelle policies delle istituzioni pubbliche con l’obiettivo di stabilire nuove visioni per l’accesso e la comprensione del patrimonio culturale. possiamo riportare ad esempio il massive open on line course (mooc) in digital cultural heritage, sviluppato in collaborazione con diculther e messo a disposizione dei docenti delle scuole secondarie per la loro formazione, o il costruendo micromaster sulla valorizzazione e la comunicazione dei paesaggi culturali europei e del suo patrimonio ferroviario con l’ausilio delle ict, all’interno del progetto railtoland . il progetto, un erasmus + key action , partenariati strategici per l’istruzione superiore, più in generale mira a esplorare il valore sociale ed educativo del paesaggio culturale europeo come patrimonio comune e come catalizzatore dei processi di consolidamento dell’identità europea, attraverso forme innovative e virtuali di apprendimento tra pari e di design by thinking. altre attività formative, istituzionalizzate nel percorso universitario, sono sviluppate con laboratori di tesi di laurea all’interno del corso di studi in ingegneria edile architettura della univpm, in cui è previsto un curriculum specifico in fruizione e gestione dei beni culturali e architettonici. . conclusioni il nuovo umanesimo digitale, come è stato fin qui approfondito e tratteggiato, costituisce un concetto fondante che viene da lontano, perché da sempre fondato sul concetto di riproducibilità dell’opera d’arte. questo concetto ha vissuto sul connubio che ogni civiltà ha sempre ricercato tra la sua scienza e tecnica <https://www.diculther.it/blog/ / / /corsi-open-di-univpm-sul-digital-cultural- heritage/>. <https://railtoland.eu/>. paolo clini, ramona quattrini possibili e l’arte sempre eterna. oggi le straordinarie possibilità del digitale, non solo di riprodurre perfettamente un’opera d’arte ma anche di metterne in evidenza nuovi significati artistici estetici e narrativi, ci permettono di riscrivere una nuova definizione di umanesimo digitale e di tracciare le linee per un nuovo manifesto. come si attuano e come si legano tra loro le quattro leve, sopra descritte? che cosa oggi le tecnologie ci permettono di realizzare? come rimettere l’uomo al centro del suo patrimonio? come le nuove esperienze di realtà aumentata e immersiva possono profondamente trasformare il rapporto tra uomo e patrimonio? come è possibile oggi pensare ad un patrimonio dematerializzato dalla sua realtà fisica e disponibile dovunque e per chiunque? come l’umanesimo digitale può realizzare quel concetto di democratizzazione dell’arte che quasi un secolo addietro walter benjamin leggeva esattamente nella possibilità della riproducibilità dell’opera d’arte? tale riflessione generò al contempo un equivoco da cui però è giunto il momento di uscire. va superato quello che è senz’altro un gigantesco luogo comune, ovvero che un’opera vada vista dal vivo e che questa esperienza sia molto più ricca e coinvolgente del vederne una riproduzione virtuale. se questo è ancora il livello del dialogo con le istituzioni culturali possiamo tranquillamente alzare bandiera bianca. ben più complesso e foriero di innovazione per la nostra civiltà è questo umanesimo digitale che cerca nella riproducibilità del patrimonio nuove forme di arte e di democrazia. la missione è dare credibilità scientifica, fattibilità tecnica, sostenibilità economica e dignità istituzionale a varie tipologie di servizi culturali al momento non presenti ma indispensabili per valorizzare il patrimonio come bene comune. da qui, rafforzando il ruolo delle comunità di patrimonio virtuali, vanno forniti alle istituzioni museali strumenti chiave nell’implementazione di piani strategici di trasformazione digitale, necessari ad aggiornare la gestione di contenuti culturali di qualità incardinati su artefatti digitali d. ma è tutto da costruire. come dimostrato dalla frenesia digitale che il covid- ha generato nei mesi drammatici del lockdown e dai risultati imbarazzanti di tale frenesia. questa è la condizione per ristabilire la cultura e il patrimonio come luogo delle relazioni. questa è la condizione per non sentire mai più l’urlo assordante del silenzio della nostra civiltà. riferimenti bibliografici benjamin w. ( ), das kunstwerk im zeitalter seiner technischen reproduzierbarkeit. frankfurt/main: suhrkamp, , trad.it.: l’opera d’arte nell’epoca della sua riproducibilità tecnica, torino: einaudi, . benjamin . umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile clini p., frapiccini n., quattrini r., nespeca r. ( ), toccare l’arte e guardare con altri occhi. una via digitale per la rinascita dei musei archeologici nell’epoca della riproducibilità dell’opera d’arte, in ambienti digitali per l’educazione all’arte e al patrimonio, a cura di alessandro lugini, milano: franco angeli, pp. - , <http://library.oapen.org/ handle/ . . / >. clini p., frontoni e., martini b., quattrini r., pierdicca r. ( b), new augmented reality applications for learning by interacting, «archeomatica», , n. , pp. - . clini p., frontoni e., quattrini r., pierdicca r., puggioni m. ( ), archaeological landscape and heritage. innovative knowledge-based dissemination and development strategies in the distretto culturale evoluito flaminia nextone, «il capitale culturale», n. , pp. - . clini p., galli, quattrini r. ( ), landscape & archaeology, «scires-it scientific research and information technology», , pp. - . clini p., quattrini r., bonvini p., nespeca r., angeloni r., mammoli r., dragoni a.f., morbidoni c., sernani p., mengoni m. ( b), digit (al) isation in museums: civitas project-ar, vr, multisensorial and multiuser experiences at the urbino’s ducal palace, in virtual and augmented reality in education, art, and museums, guazzaroni g., pilai a.s. (eds.), hershey: igi global, pp. - , doi: . / - - - - .ch . clini p., quattrini r., frontoni e., pierdicca r., nespeca r. ( a), real/ not real: pseudo-holography and augmented reality applications for cultural heritage in handbook of research on emerging technologies for digital preservation and information modeling, ippolito a., cigola m. (eds.), hershey: igi global, pp. - , doi: . / - - - - .ch . clini p., quattrini r., nespeca r., angeloni r., mammoli r. ( a), digital facsimiles of architectural heritage: new forms of fruition, management and enhancement. the exemplary case of the ducal palace at urbino, in graphical heritage, congreso internacional de expresión gráfica arquitectónica, cham: springer, pp. - . direzione generale musei – mibact ( ), piano triennale per la digitalizzazione e l’innovazione dei musei, <http://musei.beniculturali. it/wp-content/uploads/ / /piano-triennale-per-la-digitalizzazione-e- l’innovazione-dei-musei.pdf>. epoch ( ), the london charter, <http://www.londoncharter.org/>. europe council treaty office ( ), council of europe framework convention on the value of cultural heritage for society – faro’s convention, <https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/ >. paolo clini, ramona quattrini european commission ( ), a new european agenda for culture. bruxelles, <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/txt/pdf/?uri=celex: dc &from=en>. european heritage alliance ( ), europe day manifesto, <https://www. europanostra.org/wp-content/uploads/ / / _europe-day- manifesto.pdf>. gaiani m., apollonio f., clini p., quattrini r. ( ), a mono-instrumental approach to high-quality d, reality-based semantic models. application on the palladio library, in digital heritage, vol / , ieee computer society. icom italia ( ), carta di siena . , <http://www.icom-italia.org/ wp-content/uploads/ / /icomitalia.museiepaesaggiculturali. cartadisiena . .cagliari .pdf>. laboratorio per il turismo digitale (tdlab) ( ), piano strategico per la digitalizzazione del turismo italiano, roma. nemo, and nina szogs, digitisation and ipr in european museums, , <https://www.ne-mo.org/fileadmin/dateien/public/publications/ nemo_final_report_digitisation_and_ipr_in_european_museums_ wg_ . .pdf>. nespeca r. ( ), towards a d digital model for management and fruition of ducal palace at urbino. an integrated survey with mobile mapping, «scires-it – scientific research and information technology», , n. , pp. - , <http://dx.doi.org/ . /i v n p >. pescarin s. ( ), museums and virtual museums in europe: reaching expectations, «scires-it – scientific research and information technology» , n. , pp. - , <http://caspur-ciberpublishing.it/index. php/scires-it/article/view/ >. quattrini r., clini p., nespeca r., ruggeri l. ( ), misura e historical information building: sfide e opportunità nella rappresentazione di contenuti d semanticamente strutturati, «disegnare con...», , pp. - . quattrini r., gasparetto f., angeloni r., d’alessio m. ( ), modelli digitali per comunicare il patrimonio e l’intervento di restauro, «archeomatica- tecnologie per i beni culturali», , n. , pp. - . quattrini r., pierdicca r., paolanti m., clini p., nespeca r., frontoni e. ( ), digital interaction with d archaeological artefacts: evaluating user’s behaviours at different representation scales, «digital applications in archaeology and cultural heritage», e , <http://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/s >. umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile appendice fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. verso un manifesto per i beni culturali digitali come beni comuni e per una nuova forma di arte: le quattro leve principali. paolo clini, ramona quattrini fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. scienza e tecnica per fondare una nuova civiltà. la filiera di acquisizione che conduce alla realizzazione dei facsimili digitali d umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. i luoghi d’arte dovunque e per chiunque studiolo del duca, palazzo ducale di urbino. esperienza di realtà virtuale immersiva sviluppata all’interno del progetto civitas, basata su realizzazione del facsimile d ad altissima risoluzione con integrazione di laser scanner e fotogrammetria, basata su scatti a luce polarizzata paolo clini, ramona quattrini fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. quello che gli occhi non vedono. madonna col bambino di carlo crivelli, dipinto a oro e tempera su tavola, dimensioni x cm, databile al . i risultati dell’acquisizione high resolution (hr) del dipinto e un suo ingrandimento umanesimo digitale e bene comune? linee guida e riflessioni per una salvezza possibile fig. . digitale, il nuovo patrimonio. un’arte a misura di ciascuno. le tecnologie per misurare comportamento e gradimento degli utenti negli spazi museali e creare sistemi a supporto delle decisioni per le istituzioni culturali eum edizioni università di macerata direttore / editor in-chief pietro petraroia texts by stefano baia curioni, giovanna barni, claudio bocci, giovanna brambilla, salvatore aurelio bruno, roberto camagni, roberta capello, silvia cerisola, anna chiara cimoli, paolo clini, stefano consiglio, madel crasta, luca dal pozzolo, stefano della torre, marco d’isanto, margherita eichberg, chiara faggiolani, pierpaolo forte, mariangela franch, stefania gerevini, maria teresa gigliozzi, christian greco, marta massi, armando montanari, marco morganti, umberto moscatelli, maria rosaria napolitano, fabio pagano, elisa panziera, sabina pavone, carlo penati, tonino pencarelli, pietro petraroia, domenica primerano, ramona quattrini, corinna rossi, valentina maria sessa, erminia sciacchitano, emanuela stortoni, alex turrini, federico valacchi http://riviste.unimc.it/index.php/cap-cult/index issn - journal of the division of cultural heritage department of education, cultural heritage and tourism university of macerata isbn - - - - euro , white paper report report id: application number: hd project director: anne mcgrail (mcgraila@lanecc.edu) institution: lane community college reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / report id: grant number: hd- project director: anne b. mcgrail (mcgraila@lanecc.edu) institution: lane community college grant period: / / – / / white paper/report due: / / date submitted: / / bringing digital humanities to community colleges and vice versa white paper to the neh office of digital humanities level digital humanities start-up grant march , author: anne b. mcgrail, ph.d., project director contact: mcgraila@lanecc.edu above: project director anne mcgrail’s literature students’ dh projects - abstract: lane community college implemented a level i project for the national endowment for the humanities digital humanities start-up grant program. the project, entitled “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa” (dh@thecc), initiated a much needed national dialogue regarding the lag in community college participation in the emerging field of digital humanities (dh). the program’s short-term outcome was the engagement of national thinkers, experts and community college stakeholders in a survey, strategic conversation and workshop to prompt greater community college engagement with digital humanities. the long-term desired outcome of the project is improved access to digital humanities for the nation’s community college students. three major goals inspired the grant’s activities: to develop a picture of the dh landscape in community colleges; to cultivate an inclusive dh community of practice at community colleges in conversation with research-focused initiatives and institutions; and perhaps most importantly, to bring dh to lower- division humanities students and their communities and develop their st century literacies in an open- access context. to achieve these aims, the grant supported several major activities: . design and implementation of a national survey of digital humanities at community colleges . a pre-conference strategic discussion led by dh experts at the community college humanities association (ccha) national meeting to discuss opportunities and obstacles to increased engagement . a follow-up workshop led by the project director during the ccha regular session to expand the conversation to the ccha membership . the development of a website and wiki where dh resources, including grant products, would be housed. this is intended as a hub for a developing community of practice of dh@thecc. mailto:mcgraila@lanecc.edu table of contents list of figures……………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………….…… background………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………….. national survey of digital humanities in community colleges: a preliminary discussion of the results……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………….…… participants……………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………… meeting summary: preconference session at community college humanities association…………….… meeting summary: saturday follow-up session at community college humanities association……….. products…………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… outcomes and next steps………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… appendices…………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………….. - appendix i national survey of digital humanities in community colleges survey questions ( ) appendix ii participant bios ( ) appendix iii workshop agendas ( ) appendix iv websites referred to by experts during pre-conference session ( ) list of figures figure : screencapture of cfp for national survey on the humanities, arts, science and technology alliance and collaboratory (hastac) website. ( ) figure : call for participation on the two year college english association facebook page. ( ) figure : respondent familiarity with digital humanities technologies, etc. from the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges. ( ) figure : all comments to question in the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges as a wordle. ( ) figure : l-r: anne mcgrail, matthew k. gold, julia huston nguyen (senior program coordinator for neh educational programs) and terri whitney at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. ( ) figure : terri whitney (l), jake agatucci (c) and jesse stommel (r) discuss dh in community colleges at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. ( ) figure : jesse stommel (l) and rebecca frost davis (r) co-led the session, “in the open access, lower- division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” at the pre-conference workshop. ( ) figure : dean rehberger (l) and matthew k. gold (r) at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. ( ) figure : participants paul vanheuklom and carol hahn discuss their work at the pre-conference session at ccha. ( ) figure : project director anne mcgrail introduces expert panelists at the beginning of the pre- conference session at the ccha. ( ) figure : slide from anne mcgrail’s presentation at the ccha, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities.” ( ) figure : slide from project director anne mcgrail’s presentation, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities.” ( ) background digital humanities has reinvigorated humanities programs nationally. this grant was intended to include community colleges in this movement and in so doing strengthening the humanities while addressing equity. community college humanists have been slow to enter conversations and communities of practice in digital humanities (dh), in part because serving students in an open-access context involves intensive teaching and service workloads and constraints on professional development. “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa” (dh@thecc) began a critical conversation about what digital humanities can look like at the lower-division level and how to put digital humanities at the center of educational reform efforts. while the dh community is known for its openness and generosity, the energy and engagement in dh has not extended equally to community college humanities programs, to the detriment of students who seek associates degrees or eventually bachelor degrees. through the general education requirement, community colleges provide foundational humanities courses for transfer students and for associate degree students. community colleges are often the gateway to degrees for low-income, first-generation students, returning adult students, students of color, and students with disabilities. two-fifths of traditional-age students begin their post-secondary education in one of the public community colleges in the u.s., and / of adult learners begin theirs at ccs. these students are often from the lowest socioeconomic quintile. these students and the humanities faculty and programs that work with them deserve a voice in digital humanities conversations. as professor matthew gold notes in his essay, “whose revolution? towards a more equitable digital humanities,” the lag in full entry of community colleges into the digital humanities “revolution” is an inequity that needs to be addressed. lane’s dh@thecc program began the process of addressing this inequity in a formal and systematic way. digital projects offer empowering tools for these students to represent their communities, to challenge inequalities they experience and observe, and to learn sophisticated ways of engaging with st century tools for creation and interpretation in the humanities. digital humanities projects geared to community college students can offer a new avenue for engagement with academic work for lower-division students who may not otherwise be drawn to the humanities. scope of the project activities several connected activities supported the goal of increasing community college engagement in dh. the first activity began in spring and summer , during which time the project director developed a dh@thecc project website and wiki and invited community college humanities faculty to use its resources and contribute to it. this site is intended to become a hub for developing an online community of practice among community college digital humanists. the website currently hosts much of the grant’s products: a collection of dh@thecc assignments developed by the project director, links to videos of the conference sessions supported by the start-up grant, slides from these sessions, and other resources related to the project. (see below for more details of grant products). american association of community colleges. “fact sheet.” http://www.aacc.nche.edu/aboutcc/pages/default.aspx adelman, clifford. "executive summary: moving into town--and moving on: the community college in the lives of traditional-age students." us dept. of educ. office of vocational and adult education. feb. . oct. <http://www.ed.gov/print/rschstat/research/pubs/comcollege/index.html>. the lapland chronicles. january , . web. march , . http://blog.mkgold.net/ / / /whose-revolution-toward-a-more-equitable-digital-humanities/ http://www.aacc.nche.edu/aboutcc/pages/default.aspx http://www.ed.gov/print/rschstat/research/pubs/comcollege/index.html the second activity, also begun in spring and continuing through fall , was the development and administering of a national community college digital humanities survey. the survey included questions about participants’ levels of interest and participation on the digital humanities spectrum. options ranged from developing courses using web . technologies, teaching online courses or components and developing digital exhibits and capstones, to partnering with local and regional collections and museums and historical societies and critical engagement with interpretive methods of inquiry, et al. the survey also queried receptivity and resources among community college humanists and their institutions to faculty development with the intent to identify potential paths to future dh engagement at community colleges. a detailed analysis of survey responses follows below. the website and survey results then informed the conversations at the program’s third and major activity—a day-long pre-conference session at the fall community college humanities association (ccha) conference october , . this activity convened leading digital humanities experts with thought leaders in the humanities, in technology in education and in the community college humanities for a strategic conversation. these invited experts discussed opportunities and obstacles to deeper engagement with digital humanities nationally and brainstormed paths to broader community college participation in the dh movement. the group of experts also heard from the nine ccha members who joined the conversation. together they began a conversation that will likely continue into the future. participants agreed that community colleges can make unique contributions to dh, and that inclusion of community colleges is important for the health and vitality of dh and of humanities generally. detailed notes on session topics, goals and discussions follow below. following the pre-conference session, the fourth activity was a -minute workshop during the regular ccha conference intended to engage more members of the ccha membership in exploring the value of digital humanities principles and methodologies. the project director framed dh@thecc within david perkin’s pedagogical model and shared assignments with attendees to adapt and infuse into their current courses. for several community college faculty attendees this workshop provided an introduction to dh and helped them to clarify how dh could be practiced at their institutions. this white paper is the fifth activity of the dh@thecc project. what follows is a discussion of the survey results, a summary of the pre-conference session, and an overview of the regular-session workshop. then the grant products and impacts will be discussed, followed by a discussion of outcomes, lessons learned and next steps. see appendix i for a list of survey questions. for a detailed agenda of the workshop, see appendix iii. for a list of participants, see below. national survey of digital humanities in community colleges: a preliminary discussion of the results overview part of the neh odh start-up project, the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges provides a window into how digital humanities are perceived at community colleges now and what might be done to aid the field’s expansion. in many ways some of the survey results reflect a community out of touch with how much digital methods have changed the questions we can ask of cultural artifacts. arguably, this uneven development of dh is an consequence of the institutional hierarchy and perceived separation of spheres that organizes the division of intellectual labor in higher education nationally. the perception is that community colleges teach “basic skills” and four-year colleges and universities “develop minds.” such a perception has lasting effects on access to professional development as well as institutionally recognized incentives for innovation. still, community college faculty surveyed were generally comfortable with technology. while the term “digital humanities” was somewhat unfamiliar among some survey respondents, % of these faculty valued highly or very highly the use of technology in the classroom. when asked how well their institution meets their expectations for faculty and staff development, however, only % reported that their institution met or exceeded their expectations for reliable, equitable funds and opportunities to develop professionally. “we are given funds to present traditional literary papers at conferences without question,” wrote one respondent, “but we would have to argue to get funds to attend a conference in which we would not present but learn from others who are decades ahead of our department in digital humanities” [sic ]. such institutional barriers are in addition to the intensive faculty workloads: “i also have to prep, teach and grade materials for classes per semester which leaves little time for training and learning new technology.” the survey methodology was as follows: in june , the project director drafted a set of survey questions based on her understanding of the field and gaps that she had observed in her engagement with the field. she posted it to a google doc and solicited feedback directly from experts in the field of dh as well as colleagues she knew in the dh community. she also put a cold call for feedback out on twitter with hashtags for digital pedagogy, digital humanities, community colleges and other key words and phrases. the program coordinator for the neh office of digital humanities, jennifer serventi, also consulted on the survey and offered suggestions. finally, the project director discussed a revised draft with her home institution’s research director, craig taylor, who offered advice on finding a balance between complete data and useable data and functionality. twenty-six multiple choice questions with spaces for commentary comprised the final survey. to distribute the survey as widely as possible, the project director posted onto sites such as hastac (see figure ), emails, professional association listservs in history, philosophy, composition/rhetoric, the league for innovation in the community college, and used social media such as facebook pages for the community college humanities association and the two year college association (see figure ). she also sent direct appeals to officers of these groups, and sent an email to faculty at her home institution, lane community college. complete survey questions and results are available online here: https://www.surveymonkey.com/results/sm-cl cvr/ . a pdf of the results is also available on the project website https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data- available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ the draft and comments are available on google docs here: https://docs.google.com/document/d/ - z irnr xq zwp aajh zadwrsxwlekjn ajd c/edit https://www.surveymonkey.com/results/sm-cl cvr/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ https://docs.google.com/document/d/ -z irnr xq zwp aajh zadwrsxwlekjn ajd c/edit https://docs.google.com/document/d/ -z irnr xq zwp aajh zadwrsxwlekjn ajd c/edit figure : screencapture of cfp for national survey on the humanities, arts, science and technology alliance and collaboratory (hastac) website. figure : call for participation on the two year college english association facebook page. to date the survey has received responses. what follows is a discussion and commentary on survey questions and response data. q : familiarity one thing i was curious about was what was already being done at ccs among faculty: how much were faculty using technology in their classrooms; did they consider this work “dh” or not, etc. results showed that the most common use of technology was student-production of multimedia artifacts: % of respondents reported familiarity with student productions of this sort. more than % were familiar with the use of technology to study human objects and culture (a key feature of humanities disciplinary inquiry) or the use of humanities methods to study technology. the full text of the questions and pdf with the data collected are available on the dh@thecc website here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ figure : respondent familiarity with digital humanities technologies, etc. from the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges. q : employee role of the who answered the question, or almost % of respondents identified as faculty. others were program directors and management. q teaching discipline: by far the largest number of faculty respondents taught courses in writing and rhetoric—with more than % or respondents; % taught in humanities, % in literature, and % or respondents in media studies/media arts. a few respondents were not on the list and so wrote in their disciplines: biology, gis, and education disciplines responded. q courses regularly taught since much professional development in digital humanities is at the graduate and primary-research levels, it was important to get a picture of our respondents’ work life in the classroom. respondents regularly taught first-year courses, either required ( respondents or %) or elective ( respondents/ %). this was the largest contingent of faculty. sixty seven faculty or % did teach “special topics” classes or second-year courses; respondents recorded that they taught professional development courses. my conclusion at this point is that faculty development must be designed with first-year required courses in mind if dh is to become prevalent at community colleges. while professional development opportunities such as that (the humanities and technology) camps have become widespread, only one serves community college faculty specifically (planned for october ). q : employment status: approximately % or faculty were full-time at the same institution for more than years; about % or of those responding were full-time at the same institution for fewer than years. another faculty or about % were part-time—about % from between and years and another % fewer than years at the same institution. these results demonstrate a key flaw in much communication with part-time faculty: while part-time/adjunct faculty represent nearly % of the instructional workforce of community colleges , only % of our respondents were part-time. so we are not hearing from enough part-time faculty. this is a structural limitation of the reliance on part-time faculty. q autonomy with the question on course design autonomy, i wanted to get at the possibility for individual faculty developing their own infusions of dh, as i had done in the past months. i know that many required courses at ccs use common textbooks and even common course calendars, and so i thought this might be a problem. about % reported complete or significant course design autonomy, with another % reporting some design autonomy. only % reported little or no course design autonomy. this is encouraging for developing a dh community among these faculty, since dh methods require course redesign at some level. q technical proficiency of the who responded to this question, sixty-five faculty or % rated themselves “proficient and comfortable” with digital tools. another %, or respondents, rated themselves “highly proficient and very comfortable.” thirty-three per cent were somewhat proficient and only % rated themselves not very proficient or comfortable. again keeping in mind the self-selection of the sample through digital means (including email), these results show that more than % of this survey cohort enjoys some degree of proficiency with digital tools. q value technology when asked how highly they valued the use of technology in teaching, or nearly % reported that they valued it highly or very highly. another % valued it moderately, and people valued it not at all. since the survey itself is digital, those who don’t value digital tools may have skipped the survey entirely. sixteen skipped the question altogether. q digital divide students i was interested in the so-called “digital divide” among students because i wondered how typical my own experience was. for this survey, i defined “digital divide” as the difference between those students who have access to technology through computers and other devices and data plans and those whose access is limited to classroom and lab access. when attending the digital media and learning conference in san francisco in , presenters regularly commented how computers, data plans, devices, software and skills all represented economic obstacles to students. and in fact, just over % of respondents to this survey reported either a “pervasive” or “widespread” digital divide on their campus among students. another % or respondents found an “occasional” instance of it, and only respondents or about % found a “rare” instance. this may change every year as computers become more prevalent and data plans become cheaper, but it’s an ongoing consideration for any course redesign in community colleges. q digital divide faculty when i put the survey questions up on the google doc last june, i was really struck by the frustration “a national survey of part-time/adjunct faculty.” american academic vol. march . p. . web. march , . expressed by part-time faculty about professional development opportunities at their institutions. so i worked to really integrate issues of part-time faculty equity for professional development into the survey. for the purposes of this question, i defined the digital divide as follows: by "digital divide" we refer to a working environment that lends itself to developing and using digital competencies: access to hardware, software, tech support, adequately equipped office and classroom space, money and time for faculty development opportunities. the question about the digital divide among faculty prompted the most pointed individual answers: part-time have access to shared computers, and digital classrooms, but that is all. there is no support for contnuing education, and in fact, any support that was once offered, has recently been revoked due tokeeping the hours paid, in any capacity, under , due to "obamacare", per administration. oddly, it's mainly the full-time tenured instructors who are disconnected from technology use in the classroom. sixty-seven per cent of respondents did observe a digital divide among faculty: % saw it as a part- time/full time faculty divide; % found that this divide was not due to part-time/full-time status. given that a large majority ( %) of our respondents are full-time, this may not represent the part-time experience of the digital divide. q online components? seventy-one respondents or % reported that they regularly teach online courses and have an online companion site for their face-to-face courses; respondents or % reported that they don't teach online courses but have an online companion site for their face-to-face courses. another % occasionally taught hybrid or online courses, and almost % said that they did not teach either online or hybrid courses. again, we may have a skewed sample here, as the survey is online. q what do you regularly use in your humanities courses? in the digital pedagogy section of our survey, we asked whether respondents regularly use a learning management system for their courses; respondents said that they do; or % reported using web components of some sort in the classroom; % used digital archives, and % reported producing their own audio or videos for the classroom. sixteen per cent said that they only occasionally rather than regularly used any of the list, and only % reported never using any of these technologies in the classroom. q hiring committee emphasis arguably, new faculty represent the embodied vision of a discipline’s future. intentional recruitment of faculty with interest and expertise in a subfield such as dh has the potential to change curricula and even program organization and funding over time. when asked if they were willing to advocate for or consent to considering skill in “digital technologies and pedagogies” as preferred qualifications in evaluating candidates for hire, respondents or % were willing to either actively advocate or consent to such qualifications being considered. q support among your colleagues? while the overwhelming majority of respondents would consider dh qualifications for hiring in their disciplines, respondents were slightly less confident when considering their colleagues’ likelihood to consider such qualifications. about % thought that there would be high support among colleagues to put emphasis on digital technologies in hiring, and just under % thought there would be moderate support among colleagues. just over % thought that there would be little support, and % felt there would be some support. q meet expectations for faculty staff devt? about respondents or % felt that their institutions were approaching their expectations for faculty and staff development through curriculum development grants, reassigned time, professional leave time, travel funds, sabbatical funds, relevant on-campus resources, etc. however, % felt their institutions fell below or far below their expectations for faculty and staff development. only % said that their expectations were met. respondents took the time to write individual responses/explanations. here are some excerpts verbatim: no funds or opportunities for adjuncts, but plenty of funds and opportunities for full-time faculty. no funds for the part-time faculty who carry the bulk of our teaching load very unfocused allocation. we tend to fund a number of little projects that inevitably stall. it looks like we fund hobbies, not sustained infrastructure supported research. no time release. little travel funding. no it support for anything outside the classroom, and even then. it support and currency is major impediment to doing dh-oriented anything. workshops are offered but sometimes only once and at inconvenient times. basic skill classes are mixed with advanced courses. it's hard for part time instructors to participate because workshops are often announced only a few days in advance, assuming a daily on campus presence. we are given funds to present traditional literary papers at conferences w/o question, but we would have to argue to get funds to attend a conference in which we would not present but learn from others who are decades ahead of our department in digital humanities. they will fund full time tenure track. that is all. they are less than % of the faculty. there are excellent opportunities, but we do not have any time built into our paid work to take advantage of them. i do not need to pay for them, but i lose time at another job when i spend time doing workshops. little to no opportunities for part time faculty who often have to teach elsewhere or have other commitments gah. deep despair. there is little or no travel funding. staff and adjunct faculty have unreliable access to professional development opportunities. q methods used to keep current in the field while faculty’s response to their institutions’ efforts to support professional development was mixed or troubling, respondents’ answers to this question suggests that faculty are engaging in many kinds of professional activities to keep current in their fields. with multiple answers allowed, and respondents answering this question, respondents or % said they learned from their colleagues— an important consideration for dh projects which often involve collaboration over time. seventy-seven per cent of respondents also said they read journals and books in their fields regularly; % attended and presented at regional and national conferences. on-campus teaching workshops were also significant sources of professional development: % or respondents attended them. importantly, % or respondents used what they learned in workshops in their curriculum development. almost % read journals and books on pedagogy, and % read about teaching and research on blogs. nearly % use social media to keep current in their fields and in educational trends (e.g., twitter). q conditions to attend a campus dh workshop since the goal of my grant was to build a community of practice in dh at community colleges, i was curious to know what it might take to gather a group of community college educators together for a workshop. the definitional question about what exactly digital humanities is remains. overwhelmingly, respondents felt that a strong understanding of the value and usefulness of digital humanities to their teaching was a critical condition for considering attendance at an on-campus workshop: of the who responded, . % or chose this condition. released time for the event was important for . % or of the respondents, and money for attending the event (a stipend) was critical to % or respondents. q necessary conditions to attend a regional or national institute money became more important for considering a regional or national institute such as those the neh offers: respondents or % said that money was critical, and % mentioned tenure/promotion credit as being a necessary condition. this question did not allow more than one response, so this was an interesting response. several added “money and time are both necessary” in the “other/explain” column. q would you attend a summer institute? the neh has offered summer institutes on special topics for years, and recently has begun to support work in community colleges. the bridging cultures institutes, for example, are highly regarded and well attended, and represent a concerted effort on the part of the neh to increase diversity and equity and cross-cultural understanding through pedagogy. when asked about respondents’ interest in a similar week-long institute for digital humanities work, % were highly interested or interested in attending, and % were “mildly” interested. only % were uninterested. reasons were highly varied, and respondents shared their opinions. a selection verbatim follows: because i am part-time faculty, the time that i am most likely to have more than two classes is during the summer term. it would be wonderful to attend a week long period with like minded peers, learning almost anything that would help students learn more effectively by encouraging digital literacy in the classroom. normally my summer fellowships are for improving content. it would be interesting to have a week-long seminar/workshop to improve delivery. i can't say how valuable it would be to attend a summer institute to expand use of digital humanities methodologies in the classroom. i think digital tools will be essential for keeping classical humanities topics of enduring interest to st century students. see, for example, carl straumshein, “digital humanities in demand.” inside higher education, january , , web, especially the comments section http://bit.ly/ d mox . http://bit.ly/ d mox i'm interested and i'm w/ years in the field. we need young faculty who already do and know this to help show us how. we've been hiring too many people in our own image of our selves (a s "comp. & lit" model) to perpetuate the illusion that we're doing well. we've been living w/ our heads in the sand here at xxxx eng/com several other respondents offered reasons for not attending: from not wanting to travel during summers to needing to work summers for money and being too close to retirement. q institutional obstacles at your college to increasing dh presence on campus among the institutional obstacles to increasing dh presence on their campuses was a lack of clarity about learning goals of "digital humanities”—a clarity that i contend will best emerge when community college faculty enter the conversation rather than letting the critical paths develop without their knowledge or input. sixty-five per cent or respondents wanted to know what dh is and why it’s important. sixty-eight per cent or respondents felt that there was a lack of clarity about the difference between "digital humanities" and other kinds of technology on campus (e.g., the sentiment that “we already have computer labs and technicians...."). some ( %) felt that there was a lack of interest in what seemed to be trendy. a lack of commitment to supporting part-time faculty development was felt to be an obstacle to % of respondents. lack of commitment on the part of administration to support new courses that are not directly related to job training was chosen by % of respondents. q rate adequacy of facilities for dml the majority of respondents— —found that the facilities for technology were adequate or highly adequate. however, there were some pointed critiques in the comments section: we have plenty of computer labs for math/science courses, but humanities courses do not have a designated computer lab or have minimal access to lab time. we have the technology. but not the expertise -- least of all at the administrative levels. administrators seem to want to quantify everything (loa) w/ a business model of efficiency of course delivery in mind, rather than genuine trust in faculty to use digital media to meet their learning objectives in ways that might be highly creative and rewarding for and motivating to students (and therefore leading to higher rates of student retention and success) -- though perhaps not "quantifiable" in the current admin. matrix. admin lacks a variety of "narratives" for imagining pedagogical uses of digital media -- as do our older and young-but-old-school faculty. no smart board in my classroom, i teach art history and still have to use an old kodak projector for comparison images. q rate familiarity with neh prof devt when asked about their familiarity with the neh’s professional development opportunities, respondents were very familiar, quite familiar or familiar; however, nearly % were not familiar with them at all. given how many respondents are full-time faculty teaching in humanities disciplines, this suggests that the neh itself might expand its outreach to community colleges. q which program of neh familiar with? of the who answered this question, had never attended an neh professional development event. but a total of respondents, or %, had attended either the “bridging cultures,” “landmarks of american history” or other summer seminars/institutes. q familiarity with ccha while many were familiar with the community college humanities association, % of respondents knew nothing at all about this national professional association. given that so many respondents were full-time community college humanities faculty, this tells us that ccha could expand its base. about % of respondents are regular attendees at events, which suggests that the ccha is just one way to get the word out about digital humanities at community colleges. q familiarity with league for innovation in cc while about % of those who responded had heard of the league for innovation in the community college or came from a league college, % were unfamiliar with the organization. the league has a lot of influence among administrators and can help set broad agendas for support of innovations such as dh. q mechanisms for development: an open-ended question ( respondents). below is a selection of verbatim comments from respondents when asked what would be the most useful mechanism by which the neh, the ccha, the league for innovation in the community college or other humanities organizations might support their development in the area of digital humanities pedagogy or research: facilitate workshops that put me and my colleagues in touch with digital humanities experts and involve us in the ongoing conversation. such facilitation would need to be supported by time off and/or monetary support (the latter depending on where such workshops were held). have chapters in each area and email lists or a publication. if the league for innovation is really of any value beyond a bragging right for college administrators, it needs to be presented to humanities depts. and faculty as a serious means of prof. development for classroom teaching pedagogy in eng/com. neh has established such a reputation. either stipends for attendance, or webinars. travel funds and travel time are the big obstacles. offer - day conferences within driving distance and specific workshops/lessons easily transferable to my courses. costs covered by my institution or free to veteran faculty. a ccha national conference seminar/presentation on the subject short webinars accessible from anywhere that give institutionally-recognized credit for faculty development. they should assume we know nothing, have knowledge of their target audience so its applicable to curriculum and be no more than minutes in length. funding. that is the bottom line. faculty who want to be involved in ccha are unable to attend conferences because of lack of funding. ccha conferences are much more expensive than national conventions like the mla or cs, also. the registration fee is too high, the hotels are too pricey, the locations are often out of the way and require missing more work days just to travel to them (louisville is a hour one way door to door trip, in addition to the cost). i don't know if this is in their purview, but i'd need funds to spend time on any pedagogical development. answers from all answers to question were loaded into wordle.org as a visual experiment, with the following results: figure : all comments to question in the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges as a wordle drawing conclusions from the survey while designing this survey, the project director understood that its statistical validity would be limited. the questions themselves and the answers given provided useful leads for developing conversations about future directions for dh, but these are not intended to serve as “hard data” upon which to base high-stakes policy decisions. if community colleges can respond to the concerns raised here and elsewhere, and begin to join the conversations already occurring in classrooms at four-year colleges and at research institutions, museums, libraries and archives, a national community of practice could emerge and influence the future of digital humanities. participants pre-conference session leaders rebecca frost davis, ph.d., director of instructional and emerging technologies, st. edward’s university. matthew k. gold, ph.d., associate professor of english and digital humanities at cuny graduate center. anne mcgrail, ph.d., project director, english faculty, lane community college, eugene, oregon. dean rehberger, ph.d., director of matrix: the center for humane art, letters, and social science online and associate professor of writing, rhetoric and american cultures. jesse stommel, ph.d., assistant professor in the college of liberal studies at university of wisconsin, madison. terri whitney, ph.d., english faculty at north shore community college in salem, massachusetts. jake agatucci, assistant professor of writing and literature at central oregon community college. russell h. shitabata, ph.d. (videographer), english faculty at lane community college, eugene, oregon. pre-conference session attendees monica fleming, program coordinator, historic preservation trades, edgecombe community college, tarboro, north carolina. professor rayka rush, philosophy department, metropolitan community college omaha, nebraska. andrew barnett, dean, public service, humanities, social sciences westmoreland county community college youngwood, pennsylvania. paul nagy, english department clovis community college clovis, new mexico. melissa hebert johnson, associate professor of art history black hawk college moline, illinois. maya sharma, assistant professor of english hostos community college bronx, new york. laura bergstrom, school of liberal arts and sciences, ivy tech southern indiana, sellersberg, indiana. paul vanheuklom, professor arts and humanities, lincoln land community college, springfield, illinois. carol hahn, chair, humanities and fine arts, heartland community college normal, illinois. for complete expert bios, see appendix ii meeting summary: preconference session at community college humanities association session i: “digital humanities at community colleges now” topics introduced: presentation of survey data from spring/summer national community college digital humanities survey. problems of defining the digital humanities and possible effects on the community college embrace of dh. understanding the reception of digital humanities at community college campuses. effects of a fluid and evolving dh definition on community college engagement with and understanding of digital humanities. community colleges taking the lead in digital humanities. goals for this session: share the data that we have collected so far on perceptions about digital humanities at community colleges. make visible how widespread is understanding of digital humanities –what it is and how much it is being practiced on community college campuses. understand institutional obstacles to offering new elective courses given part-time faculty ratios, teaching loads, enrollment pressure etc. understand where community colleges are on the dh spectrum of participation to determine the long-term needs for a mainstream embrace of dh at community colleges nationally. discussion: project director anne mcgrail introduced the day by talking about how she wanted to jump- start development of a community of practice for dh at the cc. for dh to gain a foothold in cc curricula, she argued, a professional and social infrastructure is necessary. one question that framed the day was how to build that infrastructure. a second strategic goal was to foster the conditions for mid-career community college faculty such as herself to learn dh. anyone browsing for information can observe a rising sea of work coming from scholarly practitioners of dh who share their work in a constant feedback loop of inspiration. but stretched as community college faculty are in teaching workloads, she asked, is this possible for ccs? how will digital humanities be mainstreamed at the cc? she suggested that dh at the cc will add another layer to the “eternal september” of dh, and welcomed the experts gathered for the day. terri whitney, hawthorne in salem terri whitney discussed how at her home institution, north shore community college (nscc) in danvers, massachusetts, the term “digital humanities” hadn’t really caught on yet, even though she and colleagues had been doing dh for a long time. whitney began her journey in dh by attending some conferences at mit and creating a cd rom in . in , when the world wide web was just starting, she found herself asking what the web could actually do. she thought that it allowed one to video of mcgrail’s introduction is available here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= weatu syqc&feature=youtu.be . slides available on the dh@thecc website here https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc- workshop/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= weatu syqc&feature=youtu.be https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ use local resources and make them available globally. this led her to develop www.hawthorneinsalem.org . she explained why nscc put hawthorne in cyberspace and how they are trying to help their audience use the site. whitney emphasized how important it was to collaborate with local resources. for hawthorne in salem, collaborators included the peabody essex museum, the house of seven gables, and salem maritime national historic site, sponsored by the national parks department. she also collaborated with faculty from several institutions—community colleges, four-year institutions and even high schools. for content expertise, she also engaged seven hawthorne scholars, two historians, two evaluators to evaluate the content, and someone to evaluate the technical aspects and offer computer expertise. in this way, whitney’s experience of putting together a team is highly characteristic of many dh projects, and demonstrates both the opportunities and challenges of dh at the cc. one problem that whitney ran into immediately was copyright, and so her team worked with the riverside edition of hawthorne, whose copyright was open. another issue was developing the database, and local resources proved to be the answer: a community college programmer from norway came up with this database in two weeks. whitney recounted the need for institutional support for project release-time. she emphasized the need for collaboration and developing a clear plan that you stay with. technical support, she suggested, can come from the college and from students. she also said that having some mechanism for tracking traffic to the website or project is essential, as it gives you data for administrators looking at effectiveness and the bottom line. summarizing her experience on the project, whitney said there is no end of work to do, but given the limits of time, she is pleased to maintain the project. figure : l-r: anne mcgrail, matthew k. gold, julia huston nguyen (senior program coordinator for neh educational programs) and terri whitney at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association. jake agatucci, digital games culture jake agatucci has developed a digital games culture course at his home institution, central oregon community college in bend, oregon. he recounted that one of the difficulties he has found in teaching this class has been getting support for access to the digital games products that students were supposed professor whitney’s comments begin at : in part i of the video available here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ to be studying. but the lesson he learned from this problem was that resistance from the institution helped him to develop the class in a way that eventually satisfied him. like whitney and her colleagues at nscc, he “never really identified as a digital humanist.” he said that he leveraged the collaboration affordances of prezi to create presentations that his own students then edit. “there are some things about digital games that students know better than i do,” he said, and the “collaborative nature of constructing knowledge” was a hallmark of this class. he advised those interested in developing new classes such as digital games culture to be prepared to be creative in responding to institutional matters beyond faculty control. figure : terri whitney (l), jake agatucci (c) and jesse stommel (r) discuss dh in community colleges at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association session ii: “in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” session leaders: jesse stommel and rebecca frost davis topics introduced: designing introductory undergraduate digital humanities projects. infusions and embedded pedagogies as a path to mainstreaming digital humanities at the community college level. learning communities, service learning, mini-capstones and other ways to introduce digital humanities to community college students. adapting upper-division projects, capstones, initiatives for lower-division students. skill building for faculty and staff. developing communities of practice locally and nationally for community college dh faculty. designing open-access assignments and activities that extend dh across the digital divide. goals for this session: understand how current faculty at early- or mid-career or later can adapt digital humanities methods in their classrooms. learn how dh can be practiced in the - and -level humanities classroom, whether as embedded pedagogy and/or as new courses. understand minimum requisite skills for students to practice dh and brainstorm ways to expand and build on these skills. address the impact of the digital divide in classrooms where some students may not have computers at home. agatucci’s comments can be found beginning at : in part i of the video of the session here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ discussion: jesse stommel began the session, “in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” by recognizing the importance of this conversation and the usefulness of having both faculty and administrators in the room (there were two division deans in attendance). rebecca frost davis commented that community colleges have a lot in common with teaching-intensive four-year colleges. she said that in , when she was first researching digital humanities, she was told that “there was no place for undergraduates in dh.” but that has changed, and her previous employer, the national institute for technology in liberal education (nitle) is one of the leaders in that development. stommel recounted how he had practiced dh in many levels of higher education, and continues today working with non-traditional learners at university of wisconsin. bringing students into the faculty conversations is new to academic culture, he suggested, but it needs to happen if we want to create a welcoming environment for all students to practice dh. both stommel and davis agreed that in working with all students—from those who “don’t know how to click a mouse” to those who can code— it’s important to create assignments and environments that meet students where they are. peer-driven learning, in which students can help each other across the digital divides they may inhabit, is critical. davis was interested in thinking about the desired learning outcomes for dh in community colleges. discussion moved to the floor, where mcgrail offered that her reasons for developing dh in community colleges is that “this is where humanities are going—this is where human beings are going.” this resonated with davis’s experience. matthew k. gold took up a perennial dh question and asked it in a community college context. “there’s something i worry about,” he remarked. “what is the difference between dh and digital literacy, information literacy?” gold was concerned that the innovations in dh—thinking about new methods for research and teaching—could get blunted by a focus on digital literacy. but stommel suggested that a venn diagram is the best way to think about dh and digital literacies. “i am interested in how we approach tools critically—critically interrogating and analyzing our methods,” stommel remarked. davis agreed that it’s important to avoid an “ossification” of digital literacy skills, to avoid turning programs into “computer competency exams.” this conversation, which in some ways continues the longstanding definitional debates, continued. “my fear about dh at the cc level,” remarked gold, is “that it will become almost a digital remedial effort to raise the skills of cc students. whereas the best way dh has been used is to build new paradigms. we need to say to community college students: you need to innovate, to create new tools, new methods, that speak to you as students, and to us as audience.” this thread of the discussion was a natural one for talking about community college teaching, as often ccs are considered places where “job skills” or “basic skills” are taught. stommel argued that critical thinking is the best job skill you can teach and dh can support that. davis argued that humanities could take a lesson from the sciences, where students have collaborated with students as part of the disciplinary culture. she suggested that developing projects in which students could perform microtasks would involve students in building something. dean rehberger suggested that the true value of dh is to transform the humanities. he remarked that teaching courses where we can teach critical thinking to - students sitting in front of us is a model that is not going to work anymore. creativity and critical thinking is our call to what we do well. a video of jesse stommel and rebecca frost davis’s session is available here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ following this conversation, stommel then demonstrated several examples of where “the digital” and “the humanities” work together. his recent article in hybrid pedagogy provides an overview of dh work that stommel has undertaken that would be appropriate for community college students. following the demonstration, davis asked, “should we be changing our learning outcomes or are they the same learning outcomes in a different context?” a discussion ensued about whether the student projects stommel demonstrated illustrated that the object of inquiry—and therefore the outcomes— had changed or not. but stommel suggested that understanding the poem (in this case one by emily dickinson) is important for production of digital projects about her poetry. and davis agreed: “it’s important to have a reflection piece built into the project, so that you can understand the thought process behind it. for students to learn about risk-taking, failure, etc.” one participant, carol hahn, who is an artist, suggested that in her discipline they’d been doing this for centuries: “if we flip the studio classroom, we have the lecture classroom.” the conversation turned to assessment: “we need to have a rubric for everything,” said davis. stommel uses a lot of self-assessment and self-grading. in one assessment technique, students write a “writer’s letter” in which students enter into dialogue with stommel about their work. davis described the kinds of assessments that she thinks are the most useful for dh: “implicitly you are looking for self-awareness, agency on the part of the writer.” figure : jesse stommel and rebecca frost davis co-led the session, “in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development” at the pre-conference workshop. session iii: “equity and institutional policy: opportunities and obstacles for dh development on community college campuses” session leaders: matthew k. gold and dean rehberger topics introduced: the importance of introducing dh methods, practice, theoretical principles to cc students. digital humanities, digital fluencies and degree qualifications for the associate’s degree. defining digital humanities for community colleges. what community colleges can offer the evolving field of dh. imagining community college counterparts to the digital humanities centers; possibilities for internal jesse stommel, “the digital humanities is about breaking stuff.” hybrid pedagogy, september , . web. march , . partnerships (with media studies and instructional technology departments at community colleges) and external partnerships (with two-year and four-year colleges and universities, libraries, digital intitiatives, etc.) understanding faculty and staff profiles and expertise for hiring and institutionalizing dh at community colleges. goals for this session: develop a definition of “digital humanities” that would resonate with and be understood by the broad audiences of community college faculty, staff, instructional technology specialists, administrators and communities. map out the unique contribution to an associate’s or transfer degree that dh can offer st century students. articulate the unique contributions that community college students, faculty and projects could offer dh in terms of visibility and expansion of its evolving values and function in society at large. articulate how dh could draw more community college students to the humanities in general. articulate where dh projects and personnel can “live” in the cc institutional structure (operationally, physically, politically). brainstorm ways to effectively recruit dh faculty, given the more generalist emphasis of community college faculty and the few digital humanists currently practicing at ccs. discussion: matthew k. gold began this session on improving equity and institutional policy in dh at community colleges. “dh need community colleges more than community colleges need dh,” he remarked. “dh scholars need to speak to the wider public, and community college students are an audience that we can speak to.” gold’s journey in dh began when he got a faculty development grant from neh to work on the history of downtown brooklyn and walt whitman. much of whitman’s work happened across the street from city tech, where he works. this project led him to ask, “why, in the digital age, are our classrooms still these spaces within these walls?” the web-based digital pedagogical project, looking for whitman, emerged from this work. because the project connected students from different kinds of institutions, gold felt that it was a model project for possible community college engagements of similar kinds. looking for whitman engaged different students at different stages in their scholarly inquiry— undergraduate liberal arts students as well as general education students and master’s and ph.d. candidates. because this project connected students across multiple institutions located variously in places where whitman had worked, it led to a natural study of place. “place-based study provides a level engagement for students to do original work and connect with others. what do our students have that others don’t? the places where they are.” gold suggested that the model of place-based learning in looking for whitman could help community college faculty conceive of projects in their own locations. at the heart of the work is an invitation to students to do the archival, historical work—“primary digging in their own locations and then sharing it out,” as gold put it. the multiple levels of engagement allows for students with different skill levels to still engage: “i could bridge the gaps in skills: students could annotate a whitman poem and create an annotated text.” gold invited participants to think about dh projects of their own using the places where they and their students live and work. he also encouraged faculty to aim high and be ambitious in developing a community and infrastructure. “you’d be surprised,” he remarked. early in his career, he was able to work with library of congress manuscripts division. “rope in high profile institutions in your project,” he offered to the community college faculty gathered. such high-profile collaborations will help convince home institutions that a project is worthwhile. the connections that gold made with looking for a video of matthew k. gold and dean rehberger’s session is available here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /video-of-pre-conference-session-at-the-community-college-humanities-assn/ whitman led to further work and great opportunities for his students. he offered as an example a project that the brooklyn historical society did through a fund for improvement of post secondary education (fipse) grant, “students and faculty in the archives.” this is especially relevant, since first- year students in that project do archival work in their first moments in college. “start from your place, and be willing to go outside,” he suggested. as with whitney’s hawthorne in salem, gold emphasized the importance of interinstitutional collaborations, and he recommended davis’s article, co-authored with brian alexander, “should liberal arts campuses do digital humanities? process and products in the small college world” as a resource. “if your institution is like mine, you can’t trust that there are enough seats, wifi, etc., but partnerships can help ease various strains.” gold then demonstrated a project he directed, the cuny academic commons, which uses wordpress and buddy press. it was built through a university-wide committee and enables various campuses to connect with each other. many in attendance were very interested in the “commons in a box” concept, which won the digital humanities award for best dh suite of tools. the “digital commons” idea sparked quite a bit of interest among faculty in the room, perhaps because many are looking for ways to connect with like-minded faculty in their regions. gold interjected that it was important to be strategic when thinking about funding for dh projects such as the open lab. embedding dh projects into institutional projects that are a priority can help gain leverage for projects. gold summarized his advice as “start where you are, build partnerships with high-profile institutions, and, to the extent you can, be ambitious in the people and institutions you ask to join you. you’d be surprised at the institutions that would be willing to partner with you and your institutions.” he also reminded participants of the importance of project- and self-promotion: “let your administrators know what you’re doing. spread the word on your own campus, through twitter, blogs, etc. demonstrate to your administration how your project is aligned with the goals of your institution. digital humanities projects build the kinds of skills administrators like to see.” figure : dean rehberger (l) and matthew k. gold (r) at the pre-conference session at the community college humanities association dean rehberger joined matthew k. gold in his remarks, adding that community colleges have been doing digital humanities in ways that universities didn’t even think about in the s; it was just under a different guise. rehberger explained that he has done digital humanities himself since , when he worked on a project with women from west africa running ngos. he demonstrated his latest project, “should liberal arts campuses do digital humanities? process and products in the small college world.” in debates in the digital humanities, ed. matthew k. gold. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, . http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/ http://dhawards.org/dhawards /results/ http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/ http://dhawards.org/dhawards /results/ the public philosophy journal. “philosophers are the most insular, anti-digital of all,” he joked, and so this project is an achievement. another significant project he has worked on that community colleges could learn from is oral history in the digital age. the project involves institutions and is a model for interinstitutional collaboration. what oral history teaches us all, rehberger commented, is that “if we are to do oral history in such a way that it can be preserved and is valuable, then we have to think about the oral history process right from the moment we collect data. all the way down to archives.” this means that oral history projects can provide a pedagogy and practice that are innovative, create new knowledge and also provide training in critical thinking and planning skills. in other words—amenable to a community college context. rehberger suggested that oral history makes humanists rethink how they do humanities research. for generations, humanists kept their research hidden until they wrote a book. but the digital era fosters an atmosphere of sharing along the way—and a culture of openness that old-school humanists need to get used to. echoing davis’s comments earlier, rehberger says that digital humanists have to be more like scientists in this way. oral history projects build skills in planning, project management and collaboration as well as the critical thinking skills that all humanists recognize and value. rehberger explained the importance of protocols when collecting oral histories which will translate into good metadata and create accessible projects that are useable. because rehberger and his colleagues have worked on international projects with low resources and overburdened people, they have had to learn how to plan well enough to make the best of difficult situations. this kind of work is applicable to community college students who may be working in low- resource environments. “we’ll go into labs where power is on two hours a day with no air conditioning. we’ll go into mali, how do we get the digitization done when we only have one scanner?” rehberger advocated a can-do, diy attitude that leverages what is available and makes the best of it. participants were very receptive to this idea. the emphasis at matrix is on strict protocols and students whose work style is collaborative and interoperable. working together as a “digital commons” means that if something takes a student away, another can step in. rehberger suggested that such awareness of other students and the project- centeredness of the work is applicable to community colleges, since collaboration is a critical skill for all students. rehberger’s work on the explore pennsylvania history (http://explorepahistory.com/ ) project also is applicable to a community college context: “teachers don’t have time. . . . what we found is that we have to put lesson plans for them. we tie this to teaching themes: people love oral history, but they can’t use the whole thing in their classroom. . . . when you create resources, it’s important to create them in a way that’s useful from the beginning.” to engage more faculty in digital humanities in community colleges, the more that assignments and projects have been thought through and tested, the more likely that time-stretched faculty can adopt these projects. rehberger summarized his advice: “two things that are critical: you need to work together. it requires a whole new thinking about humanities. you don’t just go off into the archive, do your research, and create your monograph. whether you’re in an r or a cc: we are in a resource-strapped place in humanities. people are doing more work than they used to do. how can we leverage technology in those situations for us to ease our way, make things better for us, for our students?” for a list of all websites referred to by session experts, see appendix iv. http://publicphilosophyjournal.org/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://explorepahistory.com/ figure : participants paul vanheuklom and carol hahn discuss their work at the pre-conference session at ccha figure : project director anne mcgrail introduces expert panelists at the beginning of the pre-conference session at the ccha meeting summary: follow-up workshop session at ccha : “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities” project director anne mcgrail led the saturday session at the community college humanities association, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in humanities.” she adapted david perkins’ seven principles for making learning whole to provide a framework for talking about the value and usefulness of digital humanities at community colleges. david perkins uses a terrific baseball metaphor for explaining the importance of holistic learning in successful pedagogies. mcgrail adapted this metaphor to demonstrate the way that digital humanities projects provide a perfect platform for “making learning whole.” she sharedsome of the digital humanities projects that she has used in her community college classes and talked about how digital humanities projects increase engagement. figure : slide from project director anne mcgrail’s presentation, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities” a key feature of perkin’s model is that it’s important for students—even novices—to “play the whole game.” just as kids play a “junior version” of baseball when they are as young as three years old, so, perkins says, we should lead our own students into whole digital humanities projects that are scaled for their skills and goals. such a model avoids what perkins calls “elementitis”—a focus on rote skills that are suspended from any relevance for the student. likewise, “everybody plays” in baseball, and so should all students participate in digital projects. mcgrail described her requirement that all students create some kind of digital project by the end of the term, learning how to manage their project and deal with failures and unmet expectations as well as the satisfaction of creating new knowledge. a combination of high expectations and high support characterizes mcgrail’s dh classes, and students meet in a lab for an hour each week so that they can work with each other and the instructor as they making learning whole: how seven principles for teaching can transform education. david n. perkins. san francisco: jossey- bass, . slides from this session are available on the project website here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides- from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /slides-from-ccha-dh-at-the-cc-workshop/ develop their skills. she establishes an atmosphere of “unconditional positive regard” where there are “no stupid mistakes”; such an atmosphere is critical to successfully embedding digital projects into community college classrooms, as many students come to open-access institutions with fear of failure. another feature of perkin’s model is that it’s important to “make the game worth playing.” mcgrail demonstrated how teaching students about ngrams and text mining builds skills in inference and deduction and helps students begin developing generative topics and conceptual knowledge that they can learn for their lives. perkins call to “work on the hard parts” is another feature that can be adapted for digital humanities pedagogies in a community college context, demonstrated mcgrail. providing deliberate practice in the context of the whole game and integrating writing, critical reflection and self-evaluation into projects helps students develop a tolerance for working through the difficult stages of a project, when they may be in the doldrums just before a moment of insight. mcgrail’s student projects on uncle tom’s cabin and material culture and the gospel of slavery illustrated how this pedagogical concept works. figure : slide from anne mcgrail’s presentation at the ccha, “helping students navigate the ‘digital turn’ in the humanities” mcgrail also demonstrated how several projects such as “live tweeting last of the mohicans” and “using storify to archive class discussions” helps students to take important steps in “near” and “far” knowledge transfer. she discussed the ways in which dh projects offer opportunities for layered aspects of learning to emerge, and how such projects draw learners into the game of inquiry. she shared how she has introduced students to new kinds of interpretive analysis such as basic text mining, first showing students wordles and then even summarizing professor ted underwood’s work. for some students this way of reading has opened up a whole new world of thinking about texts. even basic online work with primary source documents and crowdsourcing annotations with google docs has created a sense of collaboration not previously possible in even the liveliest humanities class discussions. those in attendance at the workshop shared their enthusiasm for the goals of “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa.” many were interested in learning more and were referred to the website for assignment ideas and to the national survey for their opinions and experiences. products a white paper was submitted on march , . the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges questions and data are available on the dh@thecc website here: https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available- from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ these data and the discussion of results by project director anne mcgrail will appear in print in the spring issue of the community college moment. the website for the magazine is http://www.lanecc.edu/ccmoment the project director wrote an article covering the ccha pre-conference session and workshop for the the humanist, the association newsletter for the community college humanities association which goes to all membership. the project director will present findings of her project at the ccha pacnw in seattle in october . https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ https://blogs.lanecc.edu/dhatthecc/ / / /survey-data-available-from-national-survey-of-digital-humanities-in-community-colleges/ http://www.lanecc.edu/ccmoment lessons learned and next steps “bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa” emerged from the project director’s own desire to engage with a community of practice in digital humanities. and the time is right for that community to develop: perhaps from the moment that the start-up grant was in september , an emerging community began to spring up. at the october pacific northwest chapter of the community college humanities association, for example, the project director presented to a room full of faculty interested in digital humanities and wanting to hear more. the respondents to the online survey also suggest that there is a group of faculty who are interested, engaged, and want to learn more. a clear outcome of this project has been a fuller picture of the state of professional development among community college humanists and a raised awareness on the part of the major professional association of community college humanists. lessons learned: wiki: while the project director enthusiastically shared her own work on the dh@thecc website, the wiki has been slow to engage interest. this perhaps because the nature of a wiki assumes a crowd to source from as well as be a resource for. that crowd has yet to emerge. however, the national survey of digital humanities at the community college has brought enough email queries to the project director’s inbox that its role as a mechanism for outreach as well as inquiry is clear. sharing your work in all its imperfection is an innovation that dh has brought to humanities teaching, but it may be slow to catch on with mid-career humanists used to keeping their work in their own classrooms. participation: while the regional ccha conference session on dh at the cc was well attended, the number of participants at the pre-conference session in the national meeting was somewhat disappointing: nine signed up and another four attended without registering officially. this small turnout could be explained by one comment made in the national survey: that the ccha meetings are already expensive and that louisville was too far out of the way for most faculty to attend. what is the pipeline for new dh faculty at the cc? this grant and its activities demonstrated how much work there is still to be done to raise the salience and relevance of digital humanities for community college faculty, students, and their communities. bringing dh to the cc brings another wrinkle to the definitional questions surrounding dh. can community college students and their teachers contribute to digital humanities, to the new knowledge and new paradigms that dh has been about since its inception? or are they to be stuck creating derivative products that mimic what is being done in research institutions? what does a “junior version of the whole game” look like at community colleges and how what is the pipeline for community college humanist faculty looking like now? will it eventually lead to dh at the cc? next steps: community college faculty need a digital humanities (dh) institute of their own. results of the survey and conversations at conferences demonstrate that community college (cc) faculty are immersed in the daily intensive work of teaching and are unable to devote time and resources needed to learn dh theory, methods and practice. for this reason the project director has requested funds to support an neh office of digital humanities advanced topics summer institute specifically for community college faculty to engage with new digital methods, tools and practices for humanities teaching and scholarship. participants will work with experts to translate current theory and practice in dh for the unique learning needs of community college students in open-access institutional contexts. ultimately, the institute will increase the profile and relevance of humanities in the st century by extending engagement with digital humanities to a higher education community that has been largely overlooked in the developing field. in the course of the conversations that emerged at the ccha conference in and and in analyzing the responses from the national survey, several research topics and questions significant to community college digital humanists materialized. an institute for community college humanists would allow deep engagement with these questions: dh as content: what kinds of dh content are best suited to the open-access and lifelong learning contexts in community college humanities classes? outcome: participants explore, use and/or create digital exhibits scaffolded for community college students. dh as method: how can faculty expand and deepen traditional humanities and close reading methods by adapting and adopting tools for text mining, distant reading, and other dh methods? outcome: participants infuse instructional designs with digital textual analysis. dh as pedagogy: how can the use of “living laboratories” and creation of born-digital projects enhance humanities’ relevance to higher education and support students’ developing intellectual identities as producers and not just consumers of knowledge? outcome: participants design a place-based research project that invites students to use digital methods in humanities courses. dh as rhetoric: what kinds of dh projects can help students see the (often hidden) rhetorical power of digital tools and methods and learn about the constraints and arguments embedded within them? outcome: participants create a scaffolded design for tool use and analysis of the rhetorical functions and interactions of digital assets, architecture and user displays. dh as community builder: how can dh projects cultivate connections among students and their communities? outcome: participants create prototypes for community-based projects in, for example, crowdsourcing data, oral history projects, maps and georeferencing. dh as tool for public humanities and equity: what projects illuminate systemic biases and exclusions embedded in dh tools, methods and culture and how might we leverage the affordances of dh to address these problems? outcome: participants prototype a project for identifying and responding to a demonstrably exclusionary digital tool or practice. if the institute is funded, the participants would emerge from the institute with a portfolio of project prototypes in, for example, data visualization, multimedia production, geospatial mapping, crowdsourced research, and digital storytelling, among others, each designed for an open-access community college context. as with the start-up grant, participants’ work will be shared on an online commons that will serve as a hub for developing a national community of inquiry and practice in dh at the cc. this neh odh summer institute will not replace the myriad professional training opportunities that exist in dh nationally and internationally; it will also not merely be a workshop in teaching with technology. rather, this institute will guide participants in understanding and scaffolding dh curriculum tailored to the learning needs of open-access institutional settings. it will provide opportunities for participants to see their work within the larger picture of the digital humanities field while developing dh projects suitable for community college students. along the way, participants will develop a professional learning community that could lead to diffusion of dh into humanities programs at community colleges nationally in coming years. one thing became clear through the start-up project: for community college faculty to engage with dh work, digital humanities must be very tightly aligned with clear pedagogical goals and readily adaptable to lower-division transfer (i.e., “freshman and sophomore”) courses. teaching loads are higher ( - courses per semester) in community colleges than universities and most four-year colleges and, according to one study, community college faculty spend more than times the number of hours in the classroom teaching than do public doctoral faculty, and more than one and a half times the number of contact hours with students. moving from pockets of innovation to a community of practice model our expert community college digital humanists illustrate how important an active national community of practice is. terri whitney’s hawthorne in salem digital archive and jake agatucci’s work with digital games culture—as well as the project director anne mcgrail’s ongoing curricular infusions and website—demonstrate that pockets of innovation in digital humanities are springing up nationally. but they remain isolated. in future, reliable and coordinated activities are needed to build a critical mass of community college faculty. these faculty can then become a resource for one another and for the field’s development. an neh institute is one kind of activity. the humanities and technology (that) camps are another. constrained by it is by a shoestring budget, the community college humanities association itself can still offer a place for sharing new work in community college digital humanities. national study of postsecondary faculty, cited in mla committee on community colleges, “a community college teaching career.” modern language association, . web feb . appendix i survey questions national survey of digital humanities in community colleges . which of the following digital humanities pedagogies, methods, and objects of study are you familiar with? (check all that apply.) . what is your employee role? . what is/are your teaching discipline(s)? . if you teach, what level courses do you teach regularly? . what is your employment status? . what level of autonomy do you have in designing your courses? . please rate your own technical proficiency and comfort with digital tools. . how highly do you value the use of technology in your teaching, curriculum development, assessment and research? . mark the extent to which you witness the so-called “digital divide” in your daily teaching on your campus. (by “digital divide” we mean the difference between those students who have access to technology through computers and other devices and data plans and those whose access is limited to classroom and lab access). . in your opinion, does a "digital divide" exist between part-time faculty on your campus and full-time faculty? (by "digital divide" we refer to a working environment that lends itself to digital competencies: to hardware, software, tech support, adequately equipped office and classroom space, money and time for faculty development opportunities.) . do you teach your course(s) with some online components and/or entirely online? . which of the following do you use regularly in your humanities courses? ("regularly"= at least once a week in all your classes.) . hiring: digital humanities is a new umbrella term for expertise across a broad spectrum of special skills and disciplines, and hiring this expertise is new to community colleges. if you were to serve on a hiring committee in your discipline or a neighbor humanities discipline, how much emphasis would you place on a candidate’s facility with digital technologies and pedagogies in the classroom? . how much support do you think there would be among your colleagues for adding emphasis in the hiring process for facility with digital technologies/technologies in the classroom? . how well does your institution meet your expectations for faculty and staff development through curriculum development grants, reassigned time, professional leave time, travel funds, sabbatical funds, relevent on-campus resources, etc.? . what methods do you use to keep current in your discipline and teaching practice? please check all that apply. . in your opinion, which of the following conditions would be necessary for you or your colleagues to attend a workshop on your campus to learn more about digital humanities? (check all that apply.) . which of the following conditions would be necessary for you or your colleagues to attend a regional or national institute about digital humanities for community college faculty? . if given the opportunity, how interested would you be in attending a week-long summer institute to learn how to use digital humanities methodologies in your classroom? . what do you see as institutional obstacles at your college to increasing the presence of digital humanities courses, curricula and programs of study at your institution? . rate the adequacy of your institution's facilities for supporting using digital media in the learning environment (e.g., computer labs, smart classrooms, wifi access for students, etc.) . rate your familiarity with the national endowment for the humanities professional development opportunities: . for question , if you answered that you have attended an neh-funded professional development opportunity, please indicate which particular program. check all that apply: . rate your familiarity with the community college humanities association (ccha). . rate your familiarity with the league for innovation in the community college: . what would be the most useful mechanism by which the neh, the ccha, the league for innovation in the community college or other humanities organizations might support your development in the area of digital humanities pedagogy or research? appendix ii: participant bios rebecca frost davis, ph.d. is director of instructional and emerging technologies, st. edward’s university. previously, she was program officer for the humanities at the national institute for technology in liberal education (nitle). dr. davis served as assistant director for instructional technology at the associated colleges of the south technology center and as assistant professor of classical studies at rhodes college, denison university and sewanee: the university of the south. dr. davis has taught numerous workshops on teaching with technology for faculty, technologists, and librarians at liberal arts colleges. she has also planned conferences and consulted on digital teaching, the teaching of writing with technology, classical studies, intercampus teaching, and virtual collaboration. matthew k. gold, ph.d., is associate professor of english and digital humanities at cuny graduate center. he is director of cuny academic commons, new york city college of technology and teaches in interactive technology and pedagogy. he is editor of debates in the digital humanities (minnesota upress: ). he is advisor to the provost for master’s programs and digital initiatives at cuny graduate center. anne b. mcgrail, ph.d., project director, joined the english faculty at lane community college in eugene, oregon in ; she has taught online writing and literature courses since . she maintains the website, dh@thecc and was activity director for faculty development for lane’s title iii dept. of education grant, learning communities coordinator for the college, and a participant in the aac&u’s roadmaps project. she was founding co-editor of the community college moment. dean rehberger, ph.d., is the director of matrix: the center for humane art, letters, and social science online and also associate professor of writing, rhetoric and american cultures. his primary areas of research include: high performance computing and the humanities; oral history online; information design and architecture; digital libraries, museums and archives; and online learning environments. he overseas the development of a number of open access projects in the humanities including the oral history in the digital age (http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu), quilt index (http://www.quiltindex.org), overcoming apartheid (http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/), studs terkel: conversations with america (http://www.studsterkel.org/) and many other projects found at (http://matrix.msu.edu). jesse stommel, ph.d., is assistant professor in the college of liberal studies at university of wisconsin, madison. previously he was asst. prof. of english and digital humanities at marylhurst university. he is co-founding editor of hybrid pedagogy. terri whitney, ph.d., is project director for hawthorne in salem, an neh-sponsored digital archive. she is on the english faculty at north shore community college in salem, massachusetts. jake agatucci is asst. professor of writing and literature at central oregon community college. he is instructional designer for “digital games culture” at cocc and also editor of the community college humanities association newsletter. russell h. shitabata, ph.d. (videographer) is on the english faculty at lane community college. he has produced two documentaries, one on sugar plantation workers on the big island of hawaii and the second on first year experience programs at lane community college. he teaches asian american literature and folklore and mythology as well as writing courses. he is co-chair of lane’s college council and faculty council, and currently co-edits the community college moment. http://www.nitle.org/about/bios/davis.php http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/members/?s=new% york% city% college% of% technology http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/members/?s=interactive% technology% and% pedagogy http://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/debates-in-the-digital-humanities http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/members/?s=cuny% graduate% center http://www.aacu.org/roadmap/index.cfm http://www.lanecc.edu/ccmoment/index.html http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://www.quiltindex.org/ http://overcomingapartheid.msu.edu/ http://www.studsterkel.org/ http://matrix.msu.edu/ http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/ appendix iii: workshop agendas bringing digital humanities to the community college and vice versa an neh office of digital humanities start-up grant-funded project community college humanities association national meeting pre-conference workshop thursday, october , am- pm the brown hotel, louisville, kentucky agenda a.m.- : welcome, introductions, plan for the day anne mcgrail, project director : - : digital humanities at community colleges now terri whitney, hawthorne in salem neh-sponsored website jake agatucci, digital games culture at the cc anne mcgrail, dh at ccs now: data from the national survey of digital humanities in community colleges : - : boxed lunch : - : in the open access, lower-division classroom: pedagogy and faculty development discussion leader: rebecca frost davis and jesse stommel : - : equity and institutional policy: opportunities and obstacles for dh development on community college campuses discussion leaders: matthew gold and dean rehberger : -end next steps: plans for white paper draft and dissemination, level ii grant proposal. discussion leaders: all pm close helping students navigate the “digital turn” in humanities anne b. mcgrail, ph.d., lane community college project director, “bringing digital humanities to the community college—and vice versa” an neh office of digital humanties digital start-up project @annemcgrail on twitter national survey of digital humanities in community colleges: please circulate widely and take it if you haven’t! www.surveymonkey.com/s/dhatthecc david perkins’ seven principles for making learning whole i provide a framework for dh at the cc making learning whole: how seven principles for teaching can transform education. david n. perkins. san francisco: jossey-bass, . . play the whole game a. avoid “elementitis” b. everybody plays c. high support d. “unconditional positive regard”—no stupid mistakes i. primary source document assignment . make the game worth playing a. learning for life b. generative topics that teach for understanding c. conceptual knowledge i. ngrams—word clusters that build skills of inference and deduction . work on the hard parts a. deliberate practice in the context of the whole game b. dh always integrates writing, analysis, self-reflection i. gospel of slavery ii. uncle tom’s cabin and material culture . play out of town a. knowledge transfer is difficult to learn b. “near” and “far” transfer intrinsic to dh work i. “live tweeting last of the mohicans” ii. storify for the class archive of work . play the hidden game a. opportunities for layered aspects of learning to emerge b. drawing learners into the game of inquiry c. interpretive analysis extended to the screen and methodologies of dh i. incidents in the life of harriet jacobs—wordles: what kinds of words should we count? how do we decide? (ted underwood for those really interested) ii. what difference does publication location make? mary rowlandson’s history of the captivity and restoration…london and cambridge, ma. . learn from the team a. dh leverages the social, collaborative aspects of learning i. “crowdsourcing” an annotated “edition” of “the great lawsuit” ii. collaborative annotation of a primary source text (google docs—students show up “live on the page” even when home sick. . learn the game of learning a. let learners take control of their learning b. they will surprise you and each other http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/dhatthecc appendix iv list of website resources referred to in the pre-confernece dh at the cc session home | hastac http://nycdh.org/ http://thatcamp.org/ http://mla .thatcamp.org/about-thatcamp/ http://explorepahistory.com/ http://msu.seum.matrix.msu.edu/ http://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/ http://commonsinabox.org/ http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/courses/ http://waterandwork.wordpress.com/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://www .matrix.msu.edu/ http://publicphilosophyjournal.org/ http://historyhacks.org/ http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/wordle.html http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/ http://www.jessestommel.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /viscera/ http://lanssolo.wordpress.com/ / / /a-certain-slant-of-light-typographically-speaking/ http://timmydigiwriting.files.wordpress.com/ / /photo.png http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/ http://rachelblumeblog.files.wordpress.com/ / / - .jpg http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /final-project/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /what-the-helvetica/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/page/ / http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/blog/index.html http://www.racheldoesstuff.com/ http://www.hybridpedagogy.com/journal/files/digital_humanities_is_about_breaking_stuff.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/customhouse/introduction.html http://www.hastac.org/ http://nycdh.org/ http://thatcamp.org/ http://mla .thatcamp.org/about-thatcamp/ http://explorepahistory.com/ http://msu.seum.matrix.msu.edu/ http://openlab.citytech.cuny.edu/ http://commonsinabox.org/ http://commons.gc.cuny.edu/ http://lookingforwhitman.org/courses/ http://waterandwork.wordpress.com/ http://ohda.matrix.msu.edu/ http://www .matrix.msu.edu/ http://publicphilosophyjournal.org/ http://historyhacks.org/ http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/wordle.html http://www.jessestommel.com/hypertext/ http://www.jessestommel.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /viscera/ http://lanssolo.wordpress.com/ / / /a-certain-slant-of-light-typographically-speaking/ http://timmydigiwriting.files.wordpress.com/ / /photo.png http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/ http://rachelblumeblog.files.wordpress.com/ / / - .jpg http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /final-project/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ / / /what-the-helvetica/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/ http://rachelblumeblog.wordpress.com/page/ / http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/syllabus.html http://www.jessestommel.com/digitalhumanities/blog/index.html http://www.racheldoesstuff.com/ http://www.hybridpedagogy.com/journal/files/digital_humanities_is_about_breaking_stuff.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/customhouse/introduction.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/introduction.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/introduction.html http://hawthorneinsalem.org/ http://hawthorneinsalem.org/mmd/search.php?view= &search=witches&topic= &mediasel= &submit =submit http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/architecture/introduction.html http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org/introduction.html http://hawthorneinsalem.org/ http://hawthorneinsalem.org/mmd/search.php?view= &search=witches&topic= &mediasel= &submit=submit http://hawthorneinsalem.org/mmd/search.php?view= &search=witches&topic= &mediasel= &submit=submit s jra .. research article what is local knowledge? digital humanities and yuan dynasty disasters in imperial china’s local gazetteers* dagmar schäfer * , shih-pei chen and qun che max planck institute for the history of science and shanghai jiaotong university. *corresponding author. email: dschaefer@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de (received march ; revised may ; accepted may ) abstract this paper focuses on the historical politics of disaster records in chinese local gazetteers (difangzhi 地方志). using records of mulberry crop failures as examples, the authors ask how gazetteer editors collated yuan disaster records—initially collected to help prevent disasters and authorize the legitimacy of dynastic rule—in gazetteers and, in so doing, made them into ‘local’ knowledge. digital humanities methods allow for both qualitative and quantitative analyses, and the authors deploy them to demonstrate how, in structured texts like the chinese local gazetteers, they could help combine close reading of specific sections and larger-scale analysis of regional patterns. in the first part, the authors show how disasters were recorded in a yuan zhenjiang gazetteer to facilitate taxation and disaster prevention locally—a strategy rarely traceable in subsequent gazetteers until the qing. in the second part, the authors shifted their perspective to the historical accumulation of data and what that reveals about the reception of yuan disasters: whereas local gazetteers from the north generate long chronologies of mulberry disasters from the ming to the qing, others depict the south as disaster-free. keywords: local gazetteers; historical disasters; mulberry crop failures; digital humanities; big data according to its local gazetteer (dongming xian zhi) of , disasters hit dongming county in hebei hard during the era of mongolian yuan rule ( – ). in alone the gazetteer lists three events: a plague of insects wiped out the mulberry crop during the fourth lunar month, and a drought in the sixth lunar month was followed *this article results from collaborative work and datasets collated by many hands. contributions are indicated in footnotes. we would like to thank franz maulshagen, sun mengmeng, xu chun, masato hasegawa, alexis lycas, marianna szczygielska, peter bol, and the two reviewers for commenting on earlier versions of this article. part of this article was conceptualized while one of the authors, dagmar schäfer, was at the institute for advanced studies, princeton, and we would like to express our appreciation for this support as well. © the author(s), . published by cambridge university press. this is an open access article, distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives licence (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is unaltered and is properly cited. the written permission of cambridge university press must be obtained for commercial re-use or in order to create a derivative work. journal of chinese history ( ), , – doi: . /jch. . h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:dschaefer@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog?doi= . /jch. . &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms by a flood in the seventh. in the fifth month of another insect plague devoured all of the mulberry leaves. in the third month of , frost destroyed mulberry and fruit trees as well as grain seedlings. one of thousands of reports in china’s historical liter- ature, the disasters listed in dongming’s local gazetteer have contributed to narratives of china’s political and climate change over the centuries. since the ming dynasty ( – ) scholars have interpreted these reports as evidence that the mongolian rulers’ war policies and inability to rule china had upset heavenly patterns and nature’s balance in china’s north. in the late s, one of the first generation of china’s western-trained scientists in climate research, zhu kezhen 竺可楨 ( – ), put such ideas in sci- entific terms, integrating yuan dynastic disasters into his global model of climate and temperature fluctuations. the story might well have ended here, as mid-twentieth-century researchers first ignored zhu’s scientific interventions and then dismissed them quickly. the pattern of geography and the chronology of disasters as laid out in this research proved tena- cious, however, even as later historians and scientists hotly debated the added impact of wars, migration, and technological change. in china’s rich historical literature, the local gazetteers—approximately ten thousand titles covering the core regions of imperial gov- ernance—have been an important source for research that lent “local” credibility to research on longue-durée geographies of environmental change. shortly before his death, zhu kezhen himself contended that, “apart from meteorological measurements with instruments, local gazetteers provide the most reliable historical data on a region’s climate.” by then, zhu could draw on the established field of “local gazetteer studies” ( fangzhi xue 方志學), which liang qichao 梁啟超 ( – ) had established in the s. treated as “local realities that editors and authors recounted impersonally in an yang risheng 楊日升, (kangxi) dongming xian zhi (康熙) 東明縣志 ( ; repr. in beijing daxue tushuguan xijian fangzhi congkan 北京大學圖書館藏稀見方志叢刊. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “zazhi” 雜志 . a. the scholar-official and minister in charge of agriculture, xu guangqi ( – ), a disciple of the jesuit scholar matteo ricci ( – ), commented on the biased agronomical policies of the yuan in the north; xu guangqi 徐光啓, “nongzheng quanshu” 農政全書 in xu guangqi quanshu 徐光啓全書, vol. – (shanghai: shanghai guji, ), “huangzheng” 荒政 . . for a summary of the yuan and ming era in light of weather events see timothy brook, the troubled empire: china in the yuan and ming dynasties (cambridge, ma: belknap press ), – . zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “nan song shidai woguo qihou zhi chuaice” 南宋時代我國氣候之揣測, kexue ( ), . zhu used the records of the numbers of cold years in tushu jicheng: shuzhengdian: hanshu yibu 圖書集成: 庶徵典: 寒暑異部 to confirm the cold weather from the thirteenth to the fourteenth cen- turies. this conclusion never changed until his final temperature model in . in a paper (english version ) he noted that “it is well known to the chinese historians that during the yuan dynasty the mongol invaders demolished the drainage system in the yellow river valley.” see zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “zhongguo lishi shang qihou zhi bianqian” 中國歷史上氣候之變遷, dongfang zazhi ( ), – . see also zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “lun woguo qihou de ji ge tedian jiqi yu liangshi zuowu shengchan de guanxi” 論我國氣候的幾個特點及其與糧食作物生產的關係, in zhu kezhen wenji 竺可楨文集 (beijing: kexue, ), , ; co-ching chu, “climatic pulsations during historic time in china,” the geographical review ( ), – . the “ice age” was a popular theme in the s, and zhu’s model attracted some international attention during the s and s. sun mengmeng 孫萌萌 and jiang xiaoyuan 江曉原, “zhu kezhen qihou bianqian sixiang de laiyuan” 竺可楨氣候變遷思想的來源, ziran kexueshi yanjiu ( ), – . zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “zhongguo jin wuqian nian lai qihou bianqian de chubu yanjiu” 中國近五千年來氣候變遷的初步研究, in zhu kezhen wenji, . liang qichao 梁啟超, zhongguo jin sanbainian xueshushi 中國近三百年學術史 (shanghai: shanghai sanlian shudian, ), – . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms explanatory manner,” local gazetteer data thus supported historians of the environ- ment, specialists in cultural climate studies, and scientists alike in claiming that “ – might have been the warmest thirty years in the ensuing two thousand years in eastern and middle china,” with marked as “the year after which the weather started to turn cold, culminating in a little ice age around .” this paper queries the reliably “local” nature of local gazetteers with regard to their accounts of disasters. at the core of this investigation stand three interrelated debates about local knowledge, environmental change, and the use of digital humanities (hence- forth dh) in historical research. beginning in the twentieth century, historians of disas- ters in china have embraced local sources to inquire into the regional effects of china’s imperial-disaster politics and produce the thick descriptions that clifford geertz intro- duced to anthropology to “gain access to the conceptual world in which [the partici- pants] live.” in the study of chinese history, local gazetteers offered an alternative account that seemed presumably more concrete, locatable, and immediate in character than those of dynastic histories and court historiography and that revealed the locally diverse effects of a global phenomenon beyond culture, economy, societal configuration, and intellectual worlds. historians know that local sources do not necessarily equate with local events, local information, or local knowledge. the records of weather events and disasters in china’s local gazetteers are the product of a long historical dialectic between local and imperial knowledge- and space-making, in which any unpredicted and anomalous events, but especially those causing harm to the people and the state, were indicators of the mandate of heaven (tianming 天命) and dynastic legitimacy. since at least the western han ( bce– ce), diviners, astronomers, and astrologers forecast the weather, prognosticated, and interpreted such events. local officials, for their part, observed and managed earthquakes, floods, droughts, and insect plagues and tried to cope. the thousands of datasets in local gazetteers that big data analysts since zhu kezhen have interpreted as quantitative evidence of a period of historical change are seen by historians as the “local” residue of a continuous dynamic practice in what we term a “genre of scale,” because in an almost inverse relation we see how with increasing numbers local gazetteers included disaster reports in a decreasing number of categories as editors followed genre-specific guidelines ( fanli 凡例). starting as a systemic luo lin 羅琳, “zhongguo gudai difangzhi zhi zaiyi jilu” 中國古代地方志之災異紀錄, in difang wenxian guoji xueshu yantaohui lunwenji 地方文獻國際學術研討會論文集, edited by guojia tu- shuguan gujiguan 國家圖書館古籍館 (beijing: beijing tushuguan, ), . ge quansheng 葛全勝, zhongguo lichao qihou bianhua 中國歷朝氣候變化 (beijing: kexue, ), , . this assessment was based on phenology records over , years. geertz, who drew on gilbert ryle ( – ) inspired in particular an increased interest in historical anthropology. clifford geertz, “thick description: toward an interpretive theory of culture,” in the interpretation of cultures: selected essays, edited by clifford geertz (new york: basic books, ), , . we define space-making here as the traditional practices and theories that historical actors used to understand, define, and create geopolitical entities. felix driver, “‘making space: territorial themes in the history of science’, a conference organized by the british society for the history of science, held at the university of kent, canterbury, – march ,” ecumene . ( ), – . andrea janku, “‘heaven-sent disasters’ in late imperial china: the scope of the state and beyond,” in natural disasters, cultural responses: case studies toward a global environmental history, edited by christof mauch and christian pfister (lanham, md: lexington books, ), – , . while there was no known top-down fanli issued in song and yuan, many local gazetteer editors ori- ented their compilations based on earlier templates or followed up on orders by the central government to systematically collect certain datasets such as on taxes, geographical features, resources. court or provincial journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms bureaucratic practice in the tenth century, local gazetteers had by the twentieth century grown to ten thousand existing titles covering diverse scholarly and state-related con- cerns in single titles as well as continuously re-edited issues. the “footprint” of the local gazetteers expanded and shrunk depending on changing territory ruled by the liao ( – ), xi-xia ( – ), song ( – ), jin ( – ) and yuan ( – ). in environmental history terms, disaster reports in local gazetteers can be understood as the result of a central state policy that spurred individuals to gather data, not unlike the historical weather data that austrian habsburg officials collected in the eighteenth century and upon which scientists in the nineteenth century devel- oped dynamic climatology. unlike the habsburg weather data, the data in local gaz- etteers were shaped by almost a millennium of scholarly and bureaucratic cultures that used and re-interpreted earlier records of previous generations while continuing to report disasters of their own era. as historians of science, our perspective in this article is to ask how disasters were understood locally, made a category of local (administrative) practices, and became local knowledge. our major concern is to complement the rich research on china’s his- tory of disasters and its politics, with an analysis of the politics of (disaster) data in local gazetteers. what interests us methodologically in this article is how the view, both of china’s history of disasters and of the yuan, changes when we are able to incorporate into the analysis the large-scale development of local gazetteers as a genre and the spe- cific local conditions and individual authorial or editorial choices. unlike historians of environment and cultural climate studies who use historical climate data to explain his- tory, we have combined quantitative textual data (on disasters) with qualitative contex- tual studies (of disaster politics and discourses around the mandate of heaven) to query the nature of historical data on disasters; in this article we use dh methods to undertake qualitative research on a large scale. first, along with other authors in this issue, we are interested in practices of distance-reading, asking what happens when we pursue qual- itative textual analysis with a quantitative orientation. choosing a genre-specific (that is, local gazetteers) view, we look for the strategies that local gazetteer editors employed to gather disaster data and organize and interpret this information; we ask how common or idiosyncratic approaches to disaster data collection were and what knowledge readers may have expected to gain from local gazetteers. these questions, when asked on a large scale, constitute a quantitative approach to qualitative historical work—one that reflects on historical practices of organizing content and protocols of reading—which can help us understand the value and reliability of claims about disasters made in the gazetteers and thus which claims we should be wary of using as a base for extrapolation. we will at least know what we do not know. governments started to issue generic editorial regulations in the ming. see wu zongqi 吳宗器, shenxian zhi 莘縣志 ( ; repr. in tianyige cang mingdai fangzhi xuankan 天一閣藏明代方志選刊. shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), “zuanxiu zhishu fanli” 纂修志書凡例, a– b. peter k. bol, “the rise of local history: history, geography, and culture in southern song and yuan wuzhou,” harvard journal of asiatic studies ( ), – . see also james m. hargett, “song dynasty local gazetteers and their place in the history of difangzhi writing,” harvard journal of asiatic studies ( ), . deborah r. coen, climate in motion: science, empire, and the problem of scale (chicago: university of chicago press, ). see franco moretti, distant reading (london: verso, ). for the methods, see his earlier publica- tion franco moretti, graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for a literary history (london: verso, ). dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the shift of perspective proposed in this article—from seeing disasters as historical events to seeing them as discourse and subject of local knowledge as epistemic practice —brings up a second dh-related issue about how digitized tools can help assess the qualitative implications of quantitative phenomena. we are interested in how data on disasters historically reflected and exerted power and control in the foucauldian sense ( ) as the material condition of the actual event, ( ) as an affordance for a dis- course about disasters and ( ) from an a posteriori view. we thus explore our gazetteer data in relation to yuan politics and disaster management practices, on the one hand, and yuan’s legitimacy as seen in texts whose transmission is partial and influenced by a literati mindset on the other. we peruse the layers of text history and reception, observe the ways in which generations of ming and qing local gazetteer editors, collating such data, reflected on the yuan dynasty and its disasters, and ask whether we can identify a point of view generated by local gazetteers as a genre. to do this in a field as complex as disasters and climate, we singled out mulberry-related crop failures (sangzai 桑災). zhu kezhen, like nineteenth-century habsburg climatologists, included mentions of the impact of weather events on plant growth. he systematically inferred changes in temperature by correlating modern scien- tific understandings of the relation between seasonal plant growth and temperature with historical observations on anomalous plant growth (unusual fruiting, seeding, flower- ing, freezing, and thawing). although the practice of phenology is still in use today, modern historical disaster studies—which have focused almost exclusively on earth- quakes, floods, droughts, or famines—have ignored agricultural crop failures, on the grounds that they were mainly political and economic events that were often a conse- quence of corrupt practices. indeed, disasters involving the mulberry crop were both political and economic. mulberry leaves were the major fodder of the silkworms neces- sary to produce the textiles that constituted a large part of the yuan dynastic economy, and hence they played a major role in the politics of tax relief whenever disaster struck. just as our modern world defines disasters in relation to how humans wish to make use of lands (as habitat and resource), fourteenth-century state actors and producers per- ceived moriculture crop failure as a major “disaster” (zai 災) because of the mulberry tree’s important agricultural and economic role. zhu understood “the study of the times of things” (wuhou xue 物候學), which equates to the later phenology or chronobiology, within the chinese tradition of defining cyclical and seasonal phenomena cal- endrically and for medicinal purposes as sun mengmeng, the construction of “ancient chinese climatology” in the practice of phenology (forthcoming) points out. gong gaofa 龔高法, zhang piyuan 張丕遠, and wu xiangding 吳祥定, lishi shiqi qihou bianhua yanjiu fangfa 歷史時期氣候變化研究方法 (beijing: kexue, ), – note that in correlation to international debates, he emphasized the great potential of the quite continuous historical records of china for scientific climate studies. for the international, european debate see also coen, climate in motion, . harry f. lee and david d. zhang, “a tale of two population crises in recent chinese history,” climatic change ( ), – . literature in general concentrates on “natural” disasters and makes a note of famines, yet largely ignores mentions of crop failures. for an example in chinese-language environmental history, see luo lin, “zhongguo gudai difangzhi zhi zaiyi jilu,” , who concentrates on natural (ziran 自然) disasters such as water and fire disasters as “objective reality” (keguan shishi 客觀事實). we will henceforth use the english term disaster mostly as a summarizing generic term. chinese dis- aster terminology emphasized accountability in terms of morality and finances, as does the english term “disaster” that signifies a moment of substantial destruction and distress or the italian/latin term dis- astrum that identified an evil influence of a star; see webster’s third new international dictionary of the english language unabridged (chicago: encyclopaedia britannica, ), . different political and journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms we begin with an exercise in a close reading of one local gazetteer to see how yuan imperial politics related to local practices of cultivating mulberries for silk production (henceforth moriculture) and what role disasters play therein. for this we use one of the few still-extant yuan local gazetteers that recounts disaster events in zhenjiang, situated in southern china on the yangtze river east of nanjing. zhenjiang’s local gazetteers have bolstered in two ways the view that the north was subject to repeated disasters while moriculture was evolving in the south: first, yu xilu 俞希魯 ( – ), the yuan editor, testifies that mulberry was cultivated by the yuan. second, none of zhenjiang’s various local gazetteer editions record any moriculture disasters. localizing imperial politics: mulberry trees and taxes in southern zhenjiang “sang: its leaves feed the silkworm. several kinds exist. blossoming sang have small and thin leaves,” noted yu xilu in zhenjiang’s local gazetteer published in . yu, whose lifespan coincided almost exactly with that of the short-lived yuan dynasty, had a career that reflects the ambiguous characteristics historians have attributed to his times: the descendant of a song official, he served the mongolian yuan conquerors as a teacher and negotiated as a member of the elite and erudite scholar-official between the local and central state and court in various, mostly local, administrative roles. epistemological implications inform notions of prevention or damage control throughout different dynas- ties and we would like to thank chun xu for pointing this out. chinese literati and administrators distin- guished “unexpected” deviations from normalcy as zai 災 (which denotes a raging fire) from disasters causing anxiety (huan 患) or damage (hai 害), or auspicious or inauspicious signs/omen (xiang 祥) for the legitimacy of rule etc. in lieu of research on such terminological changes during the song and yuan, see the discussion of ming uses of terminology in water management in chun xu, “reaping the benefits of water: a history of water(s) in ming yunnan” (phd diss., heidelberg university, ). we introduce moriculture here as a summarizing technical term for the sum of knowledge (i.e. sci- ences) and practices of cultivating plants for the purpose of silk production. morus (mulberry) identifies the linnean genus of the most common plants used for feeding the silkworm (morus nigra, morus alba, morus laevigata, and morus latifolia); linnean students traveling to china in the nineteenth century introduced the term. alexandra cook, “linnaeus and chinese plants: a test of the linguistic imperialism thesis ,” notes and records: the royal society journal of the history of science ( ), – . this modern identification does not pay respect to the broader range of plants that chinese farmers identified as sang 桑 or used to feed silkworms such as the sugarcane or elm tree (zhe 柘). yu xilu 俞希魯 and tuoyin 脫因, zhishun zhenjiang zhi 至順鎮江志 ( ; repr. in song yuan fangzhi congkan 宋元方志叢刊. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), “tuchan” 土產 . a. by the qing era, ruan yuan 阮元 ( – ) still noted that the authorship for this gazetteer was unclear. ruan yuan 阮元, preface in “jiading zhenjiang zhi 嘉定镇江志,” edited by lu xian 盧憲 in , revised and edited by shi mijian 史彌堅 in ( ; repr. in song yuan fangzhi congkan 宋元方志叢刊. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), “xu” 序 b. for an analysis of the authorship of yu see yang jiqing 楊積慶, “yu xilu qiren: zhishun zhenjiang zhi de zuozhe” 俞希魯其人: ‘至順鎮江志’的作者, zhenjiang shizhuan xuebao (shehui kexue ban) . , – . sheng quan 盛銓 and huang bingkui 黃炳奎, chongren xian zhi 崇仁縣志 ( ; repr. in zhongguo difangzhi jicheng 中國地方志集成. nanjing: fenghuang chubanshe, ), “yiwen zhi: wenzheng” 藝文志: 文徵 . a. for an analysis of epitaphs and other tomb inscriptions, see shang yanbin 尚衍斌, “yuandai weiwu’er nongxue jia lu mingshan shiji zai tantao” 元代畏兀兒農學家魯明善事蹟再探討, zhongguo bianjiang shidi yanjiu ( ), – . see also yu ji 虞集, “jingzhoulu daluhuachi lu gong shendao bei” 靖州路達魯花赤魯公神道碑, in yu ji 虞集, daoyuan leigao 道園類稿 (yuan keben 元刻本 [yuan dynasty print], n.d.; repr. in zhonghua zaizao shanben 中華再造善本. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “shendao bei” 神道碑 . a– b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms most of what is known about yuan-dynasty zhenjiang was penned by yu—his was the second of a set of four still-extant zhenjiang local gazetteers—for which he consulted historical geographic records and contemporary administrative sources. historians have seen his texts, rich in detail about local economic and social conditions, as the work of a well-informed local who aimed to serve the interests of the ruling class. yu relates local customs, social configurations, architectural features, landscapes, and taxes. he describes the form and function of sang, the plant, in the chapter on “local products.” how does yu’s approach fit into the information politics of yuan times? sang was a central political theme by and well-covered in writing. yuan chinese and later ming voices attribute a voracious appetite for silk to the ruling elite of the yuan, but also emphasize that this elite was much less familiar than its pre- decessors with all the processes relevant to its production. qubilai khan (reigned – ) invested in agriculture and silk by strengthening institutions such as the board of agriculture (sinongsi 司農司). by , yu could look back at a continuous, intensive and increasingly systematic campaign by the state and elites to circulate infor- mation about sang. the compendium on agriculture and mulberry plants (nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要) was a re-compilation of earlier texts. over , copies of this preface to zhishun zhenjiang zhi 至順鎮江志. the other three local gazetteers of zhenjiang are of the song jiading era ( ), the qing kangxi era ( ) and the qing qianlong era ( ). two editions of the qianlong zhenjiang fu zhi are in logart. chen lijian 陳立健, “zhishun zhenjiang zhi suo zai zhenjiang dishisi—youguan yuandai dishisi yu menggu zixue de yidian zuozheng” ‘至順鎮江志’ 所載鎮江帝師寺—有關元代帝師寺與蒙古字學的一點佐證, zhongguo zangxue . , – . for comparative studies on yuan local gazetteers see e.g. yin guangzhong 殷光中, “jiading zhenjiang zhi, zhishun zhenjiang zhi tiyao” ‘嘉定镇江志,’ ‘至顺镇江志‘提要, jiangsu shelian tongxun . , – and fu guangsen 傅光森, “zhizheng jinling xinzhi yu zhishun zhenjiang zhi zhi bijiao: yi zhengzhi ji renwu jizai wei li” ‘至正金陵新志‘與‘至順鎮江志‘之比較: 以政制及人物記載為例, xingda renwen xuebao ( ), – . yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “tuchan” 土產 . a– b: “桑葉司飼蠶有數種有花者葉小而薄.” most prominently in dynastic historiography: “其俗不待蠶而衣不待耕而食初無所事焉” in song lian 宋濂, yuan shi 元史 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), . . an exemplary song scholar, qin guan 秦觀 ( – ) compiled a very short book about the silkworm (can shu 蠶書) while in mourning. wang pan 王磐 mentions in the preface of nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要 that the compilation happened with the institutionalization of the ministry of agriculture (da sinongsi 大司農司) and required almost six years for completion, which zeng xiongsheng has dated to . see zeng xiongsheng 曾雄生, zhongguo nongxue shi 中國農學史 (fuzhou: fujian renmin chubanshe, ), – , . the posts were stopped in the fourteenth year ( ) and the task of advising on agriculture was handed over to the surveillance commission (ancha si 按察司). in the eighteenth year ( ) then the “courtyard for agricultural policies” (nongzheng yuan 農政院) was inaugurated with six officials which again changed the name two years later and assigned one mongolian head (daluhuachi 達魯花赤, rank), one chinese supervisor (wunong shi 務農使, rank) and two administrators (tongzhi 同知, rank). ranking, appointments, and the local office’s denomination were altered several times between and to reflect these changes. a reform of the system of agri- and moriculture (nongsang zhi zhi 農桑之制) was issued in . see song lian, yuan shi, . . nongsang jiyao 農桑輯要, edited by sinongsi 司農司 ( ; repr. in zhonghua zaizao shanben 中華再造善本. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), juan, and sections. the nongsang jiyao replicates , characters of the important arts for common people (qimin yaoshu 齊民要術) written by jia sixie 賈思勰 (ca. th century) which thus makes up a third of the final nongsang jiyao. see zeng xiongsheng, zhongguo nongxue shi, . it furthermore quotes the sericulture sections and contents of ten other books mostly compiled by song and jurchen-jin authors. for an analysis of the different approaches of the works on mori- and sericulture see chuan-hui mau, “les progrès de la sériciculture sous les yuan (xiie–xive journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms compendium were printed in the first run; it was reprinted in , and . there were other works. the chinese literatus wang zhen 王禎 ( – ) wrote on contemporary practices and methods in . the local son of the famous and influ- ential buddhist uighur translator karunadasa, lu mingshan 魯明善, published a tract titled synopsis of agriculture and mulberry, clothing and food (nongsang yishi cuoyao 農桑衣食撮要) in , after having served in several local posts in jingzhou (hubei) and anfeng (jiangsu) in central and southeastern china. imagery was abundant, too. the yuan court recompiled illustrations of tilling and weaving (gengzhi tu 耕織圖), previously sponsored by the song court, and ordered public dissemination of individual scroll-paintings of landscapes such as the illustrations with explanations of mulberry tree plantations (zaisang tushuo 栽桑圖說). wang zhen had his work illustrated with images of tools and plants. yuan elites went beyond literary dissemination. the government dispatched voca- tional trainers to places that books would not reach. huang jie 黃玠 (fourteenth cen- tury), for example, called upon his peers to include mulberry trees in their flower gardens for educational purposes. all possible means and media were employed: print, images, and oral education. the compendium on agriculture and mulberry plants’ editors at the court’s hanlin academy “newly added” (xintian 新添) contents on new plants and repeatedly duplicated information, such as “how to use [mulberry] siècles) d’après le nongsang jiyao,” in travail et savoirs techniques dans la chine prémoderne. revue de sydenthèse, edited by Éric brian (paris: springer, ), – . as wang yuhu 王毓瑚, “guanyu nongsang jiyao” 關於’農桑輯要,’ beijing nongye daxue xuebao ( . ), – has noted, the compendium does not include chen fu’s 陳敷 nongshu 農書, which primarily tackles the southern regions. southern books had not yet percolated to the north, with the exception of the suishi guangji 歲時廣記, compiled by the southern song contemporary chen yuanliang 陳元靚. also missing is han yanzhi’s 韓彥直 book yongjia julu 永嘉橘錄 or wang zhuo’s 王灼 tangshuang pu 糖霜譜, which sug- gests that the nongsang jiyao was produced before the mongols had any access to southern song literature, i.e. before , and that later authors, such as wang zhen, saw a need for updates. xiao kezhi 肖克之, “nongsang jiyao banben shuo” ‘農桑輯要’ 版本說, gujin nongye . , – . wang zhen 王禎, nongshu 農書 ( ; repr. in zhonghua zaizao shanben 中華再造善本. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ). as a survey of book catalogues throughout the ming shows, this book exists under various titles. lu mingshan served in jingzhou as a foreign expert local official (daluhuachi 達魯花赤) and was appointed to anfeng province as surveillance official in . his career is described in the tomb stele by yu ji, “jingzhoulu daluhuachi lu gong shendao bei,” “shendao bei” . b. see yang lian 楊镰, “lu mingshan shiji gouchen” 魯明善事迹勾沉, xinjiang daxue xuebao . , – . a biography of lu’s father karunadasa (jialunadasi zhuan 迦鲁纳答思传) is included in song lian, yuan shi, . – . see angela von driesch and herbert franke, “niu-ching da-ch’üan: ein altchinesisches buch über tierärztliche behandlungen von rinderkrankheiten,” monumenta serica ( ), – . song lian, yuan shi, . . huai jingqiu 隗靜秋, wu rugong 吳如功, “yuandai zhejiang chubanye shulüe“ 元代浙江出版業述略, xuelilun ( ), – . all dynasties since the han compiled some illustrated guidance for tilling and weaving, even though most have not survived. roselyn lee hammers, pictures of tilling and weaving: art, labor, and technology in song and yuan china (hong kong: hong kong university press ), emphasizes the shifting political emphasis of these illustrations with song ideals of governance and a “well-ordered” state. she identifies poetry as contemporary and cautions on the dating of images which she considers as transmissions of later versions. as yang dezhong 楊德忠 pinpointed, the yuan utilizied such imagery purposefully; see da yuan qixiang: yuandai huangquan yi- shixia de shuhua huodong jiqi zhengzhi yihan 大元氣象: 元代皇權意識下的書畫活動及其政治意涵 (beijing: shangwu yinshuguan, ), – . huang jie 黃玠, “zhong hua yin” 種花吟, in bianshan xiaoyin yinlu 弁山小隱吟錄 ( ; repr. in siming congshu 四明叢書. yangzhou: guanglin shushe, ) . b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms leaves,” from varied sources that were relevant to the beginner cultivating mulberry trees and breeding silkworms. although the elites of that time emphasize the state-driven top-down nature of such education, it was not a one-way street. lu mingshan recorded proverbs and folk sayings, most likely sourced from farmers. the daoist and painter ma zhen 馬臻 ( –?) acknowledged the experience of commoners in his poetry ironically noting that “old farmers who live far away in the village pass regularly through alleys of mulberry trees and sugarcane. and still, their sons and grandsons are called into the city where they have to listen to readings on the promotion of agriculture [quannong wen 勸農文].” quannong literature was the pedagogical tool of choice. it included a con- glomerate of official edicts of agronomy, sayings, terminological clarifications, poetry and illustrations (often a simplified form of imperially commissioned tilling and weaving) with agricultural contents, along with either useful quotations from or sum- maries of elite and state agronomy literature, which represented what francesca bray has called the “science of the state.” ma here implies that authors such as wang zhen had not only their peers in mind, but truly may have expected that their elabo- rations would be read out loud to farmers and practitioners. documents excavated in heishui 黑水, a postal relay station located in the hexi-gansu corridor in northern china, show that by imperial information cam- paigns had reached far into the yuan imperial territory and to the edges of traditional sericulture regions. local officials there also reported that they had “supervised agri- and moriculture based on diverse texts.” one of these descriptive reports by local offi- cials meticulously lays out measurements for a mulberry plantation because, as its author had realized, the scarcity of water in the region required farmers to introduce important technical adaptations at the locality. mulberry bushes rather than trees “should be planted every two feet in rows of ten feet … partitioned into … with newly added was cotton, nongsang jiyao, “mu mian” 木綿 . a– a. “si can” a was mostly drawn from the shinong biyong, but information on the nurturing chamber is identified as a quote from an unknown source called “chen hong zhi” 陳宏志. together with all unmarked passages, about one third of the content in the compendium cannot be found in other literature. newly added or unmarked passages by comparison offer insights into “non-chinese” fields of agricultural engagement important to new rulers mainly in the horse husbandry section. for an in-depth analysis of the language of these works see zeng lingxiang 曾令香, yuandai nongshu nongye cihui yanjiu 元代农书农业词汇研究 (phd thesis, shandong shifan daxue, ), – . for example: “移樹無時莫教樹知多留宿士記取南枝” and “十耕蘿蔔九耕麻.” see lu mingshan 魯明善, nongsang yishi cuoyao 農桑衣食撮要 (ming keben 明刻本 [ming dynasty print], n.d.), “zheng yue” 正月 a, b. ma zhen 馬臻, “xiawai shiji” 霞外詩集, in yuanren ji shi zhong 元人集十種 [ ; repr. in jiguge yuanren ji ji lidai shijia 汲古閣元人集及歷代詩家] beijing: quanguo tushuguan wenxian suowei fuzhi zhongxin, ), . b/ a. francesca bray, technology, gender and history in imperial china: great transformations reconsidered (new york: routledge, ), – . a recently rediscovered stele roots wang zhen’s life firmly within yuan traditions and situates him geographically in tai’an 泰安 instead of dongping 東平. see zhou ying 周郢, “wang zhen jiqi nongshu shizheng er ti” 王禎及其‘農書’史證二題, in shumu wenxian 書目文獻 (published april , ; last accessed october , , https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/uxvjubnawcphzeuwtfdxvw). for the relation between agricultural themes in poetry, reading, and official state literature see also he fasu 何发甦, “jiangxi gengdu wenhua yanjiu” 江西耕讀文化研究, nongye kaogu . , – . heicheng chutu wenshu (hanwen wenshu juan) 黑城出土文書 (漢文文書卷), edited by li yiyou 李逸友 (beijing: kexue chubanshe, ), [f :w ] . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/uxvjubnawcphzeuwtfdxvw https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/uxvjubnawcphzeuwtfdxvw https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms pathways one foot wide, sufficient for one man to walk between the rows.” intercropping (qutian 區田) with grains is promoted, a method also described by wang zhen, and the local official underlined the usefulness of his renderings by sug- gesting “printing multiple copies for all provinces to disseminate such information widely.” heishui would be swallowed by the desert by , but its records from the turn of the fourteenth century show a rich information flow in which the central state collected and disseminated information from literature and different regions and local officials learnt from practice and local farmers and documented such information for further use in other regions or dissemination to the central state. in this context, yu xilu depicts zhenjiang through its local gazetteer as a place that embodied the success of the policies of qubilai khan and those of his grandson temür khan (ruled – ), in reviving zhenjiang’s former role as a hub of social life, a marketplace, and a major center for the collection of taxes. yu makes sure to verify that mulberry could grow in zhenjiang, by quoting a tang dynastic historical source; he specifies field sizes, and the amount of textiles taxes in chapter on “taxes” ( fushui 賦稅). and he adds a phenomenological description of the plant in the chapter on “local prod- ucts” (tuchan 土產) explaining that different kinds of plants could feed the worms: “zhe: of the sang-kind with small and thick leaves can also be fed to silkworms.” stylistically, yu’s short, descriptive entry mirrors dictionary entries or those that can be found in materia medica (bencao 本草), both literary styles that display yu’s erudi- tion. when contextualized with further information given in the local gazetteer itself, see wang zhen 王禎. donglu wang shi “nongshu” yizhu 東魯王氏‘農書‘譯注, commented by miao qiyu 繆啟愉 (shanghai: shanghai guji, ), “nongqi tupu ji zhi yi: tianzhimen: qutian” 農器圖譜集之一: 田制門: 區田, – . “各路镂板, 多廣印散.” wang zhen, donglu wang shi “nongshu” yizhu, commented by miao qiyu, . zhenjiang’s importance as a hub by the song is also verified by the official qin jiushao 秦九韶 ( – ) whose mathematical guide to algebraic and indeterminate equations, geometry, and linear systems con- tains several references to zhenjiang. ulrich libbrecht, chinese mathematics in the thirteenth century: the shu-shu chiu-chang of ch’in chiu-shao (new york: dover, ). for zhenjiang’s multicultural community see dietmar w. winkler and li tang, hidden treasures and intercultural encounters: studies on east syriac christianity in china and central asia (berlin: lit. verlag, ). for a description of the port of zhenjiang in the nineteenth century, see keith stevens, “the yangzi port of zhenjiang down the centuries: 鎮江: part i,” journal of the hong kong branch of the royal asiatic society ( ), – . yu xilu includes a historical reference about a plantation of mulberries trees on a tomb site during the wei dynasty ( ). the rather large number of different textiles listed in the tax chapter reflects the fact that zhenjiang hosted a weaving and dyeing bureau (zhiran ju 織染局) producing silk for the court and tribute. as zhenjiang was a port city, raw silk may well have been transported there from other regions. many of the state-owned weaving sites were located in the north. later ming local gazetteers of the south such as hangzhou or suzhou commemorate yuan origins. in comparison, almost all northern local gazetteers avoid mentioning yuan origins. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “tuchan” 土產 . a/b: “柘類桑葉小而厚亦可以飼蠶.” in its most basic form this reference mirrors the erya 爾雅 (coming close to correctness). the descrip- tive style follows writings such as the contemporary tangye bencao 湯液本草 ( – ) compiled during the yuan dynasty. wang haogu 王好古, tangye bencao 湯液本草 (qing guangxu keben 清光緒刻本 [qing dynasty guangxu edition], n.d.; repr. in gujin yitong zhengmai quanshu 古今醫統正脈全書. taibei: yiwen yinshuguan, ), see e.g. “mu bu: sang bai pi” 木部: 桑白皮 . a/b. for the most part, materia medica are officially commissioned works by the tang–song periods. for materia medica styles see george métailié, “concepts of nature in traditional chinese materia medica and botany (sixteenth to seventeenth century),” in concepts of nature: a chinese-european cross-cultural dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms yu’s entry in the ‘local products’ chapter can be understood as a way to equip tax offi- cers with important information necessary to perform their duty. identifying the tree had become a crucial skill for tax officers, because by the wet regions south of the yangtze increasingly changed from monoculture featuring plantations or orchards, originally introduced in the song dynasty, to new cultivations with a mixed cropping method in which mulberries were grown on dikes and along fishponds. tax officials could rely on straightforward measurements for field plantations (tianmu 田畝), but mixed cropping required tax officers to distinguish different kinds of tree. field and tree counts were converted into workday calculations based on a system known already by the tang era. tax quotas were then set in the form of lengths of fabrics (so-called silk tax, shui juan 稅絹). the amount of tax-silk in zhenjiang’s local gazetteer suggests that by , zhenjiang was successfully cultivating mulberry for the production of raw silk. yu’s presentation of contents underlines the purpose of zhenjiang’s local gazetteer as a handbook for local administration—for himself and for his peers. to facilitate tax recording, he sourced information (such as tax numbers) locally, and arranged it to fit the court’s agenda. this is evident in the local gazetteer’s categories of “local prod- ucts” and “taxes.” he used the gazetteer to put zhenjiang on the yuan moriculture map and arranged information so that later generations would have it at hand “for future use.” in full text search of digitized texts it is easy to find similar entries about perspective, edited by hans-ullrich vogel, günter dux, and mark elvin (leiden: brill, ), – , . for erudite culture in zhenjiang see chen lijian, “zhishun zhenjiang zhi suo zai zhenjiang dishisi,” – . for a description of the “fishpond” method, also called mulberry-dyke-fishpond method, see kenneth ruddle and zhong gongfu, integrated agriculture-aquaculture in south china: the dike-pond system of the zhujiang delta (cambridge: cambridge university press ). such tax methods were widely used by the tang and adapted by the liao, song, and jin. see wu shuguo 吳樹國, “shilun jindai de sangshui” 試論金代的桑稅, heilongjiang minzu congkan ( ), – and “songdai sangshui kaolun” 宋代桑稅考論, shixue yuekan ( ), – . möngke khan (ruled – ) had the tax form originally imposed when conquering the jin territory. but it was mainly implemented in the south. richard von glahn, “cycles of silver in chinese monetary history,” in the economy of lower yangzi delta in late imperial china: connecting money, markets, and institutions, edited by billy k. l. so (london: routledge, ), . the song used a standardized quota system: “計地栽桑計桑科絹府州縣具有定額.” see wu shuguo 吳樹國, tang song zhiji tianshui zhidu bianqian yanjiu 唐宋之際田稅制度變遷研究 (ha’erbin: heilongjiang daxue chubanshe, ), . because zhenjiang hosted a local weaving and dyeing bureau, it delivered most of its taxes as finished cloth, although some raw silk was also collected: “絲八千四百四十七斤二十五兩九錢二分三釐.” yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “fu shui” 賦稅 . a. a couple of different taxes, not only for moriculture, had to be delivered in the form of silk-juan 絲捐 (sometimes by advance-indebting [hemai 和買], as yu also singles out). hence the numbers alone in local gazetteers do not allow any conclusions to be drawn on mulberry taxes. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “fu shui” . a– b. the yuan levied higher silk taxes than the song and later ming, yet more so in the north. the trend of zhenjiang’s juan-silk taxes is reverse: the yuan only levied half as much as song taxes. fan jinmin 范金民, “yuandai jiangnan sichouye shulun” 元代江南絲綢業述論, nanjing daxue xuebao . , – . see also fan jinmin, yibei tianxia: ming qing jiangnan sichoushi yanjiu 衣被天下: 明清江南絲綢史研究 (nanjing: jiangsu renmin chubanshe, ), – . the history of the yuan mentions two tax collection forms: ( ) a raw silk tax (na si 納絲), ( ) granting imperial descendants and nobilities producing households, in units of five households (wu hu si 五戶絲), directly on an annual (sui ci 歲賜) basis. in the latter case, it stipulated how many lengths (in bolts, down to chi 尺 and fen 分) of silk each household transferred to which prince or princess from which place. see song lian, yuan shi, . – . only local gazetteers record and specify the woven fabric. journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms juan taxes in other local gazetteers which may seem to imply moriculture activity, but in fact only the mention of juan-taxes and sang tree kinds as tax category proves that moriculture was taking place, because, first, juan-tax silk was also traded across regions (to be then paid as tax) and, second, other taxes were levied in the form of juan-tax silk. it is here that the local gazetteer research tool (logart), introduced in greater detail in the section on utilities in this issue, proves most useful. using logart to search for keywords as they appear under specific subject-headings or editorial sections such as “local products” or within certain text structures of local gazetteers allows researchers to see when editors had similar purposes in mind—such as yu’s efforts to enable local tax collection. it is not enough to find whether terms are mentioned, what is crucial is where they are mentioned and in what context—that is, what else is mentioned around them. for the purposes of our analysis, we refer to the textual organization of different sections and the organization of content in them as the syntax. we began by combining searches of multiple terms, each in conjunction with syntac- tical characteristics (such as “sang” being mentioned in a “local products” section) with the aim of finding interesting cases for further research on the basis of similarities in syntax and knowledge organization. in our set of earlier local gazetteers, only the jiading-era zhenjiang gazetteer, which yu had consulted, uses a similar strategy in its tax and local product sections, showing that in such efforts yuan actors indeed relied locally on song precedents. yet, as we will see later on, yu substantially changes the tenor and contents of other chapters, even when he sometimes continues using stan- dard headings, which suggests that yu made deliberate choices of content placement (which, although this cannot be discussed here, also appear in late ming and qing local gazetteers of the north and in border regions). in the still-existing twenty-four local gazetteers of the yuan era, yu points the way forward, as did many of his contem- poraries. it must be taken into consideration that all extant local gazetteers of this period are southern examples, which means they were compiled by song literati—or their descendants—who are known to have proliferated the genre, but who also, rather than following guidelines, enjoyed setting up alternative, even peculiar rules in their content arrangement. an issue for future research is to clarify the survival of just these two dozen rather idiosyncratic yuan gazetteers and what their role was for the compilation of later, ming and qing, gazetteer compilations. as for those still extant yuan gazetteers we can see that many mention juan-tax silk without mentioning mul- berry trees. from this viewpoint, mentions in the tax and local product chapters alone sun shifang 孫世芳, xuanfu zhenzhi 宣府镇志 ([china]: [publisher not identified], ), “gongfu kao” 貢賦考 . b, for instance, notes a straight juan-silk tax (zheng shui pi bo 正稅匹帛), but no sang, reflecting that the jin in xuanfu raised only a conversion tax and not a moriculture tax. for the varying regional approaches to moriculture taxes (paid as juan silk) from the song to the jin dynasty and their reflection in local gazetteers, see wu shuguo 吳樹國, “shilun jindai de sangshui” 試論金代的桑稅, heilongjiang minzu congkan . , . for the ming era, fan jinmin takes the sum of juan-silk or bolts bo 帛 given in local gazetteers as evidence for moriculture. fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, . no catalogues of yuan book collectors survived. ming collections such as the famous tian yige 天一閣 library or the bibliophile qi chenghan collect mainly ming gazetteers. ding bing 丁丙 lists the zhenjiang zhi too, see ding bing 丁丙, shanben shushi cangshu zhi 善本書室藏書志 ( ; repr. in song yuan ming qing shumu tiba congkan 宋元明清書目題跋叢刊. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), “shibu” 史部 . b. several other copies made it into libraries in japan and france. none of these titles appears in the “yiwenzhi” of the database zhongguo fangzhi ku 中國方志庫 or the zhongguo lidai dianji zongmu 中國歷代典籍總目. further research is also needed on later ming and qing gazetteers, especially in border regions that describe mulberry in similar ways. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms are not sufficient to assess the performance of moriculture—not even for the limited regions covered by the still extant yuan local gazetters. literary analysis with an empirical orientation while historians are perfectly comfortable sliding between (entirely valid) exegetical claims based on just a few passages in a source (such as that sang = tree, but sang in a chapter on tax should refer to tax) and larger historical claims (such as the yuan had more frequent disasters than other dynasties, or most local gazetteers contain chap- ters on local products), they hesitate when testing qualitative assessments empirically over large corpora. this reluctance has to do with the complexities and variations in the transmission of texts over time, with the suspicion that large datasets ignore edito- rial selections, with knowledge that that the authors of our sources chose different rules of compilation (for instance yu xilu’s use of the prior song edition of zhenjiang’s gaz- etteer as a template), and with a sense that such texts did not exist in a vacuum. central to our methodological concern about dh methods, the texts subsumed as local gazetteers can be understood as a compound, interlaced set of databases: we find varied, partly compatible structural designs with similar, but not always, overlap- ping datasets. the gazetteer of dongming, located in hebei in northern china, featured disasters and local weather conditions under the section heading “auspicious and omi- nous events” (xiangyi 祥異) in , similar to the local gazetteer of the southern pre- fecture of zhenjiang that had been compiled almost two centuries earlier. but the syntax in the two local gazetteers is very different: the fourteenth-century local gazetteer of zhenjiang categorized different topics (distinguishing, for example, between auspi- cious events and strange occurrences) under which disasters are listed in chronological order. dongming and the majority of later local gazetteers simply chronicle disasters. we built the logart platform in order to address a specific phenomenon of syntactical patterns in our analysis, to examine how its pattern of occurences can be explained in relation to the genre and thus what dorgeloh and wanner define as the “genre effects of syntax.” this approach allows us to inquire into the dialectics (“between” rather than against!) of historical meaning-making and meaning-giving indicators in local gazet- teers—how topics and categories and classifications developed and which contents were featured under them. to do this we built tools to transfer textual structures into tabular structures for the currently available set of , digitized local gazetteers. logart allows researchers to run a search based on content structure (section titles) with or without syntactical anchors (keywords) to identify datasets. then, after close reading, texts can be tagged to encode meaning and to attribute scholarly assessments and interpretations to words or text passages; this helps researchers to assess not only whether the set of all occurrences of the term “mulberry” under the category “local products” has meaning, but also how, under a certain heading, contents, in particular orders in listings (which might express certain preferences, for instance priority) and chu yuansheng 儲元升, qianlong dongming xian zhi 乾隆東明縣志 ( [ ]; repr. in zhongguo fangzhi congshu 中國方志叢書. taibei: chengwen chubanshe, ), “nianji xiangyi” 年紀祥異, . a– b; yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “xiangyi” 祥異 . b– b. the port of zhenjiang held the status of a superior prefecture (fu 府) until and then became the seat of the much larger unit of a circuit (lu 路). heidrun dorgeloh and anja wanner, “introduction,” in syntactic variation and genre, edited by heidrun dorgeloh and anja wanner (berlin: de gruyter mouton, ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms other structures of narration, might change. tagging also makes it possible for us to fol- low similar contents or arrangements of contents through the genre, and eventually to track observations such as the relation between contents and headings or how headings change but contents remain largely the same. for instance, at some point disasters are listed mainly under the rubric of “strange events”, but they can also appear in a local- ity’s history or irrigation sections. by encoding these qualitative assessments into quan- titative structures, historians are able to see how authors developed and used local gazetteers regionally, or how categories, arrangements of content or functions devel- oped locally, nationally, or across different periods. the advantages of logart are that it allows the entire corpus ( ) to be examined by a textual/syntactical search com- plemented with structural search (section headings), ( ) to have an overview with a stat- istical visualization that discloses “the spatial and temporal patterns of transmission flows,” ( ) to enable scholars to call up individual cases for checking and comparison through close reading, and ( ) to implement tagging, which helps convert qualitative scholarly assessment into quantitative structures. in the case of big data analysis, logart offers tools helping researchers to keep in mind what is not known, such as the limitations of the source base—what one might call the blank spots. a major task of curating data is to review prior research on the source situation. in the case of local gazetteers, the geographical range of the still extant yuan era local gazetteers is small, but it is important to understand that during the song, liao, jin, and yuan eras, local gazetteers were mainly produced in the central southern regions. jiangxi, jiangsu, fujian, and hunan were particularly enthusiastic about compiling local gazetteers. during the song, major gazetteers came from zhejiang, sichuan, jiangxi, jiangsu, and guangdong, while the yuan added major local gazetteers in shanxi and shaanxi, hebei, and henan (figure ). mapping the geographic coverage of the text cor- pus helps us to make qualitative assessments and to understand the baseline distribution of our data. it helps to interpret the blank spaces on the map, representing a textual absence. this absence of textual documentation might lead some to suppose an absence of taxes or disaster, especially when working with big textual databases, whereas it may simply indi- cate that a certain place had no local gazetteer, that an edition was lost, or that none is available in the digitized corpus, or data is hidden by the gazetteer’s compilation rules. research began by curating data from varied digital and analog sources. this cura- tion generated many insights about the genre of local gazetteers and its development, and required us to question current assumptions that cannot all be addressed in the scope of this article but are reflected in our maps and datasets. for example, we addressed issues such as how many yuan local gazetteers actually existed, but also more difficult ones including why and how authors, from the song to the yuan applied, shih-pei chen, calvin yeh, and sean wang, “logart: local gazetteers research tools,” max planck institute for the history of science, accessed february , , www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/pro jects/logart-local-gazetteers-research-tools. shih-pei chen, dagmar schäfer, and qun che, “local gazetteers working group,” max planck institute for the history of science, accessed february , , www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/departmentschaefer_spc_ms_localgazetteers. for an approach to visualizing epidemics in big data see mei-po kwan, “algorithmic geographies: big data, algorythmic uncertainty, and the production of geographic knowledge,” in geographies of mobility: recent advances in theory and method, edited by mei-po kwan and tim schwanen (abingdon: routledge ), . if we only look at zhongguo gufangzhi kao 中國古方志考, edited by zhang guogan 张國淦 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ) for pre-yuan local gazetteers, zhejiang has the most ( ). in this case we need to include sichuan and guangdong as well as jiangxi, jiangsu, fujian, and hunan. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/logart-local-gazetteers-research-tools https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/logart-local-gazetteers-research-tools https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/research/projects/departmentschaefer_spc_ms_localgazetteers https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms continued or changed the structural design of their gazetteers, and how such choices reflect social and intellectual networks. how editorial rules—and thus categories— went in and out of fashion regionally, while the contents may have remained the same, is relevant for our understanding of local gazetteers as a source. our mappings are also meant to highlight the limitations of our sources: while the central government issued policies to collect data across the empire in a systematic fashion and during the yuan nearly titles were compiled—some probably based on song precedents, we do not know their actual contents and arrangements. the forty-two extant song-yuan local gazetteers vary considerably in their syntactical choices and thus the comparability of contents, with a dozen featuring, for example, mainly images (tu 圖) (dongxiao tuzhi 洞霄圖志), biographies (jing xiang lu 敬鄉錄) or anecdotes (gu hang zaji 古杭雜記). the various biases in these datasets have to be considered. figure . geographical distribution of local gazetteers compiled or published during the song, jin, and yuan dynasties, both extant and lost. the data are drawn from four sources: zhongguo gu fangzhi kao, song liao jin yuan fangzhi ji yi, song chao fangzhi kao, and jin yuan fangzhi kao. while the dots represent the coverage of locations of these gazetteers, the background heat map reflects the number of gazetteers compiled for each locale dur- ing all three dynasties. data curation by cathleen paethe, lin nungyao, tang yuting, and jiang yexin; map by lin nungyao. the da yuan da yitong zhi 大元大一統志 was ordered in . edited by zhamaluding 札马剌丁 and expanded by bolanxi 孛蘭肹. the current edition is incomplete and was recompiled based on the yongle dadian 永樂大典. see also zhang guangda’s qiuhuang huomin leiyao who summarized relief mea- sures from various historical tracts. zhang guangda 張光大, jiuhuang huomin leiyao 救荒活民類要 [ ; ming keben明刻本 [ming dynasty print] n.d.; repr. in xuxiu siku quanshu 續修四庫全書] shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), – . these numbers result from consultation of song yuan fangzhi congkan 宋元方志叢刊 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), song yuan zhenxi difangzhi congkan 宋元珍稀地方志叢刊 (chengdu: sichuan daxue chubanshe, ), yuandai shiliao congkan chubian: yuandai dili fangzhi 元代史料叢刊初編: 元 journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms because structural features can be addressed in logart, this offers an exciting ave- nue for inquiring into the genre itself. automated analysis can conveniently compare regional differences in structure and content that would require an unimaginably huge investment of time and energy when done by analog reading. in automated que- ries, exceptions to the rule stand out and can be used to detect and fix the bias con- tained in one’s method and analysis or to identify interesting deviations from an assumed norm. skimming large sets of data, we can detect interesting exceptions that have been overlooked by research (such as singular examples of disaster records from one specific border region). or assumptions that have been inferred about larger sets by relying on particular examples (such as about the content organization of southern, jiangnan, etc. local gazetteers) can be tested. historians, seeing yuan local gazetteers sandwiched between the song and ming, have focused on their structural continuity with song gazetteers and the improvement of their ming successors. huang yansheng, for instance, notes that the “majority” of yuan local gazetteers still showed a continued interest in taxes and in household numbers. he sees yuan gazetteer editors as increasingly standardizing the use of images and applying an encyclopedic approach to collecting local knowledge. he suggests that yu xilu modelled the zhenjiang local gaz- etteer on the song-dynastic jiading “bureaucratic” gazetteer while yu was particularly meticulous in his “scrutiny of economic goods.” although it is not surprising that the song and yuan editions are similar, it can be quickly shown using logart that no other extant song-yuan local gazetteer replicates this content-structural pattern. close reading, combined with an empirical orientation, can reveal significant insights into both the idiosyncratic case and the development of the genre itself. instead of “people” (renwu 人物) yu, for instance, chose “human talents” (rencai 人材) to title a listed recording of professions such as archers, doctors, or monks, and ethnic-linguistic groups (such as huihui, hexi, qidan, han), thus reflecting an era and dynasty that recruited groups other than literati-scholars into its state apparatus, assembled practical talents at the court and traded talented craftsmen and experts as slaves across long distances. he has a section on “buildings” (gongshi 宮室) that includes information on the broad range of other religious and cultural buildings in zhenjiang reflecting the cosmopolitan, multicultural, and multi-religious character of yuan rule. early big data research tended to collapse differences, but tagging can 代地理方志 (anhui: huangshan shushe, ), song yuan dili shiliao huibian 宋元地理史料匯編 (sichuan: sichuan daxue chubanshe, ), and song liao jin yuan fangzhi jiyi 宋遼金元方志輯佚 (shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ). they list local gazetteers of the yuan. zhongguo gufangzhi kao accounted for yuan local gazetteers. jun fang identifies without revealing his source. he then lists extant local gazetteers. jun fang, “a bibliography of extant yuan gazetteers,” journal of song-yuan studies ( ), – . huang yansheng 黃燕生, “yuandai de difangzhi” 元代的地方志, shixueshi yanjiu . , – also notes that yuan local gazetteers equally aimed at comprehensive coverage and this era’s authors already engaged with enthusiasm into historical accounts. the yuan local gazetteer of jiahe lists several kinds of mulberries. xu shuo 徐碩, zhiyuan jianhe zhi 至元嘉禾志 ( ; repr. in song yuan fangzhi congkan. beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), and offers taxes, “wuchan” 物產 . b– a. as the number is small, we cross-checked the automated result additionally one-by-one. see thomas allsen, culture and conquest in mongol eurasia (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), . the section is followed by a section on “government buildings” (gongxie 公廨). yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “mulu” 目錄 b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms address such issues, as historians can decide which word groups they wish to form and which expressions within a specific search should be deemed duplications, typos or sim- ilar or which ones carry meaning (figure ). the collation of data across large sets of texts in logart has another advantage. it allows us to see content nuances in relation to changing structural emphasis given by the gazetteer’s syntax. yu xilu, for instance, added a subsection on “auspicious and inauspicious events,” which the song edition did not have. yu located this subsection in the final chapter on “miscellanea” (zalu 雜錄). the heading of “auspicious and inauspicious events” invokes a standard rubric of imperial historiography (zhengshi 正史) which, as local historians regularly emphasize, had been in use since han times. a search in logarts repositories shows, however, that song and yuan local gazetteers rarely use “auspicious and inauspicious events” as a heading, even if they document such events. also, the content of this category varied considerably. wuzhou’s yuan local gazetteer offered locally flavored “tales of the strange” under this rubric, thus emulating tang approaches and earlier views of what made the local interesting. yu, though, under this rubric “orders the past for future figure . tagging as a curation process. this figure shows logart’s tagging interface with a text snippet from the dongming xian gazetteer, resulted from keyword search for mulberry disasters. we tagged the dates of when such disasters happened, place names, reasons, and results of mulberry loss, all shown in different colors. logart allows scholars to define thematic topics for tagging and tags, then assign tags to parts of text to specify their meaning, and also incorporate their assessments of the text parts. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “mulu” 目錄 b. even though local studies emphasize that such a section can be found already in earliest imperial han dynastic local gazetteers, only a couple of song dynasty gazetteers actually feature such sections. reviewing tables of contents and the small number of still extant song gazetteers, the zhongguo gufangzhi kao iden- tifies a good dozen of the known local gazetteers with such a chapter heading—among them four of the titles included in the set researched here. journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms use.” in noting the floods and gales of zhenjiang’s past, yu xilu provided a historical snapshot of the environmental dangers significant to the management of a port city on the yangtze river. yu xilu introduces a category of “auspicious and omnious events” (xiangyi 祥異), but stays clear of yuan legitimacy debates. he chronicled events from the jin 晉 through to the tang era as historical references, but avoided references to incidents during the song that could have been interpreted as political statements on “portents” and been used to support arguments about these ruling houses legitimacy. for the same reasons he may also have wanted to avoid references to the yuan era. although no conclusive statement is possible because of the few surviving editions, in those that survive yu xilu is the only editor to add a disaster section. his approach to zhenjiang’s disaster report- ing prompts several questions regarding the sourcing of such data, the purpose editors had for mentioning disaster data in local gazetteers, and how such sections were devel- oped and used throughout time. in contrast to the unique example of zhenjiang, the dongming local gazetteer is one of a larger group of early to mid-ming local gazetteers that included yuan disasters. in the case of this northern county, almost two hundred years separated the actual disaster event from its first mention in the provincial gazet- teer for daming to which dongming was subordinated since . although dongming became a county in , its first local gazetteer (now lost) dates from . as gao xiang’s preface to the edition explained, he had adapted existing classification schemes to fit their purpose of depicting “the everchanging vestiges that are the course and change of any development.” starting with a typical arrangement of data in the categories of heavenly patterns (tianwen 天文 i.e., astronomy and astrol- ogy), patterns of the earth (dili 地理, geography), affairs of government (zhengshi 政事), and historical figures (renwu 人物), editors added rubrics for government bol, “the rise of local history,” . yu ends with the year when enormous floods along the grand canal inundated northern china and several thousand people drowned. yu xilu, zhishun zhenjiang zhi, “xiangyi” 祥異 . b– b. wei chongwu 魏崇武, “lun meng yuan chuqi de zhengtong lun” 論蒙元初期的正統論, shixueshi yanjiu . , – . contained in the erudition dataset are two early editions of the daming fu zhi 大名府志, one edited by li lu 李輅, zhao ben 趙本, and wu ji 吳驥 in , and the other edited by shi lu 石祿 and tang jin 唐錦 in . before dongming had been subordinated to kaizhou 開州, then after to caozhou 曹州. from after the ming conquest in until the unit was dissolved and governed from kaizhou, changyuan county, before being permanently returned to daming. the administrative changes are described in the gazetteer itself, and dynastic histories can be followed in chgis. both the kaizhou and the changyuan gazetteers were compiled slightly before the first dongming gazetteer in , however, also clearly after that of daming. none of them contains yuan disasters records for dongming. wang chongqing 王崇慶, (jiajing) kaizhou zhi (嘉靖) 開州志 ( ; repr. in yuan guoli beiping tushuguan jia ku shanben congshu 原國立北平圖書館甲庫善本叢書. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “xiangyi” 祥異 . a– b, and liu fang 劉芳, (jiajing) changyuan zhi (嘉靖) 長垣志 ( ; repr. in yuan guoli beiping tushuguan jia ku shanben congshu 原國立北平圖書館甲庫善本叢書. beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), “zaixiang” 災祥 . b– a. see old preface ( jiu xu 舊序) by yang risheng 楊日升 in chu yuansheng, qianlong dongming xian zhi, “jiu xu” 舊序, b. the editors also point towards the zuozhuan and shiji (大抵如左氏史遷之法). zuozhuan, which is chronological, and shiji, which is by events, are the major two frameworks of chinese historiography: “是志者史屬也夫志之體必天文地理政事人物世代風俗常變之迹沿革之由備書而詳紀之大抵如左氏史遷之法故曰志.” the classification scheme was chosen arbitrarily: “遂約諸生徒立凡例定程規門分類.” see old preface (jiu xu 舊序) by gao xiang 高橡 in qianlong dongming xian zhi, “jiu xu” 舊序 a, b. dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms buildings (gongyu 公宇) and shrines and sacrifices (cisi 祠祀), historic relics (guji 古蹟), and taxes (tianfu 田賦) “in an attempt to provide facts, to learn about disasters and auspicious events, to point out vigilance and admonishments, to extend one’s knowledge about what can be seen and heard, to see the achievements and failures of administration, and to allow scrutiny of the rise and fall of customs and habits, to be passed on eternally and without any concealment.” specific sections of a local gazetteer, such as disasters, were not only affected by local conditions, individual editorial choices, or textual transmission. in the case of yu xilu’s gazetteer, political ideologies and intellectual trends affected disaster-reporting practices at the time, and their historical reception. by including tang records on big floods, yu during yuan reign provided administrators with useful information about local condi- tions and hazards, outlined prior failures and, by remaining silent about his own times, avoided a contentious political theme. in the case of dongming we equally need to con- sider how yuan officials originally handled and documented mulberry disasters, and how ming local gazetteer editors, local officials, or members of the local scholarly elite reflected on the yuan and on disasters in their own time. the kangxi edition of , the earliest extant edition that puts dongming on the yuan disaster map, followed the structure of four preceding ming editions ( , , , and ). the “old preface” to the edition indicates that editors con- sulted local sources, but in fact many northern gazetteers for which the first edition appears in the mid-ming era based their accounts of earlier events on dynastic histo- ries. the extant qing editions do not specify whether dongming cultivated mulberry trees or had to pay juan-taxes in yuan, but give field sizes for moriculture for their own eras. the kangxi and qianlong editions would add on disaster events towards the actual date of compilation while continuing to copy prior entries without adding further information from other sources on matters such as tax relief or damage reports. how, then, did dongming’s moriculture disaster records relate to yuan practices and politics of disaster recording? to answer this question, we queried the current set of digitized gazetteers of , titles. see old preface by gao xiang in qianlong dongming xian zhi, “jiu xu” 舊序 b. of daming fu zhi compiled by li lu, zhao ben, and wu ji in . the records are still in the re-edition by shi lu and tang jin, and in the edition by gao huanyuan 郜煥元 and zhou bangbin 周邦彬. all are available in zhongguo fangzhi ku 中國方志庫, licensed through berlin state library’s crossasia and in gugong zhenben congkan 故宮珍本叢刊, edited by gugong bowuyuan 故宮博物院 (haikou: hainan, ). xijian zhongguo difangzhi huikan 稀見中國地方志彙刊, edited by zhongguo kexueyuan tushuguan 中國科學院圖書館 (beijing: zhongguo shudian, ). for a full overview of the county’s administrative changes from song to qing, see china historical gis (harvard university and fudan university) records of the following numbers: hvd_ , hvd_ , hvd_ , and hvd_ . for the emergence of northern local gazetteers, see bai biling 白璧玲, “ming qing shiqi huabei huang fanqu wenhua jingguan zhi xingsu yu bianqian: yi kaifeng fu diqu wei zhu” 明清時期華北黃泛區文化景觀之形塑與變遷: 以開封府地區為主 (phd diss., taiwan normal university, ). in several instances the local gazetteer notes silk related taxes, which confirms that dongming contin- ued sericulture. silk from official mulberry land translated into liang 兩, qian 錢 silk per mu 畝 of land. moriculture fields in private hands were charged by liang 兩 silk threads. silk floss was raised per male head, amounting to , liang 兩, bolts of tax silk, which is per adult male one liang and per eight liang one bolt of tax silk. by the county had to deliver liang 兩 strings of silk floss and bolts, zhang 丈 of juan-tax silk. chu yuansheng, qianlong dongming xian zhi, “fu shui” 賦稅 . a. in the republican era editors increasingly aimed at updating and complementing accounts. this set is from erudition’s zhongguo fangzhi ku. another titles are from harvard yenching library’s rare book collection. in this article we only use the erudition set, which ranges from tang journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms data curation: mulberry-related disasters to assess dongming’s records on moriculture disasters within the whole set of gazet- teers we first extracted information about mulberry disasters through a full-text search with a set of keywords that incorporated regional and historical variations in language, and next identified typos, marked them (for identification) and normalized them. using semi-automated exclusion processes and close reading, data was then normal- ized—that is cleansed of irrelevant mentions and duplicates (same disaster at the same year/month at the same place). we found reports of moriculture disasters, most of which were in sections for auspicious and ominous events or related sections titled as chronologies of events (for example, ji 紀, nianbiao 年表) and a few under relief policies (xuzheng 恤政). we then geo-coded each report in this dataset and, since some of the reports mentioned that the disasters actually took place in several counties, in this process we expanded the dataset to , specifying the mulberry dis- aster events at actual plottable locations. one hundred and fifty-six of the actual reports and of the expanded geo-referenced recorded disaster events are from the yuan. these data served as the basis of our analysis. collating the data and the spatial and statistical analysis on the dataset’s chronology showed several interesting patterns. as we tagged events in primary sources, we observed several patterns, such as that the nomenclature of moriculture disasters during the yuan was particularly rich. mapping confirmed prior observations that moriculture disasters appeared until and mostly during the yuan dynasty ( percent), but not so much during the ming and qing. figure shows a chronological overview of the dataset by dynasty (and reign era) of occurrence and by dynasty of appearance in local gazetteers. for example, moriculture disaster events reported in these local gazet- teers reach back as early as the western han dynasty, yet all local gazetteers that men- tion moriculture disasters were published in the ming ( ), qing ( ), and the republican ( ) period. figure shows changing dynastic emphasis on moriculture disasters. displaying yuan data proportionally to the increase in the number of local gazetteers during the ming, qing, and republican periods illustrates that yuan data were quite consistently carried over from earlier editions, suggesting that faithful copy- ing enhanced the impression of a peak of moriculture disasters during yuan times. for comparative purposes we curated another dataset of moriculture disaster reports from the “five phases” chapters (wuxing zhi 五行志) of the history of the yuan (yuan shi 元史), a ming era compilation, and the new history of the yuan (xin yuan shi 新元史), a qing era compilation. ninety-seven reports were found based on a full text search of “mulberry” (sang 桑) and “silkworm” (can 蠶). we expanded these into location- ( – ) through minguo ( – ), while the majority of gazetteers were published in the ming ( ), qing ( , ), and minguo ( ). currently logart links to , digitized local gazetteers. we collected thirteen keywords indicative of mulberry disasters which we expanded as we read through primary sources: shisang 食桑, shasang 殺桑, sangsun 桑損, sang duosun 桑多損, sunsang 損桑, haisang 害桑, huaisang 壞桑, sangguo dangjin 桑果蕩盡, feican shi 廢蠶事, sangzai 桑災, sangcan jiezai 桑蠶皆災, sangdiao 桑凋, and shangsang 傷桑. the data curation process involves several colleagues and student assistants, whom we would like to thank here: cathleen paethe, calvin yeh, luo en-mien, zhao wenhua, lin nung-yao, liu yuxin, du ruixuan, tang yuting, and jiang yexin. western jin ( %), northern song ( %), and ming ( %). this dataset is based upon the database curated by lin nung-yao, hung yi-mei, and su hong-ting for natural disasters from the twenty-five official histories (ershiwu shi 二十五史). substantial differences mark these sources, song lian’s compilation of the yuan shi sourced the yuandai gechao shilu 元代各 dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms figure . chronological breakdown of mulberry disasters reported in lg: dynasties of the disasters and when they were published in lg. figure . chronological breakdown of mulberry disasters, proportional to number of extant lgs published by each dynasty 朝實錄 and the jingshi dadian 經世大典, whereas xin yuanshi 新元史 compiled by ke shaomin 柯劭忞 during the qing also used the yongle dadian 永樂大典, the yuanshi yiwen zhengbu 元史譯文證補 and the yuanshi leibian 元史類編. see song lian, yuan shi, – . see also zhang jianghua 張京華 and huang shuhui 黃曙輝, “chuban shuoming” 出版說明 in xin yuanshi, compiled by ke shaomin, – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms based plottable disaster events and obtained cases. the set of all disasters from yuan dynastic histories is also preserved for baseline reference. our first step was to ask how the data reflected practices and policies of disaster management. in a second step we com- pared politics of the gazetteers and yuan data management from other dynasties. disasters in dongming: yuan bureaucracy in ming local gazetteers dongming was a northern county situated east of the taihang mountains where the yellow river spilled into an alluvial zone of rich agricultural lands, and was, like zhenjiang, no stranger to disasters, in particular capricious floods and droughts. under the song, officials from here had participated in capital politics. it would survive mul- tiple military incursions during the jin–song wars ( – ) and mongol–jin wars ( – ). by , the year of dongming’s first recorded mulberry-related disaster, how- ever, wars had moved elsewhere. we can imagine farmers in dongming working their rich alluvial fields in relative peace, growing grain and raising silkworms as they had done in this region since pre-tang times. they would have been contributing to the yuan’s abundance of panni tartarici silk and gold textiles which we still find spread throughout the modern museum world. chinese textual sources of the yuan consistently empha- sized the pressure placed on localities such as dongming to revive silk production in the post-conquest period and increase output. a poem by wang yun 王惲 ( – ), a former politician and scholar of the jin dynasty, also describes the incredible haz- ards of mulberry cultivation for farmers livelihoods: young mulberry develops green leaves by the end of spring, charmingly sparkling in the sunlight. a farm family’s annual budget is indeed unstable. farmers’ wives look after the mulberry trees, sweeping away the worms [sao sangyi 掃蠶蟻]. but a black frost sweeps over the land so that , trees are dried out and, encountering a torch, are burned up; or even if they continue into the spring, their branches are sheared off by heavy winds from the sea, and the business is ruined. though the goddess of weaving is appealed to, the loom is empty. dongming’s population was also quite active in capital politics and during the reform campaign. see ruth mostern, dividing the realm in order to govern: the spatial organization of the song state ( – ce) (cambridge, ma: harvard university asia center, ), . in comparison to earlier periods, as humble notes, the dynastic biographies of this period also empha- size consolidation and adherence to rules and regulations as a major characteristic. geoffrey humble, “princely qualities and unexpected coherence: rhetoric and representation in ‘juan ’ of the ‘yuanshi’,” journal of song-yuan studies ( ), . this included the intensive promotion of agricul- ture including that “all possible parts of the steppe that could be put under the plow” were used. see john dardess, “from mongol empire to yuan dynasty: changing forms of imperial rule in mongolia and central asia,” monumenta serica ( ), . jiang ying 姜穎, shandong sichou shi 山東絲綢史 (jinan: qi lu shushe, ), – . juliane von fircks, “panni tartarici: splendid cloths from the mongol empire in european contexts,” orientations ( ), – . translates as: to sweep the newly-born silkworms off the silkworm egg paper into baskets with mul- berry leaves inside. 桑災嘆: 穉桑發暮春緑葉光旎旎田家嵗計固不常農婦相桑掃蠶蟻黒霜一夜從天來萬樹焦枯遭燎燬令春継以海多風剪碎枝條生意靡天孫仰訴錦機空, see wang yun 王惲, qiujian ji 秋涧集 ( ; repr. sibu congkan 四部叢刊, taibei: taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, ), “sangzai tan” 桑災嘆 . a. for dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms wang spent most of his life in hebei, shandong, and fujian; he identified north china as a region that had long been familiar with moriculture. he urged yuan emper- ors to alleviate the farmers’ burden with tax relief and compensation (which could include financial support for the raising or purchase of new seedlings) whenever disas- ter struck. as chen gaohua has pointed out, the yuan implemented different gover- nance practices and regimes in different regions of their empire. they favored their steppe homeland in every regard and they differentiated northern and southern regions when handling and taxing agriculture and sericulture. variations in local farming prac- tices and natural conditions explain regionally different approaches to tax policy and practice. this practice reached back to the northern song, when the government had begun introducing sericulture in the south, while relying on the established tradition of such trades in the north. before , yuan officials mainly continued the policies of previous dynasties. in qubilai khan adopted jurchen-jin disaster policies and ideas. emperors in – increasingly accepted neo-confucian views from the southern song. by the s the regions had again broken apart, leading eventually to civil war. tracing this trajectory it becomes clear that the song treated north and south differently and that the yuan enforced this trend by following jin politics (which had adapted song policies) in the north and song approaches only in the south. because the north had cultivated mulberry for a long time, yuan rulers anticipated regular yields, as this had been the case before the conquest; the south was treated as an area of new cultivation where farmers and local officials mostly monitored new plantations. disasters were thus regionally defined, and even if one occurred in the south, the eco- nomic effects were expected to be less severe. in the history of the yuan and local gazetteers, most disaster reports refer to regions whose levies were based on the five-household silk quota system. whenever a disaster was expected to bring about a loss of more than percent of the expected tax revenue a report had to be made and local taxes were reduced accordingly. as noted earlier, this was just the tip of the iceberg, as only severe disasters were reported by censors to the central government. as shen youliang notes, there was a third level in the disaster selec- tion process: depending on the gravity of the disaster and the efficiency of relief mea- sures, the upper level of the central government usually reacted with an inspection. if the authors of local gazetteers made regular use of local information, whether from personal experience, by hearsay, or by consultation of local archives—as historians his discussion on legitimacy see yuan chen, “legitimation discourse and the theory of the five elements in imperial china,” journal of song-yuan studies ( ), . chen gaohua 陳高華, “yuandai zaihai fasheng shi gaishu” 元代災害發生史概述, in yuanchao shishi xinzheng 元朝史事新證, edited by chen gaohua 陳高華 (gansu: lanzhou daxue chubanshe, ), – . for chen, taxes were the major reason for regionally different disaster approaches and he notes that yuan approaches relied on the song expanded surveillance of locust plagues, epidemics, and famines. for a finer regional distinction moriculture disasters and sericulture in sichuan should also be considered, but, as in other studies, they are not included here, because the source situation is difficult. da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang 大元聖政國朝典章 (beijing: zhongguo guangbo dianshi, ), . “水旱災傷皆隨時檢覆得實 […] 損八分以上其稅全免損七分以下止免所損分數收及六分者稅既全徵不須申檢.” wang peihua 王培華, yuandai beifang zaihuang yu jiuji 元代北方災荒與救濟 (beijing: beijing daxue chubanshe, ), also mentions that the loss of – % would not be reported and recorded, but that does not mean no disasters happened. supervision also included the punishment of tax officials; see shen youliang 申友良, xiao yue’e 肖月娥, “yuandai shenjiang tifu zhidu yu jian zai jiu zai” 元代申檢體覆制度與減災救災, zhanjiang shifan daxue xuebao . ( ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms of local gazetteers and disasters such as luo lin made explicit but most studies take as a default assumption —we should find some traces of the hierarchy of such reporting practices. to assess this, we searched for different strategies, allowing for copying, dupli- cates, and text reuse. hierarchies/geographies of reporting historical sources can be interpreted in two directions: as a reaction to or as a product of certain conditions. when shen, following other historians, assumes that the state’s increased sophistication in policies of disaster management was a reaction to an increased disaster rate, he focuses on textual production as a reactive effort. what do these data thus allow us to say about the enactment of yuan administrative rules on disasters and their management? as shen has emphasized, the yuan code on administrative hierarchies of reporting, handling, and archiving disasters ruled that the transmission of a disaster report within the system depended on its severity—the more severe the disaster, the higher it travelled up in the administrative hierarchy of county (xian 縣), prefecture (zhou 州), superior prefecture ( fu 府, assigned for strategically important places), and circuit (lu 路). according to various rules given in the great record of the unified yuan dynasty (da yuan da yitong zhi 大元大一統志), we have also to take into account that, whereas local levels were directly responsible for handling disasters, only the central government and court could grant tax relief or even offer additional grain supplies or financial help. usually local officials had to first seek help within their districts/county— from rich gentry, for instance—and were not allowed to request help from bodies such as the local granaries (for famine relief). the regional censors, in positions sub- ordinate to the central censorate (xingyu shitai 行御史台) were the only administrators empowered to decide on tax issues, communicate with the court directly, and react on an ad hoc basis. those censors strictly supervised prefectural offices (luzong guanfu luo lin, “zhongguo gudai difangzhi zhi zaiyi jilu,” . see zhai yu 翟禹, “yuandai zaihai shi yanjiu shuping (yi)” 元代灾害史研究述评(一), chifeng xueyuan xuebao ( ), – , and the second part in chifeng xueyuan xuebao ( ), – ; gu jing 顧靜, zhao jingbo 趙景波, and zhou jie 周杰, “guanzhong diqu yuandai ganhan zaihai yu qihou bianhua” 關中地區元代幹旱災害與氣候變化, haixiang dizhi yu disiji dizhi ( ), – . for an analysis of corruption and financial incentives, but also notions of ecology and nature, or yuan nomadic life styles and how those may have influenced the perspective on what exactly constituted a disaster, see zhao xinggen 赵杏根, “yuandai shengtai sixiang yu shijian juyao” 元代生態思想與實踐舉要, ha‘erbin gongye daxue xuebao ( ), . shen refers to the chinese translation of alien regimes and border states, – , edited by herbert franke and denis c. twitchett (cambridge: cambridge university press, ). shen youliang and xiao yue’e, “yuandai shenjian tifu zhidu yu jian zai jiu zai,” . note also that “reported disasters” (gaozai 告災) are always “disasters under scrutiny by censors” (shenzai 申灾). da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, : “今後各道按察司如承各路官司申牒災傷去處 [...]”. see also quan yuan wen 全元文, edited by li xiusheng 李修生 (nanjing: jiangsu guji chubanshe, ), . . . quan yuan wen, . . . censors (fengshi 奉使, yushitai 御史臺) were not punished, whereas local officials were regularly accused of corrupt practices. see for instance song lian, yuan shi, . . therefore, individuals often used their own money, instead of asking for relief. during the great famine of in guanshan 關陝, for instance, the official mazha’ertai 馬札兒台 helped by spending his own funds ( jinchu sicai 盡出私財). yuan dian zhang, . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 路总管府) and all lower levels. by the s, regional and local level officials no longer had the right to open granaries. as shen youliang also adds, we must take into account that both reporting policies and relief measures reflect attempts to prevent corruption and misuse of tax exemption policies and do not necessarily reflect an interest in damage mitigation. the extant documentation and historical reproduction of dongming’s various moriculture disas- ters in dynastic sources and in gazetteers of various administrative levels reflect some of the paper trails that such reporting practices left in the various administrative levels and their archives. all three of dongming’s moriculture disasters made it into dynastic accounts, but they landed in different sections. of the three disaster records mentioned in the dongming gazetteer’s disaster section, the history of yuan listed the inci- dent in both the “five phases” (wuxing 五行) treatise and “basic annals” (benji 本紀) with a reference to daming prefecture (to which dongming was subordinated), whereas the and incidents were only listed in the “annals” but not in “five phases.” the name dongming was only referred to in the incident, which seems to have been the most severe since the mulberry trees were killed (shasang 殺桑). all three cases were recorded in the gazetteer of daming prefecture (daming fu zhi 大名府志), compiled in . the dynastic history states that dongming could not deliver its taxes in , but does not say this for . the report of thus can be iden- tified as a report from the county level included as a historical event of some regional significance. such an interpretation allows the possibility that mid-ming gazetteer authors may have had to rely on local sources, although, as we will see later on, we have to consider that by the late ming dynastic historiography and prefectural gazetteers were not inac- cessible and thus contents were regularly copied. in our global survey we were able to observe that percent of the yuan mulberry-related disaster reports are from (ming and qing) county level gazetteers, while percent are from the prefecture level. that disaster events are also not consistently copied suggests that the gazetteers admin- istrative hierarchy mirrors at least to some extent that of the yuan administrative hier- archy of disaster relief and tax management. two explanations for this are possible. we might assume that editors in a northern locality like dongming, compiling a gazetteer during the mid-ming period, were able to record information that derived ultimately from yuan-period local (rather than central) sources. this implies that significant usable local records—or information in some form (perhaps even oral?)—survived the yuan–ming transition and a century or two beyond, so that it could be drawn quan yuan wen, . . . see also da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, . shen youliang and xiao yue’e, “yuandai shenjiang tifu zhidu yu jianzai jiuzai” also note that super- vision also included the punishment of tax officials, . dongming was subordinated to changing units but belonged to daming after ming rule. see china historical gis (harvard university and fudan university) records of the following number: hvd_ . we can imagine this as a second or third wave of local gazetteer production that the ming initiated already before the unification in . joseph dennis, “early printing in china viewed from the perspective of local gazetteers,” in knowledge and text production in the age of print: china, – , edited by lucilla chia and hilde de weerdt (leiden; boston: brill, ), – , . dennis’s source is the preface of the baoding junzhi 保定郡志, . according to the yuan shi neither could dongming deliver in (延祐元年 [ … ] 東明長垣等縣隕霜殺桑果禾苗.) see song lian, yuan shi, . . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms upon by mid-ming gazetteer editors. another explanation would be that what we see here are simply the traces of yuan hierarchies of reporting in central state archiving practices. before we can address this conundrum, we wish to first delve a bit deeper into the question of what kind of “event” we actually see reported by inquiring into the timing of disaster records. regulations in yuan codices not only addressed hierar- chal lines of reporting, but also how and when to report. the rhythm of reporting when treating disaster reports as “data,” environmental studies have implied that the report date reflects the actual occurrence of the event. following song and jin poli- cies, the yuan set reporting deadlines for disasters based on when weather had the greatest adverse effects on agriculture. considering that weather events affect agriculture more at certain times of the year, the submission of reports on disasters were restricted to certain periods: “at all places disasters such as floods and droughts harm the fields and grain harvests. for summer fields, this concerns the fourth (lunar) month and for autumn fields the eighth (lunar) month. untimely disasters are to be reported within a month [of the event]. reports after this deadline will not be considered.” amendments to and enforcements of deadlines were made in and , when the yuan allowed northern places such as yulu to report into the fifth (lunar) month. in the lower yangzi region was allowed to report up to the ninth (lunar) month acknowledging that in the south, autumn floods regularly harmed agriculture. assuming that dongming’s reporting practice followed this rule, of its three disasters in only the drought would have counted as an untimely disaster as it occurred in the sixth month (or fifth month, considering that officials had up to one month to report), whereas the moriculture failure is noted for the fourth month and the flood for the seventh month (and the latter was hence still before the eighth month and hence could be included). in the global set of mulberry-related disasters, one third ( out of , percent) occurred in the fourth and seventh lunar months. seven out of ten times frosts are reported to have happened in the third month, noting a “diminishing of the mulberry yield [sunsang 損桑].” nine reports mention that the mulberry tree had been killed (shasang 殺桑). this divergence did not converge over the centuries. thus far, we have not found no examples of later ming or qing editions adding all records in the official history of the yuan (yuan shi 元史). wang lige 王麗歌, “song yuan jiang huai diqu ziran zaihai de shikong fenbu tezheng yu jiben guilü” 宋元江淮地區自然災害的時空分佈特徵與基本規律, anhui shixue . , – . peng weiying 彭維英, [et al.] “hanjiang shangyou lishi shiqi handong zaihai tezheng jiqi shehui yingxiang yanjiu” 漢江上遊歷史時期寒凍災害特徵及其社會影響研究, ganhan qu ziyuan yu huanjing . , – . wan honglian 萬紅蓮, [et al.], “guoqu nian lai shaanxi diqu bingbao zaihai jiqi dui nongye de yingxiang yanjiu” 過去年來陜西地區冰雹災害及其對農業的影響研究, gaoyuan qixiang . , – . “該各處遇有水旱災傷田粮夏田四月秋田八月非時災傷一月為限限外申告並不準理.” da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, . it is likely that this date reflects the enthronement and rules already in place before the final usurpation of the song. the jin dynasty explicitly emphasized moriculture disas- ters, but, in general, this concerns all disasters (zai), floods, droughts, famines, etc. song lian, yuan shi, . . da yuan shengzheng guochao dianzhang, . all of these amendments enforce a timely response to disasters. for the former song rule see tuotuo 脫脫, song shi 宋史 (beijing: zhonghua shuju, ), . , and tuotuo, song shi, . – . the years were , , , , , , , , , and . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms references to dongming disasters all fit within the officially sanctioned rhythm of reporting. it is quite unlikely that “disasters”—at least if we understand them as events that were not foreseeable and in particular when we understand them as events induced by climate change and thus out of the usual rhythm of seasonal change—should con- sistently follow a specific human rule (unless this rule is very vague) which suggests that, rather than reflecting the date of the actual event, local gazetteer authors may have col- lected events and used the deadline to report all accumulated incidents. we must also consider that just as weather may be expected to induce harm within any given annual cycle, beginning with capricious periods in spring impacting sowing and the first growth period, only in late summer when harvests were brought in could any actual harm be determined—and yuan reporting regulations reflect such considerations. content of reports as noted earlier, during our process of tagging we observed variations in the nomen- clature for moriculture disasters during the yuan and looked further at the quality of information given in local gazetteers. in this process we observed that some entries mention successive disasters, and others singular events; big data approaches miss this when they count each incident as a singular event. as an illustration of how this observation may affect our interpretations, when we simply cluster all the different terms that specify “moriculture-disasters” into global full text searches, we miss the fact that the “killing of the trees” was the only event that qualified as a severe disaster, because it meant that new plantations would have to be established and no harvest could be expected for at least two years. in our inter- pretation, we have to consider that many other mulberry-related incidents such as “mulberry leaves were eaten (by insects)” (shisang 食桑) may not necessarily have constituted a major crisis, as under favorable conditions in late spring the mulberry would simply sprout new leaves and silkworms could still be fed. the degree of havoc and financial harm some of the specified events could produce varied consider- ably: mulberries could recover from a late frost; local officials could try to redirect har- vests within a region to prevent local sericulture being impacted. that yuan recording practices followed this logic is likely as most of the mulberry-related disasters recorded in local gazetteers—frost ( percent), insects ( percent), rain ( . percent), or snow ( . percent), heavy winds ( . percent), or thunderstorms ( . percent)—include assessments of the degree of harm: whether mulberry seedlings, spring leaf sprouts, or entire trees were destroyed. in other such causal strings we can see the logic of cumulative effects. in dongming’s string of disas- ters in only the enumeration of multiple harmful incidents offers a compelling argument for the court to offer tax relief: not only had insects destroyed the mulberry qiu yunfei 邱雲飛, zhongguo zaihai tongshi: songdai juan 中國災害通史: 宋代卷 (zhengzhou: zhengzhou daxue chubanshe, ), – . fourteen different kinds of disasters, including water/floods, droughts, famine, insects, hail, frost, earthquakes, windstorms, snow, sanddust, rats/venom, landslides, and human and veterinary epidemics are identified by li tiesong 李鐵松, ren deyou 任德有, zhang xiaoxia 張曉霞, and li jian 李劍, “liang song shiqi ziran zaihai de wenxue jishu yu dili fenbu guilu” 兩宋時期自然災害的文學記述與地理分佈規律, ziran zaihai xuebao . , – . they leave out specifications of agricultural disasters. for veterinary epidemics as another “political” disaster event during the song, see dagmar schäfer and han yi, “great plans: song dynastic ( – ) institutions for human and veterinary healthcare,” in animals through chinese history: earliest times to , edited by roel sterckx, martina siebert, and dagmar schäfer (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms leaf harvest, meaning that spring silkworms could not be raised, but subsequent droughts and floods had meant that no further silkworms could be bred that year. what we may consider then, is that when local officials decided to report disaster events, they may have bundled several events in chronological order to offer a convinc- ing case to censors that lasting harm was done. our interpretation, derived from the observation of patterns around the mention of moriculture disasters, runs counter to big data approaches that have a tendency to itemize data into the smallest possible unit—one dataset of one event such as flood or drought—and an environmental history approach that interprets multiple disasters as an indicator of the severity of environmental changes—in which a flood, a drought and an insect plague suggest an increased degree of damage to humans and not a more convincing scenario for an actual disaster to begin with. it is not the singular event that should be counted as the disaster event, but only the succession of multiple incidents that constitutes one event: only the moriculture crop failure, caused by too much rain, successive insect plague and finally a drought, constitutes what we could call the causative string to substantiate one single disaster. to focus on moriculture also means to acknowledge that disasters are always relative to their impact on humans. in principle a flood or drought only counts as a disaster when it damages human food resources, shelter, life, or economic basis. in the case of china, where disaster management was an issue of state legitimacy, prevention was an important theme. contemporary writings on how to prevent mulberry-related disasters suggest that tax officers and censors would not accept just any damage as a disaster; officials were expected to prevent disasters and farmers to adapt to circum- stances. the compilers of the compendium on agriculture and mulberry plants pro- vided details on destructive insects’ life cycles, habits, and characteristics, so that officials could both advise mulberry farmers how to avoid damage and assess whether appropriate preventive measures had been taken. the explanation was that: “at mid- summer, [the insects] breed around the tree trunk on the ground. their offspring have the form of maggots and suck the resin from the tree.” wang advised farmers to pick insects off their trees regularly: “a mulberry [tree or berry] cannot be free of insects. it is important to get rid of them. one can use iron wires to hook them off; or smoke them off with sulfur, so they die when they are blackened; or burn tong oil paper to block them. this is based on experience.” such preventive regimes empha- size that, when taken well care of, mulberry trees could develop a second growth of leaves, even after insect damage or an early frost. it is difficult to assess whether there is a “yuan” style in such data, given the gazet- teers and the dynastic history were compiled in the early ming. the official history of the yuan often specifies the financial repercussions of disasters, recording that in mulberry-related disasters harmed , households in shandong; that, in , when frost destroyed the mulberry yield in the regions around yidu (益都) and banyang (般陽), a total of , , trees were killed; and that tax censors recorded such interpretations of quantity increase are particularly popular in science history studies and the basis of most statistical analysis. wang zhen, nongshu, “zai sang” 栽桑 . b. wang zhen, nongshu, “zhongzhi pian shier” 種植篇十二 . b: “桑果不無蟲蠧宜務去之其法用鐵線作鈎取之一法用硫黃及雄黃作烟薰之即死或用桐油紙燃塞之亦騐.” dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a loss of about , baskets of silkworms in hejian’s four counties of qing 清, cang 滄, mo 莫, and xian 獻. when comparing entries over time, however, different dynastic “styles” of listing disasters emerge that make the yuan entries look sober and factual, if not “objective.” pre-song references to disasters are historical quotes and abbreviated narratives, as in yu xilu’s zhenjiang gazetteer. ming accounts increasingly address the actual damage whereas qing disaster records increasingly narrate events and consistently specify tax relief. dongming exemplifies these dynastic differences quite consistently, although such observations invite a close look at copying practices during the ming era to further explore which other sources ming editors of local gazetteers may have consulted when including yuan disasters in their compilations. before going into the issue of ming approaches to yuan disasters, we need to take at least a short look at the ideological and political implications in the data. data as discourses: local gazetteers and dynastic histories the mandate of heaven in the yuan and ming chapters on “auspicious and inauspicious events.” when in herbert franke asked how the embedding of buddhism, portents, prophecies, and yuan politics within the pax mongolica had an effect on this era’s approach to environmental hazards and legitimacy, he was unable to detect the influ- ence of either a “mongolian” lifestyle, or a steppe or nomadic identity. wang yun exemplifies the dominance of “chinese” voices in such debates, but also exemplifies the bias in current research on the impact of the political views on disaster studies. yuan chen also observes that yuan theories of legitimacy increasingly emphasized the rulers benevolence rather than earlier notions of the cycle of five phases, area, state power, blood lines, or ethnic belonging. disasters quite clearly occupied com- mentators of the shangshu, as well as yin-yang specialists and diviners. wang yun thus has been studied as a contemporary politician who attempted to convince the yuan rulers to legitimize themselves within the chinese theory of the five elements and to place themselves in line with jin-jurchen rule. his remark on moriculture disas- ters is indicative of the huge ideological importance of disasters in yuan politics for legitimacy, which has not been well researched or understood. chen gaohua describes yuan emperors in his analysis of disaster politics as hands-on and practical when song lian, yuan shi, . – . for a detailed analysis see wang peihua 王培華 and liu yufeng 劉玉峰, “yuandai beifang sangshu zaihai ji guojia jiuzai jianzai duice” 元代北方桑樹災害及國家救災減災對策, gujin nongye . , – . fan shen 樊深, hejian fu zhi 河間府志 ( ; repr. in tianyige cang mingdai fangzhi xuankan 天一閣藏明代方志選刊. taibei: xinwenfeng chuban gongsi, ), “fengtu zhi: xiang yi” 風土志: 祥異 . b– b. herbert franke, from tribal chieftain to universal emperor and god: the legitimation of the yuan dynasty (münchen: verlag der bayerischen akademie der wissenschaften, ). see also wei chongwu 魏崇武, “lun meng yuan chuqi de zhengtong lun” 論蒙元初期的正統論, shixueshi yanjiu . , – . yuan chen, “legitimation discourse and the theory of the five elements in imperial china,” . this includes literati scholars such as wang tianyu 王天與, or dong ding 董鼎, or specialists of the shangshu 尚書 such as chen li 陳櫟 ( – ), zhao fang 趙汸 ( – ) or zhu zuyi 朱祖義 (yuan). for the general role that weather forecasting and astrological-astronomical concerns played in these debates in imperial china in general see david pankenier, “the cosmopolitical background of heaven’s mandate,” early china ( ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms responding to disasters. comparing them to song rulers, he identifies them as quite hostile towards the political scheming of chinese local officials. any historical anal- ysis of chinese sources has to recognize that ming scholars and politicians molded the historical image of their predecessors on many levels. the ming founder, zhu yuanzhang ( – ), primarily had the yuan history compiled to authorize his own rule, asking editors “not to add any appraising remarks, but write in a straightfor- ward manner, forget about formalities so as to let the evil shine through.” geoffrey humble has identified such editorial policies in the biographical sections suggesting this might be applicable for the other sections as well. quantitative data have informed most conclusions about the environmental foot- print of the yuan, yet a close reign-by-reign view of moriculture disasters in northern local gazetteers illustrates the overwhelming dominance of neo-confucianism in the yuan period and its growing impact in that of the ming. for instance, during the nine- year reign of emperor renzong—who reduced taxes and occasionally listened to song-confucian chinese advisers—only one moriculture disaster was documented, whereas disaster references not unsurprisingly increased during the reign eras of aggres- sive or unruly emperors. when comparing yuan and song dynastic histories, gong guanming and yang wansheng observed that statistically moriculture disasters were reported with a lower frequency during the northern song than the yuan. between and , they identified mulberry disaster reports to the song court, on average once every . years. during the years of the yuan rule, between, and , mulberry-related disasters reached the court, on average once every . years and thus six times more often than during the song. however, close scrutiny shows that the song often listed moriculture disasters around important political events such as the loss of the north. the yuan, by comparison reported disasters quite regu- larly, and often in the same places. dongming illustrates that once a local gazetteer included disaster records, succeeding editions continued to chronicle such disasters. during the years of yuan in total disasters are mentioned in the dongming gaz- etteer, an average of once every . years. whereas, as gong and yang also observed, more disasters are recorded in texts for the yuan period than for the song. if we now compare forward in time, we can see that during the years of the ming there is a total of disasters, which also gives an average of once every . years. from a big data and long-durée viewpoint, disasters did not hit dongming particularly hard during the yuan rule. or we could simply say that compilation practices were con- sistent over time. cross-dynastic analysis reveals other important differences in the styles and content of disaster records. in comparison to the ming and qing, yuan records are quite plain, consisting mainly of dates and disaster kinds which led luo lin to identify them as reli- able and objective. this still is apparent in the qing gazetteer of dongming, for chen gaohua, “yuandai zaihai fasheng shi gaishu,” – . “不作論讚但據事直書具文見忘使共普惡自見.” song lian, yuan shi, “zuanxiu yuan shi fanli” 纂修元史凡例, . humble, “princely qualities and unexpected cohenerce,” . gong and yang begin prior to unified rule and beyond the jianyang rupture, implying that such dis- aster policies in the case of the song state, as with yuan rule, did not entirely comply with the unification of dynastic territory. gong guangming 龔光明 and yang wangsheng 楊旺生, “song yuan liangchao sangzai bijiao” 宋元兩朝桑災比較, nongye yu jishu . , – . gong guangming and yang wangsheng, “song yuan liangchao sangzai bijiao,” . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms instance, whereas ming and qing entries also contain other information, such as amount of granted tax relief. differences in content illustrate that much had changed even as the structure of local gazetteers was continuous. in contrast to yu xilu who had quoted very few categorical disasters in zhenjiang’s gazetteer prior to the yuan and stopped with reports of the tang era, the extant kangxi ( ) and qianlong edi- tions ( ) of the dongming gazetteer offer a chronological overview of reporting styles. as sampling from both southern and northern regions shows, ming editors of local gazetteers began listing disasters up to their own life time, often up to the actual publication date of the local gazetteer, as did most qing editors. from the yuan to the qing, a miscellanea of historical information with practical implications thus was turned into a historical collation of precedents of administrative and political decision- making for practical use. consistency in datasets: the north and moriculture disaster events as historians we learn that, whereas dynastic historiography may have tended to smooth out regional variations, local gazetteers provide us with insights into local con- ditions, sometimes even allowing us to see how such conditions changed dynamically over time. one might expect that datasets derived from local gazetteers would reflect either the local patterns of editorial rules or syntactical choices. a statistical analysis of tables of contents shows that local gazetteers in some of these northern regions favored certain categories. further research on prefaces and postfaces in gazetteers and the content of specific sections is necessary before we can determine if such pat- terns resulted from a regional preference or administrative guidance. local gazetteer records of yuan moriculture disasters occur all across the north and hardly at all in the south (figure ). this is the case even though, as fan jinmin noted, the lower yangtze region became the major center of silk production during the ming, which would give local officials an interest in conveying moriculture-related information and disasters to “order the past for future use.” ming literati in southern regions could often rely on still extant earlier copies of local gazetteers and we may assume that the conditions of local archives in the different regions of ming china was different too, with northern wu fengxiang 吴鳳翔 and li shunming 李舜明, chongxiu wuxi xianzhi 重修無錫縣志 [ ; repr. in zhongguo difangzhi jicheng 中國地方誌集成] nanjing: fenghuang chubanshe, ). in chapter xiangyi 祥異 disasters recorded up to , . a– b. huang zhongzhao 黃仲昭, baimin tongzhi 八閩通志 [明弘治 r. – ; repr. in siku quanshu cunmu congshu 四庫全書存目叢書] jinan: qi lu shushe, ), chap. xiang yi 祥異, disasters recorded up to , . a– a. in han sizhong 韓思忠, zhengde zhongmou xian zhi 正德中牟縣志 [ ; repr. in yuan guoli beiping tushuguan jia ku shanben congshu 原国立北平图书馆甲库善本丛书] beijing: guojia tushuguan, ), chap. “zaiyi” 災異 did the same (no historical disasters; only the ones from the ming, up to chenghua 成化, two reigns earlier), . b. an du 安都, jiajing taikang xian zhi 嘉靖太康縣志 [ ; repr. in tianyige cang mingdai fangzhi xuankan xubian 天一阁藏明代方志选刊续编] shanghai: shanghai shudian, ), chap. “wuxing” 五行 . b– b did the same (historical disasters up to the same reign; but under guochao 國朝 disasters are organized cate- gorically rather than chronologically). dongming xian zhi, the kangxi edition recounts disasters until the year it was published in (kangxi ), “nianji zaixiang” 年紀灾祥 . a– b and qianlong until (qianlong ), “nianji zai- xiang” 年紀災祥 . a– b. chen shih-pei, “what one should know about a locality: analyzing knowledge categories in chinese local gazetteers,” in a forthcoming publication edited by huiyi wu and mackenzie cooley. fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms regions presumably being more impacted by war and destruction. and still it is mainly northern mid-ming and later gazetteers that report on moriculture disasters. xu guangqi 徐光啟 ( – ) identified a similar bias in dynastic records towards insect and moriculture incidents. should we assume that moriculture in the south was stable and less affected by weather than in the north? fan jinmin, for instance, who has amply emphasized the rise of sericulture production in jiangnan by the ming era, notes indeed that summer taxes of juan-silk in jiangnan during the yuan were partly even higher than the song and definitely higher than the ming. while these numbers indeed manifest the presence of private tax-silk weaving in this region, we must read them in the context of other policies that targeted the introduction and expansion of the trade, as testified by con- tinuous complaints by contemporary local worthies. figure . geographical distribution of the reported mulberry-related disasters, mentioned in , local gazetteers, color-coded with the time periods they are dated. map by lin nungyao. xu guangqi, nongzheng quanshu, “huangzheng” 荒政 . . xu guangqi then puts this into a rule: “the south has gloomy places, changjiang and huaihe rivers flow in the north. lush greens are in the west and the liang and song eras opened the soil in several prefectures of the east. ponds and lakes spread out expansively; when overflows are impermanent, they call it dried up lakes. here the locust is born. all his- torical records are like this.” see wang peihua, yuandai beifang zaihuang yu jiuji. see also zheng peng 鄭鵬, “weiji yu yingdui: huangzai zhong de yuandai guojia” 危機與應對: 蝗災中的元代國家, luojia shiyuan ( ), – . see also zi qing 自慶, ‘zengxiu jiaoyuan qinggui’ shidu “增修教苑清規” 釋讀, translated and explained by xin hao 心皓 (shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), “qianhuang” 遣蝗, . fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, – , see also his comparison of taxes on page . these numbers are actually misleading, as they must be read against a changing tax system. by the yuan juan-silk no longer functioned as a monetary item (and was replaced with paper, then copper etc.), and the use of cotton as a dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms are such geographic patterns caused by environmental patterns; are they the result of contemporary policies, or simply an artefact of textual transmission? working under time pressure, the editors of the history of the yuan mostly relied on the archives at the former yuan capital, beijing and the vicinity. one important reason why local gazet- teers as a genre amplified, rather than nuanced, regional coverage, is the loss of local archival records due to warfare during the ming conquest which impacted localities in the northern regions hard. we need to keep in mind that quirks in textual transmis- sion shaped datasets and that the very structure of the genre, and varying applications of “editorial rules” also had an effect. for instance, ming and qing local gazetteer editors begin with , the first year when the yuan had successfully conquered the song and proclaimed the unification of the territory. some disaster references in the history of the yuan such as li dehui’s 李德辉 ( –?) report about moriculture disasters in , are omitted in ming local gazetteers, probably because of formal reasons. comparing datasets also indicates that by mid-ming times, when editors in general remained faithful to the historical nature of the chapter on “auspicious and ominous events” (xiangyi 祥異), they got their information from the official history of the yuan at least as often as from archival records. for the yuan, out of location-based records of mulberry disasters actually match the records in the history of the yuan, with a small number being traceable in other dynastic compilations, such as ma duanlin’s 馬端臨 ( – ) comprehensive study of literary remains (wenxian tongkao 文獻通考, compiled ca. ). the regional focus of yuan moriculture disasters in local gazetteers matches that of the history of the yuan which also contains references to the regions of hebei ( . percent), shandong ( . percent), henan ( percent) and shanxi ( . per- cent) (see the black crosses in figure ). more surprising is how that matches the regional distribution of all other disasters specifying weather events that are listed in dynastic history regardless of kind, despite the wide geographical spread of locations (see in figure the heat map and red points respectively). even though both the dynas- tic historiography of the ming and qing as well as private writings occasionally note moriculture disasters in the south, until the s local gazetteer editors identified the south as a pristine region, keeping this region—at least in the historical view of the genre—free from any disaster-events. it is more difficult to substantiate the environmental causes of disasters. in her sur- vey of dynastic accounts, wang peihua, relying on the same data as xu guangqi in the textile for commoners was popularized. ming provisioned raw silk and high-end silk threads for its state- owned production and not cheap tax-silk. dagmar schäfer, des kaisers seidene kleider (heidelberg: edition forum, ). the daming yitong zhi 大明一統志, published in , and li hongzhang 李鴻章, jifu tongzhi 畿輔通志 [originally published in and revised in ; ; repr. in zhongguo difangzhi ji 中國地方志集] nanjing: fenghuang chubanshe, ) contain no moriculture disasters at all, which sug- gests a substantial shift in disaster policies. song lian, yuan shi, . . su tianjue 蘇天爵, yuanchao mingchen shilüe 元朝名臣事略 (beijing, zhonghua shuju, ), – and “zuocheng li zhongxuan gong” 左丞李忠宣公 . – . jiang ying, shandong sichou shi, . see also fan jinmin, yibei tianxia, – . only two local gazetters of the late qing identify mulberry disasters in the north retrospectively: wu lufu 吳履福, miao quansun 繆荃孫 [et al.], changping zhouzhi 昌平州志 [ ; repr. zhongguo fangzhi congshu 中國方志叢書] taibei: chengwen, ), “dashibiao” 大事表 . a– b. zhou jiamei 周家楣 [et al.], guangxu shuntian fu zhi 光緒順天府志 [ ; repr. in xuxiu siku quanshu 續修四庫全書] shanghai: shanghai guji chubanshe, ), “gushi zhi” 故事志 . a: “mulberry trees were killed” (大德九年春二月 [ / ]: 殺桑). journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms seventeenth century, concluded that regions between the thirtieth and fourtieth parallels of latitude were reported as suffering mainly from insect plagues, frost, or snow damage, with few references to wind and rain. dongming is within this region, yet as our mapping makes apparent, not all localities that produced mulberry in this zone reported such events. in contrast to wang peihua’s thirty to forty degree zone, gazetteers suggest that shandong province suffered more from frost and less from insects, the opposite being true for hebei province. other interesting effects are that hebei, shanxi, and shandong, the three provinces on the huabei plain accounted for most of the moricul- ture disasters. as for the temporal proportion distribution, hebei and shandong gazet- teers have similar structures: for moriculture disasters, both include more reports from the yuan than any other era. in shanxi, which reported fewer incidents than the other two regions in general (even though it had more reports prior to the ming), all refer- ences to disasters relate to the western jin, eastern jin, and northern song; there are no reports from the yuan. in beijing, tianjin, shandong, jiangsu, hebei, and hubei, records from the yuan are dominant, whereas anhui and henan provinces have a lower proportion of yuan records, but do have reports from the song and ming periods. twenty-five of the thirty-two reports from the ming period come from anhui, shanxi, henan, shandong, hebei, and the lower yangtze region (by the ming part of northern jiangsu), all places that had traditionally cultivated mulberry up until the yuan period, figure . locations of natural disaster reported in the yuan dynastic history (yuan shi and new yuan shi). the mulberry disaster reports are highlighted as black crosses. the background heat map reflects the number of nat- ural disaster reports in each locales. data curated by lin nungyao, hung yi-mei, su hong-ting, and liu yuxin; map by lin nungyao. wang peihua, yuandai beifang zaihuang yu jiuji, – . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms but ceased to be prime centers of the silk industry during the ming period when central jiangsu and zheli became the major coastal centers of silk production. such patterns cannot be easily explained as they result from the status of sericulture across time and space, as well as the commercialization of mulberry leaves, changing tax collection methods, changing policies that once centralized and then again localized control over disaster management and tax relief. further research is necessary as some of these patterns suggest that social networks may have played a role through which editors negotiated how to compile local gazetteers and what role they thought disasters should play herein. another important influence observable in big data sets is emulation: once a local gazetteer listed moriculture disasters, succeeding editors con- tinued to account for such disasters, tracing incidents as far back as they could. such efforts differed in quality. while the local gazetteer of huzhou prefecture (huzhou fu zhi 湖州府志) only included records from the ming and qing, that of zouping county (zouping xian zhi 邹平縣志) started in the western jin, and then jumped back to the guangxu ( – ) and xuantong ( – ) reigns in qing, leaving a , -year gap. further research is necessary to substantiate how far topography may have created different weather effects—along river banks east of the shandong mountain ranges and on the huabei plateau that indeed are also reflective of micro-climatic environmental conditions. nuanced mapping also suggests that other factors should be taken into account, including that social networks may have taken a fancy to devaluing the yuan by commemorating its failures and disasters. digital humanities, local gazetteers, and disaster regimes: towards a conclusion historical research relies on a vast array of methods—hermeneutics; and enriching or limiting this toolkit inevitably also limits, defines, or enriches the results. when pursu- ing research on one local gazetteer, scholars are able to give a nuanced account, but are limited by their capacity to take other texts into account and thus extrapolate from the particular case. readers—in dynastic times mostly from the same scholarly elite as edi- tors, later on twentieth-century scientists such as zhu kezhen and modern historians— relied on their understanding of the local gazetteers as sources as verified historical facts and collected information and interpreted data for statistical and spatial analyses of disasters based on their understanding of the local gazetteers meaning-giving subcate- gories—the syntax of the local gazetteers. whereas early big data analysts suggested that idiosyncratic cases would be compensated for by big data—that is, multiple men- tions would identify the severity of an event, logart allows analysts to combine both views and to address local gazetteers in their digitized sum as a source. logart has been built primarily to enable the genre itself to be examined: how individual or com- munal a practice such as disaster control was, whether a locality set standards, adhered to them or ignored them. by enabling analysts to switch between a bird’s eye big data view and a close reading of an individual case, logart helps researchers to generate in zhu kezhen 竺可楨, “zhongguo jin wuqian nian lai qihou bianqian chubu yanjiu” 中國近五千年来氣候變遷的初步研究, kaogu xuebao . , – . zhu identified – as lg era and exempli- fied a couple of “unusual weather” records, such as lake freezing events, which can be found under the respective sub-chapter heading. for an overview of such collations of data see lai xinxia 來新夏, zhongguo difang zhi 中國地方志 (taibei: shangwu yinshuguan, ), – . see also andrea janku, “heaven-sent disasters.” for an example of mapping, see chen zhengxiang 陳正祥, zhongguo wenhua dili 中國文化地理 (beijing: sanlian shu dian, ), – . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms new research questions, some of which cannot be addressed by analog means. first and foremost, it allows us to study how local gazetteers emerged and grew and what effects they had. local gazetteers, for all their heterogeneity, provide an important source of informa- tion about localities—deliberately arranged and strategically organized. with regard to disaster records the geographies and chronologies derived from local gazetteers can only be understood as the historical product of textual transmission, in which some informa- tion was preserved and some lost. but we have also to consider that local gazetteers were by definition “working documents” that people regularly consulted and used to construct senses of local identity, belonging, and history. they were important for the regulation of trade, local society, and the local economy; they were scholarly works—“books for remembering the past and understanding when and how things in the present came to be known as they were.” their contents helped shape local and imperial views. when yu xilu in the yuan era added a subsection on disasters, he may have acted on a personal whim. but even if we find regional trends in compilation styles and disaster management, local gazetteers cannot be considered innocent, seeing that by the mid-ming period mainly editors in the north included yuan disaster reports systemati- cally into their disaster sections. political power mattered in china’s history of disasters, or, as hsu cho-yun put it in : “since the imperial reign environmental changes are suggestive of the success and failure of politics” and “human efforts and weather are seen in relation to each other.” it is thus crucial to see that disasters were political on all possible levels: as they happened, were observed, valued, named, classified, administered, recorded, and retrieved from any dynastic, bureaucratic, or imperial record. this inevitable relation to power also means that any notion of an environmen- tal condition as “given” or inevitable, or harmful, or a product of warfare, settlement, or cultivation was inherently political too. this means that landscapes accessed through texts are mediated by politics and scholarship. each genre fulfilled a role in this meaning-making. agricultural tracts (nongshu 農書) and seasonal calendars recorded weather events while individuals reflected on practices and concepts of weather also in their private writings or in novels and poetry. court historiographers established precedents and formed politics and regulations that each succeeding dynasty consulted, even if they broke with tradition. in china’s vast literature, local gazetteers were reflective of local and central state approaches and at the same time also reveal nuances of individual and regional awareness, how one knew, retrieved, and used historical disasters. this genre hence has preserved and reveals the changing historical awareness of disasters, or what yves citton has termed bol, “the rise of local history,” . cho-yun hsu, “chinese attitudes toward climate,” in the way the wind blows: climate change, history, and human action, edited by roderick j. mcintosh, joseph a. tainter, and susan keech mcintosh (new york: columbia university press, ), – . ruth mostern, dividing the realm in order to govern. ruth mostern, “sediment and state in imperial china: the yellow river watershed as an earth system and a world system,” nature and culture ( ), – . david biggs, “history and the militarized landscape: long historical and broad social views,” in nature and history, edited by mahesh rangarajan and gunnel cederlöf (oxford: oxford university press, ), – shows how south-east asia’s changing political forces defined coastal vary- ingly as unused lands. in addition, historians such as j. schlesinger have recently complicated the notion of wild, pristine, or natural lands. jonathan schlesinger, world trimmed with fur: wild things, pristine places, and the natural fringes of qing rule (stanford: stanford university press, ). dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms an ecology of attention (“écology de l’attention”) when describing capitalism, overabun- dance, and advertising in our modern world. citton is mostly interested in this mech- anism within capitalism and an “economy” of the modern age, but we suggest that his definition also describes the historical role and modus operandi of local gazetteers and the transformations in attention and distraction that they reflect within epistemic (how to know) or political regimes. as each local gazetteer was meant to resonate, in structure and content, with other local gazetteers, the genre offered its own ecology, that is, “a vital communicational milieu.” this milieu functioned, even if individual compilations deviated from any given norm, because sections such as “auspicious events and disasters” proliferated over time. logart enables us to look at how, as the genre emerged and multiplied, local gazetteers created one layer of attention that existed in a larger ontology of visibil- ity, how it reflected local knowledge about weather and disasters and how they created or recognized the locally known. in this combined analysis of events and structures of disasters, we see local gazetteers’ approaches to disasters emerging as a foucauldian dis- positif: they represent a network of information on tactics, institutional processes, and local subjectivities exerting power. disaster records are heterogeneous artifacts of local and imperial discourses, regulations, material practices of archiving, documenting, and narrating disasters and the history of a place, both the product of an individual effort and a collective enterprise. through their appearance as local knowledge, local gazet- teers’ disaster records were facilitating public action. tracing their historical reproduc- tion suggests that these data were continuously feeding into scholarly discourses about the political role of the yuan and what a disaster was—even though more research is necessary to understand its effects and nuances at different points in time. part of understanding this discourse is to follow the lines of textual transmission that have left us with fragments rather than a complete set; regional variety rather than imperial unity. logart allows us to follow strategies for anchoring imperial politics locally and imperializing local political insights through time. for instance, using computational methods to examine both syntax and style, we can see that whereas no other yuan edi- tor followed yu xilu, later in the ming and qing periods others described mulberry sang in “local product” sections and juan-tax silks in “tax” sections. these examples are mostly found in the gazetteers of regions that were unfamiliar with this practice, such as gansu, or the island of hainan around the fourteenth century, and they pro- liferate at times when the empire invested in this trade region: for example when the ming wanli ( – ) and chongzhen ( – ) emperors promoted sericulture around beijing in the seventeenth century, or when the manchu-qing emperors kangxi ( – ) and qianlong ( – ) were attempting to revive sericulture in northern regions. various researchers, emphasizing the importance of local gazetteers, have shown that this genre and each of its parts varied with intellectual trends and individual posi- tions. however, if we take seriously local gazetteers as working documents, then their role goes beyond that of a product: they themselves, must be understood as a constit- uent part of china’s intellectual life—an intellectual stance on “local knowledge.” documenting historical disasters in local gazetteers has underlying dynamics that shed new light on efforts by chinese scholarly and state elites to localize information for use. and such disaster records are indicative of an epistemological practice—of how to know locally. this by itself may not be surprising, except when compared yves citton, the ecology of attention, translated by barnaby norman (cambridge: polity, ), . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms with other intellectual traditions or a modern approach to the “local” as an analytical category. scholars in the past, by generating and using this genre, constituted “local knowledge” through action. while china’s intellectual elites when authoring local gaz- etteers produced an ecology of imperially visible localities and local knowledge, readers and users of the same class assessed such information-gathering efforts as a necessary but minor residue of governance practices, up until the mid-qing intellectually relevant only to the minor man (xiaoren 小人). for the intellectual elites of the ming, for instance, “native” (ben 本, tu 土), or “indigenous” (gen 根) and local (difang 地方) information belonged in the category of customs and habits ( fengsu 風俗), not knowl- edge (zhi 知) or wisdom (zhi 智). while, by the late seventeenth century, local gazetteer authors occasionally introduced categories such as “local languages” (or dialects tuyan 土言), liang qichao anchored his approach to “local gazetteer studies” to intellectuals such as gu yanwu 顧炎武 ( – ), who began taking an interest in “daily knowl- edge” (rizhi 日知), or zhang xuecheng 章學誠 ( – ), who utilized regional trends to criticize certain trends at the qing court. we could thus say that historical chinese actors—in contrast to modern historical approaches since geertz—long denied “local” any analytical purpose in intellectual life and evidently when defining what knowledge was. or we could see that from a his- torical view, local gazetteers represent a different epistemological approach, one that dynamically created an epistemology-in-action. for a historical approach, especially when pursued with geertz’s anthropological method in mind, the “local” has to be con- sidered in all its dynamics: as it was practiced and as the concept came into use in china’s intellectual life. when modern sociological theory—not only in chinese and china—foregrounds the analytical purpose of the “local” or works with neologisms of the “situated,” or “localized” to assess historical accounts of knowledge-making, it neglects the huge impact that local gazetteers had and still have. a chance lies in such historical cases to refine and sophisticate an important analytical category. in a genre-specific view, historical notions of yuan rule as a particularly disastrous time emerge as the product of yuan disaster reporting practices and ming and qing data collection efforts, impacted by broken lines of transmission, political machinations, and individual choices. what may be even more important though, as citton further helps to highlight, is how the local gazetteers as epistemology-in-action first created a collective public for yuan disasters and then by the twentieth century slowly achieved the status of “l’ontologie de la visibilité qui mesure le degré d’existence d’un être à la quantité et à la qualité des perceptions dont il fait l’objet de la part d’autrui” (the ontol- ogy of visibility, which measures a being’s level of existence by the quantity and quality of its perception by others). when modern historian david morgan stresses “that the mid-fourteenth century was a difficult time in many parts of the world; mongol china see gu yanwu 顧炎武, “ying ping er zhou shishi xu” 營平二州史事序, in gu yanwu wenxuan 顧炎武文選, edited by gu yanwu 顧炎武 ( ; repr. in ming qing ba dajia wenxuan congshu 明清八大家文選叢書. suzhou: suzhou daxue chubanshe, ), – . see also zhongguo fangzhi tongjian 中國方志通鑒, edited by zhongguo difangzhi zhidao xiaozu 中國地方志指導小組 (beijing: fangzhi, ), vol. , ; christine moll-murata, die chinesische regionalbeschreibung: entwicklung und funktion einer quellengattung, dargestellt am beispiel der präfekturbeschreibungen von hangzhou (wiesbaden: harrassowitz, ), . liang’s generation usually took recourse to gu’s tianxia junguo libing shu 天下郡國利病書 of . zhang qiong sees the changing techniques of these eras in relation to jesuit influ- ences. zhang qiong, making the new world their own: chinese encounters with jesuit science in the age of discovery (brill: leiden ), – . citton, the ecology of attention, – . dagmar schäfer, shih-pei chen and qun che h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms suffered as much as anywhere, being afflicted with a variety of natural disasters—espe- cially floods and pestilences” or tsai sees that environmental pressure across the con- tinents “opened the way for disorder on a massive scale”; or when chinese climate scientists ponder a possible early asian beginning of a little ice age, they assign “zai” (災), a “natural” character beyond yuan-contemporary notions of human respon- sibility and counteraction, and have awarded an ontological status to the local gazetteers and its data and no longer see an epistemology-in-the-making. only because these groups assign local gazetteer disaster records the status of truth, reality, or facts can they provide data for ontological claims on historical climate change. the digital datasets created in this research themselves suggest that many assump- tions about local gazetteers require further research. this includes how local gazetteers spread and expanded from the song to yuan dynasty or how their references to disas- ters and tax accounts varied regionally and how historiographically local gazetteers as a genre have shaped s assumptions about economic and malthusian population in china. dh methods that help researchers address structural issues and content have here been employed to illustrate a genre-specific analysis on china’s disaster his- tory. china’s disaster literature, unlike the hapsburg case mentioned earlier, not only offers a longue-durée construction of weather reports, but maybe a genre-specific one too, one in which dates, localities, and degree of severity may have been reliably recounted—yet, as much as this was “imperially observed,” it only became a fact very late, when it was “locally made true.” david o. morgan, “the decline and fall of the mongol empire,” journal of royal asiatic society ( ), . wei-chieh tsai, “ethnic riots and violence in the mongol empire: a comparative perspective,” mongolian studies ( ), . the literature on this topic is too vast to recount here; especially if one includes debates that see cli- mate in general as a motor of political history, the creation of wealth, and the s discussion on malthusian growth. an early example of a longue durée correlation within climatic models is pao-kuan wang, “on the relationship between winter thunder and the climatic change in china in the past years,” climatic change ( ), – . see also an early longitudinal study anticipating further work on china’s environment by peter c. perdue, exhausting the earth: state and peasant in hunan, – (cambridge: harvard university asia center, ); other examples include jared diamond, guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies (new york: w.w. norton, ); robert marks, the origins of the modern world : a global and environmental narrative from the fifteenth to the twenty-first century (lanham: rowman & littlefield, ); mark elvin, retreat of the elephants: an environmental history of china (new haven: yale university press, ). cite this article: schäfer d, chen s, che q ( ). what is local knowledge? digital humanities and yuan dynasty disasters in imperial china’s local gazetteers. journal of chinese history , – . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . journal of chinese history h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /j ch . . d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://doi.org/ . /jch. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms what is local knowledge? digital humanities and yuan dynasty disasters in imperial china's local gazetteers* localizing imperial politics: mulberry trees and taxes in southern zhenjiang literary analysis with an empirical orientation data curation: mulberry-related disasters disasters in dongming: yuan bureaucracy in ming local gazetteers hierarchies/geographies of reporting the rhythm of reporting content of reports data as discourses: local gazetteers and dynastic histories the mandate of heaven in the yuan and ming chapters on “auspicious and inauspicious events.” consistency in datasets: the north and moriculture disaster events digital humanities, local gazetteers, and disaster regimes: towards a conclusion microsoft word - lothian_ .docx journal of e-media studies volume , issue , dartmouth college can digital humanities mean transformative critique? alexis lothian and amanda phillips we need new hybrid practitioners: artist-theorists, programming humanists, activist- scholars; theoretical archivists, critical race coders. we need new forms of graduate and undergraduate education that hone both critical and digital literacies. we have to shake ourselves out of our small, field-based boxes so that we might take seriously the possibility that our own knowledge practices are normalized, modular, and black boxed in much the same way as the code we study in our work. ––tara mcpherson, “why is the digital humanities so white?” ( ) we were invited to this issue of the journal of e-media studies because we gave something a name. we are two participants in a group of early-career queer, feminist, and ethnic studies scholars of media, literature, and culture who are interested in digital scholarship, who kept meeting at conferences and wondering why the critical frameworks and politicized histories of our activist inquiry were so rarely part of the conversations we were having about scholarly technology. the series of academic conference events that led us to converge as a collective have by now been hashed and rehashed many times: there was an idea at thatcamp socal in response to anxiety at mla ; then a small but productive panel at asa (american studies association) ; some blog posts on hastac (humanities, arts, sciences, and technology advanced collaboratory) and elsewhere, a tumblr; and the birth of a hashtag that finally caught the attention of the digital humanities (dh) twittersphere. somebody made a google doc, some bodies attended a panel, and some buddies were in the collective hoping that people would take over the hashtag and submit to the tumblr and blog about why #transformdh was cute but vague and ultimately misguided. but, ultimately, the project’s goal was to put a name to a feeling and see who else was thinking the same thing. that there are now names out there, records of attendance, email trails, and other evidence for the future tenure files that might take such endeavors into account, was a side effect that has taught us much about the power of naming–– you might even say of branding––when you want to get an idea into circulation. what was the idea? in short, #transformdh is an aggregated statement of the obvious. first of all: the emergent methods and practices we call digital humanities are not only for traditional work. years of dh criticism might point to the banality of this sentiment; the changing shapes of communication and technology alter the terms of scholarship, and keeping afloat in the coming century will require mastery over new tools and methods. the revolution of dh is in full swing, with the force of multicampus institutions, internet portals, and federal funding at its back. the histories that dh as a discipline traces back through practices of humanities computing have indeed done transformational work on the structures of scholarship and the bureaucracies that shape our careers. yet the bright lights and marching bands of the so-called big tent outshine less marketable histories of engagement with technology that have emerged from standpoints that critique the privileging of certain gendered, racialized, classed, able-bodied, western-centric productions of knowledge. in a recent blog entry, filmmaker, feminist, and academic alex juhasz describes why she does not affiliate herself wholeheartedly with digital humanities: the “field” does the amazing potentially radicalizing work of asking humanities professors (and students) to take account for their audiences, commitments, forms, and the uses of their work. but this was always there to take account of, being obscured by the transparent protocols of publishing and pedagogy that have been revealed because of the force of the digital. however, this turn is occurring, for the most part, as if plenty of fields, and professors, and artists, and students, and humanists hadn’t been already been doing this for years (and therefore without turning to these necessarily radical traditions of political scholars, theoretical artists, and humanities activists). #transformdh was our attempt to turn the digital humanities toward these radical traditions, as well as toward the bodies of critical work in new media studies by wendy chun, lisa nakamura, anna everett, tara mcpherson, and many others, that unpack the politics inherent in the force of the digital, the powers that shape the hardware and software that in turn shape our scholarly work. we wanted to think about the institutions that were forming in this ever more amorphous thing called digital humanities. we didn’t want the ways of engaging knowledge that were important to us to be left out. we felt it would be too easy to say that we were doing something other than dh, whether that be new media studies or critical cultural studies with a focus on the digital; instead, we wanted to bring what juhasz calls “necessarily radical traditions,” which have nourished us, into the dh field in which we also felt at home. if humanities scholars in critical media and cultural studies, queer studies, ethnic studies, disability studies, and related areas are doing work in and with the digital, we should lay claim to our place within digital humanities. we should explicitly occupy that space and assert––as mcpherson and jamie “skye” bianco, among others, have recently done––that the honorable history of humanities computing is not the only one that matters for whatever it is we mean when we talk about the field. inclusivity is important to dh practitioners in the humanities computing tradition. we share that goal, but it is not the heart of our project. in “whose revolution? towards a more equitable digital humanities,” matthew k. gold’s mla talk reflecting on his book debates in the digital humanities, gold raises the question of which hierarchies, uneven distributions of labor, and value systems dh might preserve even as it seeks to change the way academic work is done. his important discussion focuses on the vital and often overlooked power of institutional resources to shape what scholarly work gets done. yet the metaphor that comes after his set of concrete and useful suggestions for diversifying dh is interesting: “as any software engineer can tell you, the more eyes you have on a problem, the more likely you are to find and fix bugs in the system.” if the system of dh were to run smoothly, gold implies, it would not perpetuate hierarchies or inequalities. gender, race, sexuality, ability, and class––and the marked bodies on which they become most visible––can be content that would fit within the forms already being established and funded for digital work: the on-campus centers, the annotated archives. but what we know about the academy, from its constitutive imbrications with nationalism and empire to the structures of race and gender that still shape its labor practices, suggests otherwise. content and form are not so separable; truly accounting for one will unavoidably change the other. so instead of smoothing out the bugs in the digital academy, we wonder how digital practices and projects might participate in more radical processes of transformation––might rattle the poles of the big tent rather than slip seamlessly into it. to that end, we are interested in digital scholarship that takes aim at the more deeply rooted traditions of the academy: its commitment to the works of white men, living and dead; its overvaluation of western and colonial perspectives on (and in) culture; its reproduction of heteropatriarchal generational structures. perhaps we should inhabit, rather than eradicate, the status of bugs––even of viruses—in the system. perhaps there are different systems and anti-systems to be found: diy projects, projects that don’t only belong to the academy, projects that still matter even if they aren’t funded, even if they fail. what would digital scholarship and the humanities disciplines be like if they centered around processes and possibilities of social and cultural transformation as well as institutional preservation? if they centered around questions of labor, race, gender, and justice at personal, local, and global scales? if their practitioners considered not only how the academy might reach out to underserved communities, but also how the kinds of knowledge production nurtured elsewhere could transform the academy itself? these questions are not hypothetical. these digital humanities already exist. here we offer a curated list of projects, people, and collaborations that suggest the possibilities of a transformative digital humanities: one where neither the digital nor the humanities will be terms taken for granted. the transformative digital humanities will not be found only among the members of our ad hoc collective. nor will it be found only where the funding is, where the easily recognized and intensively supported dh projects are. we’ve gathered a selection of projects, ranging from institutionally sponsored archives of less-than-traditional materials to networks that purposefully have no direct connection to the academy as such. none belongs to a core member of our collective, because we are becoming a little alarmed at the publicity our act of naming has begun to generate. all the projects put the questions of decades of feminist, queer, and critical race theory (all of which share significant temporal nodes with the politicized computing movements at the heart of much dh philosophy) at the center of their work, leveraging the affordances and methodologies for social justice. here one can find collaboration pushed to collectivity, interdisciplinarity that reaches outside of the ivory tower, and art that builds its own theory. these are only beginnings, suggestions; you may disagree that these are projects worth gathering, or you may wish to suggest other projects for consideration. your feedback, critiques, and additions will help us to build a transformative digital humanities together. curation transformative archives archives may be the most legible form of digital humanities production, as digital tools have been developed to preserve, gather, and share historical documents. digital humanities practitioners have increasingly been theorizing the power structures and silences of the archive, as well as drawing on materials less often granted the legitimacy of academic preservation. adeline koh: digitizing “chinese englishmen”: representations of race and empire in the nineteenth century adeline koh’s online digitizing “chinese englishmen” project is an early step in the direction of decolonizing the archive, offering a forum for collaborative annotation and novel social media intervention on texts that expand the victorian anglophone repertoire beyond its current “narrow geographical boundaries.” koh’s project carves out a space for the postcolonial archive: the website is meant to be both a “decentralized” and a “postcolonial” archive. by a “decentralized” archive, it refers to one which provides modes for democratic access and exchange. on first glance, the term “postcolonial” nineteenth century archive may appear anachronistic, as no colonies were in fact “postcolonial” in this time period. my use of the term “postcolonial,” however, derives more from the type of postcolonial literary criticism and postcolonial theory commonly associated with edward said and the subaltern studies collective than with movements towards decolonization before and after the second world war. in this definition, a “postcolonial” archive is one which examines and questions the creation of imperialist ideology within the structure of the archive. additionally, it aims to assemble a previously unrepresented collection of subaltern artifacts. (“addressing archival silence on th century colonialism – part ”) straits chinese magazine, the project’s source text, offers readers a complicated, alternative view of what it meant to be both an englishman and a chinese gentleman in the th century. koh’s archive makes no effort to resolve or simplify the complicated identity practices of the chinese englishmen, hoping instead to offer a platform to evaluate them without the colonial impulse to reduce these victorians to paragons of false consciousness or imitations of “real” british gentlemanliness. digitizing “chinese englishmen” expands the archive beyond colonial representations of nonwhite peoples in the th century, leveraging the reach of the digital to transform the face of th-century studies. women who rock: making scenes, building communities at the university of washington women who rock is an oral history archive at the university of washington, built from the ground up on the principles of women of color feminism: collaboration across difference, intersectional critique, and accountability to communities outside the academy. participation in the project provides training for women’s and ethnic studies graduate students in the digital skills that suit their research interests, from web design to video production. headed by michelle habell-pallán, this is one of the few well-established, institutionally supported dh projects that are rooted in critical feminist media theory and praxis. women who rock research project (wwrrp) supports, develops, and circulates cultural production, conversations and scholarship by cultural producers and faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates across disciplines, both within and outside the university, who examine the politics of gender, race, class, and sexuality generated by popular music. our goal is to generate dialogue and provide a focal point from which to build and strengthen relationships between local musicians and their communities, and educational institutions. (women who rock project: making scenes, building communities) [video by angelica macklin: http://vimeo.com/ ] oral histories such as this are committed to the production of knowledge from below, bringing people and practices who have traditionally been excluded from academic spheres––or simply not taken seriously there––into the frameworks of institutional preservation. in the case of women who rock, the preservation of popular music’s communities and histories is also aimed at a transformation of the institutional archive itself, bringing down barriers between the university and the knowledge worlds that lie outside its walls. transformative artistic production definitions of the digital humanities do not often include digital artistic production. but why not? the borders of artistic practice, software design, political activism, and critical knowledge production are porous. micha cárdenas: transreal politics a queer performance artist currently working toward a phd in the university of southern california (usc)’s interactive media arts and practice program, micha cárdenas uses art, theory, and technology to encourage social justice thinking, which results in a unique brand of art-theory that pushes each of the fields in which it engages. cárdenas develops new software applications, designs and builds electronic gadgets that challenge hegemonic regimes, and infuses each performance with theoretical writing. cárdenas’s collaborative work has resulted in two theoretical texts so far: trans desire/affective cyborgs, coauthored by barbara fornssler and wolfgang shirmacher, and the transreal: political aesthetics of crossing realities, coauthored with zach blas, elle mehrmand, and amy sara carroll. cárdenas’s work takes trans- to its fullest extent, crossing realities, genders, theoretical perspectives, and technical design. the video featured here, “becoming transreal,” a performance in collaboration with elle mehrmand and chris head, focuses the attention of the digital back on the material body and its entanglement with global capital, reminding us, through the pain of transgender experience braided with a dystopic science fiction narrative, that technology is of concern to bodies (and corporations) most of all. from the video’s description: what if you could become anything? what happens after species change surgery becomes a reality? becoming transreal speculates on a future in which the promises of bionanotechnology have become realized, and yet as capitalism has continued to fail, both the interiors of our bodies and the virtual world have become totally commodified. you can become anything, but to finance your whims of identity transformation, the same nanohormones that transform your body are also producing drugs for others. becoming transreal looks at transgender experience through a lens of slipstream science fiction poetry about bio-nano drug piracy. the performance uses motion capture to interface with second life avatars [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/second_life] and d stereoscopic imagery to immerse the audience in this transreal world. cárdenas operates in the tradition of mixed-reality performance, which steve benford and gabriella giannachi define broadly as a subset of performance art, including augmented reality and pervasive gaming, that combine “many real, virtual, augmented reality, and augmented virtuality environments into complex hybrid and distributed performance stages” ( ). although many mixed-reality works, such as blast theory’s uncle roy everywhere or entertainment’s i love bees, focus on direct user participation and mobile technologies, cárdenas invites the audience to enter the world of the performance through indirect means such as audience props and immersive presentation technologies. using large-scale projection equipment and biometric sensors keyed to the performers’ bodies, cárdenas’s transreal performances bridge a physical installation space with the virtual world of second life, (dis)embodying their own content through form. cárdenas creates a performance space and temporality layered with autobiography and speculative fiction, physical bodies and digital avatars. [video by micha cárdenas and elle mehrmand, “becoming transreal”: http://vimeo.com/ ] zach blas: queer technologies zach blas’s queer technologies project invites viewers to rethink the role of critical theory by bringing it out of academic language and into the realm of product design. blas’s art reimagines queer theory as a high-design brand, building objects that we can imagine as desirable accessories for the discerning plugged-in activist, and challenging us to pay attention to the commodification of art and ideas. part manifesto, part news report, part critical essay, queer technologies’ suite of instructional videos takes digital production as both theory and praxis. each video documents a queer weapon of resistance that responds to, yet participates in, the methods of the technological tools of empire. blas’s playful, speculative products ironically reproduce the signifiers of global capital while offering queer possibilities for undermining them, as indicated by the promotional speech embedded in each video: queer technologies is an organization that develops applications for queer technological agency, interventions, and social formation. we use technology to make queer weapons of resistance. these include: transcoder, a queer programming anti-language software development kit; engendering gender changers, a solution to gender adapters’ male/female binary; gay bombs, a technical manual manifesto that outlines a how-to of queer networked activism; and grid, a mapping application that tracks dissemination of queer technologies and maps the battle plans to more thoroughly infect networks of global capital. you can find our products at the disingenuous bar, a center for political support for technical problems, or in various consumer electronics stores, such as best buy, radio shack, and target. this sarcastic pr spin calls into question the apple products and slick gadgetry on which media- inclined academics depend; indeed, queer technologies asks us to consider not only the ends to which we apply our digital tools, but also the troubling legacies and potential applications of cutting-edge developments in science and technology. the video “fag face, or how to escape your face” responds to biometric technologies that enlist the face in governmental control systems, whose applications range from commercial digital camera software to surveillance technologies used by local law enforcement. responding to legacies of homophobia and neoliberal governance with deleuze, guattari, and gay pornography, “fag face” offers a new way to think about and produce critical theory. [video by zach blas, “fag face”: http://vimeo.com/ ] from the center scholarship and activism, academy and community, theory and pedagogy are often considered to be separate. by including this project, in which researchers and technology educators work with incarcerated women of color using digital storytelling techniques, we hope to challenge readers to think about what it might mean to allow our ideas about scholarship and political commitment to be transformed from the ground up. digital scholar, poet, and university of california– berkeley graduate student margaret rhee serves as project co-lead and conceptualist. at the hastac conference, rhee spoke of this collaborative activist work as “counterintuitive to the logics and rewards of the academy”––yet absolutely necessary. as feminists in our new media age, we believe women should be the authors, directors and storytellers of our own lives. we re-imagine how new media technologies can provide a vital intervention for all women, even those whose voices are subsumed in larger hegemonic discourse. oftentimes, incarcerated women and issues of race, class and sexuality are unacknowledged even in interdisciplinary areas such as ethnic, women and queer studies and in larger conversations and decisions of hiv/aids prevention education, policy and new media technologies. “from the center” derives from intersectional issues, domains and disciplines. we hope to bridge seemingly disparate subjects: feminist praxis, hiv/aids education, digital storytelling, the prison industrial complex, women’s studies, ethnic studies and new media studies. thus, we question, hope and urge a re-articulation of women’s identity, hiv/aids education and the digital divide by centering the issues and concerns of incarcerated women. (from the center) the field of digital humanities has become well known for its willingness to challenge academic conventions on one level: the idea that a phd constitutes professional training that should lead invariably to a tenure-track university teaching position. yet the vision of from the center, and rhee’s insistence that her work should be considered part of a scholarly project, highlights the limits of the academic transformations suggested by the increasingly celebrated alt-ac narrative (which encourages phds to seek careers in non-teaching roles in the university). from the center is a far more radical vision of what alternative scholarly knowledge projects and professional practices could be. it is not uncommon for scholars with particular political commitments to use their skills for activist projects in addition to their university work of teaching, research, and (in the age of dh) digital projects. but what would it mean to slip the bounds of the neoliberal academy, even for a moment, and imagine this work as the center of scholarly activity? [digital story, “miracle”: http://vimeo.com/ ] because i want to help women know that it is okay to go through things like that, this life. because i have someone in my family who has hiv. and i learned from her how to have safe sex and get tested. from the evocative intensity of the video to the straightforward statements that highlight a reality too rarely acknowledged within scholarly spaces, knowledge is being produced and transmitted here. when from the center’s team travels to conferences, its presenters include formerly incarcerated participants as well as academics and professional activists. their presence suggests that the privileged sphere of digital scholarship need not remain hermetically sealed from those who “go through things like that, this life.” transformative networked pedagogies connections and support networks among those engaged in knowledge production are central to the growth of the digital humanities sphere. much unacknowledged work of consolidation, mentorship, and intellectual framing takes place in and through digitally mediated social networks. here we highlight two examples that make the work of theory/practice explicit and conscious, building collaborative spheres on feminist principles and connecting transformative praxes inside and outside the academy. fembot collective: feminism, new media, science and technology the fembot collective consists of faculty, graduate students, and librarians who created a portal for feminist scholarship about technology. committed to the ideals of open source, fembot hosts an online journal, ada: journal of gender, new media and technology, with an open peer editorial process, an expanded notion of what “article” means, and a built-in system to help contributors bolster promotion and tenure portfolios: fembot has developed a framework for a two-level review process that includes an open editorial peer review and a community level of review for works in progress. valuing both the scholarly works and participation in the community of review, fembot will provide metrics on article views/downloads and the usefulness of comments. these metrics will be aggregated into a portfolio, which is conducive to forming an incentive to participate in the community and support an argument for value toward promotion. in addition to its transformation of scholarly publishing, fembot contributes pedagogical tools on the undergraduate and graduate levels, hosting blog posts in the site’s laundry day section that outline short, teachable moments in feminist technology scholarship, and providing tenure policies and dissertation prospectuses for use in professionalization training. most recently, fembot acts as the portal for femtechnet, a feminist technology teaching network that hopes to launch a course taught worldwide, dialogues on feminism and technology, in . billed as a “distributed online collaborative course,” femtechnet is an attempt at developing a viable model for transdisciplinary, transnational, transmedial collaborative pedagogies, and a feminist intervention on the mooc (massive open online course) model that is prevalent and controversial in current digital humanities discourse. in the future, fembot will host peer-evaluated readings, videos, bibliographies, and other teaching resources to aid participants in tailoring local instances of the course to its networked goals. experiments such as femtechnet and ada position the fembot collective as an innovator in scholarly communicative possibilities. crunk feminist collective “mission statement” in its mission statement, the crunk feminist collective throws off “hegemonic ways of being” in favor of reveling in and sharing the intoxicating effects of women of color feminisms with its readership and commenting community. this blogging community provides a space for women of color to commune, critique, and call out hegemonic culture in ways that reach across the divide separating academia from the popular. beat-driven and bass-laden, crunk music blends hip hop culture and southern black culture in ways that are sometimes seamless, but more often dissonant. its location as part of southern black culture references the south both as the location that brought many of us together and as the place where many of us still do vibrant and important intellectual and political work. the term “crunk” was initially coined from a contraction of “crazy” or “chronic” (weed) and “drunk” and was used to describe a state of uber- intoxication, where a person is “crazy drunk,” out of their right mind, and under the influence. but where merely getting crunk signaled that you were out of your mind, a crunk feminist mode of resistance will help you get your mind right, as they say in the south. casting off stilted academic speech for lyrical manifestos, insisting on the utility of affect for deep and considered arguments, and refusing to disconnect deeply personal stories from the project of scholarship, the crunk feminists’ commentary is more timely than journal production and more effective in enlisting the passion and drive of reader-students for social justice purposes. the collective’s interventions in internet and popular culture have included critiquing mainstream media for its coverage of olympians gabby douglas and claressa fields, covering the triumphs and missteps of the popular the misadventures of awkward black girl web series, and offering film and television reviews that range from love and hip hop to pariah. the crunk feminists also offer practical career advice for young academics and swap experiences and strategies for the unique struggles of the black feminist running a university-level class. as the blog’s large community of regular readers and commenters attest, the tactics and philosophies of crunk feminism reach into academia and beyond, educating and transforming their corner of the web. conclusion as the tools and methods of the digital humanities take up their new positions of prominence, we can only hope that they will begin to take on the mutations and instabilities represented by the practitioners and projects featured here, rather than settle into the creaky machine of the corporate university. whatever its future, dh has already proved its power to unsettle the old guard, inducing anxious and skeptical blog posts from high-profile critics and me-too conference panels spreading the word to far-off disciplines. the spirit of #transformdh is not to arrest this momentum, but to channel it in truly transformative directions—to avoid trading whiteness for more whiteness, heteropatriarchy for more heteropatriarchy, one imperialist hierarchy for another. we hope the community at large will continue to find and go viral with the social justice-minded hybrid practices, identities, and collaborations elaborated in mcpherson’s epigraph to this work of curation and analysis—the antiracist archives, the queer art-theories, the collaborative feminist pedagogies, the crunk academic activisms, the critical race coders. #transformdh is a convenient means to do so, but in the spirit of transformative work, we hope it will be supplanted by something else soon. about the authors alexis lothian is assistant professor of english at indiana university of pennsylvania, where she researches and teaches at the intersections of cultural studies, digital media, speculative fiction, and queer theory. she is the editor of an upcoming special issue of ada: journal of gender, new media and technology on feminist science fiction, a coeditor of a social text periscope dossier on speculative life, and a founding member of the editorial team for the journal transformative works and cultures. her work has been published in international journal of cultural studies, cinema journal, camera obscura, and journal of digital humanities. amanda phillips is a phd candidate in the department of english with an emphasis in feminist studies at the university of california–santa barbara. her dissertation takes a vertical slice of the video games industry to look at how difference is produced and policed on multiple levels of the gamic system. her interests more broadly are in queer, feminist, and race-conscious discourses in and around technoculture, popular media, and the digital humanities. in addition to participating in the humanities gaming institute , sponsored by the national endowment for the humanities (neh), amanda has been a hastac scholar since ; she has also hosted, in conjunction with margaret rhee, an online hastac forum on queer and feminist new media spaces, the organization’s most commented on forum to date. she has presented at the conferences for ucla queer studies, the american studies association, the modern language association, the popular culture association, and the conference on college composition and communication, and has participated in unconferences such as hastac’s peer-to-peer pedagogy workshop, thatcamp socal, and the transcriptions research slam. most recently, she has been involved with the #transformdh collective’s efforts to encourage and highlight critical cultural studies work in digital humanities projects. bibliography benford, steve, and gabriella giannachi. performing mixed reality. cambridge, ma: mit press, . blas, zach. “fag face, or how to escape your face.” vimeo. . accessed may , . http://vimeo.com/ . ———. “queer technologies: automating perverse possibilities.” queer technologies. . accessed may , . http://www.zachblas.info/projects/queer-technologies/. cárdenas, micha. transreal.org. . accessed may , . http://transreal.org/. cárdenas, micha, and elle mehrmand. “becoming transreal.” ucla freud playhouse, los angeles, ca. performed nov. , . vimeo. may , . the crunk feminist collective. the crunk feminist collective. –present. accessed may , . http://crunkfeministcollective.wordpress.com/. ———. “mission statement.” the crunk feminist collective (blog). mar. , . accessed may , . http://crunkfeministcollective.wordpress.com/about/. the fembot collective. fembot: feminism, new media, science and technology. . accessed may , . http://fembotcollective.org/. gold, matthew k. “whose revolution? towards a more equitable digital humanities.” the lapland chronicles (blog). jan. , . accessed may , . http://mkgold.net/blog/ / / /whose-revolution-toward-a-more-equitable-digital- humanities/. gonzález, isela, margaret rhee, allyse gray, and kate monico klein. from the center: facilitating feminist digital theory and praxis in a digital environment (blog). . accessed may , . http://hastac.org/blogs/alexislothian/ / / /hastac - center-facilitating-feminist-digital-theory-and-praxis-dig. graduates of from the center. “miracle.” vimeo. . accessed may , . http://vimeo.com/ . juhasz, alex. “two conferences: one students’/women’s media power.” media praxis: integrating media theory, practice and politics (blog). apr. , . accessed may , . http://aljean.wordpress.com/ / / /two-conferences-one-studentswomens- media-power/. koh, adeline. “addressing archival silence on th century colonialism – part : the power of the archive.” adeline koh (blog). mar. , . accessed may , . http://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/ / / /addressing-archival-silence-on- th-century- colonialism-part- -the-power-of-the-archive/. ———. “addressing archival silence on th century colonialism – part : creating a nineteenth century ‘postcolonial’ archive.” adeline koh (blog). mar. , . accessed may , ). http://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/ / / /addressing-archival-silence-on- th-century- colonialism-part- -creating-a-nineteenth-century-postcolonial-archive/. ———. digitizing “chinese englishmen.” . accessed may , . http://chineseenglishmen.adelinekoh.org/. macklin, angelica. “i saw you on the radio!” vimeo. . accessed may , . http://vimeo.com/ . mcpherson, tara. “why is the digital humanities so white?, or, thinking the histories of race and computation.” in debates in the digital humanities, edited by matthew k. gold, – . minneapolis: minnesota university press, . women who rock project: making scenes, building communities. . accessed may , . http://womenwhorockcommunity.org/. published by the dartmouth college library. http://journals.dartmouth.edu/joems/ article doi: . /ps . - .a. textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions research article textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions susan schreibman & costas papadopoulos published online: may # the author(s) abstract d (re)constructions of heritage sites and digital scholarly editions face similar needs and challenges and have many concepts in common, although they are expressed differently. d (re)constructions, however, lack a framework for addressing them. the goal of this article is not to create a single or the lowest common denominator to which both dses and d models subscribe, nor is it to reduce d to one scholarly editing tradition. it is rather to problematise the development of a model by borrowing concepts and values from editorial scholarship in order to enable public-facing d scholarship to be read in the same way that scholarly editions are by providing context, transmission history, and transparency of the editorial method/decision-making process. keywords d . (re)construction . digital scholalry editions . d scholarly editions . ambiguity. transparency. evidence introduction the nature, functionality, and theories informing digital scholarly editions (dses) have flourished over the past three decades, moving beyond how to represent print- based texts in digital forms into new types of knowledge production and dissemination informed by the affordances of the medium (apollon et al. ; sutherland ; driscoll and pierazzo ; pierazzo ). the creators of the earliest dses were cognizant of these differences in the nomenclature used to describe their scholarship: the rosetti archive, the blake archive, the macgreevy archive, the whitman archive. the shift from conceiving of their scholarship as an editorial product for print publication to web-based carried with it a new spatiality in which variants, versions, and secondary sources did not have to be decomposed into a notational shorthand international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * susan schreibman s.schreibman@maastrichtuniversity.nl department of literature & art, faculty of arts and social sciences, maastricht uiversity, maastricht, the netherlands http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:s.schreibman@maastrichtuniversity.nl delivered at the bottom of the page, but rather connoted a shift in thinking of scholarly editions from sites of textual compression to decentred webs of textuality (after all, this was the height of hypertext theory). in derridean terms, the digital archive was a space for gathering together texts on a specific theme, individual, or topic, expanding the world of its creation into an archontic space for inscription and investigation (derrida and prenowitz , ). these new forms of editions could be also described as assemblages, little machines of knowledge (deleuze and guattari , ). thinking of dses as machines of knowledge which represent texts as open objects that can be read and understood through and by their means of production and reception reelevates long-standing textual practices such as annotation, apparatus, and commentary as interlinked dis- courses, ‘not in serially additive arrangements, but in functional interdependence’, providing a palette for both textual and contextual study (gabler , ). this model of dses repositions the editor, not as an objective arbiter of the text, but more like a hunter-gatherer, a constructor of a dynamic and rhizomatic knowledge site. these knowledge sites need not privilege the alphanumeric. as early as , when the first digital archives were being published, mckenzie described the panoply of objects that could be open to the kinds of intensive bibliographical study (transmission, production, and reception) that textual scholars had traditionally reserved for print and manuscript traditions, ‘as verbal, visual, oral and numeric data’ (mckenzie , ). like mckenzie, we believe that the digital provides us with a pan-glossary to abstract the material medium of the objects of our contemplation to conceptual ones, and that the text(s) at the centre (or periphery) of the knowledge site we create is worthy of representing any human activity, not simply the artistic but the anthropologic. in his definition of digital scholarly editions, sahle has also advocated that scholarly digital editions not be restricted to literary texts but rather ‘cover all cultural artefacts from the past that need critical examination in order to become useful sources for research in the humanities’ (sahle , ). what is key, however, is not simply that the object, or what we are broadly calling the ‘text’, is digitised and distributed electronically, but that it exists within a knowledge site, what we are calling a digital scholarly edition; what derrida (derrida and prenowitz , ) and the earliest textual editors of web-based scholarship called the archive, what deleuze and guattari ( , ) called the assemblage, and mckenzie ( , ) ‘the sociology of texts’, integrating interrogating and interlinking, the textual and the contextual (gabler , ). at first glance, conceiving of three-dimensional ( d) (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions might seem anti-intuitive. after all, the technologies, methodol- ogies, and theories that have informed the creation of dses, everything from tei/ xml, documentary vs critical editions, and relational vs xml-aware databases to more recent discussions of how the texts created in dses can be repurposed, remodelled, and algorithmically analysed and visualised, share little with the tech- nologies, methodologies, and theories that have informed scholarship expressed through d reconstructions. d reconstructions are computer generated models produced in computer graphic software packages. they represent in three dimen- sions geometric data combined with textures and a simulation of how light interacts with different surfaces. the d(re)constructions we refer to in this article concern cultural heritage visualisations and simulations. these visualisations range from schematic s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos representations of buildings to photorealistic renderings and predictive simulations of ancient structures (see dawson et al. ) and from spatial analysis (see paliou et al. ) and physics simulations (see oetelaar ) to interactive virtual worlds utilising online platforms (see sequiera and morgado ) and game engines (see the projects carried out as part of the humanities virtual worlds consortium – http://virtualworlds. etc.ucla.edu/). examples of the types of projects that could be informed by the principles outlined in this article include the virtual rosewood research project (http://www.rosewood-heritage.net/), which focuses on rosewood, florida, an african american town destroyed during the race riot (gonzález-tennant ), virtual williamsburg (fischer ; http://research.history.org/vw /), and digital hadrian’s villa (frischer and stinson ), the unity version of which allows users to test archaeoastronomical theories (e.g. the alignment of the sun with the tower of roccabruna on the summer solstices during hadrian’s reign to discover celestial arrangements in the night sky as they would have been seen in the past). it also includes contested memories: the battle of mount street bridge project (http://mountstreet .ie), which will be discussed at the end of this article. we will be utilising the term (re)constructions (as opposed to reconstruction) to signify the theoretical nature of the research being undertaken, reinforcing the hypo- thetical nature of the models created as described in more detail below. although three- dimensional modelling has been seen as an essential research practice in fields such as archaeology and architecture, with hundreds of applications providing opportunities for experimentation and new insights, it has never assumed a central role or been established as scholarship in its own right, and it has been less frequently used by other fields in the humanities. there is no doubt that these models can have a ‘wow’ factor, and they are commonly used as the last step that takes place at the end of a project as a means of communicating absence in a visually engaging way (hermon and fabian ; gillings ) and attracting publicity and funding. the situation is changing, however, as the cost of the technologies and equipment needed to create d models has become more affordable, and more institutions at third level teach the skills, methods, and theories involved. over a decade ago, gillings ( , ) called for a robust theoretical and conceptual framework that would realise the potential of the method, providing a means of making visible the underlying decision-making process while disseminating research findings within a single methodological framework. that framework still does not exist. today d (re)constructions are being used as analytical tools within the broad area of history and heritage studies to explore the impact of light on the experience and perception of ancient environments, as simulations to investigate how battles unfold, as a means of providing an embodied and sensorial understanding, and as immersive experiences of a period, culture, or historical event. in most cases these (re)constructions have been created for offline use due to the computational power required to undertake various analyses or even to host the worlds online, making it difficult for researchers outside project teams to learn from the work of others. it may be due to these difficulties that those working with these technologies have spent less time developing a framework within which to convey to a wider public the scholarship that has gone into the creation of the (re)construction, including the choices used in creating the model, the methodologies used, the history of the subject under investiga- tion, and the decisions made during the process of its creation. textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions http://virtualworlds.etc.ucla.edu/ http://virtualworlds.etc.ucla.edu/ http://www.rosewood-heritage.net/ http://research.history.org/vw / http://mountstreet .ie/ current d scholarship primarily exists in a bifurcated information space. the models exist electronically, but the knowledge generated from them is written about in journal articles, illustrated by static two-dimensional images, while the models themselves cannot be accessed beyond the individual or the team who worked on them. while years ago earl and wheatley ( ) ascribed the under-theorisation of the field to a widespread belief that d visualisation had a small role to play as an interpretive mechanism, there now is a growing body of practitioners in a wide variety of fields who are looking for a holistic information environment within which to disseminate their work. the authors of this article, one with a background that stretches back to scholarly editing in print and, since the mid- s, has included digital forms and the other with a background in digital archaeology and particularly in the use of d modelling for analytical and documentary purposes, have come to believe that recent scholarship in digital scholarly editions, as it moves away from the conceptual and medium-specific frameworks of print traditions into more dynamic knowledge sites, can provide a productive model of the ways in which d (re)constructions can be used to reach larger audiences and shape intellectual debates. this scholarship can also provide a model for the ways in which the knowledge gained by the researchers who created it can be embedded in d (re)constructions. this is a speculative article, the essential intention of which is to propose and test theories from two domains which at first glance seem to have very little in common. however, its authors have come to realise after several years of collaboration and conversation that they share significant concerns and have wrestled with similar concepts, from expressing transparency and ambiguity to modelling absence from the extant record. this is an opening salvo to generate discussion about how the current theories about dses could be expanded and applied beyond their dominantly text- based practice and how d (re)constructions can be conceived of as open knowledge networks which contain, embedded within them, the analytical and archival scholarship that informed their creation. modelling in d: an introduction three-dimensional computer graphical approaches flourished in the television and film industry with the first commercial d software package, wavefront technologies, released in to serve the increasing needs of motion pictures. around the same this article has grown out of present and previous conversations. the authors thank the participants in the virtual worlds as digital scholarly editions masterclass (maynooth university, – june , http://dhprojects.maynoothuniversity.ie/vwdse/, funded by the digital scholarly editions initial training network (dixit). this masterclass provided a fruitful dialogue between scholars from the fields of heritage d visualisation and digital scholarly editing, allowing them to explore theoretical and practical issues pertaining to the creation, annotation, and publication of d models with the ultimate aim of marrying the practices of the two communities. the authors are also part of the andrew w. mellon foundation project ‘scholarship in d: digital edition publishing cooperative’, which attempts to build a sustainable framework within which to reconceive d works as digital editions and create an infrastructure that will enable its recognition as scholarship. s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos http://dhprojects.maynoothuniversity.ie/vwdse/ time, d modelling was used to (re)construct heritage datasets, with the earliest reported work being that of the bath building at caerleon roman fort in south wales (smith ) and a year later the first animated virtual tour, that of the old minster of winchester (reilly et al. ). in this paper, we focus on the type of d modelling in which computer graphics are used to (re)construct ‘what is not there’ as a means of providing a better understanding of and generating hypotheses concerning and interpretations of different datasets, from ancient structures to twentieth-century buildings. like textual scholarship, d model- ling requires evaluations of the reliability of different, often incomplete and ambiguous sources, and it gathers evidence that leads to a series of decisions regarding the type, amount, and style of models to be constructed, depending on their intended uses and audiences. the d scholarship to which we are referring in this paper has been called by many names, from three-dimensional (solid) modelling to virtual reconstructions and d computer graphic simulations. these terms have emerged from particular schools of thought, theoretical and methodological traditions, and biases and assumptions. for example, the term virtual reconstruction became popular in the s after reilly ( ) coined the term virtual archaeology, while in the mid- s the term virtual worlds was used to reflect online, multiplayer, avatar-based game approaches (see for example bell ; nevelsteen ), facilitated by platforms such as second life, open simulator, and unity. in these three decades, no consistency or consensus emerged concerning the terminology used to describe this type of scholarship; some consistency has only been seen in the association of these terms with the word reconstruction. the fallacy of the term ‘reconstruction’ (taylor ; clark ) is ingrained in the practice of many disciplines. for example, in archaeology under the influence of the processual school, emphasis was placed on the objectivity of scientific methods, while in textual editing, according to the american school, particularly within the bowers/ tanselle approach, the goal of the edition is to restore the text to the author’s final intention (shillingsburg , ). reconstruction implies an attempt to bring some- thing back to its original state based on available evidence as its starting point. however, such attempts can never be accurate, as they are interpretations of some past reality or of the documentary evidence, and as such, they reflect present-day social and cultural agendas. much as editing texts for digital publication has made editors aware of the con- straints of editing for print publication (mcgann , ) coupled with new theoret- ical approaches which do not favour (re)construction of the text according to what the editor believes the author would have intended. equally, the possibility of photorealistic rendering of d heritage opened up new debates as to the purpose and role of d models in the interpretive process (gillings ). calling what we model a ‘recon- struction’ which is indistinguishable from real life (as in the case of d) or professing to know what a long-dead author wanted (in terms of textual editing) leave little room to question the process according to which the ‘reconstruction’ was made, the authenticity of the new work that has been created, or the reliability or interpretation of the evidence used in its construction. therefore, we use the term (re)construction to emphasise the decision-making process and the non-absolutist approach in the construction of the model. textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions d and textual scholarship: a parallel path scholars in both textual editing and d (re)constructions have faced similar issues in modelling the textual/material record, and surprisingly, they have employed either the same or similar terminology in confronting these challenges. this is what we refer to as ‘a parallel path’. these issues concern the use of evidence, ways of making the decision making process visible, and ways of dealing with ambiguity. in this section we outline these parallels, which form the key features of the last section, towards d digital scholarly editions. . evidence both fields work to reconstruct the text on the basis of existing, albeit imperfect evidence (if the evidence were perfect, there would be no need for editors or editions). in both cases, the researcher is evaluating the evidentiary record, and the further we go back in this record chronologically, the less evidence remains. in many respects, the d (re)constructions of ancient spaces are more akin to the textual editing tradition of stemmatics applied to premodern texts, in which the editor reconstructs the original text by working backwards from extant witnesses through a set of relationships expressed as a tree structure in an effort to come as close as possible to the original text before it was corrupted (or indeed thought to be improved) through the copying process. d (re)constructions of sites that exist in fragmentary form, e.g. a prehistoric settlement, also go through a process of evaluation of extant data, resolving, discarding, and harmonising evidence in an effort to understand what might have existed. this can be likened to an interpretation of secondary sources documenting remains in the form of textual records/field notes, photographs, and illustrations, site-specific physical remains, and information coming from other sites which bear some resemblance (temporal or spatial) to the subject under investigation. the goal in both fields is the (re)construction of an artefact (be it a poem or an ancient building) which makes clear to the user where there are gaps in knowledge of the putative original and what methods and evidence were used in order to fill these gaps. on the other hand, d (re)constructions based on (nearly) complete evidence, e.g. (re)constructions of a twentieth-century urban battlefield in which old buildings still stand, share more with traditions and methods used to edit nineteenth-century and twentieth-century texts. in both cases, there tends to exist an abundance of evidence, and the researcher adjudicates among extant sources, each of which carries its own authority. just as texts can exist in multiple versions, manuscripts, typescripts, and printings, some or all of which might have been authorised by the writer, bringing back in d a building or a street or what happened in that space at a specific point in time (or indeed, over time) may utilise a plethora of evidence, including documentary, oral, and visual. this evidence may be contradictory and fragmentary, and some items of evidence may be more ‘authorised’ or credible than others. the theories underlying the textual tradition of versioning in which the goal is not to establish a definitive or reading text, but to reconstruct, not only a textual history, but the underlying view of the nature of the text’s production (tanselle , ) might prove a useful foundation for models of d (re)constructions in which what is of interest is the potential to make visible multiple states over time or alternative s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos possibilities in interpretation. these ‘textual’ moments can be viewed as snapshots, each providing a unique, equally valid window onto the past (schreibman , ). textual editors have the ability to model these differences in tei/xml within one apparatus or framework explicitly to denote regions of both shared and divergent text. once these regions are marked, they can be analysed and visualised, providing the modeller with a method for recording difference over time and the reader with a standard notation for the decision making process. while tei/xml is not a suitable language for d, the theoretical framing may well be, as it offers a way to make variation visible within a single model. . ambiguity the oxford english dictionary defines ambiguity as the ‘quality of being open to more than one interpretation; inexactness’. it is precisely because of the ambiguous nature of evidence that textual scholarship exists. revealing, acknowledging, and/or resolving this ambiguity is part of the interpretive process. in the transition from print to digital editing of alphanumeric texts, it has become possible to represent ambiguity more explicitly in a non-notational manner, providing the reader with the documentary evidence to mediate between different textual states (schreibman , – ). there have been lengthy discussions concerning the contention that simply providing the reader with facsimiles of the various witnesses is a form of unediting (schreibman ), i.e. an abdication of the editorial role. on the other hand, modelling the text according to a theory such as genetic editing or versioning to make visible the writing process allows readers to formulate their own sense of the work (or work-in-progress) situated in both time and place (machan , ). in other words, the point of this type of editing is not to resolve the ambiguity of the textual record, but to expose it through modelling. modelling ambiguity has been the subject of much discussion in d (re)construc- tions. while in both fields there exists the subjective nature of gathering, selecting, and interpreting evidence, with d (re)constructions there are less codified ways to express ambiguity (or indeed to consider whether or not it should be expressed) and to make the modelling process as transparent as possible (for a recent discussion see watterson ). representing ambiguity began to become more pressing in the mid- s and especially in the s, as photorealistic models started dominating heritage represen- tation. this, in turn, fuelled debates about their misleading nature (miller and richards ; james ; goodrick and gillings ; eiteljorg ) and the problematic use of the word ‘reconstruction’ (clark ). these concerns gave rise to a series of proof-of-concept implementations that demonstrated intellectual rigour in d models and explicated decision-making in the process of their creation as a means of counteracting their problematic photorealistic nature. these implementations included alternative reconstructions, annotations, renderings in different colours, textures, and shadings, as well as ways of activating or deactivating ambiguous features and alternative models that would in turn affect other elements (kensek ). unlike the digital scholarly editing practices in which there exists a core set of technologies and methods (largely around xml/tei), to a large extent d visualisations utilise bespoke solutions with no sustainable platforms, methodologies, or standards which might lead to the wider adoption of such practices (see for example: textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions archaeology data service guide to archiving virtual reality projects ( ): http://guides.archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/g gp/vr_ - ; mcdonough et al. ). the world wide web currently hosts a wide variety of dses, some going back to the earliest digital archives in the mid- s, providing the field with a tradition from which new theories, models, and editions are developed. however, due to their intensive computational nature, most d visualisation projects are developed for offline use and in a constantly changing environment in which software and frameworks become obsolete soon after their release. also, the internet itself, with constant changes to browsers, does not offer a stable environment for such projects (ruan and mcdonough ), providing little opportunity to build a body of knowl- edge and a practice-based community. . transparency as mentioned above, the creation of d models under the influence of photorealism gave birth to a series of debates regarding transparency, documentation of decision- making, standards, and intellectual rigour in the process of (re)construction. earlier, more schematic work did not carry with it the same calls for transparency, as it did not, however unintentionally, ‘trick’ the viewer into reading reality into the (re)construction. several projects attempted to establish principles to address this new environment. the best-known is the london charter (denard ; http://www.londoncharter.org/), developed in at a meeting of d visualisation specialists who came up with a series of principles that would ensure a certain level of standardisation in terms of the creation of documentation, ensuring sustainability and access and articulating the aims and methods of (re)creation (denard ). for example, principle . , ‘documenta- tion of process (paradata); states that: documentation of the evaluative, analytical, deductive, interpretative and creative decisions made in the course of computer-based visualisation should be dissem- inated in such a way that the relationship between research sources, implicit knowledge, explicit reasoning, and visualisation-based outcomes can be under- stood (denard , - ). while a worthy goal, it is impossible not only to document, but, as was found in editing according to the greg/bowers (bowers ) school of copy-text, even to represent each and every editorial decision and the rationale for that decision. this would amount to providing a textual record of not only how each accidental (e.g. punctuation, spelling, word division which was considered less significant and meaning-making than substantives, e.g. word choice) was handled, but why it was handled that way. in both traditions, this goal becomes even more unobtainable, as it would involve a full time amanuenses following the researcher (or team of researchers), recording every conversation, saving every version of every document, every state of every electronic file. even if it were possible to save all this, how could it be presented to the reader so as to make more transparent the decision-making process? this might be more akin to an archive or an assemblage, but even if this could be ordered and catalogued, what it does not necessarily demonstrate is what happens in the space between the evidence, s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos http://guides.archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/g gp/vr_ - http://www.londoncharter.org/ the ideas that inform the decision-making process, tracing a path from evidence to its representation. despite the fact that several reports and frameworks followed the london charter, none of them tackled the inherent visual illiteracy in reading photorealistic d visualisations as texts. there is no scaffolding within which the d model is situated to provide the reader with access to its conceptual and methodological underpinnings. towards d scholarly editions we have argued that digital scholarly editions act as mediators and gatherings of evidence (gabler , ), textual, social, and historical, that is read in an increasingly multimodal infrastructure. as knowledge sites, they encompass within the same com- putational paradigm both the primary text and the evidence that informed the decisions in creating the text, thus providing the community which it serves a tool for ‘prying problems apart and opening up a new space for the extension of learning’ (apollon et al. , – ). this framework provides the information structures and evidence that make up the edition so that the audience can understand the process behind the creation of the edition and adjudicate its authenticity and reliability. hence we believe that there exists a case and a rationale for designing a blueprint to link editorial, epistemological, and technical practices in the development of editions of d (re)constructions as scholarship in its own right, as assessable assemblages to combat the problem of the vacuous nature of most models: empty sites where the research that went into their creation remains invisible to those outside project teams. while photorealistic models are ever more beautiful to behold, if their raison d’être is not to serve as works of art, but as mediators of evidence, the ways in which the chain of production that informed their creation needs to be made visible in the same information space as the models. we are not advocating that a dse of a d (re)construction be thought of as a defined object, but rather as a methodological field in which a set of codes imposes a prefiguring frame on the reality being created, and not only the technological codes that govern the creation of this reality, but also the social, theoretical, and historical codes that its makers adopt in its creation (barthes ). the construction of such an edition entails building an intertextual network com- posed of the d model along with its accompanying annotation and apparatus, thus providing a base from which the reader can actively engage in the knowledge creation process. this approach is being taken in the redevelopment of the contested memories: the battle of mount street bridge (bmsb) project, a spatiotemporal (re)construction of one of the most important battles during the easter rising between a small pletinckx ( ) and the network of excellence, epoch developed the interpretation management knowhow booklet, which explained different methods, including source assessment and correlation, hypoth- eses trees, and updating, to ensure scholarly transparency in d visualisation. this information and the comments, decisions, and interpretive processes comprise the paradata of the project (baker , – ), which allows a clearer interpretation management and understanding of the relationships between primary data and the outcome. more recently, the seville principles (lopez-menchero and grande ) used the london charter as a theoretical framework to develop a series of principles to increase the applicability of the latter to d visualisations of archaeological heritage. other works have also elaborated on how scientific reasoning can become visible (hermon ; niccolucci ). textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions group of irish volunteers ( ) and a much larger force ( ) of british soldiers (https://mountstreet .ie/ papadopoulos and schreibman in press).the apparatus being explored includes a narrative-driven camera with a voice over providing an evidence-informed interpretation of how the battle unfolded; audio files that replicate the types of sounds that accompanied the battle; and a user interface to display in-world textual annotations about the combatants and other participants (such as the medical personnel), key buildings and events, the types and makes of guns used, and the sources for the (re)construction (from the methods used to the primary sources consulted; see fig. for a mock up). the project has also experimented (see fig. ) with animated agents to help the reader better visualise troop movements as the battle unfolded. fig. the new user interface of the standalone unity d environment includes an annotation panel that provides contextual information (text and/or multimedia) activated by hotspots, as well as a timeline for exploring the battle temporally. fig. a total of ai agents ( for each of the seven companies of british soldiers) have been included in a webgl version of the d model s. schreibman, c. papadopoulos https://mountstreet .ie/ embedding the iconography of d (re)constructions into what we might broadly describe as scholarly editing practice, opens up new vistas for scholarship and the communication of the results of that scholarship within spatio-temporal environments that are immersive and multisensorial. if the goal of the modelled dataset is to create its own ecosystem to provoke and encourage evolving thought about the materials, aesthetics, and cultures it simulates (schreibman ), then the scholarly editing framework we have outlined here, we believe, fulfils that goal. the real difference between the two domains is not the technologies utilised in digital production, but the fact that textual editors have a long history of models, theories, and paradigms of the documentation and display of text and paratext (as well as models, theories, and paradigms for the fashioning of arguments), and d (re)constructions do not. this article presents a rationale for the development of such as framework. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references apollon, d., bélisle, c., & régnier, p. 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( ). beyond digital dwelling: re-thinking interpretive visualisation in archaeology. open archaeology ( ). retrieved from https://doi.org/ . /opar- - . accessed , march . textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions http://media.digitalheritage.se/ / /interpretation_managment_tii.pdf https://doi.org/ . /j.daach. . . https://doi.org/ . /j.daach. . . https://doi.org/ . /itime. . https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/digital-scholarly-editing/ https://dlsanthology.mla.hcommons.org/digital-scholarly-editing/ https://journals.tdl.org/jvwr/index.php/jvwr/article/view/ / https://journals.tdl.org/jvwr/index.php/jvwr/article/view/ / https://doi.org/ . /opar- - textuality in d: three-dimensional (re)constructions as digital scholarly editions abstract introduction modelling in d: an introduction d and textual scholarship: a parallel path evidence ambiguity transparency towards d scholarly editions references durham research online deposited in dro: january version of attached �le: accepted version peer-review status of attached �le: peer-reviewed citation for published item: crang, m. 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promises and perils of a digital geohumanities abstract this intervention asks to what extent to developments of digital media offer new objects that demand new methods, and to what extent they create new methods that might be applied to older cultural fields creating a digital humanities. it argues that digital media sometimes reanimate older debates and issues not only in what we study but how we do so, and their significance may be less in new techniques than altering the general tools of our trade in cultural geography. the paper looks at both new digital cultures, such as gaming and new converging media, and new methods, be they analysing the data exhaust of digitally mediated social lives, or using new software in literary analysis. profound tensions exist between quantitative imaginaries of a massive stock of texts yielding determinate meanings and deconstructive visions of texts yielding indeterminate and proliferating meanings. big data sits uneasily with big interpretation. the paper suggests a materialist semiosis is needed to attend to the permutations where new digital techniques may form affective technologies conveying meanings as much as effective analytical tools. keywords: methods, digital humanities, new media, literary geography introduction there has never been a shortage of hyperbole regarding digital media’s always imminent, somehow never arriving, effects on society and the academy, be they from cheerleaders or prophets of doom. and yet there is a remarkable sensation i sometimes feel about the relationship of research and digital devices that everything has changed and nothing has changed. there was a moment doing fieldwork in for me when i looked at the back seat of a hire car and realised there were two digital cameras, one digital camcorder, a voice recorder and laptop. they were all making digital files which i would process and link with a bibliographic database package that in turn linked increasingly either digital versions of papers or my own notes on publications stored as digital files. i had perhaps consequently chosen a moleskine notebook for my fieldnotes as something of a retro affectation. this short intervention seeks to unsettle the continuity of methods in a world whose cultures are increasingly lived through digital media, whilst probing some of the claims of new ‘digital’ methods that seem to promise miraculous solutions to well-worn problems. this commentary draws on materialist media studies that point to the effects of technologies of media on how we think as well as the effect of their content on what we think about. they refuse to divide ‘container’ and ‘content’ or ‘atoms’ and ‘bits’. all media have complex materialities and are not dematerialised information. like johanna drucker i want to resist the ‘pixel-plagued bit-weary’ investment in a form of materiality that creates a false binary of ‘the matter of the real’ in opposition to an immateriality attributed to the ‘virtual’. i to exemplify this it is perhaps salutary to return to an old technology when it was new. at some point in , friedrich nietzsche bought a typewriter. he bought it since his failing eyesight meant staring at the page whilst writing brought on terrible headaches. typing by touch, he could write with his eyes closed. but it also began to inflect what nietzsche wrote. friedrich kittler notes that nietzsche's prose ‘changed from arguments to aphorisms, from thoughts to puns, from rhetoric to telegram style’. ii nietzsche himself recognized that ‘our writing equipment takes part in the forming of our thoughts’ suggesting we all need to think about the tools of our trade. nor can we opt out of new technologies, not even by using a retro notebook. we are all now digital scholars these days – even if it is ‘digital lite’ in terms of using various forms of digital mediation in various aspects of our work. this general engagement should not be overlooked, when the banal technologies of storing, filing and writing work as the scaffolds for our practice. as katherine hayles notes for contemporary thinking ‘the keyboard comes to seem an extension of one’s thoughts rather than an external device on which one types. embodiment then takes the form of extended cognition, in which human agency and thought are enmeshed within larger networks that extend beyond the desktop computer into the environment’. iii the impact of new media is not just on what we study but how we think. there is then no opting out of digital scholarship. as kittler reminds us, heidegger highlighted that: ‘whether or not we personally ever use the typewriter is not important. what is important is that all of us are thrown into the age of typewriting, whether we like it or not. of course, heidegger himself preferred to continue his work in his own handwriting’ iv but we do not need to rely on the slightly romantic and anti-technological bent of a thinker like heidegger. walter benjamin was similarly intrigued by the way technologies for storing, processing and presenting information shaped our thinking. as he put it looking at the desk of the s, ‘the card index marks the conquest of three-dimensional writing, and so presents an astonishing counterpoint to the three-dimensionality of script in its original form as rune or knot notation. and today the book is already, as the present mode of scholarly production demonstrates, an outdated mediation between two different filing systems. for everything that matters is to be found in the card box of the researcher who wrote it, and the scholar studying it assimilates it into his own card index.’ v it is well known then that he attempted to create a form of writing that enabled such a three dimensionality through ‘files’ of examples rather than linear prose. all underpinned by the humble technology of filing, indexing and referencing. a reminder that the database has longer pedigree in academic work than its digital form. in the s there was a rash of work heralding the new possibilities and forms of electronic writing as a hyperlinked database, pointing to the almost embarrassingly literal enactment of deconstructive theory’s destabilisation of the text. vi and yet, as jacques derrida reflected, the texts of his that were ‘most disobedient to tenets of linear writing,’ he wrote before computers enabled dislocations and grafts, in fact glas was written with an olivetti typewriter: ‘it was theorized and it was done – yesterday. the path of these new typographies, which have become common today, was blazed in an experimental fashion a long time ago. it’s thus necessary to invent other ‘disorders’, more discreet, less jubilatory and exhibitionist ones which this time would be contemporary with the computer.’ vii this intervention will seek those modest disruptions in arenas of cultural geography both where the object of our study has become digital and where our mode of study now uses digital media. i use that as a heuristic conscious it risks restaging the dualism of field and academy, things and thought, res extensa and res cogitans, which material media analysis debunks. viii within these two broad areas, i want to make a further subdivision between the ‘migration of our cultural legacy into digital form and the creation of new, born-digital materials’. ix i will first, and most briefly, look at new digital objects of study; secondly, the ways the prevalence of digital media renders the social perceptible in new ways. likewise i divide the effects of digital media on academic practice, into, first, converging forms of knowledge as they become digital and, second, the application of new digital and computational techniques to old issues –exemplified by new approaches to literary geographies. in doing this i cut across the terrain staked out as a project of geohumanities and that of a digital humanities. ketchum, luria, dear, and richardson’s recent text speaks then of four dimensions of geohumanities, ‘geocreativity (creative places), geotexts (spatial literacies), geoimagery (visual geographies), and geohistories (spatial histories)’. x this intervention stresses the challenge of new media to the first three with the creation of new kinds of place and modes of interacting, with new textual and visual apparatus. it comes back to the ‘spatial humanities’ which they bracket as one and same as ‘the digital humanities’ which is described as ‘the absorption of methods of geographical information science into humanities scholarship’. that constricted definition of the digital humanities is not one many who identify as practitioners would accept – even if they acknowledge the rise of spatial databases and spatialised presentations of data. i want to hold to katherine hayles expansive set of possible outcomes. xi to do this means a seeing the digital geohumanities as being an oscillation between using digital technologies in studying traditional objects and also humanities methods in studying digital objects. xii digital cultures and born digital objects there are new cultural forms and practices created through digital media that would seem at first blush to beckon for newly digital modes of analysis. and yet on probing, these born digital cultural artefacts – like computer games – turn out to be ‘remediating’ previous media structures. xiii we need to ask what are the continuities and what are the changes, for instance attending to how game aesthetics remediate landscape. there is little novel in the ideological content of, say, many video games’ depiction of racialised others. the long running franchise of grand theft auto plays on an american urban imaginary taken from tv and film. it also trades on racialised and sexualised stereotypes to animate urban spaces. xiv we might see a not so crypto- orientalism in the conversion of middle eastern cities into backdrops and theatres of action, people into targets and victims for ‘first person shooter’ games positioning the player as a western soldier. however, games such as full spectrum warrior: ten hammers remediate that by using simulated contemporary cnn style news media coverage as framing devices. xv in contrast to first person view games, some, such as age of empire, use map views deploying the cartographic device of a slow map reveal in the corner of the screen and play around the different spatial knowledges and forms of representing travel and mapping. xvi studies have looked at the socialities (and less often spatialities) of online worlds as new creative places for either simulated social encounter (as in virtual worlds) or collaborative quest based games (massively multiplayer online roleplaying games (mmporgs)). the coming together in a simulated place by distributed actors challenges the embodied copresense in participant observation manuals. and yet, as illustrated by longan’s piece in this issue, research practice seems a very familiar ethnographic one at heart. so we have new forms, recycling formats, being analysed by methods that fuse old techniques with new practices. digital lives: rendering culture perceptible. the percolation of new media into everyday life suggests separations of real and virtual, material and cyberspace are misconceived. this is not the place to explore the transformations this enables in the organisation of culture, society, economy and urban life, my concern here is more with the methods it enables to study these. suffice to say initial prophecies of placeless or dematerialised living have now been replaced by an attention on how for instance media enable local life to function. xvii beyond that far from there just being social networks there has been a proliferation of location based social networks, xviii and far from virtual games there are ‘hybrid’ digital games that embed themselves into places – with simulated zombie attacks in real life streets or playing around and against other nearby participants. xix moreover art works increasingly annotate spaces and layer digital content onto places, or use places to inform media content. xx a variety of geowebbed media are now also conveying stories in situ, for instance in the work of janet cardiff or indeed repopulating urban settings with past soundscapes or artistic interventions. xxi here then new media are allied with a distributed archive imbricated in spatial practices. others mash multiple different forms of data together to alter the experience of the spaces and add possibilities for popular archiving. of course popular archiving and authorship then (as ever) reflect the multiple dimensions of power in this case mediated through new technology, about who gets to author what. it is at this point then possible to analyse the layering of different signifiers in different variants of media onto places – to look at either a palimpsest or indeed competing media and their differing constituencies of users trying to create hegemonic meanings for places. xxii we have then a very literal enactment of long established arguments about contested and polysemic landscapes. but here then for cultural geography are either new tools for intervention, where we might add public archival annotation via geotagging to existing techniques. social media render the back and forth of social life perceptible to analysis (be that by academics, governments or more often corporations) through the digital traces – the data exhaust – they leave. our banal social lives become digitally mediated and can be subject to quantitative encapsulation through lexical analysis. for instance alan mislove and colleagues applied a word-rating system –scoring positive and negative connotations – to us based geolocated tweets to produce stunning time lapse maps of the ‘mood of the nation’. xxiii similar approaches have correlated postings with stock market movements xxiv and yet so far the conclusions have been banal. the poetics and affective power of the visualisation have often been more powerful than the supposed ‘result’. one result that is clear is the institution of the social media used as ‘evidential’ and media researchers who use it are ‘not mere observers or utilizers of social media content but are promoters of this infrastructure’ who by framing an issue via a specific media platform risk reproducing how that media frames the issue. xxv such analyses render apparent the centrality of the transmission of affects and feelings to the going on of social life. xxvi and yet, this is done via quantification whereas so much work on emotions or affects has started from postulating them as unquantifiable. latour and lepinay turned to gabriel tarde, who saw the economy and the social as a series of quantifiable intensities, in response. at the start of the twentieth century, he argued that the problem of scientific study of society was not that it quantified, but that its metric was wrong. he wondered about the possibilities of developing metrics for fame, charisma, happiness by creating ‘valuemeters’ or ‘glorimeters’. they note, we should nowadays ‘have no difficulty understanding what digitization has done to the calculation of authority, the mapping of credibility and the quantification of glory’. xxvii however, enthusiasm for alternate metrics rather underplays possible alienation by any and all metrics. so to take an example close to home, the concatenation of student evaluations, national research evaluations, league tables, citation analyses, twitter buzz (where the circulation of academic work on social media is logged by initiatives like alt.metrics xxviii ) and so forth that increasingly govern academic life do not seem to promote positive affects. xxix these metrics do not simply report the world, but rather format it in their own image. rendering cultural life more perceptible, and thus amenable to action by different groups, highlights what kittler called ‘institutions of selection’ which attribute significance. xxx it is also the case then that such data by replicating current patterns of interaction tend to be conservative both in repeating what is currently dominant but also restaging a simplistic monism. xxxi digital convergence if new media are recording traces of cultural life, so too are the old media being transformed. cultural geography has tended to focus on the meaning rather than the substance of media, saying much more about the dematerialised ‘text’ than the ‘book’. as keighren and withers note most work in geography focuses on the content of printed narratives to the neglect of epistolary conventions. xxxii we have been (too) eager to read artefacts like texts, and rather less adept at seeing texts as artefacts. xxxiii as kittler argues media are ‘material devices for producing, processing, transmitting and storing information’. xxxiv what is underway with the increasing use of digital media is a mnemotechnical shift from the library to the database. xxxv roger chartier suggests that the result is a dedifferentiation of discourses that were previously held apart by material differences and associated conventions. chartier is led to speculate that ‘in the digital world all textual entities are like databases that offer fragments, the reading of which in no way implies the perception of the work or the body of works from which they come’. xxxvi the question is whether the database is antitethical to narrative, as argued by lev manovich, or symbiotic with it as katherine hayles would have it. xxxvii this suggests attending rather more to the conventions and modes of information presentation. drucker argues it highlights the spatial organisation of texts and how those structure semantic relations. xxxviii in this she raises two approaches made possible, the first she calls speculative computing, the other a digital humanities where there is a scientific attachment to objective data. the former kind of vision draws on the power of visualisation to produce an affective response and drucker calls for ‘diagrammatology’ where the compositional possibilities and distribution of materials perform relations. xxxix the latter approach of digital humanities mines the universe of digital textual objects to reveal patterns of relations through data visualisation or ‘infovis’ techniques: ‘infovis uses graphical primitives such as points, strait lines, curves, and simple geometric shapes to stand in for objects and relations between them - regardless of whether these are people, their social relations, stock prices, income of nations, unemployment statistics, or anything else. … this reductionism becomes the default “meta-paradigm” of modern science and it continues to rule scientific research today.’ xl therefore this approach may well unnerve many for it is not only radically quantitative but informed by a reductionist sensibility: ‘in the sciences, theory distils from experience a few underlying regularities, thus reducing a seemingly infinite number of particularities into a parsimonious few. the more instances that can be reduced, the more powerful the theory is meant to be […]. reduction is good, proliferation is bad’ xli this reductive digital humanities is exemplified in ‘culturomics’ xlii that mines the digitised books available through google to chart, for instance, the frequency of emotive terms over time and between countries or look at the rise and fall of key terms about climate change. xliii however, looking for cultural markers as metonyms of wider larger cultural units is something that has rather gone out of fashion in cultural geography. by contrast when social media are mined, what is being traced are performative flows rather than markers of specific cultures. i share delyser and sui’s concern that such might submerge traditional interpretative scholarship with superficial number crunching that does not situate the object or process of analysis. xliv mays argues powerfully that deconstructive and quantified approaches view texts in contrasting ways. deconstruction tends to focus on a specific work to show its meaning is indeterminate, open to proliferation and contested interpretation, whilst quantitative methods grasp the proliferation of texts assigning them determinate meanings. xlv quantifying the aesthetic or the aesthetics of quantification?: digital mapping and literary geographies in this context we might revisit the notion of mapping texts inspired by authors such as franco moretti: what do literary maps allow us to see? two things basically. first, they highlight the ortgebunden, place-bound nature of literary forms, each of them with its peculiar geometry, its boundaries, its spatial taboos and favourite routes. and then, maps bring to light the internal logic of narrative: the semiotic domain around which a plot coalesces and self-organises. xlvi the rise of gis has eased the literal mapping of all the places mentioned or where scenes occur in books, which mostly follow the relatively inert idea of space in moretti. the restricted spatiality may stem from a sometimes shallow engagement of gis work with other work on literary geography. for instance, piatti at al. imagine themselves viewing ‘the horizon of a promising interdisciplinary research field – a future literary geography’. xlvii according to the ‘literary geographies’ blog xlviii some works on place, space and literature that had already been published that decade. the spatio- temporal forms, relations and analyses worked through in those offer rather richer concepts than typologising types of spaces (visited by characters, scenes of action, imagined or spoken of, or routeways) and their frequency of occurrence. one can mine william wordsworth’s poems xlix or joyce’s ulysses for place names but it is less clear how that gets us very far in understanding ideas of the natural in the former or, say, the influence of vico’s geopoetic theory of scalar recapitulation in the latter. l indeed when travis uses vico’s recapitulative time to understand s dublin in o’brien’s at swim two bird, he ends up moving away from what he terms a scientific metonymic gis to a metaphorical gis. the former can trace timespace paths of o’brien’s narrator but to include vico inspired temporality he has to employ metaphorically separated layers. the result is less an analytical map than an evocative visualisation; less digital humanities than speculative computing in drucker’s terms. li there is also traffic the other way, where literary material is infusing mapping. so now there are geowebbed applications that say transpose the places of ulysses back onto dublin. or, more in the spirit of diagrammatology, take the relations between places and transpose them onto entirely different cities. agendas i finish then not with conclusions but issues developing or challenging both to digital approaches and to non-digital techniques. it seems to me that it is impossible to ignore these challenges to how cultural geographies approach their objects of study. equally, it seems unproven that some of the new techniques lead to much conceptual advance. three points do emerge across the range of approaches presented here. first, many of these approaches serve to mobilise texts and destabilise the relationship with people. texts are made much more strongly performative than representational and people are no longer ‘autonomous’ actors. moreover, digital media shift attention from stocks of information (in archives and libraries which people may choose to visit) to flows of information (even if people try and ignore them). as kittler puts it ‘persons are not objects but addresses which make possible the assessment of further communications’. lii second, this seems to decentre the agency of the human actors or as kittler puts it the hylomorphism of media as matter and content as spirit, where ‘living spirit’ is opposed to ‘the dead letter’. liii third, there is challenge from digital geohumanities to reconcile the elaboration of meaning from a specific body of material and the reduction of a massive corpus to a pattern. here then we must ask about the desire behind analysing big data and how it throws into relief cultural geographers’ taste for ‘big interpretation’. forms of monism may have made something of a comeback in cultural geography, but not the reductive forms of social physics sometimes underpinning calculative analysis. liv fourth, digital media affect all our research not just by creating new ‘objects of study in new formats’, but shifting ‘the critical ground on which we conceptualize our activity’. lv acknowledgements: i would like to thank dydia delyser for her forbearance and her engagement which along with the comments of three referees improved this immeasurably. author biography: mike crang (durham university) edited the anthology virtual geographies more than years ago (when it seemed they might be), and he has since done projects and published on digital divides, digital 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h. mao, and x. zeng, twitter mood predicts the stock market. journal of computational science ( ): - . xxv m. w. wilson, morgan freeman is dead and other big data stories. cultural geographies online early. xxvi as in the travels of a football related fracas far from its origin, see j. w. crampton, m. graham, a. poorthuis, t. shelton, m. stephens, m. w. wilson, and m. zook. beyond the geotag: situating "big data" and leveraging the potential of the geoweb. cartography and geographic information science ( ), p. - . xxvii b. latour, and v. a. lépinay, the science of passionate interests: an introduction to gabriel tarde's economic anthropology (chicago, pricky paradigm press, ) p. xxviii the project seeks to use twitter and social bibliography notes, on services like mendeley or citeulike, to record the equivalent of corridor conversations to reveal the travel and influence of work see http://altmetrics.org/manifesto/ xxix r. burrows, living with the h-index? metric assemblages in the 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manovich, what is visualization? paj: the journal of the initiative for digital humanities, media, and culture ( ), np. xli , n. hayles, writing machines, p. xlii d. delyser, and d. sui, crossing the qualitative- quantitative divide ii: inventive approaches to big data, mobile methods, and rhythmanalysis, progress in human geography ( ), p. - . xliii a. acerbi, v. lampos, p. garnett, and r. a. bentley. the expression of emotions in th century books, plos one ( ):e ; r. a. bentley, p. garnett, m. j. o'brien, and w. a. brock, word diffusion and climate science, plos one ( ):e . xliv delyser and sui, crossing divides ii, p. xlv mays p. - xlvi f. moretti, atlas of the european novel - (london, verso, ) p. . xlvii b. piatti, h. r. bär, a.-k. reuschel, l. hurni, and w. cartwright, mapping literature: towards a geography of fiction, in . w. cartwright, g. gartner and a. lehn, eds. cartography and art, (berlin, heidelberg: springer, ), p. emphasis added xlviii http://literarygeographies.wordpress.com/ xlix d. cooper, and i. n. gregory, mapping the english lake district: a literary gis. transactions of the institute of british geographers ( ), p. - . l m. crang placing stories, performing places: spatiality in joyce and austen, anglia: zeitschrift für englische philologie ( ), p. . li c. travis, transcending the cube: translating giscience time and space perspectives in a humanities gis. international journal of geographical information science ( ), p. - . lii f. kittler, the history of communication media, ctheory ( ). liii f. kittler, number and numeral, theory, culture & society ( ), p. ; mays, literary digital humanities, p. liv t. j. barnes and m wilson, a brief history lv j drucker writing, p. white paper report report id: application number: hd- - project director: marie-claire beaulieu (marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu) institution: tufts university reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / digital humanities start-up grant final performance report grant number: hd- - digital humanities in the classroom: bridging the gap between teaching and research project director: prof. marie-claire beaulieu tufts university report submitted: / / period covered: / / to / / a. project activities perseids in the classroom as indicated in our original proposal, this project aims to bring digital scholarship into the classroom by means of our online editing platform. accordingly, project director marie-claire beaulieu started to use perseids in class in september in her classical mythology course. a dynamic syllabus was created which collected all the readings assigned in the class, whether they were specific passages of ancient texts offered in perseus or entire works. in addition, three optional texts were assigned each week. these readings concerned the same myth or mythical complex studied during the week. the students’ task was to choose one of the optional readings and analyze it with respect to other sources on the same myth. they were encouraged to address questions such as: “how does this text/artifact compare to other testimonies on the same myth? why is it different/similar? did the author/artist have a particular purpose in producing such a rendering (political, social, artistic, etc.)?” the students then produced short essays (maximum words) and typed these essays in the perseids annotation system. to receive full credit, they had to submit a minimum of two essays graded as satisfactory over the course of the semester. in their essays, the students were encouraged to include links to further materials such as parallel texts/artwork or bibliography. after undergoing several review and feedback cycles through perseids, the commentaries were published as student annotations on the perseus digital library. the interactive nature of these assignments — as well as the prospect of seeing their work published online — has proved to be a motivating factor for students. however, this first trial round demonstrated the need for strict planning regarding grading. the students were allowed to submit their essays at any time during the semester and to re-submit them any number of times after receiving feedback. this system, while allowing maximum flexibility for the students, overloaded the instructor and teaching assistants with grading, particularly at the end of the semester. in subsequent iterations of the class, mandatory submission and grading periods were imposed in order to produce a more regular grading cycle. in the fall of , prof. beaulieu also used perseids in her intermediary greek class to edit and translate greek inscriptions with the students. the inscriptions are now published to the web as a demo for the collection. the texts were marked up in tei xml using the epidoc standard for maximum interoperability with the international community of epigraphists. the epidoc standard is ultimately based on the leiden conventions, which have long been in use by scholars to render the characteristics of epigraphical or manuscript texts. similarly, in january , students in prof. beaulieu’s medieval latin class edited and translated sections of the fourteenth century compendium of english forest law preserved at tufts university in tisch library using the epidoc markup standards. we are currently preparing the students’ work for publication, as well as preparing a similar workflow for the upcoming iteration of prof. beaulieu’s medieval latin class. this work continued after the end of the grant period. in the fall of , prof. beaulieu continued using perseids in her intermediary greek class and in her classical mythology class. the greek students are currently editing and translating greek funerary inscriptions which will be published along with the ones from last year at the end of the term. in classical mythology, the students enrolled in the class were asked to use perseids as part of their term projects. the term project for this class consists in analyzing the presentation of a given myth on an assigned object in the greek and roman collection in the boston museum of fine arts. the students, who are organized in teams of two or three, must observe their assigned objects and compare their depiction of the myth with other depictions of http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi/tuftsmythf .html#module- http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://sourceforge.net/p/epidoc/wiki/home/ http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi/tuftsmythf .html#module- http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://sourceforge.net/p/epidoc/wiki/home/ the same myth in ancient texts and ancient art. once this dossier has been assembled, students prepare an interpretative research paper which seeks to explain the evolving meaning of the myth to ancient audiences. during the course of their research, students use perseids to upload timelines and timemaps which help them organize the primary sources for their myth from a chronological and geographical standpoint. students create these timelines and timemaps using timemapper, a utility created by the open knowledge foundation labs. timemapper relies on spreadsheets created through google docs. we provided an input form on perseids which the students use to submit a link to their google spreadsheet data. we also created an xsl stylesheet to transform the data provided by the google spreadsheets api to rdf triples adhering to the open annotation standard upon ingest into perseids. this allows us to preserve the students’ work in a way that is interoperable with perseids (as well with the growing number of other tools supporting the open annotation standard) and enables us to apply the perseids review and approval workflow to data the students collected using the timemapper tool. we plan on publishing the timelines and timemaps as part of a nascent perseus collection on ancient mythology which will offer information on myths as seen through the primary textual and artistic sources. finally, prof. beaulieu is also using perseids in her intermediary greek class to support treebanking. treebanking consists in creating a full semantic and grammatical annotation of a sentence by organizing the words according to their dependency relationships. in the process, the annotator also provides morphology data for each word. in prof. beaulieu’s class, students have been treebanking the text of plato and xenophon’s apologies of socrates through the arethusa framework, and then submitting their work for review through the perseids platform. students express enthusiasm for treebanking, as the method allows them to gain full grammatical control while examining questions such as style, as they compare plato and xenophon’s very different renderings of the same speech. we plan on publishing the students’ work online as annotations to the texts at the end of the semester. other project activities in order to support our efforts, christopher barbour has overseen the digitization of two manuscripts held in the tisch library special collections, namely the commission of doge andrea gritti to lorenzo diedo as podesta of montefalcone (venice, ) and the historia regum angliae (england, ). christopher barbour also oversaw the acquisition of an early printed latin version of one of galen’s treatises titled “quos, quibus, et quando purgare oporteat” (lyon, ). students will start working on these new materials in upcoming classes. two graduate students, matthew kelley and timothy buckingham, worked for the perseids project in and . matthew kelley was in charge of final preparations for the epigraphy project which was implemented in prof. beaulieu’s intermediary greek class. matthew collated bibliographical references for each inscription and documented the history of the successive editions and textual criticism. timothy buckingham was in charge of preparing the manuscripts to be edited and translated by prof. beaulieu’s students in her medieval latin class scheduled in january . timothy focused on preparing the fourteenth century compendium of english law preserved at tisch library for prof. beaulieu’s medieval latin class. in collaboration with christopher barbour and alexander may (tisch http://timemapper.okfnlabs.org/ https://okfn.org/ http://www.w .org/style/xsl/ https://developers.google.com/google-apps/spreadsheets/ http://www.w .org/tr/ /rec-rdf-concepts- / http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/ http://sosol.perseids.org/tools/arethusa/app/#/ http://timemapper.okfnlabs.org/ https://okfn.org/ http://www.w .org/style/xsl/ https://developers.google.com/google-apps/spreadsheets/ http://www.w .org/tr/ /rec-rdf-concepts- / http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/ http://sosol.perseids.org/tools/arethusa/app/#/ library), timothy started analyzing the compendium. he noticed that the book was divided at some point in its history and re-bound in order to take some materials out and to insert new texts, copied by a different hand. this process led to the creation of two different tables of contents which were inserted at the beginning of the book. in order to facilitate the students’ work, timothy prepared an outline of the manuscript and started documenting the two scribal hands present in it. timothy also worked on identifying the manuscript sections in the two tables of contents in order to eventually produce a display which will lead directly from the tables of contents to the corresponding sections. in january , we extended timothy buckingham’s hire as a research assistant for the project between december and may . during this period, timothy built on the work he did on preparing the fourteenth century compendium of english law. he continued to enhance the outline of the manuscript he had prepared and also continued to document the scribal hands present in the manuscript. most importantly, timothy offered support to students taking professor beaulieu’s medieval latin class and editing the manuscript. timothy was in charge of directing and grading student markup of the manuscript and also oversaw their translations. we are currently preparing to publish the student’s work, and their findings are already available on perseids. we held a hackathon at tufts university with the duke collaboratory for classics computing (dc ) team, represented by ryan baumann, on december - . the first day was dedicated to workshops held in prof. beaulieu’s mythology class and in her intermediary greek class. students were introduced to the editing features available in perseids and had the occasion to edit texts as a group and to offer feedback to the team of developers. an open workshop to which all classics students and faculty were invited also took place over the lunch hour. overall, this first day was a success, and students reported enjoying their work in perseids and offered valuable comments and feedback to the technical team. the second day of the meeting was dedicated to development work on the part of the technical team, during which we reviewed the tufts and dc teams’ current development plans for the sosol application and made plans for merging our separate branches of the code back together. technical development and deliverables our first technical objective in this project was to put the online editing platform in place, which eventually became perseids. senior software developer bridget almas worked on integrating the sosol collaborative text-editing environment with the cite services and the image citation tool created by the homer multitext project. she was able to reuse large parts of the xml validation and display code from the papyri publication support on sosol while focusing on the addition of support for the cts identifiers. the cite architecture, of which cts is a part, provides us with a set of protocols and services around identifying, organizing and linking canonically cited texts and related objects. cite and cts make use of uniform resource names (urns), which are intended to serve as persistent, location- independent, resource identifiers. cts urns provide a system of persistent, technology-independent identifiers for texts and passages of texts. cite urns provide a companion system of identifiers for objects related to texts. the first deliverable was to create a prototype implementation that re-used the existing sosol code for epidoc transcriptions almost in its entirety by sub-classing it and changing only the structure of the document identifiers to correspond more closely to the cts urn syntax. she also substituted a cts text inventory for the papyri.info catalog. coding the prototype provided a means to to see all images of this manuscript currently available, visit: http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/lawimgs.html. https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/sosol http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/ http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/guides/ict.html http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/lawimgs.html http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/lawimgs.html https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/sosol http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/cite/ http://www.homermultitext.org/hmt-doc/guides/ict.html explore the design of the sosol platform code and assess its viability for reuse. however, as cts is a read-only api, there was a need to develop a set of parallel write/update/delete functionality that could be used to update and create new editions of cts-compatible texts. to experiment with this, bridget almas augmented her xquery based implementation of the cts apis from the alpheios project. she also coded prototypes of additional extensions to the sosol code to work with texts and passages that use the tei-a xml schema rather than epidoc, and to present a passage selection interface. completing these two deliverables gave us confidence that the integration was in fact viable, and the neh start-up funding enabled us to move the work beyond the prototype stage to actual implementation. development of the platform has continued beyond the neh funding through the support of a new grant from the andrew w. mellon foundation ( - ). we have added support for shibboleth/saml authentication, so the students are now able to login with their educational institution accounts as well as through social identity providers. we enabled this for selected institutions starting with tufts and university of leipzig, but the functionality can be configured for any institution that supports shibboleth. we have also made some improvements to the image mapping functionality, to support multiple images per text/inscription, and to generalize it to work with any sparql endpoint to retrieve images related to the text. our original proposal indicated that we intended to work with imagej and tile to produce mappings between text and images. however, these pieces of software proved unreliable and the image citation tool developed by the homer multitext project was selected instead. in turn, we have now replaced the image citation tool with the imgspect image editor plugin , which was developed through funding from the mellon foundation. imgspect is a jquery plugin which allows us to embed the image citation functionality directly into any page, rather than bringing it in as a web page in a frame, allowing for a more seamless integration with the editing workflow. outreach work on perseids has afforded numerous opportunities for conference presentations. we had the opportunity to present this project to the scholarly community and the public at large in many different venues so far (see appendices for a full listing). throughout this project, we have also maintained the perseids blog, which we use to document workflows available on the perseids platform, news and updates concerning our work, as well as recent presentations and papers related to the perseids project. further documentation, especially regarding development work, is available on our github repository. we also repost our news, updates, and announcements on the perseus blog as well as on facebook and twitter. in this way, we are keeping the digital humanities community and the public informed about our progress and accomplishments. “developing perseids: enhancements to a collaborative editing platform for source documents in classics” ( ). https://github.com/perseusdl/imgspect http://jquery.com/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ https://github.com/perseusdl/imgspect http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ b. accomplishments we are pleased to report that the objectives outlined in our original proposal have been met. the perseids platform has been continuously available on the perseids.org domain since fall and new functionality is regularly being added as we continue our work beyond the start-up phase of the project. student work has been published online and continues to evolve as classes and other projects unfold. perseids is now firmly implanted in the digital humanities community and beyond, as other teams in other universities in europe and america are using the platform for their own projects. c. audiences over the years, perseids has developed a broad and diverse audience in the usa and abroad. as described above, perseids is being used at tufts university for collaborative editing, translations, and treebanking. currently, over users are registered on the platform. in the usa, perseids is currently being used at the university of nebraska, where professors robert and vanessa gorman are integrating it into their teaching. robert gorman is making use of the treebanking functionality available in arethusa and the review workflow in perseids to teach introductory greek and latin. vanessa gorman is using the same features to edit athenaeus’ deipnosophistae with her students. a team at the university of buffalo under professor neil coffee is planning on using perseids in january for classroom work on intertextuality in statius’ achilleid and flavian epic. another team of researchers and students at the university of georgia, under the supervision of frances van keuren and elena bianchielli, are planning on collecting all the ancient texts and artwork mentioned in timothy gantz’s early greek myth in the form of an online dynamic syllabus which will now accompany this important reference work. in europe, a croatian team of scholars and students led by professor neven jovanovic at the university of zagreb is editing latin poems written by croatian authors. the team is using the alignment functionality available in alpheios to align the latin texts to the croatian translations and the review functionality in perseids as part of their workflow. at the university of leipzig, perseids is being used by professor monica berti’s team in the fragmentary texts project. the team is collecting fragments of lost authors (quotations, paraphrases, etc) in preserved greek and latin literature and annotating them through perseids. the perseids team has established a collaboration agreement with the eagle consortium (electronic archive of greek and latin epigraphy). the eagle consortium aims to federate various epigraphical databases already present on the web and pool their data in a decentralized way. the result is a set of locally hosted and managed databases that are interoperable and searchable as a group. eagle is also providing an interface, via the mediawiki platform, by which users can contribute new translations of inscriptions. in its collaboration with eagle, perseids is particularly involved in managing the user workflow around translations. as mediawiki does not support a controlled workflow that allows for review of submissions before they are posted, eagle approached perseids to provide an see for instance our demo for the publication of student work on greek epigraphy: http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/. http://www.fragmentarytexts.org/tag/monica-berti/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/mediawiki http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://www.fragmentarytexts.org/tag/monica-berti/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/ https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/mediawiki alternate workflow for new translation submissions, which allows them to be reviewed and voted on by members of a board on perseids before publication on the eagle site. we succeeded in deploying this integration in september . over the past two years, perseids has developed a beneficial partnership with our colleague michèle brunet (cnrs-université lyon ii). professor brunet is in charge of editing and publishing the greek inscriptions preserved in the louvre museum in paris as a collection. to ensure maximum visibility and continued relevance, she chose to prepare a digital publication of the inscriptions through perseids. the project, entitled e-pigramme, is currently ongoing and we are in regular communication with the team. also in collaboration with professor brunet, tufts university and perseids are participating in the visible worlds project. this three-year project, funded under the partner university fund program, aims to promote the practice of digital epigraphy by providing training to graduate students and professors of classics. the project involves student and scholarly exchanges between the partner institutions, namely brown university, tufts university, université lyon ii, and the network of the french schools abroad. field training sessions will take place in greece in may , in cambodia in , and in egypt in . the perseids team visited lyon in september to train the french professors and students in the use of the editing platform. another training and planning meeting will take place in leipzig in february , where the focus will be on the overlap between the visible worlds project and the sunoikisis europe program, which is based in leipzig. sunoikisis europe will emulate the work started by sunoikisis usa, which is run by the center for hellenic studies. sunoikisis aims to pool the classics resources available across institutions in order for students and faculty at participating institutions to benefit from opportunities normally available only at large research institutions. it has been decided that some of the visible worlds sessions in greece would be part of the sunoikisis program, in which perseids will be used as a publishing platform for prosopography and social network visualization. perseids is not only used in classics, but has made important inroads in other disciplines. our tufts colleague ioannis evrigenis (political science) is using perseids to produce a digital edition of jean bodin’s six livres de la république. although jean bodin ( - ) is not widely known today, his work on the notion of sovereignty influenced major western thinkers such as montesquieu and hobbes. professor evrigenis’ digital edition will be the first to take into account the three available versions of bodin’s work, namely the french, latin, and english versions. the three versions do not fully correspond to one another and reveal important changes and evolution in bodin’s thought. d. evaluation throughout the project, we have been in constant communication with our user base through email as well as face to face meetings such as hackathons and formal presentations at conferences. the feedback we receive ranges from general user comments to questions about specific functionality and desiderata. one comment that has been persistently made concerns the availability of the leiden+ http://www.hisoma.mom.fr/mb/ig_louvre/e-pigramme-fr.html http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-used-in-lyon/ http://wp.chs.harvard.edu/sunoikisis/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-participates-in-sunoikisis-europe/ http://sites.tufts.edu/dynamicvariorum/ http://www.hisoma.mom.fr/mb/ig_louvre/e-pigramme-fr.html http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-used-in-lyon/ http://wp.chs.harvard.edu/sunoikisis/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/perseids-participates-in-sunoikisis-europe/ http://sites.tufts.edu/dynamicvariorum/ encoding system for the transcription of epigraphic texts and manuscripts as an alternative for marking the text up directly in xml using the epidoc standards. in response, we will enable this function in . student feedback has generally concerned the workflow, and we have been working to integrate the different components of perseids more and more seamlessly into one another. for instance, we aim to provide a way for students to move directly to treebanking once they have entered a transcription of an epigraphical text into perseids. currently, the text has to be entered manually into a different module in order to treebank an object that is not otherwise available in perseus. we have also received requests for additional customization and enhancements to the review workflow, for example ensuring that a publication, once submitted, always goes to the same reviewer after requested corrections are made. all feedback is entered in the project’s github issue tracker. e. long term impact and continuation of the project perseids has received an enthusiastic response in the community and new collaborations keep arising. as mentioned above, perseids will continue to be used in tufts classes for editing, treebanking, translation alignments, timelines, and many other use cases. starting in january , perseids will be used in professor beaulieu’s journey of the hero class to work on prosopographical data in the greek mythological corpus and to publish social network visualizations. the same features will be put to use in may with the perseids’ team participation in the visible worlds project and sunoikisis europe. perseids also continues to expand beyond digital classics, as colleagues in other disciplines such as syriac, and early english literature have been contacting us to explore possibilities for collaboration. tufts university is strongly committed to perseids, as the platform keeps taking a more and more important place in our courses and supports our position of leadership in digital humanities. perseids will be central to the new master’s program in digital humanities and premodern studies currently being planned at tufts. the program frames the use of historical languages such as classical greek, latin, and arabic in an intellectual context that includes but extends beyond antiquity to encompass all disciplines and time periods of the premodern world. furthermore, the premodern studies program is designed to capitalize upon, and to incorporate within its curriculum, emerging digital technologies that have given humanists powerful tools for analyzing texts, objects, and physical spaces. the curriculum integrates learning and research from an early stage, so students are expected to produce new knowledge in the form of digital editions, datasets, and analytical research. thus, the program will showcase a new model of training in the humanities that transcends the traditional departmental and curricular boundaries: it is a convergent, collaborative effort to use abstract skills and training to add to the sum of human knowledge. perseids, with its versatile design and its emphasis on collaborative work, offers numerous ways to support and enhance this effort. continuing development of the perseids platform is currently ensured by new grants. after a successful start-up period funded by the neh, we went on to receive a two-year grant from the andrew w. mellon foundation, “developing perseids: enhancements to a collaborative editing platform for source documents in classics”. https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs/issues http://syriaca.org/ http://www.sas.ac.uk/videos-and-podcasts/culture-language-literature/shakespeare-his-contemporaries- exploring-early-moder https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs/issues http://syriaca.org/ http://www.sas.ac.uk/videos-and-podcasts/culture-language-literature/shakespeare-his-contemporaries-exploring-early-moder http://www.sas.ac.uk/videos-and-podcasts/culture-language-literature/shakespeare-his-contemporaries-exploring-early-moder perseids attracted further non-federal funding in the form of a digital resources grant from the samuel h. kress foundation titled: “the digital milliet: greek and roman painting in the st century”. the project aims to collect and annotate greek and latin texts concerning ancient painting in an online collection which updates the now obsolete recueil milliet published by salomon reinach in . the digital milliet will offer a fully integrated digital edition of the ancient texts that will include translations, commentaries, and an iconographical database. the project will serve as a model for further work of this nature, utilizing the resources developed on perseids for the dynamic syllabus and annotation modules. f. grant products the perseids platform itself is the central product to come out of this project. the platform is available online and new users can create accounts using their institutional credentials, a social identity provider such as gmail, yahoo, and aol, or through openid. as stated above, documentation and updates about perseids are available on our blog and from our github repository. grant products are also available in the form of student publications. as stated above, commentaries produced by students in marie-claire beaulieu’s fall classical mythology class have been published on perseus as student annotations. a demo of the epigraphy work performed in marie- claire beaulieu’s intermediary greek class is also available online. we are currently working on publishing student work produced in in marie-claire beaulieu’s medieval latin, intermediary greek, and classical mythology. further user publications are available on perseids as well as on the eagle wiki, which now uses the perseids review workflow. finally, the team and collaborators have produced articles, posters, papers, and talks, which are listed in appendix . http://www.kressfoundation.org/ see project announcement: https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/the-digital-milliet-greek-and- roman-painting-in-the- st-century/ working demo available: http://perseids.org/tools/digmill/#callout http://sosol.perseids.org/sosol/signin http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/italiano/index_it.htm http://www.kressfoundation.org/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/the-digital-milliet-greek-and-roman-painting-in-the- st-century/ https://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/news-and-updates/the-digital-milliet-greek-and-roman-painting-in-the- st-century/ http://perseids.org/tools/digmill/#callout http://sosol.perseids.org/sosol/signin http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ https://github.com/perseusdl/perseids_docs http://sites.tufts.edu/perseusupdates/ / / /student-commentaries-published-in-perseus/ http://perseids.org/sites/epifacs/ http://www.eagle-eagle.it/italiano/index_it.htm appendix . papers and presentations presentations ( links to some of these presentations are available on the perseids blog at http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/.) christopher barbour and alexander may “hidden treasures of the middle ages”, osher institute, september , . alexander may and alicia morris, “the miscellany collection: how a small digital collection caught the imagination of the scholarly community at tufts and beyond.” presentation at the new england library association annual conference, burlington, vermont, october , . marie-claire beaulieu, francesco mambrini and j. matthew harrington, “toward a digital editio princeps: using digital technologies to create a more complete scholarly edition in the classics”, from ancient manuscripts to the digital era. readings and literacies, - august , lausanne, switzerland. marie-claire beaulieu, francesco mambrini and j. matthew harrington, “treebanking and digital scholarly editions in the classics”, interedition symposium: scholarly digital editions, tools and infrastructure, march - , , the hague, netherlands. alicia morris, “rethinking tech services: how we used the tisch miscellany to reshape technical services.” presentation at the netsl annual conference, worcester, ma, may , . marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “digital humanities in the classroom: introducing a new editing platform for source documents in classics”, digital humanities , - july , hamburg, germany. marie-claire beaulieu, “the perseids platform”, institute for advanced topics in digital humanities, “working with text in a digital age”, tufts university, aug. , . http://sites.tufts.edu/digitalagetext/ marie-claire beaulieu, “une nouvelle plate-forme éditoriale pour les sources primaires en études classiques”, epigraphy seminar of the french school in athens, nov. , , epigraphical museum, athens, greece. marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “open philology workshop”, august , , “teaching with the perseids platform”, university of leipzig, germany. bridget almas, “the perseids platform”, digital classicist london seminar, march , . http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ http://sites.tufts.edu/perseids/ http://sites.tufts.edu/digitalagetext/ monica berti, “fragmenta historica . . quotations and text re-uses in the semantic web”, word, space, time: digital perspectives on the classical world, april - , , university at buffalo, suny. marie-claire beaulieu, “teaching with the perseids platform: tools and methods”, digital classicist london seminar, july , . monica berti and bridget almas, “the perseids collaborative platform for annotating text re-uses of fragmentary authors”, dh-case workshop, september , , florence, italy. bridget almas, “the perseids platform”, research data alliance, october , . rensselaer polytechnic institute. monica berti and bridget almas, “the linked fragment: tei and the encoding of text re-uses of lost authors”, the linked tei: text encoding in the web, tei conference and members meeting , università di roma sapienza, october - , . bridget almas, david dubin, sayeed choudhury, “combining complementary provenance data models in humanities research”, research data alliance, plenary , dublin, march , . accepted : marie-claire beaulieu and j. matthew harrington, “beyond rhetoric: the correlation of data, syntax, and sense in literary analysis”, digital classics association, society for classical studies, annual meeting, new orleans, la, january - , . published papers marie-claire beaulieu, francesco mambrini and j. matthew harrington, “towards a digital editio princeps: using digital technologies to create a more complete scholarly edition in the classics”, lire demain/reading tomorrow, papers of the international conference “from ancient manuscripts to the digital era. readings and literacies, lausanne, - august , clivaz, c. et al. eds, presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, (ebook), p. - . marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “digital humanities in the classroom”, literary and linguistic computing, ( ) ( ): - . forthcoming: marie-claire beaulieu and bridget almas, “scholarship for all!”, classics outside the echo- chamber: teaching,collaboration, outreach and public engagement, gabriel bodard & matteo romanello eds. (publisher tbd) appendix . examples of manuscripts digitized with grant funds see the tisch library special collections flickr site for full record of images: https://www.flickr.com/photos/tischlibraryspecialcollections/sets/ figures and . photograph of the th century compendium of english forest law before digitization vs. high resolution flattened image produced by boston photo imaging. figures and . photograph of the commission of doge andrea gritti to lorenzo diedo as podesta of montefalcone (venice, ) vs. digitized image. https://www.flickr.com/photos/tischlibraryspecialcollections/sets/ appendix . course syllabi marie-claire beaulieu, classical mythology, tufts university, fall . dynamic syllabus susan dunning, introduction to classical mythology, university of toronto, summer dynamic syllabus: http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi /html/torcla h f.html http://sosol.perseids.org/syllabi /html/torcla h f.html marie-claire beaulieu, intermediary greek, tufts university, fall greek : plato’s apology of socrates tufts university fall professor: marie-claire beaulieu, phd meets: mon-wed h - h , eaton email: marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu office: eaton office hours: mon-wed h - h objectives this course will familiarize the students with greek prose and further their knowledge of greek grammar. the students will develop their skills at reading continuous passages in greek and will become familiar with plato’s style. grading participation and preparation, weekly verb quizzes: % quizzes: % paper: % exams: % each (= %) special project (inscriptions): % paper -choose a work of plato or xenophon not discussed in class and introduce it -choose a particularly significant passage in this work and analyze it in detail special project this semester, we will edit and translate greek funerary inscriptions which we will then publish on the perseus website. attendance policy and making-up work class attendance is required. absences for religious holidays, family emergencies, and properly documented medical reasons will be excused. missed quizzes and exams can be completed upon presentation of proper documentation. religious holidays students can make up work missed for religious holidays if they notify the instructor in advance. let me know as early as possible in the semester so that we can make arrangements. students with disabilities all necessary accommodations will be made for students with documented disabilities. mailto:marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu marie-claire beaulieu, medieval latin, tufts university, spring lat / : medieval latin spring meets: mon-wed h - h prof. marie-claire beaulieu marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu office: eaton office hours: mon-wed. h - h or by appointment teaching assistant timothy buckingham timothy.buckingham@tufts.edu office hours: - wed-thurs. course description an introduction to medieval latin that covers a variety of european authors over a period of years. the course will be organized around the theme of travel and map making in the middle ages. texts we will read include friar odoric's thirteenth-century account of his travels to india and crusader narratives. we will also read sections of isidore's etymologiae, in which the author describes the world, and we will pay close attention to medieval maps such as the hereford mappa mundi. occasionally, we will read excerpts from other contemporary travel accounts not written in latin such as john mandeville and marco polo. term projects for the class will be conducted in collaboration with the tufts special collections. students will transcribe, translate, and publish manuscripts held in the special collections. grading quizzes: % ( % each) final exam: % term project: initial transcription and markup: % final transcription and markup: % initial translation: % translation: % attendance policy and making-up work class attendance is required. absences for religious holidays, family emergencies, and properly documented medical reasons will be excused. missed quizzes and exams can be completed upon presentation of proper documentation. students with disabilities all necessary accommodations will be made for students with disabilities. mailto:marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu mailto:timothy.buckingham@tufts.edu marie-claire beaulieu, classical mythology, tufts university, fall greek and roman mythology meets: mon-wed h - h , eaton instructor: dr. marie-claire beaulieu office: eaton office hours: mon-wed h - h email: marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu teaching assistants elizabeth andrews: elizabeth.andrews@tufts.edu john moore: john.moore@tufts.edu course description this course offers a survey of greek and roman mythology. in addition to learning the names and stories of mythical figures, we will explore different interpretations of the myths and their religious significance for the ancients. we will also pay attention to recurring mythical patterns and their significance in the larger context of indo-european myth. required textbooks: morford, m., lenardon, r., sham, m. classical mythology, th ed. oxford, . hesiod, theogony and works and days (tr. m.l. west) sophocles, antigone, oedipus the king, electra (tr. h.d.f. kitto) ovid, metamorphoses (tr. a.d. melville) grading museum visit: % pop-quizzes: % (lowest score dropped) bibliography: % outline: % timeline assignment: % map assignment: % first draft of research paper: % final draft of research paper: % attendance policy and making-up work class attendance is required. absences for religious holidays, family emergencies, and properly documented medical reasons will be excused. missed exams can be completed upon presentation of proper documentation. however, pop-quizzes cannot be made-up if missed. mailto:marie-claire.beaulieu@tufts.edu mailto:elizabeth.andrews@tufts.edu mailto:john.moore@tufts.edu exporting finnish digitized historical newspaper contents for offline use search d-lib: home | about d-lib | current issue | archive | indexes | calendar | author guidelines | subscribe | contact d-lib d-lib magazine july/august volume , number / table of contents exporting finnish digitized historical newspaper contents for offline use tuula pääkkönen national library of finland, centre for preservation and digitization tuula.paakkonen@helsinki.fi jukka kervinen national library of finland, centre for preservation and digitization jukka.kervinen@helsinki.fi asko nivala university of turku, department of cultural history asko.nivala@utu.fi kimmo kettunen national library of finland, centre for preservation and digitization kimmo.kettunen@helsinki.fi eetu mäkelä aalto university eetu.makela@aalto.fi doi: . /july -paakkonen printer-friendly version abstract digital collections of the national library of finland (nlf) contain over million pages of historical newspapers, journals and some technical ephemera. the material ranges from the early finnish newspapers from until the present day. the material up to can be viewed in the public web service, where as anything later is available at the six legal deposit libraries in finland. a recent user study noticed that a different type of researcher use is one of the key uses of the collection. national library of finland has gotten several requests to provide the content of the digital collections as one offline bundle, where all the needed content is included. for this purpose we introduced a new format, which contains three different information sets: the full metadata of a publication page, the actual page content as alto xml, and the raw text content. we consider these formats most useful to be provided as raw data for the researchers. in this paper we will describe how the export format was created, how other parties have packaged the same data and what the benefits are of the current approach. we shall also briefly discuss word level quality of the content and show a real research scenario for the data. introduction the historical newspaper, journal and ephemera collection of nlf is available up to . the online system offers page images of the content, which can be accessed either by browsing or using the search engine. recently, the text content of the page as alto xml (analyzed layout and text object) was also released for the users. however, for doing any mass operations on the xml files, there needs be to a way to offer the whole content at once, instead of having to download it page by page. part of the finnish newspaper corpus has been made available via the fin-clarin consortium and europeana newspapers. fin-clarin offers the data in two different formats. in the recent one the data is provided in the original alto xml format, but the directory structure follows the original file system order, where one newspaper title can span different archive files. fin-clarin offers the original alto format via the language bank service for years - . secondly, fin-clarin also provides a processed version by offering the finnish word n-grams - of the newspaper and periodicals corpus partitioned in decades with word frequency information. thirdly, the data is available as one of the materials of the korp corpus environment. in addition, nlf has provided a data set to the europeana newspapers via the european library (tel), which was one of the partners of the europeana newspapers. at tel, for example, eleven representative finnish newspapers were selected that are in the public domain. tel does not offer the texts themselves, but only the metadata associated with them (with links to page images). these are offered in rdf (in rdf/xml and turtle serializations), as well as dublin core xml. the metadata records are also available in json format via the europeana project, this time also including the raw text of the page. presently, there are plans to move the tel portal to a new newspaper channel of europeana. creation of the export before beginning export creation we needed to decide which metadata is added to the set, and which formats the data would be offered in. during outlining of the digital humanism policy of the nlf, there was lots of internal discussion about the various formats which the library should provide for researchers. for the newspaper corpus we decided to create the export with original alto xml and raw text plus the metadata. initially we considered offering just alto xml as it is the main format from the post-processing of the production line. raw text format was chosen to enable more convenient use for those who might not feel comfortable with alto xml, as it was relatively straightforward to extract the text from the nlf xml format. however, just when we were starting exporting, the need to also have the metadata arose. in order to avoid having several separated datasets, we also incorporated metadata to each xml file. we had earlier provided the raw text in the digital humanities hackathon of (dhh ), where the raw texts were used alongside the precompiled word n-grams from the fin-clarin (the language bank of finland). the alto format of the package contains the information, which has been captured from the original page images. the quality assurance process of nlf is quite light and it aims mainly to check the metadata. for example, no layout or reading order issues are typically fixed from what the backend system (docworks) provides with the text content and logical layout of the page off-the-shelf. the digitization of the nlf has spanned several years, averaging about million pages a year. nearly every year the backend system has also improved, and new versions, with new features or improvements have appeared, and the mets/alto files also contain this version information. the generic structure for the export is shown in figure (metadata, xml alto and the plain text). figure : general structure of the export files . technical implementation in the generation of the export, our main database, which contains the information of the material (i.e. title metadata, page data, and file data containing the archive directory information) was utilized. at the beginning of the export, a title is selected and its metadata and location of alto xml files are extracted first from the database. then the corresponding alto xml files are extracted, and combined with the raw text of the page, which is available in the database. all of these are combined as a nlf-specific xml file. we decided to produce one xml format, to ease our internal generation of the export and to keep the export as one complete set. in the long run, we hope that this will make management and versioning of the export set easier, in comparison with having three separate data sets. our goal is to have one master set, which would be the same, which we offer to those researchers who do offline analysis. if we get feedback for the export set, it will be easier to trace back any suggestions and improve the originals or re-generate the export with enhancements with only one main export. implementation of the export script took a few days, but the most time consuming task was to run it against the material set. to speed the creation of the export packages, execution of the generation script was replicated so that it was possible to run different exports in parallel. extracting one particular file from the database is quite fast, but adding the database operations and other processing takes time when it has to been done to millions of files. with several simultaneous batch runs the extraction was completed faster. . metadata within the exports the format of the nlf-specific xml file is presented in figure in detail. the metadata fields of rows - and - are currently visible in the web presentation system on the page itself, but the details of the publisher rows - are only visible via the detailed information of the title. this information is not conveniently located in the event that some page-level calculations or analysis needs to be done. page label is not visible in the presentation system, where the page numbers are as given in pageorder. language will be made available as one of the search criteria in an upcoming release, but currently it is not visible anywhere. figure : example of an exported xml file: metadata, alto xml and cdata thanks to a suitable infrastructure for the exporting, where we have one table with information about the storage location of the alto xml files and information about the publication date of the material, we were able to extract the material in a straightforward way. all pages before . . were exported and extracted in two different directories, one based on issn and other based on the publication year. after the metadata comes the matching alto xml file for the given page id (starting from line in figure ). for any processing that might be feedbacked from the researchers, for example, the tags pageidentifier and bindingidentifier are useful for the nlf, as they identify that particular item in a reliable manner as every page and binding have a unique identifier. this enables a feedback loop, in case there is opportunity to get improvements from the researcher community. the alto xml is generated by the content conversion specialists' docworks program in the post-processing phase of the digitization. alto xml contains the layout and the actual words of the page text, with the coordinates that indicate the location of each word on the page. finally, at the end of each of the files, there is the raw text of the page from the database (cdata, starting from line in figure ), which is what the search of the presentation system uses when giving search results to the users. . top-level structure in the planning phase of the export we thought of potential user scenarios for the export. based on earlier feedback we figured that the most probable needs are based on years or by issn, which were used as ways to divide the material before packaging. language of the pages was also included as one folder level. figure shows the folder structure . figure : the folder structure below the lowest-level folder are the actual alto xml files, which are named descriptively, for example: fk _ - - _ _ .xml (= issn_year_date_issue_page). we hope that the folder level structure and the file naming policy will provide enough flexibility for us to be able to generate subsequent exports based on user needs. if the request is for all of the material, then everything under by_year structure is given. the selected year divisions are estimations based on the amount of pages and estimated sizes, to get each year span's export package to be roughly of the same size. . export file sizes the sizes of the export files are considerable: gigabytes as zip files. for this reason, downloadable packages were put in the first phase to an external service, which provides enough storage space. the pilot version was offered to the key contact points via funet filesender, and the upload speed was at some point mb / second, meaning that just uploading the whole data set took nearly nine hours. in the future, the export dumps will be offered via the http://digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi website, which enables us to generate new versions more fluently. table shows sizes of the zip package parts. export file name size nlf_ocrdump_v - _journals_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump-v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ - .zip g nlf_ocrdump_v - _newspapers_ .zip . g table : packages and their sizes the number of alto xml files in the newspaper part of the export is presented in figure with languages. the total number of pages is ca. . m. the language is the primary language of the title as listed in our newspaper database. for clarity, information about the number of russian and german pages has been omitted (in total , and , pages, respectively) and we show only the number of finnish and swedish pages. the total number of finnish pages is , , , and the total number of swedish pages , . journal data is more varied: out of its , , pages, , are in finnish and , are in swedish (total , , pages). the rest are either multilingual or in other languages. figure : number of pages in finnish and swedish in different packages nordic situation briefly opening of data is in its early phases in scandinavia. in finland, the national library of finland has started by opening the main portal finna (finna api, ) and ontology and thesaurus service of finto. the fenno-ugrica service has opened material from the digital collection of uralic languages. in comparison to these, the finnish newspaper and journal collection data would be quite large, consisting of around three million pages. in sweden, the national library of sweden has opened their data via the http://data.kb.se service. the opened data is an interesting cross-cut of different material types, with a couple of newspapers, namely post- och inrikes tidningar ( - ) (aka poit) and aftonbladet ( - ). interestingly, these have made different data available: poit offers original page images (.tif), text of the pages and the corrections of the page texts as .doc files. the data set of aftonbladet, on the other hand, offers the combination of post processing outputs, i.e. mets, alto and page images (.jp ). in denmark the practice is currently that access to the digitized newspapers is provided via the state and university library, the royal library and the danish film institute. in norway, for example, the newspaper corpus is offered via the språkbanken, for the years - . in the nordic context the nlf export is thus quite extensive, with a time range of - , and coverage of all the titles published during that time. the year is in finland currently the year before which we feel that the risk of copyright problems is minimized. however, in the feedback from some researchers, there is a desire to get data from later than , especially as the centenary of finland's independence in is nearing. quality of the ocred word data in the package newspapers of the th and early th century were mostly printed in the gothic (fraktur, blackletter) typeface in europe. most of the contents of digi have been printed using fraktur, antiqua is in the minority. it is well known that the typeface is difficult to recognize for ocr software (cf. e.g. holley, ; furrer and volk, ; volk et al., ). other aspects that affect the quality of the ocr recognition are, among others: quality of the original source and microfilm; scanning resolution and file format; layout of the page; ocr engine training; noisy typesetting process; and unknown fonts (cf. holley, ). as a result of these difficulties, scanned and ocred document collections have a varying amount of errors in their content. the amount of errors depends on the period and printing form of the original data. older newspapers and magazines are usually more difficult for ocr; newspapers from the early th century are usually easier. tanner et al. ( ), for example, report for the british library's th century newspaper project an estimated word correctness of %. there is no single available method or software to assess the quality of large digitized collections, but different methods can be used to approximate quality. in kettunen and pääkkönen ( ) we discussed and used different corpus analysis style methods to approximate overall lexical quality of the finnish part of the digi collection. for the swedish part, assessment is missing so far. methods include usage of parallel samples and word error rates, usage of morphological analyzers, frequency analysis of words and comparisons to comparable edited lexical data. our results show that about % of all the . b word tokens of the finnish digi can be recognized with a modern finnish morphological analyzer, omorfi. if orthographical variation of v/w in the th century finnish is taken into account and the number of out-of-vocabulary words (oovs) is estimated, the recognition rate increases to - %. the rest, about m words, is estimated to consist mostly of ocr errors, at least half of them hard ones. out of the m most frequent word types in the data that make . billion tokens, . % can be recognized. the main result of our analysis is that the collection has a relatively good quality rating, about - %. nevertheless, about a - % share of the collection needs further processing so that the overall quality of the data can improve. however, there is no direct way to higher quality data: re-ocring of the data may be difficult or too expensive/laborious due to licensing models of the proprietary ocr software or the lack of font support in open-source ocr engines. post-processing of the data with correction software may help to some extent, but it will not cure everything. erroneous ocred word data is a reality with which we have to live. use case of the material: text reuse detection and virality of newspapers computational history and the transformation of public discourse in finland - (comhis), a joint project funded by the academy of finland, is one of the first large projects that will utilize the newspaper and journal data of digi. the objective of the consortium is to reassess the scope, nature, and transnational connections of public discourse in finland - . as part of this consortium, the work package "viral texts and social networks of finnish public discourse in newspapers and journals - " (led by prof. hannu salmi), will be based on the text mining of all the digitized finnish newspapers and journals published before . the export package will be the main data source for this. the project tracks down the viral texts that spread in finnish newspapers and journals by clustering the - collection with a text reuse detection algorithm. this approach enables one to draw new conclusions about the dissemination of news and the development of a newspaper network as a part of finnish public discourse. we study, for example, what kinds of texts were widely shared. how fast did they spread and what were the most important nodes in the finnish media network? the historical newspaper and journal collection of nlf from the s to the s enables various digital humanities approaches, like topic modeling, named-entity recognition, or vector-space modeling. however, the low ocr quality of some volumes sets practical restrictions for the unbiased temporal distribution of the data. fortunately, text reuse detection is relatively resistant to ocr mistakes and other noise, which makes virality of newspapers a feasible research question. the comhis project is currently testing a program called passim for detecting similar passages with matching word n-grams, building on the methods developed for the similar study of th century us newspapers by ryan cordell, david a. smith, and their research group (cordell, ; smith et al., ). text reuse detection is an especially suitable method for a newspaper corpus. in contrast to novels, poetry, and other forms of fiction, authorship of a newspaper article was usually irrelevant in the th century publication culture. the more the news was copied the more important it was, whereas fictional texts were considered as an individual expression of their author. circulation of the texts was reinforced by the lack of effective copyright laws prior to the berne convention in . by analyzing the viral networks of finnish newspapers, our aim is not to track down the origin of a specific text, but rather to study the development of media machines and the growing social and political influence of the public sphere from a new perspective. in the finnish case, the rapid increase in newspaper publishing happened relatively late. as shown in figure , the growth of the press was almost exponential at the beginning of the th century. it thus makes sense to analyze the - data as its own group. because the project has just started, a complete analysis of the clustering results is not finished yet, but it is possible to give a few examples of widely shared text. during the time period of - , one interesting cluster encountered so far is the succession of the russian throne to tsar alexander iii. these dramatic events started with the assassination of tsar alexander ii, who died in the bomb attack by polish terrorists on march . the death of the beloved emperor became viral news. the official statement of the new ruler alexander iii to finnish people was first printed in suomalainen wirallinen lehti on march . between - march the text was printed in major newspapers around finland. the same text was also reprinted in the following years, e.g. on july in waasan lehti and on december in lappeenrannan uutiset (table ). finally, the death of alexander iii was reported in november in suomalainen wirallinen lehti and it also became a similar viral text. newspaper title, number of reprints date suomalainen wirallinen lehti, uusi suometar ( ) - - aura ( ) - - sanomia turusta, tampereen sanomat, satakunta ( ) - - waasan lehti, vaasan sanomat ( ) - - savo ( ) - - tapio, karjalatar ( ) - - hämeen sanomat ( ) - - ahti, kaiku, savonlinna, waasan lehti ( ) - - lappeenrannan uutiset ( ) - - turun lehti ( ) - - table : reprints of the inauguration statement of the emperor alexander iii virality was a more typical feature of newspapers, but it is of course possible to process all finnish journals with passim. when it comes to journals, the most shared texts are bible quotations. among the biggest clusters mined so far is the one consisting of references to the finnish translation of the book of revelations ( : ). in swedish material, john : is reprinted times over the time period, and there are lots of other widely-shared bible passages, which could provide an interesting perspective to the tempo of secularization in finland. the biggest group of clusters after the religious texts appears to be advertisements by publishing houses, banks, and insurance companies. only after that there are stories and magazine articles, which can be reprinted many years after their original time of publication. historical newspapers have been an important genre of sources for historical research. before becoming available as a digitized collection, the finnish newspapers and journals were read as originals or on microfilm. traditionally historical scholarship has been based on the ideal of close reading, which implies careful interpretation of each document before one is able to draw any conclusions based on the sources. however, in the case of the digitized newspapers, the mere quantity of available textual data makes this approach virtually impossible. franco moretti ( ) has asserted that in order to readjust the methodology of humanities to the scale of big data, we need to develop methods of distant reading to process substantial amounts of textual documents without losing analytical rigor. moreover, the humanist scholars may have to abandon any strict dichotomy between narrative and database (hayles, ). the research questions of the digital humanities often entail converting a textual corpus to a database for various forms of computational analysis and heuristics. after this, the new textual locations discovered by the computational algorithm are then closely read. for example, the text reuse detection algorithm can cluster widely shared text passages together for further analysis, but it cannot typically distinguish whether the text is an advertisement, a common bible quotation, or an interesting news article. in future it could be possible to use alto xml metadata or machine learning methods (like naive bayes classifier) to group the detected clusters according to their textual genre. conclusion as tanner ( ) says, the digital library can face a "growing unfunded mandate", as additional requirements of digital material, such as availability and accessibility, create a new kind of demand for the material, while data production resources decrease or remain the same. therefore it is crucial that research use is considered to be one impact factor, and for it to become more observable to a content or raw research data provider, such as national library of finland. collaboration with research units should be increased so that researchers can express their needs regarding what should be digitized, and they could tell if there is need for curation or special formats. however, this is a balancing act — how should a library organization best serve researchers with its limited resources? is it possible to find joint funding opportunities and actually complete tasks together, in close relationship? the national library of finland is aiming to improve this via forthcoming digital humanism and open data policies which are due to be published during . the key tenet in the policies is to work together and consider researchers as one customer segment. research usage should also be considered as a result metric for nlf, either via collaborative projects or keeping track of where the digitized materials are used. the work on the export continues. during early summer we plan to set up our own website to share the export data sets with anyone who is interested. for the statistics, we will have a short survey about the research use which we hope will also give us insight into what kind of exports would be useful in the future, and if there is something that should be taken into consideration with the long-term digitization roadmaps. the big question is the structure of the export. should it contain all of the content within one file, or should it be structurally divided so that each data item (metadata, alto, page text) is available separately. there are advantages and disadvantages in both approaches, so it needs to be determined which would be the best long-term solution with the available resources. in addition, we need to consider the content itself, to see if there is a need for the mets and the page images, too. with input from those who have the first released versions we have the opportunity to develop the export further, by adding data or adjusting the fields and their content accordingly. we anticipate a clear increase in researchers' needs which could lead to closer collaboration between nlf and researchers. acknowledgements part of this work is funded by the eu commission through its european regional development fund and the program leverage from the eu - . comhis is funded by the academy of finland, decision numbers and . references [ ] cordell, r. ( ). reprinting, circulation, and the network author in antebellum newspapers. american literary history, ( ), pp. - . http://doi.org/ . /alh/ajv [ ] finna api (in english) — finna — kansalliskirjaston kiwi. ( ). [ ] furrer, l. and volk, m. ( ). reducing ocr errors in gothic-script documents. in proceedings of language technologies for digital humanities and cultural heritage workshop, pp. - , hissar, bulgaria, september . [ ] hayles, n. k. ( ). how we think. digital media and contemporary technogenesis. chicago; london: the university of chicago press. [ ] holley, r. ( ). how good can it get? analysing and improving ocr accuracy in large scale historic newspaper digitisation programs. d-lib magazine march/april . http://doi.org/ . /march -holley [ ] hölttä, t. ( ). digitoitujen kulttuuriperintöaineistojen tutkimuskäyttö ja tutkijat. m. sc. thesis (in finnish), university of tampere, school of information sciences, degree programme in information studies and interactive media. [ ] kettunen, k. and pääkkönen, t. ( ). measuring lexical quality of a historical finnish newspaper collection — analysis of garbled ocr data with basic language technology tools and means. proceedings of the tenth international conference on language resources and evaluation (lrec ). [ ] kingsley, s. ( ). eteenpäin sopimalla, ei lakia muuttamalla. kansalliskirjasto, ( ), pp. - . [ ] moretti, f. ( ). graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for a literary history. london; new york: verso. [ ] smith, d. a., cordell, r. and mullen, a. ( ). computational methods for uncovering reprinted texts in antebellum newspapers. american literary history ( ), pp. e -e . http://doi.org/ . /alh/ajv [ ] tanner, s. ( ). using impact as a strategic tool for developing the digital library via the balanced value impact model. library leadership and management, ( ). [ ] tanner, s., muñoz, t. and ros, p. h., ( ). measuring mass text digitization quality and usefulness. lessons learned from assessing the ocr accuracy of the british library's th century online newspaper archive. d-lib magazine july/august. http://doi.org/ . /july -munoz [ ] volk, m., furrer, l. and sennrich, r. ( ). strategies for reducing and correcting ocr errors. in c. sporleder, a. bosch, and k. zervanou, editors, language technology for cultural heritage, - . springer-verlag, berlin/heidelberg. about the authors m. sc. tuula pääkkönen works in national library of finland as information systems specialist. her work includes the development of some of the tools to support digitization efforts, technical specification and projects for the digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi service. she has been working in the library in a project dealing with copyrights and data privacy topics as well as other development projects, which have dealt with digital contents, crowdsourcing and metrics. mr. jukka kervinen has worked as a systems analyst in the national library of finland since . his main responsibilities have been designing and setting up library's in house digitization workflows and post processing. his experience encompasses metadata development (mets, alto, premis, mods, marcxml), system architecture planning and database design. he is a member of alto xml editorial board since and member of mets editorial board since . dr. asko nivala is a postdoctoral researcher in cultural history at the university of turku, finland. his research focuses on early nineteenth-century cultural history and especially on the romantic era. his other research interests include the recent discussions on the digital humanities and posthumanism. nivala has co-edited the collection "travelling notions of culture in early nineteenth-century europe" (routledge ) and written the monograph "the romantic idea of the golden age in friedrich schlegel's philosophy of history" (routledge, to be published in ). dr. kimmo kettunen works at the centre for preservation and digitisation of national library of finland as a research coordinator in the digitalia project. his work includes research related to the digi.kansalliskirjasto.fi service. he has been involved especially in the quality estimation and improvement of the content of the service. he has also conducted research on named entity recognition (ner) of the ocred newspaper material. kimmo is part of the digital humanities research team at the centre. d.sc. eetu mäkelä is a computer scientist from aalto university, finland. his current main interest is to further computer science through tackling the complex issues faced by scholars in the humanities when using their tools and data. thus, he currently spends most of his time in collaboration with multiple international digital humanities research projects. through these collaborations, and through having attained his doctorate in research on data integration and linked data, he has ample experience in best practices for publishing data in as usable a form as possible. copyright ® tuula pääkkönen, jukka kervinen, asko nivala, kimmo kettunen and eetu mäkelä beyond digital human body atlases: segmenting an integrated d topological model of the human body | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /ijehmc. corpus id: beyond digital human body atlases: segmenting an integrated d topological model of the human body @article{barbeito beyonddh, title={beyond digital human body atlases: segmenting an integrated d topological model of the human body}, author={antonio barbeito and m. painho and pedro cabral and j. o'neill}, journal={int. j. e health medical commun.}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } antonio barbeito, m. painho, + author j. o'neill published computer science int. j. e health medical commun. the use of integrated models of the human body in three-dimensional environments enables the study of the anatomic structures with a high degree of interactivity and detail. the geographical information systems approach in building topological models allows overcoming certain limitations found in anatomical atlases. in this study, an integrated vector-raster d model, which defines the external surface of the human body, is expanded by adding the corresponding anatomical structures. the… expand view via publisher igi-global.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations methods citations view all topics from this paper interactivity geographic information system spatial analysis transverse wave citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency development of d models of female pelvis embedded in anatomical sections from de visible human project l. romero, m. a. gómez, j. a. j. méndez computer science teem save alert research feed d models of female pelvis structures reconstructed and represented in combination with anatomical and radiological sections l. romero, m. a. gómez, a. prats-galino, j. a. j. méndez computer science, medicine journal of medical systems save alert research feed a numerical study concerning brain stroke detection by microwave imaging systems i. bisio, a. fedeli, + authors e. tavanti computer science multimedia tools and applications pdf view excerpt, cites methods save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency an integrated model of the human body antonio barbeito, m. painho, pedro cabral, j. o'neill geography save alert research feed d interactive topological modeling using visible human dataset p. beylot, p. gingins, + authors j. fasel computer science comput. graph. forum pdf save alert research feed visible korean human: its techniques and applications j. s. park, m. s. chung, s. b. hwang, b. shin, h. s. park medicine clinical anatomy pdf save alert research feed semi-automated color segmentation of anatomical tissue. c. imelińska, m. downes, w. yuan computer science, medicine computerized medical imaging and graphics : the official journal of the computerized medical imaging society save alert research feed d visualisation for education, diagnosis and treatment of lliotibial band syndrome e. beveridge, m. ma, p. rea, k. bale, p. anderson engineering international conference on computer medical applications (iccma) pdf save alert research feed creation of a female and male segmentation dataset based on chinese visible human (cvh) yi wu, l. tan, + authors s. zhang computer science, medicine comput. medical imaging graph. view excerpt, references background save alert research feed topological models and frameworks for d spatial objects s. zlatanova, a. abdul-rahman, w. shi computer science comput. geosci. pdf save alert research feed body segment classification for visible human cross section slices z. xue, s. antani, l. long, dina demner-fushman, g. thoma computer science ieee th international symposium on computer-based medical systems highly influential pdf view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed screened poisson surface reconstruction m. kazhdan, hugues hoppe mathematics, computer science togs pdf save alert research feed on problems and benefits of d topology on under-specified geometries in geomorphology m. löwner geology pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms city, university of london institutional repository citation: puschmann, c. & bastos, m. t. ( ). how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms. plos one, ( ), e . doi: . /journal.pone. this is the published version of the paper. this version of the publication may differ from the final published version. permanent repository link: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ / link to published version: http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. copyright and reuse: city research online aims to make research outputs of city, university of london available to a wider audience. copyright and moral rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. urls from city research online may be freely distributed and linked to. city research online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ publications@city.ac.uk city research online http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ mailto:publications@city.ac.uk research article how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms cornelius puschmann *‡, marco bastos ‡ faculty of social sciences, zeppelin university, am seemooser horn d, friedrichshafen d- , germany, franklin humanities institute, duke university, s. buchanan blvd, bay box , durham, north carolina , united states of america ‡ these authors contributed equally to this work. * cornelius.puschmann@hiig.de abstract in this paper we compare two academic networking platforms, hastac and hypotheses, to show the distinct ways in which they serve specific communities in the digital humanities (dh) in different national and disciplinary contexts. after providing background information on both platforms, we apply co-word analysis and topic modeling to show thematic similari- ties and differences between the two sites, focusing particularly on how they frame dh as a new paradigm in humanities research. we encounter a much higher ratio of posts using humanities-related terms compared to their digital counterparts, suggesting a one-way de- pendency of digital humanities-related terms on the corresponding unprefixed labels. the results also show that the terms digital archive, digital literacy, and digital pedagogy are rel- atively independent from the respective unprefixed terms, and that digital publishing, digital libraries, and digital media show considerable cross-pollination between the specialization and the general noun. the topic modeling reproduces these findings and reveals further dif- ferences between the two platforms. our findings also indicate local differences in how the emerging field of dh is conceptualized and show dynamic topical shifts inside these respective contexts. introduction the advent of the internet has profoundly affected scholarly communication [ – ]. few schol- ars, whether in the sciences, social sciences, or humanities can imagine conducting research or organizing teaching without relying on email, digital library services, or e-learning environ- ments. formal academic publishing has undergone a series of changes with the increased avail- ability of electronic publications, whether under an open access or toll access regime [ ]. structural changes in the dissemination of knowledge have largely been gradual and evolution- ary: while the volume of scholarly publications has greatly increased in the past decades and the formal and distribution models have diversified, the form and function of research articles and scholarly monographs have remained relatively stable [ ]. plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / open access citation: puschmann c, bastos m ( ) how digital are the digital humanities? an analysis of two scholarly blogging platforms. plos one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. academic editor: vincent larivière, université de montréal, canada received: june , accepted: november , published: february , copyright: © puschmann, bastos. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. data availability statement: all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files. funding: this work was supported by the national science foundation under grant number and the german research foundation under grant number pu / - . the funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. competing interests: the authors have declared that no competing interests exist. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /journal.pone. &domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / meanwhile, the range of avenues available for the dissemination of informal scholarly com- munication has increased exponentially. in addition to formal publication venues, scholars can now communicate their findings in (micro)blogs, wikis, social networking sites (sns) and countless other social web platforms [ – ]. such services carry both opportunities and risks for early-career researchers, and they are used for a wide variety of purposes and with a range of motives [ – ]. while researchers are able to disseminate their findings more quickly and reach out to broader audiences than was previously possible, they also risk that their work will not be acknowledged in more traditional and hierarchical professional structures. informal genres of scholarly communication frequently lack peer review and rely on new measures of impact, rather than the established currency of acceptance within a field [ ]. as a result, re- searchers have overall been very careful in their acceptance of digital formats that compete with established forms of expert knowledge dissemination, largely choosing instead to focus on established formats [ ]. this is especially true in the humanities, where conservatism towards new formats is particularly strong. digital humanities (dh) can be broadly characterized as the adoption of an array of computational methodologies for humanities research [ , ]. during the early nineties, dh scholarship developed under the umbrella of several academic organizations dedicated to what was then commonly referred to as humanities computing [ ]. these organizations brought together scholars from different fields interested in exploring computational methods for traditionally-defined humanities scholarship [ ]. the suffix “digital” is increasingly used to delineate the new computational areas of humanities research (i.e. digital literature, digital archaeology, digital history, etc.). the introduction of computational methods aims among other things to supplement established humanities research routines and explore new method- ological avenues, such as text analysis and encoding; archive creation and curation; mapping and gis; and modeling of archaeological and historical data [ , ]. since the early s the term digital humanities has also been used to refer to humanities research defined by a data-driven approach, in which summarization and visualization are im- portant methodological cornerstones. media and cultural studies, library and archival studies, digital pedagogy, and the recently emergence of moocs have also been referred to as digital humanities in a more general sense [ ]. as a result, dh has evolved to incorporate a range of different definitions and is subject to considerable interpretative flexibility [ ]. the central hypothesis of this study is that the variety of terms and topics associated with dh is locally configured, and that their makeup reflects different (and to a degree contradictory) conceptual- izations of what constitutes dh. dh and social media because of its interdisciplinary and international character, its affinity for digital media, and its recent emergence as a scholarly movement, dh has been comparatively strongly impacted by informal communication tools such as blogs and twitter, with junior scholars invested in dh research using such tools widely to organize, network, and collaborate. kirschenbaum notes the important role of social media for establishing and galvanizing dh as a movement: “twit- ter, along with blogs and other online outlets, has inscribed the digital humanities as a network topology, that is to say, lines drawn by aggregates of affinities, formally and functionally mani- fest in who follows whom, who friends whom, who tweets whom, and who links to what.” [ ] usage of twitter and blogs has contributed to establishing dh as a brand, and it has helped to increase its visibility on a global scale [ ]. while actively using social media does not make one a digital humanist, social media applications seem to be perceived as valuable instruments for intra-community communication in the dh community, rather than being used just out of how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / curiosity or for self-promotion [ ]. crucially, there are scholars who take up blogging and twitter because they are important channels of communication in the dh community. such tools therefore increasingly constitute scholarly infrastructure to their users in the same sense that library services and communal mailing lists constitute infrastructure. while traditional scholarly organizations are struggling to integrate social media, dh scholars, espe- cially junior researchers, have considerable uptake of such tools, reflected for example in the strong use of twitter at the annual digital humanities conference [ , ]. dh can therefore be characterized as an emerging digital scholarly network—a group of scholars that has integrat- ed digital genres of scholarly communication into its communicative infrastructure from the onset. inside such a network in which heterogeneous links connect different actors it should be possible to study the flow of ideas, trends, and discourses much more effectively through social media than purely by assessing formal publications in scholarly journals and monographs [ ]. hastac the humanities, arts, science, and technology alliance and collaboratory (hastac) is an online community and social network that connects researchers, young scholars, and the gen- eral public interested in a wide range of subjects associated with dh and peer-to-peer learning. founded in by davidson and goldberg [ ], hastac emerged as a consortium of edu- cators, scientists, and technology designers funded by the national science foundation, the digital promise initiative, and the macarthur foundation, with infrastructure provided by duke university and the university of california humanities research institute. hastac dif- fers from similar initiatives in that it is largely decentralized with content generated by a net- work of over ten thousand members including university faculty, students, and general public. the network platform is built on the drupal content management system and requires an inclusive free-of-charge membership. member participation varies widely, with many register- ing but passively interacting with the website by reading the content and a robust minority ex- pressing their thoughts and communicating their interests by writing or commenting on blog posts, joining discussion forums, or contributing information about current events. according to the initiative’s website, “hastac members are motivated by the conviction that the digital era provides rich opportunities for informal and formal learning and for collaborative, net- worked research that extends across traditional disciplines, across the boundaries of the acade- my and the community, across the two cultures of humanism and technology, across the divide of thinking versus making, and across social strata and national borders.” [ ]. while the platform is interdisciplinary in nature, it is strongly focused on learning and dh-related topics. hypotheses hypotheses is a publication platform for academic blogs. launched in , it is funded and operated by the centre for open electronic publishing (cléo), a unit that brings together two major french research institutions and two universities: the centre national de la recherche scientifique (cnrs), the École des hautes Études en sciences sociales (ehess), the aix-mar- seille université, and the université d’avignon. in addition to hypotheses, cléo provides other tools via the openedition portal: revues.org, a platform for journals in the humanities and so- cial sciences and calenda, a calendaring tool. according to the hypotheses website “[a]cademic blogs can take numerous forms: accounts of archaeological excavations, current collective research or fieldwork; thematic research; books or periodicals reviews; newsletter etc. hypotheses offers academic blogs the enhanced visibility of its humanities and social sciences platform. the hypotheses team provides support how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / http://revues.org and assistance to researchers for the technical and the editorial aspects of their project.” [ ] to publish on hypotheses, a blog must first be admitted by the platform’s editorial team. only researchers employed by institutions of higher learning are eligible to join hypotheses after having been evaluated, and the criterion for positive evaluation is a consistent focus on aca- demic issues. through its policy the platform maintains some characteristics of a formal publi- cation outlet, aiming to stimulate both open discussion within scholarly disciplines and exchange with the broader public. hypotheses is based on the wordpress content management platform, with a home page that features current contributions from participant blogs. in addition to english, a large por- tion of hypotheses’ content is composed in french, german, spanish, and other languages, but for the purpose of this study we only considered posts published in english. similarities and differences both platforms share strong similarities: they aim to promote new forms of scholarly commu- nication and knowledge dissemination. at the same time, there are also considerable differ- ences: hastac places a clear emphasis on learning and also mentions media and communication in its self-characterization. while hypotheses is also interdisciplinary in char- acter, it has a stronger slant towards traditional humanities subfields, and specifically towards history. the concept of scholarly blogging outlined on the hypotheses website points to its role for intradisciplinary communication, whereas hastac is more geared towards interdisciplin- ary exchange. despite these differences, the two platforms make an ideal case for comparison on the grounds of their functional similarities. both are related to dh, both seek to integrate blogging into scholarly communication, and both are publicly funded. furthermore, both plat- forms have been operational for a similar timespan and attract broadly comparable user communities. research design our aim is to characterize differences in the discourse that takes place on hastac and hy- potheses reflecting different cultural implementations of dh and different understandings of what constitutes dh. to this end, we formulated two research questions: how frequent are particular keywords associated with (digital) humanities on the two platforms (h ) and what are thematic differences in the distribution of topics in the two sites (h )? we approached the first question by counting the co-occurrence of humanities-related terms and their digital equivalents (e.g. history—digital history) on blog posts. in a second step we applied topic modeling to the post content to identify substantial thematic differences between the commu- nities in both platforms and their respective approaches to blogging. based on the self-charac- terizations of both platforms, we expected there to be both overlap and variation with regards to the adoption of dh-related labels and overall disciplinary focus. data the data from the two platforms were collected from database dumps containing the sql table structure and the blog post content. hastac data included content posted between august , and august , , together with the profile data of , users. most users shared brief biographical information and identified a set of topical interests, institutional affiliation, and links to personal websites. in addition to the posts themselves, the hypotheses data includ- ed metadata such as author information, timestamp, text, internal and external links in each post, which was collected between the st of july and the rd of june . how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / the language of posts was detected automatically using the language identification system langid.py for python, which supports a large number of languages and achieves a high level of accuracy without requiring prior in-domain classifier training [ ]. the material initially in- cluded a large number of posts published in languages other than english ( , posts) pub- lished over different periods of time. for the purpose of this investigation, we only considered blog posts in english published between the st of july and the th of june , thus ex- tracting , posts from hastac and , posts from hypotheses. we performed a co- word analysis over these , posts [ ] and subsequently extracted a random sample of , posts from each platform to perform topic modeling. fig. shows a frequency histogram of blog posts in the abovementioned period on a logarithmic scale, with hastac posts being comparatively more frequent from to , and posts on hypotheses being comparatively more frequent in the period thereafter. activity on both platforms drops during the summer vacation months (july for hastac and august for hypotheses) reflecting seasonal work patterns. methods we approached our first question (h ) by means of a co-word analysis of keywords associated with humanities and digital humanities research [ ]. we used one vector of twenty humani- ties areas (anthropology, archaeology, archive, art, culture, ethnography, history, humanities, learning, libraries, literacy, literature, media, pedagogy, preservation, publishing, rhetoric, scholarship, storytelling, knowledge) and another identical vector plus the suffix “digital” (digi- tal anthropology, digital archaeology, digital archive, digital art, digital culture, digital ethnog- raphy, digital history, digital humanities, digital learning, digital libraries, digital literacy, digital literature, digital media, digital pedagogy, digital preservation, digital publishing, digital rhetoric, digital scholarship, digital storytelling, digital knowledge). these keywords include terms that describe fields or general domains associated with the humanities on the basis of raw token frequencies identified in the two datasets. this approach comes with considerable limitations. firstly, the semantics of the terms differ considerably, as some describe fields of scholarship (history—digital history), while others are more general and tend to be polysemous (knowledge, media). the same applies to their prefixed counterparts, with digital history likely fig . english-language blog posts published on both sites between and . doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / identifying a field, while digital media most likely describes certain kinds of technical media. furthermore, issues of precision and recall arise, due to which not all discussion of the relevant phenomena is reliably captured and some of what is captured relates to other concepts. in spite of these limitations, we found co-word analysis to be useful, because it shows the entrenchment of the terms as convenient and fashionable labels on both platforms. we accept that such labels do not narrowly identify concepts, but believe that they are suitable to characterize the success of particular terms around which the dh community can rally. using these terms we generated a series of term-document matrices for each of the net- works. we visualized the association between humanities and dh by performing a multinomi- al logistic regression on the terms. we relied on the textir package for r [ ] to convert the term-to-term co-occurrence matrix to a matrix of the log-odds ratios of co-occurrence. the re- sulting matrices (hastac and hypotheses) scales the word similarity as a function of word frequency, with terms of similar semantic content numerically represented as being similar to one another [ ]. after converting the log-odds ratios to distance matrices using cosine simi- larity [ , ], we relied on multidimensional scaling [ ] to visualize humanities and dh terms in a latent semantic space [ ] with a two-dimensional density surface [ ]. the second question (h ) was addressed using latent dirichlet allocation [ ] implementa- tion for r [ ]. r package topicmodels allows the probabilistic modeling of term frequency oc- currences in documents and estimation of similarities between documents and words using an additional layer of latent variables referred to as topics. the package provides the basic func- tions for fitting topic models based on data structures from the text mining package tm [ ]. topics were modeled using a mixed-membership approach in which documents are not as- sumed to belong to single topics, but to simultaneously belong to several topics, with varying distributions across documents. to equally represent both platforms, we drew a random sam- ple of , posts from each platform from the data previously described. prior to mapping the documents to the term frequency vector, we tokenized the posts and processed the tokens by removing punctuation, numbers, stemming, and stop words, in order to sparsen the matrices. we also omitted very short documents (< characters) for the same purpose. ethics statement. the authors confirm that the study is in compliance with the terms and conditions of hastac and hypotheses. results co-word analysis with respect to our first research question (h ) we found that unprefixed keywords occurred in a much higher ratio relative to their prefixed counterparts. table shows the number of oc- currences of humanities and dh terms on both platforms, with a high concentration of posts focusing on art, media, history, culture, and humanities, followed by learning, publishing, and libraries. the areas of research with fewer occurrences are archaeology, storytelling, ethnogra- phy, and preservation. hastac presented a much higher number of references to humanities ( , ) and dh ( , ) in comparison to hypotheses ( , and , respectively). the ratio of posts with humanities to dh related terms is also higher on hastac at seven posts on hu- manities to each post on dh while on hypotheses the ratio is of fifty-one posts on humanities to each post on dh. in fact, we found no mention to nine areas of dh in the hypotheses sample. although the distribution of humanities and dh terms is skewed towards hastac, the distribution per area of research on humanities is fairly similar. fig. shows a cluster dendo- gram of term co-occurrences based on euclidean distance, with humanities areas appearing at the top of the hierarchical structure and dh terms appearing near the bottom. art, culture, how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / and media are likely to also refer to general terms rather than only humanities disciplines, therefore presenting a higher value of intergroup dissimilarity and appearing higher up in the hierarchy. more narrowly defined areas such as learning and digital media are followed on hastac, while the hierarchical clustering of topics on hypotheses is topped by history and publishing. fig. shows internal differences and dissimilarities between the two platforms in their usage of the labels listed in table . dh subfields are much more distinct from other terms in hastac that they are on hy- potheses, where many of the dh labels are either uncommon or not used at all. unsurprisingly, we found that most blog posts that made reference to dh terms also included references to the unprefixed terms, but not the other way around. from the , posts on hastac that in- cluded references to humanities-related terms ( , occurrences), % of them also included references to the corresponding label in dh. however, from the , posts on hastac that included references to digital humanities terms ( , occurrences), only % of them also in- cluded references to the corresponding term in the humanities. this asymmetry is actually more pronounced in the hypotheses network. from the , posts on hypotheses that in- cluded references to humanities-related terms ( , occurrences), % also included refer- ences to the corresponding term in dh. however, from the posts on hypotheses that included references to dh-related terms ( occurrences), only % also included references to the corresponding humanities area. the dependence of digital humanities on established humanities labels is consistent, but it varies considerably within each of the areas investigated. the average percentage of posts per area that include reference to both humanities and dh is still quite skewed, as % of posts on hastac (mean = . , median = . ) and hypotheses (mean = . , median = . ) dedicated to digital humanities areas also including references to the main humanities area. the reverse table . number of occurrences of humanities and dh terms. hastac hu hastac dh hypo hu hypo dh anthropology na archaeology na archive art culture ethnography na history humanities knowledge na learning na libraries literacy na literature na media pedagogy na preservation publishing rhetoric na scholarship storytelling doi: . /journal.pone. .t how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / dependency is also observed in the aggregated data per area, as less than % of posts on has- tac (mean = . , median = . ) and hypotheses (mean = . , median = . ) dedicated to hu- manities also included references to the related dh area. however, the dependency is noticeably lower in some fields of humanities. preservation and archival studies presented a much lower ratio of posts dedicated to digital humanities that also referred to the associated humanities area ( % and % on hastac, and % and % on hypotheses). storytelling, literacy, and pedagogy are also particularly independent in the hastac network, with %, %, and % of posts making reference to digital terminology without mentioning the related fig . hierarchical cluster dendrogram of term co-occurrences in both platforms. doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / humanities field. on hypotheses, art is the term most detached from the main humanities area, with % of posts dedicated to digital art not making reference to the unprefixed field. some areas show a strong intersection of humanities and dh terms. a considerable propor- tion of articles that refer to humanities, storytelling, and libraries also made reference to digital humanities, digital storytelling, and digital libraries ( %, %, and % on hastac, and %, %, and % on hypotheses). media, scholarship, literacy, and preservation also pre- sented higher-than-average levels of cross-pollination on hastac, with %, %, %, and % of the articles focusing on these terms also making reference to their niche digital human- ities label. most of these terms also presented a considerable level of intersection of dh with general terms. we further explored the interplay between humanities and dh by performing a multinomi- al logistic regression on the terms. the matrices of log-odds ratios of co-occurrence indicate the word similarity and allow for visualizing humanities and dh terms in a latent semantic space with a two-dimensional density surface. fig. shows a contour-sociogram of the terms with substantial cross-pollination across different topics of humanities and digital humanities research. hastac posts with humanities and dh terms are clearly clustered around four main groups. the first includes terms associated with humanities at large, culture, and arts; the second is dedicated to education and learning; the third to archives and libraries; and the last clusters terms associated with anthropology and history. on the other hand, hypotheses posts with humanities and dh terms are mostly concentrated on a single cluster due to many topics lacking more entry points. nonetheless, humanities content published on hypotheses presents clusters around humanities and media; archives, history, and arts; and one cluster grouping li- brary-related materials. the vast majority of articles focusing on digital media, digital libraries, digital art, digital hu- manities, digital culture, and digital publishing also included references to the main humanities area. this is particularly the case on hastac ( %, %, %, %, %, and %, respective- ly), but also on hypotheses ( %, %, %, %, %, and %, respectively). in short, the re- sults predictably show a considerable one-way dependency of dh on the unprefixed keyword, and a relative independence of the latter relative to the former. however, there are a few dh fig . density curves of log-odds co-occurrence ratios between humanities-related terms. larger labels represent thematic areas manually identified. doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / areas that presented substantial independence from the related humanities area, namely preser- vation, archive, storytelling, literacy, and pedagogy. we interpret this emancipation as an indi- cator for the establishment of these terms as convenient labels, which, while not necessarily identifying clear-cut concepts, provide attractive brands for the dh community to rally around. topic modeling we proceeded by exploring the topical differences between the two platforms to test our sec- ond research question (h ). we modeled twenty topics for the combined corpus of both plat- forms ( , posts each). table provides an overview of twelve selected topics and their ten most distinct terms by rank, some of which related to particular domains (health, history, law, art, games), while others are related to more general themes (chatter, learning). topics were labeled through a qualitative interpretation of the most salient topic keywords and table . common topics on hastac and hypotheses. topic : health topic : cold war topic : law topic : dh health war law digital medicine university legal humanities medical korean series university history history turkish hastac food korea history new university cold also media social culture said will urban women one scholars care art book technology research visual new research topic : socmed topic : data topic : art topic : urban std social can university urban can data art social new use museum political media will history new one digital heritage international cultural information museums studies culture project cultural european time also music global digital site new economic space work sound management topic : gaming topic : chatter topic : learn topic : energy game one students energy games people learning climate video like will change play can can policy virtual just class countries world time new will one even education global can think digital gas gaming now one carbon worlds many work paper doi: . /journal.pone. .t how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / reading a sample of the associated blog posts, meaning that they retain a certain subjective bias. most domain areas identified are strongly associated with content published on hypotheses through individual blogs with a clear and consistent topical focus (e.g. health, history, law, energy), while hastac has a stronger association with metatopics such as learning, data, and gaming. some topics of general interest (e.g. social media and data) are shared between the plat- forms. conference calls and job advertisements form two distinct yet evenly distributed topic based on their stylistic uniformity. in addition to pointing out thematic differences, topics also reflect differences in style between the two sites. topic # (chatter) is lexically distinct from other topics in that it uses much more general nouns (time, people) and verbs (think, know). it reflects a set of essayistic posts, particularly on hastac, which discuss controversial issues and tend to be relatively short. spam is also a distinct topic, but one that is also shared between both sites. we also found that while some topics overlap somewhat, many are highly characteristic of one of the two platforms. topics # (health), # (cold war), # (law), # (art), # (urban studies), and # (energy) are relatively clearly associated with hypotheses, while topics # (digital humanities), # (gaming), # (chatter), and # (learning) are prevalent on has- tac. topics # (social media) and # (data) show a more even distribution between the two sites. similar to our findings in the co-word analysis, # (digital humanities) is more prevalent in hastac than in hypotheses. the distribution of topic scores suggests that a number of lin- guistically distinct thematic areas exist on hypotheses, and that these areas follow disciplinary patterns. by contrast, hastac posts are less clearly associated with a single field of inquiry and most closely associated with metatopics such as learning and general conversation. has- tac posts are also linked to the discussion of digital humanities and the usage of labels relat- ed to dh. the differences between the two platforms may point to diverging goals associated with scholarly blogging: addressing broad interdisciplinary issues before a wider public vs. con- ducting focused scholarly discussion within fields. the difference in the number of unique authors between the two platforms ( authors on hastac vs. authors on hypotheses) may influence the result of the topic modeling, with a few very specific topics present on hypotheses not represented on hastac (e.g. cold war). nonetheless, the results confirm the observations drawn from the co-word analysis, with topics on hypotheses tending to be more disciplinarily aligned and connected exclusively to a single area of research, while posts on hastac are more likely to pick up interdisciplinary and gen- eral themes. fig. shows the topic scores in the selected topics, with each dot representing a post and its color indicating the platform. discussion the results reported in this study can be summarized in two parts. firstly, we found a substan- tial one-way dependency of dh terms on their unprefixed counterparts, as most blog posts dedicated to dh also included references to the corresponding humanities term ( % on has- tac and % on hypotheses). dh-related labels are considerably more frequent in hastac pointing to an unequal adoption of digital humanities-related terms in different local contexts. secondly, we found a tendency in hypotheses towards focused thematic areas representing dis- ciplinary interests contrasted with a tendency to discuss more general, cross-disciplinary themes in hastac. in terms of institutional branches of humanities research, history is the areas with the largest number of posts across the networks for the sample of topics considered in this study. areas that are not traditionally associated with humanities research (or institutions that support the how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / field), i.e. library and media, also account for a considerable portion of the posts. we also found considerable topical differences between the two platforms. while traditional areas of the humanities and social sciences (history, art, law) are clearly represented in hypotheses, hastac is topically more cross-disciplinary and less focused on single disciplines. some of these topics show considerable overlap between the networks (i.e. social media and data), highlighting the fact that there are areas in which users of hastac and hypotheses have simi- lar interests, while others are considerably more predominant in one of the networks. although both networks are on the forefront of the digital humanities research agenda, they present considerable differences in how explicitly they use new disciplinary labels (hastac) and ad- dress well-established disciplinary themes without explicitly associating them with dh (hypotheses). the differences we observed highlight that two platforms that attract broadly similar user communities may still differ considerably with regards to topics. we interpret the differences in adoption of digital humanities terminologies and topics across the networks to mirror dif- ferent developments in dh. whereas digital learning, digital literacy, and particularly digital scholarship are particularly prominent labels on hastac, hypotheses is mostly focused on digital libraries, digital history, and digital archives. these differences are of qualitative and quantitative nature reflecting not just the personal preferences of bloggers and users, but may also indicate broader conceptual differences. while blog posts in hastac tend to raise issues suitable for (controversial) discussion, contributions in hypotheses more closely mirror tradi- tional expository humanities genres (e.g. book chapters or essays). moreover, while hastac is a social network in which users can create profiles and interact with other users by posting and commenting on content, hypotheses is a publishing platform with lesser emphasis on community building than hastac, and a closer alignment with traditional genres of publishing. the content of each network also presents considerable variation in terms of formats and style. the prominence of topic # (chatter) in hastac indicates that hastac’s blog en- tries are conceptually more like casual conversation rather than academic writing. as blogs serve different purposes for different users, the data necessarily includes posts of different gen- res comprising of short essays, conference reviews, book reports, group discussions, and fig . distribution of posts per topic, with posts in red from hastac and posts in blue from hypotheses. doi: . /journal.pone. .g how digital are the digital humanities? plos one | doi: . /journal.pone. february , / general academic advertising. while hastac and hypotheses are interdisciplinary in charac- ter, they have a strong slant towards the humanities, particularly towards learning and digital media on hastac, and specifically towards history on hypotheses. common to both net- works is the small proportion of users producing the large majority of the content, which leads to a typical long-tail distribution of content within the platforms. in the last instance, the results reported in this study show that the variety of terms and top- ics associated with dh is locally configured and reflects different conceptualizations of what constitutes dh. we expect this study to be informative for future research grappling with the rapid establishment of dh in humanities departments. at any rate, it will be interesting to fol- low the ongoing maturation of both platforms and their respective approaches to scholarly blogging, as well as the different conceptualizations of digital humanities scholarship in north american and european contexts. supporting information s materials. hastac dataset with , entries including timestamp and blog posts. (zip) s materials. hypotheses dataset with , entries including timestamp and blog posts. 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http://dx.doi.org/ . /b:scie. . .e http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmlr. . . - . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmlr. . . - . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm 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e f d e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice edinburgh research explorer digital editions of text citation for published version: franzini, g, terras, m & mahony, s , 'digital editions of text: surveying user requirements in the digital humanities', journal on computing and cultural heritage, vol. , no. . https://doi.org/ . / digital object identifier (doi): . / link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: peer reviewed version published in: journal on computing and cultural heritage publisher rights statement: © acm, . this is the author's version of the work. it is posted here by permission of acm for your personal 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).html digital editions of text: surveying user requirements in the digital humanities greta franzinia, melissa terrasb, simon mahonya auniversity college london, ucl centre for digital humanities buniversity of edinburgh, college of arts, humanities and social sciences abstract this paper presents the findings of a web survey designed to better understand the expectations and use of digital editions of texts. the survey, modelled upon a detailed analysis of projects, recorded complete responses, shedding light on user requirements of digital editions. specifically, the survey indicates that issues of data reuse, licensing, image availability, and comprehensive documentation are the most requested features of digital editions although ones which seldom are provided. this analysis feeds into previous studies on good practice in building digital humanities resources and puts forward practical recommendations for both creators and funders of digital editions in an e ort to promote a stronger consideration of user needs. this survey will be of interest to those who produce digital editions of texts, including developers and engineers, and will also be of interest to those who commission and fund these projects, such as universities, libraries and archives, whose documentary collections are often showcased in digital editions. introduction "good idea this survey!" since the early s there has been a great amount of effort put into the creation of digital textual editions. a digital textual edition can be broadly defined as a reconstruction of a literary text inserted in the text's print or manuscript tradition and which makes use of digital technologies to reproduce any level of detail of that text. to better understand the methods, technologies and rationale behind the production of digital editions, we created a catalogue that has so far identified and categorised of these projects produced worldwide. the user- side of digital editions, however, has not received equal attention. the study described in this article follows on from the few existing efforts in this relatively unexplored area and sought to answer the following research question: what are the expectations of digital editions in the digital humanities and how do these correlate with existing digital editions? here, we compare the findings of our analysis of digital editions, which detailed their attributes and implementation, with the results of a widespread user survey that identified the important and salient features the community most desires. we compare and contrast the two, resulting in a series of practical recommendations for creators and funders of digital editions, indicating that issues of data reuse, licensing, image availability, and comprehensive documentation are the most requested features of digital editions (although ones which seldom are provided). this comment left by a participant of this survey (in reply to question - see further below). see: https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at. this analysis was undertaken by the first author. all numerical considerations made in this paper with regard to the catalogue of digital editions reflect the state of the project as of may . since then, new digital editions have been added and these are not included in the data analysis described here. paper is the first comparative analysis of the differences between what the digital humanities community who builds online digital editions of texts provides, and what the user-base wants. it therefore provides useful guidance for those producing digital editions of texts and will also be of interest to those who commission, fund, and support these projects, including universities, libraries and archives, whose documentary collections are often showcased in digital editions. digital editions in the digital humanities, the term 'digital edition' is typically used to denote projects that make use of digital technologies to reproduce editions and transcriptions of literary texts, be those inscribed on tablets or penned on papyrus, vellum or paper. digital editions themselves are to be considered an asset of cultural heritage, as tomasi explains: le edizioni digitali fanno parte del patrimonio culturale e vanno quindi valorizzate al pari delle raccolte librarie, archivistiche e museali, anche in considerazione della realizzazione di digital libraries nella forma di aggregatori di risorse come strumento di accesso integrato al patrimonio culturale [...]. ( , p. ) the multiple definitions and types of (digital) edition that exist are listed in the lexicon of scholarly editing. scholars distinguish between digital and digitised editions –the former indicating interactivity as opposed to mere reproductions of analogue material–, or between digital editions and digital scholarly editions –the latter describing a project with a strong critical component. digital editions are a key interest in the digital humanities. for almost forty years, the community has been building these resources (vanhoutte ), which now number in the hundreds (franzini et al., ). a handful of digital editions are worth mentioning to briefly show the range of contributions they make to textual scholarship. one of the earliest digital editions produced was the canterbury tales project; conceived in , published seven years later on cd-rom (robinson, ) and now part of a collaborative editing platform , this project bears witness to developments over the past twenty years. another example is the codex sinaiticus project, widely recognised as one of the first endeavours to virtually reunite a disbanded work, in this case a fourth century manuscript of the christian bible whose leaves are scattered between the uk, russia, egypt and germany. the briefwechsel sauer-seuffert project builds a body of correspondence into a dynamic timeline. and, finally, the digital dead sea scrolls project mimics the act of rolling through parchment scrolls allowing users to interactively select regions on an image to inspect the corresponding text. these examples show the variety of projects available, often carried out in order to provide wide access to cultural heritage, which would otherwise be restricted to experts (e.g. researchers, conservators the following is an english translation of the quote by the first author: "digital editions form part of cultural heritage and should, therefore, be valued equally to library, archival and museum collections; they should also be considered for inclusion in digital libraries –intended here as resource-aggregators– as access tools to cultural heritage [...]." see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://uahost.uantwerpen.be/lse/index.php/lexicon/editio n-digital/ van hulle has published an annotated list of key theoretical works in the field ( ), to which the authors would add hockey ( ) and more recent volumes, including sutherland and deegan ( ), pierazzo ( ), driscoll and pierazzo ( ), sahle ( ) and mcgann ( ). available at: http://www.textualcommunities.usask.ca/web/canterbury-tales the codex sinaiticus project is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.codexsinaiticus.org/en/ see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://sauer-seuffert.onb.ac.at see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dss.collections.imj.org.il and other individuals who are specifically granted access) or to special occasions (e.g. temporary exhibitions in libraries or museums). related work despite the large number of digital editions being created, no extensive study has been conducted to discuss the needs of users of digital editions, with the consequent result that anybody attempting to do such research, or build a digital edition, does so with very little prior evidence as to usage patterns or requirements. in , the lairah (log analysis of internet resources in the arts and the humanities) initiative analysed twenty-one digital resources and found that: p[rincipal]i[nvestigator]s [...] infer[red] user requirements from their own behaviour. (warwick et al., , p. ) in , terras stated that project reports typically disclose information about the number of visits, downloads and time spent on a particular page but not the users’ actual experiences, and that few users self-report (terras , pp. - ). in the same year, an article entitled 'electronic editions for everyone' hinted at users but, in fact, mainly discusses the difficulties creators face in building digital editions for a wide range of users, not the identity of these users nor their needs for digital editions (robinson, ). in , hughes' volume evaluating and measuring the value, use and impact of digital collections examined, as the title suggests, approaches to evaluating digital collections, not digital editions, even though digital editions can, in certain cases, be considered collections or archives in the sense that they collect documents that make-up a particular literary work: in a digital environment, archive has gradually come to mean a purposeful collection of surrogates. as we know, meanings change over time, and archive in a digital context has come to suggest something that blends features of editing and archiving. to meld features of both — to have the care of treatment and annotation of an edition and the inclusiveness of an archive — is one of the tendencies of recent work in electronic editing. one such project, the william blake archive, was awarded a prize from the modern language association recently as a distinguished scholarly edition. (price, ) in , dot porter published an article entitled 'medievalists and the scholarly digital edition' in which she summarised the results of two surveys she conducted in and to learn more about medievalists' attitudes toward electronic resources, including digital editions (porter, ). both surveys asked participants from different departments to indicate their use of print and digital editions in a five-point likert scale (electronic only; electronic mostly; electronic and print; print mostly; print only). her first survey, circulated in , addressed a random controlled sample of faculty members of medieval studies in different departments and was delivered via mail ( participants) and email ( participants); of the surveys sent, ( . %) were completed (ibid., p. ). a second survey was prepared in and targeted a wider audience. to do so, porter again selected a random controlled sample of faculty members but also shared the survey via twitter, facebook and mailing lists. the total number of respondents of the survey was ( from faculty, from the open survey). the difference between the two surveys, see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.ucl.ac.uk/infostudies/lairah/ porter informs, was that the survey did not ask about the use of electronic books (i.e. those available on e-readers such as kindle, nook and the ipad), which were only popularised a decade later (ibid., p. ). the results of the survey indicated a preference of print over electronic editions, possibly because of the lower number of electronic resources available at that time. in the survey, a majority of all groups except for music and history again reported a preference for print editions. in summary, porter's experiments showed that the nine- year gap between surveys did not record a large shift in medievalists' usage of digital editions, a behaviour which, she posits, might be explained by their lack of interest in this type of resource (as opposed to electronic journals and facsimiles) and "a lack of understanding by non- digital-editing medievalists about what exactly a digital scholarly edition is" (ibid., p. ). more recent monographs on digital scholarly editing, such as digital critical editions by apollon et al. ( ) also do not give much space to user-studies (franzini, ). a mit online announcement searching for people to test the infinite ulysses digital edition is one of a very small number of initiatives interested in understanding how a project is used (visconti, ). more worryingly, at the conference of the european society for textual scholarship (ests) entitled 'users of digital editions' –the first effort of a well- established scholarly network to examine users and their needs– only one paper touched upon the topic and that described a user interface. interfaces of digital editions were also the central theme of the conference digital scholarly editions as interfaces organised by the digital scholarly editions initial training network (dixit) . in the same year, dillen and nyet ( ) introduced three categories of users modelled upon three types of use the authors envisage for digital editions, confirming that users and user needs are not well known but often inferred by creators: at the most basic level of interest, users are looking for simple browsing functionalities. to satisfy these users, editors will want to present the materials within an attractive and intuitive interface. at a more advanced level of interest, users will want to research the materials the dse [digital scholarly edition] has to offer, and access them in non-linear ways. to reach those users, editors will need to provide indexes, advanced search options, advanced textual comparison options, to open the corpus up for analysis in a standardized format, etc. finally, at the highest level of interest, there are meta-users, who want to re-use the dse's data for their own purposes: to write their own transcriptions of the dse's facsimiles (and publish the results), to build their own interface around the data the flyer of the ests conference can be accessed here: http://cts.dmu.ac.uk/ests/ests- flyer.pdf. the ests homepage is available at: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/https://textualscholarship.eu/ the talk, entitled “beyond google search: editions as dynamic sites of interaction”, was given by phd student shane mcgarry from maynooth university. mcgarry reported on the user survey undertaken for the woodman diary project to evaluate the usability of the digital edition's user- interface. the project is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dhprojects.maynoothuniversity.ie/woodman/ more information about the conference is available at: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/https://informationsmodellierung.uni- graz.at/en/events/archive/digital-scholarly-editions-as-interfaces/. video recordings of the talks given at this conference are available at the zim acdh youtube channel: https://web.archive.org/channel/ucfb_iysrdxhsvs dzw o lw for more information about dixit, see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dixit.uni-koeln.de/ http://cts.dmu.ac.uk/ests/ests-flyer.pdf http://cts.dmu.ac.uk/ests/ests-flyer.pdf the dse provides, or to perform functionalities the dse does not (yet) offer (and publish the results). (dillen and neyt, , p. ) the closest we have come to exploring the gap between creators and users of digital editions is the relatively recent establishment of the ride review journal of digital scholarly editions and resources, which excels at evaluating digital scholarly editions through the publication of individual reviews : however, no overarching analysis has been done on community investment in digital resources, as compared to user desires of digital resources. users of digital editions should be able to share their concerns, needs and feedback with regard to the creation of these projects. this large gap should no longer be ignored as excluding users' voices from the early development stages of digital edition can lead to neglect: in the case of digital humanities large amounts of public funding is wasted if a resource is not used. (warwick et al., , p. ) again, in reference to digital humanities resources in general, not digital editions specifically: very few projects maintained contact with their users or undertook any organised user testing, and many did not have a clear idea how popular the resource was or what users were doing with it. (warwick et al., , p. ) these studies confirm that by involving users in the creation process of a digital edition the risk of neglect might be reduced and, therefore, the chances of it being used in the long-term increase. so why are creators not engaging potential users more actively? aside from the findings of the aforementioned lairah study, the most recent article on the topic reports that usability testing in digital humanities is not yet widely established for a variety of reasons, including the absence of usability tests or survey templates in the humanities for specific services and the vague or unspecific research questions feeding the development of the services (bulatovic et al., ): the aim of those of us designing resources in digital humanities, therefore, remains analogous to this. we must understand the needs and behaviours of users. as a result of this understanding, we must design resources that fit well with what our users already do, while providing advantages in terms of convenience, speed of access, storage capacity and innovative information tools that digital publication affords. if we do so, there is every chance that such resources will be used and will help to make possible new kinds of scholarship that would be inconceivable without digital content, tools and delivery mechanisms. (warwick, , p. ) this article reports on the first initiative to bring together a varied group of users of digital editions with a view to identifying needs and expectations. before turning to this study, however, it is first necessary to introduce the catalogue of digital editions as the data contained therein will help us better evaluate user needs against the digital (scholarly) editions being built in the digital humanities. available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://ride.i-d-e.de/ the catalogue of digital editions the catalogue of digital editions was first launched by the first author in in response to a need to survey and identify best practice in the field of digital editing. inspired by patrick sahle's catalog of digital scholarly editions, the first resource of this kind, this catalogue sought to examine online digital editions in order to extract statistical information and thus better observe developments in the field. franzini et al. ( ) described the early days of the catalogue. in summary, data collection began as a spreadsheet for the first author's personal use; there, she recorded a small number of identifying features for every project, including name, url, name of manager(s), responsible institution(s), and the historical period to which the edited text belonged. in time, with the addition of more projects the number of cataloguing criteria also increased to address as many dimensions as possible (e.g. type of licence, availability of images, search functionality, provision of indices and download options, etc.). once a stable table structure was reached, a decision was made to publicly share the spreadsheet as a collaborative document for others to use and edit should they so wish. although the catalogue did not see a large number of external contributions, the interest shown over a period of two years prompted the first author to maintain this list as an open and citeable data resource in github. in the summer of , the catalogue of digital editions turned into a collaboration with the austrian centre for digital humanities at the austrian academy of sciences; the goal of the collaboration is to give the catalogue dynamic functionality, shaping it into a web application and dissemination platform to allow users to contribute, download, browse, search, visualise and filter data around their research interests. in april , the german datenbank-infosystem (dbis) added the catalogue to its list of open scientific databases as a service for use in over libraries in germany. as of september , the number of cataloguing features used by the catalogue is , and users have requested an additional five features to be added. ultimately, as outlined by the digital publications manager of the j. paul getty trust, the catalogue proposes an evaluation model for digital editions and similar digital educational resources: though limited to its own particular subset of digital publishing activity, franzini's catalogue comprises a dataset of some digital editions, currently, with some fifty consistent and comparable pieces of data on each, that range from the edition's subject matter and url, to its features, textual encoding scheme, and technological infrastructure. while it takes a more object, data-focused approach to reviewing and cataloguing the included editions, the catalogue also uniquely offers the possibility of rich comparison and analysis across publications, even if that more subjective and evaluative work is yet to be done. it may also someday provide a model to be applied to the evaluation of other types of digital publishing projects, specifically like the mellon-funded university press projects, the getty's osci collaborative, and other open access, scholarly editions which have been the subject of our history here thus far. (albers, ) the analysis in the present paper does not consider the fourteen digital editions in the catalogue marked as digitised editions (i.e. whose value in the 'digital' column of the catalogue table is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.digitale-edition.de see: https://github.com/gfranzini/digeds_cat see: http://rzblx .uni- regensburg.de/dbinfo/detail.php?bib_id=allefreien&colors=&ocolors=&lett=k&tid= &titel_id= . the number of libraries that make use of this service increases on a monthly basis. see: https://github.com/gfranzini/digeds_cat/issues?q=is% aopen+is% aissue+label% afeature https://github.com/gfranzini/digeds_cat ) or, in other words, projects that exist as electronic or digital versions of print editions. this means that only of the editions present in the catalogue were analysed. methodology to answer this study's research question (what are the expectations of digital editions in the digital humanities and how do these correlate with existing digital editions?), on th march the authors circulated a web survey entitled 'expectations of digital (textual) editions' to collect information about what users expect or want from a digital edition. this survey was targeted at the digital humanities community, the field the authors identify with and within which many digital editions take shape. the decision to collect data about the users of digital editions through a web survey was dictated by a number of factors. firstly, web surveys are inexpensive; secondly, they are often quicker to set-up and run compared to other methods, which typically require calls for participation and participant selection; and thirdly, they allow to survey a large population and to collect large data samples (horner, , p. ). on the other hand, the nature of web surveys automatically excludes participants who do not have access to an internet connection (ibid.). this drawback, however, was not relevant for this particular survey, as an internet connection is the prerequisite for the consultation and use of digital editions, whether users are accessing the web from their own machines or from library workstations. those who do not have access to an internet connection are unable to work with digital editions (unless these allow for offline use, which is not usually the case). survey design in order to compare the results of the survey against the digital editions in the catalogue of digital editions, the questions were modelled upon the cataloguing features used in the catalogue. to encourage as many responses as possible, the authors opted for twenty questions only, some of which grouped features by typology or purpose (e.g. question brings together indices, string search, advanced search and apis - see further below). the questionnaire the reader may ask why a digital edition is in the catalogue if it is neither digital not an edition (if, in other words, its 'digital' and 'edition' values in the catalogue are set to ). this is because, while some projects self-define as digital and editions, the meaning of both terms does not match that of sahle's definitions, which the catalogue uses as a reference to catalogue entries ( ). the reader is reminded that this analysis was done in may and thus ignores digital editions added to the catalogue from june onward. the survey was distributed via the authors' twitter accounts, and to the following mailing lists and facebook groups: associazione per l'informatica umanistica e la cultura digitale (aiucd) at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://lists.lists.digitalhumanities.org/mailman/listinfo/ai ucd-l; corpora at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://clu.uni.no/icame/corpora/sub.html; digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum (dhd) at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dig-hum.de/dhd-mailingliste; digital classicist at https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/cgi- bin/webadmin?a =digitalclassicist; digital medievalist at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://listserv.uleth.ca/mailman/listinfo/dm-l; humanist at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dhhumanist.org; tei-l at https://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?a =tei-l; aiucd facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/aiucd/; digital medievalist facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/ /; european association for digital humanities (eadh) facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/groups/ /; ucl centre for digital humanities facebook group at https://www.facebook.com/ucldh/. facebook and twitter posts were re-advertised by individuals in numerous other social spaces. early "offline" examples of digital editions, such as the thesaurus linguae graecae (tlg), were published on cdrom, but these are rare (and often replaced, like the tlg, by an online version), difficult to access or expensive to purchase. contained a mix of multiple choice and likert scale questions for a total of twenty questions. the likert scale was used to measure the importance of a particular feature in a five-point scale: - not important - slightly important - moderately important - important - very important after generally imposing a structure, question (is there anything else you would like to tell us about your user needs for digital editions that we have not covered here?) was designed to give respondents the opportunity to freely express their views, thus mitigating what krippendorff identifies as a common problem in such surveys: for efficiency's sake, researchers gain a considerable advantage if they can impose a structure on the data-making process so that the results are readily analyzable. surveys, mail questionnaires, and structured interviews typically offer respondents predefined choices that are easily tabulated, coded, or processed by computer. but they thereby also prevent the respondents' individual voices from being heard. (krippendorff, , p. ) the software chosen for this particular web survey was opinio , which is freely provided by the author's home institution. the survey broadly defined a digital edition as: an edition or transcription of a text that makes use of digital technologies to enhance users' access and experience of the source material. it can be a completed or an ongoing project, and does not necessarily have to provide a critical commentary. a mere replica of a printed edition is, in this instance, not considered to be a digital edition. as horner reports ( , p. ), "[...] web surveys may pose additional participant confidentiality issues", which might deter participants from contributing their answers. in this survey, demographic information about the participants, such as gender, age, ethnicity, location and religion, was not collected, as it was not considered relevant. the complete anonymity was announced in the survey's advertising message and the chosen software was set to not reveal any information about participants to the authors. on the closing date one month later, th april , the survey recorded completed responses and incomplete responses, for a total of stored responses. comparatively, the lairah study recorded completed responses over a period of four months (warwick et al., , p. ) and porter's aforementioned and surveys recorded and completed responses respectively. with every survey, there is the issue of representativeness, that is, the quality or relevance of the results and if these adequately represent the total target population (schouten et al., ). despite being set-up to qualitatively assess digital editions in relation to user expectations, the survey's large number of responses might also be considered statistically relevant. however, as no evidence exists with regard to population size, the authors refrain from claiming for more information about the likert scale, see allen and seaman ( ). available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.ucl.ac.uk/isd/services/learning- teaching/elearning-staff/core-tools/opinio. opinio provides survey data in html, pdf, spss and raw data formats. representativeness, and acknowledge the qualitative nature of the results. while preliminary, these results are still valuable for those who are planning to build digital editions. in the next section, we juxtapose the features of digital editions built by the community present in the catalogue of digital editions with the complete answers collected through this web survey in order to identify meeting and diverging points. the incomplete questionnaires are not considered in this discussion, as their differing degree of completeness do not make for a uniform analysis. median (of the five-point likert scale) and standard deviation (from the median) values will be hereafter referred to as m and sd respectively. results to facilitate the presentation of the statistics, the present article does not defer the discussion of the results but divides them between the twenty survey questions to readily contextualise them. therefore, where applicable, for every question we provide a breakdown of the corresponding responses, their correlation with the statistics gathered from the catalogue of digital editions, a brief discussion and ensuing practical recommendations. the results section is then followed by a summary discussion, which visualises the overall creation trend in digital editing against the results of this survey. questions , , : overview of respondents the largest group within the survey participants identified themselves as a researcher ( . %); professors follow in second place ( . %); the undefined 'other academic position' participants place third ( . %); and students in fourth ( . %); and participants provided new identifying categories, some of which could have been represented by the options already provided (e.g. the free-text answer 'phd student' was not necessary seeing as a 'student' category was already provided). this is a first indication that digital editions are more likely to be accessed and potentially reused in research. almost % of participants identified themselves as belonging to the humanities, % as working across different disciplines and . % as belonging to the applied sciences. these results may seem unsurprising, given that the documentary and literary content of digital editions is at the core of humanities studies, but we have no concrete information as to what exactly forms this clear majority. there could be many reasons for the survey's popularity among humanists: the advertising channels used to circulate the survey were mostly humanities-oriented and would therefore explain the low science participation; traditionally, the preparation of (digital) editions of documentary heritage is a humanities-driven activity; the low presence of scientists might also be dictated by the fact that few practitioners have a need for digital editions of cultural and historical texts. with respect to the specific disciplines of the responding participants, % are involved in literary studies and % conduct historical studies. within this % subpopulation of literary and historical studies, % focus on the classical period, while % research upon the middle ages. other disciplines are as diverse as shakespeare studies, law, history of ideas, history of daily life, television, agriculture, medieval legal history, medieval medicine, surgery and the history of medicine, musicology, liturgical medieval chant, history of exotic animals in the middle ages, folklore, engineering, historical metrology, theatre, architectural history and anthropology, military history, hittitology, children's literature, language pedagogy, food history, digital archaeology, sinology, lexicology, social history of the ottoman middle east, conceptual history, journalism, visual rhetoric, caribbean literature, celtic studies, information science, sociology of culture and science, history of photography and bureaucracy. those who identified as scientists include, among others, a computer scientist focussed on interaction design, a cyber security and automation engineer, an information architecture writer, a data modeller and web frontend developer, and a computer programmer with an interest in classical literature. question : what do you primarily seek in a digital edition? participants were asked to specify what primary use they make of digital editions. the largest group of users, ( %), consume digital editions for data and public reuse, while ( %) users look for a complete educational resource to learn more about the subject matter. a third group of users, ( %), is interested in digital editions for private (re)use. one user stated that (s)he seeks the "reconstruction of the lost original of a text" and all materials used to that end; another user expressed the need to annotate digital editions and share the annotations; two users emphasised the importance of being able to search a text. question : how important is the scholarly component of a digital edition for you? this question was designed to elicit the rate of importance of the scholarly component of a digital edition. according to sahle's definition of a digital scholarly edition, used in this survey as a reference for answers, projects that do not offer a critical examination of the text(s) are not scholarly ( ). survey results (m = , sd = . ). almost % of respondents rated the scholarly component of a digital edition as very important. despite being affected by the three 'no opinion' outliers, the median score indicates that there is an expectation that digital editions should critically assess the texts at hand. catalogue data. of the digital editions under consideration in the catalogue, ( %) were catalogued as not scholarly. recommendation. this low percentage ( %) is encouraging as it suggests that creators of digital editions are already meeting the needs of many users in this regard. creators are reminded to always provide a glossary or list of domain-specific terminology in their critical edition, regardless of its intended audience. question : how important is knowing the production lifespan or duration of a digital edition (begin and end years)? this question was asked to understand how important it is for users to know the production span of a digital edition, that is, the time taken to complete the digital edition as intended by its editors. this duration can vary greatly: one ongoing project will be funded for as long as fifteen years , while a completed project ran for sixteen years. duration is not necessarily indicative of the quality of a digital edition but combined with other factors, such as funding and team size, it provides a rough understanding of what is achievable with a given amount of resources, therefore offering a means of comparison. start and end dates also place digital editions in a historical and chronological context, helping users better appreciate the technological affordances and choices made at a particular time. survey results (m = , sd = . ). ( . %) participants rated the knowledge of the duration of a digital edition as important, while slightly more than % of participants consider it to be a very important characteristic. catalogue data. of the digital editions under consideration in the catalogue, ( . %) do not provide either begin or end years ('forthcoming' is included in this count as it does not the edition humboldt digital project, for example, expects to reach completion in . see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/editions/detail/ the dead sea scrolls project, at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://dss.collections.imj.org.il provide a more specific estimate of the expected project start date); ( . %) provide both begin and end years (where the end year can also be 'present', e.g. ); and ( . %) provide partial information by either specifying the beginning or the end year of the project. in sum, just over half of the projects in the catalogue ( . %) provide complete information about project duration. recommendation. accordingly, given this question's high median of , it is recommended that creators publish beginning and (expected) end years. question : how important is knowing which audience the digital edition targets (e.g. students, scholars, general public)? although creators do not preclude unintended audiences from using their resources, making this information known helps users contextualise the data and better to understand the objectives of the creators. if, for instance, a digital edition is targeted at experts of medieval latin manuscripts, creators might perceive the publication of a glossary of terms or a list of conventions as redundant, and thus refrain from making one available. making this choice abundantly clear on the project website helps define the scope of the endeavour, and guides users accordingly. survey results (m = , sd = . ). almost % of respondents rated target audience as moderately important information, % as important and % as very important. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, the majority, ( . %) do not provide information about the intended audience. out of the remaining , ( . %) explicitly target the general public (analogous terms used include 'global audience' and 'laypeople'). recommendation. given the response to this question, it is recommended that creators specify the intended audience of their project. question : how important is detailed editorial and technical documentation (i.e. glossaries, information about the technologies used to produce the digital edition, the imaging settings, was the text ocr'd or keyed, etc.)? documenting the process of creation behind any type of project serves to communicate development, quality and to give appropriate context. with documentation, creators can make aims, limitations and the expected use known to their users, as well as facilitate the reuse of a resource. one of the basic principles and assumptions of research is reproducibility or, in other words, the ability of one researcher to take the work of another researcher, follow their pathway and arrive at the same results. reproducibility is key to research acceptance and validation, so much so that entire courses are based on this principle. while reproducibility might not be essential to all disciplines (casadevall and fang, ), scholars argue that research should be sufficiently documented in order for it to be accepted by the community. moreover, although scholars in the humanities do not typically reproduce digital editions, some of their constituent parts might be reusable (e.g. the texts themselves, an xml schema or other underlying code), and should, therefore, be adequately described to facilitate reuse and reproducibility (allison, ). ten years ago, the lairah study found that many digital humanities resources did not keep organised documentation ( , p. ). such as the coursera reproducible research online course by johns hopkins university, available at: https://www.coursera.org/learn/reproducible-research. a nature survey asked , researchers to measure reproducibility, with somewhat alarming results. see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.nature.com/news/ - - scientists-lift-the-lid-on-reproducibility- . . survey results (m = , sd = . ). an aggregate of participants ( %) rated the importance of detailed editorial and technical documentation between important ( . %) and very important ( . %). catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, four of them do not make clear what the source of the edited text is (i.e. is it derived from a printed edition, what is the base text, on which digitised documents is the digital edition based on, is it a new born- digital edition), while provide some form of philological or editorial statement. of the projects, ( %) provide partial information with regard to the source of the text and the editorial policy, and the remaining ( %) provide complete information. with respect to the technical information, that is, information about technologies used and related standards used, ( %) digital editions do not provide any such information, ( %) provide partial information and ( %) provide complete information; finally, the websites of the ( %) digital editions published on cd-rom or protected by a pay-wall/login system also do not provide this information, which is not to say that it is not available on the cd-rom itself or within the subscription portal. only projects (approximately %) out of provide both complete editorial and technical documentation. disappointingly, these results corroborate the lairah findings published over ten years ago. recommendation. given the low statistics currently discernible in the catalogue and, conversely, the high rating of this question, creators must take more care to incorporate comprehensive documentation. this should provide descriptive information about the project itself, including purpose, motivation, duration, limitations, human and financial resources invested, and target audience. additionally, and also in reference to question below, it should provide details about the source document's history, its significance, context, its provenance and current repository or location, as well as technical documentation pertaining to its digitisation (image-capturing equipment and settings) and to the entire project back-end. question : how important is the exhaustiveness of contextual information (e.g. current repository of source material, links to external resources, quality of source materials, etc.)? similarly, participants were asked to rate the importance of contextual information, such as the provenance and current repository of the source material(s). survey results (m = , sd = . ). an aggregate of participants ( %) rated the provision of contextual information between important ( . %) and very important ( . %). catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( . %) provide information about the institutions currently housing the source material(s), while ( . %) do not and ( %) are built on materials that do not have a specific physical location (e.g. print editions published in multiple copies). with respect to provenance, only projects ( %) do not provide clear information, one project does not apply and the remaining ( %) either provide the countries or the cities of provenance. finally, ( %) provide links to external resources and supplementary materials, and ( %) do not. recommendation. for this question, the catalogue shows that, generally, projects are providing contextual information and are thus meeting the expectations expressed by the participants. question : how important is the provision of high quality digital images upon which the digital edition builds? survey results (m = , sd = . ). this question found a high consensus, with an aggregated ( . %) participants rating the provision of digital images to accompany the edited or transcribed texts either important ( . %) or very important ( . %). catalogue data. of the projects under consideration, ( . %) provide images, ( . %) do not and ( . %) provide only some. the remaining are catalogued as 'not provided', a value used for projects published on cd-rom or behind a pay-wall (inaccessible to the authors) to indicate that the information available on the site is inconclusive with regard to the provision of images. of the projects ( . %) that provide images, ( %) allow users to zoom in and out, and ( %) come with text-image linking functionality to enhance the reading experience of the document. recommendation. the response rate to this question suggests that many users expect digital editions to provide images. the provision of images, however, is often tied to copyright regulations enforced by rights holders (e.g. individuals and/or institutions), and these do not always facilitate access or employ fair use of their resources in teaching, learning and scholarship. there is the demon of copyright. some of the most exciting digital edition projects focussed on modern authors. it can be difficult enough gaining permission for print editions for these; for digital editions, in some notorious cases, it has proved impossible. but even for older texts, where there should be no copyright issues, there have been problems. arranging for digital photography and reproduction rights is, with very rare exceptions, arduous and too often forbiddingly expensive. (robinson, ) in light of these restrictions, creators of digital editions must endeavour to establish and clear rights on the images they plan to use or secure publication permissions before the start of the project. if permission is not granted by the image holders and the digital edition proceeds without images, creators are strongly advised to publish a visible statement on the project website documenting this drawback. the negative publicity to the rights holders will not only increase the awareness of the issue but will also clearly communicate to users the imposed limitations of the project. question : how important is the availability of advanced functionality and browsing, such as indices, filtering, searching and application programming interfaces (apis)? survey results (m = , sd = . ). the great majority of participants ( %) rated the browse and search functionalities of digital editions, such as indices, text searches and advanced filters either important ( . %) or very important ( %). application programming interfaces (apis) were included in this category as they provide a similar means of understanding how the components of a digital edition come together "under the hood". four participants ( . %) rated search functionalities as not at all important and the remaining % rated them as slightly to moderately important. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( . %) come with an api, ( %) provide indices, ( %) provide a text or string matching search and ( %) provide advanced search functionality. a total of ( %) projects provide both string search and advanced functionality. recommendation. given this question's high median of , it is recommended that, where applicable, creators provide search functionality (string searches, indices, filters, concordances and more advanced options) to help users locate information more easily and, in the case of apis, repurpose and integrate information in other resources. question : how important is the possibility of consulting a digital edition's website in multiple languages other than english? digital editions are often the result of international collaborations and in an effort to maximise outreach, some projects localise the website and interface of the digital edition. this question sought to elicit the importance of providing multilingual sites, not translations of the content of digital editions. survey results (m = , sd = . ). the high sd value of this question indicates that there is no clear consensus, with % of participants rating multilingual websites or web interfaces as not important against an aggregate % who judge it between important ( . %) and very important ( . %). these results attest to english as the recognised global lingua franca (montgomery, ; seidlhofer, ), and yet a sizable portion of participants expressed the need for a language option. given that the survey did not collect any personal information about participants, it is impossible to prove or disprove hypotheses about this result based on the nationality of the respondents. even so, the rating for this question might not necessarily be dictated by the respondents' own linguistic abilities (i.e. an english-speaker might not consider multilingual sites important as many are published in english anyway) but could also constitute an independent evaluation of what they think ought to be done in this regard. responses may have also been influenced by the modern availability of tools to translate web pages (e.g. google translate's browser extension for google chrome ); despite their limitations as machine- translators, these tools can, at the very least, help non-natives locate information more easily. catalogue data. looking at the catalogue, of the digital editions considered, ( . %) project websites are published in one language only and, of these, ( . %) are in english. the remaining ( . %) projects are published in two or more languages and all provide an english translation or domain. recommendation. in light of the mixed opinions recorded in this survey with regard to multilingual sites, and unless this feature is explicitly required by funding agencies, creators might want to reconsider providing localised versions of their resources (i.e. translations of the user-interface of the edition) or prioritise these differently in project development. while localisation opens up resources to a wider audience, the outcome of this survey suggests that the resources needed for translations and their maintenance might be better invested in features rated as very important and thus more useful to users. question : how important is the provision of data in open source/access formats? the digital humanities has joined the world movement to make scientific research available to the widest possible audience in free and open form (hamilton and saunderson, ). community experts have addressed the importance of open source and open access models in digital humanities practice, and this survey question sought to hear the opinions of users in this regard. the catalogue of digital editions categorises openness into five levels:  proprietary, all material is copyrighted. the source is closed and not reusable by other research projects. to access the material, users must pay a subscription fee.  same as above but the subscription is free of charge.  open access. the texts may be accessed through specific software but the source is not accessible. see: https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/google- translate/aapbdbdomjkkjkaonfhkkikfgjllcleb?hl=en-gb see, for example, cohen, d. ( ), ramsay, s. ( ) and fitzpatrick, k. ( ).  open access and partial open source. part of the data underlying the digital edition (e.g. text but not images) is freely available for access and reuse.  open access and open source. all data underlying the digital edition is freely available for access and reuse. survey results (m = , sd = . ). the vast majority of participants ( %) rated the importance of open source and open access formats between important ( %) and very important ( %). only participants rated it as not at all important and participants expressed no opinion. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, one project has yet to make data available, ( %) are protected by a pay-wall, ( . %) are accessible through a free registration process, ( %) allow data to be accessed but the source is not accessible, ( %) are both open access and open source but only part of the source is available for download and reuse; finally, ( %) are both open access and open source making all of the source available for download and reuse. furthermore, only ( %) projects release their data under various forms of creative commons licenses. [...] the major problem i see, in practice, is the strange reluctance lots of tei projects still have to expose their tei source directly. (lou burnard, november ) recommendation. given that this question has the highest possible median of , it is strongly recommended that creators adhere to open source/access policies to the fullest extent possible, and that permissions be made clear on the project website (i.e. which parts of the project can be reused and under what conditions). while creative commons licenses are typically used for non-software works, there are many other permissive licences to choose from depending on the needs of the project, including the academic free licence (afl), mit, apache and gpl licences. question : how important is knowing the financial and human resources invested in the production of a digital edition (e.g. amount of funding obtained, number of researchers/staff involved)? large teams are not necessarily indicative of quality as they may not cover the range of skills required to produce a digital edition (warwick et al., , p. ). survey results (m = , sd = . ). although human and financial resources are not necessarily indicative of the quality, or lack thereof, of a digital edition, providing some information in this regard is considered by almost % of participants to be moderately important. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( . %) do not provide information concerning the budget or grant size, do, and do not apply as these projects are carried out as leisure activities. the catalogue does not currently record information pertaining to the size of the teams behind digital editions, so no numbers are available at this time. recommendation. it is recommended that creators of digital editions include information about team and grant size in the project description as this helps users gain a better understanding of the scope of the project and of how resources influence its development. excerpt taken from a discussion held on the text encoding initiative (tei) mailing list: https://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?a =tei-l; f d. a comprehensive list of open source licences can be accessed at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://opensource.org/licenses question : how important is the mobile-device compatibility of a digital edition (i.e. the possibility of using it on a tablet and/or smartphone)? web technologies are increasingly adapting desktop web browsing to a variety of mobile devices in order to make content as widely accessible as possible. this survey question sought to understand users' views on accessing digital editions from handheld devices. the survey did not ask whether users make the fullest use of digital editions on their handheld devices, preferring instead to focus on access intended as light browsing. survey results (m = , sd = . ). as indicated by the high sd, respondents took a range of views: users ( . %) rated mobile-compatibility as slightly important and another ( . %) as important; ( . %) users rated it as not at all important and ( %) as very important. of the remaining users, expressed no opinion and ( . %) rated it as moderately important. catalogue data. the mobile compatibility of digital editions present in the catalogue is verified using google's mobile-friendly test . of the projects considered in the catalogue, projects ( %) passed the google mobile-friendly test while ( %) did not. recommendation. while the responses recorded by this web-survey with regard to the importance of mobile access to digital editions was not conclusive, employing technologies to this effect is recommended if creators intend for their project to be more widely visible and usable. more importantly, the adherence to web accessibility standards, such as those issued by the world wide web consortium , to champion inclusivity should become an integral part of the development process of a digital edition. the findings of a survey entitled "inclusive design and dissemination in digital scholarly editions", circulated in july , will tell us more about the types of access and web accessibility options of digital editions observed by the scholarly community. question : how important is the possibility of downloading and reusing the data published within a digital edition? survey results (m = , sd = . ). consonant with question about open source/access, the majority of participants ( %) rated the possibility of downloading and reusing digital edition content as very important. one participant did not express an opinion and none of the participants rated this feature as not at all important. catalogue data. in its present form, the catalogue only records the availability of downloads where the digital edition is encoded in xml(-tei). of the digital editions considered, ( . %) are encoded in xml(-tei) and, of these, ( %) allow users to download the xml(- tei) files. only a handful of projects –the catalogue does not specify the exact number yet but this feature will be added in the near future– provides a single bulk download option for the entire digital edition. as expressed by one participant in answer to question (see further below), bulk downloads are desirable and a more efficient means of reusing data. recommendation. these statistics show that the digital editions examined are not adequately meeting the download expectations expressed by the participants of this survey. it is therefore strongly recommended that creators enable download and preferably in bulk. for instance, the mobile-responsive framework bootstrap, available at https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://getbootstrap.com/, or the wordpress content management system, available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://wordpress.org/ for a study on the dissemination of digital scholarly editions via mobile devices, see (kelly, ). available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://search.google.com/test/mobile- friendly see: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/https://www.w .org/ available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/mcdrmyy question : what use would you make of the data published in a digital edition? this question sought to learn more about the types of (re)use some users make of data published in digital editions. teaching was placed first with a frequency of %, closely followed by text analysis with a rate of % and corpus aggregation or building with %. the free-text input recorded other uses, including research, literary analysis, re-editing and annotation. this variety of applications speaks to the value of digital editions not only as research-enabling instruments but also as pedagogical tools worthy of being used in the classroom alongside more traditional study materials. question : which of the following data formats would facilitate your studies? many digital editions adhere to xml(-tei) standards to encode texts. editors especially advocate this practice as a suitable means of marking-up and publishing texts online. despite tei's claims to interoperability, the fact that the selection and use of an xml(-tei) tag is based on the human interpretation of that tag inherently obstructs an effortless reuse of xml(-tei) files (schmidt, ). it follows that file reuse requires some form of adjustment to fit the new context or purpose. in some cases, adjustments can turn into extensive pre-processing tasks in order to get the data into a (re)usable format. to incentivise, and reduce the complexity of, reuse, some creators of digital editions, and of digital textual resources in general, present texts in multiple formats. survey results (m = , sd = . ). this multiple-choice survey question was designed to elicit participants' views on data formats in digital editions by asking them to state their preference. xml(-tei) tops the list with a frequency of . %, followed by images optimised for the web (e.g. png and jpg) ( . %), plain text ( . %), pdf ( . %), xml ( . %), tiff images ( . %) and epub ( . %). free-text replies included microsoft word ( participants), csv ( participant) and json ( participant). the results obtained for images contradict robinson's claim: firstly: it appears that rather few readers (indeed, rather often, only the editors) actually want to see all the images, all the transcripts, all the collations. traditional print editions acted as filters, straining out all this information so that readers did not have to see it: if readers do not want to see it, then including all this is no advantage at all. (robinson, ) in this article, robinson does not provide evidence for these claims but the results of this survey either contradict this article or suggest that the provision of high quality images over the past seven years has caused a change in user mentality and needs. catalogue data. of the digital editions considered in the catalogue, ( %) are encoded in accordance with xml(-tei) standards, ( %) do not use xml at all, and ( %) texts are accompanied by images of the source documents. the catalogue does not list all available data formats for each project, so there are currently no numbers with regard to the projects that, for instance, also provide plain text (txt) versions the tei wiki dedicates a page to 'conversion and preprocessing tools'. see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://wiki.tei- c.org/index.php/category:conversion_and_preprocessing_tools of the edited texts. this information, planned as a future addition to the catalogue, would prove particularly useful to those who wish to run different analyses on a text, as recently expressed in a digital medievalist mailing list thread: [...] is there a way to access the plain text directly, or is there only a search interface at the moment? having direct plain text access can be useful for others to do various further analysis on the corpus. (nick white, june ) and, again, three years ago in the digital humanities questions & answers forum: i'd like to use the available corpora in the german text archive (http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/download) to train ocr software. for this i need these texts as plaintext. all the german text archive texts however are all tei p tagged. how do i best convert these (hundreds..) of documents into plaintext? i'm comfortable on the command line and with small shell scripts but i wouldn't be able to write an app to make use of a public api to such a service. ideally i'd like to find some tei text-ish command line tool but the ones i've found in googling around and looking on github don't appear (to me, leastways) to be suitable for tei texts. (arno bosse, ) recommendation. based on the responses recorded for this question, it is recommended that creators provide a marked-up (xml) text for users interested, for example, in close-reading the text, as well as a plain text (txt) version of the same text to meet the needs of those who wish to perform some form of computer-aided text analysis. question : can you provide an example of a digital edition that has good functionality for your needs? why and how does it meet your needs? the intention of this question was to draw out examples of digital editions that participants feel meet their needs (see appendix a). the majority of participants provided examples of projects they consider satisfactory, specifying both the positive and their negative aspects: response . i've found the search function of the loeb online very helpful and comprehensive, although obviously it's a pain in the bottom to navigate. response . oldbaily [sic], criminocorpus...excellent information retrieval and statistical analysis. download and reuse options could be better. digital editions mentioned by multiple respondents are the perseus digital library (seven respondents), electronic beowulf (five respondents), folger digital texts (four see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://listserv.uleth.ca/pipermail/dm-l/ - june/ .html this question and all given answers can be viewed here: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://digitalhumanities.org/answers/topic/how-do-i- best-convert-hundreds-of-tei-p -documents-to-plaintext accessible at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ accessible at: http://ebeowulf.uky.edu; the project's record in the catalogue is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/editions/detail/ http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/download respondents), online froissart (three respondents), loeb classical library (two respondents), corpus corporum (two respondents), e-codices (two respondents) and the bayeux tapestry (two respondents). some participants, in total, stated that no project currently meets their needs: response . there is none. response . none are really good. google books is almost always bad. response . i'm not sure i have found one that meets my needs for teaching [...]. response . i've never had the pleasure to use an edition that fulfilled my ideal. six participants (responses , , , , , ) self-publicised their own work (but only responses and provided a link to the resource) and there is no way to tell from this survey whether other participants did the same in less overt ways. the claims of these six participants reinforce the aforementioned lairah findings: expressing appreciation over one's own digital edition suggests that the digital edition was built to primarily fulfil the needs and requirements of the creator. this line of enquiry deserves further attention to determine the extent to which creators of digital editions engage with their target users during the preparation and development stages of the project. the general impression one can glean from reading all of the answers given to this question is users' understanding that digital editions are imperfect tools and that they cannot meet the needs of every single user. although creators may feel reassured by this awareness, the answers given in this survey carry a somewhat negative tone, suggesting tolerance towards the issue rather than acceptance. question : is there anything else you would like to tell us about your user needs for digital editions that we have not covered here? with this question, the authors sought to fill any gaps in the survey by asking participants to express concerns or make suggestions with respect to their expectations of digital editions. the following were chosen as representative of the full answer-set (see appendix b): response . much more important than fancy browsing, searching capabilities on the digital edition's site is the availability of either an api or the full xml-tei download option [...]. response . how can we have a digital edition tailored to various needs in one place? response . the best editions are about providing textual data to researchers, not dictating how researchers will read or make use of the data. response . the ability to download all xml files in an edition - preferably all in one single download - would be very useful. not available in that many editions. accessible at: http://www.folgerdigitaltexts.org accessible at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.hrionline.ac.uk/onlinefroissart/; the project's record in the catalogue is available at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://dig-ed-cat.acdh.oeaw.ac.at/editions/detail/ accessible at: https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.loebclassics.com accessible at: http://mlat.uzh.ch/mls/index.php?lang= accessible at: https://web.archive.org/save/_embed/http://www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en accessible at: http://www.sd-editions.com/bayeux/zoom/#/facsimile% dbayeux% panel% d response . all the and only the essential information (name of the edition, authors, publishing institution, publishing date, last update, topic/mission of the edition) should be visible on the landing page. no other distraction. response . digital editions are not just of interest to and production [sic] by those in literature and cognate areas! response . clear and open license, provide a manual so theat [sic] users can actually rtfm. response . stable (persistent) urls for resources; clear version system (=defined versions/updates of the digital edition). response . you mention the work done to put the edition together: no-one i should think thinks the technical and editorial labour is worth recording but it should be: only by recording it as standard will we get this work credited and the resources we need to produce it made available. response . always, always, always evaluate how accessible your digital edition is for people with disabilities. response . a clear license statement is the most important thing a digital edition must have. other: are the responsible contacts for the edition available/named? response . a standard for critical apparatuses which show more than the reading variants is desperately needed. discussion and recommendations how do the digital editions in the catalogue compare to the responses recorded by this survey? the correlation is best captured as a chart, as shown in figure : in this histogram, the x-axis lists the features of the digital editions that survey participants were asked to rate; for every feature, the histogram provides five coloured bars, each corresponding to a likert scale point (' -important' being 'very important' and ' -important' 'not important'). the overlaid red point- line plots the percentage of digital editions in the catalogue that possess that particular feature. generally, the bigger the distance between the red points and the tip of their respective coloured bars, the better the "performance" of the digital editions with respect to survey responses. for example, the highly rated scholarly component of digital editions is present in approximately % of the projects in the catalogue, showing that digital editions are adequately meeting user needs. in contrast, digital editions in the catalogue are performing badly when it comes to documentation, with only projects (approximately %) providing both editorial and technical documentation, and to access, with only projects giving users full access to the source. moreover, despite receiving the highest rating in the survey, only % of digital editions in the catalogue provide download options. abbreviation of "read the fucking manual", a disparaging comment used often on social media, see: https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=rtf m figure . in this histogram, the x-axis lists the features of digital editions survey participants were asked to rate; for every feature, the histogram provides five bars, each corresponding to a likert scale point (' - important' being 'very important' and ' -important' 'not important'). the overlaid red point-line plots the percentage of digital editions in the catalogue that possess that particular feature. the conclusion one can draw from the results discussed is that the digital editions collected in the catalogue of digital editions only adequately cover roughly half of the features examined in this study. creators of these digital editions need not take these results as a denunciation of their efforts but, rather, as an invitation to reflect on how their editions can be improved to meet user requirements . to promote usefulness and fight the risk of neglect, funding agencies can support creators by formalising mandatory requirements and by allocating funds to the necessary administrative assistance that each project requires. to this end, the authors propose four deliverables –modelled against the lairah recommendations ( ), the responses recorded in the present survey as well as the data collected in the catalogue– that they believe should become standardised in grant application forms. these are: staff training. shortcomings of digital editions can sometimes be traced back to the absence of a particular skill within the team. for this reason, funders should allocate sufficient resources for the training of research staff should no candidates with the optimal set of skills be available. training should take place at the beginning but also during the project, depending on the employment status of the research team. user surveys and contact. users must have a voice in the development of a digital edition. to strengthen their role, funders are advised to make user studies a mandatory deliverable. these studies should iteratively evaluate the progress of the project against the needs of the users, so that, if possible, any modifications and additions can be factored in during the development of the project. contact details should also be a compulsory requirement to offer users a means of communication with creators. maintenance. dissemination and regular activity have been shown to reduce the neglect of a resource (warwick et al., , p. ). these, however, can be time-consuming and are typically carried out by the researchers themselves, robbing the project of valuable research time. to help digital edition teams make the best use of research time, funders should allocate resources to hiring dedicated staff –on part-time positions even– to cover the marketing, management and administrative obligations of digital edition projects. documentation. documentation is key to communicating the quality and value of the work assembled in a digital edition. funders should make detailed documentation a compulsory requirement. to help creators provide all of the necessary information, funders may wish to adopt a documentation template. conclusion this paper discusses the results of a web survey entitled "expectations of digital (textual) editions" circulated among the digital humanities academic community. the survey sought to give users of digital editions a platform to express their needs and expectations of digital editions of text. the survey ran for a month and recorded completed responses, the highest response rate for a user survey recorded in the field to date. these user responses were compared against digital editions collected by the catalogue of digital editions project in order to identify meeting and diverging points between what creators of digital editions build and what users want. this comparative analysis assessed data both quantitatively and qualitatively to give the widest and most detailed picture to date of the two sides to digital (scholarly) editing, showing areas where resources can be better deployed, and user experience improved, by understanding the tools and features that a use community most desires, alongside those that have previously been delivered. the results obtained from this study feed into previous studies on good practice in building digital humanities resources and crystallise the diverse range of needs of users of digital editions. the impression these results bestow upon the reader is that digital editions are imperfect tools unable to meet the expectations of every single user. while creators may feel discouraged by these results, one way to alleviate the negative sense of lenience exuding from these user responses might be to reconcile data reuse, licensing, image availability, and comprehensive documentation –the four most requested features– to the extent possible and to more clearly state motivations, objectives and intended audience. to help better align digital editions to the needs of users and thus combat the risk of neglect, this study puts forward practical recommendations for both creators and funders of digital editions. these recommendations should not be considered mandatory but they conform to the needs expressed by the participants of this survey. the results of this research should not be ignored in the development of digital editions: it has signposted new avenues of enquiry along this line of research. for example, a future study could explore the extent to which creators of digital editions engage with their target users during the preparation and development stages of the project; another study might determine or categorise user needs according to user profiles (e.g. researcher versus general public, or versus student); another might shift its focus from the digital humanities to a wider user-base to address digital editions specifically designed and intended for other audiences; or, indeed, one may wish to create a survey specifically target at people who feel dissatisfied with existing digital editions. these and other possibilities speak to a field of research deserving of greater attention. appendix a: answers given to question the intention of this question was to draw out examples of digital editions that participants feel meet their needs. some sixty digital editions were explicitly mentioned, and, as previously discussed, only eight of these were named by perseus digital library (seven respondents), electronic beowulf (five respondents), folger digital texts (four respondents), online froissart (three respondents), loeb classical library (two respondents), corpus corporum (two respondents), e-codices (two respondents) and the bayeux tapestry (two respondents). given that not all respondents who singled out these eight digital editions justified their answers, it is difficult at this stage to make an informed assessment as to the drivers behind their selection. perseus digital library, folger digital texts, loeb classical library and corpus corporum all provide a large number of texts, leading one to speculate that quantity plays a role in usage; similarly, e-codices provides high quality image reproductions of a large number of manuscripts; bayeux tapestry, online froissart and electronic beowulf, on the other hand, provide detailed contextual information, suggesting an appreciation for comprehensive introductions to the texts at hand. some respondents gave examples of digital editions that do not subscribe to the definition of digital edition used as reference in this survey (e.g. response . free courses on line (coursera, open university, stanford, mit, etc. or response . yellow s online (the yellow book)). these answers had no bearing over the analysis described in this paper but can be used for spin-off studies aimed at, for instance, better understanding digital editions of non- literary texts. appendix b: answers given to question as previously mentioned, although generally imposing a structure, question ('is there anything else you would like to tell us about your user needs for digital editions that we have not covered here?') was designed to give respondents the opportunity to freely express their views. comments given vary greatly: some corroborate the findings of the analysis of the digital editions collected in the catalogue of digital editions, while others flag up issues or dimensions of digital editions that are currently overlooked, such as accessibility for people with disabilities, citation information and discoverability. the answers collected with this question are instrumental in the preparation of user-centric digital editions. acknowledgments the authors wish to thank all of the participants of the web survey for their key contribution toward a better understanding of users in digital (scholarly) editing. we also wish to thank our reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions, as well as our collaborators peter andorfer and ksenia zaytseva from the austrian centre for digital humanities for their support in preparing this article. bibliography albers, greg. “bringing books online.” mw : museums and the web (blog), . https://web.archive.org/web/ /https://mw 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(september , ): – . doi: . /llc/fqn . warwick, claire, melissa terras, isabel galina, paul huntington, and nikoleta pappa. “the master builders: lairah research on good practice in the construction of digital humanities projects.” in digital humanites : the th joint international conference of the association for computing in the humanities and the association for literary and linguistic computing. university of illinois, urbana champaign, june - , . urbana champaign, . http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/ /. ispf lab ispf lab laboratorio dell’ispf rivista elettronica di testi, saggi e strumenti anno xiii - . www.ispf-lab.cnr.it ispf lab laboratorio dell’ispf. rivista elettronica di testi, saggi e strumenti www.ispf-lab.cnr.it issn n. - direzione: david armando, leonardo pica ciamarra, manuela sanna. comitato scientifico: josep martinez bisbal, giuseppe cacciatore, silvia caianiello, maria conforti, pierre girard, matthias kaufmann, girolamo imbruglia, pierre-françois moreau, barbara ann naddeo, valeria pinto, enrico i. rambaldi, salvatore tedesco, maurizio torrini, amadeu viana. redazione: roberto evangelista, armando mascolo, assunta sansone, alessia scognamiglio (segretaria). responsabile tecnico: ruggero cerino. istituto per la storia del pensiero filosofico e scientifico moderno consiglio nazionale delle ricerche via porta di massa, napoli email: lab@ispf.cnr.it © ispf-cnr, quest’opera è pubblicata sotto licenza creative commons “attribuzione - non commerciale . italia”. ne sono libere la copia e la diffusione a scopo di studio, a condizione dell’indicazione completa della paternità e della licenza. specifiche limitazioni possono applicarsi alla pubblicazione di materiali di proprietà non esclusiva. gli articoli della rivista, accettati dopo un processo di peer review, si conformano agli standard della “iniziativa di budapest per l’accesso aperto”. gli autori mantengono tutti i diritti d’uso del proprio lavoro, col solo vincolo alla menzione della prima pubblicazione. gli articoli approvati prima della chiusura di ciascun numero sono pubblicati con procedura online first. sommario • questo numero / this issue testi • le “carte villarosa” sei fascicoli di carte vichiane non rilegate (ms. xix, ) nota editoriale e indici fascicolo i fascicolo ii fascicolo iii fascicolo iv fascicolo v fascicolo vi speciale atti del convegno “giambattista vicos de universi juris uno principio, et fine uno im kontext der europäischen naturrechtstradition und vicos bedeutung für die heutige debatte”, halle, .- . maggio • matthias kaufmann giambattista vicos umgang mit dem begriff des dominium • antonino falduto vico, das naturrecht, und der begriff obligatio • giuseppe d’anna “genese” und “komposition” in vicos de uno • claudia megale il “dono del libero arbitrio” nella terza orazione inaugurale: analogie e differenze con jean bodin • julia v. ivanova - pavel v. sokolov physica ingeniosa and abyssinian philosophy: the ambivalence of the cartesian physics in de ratione, v • sertório de amorim e silva neto la “natura corrotta” tra antichi e moderni • giulio gisondi vico e il problema del metodo tra sperimentalismo e retorica • romana bassi il de uno alla luce dell’exemplum tractatus de iustitia universali, sive de fontibus iuris di francis bacon • fabrizio lomonaco appunti sul “diritto universale delle genti” nel de uno • dominik recknagel vicos vindiciae. eine auseinandersetzung um den naturrechtsbegriff • stefania sini “letizia cattolica, antico-europea”? qualche osservazione sulla “letteratura” secondo vico tra repubblica delle lettere e mondo delle nazioni • giuseppe cacciatore il concetto di cittadinanza in vico come manifestazione del nesso tra universalitÀ della legge e storicitÀ empirica della civitas saggi • agata anna chrzanowska ghirlandaio, ficino and hermes trismegistus: the prisca theologia in the tornabuoni frescoes • david armando suppliques des vassaux, pouvoirs du baron (etats pontificaux, xviiième siÈcle) • patrizia delpiano acadÉmies et crÉation du savoir scientifique: circulation des idÉes et mÉcanismes de la censure • geri cerchiai cinque scritti metodologici di eugenio colorni nelle carte di vittorio somenzi • fabio d. palumbo il “giapponismo” di deleuze strumenti • alessandro stile tra cinema e filosofia. esperienze didattiche in un istituto di ricerca del cnr • roberto mazzola - ruggero cerino biblioteca napoletana digitale (sec. xviii) diapositiva taipei, / / antonella fresa technical coordinator central institute union catalogue italian libraries a data infrastructure for digital cultural heritage: characteristics, requirements and priority services february teldap conference taipei, / / table of content • the digital cultural heritage sector: characteristics and needs • the vision towards a dch data infrastructure • two inter-related projects: dc-net and indicate • positioning of the dch sector taipei, / / initiatives of the european member states in the last year a wide range of activities: • building a shared platform of tecommendations and guidelines • agreement on common data models • experimenting and launching innovative online services • e-infrastructures for the citizens • e-infrastructures for the research • international cooperation: in europe and abroad • digitisation within national and regional programmes taipei, / / data model & services digital cultural heritage e-infrastructure national & regional initiatives europeana recommendations & guidelines e-infrastructures for the citizens for the researchers taipei, / / the amount of digitised material is growing very rapidly • national, regional and european programmes support the digitisation of the content of museums, libraries, archives, archaeological sites and audiovisual repositories • the generation of digital cultural heritage is accelerated also by the impulse of europeana that is fostering the european cultural institutions to produce even more digital content • digital cultural heritage content are complex and interlinked through many relations digital cultural content characteristics taipei, / / national programmes regional programmes european programmes digital cultural content national portals national portals regional portals thematic portals data continuum the vision …….. international portals taipei, / / . high quality information technology management, to ensure trust, availability, reliability, long term safety of content, security, preservation and sustainability; . access facilities to the final users (the researchers) who will search into the dch e-infrastructure for their research and to the cultural institutions that will deliver their data to the dch e-infrastructure; . interoperation among existing cultural heritage repositories and of cultural heritage data with research data. the needs of the dch sector taipei, / / the e-infrastructure for dch it is not a “new infrastructure”, but it is instead a “new approach” - based on national and regional systems - valorising existing resources the keyword is interoperability regional system national system thematic system national system regional system taipei, / / expected impacts • e-infrastructures the adoption of the e-infrastructures by the digital cultural heritage community will open new scenarios of use and exploitation • cultural heritage cultural managers will become more aware about the potential that the e- infrastructures can offer to their work: storage, preservation, access services for the cultural institutions, etc. • research a better integration of the cultural sector with the e-infrastructures will enable the research of new advanced services and applications • other sectors digital cultural content will become more usable and re-usable for education, cultural tourism, long-life learning, non-professional cultural interests, creative industry, etc. taipei, / / • to focus on the use of existing e-infrastructures as a channel for digital cultural heritage data • storage, computing, connectivity together with authentication , authorisation and accounting mechanisms offered by the e-infrastructures can well serve the needs of the sector: the issue here is to establish factual cooperation among two sectors (the research and the cultural heritage) that are not used to work together dch v/s e-infrastructures taipei, / / • key players from the dch: – ministries of culture – cultural institutions  cross-domain: museums, libraries and archives together • key player from the research: – ministries of research – researchers in the humanities – researchers in ict applied to ch • e-infrastructure providers key players taipei, / / • to define priorities among the services to be deployed • to consult and to advocated with stakeholders • to engage with programme owners • to improve awareness: standards, who-is-who, … • to promote trust building, covering different aspects and including organisational, operational and legal issues • to run experiments: pilots and use case studies • to open international cooperation • to establish an e-culture community preparatory actions taipei, / / . dc-net: joint activities plan for dch e-infrastructure implementation . indicate: international cooperation, use case studies, pilots, policy harmonisation two integrated projects priorities and progamming support and demonstration taipei, / / dc-net era-net a network for the european research area: • composed by programme owners and programme managers in the cultural sector • to agree common perspectives & priorities across eu member states • to establish an operative dialogue between cultural heritage and e-infrastructures communities in europe, • to identify constraints and capabilities in order to establish a plan of joint activities started in december , it will last until march a project funded by ec fp e-infrastructures taipei, / / indicate a concrete approach within an international dimension – stimulating the international cooperation of einfrastructures providers and cultural heritage users – target areas: • mediterranean region, (egypt, turkey and jordan) • cooperation with china in liaison with the epikh grid school • exchanges with south america in the frame of experiments for live distributed performances – case studies: preservation, virtual exhibitions, gis started in september , it will last until september a project funded by ec fp e-infrastructures taipei, / / • the two projects share the same coordinator and have many partners in common. • the e-infrastructure programmes identified in dc-net will be at the basis of the sustainability of the results of indicate. • the two projects represent the same dch community. dc-net / / / / indicate / / / / / / taipei, / / research workflow and service priorities priorities for the digital cultural heritage sector have been put together, having in mind the typical workflow of the dch research. taipei, / / typical dch research workflow • find: accessing information • process: tools for manipulating information • publish: make the results visible online • conference: discuss and annotate published information • preserve: maintaining access to content over the longer term • secure plus lower-level “basic digital services” such as email, data storage, web hosting, etc. taipei, / / services priorities on the basis of the typical workflow of the dch research, services are divided into categories: . services for content providers, i.e. those related to the creation of online data resources for dch . services for managing and adding value to the content itself . services which enable, support and enhance virtual research communities and the activities of content consumers taipei, / / services for content provides and data resource creation from common issues to common priorities taipei, / / services for content provides and data resource creation common issues: • interoperability of online resources • insularity in terms of searching • changes in location • high cost of establishment • vulnerability to technical problems • limitation on servers capacity and processing taipei, / / services for content provides and data resource creation common priorities: • interoperation of systems • aggregation of content • cross-search • semantic search • persistent identification of digital objects • simplification of set-up services • stable platform • scalability taipei, / / services for managing and adding value to content e.g.: • geo-referencing • d representation • virtual reality and immersive interfaces • annotation • linked data generation taipei, / / services for content consumers the “cafeterial model”: a broad range of services to be made available, without the need to actually deliver them for all members of the community. e.g.: • user authentication and access control • collaborative environments • advanced search • visualisation taipei, / / services priority ordering a prioritised list of the most immediately important services has been agreed: . long-term preservation . persistent identifiers . interoperability and aggregation . advanced search . data resource set-up . user authentication and access control . ipr and digital rights management taipei, / / culture research e- infrastructures cooperation and coordination among these three sectors is at the core of the dch e-infrastructure taipei, / / the network of common interest it combines: – regional, national and international levels, – bottom-up (working groups) and top-down (joint programming) approaches working groups: experts seconded by their cultural, research and infrastructure organisations cooperation with other networks and projects: epikh, chain, eumedgrid-support, eumedconnect , linked heritage, …. taipei, / / liaisons with strategic bodies factual cooperation is established with: – e-irg e-infrastructure reflection group – esfri european strategy forum on research infrastruftures (ssh thematic working group) – egi european grid initiative – terena trans-european research and networking association – mseg member states expert group on digitisation – asren – arab states research and education network taipei, / / position paper open consultation green paper on common strategic framework . european coordination: the role of member states and european commission . europeana: towards its full deployment . preservation: a task for the member states . digital cultural heritage: the need for a research e-infrastructure . research and innovation in the digital cultural heritage: an international matter . users involvement: the success factor . coordination and demonstration: a requirement for the dch sector taipei, / / next appointment march , rome – dc-net final conference april , catania – indicate technical conference to demonstrate the e-culture science gateway and to present the result of the use case studies on long-term preservation, virtual exhibitions and geo-coded cultural content - july , cairo – indicate final conference taipei, / / the vision • indicate and dc-net are part of a wider process, which started years ago among cultural institutions • this process entered in a new phase joining the research e- infrastructures • time is ready to start working towards an open science infrastructure for digital cultural heritage in joint programming support and demonstrations roadmaps dch-rp proposal taipei, / / thank you antonella fresa dc-net and indicate technical coordinator fresa@promoter.it antonella.fresa@beniculturali.it www.dc-net.org www.indicate-project.org mailto:fresa@promoter.it mailto:antonella.fresa@beniculturali.it http://www.dc-net.org/ http://www.dc-net.org/ http://www.dc-net.org/ http://www.indicate-project.org/ http://www.indicate-project.org/ http://www.indicate-project.org/ - - linköpings universitet institutionen för kultur och kommunikation baskurs inom forskarutbildningen vid forskarskolan språk och kultur i europa vetenskapsteori: lingvistik och litteratur, , hp kursen behandlar grundläggande vetenskapsteori med inriktning mot litteraturvetenskap och lingvistik. genom en diskussion av relevanta frågeställningar och begreppsbildningar inom det vetenskapsteoretiska området syftar kursen till att fördjupa förståelsen av lingvistikens och litteraturvetenskapens ställning inom humaniora samt kritiskt granska den vetenskapshistoriska uppdelningen av litterärt och annat språk. i kursen belyses hur språkliga processer och handlingar utgör fokus för båda vetenskaperna och hur en mängd likartade frågeställningar bearbetas på ömse håll med ofta identiska vokabulärer. kurserna behandlar och uppfyller följande examensmål: kunskap och förståelse . – visa brett kunnande inom och en systematisk förståelse av forskningsområdet samt djup och aktuell specialistkunskap inom en avgränsad del av forskningsområdet, och . – visa förtrogenhet med vetenskaplig metodik i allmänhet och med det specifika forskningsområdets metoder i synnerhet färdighet och förmåga . – visa förmåga till vetenskaplig analys och syntes samt till självständig kritisk granskning och bedömning av nya och komplexa företeelser, frågeställningar och situationer . – visa förmåga att kritiskt, självständigt, kreativt och med vetenskaplig noggrannhet identifiera och formulera frågeställningar samt att planera och med adekvata metoder bedriva forskning och andra kvalificerade uppgifter inom givna tidsramar och att granska och värdera sådant arbete . – visa förmåga att identifiera behov av ytterligare kunskap värderingsförmåga och förhållningssätt . – visa intellektuell självständighet och vetenskaplig redlighet samt förmåga att göra forskningsetiska bedömningar, och . – visa fördjupad insikt om vetenskapens möjligheter och begränsningar, dess roll i samhället och människors ansvar för hur den används. uppläggning och examination: tillfällen timmar varje gång samt timmar sista gången. upplägget bygger på introducerande föreläsningar och diskussioner av de frågeställningar och begrepp som kurslitteraturen behandlar. - - examination sker i form av en skriftlig uppgift på ca sidor där minst en grundläggande vetenskapsteoretisk frågeställning diskuteras och problematiseras i förhållande till det egna avhandlingsprojektet. en muntlig presentation av denna uppgift ges vid sista tillfället och kommentarerna från opponenten och seminariet ska arbetas in i den version som lämnas till carin franzén senast januari. lärare: carin franzén, leelo keevallik, angelika linke, jesper olsson anmälan till: carin.franzen@liu.se lokal: esa:s konferensrum ( ) oktober – . introduktion kurspresentation vad är vetenskap; humaniora och samhällsvetenskap? var placerar sig lingvistik och litteraturvetenskap i förhållande till övriga vetenskaper? vilka data, material, källor använder vi? litteratur benveniste, Émile, “subjectivity in language”, critical theory since , red. hazard adams & leroy searle. (gainesville ) – ; http://faculty.georgetown.edu/irvinem/theory/benveniste-linguistic-sign.pdf ; även: “om subjektiviteten i språket”, människan i språket. texter i urval av john swedenmark (stockholm/stehag ) – . hayles, n. katherine, ”the digital humanities: engaging the issues”, how we think. digital media and contemporary technogenesis (chicago ), – . givón, talmy [thomas], ”syntax. an introduction”, volume i (amsterdam/philadelphia ), – . liu, alan, ” where is cultural criticism in the digital humanities?”, debates in the digital humanities (new york ), http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ nussbaum, martha c., not for profit: why democracy needs the humanities (princeton ). sapir, edward, “communication”, selected writings of edward sapir in language, culture, and personality, red. d. g. mandelbaum (berkeley [ ]), – , https://archive.org/download/selectedwritings sapi/selectedwritings sapi.pdf oktober – . för och mot tolkning diskussionsseminarium utifrån frågeställningen: vad är mening, förklaring och förståelse? http://faculty.georgetown.edu/irvinem/theory/benveniste-linguistic-sign.pdf http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ https://archive.org/download/selectedwritings sapi/selectedwritings sapi.pdf - - litteratur: barthes, roland, ”semantics of the object”, the semiotic challenge, (oxford ), http://people.su.se/~snce/texter/barthes_object.pdf grice, herbert paul, “logic and conversation”, syntax and semantics, bd. , red. p. cole och j. morgan (hgg. ), – , http://www.sfu.ca/~jeffpell/cogs /gricelogicconvers .pdf gumbrecht, hans-ulrich, “a farewell to interpretation”, materialities of communication, (stanford ), - . humboldt, wilhelm von, “on the task of the historian”, the hermeneutics reader, red. kurt mueller-vollmer, (new york ), – , https://www .southeastern.edu/academics/faculty/jbell/humboldt.pdf mondada, lorenza, “understanding as an embodied, situated and sequential achievement in interaction”, journal of pragmatics, ( ), - , doi: . /j.pragma. . . ricoeur, paul, “what is a text. explanation and understanding”, hermeneutics and the human sciences, (cambridge, ), - . sontag, susan “against interpretation”, against interpretation and other essays, (new york, [ ]), http://www.coldbacon.com/writing/sontag-againstinterpretation.html wittgenstein, ludwig, philosophical investigations, övers., g.e.m. anscombe, (oxford ), i urval. november – . ontologiska frågor textseminarium utifrån frågeställningen: vad det betyder att någonting är "verkligt" eller "konstruerat" samt problematiken relativism och objektivitet när det gäller mening och kunskap. litteratur berger, p. l. och t. luckmann, “the foundations of knowledge in everyday life”, the social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge, (new york ), – , http://perflensburg.se/berger% social-construction-of-reality.pdf butler, judith, “performative acts and gender constitution: an essay in phenomenology and feminist theory”, theatre journal, : ( ), – , http://people.su.se/% esnce/texter/butlerperformance.pdf foucault, michel, the order of things: an archaeology of the human sciences, (routledge ). heidegger, martin, ”the question concerning technology”, basic writings (routledge ). latour, bruno, ”fourth source of uncertainty: matters of fact vs. matters of concern”, reassembling the social (oxford ), – (e-bok). linell, per, rethinking language, mind, and world dialogically, (charlotte, nc ), – . http://people.su.se/% esnce/texter/barthes_object.pdf https://www .southeastern.edu/academics/faculty/jbell/humboldt.pdf http://www.coldbacon.com/writing/sontag-againstinterpretation.html http://perflensburg.se/berger% social-construction-of-reality.pdf http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici= - % % % a % c % apaagca% e . .co% b -c http://www.jstor.org/sici?sici= - % % % a % c % apaagca% e . .co% b -c http://people.su.se/% esnce/texter/butlerperformance.pdf - - sacks, harvey, “on doing being ordinary“, in: atkinson john m. / heritage, john (ed.), structures of social action (cambridge & new york ), – . december – . lingvistik och litteraturvetenskap i praktiken vetenskapsteoretiska frågor utifrån forskarnas egen praktik. litteraturvetenskapliga och lingvistiska exempel. litteratur: delas ut på seminariet. december – . presentation och diskussion av examinationsuppgifter (deadline november till opponenten) avslutning med middag long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march auscinemas presentation abstract: as part of our current arc project “mapping the movies”, dr. mike walsh and i are developing, a geodatabase of australian cinemas, covering the period from to and based on a consistent dataset found in the trade journal film weekly, providing basic information on the ownership, location and capacity of approximately , venues. a principal purpose of the database is to provide an opportunity for crowdsourcing information about the venues from other material available on the web and from the interested public. we expect to engage the interest of organisations devoted to the history and preservation of cinemas, and of school teachers developing local history projects under the national curriculum. the information gathered will include details of screening programs, photographs and digitised newspaper reports. funded by an ereasearchsa summer scholarship, we are developing a set of templates for collection of crowdsourcing data and extend the website to manage and use the additional information. a broader aim of the project is to develop a generic open source geodatabase for use by digital humanities researchers who want to map relatively small scale datasets. the system is focused around a database structure that supports the definition of objects with metadata, allowing additional objects to be added to the system without the need to significantly change the underlying database structure. the system is focused on easy implementation and management, needing high-level it skills for only brief periods in the establishment of a project, to define objects in the database and in the programming code, and customise the user interface to meet their specific needs. the paper will describe the evolution of the research project, and demonstrate the website. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : opening screen] this project forms part of the output for an arc discovery project involving deb verhoeven, mike walsh, kate bowles, colin arrowsmith and jill matthews, called mapping the movies: the changing nature of australia’s cinema circuits and their audiences. this project was a continuation of a previous discovery project, regional markets and local audiences: case studies in australian cinema consumption, – . both projects are contributions to an emerging international trend in research into cinema history, that has shifted its focus away from the content of films to consider their circulation and consumption, and to examine the cinema as a site of social and cultural exchange. this shared effort has engaged contributors from different points on the disciplinary compass, including history, geography, cultural studies, economics, sociology and anthropology, as well as film and media studies. their projects have examined the commercial activities of film distribution and exhibition, the legal and political discourses that craft cinema’s profile in public life, and the social and cultural histories of specific cinema audiences. many of their projects have been collaborative, facilitated by computational analysis and the opportunities for quantitative research offered by databases and geographical information systems, which allow for the compilation of new information about the history of cinema exhibition and reception in ways that would previously have been too labour intensive to undertake. having achieved critical mass and methodological maturity, this body of work has now developed a distinct identity, to which we have given the name ‘the new cinema history’. in calling this work cinema history, we are deliberately distinguishing it from a film history that has been predominantly constructed as a history of production, producers, authorship and individual films most commonly understood as texts, and long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march that has been predominantly evaluative, classificatory or curatorial in its remit. methodologically, this practice of film history has often struggled to place films into a wider historical context; its most common approach has been to treat films as involuntary testimony, bearing unconscious material witness to the mentalité or zeitgeist of the period of their production. the idea that films, along with other forms of mass or popular culture, are ‘eloquent social documents’ reflecting the flow of contemporary history has been an implicit assumption of much writing about cinema, but explanations of how ‘the film-making process taps some reservoir of cultural meaning’ have remained relatively unformulated and untheorised, little advanced from siegfried kracauer’s proposal in that some movies, or some ‘pictorial or narrative motifs’ reiterated in them, might be understood as ‘deep layers of collective mentality which extend more or less below the dimensions of consciousness’. versions of this proposition have encouraged historians to treat films as historically symptomatic and to examine the ‘unconscious’ of a filmic text to reveal the biases, tastes or secret fears of the cultural moment in which it was produced. instinctively reaching for metaphor and allusion as clues, this mode of analysis turns the movies themselves into proxies for the missing historical audience, in the expectation that an interpretation of film content will reveal something about the cultural conditions that produced it and attracted audiences to it. such analyses pay little attention to their actual modes of circulation at any time, and risk ascribing to individual films a representational significance that may be disproportionate to their capacity for historical agency. this symptomatic film history has also largely been written without acknowledging the transitory nature of any individual film’s exhibition history. motion picture industries require audiences to cultivate the habit of cinemagoing as a regular and frequent social activity. from very early in their industrial history, motion pictures were understood to be consumables, viewed once, disposed of and replaced by a substitute providing a comparable experience. the routine change of programme was a critical element in the construction of the social habit of attendance, ensuring that any individual movie was likely to be part of a movie theatre audience’s experience of cinema for three days or less, with little opportunity to leave a lasting impression before it disappeared indefinitely. sustaining the habit of viewing required long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march a constant traffic in film prints, ensuring that the evanescent images on the screen formed the most transient and expendable element of the experience of cinema. oral histories with cinema audience members consistently tell us that the local rhythms of motion picture circulation and the qualities of the experience of cinema attendance were place-specific and shaped by the continuities of life in the family, the workplace, the neighbourhood and community. stories that cinemagoers recall return repeatedly to the patterns and highlights of everyday life, its relationships, pressures and resolutions. only the occasional motion picture proves to be as memorable, and it is as likely to be memorable in its fragments as in its totality. new cinema history takes these facts as its premise, and focuses its attention on the questions that surround the social history of the experience of cinema rather than the histories of its ephemeral products. by doing so, it becomes possible to engage scholars from more diverse disciplinary backgrounds in this emerging field. cinema has become a matter of historical interest to researchers who have not been schooled in the professional orthodoxy that the proper business of film studies is the study of films. from the perspective of historical geography, social history, economics, anthropology or population studies, the observation that cinemas are sites of social and cultural significance has as much to do with the patterns of employment, urban development, transport systems and leisure practices that shape cinema’s global diffusion, as it does with what happens in the evanescent encounter between an individual audience member and a film print. new cinema history uses quantitative information, articulated through the apparatus of databases, spatial analysis and geovisualisation, to advance a range of hypotheses about the relationship of cinemas to social groupings in the expectation that these hypotheses must be tested by other, qualitative means. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide adelaide ] the mapping the movies project has begun an investigation into the significance of australian cinemas as sites of social and economic activity, focusing on the period from to . this period covers a major change in the number, nature and geographic distribution of cinemas in australia, and on reason for focusing on it is because there is a conventional explanation for those changes in the appearance of television as a functional alternative to cinema. from the perspective that i’ve outlined, we want to ask questions about the persuasiveness of that explanation, and to consider a range of other factors that might have contributed to the relative decline in cinema attendance over the period. the long-term aim is to combine archival, social and spatial data with oral histories to construct a gis database of cinema venues and their neighbourhoods, creating maps of distribution practices and audience movements in order to analyse the responsiveness of cinemas and their audiences to social and cultural change. of course, this has turned out to be a far more ambitious agenda than one grant can achieve, and the part of the project that i want to discuss today might be considered an initial enabling device for the larger project. in one sense, the project is also an attempt to address an issue raised by alan liu in his keynote address, in the historical parallel to the debate over close and distant reading, which is in the relationship between microhistories and larger scale social or cultural history: how many microhistories do you need to make a general historical statement? at one level, the cinema history we are discussing describes a highly localised activity, involving individual sites and the individuals attached to them. but these individuals were also part of a globally-organised supply chain, the profitability of which was dependent on the predictability of their behaviour. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : film weekly records] the primary information source for our initial dataset comes from the annual trade publication, the film weekly yearbook, which contains a listing of cinema exhibition venues in australia, with minimal information about their location, seating capacity and ownership. [slide : record extraction into a simple exportable excel database file] we have extracted the information initially into a series of spreadsheets, geocoded each of the venues, and generated a map based on google maps technology. [slide : website frontend based on google maps technology] it’s worth saying two things about the underlying data at this point, just to highlight what i think is an instance of a wider debate. this project uses the film weekly data as a consistent dataset; this is industry-sourced data, which existed for industry use. its virtues are its volume, its national coverage, and its consistency. what we also long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march know about it, from the other research in our project, is that its data is not always accurate. it doesn’t, for example, capture the closure data of cinemas with any accuracy – closure is simply recorded by a cinema’s absence from the list in a given year. within the project, we have had long discussions about how to use this data, and whether to integrate it with the project’s main database, caarp, which has retained a higher level of exactitude, and a much greater level of detail in the data we’ve stored in it, but does so for smaller areas and narrower periods of time. our solution has been to maintain a separation between the two datasets, but to allow the auscinemas site to access caarp data, and for caarp to have the capacity to ingest auscinemas data when we’re sure of its reliability. this also, of course, means that auscinemas will grow from its base data, and in the process distort the consistency of the original dataset. this is an inevitable consequence of the research, and of the crowdsourcing aspect of our project, with which we hope to generate a collection of microhistories which will correct, amplify and complicate the picture we can create from the existing data. a quick your of what the site does. [slide : more website frontend screenshots] venue data is linked to a set of markers, which represent locality type and cinema type. clicking on a marker opens an information window which displays all available film weekly data and additional linked resources. (we must get prettier icons!) long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : website features: browse, search, time slider and contribute] you can search or browse the data, and select a set of venues to display. you can then examine what happens to that set of venues over time by using the time slider, either manually or as an automation. [slide : brisbane] [slide : contribute form] the crucial bit of all this for the development of the project is the contribute form, which is how we plan to gather crowdsourced information from the general public, from local historical societies and cinema preservation groups, and potentially from school local history projects. i suspect that we have some lessons to learn from the papers yesterday by donelle mckinley and mia ridge in the session on successful crowdsourcing, but this is our current version. long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march the aim is to collect images, stories, clippings, personal histories, information about screenings, and more generally accounts of the role and function of the cinema in the community, which will augment the work that we will do with students in harvesting information from trove, picture australia and elsewhere. this is also likely to take us outside the boundaries of our initial period of - , and this will involve a number of revisions and reiterations of the site. we also have a range of questions to develop as the project grows beyond its current users: one of our original intentions was to develop the geodatabase as a generic piece of software for use by digital humanities researchers who want to map relatively small scale datasets. the system is focused around a database structure that supports the definition of objects with metadata, allowing additional objects to be added to the system without the need to significantly change the underlying database structure. the system is focused on easy implementation and management, needing high-level it skills for only brief periods in the establishment of a project, to define objects in the database and in the programming code, and customise the user interface to meet their specific needs.  what do other researchers want to use the site for, and how do we make the site more useful to a broader range of users, at a variety of levels of use?  how do we get people to contribute? how much further can we simplify and clarify the contribution process?  how closely do we monitor the reliability of contributor-supplied information? how far can we automate input processes to reduce monitoring costs but ensure reliability?  what do we do when the money runs out?  can this system be picked up by others and readily used or has it become too intertwined with our own data? [slide : case study ] [click on coloured horizontal arrows to move to linked slides] long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : case study ] [slide linked to red arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to green arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to blue arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : case study ] [slide linked to blue arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to purple arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : case study ] [click on coloured horizontal arrows to move to linked slides] [slide : case study ] [slide linked to red, green and blue arrows on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] long session presentation at the digital humanities australasia conference, march [slide : case study ] [slide linked to dark pink arrow on # , little yellow arrow to go back to # ] [slide : questions for the future] 虚拟现实纵览专刊 . 重大项目介绍中国科学 : 信息科学年第卷第期 : – scientia sinica informationis 引用格式: 赵沁平, 张绍祥, 樊瑜波, 等. 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究. 中国科学: 信息科学, , : – , doi: . /n - c⃝ 《中国科学》杂志社 www.scichina.com infocn.scichina.com 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究赵沁平¬, 张绍祥, 樊瑜波®, 郝爱民¬*, 谢叻¯, 王莉莉¬ ¬ 北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室, 北京第三军医大学, 重庆 ® 北京航空航天大学生物与医学工程学院, 北京 ¯ 上海交通大学, 上海 * 通信作者. e-mail: ham@buaa.edu.cn 收稿日期: – – ; 接受日期: – – ; 网络出版日期: – – 国家自然科学基金重大项目 (批准号: ) 资助项目概述 . 项目背景可交互人体器官数字模型是利用信息技术和现代医学技术建立的能够全面刻画人体器官形态特性、物理特性和生理特性的数字模型, 可支持切割、缝合、自碰撞和大尺度形变等交互式诊疗操作. 基于可交互人体器官数字模型的虚拟手术包括手术模拟训练、手术方案规划和手术预演与评价等, 对创新医疗人才培养模式、提高优质医疗资源利用效率、缓解医患矛盾、带动医疗器械产业发展等具有重要的技术支撑作用, 是我国抢占医工交叉技术制高点的新突破口. 在此背景下, 国家自然科学基金委员会于年月正式立项支持了“可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究”重大项目 (项目执行时间 . – . , 总经费万元). 由北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室作为项目牵头单位, 联合第三军医大学、上海交通大学、南方医科大学和北京协和医院的优势力量 (含个国家重点实验室, 个国家工程中心, 个省部级重点实验室, 个附属医院) 共同实施. . 主要内容项目以可交互人体器官数字模型和虚拟手术的基础理论和方法为核心, 凝练了三个基本科学问题: 人体器官的多尺度几何建模理论、人体器官物理建模与生理建模理论和手术虚拟仿真与评价理论. 项目从基础理论研究、关键技术创新、典型应用示范三个层次, 设置了相互配合、有机联系的五个课题, 分别是: • 人体器官几何形态建模与矢量化 (由第三军医大学牵头, 联合南方医科大学); • 面向可交互人体器官数字模型和虚拟手术的物理与生理建模 (由北京航空航天大学生物医学与工程学院牵头); • 手术虚拟仿真与手术评价的基础理论和关键技术研究 (由上海交通大学牵头); 赵沁平等: 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究图 (网络版彩图) 项目课题设置及其相互关系 figure (color online) the settings of five sub-projects and their relations • 人体器官及手术现象的逼真表现与绘制理论和方法 (由北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室牵头); • 虚拟手术支撑平台及经皮冠状动脉成形术模拟训练原型系统 (由北京航空航天大学虚拟现实技术与系统国家重点实验室牵头, 联合北京协和医院). 如图所示, 课题 , 侧重人体器官的几何、物理、生理建模理论研究, 课题侧重交互理论研究, 课题侧重绘制与可视化理论研究, 课题侧重应用技术研究、平台与原型系统研制, 共同构建建模、交互、绘制的理论体系和验证系统. 理论与关键技术创新项目通过虚拟人体与虚拟手术基础理论和应用基础研究, 开展医工结合的理论、技术研究和原型系统研发, 初步建立了支持人体器官几何、物理、生理建模与表现, 以及具有力反馈的手术仿真技术体系, 并在以下三方面取得了突出进展. . 虚拟人体建模与虚拟手术技术在人体器官矢量化建模方面: 针对人体器官结构存在多尺度空间和不同组织结构成像差异, 导致三维矢量化建模困难的挑战, 建立了多模态、多尺度的联合建模理论, 将高精度数据集与临床个性化数据融合, 搭建了形态学研究从宏观到微观、从系统到局部、从静态到动态的桥梁. 在人体器官生理建模方面: 针对生理和病理条件下血管组织形态、血流流场与物质传输相互作用以及多场作用下植介入支架手术的生物学效应的定量描述问题, 提出了基于多尺度多场耦合生理模型的植介入体与宿主组织相互作用仿真理论, 建立了主动脉、颈动脉、腹主动脉、脑动脉和冠状动脉等多尺度心脑血管模型, 仿真了导丝/支架等植介入体与血流/血管、一氧化氮/腺嘌呤等物质的相互作用, 揭示了植介入体与宿主组织相互作用的生物力学及力生物学规律, 可为心血管植介入虚拟手术和手术规划提供理论支撑. 在流固交互物理仿真方面: 针对心脏介入手术中血流和手术器械相互作用物理过程复杂多变, 对其模拟的计算量大, 实时性难以保证的难题, 基于血流动力学分析基础, 提出了一种粒子与网格混合的中国科学 : 信息科学第卷第期图 (网络版彩图) 个性化 pci 手术模拟器总体结构图 figure (color online) the architecture of our pci simulator 建模方法, 建立了流体和固体耦合的几何表示与物理解算模型, 较为真实地模拟了血流与导丝的相互作用及其实时三维逼真表现. 在六维力觉交互仿真方面: 针对人体组织和手术器械的多样性, 以及力觉交互的高实时性和高稳定性要求, 提出了层次球树单边接触约束建模和基于位姿变量约束优化的六自由度力觉合成理论, 实现了复杂形状刚体、变形体、混合组织的多点多区域接触下的 hz 的六维力和力矩联合模拟. . 自研数据采集装置和力觉测量/反馈装置自主研制了多类数据采集装置和力觉测量/反馈装置, 具体包括: ( ) 研制了完整的冰冻刨切实验装置, 完成了设备主体、进给系统、刀具的制作, 在高精度人体数据采集中发挥了关键作用; ( ) 研制了适合采集不同温度条件下生物组织电特性参数的实验装置, 用于采集部分生物组织的电特性参数; ( ) 建立了基于微泡超声造影剂的血压无创测量装置, 开展了环境压力对超声造影剂微泡次谐波散射特性影响的实验研究; ( ) 研制了虚拟心血管介入手术系统力反馈装置样机, 包括力反馈机构、位移采集单元、造影剂注射器注射量采集单元、球囊加压泵压力测量单元、处理器、驱动电机以及电机驱动板等, 实现了介入手术中推送力和旋转力的分离; ( ) 研制了六维力和力矩传感器物理样机, 通过静态和动态加载实验验证了该传感器的性能, 为面向心血管手术的在体力信号测量系统提供了一种新的设计途径; ( ) 研制了微小型术中在体力觉测量装置, 准确测量和记录微小尺寸手术器械 (导丝、导管等) 与人体组织作用力, 开展了静态测量和动态测量实验验证. . 心血管介入手术模拟器在理论创新、关键技术突破的基础上, 将研究成果进行有机集成再创新, 研制了一套支持个性化 pci (percutaneous coronary intervention) 手术预演与模拟训练、全手术过程力触觉交互操作的 pci 手术模拟器, 整体结构如图所示, 可为医生提供多个训练案例, 最大程度地降低临床手术风险. 该模拟器具有数据驱动的心血管系统几何与物理建模、心血管系统实时物理形变仿真、介入导管和导丝物理赵沁平等: 可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究行为交互仿真、x 光模拟成像、力触觉反馈、三维逼真绘制、术前临床影像数据即时动态关联、生理参数仿真等特色功能, 可以满足导丝和导管介入、支架释放、造影剂注射、x 光成像、紧急情况模拟处置等 pci 手术操作的仿真需要, 保证了 pci 手术仿真的物理、视觉、力触觉的真实感. 该 pci 手术模拟器的技术创新或突破可以归纳为如下点: • 个性化临床数据的即时建模处理; • 基于位置动力学和弹簧质子混合模型的心血管系统物理仿真; • 基于 cosserat 理论的导丝和导管物理仿真; • 基于光线投射算法的虚拟 x 光成像; • 支持 pci 手术操作的力触觉反馈硬件设计; • 基于 cuda 加速的系统整体实现. 总结在国家自然科学基金重大项目的支持下, 针对可交互人体器官数字模型及虚拟手术研究这一信息科学和医学科学交叉的重大前沿问题, 研究了人体器官多尺度几何建模理论、人体器官物理与生理建模理论、手术虚拟仿真与手术评价理论三个基础科学问题; 创新了人体器官几何、物理、生理特性的一致表示模型及相互作用机制、力觉和运动觉相结合的虚拟介入手术人机交互机制、特征驱动的海量医学数据多尺度分析方法、基于运动分析和力觉测量的手术行为特征分析与建模方法等系列关键技术; 初步建立了人体器官仿真建模与虚拟手术理论体系. 在本领域顶级期刊和会议上, 发表高水平学术论文多篇, 其中, sci 检索多篇, q 区 (含 ccf a 类会议) 论文多篇. 申请国家发明专利多项, 其中, 已获批发明专利多项. 项目组在开展应用基础研究的同时, 特别注重系统集成创新, 研制了支持手术模拟训练和个性化手术方案规划与预演的经皮冠状动脉成形术模拟器. 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third military medical university, chongqing , china; school of biological and medical engineering, beihang university, beijing , china; shanghai jiao tong university, shanghai , china *e-mail: ham@buaa.edu.cn linked (open) data at web scale: research, social and engineering challenges in the digital humanities michele barbera in the last decade, the amount of data available in the linked data cloud has grown enormously in several domains, including cultrual heritage and digital humanities. however creative reuse of data both within the scholarly community and within the cultural in- dustry is still very limited. the limited creative reuse of data does not only depend on the limitations of existing technologies, but also on several social and cultural habits whose consequences need to be fully addressed and further researched. if linked data is to be exploited at its full potential, a profound cultural shift needs to occur in the way data is produced, managed and disseminated. this is especially true in the cultural heritage and digital humanities domains, where a strong tradition of two-dimensional, paper-like thinking is still predominant. the first section of this paper briefly presents the most pressing technological and engineering challenges to be addressed within the linked data sector. in the second section it is argued that the full exploitation of the linked data sector does not only depends on technological advancement but also on the possibilities enshrined in a radical cultural change in thinking about the semantic web and linked open data visions. the potential effect jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). doi: . /jlis.it- http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlis.it- m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale on the cultural industry and on the scholarly community is also explored. the importance of nurturing a lively business ecosystem and the role of public and open data published by glam orga- nizations is the main condition enabling the linked data vision to take off. despite it is here impossible to provide a comprehensive analysis of potential of the semantic web, its enabling conditions and implications, this paper nonetheless aims at offering a stimulating insight into one of the possible ways of thinking about it. technical and engineering challenges the web of data is characterized by its universal nature, its virtually infinite size, and by the heterogeneity of data. it comes at no surprise that these and many other features have influenced the way in which data producing and data consuming applications are -– or ought to be -– designed. first of all, due to the rapidly growing amount of data available in the linked open data cloud and in enterprise linked data repositories, it is not possible to centralize and compute all the data in a single local repository. the largest existing public repository, sindice.com holds today around billion triples, which is just a fraction of the lod cloud. sindice.com is based on a large map-reduce cluster (implemented on apache hadoop) whose tco is still beyond the possibilities of most small and medium enterprises (smes) and research organizations. one of the most significant features of the linked data vision is its capacity to find novel ways to exploit unexpected information and links to discover new insights from data. a way of slicing large datasets and reduce them down to a manageable size – possibly on demand – is necessary in order not to sacrifice this desirable feature. galleries, libraries, archives and museums. http://sindice.com. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://sindice.com jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) this approach is not entirely new and it is sometimes refereed as dataspaces in the relational database community. linked dataspaces are essentially a transient materialization (or a view) computed on demand of a slice of the originating data graph. despite some imple- mentations of linked dataspaces do already exist, neither standard specifications nor reference implementations have been defined yet. streaming linked data streaming linked data has been only partially addressed by the research community (barbieri and della valle; le-phuoc et al.; sequeda and corcho) and almost entirely neglected by production- grade industrial systems. at a first sight, this may appear marginally relevant but it is instead of paramount importance considering the growing amount of live streaming data produced by sensor net- works and sensors embedded in personal mobile devices. versioning from the capacity of versioning rdf graphs comes the possibility of identifying evolutionary atomic changes and to roll them back, in order to revert the graph to a previous state. although some approaches have already been explored in research, efficient and production-ready industrial implementations in commercially or open source graph stores are still under-developed. in the web of data, data sources are highly heterogeneous. the capacity of slicing and mixing different sources, that have various degree of trust (e.g. think about crowsdourced data vs. authoritative national library larkc: the large knowledge collider, http://www.larkc.eu. the availability of open source software of high quality is a very important element in the growth of this field of study. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://www.larkc.eu m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale data) and frequent updates a core feature. hence, the lack of solid versioning systems is an important gap to fill as soon as possible. despite the importance of overcoming such limitations, tech- nological innovation is a necessary but not sufficient condition for exploiting the potential of the semantic web. as the next section shows, this must come along with a critical understanding of the cultural shifts which are inner to the semantic vision itself. social challenges in a famous blog post, written in , (“giant global graph”) introduced the concept of ”thinking in the graph” and the notion of a “giant global graph” as opposed to the existing web of documents. the most striking changes whose effects are not yet being fully internalized in the digital publishing sector, are well summarised by berners-lee who writes: ”the less inviting side of sharing is losing some control. indeed, at each layer – net, web, or graph – we have ceded some control for greater benefits”, and ”it is about getting excited about connections, rather than nervous”. in order to understand the importance of these changes, in the following, three issue are considered: the aaa principle, the graph nature of the giant global graph and the open world assumption (owa). one of the pillars underpinning the vision of the semantic web and linked data – which also holds true for the web itself – is the principle known as aaa, which stands for anyone can say anything, anywhere. this implies a profound shift in the paradigm dominat- ing the publishing and media industry. in the era of the web of documents – and prior to the advent of the web – the dominant con- ceptual framework rested upon individuals acting as information producers, publishers (gatekeepers) or distributors. information consumers (e.g. readers), acting as passive actors, were neither in- jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) volved in the production nor in the distribution of information. as a result of the cultural and technological revolution enshrined in the web . , readers have become active producers of information. yet, the dissemination and often the production of information, as well as the gatekeeper role of filtering, was in the hands of publishers or aggregators of information. the web of data– which is here used as a synonym for semantic web and linked data – and the prominent role of the aaa principle in shaping publishing and consumption mod- els,including query federation across multiple repositories, imply shifting the core activity of the information lifecycle from the produc- tion to the mesh-up of several heterogeneous and personalized data sources. in this novel scenario, individuals and organizations play at the same time the roles of information producers, gatekeepers, and consumers of information in an ever-reconfiguring ecosystem. in the traditional publishing world, both in the public and in the private sector, on the web and in other media, information (and data) are modeled in order to maximize the accessibility and especially the usability for consumers. this is achieved by anticipating scenarios in which information is consumed. by design, we cannot know in ad- vance how data will be used, combined, enriched and repurposed to produce information goods. this is one of the premises that makes linked data so powerful. however, habits are difficult to change es- pecially when they affect not only the production of data but also its consumption (e.g. think about the need for data consuming applica- tions to be able to deal with unexpected data). additionally, without knowing in advance how data will be consumed, data have to be represented in the most universal way possible. such a universal representation does not allow any optimization in the information design phase and leaves room for optimizing data usage only in the consumption phase. secondly, the graph nature of the giant global graph has profound jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale social implications in the way in which information is produced and consumed. thanks to the great success of relational database tech- nologies and spreadsheets, people mentally model data in tabular structures. it developers and programmers, as well as information and data managers, scientists, marketers, educators and other actors involved in the data lifecycle think about data in a purpose-specific context and from an individual point of view. thinking in the graph as berners-lee puts it, is not an easy task when data is modeled, produced, aggregated or consumed. as my col- league gradmann often remarks, this is even more difficult in the cultrual heritage and digital humanities communities, where there is a strong tradition of two-dimensional thinking derived from the paper-world. the two-dimensional paper-world approach has often been mimicked rather than revolutionized in the digital world. the problem is once again aggravated by technological constraints. first of all, most of the linked data nowadays published in the cultural lod cloud is semi-automatically generated from legacy tabular data repositories. secondly, many computer science and informa- tion design courses in universities are still mostly based on tabular, relational and tree-like data structures. another source of misun- derstandings is the use of uris or iris to identify at the same time informational and non-informational resources, that is seldom ac- cepted and understood, even within the experts community (see for example the recurring discussion about http-range- ). the issue known as the http range problem, is about what mechanisms should be used to distinguish between statements about web pages and statements about the real world item or concepts the web page talks about. along with some technical and engineering implications, what is interesting is that the distinction between information and non-information resources is not always clear for data publishers and data consumers. as a result, the web of data and many data- jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) consuming applications present inconsistencies which derive from the misinterpretation of this concept. this is not a critical problem per-se, but it becomes a serious problem when reasoning is applied to these inconsistencies (e.g. same-as reasoning). finally, the web of data is built upon the open world assumption (owa) , according to which ”the truth-value of a statement is independent of whether or not it is known by any single observer or agent to be true. in other words, a statement cannot be considered false just because there is nothing explicitly stating that it is true. this is another im- portant shift from the relational database world, which is based on the closed world assumption. the logical and the technical implica- tions of the owa are beyond the scope of this presentation, however it is worth spelling out some of its social consequences. the choice of operating under owa is justified by the fact that open worlds are particularly well suited to deal with incomplete information and exceptions. owa’s features are desirable within a universal systems such as the web. however, they also pose some serious challenges. for instance, some problems are inherently related to closed worlds and most importantly many of the it tools are designed to work in closed worlds. furthermore, people are more familiar with thinking in closed worlds rather than in open ones. once it has been shown which are the intrinsic cultural implications of the vision of the se- mantic web and linked data, the next section introduces another problematique which is essential for advancing a revolutionary twist in the semantic web: the importance of nurturing a dynamic linked data economy. open world assumption, in wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open_ world_assumption. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open_world_assumption http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/open_world_assumption m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale nurturing a linked data economy in the last decade, europe has made large investments in research over semantic technologies. this has generated brilliant ideas, core scientific knowledge and many prototypal implementations. unfor- tunately, the research community has not yet been able to leverage this potential within the industry to build production-ready tools easily usable by end-users. there is not yet a microsoft excel, or an apple itunes for linked data. similarly, there is not yet mysparql or any apache httpd that can serve streamed linked data. a lively data economy, with a rich ecosystem, is not yet in place. the time has come to invest in innovation in order to be able to transform the enormous knowledge accumulated through research and the large amount of data recently produced/liberated into a virtuous circle able to generate a self-sustaining and evolving ecosystem. recently a number of game-changing announcements has been made which can be considered as potentially contributing to create a linked data economy: first of all, google knowledge graph, a sort of closed enterprise linked data cloud as well as the acquisition by the big g of one of the most important nodes of the lod cloud, freebase; sec- ondly, the coalition between the largest search engines to introduce schema.org, a combination of a technology and a set of incentives for web publishers to annotate their content with semantic markup. finally, large private organizations are approaching the web of data, by evolving their business models or by modifying their production processes to comply with the openess of the linked open data cloud, or by building closed enterprise linked data clouds (e.g. many large pharma are bolding their own enterprise linked data). on the one hand some of these announcements may raise some socio-economic issues related to the risk of endangering the public good and to mo- nopolistic threats (see for example the interesting, if a bit outdated, jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) analysis of the risks related to schema.org published by (tennison) on her blog. in europe, there are numerous small-medium enterprises which are the major driver for innovation and economic growth. a care- ful strategy to protect our common knowledge-heritage and the (linked!) public good that is at the same time able to offer the right economic incentives to smes, is key in paving the way to a vibrant and sustainable linked data economy. on the other hand, this is clearly a huge leap forward for the web of data, whose economic value may start to unlock thanks to the critical mass (of users, invest- ments, technology, media visibility and demand) mobilized around the leading web companies. in a recent post (dodds) suggests that the media-hype created by google’s knowledgraph, – that is still mostly fed by public domain and open knowledge – may represent an opportunity for smes which can leverage the same public goods to meet the increasing demand of vertical and custom enterprise linked data clouds. conclusions after having presented some of the technological challenges for a full exploitation of the linked open data web, this paper has argued that such innovation must come along with a new understanding of the cultural changes inner to the web of data. this is, however, not enough. the web of data needs a lively economic environment where to flourish and further develop around its potential. yes, but how? the policy advices suggested by this paper are well expressed by the european union in the following quote which concludes this contribution: http://schema.org. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://schema.org m. barbera, linked (open) data at web scale the volume of data being digitally stored and exchanged is growing exponentially. [...] obviously, these data generate the potential for many new types of products and services. the accessibility of public services can be improved for open and linked data, smart traffic and cities can improve mobility, products can report their life cycles, monitoring their prove- nance and quality, social trends can be recognized and turned into services, and products can come closer to meeting con- sumers’ needs. we foresee a whole new industry implementing services on top of large data streams. the impact of this emerg- ing economic sector - the data economy - may soon outrange the current importance of the software industry. the gist of the matter is to turn large streams of data into added value for the public and private sector. this industry can help to increase the efficiency of processes working with these data, it can provide transparency, support well-informed decision making, and enable new services not possible today (e.g., smart cities, interactive trend analysis or seamless data flows along value creation chains). clearly, research, engineering, policy making for the data economy and the exploitation of the un- precedented wealth of data have become keys to the future of europe. references barbieri, davide and emanuele della valle. “a proposal for publishing data streams as linked data - a position paper”. proceedings of the linked data on the web (ldow ) workshop, co-located with www . . (cit. on p. ). berners-lee, tim. “giant global graph”. http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/ node/ . dodds, leigh. “welcome to the knowledge graph”. http://talis-systems.com/ / /welcome-to-the-knowledge-graph/. http:// .data-forum.eu/about. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/ http://dig.csail.mit.edu/breadcrumbs/node/ http://talis-systems.com/ / /welcome-to-the-knowledge-graph/ http://talis-systems.com/ / /welcome-to-the-knowledge-graph/ http:// .data-forum.eu/about jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ) sequeda, juan f. and oscar corcho. “linked stream data: a position paper”. pro- ceedings of the nd international workshop on semantic sensor networks (ssn ). washington dc, usa, . (cit. on p. ). tennison, jeni. “schema.org and the responsibility of monopoly”. http : / / www. jenitennison.com/blog/node/ . michele barbera, net ; spazio dati. info@netseven.it barbera, m. ”linked (open) data at web scale: research, social and engineering challenges in the digital humanities”. jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ): art: # . doi: . /jlis.it- . web. abstract: the amount of data available in the linked data cloud has grown enor- mously in the last years in several domains, including cultural heritage and digital humanities. however creative reuse of data both within the scholarly community and within the cultural industry is still very limited. it depends on a mixture of technical and social problems that needs to be addressed in research and within the industry. the paper will explores some of these challenges with a focus on the digital humanities. keywords: library linked data; semantic web submitted: - - accepted: - - published: - - jlis.it. vol. , n. (gennaio/january ). art. # p. http://www.jenitennison.com/blog/node/ http://www.jenitennison.com/blog/node/ mailto:info@netseven.it http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlis.it- digital human modelling and the ageing workforce - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference doi: . /j.promfg. . . procedia manufacturing ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect th international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics (ahfe ) and the affiliated conferences, ahfe digital human modelling and the ageing workforce keith casea,*, amjad hussainb, russell marshallc, stephen summerskillc, diane gyic amechanical and manufacturing engineering, loughborough university, loughborough, leicestershire, le tu, uk bdepartment of industrial and manufacturing engineering, university of engineering and technology, lahore, pakistan cdesign school, loughborough university, loughborough, leicestershire, le tu, uk abstract digital human modelling (dhm) has often focused on user populations that could be characterised as able-bodied and in the working age group. it is clear however that demographic changes are resulting in older populations in developed countries but this is also becoming increasingly true even in developing countries. the economic pressures of increased life expectancy are resulting in demands for workers to remain in employment well past what would previously have been considered a normal retirement age. in many countries legislation is increasing retirement ages for entitlement to state pensions, and enforceable retirement ages are being outlawed. as a consequence older working populations can be expected. age in the workforce has many positive aspects including increased experience, wisdom, loyalty and motivation, but an inevitable consequence of ageing is negative effects such as the loss of capabilities in strength, mobility, vision and hearing. the challenge of including older workers is recognised as an important aspect of inclusive design and dhm is recognised as a potentially useful method for its implementation. today’s highly demanding and competitive working environments require the highest levels of productivity from individuals so that overall operational and business objectives can be achieved. dhm-based workplace risk assessment methods have successfully been used to improve working environments by conducting virtual posture based ergonomic risk analysis. older workers are significantly different from younger workers in terms of their physical, physiological and cognitive capabilities and these capabilities directly or indirectly affect human work performance. this article suggests the use of human capability data in a virtual environment to explore the level of acceptability of a working strategy based on real capability data (joint mobility in this case) of older workers. a case study shows that the proposed dhm-based inclusive design method is useful recommending working strategies that are acceptable for older workers in terms of work productivity, well-being and safety. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference. keywords: workforce challenges; ageing; workplace design; digital human modeling; inclusive design * corresponding author. tel.: + - - ; fax: + - - . e-mail address: k.case@lboro.ac.uk © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.promfg. . . &domain=pdf keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . introduction this article discusses global workforce challenges and focuses on changing demographic trends in terms of workforce diversity and ageing. humans differ in many aspects and age significantly affects human capabilities that influence work performing capabilities. consequently there is a need for design methodologies that can address the needs of older people while they are working. a proposed digital human modeling based inclusive design methodology is introduced and verified by conducting a case study in a furniture manufacturing company. . background literature diversity refers to differences between individuals because of their gender, age, functional capability, cultural background, experience and education [ ]. there are multiple dimensions of diversity but age, race, gender, disability and national origin are frequently considered [ ]. workforce diversity comes with a number of potential benefits and challenges as it increases work performance inconsistencies because of human variability issues. effective diversity management can provide an opportunity for better work performance by utilizing more diverse ideas in decision making. however, failure to manage a diverse workforce may lead to an environment of conflicts, frustration and sense of insecurity that can promote absenteeism, high turnover, job dissatisfaction and lower work commitment [ , ]. however, competitive advantages arise from having a diverse workforce, such as variations in skills, experiences and backgrounds that can increase creativity, competitiveness and innovation [ - ]. the focus of this research is on age as a major dimension of diversity. the world is experiencing a significant increase in the proportion of older people. there were about million people aged or above in , but it is estimated that this will increase to billion by , with this trend being more prominent in the developing world. it is estimated that one out of persons will be of age years or above by and this will significantly increase the dependency ratio (the proportion of economically inactive versus active population). like other parts of the world, the uk population is also ageing [ ]. there has been an increase of . million people aged and over in last years. on the other hand, the percentage of the population aged less than years has decreased from percent to percent from to . the continuing trend by will result in the percentage of people aged more than years being approximately percent, whereas the percentage of the population under years will further decrease to percent. there are other noticeable trends in the uk population which will continue in the future. these are that the fastest percentage increase in the population will be in those who are more than years old and a decrease in the ratio of women to men in the over- age group. in comparison with other european countries the uk has a relatively higher birth rate, which makes it these considerations less alarming than they are elsewhere. these demographics in the context of the recent global economic crisis encourage the retention of older and experienced workers, so that this resource might be utilized for national and global economic growth. this is reflected in recent uk legislation removing compulsory retirement ages and increasing the age for receipt of state pensions. however, retention of older workers comes with potential benefits and challenges for the organizations. experience, knowledge and skills of older workers are considered prominent factors that attract positive inclination of employers and older workers are considered as an asset for the organization. however, decline in physical and physiological capabilities, and differences in psychological attitudes and behaviour create many challenges. there is a need to understand the effects of ageing and the potential impact on work performance. a realistic understanding of both positives and negatives about older workers can provide an opportunity for designers to address the design needs of this part of the workforce. otherwise, unrealistic and over ambitious production targets create a mismatch between job demands and working capabilities of older workers. such situations ultimately result in an unsatisfied, over-stressed, frustrated and less loyal workforce and a decrease in individual and organizational work performance. age affects humans in different ways including the physical, physiological, cognitive, psychological, attitudinal and psychosocial aspects. there is a need to understand all these changes so that the challenges faced by older workers might be addressed in a logical way. however, physical, physiological and cognitive issues are the primary concern for designers, ergonomists, managers, engineers and human resources personnel. the functional capacity of workers declines with age in a number of ways and becomes critical for workers aged years and more. the musculoskeletal strength of the body starts to decline after the age of , and a year old keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – has muscular strength which is approximately % of a year old [ ]. balance disorders and risks of falls and injuries lead to a decline in work performance in sitting, standing, walking, leaning and stooping positions [ ]. joint mobility reduces considerably with age; however, its severity and level depends on the joint and type of motion [ ]. reaction time variability is higher in older people and directly affects work performance [ ]. this decline in reaction time is more prominent in older women as compared to men [ ]. similarly there are relationships between functional capacity, vision and type of task performed by older workers [ ]. there are a number of other performance factors including fatigue, memory deterioration and thermoregulation problems faced in extreme environmental conditions, which are influenced by age and affect work performance. to conclude, in the light of above discussion, it is very important to understand all the physical, physiological, psychological and cognitive changes that result from ageing. on the other hand, there are a number of other factors like experience, decision-making, loyalty to the organization, sense of responsibility and critical thinking which make older people a real asset for organizations. the removal of an experienced and skillful older worker is not simply the loss of one person; it is also a drainage of skills, knowledge, experience and relationships and to regain these attributes, needs resources in the form of money and time [ ]. . digital human modelling and workplace risk assessment to accommodate older workers in workplaces, it is considered extremely important to investigate design solutions at an early design stage. moreover, earlier product and process design evaluations are equally important in keeping design costs at reasonable levels, as redesign costs increase the final cost of the product. computer-aided simulation tools, such as digital human modelling tools (dhms) are effective in facilitating proactive ergonomic design investigations. however, it is very important to ensure that dhm simulation results are delivering valuable outcomes in terms of workplace improvements. studies investigating the relationship between dhm simulation results and real life assessment reached the conclusion that the correlation is fairly high [ ]. furthermore, it was also found that certain workloads, such as static postures might be detected more reliably in dhm simulations as compared with real-life assessments. however, estimation of action forces is difficult to estimate through dhm simulations as their direct observation is rather difficult [ , ]. in spite of the many limitations of dhm tools, it has been concluded that early design investigations based on digital human modelling can substantially reduce overall product development costs including design, engineering and ergonomics evaluation costs. in part this is because these tools enable the development and testing and assessment of a virtual product prototype without any real contact with users and operators. similarly, designers can check different options before going for actual production and so expensive product design and development costs can be reduced significantly. there are many digital human modelling systems commercially available such as sammie, jack, ramsis and their effective use in product, process and workplace design has been reported in many studies. a more recent digital human modelling based tool, hadrian, is explicitly aimed at an ‘inclusive design’ or ‘design for all’ philosophy based on sammie. data was collected for individuals having a broad range of human capabilities with special attention to older people and people with disabilities. a database provides data about their age, capabilities like joint range of motion, body shape, anthropometry, experiences and preferences with a range of daily activities including domestic and transport related tasks. data is held on individuals and is not used to form statistical representations of populations as is most common in dhm systems. hadrian is also equipped with a task analysis system where accessibility issues are reported at the level of individual subjects. virtual individuals with their task performing capabilities are used to carry out any task analysis and results show why an individual is excluded and how these issues and problems can be eliminated. previously, it has been successfully used for daily living activities like kitchen activities, use of atms by wheelchair users, and transport-related activities. however, this human modelling inclusive design strategy has not previously been used for industrial activities [ ]. this paper focuses on the use of a dhm-based inclusive design strategy for industrial activities like manufacturing assembly activities where most of the work is done manually and ergonomics issues include demands for physically effort, repetitiveness, quick and fast movements with high level of productivity and quality. for the validation of this concept, older workers’ capabilities (joint mobility) data are used to assess assembly related tasks. keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . method digital human modelling was used for the concept validation of using a human modelling based inclusive design strategy in a manufacturing assembly environment. data captured at a furniture manufacturing company was used for human modelling based risk assessment of the working strategies adopted. assembly workers were recorded to capture a variety of working strategies, methods and procedures. selected snap-shots of a variety of workers performing similar tasks were used for the purpose of analysis. the sammie human modelling tool was used to generate a cad model of the working environment that includes the sofas that are being assembled, tools used during the assembly operations and other relevant objects. selected postures recorded in the factory were replicated by human models in sammie. sammie has the capability of developing a customized human by defining different anthropometric and capability data like joint mobility constraints. actual joint mobility data of workers who were older than years has been used to assess suitability of working postures or strategies. postures adopted in the real assembly working environment have been replicated virtually by these older workers where their joint mobility constraints data has been used as a criterion for the acceptability of postures. it provided the following upper extremity joint constraints: arm flexion; arm extension; arm abduction; arm adduction; arm medial rotation; arm lateral rotation; shoulder flexion; shoulder extension; shoulder abduction; shoulder adduction; elbow flexion; elbow extension; elbow pronation; elbow supination; wrist flexion; wrist extension; wrist abduction; wrist adduction. . concept validation – a case study at a furniture manufacturing company figure shows three workers carrying out the same assembly operation at a workstation. it is very clear that they are performing their task in entirely different ways. differences in their working methods are significant in terms of tool handling, tool orientation, object or product orientation and body posture. it can be said that orientation of the object (sofa) and holding of a tool (drill) account for significant differences in adopted postures. the most difficult posture is adopted by worker (method ), where the position of the upper-arm, lower-arm, neck and orientation of the hand might be the assessment criteria for the acceptability of this method’s inclusiveness. it is also clear that the positions of the upper-arm and lower-arm of worker are the most awkward and differentiating features and have a direct relationship with joint mobility of the workers. it seems that a variation in joint constraints for the upper-arm and lower-arm for older people can make this method unsuitable for them. digital human modelling tools are capable of predicting risk involved during work, with an acceptable level of reliability. use of the computer-based digital human modelling tool sammie can provide information about the acceptability of these working strategies regarding their inclusiveness for older workers. for this purpose, computer- model of the workplace was created and virtual humans included to enable design assessments to be carried out. during this experimentation, all workers (older) were evaluated performing each working method. in this way, ( x ) scenarios were created and attempts were made to replicate actual working postures of older workers. the differences in joint mobility capabilities means it is unlikely that all older workers can adopt all these working postures. for the purpose of analysis, lower-arm and upper-arm positions of these actual working postures were replicated in sammie. assessment of a fully capable sammie human model was first made to check whether or not a fully capable person can perform this particular activity in this way, and what level of joint mobility requirements are involved in any adopted posture. the joint constraints of a fully capable sammie human model set the criteria for comparison of these (actual working postures with joint constraints of fully capable sammie human model) and older workers (with limited and varying levels of joint mobility). complex body movements that contain both simultaneous bend and twist have a high level of risk at work and these must be avoided. clearly, worker (method ) adopted a complex and relatively difficult trunk/back posture, where the main cause of this awkward posture was the orientation of the object (sofa). it can be seen that the orientation of the sofa for worker and was different, and this determined the view and height of the object (position of the working object with reference to face, shoulders etc.). difficulty in viewing the working object and inappropriate height led worker to adopt an unfriendly working posture where the neck is bent, the trunk/back is bent and twisted and one elbow is above shoulder level. in comparison with worker , worker performed better in terms of level of risk, but worker seemed very relaxed and comfortable during his work. moreover, the working keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – strategies of worker and were different in tool holding and object holding, and positions of the shoulder were different. all these aspects can be seen in figure . the above discussion reveals that, differences in these work organization issues lead to entirely different working strategies where adopted postures demand different joint mobility capabilities. for example, the positions of the upper-arm and lower-arm are found to be different for these three working methods. for finding the exact joint mobility requirements necessary for a successful replication of these postures, the sammie computer aided modelling system was used. the process started with capturing actual dimensions of the objects used during any working process. in this case, these objects were the sofa, work table and drill gun. after developing a computer- aided model of the work environment, a virtual human was placed appropriately and the actual posture replicated with a human model, to establish the joint mobility requirements. for this case study, the actual working postures of the assembly activity for three different methods have been replicated by a sammie human model, and joint mobility requirements have been noted (figure ). it is very clear from the snap shots that upper-arm and lower-arm movements are significantly different for these methods and are considered important for inclusiveness of these working strategies. figure also illustrates that working method imposes the highest level of joint mobility requirements, where the lower arm bend (r) demands a extension which is high as compared with the other two methods, where it is and respectively. similarly, right upper-arm swing value ( ) is also significantly higher than that of method and ( and respectively). so, these pre-defined joint mobility requirements can be used as criteria to investigate the acceptability of any method for a broad range of the population. the hadrian database consists of joint mobility data for about people, of which people are older than years without any functional disability that can reduce joint mobility. the joint mobility data of these older and fully capable people has been utilized to assess the acceptability of any working strategy for older workers at the individual level. as mentioned worker . method . tool held by both hands; both arms are below shoulder level; no bend or twist in trunk; neck is straight; object is at appropriate height worker . method . tool held in one hand (other hand grips the object); both arms are nearly at shoulder level; trunk has little bent or twisted; neck is twisted; object is at appropriate height worker . method . tool held in one hand (other hand grips the object); one arm is above shoulder level; trunk bent/twisted; neck bent /twisted; object is at lower height upper arm(r) swing sweep twist lower arm (r) bend cock twist upper arm(l) swing sweep - twist - lower arm (l) bend cock twist - upper arm(r) swing sweep twist lower arm (r) bend cock twist upper arm(l) swing sweep twist - lower arm (l) bend cock twist - upper arm(r) swing sweep twist red lower arm (r) bend cock twist upper arm(l) swing sweep - twist - lower arm (l) bend cock - twist - fig. . three workers performing same task with different methods. keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – earlier, sammie has the capability of managing capability data for individuals, where a designer has to provide a manual input about all these parameters that defines any human’s work performing capability. during experimentation, working postures were analysed where every older worker (virtual human with actual joint constraints of an older worker of hadrian database) was tested against the three different working methods shown in figure . figures , and show the examples of posture replication by sammie (middle) and an older worker (right) against working methods , and respectively. joint mobility requirements needed by a fully capable human (sammie) for the approximate replication of an adopted posture, set a criterion for the acceptability of a method for any individual and older workers in general. the aim was to investigate whether or not the digital human modelling system sammie can be used to investigate inclusiveness of any adopted working strategy. fig. . using sammie human modelling system to assess task inclusiveness for method . fig. . using sammie human modelling system to assess task inclusiveness for method . fig. . using sammie human modelling system to assess task inclusiveness for method . keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . hadrian database worker ; design inclusion for work performing method , method and method . . results this section is a detailed description of the design evaluation process through the sammie human modelling system. figure shows the same worker (number in the hadrian database) with his own joint mobility constraints. for comparison purposes, he has been shown to perform the same activity in three different ways, shown previously. here the aim is to assess whether or not he is capable of performing these activities based on his limited joint mobility as he is years old. it has already been stated that methods and impose relatively less joint mobility requirements as compared with method . here, figure clearly indicates that worker can easily accomplish this assembly task by adopting method . however, the same worker is unable to successfully complete the same assembly task element through methods and . the red highlighting indicates violation of joint constraints and unacceptability of these two methods for this worker. it can be concluded that a person with limited joint mobility can easily perform this assembly task by adopting work method . unlike method , the other two methods demand high joint mobility requirements and make them unacceptable for the same worker. as described above, the database has been used to define older workers (> years of age) with individual joint constraints and then tested against these three working methods for the same assembly activity. the results indicate that work method is acceptable for % of the older workers, which is the highest proportion as compared with % and % for methods and respectively. only out of older workers were found to be excluded for method , whereas and were excluded for methods and respectively. the above results indicate the usefulness of the dhm-based inclusive design method where designers, ergonomists, engineers, managers and planners can promote such work practices that are equally acceptable for a broad range of the population, for example, older people in this example. the results clearly indicate that method is the optimal solution in terms of its accepability for older workers, based on joint mobility criteria. as all these assessments are based on the captured working strategies adopted by different workers, so the pool of avaible solutions can be increased by capturing more workers. . strengths and limitations this case study has shown a great potential for using the digital human modelling technique for the promotion of an inclusive design approach in industrial applications. in the future, workforce diversity will increase and people with different backgrounds, cultures, sizes, shapes, age and expereinces will be sharing the same workplaces. the inclusive design method provides an opportunity to address all these issues proactively so that safe, healthy and productive workplaces might be assured. in future, organizations will have to think more seriously about these human variability issues, so that they can retain their skilled and experienced workforce, which will be a key driving force for achieving organizational sustainability. this study provides an idea about how the proposed inclusive design method can work for the benefit of individuals and organizations, in terms of workplace safety, productivity and human well-being. it also highlights the importance of the availability of more realistic human capabilities data (physical, physiological and cognitive) and use of that in an appropriate design tool. on the other hand, validation of the proposed method has been carried out only for furniture manufacturing assembly activities. there is a need to validate the method against more industrial applications where its usefulness keith case et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – can be assessed against a variety of applications. moreover, this case study has only used the physical capabilities context of human working capabilities, but the concept should also be validated for some more complex dimensions of human capability such as physiological, psychological and cognitive abilities. similarly, older workers’ capability data is not limited to joint mobility; there are many other functional capabilities that decline with age, so other available data should also be used to promote healthy and safe working of the ageing workforce. initially, the proposed method has been validated through sammie, where older worker’s joint mobility data has been used manually. previously, the hadrian automated task evaluation method (based on sammie human modelling) has been used for some simpler applications like kitchen based activities, use of atm machines, and transport related activities. there is a need to enhance the automated task evaluation capability of hadrian from simple activities to more complex industrial activities like manual assembly operations. . conclusion a digital human modelling based inclusive design approach is considered useful for addressing work-related issues of a diverse workforce, especially older workers. like joint mobility data, other functional capabilities data can be collected and used for assessing whether or not working conditions, environments and strategies are suitable for a broad range of the population. this proactive design approach benefits individuals and organizations by securing safe working conditions where people, with their existing differences, can perform at their best. in this way, global workforce challenges of diversity and ageing can be addressed by promoting such design practices. however, still there is a need to capture more data about the human differences and effectively utilize that in appropriate tools, so that more realistic work strategies can be implemented. references [ ] williams, k.y., o’reilly, c.a., . demography and diversity in organizations: a review of years of research. research in organizational behavior , – . [ ] shore, l.m., chung-herrera, b.g., dean, m. a., ehrhart, k.h., jung, d.i., randel, a.e., singh, g., . diversity in organizations: where are we now and where are we going? human resource management review , – . [ ] richard, o.c., . racial diversity, business strategy and firm performance: a resource based view. academy of management journal , – . [ ] childs jr., j.t., . managing workforce diversity at ibm: a global hr topic that has arrived. human resource management , – . [ ] bassett-jones, n., . the paradox of diversity management, creativity and innovation. diversity management, creativity and innovation , – . [ ] o.n.s., . population trends - autumn . office of national statistics. [ ] wanger, s.g., pfeifer, a., cranfield, t.l., craik, r.l., . the effects of afeing on muscle strength and function: a review of the literature. physiotherapy theory and practice , – . [ ] sturnieks, d.l., st george, r., lord, s.r., . balance disorders in the elderly. neurophysiologie clinique /clinical neurophysiology , – . [ ] chung, m.j., wang, m.j., . the effect of age and gender on joint range of motion of worker population in taiwan. international journal of industrial ergonomics , – . [ ] hultsch, d.f., macdonald, s.w.s., dixon, r.a., . variability in reaction time performance of younger and older adults. the journals of gerontology. series b, psychological sciences and social sciences , – . [ ] der, g., deary, i.j., . age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: results from the united kingdom health and lifestyle survey. psychology and aging , – . [ ] sue, b., . the association between low vision and function. journal of aging and health , – . [ ] dychtwald, k., erickson, t., morison, b., . it’s time to retire retirement. harward business review , – . [ ] fritzsche, l., . ergonomics risk assessment with digital human models in ca factors and ergonomics in manufacturing and service industries , – . [ ] demirel, h.o., duffy, v.g., . application of digital human modeling in industry, in: duffy, v.g. (ed.), digital human modeling. lcns springer, pp. – . [ ] marshall, r., case, k., porter, m., summerskill, s., gyi, d., davis, p., sims, r., . hadrian: a virtual approach to design for all. journal of engineering design , – . grial research group university of salamanca francisco j. garcía-peñalvo alicia garcía-holgado computer science department research institute for educational sciences university of salamanca, spain fgarcia@usal.es aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es situation research group recognized by the university of salamanca in castilla y león regional government excellence group from to (gr ) consolidated research unit of the junta de castilla y león granted in july and renewed in may (uic ) grial - university of salamanca who we are grial is a multidisciplinary group, fundamentally a mixture of computer engineering and education, but also theere are researchers from other fields (philosophy, philology, humanities, etc.). grial - university of salamanca who we are grial - university of salamanca members men women mª josé rodríguez conde francisco j. garcía peñalvo roberto therón who we are grial - university of salamanca what we do grial - university of salamanca research lines • visual analytics • education quality and evaluation • information sciences • technological ecosystems • knowledge and technology strategic management • digital humanities • web engineering and software architectures • elearning methodologies • social responsibility and inclusio • interactive learning systems • learning technologies • ict and educational innovation what we do • participation in national and international networks grial - university of salamanca ibero-american network for innovation and research in technologies and uses in e-learning (red iberoamericana de innovación e investigación en tecnologías y usos en el aprendizaje electrónico) (red ritual) – méxico international research network openergy – méxico snola – spanish thematic network of learning analytics (ref. tin - -redt) ibero-american network of research on the quality of doctoral education in social sciences what we do • research projects: local ( ), regional ( ), national ( ), european ( ) and internacional ( ) https://grial.usal.es/projects grial - university of salamanca % % % % % local regional nacional european internacional https://grial.usal.es/projects what we do grial - university of salamanca what we do • services • customised training plans (specialised in elearning, ict, social networks) • development of technological solutions for learning and knowledge management • consultancy in information systems and technological ecosystems • comprehensive elearning advice and consultancy • installation, support and customization of elearning platforms • development of training content on demand • support and collaboration in project management • collaboration in r+d / r+d+i initiatives • on-demand training (specialisation in elearning, ict, etc.) grial - university of salamanca grial - university of salamanca grial research group university of salamanca francisco j. garcía-peñalvo alicia garcía-holgado computer science department research institute for educational sciences university of salamanca, spain fgarcia@usal.es aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es mailto:aliciagh@usal.es a study of kinematic cues and anticipatory performance in tennis using computational manipulation and computer graphics hirofumi ida & kazunobu fukuhara & seiji kusubori & motonobu ishii published online: april # psychonomic society, inc. abstract computer graphics of digital human models can be used to display human motions as visual stimuli. this study presents our technique for manipulating human motion with a forward kinematics calculation without violating anatomical constraints. a motion modulation of the upper extremity was conducted by proportionally modulating the anatomical joint angular velocity calculated by motion analysis. the effect of this manipulation was examined in a tennis situation—that is, the receiver’s performance of predicting ball direction when viewing a digital model of the server’s motion derived by modulating the angular velocities of the forearm or that of the elbow during the forward swing. the results showed that the faster the server’s forearm pronated, the more the receiver’s anticipation of the ball direction tended to the left side of the serve box. in contrast, the faster the server’s elbow extended, the more the receiver’s anticipation of the ball direction tended to the right. this suggests that tennis players are sensitive to the motion modulation of their opponent’s racket-arm. keywords motion analysis . motion modulation . forward kinematics . cg . digital human model humans can recognize various types of human motion instantaneously and accurately, not only when viewing the actions of real-life humans, but also when viewing the movements of artificial human models. for instance, the point-light display (pld) technique has been one of the best- known approaches and has shown perceptual robustness for biological motions (johansson, ; neri, morrone, & burr, ). previous studies have revealed that human perception is highly sensitive even to the pld, in that observers were able to distinguish the gender of a walker (kozlowski & cutting, ; troje, ; troje, sadr, geyer, & nakayama, ), identify friends by their walking pattern (cutting & kozlowski, ), and recognize the emotions expressed by actors (dittrich, troscianko, lea, & morgan, ; pollick, paterson, bruderlin, & sanford, ). recently, in association with the development of computer graphics (cg) technology, various digital human models have become available for providing a visual stimulus of human motion. for example, the stickfigure model is regarded as a simplified human model, as is the point-light model, whereas many cg character models constructed from polygons or nurbs (non-uniform rational b-splines) imitate real humans. motion capture systems and cg animation software facilitate the use of a digital human model in studies of human motion percep- tion. one of the advantages of this approach is that several visual stimuli—for example, the polygon and stickfigure h. ida (*) : k. fukuhara : m. ishii department of human system science, graduate school of decision science and technology, tokyo institute of technology, meguro, tokyo, japan e-mail: hiroida@me.com s. kusubori department of environmental sciences, prefectural university of hiroshima, hiroshima, japan h. ida kanagawa institute of technology, human media research center, atsugi, kanagawa, japan behav res ( ) : – doi . /s - - -x models—were created on the basis of the same motion data (dekeyser, verfaillie, & vanrie, ; vanrie & verfaillie, ). these models were artificial versions of a real-world human or of one captured on video. they contained extra (pictorial) information in addition to the essential (kinematic) information that a point-light model does. it is necessary to evaluate the perceptual effect of digital human models, particularly in comparison with real-world or video displays. the anticipatory performance and visual search strategy when a tennis serve was viewed in order to predict the ball direction have been compared between a cg display with a polygon model and a video display (fukuhara, ida, kusubori, & ishii, ). it was revealed that the polygon model allowed the observers to perceive anticipatory cues from the serve motion, but the response accuracy was lower than that of the video. digital human models have been utilized to simulate sports situations and to examine the response of the user in a virtual environment (ve)—for example, a baseball batter hitting a virtual ball (gray, ), playing against a virtual pitcher (ranganathan & carlton, ), or a handball goalkeeper facing a virtual thrower (bideau, multon, kulpa, fradet, arnaldi, & delamarche, ; vignais, bideau, craig, brault, multon, & kulpa, ). the aim was to examine the perception–action coupling in the sport- simulating ve, and this approach promises to reveal uncovered features that cannot be assessed in real-world situations or video displays. the use of a digital human model has had another experimental advantage—namely, the arbitrary manipu- lation of displayed human motion. principal component analysis has been used to identify systematic similarities and/or dissimilarities in the motion patterns across tennis passing shots (huys, smeeton, hodges, beek, & williams, ). the authors displayed simulated tennis shots in which motion dynamic structures were manipu- lated and revealed that tennis players predicted the shot direction by using the information in multiple low- dimensional dynamic modes. this approach was extended in further studies (huys, canal-bruland, hagemann, beek, smeeton, & williams, ; williams, huys, canal- bruland, & hagemann, ). in related work, spatially exaggerated tennis serve motions were displayed with a polygon model, and the exaggeration led to accurate categorizations of the types of tennis serves—that is, flat, slice, and topspin (pollick, fidopiastis, & braden, ). in other work, the joint motion of a runner was modulated, and the modulated motion was displayed using a polygon model and a stickfigure model (hodgins, o’brien, & tumblin, ). the results revealed that the identification of the running motion was more accurate for the polygon model than for the stickfigure model. the findings suggest that the perceptual performance for human motion could be affected by the pictorial (“geometric,” according to the study) information of the human model. their manipu- lation technique kinematically modified the motion data obtained from a dynamic simulation on the basis of the laws of physics and targeted the “torso rotation” and “dynamic arm motion” of the original running motion pattern. in this study, we used another manipulation technique: the upper extremity motion was computationally manip- ulated by using a forward kinematics (fk) calculation, widely used in cg modeling and robotics, that outputs the position and orientation of the end effector as a function of joint angles (zatsiorsky, ). this manip- ulation technique followed the anatomical constraints of the joint—that is, the degrees of freedom and range of motion—and calculated the motion data of the upper extremity as a function of the joint angular velocity modulated proportionally to that of the original motion. the computationally simulated test motion derived from the kinematic modulation is useful for revealing the quantitative relationship between the motion pattern of the performer and the perceptual performance of the observer. the anatomically validated motion can provide insight into the observer’s perceptual skill for real-world human motion. furthermore, the manipulation technique also enabled us to create various visual stimuli of cg animations in which the motion was arbitrarily modulated but anatomically feasible for humans. server motion and receiver cognition in tennis were examined in this study. a real-world tennis serve was analyzed and kinematically modulated at the server’s racket- arm and then was displayed with cg animations as visual stimuli for assessing the receiver’s anticipatory performance. the kinematic modulation was performed by modulating the angular velocity of the forearm and that of the elbow during the forward swing phase of the original serve motion. the purposes of this study were to provide an explanation of the manipulation technique with an fk calculation and to verify whether the kinematic modulation has any effect on the receiver’s anticipatory performance. we hypothesized that the anticipatory performance of the tennis player would be sensitive to the degree of motion modulation. computation of motion analysis and motion modulation in the manipulation of the upper extremity, the anatomical joint angular velocity along an individual rotational axis— for example, the extension/flexion at the elbow—was selected as the modulating parameter. first, motion analysis was conducted to obtain every anatomical joint angular velocity in the upper extremity, using the three-dimensional coordinate data of the original motion. second, motion behav res ( ) : – modulation was performed using an fk calculation in which the obtained anatomical joint angular velocities were proportionally modulated. the computational expressions of the motion analysis and motion modulation will be described in the following sections. motion analysis for motion analysis, the anatomical joint angular velocities at the wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder were calculated. the upper extremity was defined as a link segment model: the body segment of the hand, forearm, upper arm, and upper trunk are connected with the joint of the wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder (see fig. ). note that the forearm was regarded as the joint as well as the body segment, because it has the degree of freedom of pronation/ supination. first, the resultant segment angular velocity was calculated from the motion data; then the resultant joint angular velocity at each joint was derived and, finally, separated into each anatomical axis of the joint as the anatomical joint angular velocity (winter, ). an orthogonal reference frame (ijk) was defined for each body segment of the hand, forearm, upper arm, and upper trunk. the resultant segment angular velocity (ωsegment) is de- scribed vectorially using the orthogonal vectors isegment, jsegment, and ksegment, as follows: wsegment ¼ w isegment þ w jsegment þ w ksegment; ð Þ where ω′ ~ω′ are scalar. since an arbitrary vector r that rotates around an axis with an angular velocity ω satisfies dr/dt = ω × r, transforming eq. for r = isegment, jsegment or ksegment, the values of ω′ ~ω′ are obtained as w ¼ ksegment � djsegment dt ; w ¼ isegment � dksegment dt ; w ¼ jsegment � di segment dt ; ð Þ where the dot operator represents the scalar product. the resultant joint angular velocity (ωjoint) defined for the wrist, forearm, elbow, and shoulder is the relative angular velocity of the distal segment to the proximal segment of the joint: wjoint ¼ wdistal segment � wproximal segment: ð Þ the joint reference frame was determined by an anatomical definition: palmar/dorsi flexion (plm/drs) and radial/ulnar flexion (rad/uln) at the wrist; pronation/supina- tion (prn/spn) at the forearm; flexion/extension (flx/ext) at the elbow; and horizontal adduction/abduction (had/hab), adduction/abduction (add/abd), and internal/external rota- tion (inr/exr) at the shoulder. the anatomical joint angular velocities (ω′ ~ω′ ) were defined as the vector projection of the resultant joint angular velocity onto the orthogonal joint reference frame (uvw): w ¼ wjoint � ujoint; w ¼ wjoint � vjoint; w ¼ wjoint � wjoint: ð Þ motion modulation for motion modulation, the motion of the upper extremity was manipulated by modulating the anatomical joint angular velocities and then calculating the resulting coordinate data of the joint,using an fk algorithm. the manipulation was defined such that it generated a displace- ment of the distal adjacent segment of the target joint but did not generate a displacement of the proximal adjacent segment. as a result, the modulation at a certain joint generated simultaneous displacements of all distal joints and segments; however, the positions and orientations of all proximal joints and segments remained unchanged. in particular, the position of the target joint was also unchanged. the modulated anatomical joint angular velocity (ωm mod_joint) was obtained by multiplying the original iforearm hand upper armforearm kforearm jforearm ihand khand jhand ωforearm wrist elbow shoulder ωhand ωwrist = ωhand - ωforearm uwrist vwrist (wwrist) fig. segment reference frame (e.g. ihand, jhand, khand), joint reference frame (e.g. uwrist, vwrist, wwrist), resultant segment angular velocity (e.g. ωhand) and resultant joint angular velocity (e.g. ωwrist) behav res ( ) : – anatomical joint angular velocity for a certain duration (from t to t ) by a constant, wmod jointm ¼ wmðt < t Þ cwmðt � t < t Þ; wmðt � tÞ >>< >>: m ¼ ; ; ð Þ where c is an arbitrary constant associated with the modulation percentage and m represents the nominal number of each anatomical axis. by using the anatomical description of the upper extremity, the modulated joint angular velocities (ωmod_joint) are defined as follows: wmod joint ¼ wmod jointplm=drs u wrist þ wmod jointrad=uln vwrist wmod jointprn=spn w j:forearm wmod joint flx=ext uelbow wmod jointhad=hab u shoulder þ wmod jointadd=abd vshoulder þ w mod joint inr=exr w shoulder; >>>>>>< >>>>>>: ð Þ where j. forearm represents the forearm joint in distinction from the forearm segment; joint motions with no degrees of freedom were omitted. for general fk calculations, a coefficient matrix—that is, the jacobian—is used to describe the relationship between the attitude of the end effector and the joint angular velocities of the link–segment system (zatsiorsky, ): dr dt ¼ jðaÞ da dt ; ð Þ where r consists of the position vector and orientation vector of the end effector, j(α) is the jacobian, and α is the nth order group vector of the angular velocities of the n-joints. for the reconstruction of the modulated motion in this study, however, the coordinate data of all the upper extremity joints were required. therefore, a sequential calculation of all the segment longitudinal unit vectors (ksegment) from the proxi- mal joint to the distal joint was more convenient than using eq. . the time derivative of ksegment is associated with ωsegment by the following equation: dksegment dt ¼ wsegment � ksegment; ð Þ where the cross operator represents the vector product. the vector ωsegment was replaced by the modulated segment angular velocities (ω ), which was calculated from in eq. . this led to the following relationships: wmod upper arm ¼ wtrunk þ wmod shoulder wmod forearm ¼ wmod upper arm þ wmod elbow wmod hand ¼ wmod forearm þ wmod j:forearm þ wmod wrist: ð Þ we conducted a time progressive calculation to obtain the modulated segment longitudinal unit vectors (kmod_segment) by using the differential transform of eq. : kmod segmentðtÞ ¼ Δtðwmod segmentðt� Þ � kmod segmentðt� ÞÞ þ kmod segmentðt� Þ; ð Þ where Δt is the time interval of the sampling frames and τ, the frame number. then the three-dimensional coordinate data of the modulated joint position (xmod_joint) were obtained: xmod elbow ¼ xshoulder þ kmod upperarmlupperarm xmod wrist ¼ xmod elbow þ kmod forearmlforearm xmod mp ¼ xmod wrist þ kmod handlhand; ð Þ where l is a function of τ of the segment length determined by the original motion data and mp represents the third metacarpophalangeal joint. the position and orientation of the racket were assumed to remain unchanged relative to those of the hand segment; therefore, the modulated racket reference frame (rmod_racket) is described as rmod racket ¼ trmod hand; ð Þ where t is a transformation matrix dependent on τ that is not changed by the motion modulation and rmod_hand, the modulated hand reference frame. the coordinate data of the racket landmarks were determined by rmod_racket. non-modulated motion was derived through all the processes described above; namely, all the modulation constants in eq. were equal to one (c = ). note that the non-modulated motion also had a slight displacement, relative to the original captured motion, due to the reconstruction processing—for example, low-pass filtering and the assumption that the racket was rigid. at racket–ball impact, the increments of the kinematic parameters of the non-modulated motion, relative to the original motion, were (Δx, Δy, Δz) = ( . , . , . m) for the position of the racket face center, Δvr = . m/s for the linear velocity of the racket face center, and Δαyaw = . ° and Δαpitch = - . ° for the racket attitude. experiment with modulated motion method participants eight experienced male tennis players (m ± sd: age = . ± . years, experience = . ± . years) participated in the experiment. the participants were behav res ( ) : – ωmod_joint mod_segment college or graduate students who were carrying out daily practice in the collegiate club team, and all of them were unfamiliar with stimulus materials used for the experiment. they gave informed consent before the experiment. test stimuli a video-based system was used to collect three-dimensional coordinate data of serve motions on an outdoor tennis court. the serve motions performed by a skilled male test player (height = . m, weight = kg, age = years, experience = years) were videotaped as the original motion at a -hz sampling rate, using two synchronized high-speed cameras (hsv- c , nac inc., tokyo). the test player was instructed to hit a flat serve– that is, a serve with less spin—using his best effort, aiming at a target area ( × m) set at the back center of the court within the right serve box. outrigger marker devices were attached to the test player’s hand and wrist in order to calculate the anatomical angular velocities of the wrist flexion and forearm rotation separately (see fig. ). the most successful trial among the three collected flat serves was selected for analysis. the landmarks of the entire body, outrigger landmarks of the hand, outrigger landmarks of the wrist, and landmarks of the racket were manually digitized frame-by-frame, utilizing motion analy- sis software (frame-dias ii, dkh inc., tokyo). then, using the process described in the motion analysis section, all the anatomical joint angular velocities of the racket-arm were obtained (see fig. ). the modulation duration was set during the forward swing phase ( . s), beginning from the initiation of the forward swing (t = ifs) and ending at time of the racket– ball impact (t = impact). the ifs was defined as the time at which the racket head was positioned at the lowest point. the forearm pronation/supination and elbow extension/ flexion were selected for modulation separately, because the joint angular velocities of them showed relatively high and consistently positive almost throughout the forward swing phase (fig. b). the consistent positive sign of the joint angular velocity was interpreted as indicating typical unidirectional joint rotation of forearm pronation and elbow extension. the modulation coefficients were set to c = . , . , . , . (- %, - %, + %, + %, slow to fast modulation, respectively) for each joint rotation. non- modulated motion was also constructed through the same modulation procedure, with c = at every anatomical joint angular velocity. finally, the test stimuli of serve anima- tions consisted of one non-modulated motion (± %), four forearm pronation/supination modulated motions (- %, - %, + %, + %;see fig. ), and four elbow extension/ flexion modulated motions (- %, - %, + %, + %;see fig. ). cg animations were created using cg modeling software (maya . , alias inc., toronto). the template character “jackie” from the maya . documentation and lessons was used as the digital human model. the racket model was made of a rigid body polygon. a scripting language (maya embedded language, mel) was used to convert the motion data to the cg human model (fukuhara, ida, kusubori, & ishii, ). the ball was erased from the animation to eliminate unexpected perceptual effects other than human motion; for example, the racket might miss the ball because the modulation procedure changed the path of the racket. the viewing point was set around the receiver’s view point—that is, m above the cross point of the baseline and sideline of the singles court on the right. the frame rate of the animation was set at hz. the total duration of the animation was . s from the ready position to the racket–ball impact. the animation was occluded immediately after the frame of racket–ball impact. procedure the participants sat . m away from, and directly in front of, the screen on which the test stimuli were projected. the maximum height of the test serve motion was adjusted to . m. this provided a visual angle of approximately . °, which is similar to a real game situation. the experiment was conducted on our stand- alone test program built utilizing application development software (real basic, ascii solutions inc., tokyo). this body vertex tragion shoulder elbow wrist mp rd lowest rib hip knee ankle heel toe : digitizing point : calculated point racket and ball racket head left side right side face end grip end ball center outrigger marker hand nd hand th hand extension wrist ulnar wrist radial b) hand marker racket markers wrist marker nd th ulnar radial extension a)fig. attached hand marker and wrist marker (a), and digi- tizing points and calculated points (b) for original serve motion behav res ( ) : – test program runs an experiment flow involving the presentation of a quicktime movie, an input window for providing the anticipatory estimation score, and an auto-output function of all the response results. the participants first viewed the non-modulated motion at least three times and then viewed one of the modulated test motions, which included the non-modulated motion at a certain trial turn. after viewing, the participants were instructed to give their anticipatory score for the ball direction on a visual analogue scale (vas) from (left) to (right) in comparison with the non-modulated motion ( on vas). the participants performed a total of trials: forearm modulated motion trials with repeats, elbow trials with repeats, and non-modulated trial with repeats. data analysis the vas scores were analyzed using statistical software (spss . , spss japan inc., tokyo). a repeated measure one-way analysis of variance (modu- lation percentage) with a least significant difference post hoc comparison was performed to test the effect of the modulation percentage on the anticipation of ball direction for the forearm modulation and elbow modulation. mauchly’s test of sphericity was conducted, and when there was a violation of the sphericity assumption, the greenhouse–geisser correction was used to adjust the degrees of freedom. partial eta-squared (ηp ) was estimated to measure the effect size. the significance level was set at α = . . result and discussion for forearm modulation, the anticipatory score of ball direction decreased (shifted to the left) monotonically with the modulation percentage (fig. a). there was a signifi- cant effect on the modulation percentage, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . . significant differences between modulation percentages were found in eight pairwise comparisons (p < . ; *s in fig. a). because the forearm of the test server pronated throughout the forward swing phase (fig. b), applying a positive modulation resulted in a faster pronating motion than non-modulated motion, whereas applying a negative modulation resulted in a slower pronating motion. the results indicate that the faster the server’s forearm pronated, the more the anticipation of the ball direction tended to the left side of the serve box. for elbow modulation, as opposed to forearm modulation, the anticipatory score of ball direction increased(shifted to the right) monotonically with the modulation percentage (fig. b). there was a significant effect on the modulation percentage, f( . , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . . significant differences between modulation percentages were found in five pairwise comparisons (p < . ; *s in fig. b). the server’s elbow extended almost throughout the forward swing phase (fig. b). using the same consideration as forearm modulation, the result signified that the faster the server’s a) c) b) - - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . - . . time (s) shoulder hor. flexion (+) / extension (-) abduction (+) / adduction (-) internal (+) / external (-) rot. ifs impact - - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . - . . time (s) wrist palmar (+) / dorsi (-) flx. ulnar (+) / radial (-) dev. ifs impact - - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . - . . time (s) elbow and forearm extension (+) / flexion (-) foa. pronation (+) / supination (-) ifs impact fig. the anatomical angular velocity of wrist (a), elbow and forearm (b) and shoulder (c). flx: flexion, dev: deviation, foa: forearm, hor: horizontal, and rot: rotation. ifs: initiation of forward swing (- . s), impact: racket-ball impact behav res ( ) : – elbow extended, the more the anticipation of ball direction tended to the right. these results suggest that tennis players are sensitive to the motion modulation of their opponent’s racket-arm. in previous work, the adjustment of preimpact racket motion during overhand serve—for example, changing the racket’s vertical and lateral velocity—was carried out by skilled players when going from the first to the second serve (chow, carlton, lim, chae, shim, kuenster, & kokubun, ); therefore, receivers might have changed the antici- patory judgment depending on the opponent’s arm kine- matics. it is highly possible that skilled players may benefit from the visual information found in the racket-arm and racket during the forward swing and use it as an anticipatory cue. the results demonstrated that the manipulation tech- nique worked well for detecting the change in the pattern of the anticipation of ball direction. interestingly, both forearm modulation and elbow modulation evoked monotonic tendencies in ball direction score depending on modulation percentage. both of these target motions were almost unidirectional, forearm pronation or elbow open occlusion - % + % + % - % ± % (non-modulated) - . s s- . s- . s - . s - . s- . s- . s ifs impactmodulation modulation - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . . time (s) forearm pronation / supination ± % (non-modulated) - % - % + % + % ifs impact fig. the sequential image of cg animation with the modulation of the forearm angular velocity. time-course curves show the profile of the modulated forearm pronation (+) / supination (-) angular velocity behav res ( ) : – extension, in the motion analysis; therefore, the result is clear: the anticipation of ball direction shifts monoton- ically depending on joint motion speed. the situation would be more complex if the modulation targeted bidirectional motion—for example, the dorsi flexion followed by the palmar flexion—or multijoint motions. the judgment of ball direction is one of the most popular criteria for assessing the response accuracy in sports situations, and thus, the manipulation technique contrib- utes further to this field. general discussion we proposed a methodological approach that utilized the manipulation technique with the fk calculation to control test motion quasi-arbitrarily and a cg display with a digital human model. this methodology is referred to by hodgins et al. ( ). however, our approach was intended to be more applicable to ball sport practitioners; therefore, we examined the anticipatory performance of a tennis oppo- nent’s serve motion, which requires great attention and open occlusion - % + % + % - % ± % (non-modulated) - . s s- . s- . s - . s - . s- . s- . s ifs impactmodulation modulation - a ng ul ar v el oc it y (r ad /s ) - . - . - . . time (s) elbow extension / flexion ± % (non-modulated) - % - % + % + % ifs impact fig. the sequential image of cg animation with the modulation of the elbow angular velocity. time-course curves show the profile of the modulated elbow extension (+) / flexion (-) angular velocity behav res ( ) : – skilled visual search behavior. the motion exaggeration in the spatial location enhances the discrimination accuracy of the type of tennis serves (pollick, fidopiastis, & braden, ). this technique has modified the joint positions of the entire body but did not permit precise manipulation of the anatomical joint rotation. the use of anatomically validated motion in our study enables meaningful suggestions for practitioners, because real players may duplicate such motions without violating anatomical constraints. our manipulation technique is more plausible in an anatomical sense, but this still presents a problem: can real players hit the ball with the manipulated motion? during the anticipation of the tennis ground stroke, the skilled players spent a significantly shorter time visually searching the racket area than did their less skilled counterparts, whereas no differences were observed between them at the racket-arm and hand area (williams, ward, knowles, & smeeton, ). this suggests that the changes in racket kinematics may have a greater influence on less skilled players than on skilled ones. however, gaze analysis gave no conclusive evidence about whether or not the racket or racket-arm is more informative; to understand this, it will be necessary to clarify the effect of central vision and peripheral vision in tennis perception. in a related study, the isolated motion display of a badmin- ton stroke revealed that the pld of the racket-arm raised the anticipatory performance of experts above chance level at an earlier phase than that of the racket (abernethy & zawi, ). the challenge is determining whether or not anticipatory performance based on the racket or racket-arm depends on task or skill level. in addition, the anticipatory accuracy for the pld of the lower extremity cleared chance level at an even earlier phase than that of the racket-arm. skilled players appear to benefit from the anticipatory cue located around the proximal body; in contrast, less skilled players preferred to focus on more deterministic cues located around the racket area (williams et al., ). the limitations of this study were as follows: the relationship with real world, film, or pld was not studied, and the vas response could not explain the effect of perception–action coupling. recently, the effect of using a digital human model for studying the anticipatory perfor- mance of a tennis serve was discussed, and a cg display was found to be more similar to a video display rather than to a pld (fukuhara et al., ). the assessment of a cg display of the manipulated motion in comparison with real world or film remains to be examined. in our study, a video-based system was used to capture the motion of the test player because the field was a wide outdoor environment. auto-motion analysis systems—for example, motionanalysis (motionanalysis corp., santa rosa, ca) or vicon (vicon inc., los angeles, ca)—are also available if the environment is suitable for data collection. these systems simplify the process of creating visual stimuli. previous studies (abernethy, ; ward, williams, & bennett, ; williams et al., ) have suggested that skilled players were able to perceive anticipatory cues from an earlier part of an opponent’s stroke motion and more proximal segments of the opponent’s body than were their unskilled counterparts. our motion modulation, in contrast, focused on the later part (forward swing phase) and more distal segments (racket and racket-arm), because early and proximal modulation might generate complicated and unexpected motion. if the motion modulation with fk at the early phase and proximal segment generates the visual stimuli of natural and valid modulated motion, the study using this will provide mutually complementary under- standings with those previous studies. the methodology of this study included a distal approach in cognitive psychology, but it allowed informa- tion to be added in parallel to the visual stimulus. a typical distal approach uses natural motion as a visual stimulus and subtracts information (e.g., color, shape) from the motion. using simplified information from the cg model for a captured natural motion is subtractive, and thus, this b) elbow modulationa) forearm modulation * s co re s co re left right left right - % - % ± % + % + % modulation percentage - % - % ± % + % + % modulation percentage * fig. the anticipatory score (m ± sd) of estimated ball direction for forearm modulation (a) and elbow modulation (b) . *: p < . behav res ( ) : – approach is categorized as a distal approach. however, the motion modulation is additive, which is a typical concept in the proximal approach, because the parameters of the modulated joint angular velocity are added to control the racket-arm motion. pollick et al. ( ) referred to this distal but additive approach as unique in the study of biological motion perception. the motion manipulation has a significant effect on biological motion perception, and the motion modulation with fk calculation may have various applications in the study of human motion perception, together with the techniques such as cg animation or motion capture (e.g., in a sport simulation or in nonverbal communication). references abernethy, b. ( ). anticipation in squash: differences in advance cue utilization between expert and novice players. journal of sports sciences, , – . abernethy, b., & zawi, k. ( ). pickup of essential kinematics underpins expert perception of movement patterns. journal of motor behavior, , – . bideau, b., multon, f., kulpa, r., fradet, l., arnaldi, b., & delamarche, p. ( ). using virtual reality to analyze links neuroscience letters, , – . chow, j., carlton, l. g., lim, y.-t., chae, w.-s., shim, j.-h., kuenster, a., et al. 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( ). visual perception of biological motion and a model for its analysis. perception & psychophysics, , – . racquet kinematics of elite tennis players' first and second serves: a journal of motor behavior, , cognition, , a study of kinematic cues and anticipatory performance in tennis using computational manipulation and computer graphics abstract computation of motion analysis and motion modulation motion analysis motion modulation experiment with modulated motion method result and discussion general discussion references the .txtual condition, .txtual criticism and .txtual scholarly editing in spanish philology research article the .txtual condition, .txtual criticism and .txtual scholarly editing in spanish philology bénédicte vauthier published online: march # springer nature switzerland ag abstract the impact of new technologies on writing proccess is not new at all. this digital revolution first resulted in the appearance of new text formats and the development of an ad hoc literary theory. in angloamerican area, this revolution made philologists and patrimonial institutions reflect on the necessity of developing formats of study, edition and perennial conservation of these new formats of digital texts. what is the reason for such a delay in these disciplines that can be observed in europe? why can we say that digital forensics and media archaeology (kirschenbaum) are not trasnational disci- plines? in this paper, i assess the impact in europe and in angloamerican area of .txtual condition. moreover, i make a contrast between these conclusions and the answers given by three emblematic writers of the ‘new spanish narrative’ to a survey about ways of managing and preserving digital files. keywords spanish .txtual condition . .txtual criticism . .txtual editing . new comparative filology. spanish filology the .txtual condition and .txtual criticism in spanish philology a little more than ten years ago, in june , around forty representatives of contemporary book culture––among them, authors, critics, journalists, publishers and booksellers––gath- ered in seville at the initiative of a prestigious spanish publishing house, seix barral, and the josé manual lara foundation. the aim of the three-day summit and its round-tables was to exchange ideas about and survey into the achievements, objectives and innovations of a international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - -x dedicated to thorsten ries for his interest in my work. also dedicated to agustín fernández mallo, robert juan-cantavella and vicente luis mora, without whose generous support this study would not have the same relevance. * bénédicte vauthier benedicte.vauthier@rom.unibe.ch institut für spanische sprache und literaturen, universität bern (schweiz), bern, switzerland http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -x&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:benedicte.vauthier@rom.unibe.ch group of writers who were born between the early s and mid- s and began publishing their work in the early years of this millennium. although, for many of these writers, the meeting in seville was not strictly speaking a debut––and neither were they members of the so-called “nocilla generation”, which, nonetheless, became synonymous for the group after the event ––it was a fortunate choice of timing to bring together such a heterogenous group of authors. by biological age, they could belong to different generations, but this meeting proved to be the foundational act of the “new spanish narrative.” while a reader of their works will notice many compositional, stylistic and thematic differences between these authors, there are two features many of their works have in common and which have received scholarly attention in the form of doctoral theses (calles hidalgo ; barker ; pantel ; del pozo ortea ; saum-pascual ): hypertextuality, on the one hand, and inter-, multi- or transmediality on the other. as is widely known, both concepts have been usually linked to the impact that new media has had on literary production and creative writing and this has most prominently been reflected in the pioneering and internationally well-known studies by bolter, landow, ryan, douglas, etc. compared to the most influential works in the anglo-american area (michael joyce’s afternoon, a story, stuart moulthrop’s victory garden) spanish electronic literature has received less scholarly attention so far (pérez ), especially in spain. this might be understandable in some cases with respect to limited innovative aesthetic quality and the ephemeral character of the digital works in question. as a matter of fact, several works of spanish electronic literature which have been collected, preserved and presented in a section of the institutional online portal virtual library miguel de cervantes are not available online anymore. there is a risk that some of the “expanded literature” texts––or exonovels, to use the neologism one of the new spanish narrative’s most famous representatives coined (fernández mallo : )––will sooner or later be confronted with digital obsoles- cence. the second part of this article discusses this problem, but will also address another issue. i will look beyond contemporary literary studies, focused on the inter- pretation of singular authorised texts published under their author’s name, which often fail to recognise the multitude of reprints, and instead turn to questions of the (digital) the label “nocilla generation” refers to the title of a novel by agustín fernández mallo called nocilla dream. nuria azancot reused part of the title in an article published just a few weeks after the meeting ( . . ). other labels used - related to monographs, anthologies or compilations - are “afterpop”, “mutant”, “last generation spanish narrative”, “pangeic”, “postmodern”, “new spanish narrative”, “post- humanist narrative”. according to the literature, the number of writers that would be part of the group varies from six to twenty. among them, it is common to find lolita bosch, javier calvo, harkaitz cano, jorge carrión, diego doncel, domenico chiappe, Álvaro colomer, juan francisco ferre, javier fernández, agustín fernández mallo, eloy fernández porta, salvador gutiérrez solís, robert juan-cantavella, milo krmpotic, gabi martinez, javier moreno, vicente luis mora, sofia rhei, isaac rosa, mario cuenca sandaval, germán sierra, manuel vilas, etc. literatura electrónica hispánica fundación biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes (ed.): biblioteca virtual miguel de cervantes. url: http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/literaturaelectronica/obras. html (accessed / / ). an exception is the three volumes: nocilla dream ( ), nocilla experience ( ) and nocilla lab ( ) that form a trilogy, republished under the common title proyecto nocilla ( ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/literaturaelectronica/obras.html http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/bib/portal/literaturaelectronica/obras.html writing process, scholarly editions (of born-digital material) and (born-digital) ar- chives. in this area, the landscape of european research, especially for spanish studies, seems to offer less encouraging prospects. it is clear that european research in digital humanities lags behind its counterpart in the anglo-american world for reasons that are not easy to overcome. matthew kirschenbaum’s concept of the “.txtual condition” in the digital age does indeed apply to many european writers––spanish in particular––and i will refer to three of them in the second part of my study: “in the specific domain of the literary, a writer working today will not and cannot be studied in the future in the same way as writers of the past, because the basic material evidence of their authorial activity—manuscripts and drafts, working notes, correspondence, journals—is, like all textual production, increasingly migrating to the electronic realm” (kirschenbaum : par. ). however, very little, if any, scholarly attention has been paid since to this change that will affect in crescendo four branches of literary studies––analytical bibliography, philology, scholarly editing and interpretive studies––when it comes to the literary production of the twenty-first century. it is useless to bemoan the situation. it is much more interesting to try to understand the causes and to examine the difficulties, or perhaps the resistances, that will have to be overcome in europe in order to create the digital humanities community that kirschenbaum has called for. digital forensics: a transnational discipline? in the context of anglo-american academia and research, authors, textual scholars, editors and, above all, cultural and memory institutions work hand in hand to meet the “.txtual condition” (kirschenbaum : par ). regarding european countries where english is not the official, but rather a second language, the delay of glam institutions (galleries, libraries, archives, and museums), the lack of digital edition projects that are comparable to the pioneering work in the anglo-american area and the scarce curiosity of researchers for the impact of the digital transformation on literary ways of writing that kirschenbaum exhibits in track changes ( ) cannot be properly explained unless we make explicit how an apparently transnational discipline––the adaptation of computer forensics methods in archival science and philology—is rooted in the specific philological tradition of anglo-american analytical bibliography and textual criticism. this is probably the key reason for the success of this approach. media archaeology […] offers one set of critical tools for coming to terms with the .txtual condition. another, of course, is to be found in the methods and theoretical explorations of textual scholarship, the discipline from which mcgann launched his ongoing program to revitalize literary studies by restoring to it a text in the broad sense of the word, that is, as defined by donald mckenzie: “i define ‘texts’ to include verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information, everything in fact from epigraphy to the latest forms of discography” ( : ). in mechanisms, kirschenbaum cites, as a representative sample button, the electronic beowulf, the canterbury tales project, the william blake archive and the rossetti archive ( : note ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – sense of its roots in philological and documentary forms of inquiry. as i’ve argued at length elsewhere, the field that offers to most immediate analog to bibliography and textual criticism in the electronic sphere is computer forensics, which deals in authenticating, stabilizing, and recovering digital data. […] digital forensics is the point of practice at which media archaeology and digital human- ities intersect (kirschenbaum : par. ). the double philological root to which kirschenbaum refers is undoubtedly at the center of the success and fruitful development of this research paradigm within the digital human- ities in his field of research. however, it might be more straightforward to say that the analogue precursor of the adaptation of computer forensics as a tool in born-digital philology was mckenzie’s “heterodox bibliography or sociology of texts” and mcgann’s “new textualism or modern textual criticism”. the reference to jerome mcgann, who is given the honor of having revitalised literary studies, may be seen as proof of this assertion. in textual criticism and scholarly editing of modern english literature texts––the stress on “modern” is essential here––the names donald mckenzie, “heterodox” bibliographer (darnton : ) and book historian, and jerome mcgann, american critic and philologist of modern texts, are often mentioned together and may seem synonymous with the paradigm shift that took place in literary disciplines during the mid- s (greetham : , sutherland : ; shillingsburg : ). mcgann’s and mckenzie’s books a critique of modern textual criticism (mcgann , st ed., , nd ed.) and bibliography and the sociology of texts (mckenzie , st ed., , nd ed., the result of the panizzi lectures, mckenzie ), published within a narrow time frame, have contributed to this misconception. the fact that the two authors sought to distance themselves almost at the same time––though they did it regarding different corpus and interests––from the “greg-bowers-tanselle theory”, which at the time was the predominant paradigm in the field of textual criticism and scholarly editing of premodern texts (lernout ), may also have contributed to the shakeup of the discipline. a survey into the academic reception of the two scholars not only in the anglo- american sphere, but also in european research, reveals, however, that things are not simple at all, and neither their names nor their proposals are interchangeable. mckenzie is an undisputed authority on anglo-american bibliographical research. however, it is the name and the work of jerome mcgann that has become the most emblematic reference among the representatives of new textualism. his book a critique of modern textual criticism became part of the school’s “canon” (greetham in shillingsburg : vii). the earlier the textual condition ( ) is one of the most frequently cited works among researchers interested modern scholarly editing, such as scholarly editing in the computer age (shillingsburg ), the fluid text. a theory of revision and editing for book and screen (bryant ) and the .txtual condition (kirschenbaum ), to mention just three important works by mcgann’s followers. in his assessment of anglo american textual criticism, lernout ( ) suggests that mcgann calls into question greg’s “base text” theory and the concept of “authorial aim” later introduced by bowers in the context of his philological study on manuscripts and modern texts. mckenzie, however, tries to widen the field of analytical bibliography with his new definition of “text” and his reflection on the production and spreading of printing history. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – in the part of europe where english is not a lingua franca, however––particularly in romance-speaking europe (e.g. france, italy, spain)––with the exception of english literature studies, the work of mcgann is hardly known, while “the second mckenzie” (willison : ) enjoys international reputation throughout europe, although more among book historians than among modern philologists. the french book historian roger chartier is the one who mainly disseminated mckenzie’s work and ideas in the european context. the absence of a modern philology in france and spain at the time allowed chartier to leave out the dominant bibliographical facet in the new zealander’s work by skipping the outset of his reflection to highlight the second key idea underlying mckenzie’s panizzi lectures: the material and social dimensions of text, which led to his own history of books, reading and readers. in this way, chartier did away with the strong link between librarianship and bibliography, between archives and editing, in mckenzie’s work and diluted his very early concerns about the emergence of new technologies that were substantially affecting the understanding of text and its circulation (vauthier a, b). these lectures were conceived and prepared, not as a text destined for print, but as lectures occasions. the challenge, as i saw it, was to sketch an extended role for bibliography at a time when traditional book forms must share with many new media their prime function of recording and transmitting texts. could we read in the preface to the first edition of his book ( : ix). in its second edition, following a review of mcgann’s ( ) response and, thanks to chartier’s work, the unexpected international reception of the book in europe (mckenzie : ; : ); he resumes: the familiar historical processes by which, over the centuries, texts have changed their form and content have now accelerated to a degree which makes the definition and location of textual authority barely possible in the old style. professional librarians, under pressure from irresistible technological and social changes, are redefining their discipline in order to describe, house, and access mckenzie’s book, bibliography and sociology of texts, was translated to french in , to italian in and to spanish in . in all three cases, translations were accompanied by a substantial prologue by chartier, who has channeled the author’s reception, very particularly in france and then in spain, in the somewhat exclusive direction of the history of the book (vauthier a). these three ideas are: . “an extended role for bibliography”, as it is shown in the first lines of the preface that follows. in the second paragraph, mckenzie specifies: “there were two other considerations which it seemed timely to voice” ( , ix, italics are mine). . the acknowledgment of historical bibliography as a discipline in itself: “historical bibliography (as distinct from descriptive and analytical bibliography and stemmatics) has gained acceptance as a field of study” and . the essential instability of the text and the impossibility of fixing it for good: “definitive editions have come to seen an impossible ideal” and “each version has some claim to be edited in its own right” ( , ). these three ideas clearly show mckenzie’s wide oversight, as bibliographer and book historian. chartier is a book historian, not a philologist, and consequently only refers to the first and second idea. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – sounds, static and moving images with or without word, and a flow of computer- stored information ( : ). these two dimensions––the impact of new technologies and the necessary renovation of the traditional bibliography––explain the honored place that donald mckenzie now occupies among anglo-american scholars of modern text, particularly in the works of mcgann and kirschenbaum. although in the .txual condition ( : par. , and ) and in mechanisms ( : ) kirschenbaum admits his debt to mcgann, in the opening pages of his collective report digital forensics and born-digital content in cultural heritage collections, he asserts very clearly that the necessary connections and interactions between the world of archives and digital forensics stem from mckenzie’s work, particularly from his early attention to new technologies: we maintain that such parallels are not coincidental, but rather evidence of something fundamental about the study of the material past, in whatever medium or form. as early as , d. f. mckenzie, in his panizzi lectures, explicitly placed electronic content within the purview of bibliography and textual criti- cism, saying, ‘i define texts to include verbal, visual, oral, and numeric data, in the form of maps, prints, and music, of archives of recorded sound, of films, videos, and any computer-stored information, everything in fact from epigraphy to the latest forms of discography ( , ) (kirschenbaum et al. : ). in the same way, mcgann’s recent popularity among modern philologists may be a consequence of the fact that he knew how to minimize his first book’s precedence to mckenzie’s panizzi lectures, which would be published two years later, and, conse- quently, could make mckenzie ‘the hero of our own time’, that is, the hero of scholarly edition. d. f. mckenzie became the hero of our own time not because he discovered the sociology of the text – we’ve known about that for a long time. he became the hero because he knew that the idea of the social text had to be realized as a scholarly edition. such an edition would be addressing and answering some key – basically philo- logical – questions. could one develop a model for editing books and material objects rather than just the linguistic phenomena we call texts? to pose that question, as mckenzie did, was to lay open the true dimensions of what he was after: a model for editing texts in their contexts (mcgann : - , italics are mine). after having clarified the intrinsic alignment between the adaption of digital forensics as a philological and archival scientific method, on the one hand, and the traditions of theory and practice of modern scholarly editing, textual criticism and analytical it is very interesting to note that in the section “the history of the book” of his review of “textual scholarship”, marcus does not mention mckenzie, but only chartier and darnton. instead, he mentions mckenzie along with mcgann in the section “textual scholarship in present” ( ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – bibliography in the anglo-american academia and research, on the other, i turn the scope of this survey back to europe. unlike the anglo-american context, where authors, textual scholars, publishers and, above all, cultural and memory institutions work hand in hand to meet the “.txtual condition”, the european cultural and research landscape features neither such a clear, nor such an unanimously shared strategy among the involved parties. moreover, there is no such thing as a standardized “continental” or “european theory of scholarly editing”, nor are there language-specific models for scholarly editions (lernout , ; vauthier a, b). even tei encoding and tei-based editions still face difficulties in establishing a standard model for digital scholarly editions (marcus : – ), which may complicate the long-term preservation of editions. last and above all, the idealistic understanding of the modern text that prevails among european philologists and an individualist or romantic concept of authorship have been the main factors which impeded studies focused on the materiality of the textual media, on the graphic dimension of prints and books, and on non-authorised or posthumous versions of texts (vauthier ; vauthier a, b). an article penned by rüdiger nutt-kofoth illustrates this point, which allows me to further detail and expand my above claims regarding the lack of scholarly reception of mcgann’s work in europe. in editionsphilologie als mediengeschichte (scholarly editing as media history, nutt-kofoth )––the simplicity of the title should be noted as meaning- ful––a german literary scholar and specialist for scholarly editions invites his col- leagues to stop focusing solely on the “linguistic” dimension of the text and instead turn to the concept of “bibliographical orientation” by peter shillingsburg ( : ), the representative of the new anglo-american textualism, which, in recent years, has made large efforts to build bridges between the scholars of german and english literature. it is too early to see whether his colleagues will follow this invitation, although it may kirschenbaum’s article illustrates how the invaluable legacy of an author, editor and educator like deena larsen, a pioneer of electronic writing, to an institution (the mith) is not a result of chance, but of friendship that unites the writer to the center and its researchers. that is to say, the same scenario as the one at the origin of the legacy or the sale of working manuscripts of contemporary writers to memory institutions is repeated: louis aragon at the institut des textes et manuscrits modernes in paris, miguel Ángel asturias at the bibliothèque nationale de france, friedrich dürrenmatt in switzerland. in all three cases, the legacy was made with the explicit desire for exploration and evaluation using latest editing techniques. the geneticists—members of both french and german schools—have put a lot of emphasis on the materiality and the graphic substance of the drafts, of the avant-texte, a characteristic that they have not granted to the text completely (lebrave, ; mahrer reuss ). in the same way, even among those who declare to be interested in the process, the death of the author remains an insurmountable frontier (lebrave, , mahrer ) or remains clearly on the side of the history of reception (reuss ). and that is what the anglo-americans question with the idea of “versioning” (reiman ), “fluid text” (bryant ), etc. “based in the bibliographical studies of d. f. mckenzie, this orientation enlarges the definition of text to include all aspects of the physical forms upon which the linguistic text is written. this approach does not admit to any parts of the text or of the physical medium to be considered non significant and therefore emendable. […] all aspects of the physical object that is the book that bear clues to its origins and destinations and social and literary pretentions […] are text to the bibliographic orientation” (shillingsburg : – ). two recent books of italian philology (cadioli , italia ) also draw attention to the importance of the works of mcgann and even more of peter shillingsburg. like the german editor of ulysses, hans walter gabler, did at his time and like it is still done by belgian anglists geert lernout and dirk van hulle (lernout : – ). that invitation is the same that margarita santos zas and i made to edit valle-inclán ( ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – seem unlikely that it will be possible to put an end to the debate about the issue of textual versions that opposes the scholars of german and english literature— an issue that hinges on questions of materiality on the one hand and “authorial intentionality” on the other (shillingsburg : – ). more instructive may be patrick sahle’s work ( ) on the typology of digital scholarly editions and on the definition of the term “text”, in which the historian reflects upon its polysemy and, instead of one definition, proposes a dynamic wheel of terminological perspectives on the term “text”. in this way, he intends to overcome static definitions that construe “text” in antagonistic terms. after this overview, in which some light was shed on the specificity of modern textual criticism and scholarly editing of modern texts both in european traditions and in the anglo-american research context, it is necessary to return to memory institutions and to the urgent issue of the long-term preservation and curatorship of writers’ private digital archives. ‘i unpack my digital library and show you my digital desktop’ in their studies of librarianship and digital curatorship, becker ( ) and weisbrod ( ) highlighted the challenges and deficits that research and memory institutions–– they take libraries and literary archives in germany, austria and switzerland as an example––need to address in terms of long-term preservation, curatorship and scholarly appreciation of born-digital heritage and digital culture in comparison to memory institutions, archives and research in european countries where english is not the main language spoken. both books seek to understand how writers write, how they organise their working process, and how they organise and preserve their documents in the digital era. yet, the question arises: to what extent authors have an interest in and are willing to receive support from memory institutions to ensure long-term preservation of their literary and personal digital archives. additionally, dirk weisbrod complemented the empirical part of his doctoral thesis with in-depth expert interviews with archivists and directors of memory institutions. both authors in their conclusions put emphasis on the need for archivists to establish contact between memory institutions and likely donors or depositors of private digital archives as early as possible in order to make writers aware of the need and possibilities in place to preserve their published or ongoing work, for instance, in an institutional archive cloud (weisbrod : – , here ). in the course of his argument, weisbrod forges the neologism ‘präkustodiale intervention’ (pre-custodial intervention), which refers to the interven- tion of archivists with possible donors or depositors as a preliminary measure to ensure long-term preservation of and access to their archives. this conclusion is very much in line with the institutional collaboration with writers advocated for by kirschenbaum. from the more modest academic perspective of a scholar of contemporary spanish literature, who is not directly connected to particular memory institutions and who does in from gutenberg to google, shillingsburg lists the main works of the polemics ( : – ) and vauthier analyzes some of the editorial implications of the two paradigms ( and a). this polysemy is activated or reactivated, if we consider mckenzie, through the problems of coding. that is, from what new technologies make the editors see. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – not feel inclined to acquire digital forensic skills anytime soon, i still find it important to scrutinize the implications of the digital media turn for the scholarly edition and interpretation of twenty-first century literature. it was jean-louis lebrave’s research program that guided my steps when exam- ining the hybrid dossier génétique of robert juan-cantavella’s transmedial novel el dorado, a born-digital novel (vauthier : ). this research program, proposed to the french critique génétique by one of its pioneers, put forward his scholarly attention for the changes that the arrival of personal computers on the authors’ writing desks meant for their ways of working. having studied the dossier génétique of el dorado, it became very clear to me that the critique génétique and scholarly editions of twenty-first century literature will depend on the preservation state of the private digital archives and that these disciplines will have to focus on the question of digital versions and variants––and on the complexity of the problem of the versions (lebrave : ). consequently, i contacted three writers of the “new spanish narrative” to start a survey about their way of working in the digital age. without being aware of it at the time—given that i formulated my questions based on my years-long practice as a scholarly editor of avant-textes and modern spanish texts and not aimed at the interviewees’ way of writing—i happened to collect data about their methods of organising their work on the computer and about how they ensured the preservation of their creative work at the same time. despite the relatively small sample of three writers, the data collected is relevant in the context of the methodological framework of qualitative survey (heigham and croker ). qualitative surveys gather generic information, illustrate general trends, may seek answers to research questions that cannot be operationalised and addressed in quantitative surveys or questions where the personal relationship and the interaction between interviewee and researcher may play a key role. in short, my survey responds to the research question formulated by becker in her conclusion: “it would be inter- esting to have a closer look at the youngest generation of writers with respect to their ways of writing” ( : ). in the present case, the answers are interesting with respect to two dimensions. nocilla dream ( ) by agustín fernández mallo ( ), el dorado ( ) by robert juan-cantavella ( ) and alba cromm ( ) by vicente luis mora ( ) are among the most representative inter- and transmedial works of the new spanish narrative. all of them meet the definition of the exonovel, a neologism coined by fernández mallo. “it would be a much greater matter of urgency to mobilize the energy for approaching two crucial questions for the future of genetic criticism. first, it is about really knowing how the writers appropriate the computer, and which are the effects of this appropriation on writing. the second concerns the way in which geneticists will be able to construct real scientific objects based on data of a new type stored on computer memories” (lebrave : ). the mention of the personal relationship and friendship is necessary, since the access to author files must be approved by the authors and / or beneficiaries. in the case of digital archives, the question of trust placed in the researcher and the confidentiality of the documents to which they may have access is more crucial than ever. i sent the questionnaire “i unpack my digital library and show you my digital desktop” during the christmas period of and the answers came between th december and th january, allowing me to request additional information. in addition, agustín fernández mallo and vicente luis mora also have articles and / or essays that focus on the impact of new technologies and they maintain blogs of literary criticism. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – a neologism, based notion of a exoskeleton, exonovel refers to “that which sustains to novel, providing internal solidity and protection, without which the novel itself is not possible” (fernández mallo : ). “the model that this exonovel follows is that of a protective shell on the outside of the book’s body, but it is dislocated.” ( : ) the examples that the author provides between the two definitions refer to digital formats that the three authors use on a regular, varying basis: websites, blogs (either installed for the purpose of a specific writing project or their pre-existing blog), videostreams on youtube or other platforms, facebook accounts operated by the authors under their real names or avatars, etc. with respect to the problem of digital obsolescence of electronic literature, which has already been briefly addressed, this calls for precautionary measures; it is time to be concerned about the impact that a partial or complete loss of the elements “without which, the novel itself is not possible” would have on our understanding of the exonovels. i will postpone dealing with the private digital archive, the submerged part of the iceberg— the digital files poised to possibly disappear—and first address the work’s digital representation in the public sphere. although the texts seem to be independent from the “cinematic poetics of their provenance”, what would happen if the readers of the nocilla trilogy––dream ( ), experience ( ), lab ( )––had no longer access to the movie proyecto nocilla? accordingly, what would happen to our understanding of the work if cantavella’s punk journalism website––available on punkjournalism.com––that complements the novel el dorado, the url of which already no longer corresponds to the one mentioned on the back cover, ceased to exist? even so, if the two texts are autonomous, the parodistic weblog will not stop laying open its deck of cards, revealing to its reader parts of the documentary (digital photos, cutouts of scanned texts, etc.) and critical material (articles of the fictive character published in the press) that the author’s alter ego trebor escargot used to write his road movie, a remake of fear and loathing in las vegas ( ), inspired by hunter s. thompson’s homonymous novel (vauthier , ). furthermore, how could we not think about the implications for our understanding of alba cromm ( ) if we know that the author’s logbook “alba cromm y la vida de los hombres” (“alba cromm and the life of man”), which vicente luis mora wrote parallel to his novel and to which the novel refers, and also know that this logbook “is only accessible through the internet archive search engine” (ilasca : )? these preliminary observations may be sufficient to illustrate why it is essential to understand how writers imagine the future of their work, which they develop, almost exclusively, in digital media. despite the fact that all of the authors’ answers to the various survey blocks are interesting and relevant with regard to the issue, i will not document them in full. it would be impossible for several practical reasons, mainly because some of them are very long and some contain confidential information. even without having access to the authors’ computers or, in this case, their files, but having seen some of their the film is available in the writer’s blog “el hombre que salió de la tarta”: “proyecto nocilla, la película” http://fernandezmallo.megustaleer.com/proyecto-nocilla-la-pelicula/ (accessed / / ). el dorado is based on both thompson’s novel and the film directed by terry gilliam, which stars jonny depp as raoul duke. the work on el dorado was realized through the examination of the material collected in a usb key that the author gave me in , along with personal documents (dvd, press, logbook, etc.) kept in a backpack (vauthier , ). international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – http://punkjournalism.com http://fernandezmallo.megustaleer.com/proyecto-nocilla-la-pelicula/ screenshots, it is clear that “access to someone else’s computer is like finding a key to their house, with the means to open up the cabinets and cupboards, look inside the desk drawers, peek at the family photos, see what’s playing on the stereo or tv, even sift through what’s been left behind in the trash” (kirschenbaum : par. ). this is the natural and understandable reason for the cautious reluctance of the authors to deposit or donate their private digital archives––and surely one of the greatest challenges for the effort of building future born-digital archives and pre-custodial interventions. to give an overview, three quarters of the questions asked were related to what weisbrod describes as “ways of administrating and managing work on the computer” ( : – , – ), one quarter was about the “methods to ensure preservation of the archives” ( : – , – ). to be more precise, i was interested in the following topics: & how do authors organize their digital work and when do they start organizing their materials; & the metadata and criteria they use to organize their work (date (timestamps), file name, file type, extension, title, etc.) and their possible variations according to textual genre (narrative, essay, poetry, academic work, etc.); & the time and naming schemes according to which they create and name versions, the timing and regularity when they do so; & the possible metadiscursive component (“notes de régie”) in their work and the way they use visual queues for marking up certain digital writing operations (color, strikethrough, bold, track changes, etc.); & the way of documenting their work in the digital environment (type of used sources and consulted documents) and, if applicable, the way this “external” material is stored; & the possibility of recycling documents, versions, own and/or “external” texts and the concrete way this is done (duplication of documents, copy and paste, etc.); & the use of the operating system’s virtual recycle bin; & the preservation of digital files and hardware (self-archiving): what do they keep (own and/or external documents, draft versions, final versions etc.)? when does the author self-archive their born-digital materials? where is the archive stored (cloud, hard disk, hard copy)?; & their possible representation of a digital library of literary authors that would replace traditional, paper-based archives, and their willingness to deposit or donate their born-digital archives. due to my interest in the writing process, on the one hand, and in scholarly editing of both avant-textes and authorised texts, on the other, i was especially interested in the way the authors document their own working materials and even more in the manage- ment of possible versions of their work. moreover, their answers to my questions regarding their willingness and interest to deposit or donate their digital files to archives and about their self-archiving practice seemed somewhat unexpected to me, if not alarming. in the following section, before commenting on them altogether and coming to a conclusion, i will reproduce the answers they gave to the first block of questions–– documentation and version-management– and i will outline the answers to the second block––archive preservation. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – “version” staying within the methodological context of a philological study that does not utilise digital forensics (ries ), during the interviews, i used the term “version” in the sense of “text” that slightly differs from another text, saved by the author before or after the first text. a comparison between both texts would show a variation, that is, would allow a researcher to reconstruct the writing process. i did not try to establish a new definition of the term “version” in the context of this study that would allow to include, in a strict sense, textual versions in automatically saved backup or temporary files (von bülow : ). i also did not take into account the definition of the term version that kirschenbaum refers to, for whom “versioning is a hallmark of electronic textual culture––as a thriving industry of content management systems, file comparison utilities, and so-called version control or concurrent versions systems, […]”, that is, concurrent versions system (cvs) ( : ). i will argue, however, that the issue of “textual identity” still needs to be at the center of scholarly interest. with this clarification, my question and the answers by the three authors are documented below. bénédicte vauthier: what is your criterion to be met in order for you to save a new version or to duplicate the document on which you are currently working? what do you do with previous “versions”? how do you name them? how often do you save what you wrote? agustín fernández mallo: i create a new file version if the novel is very advanced and it seems that i can open a path that will radically change things. i usually keep the name of the original file and simply add a number at the end. “[...] ,” “[...] ”, etc. sometimes i specify the reason of the change in order to remember it: “[…]substitutiondistortion”. i keep the previous versions, even if i consider them complete failures—you already know my opinion about garbage and about how it can be recycled. years may pass until i am able to see that something i had discarded was waiting for its natural place somewhere else. (email on january ). robert juan-cantavella: the criterion is not very scientific. i save a new version every time i think that i have made many changes to a document, just in case i may have to review later once more what i discarded. sometimes a long time passes (months), sometimes very little (days), depending on the changes made. when i return to a version, i usually save a copy of the previous version when i start, because i do not have everything under control; i keep the copy just in case. previous versions are saved in a dedicated folder. i usually name it “out” or “ant”, although it can be a different name. (email on january ). vicente luis mora: [...] when i spoke about versions, i was referring to the same base document with some changes; sometimes with many changes, sometimes with technically it would have been perhaps more accurate to speak about the “state of a text”, to distinguish this rewriting, typical of “avant-texte”, from another possible rewriting, posterior to a first publication. i translated my questions and their answers to english for this documentation. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – fewer. the base document, however, is always the same and therefore keeps the same creation date. each one of these digital copies that you have is a backup copy of the same document in progress, in continuous change: i enter the document and i add new things, correct or delete some of the old ones, so the document is not the “same” anymore when i finish. this is why i said it is a version, while you called it a “changed draft”. when i create a digital copy, it is because i think that i have made enough changes in the original to save it separately, and the chronolog- ical order is not marked by the date of the file, but by [...] [the date of the backup]. [this latest file] [...] contains the most recent version of each of the [texts]. [...] as i sometimes change minor things here and there in the document that are difficult to remember, and i hate the “track changes” mechanism of [microsoft] word, this is the only solution for me not to get lost: by successively saving multiple backups of the same document while it transforms towards its final “gestalt”. it is possible that between these copies there are only a few variants, but all of them together are the writing-polishing process of the novel, the demanding toil of writing, which [...] includes even the proofeading. (email january ). preservation with a nod to walter benjamin’s essay “ich packe meine bibliothek aus” (“unpacking my library”, ), which is echoed in the title of my questionnaire, i formulated the following two blocks of questions that refer to the preservation of digital files. . where do you keep the digital files related to the writing process of your works? hard disk, cloud, hardcopy? do you also keep the external documents that you have consulted? . how do you imagine a future library/digital archive of authors (for example, residencia de estudiantes)? can you imagine depositing or donating the digital archive of your works to a public research library? do you organize your folders with this in mind when you finish a work? do you manipulate them? are there any documents that you would like to delete? when you buy a new computer, do you keep the hard drive of the one you dispose of? to the first question, the three authors declared that they save their material to one or several hard drives separately. they save their work with varying regularity and, in any case, when they move or migrate to a different computer. two of them also use email as a save and backup tool and none of them seem to use the cloud. agustín fernández mallo even declared that he does not trust it. in general, working on paper, either for proofreading or to keep hardcopies of their work, has rather a marginal role in their working process. they may use it merely for “more sentimental than practical reasons”, as fernández mallo puts it, referring to the gallery proofs his publisher sends him. the on my initiative, the author returns to the response he had given me in the first place: “i do not usually make different versions’ ( . . ), which contradicted the status of a digital file to which i was given access.” specifically he refers to the “digital versions” of the novel alba cromm that he sent me in through a cloud. i gave up studying them because i did not find a satisfactory form of exploring the genetic dossier composed of versions which, in addition, as the author suggests, all have the same date of creation. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – three writers seem to move only a few of their digital documents to the virtual trash bin, and never while they are still in the writing process. some of these documents end up bloating folders named “discard”, “keep” or “out”, which leaves the writer the option to recover or reuse the text, immediately or later. draft versions may also be found in these folders. they mostly move material to the trash folder that may have turned up in the phase of documentary research, excerpts, early notes and drafts and that is not regarded as useful any longer (downloads, photos, etc.) or which is considered “exter- nal” to their work. agustín fernández mallo and vicente luis mora said that they keep their old computers when buying a new one. vicente luis mora said that once when he was abroad (in the usa), he disassembled a laptop “in order to puverise all its main components one by one with a hammer” as a measure of destroying his data. in addition to laptops, he also has a personal desktop computer which serves as a “method of general physical backup of everything.” the answers referring to their interest or willingness to deposit or donate their digital archive to a library that ensures their preservation cannot be easily summarized, nor do they show an unified tendency. agustín fernández mallo said that he imagined “a library in which the digital and the analogue are perfectly intermeshed, what i call postdigitalism: i organize the folders thinking about my personal organization and nothing else.” robert juan- cantavella imagines “a library that is accessible from computers. i do not know whether one would be required to enter a physical space (a building) to go and consult them. i would not donate the digital working documents of my books to a library or to any other type of institution. when i finish a work, i do not organize the materials thinking about any later external research consultation. there are usually no documents that i want to eliminate more than others.” as for vicente luis mora, he seemed to doubt that there will be such libraries “when i will be older”, imagining, in addition, a careful process of selection of “writers who wish to be included in their archive”. however, he expressed his concern about the idea that “textgenetic researchers like me” could dig into his computer and into the drafts of his works, with which, even when finished, he is usually not satisfied. hence, he declares: “you may be able to understand my feelings about the materials i have put aside. i guess, i will make many things disappear that would interest you, although i will keep others because the love for the work that took place during the consecutive drafts does not allow me to get rid of them.” having documented these answers by the authors, i would like to conclude by returning to the question of born-digital and the scholarly edition. .txtual editing anyone who knows anything about digital files and is familiar with the concerns of writers ––and even more those of their relatives––about the idea that researchers will search through their drafts as they please, have access to private materials, potentially reveal well-guarded or forgotten secrets, will understand certain fears triggered by the idea of delivering not just previously selected drafts and prints, but also the key to their digital “home” to unknown philologists, who would use forensic methods in order to access those digital secrets. regardless whether out of fear, lack of confidence or interest, if the artists of the th and twenty-first century do not deposit or donate their digital archives to professional memory institutions or take curatorial measures in order to preserve them, an important international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – resource for understanding the works of this era would be lost. they would end up only printed and published, making them appear curiously single or decontextualised if we think of the heterogeneous modern archives that may consist of drafts, notes, gallery proofs, prints, annotated books, correspondences, photos, etc. the apparent reluctance towards the archives of the future on the side of those authors who turned to and embraced the new media and their technologies to the extent of even becoming strongholds of the worldview of a connected society seems somewhat puzzling. if these authors did not give researchers access to the materials and traces of the creation of their works, geneticists and philologists would have to, like other critics, turn to texts published in book format in the future––e.g. in the form of works reedited and republished by the authors themselves. the majority of scholars, who do not seem to feel much curiosity for the unpublished, archived part of the work, usually accept this situation and base their work on the texts that circulate in the public realm. without reiterating the interpretation problem posed by transmedia works here, it obvious that failing to apply curatorial measures would risk losing the published, and even more these works’ unpublished parts and materials, rendering their historical record incom- plete, historically inaccurate and potentially incomprehensible. in cases where authors give philologists and textual geneticists access to the folders of one or more of their works, e.g. via a pen drive or their cloud account containing a complete record of unaltered documents that could belong to the constellation of the works, the challenge for the researcher with standard user skills will be to determine the possible or actual number of textual states or versions of the work exist. even if we content ourselves with the versions saved voluntarily by the authors, we could see that they do not hesitate to duplicate the most complete version of the text in order to avoid regrets in case they have to “come back” to a previous one. although this duplication is not merely mechanical, it is – from a critique génétique perspective––a fundamentally different process compared to the isolated revision and the revision by rewriting of a text in the analogue medium. in addition to this challenge, there are two other problems to be addressed: first, as the authors do not see their desktop full of drafts, they tend to avoid disposing of their things, which raises the issue of textual garbage and recycling that some of them have inscribed at the center of their work––this is, for instance, the case with fernández mallo ( : – ) and mora ( : – , – ). the second difficulty is related to the size of the digital files of narrative works: the systematic analysis of these is impossible without the aid of text collation tools such as included in juxta, medite, collatex, iteal. i would like to highlight a conclusion drawn by lebrave at the end of his review of the kirschenbaum’s and ries’ work: “it is very likely that genetic forensics has to renounce being a poetic of processes and instead will content itself with being a poetic of transitions between textual states” ( : ). i think this is accurate. however, as i do not want to give in to pessimism (lebrave : ), i hope that the unexpected multiplication of “versions” or “states” of a text with which a researcher is confronted when accessing a digital archive, will prove an invitation for them to address the question of “textual identity” under a new digital perspec- tive. faced with “different states of what we can suppose to be the same text, with all the epistemic difficulties posed by the problem of simultaneously identical and different texts” (ganascia and lebrave : , [italics mine]), it is time to stop supposing and start investigating this theoretical issue. however, it is necessary to international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – investigate it before launching a digital collation tool (mahrer : – ) or before making available for the reader or user all the versions of a text to be edited (bryant : ). to argue that beyond their differences two texts that can be compared, which is to say textually aligned, must be considered together in a genetic perspective (mahrer : – ), or that “a version, like any text of a work, is effectively an approximation of the attempt to achieve the work” (bryant : ) is equivalent to solving the problem that was to be elucidated “in favor of identity” (reuss : – ). references azancot, n. 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( ). don mckenzie and the history of the book. in j. thomson (ed.), books and bibliography: essays in commemoration of don mckenzie (pp. – ). wellington: victoria up. international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://www.onb.ac.at/koop-litera/termine/kooplitera /buelow_ .pdf http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv: - http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv: - the .txtual condition, .txtual criticism and .txtual scholarly editing in spanish philology abstract the .txtual condition and .txtual criticism in spanish philology digital forensics: a transnational discipline? ‘i unpack my digital library and show you my digital desktop’ “version” preservation .txtual editing references towards an african indigenous model of communication for software development in digital humanities akin-otiko akinmayowa augustine akintunde farinola abstract drawing insight from toyin falola’s call for african scholars to africanize knowledge, this paper argues for a review of the digital technological tools being used for research in african studies in order to adequately capture and properly process and present african data. to achieve this, the inadequacies of digital humanities for specific areas of african studies will be highlighted, especially in the deployment of digital humanities tools. the major challenge being the distortion and constraint experienced in processing and presenting research through the use of digital humanities ‘tools of translation and communication. the paper argues that such technological limitation has its root in the incompatibility of the epistemological frameworks within which those digital tools were developed. the paper discusses 'ojú lòrówà' – a theory of communication in an african society as a model to highlight the importance of african context to african scholars in their exploration into african history, technology, culture, philosophy and tradition. indigenous theory is an appropriate model for developing digital as well as virtual software for african scholars in human communication. the paper concludes by enjoining scholars in african studies to ensure that the digital tools employed in african studies are not only able to collect data, but also able to process and present data adequately without losing the original meaning or sense. keywords: african studies, data-presentation, data-processing, 'ojú lòrówà', software development, digital humanities. introduction in our increasingly digital world, it is expected that scholars in the humanities will embrace computer software and programs designed as tool for research. meanwhile, experience has shown that scholars in african studies have encountered difficulties in using those tools to capture a true representation of african heritage in the light of africa’s indigenous concepts, phenomena, beliefs and worldviews. instead of discouraging the use of these digital tools, we are developing a conceptual and epistemological framework for developers, as well as identifying the appropriate tools for research in africa. to achieve this objective, we shall embark on a brief conceptual analysis and discussion on the humanities, digital technologies in the humanities, the idea of communication and digital communication, and technological tools used in research in the humanities. then, we shall examine the inadequacies of some digital humanities tools for researchers in african studies and argue that they were built on a theory of communication within the framework of western and oriental knowledge and belief system. this would necessitate the explication of the idea of ojú lòrówà’ as a theory of communication to address this epistemic imposition on the technologies of the digital humanities. we will then deploy this theory to address the identified limitations of digital technological tools developed to be used by scholars in humanities. the humanities: definition, disciplines, goal, and peculiarities the term ‘humanities’ comes from the latin word ‘humanus’, meaning ‘human’ (vito r. giustiniani, ). so, the idea of the humanities is considered as a loosely defined group of academic subjects united by a commitment to studying aspects of the human condition. these subjects produce reflections and thoughts on human experiences and practices. the disciplines of humanities include history, anthropology, literature, art, philosophy, and law, political and cultural studies. the study of the humanities helps to understand human values and how these values translate to knowledge, attitudes, policies and inventions for the advancement of commodious living and common good. (godwin sogolo, ) digital humanities and its technological tools the digital humanities (dh) currently incorporates both digitized and born-digital materials and combines the methodologies from traditional humanities disciplines (such as history, philosophy, linguistics, literature, art, archaeology, music, and cultural studies). it provides computing tools (like data visualization, information retrieval, data mining, statistics, text mining) and digital publishing tools (arjun sabharwal, ). today, scholars in the humanities are using chat rooms, bulletin boards, and social networking websites for academic interactions. these digital technologies help in making digital information to travels over thousands of miles, thereby making research findings shareable within a global academic community. to be a member of these cyber communities, one simply needs a networked computer, or a computer that is connected to a larger system of other computers (albert borgmann, ). furthermore, it is becoming easier than ever for scholars, through the use of technology, to validate, track, and cross-check information (anne burdick et al., ). the most interesting aspect is the easy access to primary source materials, understanding texts written in different languages, and in preserving digital resources for the future. digital humanities technologies have enhanced perception, automated analysis, modelling and simulation, easy search for books, interactive music scores, dynamically generated maps, and other multimedia and digital resources or repositories. most scholars in the humanities currently make effort to digitalize their works. the first process in doing this is the digitalization of texts, images, and other data (e.g., survey data, videos, etc.), then the delivery of that data via the web (ibid.). the digitalization of text has helped scholarship as many more people could access those virtual libraries, museums, and archives across the world (ian foster, ). this has enabled historians, folklorists, digital humanists, ethnologists, anthropologists, and archivists in the process of collecting, preserving, and understanding, interpreting, and retelling stories of humanity (douglas a. boyd and mary a. larson, ). it does not require advanced computing or programming skills to benefit from the opportunities offered by digital humanities tools. media outlets such as youtube or soundcloud offer near instant and free distribution of audio and video oral histories, while digital repository and content management systems like contentdm, omeka, or even drupal or wordpress, provide powerful infrastructure for housing oral histories in a digital archive or library. systems such as ohms (oral history metadata synchronizer) now provide free opportunities to enhance access to oral histories online, connecting a textual search of a transcript or an index to the correlating moment in the online audio or video interview. mobile applications like curatescape offer enormous opportunities for collecting, curtain, and disseminating interviews and projects (ibid). it must however be stated that as they offer benefits, these tools also posed potential threats such as increased vulnerability of narrators, infrastructure obsolescence, and hosts of other ethical issues (ibid). most of these technologies are built on the mandate that we have to be online and be connected to a source of power. this imperative creates a sense of significance dependence by that fact. for instance, with the advent of apple icloud, amazon, microsoft and other online storage systems, one no longer need the memory of one’s computer because everything one writes, photographs and records will be saved in the ‘cloud’ or on a server somewhere which one can access anywhere in the world. in other words, cloud storage allows scholars to manage their data in an infinitely more convenient way so that they are synchronized across our growing collections of information appliances (domenico fiormonte et al., ). communication and research in humanities research is a process by which human beings investigate and obtain an understanding of the world. today, the way in which research is carried out is changing either for better or for worse. we use our brain along with technological aids so as to enhance the limited biological capabilities (ian foster, ). in our present-day society, electronic communication plays a vital role within the academic community such that anyone ignorant of the use of digital tools would become near invisible in the global academy. this is not a surprise since the seeds of modern digital technologies were planted many centuries ago and develop with the research of renowned scholars in the humanities (albert borgmann, ). researchers in the humanities currently use tools such as such as telephones, cell phones, e-mail, and so on (ananda mitra, ) for interpersonal communication; while electronic bulletin boards, chat rooms, digital conferencing, and small private digital networks tools are used for group communication (albert borgmann, ). these tools have enabled author(s) or researcher(s), editor(s), technician(s), publisher(s), librarian(s), reader(s) and audience(s) to interact without even meeting physically. but there have also been some observation as the limitations that researchers are facing in their engagement. daniel o'donnell's review of global participation of researchers in digital humanities suggests that digital activity may be correlated with the economic situation of a country, such that countries with high income, will most likely witness a high participation in digital activities while countries with average or low income [here africa studies fit] have partial or low participation (o'donnell, ). beyond the link the digital humanities has with economics, there is also the necessary link it has with culture and context, such that digital humanities finds it easier to express data within the worldview of the coder and developer than the worldview of the user and learner where many african scholar belong. inadequacies of tools in digital humanities as scholarship moves from the libraries and the lecture halls to the digital communication networks, in order to deploy digital humanities, which is “an interdisciplinary academic field that is focussed on the development and use of applications that improve the quality of research and teaching in the humanities” (babalola, ). researchers are faced with new challenges, such as, collaborative authoring, multiple versioning, flexible attitudes toward intellectual property, peer contributions, access to multiple and multiplying communities, and overall pattern of distributed knowledge production, review, and use (ibid.). some of the real problems which the use of digital tools have engendered include: immersion in the virtual communities rather than the human communities, deception, misinformation or vulnerability of information, phishing, sudden loss of data, spamming and unwanted digital communication (ibid.), open-source knowledge, lack of bridge between the academic and social life. digital humanities scholars like anne burdick, johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, todd presner, jeffrey schnapp, and others have expressed their fear that “as humans and data machines become equal partners in cultural practice, social experience, and humanistic research, the humanities may no longer look like ‘the humanities’ (anne burdick et al., ). they pointed out the negative contributions tools of digital humanities have had on the tension between those in the humanities who now solely embrace quantitative methods and those who insists on qualitative analysis. this is a tension that has integrated the quantitative wing into the social sciences, while the other wing fights to defend its autonomy and critical stance (ibid.). thus, the digital humanities scholars enjoined us, as the next generation of digital experimenters, to contribute to humanities theory by forging digital tools that quite literally embody humanities-centered views regarding the world. it is not helpful to classify digital humanities as unhelpful or dangerous to african studies, researches show that technology is positively impacting on researchers and students, babalola ( ) noted that in , lawal conducted a survey on the level of computer literacy and the use of the internet for research among the students and staff of computer science and engineering faculties in a nigerian state university. the result revealed that ninety-four percent of the respondents are computer literate (lawal et al. ). beyond the positive side is the limitation of digital humanities to researchers in african studies, because digital humanities does not fully represent the context and meanings that african ideas and worldviews carry when it tries to process and present data. it is the lack of adequacy in dh that this paper points out and attempts to engage. “the most cutting criticisms of digital humanities: that it constitutes a naively positivist refuge from cultural studies, critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and other scholarly methods designed to surface the concerns of marginalized communities” (brier, : ) researches have shown that digital humanities lack ‘for now’ the ‘know how’ of detailed data processing and presentation of data from african studies, “african writers are at times forced to relate their worldviews in western colonial languages which do not often lend themselves easily to expressing african sociocultural reality” (bandia, : ). there are african ideas that cannot so far be completely and properly captured when translated or interpreted data into the language or programmes that the current digital humanities developer have and know. global language and representatives many times shut out african context and particular views and ideas get missing (give examples) for many africans, words [signs representations] are never adequate to fully express salient ideas, and there are issues and ideas that are commonly hidden in words and signs such that, only trained person can understand the hidden ideas. this epistemic framework is contained in sayings such as àbò òrò làá so f’ómolúàbí tí ó bá dénú rè á di odindin (half a word is spoken to the wise, once heard, it becomes complete). this sets the background for the epistemological frameworks of 'ojú lòrówà'. there is so much that is said when eyes meet in communication, that which is not said can also be understood, these unspoken and unpresented ideas represent a percentage of data that so far do not have representations or equivalents in the digital space; this makes it important to develop digital humanities in the context of africans. the existing digital tool cannot adequately process or present african ideas and now is the best time to begin to make changes since digital humanities, is still “a relative newcomer to the media scholar’s toolkit, is notoriously difficult to define” (posner, ) and so gives room for the required addition and adjustments for a clearer processing and presentation of data in african studies. if “most digital humanities practitioners would agree that the digital humanist works at the intersection of technology and the humanities (which is to say, the loose collection of disciplines comprising literature, art history, the study of music, media studies, languages, and philosophy)” (posner, ) there will be the required effort to develop tools that can adequately and correctly process and present african ideas with correct interpretation. raising the issue is not enough, it is important to engage the issue because of the fact that “digital humanities has very real problems with racial diversity and gender representation in its scholarly community” (posner, ). the concern of this paper is to engage the second and the third layers of gh engagements with particular reference to african studies, there seems to be little concern with ‘sourcing’ idea since this happens at all levels of research, from the fieldwork to uploading ideas into machines. it is important to engage these issues as digital humanities does not constitute a new discipline in itself, but rather a new approach to humanities research that cuts across different existing humanities disciplines, but the effect is not yet adequate in african studies because “although many nigerians have acquired skills that are useful in digital humanities, and though the internet and computers are widely used for research purposes across the country, the integration of digital tools into the educational system is very low” (babalola, ). importation and use of computer and digital technologies in africa the use of computer and digital technologies in africa has led to what can be called ‘technological dependence’ – a situation in which almost all the technologies that we boast of in africa has their root in america and europe, and indications that we have no total control. this poses a huge difficulty in the presentation and processing of ideas especially where the context influences the meaning and representation of ideas. the technological globalization agenda has not achieved the desired result of global representation of ideas and views. there is a sort of theoretical framework which enables what most scholars would call ‘the politics of technology’, this basically reflects the knowledge interest of the major game players, the major scholars in the dh. attempts to close the gap there are no doubts that “technology has certainly made leaps and bounds over the past fifty years, yet it is evident that many conversations about africa from external perspectives have remained somewhat stunted” (falola and sanchez : ). the shortfall in digital humanities’ politics of ideas has raised notable african linguists and technologists who now have recognized the need to develop digital humanities technologies that are built on african indigenous knowledge system and ontology. such individuals include tunde adegbola, tunde opeibi, victor odumuyiwa, frank ugiomo, and many others. this shift is not limited to africa as microsoft and google have been working to incorporate indigenous african languages into their software which are used by million of scholars and researchers in africa. this quest leads to emergence of african linguists and information technology experts on the scene of localization of computer technology and the africanization of the cyberspace. while digital humanities extend well beyond language-based research, textual resources and spoken language materials play a central role in most humanities disciplines. in the digital humanities, scholars have begun to see an increase emphasis on anthologies, especially for the purposes of annotation and data integration. adegbola's approach to computer and digital technology satisfy to a great extent the requirement for ordering technology for the good of a society. first, he mastered the principle of technology and gained expertise in programming languages. he then contributed immensely to the development of human language technology (hlt) and this has lead to the localization of computer and digital technological tools in africa. his investigation of african languages from acoustic, information theoretic and linguistic perspective led to the development of theories and frameworks for designers or developers of african based human language technology (hlt). the concerns of these scholars raised the need to create technology within the ontology and epistemology of any indigenous society, and an avoidance of foreign ones that could destroy the local language and culture. this argument is built on the assumption that there is no account in history of people who became great after adopting the culture and language of other people. such society won’t be able to connect their act and activities with their behaviour nor allow technology to respond their culture. for instance, when most african societies first came in contact with mobile phone, it was a communal device. it should be made clear that technology cannot consider the ontology of a society by itself; rather it is the designers that need to be motivated by question asked by the culture. it is in the course of technology transfer that one begins to ask which part of our culture it conforms into. this representation of the reality around us can be done either by creating analogy (between the known and the unknown) or digital (that in which values in the analogical sense is being represented by a number and compared with its equivalence in reality) bridging the gap: ojÚ lÒrÓwÀ, a theory of communication the contribution of africans to digital humanities in order to process and present ideas in african studies is an urgent task considering the low level of scientific and technological attitude within the continent. writers have begun this attempt, through the use of “a characteristic feature of african creative writing [called] code-switching (cs) and code-mixing (cm) as a writing technique. cs and cm have a social, discursive and referential significance in a text” (bandia, : ). these reconstructed ideologies must then be incorporated into computer and digital technologies that characterize this milieu. this is in line with what an african scholar kofi awoonor opines that science and technology must be grafted upon african social and cultural realities, without losing sight of the original humanistic impulse of their communal existence (awoonor, ). this is reflected in cs, “in code-switched discourse, the items in question form part of the same speech act. they are tied together prosodically as well as by semantic and syntactic relations equivalent to those that join passages in a single speech act” (romaine : ). what then is the possibility for the localization of digital humanities technologies on african studies for better processing and presentation. a typical african setup or research field has folklores, proverbs and parables are folkmedia and means of information dissemination in nigerian towns and villages (nwuneli, ; akpan, ; and otasowie, ). folkmedia are intangible artefact of a culture, made up of customs, traditions, stories, songs, religion, performance arts and superstition and these can pose difficulty to tools used in digital humanities. the concept of ‘ojú lòrówà’, as a theory of communication, addresses some of the limitation in the existing digital humanities tools which serves as bedrock for the processing and presentation of research ideas in african studies. ‘ojú lòrówà’ is a yoruba statement which could be literally translated as ‘discussion is in the eye’; that is, ‘communication takes place when we see physically’. the eyes have always been a formidable means of initiating, sustaining and emphasizing details of conversation among the africans and not just among the yoruba. according to nwuneli “in some cultures it is considered sincere and trustworthy when a person looks straight in the face or,...looks [at] you right in the eyes. in other cultures it is rude and impertinent to “catch somebody’s eye” during conversation. in some cultures, people express themselves non-verbally by the mimicry of the face” ( : ). as a communication framework, ‘ojú lòrówà’ has five major components: . coding: in this theory, like every communication, there has to be an operative coding system understood by the parties involved. ojú lòrówà demands eye contact, or even contact through any of the other senses, for there to be communication using known and agreed on code. holding one’s ear while talking with a child or another person, for the yoruba, is a sign of warning. this may pass an entirely different communicative meaning in some other cultural contexts across the world. the reality of digital humanities can at best capture a sense of warning, but it will find it difficult to process how the holding of ears translates to warning. beyond the processing, the limitation of the existing tools become visible in its inability to communicate to the listener or reader why the warning is being issued. the general popular warning sign learnt by road users or public space users will not work here in the context of the african. the same sign can mean different things, the face (ojú) adds the context; if a mother holds her ears while looking at a child in a friend’s house, it simply will mean ‘i am warning you about what we had discussed earlier’, here the facial expression provides the context. but if the same mother does the same thing at home and the mood is happy, the facial express this time also provides the context, they mother may hold the ears and still be smiling, the child understands that the context is milder and may not require to total halt in whatever is being done. there are not digital humanities tools that can fill this expression gap. the fixed tools and too mechanical for many african expressions. . privacy in communication: this theory ensures and protects privacy in communication on the ground that only the child or any other person in the know of the code can decipher what is being communicated. persons outside the code will not understand the code. and this applies to codes that are specially developed by a group of people for particular communication either to exclude others from their communication for the sake of privacy or to password their communication. developed codes serve as gate ways meanings and contents to be processed and presented, but these passwords and learnt and accessed by people who are trained across the globe, which is part of the aims of digital humanity, but africa is replete with information that are coded and limited to specific groups and contexts. this are excluded from the tools of digital humanities either because the data is not made available because of the nature of digital humanities or because the data is for coded group that do not find representation in the present sphere of digital humanities. a good example will the content of different cults in the african contexts. . participation: this theory ensures effective communication by ensuring that the subject and object of communication are totally immersed in the process through participation. for instance, the eye contact leaves out doubt as to whether the message was delivered or received. communication is usually straight to the point; message is usually clear, and brief. every sign is done only when there is an eye/sound/touch contact between the parties engaged in the communication. studies have shown that africans are expressive, and messages are passed swiftly just as they can be changed using same code. this has no equivalent in digital humanities and codes are representative of particular messages. the swiftness and flexibility of messages requires participation. communication is like a game where every player is expected to be focus for success and team play. . concentration: this theory sustains concentration by ensuring that messages are brief and straight to the point, for effective communication there is always the need to concentrate, that is why messages are given only when there is an eye contact, whenever there is no eye contact, a form of a sign (cough, taping of finger, etc.) is given to draw the attention of the person to receive communication, and once attention is gained, attempt is made to sustain the concentration of the other party. data in african studies are continuous in their nature, it is not a once and for all encounter. when information is being passed, relationship is built as well. persons involved in data sourcing are expected to maintain regular contact with the information for relevance. a password only makes information available, but the effectiveness of the information is achieved through proper use of context. for example, the tradition of greeting the king when one is passing by his palace will hold true, but there are certain times that the information will not be. . feedback: this theory ensures feedbacks – which are usually in the form of reaction to communication. what is communicated is either understood or not, once understood; a sign is given to indicate that communication had taken place. if code is not understood, a sign is given to indicate that message is not understood. it is never presumed; an affirmation or denial of message is always given. as the world becomes a global village, and “moves into this increasingly transnational and global age, it is more and more evident that homelands and identities are profound spaces for social, political, cultural, and academic engagement in africa and beyond.” (falola and sanchez : ). this creates the need for an effective theory of communication, that can source for data and beyond that adequately process and present data from african studies. lessons can be learnt from writers such that “when african writers cannot adequately express african sociocultural reality in a european language, they resort to the use of indigenous words and expressions” (bandia, : ). digital humanities experts must also realize that there are ideas that cannot be captured unless the african context and tools are deployed to facilitate communication among functionaries in humanities. in the development of those tools (software), it would be necessary for the developers to put those five components into consideration in the course of their brainstorming. . conclusion digital humanities is still, but the reality of african studies is beyond material representation, there is òrò which represents the material data that has been sourced but beyond the material data there is also, ojú which give the contest and more details to the material substance that has been gathered. this for now is beyond the developed programs and tools of digital humanities. in this article, we have been able to illustrate how digital technological tools can be africanized using ‘ojú lòrówà’ as an indigenous theory suitable for developing digital as well as virtual software for african scholars. we have addressed the cause of those challenges confronting scholars in african studies in their deployment of digital humanities tools. we have also identified beneficial digital tool that could genuinely promote research in african studies, as well as discourage the usage of digital technological tools such antconc, nvivo, e-translators, and likes, on the basis that they distort or imposes a certain framework on literatures in african history, techne, culture, philosophy and tradition. furthermore, we enjoin scholars in african studies to provide contents and frameworks for appropriate digital technological tools for research in africa. effort must be made to develop multimedia documentaries, archives of cultural movies, digital translators for african languages, virtual galleries that would display african sculptures, arts, artifacts and antiques. in this age of technology, there is need for scholars in african studies to extract, from our indigenous practices, theories and framework that would help software developers to create tools appropriate for our knowledge system. on a final note, we advocate for minimum digital literacy for african researchers and scholars in humanities. this will ensure the availability of their works online, through academic social media and community such as academia or research gate, thereby bringing the research efforts made in africa available to the global academic community. “digital humanities work has been criticized as empiricist, secular, and reductive of the creativity of human expression to a mathematical elegance that perhaps no longer carries the evocative mysteries of the original object or experience of it” (hall, ). if the existing digital humanities tools are not improved upon, by including and using african contextual digital representations: meanings will be lost, details will be sacrificed and fundamentally, ideas will be misrepresented. about the authors akinmayowa akin-otiko currently works at the institute of african and diaspora studies, university of lagos. akinmayowa does research in african traditional medicine, religion and culture. their current project is on: i) the use of traditional medicine for primary health care; ii) religion and culture of the yoruba in nigeria. augustine farinola is currently a researcher at the department of english literature, university of birmingham, united kingdom. his research focuses on post phenomenological analysis of digital humanities (dh) technological tools used for scholarly communication and linguistic analysis. references babalola, t. l. 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( ). literary values and the academic mind: a portrait of the humanistic studies. ibadan journal of humanistic studies, no. . the journal of epsilon pi tau, vol. , no. (spring ), pp. - weidong, xia and lee, gwanhoo. (march ) “toward agile: an integrated analysis of quantitative and qualitative field data on software development agility” in : mis quarterly, vol. , no. pp. - published by: management information systems research center, university of minnesota. white paper report report id: application number: hd- - project director: julia flanders (j.flanders@neu.edu) institution: northeastern university reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / final performance report hd- - a journal-driven bibliography of digital humanities project director: julia flanders northeastern university may , overview this project began with a simple premise. digital humanities quarterly is an online, open-access journal whose founding coincided with the founding of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) in , and whose topical scope covers all areas of the field we now know as “digital humanities.” the bibliographies of dhq articles thus reflect the intellectual watershed of this field, and also its formation over the life of the journal itself. under this grant we sought to aggregate these bibliographies into a central bibliographic database, with two goals. first, at a practical level we wanted to simplify the journal’s production workflow and eliminate the duplication of data resulting from storing bibliographic data in the articles themselves. with a centralized database, we could store authoritative bibliographic data in one place and reference it from the articles, taking advantage of the fact that many dhq articles draw on a common pool of material for their citations. second, from a research perspective this data clearly constituted a potential public good and a fascinating data set in its own right. with a centralized database, we would be able to study patterns of co-citation, learn about the evolution of the field, and study the citation practices of different subcommunities. bibliographic data could also potentially serve as a way for readers to find articles of interest, or clusters of related articles. we framed the effort as an -month process, with the project originally scheduled for completion in july . although this workplan was not unrealistic, retrospective analysis reveals its vulnerabilities: above all, because of the small size of the grant, we relied on commitments of donated effort for significant parts of the technical development work, notably the original data capture system and the integration of the new bibliographic data into the dhq interface. as described in more detail below, one of the initial obstacles we faced was a set of problems with the data capture system which could not be addressed because the anticipated expertise was no longer available to us. another more significant vulnerability was the fact that the data capture itself required fairly significant attention to issues of bibliographic genre and hence required a level of training and dedication that was somewhat out of proportion to the overall interestingness of the work, making it difficult to hire and retain students. as a result, there were periods of inactivity and delay while we searched for new research assistants. the third and most significant disruption could not have been predicted: in july , the principal investigator changed jobs and moved from brown university to northeastern university, and dhq moved its editorial operations to northeastern at the same time. during the period of transition, work on this project was more or less suspended, and was not resumed until we hired a new research assistant in january who was able to bring the data capture and error correction to completion in december after three no-cost extensions. this prolonged and constantly changing work process could look from some perspectives like a narrative of failure, and certainly there have been important lessons learned. however, this project also illustrates an important principle that informs the design of the dh startup grant program, namely the fact that some kinds of work are especially unpredictable. small-scale projects are more vulnerable to disruption because they tend to have fewer resources to fall back on, and because they are operating on small enough quantities of effort that even a small reduction makes a significant difference. because small-scale projects in academic settings often rely on student labor, they have the additional vulnerability that comes from unpredictable turnover. the ultimate successful outcome of this project owes a great deal to the flexibility afforded us by neh, for which we are extremely grateful. project activities main activities data capture the initial capture of bibliographic data for this project was undertaken using a web- based bibliographic data capture and management system developed at the brown university center for digital scholarship for use in its digital humanities projects. the system offered a form-based data entry interface, with the data being saved as mods. configuration files permitted different projects to define different bibliographic genres and the required and permitted fields associated with each one, allowing a high degree of control which we felt was desirable for dhq’s purposes. using this system, we established a set of bibliographic genres representing the requirements of dhq’s existing citations, and hired a group of undergraduate students to undertake the data capture. our original goal as defined in the grant proposal was to capture bibliographic items not only from dhq’s own article bibliographies, but also items from the other major digital humanities journals (including computers and the humanities and literary and linguistic computing), and we made significant progress on those two journals. however, changes to personnel and local support at brown university interrupted that work process and we did not complete the capture of chum and llc data. we encountered two chief obstacles at this stage. first, the data capture system was engineered in a way that caused its performance to suffer dramatically under large quantities of data, and second, changes in personnel at brown university reduced the levels of technical support available to us, so we were not able to address the problems with the data capture system, or add the features for de-duplication and error checking that we had anticipated. however, under this system we were able to capture a significant number of records (approximately in all). after the move to northeastern, we hired a graduate research assistant to complete the data capture, and we also faced the fact that we needed to adopt a different data capture tool and process. although the web data entry interface of the brown tool had significant advantages of ease of use, our new graduate assistant had greater familiarity with xml and we anticipated that once the data capture was complete our general dhq workflow would rely on dhq’s managing editors (also comfortable with xml), so a form-based system would not be necessary. in addition, the remaining data capture was focused on the bibliographies of existing dhq articles which were already expressed as lightly encoded xml, so we could benefit from using xml tools to convert them into our target format. at this stage we developed a schema (described in more detail below) that reflected the genres of bibliographic record we had already established (including their requirements for the presence and order of fields) and set up a work flow to convert these bibliographies. the first step in the process involved an xslt stylesheet that converted the existing tei elements into the corresponding bibliographic elements of our schema, wrapped in a generic <biblioitem> element. the second step involved hand editing these records to change the wrapper element to a more specific one reflecting the genre of the item (e.g. <book>, <booksection>, <journalarticle>, etc.) and to add further detailed markup of the individual components of the entry that were not available in the original dhq encoding. (because that encoding was driven by display needs rather than by goals of bibliographic completeness, only titles and urls were typically explicit in that markup.) following the completion of the data capture, there was some further work involved in cleaning up the data: • some de-duplication was necessary, since the initial data capture had been done in a system that did not make it easy to check for the existence of a given record before entering it. • we had to ensure that record ids were unique. ids for bibliographic items in the system were based on author and date rather than on randomly assigned identifiers, to make it easier to spot errors of citation in the encoding of dhq articles, but the author-date system requires disambiguation for common surnames and for authors who publish multiple items in a single year. as part of the cleanup process we also had to consider and document our policies concerning the level of bibliographic management we were prepared to exercise. for example, in cases where different dhq articles cited different versions of the same published item (for instance, hardcover and the paperback editions, published in different years), we decided to treat these as separate items rather than develop a mechanism for coordinating them; at a later stage we may institute a formal mechanism for representing these connections in the data to improve analysis. similarly, we do not track connections between versions of published items (such as a blog post that is republished in a journal and then anthologized in a book). we also determined that some kinds of cited items did not belong in the centralized bibliography at all, the primary example being items that had only local relevance within the context of a specific dhq article, such as personal communications (“private email to the author, may ” and the like). these items would remain in the separate dhq articles and would not be aggregated centrally. bibliographic identifiers in dhq articles once the bulk of the data capture was complete, the next step was to establish the linkage between dhq articles and the bibliographic items they cite. all published dhq articles include full bibliographies, and in our earlier practice any citations in the text pointed to entries in those bibliographies, as in the following example: inline reference in the body of the article: <ptr target="#mcgann " loc=" – "/> bibliography entry: <bibl xml:id="mcgann " label="mcgann "><author>mcgann, j. j.</author> <title rend="italic">radiant textuality: literature after the world wide web. new york: palgrave, . the @target attribute of the element is a local url that points to the @xml:id attribute of the element, establishing a link between them. when the article is published, an xslt stylesheet finds each element, follows the link and takes the value of the @label attribute to be used in the display as a link to the appropriate bibliography entry. the entry itself is transformed by the stylesheet as well to display according to the journal’s standard format: mcgann . mcgann, j. j. radiant textuality: literature after the world wide web. new york: palgrave, . in establishing the new system, we needed to consider both the desired endpoint of the process (a working publication in which all bibliographic data would be centralized) and also the intermediate steps, which included the need to verify the accuracy of links to the centralized bibliography, and also the need to provide a fallback in case of broken or missing data. we did not want to throw away the bibliographic data we already had in place until the very end of the process (if then). the process we followed was: . create a second attribute for that would carry a pointer to the centralized bibliography, and populate it with provisional values, using the existing values of @xml:id. since these values were based on the author and date of the item, we reasoned that those would often correctly identify the intended item in the centralized bibliography. we created a new @key attribute and globally propagated the existing value of @xml:id to @key. the existing internal pointers that link the inline references to the article’s bibliography are left in place unchanged. . check for non-existent records (that is, cases where the @key value does not match any existing record in the centralized bibliography) and for incorrect links (that is, cases where the value of @key points to the wrong entry in the centralized bibliography). for this purpose we created an xslt stylesheet that took each article’s bibliography, and for each item used its @key value to identify and pull in the matching record (if any) from the centralized bibliography. the stylesheet displayed this information in tabular form with the original entry and the matching entry side by side for comparison. it also performed a comparison of the title fields in the two entries to determine whether they were likely to represent the same bibliographic item, and it looked as well for other entries with similar titles which might be alternative matches (or possible duplicate records). finally, it generated a color-coded border identifying probable errors: red for cases where no matching entry was found, yellow for cases where the title match was questionable, and green for entries that matched both the @key and the title similarity test. using this display, we reviewed all of the published dhq articles, added missing entries, fixed errors, and resolved ambiguities. for purely local references (the “private email to author” case given above), we added a @key=”[unlisted]” on the to signal that no link to the centralized bibliography was needed. . provide authors with a similar side-by-side view of the bibliography for their article, so that they have an opportunity to verify the accuracy of the data. this precaution serves as a fallback in case of oversight during what were necessarily quite repetitive and large-scale tasks (and hence prone to occasional slips). this process was not completed under the grant, but is now being undertaken by dhq in summer . . update the dhq display stylesheets so that instead of using the local bibliography for each article, they draw data from the centralized bibliography. as part of this process, we also had to develop new display logic to use the fully encoded data from the centralized database (which does not include literal punctuation such as periods, commas, quotation marks, etc. to delimit the individual fields). these updates have been completed and are awaiting the completion of the author check before we switch over to using the centralized data. we anticipate that we will be using the new system starting in fall . . discard the original bibliographic data? in theory, once we have been using the centralized bibliography for long enough to be comfortable that it is complete and accurate, we will have no further need for the locally encoded bibliographic data. because the entire system is maintained under version control, we can delete this information without truly losing it, in case we need to check it or retrieve it at some future point. the final encoding looks like this: inline reference in the body of the article: local bibliography entry in the article: mcgann, j. j. radiant textuality: literature after the world wide web. new york: palgrave, . remote entry in the centralized bibliography: jerome mcgann radiant textuality: literature after the world wide web new york palgrave macmillan note that the internal linking between and , and the generation of a display label, is left untouched and is purely local to the article; the disambiguation of entries required in the centralized resource (e.g. “mcgann a”, “mcgann b”, etc.) is not necessary or visible within the article itself unless the article itself references more than one item for mcgann. this separation of local and external ecologies had the added benefit of avoiding the necessity of updating the @target and @xml:id values, which would have added significant work and opportunities for error. design of publication system the bibliographic data resource developed under this grant represents a new level of complexity for the dhq publication, since it exists as a separate data set referenced from the dhq articles, and the publication process needs to follow the bibliographic pointers from the articles to retrieve the relevant bibliographic records and incorporate them appropriately into the article’s display. additionally, the existence of the bibliography as a distinct resource opens up possibilities for analysis of this resource in its own right. both of these things can be accomplished using our existing architecture: xslt stylesheets for the transformation of data from tei into html, and the apache cocoon pipelining system to provide the overall user interaction logic, navigation, and site organization. however, the more natural tool to use as dhq gains in complexity is an xml database through which the data could be indexed, searched, and processed more efficiently. we are currently exploring the use of exist (an open-source xml database) as a next step for this project, but this carries some overhead of development and maintenance that lies outside the immediate scope of this project. visualization experiments the final component of this project was the analysis and visualization of the bibliographic data, which was done in partnership with two groups at indiana university. our original plan included a collaboration katy börner’s research team at the center for network science, and at intervals during the project we provided preliminary data sets for experimentation. based on early discussions with the visualization team we developed a specification for exporting the combined dhq article and bibliographic data in a spreadsheet format that supported the types of analysis we were most interested in: comparisons of dhq articles based on co-citation, with dhq article metadata (chiefly author affiliations and abstract) as additional facets of analysis. later in the process, once the data capture and cleanup were close to complete, we provided a fuller data set to scott weingart (a member of börner’s research group) who performed some initial analysis. following the conclusion of the grant, we will continue to work with weingart to take the analysis further. because of the challenges encountered earlier in the project, we did not get as far with the visualization work as we had initially hoped, but we did accomplish all of the parts that required active funding support; the foundation we have established under this grant will enable us to proceed with dhq’s own resources. fortuitously, we were also able to undertake a second collaboration on visualization of bibliographic data which though not formally part of this grant project is very closely tied to it. immediately following the conclusion of the grant, in the spring semester , dhq participated as a client project in the information visualization mooc offered at indiana university, making our data available to a team of student researchers as the basis for a research project in visualization. the students developed a set of visualizations and a detailed analysis of citation patterns, and provided an extensive final report. members of the dhq editorial team will be collaborating with the student team to produce a co-authored article based on this report, to be published in dhq later this year, together with the resulting visualizations. samples are included in the appendix to this report. reasons for changes and omissions as noted in the introduction to this report, this project deviated significantly from its original work plan. there were some modifications to the timing and duration of activities that resulted from institutional changes over which dhq had no control: changes to staffing and level of technical support at brown university, and the move of dhq’s editorial operations to northeastern as a result of julia flanders’ institutional move. there were also some modifications to the overall scope of the project. in our original work plan we had planned to work with arts-humanities.net (which at that time was managing a bibliographic tool as well) on shared management of bibliographic records, but arts-humanities.net ceased operations shortly after the start of this project and that collaboration was not possible. at a future time it may prove possible to host a contributory interface for dh bibliography, perhaps hosted through the alliance of digital humanities organizations, but that would need to be a community decision supported by community funding. in our original proposal we had also planned to include complete coverage of materials published in other dh journals (including vectors, llc, digital studies/le champ numérique, and text technology) but the process of data capture proved more labor-intensive than we had expected and the data capture system itself did not mature technologically as we had planned (lacking anticipated support from brown), so that processes like de-duplication were not as efficiently accommodated. at a future time we hope to have opportunities to ingest and integrate these other bibliographies, particularly if there turns out to be community support for a comprehensive bibliography of dh. changes in methods involving technology as noted in an earlier report, our original data capture system proved to have significant weaknesses. it was good at profiling data in an appropriately detailed manner, but it proved too slow for efficient use. as part of this grant, we did an extensive data profiling exercise and developed a schema that matches the mods profile used internally within the original data capture system, but provides better constraint based on specific bibliographic genres. mods was appropriate within a web-based data capture environment, since all of the relevant constraint in that case was provided by the web form itself. however, in our new capture environment (using the oxygen xml editor and relying on the schema to provide constraints), we needed a schema that would, for instance, stipulate that “book” items required a publisher field, whereas “blog post” items would not. the mods schema is too permissive to provide such constraints, and it also provides very little precision in the semantics of specific elements. (for instance, a journal title is represented using a element within a element.) the data capture schema we developed provides a much simpler and more direct set of constraints for specific bibliographic genres such as books, book chapters, journal articles, conference papers, art works, blog posts, web pages, white papers, and other common forms of publication. for each genre, we identified the bibliographic elements that would be required and permitted, enabling us to establish consistency and test for missing required components. it is worth noting that this schema is intended for internal purposes, and is not intended as a quixotic attempt to create yet another perfect bibliographic data format. our goals in modeling this data are: • to provide the constraint necessary to ensure consistency of data • to provide enough semantic explicitness to permit mapping the data onto other bibliographic formats (such as tei, mods, etc.) • to provide enough granularity to support the necessary display logic so that individual entries could be punctuated and formatted appropriately within the context of the dhq publication interface in other words, we do not expect other projects to use this schema, but we do expect that we will be able to map bibliographic data in other formats onto this one when we want to ingest data from other sources, and we also expect to be able to export data from this format into other formats as needed. for the new data capture, we are using the oxygen xml editor. we set up a “project” in oxygen that permits validation, uniqueness checking, and xslt transformations across the entire data set (which is broken up into multiple files to reduce lag). as new items are added, the system automatically runs a comparison across the data set to check for items with similar authors and titles (so as to flag potential duplicates). it also checks the uniqueness of the author-title identifier that serves as the unique key for individual entries within the system. finally, using xslt and css we can provide a basic visual display of the data when needed, e.g. for proofreading. efforts to publicize we have publicized our goals and progress for this project at several points. an export of our journal and bibliographic data was shared with the information visualization mooc held at indiana university in - , and served as a client project for a student working group in that course. an article reporting on their analysis will be published in dhq later in . regular reports on progress have been included in dhq’s annual reports to the alliance of digital humanities organizations. a presentation on the project was made at the dh conference in sydney, australia in july . once we complete the final integration of the bibliographic data into dhq’s publication interface, we will announce the completion of the project and its outcomes in a posting to the humanist listserv, as well as via dhq’s regular dissemination mechanisms (including twitter and the dhq web site). accomplishments the accomplishments resulting from this project are as follows: . we digitized over bibliographic items covering all items referenced by dhq articles, plus incomplete but substantial coverage of bibliographies from articles published in computers and the humanities and literary and linguistic computing. our original goal was to capture all bibliographies from chum and llc, plus conference proceedings from the dh conferences, but we were unable to get this data in a form we could easily convert and import, and it was not practical to capture it or convert it by hand. . we developed a schema for dhq’s bibliographic data, which is fine-grained enough to support export into other bibliographic formats (such as mods or tei). . we developed a set of additional tests and quality assurance mechanisms using schematron and xslt that support de-duplication and data integrity checking as part of dhq’s regular publication work flow. . we developed display stylesheets to support the integration of centralized bibliographic data into the dhq publication interface. . in partnership with researchers at indiana university (both within the center for network science and through the information visualization mooc), we developed visualizations that exploit the dhq article metadata and bibliographic data. following the completion of the grant, we plan the following additional work: . continue to expand the centralized bibliography as new dhq articles are published; resources permitting, expand the bibliography by ingesting or capturing additional records (e.g. from the dh conference abstracts database, or from other journals). . develop further visualizations as we expand our metadata. for instance, we are now working on adding topical keywords to dhq articles, and these would support visualizations showing the citation patterns of articles on specific topics. . integrate a dynamic bibliographic visualization into the dhq web site. this will require that we serve the bibliographic data dynamically from an xml database, so that users can interact with it. . make the bibliographic data available for public download so that others can experiment with it; eventually, we plan to develop an api to the bibliographic data to facilitate experimentation. . develop an interface to the bibliography itself, so that readers can search, sort, and view items and learn more about citation and publication practices in digital humanities. as the field continues to develop, this bibliography will become an important instrument for studying the history of the field through its publications. . implement authority control for the major informational components of these records (such as author names, publishers, and locations) to enhance consistency and ease data entry. audiences one primary audience for this work is dhq’s existing readership, who will receive the bibliographic data seamlessly integrated into the dhq interface. these readers will benefit from greater consistency in formatting and presentation of the data, and also from greater accuracy in the citations (since authors often omit or misstate specific pieces of bibliographic information and these errors are not always caught prior to publication). another related audience is the members of the dh community who are interested in learning about the dh field through its patterns of citation and publication practices. this audience will be able to get a more detailed view of the field through the ability to query and analyze the bibliography. as the bibliography continues to grow, this audience will have an increasingly rich resource to work with. providing the data for download and via an api will serve the smaller sector of this audience who are interested in doing their own data analysis. finally, an important “audience” for this work is dhq’s own internal community, especially including our production team. one primary motivation for this project was to eliminate duplication of data and to implement a more streamlined, data-driven approach to the bibliographic aspects of our publication. while this new system will not hugely reduce the overall work involved, it will shift the emphasis of that work from tasks that are annoying and demoralizing (i.e. copyediting of bibliographic minutiae) to tasks that contribute to the growth of knowledge in the field (i.e. enhancing the bibliographic data itself). evaluation as the introductory section of this report illustrates, the design and planning of this project contained several significant weaknesses, most notably an over-reliance on a tool for which we could not take technical responsibility. it also suffered from a lack of strong project management as a result of the fact that the principal investigator was overseeing several other grant-funded initiatives and other projects. these are both classic difficulties for digital humanities projects, but knowing about these risks in advance would not necessarily have enabled us to avoid them; the reason we chose to use brown’s bibliographic tool was its ease of use, proximity, and fitness for purpose; alternatives we considered all would have been either more expensive (i.e. out of scope for the project) or much less well adapted for the work. and at the time that we submitted the application, the other grants that competed for the principal investigator’s attention had not been awarded. on balance, we made the best decisions we could at the time. one of the project’s most significant strengths has been its ability to draw on deep expertise from the dhq editorial team, which in turn derives partly from the fact that the focus of the project was on intelligent data modeling rather than on simple data capture. all of the editors approached the project as being in part an investigation of dhq’s citation universe, an unknown terrain to us and one in which we have an intense interest. the opportunity to inventory and model the range of cited materials— including everything from journal articles and book chapters to white papers, official reports, legal cases, private communications, tweets, blog posts, works of electronic literature, computer code, games, conference abstracts, works of fiction, manuscripts, newspaper articles, and dictionary entries—provided remarkable insight into the emergence of dh as a field and also into our own thinking about the mechanisms and purposes of scholarly citation. the editors also have a shared interest in data manipulation and data-driven work flows, so the practical challenges of the project (such as mechanisms for intelligent de-duplication) were framed as opportunities for the exercise of ingenuity. these motivations and interests continue to sustain this project after the conclusion of the grant funding. we also anticipate that the strong modeling of this data will make it more useful to third-party researchers. grant products, continuing work, and impact the most significant product arising from this grant is the bibliography itself, which is integrated into the dhq interface but whose data can also be downloaded from the dhq site. a secondary product is the set of supporting tools and systems (schemas, xslt stylesheets, work flow) that enable dhq to maintain and further develop this bibliography and its functions within the dhq ecosystem. another secondary product is the visualizations (and the analytic logic underlying them) that reveal patterns within the dhq citations. this project has a strong future trajectory for dhq. one outcome of this project is a working system for bibliographic management in dhq, and dhq will now continue to use this system as part of our regular production work flow; hence we will naturally continue to expand the bibliography and groom it for quality. in addition, because dhq is strongly committed to exploiting the journal’s xml data and demonstrating the value of this data-driven approach to journal publishing, we will be seeking opportunities for further enhancements to both the data and the systems by which we expose it. as noted above, we plan a number of ongoing activities to bring this phase of development to completion. in addition, there are some longer-term projects that may arise from this work. in particular, we plan to solicit proposals for ways to exploit and analyze dhq’s data (including bibliographic data), possibly through microgrants in partnership with adho, and also through curricular opportunities such as the ivmooc program mentioned above. the long-term impact of this project on dhq itself is likely to be very significant. as noted above, our previous system of bibliographic information was labor-intensive (since it required our encoding staff to copyedit and correct not only the content of each citation, but also its punctuation and formatting which frequently diverged from dhq’s requested format) and duplicative (since many dhq articles cite the same sources). centralizing the bibliography not only does away with the most onerous parts of this work but also eliminates the duplication of information and the informational embarrassment of having the same work cited in different ways (since even conscientious authors may make different decisions concerning the inclusion of specific information, particularly in the case of less familiar genres such as white papers or conference proceedings). the satisfaction of maintaining a growing bibliography makes the labor of adding new entries much more tolerable. in addition, this data constitutes an important information resource that has great potential to enhance the dhq interface. for example, we can enable readers of a given article to choose an item from its bibliography and discover all other dhq articles that also cite the item, or to discover affinities between groups of dhq articles based on their citation networks. moreover, when we are able to expose this data to the public via an api, third party researchers may find additional ways to exploit the data (perhaps combining it or comparing it with other discipline-specific bibliographies). through its impact on the dhq interface and its potential to provide a valuable data resource to the public, this project raises dhq’s visibility in the digital humanities community and in related fields such as network science. finally and perhaps most importantly, this project accomplished a task which can only be accomplished with funded labor, but which (once completed) lays the foundation for additional work that is interesting and lightweight enough to be done by volunteers or with small-scale funding such as microgrants. it thus served as a kind of gateway or enabling step which provides impetus for a much larger set of long-term effects appendices the appendices include the following items: . an xml code sample showing representative bibliographic entries encoded using the dhq bibliographic markup. . a sample dhq article encoded for publication, with a full bibliography showing the use of @key to point to the central bibliography (including handling of unlisted entries). . a screen shot of the side-by-side comparison view used to identify mismatched bibliographic entries during the deduplication and error correction phase of the project. . internal documentation for the extraction and encoding of bibliographies from dhq articles. . a final report by members of the ivmooc working group describing their analysis of the dhq bibliographic data. . the text and slides for a paper on dhq (mentioning but not focused primarily on the bibliographic project) presented at dh in australia: “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal: digital humanities quarterly,” julia flanders, john walsh, wendell piez, melissa terras. the text of this paper has been revised based on commentary and discussion in the conference session. appendix : xml code sample this appendix contains an xml code sample showing representative bibliographic entries encoded using the dhq bibliographic markup. the first set represent genres in common usage. the second set represent genres for which we are still considering the requirements and definitions. kate armstrong grafik dynamo http://www.turbulence.org/works/dynamo/ humanities blast digital humanities manifesto . http://www.humanitiesblast.com/manifesto/manifesto_v .pdf grant morrison j.g. jones marvel boy # marvel boy marvel comics november sharon macdonald introduction sharon macdonald poetics of display london routledge catherine c. marshall toward an ecology of hypertext annotation hypertext acm moira macdonald data storage policy can't be enforced university affairs june http://www.universityaffairs.ca/data-storage-policy-cant-be-enforced.aspx v. martiradonna la codifica elettonica dei testi. un caso di studio tesi di laurea in lettere, facoltà di scienze umanistiche, università di roma la sapienza - relatore: d. fiormonte. nick montfort ad verbum http://www.wurb.com/if/game/ jimmy maher review of rune berg’s the isle of the cult http://www.sparkynet.com/spag/i.html#isle the castle of perseverance map the castle of perserverance ms. folger shakespeare library, washington. shelfmark v.a. . v. image id - . baker v. selden u.s. u.s. constitution, article , section institute for advanced technologies in the humanities (iath) neh proposal snac: the social networks and archival context project. http://socialarchive.iath.virginia.edu/neh_proposal_narrative.pdf accessed april , melissa terras he researching e-science analysis of census holdings project: final report to ahrc www.ucl.ac.uk/reach/ ahrc e-science workshop scheme appendix : sample dhq article this appendix contains a sample dhq article encoded for publication, with a full bibliography showing the use of @key to point to the central bibliography (including handling of unlisted entries using @key=”[unlisted]”). the technical evolution of vannevar bush’s memex belinda barnet belinda barnet swinburne university of technology, melbourne belinda.barnet at gmail.com belinda barnet is lecturer in media and communications at swinburne university, melbourne. prior to her appointment at swinburne she worked at ericsson australia, where she managed the development of g mobile content services and developed an obsession with technical evolution. belinda did her phd on the history of hypertext at the university of new south wales, and has research interests in digital media, digital art, convergent journalism and the mobile internet. she has published widely on new media theory and culture. article june authored for dhq; migrated from original dhqauthor format dhq classification scheme; full list available in the dhq keyword taxonomy keywords supplied by author; no controlled vocabulary added final metadata, bio and abstract, publication statement, proofreading corrections. restored # to targets where it was missing, for consistency. encoded document added date, id, issue, vol attributes to root element, revised encoding of the change element dated - - , removed "#" from target attribute of ref element, encoded external links as xref in the listbibl, removed top xsl declaration updated revisiondesc format, added details to publicationstmt, changed xref to ref for validation with new schema, added some missing "#" to target attribute and removed "##". changed email address, made authorial changes. this article describes the evolution of the design of vannevar bush's memex, tracing its roots in bush's earlier work with analog computing machines, and his understanding of the technique of associative memory. it argues that memex was the product of a particular engineering culture, and that the machines that preceded memex — the differential analyzer and the selector in particular — helped engender this culture, and the discourse of analogue computing itself. can we say that technical machines have their own genealogies, their own evolutionary dynamic? introduction: technical evolution the key difference [between material cultural evolution and biological evolution] is that biological systems predominantly have vertical transmission of genetically ensconced information, meaning parents to offspring… not so in material cultural systems, where horizontal transfer is rife — and arguably the more important dynamic . paleontologist dr. niles eldredge, interview with the author since the early days of darwinism, analogies have been drawn between biological evolution and the evolution of technical objects and systems. it is obvious that technologies change over time; we can see this in the fact that technologies come in generations; they adapt and adopt characteristics over time, one suppressing the other as it becomes obsolete . the technical artefact constitutes a series of objects, a lineage or a line. from the middle of the nineteenth century on, writers have been remarking on this basic analogy – and on the alarming rate at which technological change is accelerating. but as eldredge points out, the analogy can only go so far; technological systems are not like biological systems in a number of important ways, most obviously the fact that they are the products of conscious design. unlike biological organisms, technical objects are invented. inventors learn by experience and experiment, and they learn by watching other machines work in the form of technical prototypes. they also copy and transfer ideas and techniques between machines, co-opting innovations at a whim. technological innovation thus has lamarckian features, which are forbidden in biology . inventors can borrow ideas from contemporary technologies, or even from the past. there is no extinction in technological evolution: ideas, designs and innovations can be co-opted and transferred both retroactively and laterally. this retroactive and lateral transfer of innovations is what distinguishes technical evolution from biological evolution, which is characterised by vertical transfer (parents to offspring). as the american paleontologist niles eldredge observed in an interview with the author, makers copy each other, patents affording only fleeting protection. thus, instead of the neatly bifurcating trees [you see in biological evolution], you find what is best described as "networks"-consisting of an historical signal of what came before what, obscured often to the point of undetectability by this lateral transfer of subsequent ideas . niles eldredge, interview with the author can we say that technical machines have their own genealogies, their own evolutionary dynamic? it is my contention that we can, and i have argued elsewhere that in order to tell the story of a machine, one must trace the path of these transferrals, paying particular attention to technical prototypes and to also to techniques, or ways of doing things. a good working prototype can send shockwaves throughout an engineering community, and often inspires a host of new machines in quick succession. similarly, an effective technique (for example, storing and retrieving information associatively) can spread between innovations rapidly. in this article i will be telling the story of particular technical machine – vannevar bush’s memex. memex was an electro-mechanical device designed in the ’s to provide easy access to information stored associatively on microfilm. it is often hailed as the precursor to hypertext and the web. linda c. smith undertook a comprehensive citation context analysis of literary and scientific articles produced after the publication of bush's article on the device, as we may think in the atlantic monthly. she found that there is a conviction, without dissent, that modern hypertext is traceable to this article . in each decade since the memex design was published, commentators have not only lauded it as vision, but also asserted that technology [has] finally caught up with this vision . for all the excitement, it is important to remember that memex was never actually built; it exists entirely on paper. because the design was first published in the summer of , at the end of a war effort and with the birth of computers, theorists have often associated it with the post-war information boom. in fact, bush had been writing about it since the early s, and the memex paper went through several different versions. the social and cultural influence of bush’s inventions are well known, and his political role in the development of the atomic bomb are also well known. what is not so well known is the way the memex came about as a result of both bush’s earlier work with analog computing machines, and his understanding of the mechanism or technique of associative memory. i would like to show that memex was the product of a particular engineering culture, and that the machines that preceded memex — the differential analyzer and the selector in particular — helped engender this culture, and the discourse of analogue computing, in the first place. the artefacts of engineering, particularly in the context of a school such as mit, are themselves productive of new techniques and new engineering paradigms. prototype technologies create cultures of use around themselves; they create new techniques and new methods that were unthinkable prior to the technology. this was especially so for the analyzer. in the context of the early th-century engineering school, the analyzers were not only tools but paradigms, and they taught mathematics and method and modeled the character of engineering. bush transferred technologies directly from the analyzer and also the selector into the design of memex. i will trace this transfer in the first section. he also transferred an electro-mechanical model of human associative memory from the nascent science of cybernetics, which he was exposed to at mit, into memex. we will explore this in the second section. in both cases, we will be paying particular attention to the structure and architecture of the technologies concerned. the idea that technical artefacts evolve in this way, by the transfer of both technical innovations (for example, microfilm) and techniques (for example, association as a storage technique), was popularised by french technology historian bertrand gille. i will be mobilising gille’s theories here as i trace the evolution of the memex design. we will begin with bush’s first analogue computer, the differential analyzer. the analyzer and the selector the differential analyzer was a giant, electromechanical gear and shaft machine which was put to work during the war calculating artillery ranging tables and the profiles of radar antennas. in the late s and early s, it was the most important computer in existence in the us . before this time, the word computer had meant a large group of mostly female humans performing equations by hand or on limited mechanical calculators. the analyzer evaluated and solved these equations by mechanical integration. it created a small revolution at mit. many of the people who worked on the machine (e.g. harold hazen, gordon brown, claude shannon) later made contributions to feedback control, information theory, and computing . the machine was a huge success which brought prestige and a flood of federal money to mit and bush. however, by the spring of , the analyzer was gathering dust in a storeroom — the project had died. why did it fail? why did the world’s most important analogue computer end up in a back room within five years? this story will itself be related to why memex was never built; research into analogue computing technology in the interwar years, the analyzer in particular, contributed to the rise of digital computing. it demonstrated that machines could automate the calculus, that machines could automate human cognitive techniques. the decade between the great war and the depression was a bull market for engineering . enrolment in the mit electrical engineering department almost doubled in this period, and the decade witnessed the rapid expansion of graduate programs. the interwar years found corporate and philanthropic donors more willing to fund research and development within engineering departments, and there were serious problems to be worked on generated by communications failures during the great war. in particular, engineers were trying to predict the operating characteristics of power-transmission lines, long-distance telephone lines, commercial radio and other communications technologies (beniger calls this the early period of the control revolution ). mit’s engineering department undertook a major assault on the mathematical study of long-distance lines. of particular interest to the engineers was the carson equation for transmission lines. this was a simple equation, but it required intensive mathematical integration to solve. early in bush suggested to his graduate student herbert stewart that he devise a machine to facilitate the recording of the areas needed for the carson equation … [and a colleague] suggested that stewart interpret the equation electrically rather than mechanically. so the equation was transferred to an electro-mechanical device: the product intergraph. many of the early analogue computers that followed bush’s machines were designed to automate existing mathematical equations. this particular machine physically mirrored the equation itself. it incorporated the use of a mechanical integrator to record the areas under the curves (and thus the integrals), which was … in essence a variable-speed gear, and took the form of a rotating horizontal disk on which a small knife-edged wheel rested. the wheel was driven by friction, and the gear ratio was altered by varying the distance of the wheel from the axis of rotation of the disk. a second version of this machine incorporated two wheel-and-disc integrators, and it was a great success. bush observed the success of the machine, and particularly the later incorporation of the two wheel-and-disc integrators, and decided to make a larger one, with more integrators and a more general application than the carson equation. by the fall of , bush had secured funds from mit to build a new machine. he called it the differential analyzer, after an earlier device proposed by lord kelvin which might externalise the calculus and mechanically integrate its solution . as bertrand gille observes, a large part of technical invention occurs by transfer, whereby the functioning of a structure is analogically transposed onto another structure, or the same structure is generalised outwards . this is what happened with the analyzer — bush saw the outline of such a machine in the product integraph. the differential analyzer was rapidly assembled in , and part of the reason it was so quickly done was that it incorporated a number of existing engineering developments, particularly a device called a torque amplifier, designed by niemann . but the disk integrator, a technology borrowed from the product intergraph, was the heart of the analyzer and the means by which it performed its calculations. when combined with the torque amplifier, the analyzer was essentially an elegant, dynamical, mechanical model of the differential equation . although lord kelvin had suggested such a machine previously, bush was the first to build it on such a large scale, and it happened at a time when there was a general and urgent need for such precision. it created a small revolution at mit. in engineering science, there is an emphasis on working prototypes or deliverables. as professor of computer science andries van dam put it in an interview with the author, when engineers talk about work, they mean work in the sense of machines, software, algorithms, things that are concrete . this emphasis on concrete work was the same in bush’s time. bush had delivered something which had been previously only been dreamed about; this meant that others could come to the laboratory and learn by observing the machine, by watching it integrate, by imagining other applications. a working prototype is different to a dream or white paper — it actually creates its own milieu, it teaches those who use it about the possibilities it contains and its material technical limits. bush himself recognised this, and believed that those who used the machine acquired what he called a mechanical calculus, an internalised knowledge of the machine. when the army wanted to build their own machine at the aberdeen proving ground, he sent them a mechanic who had helped construct the analyzer. the army wanted to pay the man machinist’s wages; bush insisted he be hired as a consultant . i never consciously taught this man any part of the subject of differential equations; but in building that machine, managing it, he learned what differential equations were himself … [it] was interesting to discuss the subject with him because he had learned the calculus in mechanical terms — a strange approach, and yet he understood it. that is, he did not understand it in any formal sense, he understood the fundamentals; he had it under his skin. bush , cited in owens , watching the analyzer work did more than just teach people about the calculus. it also taught people about what might be possible for mechanical calculation — for analogue computers. several laboratories asked for plans, and duplicates were set up at the us army’s ballistic research laboratory, in maryland, and at the moore school of electrical engineering at the university of pennsylvania . the machine assembled at the moore school was much larger than the mit machine, and the engineers had the advantage of being able to learn from the mistakes and limits of the mit machine . bush also created several more analyzers, and in the rockefeller foundation awarded mit $ , to build the rockefeller differential analyzer . this provided more opportunities for graduate research, and brought prestige and a flood of funding to mit. but what is interesting about the rockefeller differential analyzer is what remained the same. electrically or not, automatically or not, the newest edition of bush’s analyzer still interpreted mathematics in terms of mechanical rotations, still depended on expertly machined wheel-and-disc integrators, and still drew its answers as curves. its technical processes remained the same. it was an analogue device, and it literally turned around a central analogy: the rotation of the wheel shall be the area under the graph (and thus the integrals). the analyzer directly mirrored the task at hand; there was a mathematical transparency to it which at once held observers captive and promoted, in its very workings, the language of early th-century engineering . there were visitors to the lab, and military and corporate representatives that would watch the machine turn its motions. it seemed the adumbration of future technology. harold hazen, the head of the electrical engineering department in predicted the analyzer would mark the start of a new era in mechanized calculus hazen , cited in owens , . analogue technology held much promise, especially for military computation — and the analyzer had created a new era. the entire direction and culture of the mit lab changed around this machine to woo sponsors . in the late s the department became the center of analysis for calculating machines. many of the analyzers built in the s were built using military funds. the creation of the first analyzer, and bush’s promotion of it as a calculation device for ballistic analysis, had created a link between the military and engineering science at mit which was to endure for over thirty years. manuel de landa ( ) puts great emphasis in his work on this connection, particularly as it was further developed during wwii. as he puts it, bush created a bridge between the engineers and the military, he connected scientists to the blueprints of generals and admirals , and this relationship would grow infinitely stronger during wwii. institutions that had previously occupied exclusive ground such as physics and military intelligence had begun communicating in the late s, communities often suspicious of one another: the inventors and the scientists on the one side and the warriors on the other . this paper has been arguing that the analyzer qua technical artefact accomplished something equally important: as a prototype, it demonstrated the potential of analogue computing technology for analysis, and engendered an engineering culture around itself that took the machine to be a teacher. this is why, even after the obsolescence of the analyzer, it was kept around at mit for its educational value . it demonstrated that machines could automate the calculus, and that machines could mirror human tasks in an elegant fashion: something which required proof in steel and brass. the aura generated by the analyzer as prototype was not lost on the military. in , the navy came to bush for advice on machines to crack coding devices like the new japanese cipher machines . they wanted a long-term project that would give the united states the most technically advanced cryptanalytic capabilities in the world, a super-fast machine to count the coincidences of letters in two messages or copies of a single message. bush assembled a research team for this project that included claude shannon, one of the early information theorists and a significant part of the emerging cybernetics community . there were three new technologies emerging at the time which handled information: photoelectricity, microfilm and digital electronics. all three were just emerging, but, unlike the fragile magnetic recording his students were exploring, they appeared to be ready to use in calculation machines. microfilm would provide ultra-fast input and inexpensive mass-memory, photoelectricity would allow high-speed sensing and reproduction, and digital electronics would allow astonishingly fast and inexpensive control and calculation. bush transferred these three technologies to the new design. this decision was not pure genius on his part; they were perfect analogues for a popular conception of how the brain worked at the time. the scientific community at mit were developing a pronounced interest in man-machine analogues, and although claude shannon had not yet published his information theory it was already being formulated, and there was much discussion around mit about how the brain might process information in the manner of an analogue machine. bush thought and designed in terms of analogies between brain and machine, electricity and information. this was also the central research agenda of norbert weiner and warren mcculloch, both at mit, who were at the time working on parallels they saw between neural structure and process and computation (; see also ). to bush and shannon, microfilm and photoelectricity seemed perfect analogues to the electrical relay circuits and neural substrates of the human brain and their capacities for managing information. bush called this machine the comparator — it was to do the hard work of comparing text and letters for the humble human mind. like the analytic machines before it and all other technical machines being built at the time, this was an analogue device; it directly mirrored the task at hand on a mechanical level. in this case, it directly mirrored the operations of searching and associating on a mechanical level, and, bush believed, it mirrored the operations of the human mind and memory. bush began the project in mid- , while he was working on the rockefeller analyzer, and agreed to deliver a code-cracking device based on these technologies by the next summer . but immediately, there were problems in its development. technical objects often depart from their fabricating intention; sometimes because they are used differently to what they were invented for, and sometimes because the technology itself breaks down. microfilm did not behave the way bush wanted it to. as a material it was very fragile, sensitive to light and heat, and tore easily; it had too many bugs. it was decided to use paper tape with minute holes, although paper was only one-twentieth as effective as microfilm . there were subsequent problems with this technology — paper itself is flimsy, and it refused to work well for long periods intact. there were also problems shifting the optical reader between the two message tapes. bush was working on the analyzer at the time, and didn’t have the resources to fix these components effectively. by the time the comparator was turned over to the navy, it was very unreliable, and didn’t even start up when it was unpacked in washington . the comparator prototype ended up gathering dust in a navy storeroom, but much of the architecture was transferred to subsequent designs. by this time, bush had also started work on the memex design. he transferred much of the architecture from the comparator, including photoelectrical components, an optical reader and microfilm. in tune with the times, bush had developed a fascination for microfilm in particular as an information storage technology, and although it had failed to work properly in the comparator, he wanted to try it again. it would appear as the central technology in the rapid selector and also in the memex design. in the s, many believed that microfilm would make information universally accessible and thus spark an intellectual revolution (, cited in ). like many others, he had been enthusiastically exploring its potential in his writing , as well as the comparator; the encyclopaedia britannica could be reduced to the volume of a matchbox. a library of a million volumes could be compressed into one end of a desk he wrote . in , h.g. wells even wrote about a permanent world encyclopaedia or planetary memory that would carry all the world’s knowledge. it was based on microfilm. by means of microfilm, the rarest and most intricate documents and articles can be studied now at first hand, simultaneously in a score of projection rooms. there is no practical obstacle whatever now to the creation of an efficient index to all human knowledge, ideas, achievements, to the creation, that is, of a complete planetary memory for all mankind. , cited in microfilm promised faithful reproduction as well as miniaturisation. it was state-of-the-art technology, and not only did it seem the perfect analogy for material stored in the neural substrate of the human brain, it seemed to have a certain permanence the brain lacked. bush put together a proposal for a new microfilm selection device, based on the architecture of the comparator, in . its stated research agenda and intention was construction of experimental equipment to test the feasibility of a device which would search reels of coded microfilm at high speed and which would copy selected frames on the fly, for printout and use. investigation of the practical utility of such equipment by experimental use in a library. further development aimed at exploration of the possibilities for introducing such equipment into libraries generally. bagg and stevens , cited in nyce , corporate funding was secured for the selector by pitching it as a microfilm machine to modernise the library . abstracts of documents were to be captured by this new technology and reduced in size by a factor of . as with the comparator, long rolls of this film were to be spun past a photoelectric sensing station. if a match occurred between the code submitted by a researcher and the abstract codes attached to this film , the researcher was presented with the article itself and any articles previously associated with it. this was to be used in a public library, and unlike his nascent idea concerning memex, he wanted to tailor it to commercial and government record-keeping markets. bush considered the selector as a step towards the mechanised control of scientific information, which was of immediate concern to him as a scientist. according to him, the fate of the nation depended on the effective management of these ideas lest they be lost in a brewing data storm. progress in information management was not only inevitable, it was essential if the nation is to be strong . this was his fabricating intention. he had been looking for support for a memex-like device for years, but after the failure of the comparator, finding funds for this library of the future was very hard . then in , bush received funding from the national cash register company and the eastman kodak company for the development of an apparatus for rapid selection, and he began to transfer the architecture from the comparator across to the new design. but as burke writes, the technology of microfilm and the tape-scanners began to impose their technical limitations; [a]lmost as soon as it was begun, the selector project drifted away from its original purpose and began to show some telling weaknesses … bush planned to spin long rolls of mm film containing the codes and abstracts past a photoelectric sensing station so fast, at speeds of six feet per second, that , items could be tested in one minute. this was at least one hundred-fifty times faster than the mechanical tabulator. the selector’s scanning station was similar to that used in the comparator. but in the selector, the card containing the code of interest to the researcher would be stationary. bush and others associated with the project were so entranced with the speed of microfilm tape that little attention was paid to coding schemes , and when bush handed the project over to three of his researchers, john howard, lawrence steinhardt and john coombs, it was floundering. after three more years of intensive research and experimentation with microfilm, howard had to inform the navy that the machine would not work . microfilm, claimed howard, would deform at such speeds and could not be aligned so that coincidences could be identified. microfilm warps under heat, and it cannot take great strain or tension without distorting. solutions were suggested (among them slowing down the machine, and checking abstracts before they were used) , but none of these were particularly effective, and a working machine wasn’t ready until the fall of . at one stage, because of an emergency problem with japanese codes, it was rushed to washington — but because it was so unreliable, it went straight back into storage. so many parts were pulled out that the machine was never again operable . in , the selector made bruce sterling’s dead media list, consigned forever to a lineage of failed technologies. microfilm did not behave the way bush and his team wanted it to. it had its own material limits, and these didn’t support speed of access. in the evolution of any machine, there will be internal limits generated by the behaviour of the technology itself; gille calls these endogenous limits . endogenous limits are encountered only in practice — they effect the actual implementation of an idea. in engineering practice, these failures can teach inventors about the material potentials of the technology as well. the memex design altered significantly through the s; bush had learned from the technical failures he was encountering. but most noticeable of all, bush stopped talking about microfilm and about hardware. by the ’s the project and machine failures associated with the selector, it seems, made it difficult for bush to think about memex in concrete terms. the analyzer, meanwhile, was being used extensively during wwii for ballistic analysis and calculation. wartime security prevented its public announcement until , when it was hailed by the press as a great electromechanical brain ready to advance science by freeing it from the pick-and-shovel work of mathematics ( life magazine, cited by owens , ). it had created an entire culture around itself. but by the mid- s, the enthusiasm had died down; the machine seemed to pale beside the new generation of digital machines. the war had also released an unprecedented sum of money into mit and spawned numerous other new laboratories. it ushered in a variety of new computation tasks, in the field of large-volume data analysis and real-time operation, which were beyond the capacity of the rockefeller instrument . by , the analyzer had become an antique, conferred to back-room storage. what happened? the reasons the analyzer fell into disuse were quite different to the selector; its limits were exogenous to the technical machine itself. they were related to a fundamental paradigm shift within computing, from analogue to digital. according to gille, the birth of a new technical system is rapid and unforeseeable; new technical systems are born with the limits of the old technical systems, and the period of change is brutal, fast and discontinuous. in , warren weaver and samuel caldwell met to discuss the analyzer and the analogue computing program it had inspired at mit, a large program which had become out of date more swiftly than anyone could have imagined. they noted that in , no one could have expected that within ten years the whole field of computer science would so quickly overtake bush’s project (weaver and caldwell, cited in ). bush, and the department at mit which had formed itself around the analyzer and analogue computing, had been left behind. i do not have the space here to trace the evolution of digital computing at this time in the us and the uk — excellent accounts have already been written by , , , and to name a few. all we need to realise at this point is that the period between and , the years between the publication of the first and the final versions of the memex essays respectively, had witnessed enormous change. the period saw not only the rise of digital computing, beginning with the construction of a few machines in the post-war period and developing into widespread mainframe processing for american business, it also saw the explosive growth of commercial television , and the beginnings of satellite broadcasting . as beniger sees it, the world had discovered information as a means of control . it is important to understand, however, that bush was not a part of this revolution. he had not been trained in digital computation or information theory, and knew little about the emerging field of digital computing. he was immersed in a different technical system: analogue machines interpreted mathematics in terms of mechanical rotations, storage and memory as a physical holding of information, and drew their answers as curves. they directly mirrored the operations of the calculus. warren weaver expressed his regret over the passing of analogue machines and the analyzer in a letter to the director of mit's center of analysis: it seems rather a pity not to have around such a place as mit a really impressive analogue computer; for there is a vividness and directness of meaning of the electrical and mechanical processes involved ... which can hardly fail, i would think, to have a very considerable educational value. weaver, cited in owens , the passing away of analogue computing was the passing away of an ethos: machines as mirrors of mathematical tasks. but bush and memex remained in the analogue era; in all versions of the memex essay, his goal remained the same: he sought to develop a machine that mirrored and recorded the patterns of the human brain , even when this era of direct reflection and analogy in mechanical workings had passed. technological evolution moves faster than our ability to adjust to its changes. more precisely, it moves faster than the techniques that it engenders and the culture it forms around itself. bush expressed some regret over this speed of passage near the end of his life, or, perhaps, sadness over the obsolescence of his own engineering techniques. the trend had turned in the direction of digital machines, a whole new generation had taken hold. if i mixed with it, i could not possibly catch up with new techniques, and i did not intend to look foolish. human associative memory and biological-mechanical analogues there is another revolution under way, and it is far more important and significant than [the industrial revolution]. it might be called the mental revolution. we now turn to bush’s fascination with, and exposure to, new models of human associative memory gaining current in his time. bush thought and designed his machines in terms of biological-mechanical analogues; he sought a symbiosis between natural human thought and his thinking machines. as nyce and kahn observe, in all versions of the memex essay ( , , ), bush begins his thesis by explaining the dire problem we face in confronting the great mass of the human record, criticising the way information was then organised . he then goes on to explain the reason why this form of organisation doesn’t work: it is artificial. information should be organised by association — this is how the mind works. if we fashion our information systems after this mechanism, they will be truly revolutionary. our ineptitude at getting at the record is largely caused by the artificiality of systems of indexing. when data of any sort are placed in storage, they are filed alphabetically or numerically, and information is found (when it is) by tracing it down from subclass to subclass. it can only be found in one place, unless duplicates are used; one has to have rules as to which path will locate it, and the rules are cumbersome. having found one item, moreover, one has to emerge from the system and re-enter on a new path. the human mind does not work that way. it operates by association. with one item in grasp, it snaps instantly to the next that is suggested by the association of thoughts, in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the brain. bush , , these paragraphs were important enough that they appeared verbatim in all versions of the memex essay — , and . no other block of text remained unchanged over time; the technologies used to implement the mechanism changed, memex grew intelligent, the other machines (the cyclops camera, the vocoder) disappeared. these paragraphs, however, remain a constant. given this fact, nelson’s assertion that the major concern of the essay was to point out the artificiality of systems of indexing, and to propose the associative mechanism as a solution for this seems reasonable. nelson also maintains that these central precepts of the design have been ignored by commentators . i would contend that they have not been ignored; fragments of these paragraphs are often cited, particularly relating to association. what is ignored is the relationship between these two paragraphs — the central contrast he makes between conventional methods of indexing and the mental associations memex was to support . association was more natural than other forms of indexing — more human. this is why it was revolutionary. which is interesting, because bush’s model of mental association was itself technological; the mind snapped between allied items, an unconscious movement directed by the trails themselves, trails of brain or of machine . association was a technique that worked independently of its substrate, and there was no spirit attached to this machine: my brain runs rapidly — so rapidly i do not fully recognize that the process is going on . the speed of action in the retrieval process from neuron to neuron resulted from a mechanical switching (this term was omitted from the life reprint of memex ii, bush , ), and the items that this mechanical process resurrected were also stored in the manner of magnetic or drum memory: the brain is like a substrate for memories, sheets of data . bush’s model of human associative memory was an electro-mechanical one — a model that was being keenly developed by claude shannon, warren mcculloch and walter pitts at mit, and would result in the mcculloch-pitts neuron . the mit model of the human neuronal circuit constructed the human in terms of the machine, and later articulated it more thoroughly in terms of computer switching. in a letter to weeks, for example, bush argued that a great deal of our brain cell activity is closely parallel to the operation of relay circuits, and that one can explore this parallelism…almost indefinitely november , ; cited in nyce and kahn , . in the s and s, the popular scientific conception of mind and memory was a mechanical one. an object or experience was perceived, transferred to the memory-library's receiving station, and then installed in the memory-library for all future reference . it had been known since the early s that the brain comprised a tangle of neuronal groups that were interconnected in the manner of a network, and recent research had shown that these communicated and stored information across the neural substrate, in some instances creating further connections, via minute electrical vibrations. according to bush, memories that were not accessed regularly suffered from this neglect by the conscious mind and were prone to fade. the pathways of the brain, its indexing system, needed constant electrical stimulation to remain strong. this was the problem with the neural network: items are not fully permanent, memory is transitory . the major technical problem with human memory was its tendency toward decay. according to manuel de landa, there was also a widespread faith in biological-mechanical analogues at the time as models to boost human functions. the military had been attempting to develop technologies which mimicked and subsequently replaced human faculties for many years and this was especially heightened in the years before, during and immediately following the war. at mit in particular, there was a tendency to take the image of the machine as the basis for the understanding of man and vice versa, writes harold hatt in his book on cybernetics . the idea that man and his environment are mechanical systems which can be studied, improved, mimicked and controlled was growing, and later gave way to disciplines such as cognitive science and artificial intelligence. wiener and mcculloch looked for and worked from parallels they saw between neural structure and process and computation , a model which changed with the onset of digital computing to include on/off states. the motor should first of all model itself on man, and eventually augment or replace him. bush explicitly worked with such methodologies — in fact, he not only thought with and in these terms, he built technological projects with them . the first step was understanding the mechanical process or nature of thought itself; the second step was transferring this process to a machine. so there is a double movement within bush’s work, the location of a natural human process within thought, a process which is already machine-like, and the subsequent refinement and modelling of a particular technology on that process. technology should depart from nature, it should depart from an extant human process: this saves us so much work. if this is done properly, [it] should be possible to beat the mind decisively in the permanence and clarity of the items resurrected from storage . so memex was first and foremost an extension of human memory and the associative movements that the mind makes through information: a mechanical analogue to an already mechanical model of memory. bush transferred this idea into information management; memex was distinct from traditional forms of indexing not so much in its mechanism or content, but in the way it organised information based on association. the design did not spring from the ether, however; the first memex design incorporates the technical architecture of the rapid selector and the methodology of the analyzer — the machines bush was assembling at the time. the design of memex bush’s autobiography, pieces of the action, and also his essay memex revisited tell us that he started work on the design in the early s ; . nyce and kahn also note that he sent a letter to warren weaver describing a memex-like device in . the first extensive description of it in print, however, is found in the essay mechanization and the record . the description in this essay employs the same methodology bush had used to design the analyzer: combine existing lower-level technologies into a single machine with a higher function that automates the pick-and-shovel work of the human mind . nyce and kahn maintain that bush took this methodology from the rapid selector : this paper has argued that it was first deployed in the analyzer. the analyzer was the first working analogue computer at mit, and it was also the first large-scale engineering project to combine lower-level, extant technologies and automate what was previously a human cognitive technique: the integral calculus. it incorporated two lower-level analogue technologies to accomplish this task: the wheel-and-disk integrator and the torque amplifier, as we have explored. surrounded by computers and personal organisers, the idea of automating intellectual processes seems obvious to us now — but in the early s the idea of automating what was essentially a function within thought was radical. bush needed to convince people that it was worthwhile. in , bush wrote: the future means of implementing thought are … fully as worthy of attention by one who wonders what comes next as are new ways of extracting natural resources, or of killing men. the idea of creating a machine to aid the mind did not belong to bush, nor did the technique of integral calculus (or association for that matter); he was, however, arguably the first person to externalise this technology on a grand scale. observing the success of the analyzer qua technical artefact, the method proved successful. design on the first microfilm selection device, the comparator, started in . this, too, was a machine to aid the mind: it was essentially a counting machine, to tally the coincidence of letters in two messages or copies of a single message. it externalised the drudge work of cryptography, and bush rightly saw it as the first electronic data-processing machine . the rapid selector which followed it incorporated much of the same architecture, as we have explored — and this architecture was in turn transferred to memex. the memex-like machine proposed in bush’s memo to weaver shows just how much [the selector] and the memex have in common. in the rapid selector, low-level mechanisms for transporting mm film, photo-sensors to detect dot patterns, and precise timing mechanisms combined to support the high-order task of information selection. in memex, photo-optic selection devices, keyboard controls, and dry photography would be combined … to support the process of the human mind. the difference, of course, was that bush’s proposed memex would access information stored on microfilm by association, not numerical indexing. he had incorporated another technique (a technique which was itself quite popular among the nascent cybernetics community at mit, and already articulated mind and machine together). by describing an imaginary machine, bush had selected from the existing technologies of the time and made a case for how they should develop in the future . but this forecasting did not come from some genetically inherited genius — it was an acquired skill: bush was close to the machine. as professor of engineering at mit (and after , president of the carnegie institute in washington), bush was in a unique position — he had access to a pool of ideas, techniques and technologies which the general public, and engineers at other smaller schools, did not have access to. bush had a more global view of the combinatory possibilities and the technological lineage. bush himself admitted this; in fact, he believed that engineers and scientists were the only people who could or should predict the future of technology — anyone else had no idea. in the inscrutable thirties, an essay he published in , he tells us that politicians and the general public simply can’t understand technology, they have so little true discrimination and are wont to visualize scientific triumphs as faits accomplis before they are even ready, even as they are being hatched in the laboratory . bush believed that the prediction and control of the future of technology should be left to engineers; only they can distinguish the possible from the virtually impossible , only they can read the future from technical objects. memex was a future technology. it was originally proposed as a desk at which the user could sit, equipped with two slanting translucent screens upon which material would be projected for convenient reading . there was a keyboard to the right of these screens, and a set of buttons and levers which the user could depress to search the information using an electrically-powered optical recognition system. if the user wished to consult a certain piece of information, he [tapped] its code on the keyboard, and the title page of the book promptly appear[ed] . the images were stored on microfilm inside the desk, and the matter of bulk [was] well taken care of by this technology — only a small part of the interior is devoted to storage, the rest to mechanism . it looked like an ordinary desk, except it had screens and a keyboard attached to it. to add new information to the microfilm file, a photographic copying plate was also provided on the desk, but most of the memex contents would be purchased on microfilm ready for insertion . the user could classify material as it came in front of him using a teleautograph stylus, and register links between different pieces of information using this stylus. this was a piece of furniture from the future, to live in the home of a scientist or an engineer, to be used for research and information management. the memex design also introduced the concept of trails, a concept derived from work in neuronal storage-retrieval networks at the time, which was a method of connecting information by linking units together in a networked manner, similar to hypertext paths. the process of making trails was called trailblazing, and was based on a mechanical provision whereby any item may be caused at will to select immediately and automatically another , just as though these items were being gathered together from widely separated sources and bound together to form a new book . electro-optical devices borrowed from the rapid selector used spinning rolls of microfilm, abstract codes and a mechanical selection-head inside the desk to find and create these links between documents. this is the essential feature of the memex. the process of tying two items together is the important thing . bush went so far as to suggest that in the future, there would be professional trailblazers who took pleasure in creating useful paths through the common record in such a fashion. the memex described in as we may think was to have permanent trails, and public encyclopaedias, colleague's trails and other information could all be joined and then permanently archived for later use. unlike the trails of memory, they would never fade. in memex revisited, however, an adaptive theme emerged whereby the trails were mutable and open to growth and change by memex itself as it observed the owner's habits of association and extended upon these . after a period of observation, memex would be given instructions to search and build a new trail of thought, which it could do later even when the owner was not there . this technique was in turn derived from claude shannon’s experiments with feedback and machine learning, embodied in the mechanical mouse; a striking form of self adaptable machine is shannon’s mechanical mouse. placed in a maze it runs along, butts its head into a wall, turns and tries again, and eventually muddles its way through. but, placed again at the entrance, it proceeds through without error making all the right turns. in modern terminology, such a machine is called an intelligent agent, a concept we shall discuss later in this work. technology has not yet reached bush's vision for adaptive associative indexing , although intelligent systems, whose parameters change in accordance with the user's experiences, come close. this is called machine learning. andries van dam also believes this to be the natural future of hypertext and associative retrieval systems . in memex ii, however, bush not only proposed that the machine might learn from the human via what was effectively a cybernetic feedback loop — he proposed that the human might learn from the machine. as the human mind moulds the machine, so too the machine remolds the human mind, it remolds the trails of the user’s brain, as one lives and works in close interconnection with a machine . for the trails of the machine become duplicated in the brain of the user, vaguely as all human memory is vague, but with a concomitant emphasis by repetition, creation and discard … as the cells of the brain become realigned and reconnected, better to utilize the massive explicit memory which is its servant. this was in line with bush’s conception of technical machines as mechanical teachers in their own right. it was a proposal of an active symbiosis between machine and human memory which has been surprisingly ignored in contemporary readings of the design. nyce and kahn pay it a full page of attention, and also nelson, who has always read bush rather closely . but aside from that, the full development of this concept from bush’s work has been left to doug engelbart. in our interview, engelbart claimed it was bush’s concept of a co-evolution between humans and machines, and also his conception of our human augmentation system, which inspired him . both bush and engelbart believe that our social structures, our discourses and even our language can and should adapt to mechanization ; all of these things are inherited, they are learned. this process is not only unavoidable, it is desirable. bush also believed machines to have their own logic, their own language, which can touch those subtle processes of mind, its logical and rational processes and alter them . and the logical and rational processes which the machine connected with were our own memories — a prosthesis of the inside. this vision of actual human neurons changing to be more like the machine, however, would not find its way into the essay . paradoxically, bush also retreats on this close alignment of memory and machine. in the later essays, he felt the need to demarcate a purely human realm of thought from technics, a realm uncontaminated by technics. one of the major themes in memex ii is defining exactly what it is that machines can and cannot do. two mental processes the machine can do well: first, memory storage and recollection, and this is the primary function of the memex; and second, logical reasoning, which is the function of the computing and analytical machines. machines can remember better than human beings can — their trails do not fade, their logic is never flawed. both of the mental processes bush locates above take place within human thought, they are forms of internal repetitive thought — perfectly suited to being externalised and improved upon by technics. but exactly what is it that machines can’t do? is there anything inside thought which is purely human? bush demarcates creativity as the realm of thought that exists beyond technology. how far can the machine accompany and aid its master along this path? certainly to the point at which the master becomes an artist, reaching into the unknown with beauty and versatility, erecting on the mundane thought processes a thing of beauty … this region will always be barred to the machine. bush had always been obsessed with memory and technics, as we have explored. but near the end of his career, when memex ii and memex revisited were written, he became obsessed with the boundary between them, between what is personal and belongs to the human alone, and what can be or already is automated within thought. in all versions of the memex essay, the machine was to serve as a personal memory support. it was not a public database in the sense of the modern internet: it was first and foremost a private device. it provided for each person to add their own marginal notes and comments, recording reactions to and trails from others' texts, and adding selected information and the trails of others by dropping them into their archive via an electro-optical scanning device. in the later adaptive memex, these trails fade out if not used, and if much in use, the trails become emphasized as the web adjusts its shape mechanically to the thoughts of the individual who uses it. current hypertext technologies are not quite so private and tend to emphasise systems which are public rather than personal in nature and that emphasize the static record over adaptivity due to the need for mass production, distribution and compatibility. the idea of a personal machine to amplify the mind also flew in the face of the emerging paradigm of human–computer interaction that reached its peak in the late s and early s, which held computers to be rarefied calculating machines used only by qualified technicians in white lab coats in air-conditioned rooms at many degrees of separation from the user. after the summer of , writes ceruzzi, computing's path, in theory at least, was clear . computers were, for the moment, impersonal, institutionally aligned and out of the reach of the ignorant masses who did not understand their workings. they lived only in university computer labs, wealthy corporations and government departments. memex ii was published at a time when the dominant paradigm of human–computer interaction was sanctified and imposed by corporations like ibm, and it was so entrenched that the very idea of a free interaction between users and machines as envisioned by bush was viewed with hostility by the academic community . in all versions of the essay, memex remained profoundly uninfluenced by the paradigm of digital computing. as we have explored, bush transferred the concept of machine learning from shannon — but not information theory. he transferred neural and memory models from the cybernetic community — but not digital computation. the analogue computing discourse bush and memex created never mixed with digital computing . in , memex was a direct analogy to bush’s conception of human memory; in , after digital computing had swept engineering departments across the country into its paradigm, memex was still a direct analogy to human memory. it mirrored the technique of association in its mechanical workings. while the pioneers of digital computing understood that machines would soon accelerate human capabilities by doing massive calculations, bush continued to be occupied with extending, through replication, human mental experience. consequently, the memex redesigns responded to the advances of the day quite differently to how others were responding at the time. by , for example, great advances had been made in digital memory techniques. as far back as , the eckert-mauchly division of remington rand had turned over the first digital computer with a stored-program architecture, the univac, to the us census bureau . delay lines stored , words as acoustic pulses in tubes of mercury, and reels of magnetic tapes which stored invisible bits were used for bulk memory. this was electronic digital technology, and did not mirror or seek to mirror natural processes in any way. it steadily replaced the most popular form of electro-mechanical memory from the late s and early s: drum memory. this was a large metal cylinder which rotated rapidly beneath a mechanical head, where information was written across the surface magnetically . in , disk memory had been produced, for the ibm ramac, and rapid advances were being made by ibm and dec . bush, however, remained enamoured of physical recording and inscription. his essay proposes using organic crystals to record data by means of phase changes in molecular alignment. [i]n memex ii, when a code on one item points to a second, the first part of the code will pick out a crystal, the next part the level in this, and the remainder the individual item . this was new technology at the time, but certainly not the direction commercial computing was taking via dec or ibm. bush was fundamentally uncomfortable with digital electronics as a means to store material. the brain does not operate by reducing everything to indices and computation, bush wrote . bush was aware of how out of touch he was with emerging digital computing techniques, and this essay bears no trace of engineering details whatsoever, details which were steadily disappearing from all his published work. he devoted the latter part of his career to frank prophecy, reading from the technologies he saw around him and taking a long look ahead . of particular concern to him was promoting memex as the technology of the future, and encouraging the public that the time has come to try it again . memex, inheritance and transmission no memex could have been built when that article appeared. in the quarter-century since then, the idea has been with me almost constantly, and i have watched new developments in electronics, physics, chemistry and logic to see how they might help bring it to reality . memex became an image of potentiality for bush near the end of his life. in the later essays, he writes in a different tone entirely: memex was an image he would bequeath to the future, a gift to the human race. for most of his professional life, he had been concerned with augmenting human memory, and preserving information that might be lost to human beings. he had occasionally written about this project as a larger idea which would boost the entire process by which man profits by his inheritance of acquired knowledge . but in memex ii, this project became grander, more urgent — the idea itself far more important than the technical details. he was nearing the end of his life, and memex was still unbuilt. would someone eventually build this machine? he hoped so, and he urged the public that it would soon be possible to do this, or at least, the day has come far closer : in the interval since that paper [as we may think] was published, there have been many developments … steps that were merely dreams are coming into the realm of practicality . could this image be externalised now, and live beyond him? it would not only carry the wealth of his own knowledge beyond his death, it would be like a gift to all mankind. in fact, memex would be the centrepiece of mankind’s true revolution — transcending death. can a son inherit the memex of his father, refined and polished over the years, and go on from there? in this way can we avoid some of the loss which comes when oxygen is no longer furnished to the brain of the great thinker, when all the patterns of neurons so painstakingly refined become merely a mass of protein and nucleic acid? can the race thus develop leaders, of such power and intellect, and such forces of conviction, that the world can be saved from its follies? this is an objective of far greater importance than the conquest of disease, even than the conquest of mental aberrations . near the end of his life, bush thought of memex as more than just an individual’s machine; the ultimate [machine] is far more subtle than this . memex would be the centrepiece of a structure of inheritance and transmission, a structure that would accumulate with each successive generation. in science pauses, bush entitled one of the sections immortality in a machine : it contained a description of memex, but this time there was an emphasis on its longevity over the individual human mind . this is the crux of the matter; the trails in memex would not grow old, they would be a gift from father to son, from one generation to the next. bush died on june , . the image of memex has been passed on beyond his death, and it continues to inspire a host of new machines and technical instrumentalities. but memex itself has never been built; it exists only on paper, in technical interpretation and in memory. all we have of memex are the words that bush assembled around it in his lifetime, the drawings created by the artists from life, its erotic simulacrum, its ideals, its ideas. had bush attempted to assemble this machine in his own lifetime, it would undoubtedly have changed in its technical workings; the material limits of microfilm, of photoelectric components and later, of crystalline memory storage would have imposed their limits; the use function of the machine would itself have changed as it demonstrated its own potentials. if memex had been built, the object would have invented itself independently of the outlines bush cast on paper. this never happened — it has entered into the intellectual capital of new media as an image of potentiality. bagg, t. c., and stevens, m. e. information selection systems retrieving replica copies: a state-of-the-art report. national bureau of standards technical note . washington, d.c.: government printing office, . beniger, james r. the control revolution: technological and economic origins of the information society. cambridge, ma: harvard university press, . burke, collin. a practical view of the memex: the career of the rapid selector. in . bush, vannevar. mechanical solutions of engineering problems, tech engineering news, vol. , . bush, vannevar. the inscrutible <q>thirties</q> . reprinted in , – . bush, vannevar. mechanization and the record, vannevar bush papers, library of congress, box , speech article book file. bush, vannevar. as we may think. reprinted in , – . bush, vannevar. memex ii. reprinted in , – . bush, vannevar. man’s thinking machines, vannevar bush papers, mit archives, mc , box . bush, vannevar. science pauses. reprinted in , – . bush, vannevar. memex revisited. reprinted in , – . bush, vannevar. pieces of the action. new york: william morrow, . ceruzzi, paul e. a history of modern computing. cambridge, ma: mit press, . de landa, manuel. war in the age of intelligent machines. new york: zone books, . dennett, daniel c. consciousness explained. london: penguin books, . edwards, paul n. the closed world: computers and the politics of discourse in cold war america. cambridge, ma: mit press, . eldredge, niles. email interview with belinda barnet. march . http://journal.fibreculture.org/issue /issue _barnet.html. engelbart, douglas. interview with belinda barnet. november , . farkas-conn, i. s. from documentation to information science: the beginnings and early development of the american documentation institute—american society for information science. new york: greenwood press, . guattari, félix. chaosmosis: an ethico-aesthetic paradigm. tr. paul bains and julian pefanis. sydney: power publications, . gille, bertrand. history of techniques. new york: gordon and breach science publishers, . hartree, douglas. differential analyzer, http://cs.union.edu/~hemmendd/encyc/articles/difanal/difanal.html hatt, harold. cybernetics and the image of man. nashville: abingdon press, . hayles, katherine. virtual bodies and flickering signifiers, october magazine. no (fall ), – . hayles, n. katherine. how we became posthuman. chicago: university of chicago press, . hazen, harold. mit president's report, . meyrowitz, norman. hypertext: does it reduce cholesterol, too?. in , – . mindell, david a. mit differential analyzer. http://web.mit.edu/mindell/www/analyzer.htm nelson, theodor h. as we will think. in , – . nelson, theodor h. interview with the author. nyce, james and kahn, paul, eds. from memex to hypertext: vannevar bush and the mind's machine. london: academic press, . oren, tim , memex: getting back on the trail. in , – . owens, larry. vannevar bush and the differential analyzer: the text and context of an early computer. in , – . shurkin, joel. engines of the mind, the evolution of the computer from mainframes to microprocessors. new york: ww norton and company, . smith, linda c. memex as an image of potentiality revisited. in . spar, debora l. ruling the waves: cycles of discovery, chaos, and wealth from compass to the internet. new york: harcourt, . stiegler, bernard. technics and time, : the fault of epimetheus. stanford: stanford university press, . van dam, andries. interview with the author. weaver, warren. project diaries. march , . weaver, warren. letter to samuel caldwell. correspondence held in the rockefeller archive center, rf . / / / . wells, h.g. world brain. london: methuen & co. limited, . ziman, john. technological innovation as an evolutionary process. cambridge: cambridge university press, . appendix : side-by-side comparison layout this appendix contains a screen shot of the side-by-side comparison view used to identify mismatched bibliographic entries during the deduplication and error correction phase of the project. this view takes data from the bibliography for an individual dhq article; for each entry in that bibliography, the xslt stylesheet seeks a match (based on the value of the @key attribute) in the centralized bibliography. if a match is found, that entry is displayed beneath the original entry. the stylesheet also performs a comparison between the content of the two entries (based on author name, title, and facts of publication); if the similarity falls below a certain threshold, the entry is flagged in red so that the two can be compared and the match confirmed. in the examples shown here, the first flagged entry (borovoy) is in fact a match but there are discrepancies between the titles; the entry from the central bibliography contains better information. in the second flagged entry (marino) the two records represent different items and the @key will need to be fixed to point to the correct entry in the central bibliography. //bibl[@key='bakhtin '] //bibl[@key='borovoy '] //bibl[@key='marino'] //bibl[@key='camnitzer '] bibl lookup: article code as ritualized poetry: the tactics of the transborder immigrant tool show key show instructions comparing with entries in biblio. bakhtin, m. m. the dialogic imagination: four essays. university of texas press, . bakhtin, m.m. the dialogic imagination: four essays. austin: university of texas press, . [biblio also has similar entries] show detail borovoy, rick et al. folk computing. acm press, . – . web. oct. . borovoy, rick, et al. “folk computing”. presented at ( ). http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm? id= . hide detail biblio id criterion biblio entry borovoy matching id similarity . ( / ) borovoy, rick, et al. “folk computing”. presented at ( ). http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= . brett stalbaum complete interview : mark marino : free download & streaming : internet archive. film. marino, mark. brett stalbaum complete interview : mark marino. internet archive. https://archive.org/details/brettstalbaumcompleteinterview. show detail camnitzer, luis. conceptualism in latin american art: didactics of liberation. st ed. austin: university of texas press, . print. (joe r. and teresa lozano long series in latin http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= https://archive.org/details/brettstalbaumcompleteinterview appendix : internal documentation for extraction of bibliography entries this appendix contains the internal documentation describing the process by which bibliographic data is extracted from existing dhq articles and converted to the dhq bibliographic markup. biblio workflow instructions . open the biblio.xpr file in oxygen so that you have access to the "project" materials. . make sure you're using the most up-to-date version of dhq's files (via svn). . open the .xml version of the article you are working on in oxygen . if the article has no bibliography, move on to the next article in the workflow. . if there are bibl records, extract them from the article; these records (after you de-duplicate and groom them) will become part of the biblio list: configure transformation scenario (wrench icon next to the red "apply transformation scenario" arrow) click the check-box next to "extract biblio listings," then "apply associated ( )." a new file, titled "numberoffile-biblioscratch.xml," should be created. . important: run a find/replace on the biblioscratch.xml file to convert all references to "dhqid" (an old referent) to "id." go to the find menu and choose find/replace in text to find type: "dhqid", and in replace with type "id." click "replace all" the number of matches should equal the number of biblio records (for example, " records matched"). . next you're going to check for duplicate records: i.e., records that have already been entered by jim / dhq into the current repository of bibliographic records (visible in the "current" sub-folder in the "data" folder in dhq). this is done by running a schematron check which compares the contents of your scratch file to the existing contents of biblio. the goal here is to eliminate from your scratch file any records that are already in biblio. you do not have to clean up any records that are already present in "current", and you can delete them from your scratch file without worrying that they will be disconnected from the article (which is why we're doing this in a "scratch" file). go to the "validate" check-box at the top of oxygen and open the drop-down menu by clicking the arrow next to it: choose "validate with" if you do not see options visible here, find the dhqbiblio schema file in your working copy ( dhq/trunk/biblio/dhq-biblio- v /schema/dhqbiblio-checkup.sch), then click "ok." (make sure you're using the checkup file here!) you should then receive a number of error messages in the "errors" section of oxygen. check the red exclamation points first; they provide the most accurate information re: bibliographic information that already resides in "current." then check the yellow exclamation points; they represent possible duplicates based on matching titles (but since titles are often the same, e.g. "introduction", this isn't always indicative of a duplicate). red error messages when checking these exclamation points: go to the biblio record noted in the error message (for example: dhqid 'aarseth ' is already assigned to another entry; see biblio-a.xml (aarseth ). you can find these alphabetic files in the "current" folder. check to ensure that both entries are the same. you should also verify that the information in "current" is the most comprehensive: for example, if you notice that the author's full name is not in "biblio-a," then please update that in "current." if the entry is the same, you can delete the entry in your scratch file. in some cases you'll find that while an id has already been assigned, the entry in your article is different. after double- checking to ensure that information on both citations is accurate, you may need to assign the citation tied to your article a new entry. for example, if your 'aarseth ' is different from the 'aarseth ' in the "current" folder's a file, you should rename your entry 'aarseth a' (or b, if an "aarseth a" already exists, etc.). this issue pops up with the particularly prolific writers cited by dhq's authors (mcgann, hayles, flanders). check every red exclamation point in your error messages until you are satisfied that records are duplicates / resolved. http://www.digitalhumanities.org/confluence/display/dhq http://www.digitalhumanities.org/confluence/display/dhq/biblio+workflow+instructions yellow error messages these error messages generally refer to titles that are similar to entries in the "current" folder. compare these messages to the specified bibliographic files and determine if you're dealing with a duplicate or a new entry. in some cases, these error messages contain information that you've hopefully already resolved while going through the red exclamation points. however, there will inevitably be occasions when a duplicate title is present in an entry that we want to add to our records: different / revised editions of publications, generic titles that happen to overlap (like "digital media"), generic titles like "wikipedia." in some cases you might find that the title listed in your scratch file could be revised (expanded to contain more information, changed because it is incorrect). feel free to do so, but if you've otherwise established that you're dealing with the correct title and a new entry, then don't worry about the error message if it persists. . update and encode the bibliographic records remaining in your scratch file to create a valid file in accordance with the biblio schema (adding elements and attributes as needed to represent the various components of the bibliographic record). see the information about bibliographic elements on this page to determine what element to use for each item these are my (jim's) suggestions for how to quickly complete this work; feel free to do what is best for you, so long as the end result is the same (a clean file that we can add to dhq's records). put boilerplate content in scratch file change every record's biblioitem element to an appropriate genre (e.g. and clean up information about authors and editors update additional information for each record by biblioitem (start with books, then journal articles, then websites, etc.). you can use the find tool to jump from item to item and work more quickly through the file this way. i tend to start with journalarticle records, since they involve adding the most information. clean up the entire file until it is valid any items that don't conform to an existing biblio genre should be added to the problem genres file boilerplate: i tend to dump the following text into the top and/or bottom of my scratch file, since i know i'll end up using them a lot and i'll want to paste this content into many records: for all records with authors (i.e. most of them): for books: for journal articles: issuances information about issuance accompanies information about each biblioitem; this information designates whether an item is "monographic" or "continuing" monographic: book, bookinseries, conferencepaper journalarticle, thesis, videogame continuing: blogentry, book (when part of bookinseries information), journal, website tips for author information whenever possible, use full names instead of initials for givenname information. use corporatename for corporate authors (institutional entities, companies). corporatename is most frequently used for websites where authors are unspecified if no author name is present and a corporatename can not be determined, use the fullname field and write "author unknown." . make sure entire file is clean and valid and that your work has been updated via subversion (i.e. commit your changes). . notify julia and we have wendell propagate the resulting biblio records into the biblio data. appendix : final report on ivmooc project this appendix contains the final report by members of the ivmooc working group describing their analysis of the dhq bibliographic data and presenting the resulting visualizations. mapping cultures in the big tent: multidisciplinary networks in the digital humanities quarterly dulce maria de la cruz, jake kaupp, max kemman, kristin lewis, teh-hen yu abstract—digital humanities quarterly (dhq) is a young journal that covers the intersection of digital media and traditional humanities. in this paper, we explore the publication patterns in dhq through visualizations of co-authorship and bibliographic coupling networks in order to understand the cultures the journal represents. we find that dhq consists largely of sole-authored papers ( %) and the authorship is dominated ( %) by authors publishing from north american institutions. through the backbone of dhq’s bibliographic coupling network, we identify several communities of articles published in dhq, and we analyze their collective abstracts using term frequency-inverse document frequency (tf-idf) analysis. the extracted terms show that dhq has wide coverage across the digital humanities, and that sub areas of dhq can be identified through their citation behavior. index terms—digital humanities, information visualization, co-author network, bibliographic coupling, big tent i n t r o d u c t i o n digital humanities (dh) is a field of research difficult to define due to its heterogeneity . with its inclusionary ambitions, dh is regularly referred to as a ‘big tent’ [ ] encompassing scholars from a wide variety of disciplines such as history, literature, linguistics, but also disciplines such as human-computer interaction and computer science. this collaborative, multidisciplinary approach to digital media makes dh an interesting field, but also difficult to grasp. a question is to what extent the big tent of dh represents a single, or actually a variety of cultures [ , ]. the digital humanities quarterly (dhq) journal is arguably one of the largest journals aimed specifically at dh research, and covers all aspects of digital media in the humanities, representing a meeting point between digital humanities research and the wider humanities community [ ]. articles published in dhq involve authors of multiple countries, institutions and disciplines who work on several subjects and areas related to digital media research. under a recent grant from neh (national endowment for humanities), dhq has developed a centralized bibliography which supports the bibliographic referencing for the journal. to gain an understanding of the diversity of culture(s) in the dh, we are interested in how unique disciplinary cultures are represented in dhq. considering cultures are self-referential systems, we might expect that scholars from a certain culture are more likely to cite scholars from their own culture rather than from others [ ]. as such, we expect citation behaviour to reflect disciplinary cultural norms. therefore, visualizing and analysing the bibliographic data of dhq not only see e.g. http://whatisdigitalhumanities.com for a wide variety of definitions from different scholars gives insights into the specific bibliographies from dhq, it might give insight into the way the different epistemic cultures in the dh big tent interact with one another, and how this interaction and collaboration impacts the networks over time. this paper reports on a project undertaken in the information visualization mooc from indiana university . we have analysed the dhq bibliographic data and created visualizations in order to discuss the following questions provided by the dhq editors: . how citations reflect differences in academic culture at the institutional and geographic level . the changes to that culture over time. . correlations between article topics (reflected in keywords) and citation patterns me t h o d . data two tables were extracted from the client dataset: . dhq_articles ( records) . works_cited_in_dhq ( records) the attributes for both tables are: article id, authors, year, title, journal/conference/collection, abstract, cited references, and isdhq. the raw dataset posed several problems, including: • missing articles, • duplicate authors, • double affiliations and inconsistencies, • duplicated articles and citation self-loops, • special characters, and • incomplete information (lack of information regarding affiliation and country for each dhq paper, and disciplines for authors). the dhq website was therefore scraped using the tool import.io to find missing articles and to obtain information about affiliations for each author. once that information was known, it was used to obtain the country associated with each institution by searching in the web. custom programs in the r language were then used to create paper ids (cite me as) similar to those used for the references and to http://ivmooc.cns.iu.edu/ http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/ https://www.import.io/ • dulce maria de la cruz is freelance data analyst. e-mail: dulce.maria.delacruz@gmail.com. • jake kaupp is engineering education researcher in queen’s university, canada. e-mail: jkaupp@gmail.com. • max kemman is phd candidate in university of luxembourg, luxembourg. e-mail: maxkemman@gmail.com. • kristin lewis is science & technology policy fellow at aaas. e- mail: kristin.l.m.lewis@gmail.com. • teh-hen yu is it professional. e-mail:tehhenyu@hotmail.com. mailto:jkaupp@gmail.com mailto:maxkemman@gmail.com calculate the number of times each dhq paper has been cited (times cited) and the number of references cited by each dhq paper (count cited references). furthermore, we assigned a discipline to each paper based on the first author’s departmental affiliation as described in [ ]. in order to produce a more detailed list of disciplinary culture, departmental affiliation was manually mapped to web of science subject areas. this information was eventually not used for the final visualizations, but left in the dataset for further exploration by others. after validations, data mining/scraping, data processing with custom programs coding and a lot of manual work, we have come up with a master dataset with additional info added (cite me as, times cited, affiliation, country, count cited references, geocode, discipline, affiliations including departments info, and community, plus the keywords provided by editors of dhq). to provide sufficient resolution, and categorical variables, for visualizations an author look-up table was created which contained the additional information outlined above but for each separate author for each article id. both the master datafile and the author lookup table are our primary sources of data to load for visualization and analysis. the source code, final datasets, and resulting visualizations are available through github . the final dataset provides the following statistics as in table . table . dhq dataset statistics attribute count note dhq articles unique cited articles unique dhq author affiliations including all institutions + independent scholars wos subject areas countries publication years - figure provides an overview of the number of dhq publications and number of co-authored papers per year, revealing a surprisingly uneven temporal distribution. fig. . dhq (co-authored) publications per year. . co-author network available at https://jkaupp.github.io/dhq. please cite as kaupp, j., de la cruz, d.m,, kemman, m., lewis, k., yu, t.-h. ( ) mapping cultures in the big tent: multidisciplinary networks in the digital humanities quarterly. github, https://jkaupp.github.io/dhq people are the key inputs in determining and understanding cultural differences. therefore, in order to better understand the cultures within dhq, we explored the authors who published within dhq. using sci [ ], we created yearly cumulative time slices of the master dataset and extracted co-author networks for each time slice. columns for author country were added, and each time slice was imported into gephi to create a dynamic co-author network [ ]. the network was laid out using the force atlas algorithm [ ], with nodes colorized by country. each time slice was visualized, and compiled into comprehensive visualizations using adobe illustrator and adobe photoshop. in addition to a co-author network, we explored a bibliographic coupling network of authors, in which nodes (authors) would be linked based on the number of cited articles in common. this analysis however introduced a strong bias towards co-authors who cite large numbers of articles. in order to derive userful insights from this type of visualization, a de-biasing operation must be identified and applied. without an established method for these, we chose to focus on the geographic information in the co-authorship network and analyse bibliographic coupling of articles . bibliographic coupling & backbone identification in order to investigate the bibliographies of dhq articles, we analysed the data using sci by extracting the paper-citation network, followed by extracting the reference co-occurrence network, also known as “bibliographic coupling” [ ]. by doing so, we create a network of dhq articles with co-occurring references. to simplify the visualization, we created a minimum spanning tree using the mst pathfinder algorithm whereby articles are connected to the network only by their strongest relation [ ], also called backbone identification. as such, the network becomes a tree that is easier to read. finally, all articles with zero references were removed from the network in order to remove non-dhq articles, as well as dhq articles that could not be analysed due to a lack of references. this network was then analyzed using the slm community detection algorithm with undirected and weighted edges [ ]. the network with community attributes was then imported into gephi and ordered using the force atlas algorithm [ ], after which we colorized the nodes by their identified community. . word clouds in order to investigate the correlations between article topics (reflected in keywords) and the citation patterns, word clouds of keywords were obtained for each of the communities identified via slm detection in the bibliographic coupling network. for this purpose, community-based abstracts were obtained by combining the abstracts associated with the dhq papers belonging to each community. these community-wide abstracts were normalized to lower case, tokenized, and stop words were removed. words were not stemmed in order to differentiate between words like digital and digitized. unique keywords were extracted from the community- based abstracts with custom r programs (using the r packages stringr and tm ). the most significant keywords for each community were then identified through the term frequency - inverse document frequency (tf-idf) method [ ]. terms with high tf-idf values imply a strong relationship with the document in which they appear. in this specific case, the terms are the unique keywords and the corpus of documents is the set of community-based abstracts. therefore, the higher the tf-idf value of a keyword in a http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/stringr/index.html http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/tm/index.html https://jkaupp.github.io/dhq https://jkaupp.github.io/dhq community, the more representative the keyword is of that community. the ten top-scoring words from each community were put into a word cloud and the words were sized by tf-idf score. the word clouds were manually adjusted to unify the appearance of terms (plural vs. singular, infinitive vs. gerund, etc.) and were added to the bibliographic coupling network visualization. re s u l t . co-author network figures and represent the co-author network for dhq, both comprehensively (figure ) and through cumulative time slices (figure ). nodes are sized by the number of works published in dhq, and in figure , authors with at least dhq publications are labeled with the author’s last name. nodes are colorized by the country of the author. the edges are weighted by the number of times each pair co- fig. co-author network, - authored a dhq publication together. the maximum number of authored works (articles) for a single author is : julianne nyhan from uk. the maximum co-authored articles for two authors are : by anne welsh and julianne nyhan from uk. the most active year is , as also shown in figure , with several authors publishing multiple papers in this year. . bibliographic coupling network with word clouds figure shows the backbone bibliographic coupling network for dhq, representing the strongest connections in the larger bibliographic coupling network (not shown). nodes are colored by community, as identified through slm detection, and sized by the number of articles cited in each article. edges are weighted by the number of cited articles in common. alongside each community is a larger versions of all visualizations are available in the github repository. word cloud of keywords in the same color extracted from the abstracts of each article in the community. fig. co-author network by year figure shows key papers in the backbone bibliographic coupling network, that is, the papers that link each of the communities in the giant component. the labels are shown in the same colors as the communities in figure . after we removed articles with zero references, the network contained articles (out of ), of which are without a connection to other (i.e. they remained isolate). these are not shown in the final visualization above, showing articles and connections. the bibliographic coupling network contains twelve communities, of which one consists of two articles not otherwise connected to the fig. backbone bibliographic coupling network for dhq. major component (see dark green at the upper right). the other eleven communities are all connected in the large component and shown with their respective word clouds. fig. key papers in the backbone bibliographic coupling network.articles there are a total of documents, including the articles from dhq itself. together all the dhq articles contain references. the highest cited document is matthew kirschenbaum’s “mechanisms: new media and the forensic imagination” ( ) , cited times. the dhq article with the most references is christine borgman’s “the digital future is now: a call to action for the humanities” ( ), with references. di s c u s s i o n . co-author network the co-author network suggest that dhq publications follow the patterns of the humanities community, with many single-authored papers ( out of , . %). moreover, its origins are in north america, and three quarters of the authors are from either the us ( %) and canada ( %). a distant third is the uk ( %), further demonstrating the anglo-saxon nature of dhq. the largest co-author network component consists of authors; which is about % of all authors ( authors in all) who contributed to dhq during this period. the second largest co-author network component consist of authors. canadian authors show the most collaborative behavior: the article with the most co-authors: “visualizing theatrical text: from watching the script to the simulated environment for theatre (set)” has co-authors. the most collaborative author in this period from canada is stan ruecker; he co-authored articles with others. there does not seem to be a growth of co-authorship after . overall, articles have on average a little under two authors per paper, and in a bit above two on average ( . ). when we remove all the single-authored papers, the average number of authors per article is above three, but there is no trend that this is growing with the years. . bibliographic coupling network with word clouds from the word clouds we see that several communities explicitly discuss terms such as digital and humanities as well as tool, which is unsurprising. at the centre of the large component, the communities (magenta, yellow, purple) of articles are related to (textual) tools and discussing dh itself, with terms such as curation, e-science, project, and research. the communities further to the left (light blue & dark blue) are related to textual analysis and tools, with terms such as classification, author, write, annotation, interface, and literary. the communities to the right however (dark purple, dark red, moss- green) suggest articles related to artistic subjects, with terms such as poetry, ekphrasis, games, and fiction. co n c l u s i o n we return to the questions provided by the dhq editors: . how citations reflect differences in academic culture at the institutional and geographic level . the changes to that culture over time. . correlations between article topics (reflected in keywords) and citation patterns. with respect to the first question, we focus on the geographic level of academic culture. the co-author network shows that despite dh being a collaborative culture, over half of all publications are single authored, something demonstrated earlier for other journals . moreover, dh as represented by dhq is largely an anglo-saxon north american undertaking. with respect to the second question; there is no visible trend regarding co-authorship between - . however, authors from non-anglo saxon countries are emerging, showing dh is slowly becoming a more global phenomenon as also evidenced by the dh conferences . with respect to the third question, we find that the references present in the dhq articles lead to a large number of communities. the boundaries are however diffuse, making it difficult to describe clear cut communities. however, from the word clouds we do see at least three different patterns emerge: ) article related to tools and dh itself, ) articles related to textual analysis with tools, and ) articles related to artistic subjects. while we have provided an exploration of the articles and authors within dhq, additional insights may be learned from further analysis. in particular, interactive visualizations will provide the user with a more comprehensive understanding of the data. these may allow the user to explore communities via institution or discipline as well as country. in addition, we believe a properly de-biased authorial bibliographic coupling network may provide further insight into the academic cultures within dhq. lastly, our analysis focused on dhq articles alone. further analysis may allow us to explore the non-dhq articles cited by dhq papers. in sum, we see dhq fairly represents the heterogeneity of dh, critically examining dh itself and discussing computational analyses of research questions from different backgrounds. on the other hand, however, we see dhq representing a somewhat homogeneous view of dh, with strong representation from anglo-saxon scholars and those from north america in particular. here, dhq can be challenged to provide a better representation of scholars from other backgrounds, as well as the ‘big tent’ of dh in general. ac k n o w l e d g m e n ts the authors wish to thank professor julia flander, professor katy börner, dr. andrea scharnhorst, and the participants of indiana university’s information visualization mooc for providing us valuable feedback during the process of the project work. re f e r e n c e s [ ] svensson, patrik. ( ) beyond the big tent. debates in the digital humanities, - . [ ] knorr cetina, k. ( ). culture in global knowledge societies: knowledge cultures and epistemic cultures. the blackwell http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/ / / /joint- authorship-digital-humanities-collaboration see http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/ / / /joint-authorship-digital-humanities-collaboration/ http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/ / / /joint-authorship-digital-humanities-collaboration/ http://www.scottbot.net/hial/?p= companion to the sociology of culture, ( ), – . doi: . / .ch [ ] digital humanities quarterly (n.d.). about dhq. retrieved from http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/about/about.html [ ] ortega, l., & antell, k. ( ). tracking cross-disciplinary information use by author affiliation: demonstration of a method. college & research libraries, ( ), – . retrieved from http://crl.acrl.org/content/ / / . [ ] sci team. ( ). science of science (sci ) tool. indiana university and scitech strategies, https://sci .cns.iu.edu. [ ] bastian, mathieu, sebastien heymann, and mathieu jacomy. "gephi: an open source software for exploring and manipulating networks." icwsm ( ): - . [ ] jacomy, mathieu, et al. "forceatlas , a continuous graph layout algorithm for handy network visualization." medialab center of research ( ). [ ] kessler, m. m. ( ). bibliographic coupling between scientific papers. american documentation, ( ), - . [ ] schvaneveldt, r. w., d. w. dearholt, and f. t. durso. "graph theoretic foundations of pathfinder networks." computers & mathematics with applications . ( ): - . [ ] waltman, ludo, and nees jan van eck. "a smart local moving algorithm for large-scale modularity-based community detection." the european physical journal b . ( ): - . [ ] blázquez, m. (n.d). frecuencias y pesos de los términos en un documento. retrieved from: http://ccdoc- tecnicasrecuperacioninformacion.blogspot.com.es/ / /frecuenc ias-y-pesos-de-los-terminos-de.html http://crl.acrl.org/content/ / / https://sci .cns.iu.edu/ http://ccdoc-tecnicasrecuperacioninformacion.blogspot.com.es/ / /frecuencias-y-pesos-de-los-terminos-de.html http://ccdoc-tecnicasrecuperacioninformacion.blogspot.com.es/ / /frecuencias-y-pesos-de-los-terminos-de.html http://ccdoc-tecnicasrecuperacioninformacion.blogspot.com.es/ / /frecuencias-y-pesos-de-los-terminos-de.html appendix : text and slides for dh paper this appendix contains the text and slides for a paper on dhq (mentioning but not focused primarily on the bibliographic project) presented at dh in australia: “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal: digital humanities quarterly,” julia flanders, john walsh, wendell piez, melissa terras. the text of this paper has been revised based on commentary and discussion in the conference session. flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh challenges of an xml-based open-access journal: digital humanities quarterly julia flanders (northeastern university) john walsh (indiana university) wendell piez (piez technologies) melissa terras (university college london) . introduction digital humanities quarterly was founded in as adho's first online open-access journal and published its first issue in . • in the ensuing ten years, the journal has been conducted as an ongoing experiment in standards-based journal publishing. • in this paper we’d like to reflect on the results of that experiment to date, with emphasis on a few areas of particular challenge and research interest during that period, other open-access journals in dh have also emerged, and if we look at them as a group we can see some differences of approach which reflect differences of goals and philosophy, and also the kinds of personnel and other resources they have available: • approach to the data: is the article data itself of interest as a potential future research asset? does the community have a predilection towards a particular data format (e.g. tei?) • approach to publication architecture: content management system (emphasizing configurability by novice administrators and design-oriented control over format) or data-driven approach (emphasizing consistent exploitation of the data with no design intervention except at the systemic level • where does the mission reside? in the content or in the information system? dhq is perhaps an extreme example of a data-driven journal with an overwhelming interest in its own information systems, and this orientation arises in great part from the specific people to whom the journal’s initial design and launch was entrusted: having a strong research interest in xml, in data curation, in future exploitation of the journal as a data source. this paper isn’t intended as an exercise in evangelism or self-praise, but rather an exploration of what happens when we choose that set of parameters and follow their logic. the results thus far may help others working on developing open-access journals to situate their efforts within this same set of constraints. . background and technical infrastructure a few words about dhq’s fiscal and organizational arrangements may be useful here because they determine many of the strategic choices i’ll be talking about. [slide] flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh • funded jointly by ach (which is the formal owner of the journal) and adho, each of which contributes $ per year. • as of , also receives funding from northeastern university for the managing editor positions, two graduate research assistants at hours per week each during the academic year; indiana university has also contributed staff time and services. • uses grant funding to support special projects (currently completing two small grant- funded projects which i’ll describe a bit later) • the journal is led by three general editors and a technical editor, together with an editorial team that has more specialized responsibilities • the editor in chief oversees two managing editors and the overall workflow of submission, review, and production; and the technical editor oversees a technical assistant and the maintenance and development of the journal’s technical systems (version control, servers, publication apparatus) dhq's technical design was constrained by a set of higher-level goals and needs. • as an early open-access journal of digital humanities, an opportunity to participate in the curation of an important segment of the scholarly record in the field. • hence more than usually important that the article data be stored and curated in a manner that would maximize the potential for future reuse. • in addition to mandating the use of open standards, this aim also strongly indicated that the data should be represented in a semantically rich format. • also anticipated a need for flexibility and the ability to experiment with both the underlying data and the publication interface, throughout the life of the journal, without constraint from the publication system. all of these considerations moved the journal in the direction of xml (and eventually to tei), which would give us the ability to represent any semantic features of the journal articles we might find necessary for either formatting or subsequent research. it would also permit us to design a journal publication system, using open-source components, that could be closely adapted to the dhq data and that could evolve (at our own pace and based on our own agenda) to match any changes in requirements for the data. at the journal's founding, several alternative publishing platforms were proposed (including the open journal system), but none were xml- based and none offered the opportunity for open-ended experimentation that we needed. dhq's technical infrastructure is a standard xml publishing pipeline [slide] built using components that are familiar in the digital humanities: • cocoon: pipelining tool that manages user interactions • xslt to transform the xml • css and a little javascript for formatting and behavior • eventually, an xml database to handle queries to bibliographic data workflow also uses generally available tools: [slide] • submissions are received and managed through ojs through the copyediting stage flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh • final versions of articles are converted to basic tei using oxgarage (http://www.tei- c.org/oxgarage/). • further encoding and metadata are added by hand • items from the articles' bibliographies are entered into a centralized bibliographic system that is also xml-based. • all journal content is maintained under version control using subversion. the journal's organizational information concerning volumes, issues, and tables of contents is represented in xml using a locally defined schema [slide]. • the journal uses cocoon, an xml/xslt pipelining tool, to process the xml components and generate the user interface. consider dhq in relation to two other journals who are more or less in the same quadrant, digital medievalist (first issue in ) and jtei (first issue in ), which have some similarities of approach to dhq: • desire to keep data in semantically rich formats such as tei • using open-source tools • dm and jtei both have developed publishing workflows based on their tei data • neither journal is the sole proprietor of its own publishing system, so the evolution of their publishing platform is to some extent constrained by the goals of those platforms (driven by the entire community of users, not just that journal) • hence these journals benefit from advances by those communities but can’t easily anticipate them or exercise a determining influence • whereas dhq has the reverse problem: we are responsible for our own interface, so we are free to change it as much as we like, but we have to find the resources to do it ourselves. . dhq's evolving data and interface as noted above, dhq's approach to the representation of its article data has from the start been shaped by an emphasis on long-term data curation and a desire to accommodate experimentation, and our specific encoding practices have evolved significantly during the journal's lifetime. • the first schema developed for the journal was deliberately homegrown, and was designed based on an initial informal survey of article submissions and articles published in other venues. • following this initial period of experimentation and bottom-up schema development, once the schema had settled into a somewhat stable form we expressed it as a tei customization and did retrospective conversion on the existing data to bring it into conformance with the new schema. • at several subsequent points significant new features have been added to the journal's encoding: for example, explicit representation of revision sites within articles (for authorial changes that go beyond simple correction of typographical errors), enhancements to the display of images through a gallery feature, and adaptation of the encoding of bibliographic data to a centralized bibliographic management system. flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh • at the beginning of our schema design process, we noted that at some point we might want to create a “crayon-box” schema whose elements would be deliberately designed to support author-specified semantics (slide), with the author also providing the display and behavioral logic, but we have not yet had a call for this approach and have not yet explored it in any practical detail. these changes to the data have typically been driven by emerging functional requirements, such as the need to show where an article has been revised or the requirements of the special issue on comics as scholarship. however, they also respond to a broader set of requirements: • that this data should represent the intellectual contours of scholarship rather than simply interface. • for example, the encoding of revision notes retains the text of the original version, identifies the site of the revision, and supports an explanatory note by the author describing the reason for the revision. although dhq's current display uses this data in a simple manner to permit the reader to read the original or revised version, the data would support more advanced study of revision across the journal. • similarly, although our current display uses the encoding of quoted material and accompanying citations in very straightforward ways, the same data could readily be used to generate a visualization showing most commonly quoted passages, quotations that commonly occur in the same articles, and similar analyses of the research discourse. the underlying data and architecture lend themselves to incremental expansion. . experimentation; design vs. data-driven approach dhq’s data driven approach is rooted in caution and in motives of security, which are in a sense fundamentally conservative. supporting the long-term preservability and intelligibility of our articles-as-data becomes much easier if that data is strongly convergent. similarly, our task of publication is much easier and cheaper if our mechanisms of display are strongly determined by the data. however, one principle we articulated at the journal’s launch was the idea that we wanted to support experimentation not just by ourselves but by authors, and we established a rationale for this experimentation that expressed its costs and risks and allocation of responsibility in terms of conceptual “zones”: [slide] • zone is dhq proper, using standard dhq markup and display logic. within zone we seek to provide an expanding set of functions that keep up with the most typical needs of dhq authors. dhq takes full and perpetual responsibility for maintaining zone articles in working order. • zone is a space of collaborative experimentation between dhq and the author, in which we can accommodate author-generated data and code under specified terms: o it must meet certain standards of curatability: using open standards and formats, using tools and languages that make sense for dhq to maintain expertise in o it must conform to good practice (documentation, commented code) so that the code itself can be considered a publication, not just an instrument of getting something done flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh o it must include an xml fall-back description so that if the experimental version breaks, readers can still find an intelligible account of it, and also to provide some kind of basic operation and discoverability within dhq’s standard search mechanisms • dhq takes a more cautious form of responsibility for articles in zone : we’ll curate the data and we’ll do our best to keep the code working, but we can’t guarantee that we’ll support all of its dependencies in the future since we can’t be sure our resources will support that level of effort • zone is a space of authorial autonomy, with many fewer constraints on the author and greatly diminished responsibility on dhq’s part: o the code needs to be something that can actually run on dhq servers without risk, or else the author can host it on his/her server o the code needs to conform to good practice (documentation and commenting) o there needs to be an xml fall-back description, which is even more important in this case because the likelihood of fragility is so much greater so it’s interesting to consider at this point what forms that experimentation might take: how do authors actually want to experiment, and how far are we actually prepared to go to support them? at a very simple level: • we can observe that authors do want control over formatting, and this gives us a window into what “authoring” in the digital medium entails. • the most common kinds of requests or push-back we get from authors have to do with layout: the formatting of tables, the placement and sizing of images, the fine-tuning of epigraphs and code samples. • note that these are all components with a strong visual component to their rhetoric; unlike paragraphs and notes and block quotations and citations, in which the strength of the semantic signal is so strong that we receive their full informational payload regardless of how they are formatted, these visual features have the potential to mean differently or less successfully if they look different. • these are also all features for which it would be comparatively easy for dhq to provide finer mechanisms of control simply by making our own stylesheets more elaborate (asking them to handle more article-specific renditional information, and taking the trouble to work out the potential collisions and tricky cases): so the chief limiter here is cost. at a more advanced level, authors might experiment by proposing new semantic features. the actual examples so far have been features that are recognizable but that we just hadn’t anticipated and hadn’t developed any specific encoding for: • timelines • annotated bibliography • survey data • oral history interviews flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh we have the choice here of representing these as if they were more generic features we already support (an oral history interview is a dramatic dialogue; a timeline is a kind of list), or of treating them as semantically distinct. the most compelling motivation for the latter approach would be the possibility of strengthening our support for the study of discourse, which would entail having a larger set of instances: so here, the role of the initial experiment is to bring a given feature to our notice but the work of actually supporting it is only warranted if it’s a feature other people want as well. we have also had a few examples of genuinely experimental writing in which the author was deliberately departing from the genre of the scholarly article. (slides: trettien). • the question we have to ask here is: are these experiments in semantics or in design? we’ve seen that a journal like dhq can in principle accommodate authorial control over display (at a cost), and as we noted earlier, we have at least theoretically entertained the idea of allowing authorially specified semantics through a specialized schema. the question is, which are these experimental authors asking for? if we examine these cases more closely, a few points are worth noting: • the experimental cases so far have been expressed as javascript and html, and their rhetorical innovation takes the form of textual behaviors: responsiveness to reader actions (mouseover, clicking) in the form of navigation and motion, the text moving or changing form. • in other words, they emphasize effects which are significant precisely because they depart from display norms; the trettien piece plays on our expectations of textual fixity and accuracy, and the bianco piece thwarts our expectations about reading one thing at a time • however, they don’t seem to introduce a new semantics, a new rhetorical feature that they could usefully declare through through their encoding: the innovation lies in what they do rather than in what they are; it lies precisely in how the reader will experience the surface of the text rather than in what the reader might do if he/she could get at the underlying data and work directly with that. giving the reader access to “the data” would give the reader nothing at all of what is actually going on in these pieces. so far, we have not had any proposed experiments that work in the other direction. what would they look like? • an article that does exactly what trettien did, but using xml rather than html as the source data • an article that is mostly structured data (e.g. data from a survey) with xslt that presents it to the reader for inspection and manipulation (sorting, filtering) • a special issue that uses a tei customization and for which the guest editors have developed xslt and css that exploits the articles’ markup the best way for us to pursue this kind of experimentation would be to invite proposals, perhaps structured around a grant proposal to provide some support for stylesheet development. (consider this an informal invitation!) flanders et al., “challenges of an xml-based open-access journal”, dh . next steps dhq has several developmental projects under way: • with generous support from a grant organized by marco büchler from the university of leipzig, we are implementing an oai-pmh server for dhq through which we can better expose the journal’s metadata • [slide] we have just completed an neh dh startup grant which funded the development of a centralized bibliography for dhq: important improvement for dhq’s production processes, but also opens up some exciting potential for citation analysis and data visualization; we’ll be publishing an article about this in the coming months • we are also in the planning stages of a project to explore internationalization of the journal through a series of special issues dedicated to individual languages. this will involve some further work on the schema and interface, and also changes to the workflow to accommodate a multilingual review process. we will be working within our existing constraints of finances and personnel so we’ll need to proceed deliberately, but we’re excited to be undertaking this step. challenges of an xml-based open-access journal: digital humanities quarterly julia flanders, northeastern university john walsh, indiana university wendell piez, piez consulting melissa terras, university college london experimentation with data ex pe rim en ta tio n w ith in te rfa ce dhq archive vectors jtei digital medievalist dhnow/jdh scholarly editing ds/cn digital commons background on dhq •  founded in , first issue in •  jointly funded by ach and adho •  hosted and supported at northeastern university and indiana university •  grant-funded special projects staff and organization •  general editors: julia flanders, wendell piez, melissa terras •  technical editor: john walsh •  managing editors: elizabeth hopwood, duyen nguyen, jonathan fitzgerald •  technical assistant (currently vacant) •  editorial team: stéfan sinclair, adriaan van der weel, alex gil, michelle dalmau, jessica pressman, geoffrey rockwell, sarah buchanan •  special teams players: jeremy boggs •  abundant excellent peer reviewers subversion repository dhq server space digitalhumanities.org browser tei/xml articles xslt cocoondhq bibliographic data oai server oaiharvesters word, tei, html, plain text submission open journal system (review, feedback, revision tracking) dhq subversion (encoding, author review) conversion to tei oxgarage publication an experiment in xml experimental text block with behaviors controlled by stylesheets and the possibility of inline elements whose formatting and behavior are also controlled by stylesheets. namespaces could also be used to include user-defined elements (or elements from other established xml languages) with specified semantics. this article has been revised since its original publication. a response solicited by the author from matthew kirschenbaum has been added as a footnote. zone features curation zone dhq markup and stylesheets dhq in perpetuity zone author-supplied code, constrained by dhq support capabilities; zone fallback required dhq good faith curation zone author-supplied code, constrained by good practice guidelines; zone fallback required no dhq responsibility “mapping cultures in the big tent: multidisciplinary networks in the digital humanities quarterly,” dulce maria de la cruz, jake kaupp, max kemman, kristin lewis, and teh-hen yu. final project submitted for information visualization mooc, indiana university, may . thank you! julia flanders @julia_flanders john walsh wendell piez melissa terras @melissaterras visualizingdhq_final_paper.pdf introduction method . data . co-author network . bibliographic coupling & backbone identification . word clouds result f . co-author network . bibliographic coupling network with word clouds discussion . co-author network . bibliographic coupling network with word clouds conclusion acknowledgments references research poster x - d it can be inferred that an information- communicational production, in this research argued by the regime of visibility concept, is an intellectual capital form of expression and control. therefore, technical objects in the humanities assumes the rhetorical paper known as digital humanities. challenges of scientific communication and dilemmas of an information-communicational consumer society: regimes of visibility in the communication domain, technical objects and control devices patricia pui yue lee, phd student , ; ricardo medeiros pimenta, phd , ibict – instituto brasileiro de informação em ciência e tecnologia, ufrj – federal university of rio de janeiro / faculty of information science introduction discussion results figure . timeline with authors who discuss society and its control devices, the process of "individuation" and technical objects . abstract methods and materials conclusions references contact replace this box with your organization’s high resolution logo the challenges of scientific communication in the era of digital humanities are discussed facing the cognitive awakening of the public who consumes the information available in written, sound, visual and audiovisual productions. it is assumed that the information- communicational productions, both in their form and in their content, are appropriate to a consumer society whose access to information is translated into entertainment and the merchandise to be acquired. in fact, these productions are linked to an information system that has been set side by side with the capitalism domain. thus, the study consists of qualitative bibliographical analysis of authors who discuss society and its control devices, the process of "individuation" and technical objects. finally, the study makes final considerations about written, sound, visual and audiovisual productions by comparing them with technical objects. this research built an timeline with academic authors and their contributions which collaborates to analyze and explain how technical objects artificially incorporate, firstly, as supporting instruments to human history (otlet, ) and physical memory (bush, ), as extensions of the human body (mcluhan, , ), as facilities to life routine and, lately, as modes of behavior (simondon, ) and as unhealthy control devices (deleuze, ; stiegler, ). ( ) scientific communication ( ) consumer society ( ) regimes of visibility ( ) technical objects/control devices ( ) digital humanities the study consists of qualitative bibliographical timeline analysis of academic authors who discuss society of control and its devices, such as: ( ) paul otlet ( ; ); ( ) vannevar bush ( ); ( ) marshall mcluhan ( ; ); ( ) gilbert simondon ( ); ( ) gilles deleuze ( ); e ( ) bernard stiegler ( ). among this reflexive objective we will also consider inquiring the role of technological and digital devices that configure as processes of "concretization" experienced by what simondon ( ) calls technical objects and what we cogitate as material evidence of technological increment by the human in an era more and more accelerated and dystrophic by digital devices and its solutions. the theme of this research is the challenges of information science from a socio-cultural and philosophical perspective for the consumption of information in its various forms of visibility. following socioeconomic transformations, productions – such as written, sound, visual and audiovisual – act as part of one power and knowledge regime that promotes not only control of information by aesthetic visual solutions (with the aim to communicate) but surveillance in many levels including to serve the market. as main research issue, there is the assumption that the real image of society is quite different from the one transmitted. such disparity is due to the control and accumulation of informational capital through its control devices, artifacts and technical objects which act in the maintenance of social, political and economic power. it is justified by the emergence of several technology innovations in order to support the society of control. the control device environment is a kind of "network", crossed and circumscribed by fields of force constantly in action either by the idea of the deleuzian "capture machine" ( ). therefore, as a research objective, this contribution consists of qualitative bibliographical analysis that could help us to think about digital humanities role in the scenario above presented. . bush, vannevar. as we may think. atlantic monthly, v. , , p. - , . . deleuze, gilles. os intelectuais e o poder (com michel foucault) in _________. a ilha deserta: e outros textos. são paulo: iluminuras, . p. - . . deleuze, gilles. capitalismo e esquizofrenia (com félix guattari) in _________. a ilha deserta: e outros textos. são paulo: iluminuras, . p. - . . deleuze, gilles. ¿que és un dispositivo? in: _________. michel foucault, filósofo. barcelona: gedisa, . p. - . . deleuze, gilles. post-scriptum sobre as sociedades de controle in _________.conversações. rio de janeiro: ed. , . p. - . . mcluhan, marshall. understanding media: the extensions of man. berkeley, ca: gingko press, . . mcluhan, marshall. os meios de comunicação como extensões do homem (understanding media), ª edição. são paulo: editora cultrix, . . otlet, paul. l’organisation des travaux scientifiques. in: association franÇaise pour l’avancement des sciences. conférences faites en - . paris: association française pour l’avancement des sciences, . p. - . (conferénce de m. otlet). . otlet, paul. traité de documentation: le livre sur le livre. thèorie et pratique. liège, centre de lecture publique de la communauté française de belgique, , pp. - . .otlet, paul. traité de documentation: le livre sur le livre – théorie et pratique, vol. liège, centre de lecture publique de la communauté française de belgique, . p. .simondon, gilbert. . introduction. in: l'individuation à la lumière des notions de forme et d'information. paris: édition jérôme millon, p. - [ ]. .stiegler, bernard. technics and time, : – the fault of epimetheus, stanford, california: the board of trustees of the leland stanford junior university, , p. - . .stiegler, bernard. the writting screen. [unpublished], disponível em: https://www.academia.edu/ /bernard_st iegler_the_writing_screen_ _. . patricia pui yue lee ibict/ eco/ ufrj email: patricialohlee@gmail.com phone: + - website: http://www.ppgci.ufrj.br/pt/ paul otlet ( - ) vannevar bush ( - ) marshall mcluhan ( - ) bernard stiegler ( - ) gilles deleuze ( - ) gilbert simondon ( - ) / editorial for the special issue on “digital humanities” information editorial editorial for the special issue on “digital humanities” cesar gonzalez-perez institute of heritage sciences (incipit), spanish national research council (csic), avda. vigo, s/n, santiago de compostela, spain; cesar.gonzalez-perez@incipit.csic.es received: july ; accepted: july ; published: july �� digital humanities are often described in terms of humanistic work being carried out with the aid of digital tools, usually computer-based. other disciplinary fields in, for example biology or economy, went through a digital turn a few years or decades ago. now, many areas of the humanities are going the same way. this is especially so of literary studies, linguistics, and archaeology. many researchers in the humanities regularly carry out their work in information- and computing-intensive settings, employing techniques and tools that so far have been limited to software engineers or computer scientists [ ]. however, there is little consensus on what digital humanities actually are, whether they constitute a new discipline or just a passing fad, or how they change the nature of humanistic enquiry. in this setting, the role of information is especially relevant. as with any other field of study, researchers in the humanities produce large amounts of information that is generated, stored, manipulated, communicated, and visualised through digital means. this special issue attempts to contribute to a better understanding of digital humanities by focusing on the role that information plays in humanistic research and, specifically, how humanistic knowledge is generated, communicated, used, and institutionalised through information-intensive tools, techniques, and methods. relevant issues include how things are documented and described; how natural language is incorporated into the research process; how time, space, subjectivity, change, and multilingualism affect reasoning and knowledge production; how computing techniques (such as big data, artificial intelligence, or information visualisation) can help in the humanities; finally, any other aspects of humanistic research that are often performed in information-intensive settings. the articles in this special issue cover a wide range of topics related to information in digital humanities. some address information issues from an ontological point of view. this includes, for example, “capturing the silences in digital archaeological knowledge” [ ], which explores non-knowledge, or lack of knowledge as captured in archaeological datasets. the article “linking theories, past practices, and archaeological remains of movement through ontological reasoning” [ ] proposes new approaches to knowledge generation through the construction of ontologies, with a special focus on movement over a territory. finally, the article “ontology-mediated historical data modeling: theoretical and practical tools for an integrated construction of the past” [ ] takes a constructionist approach to the whole life cycle, from knowledge modelling to the development of a software tool, to aid in the study of the past. other articles take a more specialised approach, such as “exploring west african folk narrative texts using machine learning” [ ], which employs a number of natural language processing techniques to process and compare two corpora of west african folk tales. additionally, the article “one archaeology: a manifesto for the systematic and effective use of mapped data from archaeological fieldwork and research” [ ] proposes a public sector-oriented approach to managing and sharing archaeological geospatial information. the remaining articles in the special issue tackle the very relevant aspect of language and its connection to information generation and use. “measuring language distance of isolated european languages” [ ] employs corpus-based techniques, as opposed to phylogenetic approaches, information , , ; doi: . /info www.mdpi.com/journal/information http://www.mdpi.com/journal/information http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://www.mdpi.com/journal/information information , , of to obtain distance measurements between isolated languages in europe, whereas “software support for discourse-based textual information analysis: a systematic literature review and software guidelines in practice” [ ] produces a systematic literature review of software tools for discourse analysis and introduces some guidelines for developing and adopting these tools. in summary, this special issue on information in digital humanities covers aspects of ontological modelling and reasoning, theorising on the past, natural language, geo-spatial information, and software tools, among others. we hope that these articles help us advance in our understanding of the roles that information play in humanistic research and practice. funding: this research received no external funding. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . gonzalez-perez, c. information modelling for archaeology and anthropology; springer: berlin/heidelberg, germany, . . huggett, j. capturing the silences in digital archaeological knowledge. information , , . [crossref] . nuninger, l.; verhagen, p.; libourel, t.; opitz, r.; rodier, x.; laplaige, c.; fruchart, c.; leturcq, s.; levoguer, n. linking theories, past practices, and archaeological remains of movement through ontological reasoning. information , , . [crossref] . travé allepuz, e.; del fresno bernal, p.; mauri martí, a. ontology-mediated historical data modeling: theoretical and practical tools for an integrated construction of the past. information , , . [crossref] . lô, g.; de boer, v.; van aart, c.j. exploring west african folk narrative texts using machine learning. information , , . [crossref] . mckeague, p.; corns, a.; larsson, Å.; moreau, a.; posluschny, a.; van daele, k.; evans, t. one archaeology: a manifesto for the systematic and effective use of mapped data from archaeological fieldwork and research. information , , . [crossref] . gamallo, p.; pichel, j.r.; alegria, i. measuring language distance of isolated european languages. information , , . [crossref] . martin-rodilla, p.; sánchez, m. software support for discourse-based textual information analysis: a systematic literature review and software guidelines in practice. information , , . [crossref] © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://dx.doi.org/ . /info http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. references editors' note: february reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. editors' note: february jennifer guiliano , roopika risam , tanya clement iupui, salem state university, university of texas at austin published on: feb , doi: . / e f f.a c c license: creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. editors' note: february editors’ note jennifer guiliano and roopika risam reviews in digital humanities has been an ongoing experiment in building the capacity of digital humanists to offer peer reviews that blend humanistic and technical inquiry. to this point, we’ve focused on capacity building with f aculty, staff, cultural heritage professionals, and individual graduate students. in this issue, we experiment with scaling the work of capacity building by partnering with a class of graduate students and their instructor. tanya clement, in the department of english at university of texas, was our willing partner as we explored whether we could introduce students to the reviews model and train them to analyze projects and produce reviews over the course of a semester. as you’ll see from clement’s guest editor’s note below, the short answer is yes. clement’s students produced thirteen publishable reviews, which will be published across three issues. to help clement, we provided access to our submissions spreadsheet that tracks projects that have been nominated for review. with her students, she selected projects from that list and augmented them with other projects that students were interested in reviewing. we then solicited project overviews from project directors so by the time classes started for f all semester, students had access to raw materials. at the outset of their sequence of assignments related to reviews, we met virtually with the students. we explained the motivation behind our experiment, reviewed our workflow, and answered their questions about what reviewing does in the discipline. clement, as their instructor, then took over by teaching them how to review. below, she describes how that work occurred. we’re pleased with the results of the experiments and extend our deepest thanks to clement and her students. generally, the process for using reviews in a course is as follows: three months prior to the start of the course: contact reviews to propose your student issue. please provide us with a description of the course, including the estimated number of students. if you wish to do a thematic issue, please share the theme you wish your students to pursue. we will then schedule a call with you to identify potential projects from the open submissions we’ve received as well as generate a list of projects to invite, if necessary. usually, we’ll ask for at least - projects more than the number of total reviews you intend to publish. this allows us to account for projects that are not ready to review or cannot participate. days prior to the start of course: we will send invitations to project directors to solicit overviews. most overviews are returned in days. days prior to the start of the course: schedule class meetings where reviews editors will participate. mailto:reviewsindigitalhumanities@gmail.com mailto:reviewsindigitalhumanities@gmail.com reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. editors' note: february our aim is that course-based reviews issues are published the semester following the course, when possible. if you are considering integrating reviews into a course, drop us a note! you can also submit a project for review, nominate a project you admire, volunteer for our reviewer pool, and tell your colleagues and students about the journal. questions? thoughts? concerns? contact the editors, jennifer guiliano and roopika risam, by email or through the twitter hashtag #reviewsindh. guest editor’s note tanya clement for years, i've been teaching a graduate-level introduction to digital humanities course at the university of texas, first in the school of information and more recently in the department of english. the class has historically attracted students from the school of information and departments across the college of liberal arts, including african and african diaspora studies, american studies, classics, english, geography, history, and spanish and portuguese. my goal in teaching the course is to empower students to engage in digital humanities research and scholarship based on their own interests and academic contexts. to that end, i want students to leave the course with a better understanding of digital humanities research goals, methodologies, and scholarship venues, including conferences, book series, journals, and projects across disciplines. i want them to know enough to either move ahead with a rigorous digital humanities agenda in their own research or to walk away with a better sense of digital humanities knowledge production as complementary to their own fields of study. this special issue of reviews in digital humanities represents one type of pedagogical activity in the classroom: the review essay. this issue represents the work of my students as they developed proficiency in evaluating digital projects. reviews has been a f antastic resource for the course. it provides an up-to-date picture of digital humanities projects across a range of topic areas with varied resources, methodologies, and platforms. the overview explains the who, what, why, and how behind each project, while the review puts each project in context with related research. further — and perhaps most importantly for preparing for my course and as a later resource for my students — projects are made discoverable by the reviews semester work: students work with their instructor based on the timeline agreed upon in the course syllabus. reviews editors can participate in revising project reviews, as needed. once reviews are finalized, the instructor writes an editorial note and shares all final reviews and the guest editor note to reviews for publication. https://reviewsindh.pubpub.org/review-process https://tinyurl.com/reviewsindhprojectnominations https://tinyurl.com/reviewsindhreviewersignup mailto:reviewsindigitalhumanities@gmail.com https://twitter.com/search?q=reviewsindh&src=typeahead_click reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. editors' note: february keywords. finding digital humanities projects across the web that are good examples for students is impossibly difficult; finding good digital humanities projects in reviews is a breeze. in addition, the structure of the reviews, which asks reviewers to include an assessment of the project’s humanistic claims and evidence, assessment of the technology used/developed, and analysis of the project and its place within existing scholarship and technological practices, aligns with my own criteria for students. i want them to understand that digital humanities is not just about using digital tools in the humanities. rather, as reviews shows, thinking critically about the role that digital methodologies play in knowledge production is at the heart of digital humanities research and scholarship. writing a review for the journal was a natural project for the course as it aligned with what i wanted to teach students about thinking critically about and within digital humanities. finally, in reviews, the students have a public platform on which to publish their work in a safe and guided environment f acilitated by me but more so by editors guiliano and risam. managing the students’ review-writing process was straightforward. i worked with guiliano and risam on identifying ten projects we thought students would be interested in reviewing. eight project directors wrote back with overviews. in teams of two, my students read previously published reviews from the journal, and we discussed them and the review criteria in class. students chose projects they wanted to review and, over the course of six weeks, we wrote drafts together, shared drafts with each other, and wrote and shared peer reviews in small groups. i gave them feedback (and took some for my own review) and offered them the opportunity to make changes needed for publication. each student in the course chose to work toward publication. the issue you find here represents the collaborative review culture in my classroom. and, importantly, it suggests one avenue for broadening opportunities for students to publish their coursework to assist the field as a whole. enjoy! part (february ): part (march ): louisiana slave conspiracies, reviewed by keerti arora and anna lawrence; on the books: jim crow and algorithms of resistance, reviewed by ann marie blackmon and caroline collins; slave revolt in jamaica, - , reviewed by ethan warren; relaciones geográficas, reviewed by anna lawrence and keerti arora; and the anti-eviction mapping project, reviewed by tanya clement. media history digital library, reviewed by nina gary and becky yatsuknenko; songdata, reviewed by carl teegerstrom and kayleigh voss; reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. editors' note: february part (april ): furious flower digital archive, reviewed by gabrielle roth; and tribesourcing southwest film project, reviewed by carl teegerstrom. the collective biographies of women, reviewed by ali gunnells; mapping the gay guides, reviewed by katherin tairo-quispe; the lesbian and gay liberation in canada prosopography project, reviewed by becky yatsuknenko and nina gary; readux, reviewed by james lacitignola and katherin tairo; and distant viewing toolkit, reviewed by patrick sui. wjla_a_ _p journal of library administration, : – , copyright © taylor & francis group, llc issn: - print / - online doi: . / . . digital humanities and libraries: a conceptual model chris alen sula school of information & library science, pratt institute, new york, ny, usa abstract. though there has been much discussion of the con- nection between libraries and digital humanities (on both sides), a general model of the two has not been forthcoming. such a model would provide librarians with an overview of the diverse work of digital humanities (some of which they may already perform) and help identify pockets of activity through which each side might en- gage the other. this article surveys the current locations of digital humanities work, presents a cultural informatics model of libraries and the digital humanities, and situates digital humanities work within the user-centered paradigm of library and information sci- ence. keywords digital humanities, academic libraries, research li- braries, services, users, cultural informatics introduction in , the chronicle of higher education called digital humanities “the first ‘next big thing’ in a long time, because the implications of digital technol- ogy affect every field” (pannapacker, ). by that point, several popular books had already been published (schreibman, siemens, & unsworth, ; cohen & rosenzweig, ; moretti, ; seimens & schreibman, ; boot, ), major journals established (digital humanities quarterly, digi- tal humanities now, digital medievalist, international journal of humanities and arts computing, literary and linguistic computing), and dozens of fed- eral grants awarded to projects in the area of digital humanities—not to mention many more ongoing projects at that time. address correspondence to chris alen sula, assistant professor and coordinator of digital humanities, school of information & library science, pratt institute, west th st., sixth floor, new york, ny , usa. e-mail: csula@pratt.edu digital humanities and libraries while skeptics today remain unsure of the “newness” of digital hu- manities (dh) or how it will impact the content of scholarship (fish, , a, b; marche, ), dh has already had significant influence on discussions of scholarly communication, funding, and tenure and promotion. nearly digital humanities grants and fellowships have been awarded by national endowment for the humanities (neh, a) since (this figure does not include grants for preservation, infrastructure, and cultural heritage, or funding from other agencies for humanities projects that include a digital component). the modern language association ( ) has issued guidelines for evaluating digital scholarship for the purposes of tenure and promotion, and job candidates lament that many openings in the humanities now re- quire some background in digital humanities (mla jobs tumblr, ). for a growing list of dh jobs, see the digital humanities job archive ( ). given the impact of digital humanities on these institutionalized processes, it is natural to wonder how dh might be connected to one of the oldest institutions in knowledge work: the library. discussion of digital humanities and its connection to libraries has grown rapidly in the past several years, and on both sides of the aisle. stephen ramsay ( ) has linked dh to one of the oldest functions of the library, namely knowledge organization: of all scholarly pursuits, digital humanities most clearly represents the spirit that animated the ancient foundations at alexandria, pergamum, and memphis, the great monastic libraries of the middle ages, and even the first research libraries of the german enlightenment. it is obsessed with varieties of representation, the organization of knowledge, the tech- nology of communication and dissemination, and the production of use- ful tools for scholarly inquiry. several others have asked if the library can function as a space for the digi- tization, computation, and preservation work that accompanies dh projects. for evidence of continuing interest in libraries, one need look no further than thatcamp—a series of locally-organized unconferences—attendance at which has been discussed as a defining characteristics of digital human- ists. the pop-up topics at thatcamps frequently include the library, and a special thatcamp libraries was held in november in conjunction with the digital library federation forum. within library and information science (lis), there is a corresponding (if more dispersed) discussion of dh. though dh is less prominent at national conferences, it has received attention within the field, including major orga- nizations. the american library association’s (ala) association of college and research libraries hosts a listserv for digital humanities discussion and recently launched a new blog that includes events, resources, case studies, and tools (http://acrl.ala.org/dh). the council on library and information c. a. sula figure digital humanities publications in library and information science, – . resources and the association of research libraries have both published a major reports on digital humanities centers, which are discussed in section two below. the institute of museum and library services (imls) has also supported collaboration between ischools and digital humanities centers, in- cluding internships for lis masters students working in the digital humanities (ischools & the digital humanities). a search for “digital humanities” within library and information science literature reveals a steady increase in publications since in the library, information science & technology abstracts (lista) database, which in- dexes over journals as well as books, research reports, and proceedings. (see figure ). it is remarkable that publications on digital humanities have nearly doubled in , with more still being indexed at the time of this publication. a topic model of the sources returned by the query is given in table . these topics were generated using latent dirichlet allocation (lda) in a free tool based on the popular mallet toolkit (http://code.google.com/p/topic- modeling-tool). lda views each document as a mixture of topics and uses word distribution to calculate the probability that each document contains each topic. for example, the concepts library and archive might be distributed across a corpus such that documents containing the words ‘cat- alog,’ ‘book,’ and ‘barcode’ would have a probability of . of being about library, while documents containing ‘notes,’ ‘scope,’ and ‘provenance’ would have a . probability of being about archive. in practice, these topics are usually unknown at the start of the analysis and must be inter- preted from a list of terms that are found to cluster together. thus, topic modeling using lda resembles an exercise in knowledge organization, in which higher-level categories must be created from lower-level “documents” (in this case, word clusters). digital humanities and libraries table topic analysis of “digital humanities” abstracts in lista ( – ) topics top terms in topic arts & humanities librarianship [ ] humanities, web, access, scholars, tools, journals, students, art, academic, online digital infrastructure [ ] article, libraries, library, collections, content, national, computer, metadata, researchers, documents knowledge production & collaboration [ ] digital, paper, data, technologies, based, collaboration, knowledge, study, projects, approach digital scholarship [ ] digital, university, information, work, project, science, dh, technology, scholarship, projects research communities [ ] research, resources, text, analysis, twitter, social, conference, including, open, community since topic titles involve significant interpretation, it is helpful to trian- gulate the assignments using a variety of methods. in the case of the lista abstracts, five topics were created using lda, and titles were assigned, first, by examining the term clusters and the abstracts in which they occur. for example, a number of abstracts in the first topic concerned access to arts and humanities collections, as well as online resources. since these fall under the province of subject librarians, the topic was titled “arts and humanities librarianship.” in some cases, it was helpful to examine the full dataset (not just clusters of top ten words) using a network graph (see figure ). in this graph, each document appears with its weighted relations (i.e., prob- ability assignments) to topics. documents and topics that are more closely related appear together, while those that are unrelated or weakly related are pushed apart. this graph helped in assigning titles to topics and , which are more closely related to each other than any other pair in the corpus. the titles “arts and humanities librarianships” and “research communities” (respectively) help express this relationship, since subject librarianship is in- deed connected to understanding various research communities and their needs, resources, and methods of communication. the five topics present in the lista abstracts show a wide range of engagement with the digital humanities. this interest also seems in keeping with several of the core competencies of librarianship described by the ala, which “a person graduating from an ala-accredited master’s program in library and information studies should know and, where appropriate, be able to employ” (american library association, ). among the most germane competencies to dh are those concerning information resources (esp. digital resources), knowledge organization (esp. cataloging and classification of dh materials), technological knowledge and skills (including the analytical, c. a. sula figure network graph of topic analysis of “digital humanities” abstracts in lista ( – ). visualization, and content management tools used by digital humanists), and users services, which will be taken up in the fourth section of this paper (see table ). given this significant overlap in interests, competencies, and institutional structures, we are left to wonder not whether but how libraries can join in the work of digital humanities. some commentators follow micah vandegrift’s ( ) enthusiastic injunction, “stop asking if the library has a role, or what it is, and start getting involved in digital projects that are already happening.” (for more details on this view, see vandegrift and varner (this issue). others are less sanguine about the realities of librarianship and the possibility for jumping into new, digital humanities projects. miriam posner (this issue) highlights important institutional barriers to dh work in the library, including workload, conventions of assigning credit solely to faculty members, and lack of institutional commitment. further discussions of challenges are found in libraryloon ( ), furlough ( ), muñoz ( ), and galina russell digital humanities and libraries table ala core competencies of librarianship related to digital humanities a. concepts and issues related to the lifecycle of recorded knowledge and information, from creation through various stages of use to disposition. b. concepts, issues, and methods related to the acquisition and disposition of resources, including evaluation, selection, purchasing, processing, storing, and deselection. d. concepts, issues, and methods related to the maintenance of collections, including preservation and conservation. b. the developmental, descriptive, and evaluative skills needed to organize recorded knowledge and information resources. c. the systems of cataloging, metadata, indexing, and classification standards and methods used to organize recorded knowledge and information. a. information, communication, assistive, and related technologies as they affect the resources, service delivery, and uses of libraries and other information agencies. d. the principles and techniques necessary to identify and analyze emerging technologies and innovations in order to recognize and implement relevant technological improvements. d. information literacy/information competence techniques and methods, numerical literacy, and statistical literacy. e. the principles and methods of advocacy used to reach specific audiences to promote and explain concepts and services. f. the principles of assessment and response to diversity in user needs, user communities, and user preferences. g. the principles and methods used to assess the impact of current and emerging situations or circumstances on the design and implementation of appropriate services or resource development. a. the fundamentals of quantitative and qualitative research methods. a. the necessity of continuing professional development of practitioners in libraries and other information agencies. ( ). these challenges doubtless vary among and within institutions, so a general formula for the connection between libraries and digital humanities does not seem forthcoming. what remains possible, however, is a sketch of the conditions under which libraries may be more favorable to digital humanities work (and when it may happen elsewhere) and a general conceptual model of libraries and the digital humanities. this latter project has two parts. first, it should be possible to articulate the variety of ways in which libraries engage with dh and to locate these interactions in some larger relational framework. such a model would provide librarians with an overview of the diverse work of digital humanities (some of which they may already perform) and help identify pockets of activity through which each side might engage the other. second, it should be possible to situate dh work in libraries within larger paradigms or philosophies of the field. doing so would integrate dh work more fully into the overall life of the library, providing grounds for establish- ing priorities and making decisions with respect to levels of commitment, funding, and support. the following sections take up these tasks by survey- ing the current state of digital humanities work within institutions, presenting c. a. sula a cultural informatics model of libraries and the digital humanities, and situ- ating dh work within the user-centered paradigm of library and information science. a short history of digital humanities, and its current whereabouts digital humanities focuses both on the application of computing technology to humanistic inquiries and on humanistic reflections on the significance of that technology. marija dalbello ( ) traces the history of digital humanities back to mid-twentieth century efforts in humanities computing and, in par- ticular, to early forms of text analysis. with the growth of internet technology in the s, focus shifted to hypertexts, digital repositories, and multimedia collections. the st century has seen a dramatic rise in social networks and crowdsourcing, access to digitized cultural heritage materials, and interfaces for archives and collections that exploit the capabilities of linked data and visualization. this long and varied history helps to account for the wide range of topics currently found in digital humanities work, topics ranging from text analysis and visualization to digital pedagogy and new platforms for scholarly communication. the location in which digital humanities work occurs is similarly varied. matthew kirschenbaum, for example, claims that digital humanities is often found within english departments because of historical connections between texts, computing, and composition, as well as interest in editorial processes, hypertext, and cultural studies ( , p. ). though english departments may be among the most prominent, digital humanities now includes faculty from the broad range of arts and humanities departments, including archae- ology, art history, classics, comparative literature, history, music, performing arts, philosophy, postcolonial studies, religious studies, theatre, and more. in a broader view, several studies have attempted to determine the loca- tion of digital humanities within the university at large. in , the council on library and information resources (clir) commissioned a yearlong study of digital humanities centers to explore their financing, organizational struc- ture, products, services, and sustainability (zorich, ). the study defined such centers as undertaking some or all of the following activities: . builds digital collections as scholarly or teaching resources, . creates tools for authoring, building digital collections, analyzing collec- tions, data or research processes, managing the research process, . uses digital collections and analytical tools to generate new intellectual products, . offers digital humanities training, digital humanities and libraries . offers lectures, programs, conferences or seminars on digital humanities topics, . has its own academic appointments and staffing, . provides collegial support for and collaboration with members of other academic departments at the home institution, . provides collegial support for and collaboration with members of other academic departments, organizations or projects outside the home insti- tution, . conducts research in humanities and humanities computing (digital scholarship), . creates a zone of experimentation and innovation for humanists, . serves as an information portal for a particular humanities discipline, . serves as a repository for humanities-based digital collections, and . provides technology solutions to humanities departments. (pp. – ) though this study did not explicitly address connections between libraries and digital humanities, several of the defining tasks of dh centers could also be characterized as library activities, including the focus on building digital collections and associated tools, using these collections, and serving as a repository ( – , ). many of the other list items are service-oriented: offering training, collegial support, serving as an information portal for disciplines, and providing technology solutions ( , , , , , ). the remaining features are either structural (appointments and staffing) or more oriented towards research and experimentation ( , , and to some extent ). based on the centers surveyed, the clir report concludes that broader-base initiatives, rather than siloed centers, may be more suited for meeting the needs of humanists, leveraging campus resources efficiently, and addressing large- scale community needs, such as long-term digital repositories. two more recent studies have attempted to gauge the type and degree of interaction between digital humanities initiatives and libraries. the asso- ciation of research libraries’ spec kit on digital humanities reports on the status of digital humanities within research libraries, with about half of the member libraries responding (bryson et al., ). the report finds that only % of libraries host a dedicated center for dh. more commonly, about half of the arl member libraries responding provide ad-hoc services, such as consultation, project management, or technical support, while one- quarter host a digital scholarship center that provides services to multiple disciplines, including the humanities. the authors suggest that libraries may be most useful for getting new dh projects off the ground (by providing pre-existing infrastructure) and for ensuring the long-term sustainability of projects (by bringing skills in digital management and preservation). in a separate and ongoing effort, an imls-sponsored partnership be- tween three graduate ischools (university of maryland college of informa- tion studies, university of michigan school of information, and university c. a. sula of texas austin school of information) and three nationally-recognized dig- ital humanities centers (mith, cdrh, and matrix) maintains a crowd- sourced spreadsheet of dh centers worldwide, with specific reference to their engagement with academic departments and libraries (ischools & the digital humanities, ). as of november , nearly centers are listed, roughly half of them in the united states. of those centers, nearly half are located within libraries and another quarter maintain some informal relationship with libraries. outside of the u.s., library-hosted dh centers are much less common, and only a small number report informal ties to their library. together, these studies suggest a wide range of models for institutional collaboration between libraries and digital humanities. in some cases, the choice of where to locate digital humanities may be arbitrary, academically speaking. it may have more to do with funding, local politics, or being first out of the gate at an institution rather than the location being chosen for more principled reasons. with this diversity in mind, we may now turn to the actual work of digital humanists to consider ways in which libraries and dh can be mutually supporting. a conceptual model for digital humanities and libraries as the reports cited in the previous section suggest, the work of digital hu- manists is diverse, and their collaborations with libraries idiosyncratic with respect to institutions. still, it is worth considering ways in which the work of digital humanists mirrors activities, resources, and skills found within many libraries. ben showers ( ), for example, highlights five areas of overlap between dh and libraries: managing data, “embedded” librarianship, digiti- zation and curation, digital preservation, and discovery and dissemination. though these and other points of comparison are useful, a more conceptual comparison between dh and libraries would help locate these examples within a common schema and encourage both sides to envision further pos- sibilities. this section presents a conceptual model for digital humanities and li- braries that is founded on a cultural informatics framework. this term was first introduced by sengers ( ) to describe the “confluence of computa- tion and humanities,” including both the ways in which computation could help cultural scholarship and the ways in reflection on cultural background could change the development of technology (p. ). furner ( ) connects the term ‘cultural informatics’ to the specific way in which cultural her- itage institutions (including libraries, museums, and archives) create, man- age, and organize information artifacts. some of these artifacts are collected by institutions; others are created by the institutions themselves. this model digital humanities and libraries stresses a continuum of information content associated with cultural heritage institutions. first, these institutions make available information artifacts pro- duced elsewhere that are deemed worthy of preservation. in some cases, cul- tural heritage institutions may also create new information artifacts through research, reports, or the creation of digital objects from non-digital ones. all of these documents, broadly construed, represent information; the new products of cultural heritage institutions are no different, in principle, than the familiar sources of books, articles, images, sounds, recording, sculptures, journals, notes, reports, and ephemera. the two are distinguished only by the site at which one is produced. in this sense, cultural heritage institutions create and make available “first-order” content. second, cultural heritage institutions often work with content of a spe- cial type: “second-order” content, or content about the content of other in- formation artifacts. this may include bibliographic records, resource guides, subject analyses, metadata, or even preservation data that facilitates the or- ganization and understanding of information artifacts. (preservation data is included here because it involves information about information artifacts in an organizational sense (e.g., put these documents in an environment below ◦), but preservation work itself seems to combine first- and second-order content by using second-order content to make available the first-order con- tent of found artifacts.) it is worth noting that second-order content is often recorded in first-order artifacts, such as subject bibliographies, keywords, and encoded metadata. this is hardly surprising, since research of any kind (including second-order information) is often worthy of preservation. the work of analysis and organization produces the second-order content; the document itself may be treated as a first-order creation. roughly speaking, we have here a distinction between pure content and pure representation, a distinction that often breaks down when examining any particular object. an archival letter may describe a map and how to use it, a scholarly article may point toward other sources via citation, and a visualization may contain as much interpretation and narrative in its design and presentation as it does first-order data that it represents. the point of this distinction is not to determinately classify information sources into one field or another; it is to capture the broad range of activities involved with the work of cultural heritage institutions. in some cases, they facilitate access (in a transparent way) to existing sources. in others, they engage in acts of research, analysis, and visualization—and, in so doing, create new artifacts of knowledge. along this dimension of first- and second-order content, we can situate the traditional activities of cataloging, bibliography, collection development, preservation, subject analysis, and knowledge organization. in addition to considering what kind of information is being produced or made available, cultural informatics also takes note of who or what is doing the producing. at one end, it focuses on human actors who may be involved in communication, instruction, or other “manual labor” tasks at cultural c. a. sula heritage institutions. at the other, cultural informatics considers computer- driven technologies, such as automatic metadata extraction, online search- ing, and digital content management. these broad extremes are bridged by studies of human–computer interaction, which examines the many affor- dances that computing technologies provide to different users (card, moran, & newell, ). on this dimension, it should be noted that many activities which start on the human side of things wind up drifting toward computation: card cata- logs give way to search engines, manual classification is replaced by natural language processing. the history of automation suggests that tasks will gen- erally be shifted from humans to computers to the extent possible for any given task. this trend does not imply that there is some fixed directionality to the map dynamics as a whole. on the contrary, each (technological) solution often brings with it a new (human) problem. technology may become more powerful, but it also brings with it increasingly specialized discourses and the need for teachers and translators of that technology. in some cases, com- puter innovations may enter the scene abruptly when it suddenly becomes possible to do some task that was impossible with mere human power (e.g., visualization allowing simultaneous representation of a million data points). these reflections suggest an equilibrium within the model: items may even- tually accrue on the side of computation, but a snapshot of the field at any given time would probably reveal activities plotted across wide areas of the map. the overall model is thus a dynamic one, ranging over the shifting array of tasks and task locations. an overview of today’s field with respect to digital humanities is given in figure . this model suggests a multiplicity of ways in which libraries and dh may support, engage, and create with one another. interestingly, current dh activities fall across a wide range of the map—and not merely the computational end. digital humanists may rely on libraries as much for access to digital collections and tools as they do resource instruction and preservation. this overlap of first- and second-order content, human- and computer-powered work suggests that libraries and dh are indeed engaged in complementary activities—as commentators have suggested—and that dh has an enduring place within the world of libraries. at the same time, not all digital humanists may engage in the full range of the activities listed in figure . this fact suggests that there is no singular answer from the perspective of library administration about how libraries should engage with dh. in some situations, a library would do well to fo- cus on digitization and digital preservation; in others, it would do better to keep pace with emerging tools for text analysis. some dh support may be best accomplished by providing large-scale access to collections, datasets, or technology, while other situations may merit individual, customized collab- oration with dh researchers (kamada, ). digital humanities and libraries figure a cultural informatics model for digital humanities and libraries though the broad question of dh and libraries has no determinate answer, it does not mean libraries are without guidance in how to support dh. after all, they are not without populations of users, users who bring with them particular information needs, and they are not without general strategies for library outreach, a longstanding tool for raising awareness of what libraries may offer. discovery of user needs and fostering of new user populations both lay at the heart of user-centered librarianship an apology for local solutions the lack of a general answer about how libraries can best engage with dh may be unsatisfying, but this also seems predicted by the user studies paradigm that has dominated the field for the past several decades. as several authors have pointed out, the user-centered tradition can be traced back to studies of scholarly communication in the s and s, which, to varying degrees, took stock of individual scholars’ information seeking behaviors (case, ; bates, ; talja & hartel, ). the user-centered tradition gained full steam with dervin and nilan’s seminal article, which called for c. a. sula table neh digital humanities start-up grant criteria • research that brings new approaches or documents best practices in the study of the digital humanities; • planning and developing prototypes of new digital tools for preserving, analyzing, and making accessible digital resources, including libraries’ and museums’ digital assets; • scholarship that focuses on the history, criticism, and philosophy of digital culture and its impact on society; • scholarship or studies that examine the philosophical or practical implications and impact of the use of emerging technologies in specific fields or disciplines of the humanities, or in interdisciplinary collaborations involving several fields or disciplines; • innovative uses of technology for public programming and education utilizing both traditional and new media; and • new digital modes of publication that facilitate the dissemination of humanities scholarship in advanced academic as well as informal or formal educational settings at all academic levels. (national endowment for the humanities, b) a shift away from objective, mechanistic, and universal views of information needs toward more subjective, constructionist, and situated understandings ( , pp. – ). rather than casting about for a general way in which libraries can fit in the larger dh movement, libraries can (and already do) focus on responding to the needs of their patrons. there is a well-established need for academic libraries and librarians to support faculty activities, most notably teaching and research, as well as student learning. these activities can be given further description within a digital humanities framework by examining the work that digital humanists actually do, much of which is described in the neh digital humanities start-up grants criteria (see table ). the guidelines are themselves significant because they reflect state-of-the-art work in dh and have been used to fund hundreds of projects to date—making them responsible, in no small part, for shaping the field. (it should be noted that guidelines for neh digital implementation grants follow essentially the same criteria but focus more on creating and supporting longer-term initiatives.) though the activities listed in table cover much of the ground of dh as discussed here, explicit recognition of the role of pedagogy is absent from the criteria. digital humanists are among the forefront of instructors using technologies to engage students in new forms of digital scholarship, commu- nication, and dissemination of ideas. moreover, digital humanists are often responsible for training others in using particular tools or methods, partic- ularly undergraduates, or for seeking instruction in those areas themselves. most often, this has been left to extracurricular skill-shares or workshops in which digital humanists can “catch up” on the latest trends. these tasks are far beyond merely providing technological resources, a model that per- vades many it departments; they involve directed and creative uses of those digital humanities and libraries resources, and the literacies required to sustain them. libraries and librari- ans can fulfill a vital need here in supporting instructional technology and working with faculty to use technology more creatively in classroom settings. in addition to capturing the current work of dh, the activities listed in table also reflect a new type of academic library user that has emerged in the past decade, one that is focused on digital scholarship and research. this new type coincides with trends in other fields in terms of big data, access to datasets, and support for technology, including instruction. in this respect, a scientist seeking access to large databases for research and a digital humanist interested in text analysis using large corpora are quite similar in terms of information needs, and the role of libraries in provid- ing such resources is basically the same. the major difference seems to be a historical one; science and technology-related fields have received this type of support more frequently in the past decade, while support for the humanities has been limited still to print collections or electronic journal articles. the growth in digital humanities offers an important opportunity to provide renewed support for the humanities and to bring library re- sources across the board up to speed with digital scholarship for the st century. though the possible roles for academic libraries within digital human- ities seem relatively clear, engagement with dh in other types of libraries, particularly public libraries, may be quite different, at least from a user per- spective. academic settings, particularly the institutions where digital hu- manities is growing, often have user populations that are technologically skilled, relatively speaking. members of the public may also want new and exciting access to information—the very kind that digital humanities often brings—but others may simply rely on their libraries for more basic access to information, including job searches, research on immigration and legal procedures, internet and email, or child and youth programming. in some cases, these users may comprise a larger segment of the overall population, and there is a strong case for prioritizing these more basic needs over those of the most tech-savvy users. support for dh in non-academic libraries must be part of an overall needs assessment and may wind up taking a backseat to initiatives that serve a wider population of library users. conclusion: from theory to action the foregoing sections have attempted to locate digital humanities within the world of libraries in several ways: first by examining the institutional location of dh work, then by presenting a conceptual model of dh and lis, and finally by locating digital humanities within the overall user-centered paradigm of the field. at each turn, the points of connection between li- braries and dh were varied and often dependent on the needs of particular c. a. sula faculty members (i.e., users) within an institution. though a general, cul- tural informatics model was presented, this model stresses the diversity of activities involved in dh and cultural heritage institutions and avoids total- izing recommendations about how such work is to be pursued. while this article has been focused on conceptual ties between libraries and dh, it is worth concluding with some more practical considerations about how such a model can be enacted. first, librarians (esp. subject librarians) can discover which of their users are working in digital humanities. resources such as the humanities, arts, science, and technology advanced collaboratory (hastac) directory (lo- cated athttp://hastac.org/members), which includes over , members, as well as social media sites (esp. twitter) can be useful for identifying local faculty with an interest in dh. second, librarians can attempt to survey the needs of these users (formally or informally), as well as faculty members in general, some of whom may be interested in digital humanities but un- sure where to start. as part of this needs assessment, measures such as cost and impact may be considered. this method, again, suggests that different needs will emerge in different settings, even if faculty members bring di- verse projects and issues with them. some of these needs may already be met by preexisting resources; others may require new purchases or changes in staffing. these needs and others may be compared to those plotted in figure , and some libraries may find it advantageous to focus on particular clusters of the grid, while others may find a more scattered approach to be justified. in particular, libraries would do well to identify mutually sup- porting activities, such as purchasing gis datasets together with offering gis workshops. although the landscape of digital humanities is complex and chang- ing, libraries are well positioned to meet the needs of many digital human- ists, both by expanding current offerings and by promoting existing skills and services that lie squarely within the field of library and information science. references american library association. 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( ). a survey of digital humanities centers in the united states. washington, dc: council on library and information resources. retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub /reports/pub /pub .pdf collaborating with aponte: digital humanities, art, and the archive sx archipelagos • july • doi . /archipelagos-mq x-dd • cc-by . international small axe project • issn: - collaborating with aponte: digital hu- manities, art, and the archive linda m. rodriguez ada ferrer in the last fifteen years or so, the story of josé antonio aponte—the free black carpenter and artist who attempted to lead a major antislavery revolution in early-nineteenth-century havana—has drawn the animated attention of scholars in history, art history, literary criticism, and anthropology, among other fields. most of that scholarship has utilized time-worn techniques of scholarly practice: rigorous and wide-ranging archival research, perceptive close readings of judicial testimony, forays into theoretical works as interpretive aids to analysis. this essay revisits the story of aponte, relying on the digital humanities website digital aponte that we—linda rodríguez, in collaboration with ada ferrer—curated. digital aponte invites an interdisciplinary collaboration that can be said to echo the collaborative approaches aponte himself pursued in his creative, intellectual, and political prac- tices. in the present, such approaches advance our understandings of aponte and the histories of black antislavery in the atlantic world, just as they foreground the profound link between artistic and revolutionary work. in havana on the night of march , three free men of color left the capital city for the countryside. one of the men wore a uniform, blue with gold buttons with eagles on them. he spoke french and went by the name jean-françois, general of the haitian revolution, even though the real jean-françois had died in spain a few years earlier. it was harvest season, and the men were heading to sugar plantations to begin a revolution against slavery. when they arrived at the estate called peñas altas, they gathered the slaves. jean-françois read in french from papers he insisted were his king’s orders for the liberation of cuba’s slaves. (in fact, the papers included an advertisement for william young birch, publisher and stationer in philadelphia.) he told them that he was there on orders of his king to lead them in revolution. together they burned buildings and sugar [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] cane and killed a few whites. but at the third plantation, the rebels were defeated and captured. as authorities questioned these three men and others, they learned the outlines of an ambitious plot. in the capital, the rebels had planned to launch separate attacks on the city’s fortresses and armories, seizing weapons with which to arm hundreds of recruits they said were awaiting the signal to rise up. one of the leaders had dictated a public proclamation and nailed it to a side door of the governor’s palace. they had flags and standards ready to post at the camps they planned to establish. their networks stretched from plantations to the heart of the capital city and, according to some contemporary accounts, as far east as santiago. and all this labor and planning was directed to one clear goal: freedom for the enslaved. in all the investigation into the conspiracy, one name appeared over and over: josé antonio aponte. aponte was a free black man, born in havana sometime around . he was a veteran of spain’s free black militia in havana, where his grandfather and father had also served. his grandfather had defended the city against the british siege of . aponte himself participated in the capture of the bahamas from the british during the american revolution. aponte was also a carpenter, with a workshop at the plaza del cristo, just inside the city wall. he made cabinets and carved fine religious statues for the city’s churches. his carving of jesús peregrino (jesus pilgrim), which he placed over the door to the house where he lived with his wife and children, was so impressive that his street came to be known by the same name. aponte’s home and workshop were both popular places for black militia members to visit. sometimes they came by to borrow books or to lend them. aponte liked to draw. when he heard of an image arriving in havana—for example, of haitian revolutionary hero jean françois—he would head to the docks to purchase or borrow it. then he would copy the image and lend his copy to others. sometimes people would come visit just to see his drawings of such figures. aponte also collected images. he owned one, for example, of george washington; he had others related to the french revolution and the haitian revolution and to spanish kings and saints. in his house, he had a library of more than a dozen books: the third volume of don quijote, guides to havana and rome, histories of ethiopia published in seventeenth-century spain, grammar handbooks, art manuals, compendiums of the history of the world. and hidden deep inside a trunk full of clothes was a pine box with a sliding top, and inside this smaller box was another book, one created by aponte himself—his so-called libro de pinturas, or book of paintings. when authorities discovered the book during their investigation into the conspiracy, they likely figured they had their man. one of the first images they would have found in the book, located at pages and , seemed to portray a battle scene between a black army and a white one. what is more, the black army appeared to be defeating the white one. in one corner of the picture were two black soldiers on horseback, each brandishing a white head covered in blood. immediately convinced of aponte’s subversion, authorities confiscated the book and then arrested its creator. [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] as the investigation continued, authorities pored over aponte’s book. like the other items confiscated from his house, the book’s contents were a confounding mix of ma- terials and images—hand-drawn pictures and maps, scenes or words cut from fans and prints and pasted onto the pages. represented was a diverse array of subject matter: greek goddesses and black saints; popes and kings in rome, ethiopia, and spain; distant and local armies; havana and the heavens. authorities also soon learned that aponte had shown the book to his coconspirators, explaining some of its images as a way to help prepare for the coming revolution. he had shown one companion the fascinating and complex “self-portrait” on pages and , supposedly to help picture himself as leader of a new order without slavery; he had shown them pictures of the camps of the black militias that had protected havana against the british in to illustrate how their own rebel camps should be organized. though aponte had most likely started working on his book around – , by , when he shared it with others plotting revolution, he drew sometimes explicit links between his artistic creation and his political movement. he showed them his battle scenes to illustrate how they should organize their own fight against slavery in havana. he pointed out pictures of powerful black men and of himself as would-be king as a way of illustrating that other worlds were possible. to explain and imagine revolution and its object, the book was instrumental. for spanish and slaveholding authorities, the book was instrumental in another way: it helped seal the fate of its creator. just a few weeks after the discovery of the book, aponte was condemned to death. on april , he was hanged in public, his head severed from his body and placed on a pike, which was then placed inside a cage strategically erected at an important crossroads in the city, very close to aponte’s own home. then, sometime after the execution, the book disappeared. so for this revolution that never quite was, perhaps the most important source is a book that no modern scholar has ever seen. aponte scholars, of course, have looked for it. historian matt childs, for example, uncovered the fact that the spanish governor of cuba, who had ordered aponte’s execu- tion, asked to personally view some of the material from the trial on the evening before his return to spain (just days after aponte’s execution). following that lead, ada ferrer see, for example, josé luciano franco, las conspiraciones de y (havana: editorial de ciencias sociales, ); stephan palmié, wizards and scientists: explorations in afro-cuban modernity and tradition (durham, nc: duke university press, ); sibylle fischer, modernity disavowed: haiti and the cultures of slavery in the age of revolution (durham, nc: duke university press, ); matt childs, the aponte rebellion in cuba and the struggle against atlantic slavery (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ); jorge pavez ojeda, “expediente contra josé antonio aponte y el sentido de las pinturas que se hayan en el libro que se le aprehendió en su casa: ,” anales de desclasificación , no. ( ): – ; jorge pavez ojeda, “lecturas de un códice afrocubano: naturalismo, etiopismo y universalismo en el libro de josé antonio aponte (la habana, circa – ),” historia crítica ( ): – ; jorge pavez ojeda, “painting of black history: the afro-cuban codex of josé antonio aponte (havana, cuba, ),” in adrien delmas and nigel penn, eds., written culture in colonial context: africa and the americas, – (leiden: brill, ), – ; ada ferrer, freedom’s mirror: cuba and haiti in the age of revolution (cambridge: cambridge university press, ); and juan antonio hernández, hacia una historia de lo imposible: la revolución haitiana y el libro de pinturas de josé antonio aponte (caracas: fundación editorial el perro y la rana, ). [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] sought the book in the papers of that governor’s family, held in the archivo histórico de la nobleza in toledo, spain. taking seriously aponte’s claim to have created the book as a gift for the king of spain, ferrer searched in a section of the royal palace archives called locos y anónimos, which houses letters and gifts to the crown made by unknown or “insignificant” people. for the most part, these were old-fashioned analog searches that led to many inter- esting things but never to the book. yet the book’s absence has not deterred scholars. instead, they (we) have reveled in analyzing this important missing artifact, learning to work around and even to love its absence. aponte’s archive without the book, scholars have relied on another fascinating historical document: the transcript of the part of aponte’s trial devoted to his book of paintings. aponte’s de- scriptions of his work come to us through this complex, layered archival document. the layers of the archival record register the agency of the colonial state and aponte himself. a colonial notary recorded aponte’s words. as kathryn burns reminds us, notaries “gave records their words and final form”— making myriad decisions about how to edit the archival record. in addition to the decisions of the notary, we encounter the decisions of the judicial officials questioning aponte as to the contents of his book of paintings. they viewed the book with suspicion, and they asked aponte more questions about certain images than others. as a result, the archival document records more extensive descriptions of a page such as lámina , with its many important black religious officials in rome, than of later láminas with their very brief descriptions. finally, aponte also shaped the archival record. he decided how much information to share, and he did so while on trial for his life. in fact, aponte may have created some images to be deliberately ambiguous, and he described the images, at times, in ways that evidence this ambiguity. the fragments of aponte’s testimony, read through these layers, often appear as frus- trating glimpses into the book, never quite complete. yet as the powerful work of scholars of slavery demonstrates, grappling with the “impossibility of recovery” necessitates the improvisation of new historical methods. engaging with fragments and silences forces us to see the archive as “home to the counter-narrative, or at least to its possibility.” for instance, ferrer’s freedom’s mirror pursues one method of working within the archive to probe meanings in the book’s absent presence. using the court testimony, ferrer compares the way aponte described particular image to authorities and the way he described those same images to his coconspirators. through that kind of comparison we learn, for instance, that picture , which aponte described to officials as depicting see childs, the aponte rebellion in cuba. kathryn burns, into the archive: writing and power in colonial peru (durham, nc: duke university press, ), . ferrer, freedom’s mirror, . laura helton, justin leroy, max a. mishler, samantha seeley, and shauna sweeney, “the question of recovery: an introduction,” social text , no. ( ): . jennifer l. morgan, “archives and histories of racial capitalism: an afterforward,” social text , no. ( ): . https://www.mecd.gob.es/ca/cultura/areas/archivos/mc/archivos/nhn/portada.html https://www.mecd.gob.es/ca/cultura/areas/archivos/mc/archivos/nhn/portada.html https://www.patrimonionacional.es/colecciones-reales/archivo-general-de-palacio [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] important black religious men in rome, may also (or instead) have represented henri christophe (which is what aponte had told one of his coconspirators). using other archival sources, ferrer explores what some of the elements that appeared in the book might have meant to aponte and to his companions. the enigmatic picture numbered – , which aponte referred to as an allegory about greed and commerce, depicted the planet mercury of gemini in a carriage pulled by two large rapacious birds. there was a green star and a caduceo, a staff signifying the progress of commerce. also pictured was a guard attempting to stop contraband, who encountered death. a launch from the ship approached; avarice jumped on the dock and also encountered death. in passing, aponte mentions the name of the ship, the san lorenzo. mining other sources, we learn that the san lorenzo had transported black generals from the haitian revolution to havana in , had participated in the victorious spanish siege of bayajá, and was the ship on which at least two of aponte’s coconspirators had served as militiamen. here, then, may have been a trace of an alternative allegory. aponte’s testimony to authorities rendered the ship element of the drawing faint and elusive, buried, like so many of his images, not just by the subsequent loss of the book but also by aponte himself, by his strategic evasions and deflections, by the disavowals he himself was forced to effect in the courtroom. this particular portrait is but one example of many, for other pictures as well un- doubtedly contained elements that would have been obscure to authorities but that evoked different histories, memories, and resources for the conspirators. thus the glo- rious black history pictured in aponte’s book and so visible to the eyes of all who saw it—of black kings and cardinals and generals and emperors of ethiopia and egypt—was accompanied by another black history, more subterranean yet equally subversive. the process of identifying and tracking all such potential connections, however, seems almost interminable. some potential leads become dead ends; others lead to dozens of other possible paths. the book—or rather the description of the book in the trial testimony—is so dense and so wide ranging in its references that it is impossible for any one person to pick up its many layers of references and allusions. it would take someone deeply familiar with cuban history, and spanish; with greek and roman history and mythology; with astronomy; with afro-cuban religion and freemasonry and the bible; with early modern writing on egypt and ethiopia; with conventions of artistic practice in aponte’s time, and so on. indeed, the person capable of following—much less understanding—the many intricate, contradictory references in aponte’s testimony likely does not exist. aponte and his story, put simply, are too big for one scholar or one method. instead, aponte invites a vast, new kind of collaboration in which many different people across many different fields and specialties can read aponte’s description of the book together, each potentially building on the other, each potentially taking another’s interpretation in a new direction. all this without forgetting the concrete social world in which aponte lived and created. here, the digital humanities—by fostering both critical methodological innovation and interdisciplinary collaboration—are especially promising. they provide frameworks for opening up the archive and engaging with the imperfect record available to us, reframing [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] “the archive itself as a site of action rather than as a record of fixity of loss.” for curating our digital aponte project (see fig. ), transforming aponte’s descriptions into a site of action meant first making that archival record as accessible as possible. figure screenshot of digital aponte. digital aponte aspires to foreground aponte’s words, through the archival document, as they have arrived to us. our effort may be “predicated on impossibility,” but it aims to provide a platform for the kind of innovative methodology and collaboration that aponte and his story require and deserve. first, under the tab labeled “book of paintings,” we introduce the archival document (“trial transcript”) by explaining the circumstances of its production before presenting aponte’s actual descriptions of his book (“láminas”). opening up the archive and attending to aponte’s world also meant putting the archival record in conversation with aponte as an intellectual and artist. we wanted to engage with the possible influences that contributed to his development as a thinker and creator, ultimately leading to the production of the book of paintings. in this way, the archive inspired us to design the website so it also becomes a tool to communicate our “sense of history’s possibilities.” the digital allows for this capaciousness. we can present to the site viewer these aspects of aponte all at once, individually, or sequentially. the historian and digital humanist jessica marie johnson observes that this is the “nature of a form that is chimeric, elusive, and eerily transparent at the same time—digital and social media cannot be read forward or back as if it were chapters in a book.” the lauren f. klein, “the image of absence: archival silence, data visualization, and james hemings,” american literature , no. ( ): . see digital aponte, aponte.hosting.nyu.edu. we would like to acknowledge the contributions of new york university graduate students kris minhae choe and eric anderson to improving and enhancing digital aponte. saidiya hartman, “venus in two acts,” small axe, no. (june ): – . vincent brown, “mapping a slave revolt: visualizing spatial history through the archives of slavery,” social text , no. ( ): . http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/ http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/transcript/ http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/book-of-paintings/ [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] design of the website presents the viewer with the ability to choose the order in which they engage with aponte’s work of art and his ostensible formative influences. the viewer may choose to contemplate a recreation of aponte’s library (“aponte’s library”), which consisted of a dozen volumes across a wide range of topics. sometimes, when interrogators asked aponte how he knew about a story he depicted in his book, he responded by citing a volume in his collection. by making aponte’s library accessible on the website, viewers can consider the written (and possibly illustrated) works that influenced aponte’s intellectual formation and contributed to the construction of the book of paintings. site users may also consider the visual culture of aponte’s time, through an image gallery (“image gallery”), and the possible sources of inspiration for both the content and form of his illustrations in the book of paintings. lastly, a map of havana (“aponte’s havana”) plots sites relevant to aponte’s life and also locations he represented in his book, providing the basis for the contemplation of aponte’s own experience of havana. digital aponte presents different caminos (paths) to knowing aponte and his work of art, echoing the different caminos that cuban orichas (deities) follow upon consecration. the book, the trial, and collaborative interpretation the “book of paintings” page introduces the contents of aponte’s book through a table that provides a link to each numbered image, describes the contents of that image, and indicates whether annotations are available. the table allows for the visitor either to read the contents of each page before deciding where to begin reading the book or to simply go directly to a page and start exploring. we wanted to create micro and macro ways to engage, so to speak, with the book. when the viewer clicks on a particular page of the book, she encounters the original spanish text of the archival document on the left and, if applicable, an annotation sidebar (“commentary”) on the right. longer annotations can be expanded via a “read more” link and collapsed via a “read less” link. the collection of annotations of aponte’s trial record is the part of the website that, we hope, will be most dynamic. presently, the annotations included are from already existing scholarship on aponte. our goal is to replace those with annotations written specifically for the website by those same scholars. annotations written for the project could be shorter and more streamlined than the ones excerpted from published works. also, scholars could respond to each other’s annotations—perhaps suggesting differing interpretations or adding new elements—in ways more dynamic than the current, more static excerpts. ultimately, however, our goal is to open up the annotation process beyond the relatively small circle of aponte scholars whose work is already represented on the site. we hope to invite contributions from scholars working in fields that aponte’s art engages—classicists, or students of early modern ethiopia, for example. there is significant speculation about aponte’s possible involvement with freemasonry and about his possible priestly role in santería. scholars (or leading practitioners) of either might jessica marie johnson and kismet nuñez, “alter egos and infinite literacies, part iii: how to build a real gyrl in easy steps,” the black scholar , no. ( ): . http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/apontes-library/ http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/havana-visual-culture/ http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/apontes-havana/ http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/book-of-paintings/ [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] provide insightful and novel commentary on aponte’s use of symbols and stories. for now, however, this ambitious, collaborative process of annotations remains in very early planning stages. the idea of making digital aponte‘s annotated and annotatable version of aponte’s trial testimony an exercise in modest crowdsourcing mirrors the ways aponte’s book of paintings was itself the product of collaboration and exchange. aponte famously used the artistic practice of collage, fully a hundred years before the date art historians generally identify as its origin. collage might itself be understood as a method that allows the creator literally to use the work of others. aponte testified that “not being a painter, he bought different prints and paintings to take from them, or from used fans, that which fulfilled his idea.” as linda rodríguez has noted, aponte repurposed others’ images, using them to create his own meaning. similarly, because he had less confidence in his drawing and painting skills, he sometimes had the apprentices in his carpentry workshop paint parts of some láminas—for example, and —to incorporate into his book of paintings. even some of the ideas for the images arose from social interactions—for example, informative conversations with other havana denizens about the existence of black priests in rome, or readings about san antonio abad in books shared among local free people of color. aponte’s book was his, but it was also a product of complex intellectual, social, political, and cultural interactions and collaborations. digital aponte’s collaborative annotation of the trial transcripts promises to mirror that very practice. not only was the subject matter in aponte’s book wide ranging, even individual láminas were. each often combined elements from different repertoires in unexpected and original ways. so, too, must analysis of the book reflect that expansiveness and, for lack of a better word, syncretism. the annotation tool on the site has the potential to incorporate the insights of people in disparate fields, scholars with expertise in areas that can help shed light on aponte’s art and worldview. because the book is full of classical references, for instance, classicists might have important things to contribute to an analysis of the book: insights into the meaning of classical symbols, say, or an ability to recognize when aponte’s use of those symbols diverges from a more customary invocation. yet a classicist may be less familiar with how classical references might have operated in nineteenth-century caribbean slave societies. like aponte cutting out images for his own purpose, we can reinterpret or reuse elements from other fields and genres to elucidate aponte’s world. to illustrate how we might develop and apply this method, we turn to aponte’s description of his lámina . aponte there depicts the greek philosopher diogenes inside a barrel on a desolate beach, enjoying the protection of the egyptian goddess isis. the spanish visigothic ruler king rodrigo orders diogenes out of the barrel. then, taking two fistfuls of dirt from the barrel, the philosopher fashions the spanish coat of arms and as the annotations grow, the site will have to experiment with ways to present the annotations visually on the page, perhaps moving them to the bottom (rather than the side) of the screen or making only the first line of the annotation visible before the “read more” link, for instance. linda rodríguez, “‘no siendo pintor’: josé antonio aponte and the possibilities of art and social change in colonial havana,” in zuleica romay and ada ferrer, eds., los mundos de aponte (havana: instituto juan marinello, forthcoming). [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] the flag of spain. that kind of magic was not in the philosopher’s purview, but he was able to do it, aponte said, because of the guidance and protection of isis. a classicist interpreting that image might help us understand some of the possible meanings of isis, the egyptian goddess who was incorporated into greco-roman pan- theons. a classicist might elaborate on isis’s customary association with the protection of the dead and with magical powers (which aponte himself refers to in his testimony). a classicist would know that isis appears in art usually as a column-like woman and could provide visual clues about what aponte might have drawn. but that same classicist may not know about the association of isis with yemayá, one of the seven orichas in afro-cuban religion. at the same time, a classicist familiar with the range of representations of isis might immediately note that the pairing of greek philosopher diogenes with isis seems idio- syncratic, outside the customary repertoire of classical invocations. the observation draws our attention to the link aponte establishes between the two unlikely allies—the magic of isis allows diogenes to do magical things. what might that link signify? here, diogenes becomes more than cynic philosopher. diogenes, importantly, was a man for- merly enslaved; in fact, early radical abolitionists, such as benjamin lay, used his figure to elicit and promote antislavery meanings. aponte visualizes diogenes as receiving the assistance of the powerful isis, putting divine power on the side of liberation. the result of this kind of analysis is a black intellectual history that is profoundly collaborative and that engages subfields of intellectual history often artificially distant from the study of the black atlantic. aponte’s social worlds in digital form as aponte’s testimony necessarily forces us out of our comfort zone and into greek philosophy or egyptian religion or medieval spain, it also repeatedly brings us back to the port city of havana in the age of revolution. how, we ask, did aponte learn about the things he depicted in his book of paintings? digital aponte provides part of the answer in the section on aponte’s library. the recreation of the library foregrounds aponte’s possible intellectual influences. a brief introduction outlines possible connections between his library books and themes in the book of paintings. on the website, images of the library books sit on a bookshelf to reinforce the notion that aponte perhaps kept his books in a similar fashion and to call to mind the physical space of his home and workshop. clicking on a book’s spine takes the viewer to a page dedicated to that particular book. each of these pages contains commentary from scholars about how they identified the particular version of each book as the one aponte likely owned, along with an image of the cover page and a link to see marcus rediker, the fearless benjamin lay: the quaker dwarf who became the first revolutionary abolitionist (boston: beacon, ). see laurent dubois, “an enslaved enlightenment: rethinking the history of the french atlantic,” social history , no. ( ): – ; and susan buck-morss, hegel, haiti, and universal history (pittsburgh: university of pittsburgh press, ). [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] a google books copy, if available. the recreation of aponte’s library also encourages contending with how communities of free people of color in the atlantic world accessed and shared books. but understanding aponte’s conceptual world requires that we go beyond his library. aponte’s book of paintings was a visual artifact, one we cannot see. digital aponte recreates the visual worlds with which aponte engaged. the image gallery includes an overview of visual culture of turn-of-the-nineteenth-century havana along with a sampling of images. the image gallery proceeds from the premise of a serious consideration of aponte as artist. what were his possible visual influences in havana? how did he respond to the architecture and art that surrounded him? some of the images represent buildings he depicted in his book, for instance, helping us to visualize aspects of a work inaccessible to us. other images depict art or architecture he may have seen in his daily life. each thumbnail in the image gallery links to a separate page with contextual information. positing aponte’s visual influences contributes to a fuller understanding of black artistic production. during aponte’s lifetime, white elites sought to reclaim the visual arts from the hands of black artists who dominated the field. as such, black artists from the colonial period are often underanalyzed in art histories about this era. the image gallery, in this regard, suggests we ask, what if we wrote an art history of colonial cuba from the perspective of one of these artists? the map section of digital aponte allows us to make aponte’s world more concrete. the communication—the transfer of knowledge, ideas, aspirations, feelings—that un- derwrote aponte’s movement was embedded in the physical city. by pointing out the places that were part of his own routines—his workshop, his home, the barracks where he had trained, and so on—and by pointing out the places that appeared in his book of paintings, the user gets a sense of the physical distance between sites important to aponte and between those sites and critical spaces of exchange and dialogue (markets and docks, for instance). we glimpse, in other words, the literal paths aponte walked. ultimately, this section of the website might serve as a template for a walking tour of aponte’s havana. such a walking tour would help not only to preserve aponte’s memory but to open spaces (and paths) for more critical historical narratives and even perhaps for other kinds of tourism, as is being pioneered in brazil with the pasts present and museum of yesterday projects. while the map section of digital aponte currently focuses on havana itself, an excit- ing addition might be a map that includes peñas altas, the plantation where aponte’s coconspirators tried to launch their slave rebellion, as well as other plantations they attacked or marched through on the night of march . including such a map would be a way to remind users both of the significance of the conspiracy for aponte and his companions and of the proximity of sugar and plantation society to the vibrant capital city of havana. a model for a map of the areas targeted by the rebels might be vincent brown’s slave revolt in jamaica, – : a cartographic narrative. finally, the see passados presentes, http://passadospresentes.com.br/site/site/index.php, and museum of yesterday, https://apublica.org/ / /museum-of-yesterday/. see slave revolt in jamaica, – : a cartographic narrative, http://revolt.axismaps.com/. http://passadospresentes.com.br/site/site/index.php https://apublica.org/ / /museum-of-yesterday/ http://revolt.axismaps.com/ http://passadospresentes.com.br/site/site/index.php https://apublica.org/ / /museum-of-yesterday/ http://revolt.axismaps.com/ [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] fact that the cuban government has recently authorized the construction of a monument to aponte (by renown sculptor alberto lescay) near peñas altas makes it important to have that space reflected on the website’s map. it also suggests a generative synergy between the physical monument and digital aponte, itself a kind of dynamic, interactive monument to the memory of aponte and his political and creative work. just as the website incorporates aponte’s havana, it must also, of course, highlight aponte the man. currently the biography section of the website is minimal (“josé antonio aponte”). one of the obvious areas in which further research on aponte is needed is the genealogical. we know, for example, that his grandfather, joaquín aponte, was a captain in the batallón de morenos of havana, spain’s colonial black militia in the city. aponte’s father (like aponte himself) also served in that military force. but we know little about aponte’s mother, or why, for instance, aponte’s second last name (ulabarra) is different from that of the woman (mariana poveda) usually identified as his mother. it may have been from that side of the family that aponte received the title to his carpentry workshop, according to inconclusive documents in the cuban national archives. information about aponte’s descendants is even murkier. for example, the names of his children given on the official ecured page (cuba’s answer to wikipedia) are different from those that appear in passing in the judicial testimony. fleshing out that genealogy lends itself to the kinds of collaboration facilitated by digital platforms. here, one important resource is the slave societies digital archive directed by historian jane landers at vanderbilt. the website houses digital copies of ecclesiastical records (such as baptisms, deaths, marriages) in cuba, brazil, and colombia. included among the cuban records are those of churches that aponte, his family, and his coconspirators may have attended, including jesús, maría y josé (near his home) and santo cristo del buen viaje (near his first workshop). indeed, the records of the archbishopric archive available on the website include a petition to create a new carpenters’ brotherhood. the petition was signed by aponte and at least one of his coconspirators. how, we wonder, did aponte’s heirs experience and remember his attempt at revolu- tion and his brutal execution at the hands of spanish authorities? did they participate in subsequent revolutionary movements, such as the conspiracy in havana that implicated some other participants from the movement or the major conspiracies of – , known soon after as la escalera? did they participate in the wars of inde- see maría del carmen barcia, los ilustres apellidos: negros en la habana colonial (havana: editorial de ciencias so- ciales, ); and carlos venegas, “la conspiración de aponte: lugares de su memoria,” in romay and ferrer, los mundos de aponte (forthcoming). “josé antonio aponte,” ecured, https://www.ecured.cu/josé_antonio_aponte. see slave societies digital archive, https://www.slavesocieties.org/. “legajo , expte. . diligencias para establecer una cofradía de san josé el gremio de carpinteros, ,” slave soci- eties digital archive, https://essss.library.vanderbilt.edu/islandora/object/essss% a . see jane landers, “catholic conspirators? religious rebels in nineteenth-century cuba,” slavery and abolition , no. ( ): – . on the conspiracy, see pavez ojeda, “expediente contra josé antonio aponte”; on la escalera, see aisha finch, rethinking slave rebellion in cuba: la escalera and the insurgencies of – (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ). http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/jose-antonio-aponte/ http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/jose-antonio-aponte/ https://www.ecured.cu/josé_antonio_aponte https://www.slavesocieties.org/ https://www.slavesocieties.org/ https://essss.library.vanderbilt.edu/islandora/object/essss\% a https://www.ecured.cu/josé_antonio_aponte https://www.slavesocieties.org/ https://essss.library.vanderbilt.edu/islandora/object/essss\% a [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] pendence against spain in the late nineteenth century or the protests of the independent party of color in ? in , when members of the federation of the cuban soci- eties of color wrote to the constitutional convention calling for a constitutional article against discrimination, one such letter writer signed his name josé antonio aponte. a descendant perhaps? tracing aponte’s memory and the connections between that memory and subsequent political movements is work that yet remains to be done. collaboration as creation: a new book of paintings in the meantime, one unintended but exciting byproduct of the website is the creation in a different medium, register, and time of aponte’s book of paintings. we refer here to the contemporary art exhibit visionary aponte: art and black freedom, which opened at the little haiti cultural center in december and traveled to new york university and duke university in february and september , respectively. subsequent showings are currently being planned at other locations across the united states as well as in haiti, cuba, and guadeloupe. in the absence of aponte’s book, fifteen artists have used the material on digital aponte to help them reimagine aponte’s book for our time. visionary aponte represents an exciting encounter and collaboration between art and scholarship. it is also a collaboration between artists and scholars, mediated in part by digital aponte. artists were charged with engaging aponte’s testimony about the book of paintings and using his words about his vision as a point of departure for their own artistic creation. as scholars, we wondered what it would be like for the artists themselves to work on something so deeply historical and to begin their project from the trial record’s often awkward, stilted words about pictures that no longer exist. only a handful of artists selected one lámina to reimagine or recreate. the majority read the testimony and did not (or could not?) limit themselves to just one image; rather, they selected themes or elements that appeared throughout and worked them into complex pieces. some found it impossible to limit themselves to creating a single painting or drawing. Édouard duval carrié completed four paintings that drew on multiple láminas; josé bedia created a large, monumental piece that contains elements from perhaps a dozen láminas (see fig. ). marielle plaisir came up with more than fifty pieces, and renée stout with some nine (plus a gun). in many cases, the production of the art was preceded by sustained engagement with digital aponte or with the site’s creators. here it might be instructive to briefly summarize two such conversations. one was with artist teresita fernández, who was particularly interested in aponte’s vision of (and recourse to) the cosmos. she spoke of an aponte drawn to the cosmos as a space of comfort, as a space that was inherently democratic. why? because it was a space that could never be colonized, she said. a place, we might add, where slavery had no place. it was also a space that served as a kind of respite see alina helg, our rightful share: the afro-cuban struggle for equality, – (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ). see alejandra bronfman, measures of equality: social science, citizenship, and race in cuba, – (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ), . [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] figure josé bedia, júbilo de aponte, ; mixed media on mixed papers, x in. (courtesy of the artist). from aponte’s burdens as a leader of a weighty, treacherous struggle for black freedom. fernández’s interpretation is novel, and it derives, in part, from her reading as an artist the words of aponte the artist (see fig. ). we might even say it derives from a synergy between her own artistic and political practice and aponte’s. another such conversation occurred with renée stout, who was particularly inter- ested in what aponte might have tried to hide or disguise in his book—both figuratively, in the way he used and created images and meaning, and more literally, by hiding or perhaps even destroying his work so that authorities would not find it. and somehow in the conversation’s back and forth, something that should have been self-evident became crystal clear. from other testimony, we know that aponte had destroyed other images and docu- ments in his house before the police arrived—images of haitian leaders, for example, and one related to the french revolution. he knew they were incriminating, and he testified that he destroyed them sometime before his arrest. what might he have thought about his book in this context? did he consider it incriminating? that he did hide the book—he put it in a box and then hid that box at the bottom of a trunk filled with clothes—suggests that he knew the book would likely be seen as subversive. did he consider destroying it, as the investigators’ dragnet drew nearer? no. he hid it, but he did not destroy it. [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] figure teresita fernández, aponte, ; pyrite, oil, and graphite on wood panel, . x x in. overall (courtesy of the artist and lehmann maupin, new york; photograph by yolanda navas). and as renée and ferrer pondered this, something simple and obvious became vividly apparent—aponte loved his book. he could not destroy it; he protected it. thinking about aponte’s love for his book is a fitting way to introduce folks to both digital aponte and visionary aponte. both are, we think, labors of love. they are a living monument to aponte—not just to aponte as “a fighter for freedom” but rather, or also, to the aponte who loved and cherished his own work as an artist, creator, historian, theorist. visionary aponte and digital aponte both help educate a broader public about the book and its creator, and they help expand an emerging transnational canon of black antislavery intellectual and cultural production so as to make it less anglophone, say, and more visual. and as the exhibit and website generate greater interest in aponte, they help expand the pool of people who understand the significance of the book of paintings and the stakes of recovering it. a future collaboration might even entail a collective search for the missing book, documented on the website, though that is not yet planned. ultimately, then, the website can serve as more than a space for the diffusion of aponte’s story or for the advancement of novel interpretations of his intellectual, artistic, and political labor. it might also serve as a stimulus and guide for the ultimate act of recovery: somewhere finding aponte’s long-lost and beloved book. [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] finding the book, however, is ultimately an improbable outcome. there is no guaran- tee that the book has survived in one piece. the fact that the book may not have had identifying information, such as aponte’s name or a title (“book of paintings” is what authorities called it; we do not know if aponte gave it a name), means that, even if it survived, it may not be identifiable by whoever happens to come across it. even, for the moment, imagining that the book can be found, we would still be unable to answer many of our questions. indeed, the artifact itself is likelier to raise as many questions as it answers. however much we would all love to locate the book, the ultimate act of recovery is perhaps less about aponte’s book itself than about what the book—and our own collective endeavor to imagine it and its creator—represent: a profound fusion of the artistic, intellectual, and political in which no one of those reigns over the others. digital aponte tries to foreground that quality in aponte’s work and to model it in our own, cognizant always that while definitive answers (like the book of paintings itself) remain elusive, the collaborative process of seeking them out is itself part of the project of envisioning freedom. acknowledgments we wish to thank the polonsky foundation-nyu digital humanities internship program, nyu’s fas office of educational technology, and digital scholarship services at bobst library. in particular, we would like to acknowledge jennifer vinopal, zachary coble, andrew battista, and armanda lewis for their institutional support, and we thank kris minhae choe and eric anderson for their extensive and valuable work on the website. [ rodríguez, ferrer ] collaborating with aponte sx archipelagos issue ( ) [ july ] linda m. rodriguez linda m. rodriguez ( – ) earned her phd in art history at harvard university, where she wrote a dissertation on free black artists in colonial havana, among them josé antonio aponte. rodríguez was post-doctoral fellow in art history and, later, visiting scholar at the center for latin american and caribbean studies at new york univer- sity. in addition to curating digital aponte, she collaborated in separados/torn apart, a project that visualizes the geography and finances of the “zero-tolerance immigration policy developed by ice, and in hablemos de la habana (let’s talk about havana), a collaborative forum about the city’s future organized by friends of havana and the world monuments fund. dr. rodriguez passed away on october , just as the authors were starting to revise this article. ada ferrer ada ferrer is julius silver professor of history and latin american and caribbean stud- ies, new york university. she is author of the award-winning books insurgent cuba: race, nation, and revolution, – (university of north carolina press, ) and freedom’s mirror: cuba and haiti in the age of revolution (cambridge university press, ). she is currently the andrew w. mellon foundation fellow at the cullman center for scholars and writers at the new york public library, as well as a guggenheim foundation fellow. collaborating with aponte: digital humanities, art, and the archive aponte's archive the book, the trial, and collaborative interpretation aponte's social worlds in digital form collaboration as creation: a new book of paintings acknowledgments linda m. rodriguez ada ferrer tmwg_posterfweb the backbone thesaurus user stories bbt id the backbone thesaurus (bbt) is the research outcome of work undertaken by the thesaurus maintenance wg in an effort to design and establish a coherent overarching meta-thesaurus for the humanities [ ]. it is a faceted classification scheme that favors a loose integration of multiple thesauri, by offering a small set of top-level concepts (facets and hierarchies) for specialist thesauri terms to map to. curation the bbt [ ] is systematically curated by a cross disciplinary team of editors coming from organisations participating in the tmwg (aa, forth, dai, frantiq/cnrs), through bbtalk, an online editing and communication tool designed to support collaborative, interdisciplinary development and extension of thesauri. partner vocabularies and thesauri the controlled vocabularies/thesauri that have been mapped to the bbt to this day are: the idai.welt thesaurus [ ], the dyas humanities thesaurus [ ], the parthenos vocabularies [ ] and the language of binding thesaurus [ ]. members of the working group are working towards integrating the pactols [ ], the taxonomy of digital research activities in the humanities (tadirah) [ ] and the arts and architecture thesaurus [ ] with the bbt. why adopt the bbt - bbt has a logical and easily accessible structure - it makes use of a small number of top-level concepts - it allows the subsumption of any local thesaurus: scholars are not required to quit using their terms of preference. - it promotes objectivity and interdisciplinarity. it allows integration of terms from different scientific fields and enables cross-disciplinary resource discovery - it is a community driven initiative that offers peer scientific support - it can also serve as a basis for thesaurus building (and restructuring) benefits from joining the thesaurus federation h. goulis, academy of athens, e. tsouloucha, ics-forth current main editors martin doerr, helen katsiadakis, helen goulis, eleni tsouloucha, chrysoula bekiari, lida charami, gerasimos chrysovitsanos, camilla colombi, patricia kalafata, annika kirscheneder, blandine nouvel, evelyne sinigaglia, yorgos tzedopoulos references: thesaurus maintenance working group ( ). dariah backbone thesaurus (bbt): definition of a model for sustainable interoperable thesauri maintenance, version . . . greece: may https://www.backbonethesaurus.eu/sites/default/files/dariah_bbt% v% . . % draft% v .pdf; georgis ch., bruseker g., tsouloucha e. ( ). bbtalk: an online service for collaborative and transparent thesaurus curation, ercim news , special theme: transparency in algorithmic decision making https://ercim-news.ercim.eu/en /r-i/bbtalk-an-online-service-for-collaborative-and-transparent-thesaurus-curation; daskalaki m., charami l. ( ). a back bone thesaurus for digital humanities, ercim news , october , special theme: digital humanities https://ercim-news.ercim.eu/en /special/a-back-bone-thesaurus-for-digital-humanities; m. daskalaki, m. doerr, . philosophical background assumptions in digitized knowledge representation systems, in dia-noesis: a journal of philosophy, , issue , p - ; https://www.backbonethesaurus.eu/sites/default/files/philosophical% background% assumptions.pdf; thesaurus maintenance working group ( ). thesaurus maintenance methodological outline. greece https://www.backbonethesaurus.eu/sites/default/files/workingpaperonthesaurusmaintenance _ _ .pdf. this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international licence scan or go to https://youtu.be/qddegn-jiry to watch bbt user stories “in the reality of the data bbt is one of our major goals and will bring together years of cataloguing and tagging of knowledge and creating knowledge systems”. reinhard förtsch (dai) “we had an old fashioned thesaurus, we realised we have to change its structure and make a step toward a conceptual framework” “the bbt improved the quality of our work” “we flagged up a number of redundancies in our thesaurus which could not be resolved before adopting bbt” blandine nouvel (frantiq-cnrs) “when the dai is doing world archaeology nowadays we try to become interoperable. with the bbt we had a target. and that was the great thing. the greatest learning curve for people entering the digital world is that you need clean schemes”. “in the future the bbt will have a very central role in the way dai presents its data on the web with the fair implementation. bbt is one of the hallmarks of this kind of thinking”. [ ] https://www.backbonethesaurus.eu/ [ ] https://vocabs.dariah.eu/backbone_thesaurus/en/ [ ] http://thesauri.dainst.org/_fe f [ ] https://humanitiesthesaurus.academyofathens.gr [ ] https://isl.ics.forth.gr/parthenos_vocabularies/ [ ] https://www.ligatus.org.uk/lob/ [ ] https://pactols.frantiq.fr/opentheso/ [ ] http://tadirah.dariah.eu/vocab/ [ ] https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/aat/ dariah-eu virtual annual event : scholarly primitives, november - , evelyne sinigaglia (frantiq-cnrs) links h i s t o r y m a t t e r s doi: dx.doi.org/ . /jmla. . jmla.mlanet.org ( ) october journal of the medical library association from postcard to book cover: illustrating connections between medical history and digital humanities e. thomas ewing, phd; katherine randall; jeffrey s. reznick, phd see end of article for authors’ affiliations. this article illustrates the value and impact of collaboration among scholars, archivists, and librarians working across universities and government institutions, and how changes in medium—from a born-physical photograph and printed postcard to a digital reproduction to a simultaneously born-digital and printed book— create new possibilities for scholarly analysis, interpretation, and dissemination, which in turn suggest future directions for research and engagement across fields of inquiry. in doing so, this article argues that history matters by illuminating past networks that, through humanistic inquiry, continue to connect people, ideas, and institutions in the present and into the future. in january , the illinois post graduate and training school for nurses sent a ⅜ by ½ postcard (figures and ) to miss eunice hoakinson, asking her “to begin the new year right” by seeking training as a graduate nurse [ ]. over one hundred years later, the coeditors of the landmark book, viral networks: connecting digital humanities and medical history (figure ), selected this postcard to illustrate its cover [ , ]. this transition from postcard to book cover represents the value and impact of collaboration among scholars, archivists, and librarians working across universities and government institutions. this process also illustrates how changes in medium—from a born-physical photograph and printed postcard to a digital reproduction to a simultaneously born-digital and printed book—create new possibilities for scholarly analysis, interpretation, and dissemination, which in turn suggest future directions for research and engagement across fields of inquiry. figures and recto and verso of the advertising postcard for the illinois post graduate and training school for nurses courtesy national library of medicine. e w i n g e t a l . doi: dx.doi.org/p . /jmla. . journal of the medical library association ( ) october jmla.mlanet.org figure cover of viral networks: connecting digital humanities and medical history blacksburg, va: vt publishing, . the illinois training school for nurses opened in chicago in , with students who took courses in obstetrics, anatomy, physiology, and more [ , ]. by , the school enrolled nearly students. during the first world war, nearly graduates of the illinois training school for nurses served the military in red cross hospitals. in , the illinois training school for nurses merged with the university of chicago to meet the increased academic as well as technical requirements of nurse training, effectively closing the school. although the closure decision came as a “distinct shock” to jessie f. christie, class of , her reflections testified to the networked connections associated with this institution: as i have thought it over since, i feel that it will be impossible to lose our identity as long as any of our graduates are working in the nursing field, and i get prouder day by day when i realize that our school, which was a pioneer in the nursing world, is also a pioneer in raising the standards in nursing education and making it possible for nurses to receive a scientific degree. [ ] during more than decades, the illinois training school graduated an estimated , nurses. as christie’s statement suggests, nurses formed professional connections with each other, with doctors, and with institutions advocating for more scientific training in the health sciences, therefore, contributing to the networks that shaped twentieth century medicine. the photograph depicting nearly seventy nurses from the illinois training school for nurses entered the collection of the history of medicine division of the national library of medicine (nlm), national institutes of health (nih), in , when archivists of the library acquired the michael zwerdling collection of history of nursing postcards, consisting of more than , such images [ , ]. like many items in this vast collection, the illinois training school for nurses postcard depicts nurses as professionals, placing them in a classroom setting to highlight their dedication to education and service. yet the additional purpose of this postcard is evident in the message typed on the reverse side: “dear madam: why not begin the new year right by entering the illinois training school for nurses and become a graduate nurse. wishing you a happy new year.” this postcard, therefore, served as a recruiting tool, a means to bring the institution to the attention of women who might enter nursing as a profession. h i s t o r y m a t t e r s doi: dx.doi.org/ . /jmla. . jmla.mlanet.org ( ) october journal of the medical library association one century later, scholars used—indeed, reused—a digital version of this postcard as a recruitment tool for a different purpose. in the fall of , virginia tech partnered with nlm to recruit contributing authors for the “viral networks advanced workshop in the digital humanities and medical history,” funded by the national endowment for the humanities (neh) [ – ]. because this photograph clearly showed people working in a medical context, it encouraged potential contributors to think about viral networks in terms of human connections to disease, medicine, and health. on october , , the image was tweeted, with the text: “committed to using #digitalhumanities to advance scholarship? proposals due / viral networks workshop.” this particular tweet soon earned , impressions and engagements, illustrating how the transition from a born-physical artifact to a twenty-first- century digital copy circulating in a social network engaged new audiences while evoking the same themes—education and recruitment—that the original artifact did a century earlier. digital networking reanimated this historical image not merely as a digitized object, but as one purposefully selected, curated, and circulated to achieve a new objective and advance the humanistic enterprise defined by a singular yet multifaceted initiative. as the coeditors of the viral networks book worked with vt publishing to select an illustration for the cover of the publication, they sought an image to convey the shared themes of the chapters while also respecting the diversity of chronologies, geographies, and methods covered by their authors. in addition to illustrating the volume’s focus on medical history, the cover also needed to emphasize how individuals across places and times constructed and contested knowledge about disease and health. finally, the cover needed to demonstrate that people constitute networks, not only as nodes that connect edges, to use the terminology of network analysis, but fundamentally as the actors whose practices, intentions, attitudes, and interactions give meaning, value, and context to networked connections. this photograph in the postcard was familiar to the editors from the tweet sent in october , and they selected it as the best possible image to meet the stated objectives. in the design process, they cropped the image and purposely reversed it to enhance its aesthetic quality by aligning the pole in the middle of the photograph with the spine of the book. the photograph itself indicated a valuable connection to medical history, both in the aged appearance, which was preserved in its digital format, and in the composition of the photo itself, which featured old-fashioned nursing uniforms and unsmiling subjects often associated with early photography. to highlight the potential for a networked connection among these individuals, circles and lines in cyan blue were added to connect the faces of nurses to each other. using “new” digital tools to overlay an imaginary network on an “old” medium changes the story and purpose of the photograph. originally a recruitment tool—both in its analog twentieth century use and a twenty-first century tweet—the cover, therefore, demonstrates how new technologies can make historical networks visible while maintaining, if not augmenting, a humanistic focus on the people involved. in december , vt publishing released viral networks both in a print version, available in black and white or full color, and in an electronic open- access version [ , ]. publishing the volume in the latter format was—and remains—consistent with the missions of the partner organizations to make knowledge at the intersection of medical history and digital humanities widely and easily available to all. the photograph of the illinois training school for nurses, therefore, circulates as the book cover in both digital and print versions, including copies sent to medical history libraries to add to their circulating collections. in april , the nlm history of medicine division convened, broadcasted globally, and subsequently archived the livestream of “viral networks, reconnected: a digital humanities/history of medicine research forum” to continue the dialogue about innovative research methods using knowledge and tools of the digital humanities [ , ]. featured prominently throughout these proceedings, the postcard of the illinois training school for nurses continued to achieve an extended presence and scholarly usefulness via the internet, on social media, in libraries, and in the hands of readers of the associated book. yet, this postcard contains an additional detail, one that was initially elusive but, through further e w i n g e t a l . doi: dx.doi.org/p . /jmla. . journal of the medical library association ( ) october jmla.mlanet.org research, became compelling. the reverse of the postcard included a handwritten note: “i hope to be here some day. eunice.” the winnetka directory for revealed that eunice hawkinson lived at oak street (though her name on the postcard was misspelled as eunice hoakinson) [ ]. the directory also listed her occupation as “nurse,” suggesting her handwritten note was an expression of a desire to increase her qualifications in this chosen profession. despite her stated desire to attend the illinois training school for nurses, the list of alumni for subsequent classes did not reveal a student by either name (hoakinson or hawkinson). the winnetka directory still listed eunice hawkinson at oak street, yet her occupation was “maid” [ ]. two years later, on may , , eunice hawkinson married conrad carlson [ ], and the census listed them living in new trier [ ]. twenty years later, a eunice carlson, now widowed, was recorded in the census as living in chicago [ ]. after , no further records have been discovered that reveal subsequent events in her life. eunice hawkinson and the illinois post graduate and training school for nurses, therefore, appear to have two connections: first, a recruitment postcard, which prompted a very personal expression of interest from eunice hawkinson, yet there was no evidence of any further intersections during the course of her lifetime; and second, this article, which establishes connections among an individual, an institution, an artifact, and an edited volume. in deliberately choosing to circulate this image, the editors by inevitable association also chose eunice hawkinson’s note and her story, understanding the situatedness of both networks and artifacts. recognizing the contingency as well as complexity of connections is consistent with the themes of the book. networks connect people, ideas, and processes, yet it is also important to recognize gaps, omissions, and absences within the networks that must also be subject to analysis. from this critical perspective, the search to find more information about the eunice “hoakinson” listed on the postcard reminds us that any kind of humanities analysis is an effort to understand, uncover, and contextualize what knowledge is present, what is missing, and, most importantly, what may be connected. history matters by illuminating past networks that, through humanistic inquiry, continue to connect people, ideas, and institutions in the present and into the future. acknowledgments a digital humanities advancement grant from the neh office of digital humanities supported the “viral networks” workshop and associated, peer- reviewed monograph. the authors also thank the staff of vt publishing, especially robert browder and peter potter, for their assistance in publishing this collection. jeffrey s. reznick is grateful to nlm/nih for supporting his contributions to this article as they reflect programmatic outcomes of the interagency partnership between nlm/nih and neh. references . national library of medicine. illinois post graduate and training school for nurses: section of one class—section of room [internet]. nlm digital collections [cited jul ]. . . ewing et, randall k, eds. viral networks: connecting digital humanities and medical history. blacksburg, va: vt publishing, . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /viral- networks. . schryver gf. a history of the illinois training school for nurses – . chicago, il: board of directors of the illinois training school for nurses; . . university library, university of illinois, urbana- champaign. nursing history in illinois [internet]. the library [cited jul ]. . . schryver gf. a history of the illinois training school for nurses – . chicago, il: board of directors of the illinois training school for nurses; . p. . . mills e. pictures of nursing: the zwerdling postcard collection. circulating now: from the historical collections of the national library of medicine [internet]. sep [cited jul ]. . . national library of medicine. nlm launches “pictures of nursing: the zwerdling postcard collection”: special display, online exhibition opening september , [internet]. the library; aug [cited jul ]. . . ewing et. viral networks: book and workshop [internet]. ewing et; sep [cited jul ]. . h i s t o r y m a t t e r s doi: dx.doi.org/ . /jmla. . jmla.mlanet.org ( ) october journal of the medical library association . national library of medicine. nlm to host “viral networks: an advanced workshop in digital humanities and medical history” [internet]. the library; sep [cited jul ]. . . virginia tech university. viral networks workshop to use digital humanities tools to illuminate medical history [internet]. the university; dec [cited jul ]. . . virginia tech university. virginia tech publishing launches first peer-reviewed book under its own imprint [internet]. the university; jun [cited jul ]. . . national library of medicine. open access book based on “viral networks” workshop now available [internet]. the library; mar [cited jul ]. . . national library of medicine. nlm announces history of medicine lecture series [internet]. the library; dec [cited jul ]. . . national institutes of health, center for information technology, nih videocasting and podcasting. viral networks, reconnected: a digital humanities/history of medicine research forum [internet]. the institutes [cited jul ]. . . evanston city and north shore directory. vol. . chicago, il: bumstead & co.; . p. . . evanston city and north shore directory. vol. . chicago, il: bumstead & co.; . p. . . division of vital records. marriage records, –present. springfield, il: the division. . . us census bureau. year: . census place: new trier, cook, illinois; roll: t _ ; page: b; enumeration district: , as identified via ancestry.com. united states federal census [database online]. provo, ut. . us census bureau. year: ; census place: chicago, cook, illinois; roll: m-t - ; page: b; enumeration district: - , as identified via ancestry.com. united states federal census [database online]. provo, ut, usa: ancestry.com operations; . authors’ affiliations e. thomas ewing, phd, etewing@vt.edu, professor of history, associate dean, and digital humanist, department of history, virginia tech, blacksburg, va katherine randall, katsbie@vt.edu, doctoral candidate in rhetoric and writing, department of english, virginia tech, blacksburg, va jeffrey s. reznick, phd, jeffrey.reznick@nih.gov, chief, history of medicine division, national library of medicine, national institutes of health, bethesda, md received may ; accepted june articles in this journal are licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. this journal is published by the university library system of the university of pittsburgh as part of its d-scribe digital publishing program and is cosponsored by the university of pittsburgh press. issn - (online) e. thomas ewing, phd; katherine randall; jeffrey s. reznick, phd see end of article for authors’ affiliations. this article illustrates the value and impact of collaboration among scholars, archivists, and librarians working across universities and government institutions, and how changes in medium—from a born-physical photograph and printed postcard to a digital reproduction to a simultaneously born-digital and printed book—create new possibilities for scholarly analysis, interpretation, and dissemination, which in turn suggest future directions for research and engagement across fields of inquiry. in doing so, this article argues that history matters by illuminating past networks that, through humanistic inquiry, continue to connect people, ideas, and institutions in the present and into the future. acknowledgments references authors’ affiliations e. thomas ewing, phd, etewing@vt.edu, professor of history, associate dean, and digital humanist, department of history, virginia tech, blacksburg, va katherine randall, katsbie@vt.edu, doctoral candidate in rhetoric and writing, department of english, virginia tech, blacksburg, va jeffrey s. reznick, phd, jeffrey.reznick@nih.gov, chief, history of medicine division, national library of medicine, national institutes of health, bethesda, md received may ; accepted june .dvi uva-dare is a service provided by the library of the university of amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) uva-dare (digital academic repository) the role of ict in music research: a bridge too far? honing, h. doi . /e publication date published in international journal of humanities and arts computing link to publication citation for published version (apa): honing, h. ( ). the role of ict in music research: a bridge too far? international journal of humanities and arts computing, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . /e general rights it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like creative commons). disclaimer/complaints regulations if you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the library know, stating your reasons. in case of a legitimate complaint, the library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. please ask the library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: library of the university of amsterdam, secretariat, singel , wp amsterdam, the netherlands. you will be contacted as soon as possible. download date: apr https://doi.org/ . /e https://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/the-role-of-ict-in-music-research-a-bridge-too-far( f - b - - d -ae ff ).html https://doi.org/ . /e the role of ict in music research: a bridge too far? henkjan honing introduction while the wide spread availability of the computer and internet undoubtedly has had a major influence on our society, it is less clear what its impact has been on research in the humanities. critics blame humanities’ scholars for conservatism, preferring paper, pen and handwork over novel technological gadgets. others see the use of computer technologies in the humanities mainly restricted to, but well put to use, in applications like the digital library. although the latter is an important example of information and communication technology (ict), it is unclear what the actual impact ict has had on the research methods and research questions posed. given the observation that for most humanities scholars the use of ict has not progressed beyond word-processing, using email, and browsing the web, one could argue that, apparently, there is no real need for more advanced uses of ict, and hence its impact on humanities research might well be negligible. however, in some specific areas of the humanities, including archeology, linguistics, media studies and music, ict has allowed new research questions and new methodologies to emerge. in this paper, i will focus on the role of ict in music research, especially the influence it had on the development of the fields of empirical and cognitive musicology. musicology - and beyond musicology is a relatively young discipline, with its current architecture largely shaped by guido adler in the th century. he divided musicology into two major fields of historical and systematic musicology. as the naming suggests, historical musicology is concerned with the history of music, arranged by international journal of humanities and arts computing ( ) , – doi: . /e © edinburgh university press and the association for history and computing h. honing epochs, peoples, empires, countries, provinces, towns, schools, and individual artists using historiographic methods. systematic musicology is concerned with the investigation of the chief laws applicable to the various branches of music, aesthetics, the psychology of music, music education, and the comparative study in ethnography and folklore. the latter being the category ‘miscellaneous’, one could say. while in adler’s time the study of music was restricted to a small elite of music experts, nowadays scholars and scientists from psychology, sociology, cognitive science, cultural theory, and even archeologists also consider music an interesting and important domain to investigate. and they can not be blamed. music is at least as multi-faceted as language. however, language as a research topic has attracted considerably more research than music. and one can seriously question why the field of musicology did not grow as much as linguistics did in the last fifty years. different possible explanations come to mind. one could be that musicology is indeed what some of its critics say: a relatively conservative discipline that studies the cultural and historical aspects of music using familiar descriptive and critical methods, hence leaving out all topics adler labeled as the systematic field. another, more attractive explanation could be that musicologists are simply not (yet) equipped with the appropriate knowledge and tools to study music in a truly systematic way. although most musicologists base their work on texts and scores (using paleographic and philological methods), alternative methods are needed for music with no notation or score (such as the larger proportion of music around the world) or for music in which the actual sound is a more relevant source of information (e.g., electronic music genres ranging from musique concrète to drum & bass). ethnomusicologists were confronted with this situation early on and it prompted the adoption of methodologies from disciplines like physics (e.g., measurement), psychology (e.g., controlled experiments), sociology (e.g., interview techniques) or anthropology (e.g., participating observation). it is the use of methods from other disciplines that, in my opinion, might have been the cause of some delay in the development of musicology as a field, since mastering this wide variety of methodologies, most of which are never really touched upon in the curriculum of the humanities, is not an easy task. fortunately, in the last two decades it became clear what the methodological toolbox for musicologists could be. in the next section two recent strands of musicological research will be discussed – empirical and cognitive musicology – that can serve as an example of the growing role of ict, measurement, and experimental method in musicology. both perspectives will be illustrated with an example of recent research. the role of ict in music research the role of observation: empirical musicology empirical musicology, or ‘new empiricism’ as the musicologist david huron calls it, grew out of a desire to ground theories on empirical observation and to construct theories on the basis of the analysis and interpretation of such ob- servations. it came with the revival of scientific method promoting the pursuit of evidence and rigorous method, after a period of considerable criticism on scientific method in the postmodern literature. the arrival of new technologies, most notably that of midi and of the personal computer, were instrumental to the considerable increase in the number of empirically oriented investigations into music. this increase in empirical research is also apparent in the founding of several new scientifically oriented journals, including psychology of music ( ), empirical studies in the arts ( ), music perception ( ), musicae scientiae ( ), and most recently empirical music review ( ). a seminal example of this development is a study by nicholas cook on the well-known conductor wilhelm furtwängler ( – ). this study was prompted by a longstanding disagreement between two music scholars: paul henry lang, who was a record critic for high fidelity magazine in the late s, and peter pirie, a musicologist and author of furtwängler and the art of conducting ( ). according to lang, furtwängler was a ‘dyed-in-the-wool romantic, favoring arbitrary and highly subjective procedures in tempo, dynam- ics and phrasing’, with the word ‘arbitrary’ referring to furtwängler’s inability to keep a steady tempo.’ peter pirie could not disagree more with lang’s characterization of furtwängler’s conducting. for pirie, the way furtwängler performed beethoven was anything but arbitrary. he considered furtwängler’s ‘flexible declamation’ a fundamental aspect of his conducting style. such an argument is a typical example and result of a critical approach to the study of art, an approach that often results in unresolved differences in interpretation, even when, at least for some research questions, this is not needed at all. cook tried, in his study, to objectively answer the question of whether furtwängler could (or could not) keep a steady tempo. for this he chose a straight-forward, yet for musicologists relatively novel, empirical approach by simply measuring the tempo fluctuations in a variety of commercially available recordings (using off-the-shelf ict hard- and software). a fragment of these measurements is presented in figure . for the two historic live recordings shown here, most interpretative details were kept the same by furtwängler, revealing very similar slowing down or speeding up patterns at characteristic structural points in the musical score. while some detail in the use of timing and tempo was changed, overall, furtwängler had a clear, decided upon, idea of how the tempo for this composition had to be conducted, and was able to stick to this interpretation even in a concert recorded two years later. using these relatively h. honing figure . tempo measurements of furtwängler’s and live recordings of beethoven’s ninth symphony (coda). the numbers on the x-axis refer to the bars numbers in the musical score, the numbers on the y-axis refer to the measured tempo (the higher the faster). simple measurements of tempo, cook could decide the longstanding argument in favor of pirie. the role of controlled experiments: cognitive musicology as discussed above, empirical musicology became relatively successful in the s, giving a new boost to music performance studies. it proved a convincing alternative to the idea that music performance is too subjective to study scientifically. however, empirical results solely based on the method of measurement resolve only part of the research questions relevant to music research. for example, one has to keep in mind the possible discrepancy between what one measures (cf. figure ) and what a listener is actually aware off or perceives in a musical situation (cf. figure ). while ‘new musicology” invoked the frame of subjectivity (in fact declaring it impossible to study the the role of ict in music research arts scientifically), the advocates of cognitive science approached it in a more constructive way by refining scientific tools that allows one to study subjective experience. the application of these methods and techniques to music gave rise to the domain of cognitive musicology (or music cognition), an area of scientific inquiry that materialized in the margins of psychology, computer science, and musicology. an example of this line of research is a study on the use of timing and tempo in piano music. it combines techniques from ict and computer science with methods from experimental and cognitive psychology aiming to answer ques- tions on the commonalities and diversities as found in music performance: what is shared among music performances and what changes in each interpretation? more specifically, the study addresses the question whether an interpretation changes when only the overall tempo of the performance is changed. in- stead of measuring performances (as in the furtwängler example discussed above), in this study the question was operationalized: can listeners hear the difference between an original recording (by one pianist) and a manipulated, tempo-transformed recording (by another pianist)? the tempo-transformed recording was originally recorded at a different tempo but was made similar in tempo to the other performance using an advanced time-scale modification algorithm. the task was to judge which of the two performances – now both in the same overall tempo – was an original recording while focusing on the use of expressive timing. (see figure for a fragment of the user interface of the online listening experiment). what can we expect the results to be? one hypothesis, based on the psychological literature, suggests that listeners can not hear the difference (the ‘relational invariance’ hypothesis). since the timing variations of the pianist are scaled proportionally, both versions will sound equally natural, so that the participants in the listening experiment will consider both versions musically plausible performances, and, consequently, just guess what is an original recording. an alternative hypothesis is that listeners can hear the difference (the ‘tempo-specific timing’ hypothesis). it is based on the idea that timing in music performance is intrinsically related to global tempo. when the timing variations are simply scaled to another tempo (i.e., slowing it down or speeding it up proportionally) this may make the performance sound awkward or unusual, and hence easier to identify as a tempo-transformed version. the results of this study are summarized in figure . the majority (on average, %) of the participants (primarily students of the university of amsterdam and northwestern university) could correctly identify an original recording by focusing solely on the timing used by the pianist (since both fragments had the same tempo). this result was taken as support for the tempo-specific timing hypothesis – which predicts that a tempo-transformed performance will sound awkward as compared to an original performance – and h. honing figure . fragment of the internet user interface showing the presentation of the audio fragments that had to be compared (see http://www.hum.uva.nl/mmm/exp/). as counterevidence for the relationally invariant timing hypothesis, which predicts that a tempo-transformed performance will sound equally musical or natural. as such this result cleared up a longstanding argument of whether performers do or do not adapt their timing to the tempo chosen, and, if so, whether listeners are sensitive to this. this study is just a small example of how methods from cognitive science – choosing an experimental design that allows one to use real music (i.e., cd recordings instead of midi performances, or even clicks or simple sine tones) and subjective judgments by a panel of experienced listeners – allow scientific inquiry of music perception and performance. the example also hints at the further potential of ict for empirical studies in the humanities. the technology the role of ict in music research figure . results of a listening experiment ( participants) using compositions from the classical and romantic piano repertoire as recorded by pianists such as glenn gould, vladimir horowitz and rosalyn tureck (a quote indicates a tempo transformed recording; statistical significance levels are indicated with asterisks; * p < . ; ** p < . ; *** p < . ). used here (for a more elaborate description, see honing, ), combines widely available ict technology with well-understood methods from the social sciences. together, they form a powerful toolkit for the modern musicologist and opens up a whole new area of cognitive research in the arts and humanities. conclusion the past two decades have witnessed a significant increase in scientifically inspired music research in which the role of ict, measurement, and experiment became influential methods that contributed to a further understanding of music as a process in which the performer, the listener, and music as sound play a central role. these developments not only enriched musicological research itself, it also influenced the main issues addressed in other areas of research like psychology and (neuro)cognition, slowly diminishing the ‘trade deficit’ that h. honing musicology built up over its existence as a discipline. for example, music was for years only a minor topic in the psychology text books, hidden away in a section on pitch perception, in recent years several disciplines, ranging from cultural theory to archeology and psychology to computer science, have shown a growing interest in the scientific study of music. this puts music in the center of attention and research activity – next to language, where it belongs. end notes see, e.g., w. bijker & b. peperkamp (eds.). geëngageerde geesteswetenschappen – perspectieven op cultuurveranderingen in een digitaliserend tijdperk. the hague ; and a critical commentary g. de vries, ‘dienstbare alfa’s’, de academische boekengids, / , ( ). see, e.g., e. viskil. een digitale bibliotheek voor de geesteswetenschappen. aanzet tot een programma voor investering in een landelijke kennisinfrastructuur voor geesteswetenschappen en cultuur. nwo-gebiedsbestuur geesteswetenschappen, the hague . d. robey, j. unsworth & g. rockwell, ‘national support for humanities computing: different achievements, needs and prospects’, proceedings of the ach/allc conference, university of victoria, . g. adler, ‘umfang, methode und ziel der musikwissenschaft’ in: vierteljahresschrift für musikwissenschaft ( ). d. deutsch (ed.), psychology of music ( nd edition), new york . s. frith, music for pleasure: essays in the sociology of pop, new york, . h. c. longuet-higgins, mental processes. studies in cognitive science, cambridge, ma . e. w. said, musical elaborations, london . s. mithen, the singing neanderthals: the origins of language, music, body and mind. london . c. seeger, ‘systematic musicology: viewpoints, orientations, and methods’, in: journal of the american musicological society , ( ), pp. – , see, for example, t. denora, ‘musical practice and social structure: a toolkit’, in: e. f. clarke & n. cook (eds.), empirical musicology: aims, methods and prospects, oxford , p. . d. huron, ‘the new empiricism: systematic musicology in a postmodern age’, berkeley, university of california , http://www.music-cog.ohio-state.edu/music / bloch.lectures/ .methodology.html, p. . j. rink, (ed.) the practice of performance: studies in musical interpretation, cambridge ; e. f. clarke & n. cook (eds.) empirical musicology: aims, methods and prospects, oxford . for an overview of this discussion see d. huron, ‘the new empiricism’. commercial standard for the exchange of information between electronic instruments and computers. see for an overview, e.g., e. f. clarke, ‘rhythm and timing in music’, in: d. deutsch (ed.), psychology of music ( nd edition), new york , pp. – ; a. gabrielsson, ‘the performance of music’, in d. deutsch (ed.), psychology of music, new york , pp. – . the role of ict in music research n. cook, ‘the conductor and the theorist: furtwängler, schenker, and the first movement of beethoven’s ninth symphony,’ in: j. rink (ed.), the practice of performance, cambridge: cambridge university press, pp. – . p. pirie, furtwängler and the art of conducting, london . p. h. lang, ‘the symphonies’. in: the recordings of beethoven as viewed by the critics from high fidelity, westport, connecticut . p. pirie, ‘furtwängler and the art of conducting’ cook used a technique that involved playing the cd in the cd-rom drive of a computer and tapping the space bar of the computer keyboard in synchrony with the onset of each bar, its inter-bar intervals (ibi) being recorded and converted to a measure of tempo ( /ibi). adapted from cook, ‘the conductor and the theorist’. new musicology: a branch of music scholarship that is guided by a recognition of the limits of human understanding, an awareness of the social milieu in which scholarship is pursued, and the realization of the political area in which the fruits of scholarship are used and abused. h. honing, ‘the comeback of systematic musicology: new empiricism and the cognitive revolution’ dutch journal of music theory / ( ) pp. – . see for more details h. honing, ‘evidence for tempo-specific timing in music using a web-based experimental setup’. journal of experimental psychology: human perception and performance, ( ), ( ); h. honing, ‘timing is tempo-specific’. proceedings of the international computer music conference, barcelona ( ) pp. – .; h. honing, ‘is expressive timing relational invariant under tempo transformation?’ psychology of music (in press). to realize this technology in an academic environment is an interesting topic on its own (google the word ‘vulpennenbeheer’ to get a rough idea). b. h. repp, ‘relational invariance of expressive microstructure across global tempo changes in music performance: an exploratory study.’ psychological research ( ) pp. – . adapted from honing, ‘evidence for tempo-specific timing in music using a web-based experimental setup’. contributors contributors journal of women's history, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /jowh. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /jowh. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ lauren beck holds the canada research chair in intercultural en- counter, is an associate professor of hispanic studies at mount allison university, and serves as the editor of terrae incognitae. she specializes in early modern transatlantic studies, history of cartography, and visual culture. she is increasingly interested in gender and indigenous studies from an early modern perspective. her recent books include visualizing the text from manuscript culture to the age of caricature ( ), with christina ionescu; mapping canada before confederation (vernon press, ), with chet van duzer; and transforming the enemy in spanish culture (cambria press, ). her recent research examines how women on both sides of the spanish atlantic were illustrated in early modern books as well as how book illustrators represented women’s labor. sharon block is a professor of history at university of california, irvine. she works in colonial north american history, with specializations in the history of sexuality, race, and the body, as well as more broadly in computational humanities. her scholarship includes rape and sexual power in early america (oieahc at university of north carolina press, ); articles on data mining eighteenth-century newspapers as well as analyses of the place of women’s history in academic publishing; and colonial complexions: race and bodies in eighteenth-century america (university of pennsylvania press, ). she is coeditor of the th edition of major problems in american women’s history (cengage, ) along with ruth alexander and mary beth norton. she has published an additional two dozen articles and essays on the history of sexuality, race, and applications of topic modeling to historical subjects in early north america. caitlin harvey is a doctoral candidate in history at princeton university. she studies the history of britain and america from to , especially the relationship between these nations, their empires, and their shared so- cial and political issues. harvey gathered much of the research contained in this article at the university of oxford while completing a master’s de- gree in modern british and european history under the supervision of dr. christina de bellaigue, in . she would like to thank linda colley, david cannadine, and the members of the history of science program seminar at princeton university for their helpful suggestions and criticisms during the editing stage of producing this article. contributors © journal of women’s history, vol. no. , – . journal of women’s history spring susanne hillman obtained her phd in modern european history from the university of california, san diego. her work has been published in a variety of academic journals, including german studies review, journal of the history of ideas, cahiers staëliens, and celebrity studies. her eclectic re- search interests include european women’s history (especially german and french), popular culture, oral history, digital humanities, and the history of comparative genocide. she is at the early stages of a research project of germaine de staël and her children. hillman is currently an adjunct lecturer in history at the university of california, san diego, and san diego state university. elizabeth nutting is an independent scholar based in houston, texas. she holds a phd from the university of texas at austin. her disser- tation, “morisco survival: gender, conversion, and migration in the early modern mediterranean,” documents how moriscos resisted and adapted to an increasingly dangerous and violent mediterranean world where they no longer had a place. she is currently working on a book about the life and inquisition trial of a woman who lived through the expulsion of the moriscos from spain. john pettegrew is professor and chair of the history department at lehigh university. he is coeditor of the three-volume work, public women, public words: a documentary history of american feminism (rowman & little- field, ); author and editor of a pragmatist’s progress: richard rorty and american intellectual history (rowman & littlefield, ); and author of the book brutes in suits: male sensibility in america, – (johns hopkins university press, ; paperback, ). his most recent book is light it up: the marine eye for battle in the war for iraq (johns hopkins university press, ), and his new book project is entitled “love and the american left: an intellectual biography.” shelley e. rose (email: shelley.rose@csuohio.edu; twitter: @shelleyerose) is associate professor of history and director of social studies at cleveland state university. she has published articles in the journal of urban his- tory and peace & change and is completing her book manuscript “gender and the politics of peace: cooperative activism and transnational networks on the german left, – .” rose also directs the digital humanities project protest spaces (protestspaces.org). she currently serves as a found- ing convener of the german studies association’s interdisciplinary digital humanities network and as secretary of the peace history society. contributors laura shelton is an assistant professor of history at franklin and mar- shall college. her book, for tranquility and order: family and community on mexico’s northern frontier, – (university of arizona press, ), explores how nineteenth-century families in northwestern mexico used their local courtrooms to air grievances, aid loved ones, and present their personal and financial affairs before the state. she argues that the region’s nascent legal system became the institution through which spouses, parents, children, employers, and servants settled disputes over everything from custody to assault to debt, and she reveals how daily encounters between men and women in the local courts contributed to the formation of repub- lican governance on mexico’s northwestern frontier. her current research focuses on the history of childbirth, obstetrics, and midwifery in provincial regions of mexico during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. karina smith is a senior lecturer in literary and gender studies at vic- toria university (melbourne, australia). she has published on caribbean women’s theater and literature in many internationally peer-reviewed journals and edited collections. she is also the coeditor of adding pimento: caribbean migration to victoria, australia (breakdown press, ). she is currently working on a project about popular theater in the caribbean. lou smith is a poet and independent researcher. she has a phd in creative writing from the university of melbourne where her research examined both place and the photographic image as sites of memory. her work has appeared in various journals and anthologies in australia and overseas, including interviewing the caribbean, entertext, mascara literary review, sxsalon, wasafiri, kunapipi, caribbean quarterly, hecate, and the caribbean writer. flying island books published her first book of poetry, riversalt, in . lou is currently working on her second book of poetry, which is set in her hometown newcastle, new south wales, australia in the early s. microsoft word - -목차 jesk j ergon soc korea ; ( ): - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jesk. . . . http://jesk.or.kr eissn: - a classification of sitting strategies based on driving posture analysis jangwoon park , younggeun choi , baekhee lee , kihyo jung , sungjin sah , heecheon you postech; department of industrial and management engineering, gyeongbuk, - university of ulsan; school of industrial engineering hyundai motor; research & development division corresponding author heecheon you postech, department of industrial and management engineering, cheongam- ro, nam-gu, pohang, gyeongbuk, - mobile : + - - - email : hcyou@postech.ac.kr received : january , revised : february , accepted : april , objective: the present study is intended to objectively classify upper- & lower-body sitting strategies and identify the effects of gender and opl type on the sitting strategies. background: a sitting strategy which statistically represents comfortable driving posture can be used as a reference posture of a humanoid in virtual design and evaluation of a driver's seat. although previous research has classified sitting strategies for driving postures in various occupant package layout (opl) types, the existing classification methods are not objective and the factors affecting sitting strategies have not been identified. method: forty drivers' preferred driving postures in three different opl types (coupe, sedan, and suv) were measured by a motion capture system. next, the measured driving postures were classified by k-means cluster method. results: sitting strategies of upper-body were classified as erect ( %), slouched ( %), and reclined ( %) postures, and those of lower-body were classified as knee bent ( %), knee extended ( %), and upper-leg lifted ( %) postures. significant differences at α = . in the upper-body sitting strategy by gender and lower- body sitting strategy by opl type were found. application: both the classified sitting strategies and the identified factors would be of use in ergonomic seat design and evaluation. keywords: sitting strategy, driving posture, occupant package layout, motion capture system copyright@ by ergonomics society of korea. all right reserved. ○cc this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. . introduction various research about driving posture have been conducted to design an ergonomics driver seat. driving posture is a major factor for driving performance and seating comfort; as important information to design a driver seat. for example, driving posture is used as a reference data to design visibility, reachability, and affordable clearance of a driver workspace (andreoni et al., ), and a driver seat for reducing back muscle fatigue (grieco, ). park et al. ( ) analyzed the relationship between driving posture and seat configuration, kyung and nussbaum ( ) analyzed the preferred range of joint angles (neck, shoulder, elbow, wrist, torso, hip, knee, and ankle angles). research interests in driver seat design/evaluation of a virtual special topic ergonomics in seating jangwoon park, et al. j ergon soc korea journal of the ergonomics society of korea environment using digital human models (dhm) have been increasing: for example, park et al. ( ) evaluated the predicted driving posture of ramsis®, and reed et al. ( ) developed statistical models to predict driving postures of dhms. several studies have been conducted to identify preferred driving postures for ergonomic driver seat design/evaluation. andreoni et al. ( ) defined "sitting strategy" as a class of sitting posture, and classified sitting strategies (upper body: lumbar, dorsal, and dorsal scapular strategy; lower body: ischiatic, intermediate, and trochanteric strategy) based on visually analyzed seating pressure characteristics of seatback and seatpan for males. choi et al. ( ) quantitatively classified sitting strategies for upper-body (mid-back and scapular, mid-back and lumbar, lumbar strategies) and lower-body (hip concentrated, hip and mid-thigh concentrated, hip and mid-thigh distributed strategies) using the body pressure ratios (bpr) for adults. park ( ) classified representative driving postures by cluster analysis on measured joint angles of korean male drivers in their preferred driving postures to use digital human model (dhm). the identification method for sitting strategies in the previous study is not objective and factors for the sitting strategies were not clearly identified yet. andreoni et al. ( ) visually classified the sitting strategies based on the seating pressure distribution analysis; however, since they analyzed the seating pressure distribution visually, the objectiveness of the classification method is insufficient. although park ( ) objectively identified the sitting strategies based on drivers' sitting postures, the subjects were only males and the factors (e.g., gender, opl condition) for the sitting strategies were not analyzed. the present study is intended to objectively classify sitting strategies based on drivers' preferred postures and identify factors for sitting strategies. the preferred driving postures of various body size drivers were measured in occupant package layout (opl) conditions (coupe, sedan, and suv) using a motion capture system. the measured driving postures were statistically classified using a cluster analysis. the present study also analyzed the gender and opl condition effect on the identified sitting strategies. methods . participants forty drivers ( males and females) in their s to s with more than years of driving experience were participated. the participants were recruited evenly for three stature groups (small: < rd %ile, medium: rd~ th %ile, large: > th %ile) formed by referring to corresponding size korea ( ) male and female anthropometric data ( males for small, for medium, and for large group; females for small, females for medium, and females for large group). the average stature of males was cm (sd = . , range = ~ cm) and that of the females was cm (sd = . , range = ~ cm). . measurement of driving postures using motion capture system a reconfigurable seating buck was constructed and a motion capture system were used in the experiment (see figure ). the seating buck can be reconfigured for various opl conditions (coupe, sedan, and suv) by adjusting seat (e.g., seat height = mm for coupe, mm for sedan, and mm for suv), steering wheel, accelerator pedal, and brake locations. an equus seat (hyundai-kia motors, korea) was installed into the seating buck, it has diverse adjustment capabilities such as seat position (forward/backward and upward/downward), cushion length, cushion angle, seatback angle, and headrest position. lastly, six motion capture cameras (hawk-i, motion analysis co., usa) were used to capture driving postures (sampling rate = hz). the driving postures of the participants in the seating buck were measured in three steps (preparation, measurement, and debriefing). in the preparation step, the research purpose and experimental process were introduced to the participant who then signed a written informed consent form. next, anthropometric dimensions of the participant were obtained by following apr, ; ( ): a classification of sitting strategies based on driving posture analysis http://jesk.or.kr ramsis anthropometry protocol (speyer, ) using a martin's anthropometer (ttm, tsutsumi co., japan). repeated measurements were obtained for each anthropometric dimension until their differences become < mm. next, reflective markers (ф = . cm) were attached on whole body of participant. in the measurement step, the participant was asked to sit on the driver mock-up with his/her preferred seating position and adjust seat configurations during -minute self-adjustment driving. after -minute self-adjustment driving, the preferred driving posture with both hands on -to- steering wheel positions was measured using the motion capture system in coupe, sedan, and suv conditions. lastly, a debriefing was conducted and the participant was compensated. the measured driving postures of the participants were reconstructed in three steps (generation of reference points, adjustment of reference point locations, and synchronization of reference points and measured markers) using ramsis® (human solution gmbh, germany) humanoid. in the generation of reference point step, reference points on a humanoid were generated based on the attached marker locations on a participant's whole body. in the adjustment of reference point location step, the generated reference points on the humanoid whole body were relocated based on the distances between the each measured marker location. in the synchronization of reference point and measured marker step, the adjusted reference points on the humanoid were used to synchronize with the measured markers in driving posture using ramsis animation simulator ( reference points can be synchronized with measured markers at once) in order to reconstruct each participant’s driving posture using ramsis humanoid. next, six joint angles (head, neck, torso, hip, knee, and ankle angles) of the humanoid were extracted from the reconstructed driving posture of ramsis humanoid (see figure ). . classification of sitting strategies by cluster analysis the sitting strategies based on the driving postures were identified in three steps (selection of proper number of clusters, classification of sitting strategies, and identification of sitting strategies). in the selection of proper number of cluster step, the number of clusters was selected based on a visual analysis of euclidean distances between each cluster on a dendrogram plot from ward's method. for example, as shown in figure , the number of clusters (n = ) for upper-body sitting strategies was selected based on the visual analysis of euclidean distances which most likely distinguish between each cluster for upper-body joint angles. in the classification of sitting strategy step, the extracted driving postures were statistically classified by k-means cluster analysis using the selected number of clusters. lastly, in the identification of sitting strategy step, the classified sitting strategies were identified to represent the characteristics of driving postures. figure . measurement of driving postures using motion capture system jangwoon park, et al. j ergon soc korea journal of the ergonomics society of korea results . classification of sitting strategies the sitting strategies for upper-body (see figure ) were identified as slouched, erect, and reclined postures. the percentage of each upper-body sitting strategy was % for slouched, % for erect, and % for reclined posture. the sitting strategies for lower-body (see figure ) were identified as knee bent, knee extended, and upper-leg lifted postures. the percentage of lower-body sitting strategies was % for knee bent, % for knee extended, and % for upper-leg lifted posture. . identification of related factors to the sitting strategies driver's gender has significant effect on the upper-body sitting strategies (χ²( ) = . , p < . ; see figure & ). for example, . % of female drivers preferred erect posture more than males ( . %); on the other hand, . % of male drivers preferred hip shoulder knee ankle eye neck head flexion neck flexion trunk extension hip extension knee flexion ankle extension bof figure . selected joint angles for driving posture analysis # clusters = ward's method eu cl id e an d is ta n ce observations figure . selection of number of clusters using a dendrogram plot apr, ; ( ): a classification of sitting strategies based on driving posture analysis http://jesk.or.kr reclined posture more than females ( . %). there is no significant effect on lower-body sitting strategy by gender. opl condition has significant effect on the lower-body sitting strategies (χ²( ) = . , p < . , see figure & ). for example, knee bent posture had hardly appeared at a coupe condition ( . %), nevertheless most of the participants took knee bent posture at the suv condition ( . %). no significant effect was found on upper-body sitting strategy by opl condition on the upper- & lower-body sitting strategies by driver's stature (all ps > . ). figure . classification of sitting strategy based on the upper-body driving posture figure . classification of sitting strategies based on the lower-body driving posture reclined ( %) . °± . . °± . . °± . slouched ( %) . °± . °± . . °± . erect ( %) . °± . °± . . °± . reclined slouched erect slouched ( %) erect ( %) reclined ( %) upper-leg lifted ( %) . °± . . °± . . °± . knee bent ( %) . °± . . °± . °± . knee extended ( %) . °± . . °± . . °± . knee bent upper-leg lifted knee extended knee extended ( %) upper-leg lifted ( %) knee bent ( %) jangwoon park, et al. j ergon soc korea journal of the ergonomics society of korea discussion the present study statistically identified sitting strategies based on driving posture in order to design a driver workspace. the sitting strategy is particularly useful for vehicle interior design/evaluation using a digital human model in a virtual environment. however, andreoni et al. ( )'s sitting strategies is not objective due to visual classification. although park ( )' sitting strategies were classified quantitatively and systematically using cluster analysis on joint angles, the factors (e.g., gender, opl condition) for the sitting strategy were not clearly identified. on the other hand, this study objectively classified sitting strategies using cluster analysis and statistically identified factors for the sitting strategies. therefore, the classified sitting strategies can be r el at iv e fr eq u en cy ( % ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . male female slouched erect reclined figure . percent of upper-body sitting strategies in gender (χ²( ) = . , p = . ) figure . percent of lower-body sitting strategies in gender (χ²( ) = . , p = . ) r el at iv e fr eq u en cy ( % ) . . . . . male female knee bent knee extended upper-leg lifted apr, ; ( ): a classification of sitting strategies based on driving posture analysis http://jesk.or.kr used as a reference data for driver workspace design/evaluation using digital human model simulation at specific gender and opl conditions. the driver's gender has significant effect on the upper-body sitting strategies. this study revealed male drivers preferred posture strategies evenly (percentage of slouched posture = . %, erect posture = . %, and reclined posture = . %). however, r el at iv e fr eq ue nc y (% ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coupe sedan suv slouched erect reclined figure . percent of lower-body sitting strategies in opl types (χ²( ) = . , p = . ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . coupe sedan suv r el at iv e fr eq u en cy ( % ) knee bent knee extended upper-leg lifted figure . percent of lower-body sitting strateies in opl types (χ²( ) = . , p < . ) jangwoon park, et al. j ergon soc korea journal of the ergonomics society of korea female drivers prefer slouched or erect posture (percentage of slouched posture = . %, erect posture = . %, and reclined posture = . %). this result concludes that since arm-length of female drivers is relatively shorter than that of male drivers, female drivers moved their upper-body toward to the steering wheel to grasp steering wheel appropriately. futhermore, since the sitting height of female drivers is relatively shorter than that of male drivers, female drivers might have moved their upper- body toward to the steering wheel to secure enough view. this difference of preferred driving postures depending on the driver's gender could be used for the selection of representative driving postures of female and male digital human models. for example, by selecting slouched posture and erect posture as representative postures for a female digital human model, the ergonomic evaluation of an automobile interior can be effectively performed. the opl condition has significant effect on lower-body sitting strategies. in this study, % of the participants preferred knee bent posture in the suv condition; on the other hand, only % of the participants preferred knee bent posture in the coupe condition. this result implies that driver’s lower-body posture is affected by seat height (h ). in the case of suv condition (seat height = mm), drivers sit forward closer by pulling the seat location to the pedal and bend their knees to control the pedal comfortably. however, in the case of coupe condition (seat height = mm), it is hard to secure enough seat height to bend the knees; therefore, drivers might have moved seat location to backward and they preferred knee extended posture. this result also can be used in virtual automobile interior design process; for example, knee bent posture can be selected as a representative posture for lower-body of humanoid in design and evaluation of suv. acknowledgements this research was supported by the basic science research program through the national research foundation of korea (nrf) funded by the ministry of education, science, and technology - and the next generation vehicle (ngv). references andreoni, g., santambrogio, g.c., rabuffetti, m. and pedotti, a., method for the analysis of posture and interface pressure of car drivers, applied ergonomics, , - , . cappozzo, a., catani, f., leardini, a., benedetti, m.g. and della croce, u., position and orientation in space of bones during movement: experimental artifacts, clinical biomechanics, ( ), - , . choi, y., park, j., lee, b., jung, k., sah, s. and you, h., a classification of sitting strategies based on seating pressure distribution, journal of the korean institute of industrial engineers, ( ), - , . grieco, a., sitting posture: an old problem and a new one, ergonomics, ( ), - , . kyung, g. and nussbaum, m.a., specifying comfortable driving postures for erfonomic design and evaluation of the driver workspace using digital human models, ergonomics, ( ), - , . park, j., jung, k., chang, j., kwon, j. and you, h., evaluation of predicted driving postures in ramsis digital human model simulation, ie interfaces, ( ), - , . park, s., kim, c., kim, c. and lee, j., comfortable driving postures for koreans, international journal of industrial ergonomics, , - , . apr, ; ( ): a classification of sitting strategies based on driving posture analysis http://jesk.or.kr park, s., estimation of driver’s standard postures by a multivariate analysis method, journal of the ergonomics society of korea, ( ), - , . reed, m.p., manary, m.a., flannagan, c.a.c. and schneider, l.w., a statistical method for predicting automobile driving posture, human factors, ( ), - , . ryu, t., a direct estimation of anatomical landmark positions from skin markers by identifying the displacement relationship (unpublished doctoral dissertation), postech, pohang, south korea, . size korea, report on the fifth survey of korean anthropometry, retrieved june , from http://sizekorea.kats.go.kr/ speyer, h., ramsis definition of anthropometric measurements, human solutions gmbh, germany, . author listings jangwoon park: parkjw@postech.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial and management engineering, postech position title: post-doctoral research associate, department of industrial & management engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, user interface design & evaluation, digital human modeling & simulation, usability testing younggeun choi: sidek@postech.ac.kr highest degree: m.s., department of industrial & management engineering, postech position title: ph.d. candidate, department of industrial & management engineering, postech areas of interest: digital human modeling & simulation, user-centered product design & development, anthropometric and biomechanical methods for product development, universal design, user experience design baekhee lee: x won@postech.ac.kr highest degree: m.s., department of industrial & management engineering, postech position title: ph.d. candidate, department of industrial & management engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, user interface, usability testing, sizing system, vehicle ergonomics, clinical ergonomics, healthcare kihyo jung: kjung@ulsan.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial and management engineering, postech position title: assistant professor, school of industrial engineering, university of ulsan areas of interest: ergonomic product design, digital human simulation, usability testing, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (wmsds) prevention sungjin sah: sungjin.sah@hyundai.com highest degree: ph.d., mechanical engineering, hongik university position title: senior research engineer, advanced trim engineering team, research & development division, hyundai motor company & kia motors corporation jangwoon park, et al. j ergon soc korea journal of the ergonomics society of korea areas of interest: digital human body modeling, human posture & motion analysis heecheon you: hcyou@postech.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., industrial engineering, pennsylvania state university position title: professor, department of industrial and management engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, user interface design & evaluation, digital human modeling & simulation, human performance & workload assessment, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (wmsds) prevention, usability testing shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne the development of tide prediction machines helen mair rawsthorne master’s student françois viète centre of epistemology and the history of science and technology university of western brittany, france doodson-légé tide prediction machine, built in london in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at noc, liverpool, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne coastal dwelling fishing marine navigation operating portsoperating docks operating harbours coastal surveyingcoastal zone engineering beachgoing watersports houseboat livingcommercial shipping naval operations building flood defences biology ecology tidal power weather forecasting shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne tidal theory, analysis and prediction ● bce: indian and arabic civilisations recognising link between moon and tides ● middle ages: rule-of-thumb methods linked to phases of moon ● tidal theories: copernicus, bacon, galilei, kepler, descartes, newton, laplace ● tidal analysis and prediction: lubbock, young, airy, thomson, ferrel, darwin, proudman, doodson shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne the development of tide prediction machines ● mid- th century: commercial shipping lines calling for improved prediction service ● calculations by hand no longer sufficient ● baas funded development of a machine to calculate tidal predictions ● first tpm designed by william thomson, constructed in by a. légé & co. in london british tide predictor no. , built in london in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at science museum, london, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne what are tide prediction machines? ● analogue computers used for calculating tidal predictions ● outputs: times and heights of high and low tide ● based on tidal theory and tidal equation ● total of ever built ● used across the world ● always operated on land ● superseded by digital computers doodson-légé tide prediction machine, built in london in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at noc, liverpool, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=li zhg_e vc shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne significance of tide prediction machines ● required development of scientific theory and of technology ● crucial to advancement of marine transport: commercial and military ● used for wwii normandy landing operations ● important for building modern ports and effective flood defences bidston-kelvin tide prediction machine, built in glasgow in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne at shom, brest, on / / ; licensed under cc by . . shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne local impact of tide prediction machines ● contributions of joseph proudman and arthur doodson ● proudman, doodson and loti: worldwide reputation for tidal research and prediction ● two tide prediction machines on display at national oceanography centre, liverpool bidston observatory, wirral peninsula, merseyside, built in . photograph taken by h. m. rawsthorne on / / ; licensed under cc by . . prosopography shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne what is prosopography? ● research approach usually used by historians to study the lives of groups of people ● involves creating collective biography or gathering data about common aspects of lives of individuals within group ● data can be compared, synthesised and analysed define group of people to be studied construct hypotheses and questions about group translate hypotheses and questions into questionnaire use authoritative sources to answer questionnaire for every member of group create database of answers analyse data in database to answer initial questions shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne what is digital humanities? ● interdisciplinary area of study between humanities and digital technology ● dh digital technologies come in form of tools, applications and software (purpose-built for dh or not) digital technologies the humanities to ask questions about and to create new knowledge in to ask questions of and reflect upon shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne tide prediction machines, prosopography and digital humanities: how do they fit together? ● want to study “lives” of tide prediction machines as a collection of artefacts ● going to adapt prosopography for study of artefacts ● going to make use of digital humanities tools for data analysis shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne adaptation of prosopography ● analogy between life of a person and existence of an artefact ● each has a unique story to tell and is impacted by events and relations ● can prosopography be successfully applied to study the “lives” of groups of artefacts? define group of artefacts to be studied construct hypotheses and questions about group translate hypotheses and questions into questionnaire use authoritative sources to answer questionnaire for every member of group create database of answers analyse data in database to answer initial questions graph showing variation of number of initial components built in tide prediction machines over time. made by h. m. rawsthorne using numbers. map showing links between manufacture location (purple) and operation location (red) of tide prediction machines. made by h. m. rawsthorne using palladio. year manufacture began year decommissioned timespan showing dates of manufacture (bottom) and dates of decommissioning (top) of tide prediction machines worldwide. line gradient represents length of lifetime. made by h. m. rawsthorne using palladio. timeline showing number of tide prediction machines that were finished being built each year worldwide. made by h. m. rawsthorne using palladio. year manufacture ended n um ber of m achines timeline showing life events of all tide prediction machines manufactured in great britain. made by h. m. rawsthorne using time.graphics. shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne results and evaluation ● successful ● larger group needed ● need to test with different type of artefact ● digital humanities tools essential ● analysis of life-cycle ● how machine build changed over time ● how foreign relations impacted exportation of machines ● shaped by the sea tide prediction machines artefact prosopography shaped by the sea, manchester, - june helen mair rawsthorne @hmrawsthorne bibliography cartwright, david. tides. cambridge: cambridge university press, . k. verboven, m. carlier & j. dumolyn. a short manual to the art of prosopography, in: k. keats-rohan (ed.), prosopography approaches and applications. a handbook. oxford: unit for prosopographical research (linacre college), , p. - . woodworth, phillip. an inventory of tide prediction machines. southampton: national oceanography centre, . king’s research portal doi: . /ijhac. . document version peer reviewed version link to publication record in king's research portal citation for published version (apa): bradley, j. d., rio, a. m. e., hammond, m. h., & broun, d. ( ). exploring a model for the semantics of medieval legal charters. international journal of humanities and arts computing, ( - ), - . https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . citing this paper please note that where the full-text provided on king's research portal is the author accepted manuscript or post-print version this may differ from the final published version. if citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. and where the final published version is provided on the research portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections. general rights copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the research portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognize and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. •users may download and 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https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/exploring-a-model-for-the-semantics-of-medieval-legal-charters( b - - a-aee -a f c bb ).html https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/exploring-a-model-for-the-semantics-of-medieval-legal-charters( b - - a-aee -a f c bb ).html https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/journals/international-journal-of-humanities-and-arts-computing(ede f -f - e -a -a f c d a).html https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . exploring a model for the semantics of medieval legal charters john bradley (department digital humanities, king's college london, john.bradley@kcl.ac.uk), alice rio (history, kcl, alice.rio@kcl.ac.uk), matthew hammond, dauvit broun (history, university of glasgow, matthew.hammond | dauvit.broun@glasgow.ac.uk) abstract: this paper describes several aspects of a formal digital semantic model that expresses some issues presented by medieval charters. surprisingly, perhaps, this model does not deal directly with a charter’s text and is not mark-up based. instead, it draws on the authors’ experience with the construction of three highly structured factoid-oriented prosopographical databases that drew heavily on charter sources, and that also did not explicitly contain a digital representation of the charter texts. the paper explains the way in which the structured data model thus derived differs from text-oriented approaches such as tei/cei work that has been done so far on charters. it presents a view on why this factoid- based model seems to capture more readily some of the complexity in the apparent meanings of the charters, and suggests that this is because it is also more likely to relate to a richer conception of the broader medieval world in which these charters were created than text-oriented work does. finally, drawing on recent work on the chartex project, it explores how a combined approach, that takes the best of both text-markup and structured data modelling techniques, could evolve in the future. keywords: prosopography, structured historical data, medieval legal charters, prosopography of anglo-saxon england, people of medieval scotland, the making of charlemagne’s europe [this article has been accepted for publication by edinburgh university press in the journal international journal of humanities and arts computing (https://www.euppublishing.com/loi/ijhac). volume , no. - . pp. - ] legal charters are an important class of documents historically because they can offer a particular window into a society's working that otherwise simply is no longer available to us. this significance of charters to medieval history, plus the traditional difficulty of accessing them, has meant that there has been a great deal of activity aimed at producing scholarly editions of their text; at first in print at least as far back as victorian times, and more recently online. indeed, the potential of the internet to make charter documents readily available for scholars has been taken up significantly by the monasterium.net initiative which has developed an informal collaboration between institutions to support the online publishing of documents held by european monastic archives. the scale of work is evident by the fact that the , documents available in has since grown to over , (according to personal discussion with georg vogeler in ). as their website claims, monasterium's users are thus set free from a dependence on time and space to study these documents because they are available to everyone at any time. charter documents generally were created for the very practical reason of getting something done in their society, and they exhibit textual formalisms that reflect this. thus, when thinking about how these structures can be made manifest, an obvious approach is to apply textual markup to reveal these formalisms, and to extend the text encoding initiative's (tei) tagset to express things https://www.euppublishing.com/loi/ijhac the charter texts are about. thus, we find the formation in april of a charters encoding initiative . the cei scheme incorporates the standard tei manuscript markup elements such as , and (closer to our interests in this paper) encourages the use of person and place tags such as or to formally identify the name of a person or place in the text. cei adds further formal abstractions that are relevant to charters such as , , and , and , and there is tagging available that presents transmission information about the charter. as georg vogeler wrote in the early days of the initiative, these documents ‘reflect[ed] contemporary attitudes and mindsets as regards legal and representation issues and [...] are tools of diplomatic criticism’ . by marking up these texts using the cei conventions, he believed that one created ‘a platform for seeing the european middle ages as they are reflected in their charters.’ structured data (knowledge representation) for charters the authors of this paper have also been involved in projects to make charter materials available to the public and scholarly communities over the www. in contrast to monasterium and cei's markup approach, however, our projects represent the charter materials in the form not of charter text with markup, but of highly structured data of the kind characteristic of databases or the semantic web. we contend here that, as a result, the representation of charters in these projects gives a quite different sense of what is being said about the charters and the historical context in which they exist. what is the nature of this difference? some of it was observed by one of us (bradley) in a presentation about the place of structured data in history at the university of lisbon in and subsequently published in this journal . at this workshop bradley considered what would happen if one had a set of catalogues from exhibitions of photographic prints and wanted to produce a digital resource from them. if one used markup as a way to formally represent the structure, one would produce a something that was clearly a representation of the catalogues. if, instead, one took a highly structured approach, the process that one would go through to produce a model of the material in these catalogues would be more like a representation of these prints ‘in the world’ as it were – in the world of photographers, archives and photographs, and so on. the structured data derived from these catalogues causes a shift in focus away from the collection of images on the pages in the catalogue to a representation of the world in which these pictures exist, and ‘although the tagging is truer to the book as an object, the database is closer to the way we deal in our heads with the information it contains.’ bradley claimed that ‘the better the model we use to hold our material match[es] our understanding of this world, the more useful this representation becomes.’ this phenomenon, which involves the creation of digital surrogates for entities in the world, is not a new idea. see, for example, davis, shrobe and szolovits's observations in their highly influential article ‘what is knowledge representation?’ (kr) on the first page they lay out five characteristics of kr: the first one characterises it as ‘most fundamentally a surrogate, a substitute for the thing itself’, and fifth as ‘a medium of human expression, that is, a language in which we say things about the world.’ what happens, then, if instead of looking at the charter texts as the primary objects to model, we try to represent something of what the charters were representing in the medieval world? what happens when one conceives the material the charters present in a ‘world’ context rather than a ‘textual’ one? one worry must be that knowledge representation is, by its very nature, a rather reductionist activity, and a reductionist representation might seem to jar with the medievalist's subtle understanding of medieval society. furthermore, our view of medieval society is, of necessity, limited to what materials have survived, and what has survived has fitted with purposes of those institutions or families that preserved them for hundreds of years after they were originally created. furthermore, some have dubious provenance, or are known to be fakes. in such a complex situation, how can structured data, such as one finds in databases or semantic web technologies, adequately represent the materials of interest – what is this ‘world’ that this representation can express? it is true that the structuring of this material in our projects was to some degree reductionist and we only represent some of what is there to be seen in our charters. after all, as willard mccarty reminds us while talking about the act of modelling in the humanities, ‘[t]o render a cultural artefact intellectually tractable, we must ignore some aspects of it and highlight others [...]’ . our surrogate representation, then, does not claim to accurately capture ‘facts’ about a ‘real’ medieval world. by creating a digital model we of necessity simplified the full subtlety of our understanding of medieval times and the process of transmission of the documents to us. even then we found that it represented aspects of the charters that fit with our projects' interests and that were best tractable to kr methods. our model, then, represents a complex blend of entities that apparently existed in the medieval world with our modern understanding of these entities, mixed together with aspects of how these charters represents views that support the institutions that held them. in the end, we aimed to capture some of what the charters claim to represent – including sometimes even highly questionable claims – rather than necessarily what really happened in the ‘real’ medieval world. the ‘world’ we represent in our kr model is drawn from this complex blend of creation in medieval times, transmission through to the present, and our modern-day scholar's interpretation. one approach in the projects this paper talks about was to think in terms of the state of affairs that these documents actually present to us. the pragmatic purpose of the charters, from the point of view of those who preserved them, was evidently to represent the state of affairs that applied to the things in their world, for example. rights over property, and were a means to an end for these individuals to achieve their goals. thus, the charters themselves, as objects-in-the-world, also had to be in the model because they provided the evidence of what this state of affairs was, and at least some sense of what the people involved in the creation of these charters, and then their preservation, were aiming to achieve. we get close to our projects’ intellectual territories by looking at a project with somewhat similar aims: the work of michael gervers and others at the university of toronto, in the documents of essex england data set (deeds). as gervers et al remind us in a short article about the project, the deeds project had ‘as its objective to provide computerized access to the content of twelfth- and thirteenth-century conveyances concerning the county of essex, england.’ the deeds project is described in the article as a database that presents in a structured, formal manner the ‘often complex patterns of property holding and transmission’ which ‘reflect the exchange of layers and rights and obligations’ that were evidently the material of interest in these medieval charters. we are then presented with the set of entities that came out of gervers's analysis: persons, documents, property, lease on the property, roles for the persons, and relationships between persons captures much of what the deeds structure is about. the connections between these entities represent some of the meaning that is captured with the transactions described by the charters. although the deeds project has more recently become much more text centred, in the deeds data apparently did not include the actual charter texts in their database. instead, the actual text had only a kind of indirect presence, and an interpretation of the charter and what it was doing for the people in essex medieval society was what is being captured. charters in structured prosopography projects this paper arises from the work of three projects : the prosopography of anglo-saxon england project (pase) , the people of medieval scotland project (poms) , and the making of charlemagne's europe . pase (anglo-saxon prosopography) began a little before , and continued in several guises through several phases of work up to only a few years ago. poms (people of medieval scotland) began in (hammond’s book chapter provides an introduction to it ), and essentially finished (after two funded phases) a couple of years ago. the making of charlemagne's europe (called here charlemagne) was first made publically available in . the prominence of charters increased in each of these projects: , of pase's , documents were charters, and in pase we began to think about how charters affected the structure the project was already using for its non-charter sources. in contrast, poms (about % of its , documents were charters) and charlemagne (about , charters were expected) both focus almost exclusively on charter sources. furthermore, whereas pase is a structured prosopography covering a broad range of kinds of sources, poms and charlemagne, with their strong charter orientation, developed a structural approach that is strongly charter centred. all three projects were prosopographies, and prosopography is an activity that by its very nature connects texts to ‘objects- in-the-world’ outside the charter texts: the historical people. however, all three projects found that as a consequence of developing a formal structure for prosopography, other ‘objects-in-the-world’ also entered into their thinking. the models for these three projects, then, attempt to achieve a balance between the texts of the charters, and their effect on their society in-the-world. this balance was not the same for the three projects because the interests of the history partners differed, but in all three we found ourselves thinking about entities belonging to the world outside but connected to the charters as well as entities representing aspects of the text of the charters themselves. some part of the way to balance the needs of the text with the needs of representing the larger world grew out of the use of the ‘factoid’ model which was developed by ddh, and described in bradley and short’s initial article in , and more recently in bradley and pasin in and again (with an exploration of possible connections between it and the cidoc-crm ) in pasin and bradley’s article from . perhaps a central idea can be found in the recognition of a ‘factoid entity’ that represents the assertions that the sources are making. this entity is called a factoid because one needs to keep in mind that it represents what a document asserts, as best modern historians can establish this, rather than what is necessarily ‘true’ or ‘factual’. structurally, the point of the factoid as a ‘source assertion’ is that it represents a nexus between something in an historical source, some points or periods in time, a group of one or more people, some geographic places and possibly some possessions, plus various other kinds of assertions made about these historical people, such as offices they held. what is particularly useful about the factoid model for the work here is that it recognises that not only any number of assertions, but also that quite different kinds of assertions, can come from any particular textual source. the first recognition of this in the context of charters arose from the analysis for pase. pase's charters generated three different groups of factoids. the first group categorised people, and recorded offices or occupations or relationships mentioned in the charters. sometimes something surprising would turn up. in charter sawyer , for example, the king wihtred is explicitly identified as being illiterate. this still leaves us with the main business of the charters, which was captured in one or more transaction factoids in pase – the second group of the three. for sawyer , for example, pase has a single transaction factoid that recognises the grant sometime between and of ‘ sulungs at pleghelmestun in kent’ from the king to the king's royal minster at lyminge. we see here the characteristic ‘nexus’ character of factoids in operation: a date (here date range), people, places and possessions are all brought together by it. this factoid captures the ‘business’ (as it were) of the charter itself. as we shall see shortly, sometimes the exchanges in a charter are more complex than this, and we shall see how the factoid approach helps to handle this complexity. what was interesting about pase's particular approach to charter factoidization was that it separated the business (transactions) from the act of the creation of the charter itself – the third of three groups of factoids associated with charters in pase. pase characterised this as a charter witnessing event. the participants in the witnessing of the charters are asserted, and the place where the charter was signed is also attached. by using factoids to separate the transaction that the charter is thought of as being ‘about’ from the event of the charter signing, the project was better able to capture the different-but-linked nature of the three kinds of assertions made here: one, prosopographical information about people mentioned in the charters; two, that some property was transferred, and three, that a socially-oriented event occurred involving a group of people who the charter says were brought together to witness it. poms and charlemagne were much more focused than pase on charters as exclusive or almost exclusive sources. for both projects, however, factoids about the people themselves, for example. titles, occupations and personal relationships that come out of the charter texts, were still recorded. also like pase, both projects recognised a transaction factoid as capturing the central act or acts in legal charters. charlemagne added a place relationship factoid that did not involve persons at all, but recorded statements about relationships between places, since these relationships were also often unclear and even contradictory. many of the charter documents are conceptually quite simple, and involved only one action or transaction. documents called brieves in poms were often of this kind: for example, where the king forbids anyone from, say, disturbing monks while they are taking wood as fuel from his land. other charter types in poms might be more complex, but would still involve only one transaction: a gift of one or more possessions, for example. here one might find a larger range of people performing different roles: not only a grantor and beneficiary, but often also a person consenting to the gift, the ‘pro anima’ people (those people for who the grantor claims spiritual benefit from the gift), and the set of witnesses who, as it were, provide ‘back up’ support for it. however, many charters could not be properly characterised by a single transaction, but would contain several interconnected ones. here the factoid approach meant that multiple transactions with complex interconnections between them could be expressed. matthew hammond explored some of this kind of complexity in his presentation about poms for the institute for historical research in london . the poms team found it useful to establish a classification scheme that they used for different kinds of charters that they found. figure , derived from his slides for that occasion, represents one of the common types of charter that they found; an ‘agreement charter’ (perhaps a chirograph: a document that is split into two so that both parties have a part to hold onto as proof of the existence of the agreement). figure : an agreement charter in poms poms was able to describe agreements in terms of three related transactions: the agreement between two parties (with the witnesses being linked to the agreement), and the two parts of the agreement: party one gives items to party two, and party two gives items to party one. in the poms's structure one was able to identify the three transactions as interconnected factoids, and furthermore say that the agreement transaction was a primary transaction and the other two transactions (the two reciprocal exchanges of property) were related, but secondary, transactions. figure : a renewal charter in poms charters that poms identified as ‘renewal charters’ also exploited this characteristic of factoids for multiple tractions, but were somewhat more complex than agreements. figure (also drawn from hammond’s presentation) provides us with a schematic representation where a king or perhaps a pope renews arrangements that were made under a previous ruler. like the agreement model just presented, there are three transaction factoids involved but the interaction between them is different. the primary transaction is the renewal, and it still has a grantor and beneficiary attached to it. the witnesses have a role in the renewal itself. however, here the other two other transactions are previous grants that are being renewed. thus, they perhaps involved other people as grantors (although, presumably the same beneficiary). furthermore, and unlike the agreement, the dates for the various secondary transactions are also going to be different from the renewal itself. since date or date range is attached to each specific factoid, this is also readily accommodated. each of these secondary transaction factoids provides, on its own, a separate, but connected, nexus between people, places and property. one of the important phenomena that arose in the development of the factoid model for the charlemagne project (and, to a lesser extent poms) was that the project work became proportionally less about prosopography and more about modelling the charters. although in charlemagne prosopography never entirely went away, more and more of the data structuring began to represent other aspects of what the charters were about and less about the people who were mentioned in them. since the charters were created to reflect what was, to the people of their day, things that had happened in their world, more and more of the structure constructed for poms and charlemagne began to represent entities that acted as surrogates for things in these two medieval worlds, and fewer (proportionally, at least) were about the text of the sources themselves. this division between data about the charter texts and data about the medieval world is not fully black and white. however the next section presents an overview of charlemagne's structure in this light, and attempts to explore a little about its significance. a data model for charlemagne figure : a data model for charlemagne (simplified) figure shows a somewhat simplified representation of the charlemagne database’s major entities and the connections between them. before we examine this diagram in more detail it is worthwhile explaining briefly how it should be read. first, although figures and are schematic representations as figure is, the significance of the components is different for figure from the other two in that whereas the diagrams in figures and showed specific entities for two particular kind of charters, the figure diagram describes aspects of the charlemagne database structure overall. in figure the boxes represent kind of entities that the database contains. so, noting the box left centre in the diagram we can see that the database has entities which are called agents or persons. similarly, to the right we see a box called ‘possession’; meaning that the database has entities called possessions. note, then, that each box does not represent just a single instance of, say, a person or a possession, but a class of persons or places – each class representing perhaps hundreds or thousands of particular instances. the lines that connect the boxes, sometimes labelled in figure , show that there is a connection between the two entities. thus, the line between the charter entity and the assertion (factoid) entity means that there are connections between individual charters and individual assertions/factoids. now that we have briefly introduced how to interpret figure , we can begin to examine it in more detail. first, note the grey area labelled ‘text context’ in the middle of the figure. the entities in this area represent material that is closely related to particular charter texts. the objects around this central gray area (labelled ‘world context’) are entities that could be argued to exist in a medieval world view and/or our modern understanding of that medieval world independently of their references in the charter texts. one can see a good number of entity types in figure , and the full formal structure for charlemagne is, in fact, still more complex than this. however, one can see several obvious historical entities. agents (charlemagne's name for persons) are historical entities that one could view as having an existence outside of the charters themselves. similarly, places, and possessions can arguably be usefully thought of as having an independent historical existence. the place entity represents geographic places in our data, and so of course also exists in the ‘world context’. about half of the places in charlemagne charters have known geographic coordinates, and well more than half can at least be located in larger modern geographic regions such as modern day region and country. furthermore, the charters themselves, as physical document-objects, also exist as historical entities outside of their texts. although these entities have a physicality that makes it relatively straightforward to see them as objects with an existence ‘in the world’, one can place other entities there too. several of these are entities that, although without a physical character, act within a societal context which also has an existence in our thinking about the world.  ‘attribute type’, for example, is connected to people through charlemagne's attribute/relationship factoid and is the place where ideas such as ‘duke’, ‘lord’, ‘king’ where various kinds of relationship (‘son’, ‘mother’) are identified. these ideas of how individuals are organised in society, although without a physical character, have an existence outside of the charter texts themselves.  similarly, for charlemagne's ‘person type’. each person/agent is assigned a type. for human individuals this is their sex, and for ‘legal persons’ that are groups of persons the type reflects something of how historians believe their society categorised them: monasteries as female or male institutions, for example.  possession types offer categories like ‘land’, ‘goods’, ‘animals’, ‘money’, and ‘rights’. like types for persons, they provide a way that our historians could organise the large range of possessions into categories that are meant to represent one aspect of how they were thought of in medieval society, and thus they had a sociological existence outside of the charters themselves.  finally, there are dates. dates are attached to factoids, and are – as one would expect for historical dating from medieval times – a more complex structure than the simple box in figure iii suggests. we cannot discuss them here (although their structure is similar to the tei date tags in conception) – but dates also exist in the medieval world outside of any particular charter text. these ‘in the world’ concepts are important because they allow the users of these prosopographical databases to group material by the societal structures they represent: ‘find me all charters that involve animal possessions and female institutions’, for example. with so many entities having an existence in the medieval world, what ones are in fact specific to the actual charter textual? of course the factoids, those assertions that the sources make, are closely related to the texts from which they emerge, and one can see in figure , under the assertion/factoid box, the four kinds of factoids that are associated with charlemagne. although they connect material in the text to the world entities of people, places, dates, and so on, they have an existence only in the context of the text of a particular charter. so, what then is the nature of each connection between the factoids and these world objects? first, notice the existence of an entity in figure , rather generically called ‘role/name’, that sits between a factoid and a person. this entity captures the way in which a particular person is involved in any particular factoid.  first, there is the role of the person in the particular factoid. for example, in a transaction a person can have the role of grantor, recipient, witness, spiritual beneficiary, and many more.  also, this particular entity provides a place where the text that the source at this particular spot uses to identify the person can be recorded. in a way similar to the one for persons, then, the place role/name entity between factoid and place provides a place where a role (for example, location of the transaction, location of a possession, or the location of residence) for a particular place in a particular transaction can be recorded. also, it provides a place where the place's name, as actually found in the source, can be recorded. the possession structures are somewhat more complex and reflect the more complex nature of possessions in our data.  possessions can be typed into categories such as land, money, goods, buildings, olive trees. charlemagne is developing a rather rich hierarchical (and therefore thesaurus-like) classification scheme for the possessions. some are non-physical in nature – such as what charlemagne (and poms before it) called ‘spiritual benefits’: prayers for someone's soul.  most possessions are of three broad kinds: land, valuable objects and persons. possessions which are land also therefore have connections to places and will be linked to an instance of the place entity. possessions which are people – unfree individuals – will be linked to an instance of the agent/person entity.  in the case of valuable objects as possessions, most of them are transient objects that as physical entities actually appear only in a single particular charter, and they are often quantity-based or collective objects – a sum of money for example, or a herd of horses. charlemagne's possession structure provides a place to describe these kind of possessions and to categorize them, but doesn't require the creation of a unique object.  other objects are specific things that might appear in more than one charter – relics for example. here an instance of an object is created, and in this way more than one factoid can refer to it. as in the other objects, each one can be given a role in the transaction in which it appears: as the object being transferred, as a basis for equivalent value, as a price, and so on. the structure just presented, although in fact a rather simplified representation of the actual structure of the charlemagne data, is accurate and complex enough to give one a sense of the ways in which it can represent rich data about the objects with which the charlemagne charters concern themselves with. the complex place of people in charlemagne is a good example of this. not only can charlemagne's ‘people’ be human beings here, with the normal division into male and female, but can also represent entities that apparently act like persons in these documents: church institutions such as abbeys, monasteries, and so on., and charlemagne even allows for the distinction between ‘male’ and ‘female’ institutions to be expressed since, as our historian colleagues tell us, this was an important aspect of the thinking of medieval people about their church institutions. a main focus here is people and their role in the transactions as agents, but the model also allows us to record personal relationships between individuals, and offices, titles, and other attributes that they hold and develop during their lives. furthermore, this particular approach allows persons not only to be actors or agents in transactions, but as objects to be transacted as well. fusing structured data with markup for charters? we have presented here a somewhat simplified representation of the structure of our charlemagne dataset. we have a similar (although not the same) structure for the poms project as well, where, like charlemagne, we could categorise those entities that we captured in its db structure quite richly. what does this highly structured interpretive model of what charters talk about bring to the act of charter interpretation that markup, such as the tei-based cei markup, does not? cei does indeed provide tags to identify some things that are similar to what we are capturing in our poms or charlemagne data structures. examples of cei markup often contain tags that, for instance, identify the name of a person as the issuer, a place as property involved in a transaction, or a date and place of issue of a charter. and, indeed, it is true that textual markup could provide a vehicle for representing data similar to what we are building in our highly structured charlemagne and poms data sets. however, the ‘markup’ approach, which tends to focus the analysis on the text of the charters also tends to encourage one to only develop a formal structure that is ‘close’ to the charter text – identifying materials that belong in the area that we show in figure as the ‘textual context’. so, for instance, cei provides a tag to identify a reference to the person who is the issuer (the kind of material we have identified as textual context in figure ), it does not actually formally identify the person (world context) being referenced. indeed, in all the cil examples we have examined, the reference to the person was as far as the tagging went. we saw no mechanisms in these cil examples that showed how one could give these referenced individuals their own identity with attributes such as whether, for example, each person was male or female. the same thing happened in the tagging of places or dates: the spots in the text that make reference to a place or a date might be identified by cei markup but they are not then turned into an interpretive representation of that date or the place. indeed the ‘world context’ structures that our entities are able to represent (as identified in figure ) are not in fact recognised as having an independent place in the cei markup approach. substantial new xml/tei structures outside of the charter text could have be added to the markup to handle them, but this does not appear to be done. perhaps this is because the whole approach of looking at getting structure out of text in terms of markup simply does not encourage the markup designer to think that ‘far away’ from the texts. it is not that a markup approach could not accommodate the representation of ‘world structures’ that are more tangentially represented by the actual charter text; it is more that markup does not encourage one to think in that way. here, then, is the issue of how the approach to structuring affects how we think about what we are structuring – similar to what we described earlier between the markup of a print catalogue, and the creation of structured data to represent its contents. by designing database structures for holding data derived from the charters the pase, poms and charlemagne teams were encouraged to think about the objects-in-the-world that these charter texts claim to represent. a markup project based on charters thus would have been a significantly different thing than what poms or charlemagne ended up being about. so, is this paper building a case that one is actually better off if one does not include the actual charter text at all in our representation? by no means. our earlier projects had to be built without the texts because they were, in general, not available in digital form – indeed, most of the texts from scottish medieval charters are still not available online, although one of the authors of this paper (broun) has been working on a project which will be making some of them available , and which will be linked to poms. a good number of charlemagne’s texts are already available over the www, so we made provision there to store a hyperlink from our charter data to an online text when the project team knew of one that was available. this link, however is at the level of the entire document. surely it would been better if all our ‘world entities’, persons, places, and so on., could have been more intimately linked with the references to them in the charter texts. to achieve this would require a more complex structure than the charter-text-plus-markup that cei provides by itself, since the world entities exist outside of any particular piece of charter text. what, then, could happen if we tried to do this: to directly connect the texts through markup or something like it with a representation of the semantics of what the charter is about? it turns out that this has been attempted in the chartex project. chartex was funded out of the digging into data initiative and was thus primarily focused on the challenge of applying big data techniques to digital text representations of charters. one of the big data techniques chartex used was a natural language processing (nlp) mechanism called ‘entity recognition’. entity recognition provides techniques that allow the computer to automatically identify references to things like places, people and events in plain digital texts. so, chartex explored how these automatic entity recognition strategies could be used to locate references to entities like people or places in these medieval charter texts – definitely a useful venture in situations where perhaps the number of charters is too large for human manual processing. of course, as we hope it is clear by now, entity recognition alone is only a part of what our charter data model is about – not only are references to historical entities identified in poms, charlemagne, and pase, these entities are also connected to structural elements that identify their roles and functions in the events the sources are talking about. in a similar vein, a presentation about chartex showed that it had worked to go beyond merely entity recognition to try to automatically locate additional structure in these charter texts, and to put the entities it found into that structure. indeed, one sees a brat representation in a chartex presentation that shows of the semantic structure of a charter (p. ) and that echoes many of the concerns we have also been talking about. persons or agents, transactions with their types, property and place, as well as a source are all present here (page ), and linked together with predicates that establish the relationships between them that are very similar to what we have been recording in our projects too. the brat representation shows the information extracted from a charter text (or, at least, a modern language rendition of it) as a hierarchy imposed over top of it. the potential of the software they have used to detect and tag this information semi- automatically is impressive, but one must add a couple of caveats. first, the text shown there and in other examples chartex shows in its presentations is a modern english rendering of the charter, and indeed modern english is the language most effectively supported by existing entity recognition and other nlp software. one would expect that any automatic extraction would work less well or fail altogether if the text was, say, in medieval document latin. second, the structures that are shown in chartex examples are seemingly rather simple whereas, as we have illustrated above, many of the poms and charlemagne charters exhibit a truly complex multi-transaction structure. finally, the task of personification (turning the appearance of a person’s name into a pointer to a record representing the corresponding historical person), and the parallel activity of identifying land, is not actually shown in the examples we have found, although it apparently was undertaken by chartex. thus, this particular parsing process which identifies things in the charter’s text, as impressive as it is, still might well leave one with the task of subsequently connecting the things found here to the historical world of people and places. furthermore, the brat notation itself, as wonderful as it to show structures within the text, by focusing on the text, might suffer a bit from the distinction between markup and its expressive nature and structured data that was just described in this paper. nonetheless, the connection between the text and the structure is pretty clear here. perhaps chartex and our factoid-based poms and charlemagne projects would benefit by a sharing of their overlapping, but somewhat different, insights into the nature of charters. summary and future work in this article we have made the argument that a structured data approach to the representation of materials from medieval charters encourages a view of this material that more readily incorporates entities arising from a historical sense of the medieval world than charter text markup generally does by itself. we believe that through the use of formal structure we show a way towards a perspective on charters that moves the focus from a charter's actual text to an historical interpretation of what that charter was doing in its society. our factoid approach, which allows multiple things of different kinds to be asserted from charters, provides a rich basis for supporting the complex set of things often going on in the charter text. indeed, projects like chartex, which aim to use semi-automatic nlp techniques to draw semantic structure from the text, generate models for the data they create that are similar to those we have developed, and an integrated environment that combines highly structured data, of the kind we used in our projects, with links into the charter text would surely provide the best and richest result. two directions for further work in this area suggest themselves. first, the model shown in figure blends assertions from the sources with entities that represent a view of the state of affairs in their medieval societies, and presents a perspective on what is going on based directly on charter assertions. the model could, in fact, be taken instead further towards a ‘state of affairs’ representation by enriching the representation of ownership over time. a transaction would, in this model, have at least two ownership components: before and after the transaction, and the data could be looked at perhaps more clearly as a representation of how people in the medieval society viewed what the charters were doing for or to them. a second, related, initiative could be to explore the development of a formal ontology for charters, similar in spirit to cei, but growing out of the structured data context of the semantic web. such an ontology would perhaps share elements with one of the authors' proposal for an ontology for historical persons , but would expand upon a blending of conventional diplomatic interpretations with the state of affairs perspective explored here. medieval charters provide a rich source of information about the societies in which they were created. we can be sure that a sophisticated structured data approach representing what they are about will enable some new ways of exploring, and understanding, those medieval societies. acknowledgements the project work that supported the research in this paper was funded by the uk's arts and humanities research council, and by the leverhulme foundation. this paper grew out of a preliminary version given at the dh conference in lausanne switzerland by one of the authors. ‘monasterium.net’, accessed january, , http://www.monasterium.net/, last accessed january . g. vogeler, ‘charters encoding initiative overview’, digital proceedings of the lawrence j. schoenberg symposium on manuscript studies in the digital age: vol. , ( ), article . http://repository.upenn.edu/ljsproceedings/vol /iss / /, last accessed january , cited here at slide . ‘cei - charters encoding initiative’, accessed january, , http://www.cei.lmu.de/index.php, last accessed january . g. vogeler, ‘towards a standard of encoding medieval charters with xml’, literary and linguistic computing , ( ), - . cited here at . g. vogeler, ‘towards a standard for encoding medieval charters with xml’, . j. bradley, ‘silk purses and sow's ears: can structured data deal with historical sources?’, international journal of humanities and arts computing. , , ( ), - , doi: . /ijhac. . . j. bradley, ‘silk purses and sow's ears’, . j. bradley, ‘silk purses and sow's ears’, . knowledge representation (kr) has, as a part of its conception, the representation of information as highly structured data. r. davis, h. shrobe and p. szolovits, ( ). what is a knowledge representation? ai magazine , ( ), - . cited at . w. mccarty, ‘what's going on?’, literary and linguistic computing , ( ), - . cited here at . http://www.monasterium.net/ http://repository.upenn.edu/ljsproceedings/vol /iss / / http://www.cei.lmu.de/index.php of course, the aim even of forged charters is the same! our projects therefore often took evidently forged documents as part of the canon of charters they were interested in, although the system provided ways for the team to indicate that they thought they were forgeries. m. gervers, g. long, g. and m. mcculloch, ‘the deeds database of mediaeval charters: design and coding for the rdbms oracle ’, history & computing, , ( ), cited here at . m. gervers et al, ‘the deeds database’. all three undertaken by the department of digital humanities (ddh) at king's college london with historian partners from the university of cambridge, glasgow, and king's. “pase: prosopography of anglo-saxon england”, http://www.pase.ac.uk, last accessed january . ‘people of medieval scotland: - ’, http://www.poms.ac.uk, last accessed january . ‘the making of charlemagne’s europe’, http://www.charlemagneseurope.ac.uk/, last accessed january . m. hammond, ‘introduction: the paradox of medieval scotland, - ’ in new perspectives on medieval scotland, - (the boydell press, ), edited by h. matthew, - . the meaning of the word charter in charlemagne and poms included any kind of legal document that disposed specific rights over property – thus including some things that are not technically charters such as royal diplomas or testaments. j. bradley and h. short, ‘texts into databases: the evolving field of new-style prosopography’, literary and linguistic computing , suppl. , ( ), - . j. bradley and m. pasin ( ). ‘structuring that which cannot be structured: a role of formal models in representing aspects of medieval scotland,’ in new perspectives on medieval scotland, - , edited by h. matthew (the boydell press, ), - ( ). ‘the cidoc conceptual reference model’, http://www.cidoc-crm.org/ m. pasin and j. bradley, ‘factoid-based prosopography and computer ontologies: towards an integrated approach,’ digital scholarship in the humanities. , ( ), - , doi: . /llc/fqt . the online law dictionary tells us that a brieve is the name for a writ in scotch law. http://thelawdictionary.org/brieve/, last accessed january . m. hammond, ‘the people of medieval scotland database’ (paper presented at the institute for historical research (london) digital series, may, ). text encoding initiative, p : guidelines for electronic text encoding and interchange section “names, dates, people, and places”, sub-section . . . http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p - doc/en/html/nd.html, last accessed august . http://www.pase.ac.uk/ http://www.poms.ac.uk/ http://www.charlemagneseurope.ac.uk/ http://thelawdictionary.org/brieve/ http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/nd.html http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/nd.html models of authority: scottish charters and the emergence of government - . project materials available online at http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk/. ‘chartex’, http://www.chartex.org/, last accessed june . the digging into data initiative is a research granting initiative supported by a number of national research funding bodies. according to its website, its purpose is ‘address how "big data" changes the research landscape for the humanities and social sciences’. see http://diggingintodata.org/about, last accessed june . r. sutherland-harris, and r. evans, ‘people, places and events in charters: exploring the language of charters within chartex’ (paper presented at the digital diplomatics conference in paris november ). slides available at http://www.chartex.org/docs/chartex-paris- .pdf, last accessed january . ‘brat rapid annotation tool’, http://brat.nlplab.org/ j. bradley, ( ), ‘towards an ontology for historical persons’ (paper presented at culturecloud, co-reference, archive workshop. swedish national archives (riksarkviet), stockholm, sweden, june, ). slides available at http://www.slideshare.net/johnbradley/towards-an-ontology-for- historical-persons, last accessed january . http://www.modelsofauthority.ac.uk/ http://www.chartex.org/ http://diggingintodata.org/about http://www.chartex.org/docs/chartex-paris- .pdf http://brat.nlplab.org/ http://www.slideshare.net/johnbradley/towards-an-ontology-for-historical-persons http://www.slideshare.net/johnbradley/towards-an-ontology-for-historical-persons uc santa barbara uc santa barbara previously published works title the state of the digital humanities permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ h v x journal arts and humanities in higher education, ( - ) issn - author liu, alan publication date - - doi . / peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ h v x https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. [final corrected manuscript, post-refereeing. post-publication version not allowed for open access repository.] the state of the digital humanities: a report and a critique alan liu amid all the doom and gloom of the mla convention, one field seems to be alive and well: the digital humanities. more than that: among all the contending subfields, the digital humanities seem like the first 'next big thing' in a long time, because the implications of digital technology affect every field. --pannapacker ( ) the digital humanities, clearly, are in a state of rapid expansion. but giving an account of that state of expansion without relying on anecdote is difficult. empirical evidence of the field's growth is uneven due to uncertainty about what exactly should be counted (programs, jobs, conferences, publications, projects, funding competitions, usages of the phrase 'digital humanities'?). even describing the shape of the field is complicated by its overlap with an older concept of humanities computing (oriented around tool-building, computational linguistics, text analysis, and text encoding) and some branches of new media studies (populated by theorists, critics, and artists focused on media and networks from a poststructuralist or cultural-critical perspective). thus one of the best recent essays to survey the rise of the digital humanities, svensson ( ), is necessarily (and impressively) multifactorial in exploring 'the discursive shift from humanities computing to what is now being termed the digital humanities.' alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. in actuality, the perception of the digital humanities as what william pannapacker recently called the 'next big thing' may be less a matter of empirical phenomena than what marketers call mind share. separate approaches and fields have converged to give the humanities a new brand. the marketing metaphor is not extravagant when we consider that the rebranding effort is aimed first of all at the institution of higher education itself rather than directly at education's 'customers' (students or the public). thomas frank ( ) discovered that some of the most successful advertising campaigns of the 's (e.g., for the volkswagen beetle) began through what amounts to the marketing of countercultural 'cool' inside advertising firms themselves, which started to foster a new ideal of 'hip' rather than buttoned-down madison avenue 'mad men.' by analogy, as i have argued (liu, a), today's post-mainframe information technologies born in the same countercultural (or 'cyberlibertarian') epoch are cool in the same way. information tech in the era of the personal computer and network is today's equivalent of a love bug that not only works but creates a new image of work that allows corporate and other organizational cultures to imagine a cool new vision of themselves. information technology, in other words, is an institutional desiring engine. whether in general society or in higher education, one of its functions is to serve as an allegory of the social, economic, political, and cultural self-image of institutions (and, of course, also individuals) (see liu, a: and passim on the digital as allegory). even in the best of times, therefore, the ipads and other digital devices that some universities have been handing out to students would be fantasy machines before they can be proven to be learning machines. they channel the institution's (and, hopefully, also the student's) fantasy that knowledge can be cool. but in the worst of times, when economic crisis tempts some campuses to plug immense holes in their alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. funding with equally vast vaporware plans for money-making 'digital delivery,' information technology becomes an allegory of need beyond desire. witness, for instance, the controversial call in by the dean of the law school at the university of california, berkeley, for the university of california system to address its epic budget crisis by creating an all-virtual 'eleventh campus' or 'cyber-campus' based on the slimmest evidence of how a totally online educational system in the so-called quality or 'premier' higher-education sector might work (edley, ). in such cases, need forces higher education to adjust its image in the mirror of information technology to resemble that of consumer businesses perceived to be both cool and profitable (able to exert 'market appeal,' as the dean, christopher edley jr., puts it). in general, calls for the corporatization or privatization of higher education that make information technology their allegory for how to imitate the combined efficiency, flexibility, and marketing power of today's premier businesses subscribe to the postindustrial paradigm of knowledge work (see liu, a, for fuller discussion of this paradigm.) partly real and partly ideology, knowledge work is now the dominant mode of production in states that take industrial extraction or manufacturing work for granted (or outsource it to developing nations), emphasize the service sectors instead, and--gravitating toward the premium 'knowledge' services--dedicate their best brains and venture capital to the so-called 'new economy,' a phrase much in vogue during the run-up to the dot.com bust of . according to the laws of the new economy--a kind of economic version of moore's law doubling the number of transistors packed into an integrated chip every two years--ceaseless cuts in labor and fixed capital can be compensated for through 'smart' digital technologies that perpetually inflate intellectual capital. if the digital humanities are currently in a state of expansion, it follows that in some manner, for better or alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. worse, they serve the postindustrial state. a purely economic rationale for the digital humanities might thus be that they reengineer higher education for knowledge work by providing ever smarter tools for working with increasingly global-scale knowledge resources, all the while trimming the need to invest proportionally in the traditional facilities, support staff, and perhaps permanent faculty of what bill gates--in widely reported comments at the techonomy conference--calls obsolete 'place-based' campuses. in this essay, i offer a report on the current state of the digital humanities. but, in order to see the field as the 'next big thing' it appears to be to the humanities at large, i will define it with unusual breadth. 'digital humanities' will here have a supervening sense that combines 'humanities computing' or 'text-based' digital humanities (as i will sometimes call them for distinction) and new media studies (normally excluded from discussions of the digital humanities except for a few overlaps). this is the synthetic sense, we note, in which pannapacker actually uses the term in his comments about the mla (quoted in my epigraph), since the conference sessions he refers to (not to mention the ' digital-media programs in the united states' he cites for context) include both those in the digital humanities narrowly defined and in new media studies. only such a synthetic sense makes possible a new kind of question about the digital humanities now that they are 'the next big thing.' are the digital humanities ready to live up to their responsibility to represent the humanities and higher education as the latter negotiate a new relation to postindustrial society? my report will end in a critique. currently, i fear, the digital humanities are not ready to take up their full responsibility because the field does not yet possess an adequate critical awareness of the larger social, economic, and cultural issues at stake. the side of the digital alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. humanities that descends from humanities computing lacks almost all cultural-critical awareness, and the side that descends from new media studies is indiscriminately critical of society and global informational 'empire' without sufficient focus on the specifically institutional--in this case, higher education--issues at stake. the whole amounts to the lack of a mental and policy firewall against postindustrial takeovers of the digital idea along the lines of fantasized 'eleventh campuses' that merge educational, social, and for-profit motives without weighing the need for the evolution of differences, and not just similarities, between higher education and other stakeholder institutions in today's knowledge economy. even if the digital humanities serve the postindustrial state 'in some manner,' as i equivocated above, it matters what that manner is. a report on the state of the digital humanities the digital humanities (defined inclusively as per above) have recently expanded in several ways that make expansion not just a practice but ultimately a theme. expansion in the sense i develop here is logically commutable with integration. the digital humanities are filling in some of the gaps that previously made the field a loose suspension of topics and approaches, and such integration effectively allows the field--like fencing in an open range--to enclose larger sets of issues relevant to the humanities at large. the following are five ways in which the digital humanities have recently become more integral and expansive. . unification of foundational concepts. in the past, the digital humanities have only inchoately linked its three underlying concepts (for which 'digital' is only shorthand): technology, media, and information. whether digital humanists privileged one or the other when they thought about their object of inquiry or their tools--and especially if they split the difference in such alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. hybrid formulae as media technology or information technology--these concepts fused or split unpredictably, leaving such basic questions as the following unsettled. are the textual, visual, or other phenomena that the digital humanities treat best understood as technology, media, or information? is all technology mediational, or vice versa? is all media informational, or vice versa? recently, however, the digital humanities have deepened the conceptual roots of all three cardinal concepts so that they begin to connect at an appropriately foundational level. not all the possible relationships have thus far been developed with equal interest or rigor, but the trend is toward an integrated logic-circuit, as it were, of technology, media, and information. thus, for example, the digital humanities have recently begun to rationalize the connection between technology and media through such new approaches as platform studies, software studies, and digital forensics. these approaches start from the point of view of hardware and software technologies, but carefully relate those phenomena to interface experiences more commonly treated as media. for instance, montfort and bogost ( ), the first book in the mit press platform studies series, studies the hardware, screen, and game play of the historically important atari system as an integrated construct of technology and media. similarly, wardrip- fruin ( ) demonstrates how underlying software processes and 'operational logics' flow up to the media surface. or, again, kirschenbaum ( ) shows that the basic materiality of technology--right down to physical traces on hard drives--undergirds what he calls the 'formal materiality' (apparent differences between 'naturalized' and 'abstract' phenomena) that constructs the experience of digital media. in essence, such approaches recover a 'logic' in technology (or techno-logic) continuous with media logic. by viewing media as the interactive apparition and alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. operation of technology, they dissolve a particularly debilitating false binary that has long haunted the field: that technology is 'just' materiality (or, at best, tools) while media is 'just' spectacle (or, at best, interface). similarly, but starting from the reverse point of view of media, the media ecology and tactical media approaches (emerging from the new media studies side of digital humanities) also create a deep connection between technology and media. these approaches treat media not as something to be consumed passively (a holdover from the era of mass media) but as participatory or contestatory social action. media is not just watching a screen, in other words; it is programming or hacking the screen. the logical connection between media and technology in this view rests on the fact that media becomes a mechanism that users operate. media, we might say, is not 'found art' but a kind of found tool, instrument, or even weapon. the terms ecological and tactical specifically reinforce this active sense of media by emphasizing its difference from the monolithic and strategic media of earlier broadcast regimes. because corporations and governments tend to monopolize media technologies wherever they can be treated as continuous and homogeneous (as in mcluhan's and the frankfurt school's original idea of media), the media ecology and tactical media approaches concentrate on redefining the media-scape as diverse 'environments' of site-specific technologies with hidden 'tactical' (guerilla-like) potential. thus garcia ( ), garcia and lovink ( ), wark ( , ), lovink ( ), lovink and rossiter ( ), fuller ( ), and raley ( ) on tactical media--not to mention the provocateur work of 'hacktivist' net artists--reenvision mcluhan's global village and the frankfurt school's culture industry as an intricately non-homogeneous, multitudinous, and differentiated space of situated media technologies that users can operate for resistance or advocacy. the alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. media-scape, in other words, is a rich rain forest or tidal zone with plenty of edgy, interstitial margins in which culture guerillas can deploy media technologies irregularly (e.g., through local media takeovers, hacks, denial-of-service attacks, subversive video games, and so on inheriting the spirit of situationist dtournement, vintage hacktivism in the mode of the critical art ensemble ( ), michel de certeau's pragmatics of 'tactics' (de certeau, ), and so on. the end result is that the media ecology and tactical media approaches pay special attention to material technologies that retain an excess of user- or community-operated potential--e.g., pirate radio in fuller's study, site-specific digital art installations in raley's study, and so on. a cognate development on the text-oriented side of the digital humanities, we may note, is the line of approaches that runs from the 'new textual scholarship,' sociological bibliography, and what might be called in general contextual or situational textual scholarship to the new digital forms of such textual scholarship--e.g., from d. f. mckenzie and jerome mcgann's originally print-oriented theories of textual scholarship (e.g., mckenzie, ; mcgann, ) to mcgann's, kirschenbaum's, and others' digital extensions of the paradigm (e.g., mcgann, ; kirschenbaum, ). such scholarship focuses on textual media as social practices inseparable from their historically situated material technologies. similarly, the flourishing 'history of the book' field in recent decades (about which more below) has closely paralleled media studies in reenvisioning literacy as the social operation of writing and reading technologies--i.e., as the operation of what are essentially text machines (like the early modern tablets studied by stallybrass et. al. [ ] via a material history of the book approach). on a different front, the digital humanities have recently begun to thicken the conceptual relation between both technology and media and information. this is largely due to the fact that alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. such precursor information-centric influences on the digital humanities as information theory, cybernetics, computational linguistics, and corpora-scale text analysis have ceded to a new generation of paradigms, especially encoding and data mining. in regard to the former, code (with such related concepts as metadata and standards) has been the focus of the robust text- encoding community, which has not only expanded its guidelines and practices but extended the very idea of text encoding theoretically (as in controversies over the ordered hierarchy of content objects model). but code now also names what sondheim ( ), cramer ( ), raley ( ), and others on the new media studies side of the digital humanities call codework. whereas a core principle of text encoding is that the purpose of tagging texts with metadata is to allow 'content' to be displayed and manipulated independent of 'format,' codework artists such as john cayley, mez breeze (mary-anne breeze), talan memmott, and their interpreters insist on the ineluctable co-presence of code both operationally behind the scenes and phenomenally in a work's experiential form. code thus manifests on the surface of cayley's digital-media creative compositions or mez's invented mezangelle cyber-poetic language, or memmott's lexia to perplexia. in both text encoding and codework, nevertheless, code is an informational concept increasingly linked to the ideas of technology and media. thus, for example, digital humanists and new media scholars have begun conceptualizing protocols and databases as fused constructs of encoded information, technology, and media--as in galloway ( ) on protocols, my own work on relational databases and the 'new encoded discourse' (liu, b), hayles's recent writings on databases and narratives (e.g., hayles, ; partly a response to lev manovich's well-known, controversial declaration that the two are 'natural enemies' [manovich, : ]), and george legrady's and other new media artist's imagination of databases as media forms (e.g., alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. legrady, , a, b). data mining, meanwhile, is a phrase whose increasing use in the digital humanities (together with the related text mining) signals the mutation of an earlier paradigm of text analysis into data analytics. examples include the text-analysis tools developed or combined by such projects as tapor, nora, monk, and seasr. just as data analytics in the information industry refers to the use of sophisticated software systems like ibm business analytics and optimization or google analytics to sift business, customer, web-usage, and other information for high-level patterns buried in routine information, so the seasr analytics for zotero now available through a plug-in for the firefox web browser (seasr, ), for example, deploy author centrality analyses, author degree distribution analyses, and other pattern-recognition analyses to discern high-altitude patterns in texts or aggregates of texts. the overarching effect is that the digital humanities are forced to think more integrally about the relation between information and both technology and media. data mining requires digital humanists to investigate underlying database, data-flow, cross-platform data architecture, and other computational technologies; while it also increasingly foregrounds the need for visual media able to facilitate pattern recognition (e.g., visualization tools). indeed, the fact that data-mining visualizations are now organic to new media qua 'media' is illustrated by the fact that the museum of modern art in new york city recently added to its exhibits of media art the iconic 'history- flow' visualizations of wikipedia editing patterns created by fernanda b. viégas and martin wattenberg. . integration with the past. one earlier shortcoming of the digital humanities was the field's foreshortened, presentist focus. more accurately, scholars in the field were historically alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. schizophrenic. on the one hand, they focused on presentist issues or practices of technology- media-information from the mid-twentieth century on (e.g., since the macy conferences studied by hayles [ ], with special emphasis on post- 's computing and networking). on the other hand, they focused on the historical objects of study to which the new technological, media, and informational approaches were applied. thus, for instance, such major first-generation digital humanities archives and editions as the rossetti archive, the william blake archive, the walt whitman archive, the women writers project, the orlando project, and so on had historically split personalities. at one point, for example, jerome mcgann's rossetti archive created an interactive d overlay of dante gabriel rossetti's studio (in the now obsolete vrml virtual reality modeling language protocol) that had the perverse effect of drawing the user's attention away from the historical archive of rossetti's works to experimentation with the cutting-edge vrml navigational environment (e.g., what happens when i walk through that wall?). in short, research on digital-humanities methods and the historical phenomena to which those methods were applied occurred on unrelated tracks. recently, however, two fields increasingly partnered with the digital humanities--the history of the book and media archaeology--are splicing those tracks together. in regard to the history of the book field (including also the history of orality, early writing, and reading), it is iconic that elizabeth eisenstein's preface to her influential the printing revolution in early modern europe ( : x) conspicuously acknowledges the intervention of mcluhan, and that walter ong's orality and literacy ( ) was subtitled 'the technologizing of the word.' while it was mcluhan who first unified and generalized the idea of media, it was up to contemporary book history to extend his approach by closing the divide he had himself interposed between the alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. past of the 'gutenberg galaxy' and the present of 'electric' media. recent book history thus enfolds historical and even prehistorical media within today's capacious media-technology- information concept. surprisingly, the digital paradigm has only reinforced this manner of refreshing the history of the book. while elegies over the 'death of the book' in the digital age such as birkerts ( ) continue to be common, the liveliest work on the history and future of the book treats the codex as what amounts to digital media avant la lettre. from this point of view, alphabetic script, cut pages, typographical formatting, navigational aids, and (beginning in the enlightenment) 'extensive' reading practices were digital in principle. thus such notable scholars in the book history field as chartier (e.g., , ), johns ( , ), and stallybrass (e.g., ) increasingly compare, and not just contrast, earlier writing/reading practices to their digital successors. clinching the point are such works as drucker ( ), which recovers the programming-like 'functioning' of books as a tutor text for the digital age, and vismann ( ), which studies how the documentary and archival form of the 'file' binds together the manuscript, print, and digital ages. the implications of media archaeology are similar. originally associated with continental schriftlichkeitsgeschichte, especially as developed in the poststructuralist mode of friedrich kittler's works (e.g., , ), media archaeology is dedicated to the study of old media as media-technology-information. there never was a time 'before' media, in other words. or as gitelman ( ) conceives it, media archaeology is about old media when they were new media. the fact that media archaeology has attended especially to what might be called vintage-modern or threshold-modern media--that is, media, technology, and information from the enlightenment to the early twentieth century--also means that it witnesses in media the history of the 'new' itself alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. or, most generally, of civilizational modernization. as ernst ( ) points out, media archaeology follows the model of foucault's 'archaeology' of knowledge, which in a postmodern manner traces the sequence of epistemic breaks--morphed in retrospect into continuities--that are the 'genealogy' of modernity. such recent scholarship as the collection of essays by siskin and warner ( ) testify to the potential in thus witnessing the birth of modernity in the history of media. answering anew kant's question 'what is enlightenment?,' siskin and warner argue in their introduction ( : ) that the enlightenment was foremost 'an event in the history of mediation,' referring both to concrete media technologies and mediational forms, practices, and institutional protocols in societies on the threshold of modernity. for media archaeology, in short, there can be no fundamental difference between modern media and historical media because the media concept bears within it, like a genetic trace, the history of the possibility of the modern itself. . rejoining the social. it is striking that while digital humanists concentrate on technology, media, and information, they rarely give equal weight to the idea of communication, which in the social sciences is an equally foundational concept (as witnessed in their standard name for the digital: 'information and communication technologies' [ict]). perhaps this is not surprising, given the residual influence of the formalist and linguistic turn in the humanities dating from the early through late twentieth century. generations of literary scholars, for example, followed the lead of the new critics in deemphasizing the communicative function of discourse. this was the price that had to be paid to stand up to what the new critics saw as the hegemony of referential meaning in the age of science (and, secondarily, of mass media). fighting what cleanth brooks ( ) called 'the heresy of paraphrase'--or the idea that poems had alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. something declarative to say that could be put in the form of a science-like proposition (or mass- media sound bite)--the new critics turned our attention to linguistic structures so 'ambiguous' or 'paradoxical' that they were not communicative. instead, they were what john crowe ransom ( ) called 'ontological.' in the motto the new critics took from archibald macleish's 'ars poetica' (macleish, : - ), 'a poem should not mean / but be.' or, to cite an earlier passage in macleish's poem, 'a poem should be wordless / as the flight of birds.' subsequent structuralist and poststructuralist critics muted the communicative function in similarly subtle critiques of meaning. thus, when structuralists privileged systemic langue rather than discursive parole, or, undercutting linguistic system itself, poststructuralists focused on meaning effect rather than meaning, so too did communication hollow out into a communication effect (or 'rhetoric,' in the deconstructive sense that paul de man gave the term). ultimately, the digital humanities on both its text-oriented and new media studies sides also hit the mute button on communication. in the mode of mcluhan's dictum, 'the medium is the message,' they find deeply meaningful the complex 'systems,' 'networks,' and 'protocols' of media-technology-information rather than whatever content--sampled texts or songs, crowd-sourced posts or tweets, etc.--actually transits through the whole buzzing apparatus. the upshot is that very little of what the social sciences, including communication studies, have learned about how to study ict has been taken up in the digital humanities. for example, digital humanists have not to my knowledge used 'media richness theory' (e.g., daft and lengel, ) to study functional or perceived differences of media and their impact on evolving relations between 'one-to-one,' 'one-to-many,' and 'many-to- many' communications (adopting some of the vocabulary of the social sciences). however, this situation has begun to change due to the introduction in the digital alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. humanities of social computing as a field of study. as i have explored elsewhere (liu, b), social-computing scholarship arises as sociological and communicational theories are applied to web . social-network technologies. studying blogs, wikis, twitter, and other many-to-many media technologies, for example, social scientists apply 'social network theory' to try to understand what web . enthusiasts imprecisely call 'the wisdom of the crowd,' 'the rule of many,' and 'crowd sourcing.' now digital humanists are similarly addressing web . by incorporating the new technologies and social network theory. practically, for instance, digital humanities projects, journals, and interfaces increasingly make room for web . by adding folksonomic tags, shared 'bookshelves,' and similar crowd-sourcing features. (an example is the shared-tags component of the collex environment for searching distributed digital resources.) and theoretically, new media theorists such as galloway and thacker ( ) are adapting social- network theory to explore 'a theory of networks'; literary scholars such as piper ( ), moretti ( ), and frank ( ) use social-network theory to model literature; and the transliteracies project i direct has developed a project that exploits the idea of social networks for the historical study of the humanities (in the rose research-oriented social environment about which some of my collaborators write in this issue of arts and humanities in higher education [chuk et al., ]). . scaling up. the current sense of expansion in the digital humanities also stems from sheer growth in the scale of projects in the field--to the point that scale itself has snapped into focus as one of the field's constitutive concepts. the text-oriented digital humanities, of course, have always had large ambitions. such early, definitive digital-humanities web sites or other projects as the william blake archive, alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. romantic circles, rossetti archive, thevalley of the shadow project, walt whitman archive, women writers project, and others proved to be like the tardis in the bbc's doctor who television series: they were larger on the inside than they seemed on the outside. though nominally constrained to a specific corpus, they grew into ever-expanding interior networks of resources and scholars. my own voice of the shuttle web site for the humanities--initially just or so hand-crafted web pages when it started in --followed a similar pattern, swelling in its later database-driven form to what is now an unmanageable extent. but the scale of such early digital-humanities projects cannot match that of more recent initiatives designed in principle to scale up to tera- or peta-orders of magnitude. like 'big science' in the physics or astronomy fields, such digital-humanities tools, environments, distributed repositories, or other initiatives as monk, seasr, tapor, and nines envision operating on vast bodies of content (e.g., document collections totaling up to million words in monk, and at present nearly , digital objects across distributed sites in nines) to achieve increasingly complex pattern-recognition results and advanced research capabilities. the ultimate goal is rapid, online, and on-demand analysis of texts (and other resources) at the corpora scale or across distributed repositories. a scholar should be able to turn on a computer anywhere and not only access, but perform sophisticated processing on, all the world's information, or at least all that resides in digital collections. the new media studies side of the digital humanities has similarly scaled up. however, whereas the mental archetype of scale for text-oriented digital scholars is still usually a corpus, archive, or library, the equivalent archetype for digital artists and media theorists has from the first more closely approximated the capacity of contemporary information. after starting with alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. cd-based works, they quickly scaled up to the paradigm of the database and the network, making databases and the internet not just their platforms but part of the core idea of their work. an instance of what vesna ( ) has called 'database aesthetics,' for example, is george legrady's pockets full of memories art installation (legrady, ), which at its premiere at the centre pompidou in paris required visitors to scan in items from their pockets and fill out an accompanying questionnaire about the object's attributes. the computers driving the installation then processed the initial assemblage of over , objects through a self-organizing map (som) algorithm and projected the results in a 'wall of images' that clustered the objects in both predictable and surprising ways. notably, legrady saw the end result of the project (like that of many of his later projects) to be not just a visual display but an exploration of the structure of the underlying database and data (legrady, a, b; simanowski, ). so, too, lisa jevbratt's well-known art project : , which ran first in and then again in - (jevbratt, - ), systematically crawled the web to create 'a database that would eventually contain the addresses of every web site in the world and interfaces through which to view and use the database.' the most famous of the interactive interfaces that jevbratt created for the project was 'every ip,' which--in a style visually reminiscent of abstract expressionism--filled the screen with colored pixels each linked live to a url. the advent of web . , whose technology combines databases with the network to drive blogs, wikis, social-networking sites, and so on then further stretched the canvas of net art, net criticism, and similar variants of new media studies. in general, the future of the digital humanities (including new media studies) is likely to be big. indeed, recent funding competitions have encouraged a new wave of projects focusing on alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. scale--e.g., the humanities high performance computing grants (co-sponsored by the u.s. national endowment for the humanities and department of energy), the and digging into data challenge grants (co-sponsored by an international consortium of funding agencies), and the google digital humanities research grants (which challenged humanists to exploit google books). such bluesky competitions are on the same page--which is to say, millions, billions, and googols of pages--with the 'big humanities' challenge that cathy n. davidson, cofounder of hastac (humanities, arts, sciences, and technology advanced collaboratory) has made to the digital humanities community. paraphrasing from one of her unpublished talks that i attended, davidson ( ) asks: where are the big humanities projects that compare to big science by requiring petaflop supercomputing and terabyte storage; that necessitate sprawling, distributed teams of researchers; and that are magnets for science-scale government or corporate grants? as davidson says (quoting a blog report of her talk [fisher, ]): 'size matters (think terabytes + broad theoretical horizons).' this last formula for the big humanities with its emphasis on theoretical horizons marks a crucial inflection point in the scaling up of the digital humanities. at these dimensions, scale is no longer a matter of improvising technical and workflow arrangements to allow the python, as it were, to swallow the mule. it is a matter of principled design requiring thought, both practical and philosophical. early digital humanities projects had scaled up more or less accidentally, with the result (to the best of my knowledge) that every one of them ran up against the same virtual supersonic barrier. the barrier took the form of the following impasse: either a project retains established practices of scholarly quality-control (e.g., hierarchically-organized editing teams led by authorities, whose work is peer-reviewed in the traditional way by other authorities), in which alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. case no addition of terabytes and petaflops can allow it to scale up past the human bottlenecks (how many experts are there, and how many hours of time do they have each day to work on a project?), or a project uses some combination of algorithmic means and crowd sourcing to take the brakes off the terabytes and petaflops, whereupon quality-control no longer meets the standards of scholarship. crossing this barrier between expert knowledge and algorithmic/crowd knowledge will require fulfilling the call that bowker and star have made for theorizing the 'scaling up' of information ( : ff.; see also star, bowker, and neumann, ). while the challenge of an adequate theory of scale--technical, social, cultural, and even philosophical--has not yet been met in the digital humanities, the field has at least reached the threshold of thinking deliberately about the problem. an emblematic example is galloway and thacker ( ), whose approach telescopes between the micro-scale of information protocols and the macro-scale of what hardt and negri ( ) call today's globalist, virtual 'empire.' scale is a new horizon of intellectual inquiry. what kinds of humanistic phenomena appear only at scale? . expanding the interpretive paradigm. the overall outcome of the conceptual integrations and expansions i itemize above is that the digital humanities are now able to ask not just more questions about technology-media-information (as they relate to the past, to society, and to phenomena at scale) but also new kinds of questions that bring the field closer to mainstream scholarship in the humanities. the digital humanities are on the threshold of a new interpretive paradigm. the old paradigm, especially on the text-oriented side of the field, was constraining. that paradigm was empirical. as ramsay ( ) and flanders ( ) observe, scholars such as potter ( a, b), fortier ( / ), and hockey ( ) had perceived humanities computing (in alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. ramsay's paraphrase) to be about 'hypothesis testing and empirical validation.' the computer, in other words, prepared for, assisted, detailed, confirmed, or corrected human acts of meaning- making. in flanders' witty comparison, a computing humanist was thus seen as a "pedant" of the sort that jonathan swift and others once lampooned in the age of reason: a drone with an algorithm who mindlessly churns out reams of detail proving either the obvious, probable, and tautological that humans already know or, more egregious, the contingent, entropic, and meaningless about which humans do not care. the flip side of the equation was equally debilitating: if computers took charge of evidentiary and analytical operations, then humans proper (in this context, humanists) were boxed into the opposing role of geniuses who had to create hypotheses ex nihilo. thus ramsay ( : ) points out that hockey had to split the firmament of interpretation between computers that 'are good at counting, providing accuracy, and isolating patterns' and humans reliant on 'intuition, and serendipity.' the new paradigm allows computers and humans to share responsibility for the full act of interpretation, including the component acts of hypothesis-framing, observation, discovery, analysis, testing, reiterative hypothesis-framing, etc. a vivid example is the experiment in which jerome mcgann and johanna drucker repeatedly ran an advertisement page from a nineteenth- century periodical through a scanner and optical character recognition (ocr) software, just to see what would happen (mcgann, : - ). what happened was that the computer was unpredictable in the way it structured and 'read' the complex textual-graphical codex page. the initial hypothesis driving the experiment--that every page is rich with complex, even ambivalent structural metadata--came from mcgann and drucker as humans (conditioned as they were, of course, by a lifetime of immersion in the codex). but the resulting full act of interpretation--in alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. which the combined empirical and playful interventions of the machine (like a fine musical instrument that 'plays' the intention of a musician though unpredictable, yet somehow profoundly wise or beautiful, evolutions of resonance and timbre)--belong to the cyborg assemblage of mcgann-drucker-scanner-ocr-and-computer. 'it occurred to us,' mcgann writes, 'that we might take advantage of the elementary reading operations carried out by . . . ocr programs' ( : ). the zen truth of this statement hides behind the verb occurred. occurred is where human 'intuition, and serendipity' (in ramsay's phrase) happen. but such happening is really relayed back and forth in a feedback loop between humans and computers in the latter's role not just as empirical testers but as co-discoverers. as in bruno latour's 'actor-network theory' of distributed human and machinic agency (e.g., latour, ), the computer participates in the act of intuition and serendipity. we note, for example, that while mcgann ( : - ) recounts programmatically the sequence of steps that he and drucker took--e.g., 'a repetition of operations - except we would lift the document and replace it in as nearly the same position as we could'-- at no point do the procedures come close to the rigorous standards of scientific experimentalism. (for instance, what exactly is the hit-or-miss logic of nearly--a kind of fake empiricism--that governs the attempt to put the document back 'in as nearly the same position as we could'?) basically, mcgann and drucker were playing around to see what the computer could do to help humans discover new ways of reading or, just as important, new understandings of how we have always read. this example illustrates how digital humanists have recently diversified their idea of what the computer is supposed to be doing even in the most empiricist domain of their field: text analysis. one of the most significant changes in the digital humanities in the last few years is thus alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. that text analysis has finally allowed itself, as it were, to inhale or take lsd. in other words, it's as if the cyberlibertarian era of the 's and early 's that text analysis was originally coeval with, but from which it held itself apart by dressing in a scientist's white lab coat while everyone else wore hippie tie-dye and batik, is finally being acknowledged in a second-generation cyberlibertarian revolution. computational tools originally designed to produce concordances, collocations, frequency analyses, and so on are now complemented by tools that either have no apparent empirical function at all (e.g., the word brush tool that tapor includes for painting evocative visual sprays of words based on a source text) or that have so many empirical functions (e.g., the multipanel collage of text-analysis tools offered by hyperpo and subsequently voyeur, themselves invoked in tapor) that empirical investigation undergoes a phase-shift from testing or verification to playing around. and, of course, empiricism has never much impeded artists and theorists on the new media studies side of the field, however much they sometimes delight in adopting empirical sources and presentation forms as good camouflage for art, much as marcel duchamp once appropriated such pedestrian objects as a urinal or snow shovel. an example would be lise autogena and joshua portway's black shoals: stock market planetarium, an art installation that fused two found forms to present empirical data as an 'an animated night sky that is also a live representation of the world’s stock markets, with each star representing a traded company' (autogena and portway, ; see raley, : - , on this installation). in general, perhaps the single most important theoretical development in the digital humanities in recent years has been the explosion of non-empirical interpretive paradigms for what the computer can do. in their influential essay 'deformance and interpretation,' for example, samuels and mcgann ( ) give the computer a performative role that 'deforms' texts to release alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. previously unseen potentialities of meaning and experience. mccarty ( : , , ) articulates a philosophy of 'modeling' leading to 'meaningful surprise,' 'the computationally unknown,' and (a post-newtonian scientific motto he borrows from mcgann) 'the hem of a quantum garment.' and rockwell ( : - ) and ramsay ( : ) argue that the digital humanities should be conceived as 'disciplined play,' 'algorithmic criticism,' or 'playful quest.' even hoover ( ), who not only argues against samuels and mcgann's particular examples of 'deformance' and their conclusions but also ran his own ocr experiment to refute the bolder claims of mcgann and drucker's experiment, includes (in the process of arguing for interpretive methods that converge on, rather than diverge from, texts) a surprising number of examples of deliberate or implicit textual deformations, or what he prefers to call 'alterations.' for example, besides the suite of alterations of joyce kilmer's 'trees' poem that concludes his essay (hoover, : - ), he includes an example from his collection of 'found poem' word-frequency lists (produced by text analysis) that have the oddly readable appearance of modernist poems: burning companion (heaven kissed ladies learn) leaves natural notice o society, spread twice west! (hoover, : ) thus even text analysis that defends the verifiable integrity of texts--whether in the spirit of empiricism or the 'close reading' that the new critics proposed as a rival to scientific empiricism- -adds an element of play to the work of verification. put another way, such text analysis reveals the restless exploratory spirit that had always lain beneath truly robust acts of verification. alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. a critique of the digital humanities a fuller account of the state of the digital humanities might consider additional ways in which the field has become more integrated and expansive. for example, i have written elsewhere about how the field has evolved organizationally and made connections with other disciplines (liu, ). but i will close on a monitory note by indicating several conspicuously lagging areas in the digital humanities, ending on what i feel is the field's single greatest deficiency at the present time. what are the digital humanities missing? for one thing, the field has so far largely lacked a considered focus on new-media forms, whether in terms of genre, rhetoric, or style. by comparison with their preoccupation with technology, media, and information, digital humanists have so far been theoretically inattentive to the formal (as opposed to technical or social) differences between, for example, static-page versus template-driven web sites, blogs versus wikis, and so on--not to mention between 'born-digital' forms in general and such digitized-print forms as online 'documents,' 'books,' 'encyclopedias,' 'editions,' 'archives,' and 'libraries' (the usual focus of the text-oriented side of the digital humanities). indeed, with the exception of some innovative research on inventing new bibliographical conventions for describing born-digital forms (e.g., kirschenbaum, : - ), digital humanists tend to understand new-media forms as residually print-centric to the point of blinding us, for example, to the fact that the least interesting aspect of an online 'book' in the age of google books is its resemblance to a book, or that wikipedia is only an encyclopedia if we agree that its many unexpected contemporary social functions and behaviors, including what lih ( ) calls 'participatory journalism,' are encyclopedic. alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. how might a formal analysis of new media proceed in a way that draws on the resources of new media itself to reveal salient formal distinctions? a first step, i suggest, would be to follow the lead of digital humanists who have used computational text analysis to facilitate the stylistic or generic analysis of historical print forms. such approaches are today increasingly ambitious in their hermeneutical aim. the 'corpus stylistics' or 'quantitative stylistics' projects embarked on by matthew jockers, franco moretti, and their students at the stanford literary lab, for instance, not only correlate low-level textual features with high-level genres (see jockers, ) but show that analysis of such features can guide powerful interpretations of what genres mean in their larger literary and social envelopments. thus text analysis of titles of british novels from to , moretti ( ) shows, unlocks new understandings of novelistic genres that are not just mechanically but meaningfully formal. as he puts it, quantitative stylistics can 'take those units of language that are so frequent that we hardly notice them, and show how powerfully they contribute to the construction of meaning' (moretti, : ). reflecting on the general relation between quantitative analysis and formal understanding, he adds: this is a quantitative study: but its units are linguistic and rhetorical. and the reason is simple: for me, formal analysis is the great accomplishment of literary study, and is therefore also what any new approach--quantitative, digital, evolutionary, whatever--must prove itself against: prove that it can do formal analysis, better than we already do (moretti, : - ). the second step would then be to bring the same approach to bear on contemporary new- media genres. one way to do so would be to apply such text-mining methods as those deployed by jockers and moretti to new forms of writing and publishing today, including blogs, wikis, alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. twitter, and even the new online or hybrid digital/print forms of scholarship in which research about the new forms must itself now be conducted. in regard just to scholarly online forms, for instance, what might text analysis (or, more generally, data-mining analysis) of online archives and editions, major digital project sites, conference sites, online journals, or scholars' blogs and tweets reveal about new-media styles and genres? for example, are there differences in the ways an online 'archive,' 'library,' 'edition,' 'portal,' 'journal,' etc., deploy such basic topoi of the new media as a 'link,' 'navigation bar,' 'banner,' 'footer,' 'tag cloud,' and so on that might illuminate the deep logic of new scholarly forms as the constraints of old metaphors fall away to reveal new possibilities (e.g., 'archives' that replenish through crowd-sourced rather than authoritative curation so as to alter the meaning of 'archive')? in general, digital humanists need to inquire into the evolving idea of form in an age when 'templates' and 'stylesheets' mediate automatically between underlying database content and rendered surface content so as to alter the very parameters of a formalism that originally arose among early twentieth-century poets, designers, and critics on the premise that artist-authors directly designed words on a page, or typography on a poster. in this regard, pattern (as discerned through algorithmic pattern-recognition) is as yet just a placeholder for form. while forms have meaning in great part because they are specifically opposed to other forms (as the russian formalists early theorized), patterns cannot be distinguished from other patterns without the overlay of formal criteria. otherwise, pattern is only opposed to random noise. it may be added that the tendency on the new media studies side of the digital humanities to suspend formal analysis almost entirely in favor of 'network' analysis has its own problems, especially the fact that very few scholars and critics (by comparison with a somewhat greater alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. number of net artists) understand technically what is happening inside today's server architectures, distributed 'cloud' architectures, and internet protocols. the result is that network often becomes a totally formless concept unable to compensate for the lack of formal analysis by supplying structural analyses of the new kinds of form innate to the technology of networks (e.g., the way a blog page is constructed through constellations of mixed php/html files that extract content from databases and dynamically wrap that content in 'themes' obedient, for instance, to generic expectations about what a 'post' is in relation to a 'comment'). beyond an understanding of form, the digital humanities are also missing what might be called close reading . , or a method of micro-analysis in the era of big humanities. one of the most influential developments in humanistic methodology in the last few years has been what moretti calls 'distant reading' (succinctly demonstrated in moretti, ), which extends the large- scale, serial data method of the annales school in french historiography to literary phenomena (e.g., cyclical patterns that can be discovered in the rise and fall of genres by looking at thousands of novels at a time). big-humanities projects in the digital humanities are natural collaborators of such distant reading--in the way, for example, that jockers's 'macro-analysis' methods collaborate with moretti's distant reading methods. but how do we read individual objects of humanistic interest in the era of distant and macro analytics? an interesting test case comes from one of the winners of the humanities high performance computing grant competition: the software studies initiative led by lev manovich at university of california, san diego. the initiative develops 'cultural analytics' projects that use 'computational and visual techniques for exploring massive visual data sets' (software studies initiative, 'cultural analytics'). one of the initiative's projects--shown in a video demo alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. (douglass, )--allows for continuously drilling down from a macro-view of data points representing mark rothko's artistic production to high-resolution images of each picture behind a point. the result is like the seamless experience of zooming down on a location in google earth. nevertheless, the system cannot overcome the fact that the interpretive or analytical methods at the two ends of the scale, macro and micro, are anything but seamless in their relationship. it is unclear, for instance, that there is any resemblance between macro-scale data visualization and the way an expert art historian (or, to vary the example, a good reader of a poem) analyzes imagery. it may be predicted that one of the next frontiers for the digital humanities will be to discover technically and theoretically how to negotiate between distant and close reading. for instance, how might computational text analysis be relevant to the reading of the interior structure of individual poetic lines or a single tweet? how do discoveries about novels at the generic, generational, and national scales of the sort analyzed by moretti and jockers change the way we read at the scale of the traditional unit of literary analysis: a block-quotation paragraph? something else missing in the digital humanities--more on its text-oriented than new media studies side--is what might be called data aesthetics. by contrast with new-media art or net art, the parts of the field that emerged from text analysis, text encoding, edition- and archive- building, and so on have paid scant attention to the aesthetic and affective experience of processing and harvesting data--i.e., the expression of search results, sampled or aggregate data, remixed data, and patterns of all kinds. for instance, one has only to view any typical data visualization from the text-oriented side of the digital humanities (concordance-like lists, line or bar graphs, clichéd tag clouds, etc.) to recognize the near-total imaginative poverty of the field in crafting an aesthetics of data. in great part, this is due to the conceptual separation in the field alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. between the formatting of 'data' and the encoding of 'metadata,' where metadata--or data-about- data intended to help computers manage the primary data--is presumed to operate on logical structures (e.g., the nested relation between stanza groupings and verse lines in a text-encoded poem) independent of expressive structures (e.g., font, spacing, and margin decisions in the presentation of stanzas and verses). in practice, this means that text-oriented digital humanists devote a great deal of thought to developing metadata, and very little to the look-and-feel of data. thus, for example, they seem agnostic about, if not oblivious to, whether texts should be in serif or sans serif fonts. by contrast, just about the whole population of new-media artists and designers--rooted in the traditions of twentieth-century modernist design stemming from bauhaus, the new typography, and so on (the same minimalist industrial aesthetic that shapes the mac computers they prefer)--swear allegiance to sans serif as not just logically functional (its original modernist rationale) but expressively 'good design.' what is missing in the text-oriented digital humanities is similar attention to the feedback loops that arise between conceptual and expressive design--to the reverb of logic on style, and vice versa. in general, while text-oriented digital humanists have expanded their paradigm of interpretation (as i described earlier), they have not yet realized that the corollary of such expansion is a wider expressive repertory of interpretation. indeed, the verb interpret--ordinarily affectless in scholarship because it is keyed to the cerebral registers of epistemology and hermeneutics--may not even be the right word anymore. as noted above, the verbs deform, model, and play have been added to the repertory. student digital projects created for my 'literature+' courses in the past few years (see liu, a) prompt more verbs: perform, adapt, parody, translate, and read (in the sense of a poetry or script reading). in short, interpret is only alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. adequate if we begin to see the interpreter in the role of a musician, actor, or painter 'interpreting' a scene or score. all those additional verbs take on connotations of affect and aesthetics that exceed the normal reception of 'data' as such. in popular culture, as i have noted in my laws of cool (liu, a), such data-affect currently collects in the lumpen-aesthetics of cool. it will be up to text-oriented digital humanists working in league with new media artists to exceed cool by extending the affective and aesthetic register of their work through metadata symphonies that can make data also seem beautiful, tragic, comic, ironic, elegiac, and so on. handling metadata so as to create a feeling for data--and so collapsing the phenomenological divide between metadata and data--may well be the secret formula for what hayles ( ) calls the embodied experience of information. the missing or lagging areas in the digital humanities i outline above are each worthy of fuller discussion, since they are staging grounds for new developments in the field. but i will rest this essay on a larger, superseding deficit. the digital humanities are not yet prepared to accept their likely future responsibility to represent--both by critiquing and advocating--the state of the humanities at large in its changing relation to higher education and the postindustrial state. if the field of the digital humanities has expanded (and integrated) its fundamental concepts, historical coverage, relationship to social experience, scale of projects, and range of interpretive approaches, then it follows that it increasingly resembles the humanities in general. a commonplace prediction in the digital humanities, indeed, is that one day the field will just be identical with the humanities in the way the 'print humanities' once were when the study of print was capacious enough to serve as the container of human studies at large. more realistically, it may not be that the digital humanities will in the near future reach the point of identity with the alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. humanities, but the digital-humanities field has entered a transitional state when it is capacious and multifaceted enough to serve as a credible allegory of the humanities of the future. to recur to the business analogy, the precedent is the so-called 'productivity paradox' in the u.s. in the 's and early 's (see my fuller discussion in liu, a: - ). the productivity paradox refers to the period when massive u.s. corporate investment in digital technology led to flat or declining productivity, raising the question: what was all the computing and networking for? the answer, in part, was that computing and networking fulfilled the need of u.s. business (goaded by frightening competition from revolutionary japanese business practices) to imagine fundamental change in its processes, organization, and 'knowledge work.' computing was an allegory for the not-yet-realized postindustrial corporation. indeed, business theorists and gurus enthusiastically borrowed metaphors from the vocabulary of digital or networking processes to describe, for instance, the 'virtual corporation' (davidow and malone, ). the humanities, we may say, are now caught in their version of a productivity paradox. even with all their new disciplinary or interdisciplinary approaches, their productivity, as understood by society, is flat or declining. this is one way (and there are much unkinder ways) to say that the humanities are found wanting in their contribution to postindustrial productivity, a perception that results in the recent systematic defunding of the humanities by some governments and public university systems. business 'solved' its productivity paradox by drawing a third, imaginary axis on the xy graph of information technology versus productivity--a new z-axis of development on which information technology projected a qualitative change ('reengineering,' 'restructuring,' 'disintermediation,' 'downsizing,' and so on) whose results did not yet show up in productivity alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. metrics but predicted the postindustrial corporation. how might the humanities, and higher education in general, solve its productivity paradox by using information technology to draw its own version of an imaginary z-line of development whose results may not yet be fully visible in productivity but forecast a role for the humanities in the postindustrial university? that, we may say, is the advocacy problem: how to use the new media technologies to advocate for the future of the humanities. the pendant question is of the sort: is the only projected z-line of development one that will lead to 'eleventh campuses' and 'cyber-campuses' that are the same in all essential principles and practices as the 'virtual corporation'? will there be no differentiated role for institutions of higher education, including such disciplines as the humanities, within the postindustrial state? that is the critical problem. if i am right that the digital humanities have entered a phase where they are sufficiently 'big' enough to serve at least allegorically as a representative of the future of the humanities in higher education, and in turn (in league with new media and technology approaches in other disciplines in the university) of the future of higher education in the postindustrial state, then digital humanists are now uniquely positioned to play a role in both humanities advocacy and critique. this raises a whole new class of issues--for example, not just how can the digital humanities serve the humanities? but how can the digital humanities help the humanities and higher education serve larger society so as to show the distinct value of the humanities? the digital humanities have so far not been up to the task of addressing such issues. while much of the rest of the humanities have been influenced by cultural criticism, for instance, the text-oriented side of the digital humanities has been almost wholly uninterested in any social, political, economic, or cultural inquiry into the contexts and implications of information alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. technology--to the point that one thread on the humanist discussion group in (a listserv focused primarily on the digital humanities) worried that in pursuing technical developments the field was all about 'industrialisation.' the new media studies side of the field--especially in its emphases on net critique, tactical media, and so on--has been much more aware, sometimes almost exclusively so, of social, political, economic, and cultural issues. yet its mode of sociocultural critique often inflates issues of technology-media-information to the hyper-global scale of the 'crowd' versus the 'empire' (a contest, we may say, of alternate totalities) with little attention to the complexly related, yet differentiated, institutions in between that do the messy and patchy (i.e., partially totalistic) work of mediation between peoples and states. in particular, new media studies often seem oblivious to the complex nature of the higher-education institutions in which they are embedded--i.e., the concrete tactical ground of what foucault ( : - ) called the 'specific intellectual.' it is as if every aspect of society and states were open to new- media, tactical, and hactivist critique except the tolerance, protection, or other set-aside that society usually (with some notable recent exceptions) provides for the differentiated role of universities within societies--e.g., universities with new media studies programs. this is the opening of a larger argument about the digital humanities and the differential nature of contemporary institutions. but rather than try to outline that argument here, i close simply with a comment i made recently in a live debate staged between myself and pierre lévy on the topic of ''collective intelligence or silicon cage?: digital culture in the twenty-first century': the institution of the humanities prepares the individual (e.g., the student) to become part of the universal (society). but it fulfills that mission in ways different alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. from military institutions inducting a recruit, business institutions recruiting a graduate, etc. . . . to bring their field to maturity, i predict, humanists interested in cyberspace will need to articulate the institutional specificity of the 'digital humanities' and 'new media studies.' what are the organizational, procedural, social, cultural, political, economic, gender, racial, and other historical specificities of these new fields; and how does the institutional difference of these fields contribute to the universal without totality? 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( ) 'bill gates predicts technology will make 'place-based' colleges less important in years,' chronicle of higher education: 'wired campus' blog, august . url: http://chronicle.com/blogs/wiredcampus/bill-gates-predicts-technology-will- make-place-based-colleges-less-important-in- -years/ (accessed august ). alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. notes . for another impressively multi-dimensional attempt to defined the scope of 'digital humanities,' see rieger, . for my own earlier account of the way different elements of 'new media studies'--including institutional programs, canonical texts, pedagogical readers, etc.--came together after about to form 'a coherent, if not wholly unified, field,' see liu, b: - . . edley's op-ed essay contained little evidence of successful precedents in large-scale virtual higher education at the level of research institutions such as the university of california universities. his primary precedent is drawn from the united kingdom: 'there are some important success stories. britain's government-funded open university, begun years ago, offers some lectures in partnership with the bbc. it claims % of britain's adult population has taken at least one of its courses, and it ranks second in student satisfaction out of british institutions, with high marks from government inspectors too.' to be fair, edley's call for action on this front has since been followed up by the uc online instruction pilot project, which has started incubating a small set of online courses in the university of california system to test directions and formats (university of california office of the president, a; kaya, ). in november , the university of california commission on the future--created to suggest strategies for the university to adapt to severe budget cuts--included a version of the online-instruction proposal alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. and the pilot project as one of the recommendations in its final report (university california office of the president, b: - ). the language of the recommendation included the qualified statement: 'if questions related to quality, cost, and workload can be satisfactorily answered--a hotly debated issue among the uc faculty--online delivery of instruction would offer several benefits.' other universities in the u.s. are experimenting in the same direction (see gabriel, ). . gates commented that 'five years from now on the web for free you’ll be able to find the best lectures in the world. it will be better than any single university. . . .college, except for the parties, needs to be less place-based' (quoted in young, ). see also fried, . . most notably, the overlap between humanities computing and new media studies occurs in the area of creative digital literature--especially as the practice and study of such 'electronic literature,' as the electronic literature organization calls it, verge into multimedia, algorithmic, and network art as well as gaming studies. . garcia and lovink ( ) offer the definition: 'tactical media are what happens when the cheap 'do it yourself' media, made possible by the revolution in consumer electronics and expanded forms of distribution (from public access cable to the internet) are exploited by groups and individuals who feel aggrieved by or excluded from the wider culture. tactical media do not just report events, as they are never impartial they always participate and it is this that more than alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. anything separates them from mainstream media.' . on text encoding, renear ( : ) observes: 'text encoding holds a special place in humanities computing. it is not only of considerable practical importance and commonly used, but it has proven to be an exciting and theoretically productive area of analysis and research. text encoding in the humanities has also produced a considerable amount of interesting debate -- which can be taken as an index of both its practical importance and its theoretical significance.' on the ordered hierarchy of content objects problem, see renear, mylonas, and durand ( ); hockey, renear, and mcgann ( ); and mcgann ( : ). . on the work of cayley and mez breeze, see raley ( ). memmott's lexia to perplexia (memmott, ) is now a standard work in the 'electronic literature' canon, as in the discussion by hayles ( : - ). . my understanding of data mining in the specific domain of text mining has been assisted by a survey and analysis of the field conducted by rama hoetzlein ( ) during work on the rose (research-oriented social environment) project for the transliteracies project. . the display of the graphic visualizations by viégas and wattenberg at the museum of modern art in new york city (during my visit in july ) was labeled 'history flow.' for the original, alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. influential article that introduced history-flow visualizations of wikipedia editing patterns, see viégas et al. ( ). . my thanks for the reference to media richness theory to bola c. king-rushing, whose dissertation in progress at the university of california, santa barbara (entitled 'a theoretical framework for virtual-worlds research: toward a proxemics of virtuality') bridges between humanities approaches and the methods of communication scholars. . a good introduction to using social-network theory to study online social networks is garton, haythornthwaite, and wellman ( ), which appeared prior to web . . a similar introduction updated to the web . milieu is hogan ( ). the 'wisdom of the crowd' and other phrases i use here are now commonplace in discussions of web . . . collex can be seen in action on the home page of nines (networked infrastructure for nineteenth-century electronic scholarship). for information about collex, see http://www.nines.org/about/software/collex.html. . see bobley ( ), digging into data challenge (homepage, n. d.), and google, inc. ( ). . in a passage cited by flanders ( : ), potter ( b: xvii) writes, 'objective treatments of texts frequently involve not only finding examples of features, but also counting them and alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. comparing the results with known facts about language. things counted produce sums; . . . statistical analysis follows almost inevitably.' the characterization of this paradigm as 'hypothesis testing and empirical validation' is ramsay's ( : ). . my thanks to david hoover for showing me a larger collection of such examples of text- analysis 'found poems' when we met at the digital humanities summer institute at the university of victoria in may . . while the influences that underlie moretti's approach are multiple, i make the connection to annales historiography in particular because of moretti's own citations of fernand braudel's work (e.g., moretti, : , - , ). . my thanks to matthew jockers for conversation during my visit at stanford university on may about his idea of 'macro-analysis,' which he analogizes to macro-economics, and for a manuscript section he subsequently sent me on this topic from his book manuscript, beyond search: literary studies and the digital library. . willard mccarty started the discussion thread on 'industrialisation' of the digital humanities. the thread is available in the web archive of the humanist listserv (beginning with mccarty, ). my statement here that the text-oriented side of the digital humanities has been almost alan liu / 'the state of the digital humanities' / june , / p. wholly uninterested in cultural-critical inquiry is a simplification. a more extended discussion would note that the latent cultural-critical interest of the digital humanities lies recursed within digital textual methods influenced by the 'new textual scholarship' and sociological bibliography i mentioned earlier, which (as i described) focus 'on textual media as social practices inseparable from their historically situated material technologies.' (my fuller discussion of the missing cultural criticism in the digital humanities occurs in liu [ b], with a shorter online version in liu [ a].) . in mentioning 'some notable recent exceptions,' i allude especially to the case of ricardo dominguez, associate professor in the visual arts department at the university of california, san diego, who in academic year - applied his hacktivist methods (well-known in the new media studies community) to the university of california system after the university reacted to california's budget meltdown that year by imposing harsh budget cuts. as widely reported--e.g., kolowich ( ) and goldstein, ( )--dominguez initiated a 'virtual sit-in' by launching against the web site of the uc office of the president a version of the distributed denial of service (ddos) hacker attacks he was known for using in earlier artistic/political projects. this led to an investigation of dominguez by uc and ultimately to a negotiated agreement that 'dominguez will stay in his current position and has agreed not to interfere with the server of the office of the president or use university resources in any way that "might result in permanently or temporarily damaging the integrity or availability" of other web sites' (goldstein, ). microsoft word - -유희천.doc journal of the ergonomics society of korea vol. , no. pp. - , june doi: . /jesk. . . . digital human simulation을 활용한 방사성 폐기물 처리장 주제어실의 인체공학적 평가 * 이백희 ·장 윤 ·정기효 ·정일호 ·유희천 포항공과대학교 기계산업공학부 / pennsylvania state university 산업공학과 / 현대엔지니어링 원자력부 ergonomic evaluation of a control room design of radioactive waste facility using digital human simulation baekhee lee , yoon chang , kihyo jung , ilho jung , heecheon you department of industrial and management engineering, postech, pohang, ‐ department of industrial and manufacturing engineering, pennsylvania state university, university park, pa, usa department of nuclear, power & energy plant division, hyundai engineering, seoul, ‐ abstract the present study evaluated a preliminary control room (cr) design of radioactive waste facility using the jack® human simulation system. four digital humanoids ( th, th, th, and th percentiles) were used in the ergonomic evaluation. the first three were selected to represent % of the target population (korean males aged to years) and the last to reflect the secular trend of stature for next years in south korea. the preliminary cr design was assessed by checking its compliance to ergonomic guidelines specified in nureg- and conducting an in-depth ergonomic analysis with a digital prototype of the cr design and the digital humanoids in terms of postural comfort, reachability, visibility, and clearance. for identified design problems, proper design changes and their validities were examined using jack. a revised cr design suggested in the present study would contribute to effective and safe operations of the cr as well as operators' health in the workplace. keyword: digital human simulation, control room, radioactive waste facility . 서 론 방사성 폐기물 처리장(이하, 방폐장)은 원자력발전소(이하, 원전)에서 발생하는 중·저준위 방사성 폐기물을 처리하는 시설이다. 중·저준위 방사성 폐기물은 원전에 사용된 연료 를 비롯해 방사선 관리구역에서 사용된 작업복, 장갑, 기기 교체 부품 등으로써 안전하게 관리되도록 법적으로 지정되 어 있다(한국방사성 폐기물관리공단, a). 우리나라는 원전 내 임시저장시설에 중·저준위 방사성 폐기물을 보관 해오고 있으나, 향후 임시저장시설의 포화를 고려해 경상 북도 경주시에 년까지 방폐장을 신설할 계획이다(한국 방사성 폐기물관리공단, b). 방폐장 주제어실은 운전원의 효과적인 감시 작업 수행과 * 본 논문은 년 한국전력주식회사의 지원을 받아 수행되었음. 교신저자: 유희천 주 소: - 포항시 남구 효자동 산 , 전화: - - , e-mail: hcyou@postech.ac.kr 이백희 · 장윤 · 정기효 · 정일호 · 유희천 大韓人間工學會 개발 비용 경감을 위해 설계 초기부터 인간공학적인 고려가 필요하다. hwang et al.( )은 신형 원전의 본격적인 가 동에 앞서 인간공학적인 주제어실 평가를 수행하여 세 가지 측면(주제어실 설비 배치, 표시장치와 제어장치의 인터페이 스, 그리고 업무 절차서의 사용성)의 주요한 사용성 개선 사항을 파악하였다. 또한, 구진영 외( )는 주기적 안정 성 평가의 일환으로 평가 checklist를 적용하여 국내 운영 중인 원전 주제어실(고리 ~ 호, 영광 , 호)을 인간공학 적으로 평가하고 개선 요구 항목을 분석하였다. 이러한 개 발된 주제어실의 인간공학적 평가는 설계 개선 사항 파악 에 유용하나, 이미 개발된 주제어실의 개선에 비용 및 시간 이 상대적으로 많이 소요된다. 따라서, 효과적인 주제어실 설계 및 개발을 위해서는 설계 초기부터 인간공학적인 평가 의 적용이 요구된다. 가상인체모델을 이용한 digital human simulation(dhs) 은 작업공간의 인간공학적 설계에 유용하게 활용되고 있다. 이상기 외( )와 박장운 외( )는 천장 크레인 운전 공간 설계와 한국형 헬리콥터 조종실 설계에 대해 dhs를 활용한 인간공학적 평가를 통하여 개선이 요구되는 설계요 소를 파악하고 개선 방안을 제시하였다(그림 참조). 이 러한 dhs를 이용한 인간공학적 설계 및 평가는 제품 개발 초기부터 가상 시제품(virtual mockup)을 사용하여 인간공 학적 평가를 수행할 수 있게 하며 제품 개발 기간과 비용을 효과적으로 절감하는데 유용한 방법으로 권장되고 있다(유 희천, ; chaffin, ). 본 연구는 dhs를 활용해 방폐장 주제어실의 예비 설계 (preliminary design)를 평가하고 개선 설계요소를 분석하 였다. 먼저, dhs 평가를 위해 h사에서 개발한 방폐장 주 제어실의 예비 설계에 대해 차원 가상 시제품을 개발하였 다. dhs 평가는 jack®을 활용하여 이루어졌으며, 년 size korea 인체측정자료와 향후 년간의 신장 추세변동 (secular trend)을 고려하여 명의 대표인체모델( th , th , th , and th percentiles)이 생성되었다. 방폐장 주제어실 의 설계는 가지 인간공학적 기준(자세 안락도, 도달성, 시 계성, 그리고 여유공간)을 적용해 평가되었으며, 인간공학적 평가 결과를 토대로 개선이 요구되는 설계요소와 개선 방향 이 분석되었다. . 평가 방법 . 가상인체모델 dhs 평가를 위한 대표인체모델은 설계대상인구의 % 수용( th ~ th percentiles) 특성과 향후 년간의 신장 추 세변동을 고려해 표 에 나타낸 것과 같은 명으로 선정되었 표 . 방폐장 주제어실 평가를 위한 대표인체모델의 인체크기(단위: cm, kg) percentile 순번 인체변수 th th th th 키 . . . . 허리두께 . . . . 발목 높이 . . . . 어깨 높이 . . . . 아래팔 길이 . . . . 어깨 너비 . . . . 위팔 사이 너비 . . . . 앉은 엉덩이 무릎 수평길이 . . . . 앉은 팔꿈치 높이 . . . . 굽힌 팔꿈치 손끝 수평길이 . . . . 발 너비 . . . . 발 직선길이 . . . . 손 직선길이 . . . . 머리 너비 . . . . 머리 수직길이 . . . . 엉덩이 너비 . . . . 눈동자 사이 너비 . . . . 위팔 길이 . . . . 앉은 어깨 높이 . . . . 앉은 눈 높이 . . . . 앉은 키 . . . . 앉은 무릎 높이 . . . . 앉은 넙다리 높이 . . . . 몸무게 . . . . (a) 천장 크레인 평가 (b) 헬리콥터 조종실 평가 그림 . dhs를 활용한 인간공학적 평가 사례 第卷, 第號, . . digital human simulation을 활용한 방사성 폐기물 처리장 주제어실의 인체공학적 평가 다. 설계대상인구는 방폐장 운전원 인력 소요계획을 감안하 여 ~ 대 남성으로 설정되었으며, 년 한국인 인체 측정자료(n = , ; size korea, )의 %를 수용할 수 있도록 명의 대표인체모델( th , th , th percentiles) 이 생성되었다. 또한, 본 연구는 평가에 추세변동을 고려하 기 위해 세 가지 측면(한국인 남성의 성장분, 국외 신장 성 장분 정보, 그리고 보수적 추정)을 반영한 th percentile 인체모델( 년 후 th percentile)이 추가로 생성되었다. 최근 년간( ~ 년) 한국인 남성의 신장은 그림 에 나타낸 것과 같이 . cm 성장한 것으로 파악되고 있 다. 한편, 시대적 성장분은 표 에 나타낸 것과 같이 국가별 로 경제성장 및 영양섭취 특성에 따라 차이가 있는 것으로 알려지고 있다(roche, ). 예를 들면, gnp 규모가 우 리나라( , 백만 달러)보다 약 . 배 큰 일본( , 백 만 달러)의 최근 년간 시대적 성장분은 . cm인 반면 우리나라는 동시기에 . cm 성장하였다. 마지막으로, 국내 신장 성장분 특성과 국외 신장 성장분 특성에 근간해 방폐 장 주제어실이 년 후에도 목표 수용률을 최대한 충족시킬 수 있도록 보수적인 시대적 성장분 추정값을 적용하였다. 가상인체모델은 정의된 대표인체모델의 인체크기 정보를 jack에 입력해 그림 과 같이 생성되었다. jack에서 가상 인체모델을 생성하기 위해서는 개 인체변수에 대한 크기 를 입력해야 하나, 한국인 인체측정자료는 그 중에서 개 인체변수에 대한 자료만을 제공하고 있다. 따라서, 본 연구 는 한국인 인체측정자료에 제공되어 있는 개 인체변수의 치수는 직접 입력하고, 나머지 개 인체변수(손 너비, 머리 길이, 엄지 손끝 길이)는 입력된 인체변수 값에 근간한 jack의 추정치를 사용하였다. . 평가 기준 자세 본 연구는 컴퓨터 작업 자세와 관련된 기존 연구를 참고 하여 dhs 평가를 위한 운전원 감시 자세를 표 과 같이 설정하였다. 기존 연구들은 컴퓨터 작업 자세에 대한 관찰 및 자세 분석을 통해 표 에 나타낸 것과 같은 컴퓨터 작업 에 대한 추천 자세를 제시하고 있다. 본 연구는 방폐장 주 제어실 감시 작업과 특성이 유사한 컴퓨터 작업에 대한 기 존 연구의 추천 자세를 참고하여 평가 기준 자세(그림 참 조)를 설정하였다. 표 을 예로 들면, 어깨 굽힘 동작에 대 한 컴퓨터 작업 추천 자세는 ~ °이며, 방폐장 평가 기 준 자세로 관련 추천 범위의 중간 값 °가 선정되었다. . 인간공학적 평가 기준 본 연구의 평가에는 표 와 같은 네 가지 인간공학적 평 가 기준이 고려되었으며, 주제어실 설계요소 별 평가 기준 은 해당 설계요소의 특성을 고려해 표 와 같이 설정되었 표 . secular trend of stature for different populations populations age* gender** secular trend per decade(cm) references italian n.s. n.s. . arcaleni ( ) american n.s. m . nasa ( ) portuguese m . padez and johnston ( ) pole m . bielicki and szklarska ( ) korean ~ m & f . size korea ( ) japanese ~ m & f . aist ( ) *n.s: not specified / **m: male, f: female 그림 . 한국인 ~ 대 남성의 신장 변화(size korea, ) 그림 . jack®을 이용해 생성된 가상인체모델 이백희 · 장윤 · 정기효 · 정일호 · 유희천 大韓人間工學會 다. 인간공학적 평가 기준은 기존 dhs 평가 연구들(박장운 외, ; bowman, ; nelson, )에서 활용된 자 세 안락도, 도달성, 시계성, 그리고 여유공간으로 결정되었다. 또한, 선정된 인간공학적 평가 기준은 평가 대상 설계요소 의 특성에 따라 선택적으로 적용되었다. 예를 들면, 표 는 운전원이 착석하는 console은 자세와 여유공간 측면에서 평가되며, 방폐장 관련 정보를 제공하는 ldp(large display panel)는 자세 안락도와 시계성 측면에서 분석됨을 보여 준다. 방폐장 주제어실의 설계 적합성 판단은 인간공학적 평가 결과의 nureg- 설계 지침(o'hara et al., ) 충 족 여부 분석을 통해 이루어졌다. nureg- 은 표 과 같이 원전에 사용되는 각종 설계요소에 대한 인간공학적 설계 지침을 제공하고 있다. 표 에 예시된 nureg- 지침에 따르면, console의 여유공간은 th percentile과 th percentile 운전원 착석 시 적절한 다리 움직임 공간을 제 공할 수 있도록 설계되어야 하며, ldp의 위치는 다양한 위 치에서 근무하는 모든 운전원들이 화면을 볼 수 있도록 결 정되어야 하고, lcd의 높이는 시야 범위 - ~ ° 내에 있도록 설계할 것을 추천한다. 본 연구는 nureg- 에 제공된 설계 지침을 적용하여 방폐장 주제어실의 설계 적합성을 평가하였다. 표 . 컴퓨터 작업 자세와 방폐장 주제어실 평가 기준 자세 신체부위 관절 동작 추천 자세() 참고문헌 추천 자세 범위() 기준 자세() ~ grandjean et al.( ) neck * ventral flexion(+) /dorsal flexion(-) . ~ 김철중 외( ) . ~ ~ chaffin and andersson( ) ansi/hfes( ) geandjean( ) flexion(+) /extension(-) salvendy( ) ~ ~ chaffin and andersson( ) shoulder abduction(+) /adduction(-) ~ salvendy( ) ~ ~ cushman( ); grandjean et al.( ); miller and suther( ); weber et al.( ) ansi/hfes( ) salvendy( ) elbow flexion(+) ~ grandjean et al.( ) ~ wrist flexion(+) /extension(-) - ~ hedge el al.( ); keir et al.( ); rempel and horie( ); weiss et al.( ) - ~ chaffin and andersson( ) geandjean( ) ~ salvendy( ) trunk ** flexion(+) ansi/hfes( ) ~ hip ** flexion(+) ansi/hfes( ) knee ** flexion(+) ansi/hfes( ) * 목뒷점(cervical)을 축으로 하여 목뒷점을 지나는 수직선과 목뒷점에서 이주점(tragion)을 잇는 선이 이루는 각도 ** 횡단면(transverse plane)과 신체부위가 이루는 각도 (a) 측면 착석 자세 (b) 정면 착석 자세 그림 . 방폐장 주제어실 평가 기준 자세 第卷, 第號, . . digital human simulation을 활용한 방사성 폐기물 처리장 주제어실의 인체공학적 평가 . 평가 사례 본 연구의 평가 결과 중 방폐장 주제어실의 대표적인 세 가지 설계요소(console, ldp, lcd)에 대한 인간공학적 적합성 평가 사례를 소개한다. 먼저, console의 최소여유 공간은 가상인체모델 명에 대해 . ~ cm로 분석되어 nureg- 의 설계 기준을 만족하는 것으로 파악되었 다. 최소여유공간 크기는 다리와 console간의 최단 거리로 계산되었으며, 가상인체모델의 인체크기가 클수록 감소한다. 예를 들면, 그림 는 th percentile 인체모델에 대한 최 소여유공간 크기는 . cm이고, th percentile 인체모델에 대한 최소여유공간 크기는 . cm인 것을 보여준다. lcd 수직 시야 범위는 nureg- 의 설계 기준을 표 . 인간공학적 평가 기준 평가 기준 설명 자세 안락도 (postural comfort) 운전원이 감시 작업 수행 시 편안한 자세 를 유지하는 정도 도달성(reachability) 운전원이 주제어실 설계요소에 용이하게 도달할 수 있는 정도 시계성(visibility) 운전원이 주제어실 설계요소를 편안하게 볼 수 있는 정도 여유공간(clearance) 운전원의 신체와 설계요소 간의 여유공간 정도 표 . 설계요소와 인간공학적 평가 기준 연관관계 분석 예 순번 설계요소 자세 안락도 도달성 시계성 여유 공간 console  ×   ldp  ×  × lcd  ×  × security access control sub-console   × × cctv master control rack   × × main fire control panel   × × printers   × × 표 . 인간공학적 평가 기준 평가 대상 평가 기준 권장 지침 평가 적용 percentile console clearance should provide adequate height, depth, and knee clearance for the th to th percentile adults(p. , . . - ) th & th permit operators at the consoles full view of all display panels(p. , . . . - ) be able to view information from multiple locations(p. , . . - ) visibility horizontal viewing angle requirement: acceptable limit is within ° from the centerline of each display(p. , . . - , . . - ) th ~ th centrally located in the control room(p. ) location viewing distance - minimum: not closer to any observer than half the display width or height, which is greater(p. , . . - ) - maximum: able to resolve all important display detail at the maximum viewing position(p. , . . - ) th ~ th character height (cm) = . ×d×(ma) / (p. , . . - ) minimum of minutes of arc (ma): ' recommended ma: '~ ' ldp character size character height-to-width ratio should be between : . to : . (p. , . . - ) th ~ th vertical viewing angle requirement: not more than ° above and ° below the user's horizontal los(p. , . . - ) lcd visibility viewing distance: ~ cm with ~ cm preferred(p. , . . - ) th ~ th 그림 . console의 다리 여유공간 분석 결과 이백희 · 장윤 · 정기효 · 정일호 · 유희천 大韓人間工學會 만족하는 것으로 분석되었다. lcd 수직 시야 범위는 그림 에 나타낸 것과 같이 평가 기준 자세에서 가상인체모델이 lcd를 바라보는 시야 각으로 계산되었다. 그림 을 예로 들면, lcd 수직 시야 범위는 th percentile 가상인체모 델의 경우 - ~ °, th percentile 가상인체모델의 경우 - ~ - °로 파악되어, nureg- 의 설계 기준인 - ~ °를 만족하는 것으로 분석되었다. ldp의 수직 시야는 그림 에 나타낸 것과 같이 수평 시선보다 높게 형성되어 장시간 감시 작업을 수행할 경우 자세가 불편할 수 있는 것으로 나타났다. ldp 수직 시야 범위는 lcd를 넘어 cm 높이에 설치된 ldp를 볼 수 있는 시야 각으로 계산되었다. 그림 .a를 예로 들면, th percentile 가상인체모델의 ldp 수직 시야 각은 ~ °로 서, th percentile 가상인체모델이 lcd 너머로 ldp를 적 합하게 볼 수 있는 것으로 나타났다. 가상인체모델들에 대한 ldp 수직 시야 범위는 - ~ ° 로 파악되었으며, 이는 전체 ldp 화면을 볼 수 있어야 한 다는 nureg- 의 설계 기준을 만족한다. 그러나, ldp 시야 각은 수평 시선보다 높게 형성되어 기존 문헌의 표시장 치 권장 시야 각도 범위(grandjean et al., : - ~ - °; kim et al., : - ~ - °; o'hara et al., : - ~ °)를 벗어나는 것으로 나타나 장시간 ldp 감시 작업을 수행할 경우 신체 불편 및 피로를 초래할 수 있는 것으로 나타났다. ldp 높이를 낮추어 수직 시야 각을 개선하기 위해서는 lcd 높이를 함께 낮춰야 하는 것으로 분석되었다. ldp 수직 시야는 ldp의 높이를 낮추어 개선될 수 있으나, 그 림 에 나타낸 것과 같이 현행 설계에서 ldp 높이를 낮출 경우 lcd에 의한 시야간섭이 발생할 수 있다. 이러한 lcd 에 의한 시야 간섭은 그림 에 나타낸 것과 같이 console 에 lcd 하단부를 삽입하는 홈을 설치함으로써 효율적으로 제거될 수 있는 것으로 파악되었다. 깊이 cm인 lcd 설 치 홈 구비를 통해 ldp 수직 높이를 cm로 낮출 경우, 그림 과 같이 ldp 수직 시야 범위는 - ~ °로 개선되 는 것으로 파악되었다. 본 연구에서 개선된 ldp 시야 범 위는 기존 시야 범위(- ~ °)보다 낮아진 것으로 분석되 었다. 예를 들면, th percentile 가상인체모델에 대한 ldp 의 시야 범위는 기존 ~ °에서 ~ °로 개선되었다. 한 편, lcd 설치 홈을 구비할 경우 lcd 수직 시야 범위는 (a) th percentile (b) th percentile (c) th percentile (d) th percentile 그림 . lcd 수직 시야 범위 그림 . ldp와 lcd의 시계성 연관관계 (a) lcd 설치 홈 (b) lcd 설치 모습 그림 . console의 lcd 설치 홈 (a) th percentile (b) th percentile (c) th percentile (d) th percentile 그림 . ldp 수직 시야 범위 第卷, 第號, . . digital human simulation을 활용한 방사성 폐기물 처리장 주제어실의 인체공학적 평가 - ~ - . °로 나타나 nureg- 의 설계 기준(- ~ °)을 만족하는 것으로 파악되었다. ldp의 수평 시야 범위는 nureg- 에 명시된 ldp 중앙을 기준으로 좌우 수평 시야 각 ° 내의 설계 지침을 만족하는 것으로 분석되었다. 방폐장 주제어실은 그림 에 나타낸 것과 같이 한 명의 운전원(좌측 개 console 담당) 과 한 명의 감독관(우측 개 console 담당)에 의해 운영 될 계획이다. 운전원과 감독관 모두에 대해 ldp 수평 시 야 범위는 ldp 중앙을 바라보는 시선을 기준으로 ldp의 좌/우 모서리를 바라보는 시선의 사이 각도로 계산되었다. 운전원의 수평 시야 범위는 console의 착석 위치에 따라 ~ °인 것으로 나타났고, 감독관의 수평 시야 범위는 ~ °로 파악되었다. . 토 의 본 연구는 jack을 활용하여 방폐장 주제어실의 개념 설 계에 대한 인간공학적 평가와 nureg- 설계 기준 충족 여부를 분석하였다. 방폐장 주제어실의 설계 적합성은 네 가지 인간공학적 측면(자세 안락도, 도달성, 시계성, 그 리고 여유공간)에서 nureg- 에서 제시된 원전 관련 설계 지침과 기타 인간공학 문헌에서 제시된 지침의 충족 여부를 종합적으로 고려하여 분석되었다. 또한, dhs 평가 를 통해 설계 개선이 요구되는 것으로 파악된 설계 항목에 대해 설계 개선 방안을 개발하고 개선 효과를 분석하였다. 본 연구를 통해 평가 및 개선된 방폐장 주제어실 예비 설계 는 방폐장 주제어실 구축 시 유용하게 활용될 수 있을 것 이다. 본 연구의 평가에는 한국인 인체크기 정보와 추세변동을 적용하여 생성된 가상인체모델들이 활용되었다. 대표인체 모델은 방폐장 주제어실 운전원의 인구학적 특성을 고려하 여 년 size korea 인체측정자료의 ~ 대 남성의 %를 수용하는 명( th ~ th percentiles)으로 정의되 었다. 또한, 본 연구는 년부터 년까지의 한국인 신장 정보에 근간하여 향후 년의 추세적 성장을 반영한 th percentile 인체모델을 추가로 선정하여 분석하였다. 본 연구는 가상인체모델 생성 시 한국인 인체측정자료에 누락된 개 인체변수(손 너비, 머리 길이, 엄지 손끝 길이) 에 대해 jack에서 제공하는 추정치를 사용하였으나, 이들 변수들은 다른 인체변수들과 통계적 연관관계가 높은 것으 로 분석되었다. jack은 개 인체변수에 대한 수치를 사용 하여 가상인체모델을 생성하는데, 입력되지 않은 인체변수 는 자동으로 추정하게 된다. 본 연구에서는 사후 분석(post hoc analysis)으로 us army 인체측정자료(gordon et al., )를 이용하여 누락된 개의 인체변수와 나머지 인체 변수들에 대해 stepwise regression 분석을 수행한 결과 (pin = . , pout = . ), 누락된 개의 인체변수의 회귀식 들이 높은 수정회귀계수(adj. r = %, 손 너비; %, 머 리 길이; %, 엄지 손끝 길이)를 가지는 것으로 파악되 었다. 본 연구는 기존 연구에서 제시한 computer workstation 작업 자세에 근간해 평가 기준 자세를 설정하였다. 그러나, 본 연구의 방폐장 주제어실은 두 개의 표시장치(lcd와 ldp)가 설치되어 있어 computer workstation과는 작업 자세가 상이할 수 있다. 따라서, 방폐장 주제어실에 대한 보 다 적합한 평가를 위해서는 lcd와 ldp를 사용하는 작업 특성을 고려한 평가 기준 자세의 설정이 필요하다. 참고 문헌 구진영, 장통일, 이중근, 이용희. 국내 원자력발전소 주제어실의 인 (a) th percentile (b) th percentile (c) th percentile (d) th percentile 그림 . 개선된 ldp의 수직 시야 범위 (a) 운전원 (b) 감독관 그림 . ldp 수평 시야 범위 이백희 · 장윤 · 정기효 · 정일호 · 유희천 大韓人間工學會 간공학적 설계 기준 비교 검토. 대한인간공학회 추계학 술대회지, . 김철중, 이남식, 김진호, 박세진, 박수찬, 박재회, 조현모, 이윤우, 이회윤. vdt workstation의 인간공학적 설계 및 평가기술에 관한 연구. 한국표준과학연구원, kriss- - -ir, . 박장운, 정기효, 이원섭, 강병길, 이정효, 엄주호, 박세권, 유희천. digital human simulation을 통한 인간공학적 헬리콥터 조종실 설계 평가 방법 개발. 대한인간공학회 춘계학술대회지. 유희천. digital human model simulation for ergonomic design of tangible products and workplaces. 대한인간공학회 추계학술대회지, . 이상기, 이민정, 조영석, 권오채, 박정철, 유희천, 한성호. digital human simulation을 통한 overhead crane의 인간공학적 설계 및 평가. 대한인간공학회/ 한국감성과학회 춘계학술대회 및 제 회 한일 공동 인간공학 심포지움, - , . 정기효, 이원섭, 박장운, 강병길, 엄주호, 박세권, 유희천. 한국형 헬리콥터 조종실의 인간공학적 설계 및 평가. 제 회 지상 무기학술대회, . 한국방사성 폐기물관리공단. 중 · 저준위 방사성 폐기물의 정의. retrieved august , from http://www.krmc.or.kr., a. 한국방사성 폐기물관리공단. 중 · 저준위 월성원자력환경관리센터 사업개요. retrieved august , from http://www.krmc.or.kr, b. ansi/hfes. human factors engineering of computer workstations. california, usa: human factors and ergonomics society, . arcaleni, e., secular trend and regional differences in the stature of italians, - . economics and human biology, , - , . bielicki, a. and szklarska, a., secular trends in stature in poland: national and social class-specific. annals of human biology, ( ), - , . bowman d., using digital human modeling in a virtual heavy vehicle development environment. in chaffin, d. b. (ed.), digital human modeling for vehicle and workplace design. warrendale, pa: sae international, . chaffin, d. b., improving digital human modeling for proactive ergonomics in design. ergonomics, ( ), - , . chaffin, d. b., digital human modeling for vehicle and workplace design. pennsylvania, usa: sae, . chaffin, d. b. and andersson, g., occupational biomechanics ( nded.). new york, usa: wileyinterscience, . gordon, c. c., bradtmiller, b., churchill, t., clauser, c., mcconville, j., tebbetts, i. and walker, r., anthropometric survey of us army personnel: methods and summary statistics (technical report natick/tr- / ). us army natick research center: natick, ma, . grandjean, e., ergonomics in computerized offices. philadelphia, usa: taylor & francis, . grandjean, e., hunting, w. and pidermann, m., vdt workstation design: preferred settings and their effects. human factors, , - , . hedge, a. and powers, j. a.. wrist postures while keyboarding: effects of a negative slope keyboard system and full motion forearm supports. ergonomics, , - , . hwang, s.-l., liang, s.-f.m.b, liu, t.-y.y., yang, y.-j., chen, p.-y., chuang, c.-f., evaluation of human factors in interface design in main control rooms. nuclear engineering and design, , - , . nasa., man-system integration standards. retrieved september , from http://msis.jsc.nasa.gov/volume .htm, . national institute of advanced industrial science and technology (aist). secular change in japan. retrieved january , , from http:// www.dh.aist.go.jp/research/centered/anthropometry/secular.php.en, . nelson, c., anthropometric analyses of crew interfaces and component accessibility for the international space station. in chaffin, d. b. (ed.), digital human modeling for vehicle and workplace design. warrendale, pa: sae international, . o'hara, j. m., brown, w. s., lewis, p. m. and persensky, j. j., human- system interface design review guidelines (dc - ). u.s. nuclear regulatory commission, office of nuclear regulatory research, . padez, c. and johnston, f., secular trends in male adult height - in relation to place of residence and parent's educational level in portugal. annals of human biology, ( ), - , . roche, a. f., executive summary of workshop to consider secular trends and possible pooling of data in relation to the revision of the nchs growth charts. division of health examination statistics, national center for health statistics, hyattsville, maryland, . size korea. 한국인 인체측정 통계자료. retrieved september , from http://sizekorea.kats.go.kr, . ◐ 저자 소개 ◑  이 백 희  x won@postech.ac.kr 인하대학교 산업공학과 학사 현 재: 포항공과대학교 산업경영공학과 석사과정 관심분야: 디지털 환경 기반 인간공학적 제품 설계 및 평가, 자동차 인간공학, 사용자 인터페이스 설계  장 윤  thursday@postech.ac.kr 한동대학교 산업정보디자인학부 학사 현 재: 포항공과대학교 산업경영공학과 석사과정 관심분야: 인간공학적 제품 설계, 차원 시각화, 정보 디자인  정 기 효  khjung@postech.ac.kr 포항공과대학교 산업경영공학과 박사 현 재: pennsylvania state university 산업공학과 post-doc 관심분야: 디지털 환경 기반 인간공학적 제품 설계 및 평가, 사용자 중심 제품 설계, 사용성 평가, 직업성 근골격계질환 예방 및 통제 第卷, 第號, . . digital human simulation을 활용한 방사성 폐기물 처리장 주제어실의 인체공학적 평가  정 일 호  wgo ugo@hec.co.kr 경희대학교 멀티미디어시스템공학과 석사 현 재: 현대엔지니어링 원자력부 연구원 관심분야: 주제어실 설계, mcb 설계, 원자력 인간공학  유 희 천  hcyou@postech.ac.kr pennsylvania state university 산업공학과 박사 현 재: 포항공과대학교 산업경영공학과 부교수 관심분야: 인간공학적 제품설계 기술, 사용자 중심의 제품설계, 가상 환경 기반 인간공학적 제품 설계 및 평가, 사용성 공학, 근골격계질환 예방 및 통제 논 문 접 수 일 (date received) : 년 월 일 논 문 수 정 일 (date revised) : 년 월 일 논문게재승인일 (date accepted) : 년 월 일 data management plan exemplar data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca abstract text-based data collected from statistics canada was used to create a union list of born-digital products from the canadian census of population, starting with the census. this union list indicates where the census files are located in canada (for example, the university of toronto data library) and what they contain. the data is stored in a database and accessible through an online search engine (see: search for aggregated data files from canadian censuses url: http://mdc.lib.uwo.ca/census/pubsearch.htm) principal investigators: vincent gray (western university) alexandra cooper (queen’s university) administrative details project name: historical canadian census data principal investigator / researcher: vincent gray (western university); alexandra cooper (queen’s university) project data contact: vince: vince@uwo.ca; alex: coopera@queensu.ca description: this project will create a bilingual union list of born-digital products from the canadian census of population, starting with the census. the database will be accessible through an online search page to allow users to identify appropriate files to use at the required level of geography. it will also have an online editing function to allow institutions to supplement the database with local holdings information. mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ http://mdc.lib.uwo.ca/census/pubsearch.htm http://mdc.lib.uwo.ca/census/pubsearch.htm data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca data collection what types of data will you collect, create, link to, acquire and/or record? text-based data are collected from statistics canada, falling under the statistics canada open license. what file formats will your data be collected in? will these formats allow for data re-use, sharing and long-term access to the data? the data will be collected in an inmagic v. database from which non-proprietary file-formats, including ascii, html and/or xhtml text files, may be extracted. inmagic is a content management system, a type of database used to manage large amounts of content, such as documents, images, and more. what conventions and procedures will you use to structure, name and version- control your files to help you and others better understand how your data are organized? as records are created and/or edited, they will be time-stamped with changes. the name of the person making the changes is also requested. a log file is kept to record information about database changes. documentation and metadata what documentation will be needed for the data to be read and interpreted correctly in the future? four different pieces of documentation will be needed. . a description of the project, which will include a description of the process undertaken to identify the various historical census data files; . a description of the field structure in inmagic (e.g., whether a field is required, uses a controlled vocabulary, is repeatable, etc.); . the data entry instructions to be followed in populating the database; and mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca . lists showing the possible values of the various controlled-vocabulary fields, and of the substitution lists used to automatically translate english to french text and vice versa within the paired controlled-vocabulary fields. how will you make sure that documentation is created or captured consistently throughout your project? . a working document will be created and revised as new content is added to the . database. . the field structure is stored within inmagic and may be printed out as a text file. . data entry instructions are included on the web-based data entry form within inmagic and may be printed out as a text file. . these lists are stored within inmagic and may be printed out as text files. if you are using a metadata standard and/or tools to document and describe your data, please list here. it would be possible to enhance the records by including complete documentation as per the data documentation initiative. however, that is not yet within the purview of this project. storage and backup what are the anticipated storage requirements for your project, in terms of storage space (in megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes, etc.) and the length of time you will be storing it? currently, the inmagic database has approximately records and occupies approximately . mb across proprietary format files. anticipating that the database will grow in size to approximately , records, it might be anticipated to grow to no more than mb. additionally, regular file dumps in ascii format will be performed, to ensure that the contents of the database will be transportable to other database systems or used by other interfaces: the records in the database currently occupy about k per record in delimited format, and compress from , k to k. at their largest, each backup file might be expected to require . mb in compressed format. mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca there is no anticipated timeline on retiring this project: space requirements would continue to grow as the project adds other census years. these additional storage requirements have been accounted for by it service, therefore ensuring that future space needs will be met. how and where will your data be stored and backed up during your research project? the data are stored on western university servers which are connected to automated backup systems. how will the research team and other collaborators access, modify, and contribute data throughout the project? access to the database will be either directly though the inmagic interface for batch loading (v. gray), or through the web-based interface (a. cooper and other contributors). access to editing the database will be restricted. contributors will be given a user id and password to allow for editing. preservation where will you deposit your data for long-term preservation and access at the end of your research project? the project does not have a foreseeable end date. an ascii delimited (and potentially a xhtml) version of the database will be created and could be stored on scholars portal dataverse, a data repository which assigns dois to datasets, and supports preservation, discovery, citations, and data usage metrics. however, a consultation with the university’s research data management librarian will help identify other possible repository options for our research data. mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca indicate how you will ensure your data is preservation ready. consider preservation-friendly file formats, ensuring file integrity, anonymization and de-identification, inclusion of supporting documentation. preservation format copies of the database will be stored in ascii delimited format. as new versions are created, they will be compared to previous versions to ensure that the previous versions contain the same data for unmodified records as the new. the required documentation files will be saved on the preservation site along with the delimited files. sharing and reuse what data will you be sharing and in what form? (e.g. raw, processed, analyzed, final). the raw data (i.e., bibliographic and holdings information) will be shared. have you considered what type of end-user license to include with your data? creative commons attribution-sharealike . . what steps will be taken to help the research community know that your data exists? to date, presentations have been made at regional data liberation initiative training sessions for the ontario, western canada, and atlantic regions, and to statistics canada (data rescue and recovery update url: https://cudo.carleton.ca/dli-training/ ). it is hoped that a presentation to the quebec region will also be possible. finally, an article may be written and submitted to statistics canada for inclusion in its dli newsletter and/or to an academic library journal to highlight the existence of the tool. depending on the repository that the data is deposited in, there may be additional resources to notify the community. if deposited in dataverse, a persistent digital object identifier (doi) will be minted for the dataset providing a persistent identifier and improving chances of discoverability. mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ https://cudo.carleton.ca/dli-training/ https://cudo.carleton.ca/dli-training/ data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca responsibilities and resources identify who will be responsible for managing this project's data during and after the project and the major data management tasks for which they will be responsible. vincent gray: batch uploading of records in french and english, editing records, performing routine maintenance on the inmagic database; extracting ascii files; creating documentation; migration to preservation platform alexandra cooper: creating and editing records; creating documentation; migration to preservation platform how will responsibilities for managing data activities be handled if substantive changes happen in the personnel overseeing the project's data, including a change of principal investigator? automated processes will be established to regularly extract preservation files to disk that can be uploaded. the ontario data community (part of ocul) will oversee the project if/when there is a change in principal investigators. what resources will you require to implement your data management plan? what do you estimate the overall cost for data management to be? storage space on a web-enabled server. the entire project would fit onto a -gb usb key with space to spare or may be written at intervals to dvd. minimal long-term costs would be expected as long as western maintains a web based inmagic service: should this change, a new platform would need to be selected and created. mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ data management plan exemplar # : digital humanities and secondary data historical canadian census data attribution-noncommercial-sharealike . international (cc by-nc-sa . ) portage network | portage@carl-abrc.ca | portagenetwork.ca ethics and legal compliance if your research project includes sensitive data, how will you ensure that it is securely managed and accessible only to approved members of the project? no sensitive data are included in this project: it will consist solely of pointers to files of data which were released for public use by statistics canada. if applicable, what strategies will you undertake to address secondary uses of sensitive data? not applicable. how will you manage legal, ethical, and intellectual property issues? the data files recorded in the database are in the public domain, subject to licensing: the database itself will not contain these data. this document was generated by dmp assistant (https://assistant.portagenetwork.ca) mailto:portage@carl-abrc.ca https://portagenetwork.ca/ https://assistant.portagenetwork.ca/ abstract principal investigators: administrative details principal investigator / researcher: project data contact: description: data collection what types of data will you collect, create, link to, acquire and/or record? what file formats will your data be collected in? will these formats allow for data re-use, sharing and long-term access to the data? documentation and metadata what documentation will be needed for the data to be read and interpreted correctly in the future? how will you make sure that documentation is created or captured consistently throughout your project? if you are using a metadata standard and/or tools to document and describe your data, please list here. storage and backup what are the anticipated storage requirements for your project, in terms of storage space (in megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes, etc.) and the length of time you will be storing it? how and where will your data be stored and backed up during your research project? how will the research team and other collaborators access, modify, and contribute data throughout the project? preservation where will you deposit your data for long-term preservation and access at the end of your research project? indicate how you will ensure your data is preservation ready. consider preservation-friendly file formats, ensuring file integrity, anonymization and de-identification, inclusion of supporting documentation. sharing and reuse what data will you be sharing and in what form? (e.g. raw, processed, analyzed, final). have you considered what type of end-user license to include with your data? what steps will be taken to help the research community know that your data exists? responsibilities and resources identify who will be responsible for managing this project's data during and after the project and the major data management tasks for which they will be responsible. how will responsibilities for managing data activities be handled if substantive changes happen in the personnel overseeing the project's data, including a change of principal investigator? what resources will you require to implement your data management plan? what do you estimate the overall cost for data management to be? ethics and legal compliance if your research project includes sensitive data, how will you ensure that it is securely managed and accessible only to approved members of the project? if applicable, what strategies will you undertake to address secondary uses of sensitive data? how will you manage legal, ethical, and intellectual property issues? manuscript_for_virtual_reality.hyper .dvi fatigue evaluation in maintenance and assembly operations by digital human simulation liang ma, damien chablat, fouad bennis, wei zhang, bo hu, françois guillaume to cite this version: liang ma, damien chablat, fouad bennis, wei zhang, bo hu, et al.. fatigue evaluation in maintenance and assembly operations by digital human simulation. virtual reality, springer verlag, , ( ), pp. - . < . /s - - - >. hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on jun hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. core metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by hal-univ-nantes https://core.ac.uk/display/ ?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- noname manuscript no. (will be inserted by the editor) fatigue evaluation in maintenance and assembly operations by digital human simulation liang ma · damien chablat · fouad bennis · wei zhang · bo hu · françois guillaume abstract virtual human techniques have been used a lot in industrial design in order to consider human factors and er- gonomics as early as possible. the physical status (the phys- ical capacity of virtual human) has been mostly treated as invariable in the current available human simulation tools, while indeed the physical capacity varies along time in an operation and the change of the physical capacity depends on the history of the work as well. virtual human status is proposed in this paper in order to assess the difficulty of manual handling operations, especially from the physi- cal perspective. the decrease of the physical capacity be- fore and after an operation is used as an index to indicate the work difficulty. the reduction of physical strength is simulated in a theoretical approach on the basis of a fa- tigue model in which fatigue resistances of different mus- cle groups were regressed from existing maximum en- durance time (met) models. a framework based on digi- tal human modeling technique is established to realize the comparison of physical status. an assembly case in airplane assembly is simulated and analyzed under the framework. the endurance time and the decrease of the joint moment strengths are simulated. the experimental result in simu- liang ma · damien chablat · fouad bennis institut de recherche en communications et cybernétique de nantes, umr du cnrs, école centrale de nantes, irccyn - , rue de la noë - bp - nantes cedex , france tel.:+ - fax: + - e-mail: {liang.ma, damien.chablat, fouad.bennis}@irccyn.ec-nantes.fr wei zhang · bo hu department of industrial engineering, tsinghua university, , beijing, p.r.china e-mail: zhangwei@tsinghua.edu.cn, b-hu @mails.tsinghua.edu.cn françois guillaume eads innovation works, , rue pasteur - bp , suresnes cedex - france e-mail: francois.guillaume@eads.net lated operations under laboratory conditions confirms the feasibility of the theoretical approach. keywords virtual human simulation · muscle fatigue model · fatigue resistance · physical fatigue evaluation · human status introduction although automation techniques have played a very impor- tant role in industry, there are still lots of operations re- quiring manual handling operations thanks to the flexibility and the dexterity of human. some of these manual handling operations deal with relative heavy physical loads, which might result in physical fatigue in the muscles and joints, and further generate potential risks for musculoskeletal dis- orders (msds) (li and buckle, ). in order to improve the work design, digital human mod- eling (dhm) technique has been used more and more in in- dustry taking human as the center of the work design system (chaffin, , ), since it benefits the validation of the workspace design, the assessment of the accessibility of an assembly design, the reduction of the production cost, and the reduction of the physical risks as well. several commercial available dhm tools have already been developed and integrated into computer aided design (cad) tools, such as jack (badler et al, ), dsspp (chaffin et al, ), ramsis (bubb et al, ), anybody (damsgaard et al, ), santost m (vsr research group, ), etc. in general, the virtual human in those tools is modeled with a large number of degrees of freedom (dof) to represent the joint mobility, create the cinematic chain of human, and complete the skeleton structure of human. meanwhile, the graphical appearance of virtual human is realized by bone, muscle, skin, and cloth models from the interior to the exterior, from simple stick models to compli- cated d mesh models. normally, biomechanical database and anthropometry database are often set up to determine virtual human’s dimensional and physical properties. the main functions of the virtual human simulation tools are posture analysis and posture prediction. these tools are capable of determining the workspace of virtual human (yang et al, ), assessing the visibility and accessibility of an operation (chedmail et al, ), evaluating postures (bubb et al, ), etc. conventional motion time methods (mtm) and posture analysis techniques can be integrated into vir- tual human simulation systems to assess the work efficiency (hou et al, ). from the physical aspect, the moment load of each joint (e.g., dsspp) and even the force of each individual muscle (e.g., anybody) can be determined, and the posture is predictable for reach operations (yang et al, ) based on inverse kinematics and optimization meth- ods. overall, the human motion can be simulated and an- alyzed based on the workspace information, virtual human strength information, and other aspects. however, there are still several limitations in the existing virtual human simula- tion tools. there is no integration of physical fatigue model in most of the human simulation tools. the physical capacity is of- ten initialized as constant. for example, the joint strength is assigned as joint maximum moment strength in dsspp, and the strength of each muscle is set proportional to its physiological cross section area (psca) in anybody. the physical capacity keeps constant in the simulation, and the fatigue effect along time is not considered enough. however, the change of the physical status can be experienced every- day by everyone, and different working procedures generate different fatigue effects. furthermore, it has been reported that the motion strategy depends on the physical status, and different strategies were taken under fatigue and non-fatigue conditions (chen, ; fuller et al, ). therefore, it is necessary to create a virtual human model with a variable physical status for the simulation. some fatigue models have been incorporated into some virtual human tools to predict the variable physical strength. for example, wexler’s fatigue model (ding et al, ) has been integrated into santost m (vignes, ), and giat’s fa- tigue model (giat et al, ) has been integrated based on hill’s muscle model (hill, ) in the computer simulation by komura et al ( ). however, either the muscle fatigue model has too many variables for ergonomic applications (e.g. wexler’s model), or there is no confidential physiolog- ical principle for the fatigue decay term (xia and frey law, ) in the previous studies. it is necessary to find a simple fatigue model interpretable in muscle physiological mecha- nism for ergonomics applications. in addition, some assessments in those tools provide in- dexes generated by traditional evaluation methods (e.g., rapid upper limb assessment (rula)). due to the intermittent record- ing procedures of the conventional posture analysis meth- ods, the evaluation result cannot analyze the fatigue effect in details. in this case, a new fatigue evaluation tool should be developed and integrated into virtual human simulation. in order to assess the variable human status, a prototype of a digital human modeling and simulation tool developed in opengl is presented in this paper. this human model- ing tool is under a virtual environment framework involving variable physical status on the basis of a fatigue model. the structure of the paper is as follows. first, a vir- tual human model is introduced into the framework for pos- ture analysis based on kinematic, dynamic, biomechanical, and graphical modeling. second, the framework is presented with a new definition called human status. third, the fatigue model and fatigue resistance for different muscle groups are introduced. at last, an application case european aeronau- tic defence & space (eads) company is assessed using this prototype tool under the framework with experimental validation. digital human modeling . kinematic modeling of virtual human in this study, the human body is modeled kinematically as a series of revolute joints. the modified denavit-hartenberg (modified dh) notation system (khalil and dombre, ) is used to describe the movement flexibility of each joint. according to the joint function, one natural joint can be de- composed into to revolute joints. each revolute joint has its rotational joint coordinate, labeled as qi, with joint limits: the upper limit qui and the lower limit q l i . a general coordi- nate q = [q ,q ,...,qn] is defined to represent the kinematic chain of the skeleton. the human body is geometrically modeled by rev- olute joints to represent the main movement of the human body in fig. . the posture, velocity, and acceleration are expressed by the general coordinates q, q̇, and q̈. it is fea- sible to carry out the kinematic analysis of the virtual hu- man based on this kinematic model. by implementing in- verse kinematic algorithms, it is able to predict the posture and trajectory of the human, particularly for the end effec- tors (e.g., the hands). all the parameters for modeling the virtual human are listed in table . [xr,yr,zr] is the carte- sian coordinates of the root point (the geometrical center of the pelvis) in the coordinates defined by x y z . the geometrical parameters of the limb are required in order to accomplish the kinematic modeling. such informa- tion can be obtained from anthropometry database in the lit- erature. the dimensional information can also be used for the dynamic model of the virtual human. the lengths of dif- ferent segments can be calculated as a proportion of body stature h in table . table geometric modeling parameters of the overall human body j a( j) u j σ j γ j b j α j d j q j r j qini zr − π xr θ yr π θ π π θ π π θ rlb − π θ π θ rub π π θ π π θ − π dub θ − ws − π θ − π − π θ −rua − π − π θ π θ − π dub θ ws − π θ − π − π θ −rua − π − π θ π θ − π − π θ − ww − π − π θ − π − π θ −rul − π − π θ − π −dll θ − π − π θ ww − π − π θ − π − π θ −rul − π − π θ − π −dll θ table body segment lengths as a proportion of body stature (chaffin et al, ; tilley and dreyfuss, ) symbol segment length rua upper arm . h rla forearm . h rh hand . h rul thigh . h dll shank . h ws shoulder width . h ww waist width . h dub, lub torso length (l -l ) . h rub torso length (l -t ) . h . dynamic modeling of virtual human necessary dynamic parameters for each body segment in- clude: gravity center, mass, moment of inertia about the grav- ity center, etc. according to the percentage distribution of total body weight for different segments (chaffin et al, ), the weights of different segments can be calculated using ta- ble . it is feasible to calculate other necessary dynamic infor- mation with simplification of the segment shape. for limbs, the shape is simplified as a cylinder, head as a ball, and torso as a cube. the moment of inertia can be further determined based on the assumption of uniform density distribution. for table percentage distribution of total body weight according to dif- ferent segmentation plans (chaffin et al, ) grouped segments, individual segments % of total body weight % of grouped-segments weight head and neck= . % head= . % neck= . % torso= % thorax= . % lumbar= . % pelvis= . % total arm= . % upper arm= . % forearm= . % hand= . % total leg= . % thigh= . % thigh= . % shank= . % foot= . % the virtual human system, once all the dynamic parameters are known, it is possible to calculate the torques and forces at each joint following newton-euler method (khalil and dombre, ). . biomechanical modeling of virtual human the biomechanical properties of the musculoskeletal system should also be modeled for virtual human simulation. from fig. geometrical modeling of virtual human the physical aspect, the skeleton structure, muscle, and joint are the main biomechanical components in a human. in our study, only the joint moment strengths and joint movement ranges are used for the fatigue evaluation. as mentioned before, with correct kinematic and dy- namic models, it is possible to calculate torques and forces in joints with an acceptable precision. although biomechan- ical properties of muscles are reachable and different op- timization methods have been developed in the literature, the determination of the individual muscle force is still very complex and not as precise as that of joint torque (xia and frey law, ). since there are several muscles attached around a joint, it creates an mathematical underdetermined problem for force calculation in muscle level. in addition, each individual muscle has different muscle fiber compo- sitions, different levers of force, and furthermore different muscle coordination mechanisms, and the complexity of the problem will be increased dramatically in muscle level. there- fore, in our system, only the joint moment strength is taken to demonstrate the fatigue model. the joint torque capacity is the overall performance of muscles attached around the joint, and it depends on the pos- ture and the rotation speed of joint (anderson et al, ). when a heavy load is handled in a manual operation, the ac- tion speed is relatively small, and it is almost equivalent to static cases. the influence from speed can be neglected, so only posture is considered. in this situation, the joint strength can be determined according to strength models in chaffin et al ( ). the joint strength is measured in torque and modeled as a function of joint flexion angles. an example of joint strength is given in fig. . the shoulder flexion an- gle and the elbow flexion angle are used to determine the profile of the male adult elbow joint strength. the d mesh surfaces represent the elbow joint strengths for % popula- tion. for the th percentile, the elbow joint strength varies from to n according to the joint positions. x . percentile y z x percentile y z x percentile y z x percentile y z x . percentile y z x axis - flexion angle [deg] of shoulder α s y axis - flexion angle of elbow[deg] α e z axis - elbow joint strength [nm] fig. elbow static strength depending on the human elbow and shoul- der joint position, αs, αe [deg] . graphical modeling of virtual human the final step for modeling the virtual human is its graphi- cal representation. the skeleton is divided into segments: body ( ), head and neck ( ), upper arms ( ), lower arms ( ), upper legs ( ), lower legs ( ), and feet ( ). each segment is modeled in ds file ( d max, autodesk inc.) (fig. (a)) and is connected via one or more revolute joints with another one to assemble the virtual skeleton (fig. (b)). for each segment, an original point and two vectors perpendicular to each other are attached to it to represent the position and the orientation in the simulation, respectively. the position and orientation can be calculated by the kinematic model of the virtual human. (a) ds model (b) virtual skeleton fig. virtual skeleton composed of ds models framework for evaluating manual handling operations the center of the framework is the objective work evalua- tion system (owes) in fig. . the input module includes: human motion, interaction information, and virtual environ- ment. human motion is either captured by motion capture system or simulated by virtual human simulation. the inter- action information is either obtained via haptic interfaces or modeled in simulation. virtual environment is constructed to provide visual feedback to participants or workspace in- formation in simulation. input information is processed in owes. with different evaluation criteria, different aspects of human work can be assessed as in the previous human simulation tools. a new conception human status is proposed for this framework to generalize the discussion. human status: it is a state, or a situation in which the human possesses dif- ferent capacities for an industrial operation. it can be further classified into mental status and physical status. human sta- tus can be described as an aggregation of a set of human abilities, such as visibility, physical capacity (joint strength, muscle strength), and mental capacity. virtual human sta- tus can be mathematically noted as hs = {v ,v ,...,vn}. owes objective work evaluation systemvirtual environment virtual human virtual interaction fatigue criteria posture criteria efficiency criteria comfort criteria environment human motion interaction motion capture haptic interfaces virtual reality simulated human motion human simulation f a tig u e a n a lysis c o m fo rt a n a lysis p o su tre a n a lysis posture prediction algorithm virutal human status update fig. framework for the work evaluation each vi represents one specific aspect of human abilities, and this state vector can be further detailed by a vector vi = {vi ,vi ,...,vimi }. the change of the human status is defined as ∆ hs = hs(t +δ t)−hs(t) = {∆ v ,∆ v ,...,∆ vn}. for example, one aspect of the physical status can be noted as hs = [s ,s ,...,sn], where si represents the physical joint strength of the ith joint of the virtual human. in order to make the simulation as realistic as in real world, it is necessary to know how the human generates a movement. the bidirectional communication between hu- man and the real world in an operation decides the action to accomplish a physical task: worker’s mental and physical status can be influenced by the history of operation, while the worker chooses his or her suitable movement according to his or her current mental and physical statuses. hence the framework is designed to evaluate the change of human sta- tus before and after an operation, and furthermore to predict the human motion according to the changed human status. the human is often simplified for posture control as a sensory-motor system in which there are enormous external sensors covering the human body and internal sensors in the human body capturing different signals, and the central ner- vous system (cns) transfer the signals into decision making system (cerebrum and vertebral disc); the decision mak- ing system generates output commands to generate forces in muscles and then drives the motion and posture responding to the external stimulus. normally, most of the external in- put information is directly measurable, such as temperature, external load, moisture, etc. however, how to achieve all the information for such a great number of sensors all over the human body is a challenging task. in addition, the internal perception of human body, which plays also an important role in motor sensor coordination, is much more difficult to be quantified. the most difficult issue is to know how the brain handles all the input and output signals while perform- ing a manual operation. in previous simulation tools, the ex- ternal input information has been already provided and han- dled. visual feedback, audio feedback, and haptic feedback are often employed as input channel for a virtual human sim- ulation. one limitation of the existing methods is that the in- ternal sensation is not considered enough. physical fatigue is going to be modeled and integrated into the framework to predict the perceived strength reduction and the reactions of the human body to the fatigue, which provides a close-loop for the human simulation (fig. ). fig. human status in human simulation tools the special contribution in this framework is that the reduction of the physical strength can be evaluated in the framework based on a muscle fatigue model. and then the changed physical strength is taken as a feedback to the vir- tual human simulation to update the simulation result. the framework performs mainly two functions: posture analysis and posture prediction (human simulation). the func- tion of posture prediction is to simulate the human motion based on the current virtual human status. posture analysis focuses on assessing the difficulty of the manual operation. the difficulty of the work is assessed by the change of hu- man status before and after the operation ∆ hs = ∆ hsphysical . physical fatigue is one of the physical aspects, and this as- pect is evaluated by the decrease of the strength in joints. the posture analysis function of the framework is our focus in this paper. more precisely in this paper, the joint strengths models are used to determine the initial joint moment capacity, and then the fatigue in the joints can be further determined by the external load in the static operation and the fatigue model in section , and then the change of the physical status can be assessed. fatigue modeling and fatigue analysis . fatigue modeling a new dynamic fatigue model based on muscle motor unit recruitment principle was proposed in (ma et al, ). this model was able to integrate task parameters (external load) and temporal parameters for predicting the fatigue of static manual handling operations in industry. equation is the original form of the fatigue model to describe the reduction of the capacity. the descriptions of the parameters for eq. are listed in table . the detailed explanation about this model can be found in ma et al ( ). dfcem(t) dt = −k fcem(t) mv c fload(t) ( ) table parameters in dynamic fatigue model item unit description mvc n maximum voluntary contraction, maximum capacity of muscle fcem(t) n current exertable maximum force, current capacity of muscle fload(t) n external load of muscle, the force which the muscle needs to generate k min− constant value, fatigue ratio %mvc percentage of the voluntary maximum con- traction fmvc %mvc/ , fload(t) mvc maximum endurance time (met) models can be used to predict the endurance time of a static operation. in static cases, fload(t) is constant in the fatigue model, and then me t is the duration in which fcem falls down to fload . thus, me t can be determined in eq. ( ) and ( ). fcem(t) = mv c e ∫ t −k fload(u) mv c du = fload(t) ( ) t = me t = − ln fload(t) mv c k fload(t) mv c = − ln( fmv c) k fmv c ( ) this model was validated in comparison with met models summarized in el ahrache et al ( ). the previous met models were used to predict the maximum endurance time for static exertions and they were all described in func- tions with fmv c as the only variable. high pearson’s corre- lations and interclass correlations (icc) between the met model in eq. and the other previous met models validated the availability of our model for static cases. meanwhile, the comparison between our model and a dynamic motor unit recruitment based model (liu et al, ) suggested that our model was also suitable for modeling muscle fatigue in dy- namic cases. in (ma et al, ), the fatigue ratio k was assigned min− . however, from the literature, substantial variability in fatigue resistance in the population, and the variability re- sults from several factors, such as age, career, gender, mus- cle groups, etc. the parameter k can handle the effects on the fatigue resistance globally. therefore, it is necessary to determine the fatigue resistances for different muscle groups to complete the muscle fatigue model. . fatigue resistance based on met models thanks to the high linear relationship between our met model and the previous met models, it is proposed that each static met model f (x) can be described mathemati- cally by a linear equation (eq. ). in eq. , x is used to re- place fmv c and p(x) represents eq. . m and n are constants describing the linear relationship between static model and our model, and they need be determined in regression. here, m = /k indicates the fatigue resistance of the static model, and k is fatigue ratio or fatigability of different static model. f (x) = m p(x)+ n ( ) due to the asymptotic tendencies of met models, when x → (%mv c → ), f (x) → and p(x) → (me t → ), we assume n = . since some met models are not suit- able for %mv c ≤ %, the regression is carried out from x = . to x = . . with a step length . , n = met values are calculated to determine the parameter m of each met model by minimizing the function in eq. . m(x) = n ∑ i= ( f (xi)− m p(xi)) = a m + b m + c ( ) from eq. , m can be calculated by eq. . m = −b a = n ∑ i= p(xi) f (xi) n ∑ i= p(xi) > ( ) the regression result represents the fatigue resistance of the muscle group. in comparison with general met models, elbow models, shoulder models, and hip/back models, different muscle fatigue resistances for correspond- ing muscle groups were calculated and listed below in table . the mean value m̄ and σm can be used to adjust our met model to cover different met models, and they can be fur- ther used to predict the fatigue resistance of a muscle group for a given population. the prediction with mean value and its deviation in general met models is shown in fig. . it is observable that the bold solid curve and two slim solid curves cover most of the area formed by the previous empir- ical met models. it should be noted that the fatigue resistance for differ- ent muscle groups are only regressed based on the empirical data grouped in the literature, and the results (table ) for shoulder and hip/back muscle groups did not conform to the normal distribution. for the shoulder joint, the subjects in these models were not only from different careers but also from different gender mixture. therefore, the fatigue resis- tance result can only provide a reference in this study. table fatigue resistance m̄ for different muscle groups segment m̄ σm general . . shoulder . . elbow . . hip . . . . . . . . . . prediction of met using dynamic model in comparison with general static models f mvc e n d u ra n ce t im e in g e n e ra l m o d e ls [ m in ] rohmert huijgens sato manenica sjogaard rose dynamic (mean) dynamic (−σ) dynamic (+σ) fig. prediction of met in the dynamic met model in comparison with that in the general models table fatigue resistances of shoulder met models model subjects m sato et al ( ) male . rohmert et al ( ) male and female students . mathiassen and ahsberg ( ) male and female mu- nicipal employees . garg et al ( ) female college subjects . . workflow for fatigue analysis the general process of the posture analysis has been dis- cussed in section , and here is the flowchart in fig. to depict all the details in processing all the input information. fig. workflow for the fatigue evaluation first, human motion obtained either from human simu- lation or from motion capture system is further processed to displacement q, speed q̇, and acceleration q̈ in general coor- dinates. the external forces and torques on the human body are either measured directly by force measurement instruments or estimated in the simulation. the external loads are trans- formed to Γi and fi in the coordinates attached to qi in the modified dh method. human motion and interaction (forces, torques) are mapped into the digital human model which is geometrically and dynamically modeled from anthropometry database and the biomechanical database. inverse dynamics is used to calcu- late the torque and force at each general joint. if it goes fur- ther, the effort of each individual muscle can be determined using optimization method as well. once the loads of the joints are determined, the fatigue of each joint can be analyzed using the fatigue model. the reduction of the physical strength can be evaluated, and fi- nally the difficulty of the operation can be estimated by the change of physical strengths. analysis results for eads application cases - drilling . operation description the application case is the assembly of two fuselage sec- tions with rivets from the assembly line of an airplane in european aeronautic defence & space (eads) company. one part of the job consists of drilling holes all around the cross section. the tasks is to drill holes around the fuselage circumference. the number of the holes could be up to , on an orbital fuselage junction of an airplane. the drilling machine has a weight around kg, and even up to kg in the worst condition with consideration of the pipe weight. the drilling force applied to the drilling machine is around n. in general, it takes seconds to finish a hole. the drilling operation is illustrated in fig. . the fatigue hap- pens often in shoulder, elbow, and lower back because of the heavy load. only the upper limb is taken into consider- ation in this demonstration case to decrease the complexity of the analysis. fig. drilling case in catia . endurance time prediction the drilling machine with a weight kg is taken to calcu- late the maximum endurance time under a static posture with shoulder flexion as ◦ and elbow flexion ◦ for maintain- ing the operation in a continuous way. the weight of the drilling machine is divided by two in order to simplify the load sharing problem. the endurance result is shown in ta- ble for the population falling in the % strength distribu- tion. it is found that the limitation of the work is determined by the shoulder, since the endurance time for the shoulder joint is much shorter than that of the elbow joint. the difference in endurance results has two origins. one is the external load relative to the joint strength. the second comes from the fatigue resistance difference among the pop- ulation. these differences are graphically presented from fig. to fig. . figure and figure show the vari- able endurance caused by the joint strength distribution in the adult male population with the mean fatigue resistance. larger strength results in longer endurance time for the same external load. figure and figure present the endurance table maximum endurance time of shoulder and elbow joints for drilling work met [sec] s − σ s − σ s s + σ s + σ shoulder m̄ − σm . . . . . m̄ . . . . . m̄ + σm . . . . . elbow m̄ − σm . . . . . m̄ . . . . . m̄ + σm . . . . . time for the population with the average joint strength but different fatigue resistances, and it shows that larger fatigue resistance leads to longer endurance time. combining with the strength distribution and the fatigue resistance variance, the met can be estimated for all the population. r ed uc ti on o f s ho ul de r f le xi on s tr en gt h [n m ] s j − σ j s j −σ j s j s j +σ j s j + σ j Γ j load . . . . . . . . . holding time of shoulder flexion for drilling hole tasks [s] n or m al iz ed r ed uc ti on o f s ho ul de r f le xi on s tr en gt h geometric configuration in α s = o, α e = o, mass of drilling machine . kg s j − σ j s j −σ j s j s j +σ j s j + σ j fig. endurance time prediction for shoulder with average fatigue resistance . fatigue evaluation the fatigue is evaluated by the change of the joint strength in a fatigue operation. the working history can generate in- fluence on the fatigue. therefore, the fatigue for drilling a hole is evaluated in a continuous working process up to holes. only the population with the average strength and the average fatigue resistance is analyzed in fatigue evalu- ation in order to present the effect of the work history. the reduced strength is normalized by dividing the maximum joint strength, and it is shown in fig. . it takes seconds to drill a hole, and the joint strength is calculated and nor- malized every seconds until exhaustion for the shoulder joint. r ed uc ti on o f e lb ow f le xi on s tr en gt h [n m ] . . . . . . . . . holding time of elbow flexion for drilling hole tasks [s] n or m al iz ed r ed uc ti on o f e lb ow f le xi on s tr en gt h geometric configuration in α s = o, α e = o, mass of drilling machine . kg s j − σ j s j −σ j s j s j +σ j s j + σ j s j − σ j s j −σ j s j s j +σ j s j + σ j Γ j load fig. endurance time prediction for the elbow with average fatigue resistance holding time of shoulder flexion for drilling hole tasks [s] r ed uc ti on o f s ho ul de r f le xi on s tr en gt h [n m ] geometric configuration in α s = o, α e = o, mass of drilling machine . kg m m+σ m m−σ m Γ j load fig. endurance time for the population with average strength for shoulder joint in our current research, hs includes only the joint strength vector. the evaluation of the fatigue is measured by the change of the joint strength for drilling a hole. the result is shown in table . three measurements are given in this table: one is the normalized physical strength every seconds, noted as hsi hsmax ; one is the difference between the joint strength before and after finishing a hole, noted as hsi − hsi+ hsmax ; the last one if the difference between the joint strength and the maximum joint strength, noted as hsmax − hsi hsmax . in table , only the reduction of the shoulder joint strength is presented, since the relative load in elbow joint is much smaller. from fig. and table , the joint strength keeps the trend of descending in the continuous work. the ratio of the reduction gets smaller in the work progress due to the table normalized shoulder joint strength in the drilling operation time [s] m̄ hsi hsmax % . % . % . % . % . % . % hsi − hsi+ hsmax % . % . % . % . % . % . % hsmax − hsi hsmax % . % . % . % . % . % . % holding time of elbow flexion for drilling hole tasks [s] r ed uc ti on o f e lb ow f le xi on s tr en gt h [n m ] geometric configuration in α s = o, α e = o, mass of drilling machine . kg m m+σ m m−σ m Γ j load fig. endurance time for the population with average strength for elbow joint . . . . . . . . . holding time of shoulder flexion for drilling hole tasks [s] p er ce nt ag e of t he r ed uc ti on o f s ho ul de r f le xi on s tr en gt h geometric configuration in α s = o, α e = o, mass of drilling machine . kg normalized reduction of joint strength normalized external load fig. fatigue evaluation after drilling a hole in a continuous drilling process physiological change in the muscle fiber composition. more time consumed to work leads more reduction in physical strengths. the reduction relative to the maximum strength is able to assess the difficulty of the operations. . experiment validation simulated drilling operations were tested under laboratory conditions in tsinghua university. a total of male in- dustrial workers were asked to simulate the drilling work in a continuous operation for seconds. maximum output strengths were measured in the simulated operations at dif- ferent periods of the operation. fatigue was indexed by the reduction of the joint strength along time relative to the ini- tial maximum joint strength. three out of the subjects could not sustain the external load for a duration of seconds, and subjects had a shoulder joint fatigue resis- tance (mean= . , sd= . ) greater than the average shoul- der joint fatigue resistance in table , which means that the sample population has a higher fatigue resistance than the population grouped in the regression. the physical strength has been measured in simulated job static strengths, and the reduction in the operation varies from . % to . % (mean= . % and sd= . %). the re- duction falls in the fatigue prediction of the theoretical meth- ods in table (mean= . %, sd= . %). table normalized torque strength reduction for the population with higher fatigue resistance hsmax − hs hsmax s − σ s − σ s s + σ s + σ m̄ - - . % . % . % m̄ + σm - . % . % . % . % m̄ + σm . % . % . % . % . % . discussion under the proposed framework, the conception of the virtual human status is introduced and realized by a virtual human modeling and simulation tool. the virtual human is kine- matic modeled based on the modeling method in robotics. inverse dynamics is used to determine the joint loads. with the integration of a general fatigue model, the physical fa- tigue in a manual handling operation in eads is simulated and analyzed. the decrease in human joint strengths can be predicted in the theoretical approach, and it has been vali- dated with experimental data. human status is introduced in this framework in order to generalize all the discussion for the human simulation. we concentrate only on the physical aspect of the virtual human, in particular on joint strengths. physical status can be ex- tended to other aspects, either measurable using instruments (e.g., heart rate, oxygen consumption, electromyograph of muscle, etc.) or predicable using mathematical models (e.g., vision, strength, etc.). similarly, the mental status of human can also be established by similar terms (e.g., mental capac- ity, mental workload, mental fatigue, etc.). under the con- ception of human status, different aspects of the human can be aggregated together to present the virtual human com- pletely. the changed human status caused by a physical job or a mental job can be measured or predicted to assess differ- ent aspects of the job. it should be noted that the definition of human status is still immature and it requires great effort to form, extend, and validate this conception. the main difference between the fatigue analysis in our study and the previous methods for posture analysis is: in previous methods (wood et al, ; iridiastadi and nuss- baum, ; roman-liu et al, ), intermittent proce- dures were used to develop the fatigue model with job spe- cific parameters; in contrast, all the related physical expo- sure factors are taken into consideration in a continuous ap- proach in our model. in this way, the analysis of the manual handling operation can be generalized without limitations of job specific parameters. furthermore, the fatigue and recov- ery procedures can be decoupled to simplify the analysis in a continuous way. although only a specific application case is presented in this paper, the feasibility of the general con- cept has been verified by the introduction of human status and the validation of the fatigue model. it should be noted that the recovery of the physical strength has not been considered yet. although there are several work- rest allowance models in the literature, substantial variabil- ity was found among the prediction results for industrial op- erations (el ahrache and imbeau, ) and it is still ongoing to develop a general recovery model. conclusions in this study, human status is introduced into the work eval- uation system, especially for the physical status. it provides a global definition under which different aspects of human abilities can be integrated and assessed simultaneously. the effect of the work on the human status, either positive or negative, can be measured by the change of the human sta- tus before and after the operation. we concentrate our study on physical aspects, especially on joint moment strengths. the physical fatigue analysis in a drilling case under the work evaluation framework demonstrates the work flow and the functions of the virtual human simulation. the change of joint moment strength, a specific aspect of human phys- ical status, has been simulated based on a general fatigue model with fatigue resistances. the similar results between the analysis and the experimental data suggests that the frame- work may be useful for assessing the physical status in con- tinuous static operations. the new conception human status and the theoretical method for assessing the physical status may provide a new approach to generalize the virtual human simulation and eval- uate the physical aspect in continuous static manual han- dling operations. this approach is useful to assess the phys- ical load to prevent industrial workers from msd risks, and it can also be used to assess mental load with extension of mental status. however, it should be noted that great effort has to be done to extend different aspects in human status to make it more precise. even only for physical fatigue, it is still nec- essary to develop a recovery model to complete the fatigue prediction. acknowledgments this research was supported by the eads and the région des pays de la loire (france) in the context of collaboration between 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interaction in the subject area of direct human-robot collaboration c. thomasa*, l. stankiewiczb, a. grötschc, s. wischniewskic, j. deuseb, b. kuhlenköttera achair of production systems, ruhr-universität bochum, universitätsstr. , bochum, germany binstitute of production systems, tu dortmund university, leonhard-euler-str. , dortmund, germany cunit human factors, ergonomics, federal institute for occupational safety and health, friedrich-henkel-weg - , dortmund, germany * corresponding author. tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - . e-mail address: thomas@lps.rub.de abstract the paper focuses on the interaction in human-robot collaboration. on the one hand, the robot assistance system individually aligns itself to the employee and on the other hand, the employee gets an interface which enables him to influence certain robot positions. the aim is to support the employee in assembly tasks. the employee’s personal anthropometric data and age-related as well as temporary restrictions in movements are considered by being recorded individually via motion capturing before the workplace is built in a virtual and real environment. based on the data, task specific movements of the employee are simulated using digital human models for the virtual representation of the employee, combined with an ergonomic analysis within the work environment. the impact of the employee on the assistance robot system is provided by the design of intuitive user interfaces. the positioning of the components in the assembly is done user-specifically by the robot. in addition, the employee gets a graphical user interface and can additionally adjust the position or turn the components. in this paper, preliminary results of this ongoing research project are presented as well as two reference processes from the field of assembly technologies as application examples. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the th cirp conference on assembly technologies and systems (cats). keywords: human-robot collaboration, digital human models, individual assistance systems, human-centred design of workplaces . motivation the individual design of workplaces constitutes a prerequisite for its human-centered, ergonomic and wholesome planning within industrial production. in this context, especially flexible and adaptive assistive workplace devices with respect to the emerging field of human-robot collaborations should be taken into consideration. one major motivational aspect is the demographic development throughout european countries and its corresponding increase of the mean age of the workforce. according to the aging report of the european union, nearly one third of the population will be years or older by . with respect to the working age population, defined by the range between and years, a decline from % to % is predicted [ ]. the federal statistical office of germany reports that by , a substantial percentage of the work-force will be at the age of or above [ ]. by considering the different diagnostic subgroups that make up for the expenses and loss of production due to work inability, . % can be assigned to musculoskeletal disorders ( . billion euros) [ ]. this sociodemographic development arouses both opportunities and challenges that need to be met within industrial engineering processes and future developments as well as assembly technologies and systems [ ]. when addressing workplace design related issues, the virtual planning of such assembly processes becomes increasingly important. one aim in this context is the virtual planning of joint workplaces of humans and robots and its subsequent implementation and realization in actual industrial work environments. a major motivational aspect for an interaction between humans and robots is the intention to combine the flexibility of manual processes by humans and the high efficiency and repeatability of automated processes in manufacturing and assembly systems. these systems benefit from the synergistic effects of a collaborative scenario between humans and robots [ , , ]. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the th cirp conference on assembly technologies and systems (cats) c. thomas et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – for the virtual workplace planning and product development processes digital human models (dhm) are used in order to simulate characteristics and capabilities of future users or employees respectively [ , ]. these different characteristics of employees are subject to an increasing intra- and interindividual variance, employee’s physical work capacity as well as different capabilities and skills due to the aforementioned demographic development [ , , ]. whereas the rising importance of the virtual planning of joint workplaces of humans and robots [ , , ] was stressed in the literature, the intuitive and individual character of these workplaces still needs thorough investigation. hence this conference contribution fosters the investigation of an issue that needs further consideration within the field of industrial engineering, assembly technologies and direct human-robot collaboration, foremost with respect to its virtual planning process. it describes an overall concept for the individual and virtual planning and design of human-robot- collaborations and the realisation of reference processes including the interfaces for the employees. . method to design individual work assistance in the field of assembly, there are different approaches to make tasks feasible. for this, different technologies are used such as machines, handling or lifting devices which include automats, telemanipulators and balancers [ ]. however, the application of these devices is laid out to strictly restricted tasks. to adapt an assistance system to the employee’s needs a highly flexible system is required. the realization of a human-robot collaboration in assembly tasks offers the possibility to implement an assistance system that can react to both given and varying constraints resulted by the employee or by environmental influences. there are many approaches to human robot collaboration for industrial applications. research projects address the interaction of humans and robots in workspaces without separating safety devices using simulations as a planning method [ ]. even in the field of assembly tasks there are approaches of direct human robot collaborations [ ] with planning of appropriate assignments of tasks, supplemented by evaluations of ergonomics and feasibility of the assignments in a simulation [ ]. although there is a division of tasks between humans and robots and a predetermined sequence of execution of working tasks in these applications of current research projects, there is no consideration of the employee’s individual performance paramters to design the work place orientated to personal capabilities and ergonomics. however using robots as a supporting element in the work system provides the opportunity to adjust the degree of assistance based on a variable automation level and respond to human restrictions individually. the human-robot collaboration system affects the workflow and the distribution of work contents through the intervention of robots in work tasks. thus, an influence arises on the execution of the employee’s work tasks by the robot. to account for this interaction, data need to be generated in advance in order to optimise the collaboration between humans and robots. the robot-based assistance system aligns itself automatically to the employee by an analysis of the data. moreover, the employee has an impact on the type and the extent of the robot’s influence by the possibility of making modifications on subsequent fine adjustments. adapting workplaces to the employee’s individual demands requires a highly changeable assistance system that allows a quick and self-influenced set up to the employee’s needs. these needs are immensely affected by the ratio between both prescribed physical minimum requirements of the work tasks and the employee’s performance parameters. the physical minimum requirements include for example deliverable forces or mandatory body postures to fulfil the work tasks. if these requirements are on a higher level than the employee’s individual performance parameters, the execution of the tasks is not bearable or even feasible and can thus lead to or aggravate physical harm. for an optimised workplace design and to avoid health critical work contents, the robot based assistance system is supposed to support the employee based on his individual prerequisites and capabilities. to ensure a human-robot collaboration with interaction opportunities including the possibility to affect the assistance worker robotsystem human-machine-interface work assistanceh um an -r ob ot c ol la bo ra tio n position customization a b manual input automated measurement p rocess o ptim isation simulation individual performance parameters fig. : method for designing an individualised, robot-based assistance system c. thomas et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – system by the employee and the system itself, the implementation is divided into two sections (see fig. ). in the first section, the system requirements are determined in order to ensure a targeted optimization of the process (see fig. : blue box). the optimization of the human-robot collaboration includes the capturing and processing of individual performance parameters (see fig. : a & b). whereas necessary requirements are affected by the given tasks and the workplace design, the individual performance parameters are usually not quantified. therefore, it is necessary to determine these parameters for the purpose of an individually adapted design of the assistance system. the individual performance parameters include especially the employee’s possible restrictions of joint motions which may be caused by age, deseases or injury as well as by anthropometrical data such as the length of body segments which include for instance upper arms and forearms, shoulder width and body height. body segment lengths and motion impairments are measured via motion capturing (see fig & chapter ). these data can be accumulated by other performance parameters such as endurance or visual acuity to create an accurate image of the employee. transferring these data into a dhm with adequate modeled physical impairments suitable to the individual demands allows a proper simulation of the employee’s motion to perform the required work tasks (see fig : ). these simulations provide information in the manner in which the robot-based assistance system has to intervene in the work process to enable an individually adjusted operation in accordance with the stated physical performance parameters. thus, robot paths can be programmed precisely to the employee’s demands before a physical system has to be implemented whereby cost savings over non-digital prototyping can be achieved. by using a simulation environment the paths of the assistive robot can be coordinated with the predicted employee’s motions based on the a priori recorded parameters. therefore, the exact positions and orientations of work pieces can be calculated and programmed to ensure an ergonomically convenient serving of the work pieces. by implementing existing ergonomic screening methods into the dhm enviroment, critical postures can be detected and consequently compensated by using the assistive robot. furthermore, by the simultaneous integration of robots and humans in the simulation environment, collisions between robots and employees can be detected prospectively. accordingly measures can be taken to avoid such collisions by adapting robot paths or work methods (see fig. : ). the simulation environment simultaneously represents a tool to implement the programming of robot paths. in the direct interaction with the employees, the robots constitute the basis for an assistance system. fed with recorded data, which are further processed in the simulation, an independent adjustment of the robot paths to the employee’s needs takes place (see fig. : ). yet it is important to implement a human-machine- interface that allows discrete customization of given robot paths to readjust positions and orientations of work pieces handled by the robot in safe conditions. in this way, the employee can simultaneously improve the direct collaboration between human and robot at one work piece in a common workspace. due to their flexible handling options, robots are not task-specific to a single working system and can perform various tasks due to their kinematic structure. this flexibility is particularly suitable in order to establish individual settings in a workplace. thus, the use of robots allows the optimization of pre-existing work processes as well as the prospect planning of compliant work systems. with the help of the simulation, the planner can check the movements of the robots and can configurate the safety environments. this could be necessary in order to reduce the workspace, to avoid clamping situations or to reduce the robot’s speed. as depicted in fig. , the proposed approach of direct human-robot-collaborations combines several subsequent steps in order to meet relevant requirements for the virtual planning and the actual realisation of the human-robot-collaboration scenario. in this way, it is ensured that the direct human- machine collaboration can be used as target-oriented support for the employee without causing risks of injury. . recording of individual physical/musculoskeletal parameters in this presented approach, anthropometric and biomechanical parameters are used for the individualization of digital human models and to account for individual musculoskeletal parameters of the employee. apart from the use of digital human models for the prospective planning of future workplaces, markerless motion capturing techniques are another emerging technology that can be incorporated into the workflow of generating an intuitive work assistance by reciprocal human-robot interaction. for the quantitative assessment of the individual anthropometric and biomechanical parameters, a markerless motion capturing technique is used that is based on the principle of the time-of-flight (tof) - technique (microsoft kinect v . ) [ ]. the use and suitablitiy of markerless motion capturing for the estimation of human posture [ , , ], the analysis of human movements [ , ] and the muskuloskeletal modeling [ ] were reported in the literature . the choice to use a markerless approach was made due to the portability, easy handling and usability as well as the low costs that make it accessible even for small and medium sized enterprises (smes). another advantage, especially for the use in an industrial setting, is the lacking need of using additional markers which hinders the applicability of the proposed workflow and that might also interrupt the natural motions during the recording procedure. the use of a markerless motion capturing system is also motivated by the aim to take measurements of the employee in normal clothes. the segment lengths of the human skeleton and joint angles of the employee, i.e. the range of motion of the human joints, can be calculated by using the depth information coming from the time-of-flight sensor. the distance from the sensor to the target object is calculated by registering the phase difference between the emitted and reflected infrared wave signal [ ]. the depth information is further processed via an extended programming code of the internal “body tracking” algorithm of the software development kit (sdk v . ) of the kinect sensor [ ] combined with an additional self-programmed code (c#) that allows the direct calculation of segment lengths and c. thomas et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – joint angles of the upper and lower extremities as well as the head and the torso. for the realization of an easy to use procedure for the recording of the static anthropometrical and kinematic biomechanical parameters of the employee, a specific graphical user interface was programmed in order to allow data recording, data processing and data export. the latter is primarily important for the individual design of the generic digital human model by providing a suitable csv-file for the subsequent import to the virtual environment and cad-based process planning software. in this research context, the parameters are integrated into the virtual planning of direct human-robot collaboration scenarios. the concept of recording these parameters is designed in such a way that the needed volume for the measurement is limited to a minimum where only the time-of-flight sensor is needed for the data collection, the pc/tablet for the data processing and the data export as well as the monitor that serves as a support during the measurement and provides visual feedback for the employee (see fig. ). the latter point is also beneficial for the user acceptance of this technological concept and the aim towards an easy data access for the simulation and virtual planning of a joint workplace between the human and the robot. based on the schematic measurement setup in figure , the recording of physical performance parameters will be outlined in the following. the authors want to point out that the actual recording procedure with the tof-sensor is done in a separate environment isolated from any security-critical situations. furthermore, the motion capturing procedure is standardized in terms of a measurement protocol to ensure an efficient workflow as well as the usability for non-expert users. after the recording of the anthropometric parameters, the kinematic data is captured during subsequent movements of the joints of the lower and upper extremities as well as the head and the torso. these data is used to scale the digital human model with respect to its anthropometry as well as to parameterize it in terms of range of motions of the aforementioned joints of the hman body. the authors like to mention that data privacy regulations need to be taken into account when using employee-specific parameters. . individualization of digital human models the gained individual performance parameters will be used to transfer these data (see chapter ) into a virtual environment in order to draw conclusions on yet to implement real work systems. the used virtual environment is famos robotic [ ] which was originally designed for offline programming tasks of robot paths and therefore supports the simulation of robots and other cad-based operating material. for this purpose, an existing digital human model from the field of entertainment industry is adapted for the use in a scientific work context (see fig. ). the bare digital human model which is used here solely consists of a shell with human shape and therefore needs to be extended to include motions and analysis functions. by taking the depiction of individual human movements in interaction with its environment into account, it is important that the accuracy of the animated digital human model’s movements fit to the employee’s real movements at the workplace. in order to obtain the possibility of a prospective planning of a workplace, it is therefore necessary that the employee’s body movements can be predicted instead of being captured, for example by a motion capturing method. in this way, workplaces can be modeled in a virtual environment in advance in order to draw conclusions on a yet to build real work system. this includes the consideration of an ergonomic design of the workplace, the garuantee of safety for the employee and the equipment and the consideration of time management. for the prediction of motion sequences, an implementation of a motion structure based on a given skeleton in the digital human model as well as the integration of inverse kinematics for the entire joint elements of the skeleton is used. since all body segments of a human are included in the process of finding the most suitable motion, it is important to apply the inverse kinematics to the entire body to simulate natural and realistic movements. by the transfer of the individual physical performance parameters, the movement impairments can be included into the dhm. there is also the possibility to map complete restrictions with respect to the range of motion of single joints by blocking individual joints in the digital human model. the accurate representation of the employee’s body movements by using the inverse kinematics fig. : digital human model for human-robot collaborations with its skeleton fig. : schematic outline of the measurement setup c. thomas et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – offer the opportunity to make ergonomic analysis without having to watch the employees on a set-up work system. the ergonomics screening method is based on the rapid entire body assessment (reba) which enables the assessment of postures considering the neck, torso, leg, upper arm, forearm and the hand positions. to this end, the joint positions of the individual segments of the digital human model are read and evaluated in accordance with assessment procedures according to reba. in addition, applied forces, the handling of heavy loads as well as taking static postures and doing repetitive short-cycled activities are considered in the assessment. moreover, the simulation environment detects collisions of moving bodies with both the environment and other moving objects so that robot paths and the calculated employee’s motions can be coordinated to avoid collisions . individualized human-robot collaboration in the production based on identified reference processes at industrial partners, the suitability of the depicted method and the implementation of the planning system for an intuitive work assistance is tested. the first explained process is the implementation of a light weight robot in an assembly process. with the assisting robot the employee will be relieved from the monotonous and repetitive task to set up stud screws in housing parts of pumps. in a second reference process an employee will be assisted by an industrial robot instead of a balancing system. with the help of the robot a heavy and bulky assembly will be transferred into a car body. the use of robots allows the employee to do additional assembly or checking tasks under optimized ergonomic conditions. in the descriptions of the reference processes the collaboration principles, as defined in iso - [ ] and iso - [ ], are taken into relation. . . assisted setting of stud screws in housing parts of pumps during the assembly of industrial pumps the employee has to put a lot of stud screws in housing parts. most of the pumps are built up in low batches or are customer-individual. the number and positions of the tapped holes are on different pitch circles. first the employee takes the stud screws out of a box and screws them into the threaded holes. afterwards, a pneumatic screwdriver is used to fix them. this process is very uncomfortable because of the different levels of screws and the high forces necessary to apply to handle the screwdriver. additionally, for many parts the task has to be done on both sides of a symmetrical part and the employee has to work from both sides. with the help of the robot-based assistance system the employee can directly guide the robot to the screw positions and teach this. after teaching of three positions, the robot calculates all screw positions on the pitch circles with the help of a calculated center and the distances between the three teached positions. afterwards, the robot automatically takes a stud and screws it in the first position and repeats this process for the different positions until all studs are assembled. because of the symmetry of the pitch circles there is the need to teach only one more position to do the same process on the opposite side (see fig. ). based on the individualized human model and its implementation into the simulation, the positions and the movement of the robot can be planed offline. the demonstrator will be build up with a kuka lbr iiwa [ ]. this robot, with integrated torque-sensors, allows hand guiding and can be implemented into applications with a direct human-robot collaboration after a positive risk assessment. during the teaching of the screw positions the collaboration principle is hand guiding. afterwards, the collaboration will be done by using power and force limiting. . . handling of assembly groups in the automotive industry for the manufacturing of car bodys, a lot of robots are used but the final assembly however is strongly influenced by manual operations. due to the variety and challenging tasks, the main reason for a high proportion of manual assembly tasks is given by a high complexity of the implementation of automation as a result of technical or economical restrictions. however, especially in the final production in the automotive industry, assistance robots could help to reduce the physical stress of the employee and establish ergonomic work conditions. for the handling of an assembly part with a weight up to kg an industrial standard robot with a safety controller will be enabled to assist the employee. beside the assistance of the handling, the employee will be able to move the assembly in different positions for final assembly tasks or visual inspection. the employee is provided with an intuitive graphic user interface by using the robot teach pendant. the assembly can be moved and rotated in each direction in safe ranges. the translatiorial and rotatorial movements can be done in a speed mode or in a slow mode. if the employee uses the speed mode he has to be in a safe distance which is checked by implemented sensors (collaboration principle: speed and separation monitoring). during the slow mode the speed of the robot is controlled, cartesian limitations avoid clamping or crushing of the employee (collaboration principles: combination of safety-rated monitored stop and speed and separation monitoring). additional advantages for the employee are reduced physical stress during the movement of the balancing system and the reduction of sources of defects because the trajectory is given by the system. the whole concept enables the employee fig. . actual assembly task (a) and the setting of stud screws with human- robot collaboration (b) c. thomas et al. / procedia cirp ( ) – to stay in control of the assisted assembly task and to stop the system in the case of unattended disturbance. . conclusion this paper shows a concept to implement human machine collaborations in the field of assembly tasks that adjust to the individual employee’s needs. the adaption of the collaboration between humans and robots is carried out by simulating the work system in consideration of the employee’s physical constraints. the concepts provides a comprehensive view of assembly tasks beginning from the planning of the collaborative system via adjustnents to the work system by programming robot paths and the supply of operating material up to the realization. by integrating a human from the field of entertainment industry, which is highly customized to the needs of the planning of an hybrid workplace, into a robot simulation software, this planning tool is affordable for smes and can be used to decide wether it is worth to implement a hybrid assembly system. in the further course two demonstrators are build on laboratory areas to verify the ergonomic advantages predicted by the simulation and to acquire rewuired technology to put a collaborative system between humans and robots into practice. acknowledgements the presented results are part of the research project indiva. the research & development project is funded by the german federal ministry education and research. thanks go to the project team, which supports and drives the development of the results presented here. references [ ] european commission: the ageing report. european union, brussels, . 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[ ] buys, k., cagniart, c., baksheev, a., de laet, t., de shutter, j., pantofaru, c.: an adaptable system for rgb-d based human body detection and pose estimation. journal of visual communication and image representation, ( ), , - . [ ] schmitz, a., ye, m., boggess, g., shapiro, r., yang, r., noehren, b.: the measurement of in vivo joint angles during a squat using a single camera markerless motion capture system as compared to a marker based system. gait & posture ( ), , - . [ ] graf, e., kuster, r., wirz, m., heinlein, b.: validity of the new kinect- sensor in measuring upper body kinematics. in: proceedings of the th congress of the international society of biomechanics, , - . [ ] andersen, m.s., yang, j., de zee, m., zhou, l., bai, s., rasmussen, j.: full-body musculoskeletal modeling using dual microsoft kinect sensors and the anybody modeling system. in: proceedings of the th international symposium on computer simulation in biomechanics, , - . 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[ ] http://famos-robotic.de/index.php?id=homepos&l= [ ] iso - : , “robots and robotics devices – safety requirements for industrial robots – part : robots” [ ] iso - : , “robots and robotics devices – safety requirements for industrial robots – part : robot systems and integration” [ ] http://www.kuka- robotics.com/germany/de/products/industrial_robots/sensitiv/start.html ssrn-deckblatt-neu-neu-brunschwig research paper series m a x - p l a n c k - i n s t i t u t f Ü r e u r o p Ä i s c h e r e c h t s g e s c h i c h t e m a x p l a n c k i n s t i t u t e f o r e u r o p e a n l e g a l h i s t o r y www.rg.mpg.de max planck institute for european legal history colette r. brunschwig perspektiven einer digitalen rechtswissen- schaft: visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung no. - · http://ssrn.com/abstract= published under creative commons cc-by-nc-nd . max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - perspektiven einer digitalen rechtswissenschaft: visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung colette r. brunschwig* abstract die bedeutung der visuellen, audiovisuellen und der multisensorischen medien wächst. bei letzteren handelt es sich um hybride medien, welche nicht nur den seh- und hörsinn ansprechen, sondern auch andere sinne, wie etwa den geruchssinn, tast- und bewegungssinn. in anbetracht dieser medialen entwicklung erforschen so- wohl die digital humanities als auch was man im sinne einer arbeitshypothese eine digitale rechtswissenschaft nennen könnte, die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung. bisher sind die zwei gebiete weitgehend getrennte wege gegangen, ohne einander gegenseitig zu beeinflussen. und dies, obwohl jene sich, was die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung betrifft, teilwei- se mit ähnlichen problemen und fragen auseinandersetzen. der vorliegende aufsatz bezweckt, und dies soll sein innovativer beitrag sein, die beiden fachlichen bereiche in bezug auf die genannten forschungsgegenstände einander anzunähern. Überdies soll damit zu einem interdisziplinären erkenntnisgewinn beigetragen werden. dies geschieht einerseits anhand von Überlegungen, welche durch die hundertjahr feier- tagung der zentralbibliothek zürich (schweiz) veranlasst worden sind. andererseits geht dieser aufsatz weit über die themen dieser tagung hinaus. * wissenschaftliche mitarbeiterin, universität zürich, rechtswissenschaftliche fakultät, zentrum für rechtsgeschichtliche forschung, abteilung rechtsvisualisierung, rämistrasse / , zürich, ch, colette.brunschwig@rwi.uzh.ch; https://www.ius.uzh.ch/de/research/units/zrf/abtrv/brunschwig.html. eine englische Übersetzung dieses textes ist online verfügbar unter https://forhistiur.de/ - -brun- schwig/abstract/. https://www.ius.uzh.ch/de/research/units/zrf/abtrv/brunschwig.html https://forhistiur.de/ - -brunschwig/abstract/ https://forhistiur.de/ - -brunschwig/abstract/ colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - . auftakt anlässlich ihrer hundertjahrfeier lud die zentralbibliothek zürich (universitätsbibliothek, nachfolgend zbz) zu einer tagung ein. das multi- und interdisziplinäre treffen bezweckte, ein forum dafür zu bieten, über digitale forschungsdaten in der gegenwart und zukunft zu diskutieren. der tagungstitel lautete: „die bibliothek vernetzt: infrastrukturen für for- schungsdaten in den geisteswissenschaften“. referenten aus unterschiedlichen bereichen berichteten über ihre tätigkeiten, ihr wissen und ihre erfahrungen, indem sie die entwicklungen und herausforderungen beschrieben, mit denen sie sich angesichts der anhaltenden digitalen transformation konfrontiert sehen. ich besuchte diese tagung in meiner rolle als wissenschaftliche mitarbeiterin der rechts- wissenschaftlichen fakultät der universität zürich (abteilung rechtsvisualisierung). dabei nahm ich die dargebotenen informationen aus der perspektive einer rechtswissenschaft- lerin auf, die sich vorrangig mit den themen „visualisierung“, „audiovisualisierung“ und „multisensorisierung“ befasst. diese gegenstände lassen sich hauptsächlich in den recht- lichen grundlagenfächern ansiedeln. dazu gehören beispielsweise die rechtsgeschichte, die rechtstheorie, die rechtssoziologie, die rechtspsychologie und die rechtsinformatik. abb. vgl. universität zürich. „fachtagung anlässlich des -jahr-jubiläums der zb.“ http://www.bibliothek- vernetzt.uzh.ch/de.html. zugriff am . juli . damit sich die lesenden schneller orientieren kön- nen, werde ich websites und abstracts in den fussnoten ausführlich zitieren. aus diesem grund erschei- nen diese quellen nicht mehr im literaturverzeichnis. vgl. brunschwig, visualisierung von rechtsnormen ( ); id., „multisensory law and therapeutic juris- prudence“ ( ); id., „law is not or must not be just verbal and visual in the st century“ ( ), und id., „multisensory law“ ( ). die rechtsinformatik kann als rechtliches grundlagenfach betrachtet werden, insofern sie sich mit werkzeugen (tools) und methoden (methods) befasst und dabei rechtsdogmatische probleme, fragen und themen transzendiert. wenn ich es richtig sehe, ist es heute mode geworden, für diesen teil der rechtsinformatik die begriffe legal technology oder legal tech zu verwenden. mit diesem buzz word oder unter diesem label wird momentan auch viel geld verdient. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - was ist unter „visualisierung“ zu verstehen? einerseits bezeichnet dieser begriff den prozess der visualisierung, andererseits das produkt, welches aus diesem prozess hervorgeht. was den visualisierungsprozess angeht, spielt es – aus juristischer perspektive – eine rolle, – wer visualisiert – juristen, studierende der rechtswissenschaft, juristische laien, wie z. b. designer und informatiker, und so fort; – warum und wozu visualisiert wird; – welche rechtlichen inhalte visualisiert werden, wie z. b. normen von rechtserlassen, teile von gerichtlichen verfügungen und beschlüssen, inhalte der rechtswissenschaft (forschung und lehre), inhalte der staatlichen rechtspraxis und der privaten recht- spraxis (z. b. verträge), rechtlich relevante sachverhalte und so fort; – mit welchen medien visualisiert wird – analoge und/oder digitale medien (hard- und software), – mit welchem semiotischen code visualisiert wird; – welche visualisierungsmethoden angewendet werden. mit bezug auf die visualisierung als produkt lassen sich – wiederum aus rechtlicher perspek- tive – folgende Überlegungen anstellen: – welche rechtlichen inhalte erscheinen tatsächlich in verbo-visueller oder visueller form? – in welchem medium manifestiert sich das visuelle produkt (medialität)? – in welchem semiotischen code erscheint es (codalität)? – welche art von wahrnehmung spricht die visualisierung an und/oder zu welcher art von wahrnehmung ist sie unter umständen selber fähig – etwa im fall einer kamera, welche mit der visualisierung verbunden ist (modalität)? – wer sind die rezipienten der visualisierung – juristen, studierende der rechtswissen- schaft, juristische laien? – wie wirkt sich die visualisierung auf die rezipienten aus? mit anderen worten: wie erleben die rezipienten die visualisierung und wie verhalten sie sich zu ihr? die Überlegungen zur „visualisierung“ lassen sich – mutatis mutandis – auf die forschungs- gegenstände „audiovisualisierung“ (animationen, videos, filme) und „multisensorisierung“ (virtuelle realitäten, games, humanoide roboter) übertragen. . hintergrund wissenschaftstheoretisch betrachtet, gilt die rechtswissenschaft als geistes- und sozialwissen- schaft. es ist in diesem rahmen weder notwendig noch möglich, diese aussage zu begrün- den. stattdessen verweise ich auf ein paar publikationen, welche gründe dafür darlegen. zur rechtswissenschaft als geisteswissenschaft vgl. z. b. obermayer, „rechtswissenschaft als geisteswis- senschaft“ ( ); kretschmer, rechts- als geisteswissenschaft ( ), und balkin und levinson, „law and the humanities,“ . zur rechtswissenschaft als sozialwissenschaft vgl. z. b. büllesbach, „rechtswissen- schaft und sozialwissenschaft,“ , . colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - vorliegend sind jedoch primär geisteswissenschaftliche bezüge der rechtswissenschaft be- deutsam. sofern man davon ausgeht, dass die rechtswissenschaft eine geisteswissenschaft darstellt, oder wenn man zumindest annimmt, einzelne rechtliche grundlagenfächer, wie z. b. die rechtsgeschichte, die rechtstheorie und die rechtsphilosophie, hätten nähere beziehungen zu den geisteswissenschaften, dann ergeben sich wichtige konsequenzen. angehörige dieser rechtsdisziplinen haben oder hätten es auf sich zu nehmen, die bezüge dieser disziplinen zu den digitalen geisteswissenschaften (digital humanities; nachfolgend dh) zu erhellen. abb. . probleme und fragen die rechtsgeschichte dürfte zurzeit gegenüber den anderen rechtlichen grundlagenfächern eine vorreiterrolle einnehmen, was die auseinandersetzung mit den dh betrifft. so fragt birr: „wird die rechtsgeschichte fundamental durch die neuen, digitalen instrumente und praktiken verändert werden? werden die ‚neuen‘, ‚digitalen‘ rechtshistoriker andere for- schungsfragen stellen als ihre traditionell arbeitenden kollegen?“ ich möchte noch ergänzen: werden sich die fragen der digitalen rechtshistoriker von jenen der analogen rechtshisto- riker unterscheiden, zumal was die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisie- rung vergangener rechtlicher inhalte betrifft? in diesem terrain sind forschungslücken zu birr, „die geisteswissenschaftliche perspektive,“ . zur digital legal history vgl. auch robertson, „sear- ching for anglo-american digital legal history,“ – . colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - schliessen. mutatis mutandis erscheint es ebenso sinnvoll wie notwendig, derartige fragen in anderen rechtlichen grundlagenfächern zu stellen. während der tagung begegnete ich den vorträgen mit zwei grundlegenden fragen: . in- wiefern sind deren inhalte bedeutsam für die rechtlichen grundlagenfächer, insbesondere was die themen „visualisierung“, „audiovisualisierung“ und „multisensorierung“ angeht? . inwiefern könnten meine erfahrungen und mein wissen etwas zu dem vorgetragenen beitragen, und zwar mit fragen, informationen und einschätzungen? während ich die vor- liegende arbeit zu papier brachte, brach eine dritte frage auf: welche über die tagung hi- nausgehenden reflexionen lassen sich aus rechtswissenschaftlicher perspektive anstellen, ohne dabei den fokus auf die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung aus den augen zu verlieren? die „multisensorische“ ausrichtung der aufgeführten kernfragen rechtfertigt sich letzt- lich nicht durch meine persönlichen forschungsvorlieben. vielmehr legen die dh selber eine derartige epistemologische orientierung nahe. sich auf mcpherson berufend, präsen- tiert svensson eine typologie von dh, zu der man die multimodal humanities zählt: „the multimodal [meine hervorhebung] humanities bring together scholarly tools, databases, networked writing and peer-to-peer commentary while also leveraging the potential of the visual and aural media that are part of contemporary life.“ zur multimodalität oder multisensorik bemerken überdies burdick et al. unter dem titel „what defines the digital humanities now?“: and the notion of the primacy of text is being challenged. whereas the initial wavers of computational humanities concentrated on everything from word frequency studies and textual analysis (classificati- on systems, mark-up encoding) to hypertext editing and textual database construction, contemporary digital humanities marks a move beyond a privileging of the textual, emphasizing graphical methods of knowledge production and organization, design as an integral component of research, transmedia crisscrossings, and an expanded concept of the sensorium of humanistic knowledge. solche nicht-verbozentrischen perspektiven der gegenwärtigen dh bringen es mit sich, dass „some of the major sectors digital humanities research extend outside the traditional core of the humanities to embrace quantitative methods from the social and natural sciences as well as techniques and modes of thinking from the arts.“ der vorliegende aufsatz gliedert sich nach dem ablauf der zbz-tagung. ohne einen an- spruch auf vollständigkeit zu erheben, zielt er darauf ab, die aufgeworfenen schlüsselfragen zu beantworten. svensson, „the landscape of digital humanities,“ note . burdick et al., digital_humanities, . burdick et al., digital_humanities, . colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - . forschungsprojekte der universität zürich: anforderungen an services und infrastrukturen . lavater-briefedition die handschriftenabteilung, eine spezialsammlung der zbz, besitzt über briefe johann caspar lavaters. die vortragenden ursula caflisch-schnetzler und barbara naumann verfolgen das ziel, diese briefe zu digitalisieren und in einer historisch-kritischen edition zu erschliessen. dabei planen die beiden wissenschaftlerinnen auch eine analo- ge edition. gemäss ihren angaben bezieht sich dieser briefwechsel auf religiöse, philoso- phische, pädagogische, literarische und naturwissenschaftliche themen. ausserdem lassen sich aus den digitalisierten briefen informationen extrahieren, die über lavaters kommu- nikationsnetzwerk und seine strukturen auskunft geben. deswegen visualisieren die wis- senschaftlerinnen diese kommunikativen netzwerke in form von graphen (graphs). diese graphen setzen sich aus kanten (linien, edges) und knoten (nodes) zusammen. der von den referentinnen gezeigte graph breitet sich über eine karte (geographic map) aus, auf der man europäische länder erkennt. der graph präsentiert viele dyadische beziehungen, die lavater offenbar mit seinen korrepondenzpartnern hatte. in den dh ist es heute üblich, visualisierungen zu produzieren und/oder bereits existie- rende visualisierungen zu verwenden, sie zu beschreiben, zu interpretieren und zu evaluie- ren. caflisch-schnetzlers und naumanns visualisierungsbestrebungen lassen sich somit in diesen wissenschaftlichen kontext einordnen. hier stellen sich fragen, wie beispielsweise: was wird visualisiert? mit welchen methoden (methods) und medien (tools) wird visualisiert? welche arten von visualisierungen lassen sich ausmachen? wie lassen sie sich beschreiben, interpretieren und evaluieren? caflisch-schnetzlers und naumanns kombination aus graph and geographic map mag betrachtende dazu veranlassen zu fragen, was diese visuellen medien tatsächlich zu leisten vermögen – und was eben nicht. die grosse anzahl der linien lässt einen eine vorstellung davon bekommen, mit wie vielen akteuren lavater korrespon- dierte. es fehlen indessen knotenattribute, wie z. b. das geschlecht, die nationalität, der wis- vgl. universität zürich, deutsches seminar. „edition johann caspar lavater.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.lavater.uzh.ch/de.html. vgl. stegbauer und rausch, einführung in netdraw, – . zum einsatz von geographic information systems (gis) in den dh vgl. z. b. murrieta-flores, donald- son und gregory, „gis and literary history,“ noten – . folie von caflisch-schnetzlers und naumanns präsentation zeigt diesen graphen. zusammen mit anderen präsentationen, die anlässlich der zbz-tagung gezeigt worden sind, lässt sich diese powerpoint-präsentation auf der konferenzwebsite herunterladen: vgl. universität zürich. „fachtagung anlässlich des -jahr-jubiläums der zb.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.bibliothek-vernetzt.uzh. ch/de.html. vgl. z. b. verbert, katrien, „on the use of visualization for the digital humanities.“ konferenzabstract, dh .org, [s.d.]. zugriff am . juli . http://dh .org/abstracts/xml/verbert_katrien_on_ the_use_of_visualization_for_t/verbert_katrien_on_the_use_of_visualization_for_the_dig.html, und bubenhofer, „drei thesen zu visualisierungspraktiken in den digital humanities,“ – . http://www.bibliothek-vernetzt.uzh.ch/de.html http://www.bibliothek-vernetzt.uzh.ch/de.html http://dh .org/abstracts/xml/verbert_katrien_on_the_use_of_visualization_for_t/verbert_katrien_on_the_use_of_visualization_for_the_dig.html http://dh .org/abstracts/xml/verbert_katrien_on_the_use_of_visualization_for_t/verbert_katrien_on_the_use_of_visualization_for_the_dig.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - senschaftliche hintergrund. solche attribute würden es einem erlauben, näheres über die besagten akteure zu erfahren. die kanten sind linien- und nicht pfeilförmig, so dass nicht erkennbar wird, ob die beziehung zwischen lavater und seinem jeweiligen adressaten ein- seitig, also asymmetrisch war oder wechselseitig, mithin symmetrisch. alle linien sind gleich dünn. sie informieren folglich nicht darüber, wie intensiv die jeweilige briefbeziehung sich gestaltete. es fragt sich darum, ob die referentinnen noch andere visualisierungen kreiert haben, welche die hier fehlenden informationen enthalten. aus anlass des -jährigen jubiläums der zbz könnten künftige rechtshistoriker die e-mail-kommunikation von rechtswissenschaftlern (key players in the field) aus den jahren bis untersuchen. ich denke z. b. an rechtswissenschaftler, welche heute die visu- alisierung und audiovisualisierung rechtlicher inhalte erforschen. sollte diese e-mail-kom- munikation noch nicht gelöscht, ja abrufbar sein, könnten rechtshistoriker der zukunft fragen, mit wem die besagten rechtsakteure in verbindung standen, aus welchen ländern diese partner stammten und welche themen sie miteinander diskutierten. ich könnte mir vorstellen, dass – hundert jahre später – rechtshistoriker auch audio-elemente in ihre graphen und kanten einbinden werden. . variantengrammatik des standarddeutschen christa dürscheid und don tuggener stellten dem auditorium ihr projekt „varianten- grammatik des standarddeutschen“ vor. es hat zum ziel, „auf der grundlage eines korpus von knapp millionen wortformen die variation in der grammatik des deutschen zu erfassen“. die resultate, welche die forschung der beiden sprachwissenschaftler zeitigen wird, werden „für die grammatikforschung und den sprachunterricht relevant sein und ei- nen praktischen nutzen für alle personen haben, die auskünfte zur standardsprachlichkeit grammatischer varianten wünschen.“ soweit ich erkennen kann, dürfte das zur debatte stehende projekt für das thema „vi- sualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte“ nichts „her- geben“. es fragt sich allerdings, ob nicht die rechtslinguistik (sprache und recht (philo- logischer ansatz) bzw. recht und sprache (rechtswissenschaftlicher ansatz)) dem zur debatte stehenden projekt etwas abgewinnen könnte: wie sind z. b. rechtstexte (gesetze, dürscheid, christa und don tuggener. „abstract.“ in kurzbiographien und abstracts zu den tagungsbeiträ- gen, hrsg. v. zentralbibliothek zürich, . zürich: [kein verlag], , . zu diesem forschungsprojekt: universität zürich, universität salzburg und universität graz. „variantengrammatik des standarddeut- schen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.variantengrammatik.net. ibid. das zentrum für rechtssetzungslehre (universität zürich) veranstaltet rechtslinguistische kolloquien: vgl. universität zürich, rechtswissenschaftliches institut, zentrum für rechtsetzungslehre. „weiterbil- dung.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www.rwi.uzh.ch/de/oe/zfr/weiterbildung.html. die philosophi- sche fakultät der universität zu köln bietet einen studiengang „europäische rechtslinguistik“ an: vgl. universität zu köln, philosophische fakultät, europäische rechtslinguistik. „europäische rechtslinguis- tik: das konzept.“ zugriff am . juli . http://erl.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/ .html. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - verordnungen, verträge etc.) auszulegen, die in deutschland, Österreich und in der deutsch- sprachigen schweiz ihren ursprung haben? schliesslich drängt sich die frage auf, ob sich die rechtslinguistik im jahre als selbständiges rechtliches grundlagenfach an deutsch- sprachigen rechtsfakultäten etabliert haben wird oder ob diese disziplin weiterhin ein ihr unwürdiges schattendasein fristen wird. . capturing multilingual discourses of switzerland es fällt auf, dass der titel des referates „capturing multilingual discourses of switzerland“ in englischer sprache erscheint. das projekt des computerlinguisten martin volk hat den zweck, mehrsprachige texte, die in der schweiz verfasst worden sind, zu digitalisieren, mit linguistischen informationen anzureichern sowie in einem xml-format verfügbar zu ma- chen. während des vortrages wurde dieses vorhaben anhand der mehrsprachigen jahrbü- cher des schweizerischen alpenclubs exemplifiziert. mittels automatischer inhaltsanalysen wurden die besagten texte für die zeit von bis daraufhin untersucht, welche zen- tralen themen darin diskutiert, welche sprachlichen kenntnisse bei der leserschaft voraus- gesetzt worden sind, und inwiefern die satzkomplexität sich verändert hat. was die thema- tische fokussierung der fraglichen texte anbelangt, sind säulendiagramme erstellt worden. diese diagramme veranschaulichen durch auf der x-achse vertikal positionierte „säulen“, wie häufig gewisse themen in einer gewissen zeitspanne diskutiert worden sind. schweizer gesetze sind bekanntlich mehrsprachig. mehrsprachigkeit gilt auch für die regesten in urteilen des schweizerischen bundesgerichtes, in denen der urteilsinhalt möglichst präzise und knapp wiedergegeben wird. ich könnte mir vorstellen, dass volks forschungsansatz sich als fruchtbarer boden für drei- oder viersprachiges schweizer recht erweisen könnte, ganz zu schweigen vom mehrsprachigen europäischen recht. im jahre könnten juristische und philologische rechtslinguisten die frage beantworten, inwie- fern der computerlinguistische ansatz in den letzten jahren für die mehrsprachigen schweizer gesetze, die multilingualen regesten des schweizerischen bundesgerichtes sowie für die mehrsprachigkeit des europäischen rechts fruchtbar gemacht werden konnte. . wissensportal „bildungsgeschichte schweiz“ christina rothen und thomas ruoss präsentierten ihr projekt „bildungsgeschichte schweiz“ . die beiden erziehungswissenschaftler untersuchen, wie sich die schulstufen vgl. volk, martin. „abstract.“ in kurzbiographien und abstracts zu den tagungsbeiträgen, hrsg. v. zentral- bibliothek zürich, – . zürich: [kein verlag], . vgl. schweizer alpen-club sac. „startseite.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.sac-cas.ch/. zum jahr- buch des schweizerischen alpenclubs vgl. z. b. zentralbibliothek zürich. „e-rara.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.e-rara.ch/zuz/content/titleinfo/ . vgl. universität zürich. „bildungsgeschichte schweiz.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.bildungs ge- schichte.uzh.ch/de.html. http://www.bildungsgeschichte.uzh.ch/de.html http://www.bildungsgeschichte.uzh.ch/de.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - („vorschule“, „obligatorische schule“, „mittelschulen“) sowie „lehrerinnen- und lehrerbil- dung“ während des . und . jahrhunderts in den verschiedenen schweizerischen kanto- nen einerseits entwickelten, andererseits veränderungsresistent waren. eine solche fragestellung wird vielleicht rechtswissenschaftler anno zum nachden- ken darüber anregen, wie sich die forschung zur visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte in der zeitspanne von bis im europäsi- chen und angloamerikanischen raum entwickelte oder gegen veränderungen resistent war, vor allen dingen in institutioneller hinsicht. . lives in transit: steamship passages in the late th and early th century world martin dusinberre, englischsprachiger ordinarius für „global history“ an der universität zürich, beschäftigte sich mit der frage: „what does it mean to tell global history through the digital humanities?“ der welt-historiker erforscht die schiffspassage „als transitperiode zwischen zwei orten […], in der soziale ordnungen und beziehungen […] neuverhandelt [sic] werden.“ wenn man als schiffspassagier im transit sei, wirke sich das auf die gefühle, psychopathologie und physiologie aus. sein thema solle, meinte er, einen austausch zwi- schen meeresgeschichte, medizingeschichte und digitaler geschichte (digital history) anstos- sen. wenn ich den referenten richtig verstanden habe, sei er noch nicht wirklich in der lage, konkrete fragen zu formulieren, die ihm dabei helfen würden, die soeben angeführten zwei forschungsgegenstände in die digital history einzubinden. digital history hat sich zu einer selbständigen forschungsdisziplin entwickelt, die sowohl bezüge zu den dh als auch zur „analogen“ geschichtswissenschaft hat. dennoch – sie „ist vorerst ein weg, kein zustand“. das bedeutet, dass sich ihre probleme, fragen, methoden im fluss befinden. aus diesem grund ist es dusinberre nicht zu verübeln, dass er, wie er coram publico frank und frei eingestand, noch nicht soweit sei offenzulegen, welche kompo- nenten der dh bzw. der digital history konkret in sein projekt einfliessen würden. mit seinem dusinberre, martin. „abstract.“ in kurzbiographien und abstracts zu den tagungsbeiträgen, hrsg. v. zentral- bibliothek zürich, – . zürich: [kein verlag], . vgl. ibid. zur digitalen geschichtswissenschaft (digital history) vgl. z. b. seefeldt und thomas, „what is digital history ?“ [s. p.]. es gibt auch einen blog mit dem titel „digitale geschichtswissenschaft“: vgl. läs- sig, simone. „digitale geschichtswissenschaft: das blog der ag digitale geschichtswissenschaft im vhd.“ zugriff am . juli . http://digigw.hypotheses.org/. der verband der historiker und historikerinnen deutschlands hat eine eigene arbeitsgruppe zur digitalen geschichtswissenschaft ins leben gerufen. die verbandswebsite präsentiert informationen dieser arbeitsgruppe: vgl. ver- band der historiker und historikerinnen deutschlands. „arbeitsgruppen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.historikerverband.de/arbeitsgruppen/ag-digitale-gw.html. schmale, digitale geschichtswissenschaft, . zu möglichen komponenten der digitalen geschichtswissenschaft vgl. z. b. schmale, digitale geschichts- wissenschaft, ff. http://www.historikerverband.de/arbeitsgruppen/ag-digitale-gw.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - ansatz „history through the digital humanities“ steht dieser forscher freilich nicht alleine da, was aus den ergebnissen einer google-recherche genau mit dieser phrase hervorgeht: historians of the future will be born of a culture that values the images, sounds and movement of video games over the silent, placid words of books. it is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that these historians might begin to encourage their apprentices to represent the past through similar visual/ aural/kinesic environments. dieses zitat von staley leicht abwandelnd, könnte dusinberre seinen forschungsgegen- stand mit hilfe einer interaktiven virtuellen umgebung (interactive virtual reality) multi- sensorisieren, vorausgesetzt, dass der digitale historiker über die erforderlichen finanziellen mittel verfügt, um eine solche umgebung zu kreieren. dabei wäre zu versuchen, das schiff abzubilden sowie die sich an bord entwickelnden sozialen relationen der passagiere zu vi- sualisieren. was deren emotionale und physische befindlichkeit betrifft, wäre es unter um- ständen möglich, sie mit hilfe ausgewählter personen in der virtual reality darzustellen. hundert jahre später dürfte sich die geschichtswissenschaft darüber klar geworden sein, inwiefern solche digitalen multisensorisierungen einen zusätzlichen erkenntnisgewinn ge- bracht haben. bezüglich der global legal history fragt es sich, inwiefern sie through the digital humanities betrieben werden könnte. . europäische netzwerke und forschungsservices . dariah-de „dariah“ bedeutet „digitale forschungsinfrastruktur für die geistes- und kulturwissen- schaften“. dariah-de erstreckt sich auf deutschland, während dariah-eu europäisch ausgerichtet ist. das referat über dariah berührte die themen „visualisierung“, „audio- visualisierung“ und „multisensorisierung“ nicht. darum erlaube ich mir, die lesenden auf die dariah-website zu verweisen. ich habe auf dieser website im suchfeld rechts oben den begriff „visualisierung“ einge- geben und treffer erhalten (stand . märz ). es würde sich lohnen, die einzelnen „hits“ genauer anzuschauen, z. b. im hinblick darauf, welche inhalte von welchen akteuren visualisiert werden und welche art von visualisierungen produziert worden sind. mit den suchbegriffen „audiovisualisierung“, „multisensorisierung“, „rechtsgeschichte“, „rechts- theorie“ und „rechtsinformatik“ habe ich jeweils die fundmenge null erzielt. „multimedia“ hat einen treffer gemacht, „design“ hingegen sieben. im sommer ist die schweize- rische akademie der geistes- und sozialwissenschaften (sagw) kooperationspartnerin von staley, „digital historiography,“ . vgl. z. b. staley, „digital historiography,“ – , und kheraj, „the presence of the past,“ [s.p.]. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - dariah geworden. die sagw betreut den schwerpunkt „wissenschaft im wandel“. darin laufen projekte, wie etwa jenes, das den titel „digital humanities: infrastrukturen, forschungsprojekte, netzwerke“ trägt. zusammen mit der alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) und der forschungsinfrastruktur für sprachressourcen in den geistes- und sozialwissenschaften (clarin) steuert dariah dazu bei, dass sich die dh konsolidieren, d. h. institutionalisie- ren. einen solchen „institutionalisierungsbeitrag“ leisten auch fachzeitschriften, wie z. b. die zeitschrift für digitale geisteswissenschaften (zfdg), digital humanites quarterly (dhq) und das journal of digital humanities (jdh) sowie konferenzen, forschung und lehre. . clarin-d „clarin“ steht für „common language resources and technology infrastructure“. auf ihrer webseite findet sich eine rubrik mit dem titel „auffinden“. scrollt man darauf, öff- nen sich drei sub-menüs mit den titeln „vlo: suche nach ressourcen“, „fcs-suche in vgl. immenhauser, beat. „sagw wird cooperating partner von dariah.“ schweizerische akademie der geistes- und sozialwissenschaften: aktuelles. http://www.sagw.ch/sagw/aktuelles/news- /mitglied- dariah.html. vgl. schweizerische akademie der geistes- und sozialwissenschaften. „schwerpunkte.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.sagw.ch/sagw/schwerpunkte.html. vgl. schweizerische akademie der geistes- und sozialwissenschaften. „digital humanities: infra- strukturen, forschungsprojekte, netzwerke.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.sagw.ch/de/sagw/ laufende-projekte/digital-humanities.html. vgl. alliance of digital humanities organizations. „home.“ zugriff am . juli . https://adho.org/. clarin-d. „home.“ zugriff am . juli . http://de.clarin.eu/de/. vgl. zfdg: zeitschrift für digitale geisteswissenschaften. „home.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www. zfdg.de/. vgl. dhq: digital humanities quarterly. „home.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.digitalhuman- ities.org/dhq/. vgl. jdh: journal of digital humanities. „home.“ zugriff am . juli . http://journalofdigitalhu- manities.org/. vgl. dhd: digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum. „aktuelles.“ zugriff am . juli . https:// dig-hum.de/aktuelles. vgl. dhd: digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum. „forschung: projekte.“ zugriff am . juli . https://dig-hum.de/forschung/projekte. vgl. dhd: digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum. „Über dhd: digitale geisteswissenschaften.“ zugriff am . juli . https://dig-hum.de/digitale-geisteswissenschaften. zur „disziplinierung“ der dh vgl. auch klambauer, „einführung in das fach,“ [s.p.]. vgl. wikipedia. „clarin.“ zugriff am . juli . https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/clarin. „vlo“ steht für virtual language observatory. vgl. clarin-d. „auffinden: vlo: suche nach ressour- cen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://de.clarin.eu/de/auffinden/vlo-suche-nach-ressourcen. http://www.sagw.ch/de/sagw/laufende-projekte/digital-humanities.html http://www.sagw.ch/de/sagw/laufende-projekte/digital-humanities.html http://www.zfdg.de/ http://www.zfdg.de/ http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/ http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - ressourcen“ und „referenzressourcen“. es würde zu weit führen, die drei rubriken mit denselben schlagwörtern abzufragen, die ich in bezug auf dariah-de verwendet habe. es lohnt sich indes, die clarin-website weiter zu explorieren. dabei fällt beispielsweise auf, dass (noch) keine rechtswissenschaftliche facharbeitsgruppe ins leben gerufen worden ist. aus meiner sicht würde es sich anbieten, eine internationale facharbeitsgruppe „rechtliche grundlagenfächer“ zu gründen. ein solcher schritt würde einen anreiz dafür schaffen, dass sich rechtswissenschaftliche fakultäten der deutschsprachigen länder (deutschland, Öster- reich und schweiz) an clarin anschlössen. . forschungsnahe nationale infrastrukturen im aufbau – infrastrukturen und services für linguistische projekte (session ) . Überblick in der zweiten tagungshälfte galt es, sich für eine der drei angebotenen sessionen zu ent- scheiden. aufgrund meiner fragen (oben ziffer . ) wählte ich session aus. sich auf den „universitären forschungsschwerpunkt (ufsp) sprache und raum“ und dessen labs (la- boratorien) beziehend, versprach die veranstaltung im kleineren rahmen, in meine in- teressensrichtung zu gehen. im Überblick betrachtet, schnitt session folgende fragen an: welche infrastrukturen und services für linguistische projekte existieren bereits? für wen stehen diese infrastrukturen und services offen und auf wie lange sind sie angelegt? es wurde betont, dass es bei befristeten digitalen projekten darauf ankomme, von anbeginn an darauf zu achten, dass deren finanzierung gewährleistet bleibe, wenn jene der initialisierungsför- derer abgeschlossen sei. in aller regel zähle da der „gute wille“ der institution, welche dem jeweiligen projekt bisher gastrecht gewährt habe. das akronym „fcs“ bedeutet „federated content search.“ vgl. clarin-d. „auffinden: fcs: suche in ressourcen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://de.clarin.eu/de/auffinden/fcs-suche-in-ressourcen in verbin- dung mit clarin. „fcs.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www.clarin.eu/glossary/fcs. zu den referenzressourcen vgl. clarin-d. „auffinden: referenzressourcen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://de.clarin.eu/de/auffinden/referenzressourcen. vgl. clarin-d. „facharbeitsgruppen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://de.clarin.eu/de/facharbeitsgrup- pen. vgl. universität zürich. „ufsp sprache und raum.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.spur.uzh.ch/ de.html. zu den universitären forschungsschwerpunkten vgl. universität zürich. „forschung: for- schungsschwerpunkte.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.uzh.ch/de/research.html. http://de.clarin.eu/de/facharbeitsgruppen http://de.clarin.eu/de/facharbeitsgruppen http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de.html http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - der ufsp sprache und raum hat die aufgabe, innovative ansätze einzubringen, indem er wissenschaftliche infrastrukturen bereitstellt und interessierte akteure unterstützt, darunter studierende und wissenschaftler. bisher haben wir uns mit unbewegten (statischen) visualisierungen beschäftigt. daher möchte ich jetzt die bewegten (dynamischen) visualisierungen und allenfalls auch audio- visualisierungen des videolab behandeln. dennoch möchte ich es nicht versäumen, die wichtigkeit und bedeutung des gislab und corpuslab hervorzuheben. insbesondere rechtslinguistisch interessierte juristen seien zu ermuntern, sich gründlich mit der arbeit dieser beiden labs auseinanderzusetzen und dabei zu fragen, welche ihrer probleme, fragen und erkenntnisse sich – mutatis mutandis – auf die rechtswissenschaft übertragen liessen. . das videolab der vortrag zum videolab führte den titel „open sensors: from sensors to data“. klaus wolfgang kesselheim, der leiter dieses lab, erläuterte uns, mit welchen medien er arbeite, um visuelle und audiovisuelle daten zu erfassen. dabei handle es sich um normale videoka- meras, action-kameras, kleinstbildkameras, omnidirektionale kameras (aufnahmegeräte, die „in der lage [sind], bilder aus allen richtungen in einem bereich von grad horizontal als auch vertikal aufzunehmen“ ) sowie eyetracker (geräte, welche imstande sind, augenbewe- gungen aufzuzeichnen und zu analysieren). der sprechende machte deutlich, das videolab untersuche, inwiefern menschen räumliche voraussetzungen für ihre interaktionen schüfen und wie sie in ihrer räumlichen umgebung elemente aktivieren würden, um ihre interakti- onellen ziele zu verfolgen. dies, indem sie gleichzeitig ihre interaktionen im zeit-räumlich und situationellen kontext verankern würden. als beispiele, für die bereits forschungsdaten vorlägen, führte kesselheim eine zahnarztpraxis und den innenraum einer kirche an. der videolab-website sind weitere informationen zu entnehmen: unlike other methods, such as questionnaire studies, video recordings permit studying the behavior of the participants while they are carrying out their everyday interaction. and, unlike field notes, for example, video recordings make it possible to repeatedly watch the interaction and to scrutinize even the smallest details of the temporal and spatial organization of the event. vgl. universität zürich. „fachtagung anlässlich des -jahr-jubiläums der zb: präsentationen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.bibliothek-vernetzt.uzh.ch/de.html [folie von derungs, kesselheims und samardžićs präsentation]. zum videolab vgl. universität zürich. „ufsp sprache und raum: laboratorien.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de/departments/videolab.html. zum gislab vgl. universität zürich. „ufsp sprache und raum: laboratorien.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de/departments/gislab.html. zum korpuslab vgl. universität zürich. „ufsp sprache und raum: laboratorien.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de/departments/korpuslab.html. wikipedia. „omnidirektionale kamera.“ zugriff am . juli . https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/omnidi- rektionale_kamera. universität zürich. „ufsp sprache und raum: laboratorien.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.spur. uzh.ch/de/departments/videolab.html. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/omnidirektionale_kamera https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/omnidirektionale_kamera http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de/departments/videolab.html http://www.spur.uzh.ch/de/departments/videolab.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - es wäre durchaus denkbar, medien im juristischen kontext zu installieren, um visuelle und audiovisuelle daten zu sammeln, z. b. in einer anwaltskanzlei oder in den räumen, in wel- chen sich der schweizerische juristentag, eine konferenz des schweizerischen juristenver- eins, abspielt. unter umständen könnte man für solche projekte wissenschaftssoziologisch interessierte rechtssoziologen gewinnen oder auch kommunikations- und medienpsycholo- gisch interessierte rechtspsychologen sowie juristische rechtslinguisten. gleichwohl stän- den diesem ansinnen ernstliche hindernisse im wege: abgesehen davon, dass mein be- rufsstand an geheimnisregeln (anwaltsgeheimnis, amtsgeheimnis) gebunden ist, lassen sich juristen von berufes wegen nicht gerne in die karten schauen – schon gar nicht von einer videokamera. wie mich dünkt, pflegen angehörige meiner zunft nur mit offenen karten zu spielen, wo es in der jeweiligen situation angemessen und von vorteil zu sein scheint. last, but not least dürften persönlichkeits- und datenschutzrechtliche probleme solchen visual and audiovisual recordings entgegenstehen. . förderer . fragen an die förderer nach dem motto „zuerst die geistige nahrung“ beschäftigte sich die zbz-tagung, erst als sie ihrem ende zuging, mit zentralen geldgebenden institutionen der schweiz: dem snf und der sagw. ich trat den beiden vorträgen mit zwei fragen entgegen: . worin unter- scheiden sich der snf und die sagw hinsichtlich der dauer ihrer förderungsmassnah- men? . fördern die beiden institutionen derzeit rechtswissenschaftliche projekte, welche die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und/oder multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte zum gegenstand haben? wer noch anders gelagerte informationen zu diesen vorträgen einholen möchte, dem werden die folien der beiden referenten weiterhelfen. mit bezug auf die präsentation „euresearch, europäische programme – horizon “ möchte ich interessierten die informative website ans herz legen. . snf und sagw brigitte arpagaus, bereichsleiterin der geisteswissenschaften und stellvertretende leiterin der abteilung geistes- und sozialwissenschaften beim snf, legte dar, forschende könnten vgl. universität zürich. „fachtagung anlässlich des -jahr-jubiläums der zb: präsentationen.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.bibliothek-vernetzt.uzh.ch/de/praesentationen.html. vgl. euresearch: swiss guide to european research & innovation. „home.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www.euresearch.ch/de/. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - ihre themen frei wählen. die beitragsdauer des snf betrage ein bis vier jahre. seine förde- rung sei als „anschubfinanzierung“ gedacht. die website des snf besitzt ein suchfeld. das dort eingegebene schlagwort „visualisie- rung“ hat ergebnisse gezeitigt (stand . juli ), während die schlagwörter „audiovi- sualisierung“, „multisensorisierung“ und „legal design“ ergebnislos ausgefallen sind. ich habe die besagten treffer daraufhin untersucht, ob sie sich auf die visualisierung rechtlicher inhalte beziehen lassen. soweit ich erkennen kann, ist es nicht möglich, einen solchen bezug herzustellen. beat immenhauser, stellvertretender generalsekretär der sagw, berichtete, die aufga- benteilung zwischen dem snf und der sagw sei geklärt. der snf fördere beispielsweise editionen mit einer laufzeit von weniger als zehn jahren, während die sagw für editionen zuständig sei, deren laufzeit zehn jahre übersteige. die jetzigen schwerpunkte der sagw sind: „sprachen und kulturen“, „nachhaltige ent- wicklung“ sowie „wissenschaft im wandel“. meine bemühungen sind vergeblich geblieben, in den drei schwerpunkten ein laufendes projekt zur visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und/oder multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte zu finden. die dh finden sich im schwer- punkt „wissenschaft im wandel“. unter der Überschrift „dh“ lässt sich die rechtswissen- schaft nicht auffinden. einzig das projekt „digitalisierung der sammlung schweizerischer rechtsquellen (ssrq) figuriert unter der rubrik „geschichte“ und dort wiederum in der unterrubrik „netzwerke“. die rechtsquellenstiftung des schweizerischen juristenvereins betreut dieses vorhaben. offenbar kommen die dh bei der schweizerischen rechtswis- senschaft (noch) nicht an. dies ist zu bedauern, zumal die dh ein tiefes, grosses gefäss bil- den würden, welches die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und/oder multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte als forschungs- und lehrgegenstände aufzunehmen vermöchte. uns wissenschaftlern bleibt zu wenig zeit, zu lesen, zu reflektieren und zu schreiben. dass uns informationen überfluten, stellt ein dauerproblem dar. seien wir doch ehrlich: es ist der punkt erreicht, wo wir nicht mehr mit der informationsflut fertig werden. deshalb halten viele es für ratsam, die eigene forschung auf eine möglichst enge fragestellung intra muros zu begrenzen und von vornherein darauf zu achten, dass die dafür massgebliche lite- ratur einigermassen überschaubar bleibt. wer es trotzdem wagt, magnam terram incognitam intra et extra muros zu betreten, läuft gefahr, dass ihm der förderzeitraum von vier jahren zu eng wird, und seine epistemologische exkursion mangels zufuhr von Überlebensmitteln ihr ziel nicht erreicht. ich halte die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensori- sierung rechtlicher inhalte für eine solche magnam terram incognitam. warum? die rechtli- chen grundlagenfächer haben sich bisher nicht oder nur am rande mit diesem forschungs- vgl. schweizerische akademie der geistes- und sozialwissenschaften. „laufende pojekte in den schwer- punkten: digital humanities.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.sagw.ch/sagw/laufende-projekte/ digital-humanities/gesellschaftswissenschaften.html. vgl. ibidem. http://www.sagw.ch/sagw/laufende-projekte/digital-humanities/gesellschaftswissenschaften.html http://www.sagw.ch/sagw/laufende-projekte/digital-humanities/gesellschaftswissenschaften.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - gegenstand befasst, geschweige denn die rechtsdogmatischen fächer. wissenschaftliche akteure der visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte haben demnach keine andere wahl, als längere expeditionen in für gewöhnlich unbekannte geistes- und sozialwissenschaftliche territorien zu machen. sich hier aufhaltend, müssen die rechtswissenschaftler die vorgefundenen erkenntnisse daraufhin überprüfen, inwiefern sie sich – mutatis mutandis – auf die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisie- rung rechtlicher inhalte anwenden lassen. innerhalb und ausserhalb der rechtswissenschaft dürften sich noch weitere magnae terrae incognitae abzeichnen. beim anblick dieser „nackten“ tatsachen fragt es sich, ob der snf sich nicht mindestens teilweise dafür einsetzen könnte, weniger projekte, sie dafür über einen längeren zeitraum als „bloss“ vier jahre zu fördern – unter umständen auch in absprache mit der sagw. es lässt sich nicht ausschliessen, dass zu diesem zweck die rechtlichen grundlagen, auf denen die tätigkeit der beiden förderinstitutionen beruht, geändert werden müssten. sie finden sich im bundesgesetz über die förderung der forschung und der innovation (fifg). . ausklang . wissenschaftliche ausbeute die zbz-tagung hat eine grössere wissenschaftliche ausbeute gebracht – und dies sogar aus rechtswissenschaftlicher perspektive. die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisen- sorisierung gehören zum kern-„geschäft“ der dh. aufgrund dessen war es möglich, gewisse inhalte einzelner vorträge mit der visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisie- rung rechtlicher inhalte fruchtbar zu vernetzen. eventuell an gryphius’ gedicht „es ist alles eitel“ anknüpfend (du siehst, wohin du siehst, nur eitelkeit auf erden. / was dieser heute baut, reißt jener morgen ein; / wo itzund städte stehn, wird eine wiese sein, / auf der ein was den deutschsprachigen raum anbelangt, ragen die arbeiten beispielsweise lachmayers, röhls, boehme-nesslers und hilgendorfs heraus. während lachmayer und hilgendorf die visualis- ierung rechtlicher inhalte ins zentrum stellen, beziehen die anderen autoren ebenso die audiovisu- alisierung rechtlicher inhalte in ihre forschung ein. bestärkt durch kenneys theorien zur multisen- sorischen kommunikation und zu den multisensorischen medien, fährt meine wenigkeit damit fort, zusätzlich die multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte zu explorieren. im Übrigen sollten diese multisen- sorischen theorien für die rechtstheorie fruchtbar gemacht werden. im englischsprachigen raum ha- ben sich z. b. austin, goodrich, katsh, sherwin, feigenson und spiesel um die rechtsvisualisierung und rechtliche audiovisualisierung verdient gemacht. um die vorliegende fussnote nicht aufzublähen, sind einzelne werke der genannten autoren im literaturverzeichnis aufgeführt. vgl. schweizerische eidgenossenschaft. „startseite: bundesrecht.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www. admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/ /index.html. https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/ /index.html https://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/ /index.html colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - schäferskind wird spielen mit den herden. […]), schreibt von matt, emeritierter professor für neuere deutsche literatur an der universität zürich: ganze lehrstühle leben von der produktion semiotischer konzepte und der demontage ihrer vor- gänger. die studierenden glauben daran, richten sich danach aus, schreiben dissertationen darüber und müssen eines tages zur kenntnis nehmen, dass kein hahn mehr nach ihrer wissenschaftlichen heilslehre kräht. ich hoffe, dass meine eigenen informationen und einschätzungen nichts demontiert, nichts zerpflückt, sondern mancherlei sich öffnende blüten der dh für eine digitale rechtswissen- schaft gepflückt haben. . jurisprudentia semper reformanda est angehörige der rechtlichen grundlagenfächer – rechtshistoriker, rechtstheoretiker, rechts- soziologen, rechtspsychologen und rechtslinguisten – sollten sich mit den dh auseinan- dersetzen. meine aufforderung richtet sich besonders an jene anghörige der rechtlichen grundlagenfächer, die sich mit der visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und/oder multisen- sorisierung rechtlicher inhalte bereits befassen oder dies zu tun gedenken. dabei handelt es sich um forschungsgegenstände, die man mit dem etikett „multisensory legal design“ versehen könnte, wenn es um das hervorbringen von rechtsvisualisierungen, rechtlichen audiovisua- lisierungen und von rechtlichen multisensorisierungen geht. digitale geisteswissenschaftler möchte ich dazu motivieren, – im interdisziplinären dia- log – akteure der rechtlichen grundlagenfächer auf die schätze aufmerksam zu machen, nach denen letztere in den dh graben könnten, insbesondere im hinblick auf die visualisie- rung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte. ich möchte diesem text einen fiktionalen schluss verleihen, indem ich fingiere, ich sei bereits verstorben: „tot-lebend“ wie ich sei, schriebe ich der zbz einen brief aus anlass ihres -jahr-jubiläums. vielleicht gehört es sich nicht, einen wissenschaftlichen text in auf einer fiktion beruhenden art und weise enden zu lassen. allein – eine solche form der meinungsäusserung wird mir ein stück narrenfreiheit gewähren. zudem werde ich ge- wisse dinge klarer und deutlicher ausdrücken können, als ich dies in einem herkömmlichen „ausblick“, wie er nachfolgend angebracht wäre, zu tun vermöchte. die fiktionalität dieses rückschauenden „aus-blicks“ erlaubt es auch, sich auf einen längeren zeitraum zu beziehen, als dies in einem traditionellen ausblick getan wird. so wagt susskind „bloß“, ins jahr vorauszublicken, um tomorrow’s lawyers zu beschreiben. gryphius, „es ist alles eitel,“ . von matt, sieben küsse, . vgl. z. b. susskind, tomorrow’s lawyers, f. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - . fiktiver brief aus dem jenseits jenseits, im januar sehr geehrte mitarbeitende und humanoide roboter der zentralbibliothek zürich ich danke ihnen für ihren brief anfangs dieses jahres. ihrer nachricht entnehme ich, dass sie vorhaben, das -jahr-jubiläum der zbz mit einer tagung in der aula der universität zürich zu feiern. wenn ich sie richtig verstanden habe, kontaktieren sie verstorbene wissen- schaftler, die im jahr unterschiedlichen fakultäten der universität zürich angehörten. sie möchten von uns jenseitigen genaueres über frühere zustände der alma mater turicensis erfahren. ich fühle mich geehrt, dass ihre wahl punkto rechtswissenschaftlicher fakultät auf mich gefallen ist. ich solle ihnen fragen beantworten, welche meine fakultät anno do- mini beträfen: . wer wurde im jahr neu an die rechtswissenschaftliche fakultät der universität zürich in die fachgruppe „grundlagenfächer“ berufen? auf welche forschungsgegen- stände legten die neuberufenen das hauptgewicht? inwiefern bestand ein zusam- menhang zwischen ihren forschungsschwerpunkten und den dh? . betrieben die neuberufenen „reine“ rechtliche grundlagenforschung und -lehre? mit anderen worten, vermittelten ihre forschung und lehre eher grundlegende erkennt- nisse über die entwicklung des rechts, seine strukturen, funktionen und wirkungen? oder verhalfen ihre wissenschaftlichen aktivitäten vielmehr zu wissen, das sich in der rechtspraxis anwenden liess? . was hofften sie, mit ihrem aufsatz „perspektiven einer digitalen rechtswissenschaft: visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung“ zu bewirken ? sie mögen mir verzeihen, wenn die aus meiner jenseitigen perspektive entwickelten ant- worten dann und wann etwas verschroben anmuten. seelen verstorbener, in deren gemein- schaft ich unterdessen lebe, neigen dazu, die dinge sub specie aeternitatis zu betrachten. . . neuberufene im jahr und ihre aktivitäten josé luis alonso, ordentlicher professor für römisches recht, juristische papyrologyie und privatrecht, sowie elisabetta fiocchi, assistenzprofessorin für rechtsgeschichte, traten ihre Ämter in der ersten hälfte des jahres an. als ich meinen aufsatz „perspektiven einer digitalen rechtswissenschaft: visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung“ ausarbeitete, kannte ich die neuberufenen nicht persönlich. ich holte informationen über sie auf ihren websites ein (stand april ). nebenbei bemerkt, frage ich mich, ob die rechtswissenschaftliche fakultät der universität zürich inzwischen dafür gesorgt hat, die vgl. universität zürich. „news: alle artikel / archiv.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.uzh.ch/news/ info/berufungen/index.php. http://www.uzh.ch/news/info/berufungen/index.php http://www.uzh.ch/news/info/berufungen/index.php colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - „history“ der webauftritte ihrer emeritierten professoren zu archivieren. alonso und fioc- chi dürften mittlerweile in den wohlverdienten ruhestand getreten sein. in alonsos curriculum vitae war zu lesen: „the kernel of my research to the present date has been private law, particularly obligations and real securities. my work in these fields arises from an interest in the structure of legal institutions in ancient legal thought and prac- tice.“ an einer anderen stelle hielt der romanist und juristische aegyptologe fest: in the last decade, my attention has turned to the legal practice of the papyri, an interest nurtured at the department of papyrology of the university of warsaw, home to the leading publication in the field, the journal of juristic papyrology. it is, in my view, urgent to reconstruct the bond between papyrology and roman law: […]. papyrologists, in particular, have been left abandoned to their own forces, without the assistance of legally trained experts, facing an enormous mass of documents whose nature is prevalently legal. fiocchi beteiligte sich dazumal am digitalisierungsprojekt „natural law in italy“, das teil des projektes „natural law – “ war. sie fungierte als mitbegründerin des projektes „natural law and law of nations across the ocean: domingo muriel and his rudimenta iuris naturae et gentium ( )“. es würde den rahmen meines briefes sprengen, fiocchis aktivitäten zu beschreiben, welche über die gerade vorhin erwähnten themen hinausgingen. fiocchis digitalisierungsprojekt liess sich mit den dh verbinden. ende des zwanzigsten und anfangs des . jahrunderts pflegten viele historisch orientierte rechtswissenschaftler, ihre quellen zu digitalisieren. aus diesem grund gehe ich davon aus, dass alonso gleichfalls selber rechtshistorische quellen, wie etwa bücher zur juristischen papyrologie, scannte bzw. durch seine mitarbeitenden scannen liess. im Übrigen liess sich im jahre (noch) kein bezug dieser wissenschaftler zu den dh ausmachen. . . messlatte für die wissenschaft anfang des . jahrhunderts um ganz ehrlich zu sein, möchte ich mir nicht anmassen, ihre zweite frage zu beantworten, zumal ich zu der zeit, als ich den aufsatz „perspektiven einer digitalen rechtswissenschaft: visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung“ verfasste, weder mit den ver- öffentlichungen noch mit der lehrtätigkeit von alonso und fiocchi vertraut war. wie auch immer, es ist meine Überzeugung: wissenschaft sollte sich – innerhalb der schranken des gesetzes, der ethik und moral – frei entfalten können. . . . forderungen an die wissenschaft anfang des . jahrhunderts im jahre entdeckte ich die botschaft von drew gilpin faust, the president of harvard university and lincoln professor of history. da ich nicht weiss, ob ihre verlautbarung für sie im internet noch abrufbar ist, zitiere ich ausschnitte daraus. sie begann mit: „we under- vgl. harvard university. „the harvard campaign: president’s message.“ zugriff am . juli . http:// campaign.harvard.edu/presidents-message. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - take the harvard campaign at a moment when higher education is being challenged to reinvent itself, […].“ diese kampagne „calls upon us to articulate and affirm the fundamental values and purposes of higher education in the rapidly changing environment of a global and digital world – a world filled with promise for improving lives [meine hervorhebungen], a world in which talent recognizes no boundaries, a world in which creativity and curiosity will fuel the future.“ im weiteren verlauf ihrer programmschrift konkretisierte faust, welche anforderungen die aufgabe „wissenschaft“ stelle: „we must harness the power of one harvard to advance discovery and learning across fields, disciplines, and our broad range of schools to change knowledge and to change the world [meine hervorhebungen].“ unter „advancing meaning, values, and creativity“ forderte the president zum einen eine historisch ausgerichtete wis- senschaft: „[…], harvard must reinforce the significance of transcending the immediate and instrumental to explore and understand what humans have thought, done, and been, and thus to imagine where they might best seek to go“. zum anderen postulierte die historike- rin: „we must offer more prominence to innovation and hands-on discovery inherent in engineering, the arts, and design [meine hervorhebung], as well as to experiential learning beyond the classroom.“ die geschichtswissenschaftlerin schloss mit: „[…] universities are unique in their commitment to the long term, to uniting the wisdom of the past with the urgen- cy of the present and the promise of the future [meine hervorhebungen]. […].“ Žižek, ein slowenischer philosoph und kulturkritiker ende des . und anfang des . jahrhunderts, forderte im feuilleton der neuen zürcher zeitung vom samstag, dem . märz : was wir hier zurückweisen sollten, ist die grundprämisse dieses diskurses: ‚studenten müssen sich sicher in den klassenzimmern fühlen.‘ nein, müssen sie nicht. vielmehr müssen sie lernen, die kom- fortzone zu verlassen, sich offen mit all den erniedrigungen und ungerechtigkeiten des realen lebens zu konfrontieren und dagegen zu kämpfen. ibid. vgl. harvard university. „the harvard campaign: aspirations: advancing the power of integrated knowledge.“ zugriff am . juli . http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-power-integrat- ed-knowledge. vgl. harvard university. „the harvard campaign: aspirations: advancing meaning, values, and creativ- ity.“ zugriff am . juli . http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-meaning-values-and-cre- ativity. vgl. harvard university. „the harvard campaign: president’s message.“ zugriff am . juli . http:// campaign.harvard.edu/presidents-message. vgl. harvard university. „aspirations: advancing innovation and hands-on discovery.“ zugriff am . juli . http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-innovation-and-hands-discovery. vgl. harvard university. „the harvard campaign: president’s message.“ zugriff am . juli . http:// campaign.harvard.edu/presidents-message. ibid. Žižek, „das leben ist nun einmal krass,“ . http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-power-integrated-knowledge http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-power-integrated-knowledge http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-meaning-values-and-creativity http://campaign.harvard.edu/aspiration/advancing-meaning-values-and-creativity colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - für mich bestand ein zusammenhang zwischen fausts und Žižeks forderungen und Äusse- rungen in einzelnen rechtswissenschaftlichen publikationen. so bemerkte volpato im jahr : one feature about legal outputs is their unabashed textuality. it is (still) uncommon to see advice, advocacy or judgments presented as videos, animations, graphs, or simulations. in informatic terms there is a strong rigidity about which channels and codes are appropriate and a resistance to testing the communication efficiency of trying something else. in many instances, more information would be conveyed through these non-textual ‘channels’. griff katsh volpatos gedanklichen faden auf: „the digital lawyer will both see things differently and see different things since he or she will have some expertise in employing graphical and other nontextual capabilities to describe, characterize, and represent conflict, […].“ und vertraten brinktrine/schneider die ansicht: „für die kommunikations- fähigkeit von juristen ist entscheidend das vermögen, anderen menschen in wort, schrift und bild juristische fragen erklären zu können.“ . . . visualisierung, audiovisualisierung, multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte – gemessen an den forderungen von faust, Žižek und brinktrine/schneider ich stellte mir die aufgabe, die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte an den forderungen von faust, Žižek und brinktrine/schneider zu messen. von ihrer warte aus betrachtet, mag es aufschlussreich sein, die vorläufigen antwor- ten zu lesen, die ich anno dazumal entwickelte. indem einzelne rechtswissenschaftler ende des . und anfang des . jahrhunderts die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und/oder multisensorierung rechtlicher inhalte zu er- forschen begannen, reagierten sie auf die fortschreitende digitale transformation in gesell- schaft, wirtschaft, wissenschaft sowie im staat. infolge der digitalisierung war es einfacher geworden, visuell, audiovisuell, ja multisensorisch zu kommunizieren – auch im rechtlichen kontext. der besagte nicht-verbozentrische forschungsgegenstand enthielt das verspre- chen in sich, bestimmte bereiche des rechtslebens zu verbessern, darunter die kommuni- kation zwischen rechtsexperten und juristischen laien sowie die von stress geprägte arbeit von rechtsakteuren (richter, anwälte, staatsanwälte, polizisten etc.). verbesserung der rechtsexperten-laien-kommunikation. meine wenigkeit vertrat die Über- zeugung, die visualisierung und audiovisualisierung rechtlicher inhalte würde rechtsak- teure dazu befähigen, rechtliche konzepte und probleme sowie den ablauf rechtlicher verfahren juristischen laien besser zu erläutern und zu veranschaulichen, z. b. in der an- volpato, „legal professionalism and informatics,“ . katsh, law in a digital world, . brinktrine und schneider, juristische schlüsselqualifikationen, . vgl. feigenson und spiesel, law on display, f. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - walt-klienten-kommunikation und richter-prozessparteien-kommunikation. nebstdem regte ich anwälte und richter dazu an, sie sollten juristische laien dazu motivieren, die fakten ihres falles nicht nur verbal zu beschreiben, sondern diese rechtlichen tatsachen auch zu zeichnen oder sogar mit ihrem smartphone audiovisuell aufzuzeichnen. diese laien sollten, riet ich, weiter dazu angespornt werden, rechtliche konzepte und probleme zu skiz- zieren, die ihren fall betrafen, sowie ihre ziele und vorstellungen zu visualisieren, sei es in digitaler oder analoger form. auf diese weise, schlug ich vor, könnten anwälte und richter überprüfen, ob die juristischen laien die sie berührenden rechtlichen inhalte tatsächlich verstanden hatten. eine multisensorische rechtskommunikation würde es juristischen laien erleichtern, notwendig werdende entscheidungen sinnvoll zu treffen, beispielsweise in fami- lienrechtlichen streitigkeiten (trennung, scheidung), arbeitsrechtlichen, gesellschaftsrecht- lichen und anderen konflikten, die andere rechtsgebiete betrafen, in strafverfahren etc. reduktion des stresses von rechtsakteuren. anwälte wie richter standen unter stress. dafür gab es verschiedene ursachen: zeitdruck, permanente, zuweilen emotional belastende kon- flikte, in welche diese rechtsakteure hineingezogen wurden, lange arbeitstage, „jonglieren“ mit mehreren fällen, enormer fallerledigungsdruck, stundenlanges sitzen und arbeiten vor dem bildschirm, informationsüberflutung, allerlei telefonanrufe etc. dieser sichtbar wer- dene misstand löste reaktionen aus. vor allem im us-amerikanischen raum erschienen pu- blikationen, welche bezweckten, die ärgste not zu lindern. die autoren rieten betroffenen, wie sie den beruflich bedingten stress reduzieren sollten: „yoga for lawyers“, mindfulness for lawyers, „a lawyer’s guide to the alexander technique“, um nur drei beispiele zu nennen, die eigens auf die bedürfnisse dieser rechtsakteure zugeschnitten waren. in der elek- tronischen buchhandlung der american bar association (aba) sichtete ich unter „topics“ die rubrik „professional interests“. letztere enthielt neben den eben genannten büchern weitere publikationen zu den themen „lawyer wellness“, „mentoring“ und „work/life ba- lance“. teilweise wurden diese gegenstände auch audiovisuell im internet präsentiert, in erster linie auf youtube. die suche nach entsprechender deutschsprachiger rechtswissen- schaftlicher literatur und passenden rechtlichen audiovisualisierungen im world wide web vgl. in diesem zusammenhang rambow und bromme, „was schöns ‚reflective practitioner‘ durch die kommunikation mit laien lernen könnte,“ – . vgl. brunschwig, „multisensory law and therapeutic jurisprudence“ ( ). zum stress von anwälten und richtern vgl. z. b. love und martin, yoga for lawyers, ix, , ff., und cho und gifford, the anxious lawyer, – . vgl. love und martin, yoga for lawyers, ff. vgl. z. b. rogers, the six-minute solution, ff.; riskin, „mindfulness in the heat of conflict,“ ff., und cho und gifford, the anxious lawyer, ff. vgl. krueger, a lawyer’s guide to the alexander technique, ff. und ff. vgl. aba american bar association. „publishing.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.americanbar.org/ aba.html. vgl. aba shop. „topics: professional interests.“ zugriff am . juli . https://shop.americanbar.org/ ebus/default.aspx. vgl. z. b. rogers, scott l. „mindfulness exercise: order in the cortex,“ youtube video, : . . april . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kb-oydx tw. http://www.americanbar.org/aba.html http://www.americanbar.org/aba.html https://shop.americanbar.org/ebus/default.aspx https://shop.americanbar.org/ebus/default.aspx colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - erwies sich bedauerlicherweise als erfolglos. als ich die website des schweizerischen an- waltsverbandes aufsuchte, entdeckte ich im detailplan zum programm des . anwaltskon- gresses (thema: „schulterschluss der akteure der gerichtsbarkeit“) immerhin einen hinweis auf eine präsentation von gabriele hofmann-schmid. ihr vortrag trug den titel „stressbewältigung und zeitmanagement: wie sie es schaffen, ihre guten vorsätze in die tat umzusetzen“. ansonsten fand ich nichts einschlägiges, wiewohl ich mir gewünscht hätte, dass der schweizerische anwaltsverband – ähnlich wie die aba – solche literaturhinweise gegeben hätte. die us-amerikanische rechtslehre blieb nicht unberührt von den beschriebenen ent- wicklungen in der rechtswissenschaftlichen forschung. publikationen zum thema „mind- fulness for law students“ wurden in den usa aufgelegt, während dort (noch) keine veröf- fentlichungen zu „yoga for law students“ und „alexander technique for law students“ in erscheinung traten. allerdings offerierten law schools ihren studierenden kurse in acht- samkeit (mindfulness in law) sowie yoga-kurse (yoga for law students). zum teil wurden auch youtube-videos für law students zu diesen themen bereitgestellt. ungeachtet dieser positiven rechtsdidaktischen entwicklungen in den usa bot die rechtswissenschaftliche fakultät der universität zürich ihren studierenden nichts vergleichbares an. man mag mir entgegenhalten, dem akademischen sportverband der universität zürich (asvz) habe es oblegen, die wellness-wünsche und -ansprüche der studierenden aller fakuläten zu befrie- digen. spezialangebote für studierende des rechts wären also überflüssig, ja übertrieben ge- wesen. auf der einen seite dürfte diese behauptung zutreffen, auf der anderen seite wäre es nichtsdestotrotz sinnvoll gewesen, wenn einzelne rechtsprofessoren ihre studierenden dazu motiviert und darin angeleitet hätten, spezielle körperübungen auszuführen. diese Übun- gen hätten die studierenden später in ihrem berufsleben begleitet, so dass es ihnen leichter vgl. sav schweizerischer anwaltsverband. „weiterbildung: anwaltskongress.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www.sav-fsa.ch/de/weiterbildung/anwaltskongress.html. zu gabriele hoffmann-schmid vgl. gabriele hofmann-schmid. „legal coaching.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.legalcoaching.ch/. sav schweizerischer anwaltsverband. „weiterbildung: anwaltskongress.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www.sav-fsa.ch/de/weiterbildung/anwaltskongress.html. vgl. z. b. university of miami school of law. „mindfulness in law program.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.law.miami.edu/academics/mindfulness-in-law-program; university of california: berke- leylaw. „mindfulness in legal education.“ zugriff am . juli . https://www.law.berkeley.edu/stu- dents/mindfulness-at-berkeley-law/resources/mindfulness-in-legal-education/, und harvard law school. „wellness.“ zugriff am . juli . http://hls.harvard.edu/dept/dos/wellness/. vgl. auch rogers und jacobowitz, mindfulness & professional responsibility, ff. und ff. vgl. z. b. university of miami school of law. „yoga for law students.“ zugriff am . juli . http:// www.law.miami.edu/news/ /june/yoga-law-students; the university of british columbia: peter a. allard school of law. „yoga for law students.“ zugriff am . juli . http://www.allard.ubc.ca/ events/yoga-law-students- , und harvard law school. „wellness.“ zugriff am . juli . http://hls. harvard.edu/dept/dos/wellness/. vgl. z. b. rogers, scott l. „mindfulness for law students.“ youtube video, : . . oktober . https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=ceu i pypyy. https://www.law.berkeley.edu/students/mindfulness-at-berkeley-law/resources/mindfulness-in-legal-education/ https://www.law.berkeley.edu/students/mindfulness-at-berkeley-law/resources/mindfulness-in-legal-education/ http://www.allard.ubc.ca/events/yoga-law-students- http://www.allard.ubc.ca/events/yoga-law-students- http://hls.harvard.edu/dept/dos/wellness/ http://hls.harvard.edu/dept/dos/wellness/ colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - möglich gewesen wäre, den eigenen stress gar nicht erst aufkommen zulassen oder ihn zum allermindesten auf ein erträgliches mass zu verringern. dadurch, dass rechtswissenschaftler die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multi- sensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte erforschten und teilweise auch lehrten, erfuhr das tradi - tionell verbozentrische rechtliche wissen einen entscheidenden wandel. dieser „multi- sensorische“ wandel vollzog sich, indem vor allem theoretische, methodologische und historische erkenntnisse aus nicht-juristischen disziplinen eingang in rechtswissenschaft- liche veröffentlichungen fanden. an der peripherie des etablierten rechtswissenschaftlichen diskurses angesiedelt, manifestierten sich diese publikationen als monografien, aufsätze oder auch erst in form von zeitschriftenartikeln und blogpostings. in bezug auf die pro- duktion von rechtsvisualisierungen wurden erkenntnisse aus dem visual design (visuelle kommunikation) rezipiert; für die produktion von rechtlichen audiovisualisierungen (rechtsvideos, rechtsfilme) erkenntnisse aus dem audiovisual design (audiovisuelle kom- munikation, film wissenschaft) und für die produktion von legal games (legal gamification) und von legal virtual realities waren auch erkenntnisse aus dem game design und inter- action design (z. b. rechtsakteur-roboter-interaktion) massgebend. zwecks analyse und evaluation von rechtsvisualisierungen wurden erkenntnisse aus der kunstgeschichte, den medien- und kommunikationswissenschaften wichtig; für die rezeption von rechtlichen audiovisualisierungen (rechtsvideos, rechtsfilme) erkenntnisse aus den film-, medien- und kommunikationswissenschaften sowie aus den populären kulturen (popular culture studies). es gab (noch) keine studiengänge für visual legal designers und audiovisual legal designers – weder an der rechtswissenschaftlichen fakultät der universität zürich noch an der zürcher hochschule der künste (zhdk), noch an der zhaw school of management and law in winterthur. dessen ungeachtet dünkte es mich, es sei nur eine frage der zeit, bis rechts- videos systematisch und in grösserem stil produziert würden – für das internet, womöglich selbst für videowände an verwaltungsgebäuden, gerichtsgebäuden und parlamenten etc. „januskopf “ der rechtswissenschaft. wer sich mit der visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte nicht nur „synchron“, sondern auch „dia- chron“ befassen wollte, musste sich auf die visuelle, audiovisuelle und multisensorische rechtstradition einlassen. dies bedeutete, dass solcher art interessierte rechtswissenschaftler vgl. brunschwig, „multisensory law,“ f. mit weiteren literaturhinweisen. vgl. z. b. brunschwig, visualisierung von rechtsnormen, ff.; hagan, „prof. jay mitchell on visual design for lawyers,“ [s.p.], und haapio und passera, „visual law,“ [s.p.], und salo und haapio, „robo-advisors and investors,“ – . vgl. z. b. kimbro, „new legal gamification,” [s.p.]. vgl. z. b. baksi, „virtual reality helps students to master criminal law,” [s.p.]. vgl. lines, „using game-design pedagogies to embed skills in the law curriculum,” [s.p.], und martin, „a simulation game to help people prep for court,” [s.p.]. vgl. hagan, „make interactive visuals with d ,“ [s.p.]. vgl. z. b. kocher, zeichen und symbole des rechts ( ). vgl. z. b. delage, la verité par l’image ( ) [caught on camera ( ); titel der englischen Überset- zung]. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - dazu angehalten waren, vornehmlich rechtshistorische literatur zu studieren. sie beleuchte- te vergangene sensorische rechtsphänomene. hibbitts, seines zeichens us-amerikanischer rechtshistoriker und rechtsinformatiker, hielt fest: in the twelth and thirteenth centuries, the immediate european progenitors of our culture turned increasingly to writing to help preserve information and customary lore that had been primarily per- petuated and celebrated in sound, gesture, touch, smell, and taste. once this corpus was inscribed, and thus removed from its original multisensory context, it slowly but indubitably became the creature of the medium [d. h. geschriebener text] that claimed to sustain it. drei jahre später bemerkte der mit der multisensorischen rechtstradition vertraute schwei- zer rechtshistoriker carlen in seinem vorwort zum band „sinnenfälliges recht“: erstes ziel der vorliegenden sammlung, die auch so etwas wie ein wissenschaftlicher rechenschafts- bericht sein darf, ist es, das verständnis dafür zu wecken und zu fördern, dass das alte recht stark sinnfällig und plastisch war; man musste sehen und hören, das recht als geistiges ordnungsgefüge symbolisch verdeutlichen und sinnbildlich verkörpern. das recht sollte in die sinne gehen, sinnenfäl- lig sein. so wurde es dem volke bewusst, das es andererseits selber verstand, sein denken und fühlen dem recht einzuprägen. [...] vielleicht ist es gut, einem abstrakten recht und einem recht, das sich stark vom „volk“ entfernt hat, wieder das sinnenfällige recht in erinnerung zu rufen. wenn man wollte, war es also möglich, die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und mul- tisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte in der rechtshistorischen vergangenheit zu verankern. dadurch erhielt dieser gegenstand ein doppelgesicht, das gleichzeitig vorwärts und zurück- blickte. dieser eigenwillige januskopf wandte sich einerseits dem zu, was punkto visualisie- rung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte längst gedacht und getan worden war. andererseits beschäftigte er sich damit, was diesbezüglich gerade gedacht und getan wurde, sowie mit dem, was in der richtung zu überlegen und zu tun wäre. unab- hängig davon, ob man in vergangenheit zurückblickt, die gegenwart betrachtet oder in die zukunft schaut, sind es bestimmte gleichbleibende kernfragen, die behandelt werden. der sprachlichen einfachheit halber formuliere ich sie in der zeitform des präsens, ohne dabei die vergangenheit und zukunft ausschliessen zu wollen: welche rechtlichen inhalte wer- den visualisiert, audiovisualisiert und multisensorisiert? welche arten von rechtsvisualisie- rungen, rechtlichen audiovisualisierungen und multisensorisierungen werden produziert? warum und wozu werden rechtliche inhalte visualisiert, audiovisualisiert und multisenso- risiert? wie wirken sich die visuellen, audiovisuellen und multisensorischen rechtlichen er- zeugnisse aus? hoher stellenwert der kunstgeschichte und des design. ich habe oben bereits dargetan, dass der kunstgeschichte und dem design eine grosse bedeutung zukam, wenn es um die visuali- sierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte ging. last, but not least war ich davon überzeugt, dass die visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung rechtlicher inhalte studierenden des rechts sowohl während als hibitts, „coming to our senses,“ . carlen, „vorwort,“ xvi. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - auch nach ihrem studium dabei unterstützen würde – um Žižeks gedanken zu wiederho- len –, sich „mit all den erniedrigungen und ungerechtigkeiten des realen lebens zu kon- frontieren und dagegen zu kämpfen.“ . . geringe hoffnungen sie fragen, was ich mit meinem text zu bewirken hoffte. wissenschaftssoziologische gründe sprachen dagegen, grosse hoffnungen damit zu verbinden: wie bereits erwähnt, schwam- men wissenschaftler des . und . jahrhunderts in einer flut an literatur. unzählige wissenschaftliche texte konkurrierten miteinander, um die gunst der scientific community buhlend. infolgedessen schenkten wissenschaftliche akteure ihre aufmerksamkeit ledig- lich einer bestimmten anzahl von veröffentlichungen, die sie herausgesucht hatten, weil sie diese für ihre eigenen forschungs- und lehrzwecke für geeignet befunden hatten. der wissenschaftssoziologe weingart beklagte deshalb, „dass ein teil der gesamten menge an produziertem wissen einfach unbeachtet bleibt. mehr als die hälfte aller publikationen wird nie zitiert, d. h., sie fällt aus dem kommunikationsprozess heraus ([…]).“ dieses klagelied stimmte auch posner, ein vertreter des law and economics-ansatzes, an. bei genauerer be- trachtung bezog er sich dabei im wesentlichen auf die interdisziplinär ausgerichteten recht- lichen grundlagenfächer: „only a small percentage of works of interdisciplinary legal scho- larship receives sustained critical attention, […].“ denn rechtserlasse, rechtsdogmatische literatur und judikatur bildeten die unentbehrlichen informationsquellen der juristen. die unüberschaubare menge an rechtsinformationen zwang rechtswissenschaftler zur selek- tiven aufmerksamkeit. keine zeit also, sich mit der visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung aus der perspektive der dh und einer digitalen rechtswissenschaft zu befassen. meine einzige hoffnung bestand darin, dass mein text im jahre oder später als zeitdokument rezipiert werden würde, aus dem sich wissenschaftshistorische informa- tionen extrahieren liessen. ein text also für die nach- und nicht für die mitwelt. posner folgerte im letzten absatz seines aufsatzes „legal scholarship today“ ( ): „my conclusion is that interdisciplinary legal scholarship is problematic unless subjected to the test of rele- vance, of practical impact.“ obwohl einige passagen in meinem text für die rechtspraxis von damals relevant gewesen wären, stellte ich mir vor seiner veröffentlichung vor, meine juristischen zeitgenossen würden ihn nicht beachten. Žižek, „das leben ist nun einmal krass,“ . vgl. weingart, wissenschaftssoziologie, f. weingart, wissenschaftssoziologie, . posner, „legal scholarship today,” . posner, „legal scholarship today,” . colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - . . fragen an die nachwelt hoffentlich haben meine antworten ihre historische neugier befriedigt. ihre fragen liessen auf der anderen seite mich neugierig werden. da ich keinen zugang zu einem irdischen in- ternetanschluss habe, wäre ich daran interessiert, näheres über die rechtswissenschaft erfahren: – lässt sich die rechtswissenschaft inzwischen in eine analoge, digitale und nanotechnolo- gische aufgliedern? abb. – hat sich eine digitale rechtswissenschaft (digital law oder digital legal science) gleichbe- rechtigt neben den dh, den digitalen sozialwissenschaften (digital social sciences), der di- gitalen medizin (digital medicine), der digitalen theologie (digital theology) und den digi- talen naturwissenschaften (digital natural sciences) entwickelt? – wenn ja, umfasst die digitale rechtswissenschaft die digitale rechtsdogmatik sowie die digitalen rechtlichen grundlagenfächer, wie etwa die digitale rechtsgeschichte, digitale rechtstheorie, digitale rechtsphilosophie, digitale rechtssoziologie und digitale rechts- psychologie? abb. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - – lässt sich die rechtsbilddatenbank des zentrums für rechtsgeschichtliche forschung, abteilung rechtsvisualisierung, wo ich im jahr arbeitete, im internet noch abrufen? bildet die rechtsbilddatenbank jetzt einen verbund mit anderen rechtsbilddatenbanken – unter der Ägide des max-planck-institutes für europäische rechtsgeschichte? wurde diese verbo-visuelle rechtsdatenbank in der zwischenzeit ein vorbild für das design von anderen verbo-visuellen und audiovisuellen rechtsdatenbanken? – inwiefern ist es noch möglich oder nicht mehr möglich, auf die in meinem aufsatz „per- spektiven einer digitalen rechtswissenschaft: visualisierung, audiovisualisierung und multisensorisierung“ zitierten webseiten und blogpostings zuzugreifen? – was ist aus dem von josé luis alonso initiierten forschungsschwerpunkt „juristische papyrologie“ geworden? hat sich daraus ein forschungszentrum entwickelt? wenn ja, existiert diese einrichtung noch und wie verhält sie sich zu andern institutionen der recht- lichen grundlagenfächer an der universität zürich? fragen, nichts als fragen. sie bevölkern meinen – unseren jenseitigen raum. als ehemalige angehörige der irdischen scientific community schwirren wir darin herum. wir murmeln – raunen kritisch weiter, als ob wir nicht verschieden wären, als ob unsere meinungen in terra noch gefragt wären. aus den gefängnissen unserer leiber ausgebrochen, sind unsere see- len männlich und weiblich zugleich. die trennung der geschlechter ist aufgehoben. kei- ne männernetzwerke. keine old boys, die young boys auf jenseitige lehrstühle hieven. keine kolleginnen, die trotz „gleicher qualifkation“ ihre köpfe an den gläsernen decken akade- mischer paläste wundstossen, in untergeordneten positionen „hängenbleiben“ und sich – ganz weiblich – in selbstkritik zerfleischen – anstatt sich die pfauenrad schlagende rhetorik gewisser männer wenigstens ein bisschen zum vorbild zu nehmen, mit der es letzteren ge- lingt, zumeist männlich dominierte berufungskommissionen für sich einzunehmen. zum schluss möchte ich ihnen ein angebot machen: sofern gewünscht, wäre ich durchaus bereit, den organisatoren der zbz-tagung , abermals mit informationen und einschät- zungen zur verfügung zu stehen. ich hätte auch keine angst davor, allein mit intelligenter software zu kommunizieren, welche unter umständen ihre neuronalen netzwerke ersetzt haben wird. wir jenseitigen lesen momentan hararis bestseller „homo deus“ [„mensch als gott“]. es gibt einige unter uns, die erachten, der buchtitel komme einer hybris gleich. der autor hätte das substantiv „deus“ mit anführungszeichen versehen sollen. nichtsdestotrotz diskutieren wir gewisse textpassagen, darunter die folgende: yet even cyborg engineering is relatively conservative, inasmuch as it assumes that organic brains will go on being the command-and-control centres of life. a bolder approach dispenses with organic parts altogether, and hopes to engineer completely non-organic beings. neural networks will be replaced by intelligent software, which could surf both the virtual and non-virtual worlds, free from limitations of organic chemistry. after billion years of wandering inside the kingdom of organic compounds, life will break out into the vastness of the inorganic realm, and will take shapes that we cannot envision even in our wildest dreams. after all, our wildest dreams are still the product of organic chemistry. harari, homo deus, f. colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - harari folgert daraus: „breaking out of the organic realm could also enable life to finaly break out of planet earth.“ im gegensatz zu seiner folgerung hat sich eine überwiegende jenseitige mehrheit gryphius’ gedicht „menschliches elende“ verschrieben, mit dessen zwei letzten strophen dieser brief ausklingen soll: gleich wie ein eitel traum leicht aus der acht hinfällt/ und wie ein strom verscheußt, den keine macht aufhält, /so muß auch unser nam, lob, ehr und ruhm verschwinden. was itzund atem holt, muß mit der luft entfliehn, /was nach uns kommen wird, wird uns ins grab nachziehn. /was sag ich? wir vergehn, wie rauch von starken winden. hochachtungsvoll grüssen sie aus jenseitigen räumen colette r. brunschwig – nicolas r. brunschwig . literatur austin, regina. „documentation, documentary, and the law: what should be made of victim impact videos ?“ cardozo law review , nr. 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( ): – . hilgendorf, eric. dtv-atlas recht. grundlagen, staatsrecht, strafrecht, bd. . münchen: deutscher taschen- buch verlag, . id., hrsg. beiträge zur rechtsvisualisierung. berlin: logos verlag, . id. dtv-atlas recht. verwaltungsrecht, zivilrecht, bd. . münchen: deutscher taschenbuch verlag, . katsh, m. ethan. law in a digital world. new york: oxford university press, . kenney, keith. philosophy for multisensory communication and media. new york: peter lang, . http://www.legaltechdesign.com/legaldesigntoolbox/ / / /make-interactive-visuals-with-d / http://www.legaltechdesign.com/legaldesigntoolbox/ / / /make-interactive-visuals-with-d / colette r. brunschwig max planck institute for european legal history research paper series no. - kheraj, sean. „the presence of the past: the possibilities of virtual reality for history“. blog. activehistory. ca: history matters, . februar . zugriff am . juli . http://activehistory.ca/ / /the-presen- ce-of-the-past-the-possibilities-of-virtual-reality-for-history/. kimbro, stephanie. „new legal gamification: game on law“. blog. legal informatics blog, . august . zugriff am . juli . https://legalinformatics.wordpress.com/ / / /kimbro-new-legal-gamificati- on-venture-game-on-law/. klambauer, klara. „einführung in das fach“. blog. digitale:geschichte, . februar . zugriff am . juli . http://dguw.hypotheses.org/ . kocher, gernot. zeichen und symbole des rechts: eine historische ikonographie. münchen: beck, . kretschmer, bernhard, hrsg. rechts- als geisteswissenschaft: festschrift für wolfgang schild zum . geburtstag. studien zur rechtswissenschaft, bd. . hamburg: kovač, . krueger, karen g. a lawyer’s guide to the alexander technique: using your mind-body connection to handle stress, alleviate pain, and improve performance. chicago: aba publishing, . lachmayer, friedrich. „graphische darstellungen im rechtsunterricht.“ zeitschrift für verkehrsrecht ( ): – . id. „visualisierung des rechts.“ in zeichenkonstitution. akten des . semiotischen kolloquiums regensburg , bd. , hrsg. v. annemarie lange-seidl, – . berlin: walter de gruyter, . lines, kris. „using game-design pedagogies to embed skills in the law curriculum“. blog. higher education academy, . august . zugriff am . juli . https://www.heacademy.ac.uk/using-game-design-peda- gogies-embed-skills-law-curriculum. love, hallie n. und natalie martin. yoga for lawyers: mind-body techniques to feel better all the time. chica- go: aba publishing, . martin, greg st. „a simulation game to help people prep for court“. blog. news@northeastern, . sep- tember . zugriff am . juli . https://news.northeastern.edu/ / /virtual-courtroom-project/#_ ga= . . . . von matt, peter. sieben küsse: glück und unglück in der literatur. münchen: carl hanser, . murrieta-flores, patricia, christopher donaldson und ian gregory. „gis and literary history: advancing digital humanities research through the spatial analysis of historical travel writing and topographical li- terature.“ dhq , nr. 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(may ): [s.p.]. https://www.historians.org/publica- tions-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may- /intersections-history-and-new-media/what-is-digi- tal-history. sherwin, richard k. „imagining law as film (representation without reference?).“ in law and the hu manities: an introduction, hrsg. v. austin sarat, matthew anderson und catherine o. frank, – . cambridge: cambridge university press, . id. visualizing law in the age of the digital baroque: arabesques and entanglements. london: routledge, . id. „visual jurisprudence.“ n.y.l. sch. l. rev. ( – ): – . staley, david j. „digital historiography: virtual reality.“ jahc , nr. (april ): – . stegbauer, christian und alexander rausch. einführung in netdraw: erste schritte mit dem netzwerkvisuali- sierungsprogramm. wiesbaden: springer, . susskind, richard. tomorrow’s lawyers: an introduction to your future. oxford: oxford university press, . svensson, patrik. „the landscape of digital humanities.“ dhq , nr. 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[lucas roos?]. nzz, märz . https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may- /intersections-history-and-new-media/what-is-digital-history https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may- /intersections-history-and-new-media/what-is-digital-history https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/may- /intersections-history-and-new-media/what-is-digital-history http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html stream (spatiotemporal research infrastructure for early modern brabant and flan- ders): sources, data and methods isabelle devos , torsten wiedemann , ruben demey , sven vrielinck , sofie de veirman , thijs lambrecht , philippe de maeyer , elien ranson , michiel van den berghe , glenn plettinck , anne winter : history department, ghent university : geography department, ghent university : history department, vrije universiteit brussel corresponding author: isabelle devos, history department, ghent university, isa- belle.devos@ugent.be biographical note: isabelle devos is associate professor at the history department of ghent univer- sity, belgium. over the years her research has revolved around social and economic issues of the early modern period and the long nineteenth century in a comparative perspective, with a particular focus on demography. abstract: this article presents the technical characteristics of the belgian stream-project ( - ). the goal of stream is to facilitate and innovate historical research into local and regional processes through the development of a spatiotemporal infrastructure for early modern brabant and flanders, two of the most urbanized and developed areas of pre-industrial europe. to this end, stream systematically collects a range of key data from a diversity of historical sources to provide a geographically comprehensive and long-run quantitative and spatial account of early modern society at the local level (parishes, villages, towns) regarding territory, transport, demography, agriculture, indus- try and trade, related to the development of a tailored historical geographical information system (gis) based on the well-known ferraris map ( - ). this article discusses the possibilities and pitfalls of the data collection and the construction of a spatial infrastructure for the pre-statistical era. keywords: spatial history, digital history, data infrastructure, gis, economic history, historical de- mography, belgium mailto:isabelle.devos@ugent.be mailto:isabelle.devos@ugent.be stream (spatiotemporal research infrastructure for early modern brabant and flan- ders): sources, data and methods . introduction high-level historical research is extremely dependent upon access to primary source materials. over the last decade the demand for large-scale databases in historical research has increased enormously (digital history). due to the powerful advances in ict, there are hardly any technological limitations to the development and analysis of large datasets, while the integration of geographical information systems (gis) has greatly enriched the uses that can be made of historical databases. spatial analysis has enabled historians not only to visually present their research results, but more importantly to use space to integrate, collect and study historical data in new ways. this geographical approach to history (spatial history) has proved its usefulness and reliability over the past decade and has had a significant impact on the progress of historical research, in particular of the nineteenth century. for the early modern period (ca. - ), the cambridge group for the study of the population and social structure (campop) set up an impressive regional data infrastructure for england. based on the infrastructure, shaw-taylor and wrigley showed that in some areas of england the economy was far more advanced by than had previously been supposed and suggest that economic growth and population change in the two preceding centuries must have been decisive in bringing about the diver- gence of england. yet, as they rightly point out, their argument is problematic in the sense that their account – as that of others – highlights the country’s exceptional demographic and economic history, without being able to rely on comparable data for the european continent. in belgium, early modern historians are insufficiently able to profit from these new research opportuni- ties because of the absence of suitable databases and gis infrastructures that collect and integrate orig- inal data from archival and manuscript data on a local level for a sufficiently large territory. while me- dieval and modern historians have built a solid tradition in developing various tools facilitating the study of primary sources and statistics, most early modern sources for belgium are only available on paper in manuscript form in various archives. the connection between such archival data and digitized repositories so far remains poorly developed. likewise, as early modern maps are often available only on paper or raster images, historians have been slow at bringing a geographical dimension to analyses of the pre-industrial world. according to wrigley, the creation of historical maps is nonetheless indis- pensable for the articulation of new historical insight and a necessary prerequisite for detecting regional patterns and temporal changes which might otherwise remain unnoticed. as a result, our knowledge of the belgium’s social and economic history during the early modern period is characterized by a strong fragmentation. on the one hand, there are hundreds of micro studies examining different phenomena and processes at the local level. although these works are often of excellent quality and high scientific relevance, the extent to which the results can be generalized is often questionable. on the other hand, there are many studies that describe society at the macro level. they usually lack the necessary detail to reach a deeper understanding of social processes and geographical dimension of population patterns, social change and economic developments within countries. this imbalance is due to a lack of quantita- tive studies providing a comprehensive description of belgium’s early modern society. the collection of quantitative information for the early modern period is a labour intensive task as the available sources are not easily quantifiable for research purposes. to this end, the stream-project (www.streamproject.ugent.be) carried out by historians and geogra- phers at ghent university and the vrije universiteit brussel, is currently systematically collecting a range of key data from a diversity of historical sources in order to provide a geographically comprehen- sive and long-run quantitative and spatial account of early modern society at the level of localities (par- ishes, villages, towns). as such, stream joins in with and contributes to recent developments in digital and spatial history. its goal is to facilitate and innovate historical research into local and regional processes through the development of a spatiotemporal research infrastructure for early modern bra- bant and flanders that allows for spatial analysis of key historical data. the duchy of brabant and the county of flanders, two of the most urbanized and developed areas of pre-industrial europe, are re- gions par excellence to tackle new research questions and re-examine ‘old questions’, such as the de- bate on the birth of modern economic growth and our understanding of the preconditions of europe’s leading economic and demographic role in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. the development of the stream spatial data infrastructure involves two strands of data collection. on the one hand, a series of high-quality datasets relating to the population and social and economic structure of the duchy of brabant and county of flanders between and . on the other hand, a geographical information system is developed to spatially structure and map the historical data, which also allows for manipulation and analysis of the data at different spatial levels, from parishes to bishop- rics, castellanies and counties. working backwards from the map of ferraris ( - ), the gis not only includes administrative boundaries, but also key data on roads and waterways, building density and economic infrastructure in the second half of the eighteenth century. the combination of both will result in a geographically comprehensive and long-run quantitative and spatial account of early modern society at the level of localities. this account will improve our understanding of the timing of regional- ly and locally differentiated economic, social and demographic developments in the long run and bring novel insight into the origins of economic and demographic growth in europe in general and brabant and flanders in particular. the stream infrastructure will be fully operational by . in what follows, we first provide a short overview of the political and socio-economic history of the duchy of brabant and the county of flanders (section ). next, we discuss the data collection (section ). finally, we consider the construction of a spatial infrastructure for the pre-statistical area, by means of two tailor-made gis tools: ferraris vectorized and ferraris georeferenced (section ). . a regional approach: brabant and flanders in the stream project, the focus is on the southern netherlands, and two of its core regions the duchy of brabant and the county of flanders (figure ). from onwards the southern low coun- http://www.streamproject.ugent.be/ tries were in possession of successively the spanish habsburgs and, after the spanish war of succes- sion ( – ), the austrian habsburgs. the region was united politically only to the extent that the different regional entities (castellanies, duchies and seigneuries) recognized the same personal ruler, who from on was a habsburg. throughout the early modern period, the southern low countries therefore formed a composite state within the larger territories of the habsburg dynasties. the habs- burg rule ended in , when the southern netherlands and the principality of liège were conquered by france. the duchy of brabant and the county of flanders were two of the most urbanized and de- veloped areas of pre-industrial europe. between c. and , population in these areas doubled, while economic growth was gradual, though not considerably slower than in britain. both regions, comprising in turn and parishes, represent interesting cases for comparative analysis into so- cio-economic and demographic change in the early modern period, as variations within these regions (together , km ) was far greater than in many other parts of europe, with regard to soil types (clay, sandy to loamy soils), rural systems (market-oriented agriculture, subsistence agriculture and proto-industrial areas), urban types (regional market towns, ports, large cities oriented towards urban export), labour relations (from areas with capitalist labour relations to areas where wage labour was only of marginal importance), poor relief institutions (from formalized, elite-controlled to informal, community-based), transport infrastructure (from relatively isolated areas to areas with a ‘modern’ network of paved roads), military damages (some areas were spared, other heavily targeted) etc. yet although we know already a lot about specific localities in particular sub-periods, we know much less on the economic and demographic history in these areas on a more comprehensive scale. figure . duchy of brabant and county of flanders with territorial subdivisions source: ugent quetelet center, stream ( ). note: the study area of stream covers administrative entities with fiscal and judicial powers, not including the territo- ries annexed by france and the dutch republic in the seventeenth century. the duchy of brabant consists of the quarters (kwartieren) of antwerp, brussels and louvain, whereas the county of flanders comprises the castellanies (kasselrijen) of furnes, ypres, courtrai, oudenaarde, the liberty of bruges, oudburg, vier ambachten, land of aalst, land of dender- monde, and land of waas. north sea the data collected via stream will allow to shed light on the geography of the early modern econo- my and population in brabant and flanders, and to improve our understanding of the timing and articu- lation of regionally and locally differentiated economic, social and demographic developments in the long run. this will permit to link up with current discussions on the origins of modern economic and population growth and with recent historiographical trends that strongly emphasize a regional ap- proach. as a result, the results of the stream project have the potential to transcend the time- and place- specificity of research, and represent a new step in the socio-economic and demographic history of early modern europe. . large-scale data collection the period before the nineteenth century is known as the ‘prestatistic era’, implying that aggregated data on demographic, economic and social developments for this period is scarce. before the late eight- eenth century, governments organized few censuses or surveys about the country, its citizens and socie- ty, in a way that transcended the local level. to discover ‘the big picture’, historians have to retrieve data by tapping into a wide array of sources and quantifying them. this is arduous for several reasons. first, experience with old terminology, language and writing is required. second, an abundance of sources containing micro data must be consulted and data must be counted prior to the compilation of usable data series. moreover, to be able to apply quantitative and computerized research techniques, the original data must comply with strict criteria, such as continuity and regularity. this is not always the case as historical documents often contain gaps and display a lack of standardization. because of these limitations a lot of preparatory work is needed to convert the sources into solid research material. during the last decades, local historians and historical societies have covered and collected a wide range of sources from status animarum to taxation lists, while numerous genealogists in search of their ancestry have rifled through a multitude of parish registers. their efforts have led to the creation of many databases documenting baptisms, marriages and burials. none of these data have, however, been collected in a systematic way. no effort so far has been undertaken to bring source collections together, in combination with the systematic collection of raw data to identify the ‘blind spots’ where further collection is needed. as a result, we lack an overview of the timing and geography of demographic and economic change between the mid sixteenth and early nineteenth centuries. through the creation of a series of major high-quality datasets relating to population development and economic change in early modern brabant and flanders, stream meets this need and will make valuable quantitative data available for early modern research. in the data collection, stream takes into account all quantitative and quantifiable sources on the ba- sis of which regionally diverse datasets can be compiled. the applicability and suitability of the early modern data for scientific research is the main selection criteria for incorporating sources into the pro- ject. priority is given to data collectable from sources at the local level (parishes, villages, towns) for wide geographical areas. for instance, it concerns the collection and critical assessment of cross- sectional data derived from population and hearth surveys ( , , , , , , ), fiscal registers ( , , , ) and surveys on agriculture ( , , , ), industry ( , ), poor relief ( , , , , ), seasonal migration ( , ), cadastral surveys ( , , ), together with time series on enumeration of communicants, and on annual births, deaths and marriages collected from parish and civil registers between and . data re- garding the brabant and flemish territory are collected by means of the ferraris vectorized tool (see next section). still, stream is not limited to collecting, cleaning and harmonizing early modern data into one extensive repository, it also consists of a critical appraisal of the data by drawing up a meta- description and source criticism. as such, it will allow users to assess changes in data definitions and discuss issues of data comparability although the stream infrastructure is work in progress, the collected data so far already allow to show its exciting analytical possibilities. by way of example, we refer to the two very recent studies. a study by devos and van rossem, for example, was able to highlight the tremendous variations in mortality levels across brabant and flanders at successive points in time by mapping the annual num- bers of burials and baptisms gathered for ca. parish registers via stream. as a result, certain areas with distinct health experiences could be identified, in particular the exceptionally high mortality in the coastal areas. the authors pointed to topography as an important determinant for the differ- ences. likewise, correlating stream datasets on poor relief, occupational structure and land hold- ings, van den broeck, lambrecht and winter examined geographic trends in relief income and ex- penditure. they concluded that parishes in the coastal areas, dominated by capital-intensive commer- cial agriculture, were more likely to have high relief incomes, which were distributed among relatively few people. conversely, those characterized by subsistence-oriented and proto-industrial cottagers or small-scale independent farmers, which were more prominent in the inland areas, were more likely to have less relief income, more relief recipients, and lower hand-outs per recipient. they claim therefore that in early modern flanders and brabant different roles were assigned to poor relief: as an instrument for labour regulation or one for social cohesion. . spatial data visualization and analysis: gis since maps provide an extremely powerful way to organize, investigate and visualize data, stream is developing a geography-driven data infrastructure: a historical geographic information system. this hisgis functions as the backbone of the project: it is responsible for the storage, linkage, editing and presentation of the historical data at the different spatial scales, from parishes to bishoprics, castellanies and counties. it entails, in fact, a tailored digital infrastructure which will allow to place the historical data within their local geographic context – a necessary prerequisite for detecting regional patterns and temporal changes. the geographic component of the stream infrastructure is based on a full coverage basis map, more specifically the map drawn up between and by count joseph jean françois de ferraris, who was assisted by a staff of about soldiers. the ferraris map is currently being manually vectorized by the stream team and subsequently compared with recent topographic maps to adjust for geometrical deviations. to speed up the digitization and georeferencing of the ferraris map, we created two gis tools: one for vectorizing the scanned ferraris map, called ferraris vectorized and one for georeferenc- ing the vectorized ferraris maps, called ferraris georeferenced. in what follows, we first describe the context in which the original ferraris map was created and the difficulties the map entails for current research. subsequently, we describe the ferraris vectorized tool and the development of the spatial infrastructure. this section ends with a short explanation of the ferraris georeferenced tool. . carte de cabinet of count joseph de ferraris ( - ) the starting point for the development of the stream hisgis is the ferraris map, or in full the carte de cabinet des pays-bas autrichiens levée à l'initiative du comte de ferraris (figure ). this : map of the austrian netherlands and the prince-bishopric of liège covers more or less the current ter- ritory of belgium and is as such the only source that provides a very detailed ‘national’ overview of the delineation and topography of all localities in the late eighteenth century. for historians and geogra- phers, the ferraris map constitutes a primary source of information on the pre-industrial landscape. figure . details of the ferraris map ( - ), mechelen and liège. source: carte de cabinet des pays-bas autrichiens levée à l'initiative du comte de ferraris. the carte de cabinet was drawn up between and , following the example of the new map of france led by césar françois cassini de thury (cassini map, - ). three copies of the ferraris manuscript were produced, each consisting of multicolored sheets ( , x , meters each) : one for empress maria theresia (now preserved in the hague, national archives), one for charles de lor- raine, governor of the austrian netherlands at the time (now preserved in brussels, royal library of belgium) and one which was to be preserved in the chancellery of court and nation in vienna (now preserved in vienna, kriegsarchiv) (bracke ). the viennese copy, which was the first to be drawn up, is used as the starting point of the stream project. the hand drawn ferraris map contains a lot of historically interesting information. for one thing, it shows the administrative and legal situation of the austrian netherlands at the end of the early modern period, before the reforms imposed by the french republic in the s. the borders of counties, duchies and seigneuries are indicated, as well as the rough size of parishes. to this end, each parish church was assigned a number. the same number was written in the houses whose residents belonged to that parish. the map also gives an idea of the extent of urbanization in the austrian netherlands. rural houses were depicted by small red rectangles or squares, while houses in towns and cities were drawn as part of residential blocks (instead of separately). in addition, the map shows the complex road network of paved and unpaved roads, exit roads of polders, waterways, bridges etc.. from the symbols for pine forests, orchards, hedges, meadows, fields, etc. we have an indication of eighteenth-century topography. because of its level of detail, the ferraris map is of invaluable importance for contempo- rary historical and geographic research. nonetheless, the ferraris map poses some difficulties for con- temporary use. an important obstacle is the interpretation of symbols used by eighteenth-century car- tographers. the cartographic symbols used in the eighteenth century were either self-evident or con- ventional. for example, a church was drawn as a little church and gallows were drawn as they were in reality. other geographic indicators such as markings of land covering were based on conventions. land and forest were so common on maps that an easy style for representing them was necessary (fig- ure ). figure . example: symbols on the ferraris map for different types of vegetation bushes high-trunk trees pines source: carte de cabinet des pays-bas autrichiens levée à l'initiative du comte de ferraris, sheets (nieuwpoort) and (rekem) at the time when ferraris’s carte de cabinet was produced, the need for a legend was not taken for granted. in the case of ferraris, there is a written key included in the introduction of ferraris’s mé- moires, which accompany the carte de cabinet (eclaircissement). however, as this is only a text with- out visual representation, it is not always straightforward for present-day scholars to distinguish be- tween symbols, especially as they were not always standardized. this probably has to do with the way in which the map sheets were drafted. usually, the surveyor in the field gave only an indication of the semiotics on his planchet (for example, a ‘p’ for prez, pasture and a ‘b’ for bois, forest) while a cartog- rapher completed the map in his office. as several cartographers, each with their own individual style, continued the work, differences between the sheets could occur. additionally, we notice that the level of detail decreased as more sheets were finished. fortunately, this project can benefit from legend- making initiatives by contemporary scholars. a second difficulty relates to the determination of borders. this was as much a problem for eighteenth- century cartographers as it is for scholars today. one of the biggest concerns of ferraris’s contemporar- ies was a correct representation of borders. the feudal chaos that characterized the frontiers in ferra- ris’s time was so complex that surveyors made mistakes and considered parts of free states, such as liège or stavelot, to be austrian territories. through the courtesy of the prince bishop of liège, the prince abbot of stavelot and the rulers of the many free states, a rectification of the border sections of the map was carried out between and . as a result, the carte de cabinet often shows a dou- ble pattern in the border symbols because the borders were corrected later. in the development of a gis for the period before , we are not only faced with difficulties inter- preting the eighteenth-century borders, the construction is also complicated by the fact that early mod- ern units of administration, be it ecclesiastical (parishes and bishoprics) or civil (counties, castellanies etc.) are different from the nineteenth-century administrative boundaries (municipalities, departments and provinces). the different content of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century administrative units entails difficulties in merging on the one hand eighteenth- and nineteenth-century data into a longitudinal da- taset and on the other hand nineteenth century data with eighteenth century maps (and vice versa). . ferraris vectorized tool the stream hisgis is based on the digitization of the ferraris map. to speed up the digitization process, we developed an online gis tool for vectorizing the scanned ferraris map, called ferraris vec- torized. vectorizing means that we convert raster data (in this case, scans of ferraris map sheets) to vector data (a series of digital points, lines, and polygons). points are used to indicate the position of buildings or structures such as houses, churches, chapels, bridges, mills and gallows. lines are used to show the geometry of linear features such as different types of roads, rivers, canals and shorelines, but also administrative boundaries and territorial circumscriptions. polygon features are enclosed areas like forests, pastures, domains and city centers. all these different features put together in a digital form give us a detailed picture of the belgian territory in the second half of the eighteenth century (figure ). the ferraris vectorized tool is custom-made to facilitate and accelerate the vectorizing process. com- pared to conventional gis systems, ferraris vectorized is more user-friendly due to its simplicity (few buttons), the easy linking of attributes to map elements through standardized drop-down menus and the flexibility with which you can switch between different map layers. the tool is accessible from any web browser and requires no additional software. the result is non-georeferenced vector files in geojson-format, which can be further processed in any standard gis environment. figure . vectorization process by means of the ‘ferraris vectorized’ tool scan of the ferraris map (raster data) points (vector data) lines (vector data) vector file vectorization entails two types of difficulties. first, we are faced with difficulties in interpreting the symbols on the scanned ferraris map sheets (see previous section). second, topological problems arise from the vectorization process in itself. there are different types of topological errors and they can be grouped according to whether the vector feature types are polygons or lines. topological errors with polygon features can include unclosed polygons, gaps between polygon borders or overlapping poly- gon borders. a common topological error with line features is that they do not meet perfectly at a point (node). this type of error is called an undershoot when a line feature such as a river does not exactly meet another feature to which it should be connected, and an overshoot if a line ends beyond the line it should connect to. the result of overshoot and undershoot errors are so-called ‘dangling nodes’ at the end of the lines. dangling nodes are acceptable in special cases, for example if they are attached to dead-end streets. figure demonstrates what undershoots and overshoots look like. over- and under- shoot errors most often occur when different map sheets are connected to each other. figure . examples of an under- and overshoot error undershoot error overshoot error topological errors break the relationship between features. these errors need to be fixed in order to be able to analyze vector data with procedures like network analysis (e.g. finding the best route across a road network) or measurement (e.g. finding out the length of a river). the technique most often used to fix over- and undershoot errors is snapping. snapping is an automatic editing operation in which points or features within a specified distance of other points or features are moved to match or coincide exact- ly with each other’s coordinates. this cleaning process, together with the correction of some man-made mistakes such as misidentification (wrong parish name, wrong type of object) contribute to the time- consuming character of this project. . ferraris georeferenced tool in order to increase stream’s potential for spatial analysis, we need to relate the collected quantita- tive data to topographical elements and boundaries as attribute data. this is known as georeferencing. it entails that the historical geographic data, in this case from the ferraris map, is assigned to a known coordinate system so it can be viewed, queried, and analysed with other geographic data. therefore, a second gis tool was built by the stream team, ferraris georeferenced, to compare the line data – the roads – from the vectorized ferraris map (made with ferraris vectorized) with the current network of roads and as such create a georeferenced map of the road system that existed between and in brabant and flanders. ferraris georeferenced is a specific web-based editor tailored to stream needs and designed for the purpose of user-friendliness. as stream consists of a collaboration between researchers from dif- ferent disciplines, ferraris georeferenced was custom designed by ugent geographers – as opposed to extending existing gis tools like qgis or arcgis. consequently, researchers do have to immerse themselves in all functions available in a typical gis-platform, which usually results in a slow and lim- ited learning curve. ferraris georeferenced, for example, allows to easily compare different source im- ages (historical maps, aerial imagery, soil maps,…) and multiple users can work simultaneously with- out conflicts. different historical maps were entered in the ferraris georeferenced tool: ( ) a map of the current network of roads, provided by the belgian national geographic institute (ngi) in the lam- bert projection; ( ) this contemporary map layer is placed over the vectorized ferraris map for compar- ison. ( ) other maps such as the vermaelen and popp maps (nineteenth-century cadastral maps), for which vectorized maps are available, were imported as additional map layers. by means of a slider, it is possible to compare eighteenth (ferraris) with nineteenth (popp and vermaelen) and twentieth century (ngi) road systems. in the comparison, we start from the current roads map (ngi). each map sheet of the carte de cabinet is roughly positioned onto the modern map through an affine transformation of its four vertices. once the map sheet is positioned, the current road network is visualized by purple vector lines, indicating they are in a pending state. when there is a clear resemblance between a present road and a road on the ferraris map, based on visual interpretation, the purple line turns into a green one by right clicking the segment of the road and choosing ‘confirm’. if a current road does not correspond to a road on the fer- raris map, this road is turned orange by right clicking the segment and choosing ‘delete’. by choosing ‘confirm’ or ‘delete’ for every road segment of the current network, we get a clear picture of which roads were present during the time the ferraris maps were made. a fourth option is when there is a road present on the ferraris map that has disappeared in the current network. in that case the missing road has to be digitalized. during the process of comparison, a few problems can occur. a first complication appears when part of the current road corresponds to the old one and another part does not. in that case, a drawing tool al- lows to split the road allowing the new created segments to be analyzed separately. every segment can be split as many times as necessary. a second problem arises when certain roads do not correspond perfectly, but the general shape is present on the ferraris map. in that case it is useful to consult the popp map. this cadastral map was edited by philippe christian popp in the nineteenth century and re- sembles in great detail the current road system. this map was integrated in the software as a separate layer which can be inspected by sliding the ferraris layer to the left (figure ). figure . comparison with the popp map (by means of a scrollbar) in case the current roads correspond perfectly with those on the popp map, these roads are selected as ‘confirm’ since it can be assumed that the differences on the ferraris map are due to measuring flaws if the popp map shows little resemblance to the current roads, then these roads are selected as ‘delete’ since the presence of the general shape on the ferraris map will then be due to mere coincidence. since the popp map is dated after the ferraris map, it is safe to assume that current roads that are missing on the popp map, could also not have existed during the time the ferraris maps were made. in this respect, it is easier to first delete all the roads from the current network that do not correspond to the popp map, giving that this map is much less difficult to read than the ferraris map. a third problem is the subjec- tive nature of the interpretation. even when certain roads seem to correspond with one another, it is still possible that this correspondence is an unfortunate coincidence. decisions based on visual resemblance or differences therefore need confirmation by combining the visual interpretation with analyses of other cartographic documents. . conclusions the origins of modern economic and population growth have been the subject of longstanding interna- tional debate. at the centre of current discussions are the demographic and economic developments in the early modern period, when the foundations of modern growth were laid. most of these studies fol- low either a macro-approach based on ‘national’ estimates that ignore regional differences or a micro approach using analysis of households and individuals of which the representativeness remains unclear. in recent years, however, a number of methodological and conceptual innovations have opened up to allow new directions and approaches in research. stream capitalizes on three of these promising new avenues for research, which we briefly discussed in this article: ( ) a regional approach. recent research has increasingly argued that questions concerning the interac- tion between demographic and economic developments in early modern europe can best be tackled with regional analysis, since social relations and economic activities in pre-industrial times predomi- nantly articulated regionally rather than nationally. by collecting data at the local level and analysing from the local level upwards (bottom-up approach), it is possible to investigate whether and which popp map broader regional dynamics can be discerned. in the stream data collection, priority is given to data collectable from sources at the local level (parishes, villages, towns) for wide geographical areas in the duchy of brabant and the county of flanders. brabant and flanders, as two of the most urbanized and developed areas of pre-industrial europe represent interesting cases for comparative analysis because of the large socioeconomic and demographic variations within these regions. moreover, fundamental economic transitions, such as the transformation of the agrarian sector and the rise of industrial produc- tion started early here. ( ) the deployment of large scale databases. this development is rapidly gaining access into historical research and is transforming the field of socio-economic and demographic history (digital history). so far, most exciting databases in the rapidly expanding field of digital history are based on published sources, of which digitization can be partly automated. however, for early modern socio-economic and demographic history, most relevant data are stored only on paper in manuscript form in various ar- chives. through the implementation of key data from a diversity of sources related to the early modern population and social and economic structure, as illustrated in this article, stream will protect and make accessible a multitude of historical data for diverse research applications. ( ) the development of a historical geographic information system. this geographical approach to his- tory (spatial history) has proved its usefulness and reliability over the past decade and has had a signif- icant impact on the progress of historical research. spatial analysis enables historians not only to visu- ally present their research results, but more importantly to use space to integrate, collect and interpret historical data in new ways. as most early modern source materials and maps are available only on paper, historians have been slow at bringing a geographical dimension to analyses of the pre-industrial world. starting from what is considered the first topographic map available for the southern nether- lands, the ferraris map ( - ), stream is developing a historical geographic information sys- tem which will allow to place the early modern data within their local geographical context – a neces- sary prerequisite for detecting regional patterns and temporal changes. the historical hisgis is devel- oped by means of two gis tools: ferraris vectorized and ferraris georeferenced. the objectives of the ferraris vectorized and georeferenced tool are complementary: ferraris georeferenced comprises the the digitisation of the historical road network in a geographic reference system. ferraris vectorized, on the other hand, aims at digitizing all topographic characteristics – roads, buildings, administrative and judicial entities, etc. – of eighteenth-century brabant and flanders. together, the tools will enable us to study the historical evolution of infrastructure and to make spatio-temporal analyses of the demograph- ic, social and economic data for flanders and brabant in order to improve our understanding of region- ally differentiated economic, social and demographic developments during the early modern period. see special issue of journal of interdisciplinary history, ( ). l. shaw-taylor and e.a. wrigley, ‘occupational structure and population change’, in r. floud, j. humphries and p. johnson, eds., the cambridge economic history of modern britain (cambridge, ), - . s. broadberry et al., british economic growth - (cambridge, ) ; r. allen, the british industrial revolution in global perspective (cambridge, ); j. mokyr, the enlightened economy: an economic history of britain (new ha- ven, ). l. shaw-taylor, male occupational change and economic growth, - , end of award report (available via campop, ). e.a. wrigley, ‘the region as a unit of study. history and geography in harmony’, romanian journal of population studies, ( ), - . funded by the hercules foundation (medium-scale research infrastructure), research foundation – flanders (fwo). the northern low countries became an independent republic during the eighty years’ war ( - ). as a result, the brabant was split into two parts, the north belonging to the dutch republic, the south belonging to the spanish netherlands p. klep, ‘population estimates of belgium, by province ( - )’, in: e. hélin, ed., historiens et populations. liber amicorum etienne hélin (brussels, ), - ; j. blomme and h. van der wee, ‘the belgian economy in a long- term historical perspective: economic development in flanders and brabant, - ’, proceedings of the eleventh international economic history congress (milan, ). i. devos, t. lambrecht and r. paping, ‘the low countries, - ’, in i. devos, t. lambrecht and e. vanhaute, eds., rural economy and society in north-western europe, - : making a living: family, income and labour (turnhout, ). some of its research potential was recently demonstrated in two conference sessions devoted entirely to stream: in april at the european social science history conference in valencia and in september at the conference of the european society for historical demography in leuven. i. devos and t. van rossem, ‘oud, ouder, oudst. regionale en lokale verschillen in sterfte in het graafschap vlaanderen tijdens de zeventiende eeuw’, jaarboek de zeventiende eeuw, ( ), - . n. van den broeck, t. lambrecht and a. winter, ‘preindustrial welfare between regional economies and local regimes: rural poor relief in flanders around ’, continuity and change, in press. for a detailed discussion, see s. vervust, deconstructing the ferraris maps ( - ). a study of the map production process and its implications for geometric accuracy (ghent university, department of geography, doctoral dissertation, ). a digitization (vectorization) of the cassini map is currently carried out by the geohistoricaldata project (https://www.geohistoricaldata.org/). see j. perret, m. gribaudi and m. barthelemy, ‘roads and cities of th century france’, scientific data, ( ). in addition a smaller-scale ( : ) engraved map in sheets was drawn up from the carte de cabinet. this, less de- tailed, map is known as the carte marchande or carte chorographique and was intended for a larger audience. k. de coene, t. ongena, f. stragier, s. vervust, w. bracke- and p. de maeyer, ‘ferraris, the legend’, cartographic journal, ( ), - . k. de coene et al., ‘ferraris, the legend’, - . k. de coene et al., ‘ferraris, the legend’, - ; m. beyaert, m. antrop, p. de maeyer, c. vandermotten, c. billen, j.- m. decroly, c. neuray, t. ongena, s. queriat, i. van den steen and b. wayens, belgië in kaart. de evolutie van het land- schap in drie eeuwen cartografie (tielt, ); w. bracke, de grote atlas van ferraris (tielt, ). k. de coene et al., ‘ferraris, the legend’, - . the lokstat project (www.lokstat.ugent.be) developed at ghent university during the past decade has systematically collected a range of quantitative data from nineteenth-century and twentieth century censuses, alongside the borders of nine- teenth-century municipalities however, the lokstat territorial subdivision cannot be used to organize eighteenth-century data, as parish boundaries do not necessarily correspond to municipal boundaries. p. de maeyer, e. ranson, k. ooms, k. de coene, b. de wit, m. van den berghe, s. vrielinck, t. wiedemann, a. wi n- ter, r. kruk, i. devos ( ), ‘user-centered design of a collaborative object oriented historical gi-platform’, in: the des- simination of cartographic knowledge, springer ica series, in press. in some cases it would be useful to rotate as well as move the map. in the future it would therefore be practical to impl e- ment a rotation tool. https://www.geohistoricaldata.org/ http://www.lokstat.ugent.be/ white paper report report id: application number: hk- - project director: nancy maron (nancy.maron@ithaka.org) institution: ithaka harbors, inc. reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) nancy l. maron and sarah pickle ithaka s+r june , ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) / introduction ithaka s+r recently completed a study, with generous funding from the national endowment for the humanities’ office of digital humanities, that explored the different models colleges and universities have adopted to support digital humanities (dh) outputs on their campuses. the final report, entitled sustaining the digital humanities: host institution support beyond the start-up phase, and the accompanying sustainability implementation toolkit, are intended to guide faculty, campus administrators, librarians, and directors of support units as they seek solutions for coordinating long-term support for digital humanities resources at their institutions. by exploring both the assumptions and practices that govern host support, from the grant-stage to the post-launch period, we hoped to gain a clearer understanding of the systems currently in place and to identify examples of good practice. over the course of this study, ithaka s+r interviewed more than stakeholders and faculty project leaders at colleges and universities within the us. these interviews included a deep-dive phase of exploration focused on support for the digital humanities at four campuses—columbia university, brown university, indiana university bloomington, and university of wisconsin- madison. this research helped us to better understand how institutions are navigating issues related to the sustainability of dh resources and what successful strategies are emerging. research for this study began in october and involved two stages:  phase , sector-wide research: interviews and desk research with stakeholders at a variety of higher education institutions (public and private, teaching- and research- focused, large universities and small liberal arts colleges) provided an overview of the practices and expectations of digital humanities project leaders, funders, and their university administrators, as well as the challenges and successes they have encountered along the way.  phase ii, deep-dive research: more extensive analysis of four institutions that have created and managed several of their own digital projects allowed us to develop a map of the full scope of their activities, the value they offer to the host university, and the dynamics that drive decision making around the role the university plays in supporting them. unlike many other recipients of digital implementation grants who are developing digital tools and online resources, the primary deliverable for this grant is a white paper to share findings from our work. we refer our readers to that paper, sustaining the digital humanities: host institution support beyond the start-up phase, for the most comprehensive discussion of methodology and lessons learned. in this paper, we are pleased to have the opportunity to reflect further on the project as a project, and to consider its challenges and impacts. ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) /  the url for the final report is: http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/sr_supporting_digital_humanities_ f.pdf  the url for the sustainability implementation toolkit is: http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustainability-implementation-toolkit lessons learned and changes in course during the course of the study we chose to modify the methodology due to both a sharpening of the focus on institutional models and an awareness of the difficulty in collecting reliable financial data. this shift resulted in our conducting more case profiles and more interviews, but in collecting less financial data than first planned.  landscape focus on campus profiles. our initial plan for our landscape review was to interview - individuals at institutions across the united states, in faculty, administration, and department head roles. as we sharpened our focus on institutional strategies, we decided to use the landscape phase of our research to create profiles of a dozen campuses. rather than interviewing individuals specifically by job role, we chose campuses to profile and then sought key individuals on those campuses.  expanded from two deep dives to four. we conducted four deep profiles, instead of two, as originally planned. this afforded us a greater understanding of both the common and the unique challenges faced by universities in this area, making it possible for us to describe in our report three campus ―models‖ for supporting dh, while remaining attentive to the influences that local idiosyncrasies can have when adopting any one of these models.  de-emphasized cost data. an initial goal of the study was to quantify the cost—to the pis, to their host institutions, to granting agencies—of creating and sustaining digital humanities resources. the motivation for attempting this was to develop a view of all the resources already being spent on doing this work in an ad hoc fashion. between the time of the grant proposal and our undertaking the work, however, we had completed another study [imls-funded case studies of digitized special collections and an arl-funded survey of digitized special collections] that had allowed us to do further cost data gathering, specifically at some institutions, including academic libraries with special collections. this exercise, as well as our experience in interviewing staff and faculty for this project, made it painfully clear that accurate cost data would be difficult to obtain, as in most cases neither faculty nor library staff were in the habit of tracking the time they were devoting to specific digital projects. we did gather some data concerning budgets in our faculty surveys, but chose to focus on the larger issue of which units were devoting time to specific activities, and determining whether or not they were doing so on an in- kind or paid basis. http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/sr_supporting_digital_humanities_ f.pdf http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/sr_supporting_digital_humanities_ f.pdf http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustainability-implementation-toolkit ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) /  shifted timing of campus meetings. the initial plan was to visit each campus twice, first for interviews with senior administrators and support staff, and later on, to interview faculty once the survey results had been analyzed. due in part to the challenges of scheduling these sessions around holidays and campus schedules, we opted to conduct most faculty interviews via phone, to get to them more quickly. this turned out to be an even better plan; the second campus meetings were then devoted to sharing back our findings and hosting facilitated sessions with groups of stakeholders. these sessions offered us valuable feedback on our findings, and also were in some cases run as workshops, where senior administrators, faculty and unit heads actively discussed the roles they currently play and how they see their own systems developing to better manage the demands of faculty and the work they create. perhaps the most difficult question was how to define the particular flavor of ―digital humanities‖ we would examine. did we care about all the shapes and sizes that dh engagement comes in, or just in the large-scale digital outputs that seem to garner the most attention and funding? in the end, we developed a method we hoped would acknowledge and capture data on the widespread interest in digital humanities, while also identifying practitioners who are actually building and managing long-term resources. the survey was directed at all faculty in a few departments selected by our campus-based partners (often based in the library) and we tried to get as broad participation as possible. but the survey also sought to identify those among the respondents who had managed or created digital projects that they considered to be for public use and that were expected to need ongoing support and development. this approach worked for the most part, but while we were eager to learn more about those major, public digital research initiatives, we soon realized that campus leaders still need a better understanding of what faculty (and even students) are doing, and to what extent those other activities generate materials that will require a support strategy. we hope that those who choose to undertake a campus-based survey for themselves will consider ways to capture more data about the sorts of files, formats, and intentions of even those practitioners whose work is not intended for public use. in other words, while we focused on a particular use case that is known to create significant sustainability challenges, there are many faculty and students who are creating other types of resources and data that may also pose challenges over the long-term, and the survey could prompt respondents to offer greater detail about that work so that a better-informed and finer-tuned system of support could be developed. accomplishments the paper and toolkit were published on june , and represent the final deliverables from this grant. in the course of conducting the study and developing the paper and tools, we had several accomplishments worth emphasizing: ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) /  we undertook and completed four full campus profiles, twice as many as original proposed, by altering the methodology used to focus less on gathering cost data and more on understanding process and strategy.  our original estimate was to interview about people in the course of this project. in the end, we interviewed over individuals, including some more than once.  we held on-campus meetings to share back our findings and discuss them with campus stakeholders. each campus partner was offered a short menu of types of events we might host for them. this phase of the project was extremely productive; rather than just providing us with feedback on our work (though they served this purpose, also), in many cases, the sessions ended up being a good neutral ground for people across campus to begin to have substantive conversations about how to better coordinate their activities. several times, we were told that meetings like that were very valuable but ―just don’t happen.‖ it may take some time to see the results from this work; we will continue to track evidence of people and teams using this approach to develop their own campus- based strategies.  our marketing team developed lists of contacts and communications to disseminate the report and the toolkit. an announcement was sent to , contacts, including us library deans and directors, digital humanities centers, digital humanists, publishers, and higher education and libraries media. additionally, the announcement was posted on the acrl digital humanities interest group listserv, the acrl sustainability listserv, and on ithaka s+r’s blog and twitter account. audiences the readership for this report includes several groups. while it is too soon after publication to have a full picture of the impact the paper and toolkit will have, we expect the readership to include:  library administrators and dh coordinators. we see as the main audience for this report those in the library who manage digital projects, whether for the library’s own collections or as a service to faculty to come to the library for support. we have heard from some library directors that the report will be useful to them and others who are considering developing dh strategies for themselves. in just the last week, we have heard from an aul for technology at a major research institution (wisconsin) and a head of a liberal arts college publishing program (amherst) who reported that they had shared the report widely with campus colleagues.  dh practitioners. faculty who are engaged in building digital projects of their own will be one of our audiences here, too. as many of the initiatives to gain further funding to support staff hires, technology capacity and education for practitioners are lead by faculty members, we believe that the report will provide them with the tools they need to gather ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) / data on the nature of the need on their campus, and to have structured conversations with administrators about possible paths forward.  heads of other related units on campus:many units on campus, from digital humanities centers to technology or visualization groups, to the university press are or could be participating in the process of creating and managing the new digital research resources being created on campus. while digital humanities centers seem to the obvious leader in these discussions, we hope that the paper encourages a discussion about the roles that the dh center does assume, and important roles that others will need to take on.  senior administrators (deans, provosts). our research made clear that in most places, this issue is only beginning to emerge at the highest levels of administration, and yet the instances of greatest coordinated investment only occur with support from the top. we hope that senior administrators will find this to be a useful paper for framing the issues, and we imagine that library directors and faculty will direct them to it for this purpose. the reach of this report and this topic is nation-wide and even international. while geographic differences do exist concerning institutional strategy, the tools offer here are easily translatable to other settings. a complete list of interviewees is available in the appendices of final report, starting on page . in total, we spoke with individuals from institutions of higher education and other organizations, such as funding agencies. those institutions included public and private universities and colleges. while most were research universities, were liberal arts colleges. in terms of outreach, within the first ten days of publication (june – june ), we had total page views of the final report, which has been downloaded times. there have been page views for the toolkit, and various elements of the kit were downloaded times. social media has played d a significant role in spreading the word about this publication. the initial ithaka s+r announcement was re-tweeted times, reaching , followers. another people and organizations tweeted independently about the project, and those tweets were re- tweeted times, for a total reach of , . evaluation the project was supported by an advisory committee, which included richard detweiler, president, great lakes colleges association; martin halbert, dean of libraries, university of north texas; stanley n. katz, director, center for the arts and cultural policy studies; lecturer with rank of professor, woodrow wilson school of public and international affairs; president emeritus of the american council of learned societies; maria c. pantelia, professor, classics, university of california, irvine; director, thesaurus linguae graecae®; richard spies, former executive vice president for planning and senior advisor to the president at brown university, ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) / former vice president for finance and administration at princeton university. ann j. wolpert, director of libraries, mit, was a valued member of the advisory committee until her death in october . the advisory committee offered valuable guidance at key milestones throughout the project:  a conference call on may , allowed us to share findings from the sector-wide research that had been completed and to select the deep dive sites.  feedback on the project leader questionnaire was solicited via email in september , after we had refined the instrument in collaboration with the campuses coordinators.  a conference call on december , served to discuss preliminary findings from the faculty surveys and to review early sketches of project lifecycles, as well as to discuss the format and emphasis of the final report.  a final in-person meeting was held at the ithaka s+r offices in new york on march , . at this session, the committee reviewed draft profiles of brown and indiana and helped us to plan our on-campus workshops and roundtables.  several members of the advisory committee read full drafts of the final paper and offered detailed comments and feedback. in addition, we received valuable feedback from members of the community at different points throughout the project, thanks to our close working relationships with our partner campuses. meetings held at each of the four campuses permitted us to test out the ideas in the paper and those used to build the toolkit with groups of varying composition. the campus workshops included the following:  columbia university: roundtable of several senior library directors and staff dedicated to supporting digital humanities work, including the aul for collections and services, associate vp, digital programs and technology services, the director of the center for digital research and scholarship, acting executive director for the center for new media teaching and learning. the director, humanities and history libraries and the digital humanities coordinator.  indiana university bloomington: roundtable with the libraries executive council, which included the dean of the library and five associate deans; a presentation of research findings attended by about thirty people, including the majority of the libraries executive council, several members of the libraries’ digital collections services, a handful of faculty members who have created dh projects, and few support staff from other units around campus; finally, a library staff training session on sustainability principles attended by several members of the libraries executive council, members of the libraries’ digital collections services, and the reference librarians. ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) /  university of wisconsin-madison: key stakeholder roundtable, including the dean of the library, an aul for library technologies, the cio, and two associate deans in the college of letters and science.  brown university: key stakeholder roundtable, including the university librarian, two auls, the dh librarian, the deputy provost, two key administrators in other support units, and a handful of faculty with dh projects. these sessions were structured to include a formal presentation of findings from the campus- based survey, including dh activity on campus; a review of overlaps and gaps in the current system of supporting services to digital humanities project leaders; and a facilitated discussion on the key motivators for offering dh support. the feedback from these sessions, and our observations of how the ―key stakeholder‖ sessions helped to surface often sensitive topics in very productive ways strongly influenced the final design of the sustainability implementation toolkit, in particular. the broader public is just now starting to respond to the project, and we will continue to track this over the months ahead. at the annual meeting of the associate of american university presses (aaup, june ) a session on publishing and digital humanities included a brief synopsis and discussion of the paper. at the annual meeting of the american library association (june ) a discussion of the paper is on the agenda of the acrl interest group for digital humanities. responses to the paper will vary for different categories of readers. dh practitioners, particularly faculty members, may find this useful as a way to raise awareness of the topic on their campuses. some well-known dh practitioners (alex gil at columbia and trevor muñoz at mith) were recently quoted in ―when digital projects end,‖ an article in inside higher education, devoted to the study. gil pointed out that ―the report does a fine job of teasing out the diversity of support approaches at different universities…now that they have brought this level of detail to the conversation, i hope we can begin expanding the concept of support that the study assumes to include the learning of faculty, students and librarians. nothing in my estimate will support digital scholarship and allow it to endure constant technological change -- on any campus -- more than shared knowledge.‖ continuation and long term impact unlike some of the other grantees in this program, this paper is considered to be the end product of a successful research project, so there are no immediate plans to continue the project itself. ithaka s+r will continue to host the paper and the toolkit, and to promote it through webinars and other speaking engagements that we participate in. the papers that ithaka s+r publishes carl straumsheim, ―when digital projects end,‖ inside higher ed, june , . http://www.insidehighered.com/news/ / / /study-preserve-digital-resources-institutions-should-play-their- strengths http://www.insidehighered.com/news/ / / /study-preserve-digital-resources-institutions-should-play-their-strengths#sthash.eieofrfg.dpbs http://www.insidehighered.com/news/ / / /study-preserve-digital-resources-institutions-should-play-their-strengths#sthash.eieofrfg.dpbs ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) / tend to remain relevant over many years, so we have reason to believe that the readership of this work will continue to grow, as we continue to promote it. as a result of the project we came to know the senior library and dh leaders at the four campuses we worked most closely with, columbia, brown, indiana and wisconsin. these relationships have been wonderfully productive, not just for the paper, but in other ways as well. we are developing a training course, for example, and may now end up partnering with columbia in future years. this grant gave us license to speak with many of the leaders of the dh community, and this led to other possible partnerships, as well. it has been a pleasure getting to know many of the library directors, faculty, senior administrators and other departmental heads, and these relationships will certainly last well beyond the end of the grant. we have started to hear of some encouraging illustrations of the impacts the process has had for those campuses we partnered with for this study. according to university librarian harriette hemmasi of brown university, ―the process at brown heightened insight among the various stakeholders about the ways in which we see ourselves and each other as part of the campus infrastructure that supports digital humanities and digital scholarship, more generally. it also provided an impetus for increased collaboration, resulting in an award from the provost to fund a two-year digital humanities lecture series, including at least one short-term scholar-in- residence each year.‖ according to lee konrad, associate university librarian, technology strategies and data services at university of wisconsin-madison, ―the process helped to illustrate both the pros and cons of supporting [dh-related] work in a highly decentralized manner. i came away feeling that while this type of support model has its challenges, it also has great rewards in that it brings together scholars, technologists, and librarians from across the campus in ways that might be difficult in a highly structured environment. the process gave us a very important opportunity to work together at administrative levels, and …to discuss engaging in sustainable digital humanities work at scale.‖ in addition, as is often the case, while this project has answered some questions it has also suggested others in need of further investigation. for example, it became clear that there is much more to discuss concerning what it means to ―publish‖ or ―disseminate‖ one’s work. many campus roundtables with library staff and faculty suggested that posting materials in a campus repository was all that was needed. and yet, we heard very little about significant impact or efforts to build audience for these projects and even where there was a university press on campus, it was not generally considered a key player. we hope to further explore this topic, by working with members of the association of american university presses as well as with library publishing units that are starting to play a role in this area. ithaka s+r: sustaining the digital humanities: lessons learned (neh white paper) / grant products during the course of this grant, we wrote and published the final report, entitled sustaining the digital humanities: host institution support beyond the start-up phase as well as the sustainability implementation toolkit. both are freely available and hosted on the ithaka s+r website: http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustaining-digital-humanities  sustaining the digital humanities: host institution support beyond the start-up phase http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/sr_supporting_digital_humanities_ f.pdf  sustainability implementation toolkit http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustainability-implementation-toolkit the toolkit outlines three key phases, each including several downloadable files: step one: assess the landscape (http://www.sr.ithaka.org/content/assess-landscape)  survey of faculty creation of digital content, tools, and infrastructure  customizing and implementing the survey  interview guide: directors of support units  interview guide: senior administrators  interview guide: digital project leaders step two: identify overlaps and gaps (http://www.sr.ithaka.org/content/identify-overlaps-and-gaps)  analyzing the data gathered  overlaps and gaps worksheet step three: discuss and address institutional priorities (http://www.sr.ithaka.org/content/discuss-and-address-institutional-priorities)  hosting a stakeholder roundtable  stakeholder roundtable: presentation template additional features of the toolkit include:  a briefing paper for digital project leaders (http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/briefing_paper.pdf)  intake questionnaire for new digital projects http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/intakequestionnaire.pdf http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustaining-digital-humanities http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/sr_supporting_digital_humanities_ f.pdf http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/sr_supporting_digital_humanities_ f.pdf http://www.sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/sustainability-implementation-toolkit http://www.sr.ithaka.org/content/assess-landscape http://www.sr.ithaka.org/content/identify-overlaps-and-gaps http://www.sr.ithaka.org/content/discuss-and-address-institutional-priorities http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/briefing_paper.pdf http://www.sr.ithaka.org/sites/default/files/intakequestionnaire.pdf journal of robotics, networking and artificial life vol. ( ); december ( ), pp. – doi: . /jrnal. . . . ; issn - print; - online https://www.atlantis-press.com/journals/jrnal research article a study on the lumbar burden evaluation of work using one smartphone hiroki tamura , keiko sakurai ,*, koichi tanno , yasufumi fuse department of environmental robotics, faculty of engineering, university of miyazaki, miyazaki-shi, miyazaki, japan department of electrical and systems engineering, university of miyazaki, miyazaki-shi, miyazaki, japan miyazaki prefecture industrial technology center, miyazaki-shi, miyazaki, japan . introduction in recent years, agricultural workers in japan have decreased and aging rapidly so it is necessary to review the physical environment of agricultural work. one solution to reduce this problem, techno- logical developments has been made to reduce the burden of agri- cultural workers and automation various agricultural machinery. on the other hand, quantitative comparison of how much newly developed agricultural machinery reduces the burden of conven- tional agricultural work is difficult. also, it is difficult to measure whether the compressive force of the lumbar intervertebral disc during these agricultural workings (hereinafter, lumbar burden) exceeds the lumbar burden allowance value n at work labor defined by the national institute for occupational safety and health (niosh). therefore, paying atten- tion to the burden of the lumbar area, the purpose of this thesis is to construct a work burden evaluation system to evaluate whether the burden reduction rate due to it conversion of agricultural machines and the lumbar burden during agricultural work do not exceed n. to construct the system, we used a smartphone equipped with various sensors such as acceleration sensor, gyro sensor. this paper examines whether the proposed system can be realized with one smartphone. as related research [ – ], there are the lumbar burden of construction workers [ , ], walking measurement in the home [ ], walking measurement and posture estimation using smart- phones [ , ]. however, all of these studies are indoor studies, and in the study of construction workers it is not an estimation of the lumbar burden of a state with heavy working machines such as agricultural work. also one of the burden analysis software has what is called jack [ , ]. jack can create a digital human being as a virtual human by manual input on the desktop, assign work and assign dynamic burden analysis. jack creates a digital human in a stationary state as shown in figure , adds external force, and can evaluate the burden of that state. however, as a problem of jack, the burden cannot be measured either in real time or continuously, so estima- tion of a lumbar burden with jack is unsuitable in agricultural work. for related research [ , ], there is research to estimate the burden of the waist when carrying objects using jack. however, these studies are simple transport tasks, not simulations of com- plex cases such as walking with farm equipment during agricultural work. in this thesis, we compared it with measured value in jack for judging whether the fixed posture is correct. in this paper, we investigate whether the estimation of the lumbar burden in agricultural work is possible. to do the investigation, we compare the case of using the automatic mowing machine with remote controller and the case of using the mowing machine. the user’s state is judged with one smartphone. there are five kinds of user’s state judgment: stand, walking, crouching, sitting and rotation. figure shows the target states of five patterns to be determined. . proposed method in this chapter, we describe the method of estimating the loads that can be determined by the state and the estimated lumbar burden using a smartphone. a r t i c l e i n f o article history received september accepted october key words smartphone lumbar burden gyro sensor state estimation acceleration sensor jack a b s t r a c t in this paper, we propose the human lumbar burden evaluation method and state estimation system using a smartphone and an application on agricultural work. the proposed system consists of two functions: ( ) “state estimation” has a function of estimating posture (stand up, sit down, crouch, walk, etc.,) of the subjects, ( ) “lumbar burden estimation” has a function to estimate the angle of the waist from the angle of the subject’s upper body and calculate the lumbar burden in combination with other parameters. the aim of this paper is to get the data of the subject’s work status in the agricultural field in a simple manner and quasi-real time and help improve the agricultural work efficiency by constructing the agricultural work burden evaluation system were using a smartphone. in this paper, we show on the experimental results of two functions and the evaluation of the actual agricultural work. © the authors. published by atlantis press sarl. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /). * corresponding author. email: sakurai.keiko.u @cc.miyazaki-u.ac.jp https://www.atlantis-press.com/journals/jrnal http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://sakurai.keiko.u % cc.miyazaki-u.ac.jp h. tamura et al. / journal of robotics, networking and artificial life ( ) – . . determination of mounting position in this section, the installation position of the smartphone is explained. in this research, the smartphone to be used is attached to the chest pocket (figure ). there are two reasons for that. first, it is possible to judge the condition of walking, sitting, squatting, turning, the second is to be able to calculate the waist angle. . . calculate waist angle to evaluate the lumbar burden, the pressure of lumbar interver- tebral disc calculated from the waist angle and knee flexion angle. at this time, the waist angle can estimate from the device inclina- tion angle (upper body angle) of the smartphone attached to the breast pocket. but knee flexion angle cannot estimate of the smart- phone attached to the breast pocket. the knee flexion angle can calculate from the thigh inclination angle. hence, it is necessary to make the constant thigh inclination angle when it is determined operation. nevertheless, since the way of walking and crouching is different depends on the person, it is impossible to determine obviously the inclination angle of the thigh. therefore, prior to conducting the experiment, the thigh inclination angle in the walk- ing, rotation, and crouching is confirmed beforehand and used as the input information. the upper body angle is a, the waist angle is b, and the thigh inclination angle is g, which is shown in figure . the waist angle was calculated as in eq. ( ). b = – (a + g ) ( ) the inclination angle of the device is calculated from the gravita- tional acceleration obtained by the acceleration sensor (figure ). the device inclination angle (slope angle q ) shown in figure and its calculation formula is shown in eq. ( ). in addition, gravy and gravz are defined as the gravitational acceleration of y- and z-axis. the unit is degree. slope angle arc tan grav grav q p =     × z y ( ) figure | digital human model (jack version . ) and lumbar compression analysis function figure | five kind of state judgment to be judged figure | installation position of the smartphone figure | three angles used for calculation of lumbar burden figure | axial direction of the acceleration sensor figure | tilt angle of the device in the direction of gravity h. tamura et al. / journal of robotics, networking and artificial life ( ) – the subject’s state is determined after performing calibration. the a is defined the moving average of the vector composite value of acceleration x, y, z given by the user with data. it assume that the case where a exceeds the threshold value . is in oper- ation. the operation is a state that waiting for determination of walking, rotation, crouching, and sitting. when gyro sensor y- axis exceeds . (rad/ ms), the state turns to the rotation. in addition, when the angle of the device is below a certain value during the operation. this means in a crouching or sitting state. when it is judged that the tilt angle of the device is stabilizes after the smartphone goes down has been measured, the case where the tilt angle s (°) of the device is equal or more than − (°) of the judgment value it is assumed to be sitting, the exception is crouching. . . identification of walking and rotation in this section, we explain the method of identification of walking and rotation. in order to identify walking and rotation, not only an acceleration sensor but also a gyro sensor capable of recognizing rotational motion is used (figure ). . . . determination of threshold in this section, we describe the method of setting the threshold value in the rotation determination. since a person performs an action involving rotation while walking, a gyro sensor indi- cates a reaction. therefore, it is necessary to identify the state of walking and rotation. so we conducted preliminary experiments to extract feature points from walking and rotation motion. in this experiment, walking (three steps) and rotation (three times) actions were performed twice on eight subjects. after completion of the experiment, check the value of the gyro sensor y-axis used for the rotation determination and obtain the threshold value. experimental results of one subject as an example are shown in figure . from figure the average value of the gyro sensor y-axis is about . (rad/ ms) during walking and about . (rad/ ms) during the rotation determination. therefore, the average of amplitude values of the gyro sensor y-axis at the initial operation of walking and rotation determination of all data is obtained. the thresh- old value is determined from the average of the values. the result is shown in figure . . . lumbar burden estimation method in this section, we explain the method of estimating the lumbar burden. the lumbar burden estimation formula is shown in eq. ( ). f u g l g f fc w w a mrar rar= ´ ´ + ´ ´ - +cos( ) cos( ) ( ) the meaning of each parameter is as follows: fc: lumbar burden (n), uw: weight above the waist (kg), g: gravitational acceleration (m/s ), rar: inclination angle of the joint surface of the lumbar ver- tebrae and the sacrum (rad), lw: load of object (kg), fa: abdominal pressure (n), fm: spinal column standing muscle force (n). the waist angle and the knee flexion angle are calculated from the body inclination angle previously input according to the state of the sub- ject and the body angle calculated from the acceleration data of the smartphone. substitute these two angles into eq. ( ) and seek the lumbar burden. in the lumbar burden estimation during rotation, it is necessary to consider not only the thigh inclination angle but also the waist burden in the transition of rotation of the waist. therefore, jack was used to calculate the transition in the lumbar burden during rotation. table shows the change in the lumbar burden during rotation in jack at the average height and weight [height (cm), weight (kg)] of -year-old japanese general male. from the jack measurement results, there was an increasing ten- dency in the transitions of the lumbar burden during rotation, but the change was small. therefore, the burden due to the rotation of the waist has not been introduced. . . algorithm for state determination the flowchart of the smartphone that attached on the breast pocket can be seen in figure . subject attaches the smartphone to the breast pocket, and resting for a few seconds in a standing state. the criterion value l (°) of table | transitions in the lumbar burden accompanying waist rotation with jack measurement rotation angle (°) lumbar burden (n) figure | algorithm flowchart figure | axial direction of gyro sensor h. tamura et al. / journal of robotics, networking and artificial life ( ) – figure | transition in gyro sensor y-axis during walking and rotation the average amplitude value in walking was about . (rad/ ms), and the average amplitude value in the rotation was about . (rad/ ms). it was judged that the difference between the average of these two operations was sufficiently large, and the average of the two values was . (rad/ ms) as the threshold in the rotation determination. . . . verification experiment in this section, we explain the accuracy verification experiment of walking and rotation determination. to distinguish walk determi- nation and turn determination, two subjects were wearing a smart- phone in the chest pocket and performed two movements, walking (six steps) and rotation (six times), and verify the threshold value set this time is adequate. the subject stands for s between the walking motion and the rotation motion. take a picture of the experiment with a video camera and confirm whether it is identi- fied by synchronizing from the taken video and smartphone data. the experimental result of one subject is shown in figure . figure shows the state determination. the vertical axis shows the state judgment result, and the horizontal axis shows time. state is standing judgment, states , , and are state judging, state is walking judgment, state is sitting judgment, state is crouching judgment, and state judged rotation. the actual oper- ation time by the subject is the time in figures and , the walking time is – s, – s, the rotation time is – , – s. when the value of the gyro sensor y-axis exceeds the threshold value . (rad/ ms) from the result of figure , it is under- stood that the rotation determination is performed. as a result of the experiment, it is possible to distinguish walking and rotation. . experimental condition in this chapter, we describe the two methods. there are the exper- iments verification, the performance verification of the state deter- mination and accuracy verification of the compression force of the lumbar intervertebral disc. . . performance experiment of state determination in this section, we describe the experimental method of the per- formance verification of the state determination to estimate lumbar burden. the state determination is necessary for estimat- ing lumbar burden is performed using the thigh inclination angle in each state measured on each subject. this experiment was con- ducted three times on eight subjects. subjects work in the order of standing, walking (six steps), rotation (six times), stumbling (one time), sitting (one time). the interval between each motion is s. the motion at that time was recorded with a video camera, and the motion in the movie was taken as a true value. the analysis method compares the state determination (smartphone value) determined by the application installed in the smartphone with the true value, figure | amplitude values of walking and rotation figure | value of gyro sensor in walking and rotation figure | state determination in walking and rotation h. tamura et al. / journal of robotics, networking and artificial life ( ) – and calculates the identification rate when the determination is made. the calculation method of the identification rate is shown in eq. ( ). identification rate % smartphone value s true value s ( ) ( ) ( ) = × ( ) . . estimation accuracy of lumbar intervertebral pressing force experimental tools are one smartphone, a mowing machine ( . kg), and an automatic mowing machine ( . kg). automatic mowing machine operates by the remote controller ( . kg). the method is to wear a smartphone in the breast pocket of the sub- ject and get them to do farm work freely. we record that motion with a video camera and confirm the moving state from this video data. in this experiment, the burden analysis software jack . version (jack) was use for comparison. jack is the software that can create virtual human on the desktop manually, allocate work to that virtual human, and can analyze its dynamic burden. we create a digital human model with the agricultural attitude, the load of the subject in the movie taken during the experiment, and calculate the lumbar burden. the calculated value taken is a true value. . results in this chapter, we describe the result verification method. there are the experiments verification, the performance verification of the state determination and accuracy verification of the compres- sion force of the lumbar intervertebral disc. . . result of state determination in this section, we describe the experimental results of the per- formance verification of state determination. table indicates the action (action) actually performed by the subject, the motion estimation (estimation) by the proposed method, and its identi- fication rate. from table we can see that the overall identification rate was . %. the identification rate of walking and sitting state judgment was bad, and the identification rate of the rotation and crouching judgment was good. . . result of lumbar intervertebral pressing force in this section, we describe the experimental result of the verifica- tion accuracy estimation of the lumbar intervertebral disc pressing force. the lumbar burden estimation result during using mowing machine indicated in figure a and automatic mowing machine indicated in figure b the vertical axis represents the lumbar burden (n), and the horizontal axis represents time (min). from the results in figure a, the maximum value was n, the minimum value was n, and the average value was n. during using the automatic mowing machine, the maximum value was n, the minimum value was n, and the average value was n. the reason why the lumbar burden was increased around min in figure b was because the condition judgment came in the crouch as the subject performed the setting of the automatic mowing machine. the reason that the lumbar burden is increased around min is because the smartphone shakes when taking out the smartphone from the subject’s chest pocket. . . comparison with jack in comparison with the jack, jack measurement used figure as a digital human model. to compare with jack, we first create a digital human with the subject of this experiment as a model. manually reproduce the table | distinguish rate of state determination action standing walking rotation crouching sitting estimation (%) standing . . . walking . rotation . . crouching . . sitting . . else . . . . total . figure | (a) lumbar burden estimation graph (mowing machine). (b) lumbar burden estimation graph (automatic mowing machine) a b h. tamura et al. / journal of robotics, networking and artificial life ( ) – subject’s posture while using the automatic mowing machine and while using the mowing machine for the created digital human. the external force exerted on the subject is added to the human model to analyze the lumbar burden in jack and compare with the proposed method. figure a indicates that the image which using the automatic mowing machine and figure b shows that the image which using the mowing machine. in addition, figure c shows a digital human model created with figure a and d shows a digital human model created with figure b. the arrow in the image represents the direction of the force. at the time of remote control operation, . kg force applied to the hand in the direction of gravity, and it is necessary to distribute the weight of . kg during mowing operation. therefore, we are applying kg to the shoulder and . kg to the arm. the momentary lumbar burden cal- culated under the above conditions, and the result showed in table . although the error between smartphone measurement result and the jack measurement result which using the remote con- troller was small, the error in the result of the mowing machine was large. . conclusion in this thesis, verification of the state determination estimation and the lumbar burden estimation method in agricultural work were conducted using one smartphone. regarding the state determination, identifying the state judgment estimate of five patterns with . % is possible. however, the iden- tification rate average result of walking and sitting determination got worse. walking determination depended on state determina- tion about %. the reason for this worsening is that since the state determination is performed using the moving average of data in the identification of the walking determination, a time lag occurs. also, in the sitting determination, there was a lot of misrecogni- tion as the standing determination and the state during determina- tion. we consider that the reason is because the tilt angle used for standing and sitting determination is calculated with a close value. in addition, based on the estimation result of the lumbar burden of agricultural work by the proposed method, we found that the lumbar burden with the automatic mowing machine was about n lower than that of one with the mowing machine. hence, the lumbar burden with the automatic mowing machine burden was reduced. moreover, we also found that the lumbar burden does not exceed the allowable value n of the lumbar burden at the time of agricultural work defined by niosh. from this result, we can say that there is a possibility that the proposed method can be used for evaluating the lumbar region burden of agricultural work. according to the comparison result by jack, the error between the smartphone measurement value and the jack value at the time of using the automatic mowing machine was small. the error between the smartphone measurement value and the jack value at the time of using the mowing machine became large. this is because the proposed method differs from the jack measurement calculation method in that the skeleton of the subject of the jack measurement is different from the proposed method. although the proposed method models the skeleton of the japanese, jack measurement models the skeleton of the american, so the measurement result is considered to be different. as a future task, considering a method of calculating the lumbar burden in an action that takes into consideration the vector direc- tion of motion at the time of agricultural work such as pulling an object and pulling a target object like a mowing machine is conceivable. table | comparison the result of smartphone and jack smartphone (n) jack (n) error (n) error rate (%) automatic mowing machine . mowing machine . figure | (a) automatic mowing machine (jack). (b) mowing machine (jack). (c) automatic mowing machine. (d) moving machine a c d b h. tamura et al. / journal of robotics, networking and artificial life ( ) – acknowledgment thank you for mr. maiguma, mr. nonaka and tamura laboratory that has supported us in this study. references [ ] h. masafumi, a. ismail, proposal of authentication method for smartphone using accelerometer and gyro sensor, research report ubiquitous computing system (ubi), , pp. – . [ ] n.d. nath, r. akhavian, a.h. behzadan, ergonomic analysis of construction worker’s body postures using wearable mobile sen- sors, appl. ergon. ( ), – . [ ] s. mellone, c. tacconi, l. schwickert, j. klenk, c. becker, l. chiari, smartphone-based solutions for fall detection and pre- vention: the farseeing approach, z. gerontol. geriatr. ( ), – . [ ] s. nishiguchi, m. yamada, k. nagai, s. mori, y. kajiwara, t. sonoda, et al. reliability and validity of gait analysis by android-based smartphone. telemed. j e health. ( ), – . 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( ), – . dr. keiko sakurai she received her phd from inter- disciplinary graduate school of agri- culture and engineering, miyazaki university, japan in . she works as a researcher in faculty of engineering at miyazaki university. her main research interests are biological signal measurement systems, especially gaze estimation system. mr. yasufumi fuse he graduated from nihon university school of science and engineering in . since , he is an engineer of miyazaki prefecture industrial technology center. in master’s course in miyazaki university grad- uated. the main fields of research are mechanical engineering, welfare engineering, ergonomics. dr. hiroki tamura he received his phd from kyushu university, japan in . he is a professor in the department of environmental robotics, miyazaki university, japan. his main research interests are neural networks and optimization problems. in recent years, he has the interest in biomedical signal processing using soft computing. dr. koichi tanno he received his phd from graduate school of science and technology, kumamoto university, kumamoto, japan in . he is a professor in the department of electrical and systems engineering. his main research interests are in analog integrated circuit design and mul- tiple-valued logic circuit design. dr. tanno is a member of ieee. authors introduction http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.apergo. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.apergo. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.apergo. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /tmj. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /tmj. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /tmj. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /tmj. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ergon. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ergon. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ergon. . . locating past places in britain: creating and evaluating the gb gazetteer authors: paula aucott and humphrey southall abstract the gb project used crowd-sourcing to transcribe all text from the second edition county series six inch to one mile maps of great britain, published between and , a total of c. . m. geo-located text strings. these locate almost every farm and about half of all street names. the paper describes the final datasets, and how they were created. it then presents a detailed comparison with five other freely-available gazetteers of britain: geonames, the us government’s nga gazetteer, the ordnance survey’s k and open names datasets, and the english place name survey’s deep project. comparisons are presented at national level and, more qualitatively, for an area of eastern england. the results demonstrate both gb ’s greater volume of geo-located entries and its ability to locate places and features identified in other historical sources beyond administrative hierarchies: this is the most detailed historical gazetteer, certainly for britain and possibly for anywhere. the final online system is described, including its integration of place name histories from deep. keywords: gb , locations, local history, gazetteer, place names introduction human activity is contingent on both time and place, so in humanities research we constantly need to know not only when events occurred but where. historical documents are overwhelmingly text based and what makes them geographical is the place names (toponyms) within them. there is also a large need from family historians to locate ancestral origins. both types of enquiry require gazetteers, turning place names into locations which can be found on maps, and we often need to know not only the current names of places but also past forms. the creation of these historical gazetteers is a central task of the geohumanities (southall, mostern, and berman ; berman, mostern, and southall ). this paper presents the new gazetteer created by the gb project, and compares it with other freely available gazetteers of britain. gb applied crowd- sourcing to transcribe all text strings appearing on six inch to the mile ( : , ) maps of great britain, a total of c. . m. strings, each with a coordinate, although these include many labels which are not place names. detailed accounts of the project’s origins and the crowd-sourcing software (southall et al. ), and of the work of the online volunteers and their motivations (aucott, southall, and ekinsmyth ) have already been published. the present paper focuses on the gb place name gazetteer, while a further paper will present analyses of the non-place name data as evidence of past physical and cultural landscapes. our evaluation of the gb gazetteer is through comparison with five other gazetteers of britain, and this paper consequently also includes the first detailed investigation of the dataset created by the deep (digital exposure of english place names) project. the initial section summarises the history of detailed mapping of britain and the recording of place names, leading up to the gb project. we then detail the further work to turn the transcription outputs into final datasets. the third section presents a mainly quantitative comparison of the ‘abridged‘ gb data set, focused on place names, with the other gazetteers of britain. the next section presents a more qualitative assessment, by focusing on a smaller area of eastern england. the fifth section describes our online version of the gazetteer, including how place name histories from deep have been integrated into the database. a concluding discussion argues the advantages of gazetteers rooted in specific historical sources. creating the historical record of british place names the uk national mapping agency, the ordnance survey (os), began mapping britain in at one inch to one mile ( : , ) scale, but this proved inadequate for railway construction and so the original county series six inches to one mile ( : , ) maps were published between and . this was the largest scale at which the os ever published paper maps covering all of great britain, the next scale, inches to one mile ( : , ) being limited to settled and farmed areas. however, the initial county series used a different prime meridian, effectively a different map projection, for each county (national library of scotland n.d.). creating the most detailed possible digital seamless historic map of britain therefore requires the second edition of the county series, published between and , as exemplified in figure . the earliest place name inventories were itineraries not gazetteers: lists of places along routes, rather than systematic coverages of areas. camden’s britannia ( ) was structurally still an itinerary, particularly following rivers, but systematically covering every county, and enumerating current and past toponyms. camden based this on having ‘conferred with most skillfull observers in each county, i have studiously read over our owne countrie writers, old and new…. i have had conference with learned men in other parts of christendome‘ (camden , sec. introduction). immediately following camden’s survey, john speed ( - ) published a set of maps showing each of britain’s counties, at scales enabling essentially every village to be shown, and that in turn led to john adams’ index villaris of , essentially a single alphabetical listing of c. , locations, each including a latitude and longitude (adams ). the ordnance survey followed in this tradition, its surveyors being instructed to systematically gather the names of features and places from local people (harley ). the maps themselves are therefore the most authoritative record of britain’s places and their names, although it should be noted that map-makers have generally copied names from earlier editions (crone, campbell, and skelton ), so most but not all the names on the second edition county series will come from the first. the english place name survey (epns) began in (see https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/research/groups/epns/survey.aspx). it creates place name histories, tracing individual names back through ever-earlier documents to forms which have meaning in anglo-saxon, norse or celtic languages, which can therefore be used as evidence of early landscapes and settlement patterns. this meticulous research requires expertise in the above languages, so the epns works through county teams and is still incomplete. the epns began each county survey by systematically gathering names from the six inch maps (smith ), but did not systematically include coordinates. the desire for an equally detailed gazetteer of welsh place names led to the cymru wales project, led by the national library of wales and the royal commission on ancient and historical monuments of wales (ell, hughes, and southall ), applying crowd-sourcing to transcribe all text appearing on the second edition county series maps. cymru launched in october , then essentially relaunched as gb in september as a collaboration between the original welsh partners, the national library of scotland who provided digital mapping covering all of britain not just wales, and the university of portsmouth who provided software revisions and hosting. gb inherited software and all existing volunteers and transcriptions from cymru but, obviously, extended the geographical scope. volunteers were asked to transcribe all text within the maps except purely numeric data, such as ’spot heights’ giving elevations, and distances. rather than attempting to identify the locations of features being named, volunteers were instructed to give each text string the location of the bottom left corner of the first character of the string. no attempt was made to capture variations in fonts and text sizes. the system also allowed volunteers to separately record additional names for features from personal knowledge, or add personal ‘memories‘, but these capabilities were little used, and obviously could not be confirmed by other volunteers. the gb gazetteer the crowd-sourcing process ended january , by when it was almost impossible to find new text to transcribe or existing transcriptions needing confirmation. by then , , initial transcriptions had been made, plus , , confirmatory transcriptions; some of the former were mistakes incapable of confirmation, more than balancing those needing multiple confirmations to reach consensus. these data were held within the mongodb system underpinning the web site, accessible from the gbh gis’s main postgres database via a foreign data wrapper. three final datasets have been created and made available for download. firstly, the ‘final raw dump‘, a zip archive containing the final state of all tables from mongodb, except that detailing individual volunteers. secondly, the ‘complete gb gazetteer‘, a single listing of points and coordinates. thirdly, the ‘abridged gb gazetteer‘, containing the same columns as the complete dataset but with common non-place names removed. the raw dump is made available under the simplest creative commons license (cc ), enabling anyone to use it as they please, the only limitation being that they may not call the result the gb gazetteer. the other two datasets are under creative commons – attribution – share alike (cc-by-sa) licenses. all can be downloaded from: http://www.pastplace.org/data#gb the raw dump is precisely the content created by the main transcription process and contains four data files plus four additional files of documentation. the core data file, gb _locations, has , , rows, one for each location or ‘pin‘ created in the gb system. each row includes a wgs coordinate, the unique - character hexadecimal pin id used internally by the crowd-sourcing software, and a new and simpler seven-digit id number, based on the order in which pins were created. the gb _transcriptions file contains , , text strings, each linked to a pin: this count is misleading, as one of the changes made in evolving from cymru to gb was to replace a seldom-met requirement for three independent transcriptions for each pin, with no immediate checking of whether they matched, with two being sufficient provided they matched; but this had to be implemented by programmatically inserting a third matching string. the other two tables in the raw dump are much smaller, but are the only way in which the ‘user contributions‘ have been preserved: gb _memories has rows, and gb _alt_names has , rows. creating the complete gazetteer from the raw dump files began with automated cleaning within the database. that worked by creating a new data set in which all three transcriptions were added to the locations as separate columns, then compared. mostly they were identical, so a single canonical text string was easily identified. elsewhere, small differences were deemed insignificant. this included ignoring double spaces and spaces at the beginning or end of a text string, and standardising common abbreviations for generic features. for example, any string in which the only two letters were an ‘f’ followed by a ‘p’, regardless of case, spaces or punctuation marks, were standardised to ‘f. p.’, the abbreviation for footpath, even though this occasionally reflected variations in the original maps rather than in volunteers’ interpretations. at this stage we also excluded any purely numeric data which should not have been transcribed, and some duplicate pins, where two closely adjacent pins were separate attempts to transcribe the same string: pairs of pins were merged into one where they contained exactly the same text string as a neighbouring confirmed pin and they were located within metres of one another. the process was repeated at , and metres, but with progressively more checking that they were not common abbreviations likely to appear within close proximity, such as ‘p’ for pump. , locations remained needing manual checking. firstly, those still with only one transcription, which by this stage probably meant there was no actual feature on the map. one source of these was that in the county edition areas falling across county boundaries were covered by sheets from the sets for both counties, and the mosaics used for cymru and gb sometimes differed in the version used. this meant that some unconfirmed transcriptions inherited from cymru could not be confirmed in gb , but manual checking was required to delete them. secondly, all cases were manually checked if only two non-matching transcriptions had been made, or there were three transcriptions which all differed. we also manually checked all locations where the agreed version did not contain an accented character, but a third transcription did, as many volunteers ignored the accents when transcribing welsh and gaelic names, even though buttons for adding these special characters were provided on the transcription form. all these cases were extracted into spreadsheets and emailed out to volunteers who had offered to further assist. each was checked by at least two volunteers against the national library of scotland web site presenting the original mapping, and the results compared; any remaining discrepancies were resolved by the lead author. one further common error was breaking up long labels describing railway lines into multiple strings, as illustrated in figure : ‘cambrian railway’ appears above the line and ‘kerry branch’ below. in the worst cases each word of the railway label had been separately transcribed. the authors corrected these c. railways labels. the third dataset, the ‘abridged gb gazetteer‘, the focus of the remainder of this article, contains the same columns as the complete version, but with most non- place names removed. this was done by ranking all unique strings in the complete gazetteer in descending order of frequency and then working down manually. the five commonest strings are ‘f. p.’ (meaning foot path; , occurrences), ‘w’ (well; , ), ‘p’ (pump; , ), ‘f. b.’ (foot bridge; , ) and ‘spring’ ( , ), so just removing these cuts over a quarter of all rows from the complete data set. the commonest strings still included are ‘manor house’ ( , occurrences) and ‘manor farm’ ( , ). all other strings retained appear less than a thousand times, and currently all strings appearing at least times have been considered for exclusion. street names are retained, however common, so there are ‘high street’ entries, while church names including saints’ dedications are excluded. some categories of unique strings were also removed, such as most containing ‘found’, for instance ‘human remains roman coins &c. found here a. d. ’. the end result is that the abridged dataset contains , , rows out of the complete dataset’s , , ( . per cent). both datasets include, in addition to the agreed transcription and both the original and simplified unique identifiers, the location given both as latitude and longitude (wgs ) and as ordnance survey national grid coordinates, and the name of the nation (england, wales or scotland), modern local authority and modern civil parish containing the location. these names were added by point-in-polygon database look-ups from the coordinates, and the parish boundaries were those provided for download by the uk data service in june , representing english and welsh parishes as defined for the census and scottish parishes as defined in . the downloads for the complete and abridged datasets both include, in addition to the data themselves as csv files, the creative commons license and a read me file. based on our repeated visual inspections of both the source maps and the text files created by gb , we believe the latter are a comprehensive and accurate transcription of the text in the former, the main limitations being that distinctions between upper and lower case letters cannot be relied on, and the coordinates are sometimes imprecise. alternative place name gazetteers for great britain how useful is the gb gazetteer? this is best answered through comparison with other gazetteers, specifically five existing freely downloadable gazetteers under open licenses, as listed in table . the deep gazetteer the digital exposure of english place-names (deep) project was funded by jisc in - to computerise all completed volumes of the epns, discussed above, excluding county introductions and volumes on single cities. digitization combined optical character recognition with much manual work. deep created the online ‘historical gazetteer of england’s place-names’’ (http://www.placenames.org.uk/), but this went offline in . ell, hughes and southall ( ) described the project but little detailed documentation was ever published. however, the underlying data are available through jisc at this site, under a creative commons non-commercial attribution . licence: http://mads.digitalresources.jisc.ac.uk/mads / a total of files are available for download, each corresponding to a particular epns volume. together they comprise , , lines of xml, based on the library of congress’s metadata authority description schema (mads: http://www.placenames.org.uk/ http://mads.digitalresources.jisc.ac.uk/mads / http://www.loc.gov/standards/mads/) format but with no more specific documentation. what follows is based on our constructing an actual gazetteer from these files, which may or may not differ significantly from that which was behind placenames.org.uk. each xml file consists entirely of a series of entries for different places, demarcated by the tag, and in total there are , such entries. entries can include one or more instances of various optional elements, so our main ‘deep_places’ table has four child tables. firstly, ‘deep_locations’ ( , rows) holds geographic coordinates from four different sources. secondly, ‘deep_names’ ( , rows) holds a primary name and any number of variant ‘names’ for each place. thirdly, ‘deep_attestations’ ( , rows) details the historical sources from which names are drawn, and a given name can be attested to by multiple sources. finally, ‘names’ are often lengthy lists of toponyms, so the data also include , ‘search terms’ in the ‘deep_searchterms’ table, identifying individual names from within those lists for use in searching. each entry includes a place id such as ‘epns-deep- -a-parish- ’, and these in practice identify the type of feature, here a parish. the mads file for every volume begins with an entry for the county covered, and every other entry then includes a ‘related entry’ creating a hierarchy which always links back ultimately to the county, generally by way of a parish. table lists the overall frequency of different ‘place types’, showing that per cent are the names of individual fields within farms, although none of these field names have either locations or supporting attestations, and they are listed for only sixteen counties. ‘mapped names’ will generally have been transcribed from maps and especially early six inch maps, so although most lack locations, most can be assigned to a parish with known boundaries and then matched to locations in the gb data, as described below. ‘sub-parish’ covers villages and hamlets, generally including the settlements parishes are named after so these names appear twice, while ‘sub-county’ refers to the ancient system of districts, including hundreds and wapentakes. an obvious limitation of the deep data is that they are based on an incomplete survey. they inevitably do not cover wales or scotland, but figure shows that eight counties (cornwall, hampshire, herefordshire, kent, lancashire, northumberland, somerset and suffolk) are also completely absent, and another six counties are incomplete (durham, leicestershire, lincolnshire, norfolk, shropshire, and staffordshire). coordinates are given in these digital files from four sources, the english place name society themselves (epns), geonames as described below, unlock the edina service which offered geo-referencing of place names and geographic data searching and ran until (https://edina.ac.uk/unlock), and the key to english place names resource (kepn), an ahrc funded project in - making available place name elements and their meanings through an online searchable database of english place names (http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/). as table shows, parishes and sub-parish settlements generally have coordinates but most ‘mapped names’ and all fields lack them. geonames and the nga gazetteer perhaps the best known global gazetteer of modern place names is geonames (http://www.geonames.org/). geonames has been assembled from many different sources, and then extended through crowd-sourcing: anyone can add entries. this makes it very large, but means that data quality may vary: ahlers ( ) analysed https://edina.ac.uk/unlock http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/ http://www.geonames.org/ geonames data for central america, finding mis-allocation of feature codes, duplication of features and significant variation in locational accuracy, depending on the original data source. geonames has at its core two us government datasets, the us geological survey’s geographic names information system (gnis), covering the united states (https://geonames.usgs.gov/), and the national geospatial-intelligence agency’s geographic names database (nga gazetteer), covering everywhere else (http://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html). although the nga gazetteer provides only half as many entries for the uk as geonames, it is separately included in our comparison as potentially more accurate and consistent. table compares geonames with the nga gazetteer. geonames does not identify sources for individual entries, but two factors almost entirely explain why geonames is almost twice as large as the nga gazetteer. firstly, geonames includes many more administrative areas, overwhelmingly parishes, britain’s most detailed administrative geography. they are identified not as parishes but as type ‘adm ’ ( , features, also including districts) if they are within unitary authorities which are contained within england, wales or scotland, or as ‘adm ’ ( , features) if they are contained within districts within counties within those nations. parishes are generally centred on and named after villages, separately identified as ‘ppl’ (populated places). in practice this means that a very large number of feature name/location pairs are duplicated. this is also true of gb , as both villages and parishes are named on the six inch maps, and of deep. secondly, geonames include seven times as many ‘spot’ entries as nga. this may be where crowd-sourcing has the largest impact, and it is particularly notable that https://geonames.usgs.gov/ http://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html , ( per cent) of the feature class ‘spot’ locations are classed as ‘hotels’. they also include , railway stations, versus in the nga gazetteer. conversely, numbers of ‘populated places’ and physical landscape features are very similar. geonames does identify , castles (feature code ‘cstl’), but only churches (feature code ‘ch’), which are arguably much the most common type of historic building as there is at least one in almost every village. ordnance survey k and open names gazetteers the ordnance survey (os) have made two large gazetteers covering great britain freely downloadable. in , they made available a gazetteer based on names appearing on their : , map series, sometimes called the k gazetteer, but in october they announced that this was being replaced by os open names. the present situation is somewhat curious, as online re-sellers offer the k gazetteer for £ , but a linked data version remains available from the os under the uk open government license, which was designed to be compatible with creative commons. what follows uses a less verbose version of the k gazetteer downloaded in . table is based on the ‘feature codes’ in the k gazetteer, and shows that the majority of features are effectively un-typed. it is unclear why two different feature codes (‘x’ and ‘o’) are needed to indicate this, but the lack of typing must be related to the data having been harvested from digital topographic mapping in which most names are labels for areas not symbols. the other major limitation is that coordinates are accurate only to kilometre. the ‘replacement’ open names gazetteer initially appears far larger, but as table shows the large majority of the entries are postcodes, the uk equivalent of zip codes, or street names. although it lacks the farms in the k gazetteer, the number of settlements and landscape features is still very substantial, and table provides a more detailed breakdown of the ‘local types’ within the type ‘populatedplace’. this contains twice as many such features as geonames, partly because it includes suburban areas within towns. . per cent of open names settlements are linked to corresponding geonames entries, and . per cent to dbpedia, but only . per cent to both. while gb includes no feature classification, some features can be grouped based on their names. for example, , gb entries end with a space followed by ‘road’, ‘street’, ‘lane’, ‘rd.’ or ‘st.’, far more than any other gazetteer analysed. while gb has far fewer hotels than geonames ( , in both gb datasets), it includes many more churches ( , in the complete gazetteer) while , entries end in ‘farm’, compared to only farms in geonames. os open names identifies , railway stations, and railway labels, while , gb complete entries end in ‘railway’ or ‘ry.’, and , end in ‘station’ or ‘sta.’, although these include coast guard stations, police stations and so on. assessment of the accuracy of local area names the three norfolk hundreds of holt, north erpingham and south erpingham were chosen for a more qualitative assessment because they are covered by a relatively recent epns volume (sandred ) and because the lead author is familiar with the area. the hundred boundaries used for this procedure were created by merging constituent parishes from the great britain historical gis project, although field dalling and horstead with stanninghall parishes needed to be added to include all deep entries. data from the other five gazetteers were then included if their locations fell within the boundary polygons for the three hundreds, as modified. gb has , points located within the study area. classifying them from their names, are named as farms, as some kind of house, as lodgings and hotels and as public or brew houses. two are urban districts, cromer and sheringham, and are parish names. although parish names should be easily identifiable, as they are always printed in upper case, in practice only about half those within the study area had letter case correctly transcribed. figure shows the distribution of all gb points relating to administrative unit names and identifiable building locations, including ruins or the sites of former buildings (farms, houses, lodgings, churches and chapels). the map excludes all other physical features whether natural or man-made. even displaying only these points the coverage is dense. , deep ‘places’ were within the study area but only ( per cent) had coordinates. in most cases, these were the parishes and the identically-named main settlement within each parish, classed as ‘sub-parish’. the ten other places with coordinates were ‘mapped names’, including six lost settlements. the majority of other entries are identified only as being somewhere within a parish, reflecting the contents of the epns volume. for example, places are identified as within aldborough parish, but all the modern ( ) and medieval ( ) field names and the minor places ( ) such as buildings, copses and lanes have no associated co- ordinate, and therefore cannot be mapped. all other gazetteers include coordinates for every record. geonames contains fewer points than deep. the majority of records are classified as adm ( , north norfolk district) or adm ( ) plus settlements given a ‘populated places’ feature code ( ). the remaining points consist of natural features ( ), buildings; railway stations ( ), hospitals ( ), large houses ( ) and castles ( ), hotels ( ), air fields ( ) and miscellaneous other features like a park and a pier ( ). the nga gazetteer includes even fewer features, almost all of which are ‘populated places’ ( ) plus just a few ‘spot’ locations and one physical feature. the os k gazetteer also includes fewer features, with limited and more confused feature coding. only four entries have the ‘towns’ feature code: cromer, sheringham, holt and aylsham. most other features are classified under ‘o’ (other - ) or ‘x’ (all other features - ). the majority of ‘o’ entries match parish names, although they include eight road names, while ‘x’ includes hill names not listed under feature code ‘h’ (hill or mountain - ). in contrast the os open names data include , entries for the study area, but . per cent are postcodes. the remaining ‘other’ type points are miscellaneous properties including two producing electricity and the rest are educational and medical facilities. of those identified under type ‘transportnetwork’ just four are not road numbers ( ), road names ( , ) or railway related ( ). only points ( . per cent) identify the names of settlements which can be divided into local types; towns ( ), suburban areas ( ), villages ( ), hamlets ( ) and other settlements ( ). entries are related to landscape and water features, a far greater number than those given in geonames. figure depicts the three hundreds with generalised boundaries and a combination of all the geo-located names in deep, geonames, nga gazetteer and the os k, plus the ‘populatedplaces’ in os open names. the location of points from these datasets correspond well with one another. table presents a statistical comparison between all six datasets. deep has the most records, but few are spatially located. similarly, while geonames clearly identifies and distinguishes between administrative units and settlements, for this area it provides fewer geo-located entries than deep. os k has a small number of entries with limited classification while os open names has good coverage across the area, but removing postcodes eliminates almost half the records. railway-related points are few, and while there are plenty of road identifiers this dataset is perhaps most helpful for natural landscape features. analysing a single parish manually shows even more clearly the differences between gb and deep, as shown in figure . sheringham was chosen, partly because it developed into an urban settlement and partly because, unusually, it has three sub-parish entries in deep with which other entries are associated. the parish name plus the sub-parish entries for both ‘sheringham’ and ‘upper sheringham’ are in gb , only the ‘lower sheringham’ settlement name is missing. this is presumably because that settlement had developed to such an extent it was no longer referred to in this way by the early twentieth century, while upper sheringham was still distinct. additional map evidence from around the turn of the twentieth century confirms this. overall there were entries in the deep dataset associated with this parish. gb complete had points identified within the modern parishes of sheringham or upper sheringham. of the deep entries for field names in sheringham parish only ‘gibbet plantation’ could be found in gb , and this name also describes a landscape feature. encouragingly, of the deep ‘mapped name’ entries, all but five did match gb . three of these unmatched entries relate to route-ways, ‘butts lane’, ‘limkiln lane’ and ‘holway road’, each of which had two gb entries because these linear features were each named twice. also missing from gb were ‘potter’s kiln’ and ‘elcot house’, although there was an ‘elcot’. in addition six matches had slight variations in spelling or punctuation, but clearly related to the same feature ‘bullock[‘]s carr’, ‘bunker[‘s] hill’, ‘golboro['] spinney’, ‘howe’s hill [tumulus]’, ‘north st[reet]’ and ‘south st[reet]’. the result of mapping these matched features together is shown in figure . all the deep matches are included in the abridged version of gb and of the gb entries without a deep match, only are included in the abridged version. these include administrative labels for the urban district of ‘sheringham’ and one label for ‘upper sheringham’ because gb has two entries (one each for the village and the parish (created in ) whereas deep only has one entry. there are also five buildings, plus a lifeboat house and a water works, eleven transport links which were all road names except one railway line label, two names associated with the neighbouring parish of beeston regis, ‘sheringham wood’, the aforementioned ‘elcot’ and the site some stone querns were discovered. gb as an online gazetteer our project partners are already using gb place name data. the royal commission on the ancient and historical monuments of wales have used the , names collected during the earlier cymru project, with other data, to create a list of historic place names for wales (https://historicplacenames.rcahmw.gov.uk/). property developers are effectively required to consult this list, as it is now a statutory requirement to consider historically appropriate place names whenever new developments are being planned in wales. the national library of scotland have integrated gb data into their https://historicplacenames.rcahmw.gov.uk/ geo-referenced maps explorer (http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/), offering a more detailed gazetteer for searching the map interfaces than was previously available. the great britain historical gis are relaunching the web site a vision of britain through time as pastplace.org, with searchable gb data as a major focus (great britain historical gis project ). this version of gb is based on the abridged dataset but enhanced in two ways. firstly, each gb entry provides links to the pages for various administrative units whose boundaries contained the location: to the modern local authority, the historic county and parish, and in england and wales to the nineteenth century registration district; this last is important to genealogists seeking to locate vital registration records for their ancestors. it also links to the four nearest ‘places’, generally meaning towns or villages for which text from historical gazetteers and travel writing is available. secondly, entries have been matched to corresponding entries in the deep gazetteer. this has been done by first using the hierarchy within deep to associate each lower-level entry with a deep parish entry, and then matching deep parishes to entries in the gbh gis administrative unit ontology (auo), either via the hierarchy or matching parish coordinates from deep to gbh gis boundary data (southall ); the penultimate column in table shows results from this. then, having already matched gb entries to historic parishes, they were further matched to deep entries based on both containing parish and name matching, while excluding ambiguous cases. matching to the auo was complicated by epns teams using a mixture of historical and relatively modern geographies: many of the hundreds appearing had been abolished through mergers in pre-modern times, while many of the parishes listed http://maps.nls.uk/geo/explore/ were created through mergers in the twentieth century, or are groupings of actual parishes which have never existed as legal entities, such as ‘lydiard’ in wiltshire, combining the actual parishes of lydiard millicent and lydiard tregoze. table shows that the large majority of deep ‘sub-county’ and ‘parish’ entries are now matched to the auo, although this required significant manual work. automated matching of individual gb and deep entries is similarly problematic, and on-going. we have also done more manual matching of deep sub-parish entries, as these provide the richest historical information. the final column in table shows that the majority of deep ‘mapped names” and ‘sub-parish’ entries are now matched to gb entries. the search interface can be accessed at: http://www.pastplace.org/expertsearch#gb visitors can include wild cards within their search terms, and narrow searches by county. figure shows how results are presented against the background of mapping, supplied by the national library of scotland. here the initial view is of all the locations in britain matching the search, but zooming-in on a particular location displays the county series mapping. clicking on a particular location selects it, and displays the results shown on the right. in this case, information from deep is included, listing earlier names by which this village was known and the dates and source from which these ‘attestations’ were drawn. the site provides resolvable uniform resource identifiers (uris) for the gb gazetteer via the simplified seven-digit numeric identifiers described earlier: http://www.pastplace.org/gb / http://www.pastplace.org/gb / there are limited benefits to making gb available in a format based on rdf (resource description framework), or via a linked data api, if it consists simply of a large number of place names, coordinates and unique identifiers. however, pelagios commons have very recently funded a new small project to publish the auo as linked data, and we hope to be able to include gb within that, exploiting the gb -auo linkages described above. discussion we have argued elsewhere for ‘spinal gazetteers’, but this term has often been misunderstood (ell, hughes, and southall , p. ). we are certainly calling for something more specific than just ‘a really large and really important gazetteer’, and if anything we are calling for smaller, not larger gazetteers. the main reason for this is seen above: most gazetteers contain multiple instances of more or less the same place name in more or less the same location. in most cases, they can be associated with different geographical features, in some sense, but geographical names encountered in historical texts can rarely be clearly associated with a particular feature. in a true spinal gazetteer, this ambiguity is removed: if the same name appears more than once, each instance should be in a quite different location and identify a quite different ‘place’. we began developing just such a spinal gazetteer for britain by grouping together the many different administrative units named after the same place held in the auo; the small town of sheringham discussed above is not an especially good example, but the auo identifies a parish, a manor, a registration sub-district and an urban district, each with different boundaries. focus group testing showed that this was confusing for most users, especially where there were both multiple settlements of the same name and multiple administrative units named after each settlement. grouping units into ‘places’ enabled a two-stage search process, users first selecting a place and then a unit, and we were then able to also link in more qualitative sources, such as travel writing, which could be linked only to places, not units. we currently define , ‘places’ within britain, versus , administrative units (southall ), and this reflects much manual editing to locate and remove duplicates, making the spinal gazetteer smaller and better. our evaluation of alternative gazetteers suggest much work to make gazetteers larger but not necessarily more useful. the ordnance survey’s open names gazetteer initially appears vast, but is mostly postal codes and a street directory, in significant ways less useful than their earlier k gazetteer. geonames appears to be almost twice as large as the nga gazetteer from which it partly derives, but much of the additional content are parishes which duplicate settlement names, while people seeking hotels are probably better off with trip advisor. similarly, the field names which form per cent of the deep gazetteer lack locations and attributions, so what is their value in a gazetteer? one virtue of gb is that it is based on the names appearing on a single but very detailed set of maps. this inherently limits duplication, although as with geonames and deep the names of parishes largely duplicate the names of the main settlements. we are exploring whether parish names can be identified and potentially filtered out, through a combination of automated checking based on whether or not transcriptions are in capital letters, and manual checking based on the detailed information held in the auo about which parishes existed circa . duplication also occurs through linear features being named at multiple points along their routes: railways, roads, rivers. the complete gb gazetteer also, of course, includes many items which are not place names at all, but they are relatively easily filtered out. another way gazetteers vary is in whether, and how thoroughly, they include a classification of features. here, confusingly, the terminology varies greatly: the os k uses just ‘feature code’, geonames uses ‘feature class’ and within that ‘feature code’. nga similarly uses ‘feature class’ divided into ‘feature designated codes’. os open names uses completely different classification names, ‘type’ and within that ‘local type’. deep does not have a column specifying a feature classification, but the place ids effectively provide a typology, even though there is significant variation in usage between the volumes. gb lacks feature types, reflecting the lack of symbology in the county series maps, but most features can be assigned to a broad classification. of course, a true spinal gazetteer is inherently untyped as it is concerned not with features but with a more abstract notion of ‘place’. the os k gazetteer reminds us that many if not most names on many topographic maps are not linked to features and so fit uneasily into a typology. finally, this paper has explored the potential for integrating different gazetteers. this should never mean simply massing them together into a single vast list of place names and coordinates: in particular, all six gazetteers each include the name of every town and significant village at least once, but never with the exact same coordinate and often with slightly different coordinates, greatly complicating automated matching or elimination of duplicates. this is arguably why only os open names makes any attempt to align itself with other gazetteers, and has achieved this for only per cent of entries. more specifically, work with the deep xml files began simply to enable a comparison, but has developed into a new project to integrate gb and deep. this paper began with a historical account which noted that the english place names survey begins each local survey by gathering place names from six inch maps, and that the cymru transcription project originated as an attempt to replicate the english survey for wales, but working somewhat more speedily. the slowness of the survey’s methods means that we can add data from deep for only about a quarter of britain, but for those areas we are adding arguably the most thorough historical survey of place names made anywhere in the world, to the most detailed specifically historical gazetteer. this integration helps remedy deep’s greatest weakness as a gazetteer, its lack of coordinate data. it is also only possible because both data sets are under creative commons licenses. returning to gb , it clearly cannot match the most detailed resources created by the uk national mapping agency: the ordnance survey’s mastermap system contains c. million labelled features, but is not historical and available only at high cost (ordnance survey, n.d.). setting mastermap to one side, gb identifies more ‘places’ and a greater number of overall locations, especially natural features and individual buildings, than any other freely-available data set, and is also the most detailed specifically historical gazetteer of britain, or arguably of anywhere else. grounded in a particular historical source, but now enhanced with information from deep, it will be a key reference aid, and organising framework, both for academic historical researchers, and a wide range of amateur family and local historians. acknowledgments the work reported here would have been impossible without the support of our gb project partners, and the work of the gb project volunteers. particular thanks to the volunteers who assisted with the final manual checking, reported here. thanks also to chris fleet and the national library of scotland for the supply of the six inch map images. end notes these lost settlements have been identified further by referencing external sources. the norfolk heritage explorer website (norfolk county council ) describes: ‘shipden’ near cromer: http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record- details?mnf -site-of-shipden-medieval-village, ‘rippon hall’ in hevingham parish: http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record- details?mnf -rippon-hall-or-catte% s-hall, ‘bolwick’ in marsham parish: http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record- details?mnf -undated-mound-and-possible-site-of-bolwick-deserted-medieval- settlement, ‘southgate’ in cawston parish: http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record- details?mnf -sygate-or-southgate-deserted-medieval-village, blomefield’s ( ) detailed description of norfolk includes ‘crakeford’ near banningham (pp. - ): https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-hist- norfolk/vol /pp - , and ‘mortoft’ in heydon parish (pp. - ): https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-hist-norfolk/vol /pp - #fnn county series : first edition county sheet for norfolk published in names the settlement lower sheringham, while the first revision published in names it just sheringham. http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record-details?mnf -site-of-shipden-medieval-village&index= &recordcount= &sessionid= b d - d e- f -aef - d dd b http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record-details?mnf -site-of-shipden-medieval-village&index= &recordcount= &sessionid= b d - d e- f -aef - d dd b http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record-details?mnf -rippon-hall-or-catte% s-hall&index= &recordcount= &sessionid= b - d c- ce-b b - ccb c dc http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/record-details?mnf -rippon-hall-or-catte% s-hall&index= &recordcount= &sessionid= b - d c- ce-b b - ccb c dc https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-hist-norfolk/vol /pp - https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-hist-norfolk/vol /pp - https://www.british-history.ac.uk/topographical-hist-norfolk/vol /pp - #fnn references adams, john. . index villaris: or, an exact register. alphabetically digested, of all the cities, market-towns, parishes, villages, the hundred, lath, rape, ward, wapentake, or other division of each county [etc]. london: sawbridge and gillyflower. ahlers, dirk. . “assessment of the accuracy of geonames gazetteer data.” in gir’ - th workshop on geographic information retrieval, edited by ross purves and chris jones, – . acm digital library. https://doi.org/ . / . . aucott, paula, humphrey southall, and carol ekinsmyth. . “citizen science through old maps: volunteer motivations in the gb gazetteer-building project.” historical methods: a journal of quantitative and interdisciplinary history . https://doi.org/ . / . . . berman, merrick lex, ruth mostern, and humphrey southall, eds. . placing names. enriching and integrating gazetteers. bloomington: indiana university press. blomefield, francis. . an essay towards a topographical history of the county of norfolk: volume . london: w. miller. camden, william. . “introduction: the author to the reader.” in britain, or, a chorographicall description of the most flourishing kingdomes, england, scotland, and ireland, edited by philemon holland, english tr. http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/camden/ . crone, gerald roe, e m j campbell, and r a skelton. . “landmarks in british cartography.” the geographical journal ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . ell, paul s, lorna hughes, and humphrey southall. . “digitally exposing the place names of england and wales.” in placing names, edited by merrick lex berman, ruth mostern, and humphrey r southall, – . enriching and integrating gazetteers. bloomington: indiana university press. great britain historical gis project. . “pastplace”. great britain historical gis, university of portsmouth. accessed april , , http://www.pastplace.org/ harley, j b. . “place-names on the early ordnance survey maps of england and wales.” the cartographic journal ( ): – . national library of scotland. n.d. “ordnance survey maps”. accessed april , . https://maps.nls.uk/os/index.html. norfolk county council. . “norfolk heritage explorer: norfolk historic environment record: parish summaries”. accessed april , . http://www.heritage.norfolk.gov.uk/parishes. ordnance survey. n.d. “os mastermap.” accessed may , . https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/business-and- government/products/mastermap-products.html sandred, karl inge. . the place-names of norfolk. part three. the hundreds of north and south erpingham and holt. nottingham: english place-name society. smith, a.h. . the preparation of county place-name surveys. london: english place-name society. southall, humphrey. . “rebuilding the great britain historical gis, part : a geo-spatial ontology of administrative units.” historical methods: a journal of quantitative and interdisciplinary history ( ): – . ———. . “rebuilding the great britain historical gis, part : integrating qualitative content for a sense of place.” historical methods: a journal of quantitative and interdisciplinary history ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . . southall, humphrey, paula aucott, chris fleet, tom pert, and michael stoner. . “gb : engaging the public in very large scale gazetteer construction from the ordnance survey ‘county series’ : , mapping of great britain.” journal of map & geography libraries ( ): – . southall, humphrey, ruth mostern, and merrick lex berman. . “on historical gazetteers.” international journal of humanities and arts computing ( ): – . tables table : gazetteers included in comparative analysis name coverage rows downloaded from date gb abridged gb , , http://www.pastplace.org/d ata/#gb n/a deep most of england , http://mads.digitalresource s.jisc.ac.uk/mads / / / geonames uk , http://www.geonames.org/ / / nga uk , http://geonames.nga.mil/gn s/html/namefiles.html / / os k gb , http://data.ordnancesurvey .co.uk/datasets/ k- gazetteer/downloads (linked data version) / / os open names gb , , https://www.ordnancesurve y.co.uk/business-and- government/products/os- open-names.html / / http://www.pastplace.org/data/#gb http://www.pastplace.org/data/#gb http://mads.digitalresources.jisc.ac.uk/mads / http://mads.digitalresources.jisc.ac.uk/mads / http://www.geonames.org/ http://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/namefiles.html http://geonames.nga.mil/gns/html/namefiles.html http://data.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/datasets/ k-gazetteer/downloads http://data.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/datasets/ k-gazetteer/downloads http://data.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/datasets/ k-gazetteer/downloads table : frequency of different place types in the deep gazetteer place type total have coordinate have attestation have both matched to auo matched to gb field name , mapped name , , , , , sub- parish , , , , , parish , , , sub- county county below sub- county local district db hundred [ten other types] total , , , , , , table : feature class frequencies for uk from the nga gazetteer and geonames feature class description geonames nga gazetteer a administrative , h hydrographic , , l area or localities p populated places , , r road/railroad or transportation s spot , , t hypsographic , , u undersea v vegetation total , , table : feature code frequencies in os k gazetteer feature code meaning frequency x all other features , o other , fm farm , w water feature , h hill or mountain , f forest or wood , a antiquity (non-roman) , t town , r antiquity (roman) c city total , table : type frequencies in os open names type frequency hydrography , landcover (e.g. woods) , landform (e.g. hills) , other of which are postcodes , , , , populatedplace , transportnetwork of which are roads , , total , , table : detailed local type classification of ‘populatedplace’ in os open names local type count link to geonames link to dbpedia city hamlet , , , other settlement , suburban area , , , town , , , village , , , total , , , table : feature classification comparison of norfolk study area in all six gazetteers dataset total recor ds total points settleme nt administr ative unit natural landscape feature trans port other deep , os open names , , , , os k geonames nga gb , , - , , figure captions figure : excerpt from ordnance survey second edition county series six inches to one mile map, showing part of sheringham, norfolk figure : name of the railway company and branch line split by the railway track figure : coverage of all deep point locations for place name entries in england figure : gb locations for named points relating to administrative units and buildings in three norfolk hundreds figure : place name location points from other gazetteers in three norfolk hundreds figure : spatial comparison of gazetteer entries for the parish of sheringham figure : gb search results page within a vision of britain through time figures figure figure figure figure figure figure figure unlocking the archives: a pipeline for scanning, indexing, transcribing, and modelling entities of archival documents into linked open data unlocking the archives a pipeline for scanning, indexing, transcribing, and modelling entities of archival documents into linked open data leon van wissen university of amsterdam l.vanwissen@uva.nl chiara latronico university of amsterdam c.latronico@uva.nl veruska zamborlini university of amsterdam v.zamborlini@uva.nl jirsi reinders huygens institute / amsterdam city archives jirsi.reinders@huygens.knaw.nl charles van den heuvel huygens institute charles.van.den.heuvel@huygens.knaw.nl keywords entity extraction from archival documents, glam, linked open data, dutch golden age abstract in the project golden agents: creative industries and the making of the dutch golden age, heterogeneous resources on the production of the creative industries in the dutch golden age from heritage institutions (e.g. rijksmuseum, kb, rkd) are brought together as linked data. added to this, the digitization of the enormously rich collection of the notarial deeds in the amsterdam city archives will provide data on the consumption of cultural goods by the inhabitants of all layers of society in amsterdam during the dutch golden age. this archive currently plays a pioneering role in the massive digitization process of archival inventories. in the project alle mailto:l.vanwissen@uva.nl mailto:c.latronico@uva.nl mailto:v.zamborlini@uva.nl mailto:jirsi.reinders@huygens.knaw.nl mailto:charles.van.den.heuvel@huygens.knaw.nl amsterdams akten [all amsterdam deeds] handwritten notarial deeds are indexed on the level of inventories, documents, person names, and geolocations outside amsterdam. at the same time, the full text of these documents is being made searchable by using the advanced handwritten text recognition (htr) tool transkribus in the project crowd leert computer lezen [crowd teaches the computer how to read] in combination with corrections of the transcriptions by volunteers. in the golden agents project, novel ways are explored to extract all entities of objects that are mentioned in such notary deeds between and that are relevant to get insight into the cultural goods of amsterdamers in the dutch golden age. ticclat (reynaert et al. ) is used to find and extract these object entities, and once extracted and identified, almost all types of these objects can be linked to thesauri such as the getty’s art & architecture thesaurus [aat] and reconciled with textual/linguistic references to an item in an external (authored) dataset, such as the stcn, iconclass, and those of the rkd. the development of the model that is used to express the combined, enriched, and created data is still work in progress. it will be compliant with major and widely used data models in the galleries, libraries, archives, and museums (glam) world, such as the cidoc-crm. here the full pipeline from archives to annotations is represented (figure ) that comprehends the successive stages of scanning, indexing, transcribing, correcting, aggregating, and modelling the entities of archival documents into rdf as linked open data. it provides the creation of transparent datasets that can be replicated, evaluated and used for quantitative analyses in digital humanities research. subsequently, figure and figure show a simplified rdf representation of a textual reference to a painting and a book as can be found in probate inventories. these two examples show how references to objects in archival documents can be connected to external thesauri and datasets while keeping the provenance chain by pointing back to their location in the archival document. the same principle applies to other entity types, such as persons and locations. besides connecting the entity to an external (authored) dataset (e.g. ecartico or ulan), disambiguating the entity within the amsterdam city archives dataset can also be a next step. within the golden agents projects, the lenticular lenses (idrissou et al. ) tool is used for this. references art & architecture thesaurus (aat), https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/ . amsterdam city archives, https://archief.amsterdam/. all amsterdam deeds & crowd teaches the computer how to read, https://alleamsterdamseakten.nl/doemee/ . cidoc-crm, http://www.cidoc-crm.org/ . ecartico: linking cultural industries in the early modern low countries, http://www.vondel.humanities.uva.nl/ecartico/ . golden agents: creative industries and the making of the dutch golden age, https://www.goldenagents.org/ . iconclass, a multilingual classification system for cultural content, http://www.iconclass.org/ . al idrissou, veruska zamborlini, chiara latronico, frank van harmelen and charles van den heuvel, ( ) “amsterdamers from the golden age to the information age via lenticular lenses,” short paper, dhbenelux , amsterdam, http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ / / /al-idrissou-chi ara-latronico_goldenagentslenticularlenses_dhbenelux .pdf . short title cataglogue of the netherlands (stcn), https://www.kb.nl/organisatie/onderzoek-expertise/informatie-infrastructuur-die nsten-voor-bibliotheken/short-title-catalogue-netherlands-stcn . rkd-netherlands institute for art history, https://rkd.nl/ . martin reynaert, janneke van der zwaan, and patrick bos, ( ) “ticclat: a dutch diachronic database of linked word variants.” short paper, dhbenelux , liège, http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ / / /dh_benelux_ _paper_ .pdf . transkribus, https://transkribus.eu/transkribus/ . union list of artist names (ulan), https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/ . https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/ https://archief.amsterdam/ https://alleamsterdamseakten.nl/doemee/ http://www.cidoc-crm.org/ http://www.vondel.humanities.uva.nl/ecartico/ https://www.goldenagents.org/ http://www.iconclass.org/ http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ / / /al-idrissou-chiara-latronico_goldenagentslenticularlenses_dhbenelux .pdf http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ / / /al-idrissou-chiara-latronico_goldenagentslenticularlenses_dhbenelux .pdf https://www.kb.nl/organisatie/onderzoek-expertise/informatie-infrastructuur-diensten-voor-bibliotheken/short-title-catalogue-netherlands-stcn https://www.kb.nl/organisatie/onderzoek-expertise/informatie-infrastructuur-diensten-voor-bibliotheken/short-title-catalogue-netherlands-stcn https://rkd.nl/ http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ / / /dh_benelux_ _paper_ .pdf http:// .dhbenelux.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/ / / /dh_benelux_ _paper_ .pdf https://transkribus.eu/transkribus/ https://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabularies/ index record (a a xml) alle amsterdamse akten crowd leert computer lezen (htr / transkribus) index on notarial archives full text collection of notarial archives scans collection of notarial books/registers (saa ) combined metadata, text, image scanning (picturae) nlp (a.o. ticclat) aggregating data scan (jpg) htr one scan (page xml) conversion to rdf (ga pipeline) external datasets and thesauri aat iconclass stcnrkd selecting information for one notarial deed figure - flowchart of the pipeline oa:hasbody oa:hastargetannotation dc:type dc:subject skos:broadmatch prov:wasderivedfrom object rdf:value textualbody “no. . een schilderij van de samaritaen” easel paintings the good samaritan (luke : - ) dc:subject oa:hassource oa:hasselector/foaf:depiction _:target scan figure - simplified rdf representation of a reference to a painting http://vocab.getty.edu/aat/ http://iconclass.org/ c https://rkd.nl/nl/explore/images/ oa:hastargetoa:hasbody annotation dc:type prov:wasderivedfrom dc:subject object frbr:embodiment frbr:embodiment/frbr:exemplar _:expression rdf:value textualbody oa:hasselector/foaf:depiction oa:hassource _:target scan "j.v.vondelens veroveringh van grol in folio" literary works verovering van grol, door frederick henrick. / by i.v. vondelen beleg en verovering van groenlo ( ) skos:broadmatch figure - simplified representation of a reference to a book/poem http://vocab.getty.edu/aat/ a study of scale effect on specific sediment yield in the loess plateau, china chinese science bulletin © science in china press springer www.scichina.com | csb.scichina.com | www.springerlink.com chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - construction and visualization of high-resolution three-dimensional anatomical structure datasets for chinese digital human li anan , liu qian †, zeng shaoqun , tang lei , zhong shizhen & luo qingming the key laboratory for biomedical photonics of the ministry of education, wuhan national laboratory for optoelectronics, de- partment of biomedical engineering, huazhong university of science and technology, wuhan , china; department of anatomy, southern medical university, guangzhou , china the objective of the china digital human project (cdh) is to digitize and visualize the anatomical structures of human body. in the project, a database with information of morphology, physical charac- teristics and physiological function will be constructed. the raw data of cdh which was completed in the southern medical university is employed. in huazhong university of science and technology (hust), the frozen section images are preprocessed, segmented, labeled in accordance with the major organs and tissues of human beings, and reconstructed into three-dimensional ( d) models in parallel on high performance computing clusters (hpc). some visualization software for d atlas and d mod- els are developed based on the new dataset with high resolution ( . mm × . mm × . mm). in order to share, release and popularize the above work, a website (www.vch.org.cn) is online. the dataset is one of the most important parts in the national information database and the medical infrastructure. chinese digital human, anatomical atlas, extremely large data processing, three-dimensional modeling, visualization the study of digital human aims at digitizing and visu- alizing the anatomical structures of human body, and constructing the database of the morphological informa- tion, physical characteristics and physiological function. it is a focused field in recent years and develops faster and faster. the study originated from the visible human project (vhp) launched by the united states national library of medicine (nlm) in [ ]. the vhp pub- lished the first western male anatomy dataset in and another female edition in . south korea began their five-year plan of visible korean human (vkh) in , and got the first dataset in the next year[ ]. at pre- sent, the vhp datasets have become the most popular sectional anatomy dataset of human beings. based on the vhp, researchers in the world have made significant achievements in image processing, d modeling, visu- alization software development, physical simulation, and many other fields[ ― ]. in november , the th xiangshan science conference was held in beijing, and the theme was sci- ence and technical issues of digital virtual human body in china[ ]. plans and suggestions for the china digital human project (cdh) were proposed in the conference. since then the cdh project was launched formally. up till now, some high resolution d datasets have already been acquired in southern medical university and third military medical university. image processing and or- gan modeling based on the d datasets have been car- ried out in some research institutions[ ― ]. construction of the d structure dataset is the basic application of the cdh, witch is related to the medical, industrial design, education, etc. with this applications, work can be more economical and effective, regardless of some ethics issues in medicine, etc. the d structure received december , ; accepted april , doi: . /s - - - †corresponding author (email: qianliu@mail.hust.edu.cn) supported by the national high technology research and development program of china (grant no. aa z ) li anan et al. chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - a r ti c le s b io m e d ic a l e n g in e e r in g dataset of human is most widely used in medical field, including new treatment methods, surgical navigation, virtual surgery, clinical diagnosis, assessment of nuclear radiation, radiation therapy, medical education, and so on. in this paper, d modeling of human organs and d visualization techniques of using cdh dataset were stu- died, and a high-resolution d anatomy dataset of the human was constructed. materials the dataset of cdh no. (cdh m ) was employed, which is the world’s highest-resolution sectional image dataset of human beings, and obtained in march, [ ]. table comparison of the digital human datasets vhp vkh cdh m spacing (mm) . . total of section ( ) image size × × × pixel depth (bit) non-digital(color) (color) (color) the original data of cdh m was derived from a male body without any physical injury. horizontal sectional images ( × × bit) were obtained using the frozen section milling and digital imaging techniques. the file size with the raw (original image data storage format) format reached about gb (giga byte, giga is ), and the spatial resolution was about . mm × . mm × . mm. methods the study begins from the raw data, and figure is the flow diagram of the whole work. image processing is the beginning of the study, involving image registration, image compression, image segmentation, etc (figure ). the next step is d reconstruction, and it was also considered as ‘the level of understanding’ of the image processing. visualization is based on the d image dataset and d modeling dataset. in the study, the volume of the data is huge: the aver- age task of data processing amounts to gb level, the complete set amounts as high as tb (tera byte, tera is ) level. so it is too large to be treated with the tradi- tional methods and hardware, or more efficient data processing methods. and better data processing methods and hardware are needed. in this study, computing is realized on an hpc, which has computing nodes. the nodes have two cpu (intel xeon . ghz) each, and connect with each other using the infiniband high-speed switching technology. in short, the total computing ca- pacity of the device is about billion times. figure flow diagram of the work. . imaging preprocessing imaging preprocessing of the study includes the release of raw files, registration, extraction for the region of interest (roi), and lossless image compression. the purpose of the operation is to minimize the space and exposure errors from the acquisition process, reduce the redundancy data and get rid of some difficulties for later processing. at first, raw files were released as tiff (tagged image file format) format without compression. it has to be mentioned that the raw format is a kind of equipment related data packets rather than image format, and requires a certain tool for decoding. after that, images were registered by using spatial transformation in the environment of mathworks mat- lab[ ]. as the relative position between camera and spe- cimen is unstable in the process of image acquisition, it is necessary to make registration to eliminate the devia- tions. in order to reduce the difficulty in image registra- tion, copper cables were embedded in the corpse in the direction of the lying body. the cables used as registra- tion markings for section planes were clear and regular. the markings’ positions provide information and the cause of deviations, which can be simplified into three spatial transformations: displacement, rotating and zooming. for each image, only one space-transform ma- trix can be founded and used in inverse transform. till now, we had not obtained a suitable result as yet, and the roi extraction and lossless image compression li anan et al. chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - figure image processing for the section no. . (a) original section; (b) imaging preprocessing; (c) segmentation and identification. were needed. the purpose we did it in this way was to remove redundant data and make the storage and trans- mission for massive data achievable. here, the roi re- fers to the region within the contours of the human body. and on the contrary, the non-region-of-interest only contains embedded reagent, color cards, container, and any other non-human materials. the proportion of roi area and total area is defined as image utilization. the average image utilization of the cdh m dataset is only %. in other words, % of the data is redundant. an effective way to increase the utilization is to fill the non-region-of-interest with black color and to use image compression algorithm. the png (portable network graphic format) is a good choice for lossless image compression, and it has a very good performance in the network transmission and displaying speed. the jpeg/jpg (joint photographic experts group) format is also a good way if the high-resolution is not very neces- sary, and the compression ratio can reach %. . segmentation and identification of the organs segmentation is the base of d modeling, and it sepa- rates the image into regions of different meanings based on sectional image and anatomical knowledge. accuracy and speed are the bottleneck for segmentation. there are two kinds of segmentation methods, automatic segmen- tation and interactive segmentation. automatic segmentation method is a good idea, but it requires a high degree of image contrast which can hardly be reached under normal circumstances. there are only a limited number of organs and tissues suitable for the use of the automatic methods in cdh m dataset, such as the cartilage, artery, body contour and red bone marrow. here, itk (insight toolkit) is used to segment the above-mentioned several targets. practice has proved that the human-machine-interactive (hci) can effec- tively improve the effectiveness of automatic segmenta- tion. however, itk is unable to provide visualization and graphical user interface (gui). therefore, other two toolkits were added: visualization toolkit (vtk) and fast light toolkit (fltk, a kind of gui toolkits). an interactive image segmentation approach based on the adobe photoshop software is the most important method for us. photoshop has many advantages, such as the powerful image segmentation features, massive data processing capability, batch processing and easiness in operation. although the interactive method can enable us to get better results than the automatic methods, but it requires enormous workload, and moreover, the opera- tors have to have sufficient knowledge of anatomy. therefore, image segmentation becomes the most diffi- cult task in the study. in order to ensure the objectivity and accuracy, some anatomy experts were invited. every result from the segmentation will have a unique identification, which is the file name of the images, and also will be recorded into database. mesh (medical subject headings)[ ] was used as the standard for nam- ing system. the name is unique, and it has its own hier- archy consisting of physiological system classification, organ classification, structural position of the physiology, original serial number and so on. among them, the physiological system classification means nervous sys- tem, movement system, circulatory system, etc. the structural position of the physiology means head, chest, belly, etc. the organ classification means heart, kidney, spleen, etc. the new results were kept by the jpeg/jpg format, which had a high compression ratio. and the color depth li anan et al. chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - a r ti c le s b io m e d ic a l e n g in e e r in g and image size had no change. . d modeling of the massive data d reconstruction is the most common modeling method, which expands the d information into d space, and makes the information more intuitive and vivid. because of the massive data problem, parallel algorithm actual- ized by using the mpi (message passing interface) and vtk has to be used for reconstruction. massive data processing poses the major difficulty in d modeling. for the complete structure of the body (such as skin), at least gb memory in a single pc is needed. therefore, a single pc is unable to finish such a task without sampling. some small organs can be recon- structed on a workstation, such as vertebra and testicle. regularly, the memory consumption is proportional to the number of voxel. so it can lighten the burden for each computing unit through splitting the large data into small chips (figure (c)). in this work, hpc was used for re- construction. the approach could enable the high resolu- tion of models to support big organs at a high speed. figure d reconstruction of the heart. (a) original surface rendering; (b) triangle mesh topology of surface model; (c) schematic diagram of parallel computing. ①―④, four different gray-scale regional represen- tatives of different computing nodes output. all the models only have the contour information by using the marching cube algorithm, and the structure of the data is polygonal[ ] as shown in figure (b). it’s a good way to reduce the costs in visualization. in addi- tion, the lower-resolution models can be obtained by reducing the number of polygonal. the d models are kept as the private format of the vtk with binary mode. the other commonly format of the d model can be transformed through the io inter- faces of vtk or some other business software. the bi- nary mode is so important that it can economize the sto- rage space, and also increase the efficiency of reading and writing. . visualization of the cdh datasets visualization is a process of translating the data into graphics and display by using the computer graphics and image processing technology, and it is often combined with interactive and stereoscopic display technology. to meet different purposes and datasets, some software were developed: stand-alone version of d atlas browser, stand-alone version of d model browser, automatic demonstration system with stereo, fictitious operation system, web version of d atlas browser, remote anat- omy teaching system, etc (figure ). vtk and mercury open inventor (oiv) were used to develop the stand-alone software, and the development environment was microsoft visual studio . oiv is greatly advantageous over vtk in d stereo display, automatic engine and development cycle, but it has such disadvantages as high cost of secondary development and the underlying algorithm. javascript and virtual reality modeling language figure visualization of cdh datasets. li anan et al. chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - (vrml) were used to realize the web-based visualiza- tion, and the web page was developed by using html (hyper text markup language). the remote client can use the resources from server by accessing to relevant web pages on internet. results and discussion . construction of the datasets two kinds of datasets were constructed, that is, d im- age datasets and d model datasets. the two datasets can be further divided into smaller ones, called sub- datasets. the d image datasets include several sub-datasets, which are the interim results after preprocessing, regis- tration, segmentation and compression. below are some useful sub-datasets: the original dataset before decom- pression (a ), the original dataset after decompression (a ), the images after registration (a ), the lossless compressed dataset without background (a ), the com- pressed dataset without background (a ) and the results of segmentation (a ) (table ). table statistics of d image datasets dataset total section size (gb) format depth (bit) resolution a raw − a tiff a tiff a . png a . jpeg a > > jpeg × pixel table tissues and organs that have been completely segmenteda) physiological systems name of tissues or organs locomotor skeletal muscle, bones (a total of , not including six ossicles), cartilage (ribs, ears, thyroid cartilage, etc.) digestive salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas respiratory bronchus, lung urogenital kidney, adipose capsule of kidney, attached testicle, bladder, ureter, sponginess, prostate, spermaduct, sper- matophore gland, testicle, urethra ball-gland, urethra circulatory heart, coronary artery, vein, artery, spleen, thymus nervous gray matter, white matter, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord endocrine pituitary, adrenal gland, thyroid other body contour, eyeball, lacrimal gland, tongue, ocular a) some organs may have symmetric structure, not listed separately, such as lung and kidney. the d model datasets were all developed from the original d model which was generated from the vtk program. up to now, at least models have been re- constructed that belong to the locomotor system[ ], cir- culatory system[ ], nervous system, etc (table and fig- ure ). the dataset of the original d model has a higher resolution ( . mm × . mm × . mm) than the vip-man developed by xu et al.[ ] with a resolution of . mm × . mm × mm. depending on the format conversion and polygonal decimation, there were dif- ferent d model datasets: the original dataset (b ), the simplified version of b (b ), the vrml models (b ) and the oiv models (b ) (table ). table statistics of d model datasets dataset fatherdataset size (mb) format coding visualization platform b a . vtk ascii vtk b b . vtk binary vtk b b . wrl ascii vrml, oiv, vtk, dmax b . iv ascii oiv b b . iv binary oiv . several visualization methods the concrete realization of the visualization needs some application programs, including the stand-alone version of d atlas browser called cdh atlas, the stand-alone version of d model browser called clairvoyance man, the automatic demonstration system with stereo called cdh dprojector, the remote anatomy teaching system, etc (figure ). the cdh atlas is a powerful sectional anatomy atlas of the human body. based on a and a datasets, it pro- vides the atlas on three orthogonal planes. the software also provides some useful tools like magnifier, ruler, area calculator, marker, organ probe, etc. and it becomes substitution of traditional anatomical atlas. the clairvoyance man based on the b dataset is a d model browser with highly interactive. the operation is simple and easy. the user can self-define the color, light, position and the models’ components. and it pro- vides the introduction of each organ or tissue on the right side of the interface. the content is so abundant and lively that it is very suited to science popularizing and anatomy teaching. the cdh dprojector based on the b dataset is an automatic demonstration system, and needs the support of d stereo equipment. figuratively speaking, the software is like a stage, the models are just like some actors, and the operation of the software is a drama. the li anan et al. chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - a r ti c le s b io m e d ic a l e n g in e e r in g audiences can feel reality and immersion by using the stereographic projection and glasses. cdh d projector is a good choice for some exhibition occasion, and suit- able for other d models. the remote anatomy teaching system is a web site for d model browser and online education. it’s very simi- lar to the clairvoyance man in software function. a complete person can be assembled by dragging and dropping the mouse, like building up the toy bricks. prospect the development of digital human research needs the supports of the other fields, such as compute science, information science, physics, mathematics, medicine, national defense industry, sports industry, aerospace in- dustry, automatics, etc. the plan proposed in th xiangshan science conference involve four stages―the visible human, the physical human, the physiological human and the intelligent human. the visible human is our goal at the present stage. visible human is a long-term and difficult project, especially the image segmentation. constantly updating the quality of image processing, vhp is constructing the meticulous model in years. the cdh m is superior to vhp in some aspects, but brings greater difficulties in image processing. was the year of full challenge for us, and about fifty organ models were reconstructed within three months through graduate students’ hard work. the fifty models are the basis of our study. just as the vhp datasets, the cdh m datasets will possibly give good support to other researchers. in hust, further study is still continuing. our present goal is to improve the performance of the image proc- essing and parallel computation, to construct more mod- els, and to develop more practical visual software. it is our expectation that the achievement might inspire as many as possible applications. in addition, we are start- figure portfolio effects of d structural model of human (b ). come back from the front: combination of the respiratory and urogenital system; the locomotor system; combination of the nervous, digestive and body contour; circulatory system. three planar projection are side view, top view and former view of the d model. li anan et al. chinese science bulletin | june | vol. | no. | - figure different visualization methods (only chinese edition). (a) the user interface of cdh atlas, currently displaying a sagittal image, the location of the mouse is salivary gland; (b) user interface of clairvoyance man; (c) the web page of teaching system for human anatomy, the current model is the urogenital system. ing the study on the second stage (the physical human) with some representative projects including fictitious op- eration, mechanics simulation, radiation simulation, etc. in a word, the technology of digital human has a bright future with the progress of other technologies[ ]. it is not a dream that we can mould out an actual person in computer. we thank all those who participated in the cdh project from huazhong university of science and technology. and we thank prof. yu y t and prof. li z h for the guidance in anatomy. spitzer v m, ackerman m j, scherzinger a l, et al. the visible hu- man male: a technical report. j am med inform assoc, , ( ): ― chung m s, kim s y. three dimensional image and virtual dissection program of the 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: ― [doi] zhong s z. actualities and prospects of research on digitized virtual human. med j pla (in chinese), , ( ): ― << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage 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false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile () /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /description << /chs /cht /dan /deu /esp /fra /ita /jpn /kor /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken voor kwaliteitsafdrukken op desktopprinters en proofers. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor /ptb /suo /sve /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents for quality printing on desktop printers and proofers. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false 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archaeological perspective jeremy huggett (archaeology, school of humanities, university of glasgow) abstract the relationship between digital humanities and individual humanities disciplines is difficult to define given the uncertainties surrounding the definition of digital humanities itself. an examination of coverage within digital humanities journals narrows the range but at the same time emphasises that, while the focus of digital humanities might be textual, not all textually-oriented disciplines are equally represented. trending terms also seem to suggest that digital humanities is more of a label of convenience, even for those disciplines most closely associated with digital humanities. from an archaeological perspective, a relationship between digital archaeology and digital humanities is largely absent and the evidence suggests that each is peripheral with respect to the other. reasons for this situation are discussed, and the spatial expertise of digital archaeology is reviewed in relation to digital humanities concerns regarding the use of gis. the conclusion is that a closer relationship is possible, and indeed desirable, but that a direct conversation between digital humanities, digital archaeology and humanities geographers needs to be established. determining scope from a traditional humanities perspective, it can often seem as if digital humanities (dh) is not only the new kid on the block but also the monster that is garnering all the attention and sucking up available research funding. dh is seen as being better-placed to respond to the kind of large-scale collaborative research programmes increasingly favoured by funding bodies (for example, barker et al , ). so, from an archaeological perspective, what is the scope of dh? and what is the nature of its relationship with the individual humanities disciplines served by dh? determining the scope of dh is immediately made difficult because of the lack of a clear-cut definition of what dh actually is. the annual day of digital humanities with its now traditional request for definitions of the digital humanities rather underlines this situation, as does the equally traditional range of responses producing almost as many different definitions as there are scholars who responded. with perhaps one exception, none of the definitions offered in identified which fields or humanities disciplines came under the dh banner: the majority are content to leave the 'humanities' part of dh undefined, with plenty of references to broad interdisciplinarity, big tents, and traditional humanities. one contributor - lisa mcaulay - suggests that dh relates to a cluster of subject areas - literature, languages, linguistics, history, classics, anthropology, and archaeology. none in the list are surprising, although the absence of philosophy and the performing arts might be noted. evaluating coverage an evaluation of the relative importance of humanities discipline within the digital humanities can be estimated by looking at the appearance of each term within a range of dh journals. this is admittedly a crude analysis, based on the number of papers within which a term occurs rather than the disciplinary focus of each paper, but it serves to provide an impression of the coverage of each journal. figure : distribution of papers within digital humanities journals, expressed as a percentage of total hits. (ijhac does not include occurrences in its predecessor history and computing; pmla only considers papers published since ). some of the results in figure are surprising: for instance, % of the hits in computers and the humanities (published - ) related to literature and linguistics, almost exactly mirrored in its successor publication, language resources and evaluation, whereas literary and linguistic computing displays a rather more balanced set of results. the international journal of humanities and arts computing, perhaps reflecting its origins in the journal history and computing, leans towards history and literature, but also had the highest proportion of references to archaeology ( %) - double that of the next highest ranked for archaeology (digital humanities quarterly). digital humanities quarterly probably displays the strongest representation across the subjects, but still retains a significant leaning towards literature and history. this underlines the close association of dh with literature, linguistics, and history, and suggests a rather different relationship with other humanities subjects, if there is one at all. so what lies behind this apparent focus on literature, linguistics and history? does the lack of reference to other humanities disciplines represent a lack of interest in or relevance of digital methods in those areas? is the disciplinary scope of dh much smaller than might have been expected? external perceptions of dh tend to view it as a text-based subject, and various dh scholars have pointed to the privileged position of text within the field of dh. for example, pilsch suggests that "digital humanities is, ultimately, a way of doing textual criticism. in fact ... we can suggest that digital humanities is a specialized set of assumptions about how texts work and what makes them interesting" ( , ). liu defines dh broadly as combining 'humanities computing' or 'text-based' digital humanities and new media studies ( , ). barker, hardwick and ridge suggest that "the means by which many humanists first, or only, experience the digital humanities are the tools that are being developed to assist in philological research." (barker et al , ). particularly relevant in this context, hockey notes that "applications involving textual sources have taken center stage within the development of humanities computing as defined by its major publications" (hockey , ). while the definitions from the day of digital humanities may not emphasise disciplinary areas, several reference a focus on text, ranging from seeking patterns within texts and representing and interacting with texts. this textual emphasis would seem to support the literature, linguistics, and history focus identified in dh journals; however, other text-heavy disciplines such as classics and philosophy are not strongly represented. a strong emphasis on text, perceived or real, makes it difficult for humanities subjects which do not share that same emphasis to see the dh agenda as relevant to their own disciplines. consequently svensson's proposition that the strong textual focus within dh affects the scope and penetration of humanities computing ( , ) would appear to find support here. however, it does not explain the apparent under-representation of subjects such as philosophy and classics. although philosophy is closely related to computing (for example, ess ), there seems to be a much more limited relationship with dh. for example, bradley notes that while there are philosophers developing digital content or using information technology to further philosophical research, and there are a number of notable philosophers thinking about the interface between technology and ourselves, there are not numerous examples of philosophers using dh techniques in the pursuit of philosophy (bradley , ). the multidisciplinary nature of classics means that digital aspects may be subsumed under the headings of history, archaeology, or linguistics - or, from a classics point of view, classicists including archaeologists, ancient historians and philologists may employ digital methods and technologies (mahony and bodard , ). there is some dispute about the status of digital classics: for example, crane ( ) talks of classicists aggressively integrating computerised tools into the discipline but at the same time argues that the needs of classicists are not so distinctive as to warrant a separate "classical informatics". both terras ( , ) and rabinowitz ( ) see digital classics as more of an emergent field still in its early stages, while cayless ( ) describes it as an underground movement, with some very high-profile projects and practitioners operating within a more generally hostile attitude towards digital ways of knowing. trending disciplines trending terms may also be revealing. for example, google's ngram viewer can display the frequency of phrases within a sample of over . million books scanned by google up to , normalising the results by the number of books published each year. since the ngram term must occur in at least books, several phrases which might have been expected (for example, digital philosophy, digital classics) returned null results, which could in itself be seen as significant. figure : google ngram results: 'traditional' labels (top) and 'digital' labels (below) some interesting patterns are apparent in figure . references to literary computing peaks either side of , while linguistic computing peaks as literary computing declines in the mid s. historical computing and archaeological computing peak in the late s-early s before declining. classical computing underlines the limitations of this tool, as its steady growth is associated with an increasing profile of publications on classical computing devices rather than computing in the classics. humanities computing peaks latest and rises highest, but like all the terms, it now appears to be in decline. not unexpectedly, the decline of the more traditional terms for computing in the humanities is matched by the rise in use their 'digital' equivalents (the very early showing for digital history in the s relates to publications on digital signalling rather than history). perhaps unexpectedly, dh is last on the scene: digital literature references appear from , digital history from , and digital archaeology from , while dh first appears around . furthermore, dh has not overtaken the other terms and remains the least common of those shown. leaving aside the vagaries of context-free text searching, these results seem to demonstrate a shift in emphasis towards the 'digital', with most of the traditional terms being overtaken by their digital equivalents by . however, the results also suggest that individual disciplines maintained their disciplinary identity in the move to 'digital', with dh essentially acting as an umbrella term of convenience, or, alternatively representing the gradual development of a new disciplinary focus. in the end, the disciplinary scope of dh remains unclear. on one hand, it might be expected to represent the broad church of the humanities, but in reality it seems to consist of a much smaller and more restricted group of humanities fields with some of its major constituents drifting in and out as it suits them. in that light, it would be worth examining the extent to which digital literature, digital linguistics, and digital history publications appear in more mainstream disciplinary journals, or whether their predominance in dh journals represents a choice or need to publish outside their disciplinary journals. the same question could apply to other humanities subjects - do their digital publications appear in dh journals rather than in their disciplinary outlets? does this account for the poor showing of digital classics and digital philosophy? in archaeology, for example, there is only one computing-based journal (archeologia e calcolatori), and archaeology has a low profile within dh journals; instead, archaeological computing papers tend to appear in mainstream archaeology journals and, to a lesser extent, in disciplinary journals outside the field (such as geography). this highlights the way in which digital archaeologists participate in the discipline of archaeology more generally, whereas it has been suggested that dh scholarship is often not highly regarded, in citation terns at least, within their broader fields (juola , - ). digital archaeology and digital humanities so where does this leave archaeology and its relationship with dh? it evidently does not figure strongly in dh journals, and dh barely figures within archaeological publications. the impression from the disciplinary discussion above is that archaeology remains largely distinct - some might say aloof - from dh. dunn has recently commented that the relationship between archaeology and dh is curiously lacking (dunn ) and suggests that the reasons for this are nuanced and complex. there are certainly strong parallels between both dh and digital archaeology (da) - both share similar concerns with interdisciplinarity, technology and digital methods. indeed, the characterisation of da and dh is not so different. for example, dunn characterised archaeology as "a disciplinary mash-up, needing support from a range of technological infrastructures, at all levels of scale and complexity" (dunn , ), and daly and evans ( , ) defined digital archaeology as "not so much a specialism, nor a theoretical school, but an approach - a way of better utilizing computers based on an understanding of the strengths and limits of computers and information technology as a whole". both definitions might equally be applied to dh. it is perhaps this very similarity that, paradoxically, separates the two disciplines. as a field, da is well-established. probably the earliest use of electronic data processing in european archaeology was by peter ihm and jean-claude gardin in / and in the usa by james deetz in (cowgill , ). since then, activity in archaeological computing has grown substantially, especially since the first personal computer revolution in the s, and the annual computer applications and quantitative methods in archaeology (caa) conference has been meeting since , with delegates meeting in southampton in march . like dh, da has spawned a number of different centres (for example, digitale archäologie, based in freiburg, the center for digital archaeology (coda) at the university of california, berkeley, the laboratorio di archaeologia digitale at the university of foggia, the digital archaeology research lab (digar) at the university of washington, seattle) and a range of undergraduate modules and specialised postgraduate degrees. there are also a number of tenured positions and support posts in university archaeology departments as well as a larger number of computing posts in commercial archaeology organisations ( in the uk at the last count (jeffrey and aitchison )). given this existing infrastructure, it is not unreasonable to propose that da does not 'need' dh for legitimacy or support, although it is evident that archaeologists are happy to capitalise on digital humanities programmes if they can see the benefits for archaeology. equally, digital humanities scholars not infrequently draw on archaeological examples in their publications (for instance, bodenhamer , ; anderson et al ), often in the context of demonstrating technologies such as geographical information systems (gis). methodological commons? like archaeology, dh is frequently defined in terms of practice rather than a particular category of data (text) or a historical period (for example, scholes and wulfman , , anderson et al , ). indeed, mccarty and short's classic diagram mapping dh emphasises this, with its central zone highlighting the methodological commons shared by the various disciplines (mccarty and short ). while its authors make it clear that the map is a work in progress, it notably omits archaeology from either the set of disciplines (although 'material culture' is included) or from the 'clouds of knowing' which represent areas of learning which bear upon the field. later updates (for example, mccarty , ) add anthropology to the cloud, which could include archaeology if its american definition is adopted. the absence of archaeological contributions to recent collaborative volumes on dh (for example, berry , gold ) is matched by corresponding recent collections of da which make only passing reference to dh (for example, kansa et al , chrysanthi et al ). this serves to underline the lack of relationship between the two disciplines in either direction - digital humanists are not queuing up to access da and digital archaeologists are not knocking on the door of dh. this apparent peripheral status of da and dh with respect to each other could support the contention that while both disciplines are concerned with methods, their focus is rather different, with archaeology focused on the study of past material culture whereas dh has a broader, primarily textual outlook (for example, dunn ). two propositions arise from this situation; that:  the image of archaeology as dealing with primarily long-past pre-literate societies means it fits poorly within a logo-centric dh, and  the practices that underpin the methodologies of both dh and da are drawn from elsewhere, not from each other, or have developed independently. one of the problems here is that the characterisation of archaeology, at least in dh terms, is frequently flawed. while there is no doubt that archaeology deals with prehistoric societies, to define it in these terms alone is to ignore the several millennia of literate societies which are equally the subject of archaeological study. ultimately texts are forms of material culture just as much as potsherds and flint flakes, and hence grist to archaeology's mill. indeed, david clarke's famous definition of archaeology as "the discipline with the theory and practice for the recovery of unobservable hominid behaviour patterns from indirect traces in bad samples" (clarke , ) challenges rather than places limits on the subject. furthermore, the scope and reach of archaeology - and da - is wider than is often appreciated. as part of the archaeology of modernity (see harrison and schofield , schofield ), new areas of study such as digital forensic data recovery (for example, ross and gow ) and the investigation of digital media (for example, huhtamo and parikka b), as well as the disciplinary implications of new information technologies (for example, huggett a, b), the study of 'non-places' (transit areas and travel spaces) and virtual worlds (harrison and schofield , ff), together with contemporary conflict, human rights and disaster archaeology, are all part of archaeology as practised in the twenty-first century. some would argue that archaeology is over-reaching itself in some of these areas - for example, huhtamo and parrika make it clear that they see media archaeology as quite distinct from the more typical understanding of archaeology ( a, ), although liu's characterisation of media archaeology as the study of old media ( , ) leaves the door open. others might argue that archaeology's moves into such areas is a response to tactical and political rather than disciplinary demands. however, the fact remains that archaeology has extended its interest and involvement into these fields, and several are also of interest to - and, in the case of digital media studies, considered to be a part of (lui , ) - dh. at the very least, therefore, this re-presentation of archaeology offers the potential for greater interactions in future between dh and da than there has been to date, and in the process may help to address the foreshortened, presentist focus of dh identified by liu ( , ) by combining contemporary and historical objects of study. if the character of archaeology should not present an obstacle to establishing a greater relationship with dh, the question of shared practice is perhaps more problematic. at one level, neither discipline has need of the other when it comes to the basic analysis of their data. on the other hand, both da and dh are moving into areas in which the other already has expertise, so one might expect a productive relationship to be established at least in these contexts. in terms of da there is a dramatic increase in interest in handling text, largely associated with the semantic web or web . : for instance, text mining grey literature reports and journals to extract temporal and spatial data together with associated contextual attributes (for example, richards et al. , byrne and klein ). however, the relationships established by da in relation to projects such as these are primarily with computing science, not dh, despite the long history of text processing in dh. if da seems to be bypassing dh in relation to text, dh appears to be looking beyond da in relation to gis. for example, although a recent volume on spatial humanities includes a contribution from an archaeologist (lock ), the 'suggestions for further reading' section contains no reference to archaeological work in gis (bodenhamer et al , - ). reference to archaeology appears only in relation to theoretical work on space despite archaeology being recognised elsewhere in the same volume as the first amongst the humanities to adopt gis (bodenhamer , ). instead the main focus of recommended works is geography and, to a lesser extent, historical gis. in some respects, this situation is not surprising - rather than pursue a set of complex technological methodologies mediated through another humanities discipline, is it not sensible to go straight to the discipline which is most closely associated with the development of those techniques? however, mediation through an allied humanities discipline may offer considerable benefits in terms of complementarity of theory and method, time saved through lessons learned, and so on. that said, it might appear that historical gis performs this mediating role within dh, but if so, it is less well developed than in da and the kinds of issues raised by, for example, bodenhamer ( ), boonstra ( ), jessop ( ), and suri ( ), are the same as those raised within da more than fifteen years ago (for example, gaffney et al ), which have been addressed to a varying extent since then. spatial differences perhaps as a consequence of this lack of relationship with da, dh applications of gis can seem very limited, even simplistic, to archaeological eyes in that they often seem to focus on interactive hypermedia visualisation with little use of gis analytical tools (for example, hypercities (presner ), litmap (hui ) and gapvis (barker et al ) although the user interfaces of projects such as these can disguise very complex data manipulation involved in the generation of the underlying spatial data in the first place. examples of the successful use of humanities gis cited by bodenhamer ( , ) are, from an archaeological perspective, a combination of d virtual worlds and multimedia databases rather than gis as such. as if to emphasise this, as a way of bringing together gis and the humanities bodenhamer describes 'deep maps of memory', in which each artefact from a place (a letter, memoir, photograph, painting, oral account, video etc.) constitutes a separate layer that can be arranged sequentially through time (bodenhamer , ; , - ). this concept has been taken up by fishken ( ) among others, who proposes the creation of 'digital palimpsest mapping projects'. however, there is no sense in which the 'knowledge' of the layers is being utilised beyond the spatial and temporal layering inherent in the gis, and these models are operating on what is essentially a multimedia methodology. in part, of course, this represents a difference between data exploration and data analysis - the analysis, such as it is, remains in the eye of the beholder. this underlines the need within the dh for the kind of spatial literacy and spatial thinking identified by suri ( , ) and the specialist training referred to by boonstra ( , ). a range of specific problems with applying gis within a dh context have been identified, and lie behind a perceived reluctance to use these tools. for example, bodenhamer ( , - ) identifies several issues:  the complexity of the technology and the level of time and effort required to learn the techniques  gis favour structured data  ambiguity, uncertainty, nuance, and uniqueness are not readily routinised  managing time is problematic - gis typically represent time as an attribute of space  gis rely heavily on visualisation, which is difficult for a logo-centric scholarship which does not generally think in terms of geographical space or framing spatial queries  gis require collaboration between technical and domain experts, putting the lone humanities scholar at a disadvantage  gis appear reductionist in the way data are categorised, space is defined, and complexity is handled. these strongly reflect the conflict between positivist technology and humanist traditions also highlighted by, amongst others, boonstra ( , ), gregory and hardie ( , ), harris et al ( , ), jessop ( , ), and suri ( , ). the contrasts between the accuracy, precision, structure, and reductionism inherent in gis and the humanistic emphases on uncertainty, imprecision and ambiguity are often presented as part of a critical assessment of the application and use of gis. in a trenchant response to the archaeological critics of gis who have raised much the same issues in the past, cripps et al point to the advent of fuzzy approaches which mean that certainty is no longer required; they argue that gis do not foster generalisation and standardisation (or at least, no more so than the book, article or presentation, and we are well-accustomed to problematise these); and that far from being reductionist, gis facilitate complex analyses of time, human agency and perception, and the semantics and linguistics of space (cripps et al , - ). in other words, methods to deal with these issues have been investigated and continue to be developed and, far from representing a purely pragmatic response, they are embedded in critical theory. the danger is that preconceptions concerning gis applications remain unchallenged through a lack of engagement with the tools and a reluctance to develop them in the search for answers to what are perceived to be the more humanistic questions. for instance, space within gis is frequently conceived as rectilinear, isotropic (independent of direction), gridded, and framed, and consequently it establishes the conditions for distanced and dispassionate observation – the so-called 'scientific gaze' (thomas , ) which is problematic for the humanities. however, this characterisation is not uncontested and gis are capable of modelling alternative conceptions of space at a human scale which are not predicated on western, post-enlightenment perceptions. for example, during the debates surrounding the indian land claims commission (established in ) western 'common- sense' notions of homogenous, bounded, stable territorial units had to be set aside for aboriginal forms of territoriality in which the spatial unit consisted of aggregates of 'tenures' held at different times (zedeño ). to the hopi, these could be places, landmarks, natural resources (herds, stands of trees, mineral outcrops), and the material record of human use of the land and its resources (burial grounds, villages, encampments, trails, shrines etc.) (zedeño , ). crucially, as zedeño emphasises, this concept of space and territoriality is in stark contrast to the kind of landscape in which space is contiguous and can be comprehended at a glance (zedeño , ). nevertheless, it is possible to represent the richness of such a landscape within a gis along with the human encounters, movement, perceptions, interrelationships and memories that constitute it (for example, llobera ). such a representation is never anything more than a model of reality, just as the text describing it is no more than an attempt to abstract an impression of the hopi conceptual world. the visual emphasis of gis "with its reductionist allure and wondrous images" (harris et al , ) is undoubtedly a highly seductive aspect of the tools. the power of the visual image is not unfamiliar to humanists -what perhaps makes gis so powerful is that, while traditional maps can be a potent means of capturing large amounts of information, that information remains locked within the image, whereas gis maps are generated on the fly from underlying spatial information and its associated attributes. consequently gis facilitate a much higher degree of flexibility: new information can be added, new data can be created through manipulating information within the existing map, and data can be removed. of greater significance, however, is the seduction of the tool itself - the ease with which images can be generated at the push of a button and the way in which the software can be seen as protecting the user from, and hence disguises, the underlying complexities through inserting layers of opacity (huggett , - ), while the very use of the tool can heighten perceived authority - but all these issues emphasise the need for a properly critical approach. it may be true that the dependence of archaeologists and geographers on maps and plans make the application of gis easier (bodenhamer , ), but visualising dh data need not be a barrier despite its textual focus. as several dh scholars have shown, the extraction of spatial information from texts makes visualisation possible (for example, gregory and hardie , gregory and cooper ), while archaeologists and geographers have demonstrated the potential of more qualitative approaches (see the contributions in daniels et al and dear et al for example). the need to represent ambiguity and uncertainty are well-established and arguably inherent to some extent in gis if a raster rather than vector representation is used thoughtfully. for example, vector polygons present clear unambiguous boundaries to regions when what is required is imprecisely delimited, indeterminate boundaries. boundaries might be malleable (in the sense that the boundary shifts, expands, and contracts depending on circumstances) and permeable (recognising that things may cross from one domain to the other to varying extents, again depending on circumstances) (kooyman , ). this is nevertheless capable of being modelled using rasters to represent the degrees of uncertainty or ambiguity. similarly, uncertainty of location is poorly represented as vector point data. for example, archaeological sites may be recorded using a mixture of resolutions from m to m or more for a variety of reasons but are frequently represented in absolute locations, although they may be coloured according to their resolution of location. however, within the approximate area within which such a site falls, it is possible to know where the site is not going to be (in a river, on a cliff, for instance), enabling an estimation of the probability that a site is located in some areas rather than others, which can again be represented using graduated rasters. at a more human level, many conceive of the world in terms of their immediate surroundings, with a great deal of knowledge of space and relationships. beyond that familiar world, things become more hazy and indistinct – scale becomes less precise, and proximity and distance become more a case of 'near', 'further away', 'a long way away', for example. again, these can be generalisable to a series of rasters to enable this ambiguity to be incorporated within the model. time is undoubtedly problematic, but this is essentially in terms of its visualisation, rather than its underlying representation. for the most part, presentations of time within gis are essentially static: snapshots representing single moments in time which can then be stitched together into sequences sampling what is a dynamic phenomenon (for example, johnson ( ) and gregory ( )). an advantage of this approach is that it is recognisable and interpretable, whereas more complex three- dimensional representations of time as space-time paths, space-time prisms and potential path areas result in unfamiliar images which are difficult to assimilate (for example, shaw et al , neutens et al ) as well as being very much more complex to generate. nevertheless, the representation of time intervals (using allen relations (allen ) for instance) within the underlying gis database can model complex temporal relationships with appropriately fuzzy components ('during', 'before', 'overlaps' and so on) which can then be retrieved as a sequence of contemporary snapshots. it would be misplaced to assume that gis practitioners are unaware and uncritical of the tools they use and the ways those tools affect the representation of information, but it does underline the requirement for knowledgeable users (as emphasised by boonstra , ). this might indeed be achieved through collaboration between technical and domain experts, as bodenhamer ( , ) suggests, which fits with a multiple-member interdisciplinary team model for dh research, but it is not a requirement. alternatively the lone dh scholar may be trained in the techniques: a model essentially adopted within archaeology where archaeological gis projects are largely undertaken by archaeologists practised in the use of gis. the archaeological experience would suggest the need for suitable humanities-focused courses to be created in order to communicate the complexities of spatial concepts within an appropriate and meaningful context . building relationships? in many respects, the adoption of gis within dh is caught up in a series of anxiety or identity discourses within dh, da, and also geography, which may account for many of the doubts, uncertainties, and criticisms which are voiced. anxiety discourses tend to be associated with fields which meet their disciplinary challenges by drawing down concepts and methodologies from external subjects, and which have an intellectual centre primarily focused on praxis, with theory being derived from outside (for example, lyytinen and king , ). this seems equally appropriate as a description of dh and da with each seeking justification, validation, and status as part of a process of discipline-building, rather than being perceived as providing little more than low- prestige technical support for their broader communities. in the process, however, it would seem sensible and strategically appropriate to ensure that the respective discourses contribute to, rather than are at the expense of, each other. for example, dh scholars frequently appear suspicious of what has been labelled as 'common denominator' systems (hunt et al , ). these are categories of digital tools which, despite being broad-based, have been developed to accommodate scientists and engineers, with humanists being seen very much as an afterthought: "academics in the hass [humanities, arts, and social sciences] have learned to content themselves with the few beneficial bits (or bytes) that fall their way from the technological table; nonetheless, common denominator systems are insufficient by themselves to meet the specialised needs of hass scholars." (hunt et al , ). this has also been a feature of the da discourse in the past, where it has long been recognised that few of the digital tools used by archaeologists have been created by archaeologists specifically for archaeological use. however, this is essentially reductio ad absurdum: there are many tools, digital or otherwise, that have not been specifically created for dh, or da, and yet are fundamental to each. in fact, one of the advantages of gis is that, despite being essentially very simple, they are capable of extension, adaptation, and modification in order to better represent the complexities of the application area. the issue is therefore not the rejection of these broad-based digital tools, but the question of their development and application into new areas. of course, this may be precisely the kind of pragmatism that meeks ( ) is concerned about. while he points to archaeologists as having more experience with adapting digital tools to their work than digital humanists (meeks , ), he sees archaeology's pragmatic approach as not offering solutions to the perception that humanities needs software tools embedded with humanities rather than engineering principles. by this argument, gis, as broad-based digital tools, and archaeologists, who are pragmatic - and by inference, uncritical - enough to turn them to use, are equally problematic in terms of dh applications. while the kinds of approaches outlined above to handling uncertainty, time, and so on may be open to the accusation of pragmatism, this would assume that the results they generate represent reality or truth in some way rather than being what they are: abstract conceptual models of virtual spaces built out of theory. in many respects, this argument is closely related to the discussions within dh about the place of building things as a scholarly activity (for example, ramsay and rockwell ; ramsay a, b). digital archaeologists, whatever the digital tools they adopt and use, are well-accustomed to the idea of creating, coding, and modifying these tools in order to facilitate research - indeed, the ability to do so can be seen as a significant factor in the consideration of a suitable tool. however, the process of construction or modification is an integral component of research and arises out of theory, rather than being seen an end in itself. at the same time as dh and da are, to some extent at least, manoeuvring around each other with respect to textual and spatial issues, geography has also been positioning itself in relation to the humanities more generally. in the same way as part of archaeology's discourse has been to question whether it is a science, social science, or humanities subject, geography has situated itself in recent years on the boundaries of the social sciences and humanities (for example, cosgrove , xxiv, dear , - ). indeed, cosgrove argues that connections between geography and humanities have been strongest during periods of cultural inquisitiveness, "when imagination encounters the resistance of material reality" (cosgrove , xxiii), a characterisation that seems especially pertinent in the context of the 'digital' worlds each is seeking to create. furthermore, both archaeology and geography with their science/social science profiles have experience of byerley's recent warning concerning dh: if dh is seen as a response to a scenario of broader humanities budget cuts, it may end up with a series of eggs in a more expensive basket, which will be especially problematic if the humanities are seen as 'irrelevant' as ever (byerley , ). the humanist turn? 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given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ recognizing that academic libraries should develop and nurture strong, mutually beneficial relationships with researchers in digital humanities, the authors believe it is strategically important to invest time and resources exploring ideas and partnering with academic colleagues on projects. this approach can provide many unforeseen benefits to both the library service and to the workforce. the article is based on our experience as core associates of the sussex humanities lab at the university of sussex. it outlines the impact this collaboration has had, including influencing working practices and culture within the library, involvement in research bids, informing the development of new services, and addressing library questions using digital humanities methods. most importantly, it exemplifies a new model of the librarian as equal partner in the research process. why we need to find time for digital humanities: presenting a new partnership model at the university of sussex introduction this study shows how we responded to professor hitchcock’s impassioned plea to have us at the heart of the sussex humanities lab (shl), our digital humanities centre here at the university of sussex. we propose that there are significant and tangible benefits for libraries in carving out strong relationships with digital humanities (and other departments involved in digital scholarship), and that these develop from our potential to collaborate and contribute to research, rather than purely to support it. at the university of sussex, we have set as a strategic priority the engagement of library staff with the work and research of digital humanities, and would fully endorse the finding of the recent rluk report that ‘participating in such a programme opens up opportunities for academic libraries and their staff and increases the visibility of their work and collections’. we also argue that there are noticeable benefits for staff skills insights – ( ), november digital humanities: a new partnership model at sussex | jane harvell and joanna ball joanna ball head of library content delivery & digital strategy the library university of sussex jane harvell head of academic services the library university of sussex video clip: tim hitchcock, professor digital history (co-director of the sussex humanities lab). interview by jane harvell, january . available for download here: https://doi.org/ . /uksg. .s https://doi.org/ . /uksg. .s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cciisgz n &feature=youtu.be and expertise. this article presents the model of engagement that we have fostered at sussex, and the impact on the library and its staff. the sussex humanities lab and the lab model the rluk report suggests that there is no single model for digital humanities within institutions. the shl has been established as a lab model described by varner and hsew as having ‘a specific focus, tied either to the mission of the campus or to the aims of their founders, which necessarily means that many do not take on responsibility for digital projects that fall outside of the scope’. the lab is dedicated to developing and expanding research into how digital technologies are shaping our culture and society, and draws on expertise from a number of different disciplines to answer questions within arts and humanities. library staff as core associates the directors of the shl have a long-standing relationship with a number of library colleagues, and it felt very natural for us to be included within the funding bid to the university to establish the sussex humanities lab in . several library staff are named as core associates and the lab finances a research fellow based in the library who reports to our head of special collections. additionally, the trustees of the mass observation archive (moa) , one of our major special collections, support a research fellow based in the lab who uses digital humanities techniques to work on the moa. embedding research activity within special collections is very different from the library’s more traditional support for research activity. as core associates we are equal partners in the development of the lab, participating in awaydays and regular lab meetings, and encouraged to attend and organize seminars. involvement at this level brings us closer to our academic colleagues and so increases our confidence to input to research where we feel we can contribute. an example is the digital preservation for social sciences and humanities conference, a joint shl/digital repository of ireland event, where the organizing committee included a member of library staff. this brought the conference to the attention of a new audience, academic librarians, a number of whom attended an academic conference for the first time. securing firm and enthusiastic support from senior library management has been crucial to success, as it is vital to identify and advocate for the benefits of such a relationship across the university – this is key to the work and aims of the lab. in addition to traditional areas of engagement (for example, metadata creation), our association with digital humanities here at sussex has resulted in creative collaborations that require new ways of working (and thinking) not normally associated with libraries and their staff and more akin to the habits and behaviours of researchers. in libraries we design and deliver tightly managed projects and are accountable for their success. in contrast, within academia experimentation and failure are integral to the research process, and offer constructive ways of formulating questions and problem solving. our involvement with this different approach brings us closer to researchers’ working methods and provides the opportunity to transfer some of these practices into our library work. ‘there is no single model for digital humanities within institutions’ ‘we are equal partners in the development of the lab’ ‘firm and enthusiastic support from senior library management has been crucial to success’ library staff as collaborators library staff are also collaborators in research. their skills and expertise are revealed and recognized through the close relationship with the shl and they are now being named on research bids. our head of special collections, fiona courage (interviewed), has been included in a number of successful large bids to offer advice on appropriate archiving policy and practice and also in her capacity as curator of the moa. we anticipate future opportunities for the library to be included in research bids around digital preservation, research data management (rdm), metadata, data ethics and other areas where we have expertise and experience. video clip: fiona courage, head of special collections (core associate of the sussex humanities lab). interview by jane harvell, january . available for download here: https://doi.org/ . /uksg. .s working on solutions to institutional problems working with digital humanities presents opportunities for new perspectives on long- standing library problems. the university of sussex, along with many other similar higher education institutions, is going through a period of intense growth, and this has put pressure on services and spaces across the campus, in particular the library building. the information we have traditionally gathered on building usage has been based on a demographic breakdown in gate entries or rough headcounts. recently, user experience (ux) approaches have begun to bring us better insights into how the building is being used. working with the lab we have piloted a project to use a digital humanities technique of big data analysis to our wifi access points to track the devices of our users as they move around the building. this provides management information that can be used for the development of new services as well as to aid decision-making about building design. we have also benefited from shl collaboration and expertise in the development of other services, such as rdm and digital preservation. the library had previously struggled to engage humanities researchers with discussions on rdm, but input from the shl has enabled us to design a service that addresses the needs of humanities as well as sciences. research data and digital preservation are issues which are shared but where the lab and the library each lack some elements of understanding, expertise or practical application, and so there is potential in combining efforts. the library as a research subject libraries have traditionally focused on opening up digital collections to their researchers, and more recently have been exploring how they can support researchers in applying text and data mining techniques to these collections. but libraries, and not just their collections, have the opportunity to be research subjects. there is potential to open up the mass of ‘input from the shl has enabled us to design a service that addresses the needs of humanities as well as sciences’ ‘library staff are also collaborators in research’ https://doi.org/ . /uksg. .s https://youtu.be/ euzbd data that libraries capture and create as management information to make it available for use by the research community for student projects and in hackathons. at sussex we are exploring how we can provide data sets with open licences through our web pages. these types of service have the potential to be extended to other disciplines, and we are now being approached by colleagues within anthropology about a research project to use ux methodologies to understand the use of our spaces. changing culture our collaboration has had an impact on the wider library culture, as more of our staff participate in the research life of the lab, for example, by attending and contributing to the shl’s this and thatcamp. this is an opportunity not only for senior managers or subject librarians but for all library colleagues to get involved. in addition, we have recently established a library innovation group, comprised of staff at all levels and from all sections of the library and including representation from the shl. this is an example of our relationship with the lab increasing our confidence in the entire research life cycle: supporting research is no longer limited to our research support team and we have an opportunity to expose more of our staff to the academic research life cycle. we have always provided training and advice to researchers, both as consumers of information, and, increasingly, as generators of information. however, our relationship with shl has enabled us to make this a two-way process, giving us an opportunity to enhance the digital skills of our library staff. we recently collaborated on a library carpentry programme for our own staff and the wider community, giving attendees the skills to clean and manipulate their own data. open scholarship as librarians, we are advocates of open access (oa) and have taken on responsibility for managing the university’s oa funds and monitoring compliance with funder policies. however, our engagement with the lab has enabled us to develop a broader understanding of the requirements for open scholarship. we are currently working with one of the lab co-directors to develop a business case for a university press initiative for the creation of new types of open research outputs. this press would create capacity within the library to collaborate on innovative digital projects across campus. through our partnership with the shl we are able to support the university’s strategic ambitions to be an exemplar for open research. conclusion and new ways of working literature on libraries and the digital humanities has tended to focus on how libraries can support the digital humanities – an extended form of research support. we think that this is missing the point. professor caroline bassett, co-director of the sussex humanities lab (interviewed), proposes that what is exciting about our collaboration with the shl is that it is a new model of partnership, embedding the work of the lab within the library and vice versa. ‘we are able to support the university’s strategic ambitions to be an exemplar for open research’ video clip: caroline bassett, professor of media and communications (co-director of the sussex humanities lab). interview by jane harvell, january . available for download here: https://doi.org/ . /uksg. .s just as librarians can partner with academics on their research outputs to support them as consumers and producers of information, so can digital humanities researchers partner with us to address library problems from a different perspective. abbreviations and acronyms a list of the abbreviations and acronyms used in this and other insights articles can be accessed here – click on the url below and then select the ‘abbreviations and acronyms’ link at the top of the page it directs you to: http://www.uksg.org/publications#aa competing interests the authors have declared no competing interests. references . kamposiori c, the role of research libraries in the creation, archiving, curation, and preservation of tools for the digital humanities, , london, rluk: http://www.rluk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/ / /digital-humanities-report-jul- .pdf (accessed september ). . varner s and hsew p, special report: digital humanities in libraries, american libraries, : https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/ / / /special-report-digital-humanities-libraries/ (accessed july ). . mass observation archive: http://www.massobs.org.uk/ (accessed september ). . digital preservation for social sciences and humanities: http://dpassh.org/ (accessed september ). . this and thatcamp: http://thisand.thatcamp.org/ (accessed september ). . library carpentry: https://librarycarpentry.github.io/ (accessed september ). https://doi.org/ . /uksg. .s https://youtu.be/shmwnvvm w http://www.uksg.org/publications#aa http://www.rluk.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/ / /digital-humanities-report-jul- .pdf https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/ / / /special-report-digital-humanities-libraries/ http://www.massobs.org.uk/ http://dpassh.org/ http://thisand.thatcamp.org/ https://librarycarpentry.github.io/ article copyright: © jane harvell and joanna ball. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence, which permits unrestricted use and distribution provided the original author and source are credited. corresponding author: jane harvell head of academic services the library university of sussex, falmer, brighton bn ql, uk tel: + ( ) ; internal extension: | e-mail: j.harvell@sussex.ac.uk orcid id: http://orcid.org/ - - - joanna ball orcid id: http://orcid.org/ - - - to cite this article: harvell j and ball j, why we need to find time for digital humanities: presenting a new partnership model at the university of sussex, insights, , ( ), – ; doi: https://doi.org/ . /uksg. published by uksg in association with ubiquity press on november http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / mailto:j.harvell@sussex.ac.uk http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - https://doi.org/ . /uksg. http://www.uksg.org/ http://www.ubiquitypress.com/ introduction the sussex humanities lab and the lab model library staff as core associates library staff as collaborators working on solutions to institutional problems the library as a research subject changing culture open scholarship conclusion and new ways of working abbreviations and acronyms competing interests references spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) abstract: this article discusses the creation of an innovative e-learning resource that provides a unique breadth of frequency, grammatical, and phonetic information on both classical and ecclesiastical latin. designed to bridge teaching and research, this new digital toolkit, which is available as both an online program and an android mobile app, provides a frequency list of the most common latin lemmas, as well as phonetic and grammatical information, including their syllabication, accentuation, and classical and ecclesiastical phonetic transcription according to the standards of the international phonetic alpha- bet. after providing a concise overview of the different ways in which latin was and still is pronounced, this article will discuss the methodological and practical issues faced by the creation of the toolkit from the choice of an effective lemmatizing technique for identifying and categorizing inflected word-forms, to the creation of algorithms to accentuate latin lemmas and transcribe latin sounds (potentially involving multiple characters of the latin alphabet) into ipa characters. in so doing, it will offer insights into the technologies used to maximize the impact of this new e-learning resource on teaching and research. introduction this article discusses the recent creation of the first online handbook of latin phonetics, an innovative opensource digital toolkit that provides a unique breadth of frequency, grammatical, and phonetic infor- mation on both classical and ecclesiastical latin. originally conceived within the award-winning pro- ject latine loquamur (undertaken to support the reform of classical language teaching at the university of st andrews), the digital toolkit described in this article was developed at the pontificium institutum altioris latinitatis (pontifical salesian university of rome), to meet the needs of the ever-increasing number of scholars and students who study latin in latin, or who focus on late-antique texts. accor- dingly, the handbook of latin phonetics toolkit currently provides, for the first time ever, a frequency the latine loquamur project was designed by tommaso spinelli in collaboration with alice könig, giuseppe pezzini and giacomo fenzi, and was awarded funding by the teaching development office of the university of st andrews in . this project involved the creation of an online dictionary of latin synonyms, which was published by the university of st andrews in december (https://doi.org/ . / cf e - b - d -a a-b c ca ; last access . . ), and of other e-learning resources (e.g. moodle presentations, exercises, and interactive games) for the study of latin that will be discussed in another article for reasons of space. the handbook of latin phonetics pre- sented in this article is available as both an app and a program: the app was developed by tommaso spinelli during his postdoc at the pontifical salesian university of rome in collaboration with cleto pavanetto, giacomo fenzi, kamil ko- losowski, and jan rybojad, and was published – thanks to the collaboration of miran sajovic – by the pontifical salesian university of rome in . (https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.kolosowski.latinhandbook; https://doi. org/ . / ce ba- d - -bd f- de ; last access . . ). the online version of the handbook of latin phonetics, which was developed by tommaso spinelli with the informatic assistance of giacomo fenzi at the university of st andrews, is currently hosted in the github repository of the latine loquamur project (https://github. com/latineloquamur?tab=repositories; last access . . ) and can be found in the folder titled latineloquamur-tool- kit-ipa-transcriber-and-app. in the same repository users can find also the dictionary of latin synonyms, which is not discussed in this article, and the link to download its app (https://github.com/latineloquamur/dictionary-of-latin-near-sy- nonyms; last access . . ). creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics: bet- ween linguistics, digital humanities and language teaching tommaso spinelli https://doi.org/ . / cf e - b - d -a a-b c ca https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.kolosowski.latinhandbook https://doi.org/ . / ce ba- d - -bd f- de https://doi.org/ . / ce ba- d - -bd f- de https://github.com/latineloquamur?tab=repositories https://github.com/latineloquamur?tab=repositories https://github.com/latineloquamur/dictionary-of-latin-near-synonyms https://github.com/latineloquamur/dictionary-of-latin-near-synonyms digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) list of the most common latin lemmas as attested in the entire extant corpus of latin literature, as well as unique phonetic and grammatical information, including their syllabication, accentuation, and classical and ecclesiastical phonetic transcription according to the standards of the international phonetic alphabet. this toolkit, which is available as both a rust program (referred to as latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-tran- scriber-and-app in github) and an android mobile app (titled handbook of latin phonetics), faced si- gnificant methodological and practical issues during its creation and development, such as the choice of an effective lemmatizing technique for identifying and categorizing inflected word-forms, the creation of algorithms to accentuate latin lemmas, and the development of an innovative program to transcribe latin sounds (potentially involving multiple characters of the latin alphabet) into ipa characters corre- sponding to different pronunciations of latin. after providing a concise overview of the different ways in which latin was and still is pronounced, this article will discuss the complex interaction between linguistics, phonology, and digital humanities. it will explore the methodologies and principal technolo- gies used within this digital project to offer rigorous frequency and phonological information on latin lemmas, and to maximize its impact on teaching and research. pronouncing latin: between teaching and research one of the aims of the latin phonetics digital toolkit is to further the creation of a shared rigorous methodology for the pronunciation of latin lemmas, and for the identification of the words most used by the latin authors that a given student or researcher might want to prioritize in their studies. both ‘frequency’ and ‘pronunciation’ have played a key role in language teaching and rhetorical studies since antiquity. latin authors such as cicero, varro, and quintilian often referred to the usus (use) of a word or to its frequency in their literary, grammatical, and stylistic discussions. similarly, the pseudo-cicero’s rhetorica ad herennium devotes an entire section to the role of pronunciation in ‘delivering’ a speech ( . . – ), which is also discussed by quintilian in his institutio oratoria ( . ; . ), while, in the third century ce, the grammarian probus encourages his students to pronounce correctly the words speculum (mirror) and columna (column), avoiding the wrong forms speclum and colomna. and yet, despite the importance of such themes, not enough attention has been paid to them by modern digital scholarship. while the last couple of decades have seen the publication of many frequency dictionaries for modern languages, no comprehensive frequency dictionary yet exists for latin, as the few modern attempts to provide rigorous lemmatization and counts of latin words have treated very limited textual corpora, and have adopted remarkably different methodologies, as we shall see better in the following analysis. even more problematic is the situation concerning the pronunciation of latin. ancient literary and documentary sources indicate that latin was spoken differently synchronically at different stages of the two different names of the program and the app are due to the different stages of the development of the toolkit and to the different institutions that published those tools, the university of st andrews and the pontifical salesian university of rome respectively. however, to avoid confusion in this article i will refer to these tools as the latin phonetics app/ program. joseph denooz ( ), – has shown that the word usus (‘use’) is used to explain linguistic facts times by varro in his de lingua latina, times by cicero in the de oratore and the orator, and times in quintilian’s institutio oratoria. moreover, quintilian uses the adjective frequens (‘frequent’) and the adverb frequenter (‘frequently’) some times in his linguistic and stylistic considerations. cf. also cic. de inv. . . ; . . ; de or. . . . the so-called list of the ‘appendix probi’ has been variously dated to the third or the fifth century ce. see barnett ( ), – . see, for instance diederich ( ), delatte/evrard/govaerts/denooz ( ), denooz ( ). digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) roman history and in different regions of the empire by different social classes. for instance, lucilius jokes about the rustic pronunciation of a certain caecilius, who was praetor urbanus (urban pretor), by saying, in a phonetic spelling, ‘cecilius pretor ne rusticus fiat’ (let cecilius not be a rustic pretor; lucil. , m.), remarking on the fact that, as we know from varro (l. . ), the diphthong ae was already pronounced /e/ in the countryside in classical times. epigraphs show the existence of different pronunciations of latin throughout the history of rome, and the historia augusta (hadr. . ) recounts that the emperor hadrian ( – ce) was mocked for his hispanic accent. this ancient diversity has been only partially reduced in modern times; it has therefore been an urgent and challenging necessity to create a tool able to provide a standardized pronunciation of latin. although the first congrès international pour le latin vivant (the first international conference for living latin), held in avignon in , tried to foster a shared classical pronunciation of latin in modern times, at least three different ways of reading latin are still commonly – and often unthinkingly – used by different institutions. the first way is the so-called ‘national’ because of its proximity to the phonetic system of the modern languages of the countries in which latin is read. according to this pronunciati- on, for example, the lemma caesar, which was pronounced /’kaɛ̯.sar/ in classical latin and /’tʃɛ.sar/ in ecclesiastical, is read as /’tʃɛ.sar/ in italy, /ʃɛ.’sar/ in france, /’sɪ.sar/ in britain, and /’tsɛ.sar/ in germany. the second way is the so-called ‘ecclesiastical’ because it is officially used by the catholic church. although it looks similar to the italian pronunciation of latin, this pronunciation is supranational and reflects the diction of latin used in rome during the fourth and fifth centuries ce. the third way is the so-called ‘classical’ pronunciation or ‘restituta’. starting from the renaissance period, this system of pronunciation used the phonetic clues provided by ancient grammatical texts and epigraphs to recon- struct the language arguably spoken by cultured romans in the first century bce and the first century ce. a further complicating factor is that, while an ever-increasing number of institutions worldwide has started to teach latin in latin, using the Ørberg’s and cambridge’s textbooks that encourage a more active use of the language in its ‘classical’ pronunciation, other world-leading institutions (such as the salesian university of rome and the pontificium institutum altioris latinitatis) have continued to use the ecclesiastical pronunciation that is also used to read late-antique and early-medieval texts, to which classicists have increasingly shifted their attention in the last two decades. at this critical juncture, my new toolkit builds upon recent developments in the fields of digital huma- nities and latin linguistics to provide students worldwide with a rigorous guide to the pronunciation of both classical and ecclesiastical latin. in particular, while the latin dictionaries currently available in many countries tend to provide only the quantity (or length) of the penultimate syllable of lemmas, the latin phonetics program and app provide more complete information on the accentuation, prosody, syllabication, and ipa phonetic transcription of latin lemmas. the following analysis will explore the see ramage ( ), – . see, for example, the commonly attested form coss. for consules, or the names crescentsianus and vincentza respectively attested in cil xiv, ; vii, . on dialectal pronunciations of latin see oniga ( ), – . on the church’s use of latin see the epistle romani sermonis by paulus vi ( ). on the use of latin in modern acade- mia see short/george ( ). on the bidirectional influence of national languages on latin, see serianni ( ), – . see allen ( ), ; pavanetto ( ), – ; traina/bernardi-perini ( ), – . see collins ( ). an overview of the most important features of ecclesiastical latin is provided by collins ( ). see, for instance, erasmus’ de recta latini graecique sermonis pronuntiatione ( ). on this theme see also allen ( ); oniga ( ). see the overview provided by chiesa ( ) and spinazzé ( ), but also the seminal work on stylometry of the ‘quanti- tative criticism lab’ (https://www.qcrit.org/researchdetail/khxib dissfmp yx; last access . . ). see also har- rington/pucci ( ), avitus ( ), and norberg ( ). https://www.qcrit.org/researchdetail/khxib dissfmp yx digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) methodology and innovative technologies used to create this tool, discussing the potential and the limits of the digital technologies that can be currently deployed to process the latin language. existing technologies the latin phonetics toolkit builds on and bridges together several different technologies developed in recent years to meet the new need for more complete phonetical information which can be used not only to speak and write in latin, but also to study rhythmic prose texts and the style of authors. leaving aside the work-in-progress latin dictionary on wikipedia that unsystematically offers some information on the pronunciation of latin words, the best-equipped tool currently available is that offered by the classi- cal language toolkit project (cltk). this international opensource project offers both a ‘macronizer’ and a ‘phonetic transcriber’. based on an original algorithm developed by johan winge in , the macronizer can mark latin vowels according to their length, using a pos tagger which matches words with the lexical entries of morpheus. although this tool does not provide accentuation of lemmas and has an accuracy of around . % (depending on which of the three available pos is used), it allows a more complete prosodic mark-up than that usually offered by traditional dictionaries. moreover, the ‘phonetic transcriber’ represents the first attempt to provide a rigorous phonetic transcription of the la- tin language according to the ipa standards. this tool transliterates latin lemmas into their phonetic forms using a list of replacements based on allen’s reconstruction of the phonetics of classical latin ( ). however, while the source codes of both these tools are available on github, they do not offer a user-friendly interface, so that only expert users, with a good knowledge of programming, can actually use them to process latin words. moreover, the cltk phonetic transcriber only provides information on the classical pronunciation of latin. similarly, the project latinwordnet . , which is being developed at the university of exeter by william short, provides the classical phonetic transcription for latin lem- mas, but this data is currently accessible only to expert users. although they do not provide a phonetic transcription of latin, it is worth mentioning other programs which have tried to address similar issues. the first is google translate, which now offers the ecclesiastical pronunciation (but not accentuation and ipa transcription) of latin words. the second is collatinus, which was developed within the pro- ject biblissima for the study of medieval and modern texts, and can divide by syllable and accentuate latin lemmas or small texts. the third is the quantitative criticism lab that, while not providing the pronunciation of latin lemmas, offers detailed information on the prosody of single words and entire texts, using quantitative metrics to support both linguistic and stylistic analysis. similar are the pro- jects cursus in clausula, developed at the university of udine, which detects the quantitative and tonic on the dictionary offered by wikipedia see: https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wiktionary:main_page (last access . . ). the cltk project is a python library containing tools for the natural language processing (nlp) of ancient eurasian languages: http://cltk.org/ (last access . . ). the algorithm and its explanation are available at https://cl.lingfil.uu.se/exarb/arch/winge .pdf (last access . . ); morpheus is a morphological parsing and lemmatizing tool integrated into the perseus project http://www. perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ (last access . . ). the python macronizer is available at https://github.com/cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/prosody/latin/macronizer.py (last ac- cess . . ). the cltk transcriber can be accessed at https://github.com/cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/phonology/latin/transcription.py (last access . . ). cf. https://github.com/wmshort/latinwordnet-archive; https://latinwordnet.exeter.ac.uk/ (last access . . ). see https://translate.google.com/?sl=la#view=home&op=translate&sl=la&tl=en&text (last access . . ). the codes are available at https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus (last access . . ). see also https://projet.biblis- sima.fr/ (last access . . ). see https://www.qcrit.org/ (last access . . ). https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wiktionary:main_page http://cltk.org/ https://cl.lingfil.uu.se/exarb/arch/winge .pdf http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ https://github.com/cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/prosody/latin/macronizer.py https://github.com/cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/phonology/latin/transcription.py https://github.com/wmshort/latinwordnet-archive https://latinwordnet.exeter.ac.uk/ https://translate.google.com/?sl=la#view=home&op=translate&sl=la&tl=en&text https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus https://projet.biblissima.fr/ https://projet.biblissima.fr/ https://www.qcrit.org/ digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) rhythm of prose clausulae, and the toolkit of pedecerto that, developed within the project firb traditio partum by the university ca’ foscari of venice, can perform automatic scansion of latin verses. the first app of latin phonetics: outline and features distinct from the previous contributions described above, the handbook of latin phonetics has been designed to bring together teaching and research. accordingly, it aims to advance the automated proces- sing of the latin language through the creation of original algorithms for a rigorous phonetic transcrip- tion of both classical and ecclesiastical latin. it also aims to provide students, teachers, and researchers across the world with a compact, freely accessible, and easy-to-use toolkit to study latin in latin. for this reason, the handbook of latin phonetics has been made available both as an online opensource program for expert users (discussed in detail in the following section) and as a user-friendly android app (discussed in this section) which, developed in collaboration with kamil kolosowski, displays and provides the most important features of the toolkit in an accessible format. see respectively http://cursusinclausula.uniud.it/public/ (last access . . ) and http://www.pedecerto.eu/public/ (last access . . ). fig. latin phonetics app. http://cursusinclausula.uniud.it/public/ http://www.pedecerto.eu/public/ digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) the android app, freely available on google play, is organized as follows: ) a learning section, con- taining an introduction to latin phonetics and a list of the most frequently attested latin lemmas, ) a search tool offering a wide range of prosodic and phonetic information on latin lemmas, and ) an ‘info’ section providing details on the app and its related programs. the first page of the app is an introductory section that, divided in two parts, contains material for the independent e-learning of latin. the first part, tit- led de ratione efferendi verba latina offers a brief history of the latin language, basic notions of lingu- istics and phonetics, and an up-to-date explanation (written in latin) of the main differences between classical and ecclesiastical pronunciations. this explanation deals especially with the differences in sound between the diphthongs ae and oe (which are pronounced as monophthongs in ecclesiastical la- tin), and with the pronunciation of velar and voiced plosives (c, g), which are never soft in classical la- tin, and of the group ‘-ti + vowel’, generally pro- nounced /tɪ/ in classical latin and /tsi/ in ecclesia- stical. different from many modern grammars and digital programs based on allen’s vox latina ( ) for classical latin, and nunn’s introduction to ec- clesiastical latin ( ), this explanation builds on more recent studies such as those on classical latin by traina/bernardi-perini ( ) and oniga ( ), and those on ecclesiastical latin by collins ( ) and especially pavanetto ( ), who was the head of the pontifical institute latinitas governing the catholic church’s official use of latin. this appro- ach governs the phonetic transcription performed by the program, which is summarized in the following table (table ), especially concerning the sounding of diphthongs in classical latin. in this respect, the development of the so-called historical and genera- tive grammar over the past century has revealed that the diphthongs ae and oe evolved from the older forms ai and oi, which left a mark on the spelling used on some epigraphs composed before the end of the second century ce. for instance, in the inscription adorning the tomb of scipio barbatus, dated around the bce, the term aedilis (‘aedile’, the censor aedilis was an elected officer responsible for the maintenance of public buildings) is spelled aidilis (cil , ). the app can be downloaded at https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.kolosowski.latinhandbook (last access . . ). the online program is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcri- ber-and-app (last access . . ). the constitutive elements of the app can be inspected through this link: https:// github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/mobile% app (last access . . ). the introduction is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/ blob/master/mobile% app/intro_app.txt (last access . . ). fig. the app’s introductory section. https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.kolosowski.latinhandbook https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/mobile% app https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/mobile% app https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/intro_app.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/intro_app.txt digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) in another epigraph composed some thirty years later, the word praefectura (‘prefecture’) is written praifectura (cil , ). matching the phonetic spellings of these inscriptions with the general linguistic tendency of diphthongs to take as second element a semi-consonantal sound ‘i’ or ‘u’, a past generation of scholars suggested reading classical texts by pronouncing the diphthongs ‘ae’ and ‘oe’ as / aj/ and /oj/, like the english sounds of ‘high’ and ‘boy.’ however, scholars have more recently pointed out that these pronunciations might simply reflect an archaic transition between the diphthong ai and ae, since the canonical form aedem is already attested in the famous text of the so-called senatus consultum de bacchanalibus, written in bce. thus, while maintaining that the second element of a diphthong is always an asyllabic vowel that cannot be stressed, modern scholarship has suggested that, in classical latin, “the pronunciation of the diphthongs ae and oe is [ae] and [oe] respectively.” the introductory section of the app presents the results of these studies in the form of simple latin rules, often comparing the sounds of latin with that of modern languages. latin classical ecclesiastical alphabet pronounciation pronounciation ā aː a ă a a (ae) ae̯ ɛ b b b c k k c + e, i, y, ae, oe k tʃ ch kʰ k d d d ē eː e cil is an acronym standing for corpus inscriptionum latinarum: this work contains a comprehensive collection of an- cient latin inscriptions. see allen ( ), – . see cupaiuolo ( ), – . quotation from oniga ( ), . see also cupaiuolo ( ), – and traina/bernardi-perini ( ), . fig. the sarcophagus of scipio barbatus, currently displayed in the vatican museums. digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) ĕ ɛ e f f f g g g g + e, i, y, ae, oe g dʒ gn ŋn ɲ h h - ĭ ɪ i ī iː i i (semiconsonant) j j k k k l l l m m m n n n ŏ ɔ o ō oː o (oe) oe̯ e p p p ph pʰ f q kʷ kw r r r s s s t t t th tʰ t ŭ ʊ u ū uː u u (semiconsonant) w v x ks ks z z dz the second part of the app’s introductory section contains a list of the most common latin lemmas which are crucial for students in their vocabulary-learning. ideally, it would have been nice to have a dedicated section for this frequency list. however, toolbars of mobile apps tend to be very limited in terms of space. therefore, we decided to place the list of latin lemmas in the introductory section, after the explanation of latin phonetics. while the online program (in github) can virtually scan every latin lemma, the app offers a selection of the most common latin words as attested across a wide corpus of classical and christian texts dating from the fourth century bce to the sixth century ce. following a growing scholarly consensus that frequency information plays a key role not only in com- putational linguistics but also in literary and intertextual research, and in language teaching, the last two the online python transcriber can be accessed at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcri- ber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber (last access . . ). the app frequency list is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-tran- scriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/info_list.txt (last access . . ). tab. latin phonetic transcription. https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/info_list.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/info_list.txt digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) decades have seen the publication of many frequency dictionaries for modern languages. yet, while latin authors themselves often referred to the frequency or usus of latin words in their commentaries, no comprehensive latin frequency dictionary exists. the few modern attempts to provide a rigorous lemmatization and count of latin words have always adopted limited textual corpora based on ‘highly representative’ authors from the so-called ‘golden literature.’ these dictionaries consequently struggle to meet the needs of contemporary students and researchers, who are increasingly shifting their attention to the ‘less famous’ literature of the early republican, christian, and late antique periods. by contrast, the frequency list provided by the app is based on a wide corpus of classical and christian authors, which has been analyzed using original algorithms and the capabilities of the new lemmatizer lemlat to provide a realistic picture of the most common terms used in latin texts of different periods. since average cultured speakers of a language know around twenty thousand lemmas, and use only a few thousand of them in their daily life, our -word list provides students not only with basic lemmas, but also with the most important technical and specific words most commonly attested in latin literature. at the same time, the reasonably small size of the corpus makes it possible for the information provided to be manually checked, and for the app to work even offline. the section ‘search’ contains the most important contribution offered by the app: the phonetic transcrip- tion of latin lemmas in both classical and ecclesiastical latin. using this function, users can type a latin lemma without diacritics, and access information on the quantities of its syllables, and its accentu- ation, pronunciation(s), and basic grammatical information, including the presence of homographs that have different meaning and prosody. for example, when one searches the word praedico, the program shows that two lemmas have the same spelling, one of them with the penultimate syllable short and being a verb of the first conjugation (prāedĭco, prāedĭcas, praedĭcāre, prāedicavi, prāedicatum; to an- nounce), while the other has the penultimate syllable long and belongs to the third conjugation (prāedī- co, prāedīcis, prāedīcĕre, prāedīxi, prāedīctum; to foretell). although the verb prāedīco is less common than the verb prāedĭco, in these cases, the database displays both entries to help users note potentially ambiguous forms, showing eventual differences in their pronunciation. to make the program more accessible to beginner students, the app provides not only the ipa transcrip- tion, but also the syllabication and accentuation of each lemma using the latin alphabet. this infor- mation, displayed between squared brackets, can be used for both classical and ecclesiastical latin. however, when reading late-antique and medieval texts in ecclesiastical pronunciation, users should be aware that, after the quantity of vowels was no longer perceived by latin speakers, the accentuation of some words changed. for instance, while classical latin could not preserve the original accentuation of greek words such as φιλοσοφία (philosophy), which was pronounced philosóphĭa according to the latin on the importance of frequency lists in the pedagogy of latin, see muccigrosso ( ). on the use of frequency data for language teaching in general, see sinclair ( ), and davies ( ), vii. see folco martinazzoli ( ) on the use of the concept of hapax legomenon by ancient commentators and denooz ( ), – . latin frequency dictionaries have been published by diederich ( ); delatte/evrard/govaerts/denooz ( ); and denooz ( ). the largest corpora used so far is that of denooz ( ), which includes nineteen authors but does not include important texts such as ovid’s metamorphoses. the original source code is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcri- ber-and-app/tree/master/src (last access . . ). the lemmatizer lemlat can be accessed at http://www.lemlat .eu/ (last access . . ). on modern languages, see, for instance, coxhead/nation/sim ( ), – . modern latin frequency lists tend to pro- vide students with only a few thousand terms. for instance, williams ( ) offers a word-list. the database is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/ master/mobile% app/data_app_accentuation_ipa.txt (last access . . ). see pavanetto ( ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src http://www.lemlat .eu/ https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/data_app_accentuation_ipa.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/mobile% app/data_app_accentuation_ipa.txt digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) prosody, the greek words introduced into latin vocabulary after the disappearance of vocalic quantities around the third century ce maintained their original greek accentuation (e.g., ἔρημος, éremus, ‘hermi- tage’). similarly, the words in which the penultimate syllable was short and was followed by a muta cum liquida, which were stressed on the third last syllable in classical latin (e.g., íntĕgrum; intact), tended to be accentuated on the penultimate syllable in late-antique and medieval latin (e.g., intégrum). section three, which users can access through the button ‘info’, explains the genesis of the app and acknowledges the work of the classicists (t. spinelli, c. pavanetto) and computer scientists (giacomo fenzi, kamil kolosowski, jan rybojad) who developed it. moreover, it contains links to the online repositories in which the codes and programs underpinning the app are stored. overall, in its unique and unprecedented features, the handbook of latin phonetics app contributes importantly to language teaching and to stylistic and prosodic studies by allowing even beginner students and non-expert users to learn the most common latin words and their correct pronunciations, as recommended by the most recent studies on latin linguistics. the online toolkit: outline and features available in opensource, the latin phonetics online toolkit contains the source codes through which the data displayed in the app is generated. while the app offers only premade information that can be easily accessed (even offline) by every user who is able to use a smartphone, the online program allows users with good informatic skills to generate customized results. as i have anticipated in the introduction, the online program is accessible through the github page of the latine loquamur project. the project’s home page currently features two repositories containing, respectively, the online dictionary of latin near synonyms (which i plan to discuss in another article), and the program on latin phonetics, which can be accessed by clicking on the folder ‘latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app’. the repository that hosts the program on latin phonetics is organized in different folders corresponding to the different functions performed by the program. this means that, while one can see the accentua- tion, syllabication, phonetic transcription and potential homographic forms of selected lemmas simul- taneously in the app, the online program generates these results separately through different packages. on the evolution of latin through late antiquity, see norberg ( ), – . https://github.com/latineloquamur?tab=repositories (last access . . ). fig. the homepage of the latine loquamur repository in github. https://github.com/latineloquamur?tab=repositories digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) the folder ‘accentuation’ contains the codes to accentuate automatically macronized latin words or- ganized in a csv-file. the output of this program is a new csv-file displaying both the original word and its accentuated form. the folder ‘classical and ecclesiastical latin ipa transcriber’ hosts the codes that perform the transcription of given latin lemmas into phonetic characters according to the standards of the international phonetic alphabet. here the file ‘readme.md’ provides users with a detailed guide on how to run this complex package. in extreme synthesis, by using in sequence the com- mands cargo build and cargorun--{path to the file} users can operate the phonetic transcription of latin words (organized one per line in a txt file) and generate two files containing, respectively, the classical and ecclesiastical pronunciation of those words. a sample of the results that can be achieved using this package is provided by the section ‘sample ipa’. the folders ‘implementation’ and ‘mobile app’ can be disregarded by users as they contain, respectively, work-in-progress material that will be used in the implementation of the toolkit (as described in the final section of this article) and the codes that have been used to build the app. using the folders ‘cargo’ and ‘src’ expert users can generate frequency lists of latin lemmas attested in a customizable set of latin texts. specifically, the folder ‘cargo’ governs the functioning of the packages hosted in ‘src’ and contains a ‘dockerfile’ with instructions. to use this program, users can upload the texts that they wish to process in the sub-folder ‘data_dir’ (within ‘src’). files in this repository must be organized in folders, one for each author, and named with the authors’ names. inside each author-folder, there must be a list of folders corresponding to the author’s works, which must be stored in ‘txt’ format. an example of how to organize personalized textual corpora effi- both functions are available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/ master/accentuation/latin_accentuation_code.py (last access . . ). a sample is available at (https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/mas- ter/accentuation/sample_accentuation.txt (last access . . ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ec- clesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber (last access . . ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ec- clesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/sample% ipa (last access . . ). note that slight differences may be caused by the manual checking operated on the data used in the app. https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/cargo; https://github. com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src (last access . . ). the repository is accessible at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/ master/src/data_dir (last access . . ). fig. the folders in which the latin phonetics online program is organized. https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/latin_accentuation_code.py https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/latin_accentuation_code.py https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/sample_accentuation.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/sample_accentuation.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/sample% ipa https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/sample% ipa https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/cargo https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/data_dir https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/data_dir digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) ciently is offered by the file ‘sampletxt.txt’. while the android app simply provides a list of the most common latin lemmas, expert users can perform much more complex searches with the online program to generate data on the use of a term or only on some of its forms by specific authors within a selected time frame. the tremendous potential of this tool can be appreciated by looking at the sample that, stored in the github repository, shows a part of the data generated by running the program on our large textual corpus. technologies the original technologies used to develop the program underpinning the app are highly advanced and closely tailored to its aims and function. this complex program is organized in different packages that govern, respectively, the frequential statistics of the words most commonly attested in latin literature, the syllabication and accentuation of latin lemmas, their transcription into the characters of the inter- national phonetic alphabet, and their visualization through a user-friendly mobile app. the following section will discuss the most important technologies and methodological issues concerning each com- ponent of the backend. lemmatizing and counting latin the first stage of the development of the latin phonetics toolkit was the creation of a unique frequency list of the most common latin lemmas, as attested across a large corpus of both classical and christian texts. making this list involved parsing, lemmatizing, and categorizing the data directly from the sources, which means scanning a pre-assembled and standardized textual corpus in order to identify the different inflected forms of each word, and to calculate which lemmas are the ones most frequently used by latin authors. while most previous latin dictionaries have relied on a manual processing of texts, this toolkit uses original algorithms and the capabilities of the opensource lemmatization service offered by lemlat. lemmatization is the process through which the variants of a term, and its inflected or graphically different forms (e.g., amat, amant, amas, amavi, amatum; to love), are attributed to their lemma: the standard form of the word (e.g., amo) as it appears in a dictionary. many programs can perform this task on latin texts quite successfully (e.g., the schinke algorithm, the perseus lemmatizer, proiel, parsley, morpheus, whitaker’s words, latmor), but none of these technologies provides entirely correct data. among them, we have chosen to use a freely adapted version of lemlat, which was developed between and by the national research centre (cnr) of pisa in collaboration with the university of https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/commit/b af a dcbabb a cb- da b df ecd (last access . . ). samples are available on github (https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/ blob/master/src/sample_frequency_list_data.txt; last access . . ) and in a dedicated, work-in-progress webpage (https://latin.netlify.com/; last access . . ). these packages are freely accessible through the program’s repository: https://doi.org/ . / ce ba- d - - bd f- de (last access . . ); https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcri- ber-and-app (last access . . ). cf. http://www.ilc.cnr.it/lemlat/lemlat/index.html (last access . . ). see, for instance, latmor (http://cistern.cis.lmu.de; last access . . ), words (http://archives.nd.edu/words.html; last access . . ), parsley (https://github.com/goldibex; last access . . ), proiel (https://github.com/proiel/ proiel-treebank; last access . . ), and morpheus (https://github.com/tmallon/morpheus; last access . . ). on these technologies see also springmann/schmid/dietmar ( ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/commit/b af a dcbabb a cb da b df ecd https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/commit/b af a dcbabb a cb da b df ecd https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/sample_frequency_list_data.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/sample_frequency_list_data.txt https://latin.netlify.com/ https://doi.org/ . / ce ba- d - -bd f- de https://doi.org/ . / ce ba- d - -bd f- de https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app http://cistern.cis.lmu.de http://archives.nd.edu/words.html https://github.com/goldibex https://github.com/proiel/proiel-treebank https://github.com/proiel/proiel-treebank https://github.com/tmallon/morpheus digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) turin, because it has proved to be the most consistent and reliable technology of this kind. based on a database of , lexical entries and , lemmas including many late antique and medieval terms, lemlat adopts the standards of the oxford latin dictionary (glare [ ]). being able to recognize over % of latin terms including many anthroponyms and toponyms, it successfully lemmatizes , lexemes into , lexical entries (around , more than the modern liège dictionary by denooz). moreover, its automatic analysis is very accurate and takes into account many spelling variations and even rare or archaic forms of a lemma which the former frequency dictionaries neglect. however, this technology, which is still undergoing further development, cannot disambiguate homographic forms, which are therefore counted under all the lemmas which they can belong to. to create the frequency list used in the app, we have fed into the program (written in rust) a large textual corpus yielding some , , words, and covering the works of authors, which has been created using different opensource textual databases available online such as perseus, the phi database, and the bibliotheca augustana. this textual corpus, which has not been made publicly available in accordance with its distribution licence, was stored in the repository data_dir. as i have anticipated, this folder has been left empty in the program’s repository, so that users can input a personalized corpus on which they can run our program by using, for example, the big textual databank provided by per- seus, or the packard humanities institute both online and on cd. the most important element of this package is the ‘lemmatizer.’ this file is a ‘csv’ directly exported (with adaptations) from lemlat to specify the lemmatization bases that are used to operate on the literature. this section also contains an original ‘runner’ program that is in charge of the full graphql endpoint, being used to query the text through the generic command: ‘cargo run--bin {program_name}---aauthors_file-ddata_dir- llemm_file.’ there, the options authors_file, data_dir, lemm_file are used to specify the data files on which to operate. specifically, authors_file is used for an advanced function which is still being perfec- ted; this folder contains a database with the chronology of latin authors which can be used to perform the program is available at http://www.lemlat .eu/ (last access . . ). on its features and assessment see passarotti/ baudassi/litta/ruffolo ( ), – and springmann/schmid/dietmar ( ). the adapted version of the lemmatizer is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/latin_ lemmatizer (last access . . ). see passarotti/baudassi/litta/ruffolo ( ), . a way to check the ways in which forms are lemmatized in our dictio- nary through lemlat is through http://www.ilc.cnr.it/lemlat/lemlat/index.html (last access . . ). the lemmatizer lemlat has successfully lemmatized more than % of the word-forms attested in our corpus, leaving unrecognized only the . % of the forms. among them many are names, greek forms used in latin texts, indication of books given in ro- man letters (e.g., lxv), or latin endings (e.g., -ar; -or) that are mentioned by ancient grammarians in their discussions of latin morphology but do not correspond to any lemma. the rust source code is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcri- ber-and-app/tree/master/src (last access . . ). on perseus see http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ (last access . . ); the bibliotheca augustana can be accessed at http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/a_impressum.html (last access . . ). the list of authors included in our textual corpus is stored in this repository: https://github.com/la- tineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/authors_chrono/authors-list (last access . . ). our corpus uses the phi standards to name latin authors in order to facilitate the use of the toolkit by other users who will likely use the phi textual database. the packard humanities institute (phi) corpus is one of the widest opensource latin corpora currently available online https://latin.packhum.org/ (last access . . ) and, al- though it does not match our corpus perfectly, it can be effectively used to look up the large majority of the latin passages in which our lemmas or their inflected forms appear. however, while our program lemmatizes every inflected form, the phi searching tool performs only simple pattern-matching queries. thus, if one searches ‘ultor’ the program shows also results like ‘multorum’, unless the search is made for a specific form like #ultor#. in this case the program displays only the occurrences of this specific graphic form and not of the lemma ultor and of its inflected forms. the repository is accessible at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/ master/src/data_dir (last access . . ). to run the lemmatizer use https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/mas- ter/src/latin_lemmatizer/src/parsers (last access . . ). http://www.lemlat .eu/ https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/latin_lemmatizer https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/latin_lemmatizer http://www.ilc.cnr.it/lemlat/lemlat/index.html https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/a_impressum.html https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/authors_chrono/authors-list https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/authors_chrono/authors-list https://latin.packhum.org/ https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/data_dir https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/data_dir https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/latin_lemmatizer/src/parsers https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/latin_lemmatizer/src/parsers digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) diachronic linguistic searches on specific centuries. the data so created can be exported using the csv function. conceptually, this system works as a ‘forest’ of sorts, with one tree for each lemma, one leaf for each form, and each form with a collection of occurrences. the data obtained from this system is se- mi-structured (data is fully tagged, but its structure is not rigidly defined, allowing for great flexibility in terms of exporting it), and the entire system operates without interacting with the disk. leveraging this core system, two applications can query the relational databases (texts, lemmatizer, and chronological authors map), and generate the results requested by users in different formats (e.g., json, txt, excel). prosodic processing after building the list of the most common latin lemmas, other algorithms were used to divide words into their syllables, and to mark them as long or short respectively, which is indispensable for a correct phonetic transcription. in latin, the quantity of syllables does not always coincide with the quantity of the vowels that they contain. however, syllables are always long, except where a short vowel is in an open syllable (a syllable that does not end with a consonant). for instance, the u in the second syllable of the word sepultus (buried) is short by nature (*se-pŭl-tus). however, because it is closed (it ends in consonant), this syllable is long, and takes the accent (sepúltus). for this reason, the program displays the quantities of syllables. several opensource tools can divide latin words into syllables, and mark the long ones as such. among them, we used the syllabifier shared by cltk and collatinus because it has been recently implemented to correctly process ‘exceptional’ forms that do not follow the stan- dard rule of syllabication, using a list made by rev. frère romain marie de l’ abbaye saint-joseph de flavigny-sur-ozerain in . thus, this algorithm can correctly syllabify compound words in which consonants are counted in the same syllable (e.g., de-scri-bo; to describe). this tool also offers the most efficient macronizer currently available, which is based on eight latin dictionaries. after marking the quantities of each syllable, original python scripts were used to accentuate latin lem- mas. this program, which i co-developed in collaboration with jan rybojad, takes as an input a csv- file containing latin lemmas, and parses words so as to break them into an array of unicode characters. for each lemma, this array is further converted into two new arrays, one for sounds, and one for vowels (including diphthongs). the actual accentuation is performed through the functions findstress and is- longvowel that replace long vowels and diphthongs with the appropriate stressed vowels and dipht- hongs, according to the rules of latin accentuation. in particular, if the second-last vowel of a lemma is marked as long or is a diphthong, the program accentuates it; if the second-last vowel is marked as short the runner program is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/ tree/master/src/runner (last access . . ). samples of potential results are available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcri- ber-and-app/blob/master/src/sample_frequency_list_data.txt; last access . . ) and https://latin.netlify.com/ (last access . . ). for instance, this service is provided by: http://marello.org/tools/syllabifier/ (last access . . ); https://github.com/ cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/stem/latin/syllabifier.py (last access . . ); https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus/blob/ master/doc-usr/scander.md (last access . . ). cf. https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus/blob/master/bin/data/hyphen.la (last access . . ). the dictionaries are de valbuena ( ); noël ( ); quicherat ( ); de miguel ( ); franklin ( ); lewis/ short ( ); du cange ( ); georges ( ); calonghi ( ); gaffiot ( ); gaffiot ( ). see https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/accentuation (last access . . ). both functions are available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/ master/accentuation/latin_accentuation_code.py (last access . . ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/runner https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/src/runner https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/sample_frequency_list_data.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/sample_frequency_list_data.txt https://latin.netlify.com/ http://marello.org/tools/syllabifier/ https://github.com/cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/stem/latin/syllabifier.py https://github.com/cltk/cltk/blob/master/cltk/stem/latin/syllabifier.py https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus/blob/master/doc-usr/scander.md https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus/blob/master/doc-usr/scander.md https://github.com/biblissima/collatinus/blob/master/bin/data/hyphen.la https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/accentuation https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/latin_accentuation_code.py https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/latin_accentuation_code.py digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) and not a diphthong, then it replaces the third-last vowel or diphthong with the corresponding stressed vowel. the output is a new csv-file with lines in the format , . ipa transcriber for classical and ecclesiastical latin a unique feature of the latin phonetics toolkit is the phonetic transcription of both classical and ec- clesiastical latin using the international phonetic alphabet, which is performed by original algorithms. because the program takes as input latin words that have the quantities of their syllables fully marked, this operation is conceptually simple. given an input word, the algorithm applies iteratively a number of replacement rules that, co-developed in collaboration with giacomo fenzi, convert a combination of latin characters into the corresponding ipa symbols (e.g., x → /ks/). however, several factors make this process more complex. firstly, the pronunciation of classical and ecclesiastical latin has to be treated separately because it follows different rules. for instance, while the long e (ē) is pronounced as long /eː/ in classical latin, it is pronounced as a normal closed /e/ in ecclesiastical latin, where the quantity of vowels is no longer perceived as a phonetically significant element. similarly, the nexus gn, which sounds /ŋn/ in classical latin, is softened in ecclesiastical latin (/ɲ/). in this important respect, the phonetic transcription of classical latin operated by the latin phonetics toolkit differs from that of cltk in so far as it is based on the new phonetic transcriptions recommended by recent studies of latin linguistics. secondly, combinations of letters are sometimes pronounced as just one sound. while a ne- xus can have different lengths, the same letters that appear in a two-character group can be pronounced differently when they occur in a three-character nexus. for instance, in the term ămīcĭtĭa (friendship), the nexus ‘tia’ is pronounced /tsja/ in ecclesiastical latin. however, in the plural form ămīcĭtĭāe the same group ‘tia’ appears in the longer group ‘tiae’ which is formed by the nexus ‘ti+vowel’ and the diphthong ‘ae’. in this case, the replacement /tsja/+/e/ would be wrong, because the group ae is mono- phthonged in /ɛ/ or /e/ in ecclesiastical latin, and the word is consequently pronounced /a.miˈtʃi.tsje/. to fix these problems, the program, which is written in rust, processes classical and ecclesiastical latin separately. in particular, using as an input a path to a file containing a list of words (one per line), the functions ‘cargo build’ (the executable being ‘target/debug/ipa_latin(.exe)’) and ‘cargorun--{path to the file}’ operate parallel replacement for classical and ecclesiastical latin, using strings such as ‘if classical {subs.push((„aei“, „ae̯i“));} else {subs.push((„aei“, „ɛi“));}’, where else is the ecclesiastical pronunciation. as a result, the program generates two different files: ‘classical.txt’ and ‘eccl.txt’. in order to efficiently treat nexus, such replacements are based on conversion rules that, specifying each possible combination, are applied in descending length-order, so as to match longer structures first. in this way, for instance, the group oe is successfully transcribed as /e/ in ecclesiastical latin, rather than as /o/+/e/. the results of this process can be seen in the files stored in the github folder ‘sample ipa’. a sample is available at (https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/mas- ter/accentuation/sample_accentuation.txt (last access . . ). the rust transcriber is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/ tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber (last access . . ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/classical% ec- clesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/src/ipa.rs (last access . . ). https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ec- clesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/sample% ipa (last access . . ). note that slight differences may be caused by the manual checking operated on the data used in the app. fig. sample of the database deployed by the app. https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/sample_accentuation.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/accentuation/sample_accentuation.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/src/ipa.rs https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/src/ipa.rs https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/sample% ipa https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/tree/master/classical% ecclesiastical% latin% ipa% transcriber/sample% ipa digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) app design the project has also pioneered the creation of an intuitive mobile app that, titled handbook of latin phonetics, makes the phonetic program easily accessible for students and non-expert users. because the amount of data is relatively small, rather than connecting the app to the program through a rest api, the application has been designed to work offline, using as input a sqlite database containing the infor- mation created by the program. in this file, a list of latin lemmas without diacritics is matched with the lemmas complete with grammatical and prosodic information and their phonetic transcriptions. there- fore, when one searches a word without diacritics, all the possible corresponding latin lemmas, which may include different syllabic quantities as in the aforementioned case of praedico, are returned. the app was built using a software development kit called flutter, which allows one to build high-perfor- mance apps for ios & android from a single codebase, using dart programming language. in the fu- ture, it will become the native framework of google’s fuchsia os, so that a project developed in flutter will work on three platforms: ios, android, and fuchsia. the architecture of the app is simple, and uses a business logic components pattern, meaning that everything in the app is represented as a stream of events, in which widgets submit events and other widgets respond. future developments two new implementations of the latin phonetics toolkit are being developed to further support both academic research and language teaching. the first is a diachronic function which, based on an origi- nal diachronic mapping of latin authors, will allow users to see by which latin authors and in which century each lemma was used. this feature will support not only stylistic choices in exercises of latin composition, but also commentary writers (by providing a concise ‘story’ of each word and of its oc- currences) and philological conjectures (by showing which words were more likely to be used by an au- thor). the second new feature that is being designed will leverage my app of latin synonyms to describe the meaning of each lemma (for which phonetic information is provided) directly in latin through the list of its most important latin synonyms. this function will also support new digital technologies that are being developed to detect similarities of meanings and ideas between latin texts, independently of precise lexical repetitions. finally, a version of the app for apple devices will be released soon. overall, in its innovative cross-fertilization of recent developments in the fields of latin linguistics, pe- dagogy, and digital humanities, the latin phonetics toolkit bridges teaching and research, using original algorithms to provide scholars and students with the first ipa phonetic transcription of the classical and ecclesiastical pronunciations of the most common latin lemmas, as attested across the entire corpus of latin literature. besides facilitating the teaching of latin in latin and contributing to the creation of a shared methodology for the study of latin phonology, this tool also supports a more interactive inde- an overview of this innovative technology is provided by kuzmin/ignatiev/grafov ( ). cf. https://flutter.dev/ (last access . . ). originally, we had planned to assess the impact of our toolkit (published at the beginning of ) by using students’ and professors’ feedback. however, due to the covid- pandemic this has been impossible so far. we now aim to collect and examine feedback after the development of the two new implementations. a draft is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/ src/authors_chrono/authors-list (last access . . ). a sample is available at https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/mas- ter/implementation/implementation_synonyms.txt (last access . . ). https://flutter.dev/ https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/authors_chrono/authors-list https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/src/authors_chrono/authors-list https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/implementation/implementation_synonyms.txt https://github.com/latineloquamur/latineloquamur-toolkit-ipa-transcriber-and-app/blob/master/implementation/implementation_synonyms.txt digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) pendent learning of latin, displaying the benefits of truly interdisciplinary approaches to the study of classical languages. i would like to express my sincere gratitude to the university of st andrews and the pontificium institutum altioris lati- nitatis (salesian university of rome) for the generous support that they provided to my project; to william short, cleto pavanetto and miran sajovic, who helped me perfect several aspects of my research; to giacomo fenzi, kamil kolosow- ski and jan rybojad who helped me develop the digital program and the app; to gregory tirenin and maxwell stocker who proofread this article. digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) references allen ( ): w. s. allen, vox latina: a guide to the pronunciation of classical latin, cambridge . avitus ( ): a. g. avitus, spoken latin: learning, teaching, lecturing and research, journal of classics teaching . ( ), – . barnett ( ): f. j. barnett, the second appendix to probus, the classical quarterly . ( ), – . calonghi ( ): f. calonghi, dizionario latino-italiano, milan . chiesa ( ): p. chiesa, l‘impiego del ‚cursus‘ in sede di critica testuale: una prospettiva diagnostica, in: f. bognini, meminisse iuuat. studi in memoria di violetta de angelis, florence , – . cil = corpus inscriptionum latinarum, ed. th. mommsen et alii, berlin ff. collins ( ): a. collins, the english pronunciation of latin: its rise and fall, cambridge classical journal, ( ), – . collins ( ): j. f. collins, a primer of ecclesiastical latin, washington . coxhead/nation/sim ( ): a. coxhead/ p. nation/ d. sim, measuring the vocabulary size of native speakers of english in new zealand secondary schools, nz. j. educ. stud. ( ), – . cupaiuolo ( ): f. cupaiuolo, problemi di lingua latina. appunti di grammatica storica, naples . davies ( ): m. davies, a frequency dictionary of spanish: core vocabulary for learners, abingdon . de miguel ( ): r. de miguel, nuevo diccionario latino-español etimológico, leipzig . de valbuena ( ): m. de valbuena, diccionario universal latino-español, hermanos . delatte/evrard/govaerts/denooz ( ): l. delatte, É. evrard, s. govaerts, j. denooz, dictionnaire fréquentiel et index inverse de la langue latine, liege . denooz ( ): j. denooz, nouveau lexique fréquentiel de latin. alpha-omega, liege . diederich ( ): p. b. diederich, the frequency of latin words and their endings, chicago . du cange ( ): c. du cange, glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis. ed. l. favre, niort – . franklin ( ): a. franklin, dictionnaire des noms, surnoms et pseudonymes latins de l’histoire littéraire du moyen age, paris, . gaffiot ( ): d. l. f. gaffiot, dictionnaire latin-français, paris . gaffiot ( ): d. l. f. gaffiot, dictionnaire latin-français, london . digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) georges ( ): k. e. georges, kleines deutsch-lateinisches handwörterbuch, hannover / leipzig . harrington/pucci ( ): k. p. harrington, j. pucci, (eds.), medieval latin, chicago . kuzmin/ignatiev/grafov ( ): n. kuzmin, k. ignatiev, d. grafov, experience of developing a mo- bile application using flutter. lecture notes in electrical engineering ( ), – . lewis/short ( ): c. t. lewis, c. short, latin dictionary, founded on andrews’ edition of freund’s latin dictionary: revised, enlarged, and in great part rewritten, oxford . martinazzoli ( ): f. martinazzoli, hapax legomenon: parte prima, roma . muccigrosso ( ): j. d. muccigrosso, frequent vocabulary in latin instruction, the classical world . ( ), – . noel ( ): f. noel, dictionarium latino-gallicum: dictionnaire latin-français, compose sur le plan de l‘ouvrage intitulé: magnum totius latinitatis lexicon, de facciolati, septième edittion, paris . norberg/oldoni ( ): d. norberg, m. oldoni, (eds), manuale di latino medievale, napoli . oniga ( ): r. oniga, la sopravvivenza di lingue diverse dal latino nell‘italia di età imperiale: alcu- ne testimonianze letterarie, lexis: poética, retórica e comunicaciones nella tradizione classica, ( ), – . oniga ( ): r. oniga, latin: a linguistic introduction, oxford . passarotti/baudassi/litta/ruffolo ( ): m. passarotti, m. budassi, e. litta, p. ruffolo, the ‘lem- lat . ’ package for morphological analysis of latin, proceedings of the nodalida workshop on processing historical language, ( ), – . paulus vi ( ): paulus p. p. vi, romani sermonis, roma . pavanetto ( ): c. pavanetto, elementa linguae et grammaticae latinae, sexta editio aucta et emen- data, roma . préaux ( ): j. préaux, premier congrès international pour le latin vivant: avignon – septembre , latomus, . ( ), – . quicherat ( ): l. quicherat, dictionnaire français-latin, paris . ramage ( ): e. s. ramage, urbanitas: cicero and quintilian, a contrast in attitudes, the american journal of philology, . ( ), – . serianni ( ): l. serianni, lezioni di grammatica storica italiana, roma . short/george ( ): e. short, a. george, a primer of botanical latin with vocabulary, cambridge . sinclair ( ): j. sinclair, corpus, concordance, collocation. oxford ( ). digital classics online spinelli: creating the first digital handbook of latin phonetics dco ( ) spinazzè ( ): l. spinazzè, cursus in clausula. an online analysis tool of latin prose, association for computing machinery, ( ), – . springmann/schmid/dietmar ( ): u. springmann, h. schmid, n. dietmar, latmor: a latin fini- te-state morphology encoding vowel quantity, open linguistics – topical issue on treebanking and ancient languages: current and prospective research, . ( ), – . traina/bernardi-perini ( ): a. traina, g. bernardi-perini, propedeutica al latino universitario, rome . williams ( ): m. a. williams, essential latin vocabulary: the , most commom words occur- ring in the actual writings of over latin authors, milan . winge ( ): j. winge, automatic annotation of latin vowel length. bachelor’s thesis in langua- ge technology, uppsala university, https://cl.lingfil.uu.se/exarb/arch/winge .pdf (last access . . ). figure references fig. : latin phonetics app, by tommaso spinelli. fig. : app’s introductory section, by tommaso spinelli. fig. : sarcophagus of scipio barbatus (vatican museums), image by the center for epigraphical stu- dies of the ohio state university. (http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/bilder.php?s_language=de&bild=$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$oh_ cil_ _ _ .jpg;$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$cil_ _ .jpg;ph ;ph ;pp; last access . . ). fig. : the homepage of the latine loquamur repository in github, by tommaso spinelli. fig. : the folders in which the latin phonetics online program is organized, by tommaso spinelli. fig. : database of latin phonetics, by tommaso spinelli. tab. : phonetic transcription table, by tommaso spinelli. author contact information dr tommaso spinelli university of manchester school of arts, languages & cultures e-mail: tommaso.spinelli@manchester.ac.uk the rights pertaining to content, text, graphics, and images, unless otherwise noted, are reserved by the author. this contribution is licensed under cc by . . https://cl.lingfil.uu.se/exarb/arch/winge .pdf http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/bilder.php?s_language=de&bild=$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$cil_ _ .jpg;ph ;ph ;pp http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/bilder.php?s_language=de&bild=$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$oh_cil_ _ _ .jpg;$cil_ _ .jpg;ph ;ph ;pp mailto:tommaso.spinelli% manchester.ac.uk% ?subject= _goback liber-legographic_final forming relationships in digital humanities building blocks for libraries digital humanities (dh) is a collaborative discipline. libraries engaging in this field must build connections with dh research communities to be successful. our below illustration demonstrates ways in which libraries can build such relationships and points to various useful readings on this topic. mind your language language is key in articulating the library’s role. expertise such as metadata can and should be reframed for a dh context. job titles and strategy documents also help position library offerings. read: cox find your level tailor your approach to the stage of dh development your library is at. there is no one-size-fits-all approach. look for incremental steps to progress in a sustainable way. read: rluk, lse know your audience an environmental scan helps identify your local dh landscape and its focus areas. knowing strengths and gaps can inform library strategy. it also can act as a useful ice-breaker with faculty. read: ecar be a translator librarians’ work with digital collections requires understanding both intellectual and technical aspects. this in turn equips them to act as dh ‘translators’ between research and technical partners. read: star & griesemer be loud, be bold overcome “library timidity” and broadcast the library’s expertise as an enabler of digital scholarship and a go-to for digital research projects. be specific about offerings and expertise. read: vandegrift & varner win friends & influence faculty use any existing links with dh researchers as demonstrator projects or partnerships. this helps momentum and advocacy particularly if broader engagement is an early stumbling block. read: gerber et. al play with structures different models of structured collaboration - such as dh fellows in the library or ‘embedded’ librarians working on faculty projects – can enable a more formalised approach. read: wilson & berg, locke & mapes ( ) partnership vs service how is this dh collaboration framed? is the library a partner or service? local context can inform here. in some cases library collaboration itself is listed as a ‘service’ offered for digital projects. read: muñoz, dinsman help from above strategic commitment is vital for long term sustainability. adequate resourcing for aspects of advocacy, research, skills development along with acknowledgement of new measures of success. read: posner strength in numbers find external library colleagues. working or technical groups (e.g. liber wgs, carpentries) can offer shared expertise and augment teaching. rse offers an ‘alt-ac’ parallel here. read: rse full references with links can be found here: !!! this poster came out of a group discussion of the building relationships sub-team of the liber digital humanities working group. from provider to partner: how digital humanities sparked a change in gale’s relationship with universities the past decade has seen huge growth in the teaching and research of what is broadly called digital humanities (dh). increases in computing power and data availability have seen a rise in individual researchers and research groups working on digital scholarship projects in the humanities, arts and social sciences. this article shows how publishers of traditional digital archives have adapted to the increasing prevalence of dh amongst their traditional customers. the success of this adaptation depends entirely on the relationship with the academic community, and gale has seen a shift from being a provider of products to a partner, trusted to help libraries, scholars and institutions achieve their objectives. as a leading global provider of digital archives, gale is well placed to review the current state of dh research and teaching, and this article will discuss significant academic events that have brought scholars, librarians and students together, and the lessons learned for institutions around the world looking to expand into dh. finally, the article looks at how working to understand the common challenges and barriers to dh research and teaching has pushed many archive publishers to re-evaluate traditional archive publishing and enable new and innovative ways to explore the past. from provider to partner: how digital humanities sparked a change in gale’s relationship with universities keywords digital humanities; gale; digital archives; primary sources; libraries; academic publishing an introduction to digital archives and gale over the past years digital archives have become an essential resource in university libraries. a natural evolution of microfilm and cd-rom archive access, a digital archive usually provides cloud-hosted access to vast amounts of primary source material accessible through a web interface. for researchers around the world, a digital archive democratizes access to many of the world’s leading research, national, private and public libraries, making access to material available on their desktops that would previously have necessitated a visit to the library in question. there are several private companies currently digitizing large archive collections, including gale, proquest, adam matthew, wiley and ebsco, and archives will generally be available for institutions to subscribe to or purchase. with recent increases in technological capabilities, there are numerous large regional/national open digitization projects, including europeana, the digital public library of america (dpla) and the hathi trust, that provide access to large digital archive collections, as well as smaller collections being digitized at the institutional level. gale’s digital archive programme began in with eighteenth century collections online (ecco), one of the most ambitious digitization projects of the time. ecco provides digital versions of the th-century texts catalogued in the english short title catalogue , and gives researchers desktop access to ‘every significant english-language and foreign-language title printed in the uk between the years and ’. insights – , from provider to partner: dh and gale’s relationship with universities | chris houghton and sarah ketchley chris houghton head of digital scholarship international gale primary sources sarah ketchley faculty affiliate instructor university of washington the following year saw gale publish the times digital archive, and in the years since, we have published hundreds of digital archives containing over million pages of often unique, difficult-to-access documents from six continents, covering nine centuries. digital archive publishing is becoming more prevalent as the technology for digitizing historical artefacts gets cheaper and more ubiquitous, and many universities, museums, libraries and other research institutions have digitization projects of their own. at the other end of the digitization spectrum, there are a number of commercial publishers working at a global scale, digitizing significant publications or national library collections; gale, proquest, adam matthew, alexander street press, ebsco, wiley and brill among them. most commercially available digital archives are full-text searchable, meaning that any researcher can search for a word or phrase and theoretically find it anywhere in a document. this functionality requires a process of optical character recognition (ocr), which is used to transliterate large corpora of documents. for publishers of historical archives, this requires running ocr software over scanned images, converting the letters on the page into machine-readable text, and capturing their position on the page. as a result, users can search for words and the underlying ocr text will identify the page, and location on the page, of each matching term in the archive. a changing relationship: archives as infrastructure gale was founded in as a publisher of directories and reference titles and is now part of cengage learning, one of the world’s largest educational publishers. within cengage, gale used to be known as library reference’, a name which accurately reflected the traditional business model for a publisher of primary source archives working with libraries to provide reference material. in the early s, around the world, large national consortia such as couperin and dfg operated as de facto buying groups, negotiating discounted access to products for their members. in the uk, jisc purchased the archive with funding it received to make the archives freely available to all uk higher and further education institutions. after the financial crisis and subsequent funding cuts to higher education, the ability of many consortia to offer this kind of large investment in archives drastically reduced, and publishers found themselves having to change business models and operations to deal directly with university libraries on a much more regular basis. these fundamental changes to the university sector in many major markets prompted significant adaptation in operations. now, rather than dealing with a centralized funding body, commercial publishers had to have relationships with individual institutions. for gale, this meant a significant investment in customer-facing operations and a shift in focus to not just working with libraries but understanding what they needed to be successful. digital archives are a significant investment for any university, and the majority of libraries communicated the need to provide evidence of academic support for an archive within their institution before countenancing a purchase. this need for academic support meant that, with the agreement of the library, publishers were now doing more than ever to speak with, and understand the needs of, the primary users of archives – the teachers, scholars and academics who could use archives like ecco or the times digital archive in research or in the classroom. these relationships with academics would naturally become significant. by understanding the research topics, needs and objectives of scholars, archive publishers were able to ensure two things: that they digitized archives and created new products where there was a desire for the material and that digital archives were presented in ways that would best support research and teaching needs. ‘publishers were now doing more than ever to speak with, and understand the needs of, the primary users of archives’ as the s progressed, gale started to see the beginnings of an evolution in this relationship, especially in universities that had not traditionally purchased archives. the feedback we were getting was that many archives were now seen as crucial to the work of a humanities department; we would receive orders for digital archives because an academic was moving to a new institution and purchasing the archive was a condition of their move. this evolution played out in the way that libraries purchased. in many markets around the world, evidence started to build of a move away from traditional end-of-year purchasing, as libraries found new ways of funding these purchases. gale’s relationship with libraries was changing again, and we would find ourselves supporting significant capital bids for investment in digital archives. allied to this was significant growth in new markets such as china, where in we developed the gale scholar programme to help ambitious chinese institutions quickly develop digital libraries on a par with the top universities around the world, a programme that is now being exported globally due to its popularity. first contact with digital humanities supporting ‘gather data and analyse’ more and more, institutions were reflecting a need to not just search and retrieve documents as had been commonplace, but also to gather data at scale and analyse it. digital archives started to respond by creating cross-searches of multiple archives, by incorporating analytical tools into archives and by facilitating access to ocr. for gale, these developments took hold in and with artemis primary sources, one of the first major archive cross-searches (later rebranded as gale primary sources ), which not only allowed the potential search of hundreds of millions of pages of primary source content, but included analytical tools to allow users to look at them through a different lens. significantly, users now had the ability to download the ocr for individual documents, which they could then combine with ocr for other documents into a corpus ready for analysis. examples of digital scholarship the other change that was happening during the early s was that we were starting to see requests to access the underlying data of archives, both metadata and ocr, for the purposes of text mining. from the start, we were keen to agree to these requests, but it began as an ad hoc process, often taking many months. for example, in gale was contacted by dr michaela mahlberg, phd, supervisor for kat gupta, who was studying at the university of nottingham. gupta was interested in getting access to the ocr for the times digital archive for the years – while researching their monograph, representation of the british suffrage movement. focusing on the times, gupta’s monograph, ‘uses corpus linguistics to examine how suffrage campaigners’ different ideologies were conflated in the newspaper over a crucial time period’. gupta was able to extract certain sections of the newspaper and mine them for references to ‘suffrage’, ‘suffragism’, ‘suffragette’ etc in order to identify the prevailing attitudes to the movement, amongst other conclusions. being exposed to scholarship really helped gale to understand how academics were using archive data, and whether they were using digital archives as we had envisioned or were making new applications. we would connect with researchers who were using metadata (such as word counts ) that we had never considered making widely available as the basis of their research. ‘requests to access the underlying data of archives, both metadata and ocr, for the purposes of text mining’ making data available collaborating with researchers to provide data for these projects and many others like them really helped to give an understanding of dh and the dh community. in gale made the decision to move the data provision from an ad hoc process to something more structured, and gale became the first humanities publisher to make underlying ocr and metadata available to customers through text and data mining (tdm) drives. subsequently, most commercial publishers of digital archives make their ocr text and, in some cases, metadata available to researchers. this development helped to crystallize gale’s relationship with the dh community. for the first time, we knew exactly who was using our data, and had the option to remain in contact to understand how they were using it. discovering common barriers demographics around dh soon became apparent; there was a relatively small set of core practitioners: researchers who were creating projects, writing code and were comfortable with managing large data sets. however, most scholars and institutions around the world that were interested in working in dh would often find the path to successful projects barred by a few common barriers: ) access to relevant data in an optimized format bringing together a significant corpus of data for analysis often involved insurmountable challenges: finding the data in the first place; combining data from disparate sources; cleaning the data to prepare it for analysis. the time and technical skills needed to undertake these processes were proving to be an obstacle for many. figure shows a typical research process, based on academic insight. many researchers were telling us several of the research steps could each take up to % of the allotted project time. cleaning data and creating exploratory tools were proving to be extremely time-consuming activities. ) hosting data this challenge occurred frequently when universities purchased the tdm drives. for many gale digital archives, the ocr and metadata equates to several terabytes of data, which makes it sometimes problematic or expensive to host locally. anecdotal evidence suggested that some university bureaucracies made it hard for researchers to get access to the data that they had purchased, if the university was able to find the server space to mount the drives at all. ) tools to analyse data can be challenging the analysis of large corpora of ocr or metadata text typically requires a degree of coding proficiency. experienced dh practitioners can be coders, while we would often see data analysis from academics who might consider themselves traditional ‘gale became the first humanities publisher to make underlying ocr and metadata available’ figure . a typical digital humanities research process based on comhis collective, university of helsinki, text and data mining eighteenth century based on estc & ecco, bsecs conference , oxford. [slide ] humanists but had taught themselves some basic coding. the message that came across strongly was that this need for coding often acted as a barrier to teaching dh in the undergraduate classroom, and to wider dh take up, as it required a significant time commitment. developing a solution in consideration of these barriers, it soon became apparent that there was an opportunity for us to develop a solution to support the existing digital humanities community and help to spread its skills and insights beyond the core practitioners. gale started building a cloud-hosted text and data mining platform in , and in released gale digital scholar lab, the first (and currently only) product to combine the broad range of archives available from gale with powerful text mining and natural language processing (nlp) tools. developing the lab proved to be a significant process, featuring several redesigns. at every stage, we made sure to solicit input from scholars to ensure that the product would deliver for established dh practitioners and those looking to break into dh. designed to overcome the three common barriers, take-up was strong immediately, with initial customers in china, singapore, australia and uae, spreading to europe and the united states. libraries identified the lab as a tool to help them support dh in a relatively low impact way, with vast archives of data optimized for use, simplified cleaning, and tool customization that did not require any existing coding knowledge. challenges and implications with a goal of continually developing the lab to support the needs of the dh community and the wider academic community, a series of technical challenges and content implications arise. development challenges for gale, the lab represents a new model for development. unlike a digital archive, which is essentially a static product, the gale digital scholar lab iterates and develops in line with user feedback and market need. this development work is expensive and time-consuming, and like any large corporation with a varied product portfolio, this means competing to ensure that investment into the lab is consistent. the requirement to understand the market is now stronger than ever, as gale works to identify research trends, development needs and common issues in order to try and provide solutions where appropriate. as a publisher with a global profile, one extremely important facet is to make sure that there is input from academics around the world, especially non-english native speakers, a demographic currently under- represented in dh. product challenges developing a software solution often leads to challenges as myriad development paths become apparent, and prioritization is needed. some of the immediate challenges include: • increasing and improving tools the lab utilizes mostly open-source tools, which will be developed and expanded. • increased outputs by introducing tools to develop the kinds of outputs students are tasked to create in dh courses (interactive timelines, enhanced maps, scholarly editions, etc.) we can increase classroom efficiency. ‘one extremely important facet is to make sure that there is input from academics around the world’ • moving beyond tdm providing the ability to analyse the many non-text components of gale’s archives, including pictures, adverts and photographs. • supporting classroom use to fulfil one of the most common requests, gale will partner with leading scholars to create material to contextualise the processes in the lab and teach with it. • non-english content by introducing new non-english language archives and the training tools to mine them, gale can further enable dh in non-english native countries. content implications giving users the ability to interact with digital archives in new ways by making ocr accessible, and through initiatives like gale digital scholar lab, has raised questions about archive publishers’ existing data, with potential implications for future archive digitization. the most obvious consideration involves the quality and accuracy of ocr. ocr has always been an imperfect process, relying as it does on software to interpret often unclear historical documents. accuracy of ocr can depend on when the archive was processed (since earlier versions of ocr software are less accurate) and of the age and clarity of the original document. now that ocr is more visible than ever before, gale is working with several academic groups to determine what choices there are to improve the quality of the underlying ocr in the digital archives. rescanning or repeating the ocr process comes at a prohibitive cost, but we want to determine whether there are systematic or crowd-sourced solutions to such a significant issue across all of dh. similar questions exist around metadata. by giving scholars the ability to enhance metadata, it would greatly increase the number of research questions answerable through digital archives. probably the most common customer request involving the lab is to make content hosted by the institution available for analysis through the lab. this is a huge and complicated project, simply because of the vast range of types of content hosted by universities and libraries around the world, not to mention inconsistencies in ocr standards, metadata and document format. however, given that this is an obvious area of need for institutions, gale is working on options to make it available in the gale digital scholar lab. supporting and working with dh the increase in collaboration with the dh community is set to continue. throughout the world, gale is working to contribute to the community, increasing visibility for academics and software developers, with a goal of acting as partner, not solely a software provider. bringing academics in house since gale has employed academics in the us as dh specialists with a brief to advise on development, support new customers to the lab and help contextualize dh processes for research and teaching around the world. alongside their work for gale, dr sarah ketchley (university of washington) and dr wendy perla kurtz (ucla) teach dh courses in their institutions. ketchley first offered introductory dh classes for undergraduates and graduates in , integrating the gale digital scholar lab into her syllabus in late . as a cloud-based platform, with no local software installation requirement, the lab is an ideal platform for classroom use. the class featured undergraduate students from departments across campus, the majority with no prior experience in dh, working in teams to create and curate content sets, clean ocr text, and then analyse their collected research material using the digital tools incorporated in the lab. this structured workflow presents opportunities to teach digital project management, data curation, the process of creating ocr text and the challenges of working with it. the course was again being offered in the summer quarter in an entirely online format, for which the lab is well suited. its suite of digital tools generates in-depth discussions about the nature of text mining, qualitative vs. quantitative analysis and the types of research questions that can be asked and answered by topic modelling or named entity recognition, for example. in lieu of a final research paper or exam, students exported the results of their research and analysis in the lab, including primary source document images, ocr text and visualizations, to build digital exhibits in omeka and interactive narratives in storymapjs, both third-party applications to publish and visualize digital projects. sensitivity to dh community ethics as the relationship between commercial vendors and academia becomes more involved, we are acutely aware of the ethics of the dh community, namely the aspirations for data and software to be open and research to be freely available. given the irreconcilable fact that our digital archives exist for universities behind a paywall, we are always working to make sure that the data is as available as possible, and several recent research projects have relied on gale providing specific aspects of archives not commonly available. the lab is a good example of gale’s desire to be as open and supportive as possible within the contractual boundaries of our agreements with source libraries, giving users the ability to export ocr, statistical analyses and visualizations at all steps of the workflow. development partnerships one positive outcome of gale’s increasing visibility in the dh community is the increase in opportunities to actively work together with academics and research groups. in the pipeline are numerous joint partnerships exploring ocr correction, tool creation, development of pedagogy and many others. the ability to support and amplify innovative work is paramount for us, and the opportunity to (for example) develop cutting-edge tools to analyse gale archives is too good to miss. evolving academic events publishers, vendors and other content providers traditionally sponsor and exhibit at academic conferences and other events. the focus on collaboration and openness driven by dh has prompted an added emphasis in events for gale and, in the past year we have started to organize our own events to bring together academics, developers and librarians from around the world. in november gale invited library directors from the leading chinese universities to an ‘advanced workshop of digitization, libraries and digital humanities’ in dali, china. then, in december , gale japan welcomed scholars to ‘an invitation to digital humanities’ at the tokyo international forum. in may , gale brought approximately european academics, librarians and students to the british library to hear talks from a panel of distinguished international speakers for the inaugural gale digital humanities day. the day was designed to provide insights into all aspects of dh, incorporating academic research sessions (literature and distant reading and computers reading the news), teaching sessions (digital humanities in the classroom), and sessions discussing institutional considerations (institutional support and infrastructure for digital humanities). the international panel featured speakers from the us, uk, netherlands, japan and australia, and one of the most striking points was how much similarity there was in approaches, methods and challenges. these events all featured academic speakers to provide a forum for knowledge exchange. for gale, these events launch partnerships and are as useful for our education as that of the academic community, with events often including associated focus groups. ‘in lieu of a final research paper or exam, students exported the results of their research and analysis’ ‘increase in opportunities to actively work together with academics and research groups’ conclusion and future plans numerous projections of future job trends, including this from the world economic forum (see figure ), indicate that analytical skills and the ability to work with large data sets will continue to grow in importance for jobs in the future. increasing numbers of universities are turning to dh as a method of providing humanities and social science graduates with these desirable analytical skills, providing experience to help them thrive in a rapidly changing job market. these changes in universities challenge publishers to evaluate their archives and the various ways to explore and interact with them. changing the fundamental ways of using content requires real engagement with the academic and library communities on numerous levels in order to deliver solutions that address real-world problems. dh is a fascinating, complex and exceptionally diverse field that is simultaneously challenging and enthusing gale. it can feel like a bold move to expose metadata and ocr through platforms like gale digital scholar lab because it exposes us to questions about their nature, format and quality. however, by taking this step, gale has begun numerous conversations with academics and institutions around the world about potential solutions for the long- standing problems of digitizing historical documents. the possibilities, even in the relatively small area of ocr correction and remediation, are incredibly exciting and we anticipate seeing substantive improvements in this area as we begin to partner with academics around the world on ocr projects. in terms of software, the possibilities for developing software to support dh research and teaching are no less extensive and exciting. every interaction with an institution confirms that there is a huge appetite to research and teach dh, and for gale’s solutions to evolve to meet the challenges faced. future developments will see gale digital scholar lab grow to support teaching through pedagogical support; include local content upload to allow researchers to ingest their own content to use in the lab; and increase the range of tools to support as wide a range of analyses as possible. for gale, there is real opportunity in developing closer relationships with academia to fulfil our primary aim of advancing knowledge through a detailed exploration of the past and promoting opportunities for this kind of research as widely as possible. in the future, we will continue to work as closely as possible with academics while being respectful to the ethics of the dh community. by collaborating on building new platforms and pathways, we remain committed to advancing humanities scholarship and to amplify it by supporting the global academic community. abbreviations and acronyms a list of the abbreviations and acronyms used in this and other insights articles can be accessed here – click on the url below and then select the ‘full list of industry a&as’ link: http://www.uksg.org/publications#aa competing interests ch declares that he is employed by gale. sk has no competing interests. ‘there is a huge appetite to research and teach dh, and for … solutions to evolve to meet the challenges faced’ figure . comparing skills demand: top ten in vs. analytical thinking and innovation complex problem-solving critical thinking and analysis active learning and learning strategies creativity, originality and initiative attention to detail, trustworthiness emotional intelligence reasoning, problem-solving and ideation leadership and social influence coordination and time management today, trending, declining, analytical thinking and innovation active learning and learning strategies creativity, originality and initiative technology design and programming critical thinking and analysis complex problem-solving leadership and social influence emotional intelligence reasoning, problem-solving and ideation systems analysis and evaluation manual dexterity, endurance and precision memory, verbal, auditory and spatial abilities management of financial, material resources technology installation and maintenance reading, writing, math and active listening management of personnel quality control and safety awareness coordination and time management visual, auditory and speech abilities technology use, monitoring and control http://www.uksg.org/publications#aa references . “help for researchers,” british library, http://vll-minos.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/catblhold/estcintro/estcintro.html (accessed september ). . eighteenth century collections online, gale, https://www.gale.com/intl/primary-sources/eighteenth-century-collections-online (accessed september ). . gale primary sources, gale, https://www.gale.com/intl/primary-sources (accessed september ). . kat gupta, representation of the british suffrage movement (bloomsbury academic, ). . kat gupta, mixosaurus, http://mixosaurus.co.uk/publications/ (accessed september ). . dallas liddle, “reflections on , victorian newspapers: ‘distant reading’ the times using the times digital archive,” journal of victorian culture, , issue , ( june ): – , doi: https://doi.org/ . / . . (accessed september ). . exploring ecco: key moments in th-century philosophical literature. eetu mäkelä, vili lähteenmäki, antti kanner, ville vaara. never mine the mind? symposium on computational approaches to intellectual history and the history of philosophy. helsinki, may (slide ), https://comhis.github.io/assets/files/never_mine_the_mind__comhis_collective.pdf (accessed september ). . “gale digital scholar lab,” gale, https://www.gale.com/intl/primary-sources/digital-scholar-lab (accessed september ). . “the gale review,” gale, https://www.gale.com/intl/blog/ / / /gale-digital-humanities-day-at-the-british-library/ (accessed september ). . forecast of jobs report , world economic forum, http://www .weforum.org/docs/wef_future_of_jobs_ .pdf (accessed september ). article copyright: © chris houghton and sarah ketchley. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence, which permits unrestricted use and distribution provided the original author and source are credited. corresponding author: chris houghton head of digital scholarship, international gale primary sources gale, a cengage company, uk e-mail: chris.houghton@cengage.com orcid id: https://orcid.org/ - - - co-author: sarah ketchley orcid id: https://orcid.org/ - - - to cite this article: houghton c and ketchley s, “from provider to partner: how digital humanities sparked a change in gale’s relationship with universities”, insights, , : , – ; doi: https://doi.org/ . /uksg. submitted on august accepted on september published on october published by uksg in association with ubiquity press. http://vll-minos.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/catblhold/estcintro/estcintro.html https://www.gale.com/intl/primary-sources/eighteenth-century-collections-online https://www.gale.com/intl/primary-sources http://mixosaurus.co.uk/publications/ https://doi.org/ . / . . https://comhis.github.io/assets/files/never_mine_the_mind__comhis_collective.pdf https://www.gale.com/intl/primary-sources/digital-scholar-lab https://www.gale.com/intl/blog/ / / /gale-digital-humanities-day-at-the-british-library/ http://www .weforum.org/docs/wef_future_of_jobs_ .pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / mailto:chris.houghton@cengage.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://doi.org/ . /uksg. http://www.uksg.org/ http://www.ubiquitypress.com/ an introduction to digital archives and gale a changing relationship: archives as infrastructure first contact with digital humanities supporting ‘gather data and analyse’ examples of digital scholarship making data available discovering common barriers developing a solution challenges and implications development challenges product challenges content implications supporting and working with dh bringing academics in house sensitivity to dh community ethics development partnerships evolving academic events conclusion and future plans abbreviations and acronyms competing interests references figure figure biographies biographies victorian periodicals review, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /vpr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /vpr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ biographies amanda adams is associate professor of english at muskingum univer- sity. she writes on nineteenth-century transatlantic literature and culture. her recent publications include performing authorship in the nineteenth- century transatlantic lecture tour ( ) and “‘no region for tourists and women’: isabella bird, local ecology, and the transatlantic sphere” (transatlantic literary ecologies, ). her article in this issue of vpr is part of a larger project on the walking lives of nineteenth-century anglo- american women. matthew badura earned his phd in english from temple university. his research focuses on american and british literature in transition, modern- ism, and narrative theory. he is an academic advisor at south dakota state university and teaches in the honors and english programs. anne chapman recently completed her phd in english at king’s college london as part of the ahrc-funded project, “scrambled messages: the telegraphic imaginary, – .” she currently teaches at king’s col- lege. shannon draucker is a phd candidate in english at boston university. her dissertation project, “sounding bodies: music and physiology in victorian fiction,” explores literary responses to emerging victorian understandings of the science of sound. shannon recently received a – huntington library fellowship and was awarded honorable mention in the midwest victorian studies association’s walter l. arnstein prize. elizabeth fox is a phd candidate in the department of english at the uni- versity of virginia. she is currently at work on a dissertation titled “novel biographies youth: victorian fiction and the adolescent audience,” which explores the development and sociological influence of adolescent literature in nine- teenth-century britain. helena goodwyn is lecturer in victorian literature at the university of st. andrews. her research interests include british and american literature of the long nineteenth century, book and media history, and women’s litera- ture. she is the author of “margaret harkness, w. t. stead and the trans- atlantic social gospel network,” which is forthcoming in authorship and activism: margaret harkness and writing social engagement, – , and co-author (with emily hogg) of “room for confidence: early career feminists in the english department,” in being an early career feminist academic: global perspectives, experiences, and challenges. alison hedley is a research fellow at the centre for digital humani- ties and a contract lecturer in ryerson’s english department. her articles on popular victorian journalism are due to appear in forthcoming issues of victorian review and the journal of victorian culture. she also co- authored (with lorraine janzen kooistra) a chapter that will be published in a forthcoming volume, bodies of information: intersectional feminist debates ( ). she is currently working on a book about media literacies and the relationship between popular illustrated magazines and the emerg- ing mass culture in britain between and . hao li is associate professor of english at the university of toronto. she works at the intersection of victorian literature and nineteenth-century intellectual history, with a particular focus on ethics. she is the author of memory and history in george eliot: transfiguring the past ( ) and is currently working on a project that explores the relation between literary sensibility and ethical cognition in late victorian novels. miranda marraccini is a phd candidate in english at princeton university, where she works on victorian poetry and periodicals. as a graduate fellow at princeton’s center for digital humanities, she is currently expanding her digital project, the victoria press circle. her forthcoming essay in vpr discusses pamphlets printed by emily faithfull’s victoria press. michael martel holds a phd in english from the university of califor- nia, davis. he is currently working on a book project that explores the print and literary history of nineteenth-century british local government. martel’s work on victorian localism, print, and governance has appeared or will appear in victorians: a journal of culture and literature, the routledge research companion to anthony trollope, and victorian lit- erature and culture. victorian periodicals review : spring joohyun jade park is a phd candidate in english at purdue university. she will defend her dissertation, which focuses on victorian travelogues on japan and korea, in july . her recent publications include “missing link found, : the rhetoric of colonial progress in isabella bird’s unbeaten tracks in japan” (victorian literature and culture, ) and an english-to-korean translation of “to the person sitting in darkness” by mark twain, which appeared in jigujeok sekye munhak (global world literature, ). her next project will focus on british expatriate litera- ture from early twentieth-century china, with a specific focus on miscege- nation as represented in the work of louise jordan miln. rosemary t. vanarsdel is distinguished professor of english, emerita, at the university of puget sound. she was a founder of rsvp and contributed to the field of victorian periodicals for fifty years. she co-edited, with j. don vann, victorian periodicals: a guide to research ( , ), vic- torian periodicals and society ( ), and periodicals of queen victoria’s empire ( ). she is a past president of rsvp and served on the editorial boards of the wellesley index to victorian periodicals and the union list of victorian serials in north american libraries. quality and protection of confidence - qualität und vertrauensschutz authors: sigrun löwisch submitted: . october published: . october volume: issue: languages: german keywords: cdu partei, law, politics, psychotherapy law. categories: humanities, social sciences and law doi: . /josha. . . abstract: for patients and psychotherapists, the passing of the psychotherapists act by the bundestag and the busdesrat is good news. the understanding between the coalition and the opposition in this matter, which has been controversial for almost years, is also proof of the ability of germany's much criticized politicians to act. it shows that it is also possible to drill thick boards if the bundesrat enters into a fact- oriented discussion and the länderkammer is not misused as a pure blockade instrument. sigrün löwisch is a german politician of the cdu. she was a member of the german bundestag from to . josha.org journal of science, humanities and arts josha is a service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content october volume , issue qualität und vertrauensschutz sigrun löwisch, ehemaliger mitglied des bundestages und des gesundheitsausschusses, cdu. für patienten und psychotherapeuten ist die verabschiedung des psychotherapeutengesetzes durch bundestag und busdesrat eine gute nachricht. die verständigung von koalition und opposition in dieser seit bald jahren umstrittenen materie ist aber auch ein beweis für die handlungsfähigkeit der vielgescholtenen deutschen politik. sie zeigt, dass auch das bohren sicker bretter möglich ist, wenn der bundesrat in eine sachorientierte diskussion eintritt, und die länderkammer nicht als reines blockadeninstrument missbraucht wird. die cdu/csu hat bei den beratungen zum psychotherapeutengesetz drei ziele verfolgt: . die gewährleistung einer qualitativ hochstehenden psychotherapie in den interessen der patienten. . die begründung des erstzugangsrechts zum psychologischen psychotherapeuten für die versicherten der gesetzlichen krankenversicherung (gkv), und damit verbunden die gleichberechtigte integration der psychologischen psychotherapeuten in das system der gkv. . die stärkung der eigenverantwortung der patienten auch im bereich der psychotherapie. das psychotherapeutengesetz trägt diesen drei maximen rechnung. es schafft die grundlagen für eine hochwertige psychotherapeutischen versorgung in deutschland. dem dienen die qualitätsstandards, die das psychotherapeutengesetz setzt, ebenso wie der schutz der berufzeichnung. die bezeichnung „psychotherapeut“ bleibt künftig den psycho logischen psychotherapeuten und den kinder- und jugendlichenpsychotherapeuten vorbehalten. zugleich october volume , issue ist es gelungen, Übergangsregelungen zu finden, die allen behandlern, die schon bisher in versorgungsrelevantem umfang tätig waren, die möglichkeit der approbation und der bedarfsunabhängigen zulassung zur versorgung der gkv- versicherten eröffnen. der vertrauensschutz ist garantiert, ohne dass in der qualität abstriche gemacht würden. ein besonderes augenmerk verdient dabei die sogenannte erziehungsklausel, nach der sich für therapeuten, deren berufliches fortkommen sich wegen der erziehung eines kindes verzögert hat, die Übergangsfristen um bis zu drei jahren verschieben könnten. das psychotherapeutengesetz überwindet das delegationsverfahren. psychotherapeuten sind künftig nicht mehr hilfspersonen eines artes. die patienten haben unmittelbaren zugang zu ihrem psychotherapeuten, unabhängig davon, ob dieser eine medizinische, psychologische oder pädagogische vorbildung hat. diese aufwertung findet ihren niederschlag auch in der sozialrechtlichen stellung der psychotherapeuten. sie werden in die kassenärztlichen vereinigungen integriert. für psychotherapeuten und psychotherapeutisch tätige Ärzte wird es eine gemeinsame bedarfsplanung und die gleiche leistungsvergütung geben. dabei ist für , wenn das psychotherapeutengesetz in kraft tritt, ein finanzvolumen mit versorgungssicherndem niveau festgelegt. einen wichtigen punkt stellt die paritätische besetzung der leistungserbringerbank des bundesausschusses der Ärzte und krankenkassen mit psychotherapeuten und psychotherapeutisch tätigen Ärzten dar, wenn über die psychotherapie- richtlinien beschlossen wird. die richtlinien-therapien sind die bezugspunkte der im psychotherapeutengesetz verankerte qualitätsstandards. es hat hierzu viele missverständnisse gegeben. auch wird unter dem schlagwort einer einschränkung der methodenvielfalt immer wieder gegen die richtlinienverfahren polemisiert. die maßgeblichkeit dieser verfahren folgt aus der systematik unserer gkv. danach werden von der solidargemeinschaft nur die kosten solcher behandlungsverfahren übernommen, die eine ausreichende, zweckmäßige und wirtschaftliche versorgung der versicherten gewährleisten (§ sgb v). es ist zwingend geboten, dass die entsprechenden entscheidungen auf der fachebene und nicht von politikern getroffen werden. nur auf diese weise ist eine offene und wissenschaftliche entwicklung der psychotherapie zu erreichen. im schatten der kostenerstattungspraxis hat die entwicklung der richtlinien häufig genug nicht die erforderliche beachtung gefunden. dies muss und wird sich ändern. die october volume , issue mitgestaltung der diskussion im bundesausschuss wird sich ein entscheidendes feld künftiger verbandsarbeit sein. es ist schließlich gelungen, den aspekt der eigenverantwortung der versicherten in das gesetzgebungsverfahren einzubringen. die versicherten werden eine selbstbeteiligung von dm pro sitzung leisten. zuzahlungsfrei bleiben die ersten zwei probatorischen sitzungen. die selbstbeteiligung ist durch eine Überforderungsklausel sozial abgefedert. Übersteigen die zuzahlungen % der jährlichen bruttoeinnahmen eines versicherten, werden sie von der krankenkasse übernommen. bei chronisch kranken beträgt die belastungsgrenze %. darüber hinaus ist die e eigenbeteiligung in härtefällen sowie bei kindern und jugendlichen unter jahren ausgeschlossen. rund millionen versicherte bleiben damit von der zuzahlungspflicht völlig freigestellt. allen idiologischen unkenrufen zum trotz steht damit fest. das psychotherapeutengesetz gewährleistet auf soziale weise den zugang zu hochqualifizierten behandlern. c o m m u n i c at i o n s o f t h e a c m | s e p t e m b e r | v o l . | n o . v viewpoints historical reflections we have never been digital reflections on the intersection of computing and the humanities. that point no american company had yet applied a computer to administra- tive work, and when they did the results would almost invariably disappoint. the machines needed more people than anticipated to tend them, took lon- ger to get running, and proved less flex- ible. so why did hundreds of companies rush into computerization before its economic feasibility was established? worthington had warned that “the first competitor in each industry to oper- ate in milliseconds, at a fraction of his former overhead, is going to run rings around his competition. there aren’t many businesses that can afford to take a chance on giving this fellow a five-year lead. therefore, most of us have to start now, if we haven’t started already.”a following his belief that “the omi- nous rumble you sense is the future coming at us.” worthington was soon to give up his staff job at hughes aircraft in favor of a consulting role, promoting his own expertise as a guide toward the electronic future. he had promised that “we can set our course toward push-but- ton administration, and god willing we can get there.” similar statements were being made on the pages of the harvard business review and in speeches deliv- ered by the leaders of ibm and other business technology companies as a a w.b. worthington. “application of electronics to administrative systems,” systems and proce- dures quarterly , (feb. ), – . quoted in t. haigh, “the chromium-plated tabula- tor: institutionalizing an electronic revolu- tion, – ,” ieee annals of the history of computing , (oct.–dec. ), – . t h i s c o l u m n i s inspired by the fashionable concept of the “digital humanities.” that will be our destination rather than our starting point, as we look back at the long history of the idea that adoption of computer technology is a revolutionary moment in human histo- ry. along the way we will visit the work of nicholas negroponte and bruno latour, whose books being digital and we have never been modern i splice to suggest that we have, in fact, never been digital. the computer is not a particularly new invention. the first modern com- puter programs were run in , long before many of us were born. yet for decades it was consistently presented as a revolutionary force whose immi- nent impact on society would utterly transform our lives. this metaphor of “impact,” conjuring images of a bulky asteroid heading toward a swamp full of peacefully grazing dinosaurs, presents technological change as a violent event we need to prepare for but can do noth- ing to avert. discussion of the looming revolution tended to follow a pattern laid out in the very first book on electronic computers written for a broad audience: edmund callis berkeley’s giant brains: or machines that think. ever since then the computer has been surrounded by a cloud of promises and predications, de- scribing the future world it will produce. the specific machines described in loving detail by berkeley, who dwelled on their then-novel arrangements of re- lays and vacuum tubes, were utterly ob- solete within a few years. his broader hopes and concerns for thinking ma- chines, laid out in chapters on “what they might do for man” and “how soci- ety might control them” remain much fresher. for example, he discussed the potential for autonomous lawnmow- ers, automated translation, machine dictation, optical character recogni- tion, an “automatic cooking machine controlled by program tapes,” and a system by which “all the pages of all books will be available by machine.” “what,” he asked, “shall i do when a ro- bot machine renders worthless all the skills i have spent years in developing?” computer systems have always been sold with the suggestion they represent a ticket to the future. one of my favorite illustrations of this comes from , when w.b. worthington, a business sys- tems specialist, promised at a meeting of his fellows that “the changes ahead appear to be similar in character but far beyond those effected by printing.” at doi: . / thomas haigh v viewpoints computer systems have always been sold with the suggestion they represent a ticket to the future. http://dx.doi.org/ . / s e p t e m b e r | v o l . | n o . | c o m m u n i c at i o n s o f t h e a c m viewpoints v viewpoints cal concept within computing. it began as one of the two approaches to high- speed automatic computation back in the s. the new breed of “comput- ing machinery,” after which the acm was named, was called digital because the quantities the computer calculated with were represented as numbers. that is to say they were stored as a series of digits, whether on cog wheels or in elec- tronic counters, and whether they were manipulated as decimal digits or the s and s of binary. this contrasted with the better-established tradition of ana- log computation, a term derived from the word “analogy.” in an analog device an increase in one of the quantities be- ing modeled is represented by a corre- sponding increase in something inside the machine. a disc rotates a little faster; a voltage rises slightly; or a little more fluid accumulates in a chamber. tradi- tional speedometers and thermometers are analog devices. they creep up or down continuously, and when we read off a value we look for the closest num- ber marked on the gauge. throughout the s and s ana- log and digital computers coexisted. the titles of textbooks and university classes would include the word “analog” or “dig- ital” as appropriate to avoid confusion. eventually the increasing power and re- liability of digital computers and their broad social alliance assembled itself behind the new technology. after this initial surge of interest in computerization during the s there have been two subsequent peaks of en- thusiasm. during the late s and early s the world was awash with discussion of the information society, post-industrial society, and the micro- computer revolution. there followed, in the s, a wave of enthusiasm for the transformative potential of computer networks and the newly invented world wide web. rupture talk and imaginaires discussion of the “computer revolution” was not just cultural froth whipped up by the forces of technological change. instead the construction of this shared vision of the future was a central part of the social process by which an unfa- miliar new technology became a central part of american work life. patrice flichy called these collective visions “imagi- naires” and has documented their im- portance in the rapid spread of the in- ternet during the s. rob kling, a prolific and influential researcher, wrote extensively on the importance of “com- puterization movements” within orga- nizations and professional fields. historian of technology gabrielle hecht called such discussion “rupture talk” in her discussion of the enthusi- asm with which france reoriented its co- lonial power and engineering talent dur- ing the s around mastery of nuclear technology. this formulation captures its central promise: that a new technol- ogy is so powerful and far-reaching it will break mankind free of history. details of the utopian new age get filled in accord- ing to the interests, obsessions, and po- litical beliefs of the people depicting it. that promise is particularly appealing to nations in need of a fresh start and a boost of confidence, as france then was, but its appeal seems to be universal. this dismissal of the relevance of experi- ence or historical precedent carries out a kind of preventative strike on those who might try to use historical parallels to ar- gue that the impact of the technology in question might in fact be slower, more uneven, or less dramatic than promised. yet this fondness for rupture talk is itself something with a long history around technologies such as electric power, te- legraphy, air travel, and space flight. enter “the digital” one of the most interesting of the clus- ter of concepts popularized in the early s to describe the forthcoming revo- lution was the idea of “the digital” as a new realm of human experience. digital had, of course, a long career as a techni- c o m m u n i c at i o n s o f t h e a c m | s e p t e m b e r | v o l . | n o . viewpoints falling cost squeezed analog computers out of the niches, such as paint mixing, in which they had previously been pre- ferred. most analog computer suppliers left the industry, although hewlett-pack- ard made a strikingly successful transi- tion to the digital world. by the s it was generally no longer necessary to prefix computer with “digital” and con- sequently the word was less frequently encountered in computing circles. “digital” acquired a new resonance from , with the launch of the in- stantly fashionable wired magazine. in the first issue of wired its editor pro- claimed the “the digital revolution is whipping through our lives like a ben- gali typhoon,” just as enthusiasm was building for the information superhigh- way and the internet was being opened to commercial use. wired published lists of the “digerati”—a short-lived coinage conservative activist and proph- et of unlimited bandwidth george gilder used to justify something akin to people’s list of the sexiest people alive as judged on intellectual appeal to lib- ertarian techno geeks. the magazine’s title evoked both electronic circuits and drug-heightened fervor. as fred turner showed in his book from counter cul- ture to cyberculture, wired was one in a series of bold projects created by a shifting group of collaborators orbiting libertarian visionary steward brand. brand had previously created the whole earth catalog back in the s and a pi- oneering online community known as the well (whole earth ‘lectronic link) in the s. his circle saw technology as a potentially revolutionary force for personal empowerment and social transformation. in the early s this held together an unlikely alliance, from newt gingrich who as house speaker suggested giving laptops to the poor rather than welfare payments, to the fu- turist alvin toffler, u.s. vice president al gore who championed government support for high-speed networking, and grateful dead lyricist john perry barlow who had founded the electronic fron- tier foundation to make sure that the new territory of “cyberspace” was not burdened by government interference. one of the magazine’s key figures, nicholas negroponte, was particularly important in promoting the idea of “the digital.” negroponte was the entrepre- neurial founder and head of mit’s me- dia lab, a prominent figure in the world of technology whose fame owed much to a book written by brand. negroponte took “digital” far beyond its literal mean- ing to make it, as the title of his book being digital, suggested, the defin- ing characteristic of a new way of life. this was classic rupture talk. his central claim was that in the past things “made of atoms” had been all important. in the future everything that mattered would be “made of bits.” as i argued in a previous column, all information has an underlying ma- terial nature. still, the focus on digi- tal machine-readable representation made some sense: the computer is an exceptionally flexible technology whose applications gradually expanded from scientific calculation to business administration and industrial control to communication to personal enter- tainment as their speed has risen and their cost fallen. each new application meant representing a new aspect of the world in machine-readable form. like- wise, the workability of modern com- puters depended on advances in digital electronics and conceptual develop- ments in coding techniques and infor- mation theory. so stressing the digital nature of computer technology is more revealing than calling the computer an “information machine.” here is a taste of being digital: “ear- ly in the next millennium, your left and right cuff links or earrings may com- municate with each other by low-orbit- ing satellites and have more computer power than your present pc. your tele- phone won’t ring indiscriminately; it will receive, sort, and perhaps respond to your calls like a well-trained english butler. mass media will be refined by systems for transmitting and receiv- ing personalized information and entertainment. schools will change to become more like museums and playgrounds for children to assemble ideas and socialize with children all over the world. the digital planet will look and feel like the head of a pin. as we interconnect ourselves, many of the values of a nation-state will give way to those of both larger and small- er communities. we will socialize in digital neighborhoods in which physi- cal space will be irrelevant and time will play a different role. twenty years from now, when you look out of a win- dow what you see may be five thousand miles and six time zones away…” like any expert set of predictions this cluster of promises extrapolated social and technology change to yield a mix of the fancifully bold, the spot-on, and the overly conservative. our phones do support call screening, although voice communication seems to be dwindling. online communities have contributed to increased cultural and political po- larization. netflix, twitter, blogs, and youtube have done more than “refine” mass media. as for those satellite cuff links, well the “internet of things” remains a fu- turistic vision more than a daily reality. as the career of the “cashless society” since the s has shown, an imagi- naire can remain futuristic and excit- ing for decades without ever actually arriving.b however, when the cuff links of the future do feel the need to com- municate they seem more likely to chat over local mesh networks than precious satellite bandwidth. this prediction was perhaps an example of the role of future visions in promoting the interests of the visionary. negroponte was then on the board of motorola, which poured bil- lions of dollars into the iridium network of low-earth orbit satellites for phone and pager communication. that busi- ness collapsed within months of launch in and plans to burn up the satel- lites to avoid leaving space junk were canceled only after the u.s. defense de- partment stepped in to fund their con- tinued operation. b a phenomenon i explore in more detail in b. batiz-lazo, t. haigh, and d. steans, “how the future shaped the past: the case of the cash- less society,” enterprise and society, , (mar. ), – . a wave of enthusiasm for “the digital” has swept through humanities departments worldwide. s e p t e m b e r | v o l . | n o . | c o m m u n i c at i o n s o f t h e a c m viewpoints eroding the future of course we never quite got to the digital future. my unmistakably analog windows show me what is immediately outside my house. whether utopian or totalitarian, imagined future worlds tend to depict societies in which ev- ery aspect of life has changed around a particular new technology, or everyone dresses in a particular way, or everyone has adopted a particular practice. but in reality as new technologies are assimi- lated into our daily routines they stop feeling like contact with an unfamiliar future and start seeming like familiar objects with their own special character. if a colleague reported that she had just ventured into cyberspace after booking a hotel online or was considering taking a drive on the information superhigh- way to send email you would question her sincerity, if not her sanity. these metaphors served to bundle together different uses of information technol- ogy into a single metaphor and distance them from our humdrum lives. today, we recognize that making a voice or vid- eo call, sending a tweet, reading a web page, or streaming a movie are distinct activities with different meanings in our lives even when achieved using the same digital device. sociologist bruno latour, a giant in the field of science studies, captured this idea in the title of his book we have never been modern, published just as ne- groponte began to write his columns for wired. its thesis was that nature, tech- nology, and society have never truly been separable despite the enlightenment and scientific revolution in which their separation was defined as the hallmark of modernity. self-proclaimed “mod- erns” have insisted vocally on these sepa- rations while in reality hybridizing them into complex socio-technical systems. thus, he asserts “nobody has ever been modern. modernity has never begun. there has never been a modern world.” latour believed that “moderns,” like negroponte, see technology as some- thing external to society yet also as something powerful enough to define epochs of human existence. as latour wrote, “the history of the moderns will be punctuated owing to the emergence of the nonhuman—the pythagorean theorem, heliocentrism…the atomic bomb, the computer…. people are go- ing to distinguish the time ‘bc’ and ‘ac’ with respect to computers as they do the years ‘before christ’ and ‘after christ’.” he observed that rhetoric of revolu- tion has great power to shape history, writing that “revolutions attempt to abolish the past but they cannot do so…” thus we must be careful not to endorse the assumption of a historical rupture as part of our own conceptual framework. “if there is one thing we are incapable of carrying out,” latour asserted, “it is a revolution, whether it be in science, technology, politics, or philosophy.…” our world is inescapably messy, a constant mix of old and new in every area of culture and technology. in one passage latour brought things down to earth by discussing his home repair tool- kit: “i may use an electric drill, but i also use a hammer. the former is years old, the latter hundreds of thousands. will you see me as a diy expert ‘of con- trasts’ because i mix up gestures from different times? would i be an ethno- graphic curiosity? on the contrary: show me an activity that is homogenous from the viewpoint of the modern time.” according to science fiction writer william gibson, “the future is al- ready here—it’s just not very evenly distributed.”c that brings me comfort as a historian because of its logical cor- ollary, that the past is also mixed up all around us and will remain so.d even ne- groponte acknowledged the uneven na- c the sentiment is gibson’s, although there is no record of him using those specific words until after they had become an aphorism. see http://quoteinvestigator.com/ / / / future-has-arrived/. d gibson himself appreciates this, as i have discussed elsewhere t. haigh, “technology’s other storytellers: science fiction as history of technology,” in science fiction and comput- ing: essays on interlinked domains, d.l. ferro and e.g. swedin, eds., mcfarland, jefferson, n.c., , – ture of change. back in , in his last column for wired, he noted that “digital” was destined for banality and ubiquity as “its literal form, the technology, is al- ready beginning to be taken for granted, and its connotation will become tomor- row’s commercial and cultural compost for new ideas. like air and drinking wa- ter, being digital will be noticed only by its absence, not its presence.” digital humanities even after once-unfamiliar technolo- gies dissolve into our daily experience, rupture talk and metaphors of revolu- tion can continue to lurk in odd and un- predictable places. while we no longer think of the internet as a place called “cyberspace” the military-industrial complex seems to have settled on “cy- ber warfare” as the appropriate name for online sabotage. likewise, the nsf has put its money behind the idea of “cyberinfrastructure.” the ghastly practice of prefixing things with an “e” has faded in most realms, but “e-com- merce” is hanging on. like most other library schools with hopes of contin- ued relevance my own institution has dubbed itself an “ischool,” copying the names of apple’s successful consumer products. there does not seem to be any particular logic behind this set of prefixes and we might all just as well have settled on “iwarfare,” “cybercom- merce” and “e-school.” but these terms will live on, vestiges of the crisp future vision that destroyed itself by messily and incompletely coming true. the dated neologism i have been hearing more and more lately is “the digital humanities.” when i first heard someone describe himself as a “digital historian” the idea that this would be the best way to describe a historian who had built a website seemed both preten- tious and oddly outdated. since then, however, a wave of enthusiasm for “the digital” has swept through humanities departments nationwide. according to matthew kirschen- baum, the term “digital humanities” was first devised at the university of virginia back in as the name for a mooted graduate degree program. those who came up with it wanted something more exciting than “humanities computing” and broader than “digital media,” two established alternatives. it spread wide- ly through the blackwell companion to c o m m u n i c at i o n s o f t h e a c m | s e p t e m b e r | v o l . | n o . viewpoints the digital humanities issued in . as kirschenbaum noted, the reasons be- hind the term’s spread have “primarily to do with marketing and uptake” and it is “wielded instrumentally” by those seeking to further their own careers and intellectual agendas. in this human- ists are not so different from worthing- ton back in the s, or negroponte and his fellow “digerati” in the s, though it is a little incongruous that they appropriated “the digital” just as he was growing tired of it. the digital humanities movement is a push to apply the tools and methods of computing to the subject matter of the humanities. i can see why young hu- manists trained in disciplines troubled by falling student numbers, a perceived loss of relevance, and the sometimes alienating hangover of postmodernism might find something liberating and empowering in the tangible satisfaction of making a machine do something. self-proclaimed digital humanists have appreciably less terrible prospects for employment and grant funding as a hu- manist than the fusty analog variety. as marge simpson wisely cautioned, “don’t make fun of grad students. they just made a terrible life choice.” it is not clear exactly what makes a humanist digital. my sense is the bound- ary shifts over time, as one would have to be using computers to do something that most of one’s colleagues did not know how to do. using email or a word processing program would not qualify, and having a homepage will no longer cut it. installing a web content manage- ment system would probably still do it, and anything involving programming or scripting definitely would. in fact, digital humanists have themselves been arguing over whether a humanist has to code to be digital, or if writing and think- ing about technology would be enough. this has been framed by some as a dis- pute between the virtuous modern im- pulse to “hack” and the ineffectual tra- ditional humanities practice of “yack.” as someone who made a deliberate (and economically rather perverse) choice to shift from computer science to the his- tory of technology after earning my first masters’ degree, i find this glorification of technological tools a little disturbing. what attracted me to the humanities in the first place was the promise of an in- tellectual place where one could under- stand technology in a broader social and historical context, stepping back from the culture of computer enthusiasm that valued coding over contemplating and technological means over human ends. there is a sense in which historians of information technology work at the intersection of computing and the hu- manities. certainly we have attempted, with rather less success, to interest humanists in computing as an area of study. yet our aim is, in a sense, the op- posite of the digital humanists: we seek to apply the tools and methods of the humanities to the subject of computing (a goal shared with newer fields such as “platform studies” and “critical code studies”). the humanities, with their broad intellectual perspective and criti- cal sensibility, can help us see beyond the latest fads and think more deeply about the role of technology in the mod- ern world. social historians have done a great job examining the history of ideas like “freedom” and “progress,” which have been claimed and shaped in differ- ent ways by different groups over time. in the history of the past years ideas like “information” and “digital” have been similarly powerful, and deserve similar scrutiny. if i was a “digital histo- rian,” whose own professional identity and career prospects came from evan- gelizing for “the digital,” could i still do that work? there are many ways in which new software tools can contribute to teach- ing, research, and dissemination across disciplines, but my suspicion is that the allure of “digital humanist” as an identity will fade over time. it en- compasses every area of computer use (from text mining to d world build- ing) over every humanities discipline (from literary theory to classics). i can see users of the same tools in different disciplines finding an enduring con- nection, and likewise users of different tools in the same discipline. but the tools most useful to a particular disci- pline, for example the manipulation of large text databases by historians, will surely become part of the famil- iar scholarly tool set just as checking a bank balance online no longer feels like a trip into cyberspace. then we will recognize, to adapt the words of latour, that nobody has ever been digital and there has never been a digital world. or, for that matter, a digital humanist. further reading gold, m.k., ed. debates in the digital humanities, university of minnesota press, . also at http:// dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/. broad coverage of the digital humanities movement, including its history, the “hack vs. yack” debate, and discussion of the tension between technological enthusiasm and critical thinking. gibson, w. distrust that particular flavor, putnam, . a collection of gibson’s essays and nonfiction, including his thoughts on our obsession with the future. latour, b. science in action: how to follow scientists and engineers through society. harvard university press, and b. latour and s. woolgar, laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts. princeton university press, . we have never been modern is not the gentlest introduction to latour, so i suggest starting with one of these clearly written and provocative studies of the social practices of technoscience. marvin, c. when old technologies were new: thinking about electric communication in the late nineteenth century. oxford university press, . the hopes and fears attributed to telephones and electrical light when they were new provide a startlingly close parallel with the more recent discourse around computer technology. morozov, e. to save everything, click here, perseus, . a “digital heretic” argues with zest against the idea of the internet as a coherent thing marking a rupture with the past. winner, l. the whale and the reactor: a search for limits in an age of high technology. university of chicago press, . a classic work in the philosophy of technology, including a chapter “mythinformation” probing the concept of the “computer revolution.” references . berkeley, e.c. giant brains or machines that think. wiley, ny, . . flichy, p. the internet imaginaire. mit press, cambridge, ma, . . haigh, t. software and souls; programs and packages. commun. acm , (sept. ), – . . hecht, g. rupture-talk in the nuclear age: conjugating colonial power in africa. social studies of science , (dec. ). . kling, r. learning about information technologies and social change: the contribution of social informatics. the information society , (july–sept. ), – . . latour, b. we have never been modern. harvard university press, cambridge, ma, . . negroponte, n. beyond digital. wired , (dec. ). . turner, f. from counterculture to cyberculture: stewart brand, the whole earth network, and the rise of digital utopianism. university of chicago press, chicago, . thomas haigh (thaigh@computer.org) is an associate professor of information studies at the university of wisconsin, milwaukee, and chair of the sigcis group for historians of computing. copyright held by author. spazi antichi e futuri possibili: la geografia classica nelle digital humanities introduzione in un famoso contributo apparso sul «digital humanities quarterly» del , tom elliott, uno dei principali esponenti ritenere di riassumere in queste poche pagine l’intero panorama della “geografia classica digitale” sarebbe, oltre che estremamente pretenzioso, an- che molto ingenuo. ho scelto sulla base del mio solo, sindacabilissimo, giudi- zio personale, alcuni fra i progetti recenti a mio parere rappresentativi, allo scopo di dare un’idea generale della situazione in questo campo, indirizzata a una audience di classicisti di stampo più tradizionale. necessariamente, questa selezione comporta parzialità, la cui responsabilità è interamente a mio cari- co. il curatissimo sito ancient world online (awol) fornisce una panorami- ca certamente più ampia e completa di tutte le iniziative riguardanti la geo- grafia antica e moderna nella ricerca digitale: http://ancientworldonline. blogspot.de/ / /roundup-of-resources-on-ancient.html. per il lettore vo- lenteroso che volesse approfondire le tematiche qui trattate tramite letture più generali, rimando a un piccolo glossario in corso di pubblicazione sui termini tecnici dell’informatica umanistica: https://github.com/chiarapalladino /tuftsdcc/wiki/dh-words-vademecum. una discussione sulle origini, la storia e le tendenze nelle cosiddette di- gital humanities va oltre lo spazio e gli scopi di questa discussione. un in- quadramento di base è fornito dal datato, ma pur sempre solido, s. schreib- man, r. siemens, j. unsworth, companion to digital humanities, blackwell, oxford . si veda anche m. dacos-p. mounier, humanités numériques. État «futuroclassico» n. , pp. - issn: - © - centro interuniversitario di ricerca di studi sulla tradizione http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.de/ / /roundup-of-resources-on-ancient.html http://ancientworldonline.blogspot.de/ / /roundup-of-resources-on-ancient.html https://github.com/chiarapalladino/tuftsdcc/wiki/dh-words-vademecum https://github.com/chiarapalladino/tuftsdcc/wiki/dh-words-vademecum chiara palladino della “geografia classica digitale”, rifletteva su come sarebbe cambiato il panorama dei suoi studi nel . egli immaginava di avere a disposizione un immenso sistema di mappatura che in poche mosse potesse mostrargli le coordinate geografiche di tutti i suoi riferimenti bibliografici; di poter modellare automatica- mente su una mappa un itinerario di epoca romana, e di poterne esplorare specifiche sezioni, risalendo ai manoscritti che ne tramandavano il testo e alle rispettive edizioni; di visualizzare differenti opzioni di mappatura del viaggio descritto a seconda delle connessioni tracciate fra le varie aree localizzate; di effet- tuare, in pochi passaggi, analisi comparative, risalendo a passaggi simili in altre fonti, confrontando la sequenza e il reticolo dei luoghi e individuando dove si sovrapponevano, e in cosa consistevano le differenze, ad esempio, nella ortografia dei topo- nimi nei vari testimoni manoscritti; di estendere questa analisi alla espressione delle distanze, per analizzarne la coerenza inter- na, i riscontri con altre fonti, e così via. «ci aspettiamo che, nel , – scriveva – la rivoluzione geo-computazionale attualmente in atto, intersecatasi con le tendenze dell’informatica e della so- cietà, contribuisca a cambiare in modo significativo i modi di pensare e di diffondere la ricerca» . elliott però aggiungeva: «per gli umanisti, i compiti della ricerca tradizionale resteranno largamente inalterati: la scoperta, l’organizzazione, l’analisi delle fonti primarie e secondarie con il des lieux et positionnement de la recherche française dans le contexte internatio- nal, openeditions: institut français, marseilles , e g. bodard, s. mahony, digital research in the study of classical antiquity, routledge, london . nel campo della filologia classica, segnalo il contributo recente di t. koent- ges, classical text and the digital revolution, «the amphora issue» xliii, , , pp. - , con utile bibliografia. t. elliott-s. gillies, digital geography and classics, «digital humanities quarterly» iii, , , http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / . html. «we envision a in which the geo-computing revolution, now un- derway, has intersected with other computational and societal trends to effect major changes in the way humanist scholars work, publish and teach» (ibid.). http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html spazi antichi e futuri possibili fine ultimo di comunicare e disseminare i risultati e le informazioni, per l’utilità e l’educazione degli altri». dunque, senza negare il necessario ampliamento degli orizzonti, determi- nato dall’indubbia sfida posta dalle nuove tecnologie, si continua a ribadire che il metodo di ricerca scientifica consiste, e conti- nuerà a consistere, in una serie di passaggi di ipotesi e verifica, solidamente fondati sulle evidenze fattuali, sempre praticati con la massima onestà intellettuale. «quello che ci aspettiamo che cambi, – continuava elliott – è l’entrata a regime di un metodo di lavoro molto più ampiamente collaborativo, dove una percen- tuale molto più alta del tempo di lavoro è spesa nell’analisi e nella comunicazione professionale, il tutto supportato da una rete di connessione pervasiva, e sempre attiva. molto del lavoro solitario e tedioso di text mining , ricerca bibliografica e organiz- zazione delle informazioni, saranno gestiti tramite strumenti computazionali, ma noi – corsivo mio – diverremo più responsa- in linguaggio informatico, analisi meccanica (text mining o data mining), ossia un processo che consiste nel ricavare ed estrarre da un testo, o corpus di testi non strutturato, tipologie di informazioni espresse in modo più o meno sistematico, che le macchine possono essere programmate per riconoscere au- tomaticamente: ad esempio, l’identificazione di nomi propri classificati se- condo persone e luoghi, specifici costrutti sintattici, riferimenti bibliografici, glosse, termini in altre lingue, elementi di un determinato ambito lessicale (ad es. del gergo militare o della sfera del sentimento). nella ricerca storica, il na- tural language processing (nlp) è attualmente uno dei metodi di text mining più in voga: una semplice introduzione in m. piotrowski, natural language processing for historical texts, morgan & claypool, san rafael . si veda anche a. kao-s.r. poteet, natural language processing and text mining, springer, london . doverosa, anche se scontata, è la precisazione che il text mining non esonera minimamente lo studioso del testo dall’analisi di quello che legge e dalla riflessione su di esso: anzi, il suo scopo è proprio quello di aumentare il tempo di lavoro preposto a tali operazioni creative, nel- le quali la macchina non è in grado di sostituirsi all’uomo, alleviando la fatica di quelle più meccaniche, come raccogliere e ricopiare a mano gli elementi di interesse. ciò non esenta, né tantomeno elimina, la necessità della lettura ravvicinata, dell’interpretazione, e soprattutto del riscontro dei dati estratti dalla macchina con il contesto originale (in altre parole, i passaggi metodolo- gici essenziali di ogni ricerca seria). chiara palladino bili della qualità e dell’efficacia del nostro lavoro per via di come diffondiamo i risultati delle nostre ricerche. […] l’informazione che potrà essere restituita dalle macchine sarà ricavata da un “pastiche globale” di archivi digitali e meccanismi di pubblica- zione, che copriranno virtualmente ogni nuova pubblicazione accademica, così come riproduzioni digitali di molta della produ- zione a stampa, grafica e audio oggi in circolazione» . questa interpretazione del futuro, in parte volutamente utopistica, nasceva dalle innovazioni di un decennio, il primo degli anni duemila, in cui la geolocalizzazione e l’introduzione di avanzatissime tecniche di mappatura hanno effettivamente rivo- luzionato il nostro modo di interpretare e orientarci nello spazio intorno a noi. elliott, quindi, riecheggiava l’impatto nelle digital humanities del cosiddetto spatial turn , un movimento di pensie- ro iniziato fra la fine del e gli anni sessanta, ma veramente unificato a livello intellettuale solamente negli anni settanta, quando assunse le caratteristiche di una tendenza intellettuale «for humanists, general research tasks will remain largely unchanged: the discovery, organization and analysis of primary and secondary materials with the goal of communicating and disseminating results and information for the use and education of others. but we expect to see a more broadly col- laborative regime in which a far greater percentage of work time is spent in analysis and professional communication, all underpinned by a pervasive, al- ways-on network. much of the tedious and solitary work of text mining, bib- liographic research and information management will be handled by compu- tational agents, but we will become more responsible for the quality and ef- fectiveness of that work, by virtue of how we publish our research results. [...] the information offered us in return will be drawn from a global pastiche of digital repositories and publication mechanisms, surfacing virtually all new academic publication, as well as digital proxies for much of the printed, graphic and audio works now for sale, in circulation or on exhibit in one or more first-world, brick-and-mortar bookstores, libraries or museums» (el- liott-gillies, digital geography and classics cit.). la più completa rassegna sull’impatto dello “spatial turn” nelle discipline storico-artistiche è fornita da j. guidi, spatial humanities. what is the spatial turn?, scholar’s lab-university of virginia library, http://spatial.scholarslab. org/spatial-turn/. si veda anche b. warf-s. arias (ed. by), the spatial turn: interdisciplinary perspectives, routledge, london . http://spatial.scholarslab.org/spatial-turn/ http://spatial.scholarslab.org/spatial-turn/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili che in quegli anni riscopriva l’importanza dello spazio come entità utile a comprendere vari aspetti del mondo, le dinamiche di potere, quelle economiche, il simbolismo religioso, la territo- rialità. alla base vi è l’idea che lo spazio non sia riconducibile alla semplice geografia naturale, ma che sia plasmato, prodotto dalla società , come l’espressione di essa nei suoi vari aspetti. il corol- lario di quest’affermazione è che, ovviamente, la descrizione dello spazio non sia rispondente a principi oggettivi , ma sia piuttosto frammentata, complessa, composta di molteplici lin- guaggi e fattori. questa “rivoluzione” ebbe un grande impatto sulla critica letteraria, e stimolò l’avvio di riflessioni teoriche importantissime basate sulle interpretazioni dello spazio e del tempo negli universi narrativi . ma un impatto ancora più gran- de fu registrato nelle tecnologie della navigazione: l’importanza determinante assunta dallo spazio nella società moderna contri- buì alla creazione, negli anni sessanta, del geographic informa- tion system (gis), e alla sua inevitabile estensione, negli anni novanta, alla ricerca storica e archeologica. questa innovazione fu, si potrebbe dire, il primo caso di com- mistione sistematica fra tecnologia e ricerca storica nell’era mo- derna. il gis non solo fornì risorse d’importanza capitale per il miglioramento delle tecniche di analisi e scoperta, ma contribuì ad introdurre inedite questioni di metodo: l’incontro-scontro fra discipline tecnologiche, caratterizzate dalla precisione e dalla h. lefebvre, la production de l’espace, «l’homme et la société» - , , pp. - . da cui la prolifica tendenza alla messa in discussione della cartografia come mezzo obiettivo di descrizione dello spazio: m. monmonier, how to lie with maps, university press, chicago ; r. kitchin-m. dodge, rethinking maps, «progress in human geography» xxxi, , giugno , pp. - . tra cui vale almeno la pena di citare m.m. bachtin, estetica e romanzo, trad. it. einaudi, torino ; f. moretti, atlante del romanzo europeo: - , einaudi, torino ; d.j. bodenhamer, j. corrigan, t.m. harris (ed. by), deep maps and spatial narratives, indiana university press, bloomington ; b. westphal, geocriticism: real and fictional spaces, palgrave macmillan, new york . chiara palladino certezza geometrica dei dati, e discipline storiche, basate per definizione su informazioni parziali e non strutturate, favorì un approccio critico, fortemente orientato all’individuazione e al superamento dei limiti attraverso un continuo miglioramento dei metodi di entrambe . sui possibili esiti e sulle ancora inesplorate potenzialità di questo processo tornerò in conclusione. al tempo del contributo di elliott, questa combinazione fra informatica, geografia e discipline storiche aveva già stabilito le tecnologie e i passaggi metodologici fondamentali per la mappa- tura su larga scala dei riferimenti geografici nelle fonti, tramite la loro estrazione e il loro inserimento in una rete di coordinate spaziali. nei primi anni , google sperimentò la mappatura su larga scala di centinaia di migliaia di testi le cui scansioni erano liberamente consultabili nell’archivio google books: il risultato fu la presenza di sezioni, all’interno delle pagine di consulta- zione, in cui era possibile visualizzare la mappa ricavata non solo dai riferimenti geografici presenti nel testo, ma anche i cosiddetti metadati (edizione, luogo di stampa, origine dell’autore etc.). adoperando gli stessi principi, anche se su scala inferiore, perseus, il più grande archivio di testi antichi open source , ha effettuato il parsing sul alcune traduzioni di grandi testi geografi- ci dell’antichità classica, mappando e indicizzando automatica- mente tutti i riferimenti a luoghi noti in essi contenuti. come risultato di questo processo, testi come la descrizione della grecia di pausania presentano un indice, ordinabile alfabeticamente o per frequenza, una mappa dei luoghi menzionati nel testo o in singole sezioni, il dataset di tutti i riferimenti completi di nome, coordinate geografiche e vari altri dati utili; l’utente ha inoltre la f.j. harvey, a primer of gis: fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts, guilford press, new york ; d.j. bodenhamer, j. corrigan, t.m. harris, the spatial humanities: gis and the future of humanities scholarship, indiana university press, bloomington-indianapolis . g.r. crane, perseus digital library, -. consultato il / / : http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili possibilità di attingere, cliccando sul testo o sugli indici analitici, alle voci di autorità bibliografiche presenti online, come dizio- nari, enciclopedie e atlanti. ovviamente, questo processo non è affatto esente da errori e approssimazioni . le moderne tecnologie di named entity recog- nition (cfr. infra) consentono un margine di accuratezza elevato solo lavorando sulle lingue moderne, e dunque sulle traduzioni. effettuare un simile lavoro sulle lingue storiche (il greco e il latino, ma anche l’arabo classico o il sanscrito), implica ben altro sforzo; inoltre, sottoporre a mappatura riferimenti a luoghi anti- chi è concettualmente più problematico, a causa della parzialità delle informazioni in nostro possesso. tornerò fra poco su questo argomento. la tecnologia di queste operazioni di mappatura, però, è basata su principi metodologici sostanzialmente generali, il cui perfezionamento dipende dalla frequenza e dalla scala delle loro applicazioni . tali principi si riassumono in tre passaggi fondamentali: identificazione, disambiguazione e catalogazione. lo faceva già notare elliott a proposito della scarsa qualità dell’esito nel caso dei luoghi antichi, nell’esperimento di google books (elliott-gillies, di- gital geography and classics cit.). a proposito dei limiti e delle ancora non sfruttate opportunità di organizzazione semantica e disambiguazione dei rife- rimenti geografici nei testi antichi si veda anche a. babeu et al., named entity identification and cyberinfrastructure, «research and advanced technology for digital libraries». lecture notes in computer science, presentato alla in- ternational conference on theory and practice of digital libraries, springer, berlin-heidelberg , pp. - . il natural language processing applicato all’inglese moderno è giunto sostanzialmente allo stato dell’arte, essendo questa una lingua praticata oggi da milioni di parlanti, la lingua stessa dell’informatica e (dato non trascurabi- le) dell’economia, su cui la scala dei dati utilizzabili è composta da miliardi di testi; il caso del cinese moderno, per quanto meno noto in occidente, è simile. lingue più circoscritte nella loro applicabilità e meno adoperate, sono anche molto meno frequentemente sottoposte a processi analoghi. È il caso anche di alcune lingue moderne, come il farsi; alcune lingue antiche, tuttavia, si trova- no nella posizione di contribuire a un sostanziale miglioramento delle tecno- logie, essendo attestate su una scala potenzialmente amplissima e in corpora “chiusi”, dunque linguisticamente consolidati: si pensi alla sola patrologia la- chiara palladino i primi due passaggi fanno parte di un settore dei linguaggi di programmazione, e sono correlati l’uno all’altro: nell’insieme, essi prendono il nome di named entity recognition and classification . l’identificazione, o recognition, consiste nel met- tere a punto un breve codice (o, più precisamente, script) che sot- topone il documento ad analisi sistematica (o parsing), al fine di ricercare le stringhe di testo contenenti specifiche categorie, ad es. luoghi, persone, organizzazioni, espressioni cronologiche, etc. tali codici si basano spesso sull’esistenza di librerie preesistenti, atte a fornire alla macchina una lista indicativa dei nomi da riconoscere e disambiguare. script più complessi possono arriva- re a combinare i passaggi più elementari, come l’estrazione di tutte le stringhe di testo inizianti per maiuscola, con funzioni aggiuntive, ad esempio la differenziazione delle maiuscole da punteggiatura da quelle dei nomi propri . il passaggio successivo all’identificazione è, ovviamente, la disambiguazione. non basta identificare un toponimo, ad esem- pio alessandria, così come non basta identificare un alessandro come un nome di persona. occorre poi associare quel nome a tina per il latino, o al caso emblematico dell’arabo classico, lingua con una spiccata vocazione alla scrittura e con testimonianze manoscritte, ancora oggi non del tutto censite, dell’ordine di milioni di esemplari. tuttavia, l’interesse per l’analisi computazionale su queste lingue si è intensificato solo in tempi molto recenti: è, dunque, impossibile (si direbbe pretestuoso) pretendere che si raggiunga, in un decimo del tempo e con un centesimo delle risorse, lo stes- so livello di accuratezza. come ogni altra disciplina, la tecnologia richiede tempi di maturazione per perfezionarsi. introduzione all’argomento in d. nadeau-s. sekine, a survey of named entity recognition and classification, «linguisticae investigationes» xxx, , , pp. - . un metodo particolarmente innovativo consiste nell’utilizzare l’inglese come “lingua ponte”, attraverso l’allineamento del testo originale con la sua traduzione. m. berti, the digital fragmenta historicorum graecorum and the ancient greek-latin dynamic lexicon, in f. mambrini, m. passarotti, c. sporleder (ed. by), proceedings of the workshop on corpus-based research in the humanities (crh), december warsaw, poland, institute of com- puter science-polnish academy of sciences, warszawa , pp. - . spazi antichi e futuri possibili una identità, in maniera tale che non venga confuso con altri. tale processo deve avvenire abbinando il nome in questione a categorie identificative univoche, ad esempio (ma, si badi bene, non necessariamente) delle coordinate geografiche; per i nomi di persona ci si può servire delle tecniche tipiche della prosopogra- fia, come la data di nascita o di morte, le relazioni di parentela, l’origine geografica, e così via. in questo modo, sapremo che alessandro è alessandro detto magno, re di macedonia, figlio di filippo, nato a pella nel a.c., e che alessandria è alessandria d’egitto, collocata presso il delta del nilo, vicina all’insediamento di pharos, alla latitudine . e longitudine . , anche denominata al-iskandarīya durante l’era ottomana. la disambiguazione in ambito computazionale è anche il pri- mo passo della catalogazione, cui corrisponde l’assegnazione di un identificatore univoco, stabile, semanticamente senza partico- lare significato ma riconoscibile come tale dalle macchine. in ger- go, questo identificatore è detto uri (uniform resource identi- fier), e ha l’aspetto di un indirizzo web a cui è associato un identificatore numerico unico. naturalmente il primo problema della disambiguazione è che occorrono dei riferimenti canonici adeguati, dizionari o atlanti, che forniscano autorità per assegnare a quel nome una identifica- zione esatta . quando questo lavoro viene effettuato sul web e non sulla carta, è essenziale che tali riferimenti siano puntual- mente riscontrabili online: questo comporta la necessità di rende- re gli atlanti a stampa utilizzabili nel contesto digitale. pertanto, nel è stato reso per la prima volta accessibile online uno dei più moderni e aggiornati atlanti del mondo greco e romano, il non mi soffermerò sul tema vasto e complesso degli atlanti e dei data- base di orientamento archeologico, che sono stati progetti pionieri del settore e rappresentano tuttora uno standard elevatissimo a cui aspirare. È mio inte- resse, in questa sede, concentrarmi sugli aspetti ancora problematici dell’otte- nere la medesima precisione nel campo delle fonti primarie, in particolar mo- do testuali, sul mondo antico. chiara palladino cosiddetto barrington atlas : pubblicato anche a stampa nel set- tembre del da richard talbert e thomas elliott , esso includeva la mappatura dei luoghi tramite moderni sistemi di geolocalizzatione . i dati così raccolti costituiscono l’ossatura di un database online, che oggi, dopo varie fasi di espansione, rap- presenta la risorsa di riferimento più vasta e importante di tutti gli studi, digitali e non, sulla geografia del mondo antico. si tratta del database collaborativo pleiades, che ad oggi raccoglie circa . luoghi antichi e relative collocazioni . sul piano concettuale, il merito principale del progetto è stato quello di stabilire la necessità di ridefinire le nozioni-chiave di “luogo” e “spazio” nello studio del mondo antico e nell’era del gis, aprendo la strada a riflessioni sull’ambiguità del concetto di coordinata geografica, per uno spazio dinamico e ambiguo come per quanto non l’intero contenuto del barrington atlas sia liberamente accessibile tramite pleiades, è pur sempre apprezzabile che i dati essenziali di una costosa pubblicazione a stampa siano stati messi online e resi, non solo leggibili, ma fruibili senza il pagamento di ulteriori dazi. si spera che, in futu- ro, tali dati possano essere arricchiti dai riferimenti incrociati a enciclopedie meno recenti, ma di enorme importanza per gli studi classici, come la realen- cyclopädie der altertumswissenschaft, la cui progressiva digitalizzazione in modalità open access è oggi in atto. il fatto che lo sia su una piattaforma for- nita da wikipedia, risorsa sulla quale i dotti nostrani storcono spesso il naso, non ne sminuisce in alcun modo l’importanza, semmai l’amplifica (https:// de.wikisource.org/wiki/paulys_realencyclop%c %a die_der_classischen_ altertumswissenschaft). r.j.a. talbert-r.s. bagnall, barrington atlas of the greek and roman world, university press, princeton . il corpus dei dati del barrington atlas è oggi mantenuto e aggiornato dall’ancient world mapping center dell’università chapel hill del north ca- rolina (http://awmc.unc.edu/), che li adopera per ulteriori applicazioni, come ad esempio il webservice antiquity á la carte (r. horne, awmc: antiquity À-la- carte, -. consultato il / / : http://awmc.unc.edu/awmc/applications/ alacarte/), che consente di combinare diverse tipologie di informazioni geo- grafiche, come il reticolo di strade del periodo imperiale, gli acquedotti, i limi- ti provinciali, e naturalmente le coordinate delle principali aree urbane. r. bagnall et al., pleiades: a community-built gazetteer and graph of ancient places, -. consultato il / / : http://pleiades.stoa.org. https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/paulys_realencyclop%c %a die_der_classischen_altertumswissenschaft https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/paulys_realencyclop%c %a die_der_classischen_altertumswissenschaft https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/paulys_realencyclop%c %a die_der_classischen_altertumswissenschaft http://awmc.unc.edu/ http://awmc.unc.edu/awmc/applications/alacarte/ http://awmc.unc.edu/awmc/applications/alacarte/ http://pleiades.stoa.org/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili quello antico, e a una nuova definizione del concetto di luogo sulla base di specifiche categorie culturali, più che cartografiche. nello studio del mondo antico, infatti, non è raro che un luogo attestato non possa essere ricondotto a coordinate spaziali, e di certo non con la precisione richiesta dai sistemi moderni: questo, tuttavia, non lo rende meno importante. l’idea alla base di pleiades è, quindi, quella di considerare un luogo non come un toponimo cui corrispondono coordinate oggettive, ma come una “entità culturale” a cui sono connesse una serie di caratteristiche, di cui le coordinate sono solo una, e non necessariamente la principale. altre caratteristiche riconosciute sono la categoria del luogo in questione, la sua definizione politica, il suo periodo o periodi di attestazione, i suoi nomi attestati nel corso del tempo, le sue connessioni con altre entità spaziali o sociali (fiumi, mari, porti, vie, tribù, individui, popoli, edifici pubblici, siti archeolo- gici…). a queste caratteristiche strutturali si affiancano quelle più prettamente bibliografiche, come ad esempio i riferimenti a dizio- nari e atlanti, ovvero ad altre risorse, come i database epigrafici o i cataloghi museali e delle soprintendenze, ma anche le raccolte di immagini pubbliche, come flickr.com. il risultato è la possibi- lità, per l’utente, di accedere analiticamente a una enorme varietà di riferimenti aggiuntivi e in continua crescita, spesso con com- pleta libertà di utilizzo e pubblicazione dei dati di partenza . pleiades è un database “collaborativo”: a parte i redattori principali e i responsabili del progetto, i suoi aggiornamenti e arricchimenti sono intera- mente dovuti al libero contributo di studiosi volontari e ricercatori, che con- tribuiscono a perfezionarne i riferimenti, a disambiguare e a correggere, non- ché ad aggiungere informazioni. un recente esempio è l’aggiunta delle atte- stazioni in arabo di oltre toponimi presenti nel database, nell’ambito del progetto calcs, cfr. v. vitale, pelagios-cross-cultural after-life of classical sites (calcs), . consultato il / / : https://research.sas.ac.uk/search/ research-project/ /pelagios-cross-cultural-after-life-of-classical-sites-(calcs)/). tale opportunità di partecipazione, semplice e diretta, e specificamente pensata per gli studiosi, elimina a monte la giustificazione autoassolutoria della pre- senza, inevitabile, di errori, e attribuisce invece a chi li individua la responsa- bilità (e il merito) di correggerli, nella speranza che un valente ricercatore sia meglio informato, ma altrettanto motivato, di un utente di wikipedia. https://research.sas.ac.uk/search/research-project/ /pelagios-cross-cultural-after-life-of-classical-sites-(calcs)/ https://research.sas.ac.uk/search/research-project/ /pelagios-cross-cultural-after-life-of-classical-sites-(calcs)/ chiara palladino fig. . una voce in pleiades. mentre pleiades, nato come database generale del mondo antico, si avvia a una espansione oltre i confini della cosiddetta classicità, il digital atlas of the roman empire, ideato sempre nel da johan Åhlfeldt dell’università di lund , ha l’intento di raccogliere e, possibilmente, mappare, ogni aspetto della geogra- fia dell’impero, inclusi i miliari romani, i database delle chiese copte e cristiane, gli anfiteatri, gli acquedotti e via dicendo, e ne fornisce una mappatura semanticamente categorizzata. una men- zione merita anche il progetto trismegistos dell’università di leuven , già autorità di riferimento nel campo della papirologia j. Åhlfeldt, digital atlas of the roman empire (dare), - . con- sultato il / / : http://dare.ht.lu.se/. m. depauw et al., trismegistos. consultato il / / : https://www. trismegistos.org/. si veda anche m. depauw-t. gheldof, trismegistos: an in- terdisciplinary platform for ancient world texts and related information, in Ł. http://dare.ht.lu.se/ https://www.trismegistos.org/ https://www.trismegistos.org/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili e dell’epigrafia, che sta avviando una catalogazione analitica delle informazioni spaziali fornite dalle fonti primarie già raccolte nel database . i testi più interessanti dal punto di vista dell’informazione geografica sono stati sottoposti a named entity recognition, e le informazioni estratte verificate, catalogate e disambiguate manualmente, e ove possibile correlate ai riferi- menti già esistenti. come risultato di questa operazione, è ora possibile ricavare dati molto completi circa i riferimenti geogra- fici relativi al nord africa in numerose delle fonti testuali conservate nel database, come ad esempio i bicchieri di vicarello o l’itinerario antonino. esplorare lo spazio antico la catalogazione e mappatura del mondo antico è, ovvia- mente, il passaggio preliminare di ogni analisi più raffinata, e la sua pubblicazione nel contesto digitale ne consente, alla luce dei nuovi studi, un perfezionamento continuo e critico. ma lo “spatial turn” ha stimolato anche approcci di ricerca volti alla esplorazione della geografia intesa come spazio dinamico e vissu- to, sfidando i concetti di rappresentazione cartografica “statica” insiti nei processi di geolocalizzazione: è il concetto stesso di mappatura che implica la necessità di varcare i confini delle modalità di rappresentazione di un singolo medium, per giungere a un passaggio “dal testo alla mappa” che consenta la valorizza- zione di tutte le informazioni, ossia non solo la rappresentazione piatta dei luoghi menzionati in una fonte, ma delle relazioni se- mantiche e dinamiche insite nella percezione dello spazio e nel- bolikowski et al. (ed. by), theory and practice of digital libraries-tpdl selected workshops, springer, cham , pp. - . l’iniziativa prende il nome di trismegistos places, consultabile a http://www.trismegistos.org/geo/. http://www.trismegistos.org/geo/ chiara palladino l’orientamento nel paesaggio ivi descritti , le loro implicazioni sociali e culturali, i loro mutamenti . in anni recenti la discus- sione si è arricchita per via della maggiore enfasi posta sulla discrepanza concettuale fra la rappresentazione dello spazio nelle società premoderne, per definizione “non cartografiche” , e i moderni metodi di mappatura, cui corrisponde una tecnica di navigazione – e quindi una percezione spaziale – molto diversa. per questo motivo la “rappresentazione su mappa” non potrà che essere parziale, se intesa semplicemente nei limiti dei moderni standard del gis. uno dei primi esperimenti in questo senso è stato la digita- lizzazione della tabula peutingeriana realizzata, ancora una volta, da talbert ed elliott come corollario al barrington atlas . la scansione dell’immagine, opportunamente segmentata, è stata associata a un insieme di legende, simboli e indicazioni di classi- ficazione sovrapponibili all’immagine stessa nell’interfaccia di lettura. alla mappa, quindi, sono associate indicazioni semanti- che, che forniscono una classificazione analitica dei suoi diversi componenti geografici, storici e concettuali. inoltre, ogni luogo indicato, con le caratteristiche che gli sono associate nella carta, è associato a un riferimento “moderno” nel barrington atlas; il risultato è la creazione di un database che non tiene conto soltan- a proposito delle implicazioni concettuali del passaggio dal mezzo scrit- to al mezzo visuale, si veda almeno Ø. eide, media boundaries and conceptual modelling, palgrave macmillan uk, london . e. barker et al. (ed. by), new worlds from old texts: revisiting ancient space and place, university press, oxford . seppure superato in alcune parti, ancora oggi il testo di pietro janni è il riferimento principale per la questione della navigazione spaziale nelle società premoderne. p. janni, la mappa e il periplo : cartografia antica e spazio odolo- gico, g. bretschneider, roma . t. elliott, constructing a digital edition for the peutinger map, in r.j.a. talbert, r.w. unger (ed. by), cartography in antiquity and the middle ages. fresh perspectives, new methods, brill, leiden-boston , pp. - ; r.j.a. talbert, rome’s world: the peutinger map reconsidered, cambridge university press, cambridge-new york . spazi antichi e futuri possibili to dei riferimenti geografici contemporanei, ma ricava le infor- mazioni essenziali dalla semantica della mappa stessa. l’esigenza di comprendere il movimento nel mondo antico nei suoi aspetti dinamici è stata invece alla base del progetto orbis, curato dall’università di stanford . orbis, la cui mappa di connettività si basa in gran parte su dati archeologici, offre una simulazione delle modalità di viaggio nell’impero romano nel ii secolo della nostra era: tramite una interfaccia online, è possibile impostare una serie di condizioni, scelte fra i fattori che più noto- riamente determinano le modalità di viaggio nell’antichità (perio- do dell’anno, modalità del percorso, mezzo di trasporto etc.), e attraverso una combinazione di modelli di simulazione fornisce i costi, i tempi e le variabili del percorso scelto. non si tratta di una ricostruzione basata su fonti primarie, bensì di un modello mate- matico e probabilistico, che necessita di un contesto di ricerca e domande investigative molto precise per essere efficace . un analogo tentativo di analisi dello spazio “dinamico” e vissuto, questa volta attraverso l’analisi delle fonti primarie, è stato compiuto nel con il progetto hestia . esso consiste in una interfaccia integrata di lettura realizzata sulle storie di ero- doto, sia in greco che in inglese. la vista iniziale offre una pano- ramica, ingrandibile ed esplorabile, di tutti i luoghi menzionati dal testo e le relative statistiche di frequenza e densità. la visione analitica offre una serie di finestre affiancate, che consistono nel testo stesso, suddiviso per libro, capitolo e paragrafo secondo il sistema editoriale consueto, la mappa dei luoghi menzionati nel passaggio selezionato, una linea temporale che ne descrive la progressione narrativa, e un codice di colori che indica i luoghi w. scheidel et al., orbis: the stanford geospatial network model of the roman world, -. consultato il / / : http://orbis.stanford.edu/. w. scheidel, orbis: the stanford geospatial network model of the roman world, ssrn scholarly paper, social science research network, rochester- ny . e. barker et al., hestia: herodotus encoded space-text-imaging archive, . consultato il / / : http://hestia.open.ac.uk/. http://orbis.stanford.edu/ http://hestia.open.ac.uk/ chiara palladino menzionati sulla base della frequenza. cliccando su un luogo è possibile visualizzare tutti i passaggi delle storie in cui esso compare, nonché visualizzare in una nuova finestra la mappa delle entità spaziali a cui quel particolare luogo è connesso nel corso della narrazione, e il numero di volte in cui si connette ad essi. nel corso della ricerca analitica sul testo, inoltre, ci si è chiesti in che modo si potesse esplorare la concezione dello spazio di erodoto attraverso mezzi di rappresentazione visuale: ci si è presto resi conto che rappresentare l’opera di erodoto in termini cartografici non era sufficiente per comprenderne le implicazioni storiche e narrative. vi era, in altri termini, un problema semantico che poneva la necessità di prescindere dalla rappresentazione cartesiana dello spazio. si è scelto, dunque, di servirsi del principio della connettività, o network theory, parten- do dalla premessa metodologica secondo cui la rappresentazione dello spazio in forma linguistica ha la sua struttura portante nella creazione di relazioni semantiche fra entità . nel caso di hestia, la network theory è stata applicata allo scopo di investigare la ricchezza del testo al di là della rappresentazione bidimensionale della mappa, e in parte proprio per svincolarsi dalle costrizioni imposte da essa. attraverso tecniche di text mining, sono stati estratti dal testo tutti i riferimenti geografici, e quelli caratteriz- zati da co-occorrenza nella medesima porzione di testo (misurata secondo un principio di unità-paragrafo) sono stati messi in rela- zione fra loro sulla base di quattro criteri di tipo linguistico, ricavati essenzialmente dalla tipologia di forma verbale che la network theory, fin dall’inizio caratterizzata da forti implicazioni spa- ziali, è stata introdotta nell’ambito della critica letteraria dal celebre saggio di franco moretti, graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for literary history (ver- so, london-new york ). moretti ha qui dimostrato l’importanza di legge- re un testo attraverso metodi di distant reading, per ricavarne informazioni spesso non visibili tramite la lettura progressiva: l’esito più importante del distant reading è, per l’appunto, l’estrazione di informazioni relative ai rap- porti macroscopici dei personaggi in un universo narrativo, che possono esse- re rappresentati attraverso varie forme di mappatura, non necessariamente cartografica. spazi antichi e futuri possibili compariva nella proposizione in cui si trovavano (posiziona- mento, movimento, dinamicità, trasformazione) . si è così generato non solo il reticolo di connessioni, che è possibile esaminare nell’interfaccia di lettura, ma anche un database di relazioni che può essere visualizzato indipendentemente dalla mappa, dove invece che al posizionamento geografico può essere data priorità ai vari indici di connettività, o anche alla frequenza. fig. . un’immagine dell’interfaccia di lettura di hestia. c’è, però, un altro problema che occorre sottolineare. tutto quello che è stato fatto con hestia poteva essere prodotto con relativa esattezza soltanto sulla traduzione inglese. ai tempi in cui il progetto si è sviluppato, non era pensabile compiere un’a- nalisi così raffinata su un testo in greco antico, per lo meno non s. bouzarovski-e. barker, between east and west: movements and trans- formations in herodotean topology, in barker et al. (ed. by), new worlds from old texts cit., pp. - . chiara palladino con i finanziamenti di un progetto di durata poco più che annua- le . questo ci porta a un altro tema fondamentale, ossia quello della creazione dei dati partendo dalle fonti primarie: in altre pa- role, la questione delle edizioni digitali. leggere lo spazio antico il supporto digitale offre, a livelli impensabili in precedenza, la possibilità di raccogliere, organizzare e rendere fruibili le più di- sparate categorie di informazione. le informazioni spaziali fanno parte della tipologia di dato che può essere raccolto e rappresen- tato su questo supporto, lavorando direttamente sulla lingua di partenza: in altre parole, il supporto digitale può contribuire a creare nuove tipologie di edizioni dei testi antichi, in cui sia ade- guatamente valorizzato anche il dato spaziale. nel campo dell’editoria digitale, i linguaggi di marcatura sono da tempo adoperati per identificare le informazioni di particolare interesse. l’esito di questa operazione è soprattutto la possibilità di indicizzare automaticamente quelle informazioni, con livelli di precisione e opportunità di analisi molto diversificati . questa modalità è stata scelta nel caso della marcatura dei sistemi di citazione nella edizione digitale dei deipnosofisti di ateneo, o di- si confrontino i risultati ottenuti da trismegistos places con finanzia- menti, tempi e personale molto più generosi. si sa che, in ambiente accademi- co, non è “elegante” parlare di risorse economiche: tuttavia proprio queste ri- sorse hanno consentito a trismegistos di raggiungere risultati su una scala di complessità paragonabile a hestia, ma lavorando sui testi rigorosamente in lingua originale. il linguaggio di marcatura per eccellenza, nel caso dei testi, è xml, o extensible markup language (https://www.w .org/xml/). nei suoi sotto- schemi, esplicitamente creati per le edizioni di testi complessi, tei ed epidoc (http://www.tei-c.org/, http://epidoc.sourceforge.net/), viene utilizzato come linguaggio standard per l’editoria e l’archiviazione di testi digitali, creati ex novo o frutto della trasposizione su supporto digitale di fonti già esistenti. https://www.w .org/xml/ http://www.tei-c.org/ http://epidoc.sourceforge.net/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili gital athenaeus . al testo, già disponibile nell’edizione di georg kaibel, è stata affiancata la versione digitale dell’index scripto- rum, nonché i dialogi personae curati da august meineke e dallo stesso kaibel, e il recentissimo index of authors, texts and persons della nuova edizione di douglas olson: ogni luogo citato viene fornito con apposita concordanza fra il sistema di citazione di kaibel e quello delle pagine di casaubon, ancora oggi familiare a molti lettori. il risultato è un unico grande indice, che raccoglie non solo le concordanze, ma classifica semanticamente ogni au- tore, consente di risalire al passaggio riferito, e connette analiti- camente tutte le informazioni ad esso pertinenti. ma soprattutto, l’indice sfrutta in pieno le potenzialità del nuovo supporto digita- le, in quanto si estende al riconoscimento e all’analisi dei passag- gi del testo di ateneo riconosciuti come citazioni di altri autori: tali passaggi sono stati appositamente marcati all’interno del testo stesso dei deipnosofisti. il risultato è non solo un indice pie- namente fruibile per le opportunità di ricerca più disparate, ma anche la possibilità di varie operazioni di distant reading, come ad esempio l’estrazione di tutte le citazioni di determinati nomi, ovvero categorie di autori, ovvero opere letterarie, suddivisi in base ai luoghi in cui compaiono attraverso tutta l’opera . m. berti, digital athenaeus. a digital edition of the deipnosophists of athe- naeus of naucratis. consultato il / / : http://www.digitalathenaeus.org. m. berti et al., documenting homeric text-reuse in the deipnosophistae of athenaeus of naucratis, «bulletin of the institute of classical studies» lxix, , , pp. - . http://www.digitalathenaeus.org/ chiara palladino fig. . un esempio delle applicazioni degli indici digitali del digital athe- naeus: visualizzare tutte le citazioni a omero come autore e la loro frequenza classificata per libro. un piccolo progetto in confronto, ma focalizzato specifica- mente sulla geografia letteraria, è stato recentemente promosso dall’università di zagreb, nell’ambito della raccolta e archivia- zione digitale dei testi latini di autori croati del rinascimento, che prende il nome di croala (croatiae auctores latini) . il progetto ha condotto alla realizzazione di un index locorum atto a raccogliere i riferimenti geografici secondo un sistema di classi- ficazione creato specificamente per la cosiddetta geografia lette- raria, che presenta aspetti problematici peculiari, che non neces- sariamente si prestano a una semplice classificazione univoca: com’è evidente, un luogo poetico può non essere necessaria- mente reale, ma nemmeno interamente fittizio; può essere la proiezione di un’entità reale nella letteratura e nell’immaginario n. jovanović et al., croala: croatiae auctores latini, - . consul- tato il / / : http://croala.ffzg.unizg.hr/. http://croala.ffzg.unizg.hr/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili (ad esempio, l’olimpo), può aver cambiato denominazione, e persino coordinate, nel corso del tempo; inoltre, può essere reale ma non necessariamente appartenere alla geografia terrestre (si pensi alla luna). la premessa metodologica del croala index locorum è stata quella di ridiscutere il principio stesso dell’“i- dentificatore univoco”, sulla base dell’essenziale considerazione che non sempre un nome riferito ad un luogo ne eredita le medesime caratteristiche. il risultato, accessibile tramite l’archi- vio dell’index locorum , sono varie categorie di indici tutti interconnessi fra loro, e che da ultimo rimandano al contesto originale, dove il sistema di classificazione adottato segue un articolato data model, e dove sono stati creati complessi identifi- catori, univoci ma estremamente flessibili e manipolabili, allo scopo di mettere in relazione le differenti entità con la realtà (concreta e “poetica”) a cui si riferiscono. una maniera alternativa di raccogliere i dati spaziali dalla fonte primaria è la cosiddetta annotazione esterna (o stand-off annotation), che prescinde dai linguaggi di markup e viene effettuata spesso attraverso interfacce web di semplice utilizzo. uno dei servizi oggi più utilizzati, nell’ambito dello studio delle fonti dell’antichità, è recogito (http://recogito.pelagios.org/), uno strumento messo a punto nell’ambito di pelagios , un progetto mirante a creare una infrastruttura centrale per le risorse e le iniziative relative al concetto, largamente inteso, di “spazio” nel mondo premoderno, allo scopo di favorire l’interconnessione fra progetti di ricerca ed archivi attraverso gli standard dei linked open data . n. jovanović, croala-pelagios: cite semantic annotations for place refer- ences in croatian latin texts. xquery, . consultato il / / : https:// github.com/nevenjovanovic/croala-pelagios. l. isaksen et al., pelagios commons: linking the places of our past, -. consultato il / / : http://commons.pelagios.org/. i linked open data sono la tecnologia più importante del cosiddetto semantic web (t. berners-lee, «linked data», : https://www.w .org/ designissues/linkeddata.html). in sintesi, si tratta di una serie di standard e http://recogito.pelagios.org/ https://github.com/nevenjovanovic/croala-pelagios https://github.com/nevenjovanovic/croala-pelagios http://commons.pelagios.org/ https://www.w .org/designissues/linkeddata.html https://www.w .org/designissues/linkeddata.html chiara palladino allo scopo di integrare le informazioni provenienti da fonti secondarie, come atlanti e database online, con i dati provenienti dalle fonti primarie, pelagios ha fornito agli utenti la possibilità di raccogliere ed esplorare tali informazioni in modo critico, allo stesso tempo contribuendo alla creazione di dati nuovi: recogito è uno strumento di facile accesso, tramite il quale l’utente può creare un proprio profilo, caricare un testo o una mappa, deci- derne i criteri di condivisione e annotare stringhe di testo conte- nenti informazioni rilevanti, con particolare attenzione – ovvia- mente – ai riferimenti geografici. nel caso dei toponimi, poi, è anche possibile effettuare operazioni di disambiguazione semi- automatica, attingendo ai database online come pleiades o il digital atlas of the roman empire. servendosi del principio dell’annotazione esterna, recogito consente di lavorare direttamente sulla fonte, archiviando le annotazioni altrove, in maniera tale che esse siano immediata- mente disponibili sotto forma di dataset in vari linguaggi, senza dover passare attraverso l’estrazione dell’informazione marcata, come nel caso dei testi in xml. inoltre, questo sistema permette di rendere direttamente accessibili, sotto forma di linked open data, le informazioni create dall’utente: ciò implica non solo maggiore visibilità dell’informazione creata, ma anche un au- mento delle opportunità che quella informazione possa essere adoperata da altri, per la sua incorporazione in nuovi progetti di ricerca o archivi. di tecnologie cui attenersi per rendere il proprio contenuto online accessibile, utilizzabile e connettibile ad altri caratterizzati da un qualche tipo di affinità semantica. da qualche anno a questa parte, molti database e archivi digitali hanno reso le proprie risorse compatibili con gli standard dei linked open data, per incrementare le proprie potenzialità di accesso e di utilizzo, e per favorire sempre più una metodologia di ricerca trasversale, che trae indubbio beneficio dalla possibilità di accedere a contenuti diversificati attraverso l’utilizzo di un vocabolario semantico comune. spazi antichi e futuri possibili fig. . riquadro di annotazione in recogito. naturalmente, quello che la macchina non può dire all’utente è cosa o come annotare. la classificazione delle informazioni spa- ziali, specie nelle fonti testuali, è tutto tranne che immediata, e deve necessariamente rispondere a criteri metodologici ponde- rati: dunque, l’annotazione è stata scelta come criterio di raccolta delle informazioni proprio per la sua flessibilità di processo esplorativo. in generale, l’annotazione semantica, che consente di associare, all’interno di un ambiente web, informazioni di vario tipo a un’entità rinvenuta in una fonte, può muoversi in due direzioni: la prima, facendo riferimento a una classificazione già esistente e complessa, preferibilmente sotto forma di ontologia ; il concetto di ontologia è un prestito della filosofia, dove la parola deno- ta lo “studio dell’essere”: in informatica esso è passato ad indicare le pratiche di rappresentazione della conoscenza in forme organizzate ed esprimibili in linguaggi comprensibili alle macchine, attraverso la definizione di una strut- chiara palladino la seconda, creando da zero un sistema secondo criteri emersi dallo studio dalla fonte stessa, laddove le ontologie e gli atlanti a disposizione non rispondano alle esigenze del ricercatore (si pen- si, ad esempio, ad opere a metà fra la geografia naturale e quella fantastica, come ad esempio il satyricon). entrambe queste strade sono percorribili indipendentemente, e rispondono a intenti di- versi nel processo di analisi della fonte primaria, l’uno più generale e comparativo, in quanto focalizzato sulla classifi- cazione in relazione a un “vocabolario” semantico di riferimento, l’altro più concentrato sulla fonte e sulla particolare concezione spaziale del suo autore. l’annotazione si configura, quindi, come qualcosa di più che un semplice processo di classificazione, ma è un modo per arricchire un riferimento spaziale a un livello di approfondi- mento pressoché illimitato, ben oltre il semplice “place- tagging” . tura formale composta di entità e relazioni fra di esse. nel semantic web, le ontologie vengono adoperate per specificare vocabolari concettuali “stan- dard”, utili alla classificazione dei fenomeni: t. gruber, ontology (computer science), in l. liu-m. tamer Öszu (ed. by), encyclopedia of database systems, springer, boston . le ontologie spaziali e spazio-temporali vengono ge- neralmente adoperate per la classificazione di fenomeni relativi alla geografia e alla cronologia nel semantic web: esse possono fornire un punto di parten- za importante per la disambiguazione e l’annotazione di riferimenti spaziali all’interno delle fonti antiche. si veda in proposito l’importante progetto geolat (f. ciotti et al., tei, ontologies, linked open data: geolat and beyond, «journal of the text encoding initiative» , , pp. - ). da questo genere di “commento espanso” vengono le potenzialità più importanti per la futura editoria digitale. si veda in proposito almeno r. af- ferni et al., ... but what should i put in a digital apparatus? a not-so-obvious choice. new types of digital scholarly editions, in p. boot et al. (ed. by), advanc- es in digital scholarly editing. papers presented at the dixit conferences in the hague, cologne and antwerp, sidestone press, cologne , pp. - . spazi antichi e futuri possibili conclusione nell’articolo citato in apertura, elliott auspicava un futuro in cui le informazioni spaziali fossero accuratamente marcate e verificate, nelle edizioni accademiche dei testi, tramite sistemi che ne consentissero la rapida indicizzazione e la mappatura. elliott auspicava altresì che l’enorme mole di testi non marcati, invece, potesse essere passibile di trattamenti completamente automatici, per raggiungere risultati apprezzabili, e che la disambiguazione potesse essere effettuata in maniera computa- zionale grazie al miglioramento delle tecnologie. si può senz’al- tro dire che, rispetto a questa visione, vi è ancora molta strada da fare. tuttavia, nei circa dieci anni successivi, l’incontro-scontro fra le discipline storiche e il mondo digitale ha aperto nuove questioni e nuovi problemi metodologici. per prima cosa, è necessario riconoscere che lavorare con le macchine rimette in discussione i metodi della ricerca storica: non perché essi siano fallaci, ma proprio perché il loro trasferi- mento su un diverso supporto costringe alla ridefinizione di alcu- ni concetti chiave; la macchina, infatti, necessita di una precisione che non lascia spazio alla vaghezza, e costringe a se- guire un metodo rigoroso e basato sulle evidenze fattuali, più che sulle speculazioni. questo significa, nel nostro caso, che è neces- sario definire con precisione, e preliminarmente, i concetti di geografia, di luogo, di entità spaziale, per far sì che si capisca univocamente qual è l’oggetto della nostra analisi, e affinché la macchina possa sobbarcarsi molto del lavoro meccanico di raccolta delle informazioni, prima affidato alla buona volontà del ricercatore. tuttavia, le discipline storiche comportano problemi che mettono in crisi approcci troppo meccanicisti. abbiamo visto che le esigenze dell’analisi della geografia antica e letteraria, basata su dati per definizione qualitativi, mal si accordano con i mecca- nismi troppo costrittivi del gis, che è un approccio quantitativo per eccellenza. andiamo quindi verso qualcosa che, pur adot- tando alcuni approcci del gis, è altro, è una “geografia digitale” chiara palladino che dà valore ad aspetti prettamente storico-culturali. questo ap- proccio è stato definito da elliott un-gis, ossia qualcosa che non conferisce importanza assoluta al concetto puramente quantita- tivo delle coordinate geografiche, ma ha la flessibilità necessaria per includere i dati provenienti dall’indagine umanistica. lo stesso discorso si può fare per gli identificatori univoci, o uri, che funzionano per le macchine, ma non hanno la stessa ricchez- za semantica dei linguaggi naturali, e spesso sono messi in discussione dalla mancanza di contesto e dall’ambiguità tipiche della ricerca storica. questo comporta la necessità di realizzare sistemi di identificazione semanticamente più ricchi e flessibili dei semplici indicatori numerici . da questa situazione, però, possono emergere non solo dei nuovi problemi, ma anche degli approcci nuovi . mi limito qui a un grande progresso in questo senso è stato fatto in campo bibliografi- co, con l’introduzione del cts (canonical text service). d.n. smith-c.w. blackwell, four urls, limitless apps: separation of concerns in the homer multitext architecture, chs white papers: https://chs.harvard.edu/chs/ article/display/ . si potrebbe obiettare se realmente si imponga, per così dire, agli umani- sti, la necessità di “convertirsi” attivamente ai criteri e ai metodi del mondo digitale, e alla ovvia obiezione se tale conversione non comporti, in un futuro prossimo, la perdita di informazioni o di approcci che sono pensabili solo nel mondo della stampa. la prima riposta a una tale obiezione è che tale passag- gio di supporto è una rivoluzione inevitabile: e chi ha fatto studi filologici, in virtù della maggiore consapevolezza dei meccanismi che sottendono alle mo- dalità di diffusione e produzione del sapere, ha gli strumenti sufficienti per comprendere la portata di questo cambiamento. ma in assenza di tale convin- cimento (i mutamenti culturali generano necessariamente delle resistenze), è preferibile che siano gli umanisti a definire i paradigmi con cui svolgere ri- cerca seria, invece di lasciarlo fare ad altri, che siano le case editrici o i pro- duttori di software, la cui considerazione e competenza nei confronti di tutto ciò che concerne le materie umanistiche, e in special modo storiche, è triste- mente nota. il cambiamento è in atto, ed è inarrestabile: neppure un’apoca- lisse del world wide web, quale in molti preconizzano con un certo compia- cimento, potrebbe mai annullare il processo di produzione e diffusione di in- formazione in formato digitale, che non ha nulla a che fare con l’esistenza di https://chs.harvard.edu/chs/article/display/ https://chs.harvard.edu/chs/article/display/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili proporne alcuni, che già dovrebbero essere emersi nel corso di questo breve contributo. il primo è la possibilità, mai riscontrata prima a un tale livello di complessità, di creare indici semanticamente raffinati e artico- lati, sempre connessi al contesto di partenza e potenzialmente legati a una quantità infinita di informazioni aggiuntive; le op- portunità offerte dal supporto digitale in questo senso possono essere sfruttate ai fini della creazione di uno dei desiderata della geografia classica, un lessico, o dizionario critico aggiornato della geografia antica . i metodi di text mining consentono l’automa- tizzazione del lavoro di estrazione delle informazioni, ma il supporto digitale può prestarsi a rappresentare anche il carattere editorialmente complesso di un’opera del genere, che richiede, evidentemente, un lavoro profondamente analitico da parte di una varietà di figure specializzate. ma il processo di analisi spaziale comporta anche un arricchi- mento della nozione di edizione critica che va ben oltre il concetto di “indice”: la narrazione spaziale nel suo complesso può essere vista come un sistema linguistico e cognitivo funzionale alla navigazione, il prodotto coeso di una civiltà, e si presta dunque a metodi innovativi di analisi e rappresentazione . infine, il merito principale delle digital humanities è l’aver rimesso in essere, concretamente, quella interdisciplinarità che in queste discipline si è perduta da tempo: l’attenzione quasi internet. perciò, forse, sarebbe meglio che siano i diretti interessati a dettare le modalità con cui questo processo dovrebbe avvenire, proprio al fine di evi- tare il più possibile il rischio della perdita di informazioni e metodi. diversa- mente, saranno i ‘giganti dell’informazione’ a definire come e dove questa si- tuazione si evolverà, e a spese di chi. la necessità di un dizionario critico della geografia antica è già stata messa in rilievo da d. marcotte, les géographes grecs, tome i, introduction générale, pseudo-scymnos . circuit de la terre, texte établi et traduit par d. marcotte, vol. i, les belles lettres, paris . m. thiering-k. geus (ed. by), features of common sense geography: im- plicit knowledge structures in ancient geographical texts, lit verlag, berlin- münster-wien-zürich-london . chiara palladino esclusiva alle cosiddette culture classiche ha comportato spesso la perdita, involontaria, del contesto generale, quello del mondo antico e premoderno, in cui le civiltà oggetto di studio intera- giscono con altre, che esistono con pari dignità, e sono portatrici di altri modi di vedere il mondo. nell’ambito del digitale, le disci- pline dell’antichità greca e romana hanno certamente segnato il passo con anticipo, ma numerose altre si stanno facendo strada, arricchendo le metodologie già in essere e contribuendo a porre le premesse per una visione “globale” dell’antichità. fra i nume- rosi progetti oggi attivi, mi preme citare l’immenso archivio di risorse bibliografiche, prosopografiche e geografiche messo a punto per il siriaco nel progetto syriaca , la creazione di un atlante rifinito e profondamente connesso alle fonti letterarie per il mondo islamico , e il crescente perfezionamento delle tecnolo- gie di data mining, named entity recognition e network visualiza- tion attualmente in atto per il cinese . si spera, dunque, che in futuro la ricerca digitale possa contribuire a ricreare un’imma- gine del mondo antico e premoderno che ne restituisca la piena complessità culturale e storica. t.a. carlson et al., syriaca.org: the syriac reference portal. consultato il / / : http://syriaca.org/. m. seydi-m. romanov, al-Ṯurayyā project, -. consultato il / / : https://althurayya.github.io/. si veda ad esempio h. de weerdt, information, territory, and networks: the crisis and maintenance of empire in song china, harvard university asia center, cambridge . http://syriaca.org/ https://althurayya.github.io/ spazi antichi e futuri possibili abstract. this paper summarizes the current situation of ancient geography within the larger context of the digital humanities. it proposes an overview of the most important achievements and initiatives in the digital analysis of spatial sources, emphasizing their innovative approaches in research, but also con- sidering issues in the difficult relationship between machine-based collection of data and the traditional means of investigation of the humanities. in con- clusion, it proposes a set of promising methods and strategies to be pursued for the future of the spatial analysis of premodern sources. keywords. ancient geography, digital humanities, digital editions, gis, network theo- ry, geohumanities, digital libraries. chiara palladino furman university, classics department chiara.palladino@furman.edu simulation and ergonomic evaluation of welders’ standing posture using jack software international journal of environmental research and public health article simulation and ergonomic evaluation of welders’ standing posture using jack software yongbao zhang , xiang wu ,* , jingqi gao , jianwu chen and xun xv school of engineering and technology, china university of geosciences (beijing), beijing , china; @cugb.edu.cn (y.z.); gjq @cugb.edu.cn (j.g.) china academy of safety science and technology, beijing , china; cjw @ .com china metallurgical construction research institute (shenzhen) co., ltd., shenzhen , china; @ .com * correspondence: wuxiang@cugb.edu.cn; tel.: + - - - received: september ; accepted: november ; published: november �� abstract: ergonomics research strives to make workers’ labor more efficient, safer, and more comfortable. therefore, six digital humans and welding torch model were built and evaluated based on the jack software in order to improve the ergonomics of welders’ standing postures. three sets of standing welding actions were designed: walking, raising arm, and contracting arm. through the lower back analysis, ovako working posture analysis, comfort assessment, and rapid upper limb assessment, this paper evaluated the optimum range of the weight of the welding torch, the upper limb posture, and the neck posture of the welder. firstly, the results show that chinese welders should not use a welding torch with a weight of more than kg when standing up. secondly, for adult males in the th, th, th percentile of body size, the best operating distance is mm, mm, and mm, respectively, and the best operating height is mm, mm, and mm, respectively; for females in the same percentiles, the optimal operating distance is mm, mm, and mm, respectively, and the optimal operating height is mm, mm, and mm, respectively. moreover, the horizontal and vertical rotation angle of the welder’s neck should not exceed ◦ and . ◦. the adjustment strategy not only has a positive effect on improving welders’ operational posture and preventing fatigue and injury to the welder, but it also develops research ideas for promoting safety from the perspective of ergonomics. keywords: welders’ standing posture; ergonomics; jack software; adjustment strategy . introduction welders comprise a large occupational group that works long hours in forced postures [ ]. maintaining forced posture can cause early muscle fatigue [ ], while it can lead to work-related musculoskeletal disorders (wmsds) in the long-term or in severe cases [ ]. moreover, prolonged forced postures can lead to occupational injuries to workers [ ], which will cause long-term physiological and psychological harm [ ]. a survey of forest workers in new zealand have found that physical fatigue might constitute a significant risk factor for accidents and injury [ ]. meanwhile, wmsds are the most common occupational injury worldwide and the most common cause of long-term pain and disability in workers [ ]. it is undeniable that full mechanization would be the best approach towards minimizing worker fatigue and injury, but, because of the high cost, ergonomic interventions for workers are still necessary and effective for smaller scale businesses [ ]. therefore, on the basis of the current situation regarding serious occupational hazards and safety, ergonomics research focused on welding posture in china can effectively protect people’s physical and mental health and prevent accidents. int. j. environ. res. public health , , ; doi: . /ijerph www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijerph http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph int. j. environ. res. public health , , of from an ergonomic perspective, the evaluation of workers in different fields has already provided mature theories and a large number of research results. some scholars have conducted a questionnaire survey on the health status of primary and secondary school teachers in hong kong, and found that, in addition to mental stress, work-related musculoskeletal disorders should also be valued [ ]. on the basis of the nordic musculoskeletal disorder questionnaire, the results of ergonomics related to nurses have shown that poor working postures tend to cause wmsds, and measures to prevent wmsds in nurses have been proposed [ ]. other scholars have proposed starting from a training and management perspective to overcome or reduce the adverse effects of welding on the upper limbs by developing a training program for welders [ ]. in addition, francisco c and edwin t analyzed the stress on the upper limbs during the work of the auto assembly welder. they proposed regularly adjusting the welding work site, which encourages the welder to frequently change posture and welding torch, for the purpose of reducing any occupational hazards [ ], this program has had a positive effect on improving common occupational injuries. similarly, the ergonomic study of office workers in the united states shows that, whether standing or sitting, for a long time, it will have an adverse effect on the lower back, and relaxation seems to be more effective in avoiding injury [ ]. in , goncn et al. used computer software to conduct ergonomic studies on the working posture of wheeled mowers as well as evaluating the performance of the wheeled mowers [ ]. moreover, in terms of ergonomic visibility, qiu shiguang’s team evaluated the ergonomics of maintenance workers’ hand tool repair operations by writing a programming language to check whether there is any obstacle between the line of sight and the target part to determine whether it is visible or not [ ]. recently, brazilian researchers conducted ergonomic evaluations of workers carrying two types of beer kegs and proposed ways for optimizing this [ ]. it is not difficult to see that the study of ergonomics is roughly divided into two parts: the improvement of equipment and the improvement of working posture. therefore, welding posture and welding torch performance in accordance with safety ergonomic requirements can increase welder productivity, reduce injuries and accidents, and enhance the economics of a business. in the literature, most scholars use questionnaires or observations to explore and evaluate ergonomics. however, there are fewer studies that make accurate quantitative evaluations of human hazards. some scholars have used simulation tools to quantitatively study a certain part of the human body, but this is not comprehensive. at present, there are few ergonomic studies on welders, and some of the models that were established in the related research have been oversimplified. many research conclusions based on european body data do not reflect the true working state of chinese welders. therefore, further research is needed to break through the limitations of traditional research methods and validate and supplement existing results. herein, the jack digital human body simulation software is used to evaluate the posture of chinese welders. in this study, a common standing welding posture was selected; this was done while using a safety ergonomic analysis method and using digital human body simulation technology to simulate the manual welding operation of welders. by studying the weight of the welding torch, the upper limb force of the welder, and the line of sight of the welder during the welding operation, an adjustment strategy related to the welding torch weight, the welder’s upper limb posture, and the welder’s neck posture are proposed. the results can improve the working conditions and working methods of chinese welders and improve the health and safety conditions. . research methods . . digital human body modeling this study mainly used three-dimensional ( d) simulation technology to analyze the ergonomics of the standing welding operation while using a hand-held welding torch. the researchers selected the ergonomics analysis software jack version . as a tool to model and import the digital human and welding torch, build the overall simulation scene of the welding operation, simulate the dynamic welding operation, and realize the operation and analysis of the action example. four evaluation analysis modules for lower back analysis (lba), ovako working posture analysis (owas), rapid int. j. environ. res. public health , , of upper limb assessment (rula), and comfort assessment (ca) in the jack software were used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the weight of the welding torch and the welder’s posture during welding. the best welding torch weight and welding posture for maximum comfort and better working conditions were selected on the basis of the results of the evaluation. . . welding environment setting three sets of standing welding action modules for walking, raising arm, and contracting arm were designed while using the jack software to simulate the welding operation posture. the design process of the experimental simulation is as follows: ( ) the different percentiles of chinese localized welder’s body size, as shown in table (the body size parameters are based on the asian human body database in the jack software, with reference to gb - chinese adult body size and gb/t - workspace human body size in anthropometric data), were used to create a chinese localized welder body model; ( ) the welding torch model was introduced into the working environment, as shown in figure . according to the welding torch positioning technology, the program written on the jack script secondary development platform was used to achieve the fit of the welding torch, the palm, and the solder joint; ( ) after the fit was completed, the human body control window was used to adjust the static posture of the person, including the hand, arm, shoulder posture, etc. the palm shafts of both hands add the weight and load of the welding torch to the hand of the model; and, ( ) the static posture was sequence-adjusted, spliced into dynamic behavior, a welding operation animation was created for the welding process, and the animation was classified into three motion modules. data were collected for lba, ca, owas, and rula while completing the experimental animation. table . chinese localized welder body size parameters. dimension name gender average value standard deviation th th th height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . weight/kg m . . . . . f . . . . . maximum shoulder width/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting shoulder height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting elbow height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting deep/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting eye height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting knee height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . int. j. environ. res. public health , , of int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of simulate the dynamic welding operation, and realize the operation and analysis of the action example. four evaluation analysis modules for lower back analysis (lba), ovako working posture analysis (owas), rapid upper limb assessment (rula), and comfort assessment (ca) in the jack software were used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the weight of the welding torch and the welder’s posture during welding. the best welding torch weight and welding posture for maximum comfort and better working conditions were selected on the basis of the results of the evaluation. . . welding environment setting three sets of standing welding action modules for walking, raising arm, and contracting arm were designed while using the jack software to simulate the welding operation posture. the design process of the experimental simulation is as follows: ( ) the different percentiles of chinese localized welder’s body size, as shown in table (the body size parameters are based on the asian human body database in the jack software, with reference to gb - chinese adult body size and gb/t - workspace human body size in anthropometric data), were used to create a chinese localized welder body model; table . chinese localized welder body size parameters. dimension name gender average value standard deviation th th th height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . weight/kg m . . . . . f . . . . . maximum shoulder width/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting shoulder height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting elbow height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting deep/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting eye height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . sitting knee height/cm m . . . . . f . . . . . ( ) the welding torch model was introduced into the working environment, as shown in figure . according to the welding torch positioning technology, the program written on the jack script secondary development platform was used to achieve the fit of the welding torch, the palm, and the solder joint; (a) (b) figure . three-dimensional ( d) model of the welding torch. (a) cad welding torch model. (b) jack torch model. . . welding torch weight setting the welder’s process of holding a welding torch for welding operations is essentially that of a person lifting heavy objects. the jack software can be used to evaluate the standing welding posture and analyze the body’s force through real-time observations when lifting the lower arm in the working environment. in this study, the lifting arm mainly evaluated the following dimensions: • lower back pressure the lower back pressure mainly indicates the force of the l /l lumbar vertebrae [ ]. in this study, the lower back pressure values were collected during the execution of the three welding action modules and compared with the database of the national institute for occupational safety and health (niosh) to determine whether each value was within the controllable range. according to the niosh database, a lower back disorder might occur when the lower back pressure exceeds n [ ]. the higher the value, the greater the possibility and severity of lower back injury [ ]. • comfort value comfort indicates the degree of hazard that is caused by a particular behavior and provides an optimized recommendation when the welder lifts the torch. the comfort assessment kit based on the porter database provides a corresponding human posture comfort rating. the relevant parameters of the virtual welding work were collected and converted into comfort values while using formula ( ). the best comfort value is , the comfort value is acceptable within – , more than needs to be improved, the higher the value, the lower the comfort [ ]. cv =  |md−ov| hv−md , ov > md |md−ov| md−lv , ov < md , other . ( ) cv: converted comfort value; md: mode value; ov: original value; hv: highest value; and, lv: lowest value. • ovako working posture analysis system the ovako working posture analysis system can evaluate the ease of stretching of the back, and the upper and lower limbs, and can qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the practicality of the posture and the possibility of suffering from wmsds [ ]. it is possible to identify a posture that is harmful to the worker’s body and reduce the fatigue of the worker while using this analysis [ ]. . . upper limb posture setting during welding work, the welder might have to raise the arm, bend over, lean forward, etc., due to the difference in the position of the welding point and different weights of upper limb load, which might easily lead to discomfort and injury. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of when evaluating the upper limb posture, in addition to the lba, as mentioned earlier, rula was also used. rula assesses the risk of upper limb injury based on posture, muscle use, the weight of loads, and task duration and frequency. rula gives a value that indicates the degree of intervention that is required to reduce the risk of an upper limb injury. specifically, level : acceptable posture if not maintained or repeated for long periods (grand score – ); level : further investigation needed, may require changes (grand score – ); level : investigation, changes required soon (grand score – ); and, level : investigation, changes required immediately (grand score > ) [ ]. in short, the higher the rula score, the stronger the discomfort of the upper limbs [ ]. the arm (hand) function radius of rotation and the arm (hand) comfort zone height can describe and define the horizontal distance and vertical heights of the upper limb operations, respectively. the electric power industry standard that china issued in : the ergonomic principles for the design of control centers, part , hand reach and zones of control (dlt . - ) stipulate the range of arm operation for sitting and standing positions. arm (hand) function rotation radius, arm (hand) comfort operation area height are determined based on the standard of the male th percentile of body size. an additional evaluation of the arm (hand) function radius of rotation and the arm (hand) comfort zone height was required to measure and evaluate the corresponding stress in the lower back and upper limbs in order to study the comfortable operation space of the digital human with different percentiles and genders. according to the dlt . - , the th percentile of body size male arm (hand) has a minimum functional radius of rotation of mm, the arm (hand) has a maximum functional radius of mm, and the comfortable operating zone height ranges from mm to mm. again, in males, the difference in arm length between the th, th, and th percentile is about mm; in the same percentile, the difference in arm length between different genders is approximately mm. therefore, tables and show the calculation results of the arm (hand) function rotation radius range and the comfort operation area height range of the six different percentiles and different genders. table . arm (hand) function radius of rotation range. gender th th th m – mm – mm – mm f – mm – mm – mm table . comfort operating area height interval. gender th th th m – mm – mm – mm f – mm – mm – mm . . neck posture setting the welder has to adjust the angle of his neck joints in order to be able to see the solder joints. in the jack software, the gilbert and johnson collision method is used [ ]. the collision detection technology emits a line of sight particle simulation to the solder joint according to the position of the human body viewpoint. as shown in figure , it determines whether the target is occluded on the basis of particle and environmental collision [ ]. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of figure . emission particle and cone window. • field of view welding is a precise manual operation, wherein the welder’s eyes need to properly capture the exact position of the weld for the operation to be performed [ ]. the best horizontal direct field of view (− °– °) and vertical direct field of view (− °– °) from the standard of vision and viewport division of the chinese control center ergonomics design guidelines were used as the vision parameters to construct the field of view of this welding operation. • visual angle calculation the quality of the line of sight was evaluated and the bending angle of the neck joint of the welder was obtained to obtain the adjustment strategy for the human neck posture. in this study, the best viewing angle (middle field of view) criterion was used, with the optimal top viewing angle θ as the scope of sight, θ is °. the angle θ , θ were calculated as the horizontal plane viewing angle and the vertical plane viewing angle, respectively. on the basis of the collision detection technology, the particle collision range in the viewing angle calculation program written in the jack script programming language was converted into the values of the viewing angles θ and θ , and the visibility was evaluated by comparing θ , θ , and θ . . results . . welding torch weight the results of the welding torch weight were obtained by using the jack software to analyze the lower back, comfort value, and ovako working posture analysis of different percentiles of the figure. the results are, as follows: . . . lower back assessment (lba) the analysis of the welder’s animated process of lifting welding torches of kg, kg, and kg was carried out to obtain the value of the lower back pressure, as shown in figure . the th percentile of body size of female welders has the minimum value of lba and the th percentile of male welders have the maximum value of lba. the minimum value is n and the maximum is n. even if the maximum value is lower than the limit of n, as specified by niosh, it is reasonable for the welder exert that pressure on the lower back when lifting the conventional welding torch. figure . emission particle and cone window. • field of view welding is a precise manual operation, wherein the welder’s eyes need to properly capture the exact position of the weld for the operation to be performed [ ]. the best horizontal direct field of view (− ◦– ◦) and vertical direct field of view (− ◦– ◦) from the standard of vision and viewport division of the chinese control center ergonomics design guidelines were used as the vision parameters to construct the field of view of this welding operation. • visual angle calculation the quality of the line of sight was evaluated and the bending angle of the neck joint of the welder was obtained to obtain the adjustment strategy for the human neck posture. in this study, the best viewing angle (middle field of view) criterion was used, with the optimal top viewing angle θ as the scope of sight, θ is ◦. the angle θ , θ were calculated as the horizontal plane viewing angle and the vertical plane viewing angle, respectively. on the basis of the collision detection technology, the particle collision range in the viewing angle calculation program written in the jack script programming language was converted into the values of the viewing angles θ and θ , and the visibility was evaluated by comparing θ , θ , and θ . . results . . welding torch weight the results of the welding torch weight were obtained by using the jack software to analyze the lower back, comfort value, and ovako working posture analysis of different percentiles of the figure. the results are, as follows: . . . lower back assessment (lba) the analysis of the welder ’s animated process of lifting welding torches of kg, kg, and kg was carried out to obtain the value of the lower back pressure, as shown in figure . the th percentile of body size of female welders has the minimum value of lba and the th percentile of male welders have the maximum value of lba. the minimum value is n and the maximum is n. even if the maximum value is lower than the limit of n, as specified by niosh, it is reasonable for the welder exert that pressure on the lower back when lifting the conventional welding torch. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of figure . lower back assessment of different welding torch weights. it can be seen from the results that the weight of the welding torch does not have a significant effect on the lower back pressure of different percentile humans, with gender being the main factor of stress. therefore, for lightweight hand-held torches, their weight has little effect on the welder’s lower back pressure and it remains in a healthy range during operation. . . . comfort assessment (ca) the md, ov, hv, and lv of each joint of each digital percentile of male and female welders were collected when measuring the maximum rotation angle of the human body. by substituting these values into formula ( ), the comfort of the corresponding joint can be calculated (while using the right hand-held welding torch as the prototype to measure the right half of the body joint). table shows the measurement results of the joint comfort of male and female welders, in this case, using a kg hand-held welding torch. table . right body comfort value results (hand-held kg welding torch). body parts m th m th m th f th f th f th upper arm right flexion . . . . . . right elbow . . . . . . right torso and thigh . . . . . . right knee . . . . . . right foot, calf . . . . . . the lower the calculated comfort value, the easier it is to represent the joint. according to the calculation results in the above table, in the right hand-held welding torch posture, some joints have an uncomfortable reaction, in which the right knee and the right torso and thigh generally feel discomfort, and for the right foot and the lower leg, females experience slight discomfort, while males do not. . . . ovako working postures analysis (owas) the conclusion of the analysis is that, regardless of the posture of both male and female welders, when using a welding torch of kg or less, the evaluation grade that is given by the owas analysis figure . lower back assessment of different welding torch weights. it can be seen from the results that the weight of the welding torch does not have a significant effect on the lower back pressure of different percentile humans, with gender being the main factor of stress. therefore, for lightweight hand-held torches, their weight has little effect on the welder’s lower back pressure and it remains in a healthy range during operation. . . . comfort assessment (ca) the md, ov, hv, and lv of each joint of each digital percentile of male and female welders were collected when measuring the maximum rotation angle of the human body. by substituting these values into formula ( ), the comfort of the corresponding joint can be calculated (while using the right hand-held welding torch as the prototype to measure the right half of the body joint). table shows the measurement results of the joint comfort of male and female welders, in this case, using a kg hand-held welding torch. table . right body comfort value results (hand-held kg welding torch). body parts m th m th m th f th f th f th upper arm right flexion . . . . . . right elbow . . . . . . right torso and thigh . . . . . . right knee . . . . . . right foot, calf . . . . . . the lower the calculated comfort value, the easier it is to represent the joint. according to the calculation results in the above table, in the right hand-held welding torch posture, some joints have an uncomfortable reaction, in which the right knee and the right torso and thigh generally feel discomfort, and for the right foot and the lower leg, females experience slight discomfort, while males do not. . . . ovako working postures analysis (owas) the conclusion of the analysis is that, regardless of the posture of both male and female welders, when using a welding torch of kg or less, the evaluation grade that is given by the owas analysis is grade , that is, the working posture has a low risk of damage to the musculoskeletal system. therefore, the effect of the weight of the welding torch on the working posture is acceptable. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . . welder upper limb posture in the rula, the upper limb load is less than kg in order to avoid interference of the upper limb load on the upper limb posture itself. before the simulation assessment of the upper limbs, a verification experiment was carried out. the verification experiment was intended to ensure that the computer model in the virtual environment accurately simulates the actual operation. the simulation processing time and actual operation time were compared in the study. the results show that, in standing welding operations, the difference between the simulated and actual exercise time of the standing walking action module was . %; the difference between the simulated and actual exercise time of the standing raising arm module was . %; the difference between the simulation actual exercise time of the standing contracting arm action module was . %; with the maximum difference being less than one second. according to the comparison results, the simulation animation can simulate the actual operation well. . . . welder operating distance this part of the study establishes three sets of work animations: standing walking, standing raising arm, and standing contracting arm. the welder operating distance is measured under the limit of the minimum and maximum functional rotation radius of the arm (hand) under the two sets of action modules: the standing raising arm and standing contracting arm. the th, th, and th percentile of body size for both males and females, a total of six digital human models, were used for lba and rula testing at different operating distances. figures and how the results. int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of is grade , that is, the working posture has a low risk of damage to the musculoskeletal system. therefore, the effect of the weight of the welding torch on the working posture is acceptable. . . welder upper limb posture in the rula, the upper limb load is less than kg in order to avoid interference of the upper limb load on the upper limb posture itself. before the simulation assessment of the upper limbs, a verification experiment was carried out. the verification experiment was intended to ensure that the computer model in the virtual environment accurately simulates the actual operation. the simulation processing time and actual operation time were compared in the study. the results show that, in standing welding operations, the difference between the simulated and actual exercise time of the standing walking action module was . %; the difference between the simulated and actual exercise time of the standing raising arm module was . %; the difference between the simulation actual exercise time of the standing contracting arm action module was . %; with the maximum difference being less than one second. according to the comparison results, the simulation animation can simulate the actual operation well. . . . welder operating distance this part of the study establishes three sets of work animations: standing walking, standing raising arm, and standing contracting arm. the welder operating distance is measured under the limit of the minimum and maximum functional rotation radius of the arm (hand) under the two sets of action modules: the standing raising arm and standing contracting arm. the th, th, and th percentile of body size for both males and females, a total of six digital human models, were used for lba and rula testing at different operating distances. figures and how the results. figure . lower back pressure at different operating distances for the standing raising arm action. figure . lower back pressure at different operating distances for the standing raising arm action. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of figure . lower back pressure at different operating distances for the standing contracting arm action. it can be seen from the simulation results that, whether it is the standing raising arm action or the standing contracting arm action, the greater the operating distance, the greater the pressure on the lower back. in short, there is the positive correlation trend between the lower back pressure and operating distance. therefore, according to the original design, for th, th, and th percentile males, the best operating distance is mm, mm, and mm, respectively; and, for th, th, and th percentile females, the optimal operating distance is mm, mm, and mm, respectively. in the rula scoring system of the jack software, the higher the score, the greater the effect of the posture on the musculoskeletal system of the upper limb joints. table shows the rula scores at different operating distances. table . rapid upper limb assessment (rula) scores for different operating distances. operating distance/mm male rula score female rula score th th th th th th . - - - - - . . . . . . - . - - - . - - - - - as can be seen from the above table, the grand score is or . a grand score of – belongs to the second level, which indicates that the posture might require improvement. the digital human rula scores for the welder’s operating distance of . mm are all three points, and the digital human rula scores for distances of more than . mm are four points, which indicates that the farther away the welder’s upper limbs are, the greater the force on the musculoskeletal system of the upper limbs. this is also a positive correlation trend, which is consistent with the conclusions of the lba study. figure . lower back pressure at different operating distances for the standing contracting arm action. it can be seen from the simulation results that, whether it is the standing raising arm action or the standing contracting arm action, the greater the operating distance, the greater the pressure on the lower back. in short, there is the positive correlation trend between the lower back pressure and operating distance. therefore, according to the original design, for th, th, and th percentile males, the best operating distance is mm, mm, and mm, respectively; and, for th, th, and th percentile females, the optimal operating distance is mm, mm, and mm, respectively. in the rula scoring system of the jack software, the higher the score, the greater the effect of the posture on the musculoskeletal system of the upper limb joints. table shows the rula scores at different operating distances. table . rapid upper limb assessment (rula) scores for different operating distances. operating distance/mm male rula score female rula score th th th th th th . - - - - - . . . . . . - . - - - . - - - - - as can be seen from the above table, the grand score is or . a grand score of – belongs to the second level, which indicates that the posture might require improvement. the digital human rula scores for the welder’s operating distance of . mm are all three points, and the digital human rula scores for distances of more than . mm are four points, which indicates that the farther away the welder’s upper limbs are, the greater the force on the musculoskeletal system of the upper limbs. this is also a positive correlation trend, which is consistent with the conclusions of the lba study. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . . . welding torch height from the ground figure shows the lower back pressure of the torch at different heights from the ground. according to the original design, the test was carried out for the most comfortable operating area for each percentile of digital person to obtain the optimum height from the ground. int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of . . . welding torch height from the ground figure shows the lower back pressure of the torch at different heights from the ground. according to the original design, the test was carried out for the most comfortable operating area for each percentile of digital person to obtain the optimum height from the ground. figure . lower back pressure of the welding torch at different heights from the ground. while observing the graph, it can be seen that, in the comfort zone, when the human torso is standing upright and doing the lifting work, the higher the welder torch is from the ground, the greater the pressure on the lower back. that is to say that the height of the welding torch from the ground is positively related to the pressure on the lower back. therefore, according to the original design, the best operating heights for the th, th, and th percentile males are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. for females in the th, th, and th percentile, the optimal operating heights are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. table shows the rula scores for different heights of the welding torch from the ground. the digital human rula scores are all three points for heights under mm, while when the height is over mm, the digital human rula scores are four points. this indicates that, in the upper limb comfort zone, the farther away the welding torch is from the ground, the greater the pressure on musculoskeletal system of the upper limbs, which is also a positive correlation trend, and it is again consistent with the conclusion of the lba study. table . rula scores for different heights of welding torch from the ground. height/mm male rula score female rula score th th th th th th - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . welder neck posture figure . lower back pressure of the welding torch at different heights from the ground. while observing the graph, it can be seen that, in the comfort zone, when the human torso is standing upright and doing the lifting work, the higher the welder torch is from the ground, the greater the pressure on the lower back. that is to say that the height of the welding torch from the ground is positively related to the pressure on the lower back. therefore, according to the original design, the best operating heights for the th, th, and th percentile males are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. for females in the th, th, and th percentile, the optimal operating heights are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. table shows the rula scores for different heights of the welding torch from the ground. the digital human rula scores are all three points for heights under mm, while when the height is over mm, the digital human rula scores are four points. this indicates that, in the upper limb comfort zone, the farther away the welding torch is from the ground, the greater the pressure on musculoskeletal system of the upper limbs, which is also a positive correlation trend, and it is again consistent with the conclusion of the lba study. table . rula scores for different heights of welding torch from the ground. height/mm male rula score female rula score th th th th th th - - - - - - - - - - - - - - int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . . welder neck posture the digital person, which is based on the best field of view, as mentioned previously, was selected, and the collision detection technology during the welding operation was used to test the range of the angle of view of the digital human for both the horizontal and vertical angle of view θ , θ . in manual work that requires precise operation for prolonged periods, in order to ensure the comfort of the human eye, the eyeball is usually maintained in a constant state of direct viewing [ ]. therefore, it is assumed that the welder’s eyeball is also kept stationary during the welding operation, and the adjustment of the viewing angle can only be adjusted by the neck joint. therefore, the welder’s viewing angle θ ∈ [− ◦, ◦], θ ∈ [− . ◦, ◦] is the adjustment range of the human neck joint. according to the angle of view of the welder, it is judged that the reasonable horizontal angle of rotation of the welder’s neck should not exceed ◦ and the vertical rotation angle should not exceed . ◦. this can be obtained by calculating the ca value at different neck joints at the vertical twist angle. when θ > . ◦, the ca value significantly increases, and when it is greater than , the neck feels uncomfortable, as shown in figure . therefore, when the welder is in a standing welding position, the reasonable horizontal rotation angle of the neck should not exceed ◦, and the vertical rotation angle should not exceed . ◦. int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of the digital person, which is based on the best field of view, as mentioned previously, was selected, and the collision detection technology during the welding operation was used to test the range of the angle of view of the digital human for both the horizontal and vertical angle of view θ , θ . in manual work that requires precise operation for prolonged periods, in order to ensure the comfort of the human eye, the eyeball is usually maintained in a constant state of direct viewing [ ]. therefore, it is assumed that the welder’s eyeball is also kept stationary during the welding operation, and the adjustment of the viewing angle can only be adjusted by the neck joint. therefore, the welder’s viewing angle θ ∈ [− °, °], θ ∈ [− . °, °] is the adjustment range of the human neck joint. according to the angle of view of the welder, it is judged that the reasonable horizontal angle of rotation of the welder’s neck should not exceed ° and the vertical rotation angle should not exceed . °. this can be obtained by calculating the ca value at different neck joints at the vertical twist angle. when θ > . °, the ca value significantly increases, and when it is greater than , the neck feels uncomfortable, as shown in figure . therefore, when the welder is in a standing welding position, the reasonable horizontal rotation angle of the neck should not exceed °, and the vertical rotation angle should not exceed . °. figure . comfort value changes with the angle of vertical deflection of the neck joint. . discussion when compared with traditional ergonomics evaluation methods, the jack software simulation analysis that was used in this study combined with actual human body verification during operation provides a more comprehensive ergonomic evaluation method, allowing for users to create various types of welding environments. the jack software uses a modeled digital human body, meaning that the participation of real welders is not required, which greatly reduces the cost of testing. the experimental results that were generated by the software avoid the complex environmental variables associated with the experiment and also avoid the interference and influence of the behavior of the welder before and after the operation. therefore, the research on safety ergonomics that is based on digital human body modeling using jack software is economic and scientific. research on the weight of the welding torch shows that the weight of the welding torch should not exceed kg. cao w et al. showed that, in the evaluation of the ergonomics of the lower limbs in hospital nurses, when an empty stretcher (less than or equal to kg) was lifted, the pressure of each part of the human body was within the prescribed allowable stress range; however, when a patient is lifted (greater than kg), the pressure exceeds the limit [ ]. similarly, vieira used a questionnaire to review injury records, assessing the work-related lower back injuries of welders, and figure . comfort value changes with the angle of vertical deflection of the neck joint. . discussion when compared with traditional ergonomics evaluation methods, the jack software simulation analysis that was used in this study combined with actual human body verification during operation provides a more comprehensive ergonomic evaluation method, allowing for users to create various types of welding environments. the jack software uses a modeled digital human body, meaning that the participation of real welders is not required, which greatly reduces the cost of testing. the experimental results that were generated by the software avoid the complex environmental variables associated with the experiment and also avoid the interference and influence of the behavior of the welder before and after the operation. therefore, the research on safety ergonomics that is based on digital human body modeling using jack software is economic and scientific. research on the weight of the welding torch shows that the weight of the welding torch should not exceed kg. cao w et al. showed that, in the evaluation of the ergonomics of the lower limbs in hospital nurses, when an empty stretcher (less than or equal to kg) was lifted, the pressure of each part of the human body was within the prescribed allowable stress range; however, when a patient is lifted (greater than kg), the pressure exceeds the limit [ ]. similarly, vieira used a questionnaire to int. j. environ. res. public health , , of review injury records, assessing the work-related lower back injuries of welders, and comparing the discomfort scores and visual analogues with one-way anova and fisher’s least significant difference post-test. the results show that the average weight of the welder’s manual operation is kg [ ]. the findings of this are similar to those of the safety ergonomics study in this paper. the upper limb posture study shows that, according to the percentile of body size of chinese welders, the best operating distances for males in the th, th, and th percentile are mm, mm, and mm, respectively, and the optimal operating heights are mm, mm, and mm, respectively; for females in the th, th, and th percentile, the optimal operating distances are mm, mm, and mm, respectively, and the optimal operating heights are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. it can be seen from table that, during operation, the higher the percentile, the higher the comfort value, with the comfort value being greater than with the increase in the percentile. this means that, the larger the person, the greater the stress on the limbs and joints, and the greater the discomfort. figures – indicate that, the higher the percentile, the greater the lower back pressure. tables and from the rula score also indicate that taller people seem to be more likely to suffer from wmsds. this is because taller workers do the same welding work, but their posture adjustment is larger and their discomfort is enhanced. this is consistent with previous research results, which state that the higher the body mass index (bmi), the greater the risk of developing wmsds [ ]. according to figures and , when comparing the standing raising arm posture with the standing contracting arm posture, the latter exerts more force on the lower back at the same operating distance. moreover, by comparing the six digital humans in the standing contracting arm operation of figure , it was found that, when the operating distance is the same, the upper limbs are longer and the lower back is more stressed. this also proves that the curved upper limb posture causes greater lower back force when the operating distance is same. this conclusion confirms the results of using catia software to improve the research of hand-held dental devices [ ]. our study of neck posture cleverly applied visualization techniques. the rotation of the eyeball translates into the rotation of the neck under direct vision. the neck will feel uncomfortable when the horizontal rotation angle exceeds ◦ and the neck vertical rotation angle exceeds . ◦, according to our force analysis of the neck. . conclusions ( ) from the study of the lower back pressure, comfort value, and upper limb force, it is not recommended for welders to use a welding torch weighing more than kg. ( ) when considering the lower back pressure and upper limb force, for males in the th, th, and th percentile of body size, the optimal operating distances are mm, mm, and mm, respectively, and the optimal operating heights are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. for females in the th, th, and th percentile of body size, the optimal operating distances are mm, mm, and mm, respectively, and the optimal operating heights are mm, mm, and mm, respectively. ( ) the horizontal angle of rotation of the welder’s neck should not exceed ◦ and the vertical angle of rotation should not exceed . ◦. author contributions: x.w. conceived the key ideas and the system architecture; y.z. conducted the research; x.x. collected and analyzed the basic data; y.z. and j.g. wrote the paper; and j.c. reviewed the process. funding: this work was supported financially by the moe (ministry of education in china) project of humanities and social sciences (nos. yjczh ), fundamental research funds for the central universities of china ( - - - ). the national key r&d program of china ( yfc ) and the basic research funding of china academy of safety science and technology ( jbky , jbky ). the authors would like to thank all of the participants in the study. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of references . krüger, k.; petermann, c.; pilat, c.; schubert, e.; pons-kühnemann, j.; mooren, f.c. preventive strength training improves working ergonomics during welding. int. j. occup. saf. ergon. , , – . 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[crossref] . muhammad icsal, m.a.; sabilu, y.; pratiwi, a.d. faktor yang berhubungan dengan keluhan musculoskeletal disorders (msds) pada penjahit wilayah pasar panjang kota kendari tahun . j. ilm. mhs. kesehat. masy. , . . hallaj, s.; razi, s. design and evaluation of an arm support for prevention of msds in dentists. adv. ergon. des. , , – . © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.rcim. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jaciii. .p http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ergon. . . http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. introduction research methods digital human body modeling welding environment setting welding torch weight setting upper limb posture setting neck posture setting results welding torch weight lower back assessment (lba) comfort assessment (ca) ovako working postures analysis (owas) welder upper limb posture welder operating distance welding torch height from the ground welder neck posture discussion conclusions references (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: the consequences of framing digital humanities tools as easy to use paige morgan p.morgan@miami.edu orcid: - - - abstract this article examines the recurring ways in which some of the most popular dh tools are presented as easy to use. it argues that attempts to couch powerful tools in what is often false familiarity, directly undermines the goal of encouraging scholarly innovation and risk taking. the consequences of framing digital tools as either easy or more difficult shapes the relationship between librarians and the students and faculty whose research they support, and, more broadly, the role and viability of libraries as spaces devoted to skill acquisition. keywords: infrastructure, digital humanities, dh tools, dh pedagogy a digital humanities librarian provides consultations to researchers who are developing or struggling with dh projects. frequently, these consultations begin with the researcher apologizing and explaining to the librarian their poor aptitude for digital humanities. in many cases, these researchers’ prior experience includes a referral to one or more digital humanities tools that have been branded as user-friendly/easy to use. at first, it can look as though this phenomenon is chiefly the result of language and rhetoric used to frame various dh tools — a component influenced by the software industry’s move towards graphical user interfaces and marketing software for everyone to use, whether in the workplace or at home, regardless of gender, age, or other factors that affect digital tools. that language remains the article’s primary focus. however, the issue is not simply tool-framing language. the taglines and framing in tool mailto:p.morgan@miami.edu http://orcid.org/ - - - (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: documentation are the most visible and stable form, as opposed to more ephemeral instances of language in libguides, promotional materials, and workshops and conversations at conferences. researchers are encountering and struggling with an approach to dh growth and expansion that substantially relies on marketing aspects of dh research as easy. in other words, this article explores the way that our framing for dh tools and resources shapes researchers’ emotions and expectations. sociologist susan leigh star examined “the work behind the work” in scientific research contexts, meaning “the countless, taken-for-granted and often dismissed practices of assistants, technicians, and students that made scientific breakthroughs possible” (timmermans , ). the infrastructure set-up for digital humanities, and the pressures that it places on students, serve as a parallel area of hidden work that can be illuminated. despite the presence of “easiness” rhetoric in multiple contexts, tool presentation language is often the most concrete example that is available for analysis. tool presentation language is the material that constitutes users’ introduction to the tool — usually the front page of a website, the about page, and any promotional videos — the materials that create a tool’s reputation. instead of residing in a particular tool, or the tool creators’ choices, this is a problem within the design of the larger field of the digital humanities, a problem that can remain largely invisible. recent efforts in library and dh scholarship have focused on illuminating work in digital humanities that tends to go unseen (shirazi ); by unpacking the challenges around tool framing, one can lay the ground for working with them more effectively. defining easiness (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: ease of use is one of the most desirable characteristics for any given tool — rivaled only in popularity by the quality of being free. it is not merely a digital humanities fascination — developers have been pursuing the creation of user-friendly graphical interfaces since the late s. that pursuit has its own complex and continuing history, bound up in corporate rivalry and the outsized influence of certain tech leaders, such as steve jobs and his fascination with skeuomorphic design. as the tech industry has exerted influence on dh in many ways, it is unsurprising that dh tools have emulated this aspect of tech design. easiness can seem like an obvious goal for dh support practitioners and tool developers; it goes hand in hand with efforts to democratize the field and make learning and research opportunities more available, regardless of whether institutions have existing and active dh programs. the easier it is to do dh, the more people will try it out — an appealing prospect at a time when humanities departments are looking for ways of asserting their continuing relevance, reinventing themselves in response to cultural shifts, and working to demonstrate that they provide students with job-ready skills. easiness is attractive in part because it is powerful. the availability of easy-to- use tools shapes dh support infrastructure and affects how dh is incorporated into the classroom, in terms of how much time is needed to show students how to configure a tool and begin using it. for individual scholars developing projects, perceived ease or difficulty can be a deciding factor if there are multiple tools from which to choose and may determine whether the scholar decides to pursue the project at all. transitioning to digital from conventional printed scholarship includes an adjustment to iterating through (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: multiple stages; and may involve multiple, modular outputs, such as datasets, websites, and processing workflows (brown et. al. , par. ). the technical and scholarly ambitiousness of a particular project will intersect with each other. depending on a scholar or team’s prior experience, the impacts of this intersection may be hard to predict (brown et. al. , par. ). the problem of unpredictable challenges is complicated further by the pressure researchers face to show their deliverables to colleagues who may be less accustomed to the ups and downs of iteration, but are still called to evaluate it, either for promotion or degree completion. while guidelines and articles from major disciplinary organizations (modern language association ; presner ; american historical association ) discussing the evaluation of digital scholarship acknowledge the iterative nature of digital work, it is harder for such guidelines to prepare colleagues for evaluating mid-stage outputs with aesthetics that may not match the sophistication of the various commercial websites that individuals encounter every day. all these factors contribute to making “easy” tools compelling. despite its considerable dazzle, easiness is an abstract and intangible quality; the promise of easiness, or an easy-to-use tool, is that some process (whether display, formatting, organization, or analysis) can be accomplished with minimal difficulty, confusion, or extra labor. when such processes are simplified, researchers feel more able to focus their learning on what they perceive as most relevant to their research question and intellectual work. in digital humanities, and in the context of technology generally, easiness is most likely to be associated with tools that are classified as “out- of-the-box,” meaning that they do not require configuration or modification to work, or “off-the-shelf,” meaning that they are standardized, rather than customized, and (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: intended for general audiences to be able to use. because easiness is abstract, it can be taken as synonymous for other qualities, like speed (cf. various statements about accomplishing a process or analysis with “one click”). though the variants on “easy” are common in tool branding, terms like “fast” and “simple” are regular alternatives. for many tools, it would be more accurate to say that they make a given process not easy, but easier than an alternative. easiness is subjective — what is easy for one user may not be for another. it is important to understand that easiness is subjective because it is situated and dependent upon other factors. these factors include the particular nature of the material being worked with (i.e., whether the material is text or image-based), and its condition (i.e., whether a dataset has been examined and normalized), as well as the availability (or lack) of training or experience that provides a user with relevant contextual knowledge. however, researchers may not see this situatedness clearly. finally, because easiness is both powerful and subjective, it is value-laden; and it carries a backlash for individuals who expect to find a process or tool to be easy yet discover the opposite. the backlash comes in part from researchers’ inexperience with the various interdependencies and situatedness of easiness — many of which are complexities of technological, academic, and library systems and infrastructure. ideally, a researcher pushes past the backlash, and over time they gain familiarity and experience that help them make choices about their research project or their career with greater autonomy. part of the reason that claims about easiness have such weight is that they inevitably tell us stories about the available infrastructure and its condition — whether or not there are opportunities to learn a particular skill (e.g., a coding (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: language), and how legible and genuine those opportunities appear to the audience for whom the tool is intended. as a result, scrutinizing easiness rhetoric can be helpful for librarians and administrators who are trying to get a clearer sense of their patrons’ needs, or who want to think more critically about the type of support they are providing. examples of easiness framing easiness has become sufficiently important that in digital humanities libguides and tool bibliographies, it may be the first or second characteristic mentioned for any tool listed. a typical description might consist of one or two sentences explaining “[tool] is free and easy to use and allows you to [process/visualize/analyze content].” this sort of description echoes the taglines and catchphrases associated with various tools. besides omeka and scalar, there is stanford’s palladio (“visualize complex historical data with ease.”), the knight lab’s timelinejs (“easy-to-make, beautiful timelines”) and juxtaposejs (“easy-to-make frame comparisons”), cartodb (“maps for the web, made easy” – while this is no longer cartodb’s official catchphrase, it is still widely visible in search results). although qualities such as access, sustainability, and portability are significant concerns in dh, in examining libguides and other dh tool roundups, one sees that they are referenced far less than if a tool will be easy. the guide authors try to succinctly articulate what each tool is meant to do; what processes it speeds up, facilitates, or makes easier; and the language that is used to present its capabilities and its value to potential users. in order to get a concrete sense of how this language appears, and the promises and assertions that tool framing makes, this article will examine three tools developed (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: specifically for dh use within the last ten years. the point of this examination is not to critique or accuse the tools – they are merely the most concrete and available examples of a more widespread ephemeral phenomenon that shows up not only in written contexts, but also in workshops, webinars, and casual conversations. omeka.net omeka was released by the center for history and new media at george mason university in , and it is intended for an audience of users in the galleries, libraries, archives, and museums (glam) sector, as well as anyone else wanting to build exhibits and collections online. it allows for the creation of multiple collections of items with metadata structured according to disciplinary or institutional schemas and standards. users have the ability to follow widespread practices that will make their data interoperable, adjust those schemas to a local house style, or do a bit of each as needed. the sort of functionality that omeka makes possible is available in software developed for the glam community but is often priced at an institutional level that puts it out of reach of individuals and the smallest institutions. this sort of software may be available as open-source and may require experienced tech support personnel to manage the back-end setup and ongoing maintenance. since the initial release, the omeka development team has worked to improve the tool’s functionality and accessibility, both through the omeka.net subscription service and by making it available as a “one-click install” through internet service providers like reclaim hosting. omeka’s contributions are remarkable, though hard to explain succinctly for audiences who are unfamiliar with the existing software contexts. dan cohen summarized it as “wordpress for your exhibits and collections” at the original release, (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: aiming at a description that would make it easy for people to describe the tool to others. up until september , omeka.net featured a prominent tagline: “your online exhibit is one click away.” in its website redesign that tagline was replaced by a less exuberant description: getting started is easy with omeka with our hosted service.” the omeka.org website continues marketing omeka via cohen’s original wordpress reference under the heading “simple to use”: “our ‘five-minute setup’ makes launching an online exhibition as easy as starting a blog. no code knowledge required.” this rhetoric isn’t precisely mismatched, because omeka does indeed allow users to start adding items and metadata right away. for those already versed in metadata standards and best practices, the main learning curve will involve getting accustomed to the interface. however, many digital humanists coming from departments such as english and history are unlikely to have received this training, and as such, face an additional and substantial learning curve, because there is more to a good omeka exhibit than simply getting content onto the web. the omeka.net documentation acknowledges this challenge in its getting started section, where it recommends that users plan out their content before building an omeka website and refers them to cohen & rosenzweig’s digital history: a guide to gathering, preserving, and, presenting the past on the web. the omeka.org documentation goes further, recommending that users sketch out wireframes of their site prior to building it. both versions of omeka encourage new users to explore the showcases of existing omeka sites. but while omeka may make building an exhibit as easy as blogging on a technical level, its framing is easily misunderstood by users who fail to anticipate the complex intellectual work required to produce a site that is ready to share publicly. (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: scalar scalar is the creation of the alliance for networking and visual culture (anvc) in association with vectors journal and the institute for multimedia literacy at the university of southern california. an open beta version was released in spring , and the current version, scalar . , was released in late . anvc presents their work as “explor[ing] new forms of scholarly publishing aimed at easing the current economic crisis faced by many university presses while also serving as a model for media-rich digital publication,” and describes scalar as a “key part” of this process, facilitating collaboration and material sharing between libraries, archives, scholarly societies and presses” (anvc: about the alliance n.d.). these partnerships have resulted in one of scalar’s most unique features: the ability to add images and videos from organizations like the shoah foundation and the internet archive to a scalar site by performing a keyword search, selecting results with a checkbox, and clicking a button to import them, along with any associated metadata. this entire process (including the optional step of editing individual item metadata) can be performed within the scalar user interface. once imported, users can select from a few different layouts available via a dropdown menu in order to emphasize text or media, or split the emphasis between the two (scalar: selecting a page's default view, n.d.). the other feature that especially distinguishes scalar from other cmss is the structural freedom that it grants users. where blogging platforms like blogger, wordpress, and dreamwidth structure content chronologically, scalar has no default organizational structure. instead, it allows users to create pages, which can be (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: combined into paths, annotated, tagged, or used as tags for other content. this gives them multiple options for creating non-linear, nested, radial, recursive, and intersecting narratives. configuring these choices is accomplished primarily through a relationships menu at the bottom of each page created, below the main text input window. the actual, final steps of creating an organic structure through a combination of selecting objects and dragging and dropping them within a gui requires far fewer steps in scalar than it would in any other environment, and is further enhanced by the fact that scalar includes options to show visual representations of the structure (path view, tag view). however, this structural freedom is also the aspect of scalar that requires the most careful advance planning from users in order to avoid producing a tangle of disconnected, disparate files. as such, its organizational freedom is simultaneously the feature that most complicates scalar’s self-presentation of easiness. like omeka, scalar articulates its claim of easiness through a comparison to blogging (“...if you can post to a blog, you can use scalar”), pointing to the similarities of the wysiwyg interface in its text input window and those used by wordpress and other blogging platforms. the trailer also connects itself to the activity of blogging by emphasizing the simplicity with which authors can work with a wide range of media types — not just how easy it is to “import media directly without cutting and pasting code” but also combining different types of media, such as “tagging poems with videofiles or tagging images with audiofiles.” what the trailer wants to convey is that any media type the user could imagine — from images and text to maps and source code — can be juxtaposed within a scalar book, all without requiring the book’s author to have any knowledge of markup language. this emphasis on diverse media formats is (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: coupled throughout the trailer with statements about scalar’s ability to handle quantity — not only in terms of media, but also that scalar makes it “easy to work with multiple authors because each author’s contributions are tracked and all versions preserved.” as the trailer ends, the narrator reiterates that despite the wide variety of options available (visualizations, paths, annotations, etc.), “all these objects are designed to work together to make it easier for you to create objects to think with — the thinking is still up to you.” as was the case with omeka, scalar’s claims aren’t untrue – it does offer unique functionality that simplifies and streamlines the processes of juxtaposing media and crafting non-linear narratives; and it does so in a way that saves considerable technical labor. in emphasizing its most innovative functionalities, however, scalar’s framing underemphasizes that these functionalities come with their own particular workload. the more complex a narrative structure is, and the more material it contains, the more important it is to have experience managing data with workflows, strict file naming practices, and/or data dictionaries. without such practices, or a site structure that has been carefully determined in advance, users are more likely to end up with a tangled mess rather than the sophisticated site that they had hoped for. likewise, scalar’s documentation raises the question of what tool managers tell users to prepare them for the work of developing site structure. scalar’s presentation materials focus on the ease with which scalar can keep track of multiple users – however, this focus tends to obscure the social decision making that will almost certainly be required; as well as the emphasis on how much freedom to show different objects skirts around the reality that producing a good site is often a case of learning (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: what not to show in order to keep the narrative streamlined and compelling, rather than simply showing a great quantity of objects. dh box dhbox (http://www.dhbox.org) is currently in development at the cuny graduate center. as the newest of the tools that i have examined in this piece, dhbox is an indication that easy tool rhetoric is still being used. dhbox uses containers to create remote environments in the cloud that are already configured for several popular and powerful dh tools, including ipython, rstudio, wordpress, and mallet. containers allow programs to run in virtual environments that are identical, rather than risking the possibility that some users’ settings and configurations will generate errors. using pre- configured container environments can substantially cut down on the set-up time before students can get started actually using tools. the streamlined setup enables students to work with complex tools like mallet and the nltk on their own laptops without needing a physical computer lab, or requiring the instructor to consult or negotiate with campus it personnel. dhbox makes a few prominent claims about its easiness. a brief statement centered on its front page explains that “setting up an environment for digital humanities computational work can be time-consuming and difficult. dh box addresses this problem by streamlining installation processes and providing a digital humanities laboratory in the cloud through simple sign-in via a web browser.” the “about” page reiterates that dhbox allows a cloud laboratory to be deployed “quickly and easily” from (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: any computer with an internet connection, promising a device agnostic lab ready to go in minutes. though dhbox emphasizes how much easier it is to use than it is to create a lab from scratch, it is not actually intended for beginners, as a closer look at the about page shows. dhbox makes it simple to set up a lab if you have an internet connection and “some contextual knowledge.” this abstract phrase gets clarified further down — the tool is intended for users who “know what the command line is” and “what a server does.” for others, the creators recommend a list of four resources to help bring potential users into the target audience, including a portion of the apache http server documentation, shaw’s “the command line the hard way” book, lessons hosted at the programming historian site, and posner’s “how did they make that?.” this is a substantial reading list, but one that should provide a novice digital humanist with a solid grounding in the relevant concepts. oddly enough, there is no explicit suggestion that individuals using dhbox need to understand how the gold-standard tools it contains work — the implication is that once the virtual lab is up and running, the rest of the progress will follow naturally. the idea of easiness, especially in tech contexts, is often associated with support for new and inexperienced users; however, dhbox is a reminder that the situated nature of easiness means that it can also be intended specifically for advanced users. the presentation materials for dhbox attempt to be direct with would-be users by offering two benchmark questions that must be answered in order to use the tool productively; and the creators acknowledge that users might need to learn more, rather than simply suggesting that the tool will have excellent results for anyone and everyone. (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: what tool users are looking for tool users want the easiest experience possible, but looking at these three tools in particular enables one to more concretely define what easiness means in the context of dh. the emphasis on graphical user interfaces and no coding or technical knowledge suggests a desire for as little preparation as possible — particularly the desire to avoid learning material that is purely technical and has no equivalent in their home disciplines, such as understanding image aspect ratios or file compatibility issues. for researchers who are already overburdened, this is an understandable rational economic choice. users are also looking for tools that give them the ability to fully realize their imaginations, and to produce something new and dramatically different from what non- dh methods allow. this output could be new because it is a highly visual digital exhibit, or because it features non-linear narratives or juxtapositions of strikingly different media, or because it makes it possible for an entire graduate seminar to have access to sophisticated analytical tools like rstudio and mallet. users may likewise be looking for tools that allow them to explore a particular method in depth, and achieve mastery, especially within a given period of time, i.e., one semester-long course (goldstone ). finally, though this is rarely made directly explicit by the tool presentations themselves, users want stability, and to feel that any effort that they make in a tool will be rewarded and worthwhile, rather than failing (terras a; terras b). this is most evident in language that gestures towards the tool’s output. sometimes this is conveyed by promising speed (an exhibit that is one click away) and sometimes by (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: promising complexity. scalar’s creators understand that “important topics require time and sustained attention to be fully explored,” and work to convey to authors that with scalar, they will be able to create a scalar book that is worthy of committed attention from readers. while digital humanists may want to avoid spending time acquiring extraneous knowledge, they are drawn to the field because they are willing to make an investment — but they want that investment to “provide a satisfying moment of completion” (brown , par. ) or move them closer to being able to declare the project finished (kirschenbaum , par. ). in light of these needs, we might ask whether easiness is a quality that digital humanities tool creators should pursue. in “blunt instrumentalism: on tools and methods,” dennis tenen ( ) argues in favor of caution around easiness in dh research, because prioritizing it often comes at the expense of understanding the critical inner workings of analytical tools. overreliance on out-of-the-box tools can result in researchers confusing the tools themselves with methodologies ( ), and the end result is that the scholarship is less finely-grained and rigorous. the best kinds of tools, according to tenen, are “the ones we make ourselves” – though he acknowledges the formidable labor involved in producing, marketing, and maintaining such tools, especially when working within academic contexts. tenen characterizes a preference for easiness as a sort of intellectual laziness or lazy thinking, when more attention to method is warranted ( ). in some cases, this critique is highly applicable; in others, it fails to take in to account that the preference for easiness is influenced by a lack of infrastructure – and that some tools, like dh box, are intended specifically to solve the common infrastructure problem of a lack of physical space. out-of-the-box tools, which (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: might be better characterized as “entry-level” dh tools, are arguably fulfilling a community need. but whose role and responsibility is it to guide new users through those tools and into the more complex understanding of methodologies that might develop as users become more familiar with them? how libraries fit into dh infrastructure growth whether identified as “digital humanities” or previous terms like “humanities computing” or “technological humanities,” librarians and scholars have been using tools in research contexts for a long time. the current wave of dh seems to have begun around ten years ago, kicked off in part by the creation and release of affordable and user-friendly tools like omeka, as well as chnm’s zotero citation manager. william pannapacker’s pronouncement in the chronicle of higher education that dh seemed like “the first ‘next big thing’ in a long time,” was disputed by digital humanists for whom the field was nothing new — still, pannapacker’s observation reflected the start of a rise in dh-focused hiring. while the quantity of available new dh-focused positions was overstated in some cases (risam ), there has been demonstrable growth in certain sectors. in , there were two searches for digital humanities librarian jobs, and that number has risen steadily since, with twenty-eight job searches for librarians or similarly titled library-based, front-facing positions (such as digital scholarship coordinator, digital scholarship lead) in both and — an indication that libraries are actively working to increase their direct involvement with dh (morgan and williams ). (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: as the field of digital humanities and the number of roles associated with it have grown, various concerns and questions have arisen about how to effectively build infrastructure and support systems that are both productive and scalable. many of these discussions focus on the roles that libraries and librarians play — whether in supporting dh as a service, being the driving force or an active collaborator in dh growth, or providing much needed guidance for archiving and maintaining digital scholarly work. as projects and tools have been created and aged and sometimes disappeared, the larger dh community has begun to be more aware of the importance of sustainability (davis ). furthermore, in enterprise-level software and hardware provision, librarians have far more expertise and experience than traditional academic personnel. however, this pressure to achieve success and provide expertise risks becoming unsustainable for libraries themselves, while simultaneously failing to fully acknowledge the contributions that they have made to dh growth. there are several excellent articles and essays discussing the opportunities and challenges that libraries face as they develop involvement and support strategies for digital humanities and digital scholarship. in this instance, i want to focus on the challenges that out-of-the-box, easy-to-use tools seem to have the potential to ameliorate, if not solve completely. these include the tendency to assign librarians or coordinators ample amounts of responsibility for creating digital humanities successes without giving them the necessary authority to do so (posner , ), a lack of training opportunities (posner , ), and a tendency to award credit for achievements to faculty, rather than library collaborators (posner , ). these hurdles are further complicated by the sheer variety of requests that occur, many of (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: which include requests for time-consuming and non-extensible customization (vinopal and mccormick , ). libraries and librarians are under pressure to produce demonstrable results; to have learned enough from “intensive development for boutique projects” to provide the scalable support that scholars need, often as inexpensively as possible (maron and pickle , ); and to have a reproducible model that can be clearly articulated to stakeholders, and adapted as needed over time. easy-to-use tools can help with many of these challenges. because they are branded as entry-level tools, and have documentation, they are positioned to allow librarians to be more hands-off, relieving them of the responsibility for success. if librarians are more hands-off, they are less likely to go uncredited for their work; and if the tools can offer the right balance of restrictions and customization, then the library is absolved of that burden as well. the arl spec kit for digital humanities survey found that % of libraries characterized their digital humanities services as offered on an “ad hoc” basis (bryson et. al. , ) — sometimes described as a “service-and-support” model, where projects are initiated by faculty who approach the library with ideas (posner ; muñoz ). an alternate approach is the skunkworks or library incubator model (see muñoz ; nowviskie ), where the library develops dh projects in which it plays a leadership role and allows students and faculty opportunities to be involved. the ad hoc or service-and-support model can be problematic because relatively few members of the campus community have access to it.the skunkworks/incubator model depends on the library having the startup expertise it needs to develop and execute good projects that are compelling to faculty and students, and that provide them with (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: opportunities to develop the experience and skills that they see as useful. even when an incubator can successfully create opportunities that draw faculty and students in, access can be fairly limited. both of these models have risks in terms of sustainability and scalability. a third model has emerged, one that is more scalable and sustainable — let’s call it “lightweight-service-and-support.” this model may include one or more dedicated personnel, i.e. a dh librarian or specifically dh programmer, but it is resource- conservative, and cautious about providing too much one-to-one guidance that would be unfair to other support seekers, because such guidance would not scale, and would quickly constitute a significant/unsustainable time commitment for the librarian or team. the lightweight-service-and-support model relies heavily on easy-to-use tools, which offer researchers several options while still scaling well to a library’s support capacity. the tools’ user community, documentation, and their popularity (which can result in how-to videos and example projects) helps to lessen the amount of training, management, and outreach that librarians need to do. this model looks very similar to the second tier of support that vinopal and mccormick ( ) explain how the supported tools “should offer a fixed set of templates, so users can pick the format, style, or functionality that best meets their needs … if services at this level are well- designed and supported, a majority of scholars could rely on these sustainable alternatives to one-off solutions” ( ). vandegrift and varner likewise gesture towards this model when they provide a concise formula for how libraries should conceptualize their dh offerings: “the goal is to have the fewest tools to support that meet the most needs” ( , ). lightweight-service-and-support need not be the only tier of the (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: model as vinopal and mccormick’s four-tiered model makes clear; however, in the absence of resources for higher tiers to develop potentially ground-breaking and grant- winning projects, lightweight-service-and-support can still serve a wide range of community members. establishing practices and models that can help make dh in libraries sustainable and scalable is important work that can and will help libraries continue evolving along with scholarly disciplines. but are the practices that are scalable and sustainable for libraries equally sustainable and scalable for the faculty and students who look to the library for dh opportunities? dh as scalable and nonscalable to explain further, anthropologist anna lowenhaupt tsing defines scalability as the ability to expand without having to rethink or transform the underlying basic elements. she examines scalability as a specific approach to design — one that has allowed for both the precision of the factory and the computer; and she argues that scalability is so ubiquitous and powerful that it stops us from noticing the aspects of the world that are not scalable. to push back against this suppressive impulse, tsing’s nonscalability theory is to allow us to see “how scalability uses articulations with nonscalable forms, even as it denies or erases them” (tsing , ). scalability prioritizes and values precision-nested fit — and it is the driving force behind much of our current infrastructure. the goals of nonscalability theory are to focus on perceiving the heterogeneous and nonscalable forms and understand that they, too, have roles to play in growth. at the heart of nonscalability theory is the question of how we look at, (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: and how we handle, the idea of diversity — specifically, the diversity of objects that do not fit within the precision-nested growth structures of scalability. diversity, argues tsing, isn’t simply different — it can contain the potential for transformative change. rawson and muñoz ( ) adapt tsing’s theoretical framework to unpack and examine their work “cleaning” data in the nypl’s “what’s on the menu?” archive, featuring over one hundred years of menus from restaurants, cafés, hotels, and other dining establishments. they argue that the concept of “data cleaning” and the use of the phrase “data cleaning” obscure the complex and heterogeneous details of the process as well as the degree to which it is high-stakes critical work with far-reaching effects that can impact the value of research findings. to reduce that process to “data cleaning” is to misunderstand a highly nonscalable process as a scalable one. rawson and muñoz set out to “clean” and normalize the data of different dishes and food items within the collection. although the nypl had arranged the menus in the collection to be interchangeable objects within the catalog, and although menus have a common overall format (i.e., food items with prices, grouped according to particular meals or particular sections of meals), each menu showed considerable variation. some of this variety was straightforward to normalize (e.g., fifteen variant listings for potatoes au gratin). to clean this data would be to make it scalable — to allow users to query the entire archive of menus to understand when, where, and how potatoes au gratin appeared, and get an accurate answer. however, as they worked to clean the data so that it would help answer research questions about the effect of wartime food rationing on menus or the changing boundaries of what constituted a dish over time, rawson and muñoz began to understand that reducing variants to a single value was “not a self- (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: contained problem, but rather an issue that required returning to [their] research questions and investigating the foods themselves.” the individual menu items’ heterogeneity was central to answering the research questions, and what was needed was not to make each food item scalable, but instead to create a dataset that would be compatible with the nypl archive and illuminate (and allow users to interact with) the nonscalable heterogeneous aspects of the menu contents. becoming aware of the pressures of scalability can be difficult even for experienced digital humanists. rawson and muñoz explain that when they began “cleaning” their data, they saw their main challenge and goal as “processing enough values quickly enough to ‘get on with it’” (page). the characteristics associated with scalability — speed, simplicity, and unimpeded growth — have considerable overlap with the characteristics associated with easiness. the tools we use — whether we are their creators or their consumers — are not immune to the pressure to be scalable. tsing’s theory of nonscalability, which rawson and muñoz have shown to have considerable implications for how we conceive of our goals when working with data, is equally relevant to both dh projects and to the infrastructure that we build for people who are working on them. dh projects are nonscalable. this means that they are particularly nonscalable with various out-of-the-box tools (not only omeka and scalar) because as tsing explains, scalability is the “ability to expand without distorting the framework” (tsing , ). tools designed to present and process data may appear or present themselves as though they come with that framework in place. omeka has items and item types with metadata categories; scalar has pages, paths, and tags — but these components are building blocks, and a highly incomplete framework, if they (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: can be said to be a framework at all. and this is precisely as it should be — they are there to be distorted, or, rather, to be transformed, as researchers’ projects take shape. when tools present themselves as easy, quick, and simple, they are promising the user that working with them will be scalable. and when those of us who are in the position of introducing those tools reiterate and reinforce that presentation, we are likewise telling researchers that they should expect scalability and strive for it, despite the fact that they are engaging in an eminently nonscalable process. we are encouraging them to imagine the complex diversity of their material without preparing them for the transformative process that including it will require. instead of helping them learn to see heterogeneity, and find effective ways of interacting with it, by training them to expect easiness, we are leaving an empty space in their preparation — and that space is as likely as not to end up filled with a conviction of their own inadequacy. the consequence is not only this emotional plunge. out-of-the-box tools may successfully circumvent technical work, but in doing so, they may also bypass the thought process of imagining a research question and its answers beyond the constraints and affordances of a single tool. this can impact the depth and richness of the answer to the research question, as well as the project’s long-term sustainability. thinking beyond the capabilities of a particular tool can also be an opportunity for researchers to utilize their existing disciplinary expertise in making decisions about data categories and relationships between materials – and in the process, gain much needed confidence for future experimentation, allowing them to work with less dependence upon librarians or other support personnel. (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: possible avenues for intervention the ways that “easiness” rhetoric can shape tool users’ expectations and experiences are a challenge. this challenge intersects with a related problem, namely, that the community of practice in dh is still grappling with how best to incorporate data modeling in dh. a data model defines the objects or entries that a database (or really any data presentation system, including content management systems) contains. it sets out the rules for how different pieces of data are connected with each other. if entries have additional data that modifies them (i.e., a data model about individuals might include their nationality, and depending on the focus of the database, one part of the model might specifically focus on defining how to record complexities around nationality, such as individuals who are born in one country to parents who are citizens of another country.) effectively incorporating data modeling involves articulating the questions and complexities that accompany it in humanities contexts; and the work of disseminating and/or training dhers to understand their work with various tools as data modeling. posner has previously noted that “humanists have a very different way of engaging with evidence than most scientists or social scientists” (posner ). for example, close reading is more likely to work towards describing a specific pattern within a text and tracing it from its start to end point. the focus of many traditional humanities scholarly essays is identifying and elucidating one or a small number of objects which are unique. to use tsing here, humanities research is much more focused on illuminating and celebrating nonscalability; thus, it is no surprise that humanists have, even within the dh community, hesitated about invoking the idea of “data” in relation to their work. (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: however, organizing data is what allows researchers to produce scholarship (posner ). when the omeka documentation suggests that users should plan their site before beginning to use the tool, they are obliquely suggesting that scholars need to develop a data model that allows an omeka site to be driven by a more complex principle than “let me show you all my stuff.” scalar users face the same challenge — perhaps even more so, since in scalar the capacity for non-linear and intersecting paths plus the ability to display both text and media-focused pages means that scholars could conceivably be working with two interlocking data models: one for their narrative and one for their non-narrative content. and this need applies to other dh tools as well — including several of the tools available through dhbox. data modeling is not easy work — but helping students understand how it fits into the process of working with so-called “easy” tools would be one way of preparing them better. this example (and potential impact) of data modeling underscores that the problems created by easy tool rhetoric cannot simply be attributed to the tool creators and the teams that designed and wrote their publicity materials. if our libguides and workshop promotional materials draw on the same tool presentation that emphasizes easiness, then we are also using easiness rhetoric just as the tool makers are. who has the responsibility and capacity to intervene in this situation? what kind of intervention is appropriate? while tool creators bear some responsibility, there is, in most cases, a gap between the authors of a tool’s presentation site and the readers. librarians who are mentoring students and faculty who are learning new tools — or who are in charge of designing and maintaining a local infrastructure system — are positioned to fill that gap because they are usually closer to the learners than the tool creators are. given (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: humanists’ uncertainty around thinking of their materials as data (keener , par. ), librarians and instructors offering basic tool trainings are more likely to be successful because they can have conversations that go both ways in consulting contexts. our models for dh development and support in libraries need to consider not only what tools to provide — but also how those tools’ capabilities and reputation shape infrastructure — and how we can design around the tools’ rhetoric in response. in “on nonscalability,” tsing points out several examples in which scalability has been achieved in part through a reliance on disciplined labor. one example that she uses is that of sugar cane cutters in puerto rico in the s. the workers had a limited time frame in which to work, and their working conditions were crowded and dangerous — especially because of the sharp machetes that each worker used. the result was that “workers were forced to use their full energy and attention to cut in synchrony and avoid injury” (tsing , ). by disciplining themselves to learn the skill of synchronous cutting, they solved the company’s problem — and transformed themselves from nonscalable individuals into a scalable work force. disciplined labor can be created when any powerful entity (a factory, a corporation, or even a library) identifies an infrastructural problem that they then leave to less powerful individuals to solve by changing themselves in some way. the creation of disciplined labor isn’t necessarily malicious. in the context of library infrastructure for dh tools, the problem is the nonscalability of individual dh projects versus the scalable support that we offer in the form of entry-level tools. because the tools present themselves as easy to use, it is easier for libraries (and departments) to decide that only minimal training is needed, and that the rest can be left to the students themselves. the students become disciplined (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: laborers because they see dh tool facility as leading both to greater prestige and to jobs. even when tools make beneficial achievements in terms of what is possible, the potential for problems exists. scalar, omeka, dhbox, and numerous other tools that can be used for dh make it possible for researchers to produce scholarly objects that would not have been possible otherwise without months or sometimes years of training. dhbox takes three tremendous difficulties (money, space, staff), and transforms them into a different difficulty (an individual user’s knowledge of servers and the command line). scalar and omeka transform the challenge of needing knowledge around databases, html, and css, transforming those challenges into the need for a user to understand how to develop an effective data model. all three tools are beneficial to the larger community of practice of digital humanities – and, yet, all three can be problematic as well, because through the combination of the way that libraries use them in building dh infrastructure, and the way that the tools present themselves, they shift tremendous responsibility for success directly onto the individual user and that user’s capacity to pick up wide-ranging (and not always easily accessible) knowledge on the fly. the resulting phenomenon is a form of what economist jacob hacker ( ) has identified as “risk shift.” hacker identifies risk shift by tracing changes in frameworks for economic protection (including banking, income, healthcare, and retirement). risk shift is the phenomenon by which support provided by larger corporate and social entities (employers, insurance companies, banks) is withdrawn, and responsibility for preventing risks is placed on individual families. while hacker’s research traces this phenomenon through the larger american employment system, sociologist tressie mcmillan cottom’s (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: recent book lower ed: the troubling rise of for-profit colleges in the new economy argues that the same risk shift can be seen in the higher education system as credential costs that used to be supported by federal grants have shifted more onto students. a certain reliance on dh tools marketed as “easy to use” creates a similar risk shift for our students and faculty learning to use them, including librarians who are working with limited amounts of time to pick up dh skills and experience. there is no simple solution to the problems that can be created by “easiness” rhetoric. certainly, the answer is not that the tools featuring it are bad and that we should stop using them. nor is it for us to take a reverse approach and brand the tools as ultra-challenging, suitable only for hardcore data nerds (a problematic approach that has been an aspect of dh in the past in debates about hacking vs. yacking (cecire ; nowviskie ). training and dialogue specifically focused on data modeling throughout the community could and will be very helpful, but it will take time for that to happen. if it does, it will be well-augmented by a more complex understanding among dh infrastructure providers (whether in libraries, centers, or departments) of what scalability means with regard to dh. among other things, this more complex understanding might involve scrutinizing what needs tools are meeting — scrutinize these needs especially through the tools’ marketing and self-presentation — and consider how those needs might shape infrastructure. one specific aspect of this might involve looking at the differences between what tool presentation leads users to think they need (i.e. lots of different types of media) vs. the contextual knowledge that more experienced digital humanists know they need (including naming conventions, data models, etc.). this doesn’t mean that libraries necessarily have to dramatically increase (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: their dh infrastructure investment or expend substantially more resources — if we are alert, deliberate, and proactive, it is possible to build infrastructure that is scalable, both for libraries, and for our users. conclusion when researchers embarking on a digital humanities project look for the right tool, the perceived easiness of that tool is an important consideration. tools that can provide an easy-to-use experience are becoming an important part of library infrastructure for dh because they seem to require less support and labor from library personnel involved in introducing dh methodologies to students and faculty. however, tools branded as “easy to use” can create a backlash in which users’ research stalls and they blame themselves when a particular tool was more difficult than they expected. this article has sought to better understand the challenges presented by easy tool rhetoric for dh service providers by examining the presentation and documentation of three digital humanities tools. this examination revealed that though the tools have made valuable contributions that substantially simplify certain technical aspects of producing websites and multimedia objects, the rhetoric of their presentation tends to elide the vital and challenging critical thinking that users must do while using the tools. this elision underscores key competencies, such as data modelling, that the larger digital humanities community is only just beginning to grapple with. libraries have an important role to play in helping tool users develop knowledge that will avoid the backlash of easy tools. (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: [many thanks to yvonne lam for invaluable conversations throughout the development of this essay; and to alex gil, yvonne lam, emily mcginn, roopika risam, and rachel shaw for feedback on earlier versions.] references “alliance for networking visual culture.” n.d. http://scalar.usc.edu/ “alliance for networking visual culture » about the alliance.” n.d. http://scalar.usc.edu/about/ american historical association. . “guidelines for the professional evaluation of digital scholarship by historians | aha.” american historical association. june. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/digital-history-resources/evaluation-of- digital-scholarship-in-history/guidelines-for-the-professional-evaluation-of-digital- scholarship-by-historians brown, susan, patricia clements, isobel grundy, stan ruecker, jeffery antoniuk, and sharon balazs. . “published yet never done: the tension between projection and completion in digital humanities research.” digital humanities quarterly ( ). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html bryson, tim, miriam posner, alain st. pierre, and stewart varner. . “digital humanities, (spec kit ). http://publications.arl.org/digital-humanities-spec-kit- / cecire, natalia. . “when digital humanities was in vogue.” journal of digital humanities ( ). http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /when-digital-humanities-was- in-vogue-by-natalia-cecire/ cohen, dan. . “introducing omeka.” dan cohen (blog), february . http://www.dancohen.org/ / / /introducing-omeka/ (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: cottom, tressie mcmillan. . lower ed: the troubling rise of for-profit colleges in the new economy. the new press. davis, robin camille. . “die hard: the impossible, absolutely essential task of saving the web for scholars.” presentation, eastern new york association of college & research libraries meeting, may . http://academicworks.cuny.edu/jj_pubs/ / “dh box.” n.d. http://dhbox.org/ “dh box: about.” n.d. http://dhbox.org/about goldstone, andrew. . “teaching quantitative methods: what makes it hard (in literary studies).” pre-print (forthcoming in debates in the digital humanities . https://doi.org/ . /t g skg. hacker, jacob. . the great risk shift: the new economic insecurity and the decline of the american dream. oxford, new york: oxford university press. keener, alix. . “the arrival fallacy: collaborative research relationships in the digital humanities.” digital humanities quarterly ( ). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html kirschenbaum, matthew g. . “done: finishing projects in the digital humanities.” digital humanities quarterly ( ). http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html maron, nancy l., and sarah pickle. . “sustaining the digital humanities host institution support beyond the start-up phase.” ithaka s+r. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/ /metadc /m / /high_res_d/sr_supporting _digital_humanities_ f.pdf (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: modern language association. . “guidelines for evaluating work in digital humanities and digital media” modern language association. january. https://www.mla.org/about- us/governance/committees/committee-listings/professional-issues/committee-on- information-technology/guidelines-for-evaluating-work-in-digital-humanities-and- digital-media morgan, paige, and helene williams. . “the expansion and development of dh/ds librarian roles: a preliminary look at the data.” presentation, digital libraries federation forum . https://osf.io/vu f/ munoz, trevor. . “in service? a further provocation on digital humanities research in libraries.” dh+lib. june . http://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /in-service-a-further- provocation-on-digital-humanities-research-in-libraries/ nowviskie, bethany. . “skunks in the library: a path to production for scholarly r&d.” journal of library administration ( ): . doi: . / . . . ———. . “on the origin of ‘hack’ and ‘yack.’” in debates in the digital humanities, edited by lauren f. kelin and matthew k. gold. university of minnesota press. http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ “omeka.net.” n.d. http://www.omeka.net/ “omeka.net: about.” n.d. http://info.omeka.net/about/. pannapacker, william. . “the mla and the digital humanities.” hastac (blog). december . https://www.hastac.org/blogs/nancyholliman/ / / /mla-and-digital- humanities (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: posner, miriam. . “no half measures: overcoming common challenges to doing digital humanities in the library.” journal of library administration ( ): – . doi: . / . . posner, miriam. . “humanities data: a necessary contradiction.” miriam posner’s blog. june . http://miriamposner.com/blog/humanities-data-a-necessary-contradiction/ presner, todd. . “how to evaluate digital scholarship.” journal of digital humanities ( ). http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /how-to-evaluate-digital-scholarship-by- todd-presner/ rawson, katie, and trevor muñoz. . “against cleaning.” curating menus (blog), july . http://www.curatingmenus.org/articles/against-cleaning/ risam, roopika. . “where have all the dh jobs gone?” roopika risam (blog), september . http://roopikarisam.com/uncategorized/where-have-all-the-dh-jobs-gone/ “scalar user’s guide: creative use of structure.” n.d. scalar user’s guide. http://scalar.usc.edu/works/guide/creative-use-of-structure “scalar user’s guide: selecting a page’s default view.” n.d. scalar user’s guide. http://scalar.usc.edu/works/guide/selecting-a-pages-default-view shirazi, roxanne. . conditions of (in)visibility: cultivating a documentary impulse in the digital humanities. invisible work in the digital humanities symposium. florida state university, november - . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= livujbrs . tenen, dennis. . “blunt instrumentalism: on tools and methods.” in debates in the digital humanities , edited by lauren f. klein and matthew k. gold. university of minnesota press. (accepted manuscript) version of record at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/ . / . . cul: easy tools submission: terras, melissa. a. “a decade in digital humanities.” melissa terras’ blog (blog), may . http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/ / /inaugural-lecture-decade-in-digital.html. ———. b. “reuse of digitised content: chasing an orphan work through the uk’s new copyright licensing scheme.” melissa terras’ blog (blog). february . http://melissaterras.blogspot.com/ / /reuse-of-digitised-content- -chasing.html. timmermans, stefan. . “introduction: working with leigh star.” in boundary objects and beyond, edited by geoffrey c. bowker, stefan timmermans, adele e. clarke, and ellen balka. cambridge, massachusetts: the mit press. tsing, anna lowenhaupt. . “on nonscalability: the living world is not amenable to precision-nested scales.” common knowledge ( ): – . doi: . / x- vandegrift, micah, and stewart varner. . “evolving in common: creating mutually supportive relationships between libraries and the digital humanities.” journal of library administration ( ): – . doi: . / . . vinopal, jennifer, and monica mccormick. . “supporting digital scholarship in research libraries: scalability and sustainability.” journal of library administration ( ): – . doi: . / . . white paper report id: application number: hd- - project director: ted sicker institution: wgbh educational foundation reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / white paper neh grant #hd- - digital humanities for lifelong learners project director: michael mayo wgbh educational foundation march the wgbh educational foundation received a level-i start-up grant award from the national endowment for the humanities to research a cost-effective solution that allows public media organizations and other humanities libraries to deliver online, media-based experiences to seniors throughout the u.s., built around the materials in our collective archives.” toward such ends, wgbh convened leading thinkers in the fields of lifelong learning and humanities education together with archivists and technologists in a series of in-person and virtual meetings, administered an online survey, and conducted additional research between july and december . this report reviews project activities and summarizes major findings and recommendations. background american experience. columbus and the age of discovery. god in america. the machine that changed the world. vietnam: a television history. war and peace in the nuclear age. these are just a few examples of the humanities-based television programs produced by wgbh over the last four decades, much of it originally created with the financial support of the neh. such premier programming can be of particular interest to seniors, and numerous studies have shown that lifelong learning enhances social inclusion, self-confidence, and active citizenship. additionally, ten thousand baby boomers (people born between and ) have turned every day since — a pace that will continue until , making this a rapidly increasing demographic. seniors are underserved by most educational outreach programs, but this population often has the time and enthusiasm to benefit from the intellectual stimulation and social engagement offered by media-based resources, and as a group, is increasingly comfortable with digital technology. the digital humanities for lifelong learners project was proposed to determine how best to use public media’s archive of humanities programming to create a robust library of cross-disciplinary humanities modules for this eager audience of lifelong learners. some of the best programming produced by public television, however, is sitting unused on archive shelves. and perhaps even more problematic, at a time when the proliferation of digital technologies provides new ways for such humanities materials to be used, most of the rights to distribute or display the programs have either lapsed or were never cleared for new media usage. and the cost of renewing third-party and/or performance rights is, for the most part, prohibitive. wgbh has extensive experience in negotiating such rights clearances, and for the past years has been successfully applying that knowledge to the development of a digital library featuring its archival assets specifically for educational purposes. through an initiative originally called teachers domain and currently presented as pbs learningmedia (http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/), public media assets from across the system have been reversioned, annotated, and organized to meet the specific needs of k- teachers and students. this service now includes over , educational resources and has a registered user base of . million, providing a potentially useful model for the proposed new initiative targeting lifelong learning by older populations. the neh proposal was written in recognition of the need to generate additional research on such possibilities, however, as the interests and capacities of lifelong learners differ from those of k- teachers and students. landscape an environmental scan reveals that the demand for lifelong learning among seniors is already high and increasing steadily as the baby-boomers move into retirement. in massachusetts alone there are more than institutes offering seminars and workshops to this population, and this does not include growing numbers of programs at museums, cultural institutions, universities and libraries. nationwide, there are programs such as one day university, which hosts events throughout the country featuring live lectures by university professors, and the well-known osher learning institutes located at more than college campuses across the u.s. the first formal “learning-in-retirement” program in the united states was launched at the new school for social research in , with dozens of similar programs to follow, including the fromm institute, road scholar, and elderhostels — all were inspired by the reports and articles on “the greying of america.” more recently, some organizations have taken an additional step, providing on-campus housing and assisted care for seniors who wished to make a commitment to lifelong learning. one example is lasell village, on the campus of lasell college in massachusetts. senior residents can purchase a condo in the campus village and pay a service fee each month that covers assistance and education. residents must commit to taking hours of classes each year. at lasell village, where posh senior residences are located near student dormitories, seniors can pay $ , to $ million for a condominium. in addition, they can pay from $ , to $ , per month for services, which range from house-cleaning and daily dining to the classes on campus. another source of lifelong learning opportunities is the exploding number of online offerings, including massive open online courses (moocs), which are available to students of any age. edx, udacity, and coursera are the leading purveyors of such opportunities, presenting courses run by faculty at the world’s most prestigious universities. numerous alumni associations, such as princeton’s, offer online courses behind a pay wall, and other organizations such as academic earth and university of the third age also provide such digital learning opportunities for seniors. these are all well- established initiatives with paid staff and college professors who are accustomed to designing classes, and many are handsomely funded. the fairly recent rise of the open education movement has prompted an increasing amount of online educational programming, but these moocs and opencourseware (i.e., the online sharing of searchable college course content through programs such as tufts opencourseware, notredameopencourseware, openmichigan, and so on) and non-affiliated online education sites such as khan academy, are based on formal classwork on the college level and often are not tailored to the needs or interests of lifelong learners. another potentially relevant project is ovee, an online social tv experience from itvs, funded by the corporation for public broadcasting. public television stations use the platform to show full-length programs, clips, or previews, and engage the audience in a chat room-style discussion. this allows the viewer to ask questions, make comments, and get live feedback from other viewers as well as from the presenter, who is often able to add anecdotes, insight, and context to the program. ovee is not geared to senior learners, however, who often have unique needs for a simple user interface and are less familiar with the process and fast pace of online discussions. in addition, most ovee programs require the audience to watch live at specific times, rather than on-demand. the following table presents a sampling of various lifelong learning projects according to “geography”—where they are offered. lifelong learning initiatives location examples who guides/fee? university, college campuses alumni studies (princeton, e.g.) professors, self/pay wall (seniors live near campus) fromm institute osher lifelong learning institutes university, college campuses lasell village professors/steep fees (seniors live on campus) campus continuum professors/fees ubrcs (ubased retirement communities) professors/fees online courses, videos university of the third age self, in england/free pioneer network (for caregivers) self, webinars/free alumni studies self, prof/pay wall academic earth self/ free mooc prof, self/free great courses* self/fee leading age self/fee aarp tek website self-guiding/free mmlearn.org (for caregivers & seniors) self/free mather institute on aging (for caregivers) self for caregivers/free misc locations, in person road scholar/elderhostel trained staff/fee one day university guest lecturers/fee senior centers senior planet, oats volunteers, staff/free national institute of senior centers (ncoa) volunteers, staff/free café plus (mather lifeways) staff, self seniornet, computer classes staff oasis connections, computer classes staff libraries next chapter, ny public library librarians/free senior moments, brooklyn public library the free library of philadelphia assisted living institutions numerous, including brookdale activity directors senior living residences ( in ma) five star quality care home home health care (hhc) (vnsyn, e.g.) caregivers community rooms of hud senior housing self, activity leaders digital humanities for lifelong learning conducted from july-december , this planning grant from neh featured extensive research, both live and virtual meetings with experts, and an online survey of potential users. in preparation for the proposal, wgbh met with representatives from the boston public library, hebrew senior life, and osher lifelong learning institute for an initial discussion about an archival initiative for lifelong learners. excerpts of the series vietnam: a television history were shown along with a brief excerpt from a poetry series featuring professor lisa new of harvard university. the goal of the meeting was to gauge interest in this initiative and to solicit reactions to a range of excerpted archival material. in-house staff then conducted an environmental scan, assembling information about existing lifelong learning programs and, specifically, media-based approaches to serving senior citizens through these programs. phone calls were also made to multiple external consultants recruited for the project, to flesh out the data on existing efforts and assist in defining the focus for future activities. three examples of presentation formats were assembled as “strawmen” for consideration by the full group of advisors to be convened in the fall. a full-day launch meeting was conducted at wgbh in early september (agenda attached as appendix a). invited participants included representatives of senior care facilities, lifelong learning organizations, public media archives, and academia, as well as highly interested potential consumers of the proposed resources (“enthusiasts”). three other pbs stations were also represented, bringing the perspective of archivists more focused on local and/or state-based humanities content, complementing the national orientation of wgbh. a list of participants and their affiliations is attached as appendix b). the meeting was designed to generate data on each of the three central challenges to be addressed in our research: • who: who is our audience and what is the optimal target age range, where can they be reached? what are potential access issues (e.g., physical limitations, comfort with computers), and how do target users prefer their information to be packaged (e.g., short/long format, edited/unedited, curated collections, free- standing videos), delivered (e.g., with interactivity, contextualization), and consumed (e.g., self-study, facilitator-led, follow lectures, community interaction)? • what: what content and expert networks do we have to work with and where are they located? what issues complicate use (e.g., rights or storage format) and how can they be accommodated? • how: how can we best use technology to reach our audience and ameliorate logistical issues? what delivery modes should be available (e.g., mobile)? what are the technical challenges/opportunities and how should they be addressed? launch meeting discussions informed the development of an online survey (see appendix c) which we administered using survey monkey instrument. to solicit responses, we sent email to potential senior users of the proposed service as identified by meeting participants. responses were recorded (see appendix d), addressing questions regarding desired topics, formats, length, and a wide range of additional related subjects. findings presented below are the project’s major findings, organized by the three central challenges, shorthanded as: audience, content, and design/delivery. audience the current generation of seniors is aging with vigor. eighty is the new ! for decades, americans have been told that the population is “greying.” one in every eight americans is a senior, which is often defined as and older. what’s new is the speed at which the population is greying. according to a recently released census bureau report cited in the new york times, the number of americans and older is expected to nearly double by the middle of the century when they will make up more than a fifth of the nation’s population. that’s more than in every americans, or . in every . by , . million americans will be or older, compared with . million in . another significant development is how seniors are aging. on average, seniors are living longer and healthier. according to a study by harvard university and the national bureau of economic research, “evidence for significant compression of morbidity in the elderly u.s. population,” people who were between and averaged . more years of life, with . of those years being disability-free and . years being spent with some disabling health conditions. by the - period, average life expectancy only increased to . years beyond age , but the healthy-unhealthy split had shifted to . disability-free years and . disabled years, according to the study. while “lifelong learning” implies the full spectrum of ages beyond formal schooling years, and the term “senior citizen” can include everyone older than , our discussions concluded that the optimal target range for our proposed digital education program is between and . in the main, these are individuals who are at least close to or in partial retirement (and thus with unoccupied time) but still with the energy as well as mental and physical capacities to engage both productively and enthusiastically with such a digital offering. in terms of accessibility issues, however, our advisors stressed the importance of addressing visual and hearing challenges, using sufficiently large typeface and bright colors, and captioning all video-based information. we also recognize that both older and younger audiences would be well-served by such a project, offering curated access to public media archives, and that individuals beyond the core target range could (and likely will) exploit the availability of the services provided through such a project. we found that the target population might embrace the proposed services in any number of locations, from their own homes to retirement/assisted living communities, libraries, senior centers, and lifelong learning programs, but that the greatest traction might be in settings where face-to-face interaction with peers is available. while multiple formats of presentation were advocated, curated collections received the most interest, and survey respondents indicated a preference for long-form videos (e.g., complete and/or unedited chapters of broadcast programs) over shorter segments reversioned specifically for this population. in the main, however, the general consensus was that different formats would suit different audiences, and that in developing this concept wgbh should consider multiple types of resources (e.g., free-standing videos as well as resources with wrap- around information to enhance context as well as understanding of specific media segments). respondents were split between wanting this archival material for self-study versus delivery as part of a group experience, perhaps facilitated by an expert and/or accompanied by a lecture on the underlying topic. others advocated for including curated sets of materials within a formal course structure. interestingly, we discovered that many existing educational programs for seniors, particularly those in lifelong learning centers, are led by experts who already have established “curricula,” some of which include media segments, making these a less likely target for our work. representatives of other public broadcasting stations expressed a particular desire for templates to structure the presentation of video materials from their own archives, responding to viability of the interactive lesson tool developed by wgbh for younger audiences. this platform is an innovative means for creating a customized sequence of screens containing media, text, and user-engagement activities in a seamless, visually attractive presentation on pbs learningmedia. making such tools available would help expand the scope, reach and impact of the proposed resources for seniors, adding local and state-based programming to the mix of available content. content confirming preliminary research findings, the online survey revealed senior interest in a broad array of subject matter, with the highest concentration in programming tied to history and the arts, followed by health and science. not surprisingly, “lifestyle” programs targeting such topics as travel and cooking also ranked relatively high. documentaries scored as the most favored format. the archives of public media producers are replete with programming in all of these subject areas, including such national broadcast brands as american experience, frontline, nature, and nova as well as innumerable lifestyle programs and locally produced shows. all of this content is not immediately accessible, however, as copyright issues are both legion and complicated, and paucity of legal documentation for older content hinders the determination of ownership. media segments may also include materials owned by third parties or may present liability issues, leading to further complications in clearing rights for their use in the kind of education service now being considered for seniors. in addition, the focal content of these resources can change over time, a risk especially relevant in the sciences, resulting in the need for time-consuming and expensive updates on a regular basis. digital distribution potentially offers new ways to overcome these obstacles, however, as wgbh has employed in the development of pbs learningmedia. for example, we can identify shorter segments (with manageable rights clearances and costs) that can still convey critical information without compromising the quality of the presentation. in order to provide appropriate contextual storytelling and pedagogical cues, these video elements can be packaged in online modules, with text and graphics, adding new material, such as “wraparound” segments videotaped with scholars and/or footage from the original interviews, to create a compelling learning experience for the target audience. almost certainly a less complex strategy for overcoming the rights challenges, however, is to build the proposed digital education service onto archive systems already in place such as wgbh’s open vault (http://openvault.wgbh.org/), a program that has received funding from neh (among others) to catalog digital materials and curate an online digital archive and catalog. and open vault is already part of the american archive of public broadcasting (aapb), an unprecedented initiative to preserve and make accessible significant historical content created by public broadcasting and to preserve at-risk public media before its content is lost to posterity. in , the corporation for public broadcasting selected wgbh and the library of congress as the permanent stewards of the aapb collection. to date, approximately , hours comprising , items of historic public television and radio content contributed by more than public media stations and archives across the united states have been digitized for long-term preservation. in october , wgbh and the library launched the aapb online reading room, providing online access to nearly , of the digitized content for research, educational and informational purposes. the entire collection of , hours is available for research viewing and listening at wgbh and the library of congress. this extraordinary material includes national and local news and public affairs programs, local history productions that document the heritage of our varied regions and communities, and programs dealing with education, social issues, politics, environmental issues, music, art, literature, dance, poetry, religion and even filmmaking on a local level. this archive also includes the full interviews from which segments were pulled for inclusion in broadcast programs, many of which can be easily accessed. the aapb ensures that this valuable source of american social, cultural and political history and creativity will be saved and made accessible for current and future generations, providing a potential anchor for the proposed new digital education service for seniors. there have been robust efforts to develop a set of aapb rights protocols and permissions, reviewing legal and copyright questions to inform a comprehensive strategy that allows access to materials in accordance with third party rights and fair use. in addition to allowing unlimited access to materials on-site, wgbh has established an online reading room ("orr") — just as in the reading room of a physical archive— where visitors are able to access and view materials but not “check them out.” the orr makes materials accessible for educational, research, and not for profit purposes to anyone with internet access. the materials must be viewed within the environment of the aapb website, however, and these resources cannot be downloaded. in addition, while continuing to gather information about rights and working with stations and independent producers to provide rights clearances, wgbh has made initial broad categorical decisions about fair use. the volume of content in the aapb is so great that fully cataloging the materials and making detailed access determinations on an item-by- item basis would take decades given current staffing capabilities. with this in mind, the aapb team decided to determine access to the content in the archive based on a review of material at the level of categories of content. aapb can then transfer individual items in and out of the orr based on the subsequent acquisition of more specific rights information. design/delivery once the ‘who’ and the ‘what’ have been determined, the most critical questions – the ‘how’ – come into play. following are recommendations derived from the technologists participating on the project addressing variables related to the digital technology and system architecture needed to best realize the mission. the long-term success of this project requires the definition of a “future proof” or flexible open sourced technical architecture that will remain applicable as technology progresses. fortunately, over the last few years, the industry has converged around a few dominant technology platforms. as a result, we can make judicious decisions about technically feasible, efficient, and operationally viable components for each part of the architecture, and hence for the architecture as a whole. outlined below are four important considerations in building and implementing a robust platform to support lifelong learners: • defining the target user personas and their use cases; • selecting the appropriate delivery mechanism(s) for the customer base; • defining a suitable back-end platform for efficient and measurable management of the content and of the community; and • content production and workflow: outlining methods for getting the content into the system, also referred to as ingestion. a visual representation illustration of the recommended architecture decisions is appended to this report (appendix e). the target customers for lifelong learning are, by definition, older: they are no longer enrolled in a traditional (k- or university) education program, are not digital natives, and are certainly not smartphone natives. this target community can be divided into three segments: • ‘digital immigrants,’ who began their professional lives in the analog world, and later embraced the digital world; • ‘mixed-signal’ users, who use digital technologies, albeit reluctantly; • ‘analogs,’ who still do not use digital and are very difficult to reach with digital technologies. segmenting the consumer base into these groups, and understanding how each group is likely to access the platform, allows us to make key decisions about the implementation of the platform that will maximize reach among desired customers. these decisions are outlined in the following sections. the choice of content delivery mechanism is critical to the platform as it most directly defines the consumer experience. at the same time, while it is important to provide a platform that is accessible to more than % of the target customer base, it is also beneficial to minimize the number of required variants (for example, across operating systems or screen sizes), in order to limit both up-front development effort, and ongoing support and maintenance efforts. the following recommendations are designed to minimize the number of variants that need to be developed while maximizing reach and compatibility. we recommend designing the platform to be compatible with smartphones and tablets first. content designed for these devices is also accessible on desktop mac/pcs, and mobile devices are increasingly used among americans, including among the target demographic of this project (non-digital natives). the majority of google web searches in the u.s. already originate from smartphones and tablets, and going forward content must be optimized for mobile user experience. bandwidth: while bandwidth is an important consideration, it is safe to assume, for these purposes, that users will have access to sufficient bandwidth (in most cases over lte cellular or wifi). screen and browser resolutions: regarding display sizes and visual real estate, the market has largely converged on three dominant screen sizes for smartphones -- . inches, . inches, and . inches -- and three for tablets -- inches, inches, and, increasingly, inches. for all these screen sizes, it is sufficient to design visual content for a p resolution, which is widely supported and is sufficient for the human eye, even on a -inch screen. asset types and production methodologies: we recommend using vector graphics for illustrations that can be scaled/resized with no loss of quality. video and photographic image production and conversion standards will be established to ensure future compatibility, seo and accessibility requirements. experience design and user interaction: designing for “scalability” and “mobile first” will force design solutions that can be omnipotent on both desktop browser and native ios/android devices this approach to delivery mechanisms—taking into account all four types of considerations—addresses the needs of at least % of the target audience, minimizing the need to develop and provide ongoing support for designs for other screen sizes, operating systems, and resolution constraints. to properly implement content delivery, a back-end platform architecture must be chosen that facilitates easy site administration, production development, measurement and analysis, % uptime, and efficient platform maintenance. the back end is the lower part of the iceberg; the technical, “behind-the-scenes” foundation on which the user interface lies. a cloud-based content and community management platform is recommended, greatly reducing the processing power requirements of the users’ devices, allowing even devices with relatively low capabilities -- namely, those that have solely enough processing power and memory for a single video stream -- to access the platform. the back-end platform must support two key elements: content and community. the broad definition of content includes not only the video or audio content itself, but also any production of assets and associated metadata (tags, rights, etc.) to increase search reach and value for end-user. specifically, the cloud-based back end should include support for at least four buckets of data: • core video content itself, with intuitive navigation controls and bandwidth optimization (e.g., a video lecture); • complementary and commentary content, which includes associated textual annotations or voiceovers audio clips that enhance the core content (e.g., on- screen definitions or illustrations of key concepts introduced in the lecture); • metadata to characterize and categorize the content (e.g., tags to facilitate access through direct searches, rights management, playlists, and linked themes to encourage exploration); and • accessibility and personalization of user experience so that users can configure their viewing settings as needed: (e.g., allowing users to adjust resolution based on their internet quality). the platform should also enable three key roles for community management: • content contributors contribute the (raw) core video content, and typically are public media organizations (e.g., uploading the content directly from archives); • content creators contribute the complementary content, such as video or text, to complete the video offering (e.g., proposing suggested readings to enhance the learning experience); and • content curators build the content community by curating, editing, organizing, and linking metadata to content entries (e.g., associating different videos with each other to facilitate users to navigate across related lessons). the software development community has converged on a set of well-supported open source platforms to implement web, content, and community platforms. the following combination of well-established and well-supported distributed open source platforms is recommended. common examples include: • django, a web development framework: http://www.djangoproject.com/ • drupal, a content management framework: http://www.drupal.org/ • moodle, a learning environment platform and course management system: http://www.moodle.org/ • ffmpeg, a platform-agnostic solution for recording, converting, and streaming multimedia: http://www.ffmpeg.org/ using open source tools enables the efficient creation of a cloud-based content management and community management platform that is flexible, yet robust. content production and ingestion. the process of uploading content into the system requires defined workflow protocol standards for successful adoption and production efficiency. the content for the lifelong learning platform is expected to come from public media and/or from other humanities libraries that have video or audio content. much of this content may need to be digitized; it is important to digitize content in a format that is lossless and widely supported, such that it is digitized once for all platforms: for example, lossless jpeg for video content, and aac for audio content. critical to getting any platform on the ground is ingesting a substantial initial batch of content. it is recommended that: • to help encourage contributors, minimize the resources required from them to get their existing content digitized and uploaded; • use a process that decouples the encoding of the video stream from the process of uploading to the cloud, to increase efficiency; and • for optimal processing speed, rely on dedicated machines; if not available, use gpu (general processing unit) farm that harnesses idle cpu time on existing machines within a defined network. finally, work with contributors to progressively digitize content from the archives using open source software. store the native digital instances, replicated for redundancy, in low-cost cloud storage. once content is saved in the cloud, very low cost cloud computing solutions exist that can algorithmically extract metadata from the content, and parse the content into modules, summaries, and excerpts. conclusions and next steps given the diversity of need and complexity of variables, wgbh has concluded that there is no single ‘right’ approach to the challenge of getting public media archival resources into the hands and heads of senior citizens. rather, we advocate for development of a range of strategies for addressing the ‘who,’ ‘what,’ and ‘how’ questions targeted in the planning grant research conducted to date. in sum, we recommend three ( ) types of development/dissemination activity: ) a resource base of free-standing resources, a curated library of media segments accessible to anyone but with particular relevance for service providers who seek content for existing programs; ) packaged activities that feature those media segments with wrap-around contextualizing information, for use as free-standing modules by individuals and/or through libraries and other public settings; and ) highly produced modules that are sufficiently comprehensive to serve as mini- courses on designated topics for home use or self-study. we have also concluded that the most viable means to address rights-related issues is to concentrate on media assets already included in the american archive of public broadcasting (aapb), at least in initial development efforts. this content features full broadcast programs (which often have fewer rights restrictions than segmented programs), and much of it is already curated and available for ready access through the online reading room. the aapb site may also be the destination through which seniors browsing the web access these lifelong learning offerings. the orr currently includes the following four exhibits featuring items of topical and historical significance, and additional exhibits on presidential campaigns, children's educational programming, and women's issues are currently in development: ! documenting and celebrating public broadcasting station histories ! voices from the southern civil rights movement, and ! climate change conversations: cause, impacts, solutions ! voices of democracy: public media and presidential elections (http://americanarchive.org/exhibits/presidential-elections) to maximize breadth, reach and access, we recommend that other pbs stations be actively involved in both development and dissemination activities, both to include the widest array of local as well as national programming and to enhance widespread buy-in to the proposed service. toward such ends, our research has concluded that production and distribution of templates to facilitate the packaging of local content will increase the likelihood of station involvement as well as the quality of the resulting products. the interactive lesson platform (ilp) recently developed by wgbh holds significant promise for these purposes. this tool provides a means to sequence media resources and related material within a learning module. built using open source technology, the ilp features a content management system that allows producers to create and preview content in a range of design and layout templates, upload media, and embed and author an array of tools for user engagement, such as puzzles, quizzes, note-taking, commenting, etc.— all without having to know web coding. we have also concluded that while formal lifelong learning programs (like osher) might benefit from the availability of media-based resources of this type, libraries, senior centers, and retirement/assisted living communities might be better targets for this type of service, offering not only eager and readily accessible participants, but also national networks of prospectively interested partner organizations, many of which are already digitally connected. next steps clearly, additional research and rights assessments are needed to clarify need, expand answers to the who, what, and how questions, and illuminate the most viable solutions to this challenge, but sufficient information has been conducted through this planning effort to justify pursuit of support to continue exploration of possibilities. next steps will feature such continued research as well as production/distribution of a set of prototypes to establish proof of concept. these prototypes will include both stand-alone and packaged resources of varying comprehensiveness, each pilot-tested to assess appeal and use. toward such ends we propose to focus especially on librarians and activity directors in retirement/assisted living communities and senior centers as both the sources of additional information and the potential users of the prototypes developed. alliances with existing networks should also be explored, including national organizations like the american library association, aarp, and senior planet as well as local and regional providers of lifelong learning services for seniors. although wgbh will explore various means to support the continued development of this concept, we currently plan to apply to the digital projects for the public competition through the national endowment for the humanities in summer/fall and will consider also approaching the national archives for the support of further research and development. appendices a. launch meeting agenda b. launch meeting participants c. online survey, summary of results d. online survey, questions and full results e. architectural variables digital'humanities'for'lifelong'learning' neh/lll'launch'meeting' ' agenda' / / ' ! pre$meeting*with!pbs*representatives.!general!discussion!to!surface!and!review!issues! specifically!related!to!the!use!of!pbs!archives!for!the!core!content!of!possible!lll! modules!(topics,!availability,!rights,!etc.)!@@!louisiana!public!broadcasting,!blue!ridge!pbs,! and!arkansas!educational!television!network! !! ! : !!welcome!—!general!overview!of!the!project,!review!of!the!purposes/agenda!for! the!day,!and!discussion!of!the!mission!statement:! ! to!research!a!cost@effective!solution!that!allows!public!media!organizations!and!other! humanities!libraries!to!deliver!online,!media@based!experiences!to!seniors!throughout!the! u.s.,!built!around!the!materials!in!our!collective!archives.! ! ! : !!lunch/presentations!—!three!( )!sample!resource!modules!presented!to!fuel! afternoon!discussions:!interactive!lesson!(gulf!of!tonkin),!poetry!in!america,!and! invitation!to!world!literature!(gilgamesh)! ! : !!!!content'challenges!—!discussion!responding!to!the!following!question(s):!! ! • what!media!materials!and!expert!networks!do!we!have!to!work!with?!what! logistical!issues!will!affect!our!work?!!! ! : !!!!audience'challenges'—!discussion!responding!to!the!following!question:! ! • who!is!our!audience,!where!do!their!interests!and!passions!in!the!humanities!lie,! and!how!do!they!like!their!information!packaged!and!delivered?!! !!! : !!!design'challenges!—!discussion!responding!to!the!following!question:! ! • how!can!we!best!use!technology!to!reach!our!audience!and!ameliorate!logistical! issues?! ! : !!!next'steps!—!identification!of!topics!for!additional!research!and!respondents!to! potential!survey(s)!–!e.g.,!lifelong!learners,!service!providers! ! : !!!adjourn digital humanities for lifelong learning launch meeting, september , participants ! julia anderson, digital marketing specialist, education, wgbh avi berntein-nahar, director, osher lifelong learning institute, brandeis university leslie bourgeois, archivist, louisiana public television karen cariani, director, media library and archives, wgbh kristi chadwick, advisor for small libraries, massachusetts library system steve cohen, adjunct lecturer, tufts university, department of history amy crownover, project coordinator, arkansas educational television network michael davies, senior lecturer, engineering systems division, mit casey davis, media library and archives, wgbh carol jennings, production, blue ridge pbs, virginia evie kintzer, executive director, strategy and business development, wgbh joanne laplante, center communities of brookline, hebrew senior life thomas lerra, research & development prototype manager, wgbh kali lightfoot, director, national resource center, osher lifelong learning institute, university of southern maine mike mayo, director, research and development, education, wgbh elisa new, professor of english, harvard university wichian rojanawon, director, osher lifelong learning institute, university of massachusetts, boston roberta sheehan, lifelong learning enthusiast ted sicker, executive producer, education, wgbh marian weissman, lifelong learning enthusiast digital'humanities'for'lifelong'learners' survey'results,'summary' ' most'popular'topics:! • history! %! • fine!arts! %! • travel! %! • earth!and!environment! %!health! %! • science! %! • cooking! %! • music! %! content'formats:! • documentaries! %! • drama! %! • interviews! %! • news! %! • news!(arts!&!culture)! %! content'length:! • full!programs! %! • chapters!( o !min.)! %! accessing'content:! • independently!at!home! %! • view!in!a!group!setting! %! discussion'online'or'face'to'face:! • neither! %! • face!to!face! %! • online! %! viewing'video'content! • laptop! %! • pc/desktop! %! • ipad! %! • iphone! %! time'spent'viewing'video'content! • o !hours/day! %! • / !hours/week! %! • !respondents!chose!“other”!because!they!watch!video!content!less! than! o !hours/day.! social'media'platforms! • fb! %! • google+! %! • linkedin! %! • pinterest! %! sharing'content! • email! %! • word!of!mouth! %! adding'commentary! • maybe! %! • likely! %! • never! %! accessibility! • closed!caption! %! • earphones! %! age'range! • o ! %! • o ! %! respondents'location! overwhelming!majority!are!from!ma! ! bonus'question! • !responded!to!“what!kinds!of!questions!might!interest!you?”! • !responded!to!“how!might!you!want!to!make!use!of!a!module!like!this?”! • see!the!attached!spreadsheet!for!comments! q which topics are you interested in learning more about (check as many as you'd like.) answered: skipped: agriculture animals children's programming consumer affairs and... cooking crafts dance economics education energy earth and environment fine arts gardening government global affairs health history humor / digital humanities for lifelong learners lgbtq literature 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" ~ . " ~ . "" c ontent (and com m unity) m anagem ent system : 'm odularisation', excerpting*, and rights m anagem ent autom ated algorithm ic accessibility distributed, cloud-based, open source (d jango, d rupal, m oodle, ffm peg...) *index to digital version c ontributor: contributes video content c reator: creates com plem entary content c urator: curates, edits, organizes contentc om ple- m entary content c ore video s tyle (tem plates) ~ " ~ " p screen resolution d igitize a rchives p ublic m edia organisations and other hum anities libraries m etadata (tags, rights) c om m unity c om m unity c om m unity biron - birkbeck institutional research online eve, martin paul ( ) review of composition, creative writing studies and the digital humanities by adam koehler. the review of english studies ( ), pp. - . issn - . downloaded from: http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / usage guidelines: please refer to usage guidelines at https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk. http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html mailto:lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk / review of koehler, adam, composition, creative writing studies and the digital humanities. (london: bloomsbury academic, ) author's original version, accepted for publication in review of english studies, published by oxford university press. what does it mean to “write” in the digital age? as matthew kirschenbaum has shown us in recent days, technologies of word processing made the transition from business environments to creative writing with an unforeseen and paradigm-altering swiftness. n. katherine hayles has also demonstrated how the processes of publishing print books has been a digital-first endeavour for quite some time. for the majority of people who write in the world today, digital technologies are an indispensable part of the process. yet, how do we conceive of digital writing as different from other forms of production? is simply using a word processor enough of a mediation to call writing “digital”? or should we be interested in e-literatures that more fundamentally harness the potentially radical possibilities of the digital space but that involve various new types of labour (coding, design, digital preservation)? we never used to insist that those writing with pencils should have taken part in and understood the constitution of those inscription tools. that said, among other practices, various schools of concrete poetry in the twentieth century – most notably those that gathered in the network around hansjörg mayer – broke down these binary barriers between tools and products in what bronaċ ferran has called a “typoetical revolution”. the affordances of the digital are certainly different. but are radical works in this space still “writing”? if so, what kinds of writing and from what types of spaces? these are the sorts of questions that sit behind adam koehler's composition, creative writing studies, and the digital humanities. specifically, koehler is motivated to address matters / of shifting disciplinarity in the era of the digitally-mediated writing subject, working between the spaces of composition and creative writing, as the book's title might imply. it is here, indeed though, that one encounters the first particularity of koehler's work: there is a strong north american slant to his angle. those outside this academic system may be less familiar with what is meant by “composition” in the senses used in koehler's monograph. in the uk, for example, the only place that you will find a module on “composition studies” is within a music department. certainly, koehler's book could have used an additional contextualisation of this field for readers outside the space, although the comprehensive literature review of the role of creativity and imagination in writing instruction goes some way towards this ( - ). indeed, the first chapter after koehler's introduction felt, to this reader, as a plunge into the deep end. on the other hand, many more scholars elsewhere will be familiar with the rise of the creative writing programmes that koehler charts; whether they be through courses in their own departments or in the study of contemporary fiction, as noted by mark mcgurl and others. if, then, koehler's approach to composition felt too sudden for me, his discussion of digital creative writing appeared over-rehearsed. moving through all the seminal big-name figures, from jackson's “patchwork girl”, through to hayles's medial ecologies, up to egan's twitter fiction, the charitable way to characterise this would be to say that koehler's scholarship is thorough. however, to my ears it sounded a little too much like a story that i have heard many times before. if the first two chapters here left me a little adrift, in the third koehler's book comes into its own and his work on the recent kenneth goldsmith controversy is up-to-the minute and relevant ( - ). it also demonstrates the fresh ways in which koehler considers artists to be “digital”. for, in this case, the definition of digital is shaped by a type of identity politics that is mediated by the technologies of social media; a post-identity politics, in some ways. this broader framing of the politics of the digital, even when a white poet then reads aloud – in analogue – from a poorly considered aesthetic work appropriating a black man's death, is productive and politically / persuasive. it is also an excellent analysis of the ways in which different disciplinary spaces, across creative-critical boundaries, interact, merge, meld, and seep in their practices while still remaining distinct in their politics. another highlight of this work, for me, was the patient and steady assault on jonathan franzen's continued arguments against digital practices ( - ). although one may always flinch upon reading of how turning to heidegger will clarify a problem, this section was well-informed and philosophically astute on the ways in which “technologies” of writing stretch back a long way. indeed, the ways in which we define “technology” are important and koehler cogently frames our strange naturalisation of technologies from bygone eras, as though their re-enchantment will somehow protect us as talismans against the new. that new, in koehler's framing, is a set of practices – “nonlinearity”, “intertextuality”, “genre shifting”, “appropriation” – that act as markers of a “techno-cultural shift” ( ). in all, though, i have to confess, i do not think that i am the target audience for this work. for the new media ecologies that koehler describes in composition, creative writing studies, and the digital humanities felt, to me, curiously devoid of digital specificities. could we not take the above traits, for instance, and situate them amid any number of past literary moments? romanticism, modernism, or postmodernism? we do have a discussion of twitter fiction, certainly, but what is specifically digital about such a writing practice that was not already somehow encapsulated by oulipo's constraint-based techniques? yes, koehler poses a set of interesting questions about these practices and the rise of composition and creative writing alongside one another; the “fenceless neighbours” to which he turns. but actual engagement with specific underlying digital technologies, their affordances, and consequences, seemed lighter to me. i also wondered why there was not greater discussion in the book of studies on disciplinarity itself. surely some of the emergent work in the field of critical university studies would at least have merited a mention here? / perhaps, however, i am just expecting too much from a book that is aiming to cover a lot of ground. its ambitions to synthesize three huge fields into a narrative of co-genesis was always going to be tricky. composition, creative writing studies, and the digital humanities, then, attempts that task and i feel it doesn't quite get there. it does, though, provide fertile ground for further exploration and points towards a set of self-questioning practices that are and that will remain crucial to the spaces of composition and creative writing. in fostering these questions and holding up a cruel glass, and not because it comes to any definite resolutions, koehler's book undertakes an important task. matthew g. kirschenbaum, track changes: a literary history of word processing (cambridge, ma: the belknap press of harvard university press, ). n. katherine hayles, how we think: digital media and contemporary technogenesis (chicago: university of chicago press, ), p. . mark mcgurl, the program era: postwar fiction and the rise of creative writing (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ). digitization and profitability vol.:( ) information systems and e-business management https://doi.org/ . /s - - -z o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e digitization and profitability yasushi masuda · seungjin whang received: may / revised: august / accepted: november © the author(s) abstract consider a monopolistic vendor who faces a known demand curve. by setting a price that equates marginal revenue with marginal cost, the vendor will maximize his profit. this logic holds true of both physical and digital goods. but since digi- tization will lower the variable production cost, it will strictly increase the profit to the vendor. then, can we conclude that digitization always improves the vendor’s profitability? not necessarily. now consider what will happen on the next day of the sales. facing deterministic demand, the physical goods vendor must have pre- pared the exact quantity of the product to sell, and thus all products are sold out. by contrast, the digital goods vendor will have no stock out, thanks to the nature of the digital good. therefore, the rational vendor will try to sell more and achieve a higher profit after the sales date. to this end, the vendor will now lower the price to attract additional customers with lower reservation prices. the process will indefinitely continue. knowing this would happen, customers will wait for the price reduction. even the customers who would have purchased on the first day would defer the purchase until price gets lower. the digital goods vendor will anticipate this and accordingly lower the price on the first day and later, thereby compromising his profitability. note that this downward spiral takes place as a result of digitization. thus, digitization may not necessarily improve the profitability to the vendor. we develop an economic model to formally analyze the impact of digitization on the profitability to the vendor. keywords strategic customers · digital goods pricing · exponentiality * seungjin whang fwhang@stanford.edu keio university, yokohama, japan stanford university, stanford, usa http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -z&domain=pdf y. masuda, s. whang introduction thanks to the internet, many information goods—such as books, music and mov- ies—are transformed to pure digital goods and distributed over the internet. digi- tization offers numerous benefits on the supply side—zero variable production cost, no stockouts, instant deliveries, zero inventory carrying cost, zero shipping cost, and no damages or losses in handling or delivery. it, therefore, achieves an ideal form of make-to-order production-distribution system with unlimited sup- ply, just-in-time delivery and zero variable cost. most of these benefits directly or indirectly accrue to the vendor. but does digitization guarantee a higher profit? how about social welfare? this paper investigates the questions by using a simple game-theoretic model. to start with, consider a monopolistic vendor (“he”) who faces a known demand curve. by setting a price that equates marginal revenue with marginal cost, the vendor will maximize his profit. this logic holds true of both physical and digital goods. but since digitization will lower the variable production cost, it will strictly increase the profit to the vendor. then, can we conclude that digitiza- tion always improves the vendor’s profitability? not necessarily. now consider what will happen on the next day of the sales. since the demand is known, the physical goods vendor must have prepared the exact quantity of the product to sell, and thus all products are sold out. by contrast, the digital goods vendor will have still an infinite supply of the good, thanks to the nature of the digital good. therefore, the rational vendor will try to sell more and achieve a higher profit after the sales date. to this end, the vendor will now lower the price to attract additional customers with lower reservation prices. the process will indefinitely continue. knowing this would happen, customers will wait for the price reduc- tion. even the customers (“she” each) who would have purchased on the first day would reconsider buying it now, and instead choose to wait. the digital goods vendor will anticipate this and accordingly lower the price on the first day and later, thereby compromising his profitability. note that this downward spiral takes place as a result of digitization. thus, digitization may not necessarily improve the profitability to the vendor. this casual argument requires a more formal inves- tigation, which is the objective of the present paper. we here offer a brief literature survey. there exist three fields of research related to the present work. first, special characteristics of digital goods gen- erated research with different focuses. a recent work by goldfarb and tucker ( ) provide an extensive literature survey on digital economics by starting with the question of “what is different” about digital economics. they emphasize the changes in costs associated with search, replication, transportation, tracking and verification. for example, bakos and brynjolfsson ( ) study the effec- tiveness of bundling a large number of information goods, in the face of diverse tastes and uncertainties. huang and sundararajan ( ) study optimal nonlin- ear pricing for digital goods, when the infrastructure has discontinuous cost. tra- ditional auction mechanisms designed for physical products need modification when applied to digital goods. in this area goldberg et al. ( ) analyze the digitization and profitability auction mechanisms designed for allocating digital goods. the existing literature do not address the implications of digitization on the multi-period interactions between vendors and customers, highlight the “infinite supply” aspect of digital goods. our work contributes to the literature by comparing profitability of physi- cal and digital goods from such an angle. second, there exists a well-developed literature on sequential bargaining under informational asymmetry, and some are closely related to our paper. sobel and taka- hashi ( ) and cramton ( ) develop a sequential bargaining model between a buyer and a seller over infinite time. the authors characterize the limiting sequential equilibrium in closed-form expressions. the key aspect of these models is the stra- tegic behavior of customers. instead of passive or myopic customers who either take it or leave it, strategic and fully rational customers choose the timing of purchase in anticipation of a favorable price. in this regard, besanko and winston ( ) com- pare the performance between strategic and myopic buyers. hörner and samuelson ( ) extend the model to n potential buyers in a finite deadline. board and skr- zypacz ( ) also study revenue management with strategic customers, when new customers continuously arrive to the market. our model is closest to mcafee ( ) who studies sequential bargaining without information asymmetry. assuming strate- gic customers and no information asymmetry, we obtain closed-form trajectories of prices, thresholds and profits. this result is used to compare the profits of the physi- cal and digital goods. last, the body of work on the coase conjecture (coase ) is related to our work. in coase conjectured that lack of commitment power and sequential rationality would drive down a durable goods monopolist’s profit to zero under cer- tain conditions. the conjecture was formalized by various authors including stokey ( ), bulow ( ), gul et al. ( ), orbach ( ), mcafee and te velde ( ), and mcafee and wiseman ( ). we show that this conjecture also serves as a distinguishing feature of digital goods, since the conjecture does not apply to physicl goods with a finite supply. the rest of the paper is organized as follows. in the next section we introduce the model. we analyze the one-period model of physical products in sect. . in sect. we study the multi-period sales of digital goods and compare the two models. in particular, we encounter the coase conjecture that arises as a limiting phenomenon for digital goods. in sect. , we investigate the welfare implications of digitization. the last section offers concluding remarks including the strategy of avoiding the coase conjecture. the model the main objective of the paper is to analyze the impact of digitization on the profit- ability to the monopolist vendor. we develop a simple mathematical model to cap- ture the essence of the issue at hand. we consider a market where a monopolistic vendor attempts to sell goods to customers. the goods may be either in the physical or digital form. below is the detailed description of the model. y. masuda, s. whang • (demand) we assume that the market consists of a continuum of customers with different valuations. each customer needs at most one unit of the good. a customer with valuation v is called the ‘type-v’ customer. the (inverse) demand function is given by p = v̄ − q for some positive v̄ , where p is the price and q the quantity sold. equivalently, the valuations of the customers are uniformly distributed in [ , v̄] at unit density. thus, the initial market size is v̄ , but will shrink over time as more customers buy. • (value depreciation) a customer’s valuation depreciates in time at a fixed rate of �(∈ ( , )) per period. � is here called the depreciation factor. the good valued at v at time becomes worth �t− v in period t. note that cus- tomer ‘types’ do not depreciate over time, since types are defined at the ini- tial period. a large depreciation factor close to means slow depreciation. cash is not discounted, for simplicity. • (production cost) the variable production cost of the physical good is c(> ) per unit, while that of the digital good is set to zero. we assume that the fixed cost is identical in both goods. • (selling periods) physical and digital goods operate in different manners. the former has only one selling period, while the latter has an infinite num- ber of selling periods denoted by t = , , …. • (strategic customers) customers are strategic in the choice of time to buy. each customer buys in the period that maximizes her (positive) net value of the good—the value earned beyond the cost. she would not buy any if the net value is negative. • (vendor’s pricing) the vendor of the digital goods would set the price each period to maximize the residual (gross) profit—the total profit in the present and future periods before the fixed cost is subtracted. the case of the digital goods is thus modeled as a multi-period game played by two sets of players, who take turns in making a move. we study the decisions of the players and their resulting outcome as the equilibrium of the game and derive managerial insights. physical and digital goods . physical goods consider a physical goods vendor who has one period to sell his product. facing the linear demand we assumed, the vendor will prepare the quantity qo = (v̄ − c)∕ at unit cost of c and set the price at po = (v̄ + c)∕ to sell the entire stock. this will generate the total profit of Πp = (po − c)qo = (v̄ − c) ∕ . consumer surplus (= the sum of consumers’ net values) will be csp = (v̄ − po)qo∕ = (v̄ − c) ∕ . social welfare sp—the sum of the vendor profit and consumer surplus—will equal (v̄ − c) ∕ . note that both the vendor profit and welfare strictly decrease in c. digitization and profitability . digital goods by its nature, the digital good is never sold out at the end of each selling period. knowing this in advance, customers wait to see the price coming down. in response, the vendor adjusts the prices now and for the future. this multi-period game is modeled in the subgame-perfect equilibrium concept. formally speaking, the equilibrium is the sequence of strategy pairs {(pt, vt)}t= , ,… , so that taking the history of the game so far as given, in each period t, . each type-v customer buys a unit if and only if v ≥ vt for some vt , meaning that customers in the aggregate choose the ‘threshold’ value vt ; and . t he vendor selects t he pr ice pt to maximize his residual prof it �t ∶= ∑∞ i=t pi(vi− − vi) in expectation of the customers’ strategies. the strategy in ( ) represents the threshold policy in which only high-types of customers buy the good now while the rest wait. for now, we assume it is an opti- mal policy, and later (in theorem ) verify this is indeed the case. the vendor’s strategy in ( ) is to “cream-skim” the customers by steadily lowering the price and selling to the next interval of customers each period, where the interval is [vt, vt− ) in period t = , , … , with v ∶= v̄ . thus, in equilibrium the thresholds will form a non-increasing sequence (v , v , …) . now we seek to find the explicit values of {pt} , {vt} and {�t}. to find the subgame-perfect equilibrium of the game, we work backwards in each period t. that is, given arbitrary values of (v , v , … , vt− ) of the previous- period values, the vendor chooses vt (for t = , , … ) by solving s.t. the objective of ( ) tries to maximize the residual profit by selecting the right price pt that indirectly controls vt (via the constraints). in order to properly assess the impact of his current decision, he has to look ahead and build a prediction on the future equilibrium values (pt+i, vt+i) for i = , , … . the prediction should be correct in equilibrium. this correct prediction requirement applies to the customers as well. under the threshold policy of customers, the incentive compatibility condition states that the threshold customer will find the two options—buy or wait—indif- ferent. equation ( ) states that for the threshold customer, the option of buying now is as good as the option of buying in the next period. here, we assume that in every period, some customers buy a good so that the incentive compatibility condition is effective. we later show that indeed there exists an equilibrium satis- fying this assumption. ( )maxvt∶vt≤vt− pt(vt− − vt) + �t+ (vt) ( )�t− vt − pt =� t vt − pt+ , ( )�t− vt − pt ≥ . y. masuda, s. whang equation ( ) is the individual rationality constraints ensuring that each type of customer gets at least zero net value; otherwise, she would not buy the good. see, for example, mas-colell et al. ( ) for detailed discussions of mechanism design. the equilibrium of the game is captured by the three variables—the price pt , the threshold vt and the residual profit �t to the vendor. below we present the equilib- rium in two steps—the first-period equilibrium (theorem ) and the trajectories of the variables over time (theorem ). the equilibrium is given in a surprisingly sim- ple form, even though its derivation is rather complicated. theorem in equilibrium, (p ) of the digital system has the following solution for t = : (i) v∗ = − √ −𝛿 𝛿 v̄ (ii) p∗ = √ −𝛿− +𝛿 𝛿 v̄ (iii) 𝜋∗ = √ −𝛿− +𝛿 𝛿 v̄ all proofs are delegated to the “appendix”. the theorem completely determines the first-period threshold v∗ , the opening price p∗ and total profit �∗ as a function of the primitive model parameters v̄ and � for the digital system. in particular, note that the total profit �∗ decreases in the depreciation factor. we are now in a position to compare the profits of the physical and digital systems as follows (see also fig. ). fig. the profit from the digital good is higher than the physical good when 𝛿 < . , where v̄ = and t = ∞ see mcafee ( ) who derives a similar form of total profit in a slightly different setting as a fixed point. digitization and profitability theorem (i) the profit Πp of the physical product is given by (v̄ − c) ∕ . (ii) the profit Πd(= �∗ ( )) of the digital good is given by √ −𝛿− +𝛿 𝛿 v̄ . (iii) the digital system is more profitable than the physical system if and only if 𝛿 ≤ cv̄ ( v̄−c) (c −v̄ − v̄c) . profitability of digitization thus depends on the depreciation factor � and the vari- able cost c. at a higher � , customers do not feel pressured to buy early and instead choose to wait, since most of the original value is retained over time. to counter it, the vendor is forced to lower the price fast to induce them to buy early. also, if the physical product has a high variable cost, digitization would save much for the digi- tal goods vendor. in summary, digitization will favor the vendor when the physical product has high production cost and the product depreciates fast. note here that to the digital goods vendor, the infinite supply or the lack of scarcity is not a blessing, but a liability. as a byproduct of the proof of theorem , we can derive the trajectories of equi- librium strategies and profits over time. it turns out that the ratio v∗ t ∕v∗ t− for the digi- tal system is constant, independent of time t, so the thresholds take the exponential form in the digital goods model. the price p∗ t and the residual profit �∗ t also follow the exponential form. formally, we have: theorem let r ∶= − √ −� � and k ∶= √ −�− +� � . then, for every t, (i) v∗ t = v̄rt (ii) p∗ t = kv̄(𝛿r)t− (iii) 𝜋∗ t = kv̄ (𝛿r )t− part (i) confirms that in every period there exist customers who buy the good, so that eq. ( ) is justified as the incentive compatibility condition. this result also shows that the individual rationality condition (eq. ) is satisfied in each period t, since 𝛿t− vt − pt = v̄𝛿 t− rt − kv̄(𝛿r)t− = v̄(𝛿r)t− ⋅ −𝛿− √ −𝛿 𝛿 > for all t. thus, the net value to each customer exponentially shrinks to zero as t approaches infinity. see fig. . . the coase conjecture we have shown that the digital goods vendor will be worse off when the good depreciates slowly. even worse, theorem (ii) and fig. show a prominent fea- ture of the digital good—both the opening price and total profit continuously decline to zero as � approaches . that is, lim �→ p ∗ = and lim �→ � ∗ = . in the limit, the digital goods vendor is trapped in the zero-revenue paradox coase con- jectured in his paper. coase ( ) considered a monopolistic vendor who owns an ample stock of a durable good. further it is assumed that the vendor sells the stock to patient customers with different valuations over an infinite number y. masuda, s. whang of periods and cannot commit to the price in advance. in this setting coase con- jectured that a monopolist would make zero profit. in our setting the downward spiral between customers’ deferred purchases and the vendor’s price reduction drives the result in the limit. a large literature on the coase conjecture identified and studied the conditions under which the conjecture holds true. the coase con- ditions include: ( ) the product is durable (not consumable) (coase ; bulow ; orbach ; ) the cost of transacting each deal is zero (coase ; ) the price can be instantly changed (coase ; ) the depreciation factor is close to (gul et al. ); and ( ) the vendor has no power to commit to the future prices (mcafee ). one implicit condition only lightly covered in the litera- ture is that the vendor has an infinite (or sufficiently large) supply. coase ( ) seems to have used “all the land of the united states” as a proxy for an infinite supply, but did not fully utilize the property in his analysis. our model highlights the fact that the coase conjecture may apply to the digital good market with its infinite supply, but not to the physical product market where there is a potential shortage due to its finite supply. what is the intuition behind the coase conjecture in the digitization context? one way of interpreting it is as follows. a digital good is infinitely available and incurs zero variable cost. for such a product, one might anticipate zero price. indeed, the price will “ultimately” decline to zero. however, in the early transient periods, the digital good will have strictly positive prices. in this sense, the seller is selling the “freshness” of the product, charging the buyer for early access. in the absence of depreciation (with depreciation factor close to ), however, freshness will be main- tained for a long time, so that the value of early access is close to zero. the vendor has nothing to sell. the relationship between digitization and profitability may apply to various situ- ations. the value of the newspaper depreciates very quickly. thus, the newspaper publisher will not fall into the trap of the coase condition. as another example, con- sider the textbooks. since students need a textbook as soon as the course starts, the value of the book decreases quickly. while the publisher can control the number of physical copies, he cannot do the same with its digital version, so he cannot utilize the scarcity effect. however, depreciation will be fast at the beginning of the new semester, so it will avoid the coase conjecture or any dramatic loss of profit as a side effect of digitization. lastly, consider the case of movies. the value of movies depreciates over time— but slower than newspapers or textbooks. a new film is first shown to the audience in a movie theater, after which it is released to the video-on-demand (vod) service, sold in a dvd and finally, broadcast free of charge. it is reported that the number of moviegoers is decreasing. when asked why they were going to the movies less often, percent said they wait for vod (cunningham ). nevertheless, movie studios do not skip any other stage of offering movies, partly due to market com- petition and availability of new technologies, and partly because customers antici- pate so. given the belief of the customers, the movie studio provides the product in multiple stages and stepwise lowers the price. as a whole, the movie market can be depicted as a game between the studio and customers where the studio selects the digitization and profitability price and customers select the time of purchase. digitization plays a critical part of the game, and digitization may not necessarily have increased the profitability for the studios. in sum, the coase conjecture suggests a clear and present risk to digitization. the digital goods vendor should make sure to avoid the coase conditions. we discuss it further in the final section. social welfare we turn to the welfare implications of digitization. for the physical product case, social welfare is sp = (v̄ − c) ∕ , as discussed in sect. . now consider the welfare in the digital system. social welfare sd can be expressed as the total value generated by the purchases. in period t the group of customers belonging to [vt, vt− ) will purchase the product. the size of this group is vt− − vt with the average gross value �t− (vt− + vt)∕ per customer. the total welfare across all groups is thus given by where vt is given in theorem . . then, it can be shown that thus, we have: theorem (i) social welfare of the physical and digital systems sp and sd are respectively given by sp = (v̄ − c) ∕ and sd = v̄ ( + 𝛿 − √ − 𝛿)∕( 𝛿). (ii) digitization always improves social welfare. why does digitization improve social welfare? note that there are three factors that determine social welfare—cost of production, market penetration and the tim- ing of sales. the digital system improves welfare through lower production costs. also, digitization increases the number of customers served. the physical goods vendor deliberately limits the quantity and only sell to high types of customers to the detriment of social welfare, while the digital goods vendor will ultimately sell to all customers over the infinite horizon. however, it does not prove that the digital system is better in terms of social welfare, because welfare also depends on how fast sales happen before the product loses its value. in this respect the physical product performs better, since all sales take place in the first period. the theorem, however, reports that the second effect strictly dominates the third, while the first separately re-enforces the benefit of the digitization. s d = ∞ ∑ t= � t− (vt− − vt)(vt− + vt)∕ = ∞ ∑ t= � t− (v t− − v t )∕ , s d ∶= + 𝛿 − √ − 𝛿 𝛿 v̄ . y. masuda, s. whang from a broader perspective on the comparison, competition exists between the digital system’s efficiency and the physical system’s scarcity . to the profit-maxi- mizing digital goods vendor, efficiency boosts his profit, but lack of scarcity hurts it. on the other hand, both efficiency and lack of scarcity contribute to social welfare. therefore, digitization may improve or hurt the vendor profit, but it always improves social welfare. concluding remarks we have investigated if digitization would lead to higher profitability. the answer depends on the variable cost of the physical product and the depreciation factor of the product. digitization favors the vendor when the variable cost is high and depre- ciation is fast. in the extreme case of infinite time horizon and zero depreciation, the digital goods vendor will lower the price to zero “in the twinkle of an eye,” and face zero profit. the digital goods vendor should take actions to mitigate the liability of digitiza- tion driven by the infinite supply, while maintaining its advantage of low variable cost. in particular, he should by all means avoid the coase conditions. we consider three approaches to it—a finite time horizon, a small depreciation factor and a lim- ited number of copies available. the first approach is to develop a mechanism to artificially end the sales in a finite time, say, t. a finite t, preferably a small t, will benefit the vendor. it may sound counter-intuitive, since a shorter time horizon may incur loss of sales on the tail end of the time horizon. but it changes the game dynamics as it pressures cus- tomers to buy before it is too late. in fact, the finite horizon game shows a com- pletely different pattern of profitability from our infinite horizon case. the profit in the former changes in a u-shaped curve with respect to the depreciation factor � (see fig. for t = ), instead of a monotone-decreasing curve in the latter (see fig. for t = ∞ ). the largest depreciation factors offer as high profits as the lowest deprecia- tion factors. the vendor can achieve the maximum profits at the highest depreciation factors when the time horizon is finite. moreover, this case will prevent the rise of the coase conjecture. an example of this approach is to build a reputation of “no markdown” policy. this is equivalent to choosing t = . building such a reputation requires multiple rounds of long-term efforts, sometimes risking short-term losses. it will achieve the same profit as a physical product with zero variable cost. the second approach is to choose a smaller depreciation factor. a small deprecia- tion factor (i.e., smaller � ) has a positive effect on profitability similar to a short sell- ing season (smaller t). for example, the condition � = is equal to t = . in both, the downward spiral will stop before reaching the zero profit level. to execute this strategy, the vendor may shorten the effective product life cycle and introduce a new version of the product at regular intervals. he may continue to offer the current ver- sion of product (i.e., keep t at infinity) even after the new product is introduced, but see coase ( ). digitization and profitability the value of the product will significantly erode, thereby achieving a small depre- ciation factor. this way, scheduled obsolescence would keep the depreciation factor away from and block the coase conditions. lastly, the vendor may create “limited editions” of the digital good. by limiting the supply and creating scarcity, the vendor would overcome the main disadvantage of digital goods such as digital arts and photography. one way is to utilize block- chain technology [see, for example, swan ( )]. for example, cryptokitties, kodak (www.kodak .com/kodak one) and ascribe (www.ascri be.io) offer a block- chain-based service that enables a digital goods vendor to issue a limited number of copies. they assign a unique pair of public and private keys to each copy and track its movement on the blockchain (deforge ; zheng ). the model has several limitations. first, it is a simple stylistic model compro- mised for tractable analysis. we assumed a monopolistic vendor, linear demand, a simplistic market mechanism for physical products and a simple game structure with no uncertainties in the digital system. these simplifying assumptions may admit- tedly limit the power of the model’s conclusions and applicability. the coase con- jecture, in particular, may be viewed as an artifact of theoretical exercise. however, managers may draw qualitative insights from such extreme results. second, we have not allowed the physical product vendor to produce extra units to sell over multiple periods and apply dynamic pricing. but it will not generate a higher profit to the vendor. figure illustrates this point, when we repurpose it for a physical product with two periods of sales and c = . the profit is maximal when � is , or equiva- lently, when t = . that is, it is not optimal for the physical product vendor to sell in multiple periods, even if the vendor is allowed to. thus, we have not lost opti- mality with this limitation. another limitation is, the model captures only two key differentiating features—low production cost and infinite supply—of digital goods. it left out of consideration other benefits of digitization such as instant gratification fig. the profit from the digital good is higher than the physical when � is either smaller than . or larger than . , where v̄ = and t = http://www.kodak.com/kodakone http://www.ascribe.io y. masuda, s. whang and ease of updating and upgrades. further, digitization is often associated with net- work externality, which has a significant implication in pricing. however, network externality is a phenomenon associated with the demand side of the good, often in the context of multi-period market competition. this is well beyond the scope of our model and require a new setup for analysis. we hope to see more work to comple- ment our deficiencies with more sophisticated models and empirical research. funding funding was provided by jsps kakenhi (grant no. k ). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . interna- tional license (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. appendix: proofs proof (theorem ) to analyze the problem, we consider a slightly more general problem as follows. • a customer is identified by type � , where � is uniformly distributed over [ , ]. note we are deviating from the main text where we use v as the customer type. these are equivalent, but the new index will simplify the presentation of the proof. • the reservation value of type-� customer is given by v̄𝜃 . thus, the highest res- ervation value among all customers is given by v̄ . note that v and � are related through v = 𝜃v̄. • the market size is given by q̄. thus, the inverse demand function is given by p = v̄( − q∕q̄) . denote by �̄�(q̄, v̄) the total profit the vender earns from period onwards. since v̄ and q̄ are mere scal- ing factors of the reservation value and the market size, the equilibrium price p∗ t in period t is independent of q̄ and is linear in v̄ . thus, for every 𝛼 > , where p∗ t (v̄) is the price in period t when the highest valuation in period is v̄ . also, it is clear that the profit �̄�(q̄, v̄) is linear in both q̄ and v̄ , i.e., note that the problem in period has the market size 𝜃 q̄ and the highest valuation 𝛿𝜃 v̄ . thus, problem �̄�(q̄, v̄) is expressed as s.t. ( )p∗t (𝛼v̄) = 𝛼p ∗ t (v̄) ( )�̄�(q̄, v̄) = q̄v̄�̄�( , ). ( )�̄�(q̄, v̄) = max𝜃 ,p p q̄( − 𝜃 ) + �̄�(𝜃 q̄, 𝛿𝜃 v̄) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / digitization and profitability where p∗ is the price in period , which is the first period price of the problem �̄�(𝜃 q̄, 𝛿𝜃 v̄) , so that [from ( )] we now evaluate �̄�( , ) . from the incentive compatibility condition ( ) and ( ) with v̄ = , where p∗ = p∗ ( ) . for now, we ignore ( ) and the individual rationality condition ( ). using ( ) and ( ) and setting q̄ = v̄ = in ( ), we have where �̄� = �̄�( , ) . thus, solving these three equations w.r.t. 𝜃∗ , �̄� and p∗ , we obtain we see that these formulas indeed satisfy ( ) and ( ). thus, theorem holds true. ◻ proof (theorem ) consider �̄�(q̄, v̄) . clearly, its solution 𝜃∗ (q̄, v̄) is independent of the scaling factors q̄ and v̄ . since the original problem in period t is given by �̄�(v∗ t− , 𝛿t− v∗ t− ) , 𝜃∗ t ( , v̄) = 𝜃∗ (v∗ t− , 𝛿t− v∗ t− ) is independent of t. thus, the ratio v∗ t ∕v∗ t− is given by �∗ = �∗ ( ) in ( ) for all t, proving part (i). from ( ), ( ) and part (i), p∗ t (v̄) = p∗ (𝛿t− v∗ t− ) = 𝛿t− v∗ t− p∗ ( ) = kv̄(𝛿r)t− , proving part (ii). from ( )� ≤ , ( )𝜃 v̄ − p ≥ , ( )𝜃 v̄ − p =𝛿𝜃 v̄ − p ∗ . ( )p∗ = p ∗ (𝛿𝜃 v̄) = 𝛿𝜃 p ∗ (v̄). p = � − �� + �� p ∗ �̄� = max 𝜃 (𝜃 − 𝛿𝜃 + 𝛿𝜃 p ∗ )( − 𝜃 ) + 𝛿𝜃 �̄�, 𝜃 ∗ = − 𝛿 + 𝛿p∗ − 𝛿( + �̄� − p∗ ) �̄� =p∗ ( − 𝜃∗ ) + 𝛿𝜃∗ �̄� p ∗ =𝜃∗ − 𝛿𝜃∗ + 𝛿𝜃∗ p ∗ . ( )�∗ =( − √ − �)∕� ( )�̄� = � √ − 𝛿 − + 𝛿 � ∕( 𝛿) ( )p∗ =( √ − � − + �)∕�. y. masuda, s. whang ( ), ( ) and part (i), 𝜋∗ t (v̄) = �̄�(v∗ t− , 𝛿t− v∗ t− ) = 𝛿t− v∗ t− �̄�( , ) = kv̄ (𝛿r )t− , proving part (iii). we also see that these formulas indeed satisfy the threshold policy and the individual rationality. ◻ proof (theorem (ii)) note first that sd is monotone increasing in � . also, note that which completes the proof. ◻ references bakos y, brynjolfsson e ( ) bundling information goods: pricing, profits, and efficiency. manag sci ( ): – besanko d, winston wl ( ) optimal price skimming by a monopolist facing rational consumers. manag sci ( ): – board s, skrzypacz a ( ) revenue management with forward-looking buyers. j polit econ ( ): – bulow ji ( ) durable-goods monopolists. j polit econ ( ): – coase rh ( ) durability and monopoly. j law econ ( ): – cramton pc ( ) bargaining with incomplete information: an infinite-horizon model with two-sided uncertainty. rev econ stud ( ): – cunningham t ( ) most moviegoers would pay – to watch new releases at home.https ://www. thewr ap.com/most-movie goers -would -pay- - -to-watch -new-relea ses-at-home/. accessed nov deforge a ( ) art and photography within the blockchain. https ://mediu m.com/block stree thq/digit al- art-and-photo graph y-withi n-the-block chain -bb c . accessed nov goldberg av, hartline jd, wright a ( ) competitive auctions and digital goods. in: proceedings of the twelfth annual acm-siam symposium on discrete algorithms, society for industrial and applied mathematics, pp – goldfarb a, tucker c ( ) digital economics. j econ lit ( ): – gul f, sonnenschein h, wilson r ( ) foundations of dynamic monopoly and the coase conjecture. j econ theory ( ): – hörner j, samuelson l ( ) managing strategic buyers. j polit econ ( ): – huang kw, sundararajan a ( ) pricing digital goods: discontinuous costs and shared infrastructure. inf syst res ( ): – mas-colell a, whinston md, green jr ( ) microeconomic theory. oxford university press, new york lim 𝛿→ s d = lim 𝛿→ v̄ ( + 𝛿 − √ − 𝛿) 𝛿 = lim 𝛿→ v̄ ( + 𝛿 − √ − 𝛿)( + 𝛿 + √ − 𝛿) ( 𝛿)( + 𝛿 + √ − 𝛿) = lim 𝛿→ v̄ ( + 𝛿) ( + 𝛿 + √ − 𝛿) = v̄ ∕ ≥ (v̄ − c) ∕ = sp, https://www.thewrap.com/most-moviegoers-would-pay- - -to-watch-new-releases-at-home/ https://www.thewrap.com/most-moviegoers-would-pay- - -to-watch-new-releases-at-home/ https://medium.com/blockstreethq/digital-art-and-photography-within-the-blockchain-bb c https://medium.com/blockstreethq/digital-art-and-photography-within-the-blockchain-bb c digitization and profitability mcafee rp ( ) lecture on pricing. https ://vita.mcafe e.cc/bin/prici ng/prici nglec tures .pdf. accessed nov mcafee rp, te velde v ( ) dynamic pricing in the airline industry. in: hendershott tj (ed) hand- book on economics and information systems. elsevier, amsterdam mcafee rp, wiseman t ( ) capacity choice counters the coase conjecture. rev econ stud ( ): – orbach by ( ) the durapolist puzzle: monopoly power in durable-goods markets. yale j reg : sobel j, takahashi i ( ) a multistage model of bargaining. rev econ stud ( ): – stokey nl ( ) rational expectations and durable goods pricing. bell j econ ( ): – swan m ( ) blockchain: blueprint for a new economy. o’reilly media, inc., newton zheng c ( ) can blockchain impact the future of art collection? https ://cultu retra ck.com/ideas /can- block chain -impac t-the-futur e-of-art-colle ction /. accessed nov publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. https://vita.mcafee.cc/bin/pricing/pricinglectures.pdf https://culturetrack.com/ideas/can-blockchain-impact-the-future-of-art-collection/ https://culturetrack.com/ideas/can-blockchain-impact-the-future-of-art-collection/ digitization and profitability abstract introduction the model physical and digital goods . physical goods . digital goods . the coase conjecture social welfare concluding remarks references ijhac. . .dvi manuscripts and machines: the automatic replacement of spelling variants in a portuguese historical corpus rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx abstract the cards-fly project aims to collect and transcribe a diverse sample of historical personal letters from the th to th century in a digital format to create a linguistic resource for the historical study of the portuguese language and society. the letters were written by people from all social layers of society and their historical, social and pragmatic contexts are documented in the digital format. here we study one particular aspect of this collection, namely the spelling variation. furthermore, on the basis of this analysis, we improved a statistical spelling normalisation tool that we aim to use to automatically normalise the spelling in the full collection of digitised letters. keywords: historical linguistics, spelling variation, automatic normalization, portuguese . introduction personal letters can have a twofold importance for historians. first, they play a supporting role as documents that contain first person testimonies (with all their flaws of accuracy, to be sure) ready for interpretation alongside all other available sources on whatever topic the historian is studying. under this light, they often become ‘a providential manna to feed biographies, the sketch of everyday life, the taste for intimacy and confidential matters’. secondly, historians can also find personal letters to be important for their own sake, if the context is that of a history of written culture. here they play the leading role, international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press www.euppublishing.com/ijhac rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx given their status of social practices, ‘traces of a complex reality that absorbs countless other practices and registers’. for example, they enclose literate (and halfliterate) discourses on the practice of writing itself. also, they are samples of intimate interactions, whose participants were conscious of the spatial-temporal discontinuity of their speech acts. they constituted either polite or impolite behaviour, either orderly, or disorderly conduct, depending on the observance of conventions valid for the historical communities in question. for this second approach, nevertheless, rich collections of letters are mandatory because cultural interpretations have to be tested against a large quantity of data that represents the norm followed by social actors, and a thin quantity of exceptions that constituted possible marginal behaviours. at the linguistics centre of the university of lisbon (clul), such a large collection is being assembled, the cards-fly corpus, in order to attend both the needs of cultural historians, and the needs of historical linguists. historical linguistics is the study of language change through time, and original, non- literary sources are the most preferred data for the description and interpretation of such change. spontaneous oral utterances would be the ideal data, but since their retrieval is impossible for language as spoken in past centuries, the personal letter discourse is the next best candidate. it offers the linguist the recording of a behaviour carried out by interactive speakers with a more informal attitude than the one adopted by writers of literary or institutional texts. the cards corpus (cartas desconhecidas – unknown letters) is a collection of , personal portuguese letters written between the th and the th century. the ones dating from to were mainly seized by a religious court (the portuguese inquisition) as instrumental proof to prosecute individuals accused of heretical beliefs. as for the th century ones, they were mainly seized by a crown court (the casa da suplicação) as instrumental proof exhibited either by the prosecution or by the defence of individuals accused of anti-social or anti-political behaviour. the project ran from to , carried out by a mixed team of historians and linguists. the role of the linguists was to decipher and publish the manuscripts with philological care in order to preserve their relevance as sources for the history of language variation and change. the role of the historians was to contextualise the letters discourse as social events. the whole set of transcriptions, accompanied by a context summary, was given a machine- readable format, which allowed for the assemblage of an online portuguese historical corpus of early modern ages. in the sequence of cards, the fly project (forgotten letters, years – ) was launched in by the same core team, now accompanied by modern history experts, as well as sociologists. the aim was to enlarge the former corpus with data from the th century. since collecting personal papers from contemporary times is a delicate task, given the need to guarantee the the automatic replacement of spelling variants protection of private data from the public scrutiny, the letters of the fly project come mostly from donations by families willing to contribute to the preservation of portuguese collective memory having to do with wars (world war i and the – colonial war), emigration, political prison, and exile. these were also favourable contexts for a high production of written correspondence with family and friends because in such circumstances strong emotions such as fear, longing, and loneliness were bound to arise. the cards-fly corpus is thus a linguistic resource prepared for the historical study of portuguese language and society. its strength relies on the broad social representativeness, being entirely composed by documents whose texts belong to the letter genre, the personal domain, and the informal linguistic register. the final goal is to have a total of , letters. by may , the team had already transcribed a total of , letters involving , different participants ( per cent men, per cent women) and around , million words. the digital encoding of the letters follows a set of guidelines prepared by the flemish project dalf: digital archive of letters in flanders based on the tei p guidelines. this encoding offers a machine-readable file format that allows for the philological care critical editions demand. the mark-up language is xml, and the labels contents are the ones fixed by dalf for letters idiosyncrasies and by tei for primary sources. the letters manuscripts were transcribed in a conservative way and features such as unreadable parts, scratched-out parts or perforations in the letters are encoded explicitly in the xml mark-up. also the spelling of the original document is maintained, as this is relevant for the history of language change, a prospect that is always compromised when spelling normalisations are practiced by editors. on the other hand, the lack of normalisation for spelling creates a problem when the letters are seen as a target for corpus linguistics operations: morphologic annotation, parsing, semantic annotation, concordancing, word lists, and keywords. such level of processing demands for a corpus in standard spelling, a resource also invaluable for historians focusing on the discursive features that manifest themselves through keywords and semantic fields present in the corpus. as we intend to use the corpus for this purpose, we are in need of a normalised version. manual spelling correction is a laborious and time-consuming effort and therefore we decided to explore the possibilities for automatic normalisation. we already did some exploratory experiments along that path. here we first give a detailed analysis of how spelling varied and changed over time in our corpus based on a statistical analysis of a sample taken from the cards-fly corpus. next we present some practical results of automatic spelling normalization. we conclude with a discussion of the benefits and limits of using statistical methods for spelling normalization but we conclude that the benefits of the procedure are indeed remarkable ones. rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx . setting a standard for written portuguese in the history of portugal the standard norm for written language came late in time, only in , one year after the republican instauration. the standard adoption had been persistently proposed since the th century, following foreign examples, but there was never a favourable occasion for the royal academy of sciences of lisbon (academia real das ciências de lisboa) to produce a written model, neither in the s nor in the s. when a portuguese orthography could finally be decided, there were two possible paradigms that would serve as alternative models: the shallow orthography, such as the spanish and the italian, which preserved phoneme- grapheme correspondences, and the deep orthography, followed in the french and the english spelling standards. the deep paradigm, more etymological, is a type of spelling where morphology, rather than phonology, is recoverable by literate people. the authors of the portuguese spelling reform decided openly for the shallow paradigm. they motivated their choice as a way of creating the proper instrument that would lead to a quick progress of literacy rates in portuguese society: what are the bases for the portuguese orthography that our commission proposes? there was, from the beginning of the works, two systems that could be followed. one of them was the french orthography, which, more or less coherently, is being imitated in portugal for some time now. the other system is the one of the spanish and italian orthographies, much simpler, more rational, logical and easy to learn, much more adapted to the natural and even literary evolution of those languages, which is also similar to the evolution of portuguese. what radically differentiates the orthography of those two official languages [spanish and italian] is the modification of the latin spelling of innumerable romanised greek words to other spellings, much more similar to the value of the letters of such words in modern times. in order to make the teaching of reading and writing an easier task, the commission found that the time had come to banish once and for all from the portuguese writing, as they were banished from the spanish and the italian for a long time, [. . . ] the symbols ph, th, rh, and y [. . . ]. translated from the portuguese bases da reforma de . the reform put an end to a long search for a portuguese standard for spelling. but it raised a diplomatic misunderstanding between portugal and brazil, a problem that took a new period of years to be solved. in , all the portuguese speaking countries signed an agreement on a decisive spelling the automatic replacement of spelling variants reform. in that reform was finally adopted by the portuguese education system. . automatic spelling normalisation . . related work here we first give some examples of recent related studies that handle spelling variation in historical corpora in general and then focus on studies for the portuguese language. the variant detector (vard) tools aimed to detect spelling variation in early modern english and were created for corpus linguistic research. the first version of the tool was based on a list of manually created mappings between historical variants and their modern versions. the latest version combined several different modules such as a list of letter replacement rules, a phonetic matching algorithm and an edit distance search method to detect spelling variation. we discuss a portuguese version of vard in the next section. craig and whipp have also worked on a tool for automatic spelling variation detection for early modern english but in the perspective of authorship attribution. for the corpus of early modern german, a spelling variation detection tool is currently under development. . for the spanish diachronic corpus, a study of the effect of automatic spelling normalisation has been conducted. they compared two different strategies, namely to first automatically normalise the data before using an nlp tool or to adapt the nlp tool itself to handle spelling variation. for their purpose of parts of speech tagging, they argued that tool adaption is better as the original spelling is kept. as for portuguese, most of the available studies concerning the spelling change along early modern and modern times have a cultural historical perspective, which means that what they analyse is the discourses of contemporary élite writers, mostly grammar authors and dictionary authors. such discourses were either bitter criticisms because of the lack of a spelling standard for the language, or concrete proposals for a solution to that void. as for quantitative corpus-based approaches of the same spelling change, they had to wait for the assemblage of large portuguese historical corpora covering the early modern and modern era, a work that is being mostly undertaken in brazil. the tycho brahe team, of campinas university, was the first to present statistical measurements of the spelling change phenomenon in order to solve the processing problems it raised, followed by the historical dictionary of brazilian portuguese team (dicionário histórico do português do brasil). this dictionary is constructed on the basis of a historical portuguese corpus ( th to th century) of approximately million tokens. as they needed a normalised rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx corpus to produce reliable frequency counts for the dictionary, they developed a rule-based method to automatically cluster spelling variants together. they clustered spelling variants around one common word form that is not always a modern word form, but the most central word form in the cluster of related variants leading to a spelling variants dictionary. a resource very similar to the cards-fly corpus is the shared diachronic corpus: personal brazilian letters (corpus compartilhado diacrônico: cartas pessoais brasileiras), which consists of a brazilian collection of historical personal letters from the th to th century. the aim is to provide the academic community with a resource for the sociolinguistic history of rio de janeiro’s society along years. the documents in this collection have also been normalised for spelling, but all normalisation was done manually, with the help of a friendly tool, namely e-dictor, offered by the above-mentioned tycho brahe project. . . dicer similarly to the brazilian experiments, our study also uses a statistical corpus- based approach to get a better insight in the portuguese spelling variation over the th– th century time span. our major originality is that we deal with an ultra-varied corpus, entirely made up of text within original letter manuscripts, either written by common people, or by élite people in common moments of their lives. we extracted a random sample from the cards-fly corpus of letters. these letters were manually normalised to the modern spelling by a linguist. each word in the documents that was labelled as spelling variant was paired with its modern spelling counterpart. this sample was intended both for a manual inspection and analysis of the spelling variation present in the data, and for the development of an automatic tool for spelling normalisation. for the latter purpose, we split the sample in two parts. we used a hundred letters for training and tuning the automatic normalisation tool for this specific genre. the other hundred letters are used for evaluation of the tool as we can compare the manual normalisation against the automatic normalisation produced by the tool. we set apart the evaluation set and excluded it from any manual analysis. tuning an automatic tool to the errors in the evaluation set would lead to a tool that performs very well on this one set but it might lead to an overly optimistic estimation of the true performance of the tool on other, unseen material. dicer (discovery and investigation of character edit rules) is a statistical tool that creates a list of edit rules on the basis of a corpus labelled with spelling variants and their modern counterparts. the tool uses these pairs to detect which character(s) differ between the variant and the modern word, and it produces simple edit rules that capture the steps to rewrite the old word form the automatic replacement of spelling variants to the modern form. the edit rules express what characters are being changed, what type of operation (deletion, insertion or substitution) is applied, and on which location of the word (start, second, middle, penultimate or end). to rewrite a spelling variant to its modern form may need multiple different rewrite rules. for example, apezare is a variant in our historical data for the modern form apesar ‘despite’ and the transformation requires two edit rules: ‘substitute < z > with < s > ’, and ‘delete < e > ’. dicer creates a new rule for every edit that it encounters in the corpus and therefor gives a full statistical and systematic overview of the spelling changes that are present in the corpus. below we show a detail of the dicer results summary, after the processing of the cards-fly corpus sample of a hundred letters. the summary shows the operations involving word types (not tokens). the table captures the ten top edit rules on the modernisation of those types. we can see that the substitution of < z > by < s > , especially when the < z > letter appears in the middle or in the penultimate position, is the edit rule that has been applied most frequently, namely times, as shown in the column labelled as ‘total’ (see table ). since dicer finds all the edit rules involved in the modernisation process, it follows that a close examination of column ‘variant’ versus column ‘standard’, combined with the number of different word types that changed (column ‘total’) will give us a good snapshot of the variation problems we have to face when dealing with the cards-fly corpus. the letters authors were either following old spelling traditions, later abandoned, or, in the case of half-illiterate authors, also struggling with the rationale of the general spelling usage of their time, either old or modern. a computation of the spelling behaviour of those authors, as compared to modern portuguese orthography, tells us that a total of edit rules were needed in order to modernise the sample of letters, and that these rules affected, one or more times, a sum of , different word types. when summing all operations of the edit rules, we counted , different operations, which means that several of these word types had to be standardised step by step by multiple edit rules. in order to have a manageable, humanly observable, sample of this large population of data, we only examined the rules that were applied at least three times, leaving aside the less frequent ones. the resulting sample had a large lexical representativeness ( , operations) but a feasible number of edit rules (only ). in the following two tables we show an interpretation of how the top edit rules of the dicer tool could be distributed in terms of rule contents. the most frequent changes involved the spelling of phonological features ( per cent), and, within these, the spelling of coronal fricatives was the most critical problem presented by our corpus variation (see table and table ). rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx t ab le . t he d ic e r st an da rd iz in g ed it ru le s on th e c a r d s -f l y co rp us (d et ai l) . p os it io n # id o pe ra ti on v ar ia nt s ta nd ar d t ot al s ta rt s ec on d m id dl e p en ul ti m at e e nd s ub st it ut io n z s s ub st it ut io n s s s s ub st it ut io n m n in se rt io n - s ub st it ut io n Ã o a m s ub st it ut io n s c s ub st it ut io n i e s ub st it ut io n i Í s ub st it ut io n e i s ub st it ut io n a Á the automatic replacement of spelling variants table . causes for spelling variation in the cards-fly corpus. word types to general cause specific cause standardise phonology coronal fricatives phonology unstressed oral vowels written with < i > , < e > , < u > , < o > phonology nasal vowels and diphthongs phonology stressed oral vowels mixed mixed graphic tradition abbreviations graphic tradition learned consonant groups, digraphs, and double consonants: < ct > , < pt > , < ph > , < pf > , < pp, < ff > , etc. syntax enclisis: hyphenated verbal forms, with or without sandhi, followed by clitic pronoun vs. non hyphenated verbal forms graphic tradition etymological vs. non etymological initial < h > phonology non standard phonology (dialectal variation) graphic tradition archaic letters: < y > vs. < i > , < u > vs. < v > , < i > vs. < j > ) phonology liquids /l, r, r/ phonology labialised velar stops /kw, gw/ vs. velar stop /k, g/ total we follow here maria helena mateus and ernesto d’andrade, who present a case for the existence of segment /kw/ in the phonology of portuguese: m. h. mateus and e. d’ andrade, the phonology of portuguese (oxford, ). the fact that the cards-fly corpus is composed by original manuscripts, instead of printed texts, together with the large variety of their authors’ social status, accounts for such a distribution of spelling variants. this means that much of the correspondence was written in a close-to-spoken manner, without the opportunity of being revised by a more literate copywriter. the above results also reveal the most important stumbling block in the portuguese modern spelling system when the researcher wants to modernise historical written matter. that stumbling block is the lack of correspondent letters for the distribution of voiced and voiceless coronal fricatives. rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx table . summary of spelling variation in the cards-fly corpus. general cause frequency of rate of word for variation word types to standardise types to standardise phonology , % graphic tradition , % mixed , % syntax , % totals % in the middle ages, southern portuguese dialects were already experiencing seseo (the merge of the dental-alveolar affricates /ts, dz/ and the dental-alveolar fricatives /s, z/). today only the archaic variety of the north-eastern area keeps a distinction between four segments, articulating different fricatives in the middle of passo ‘step’, paço ‘palace’, coser ‘sew’, and cozer ‘bake, steam’. also, but later, from the th century on, the voiceless palatal affricate (traditionally written < ch > ) merged with the voiceless palatal fricative (traditionally written < x > ) in southern and central dialects, so that the phonological difference between words like chá ‘tea’, and xá ‘shah’ was lost. all affricates disappeared in the innovative dialects, but since their traditional spelling was always kept by learned writers, including the ones that established the th century portuguese orthography, it became a major source of variation in texts by poor writers along the centuries. nevertheless, if we split our data into chronological segments, it is clear that the major problem for th century uneducated letter writers is not the spelling of coronal fricatives. that problem is specific of earlier writers, especially the ones of the th and the th century. the major problem with standardizing the spellings of th century poor writers resides in the system of stressed vowels, which they normally write without the phonographic diacritics prescribed by the standard rules. the other two more important sets of rules applied by the dicer tool have to do with the spelling of unstressed vowels and the spelling of nasal vowels and diphthongs, two phonological categories that are insufficiently mirrored by the portuguese standard spelling. neither the spanish nor the italian language, the overt examples that guided the creators of the portuguese standard spelling in , compare to portuguese in what concerns the phonology of unstressed vowels and nasal vowels and diphthongs. so here the portuguese spelling system became more etymological, less shallow, a feature that triggers several problems when it comes to standardizing historical data with many spelling variations. the automatic replacement of spelling variants . . vard as a next step in our study we used the edit rules automatically generated by dicer to further improve the vard tool for automatic spelling normalisation of historical portuguese. we already experimented with the tool vard in a previous study, and here we show how dicer can contribute to a better performance. vard was initially developed for early modern english but we converted it to portuguese. the system uses a modern lexicon to detect possible spelling variants in a historical input text. words that do not occur in the modern lexicon are marked as possible candidates. the system checks for each candidate if it occurs in a variant dictionary, which lists frequent spelling variants and normalised equivalents. if the variant is listed, it is recognised as a true spelling variant and is replaced automatically by its modern equivalent. otherwise, both rules based on phonological information and character rewrite rules are used to generate possible modern equivalents for the variant and associated confidence weights. one of the parameters of vard is a confidence threshold that determines what weight is needed to replace the variant with the highest weighted modern equivalent that exceeds the minimum threshold. if no likely candidates are found, the variant is kept. to convert vard to the portuguese language we replaced the english modules by portuguese ones. as modern lexicon we used the multifunctional computational lexicon of contemporary portuguese. we had created the variant list of spelling variants and their modern equivalents on the basis of an existing spelling variants dictionary extracted from the historical corpus of brazilian portuguese mentioned above. we made several small improvements to the portuguese modules in vard . when inspecting the modern lexicon, we noticed that even though it was extracted from a contemporary dictionary it still contained several archaic word forms. we attempted to filter out these word forms on the basis of a list of archaic word forms from the houaiss dictionary. we also used the list of spelling variants from the training sample of a hundred letters to filter the lexicon by deleting the variants and adding the modern word forms. furthermore, a manual check of the most frequent items in the spelling variant list was needed as we had already noticed that some variants were not mapped to a modern word form but to another, more frequent archaic word form. for example, in our previous experiments the variant list contained the archaic form fforão ’(they) were/went’ matched with equivalent forão instead of the correct modern counter part foram. vard uses a set of rewrite rules to generate the modern word form candidates. in our first approach we manually constructed such a list of rewrite rules based on our own intuitions and on the rule set described by giusti et al. rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx table . vard scores on the development set with different thresholds for the rule set. threshold accuracy recall precision f-score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . here we intend to investigate to what extent the automatically generated rewrite rules by the dicer tool can help improve the performance of vard . our analysis and interpretation of the generated rule set presented above showed that the dicer was able to produce edit rules that capture a broad and diverse set of spelling changes. as dicer generates a large rule list and some of the rules are based on evidence of only one occurrence, we decided to search for an optimal minimum frequency threshold for the rule set. to get an indication for a suitable cut- off point, we ran experiments on the training set to see the effect of using rules that occurred at least , , and times. the higher the cut-off threshold, the smaller the rule set would be. the rule set with cut-off threshold has rules while a cut off of only leaves rules. we split the training sample in a part of letters for training and letters as a development set to determine the optimal rule set. we ran experiments with the different thresholds on the development set. to evaluate the performance of the tool, we compute accuracy, recall, precision and f-score for the words (excluding punctuation marks) in the held out evaluation data. recall expresses the number of cases in which there was a spelling variant in the text and the modern variant was correctly predicted by the tool, divided by the total number of predictions (errors because the tool predicted too many cases). precision on the other hand focuses on the number of correct predictions divided by the number of true spelling variants in the data (errors because the tool missed some cases). in table we show the effect of varying the threshold on the development set. we do not observe huge differences between the different thresholds, but as the threshold of had a slightly higher score, we decided to use this cut-off threshold for the experiments on the test set. as we aim to study the effect of dicer edit rules on the vard system, we made a comparison between the dicer edit rules, and the set of rules that we had manually created for our previous experiments. the manual rule set contains different rules while the dicer rule set with threshold contains rules. when we compare the two rule sets, we notice only a few overlaps in rules. both sets contain the rules to remove the double consonants < ll > , < nn > , < tt > , the automatic replacement of spelling variants table . a comparison on the test set of two versions of the vard tool one with the dicer rule set and one with handcrafted rules. rule set accuracy recall precision f-score handcrafted . . . . dicer . . . . the substitution of < y > with < i > and some accent changes. the manual rule set contains many specific rules that cover multiple character strings such as ‘substitute < zente > with < sente > at the end position’. the dicer tool however has more general rules that do capture the same event, for example the rule < z > - < s > is a generalisation of the ‘substitute < zente > ’ rule. in the table we show the results of the comparison vard with the handcrafted rule set against a version of vard trained with the dicer rule set with threshold on the held out test sample of a hundred letters. overall, we observe that vard has a very high precision. the automatically generated rule set leads to a higher performance of per cent f-score and per cent accuracy. as shown in the table, the automatically generated rule set leads to a higher overall performance due to an increase of the recall. the dicer rule set enables the vard tool to create a larger list of possible modern candidates thereby reducing the number of missed variants. for example, the variant lansar was not corrected by vard trained with the handcrafted rule set, but it was correctly changed to lançar ‘to launch’ by the version trained with the dicer rule set as it included the edit ‘substitute < s > with < ç > ’. in general, the limitation of vard to only detect non-word errors causes a major part of the errors. to give an example, the noun circunstancia was not detected as a spelling variant because it is listed in the modern lexicon where it represents a conjugation of the verb circunstanciar ‘to state in detail’. however, the modern equivalent of the noun has an accent: circunstância ‘circumstance’. the information about the grammatical function of a word in the sentence is not available and therefor the system cannot detect this variant. in other cases vard will chose the most likely and closest modern variant, and this may not be the best option in a given context. like the form frea that can either be an abbreviation of freguesia ‘parish’ or a variant of fria ‘cold’. a context-sensitive tool is needed to solve this type of problems but this is a line of future research as there are currently not many context-sensitive spelling normalisation tools available, certainly not for historical texts. . conclusions we have presented an analysis of the main types of spelling variation that we encountered in cards-fly corpus, a corpus of portuguese historical personal rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx letters that lacks standardisation because it corresponds to extremely varying sources, which were transcribed in a semi-palaeographic way. the systematic account of all spelling changes in the corpus sample, as generated by the dicer tool, shows the mixed nature of portuguese modern orthography, not so much shallow as their inventors wanted it to be. this mixed nature of the modern standard clashes both with etymological spellings within the corpus, and with phonological ones. as spelling variation can be a hindrance for certain types of research and for automatic search in the corpus, we presented a series of experimental results with the vard statistical normalisation tool. this tool can automatically normalise variants with an f-score of per cent and a precision of per cent. a high precision means that when vard makes a correction, this is in general correct. the errors that it makes are caused by missing a spelling variant. this score is more than sufficient to be useful for automatic correction of the corpus as it is preferable to have a conservative tool making only those corrections that it is certain about. we have shown that a systematic statistical analysis of spelling variation is a powerful way to both consolidate known changes in the spelling conventions and to discover new insights in the way people wrote in earlier times. we also showed that both diachronic linguists and historians wanting to subject historical portuguese sources to processing operations can have them modernised by an automatic way. they do not have to wait long years, nor to exhaust large human resources, in the operation of manually modernising the variant spellings of such texts, even if they were written by the poor-writer type of author. additionally, the same procedure can always be adapted to new languages, since the tools we worked with were originally designed for english historical texts. end notes acknowledgements: this research is funded by the portuguese foundation of science and technology (fct), under the project fly (ptdc/cle-lin/ / ), and the fct program ciência / . translated from c. dauphin, ‘pour une histoire de la correspondance familiale’, romantisme , ( ), – . cited here at . a. petrucci, public lettering: script, power, and culture (chicago, ). translated from dauphin, ‘pour une histoire de la correspondance familiale’, . d. y. w. lee, ‘genres, registers, text types, domains, and styles: clarifying the concepts and navigating a path through the bnc jungle’, language learning & technology , ( ), – . cited here at and . dalf, guidelines for the description and encoding of modern correspondence material, version . , , http://ctb.kantl.be/project/dalf/. tei, text encoding initiative, p guidelines, http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml, last accessed may . the automatic replacement of spelling variants recent examples are d. archer and j. culpeper, ‘identifying key sociophilological usage in plays and trial proceedings ( – ): an empirical approach via corpus annotation’, journal of historical pragmatics , ( ), – , and d. z. mohd, g. knowles and ch. k. fatt, ‘nationhood and malaysian identity: a corpus-based approach’, text & talk – an interdisciplinary journal of language, discourse & communication studies , ( ), – . i. hendrickx and r. marquilhas, ‘from old texts to modern spellings: an experiment in automatic normalisation’, journal for language technology and computational linguistics , ( ), – . m. f. gonçalves, as ideias ortográficas em portugal: de madureira feijó a gonçalves viana ( – ) (lisboa, ), – . f. coulmas, the blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems (oxford & cambridge, mass., ), . reprinted by i. castro, i. duarte and i. leiria, eds, a demanda da ortografia portuguesa (lisboa, ), . presidência do conselho de ministros, ‘resolução do conselho de ministros n.o / ’, diário da república, .a série, n.o , january , . p. rayson, d. archer and n. smith, ‘vard versus word: a comparison of the ucrel variant detector and modern spell checkers on english historical corpora’, proceedings of the corpus linguistics conference (birmingham, ). h. craig and r. whipp, ‘old spellings, new methods: automated procedures for indeterminate linguistic data’ , literary and linguistic computing , ( ), – . s. scheible, r. j. whitt, m. durrell and p. bennett, ‘for the a gold standard corpus of early modern german’, proceedings of the th linguistic annotation workshop (portland, oregon, ), - . c. sánchez-marco, g. boleda, j. m. fontana and j. domingo, ‘annotation and representation of a diachronic corpus of spanish’, proceedings of the seventh conference on international language resources and evaluation (malta, ), – . gonçalves, as ideias ortográficas em portugal; m. l. c. buescu, gramáticos portugueses do século xvi (lisboa, ); r. marquilhas, ‘o acento, o hífen e as consoantes mudas nas ortografias antigas portuguesas’, in i. castro, i. duarte, and i. leiria, eds., a demanda da ortografia portuguesa (lisboa, ), – ; m. h. paiva, ‘variação e evolução da palavra gráfica: o testemunho dos textos metalinguísticos do século xvi’, in actas do xii encontro nacional da associação portuguesa de linguística, (coimbra, ), – . t. a. menegatti, regras lingüísticas para o tratamento computacional da variação de grafia e abreviaturas do corpus tycho brahe (campinas, ). r. giusti, et al., ‘automatic detection of spelling variation in historical corpus: an application to build a brazilian portuguese spelling variants dictionary’, in proceedings of the corpus linguistics conference cl (birmingham, ). bp spelling variants dictionary is available at: http://www.nilc.icmc.usp.br/nilc/projects/hpc/, last accessed may . the corpus compartilhado diacrônico was created by the laboratório de história do português brasileiro from the universidade federal do rio de janeiro in brazil. more information can be found at http://www.letras.ufrj.br/laborhistorico/, last accessed may . m. c. paixão de sousa, f. n. kepler and p. p. f. faria, ‘e-dictor: novas perspectivas na codificação e edição de corpora de textos históricos’, in caminhos da linguística de corpus (campinas, ). dicer is described in chapter of the following thesis: a. baron, ‘dealing with spelling variation in early modern english texts, phd dissertation’ (lancaster university, ). rita marquilhas and iris hendrickx l. f. lindley cintra, ‘observations sur l’orthographe et la langue de quelques textes non littéraires galicien-portugais de la seconde moitié du xiiie siècle’, revue de linguistique romane ( ), – . p. teyssier, história da língua portuguesa (lisboa, ); i. castro, introdução à história do português (lisboa, ). a. baron and p. rayson, ‘vard : a tool for dealing with spelling variation in historical corpora’, in proceedings of the postgraduate conference in corpus linguistics (birmingham, uk, ). for a detailed description of the portuguese modules in our version of the vard tool, we refer to the following paper: hendrickx and marquilhas, ‘from old texts to modern spellings’, sec . this lexicon is available for download at: multifunctional computational lexicon of con- temporary portuguese, , http://www.clul.ul.pt/en/resources/ -project-multifunctional- computational-lexicon-of-contemporary-portuguese-r. giusti, et al., ‘automatic detection of spelling variation in historical corpus’, sec . a. houaiss, et al., dicionário houaiss da língua portuguesa (rio de janeiro, ). we wish to thank mauro villar for kindly granting us access to the digital form of the houaiss dictionary’s archaic lexicon. the dicer rules were manually converted to the vard format and some rules were adapted as very general rules such ‘insert e anywhere’ slow down and ultimately crash the vard program as they generate too many possibilities. to elevate this problem, such general rules were converted to more specific rules. baron, ‘dealing with spelling variation in early modern english texts’, sec . , and sec . introduction to digital humanities dhum fall ma program in digital humanities cuny graduate center wednesdays : pm– : pm - room faculty dr. matthew k. gold mgold@gc.cuny.edu http://mkgold.net @mkgold dr. kelly baker josephs kjosephs@york.cuny.edu https://kbjosephs.net @kbjosephs course blog: http://cuny.is/dhintro course group: http://cuny.is/group-dhintro course hashtag: #dhintro email the class: dhintro @groups.commons.gc.cuny.edu advisory fellows: micki kaufman (ma in dh); andi Çupallari (ms in data analysis/vis) course overview in this introduction to the digital humanities (dh), we will approach the field via a caribbean studies lens, exploring how an understanding of the digital based in the growing area of digital caribbean studies might shape the larger field of dh. the course aims to provide a landscape view of dh, paying attention to how its various approaches embody new ways of knowing and thinking, new epistemolo- gies. what kinds of questions, for instance, does the practice of mapping pose to our research and teaching? how does the concept of mapping change when we begin from the global south? when we attempt to share our work through social media, how is it changed and who do we imagine it reaches? how can we visually and ethically represent various forms of data and how does the data morph in the representation? over the course of this semester, we will explore these questions and others as we engage ongoing debates in the digital humanities, such as the problem of defining the digital humanities, the question of whether dh has (or needs) theoretical grounding, controversies over new models of peer review for digital http://www.gc.cuny.edu/dh scholarship, issues related to collaborative labor on digital projects, and the problematic questions surrounding research involving “big data.” the course will also emphasize the ways in which dh has helped transform the nature of academic teaching and pedagogy in the contemporary university with its emphasis on collaborative, student-centered and digital learning environments and approaches. central themes in the course will emerge from our focus on the caribbean – in particular, how various technologies and technical approaches have been shaped by colonial practices; how archives might be decolonized and how absences in the archives might be accounted for; and how concepts like minimal computing might alter the projects we build. though no previous technical skills are required, students will be asked to experiment in introductory ways with dh tools and methods as a way of concretizing some of our readings and discussions. students will be expected to participate actively in class discussions and online postings (including on our course blog) and to undertake a final project that can be either a conventional seminar paper or a proposal for a digital project. students completing the course will gain broad knowledge about and understanding of the emerging role of the digital humanities across several academic disciplines and will begin to learn some of the fundamental skills used often in digital humanities projects. note: this course is part of an innovative “digital praxis seminar,” a two- semester long introduction to digital tools and methods that will be open to all students in the graduate center. the goal of the course is to introduce graduate students to various ways in which they can incorporate digital research into their work. learning objectives • students will become acquainted with the current landscape of the field of digital humanities and digital caribbean studies. • students will become conversant with a range of debates in the field of dh through readings and discussions. • students will create a social media presence and begin to prepare their own digital portfolios. • students will create a proposal for a digital project for possible development in the spring. • students will become familiar with the resources available at the graduate center to support work on digital teaching and research projects. requirements and structure: students in the course should complete the following work during the semester: reading and discussion (weekly) students should complete all weekly readings in advance of the class meeting and should take an active part in class discussions. blogging ( posts) • students are responsible for writing five blog posts on our shared course blog. these should be posted by monday night so that peers have the weekend to respond before class. – two short responses to our weekly readings or in-class discussions. post your thoughts, reactions, questions, responses; – one post about a workshop you have attended, with the goal of helping other students understand what they may have missed and/or what you found valuable about it; – one post about a praxis assignment; – one post about your final project. • students who are not writing blog posts on a given week should comment on and respond to the posts of other students. workshops ( workshops) • in connection with (gc digital initiatives)[http://cuny.is/cunygcdi], we will be offering skills workshops throughout the semester (https://gcdi. commons.gc.cuny.edu/calendar/). students are responsible for attending a minimum of three workshops over the course of the semester. you are free to go to as many as you’d like pending space limitations. to satisfy this requirement, students can also attend workshops offered by the interactive technology and pedagogy program, the teaching and learning center, the gc library, and the quantitative research center. praxis assignments ( assignments) during the semester, we will ask you to complete two praxis assignments. these exercises are meant to be beginner-level; our interest in having you complete them lies in getting you to experiment with new tools. your results do not have to be necessarily significant or meaningful; the important thing is to engage the activity and gain a better understanding of the kinds of choices one must make when undertaking such a project. we ask you to think, too, about both the strengths and the limitations of the tools you are trying out. our group on the cuny academic commons includes an integration with the dirt directory (look for the digital tools link in the group), which can help lead you to new tools to try. assignment options: . mapping assignment (due oct – required of all students) https://gcdi.commons.gc.cuny.edu/calendar/ https://gcdi.commons.gc.cuny.edu/calendar/ praxis assignment – mapping create a map using one of the tools described in “finding the right tools for mapping.” you can create any map you’d like; we just want you to try to use one of these pieces of mapping software. should you feel so inspired, we invite you to explore one of the following options: • create a map that in some way attempts to work against the constraints of maps (generally) or the particular mapping software you are using. • create a map of something that is not necessarily (or traditionally thought of as) mappable. • create a map related to issues of sovereignty as discussed in the “visualizing sovereignty” article. • create a map of a novel, an author’s works, or some other data using google maps, cartodb, arcgis storymaps, or another mapping platform. please create a blog post describing your experiences. choose either: . visualization assignment (due oct ) description forthcoming or . text analysis assignment (due nov ) description forthcoming final projects: students may choose between a) writing a conventional seminar paper related to some aspect of our course readings; or b) crafting a formal proposal for a digital project that might be executed with a team of students during the spring semester. guidelines for the proposal will be distributed later in the semester. grading regular participation in discussions across the range of our face-to-face and online course spaces is essential. • participation and online assignments ( %) • final project ( %) accounts all students should register for accounts on the following sites: [cuny academic commons], [twitter], and [zotero] (the library staff offers several very good intro workshops on zotero that you are encouraged to attend). remember that when you register for social-networking accounts, you do not have to use your full name or even your real name. one benefit of writing publicly under your real name is that you can begin to establish a public academic identity and to network with others in your field. however, keep in mind that search engines have extended the life of online work; if you are not sure that you want your work for this course to be part of your permanently searchable identity trail on the web, you should strongly consider creating a digital alias. whether you engage social media under your real name or whether you construct a new online identity, please consider the ways in which social media can affect your career in both positive and negative ways. books to purchase: you are required to purchase only one book for this course, though that book is also available in the library on reserve. all readings will be circulated via links on the web or via pdf. • benjamin, ruha. race after technology: abolitionist tools for the new jim code. medford, ma: polity press, . please check out our course schedule for our list of weekly assignments and readings. readings marked (pdf) will be made available via the files section of our course group. course schedule (subject to change) readings marked (pdf)** can be found in our course group** / - introductions course syllabus and site / - approaching the digital humanities, thinking the caribbean readings • matthew k. gold, “the digital humanities moment” - debates in the digital humanities ( ) • matthew k. gold and lauren f. klein, “digital humanities: the expanded field” debates in the digital humanities • matthew k. gold and lauren f. klein, “a dh that matters” debates in the digital humanities • kelly baker josephs and roopika risam, “digital black atlantic intro- duction” (draft) (pdf) • david scott, “on the question of caribbean studies” sites to explore • torn apart / separados • caribbean digital • create caribbean projects • the early caribbean digital archive assignment – blog post: • to what extent do these sites/projects reflect issues discussed in our readings? • or, if you were to center an understanding about what dh is around one of these projects/sites, how would dh be defined (or redefined)? / - epistemologies of dh readings • kim gallon, “making a case for the black digital humanities” • kelly baker josephs, “teaching the digital caribbean: the ethics of a public pedagogical experiment” https://commons.gc.cuny.edu/groups/introduction-to-digital-humanities- /documents/ https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled- c - - b-a be- fdb bfbd e/section/fcd c- - b- a -dc b baeec #intro https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/ b b -bdda- f-b - ae fbbfd f#intro https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/ b b -bdda- f-b - ae fbbfd f#intro https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled-f acf c-a - d -be - f ac e a /section/ cd - d b- f c- fdf- e c c #intro https://read.dukeupress.edu/small-axe/article/ / % ( )/ / /on-the-question-of-caribbean-studies http://xpmethod.plaintext.in/torn-apart/ http://caribbeandigitalnyc.net http://createcaribbean.org/create/projects/ https://ecda.northeastern.edu/ https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/fa e e - c d- -a -d aac eb#ch https://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/teaching-the-digital-caribbean-the-ethics-of-a-public-pedagogical-experiment/ https://jitp.commons.gc.cuny.edu/teaching-the-digital-caribbean-the-ethics-of-a-public-pedagogical-experiment/ • roopika risam, “what passes for human? undermining the universal subject in digital humanities praxis” • daniel paul o’donnell, katherine l. walter, alex gil, neil fraistat, “only connect: the globalization of the digital humanities” (pdf) • d. fox harrell, “cultural roots for computing” • ramsay, stephen, and geoffrey rockwell. “developing things: notes toward an epistemology of building in the digital humanities” debates in the digital humanities: , edited by matthew k. gold. university of minnesota press, . / - mapping readings • mark s. monmonier, how to lie with maps (pdf) • olivia ildefonso, “finding the right tools for mapping” • yarimar bonilla and max hantel, “visualizing sovereignty” • mayukh sen, “dividing lines. mapping platforms like google earth have the legacies of colonialism programmed into them” explore the following mapping projects: • slave revolt in jamaica, - • mapping inequality • renewing inequality • the decolonial atlas / - data and visualization readings • jennifer guiliano and carolyn heitman, “difficult heritage and the com- plexities of indigenous data” • tressie mcmillan cottom, “more scale, more questions: observations from sociology” • jessica marie johnson, “a review of ‘two plantations” • johanna drucker, “humanities approaches to graphical display” • lev manovich, “what is visualization?” sites to explore • a tale of two plantations https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/d c ed - c - de - de- f fecd /section/ d cdb- a - e b- -bf cf bb #ch https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/d c ed - c - de - de- f fecd /section/ d cdb- a - e b- -bf cf bb #ch http://eleven.fibreculturejournal.org/fcj- -cultural-roots-for-computingthe-case-of-african-diasporic-orature-and-computational-narrative-in-the-griot-system/ https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled- c - - b-a be- fdb bfbd e/section/c e- - e- f -e b a cac #ch https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled- c - - b-a be- fdb bfbd e/section/c e- - e- f -e b a cac #ch https://digitalfellows.commons.gc.cuny.edu/ / / /finding-the-right-tools-for-mapping/ http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /bonilla-visualizing.html https://reallifemag.com/dividing-lines/ https://reallifemag.com/dividing-lines/ http://revolt.axismaps.com/ https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc= / . /- . https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/renewal/#view= / / &viz=cartogram https://decolonialatlas.wordpress.com/ https://culturalanalytics.org/ / /difficult-heritage-and-the-complexities-of-indigenous-data/ https://culturalanalytics.org/ / /difficult-heritage-and-the-complexities-of-indigenous-data/ https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/ e b - a- f - c - c bf #ch https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/ e b - a- f - c - c bf #ch http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/assets/issue /review-johnson-plantation.pdf http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://manovich.net/content/ -projects/ -what-is-visualization/ _article_ .pdf http://twoplantations.com/ • around dh in days • data is beautiful: of the best data visualization examples from history to today / - history and the archive (guest visit from ada fer- rer) readings • linda m. rodriguez and ada ferrer, “collaborating with aponte: digital humanities, art, and the archive” • marlene l. daut, “haiti @ the digital crossroads: archiving black sovereignty” • jessica marie johnson, “markup bodies: black [life] studies and slavery [death] studies at the digital crossroads” (pdf) site to explore • digital aponte assignment: praxis mapping assignment due / - no classes / - no classes / - design / infrastructure readings • kelly baker josephs and teanu reid, “after the collaboration” (pdf) • angela sutton, “the digital overhaul of the archive of ecclesiastical and secular sources for slave societies (essss)” • bethany nowiskie, “capacity through care” • susan leigh star, “the ethnography of infrastructure” (pdf) • miriam posner, “see no evil?” • stephen jackson, “rethinking repair” • alex gil “interview with ernesto oroza” assignment: praxis visualization assignment due / - access / minimal computing readings https://arounddh.org https://www.tableau.com/learn/articles/best-beautiful-data-visualization-examples https://www.tableau.com/learn/articles/best-beautiful-data-visualization-examples http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /ferrer-rodriguez.html http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /ferrer-rodriguez.html http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /daut.html http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /daut.html http://aponte.hosting.nyu.edu/ http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /essss.html http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /essss.html https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled-f acf c-a - d -be - f ac e a /section/ a cbc - eee- a-a f - bb dfb c #ch https://logicmag.io/scale/see-no-evil/ https://sjackson.infosci.cornell.edu/rethinkingrepairproofs(reduced)aug .pdf https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/f df - e- fe- -f dba c fb#ch • kathleen fitzpatrick, generous thinking (pdf) • cristina venegas, “tourism and the social ramifications of media tech- nologies”* • johanna drucker, “pixel dust: illusions of innovation in scholarly pub- lishing” • alex gil, “design for diversity: the case of ed” sites to explore • dhdebates site • sx salon/sx archipelagos • open-access publications on the cuny academic commons • manifold / - text readings • underwood, ted. “a genealogy of distant reading” digital humanities quarterly, vol. , no. , . • klein, lauren f. “distant reading after moretti” lklein, . • ramsay, stephen. “the hermeneutics of screwing around; or what you do with a million books” pastplay: teaching and learning history with technology, edited by kevin kee, university of michigan press, , pp. – . • witmore, michael. “text: a massively addressable object” debates in the digital humanities: , edited by matthew k. gold. university of minnesota press, . • so, richard jean. “all models are wrong.” pmla, vol. , no. , may , pp. - . (pdf) assignment: praxis text mining assignment due / - pedagogy readings • ryan cordell, “how not to teach digital humanities” • lizabeth paravisini-gebert, “review of puerto rico syllabus: essential tools for critical thinking about the puerto rican debt crisis” • roopika risam, “postcolonial digital pedagogy” (pdf) • marta effinger-crichlow, “a pedagogical search for home and care” https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/pixel-dust-illusions-innovation-scholarly-publishing/ https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/pixel-dust-illusions-innovation-scholarly-publishing/ https://des div.library.northeastern.edu/design-for-diversity-the-case-of-ed-alex-gil/ http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/ https://commons.gc.cuny.edu/about/publications/ http://manifoldapp.org http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html http://lklein.lmc.gatech.edu/ / /distant-reading-after-moretti/ https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/dh/ . . / : /--pastplay-teaching-and-learning-history-with-technology?g=dculture;rgn=div ;view=fulltext;xc= # . https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/dh/ . . / : /--pastplay-teaching-and-learning-history-with-technology?g=dculture;rgn=div ;view=fulltext;xc= # . https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled- c - - b-a be- fdb bfbd e/section/ e e a- b- b - -a b e a#p b https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled/section/ - c - c a-b b - e#ch http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /paravisini.html http://smallaxe.net/sxarchipelagos/issue /paravisini.html https://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/read/untitled-f acf c-a - d -be - f ac e a /section/ a a - - a- -b #ch multimedia to explore: • online dh syllabi (selections) • #sxcd - session : digital caribbean pedagogies • digital pedagogy in the humanities / - ruha benjamin, race after technology readings read race after technology in full / - open topic (tba) readings tba assignment: final proposals due / - student presentations (guest professor visit) / - student presentations / - final projects due https://github.com/curateteaching/digitalpedagogy/tree/master/keywords dhintro introduction to digital humanities course overview learning objectives requirements and structure: course-schedule course schedule (subject to change) / - introductions / - approaching the digital humanities, thinking the caribbean / - epistemologies of dh / - mapping / - data and visualization / - history and the archive (guest visit from ada ferrer) / - no classes / - no classes / - design / infrastructure / - access / minimal computing / - text / - pedagogy / - ruha benjamin, race after technology / - open topic (tba) / - student presentations (guest professor visit) / - student presentations / - final projects due making sense of strange sounds: (mutual) intelligibility of related language varieties. a review. | scholarly publications skip to main content leiden university scholarly publications home submit about select collection all collections this collection academic speeches dissertations faculty of archaeology faculty of governance and global affairs faculty of humanities faculty of science faculty of social and behavioural sciences leiden journals, conference proceedings and books leiden law school leiden university press medicine / leiden university medical centre (lumc) research output ul search box persistent url of this record https://hdl.handle.net/ / documents download heuvenijhac not applicable (or unknown) open access in collections this item can be found in the following collections: centre for linguistics (lucl) heuven, v.j. van ( ) making sense of strange sounds: (mutual) intelligibility of related language varieties. a review. article / letter to editor all authors heuven, v.j. van date journal international journal of humanities and arts computing volume issue - pages - © - leiden university a service provided by leiden university libraries contact about us recently added digital collections student repository microsoft word - -유희천.doc journal of the ergonomics society of korea vol. , no. pp. - , october http://dx.doi.org/ . /jesk. . . . development of a distributed representative human model generation and analysis system for multiple-size product design baekhee lee , kihyo jung , heecheon you department of industrial and management engineering, postech, pohang, - school of industrial engineering, university of ulsan, ulsan, - abstract objective: the aim of this study is to develop a distributed representative human model(drhm) generation and analysis system. background: drhms are used for a product with multiple-size categories such as clothing and shoes. it is not easy for a product designer to explore an optimal sizing system by applying various distributed methods because of their complexity and time demand. method: studies related to drhm generation were reviewed and the rhm generation interfaces of three digital human model simulation systems(jack®, ramsis®, and catia human®) were reviewed. results: drhm generation steps are implemented by providing sophisticated interfaces which offer various statistical techniques and visualization methods with ease. conclusion: the drhm system can analyze the multivariate accommodation percentage of a sizing system, provide body sizes of generated drhms, and visualize generated grids and drhms. application: the drhm generation and analysis system can be of great use to determine an optimal sizing system for a multiple-size product by comparing various sizing system candidates. keywords: multiple-size product design, sizing system, distributed representative human model . introduction digital human model(dhm) simulation system(예: jack®, ramsis®)은 가상환경상에서 대표인체모델(repre- sentative human model, rhm)을 생성하여 인간공학적인 제품과 작업공간의 설계 및 평가를 위한 효율적인 도구로 사용되고 있다. rhm은 제품 설계대상인구의 인체크기를 통계적으로 적합하게 대표하는 소수의 인체모델로서, 효율 적인 제품 설계 및 개발을 위해 필수적이다(jung and you, ). 예를 들면, park et al.( )과 lee et al.( ) 은 소수의 rhm을 기반으로 한국형 헬리콥터 조종실과 방사성폐기물처리장 주제어실을 인간공학적으로 설계하고 평가하기 위하여 dhm simulation system을 활용하였다 (figure ). dhm simulation system의 rhm 생성은 percentile 방 법과 custom-built 방법 등에 의해 수행될 수 있는데 각각 설계대상인구에 대한 rhm의 생성 효율성 측면의 한계점을 지니고 있다. percentile 방법은 대부분 대표적으로 사용되 는 가지 rhm( th , th , 그리고 th percentiles)을 제공 하며, 두 개 이상의 인체변수에 대한 인구수용비율은 목표수 용비율보다 저하된다(hfes , ). 또한, custom- built 방법은 인체변수(예: 개, jack®)별로 rhm의 인체 크기를 사용자가 직접 입력하는 인터페이스를 제공하고 있 는데, 생성 목적에 맞는 인체변수들의 크기를 결정하고 사용 자가 직접 입력하는데 많은 시간이 소요된다. corresponding author: heecheon you. department of industrial and management engineering, postech, pohang, - . phone: - - , e-mail: hcyou@postech.ac.kr copyright@ by ergonomics society of korea(pissn: - eissn: - ). all right reserved. baekhee lee · kihyo jung · heecheon you jesk rhm 인체크기 결정을 위한 rhm 생성 방법들 중 산포 대표인체모델(distributed representative human model, drhm)의 생성은 의복과 같은 다중치수제품(multiple- size product)의 대량맞춤생산을 위한 치수체계 개발에 활 용되고 있다. 그러나, drhm을 생성하고 대표성(repre- sentativeness) 분석에 특화된 시스템의 개발은 미흡한 실 정이다. 따라서, drhm을 생성하고 분석하는 시스템의 개발 은 인간공학적인 다중치수제품 설계 시 비용 절감, 시간 단 축, 그리고 최적 치수체계 선정에 기여할 수 있다. 본 연구는 다중치수제품 설계를 위한 drhm 생성 및 분석 시스템을 개발하였다. 본 연구에서는 문헌조사를 통 해 drhm 생성 절차 및 기법을 조사하고, 기존 dhm simulation system의 drhm 생성 인터페이스의 특성 및 한계점을 파악하였다. 그리고, drhm 생성 절차 및 방법을 적용하여 drhm 생성 및 분석에 특화된 시스템을 개발하 였다. . literature review drhm은 치수체계가 있는 제품(예: 장갑)의 설계 및 평 가 시에 생성된다. drhm은 제품 설계대상인구 전반에 지 정된 비율(예: %)을 수용하도록 격자들을 배치한 후, 각 격자에서 한 개씩 drhm을 선정하여 생성된다(jung et al., ). drhm 생성 절차는 단계(중요변수 선정, distributed method 결정, 그리고 drhm 인체크기 결정)로 구분되는데, figure 와 같이 각 단계에서는 다양한 통계적 기법(예: regression analysis)이 사용된다(jung, ). 본 연구는 세 가지 대표적인 dhm simulation system들 (jack, ramsis, 그리고 catia human)에 대하여 특성 및 한계점을 파악하였다(table ). 예를 들어, jack은 us army 인체측정 data(gordon et al., )를 기반으로 성 별(female, male) 및 percentile( st , th , th , th , th ) 을 선택하여 rhm을 생성하는 인터페이스를 제공하고 있으 나, 성별 및 다양한 연령대를 특정 비율로 혼합하여 rhm을 생성하는 기능을 제공하지 않는 것으로 파악되었다. . system development 본 연구는 microsoft visual studio c# 과 matlab a(ver. . )을 활용하여 drhm을 생성하 고 분석하는 시스템을 개발하였다. 본 시스템은 figure 과 같이 drhm 생성 절차 단계가 구현된 입력 인터페이스와 생성된 drhm에 대한 분석 결과 및 시각화된 결과를 제공 한다. table . characteristics of distributed representative human model generation interfaces of digital human model simulation systems factors jack (simens) ramsis (human solutions) catia human (dassault systemes) database /nation us army ( ) germany etc., nations ( ~ ) american etc., nations (*n.s.) gender female, male female, male female, male age groups **n/a fixed groups (e.g., ~ ) n/a number of ad n/a rhm generation method percentile custom-built percentile custom-built percentile * n.s.: not specified ** n/a: not applicable (a) helicopter cockpit (park et al., ) (b) radioactive waste facility control room(lee et al., ) figure . distributed representative human model(drhm) generation process & used statistical techniques (ad: anthropometric dimension, k: key dimension) figure . ergonomic product design using a digital human model simulation system vol. , no. . . . distributed representative human model generation and analysis system . drhm generation . . step : target population selection 설계대상인구는 인체측정 data로부터 성별과 연령대를 선 택하여 선정된다. 본 시스템은 여러 인체측정 database(us army, ; us army pilot, ; korean pilot, ) 와 연동되도록 구축되어 있으며, 남녀 비율과 대부터 대까지 각 연령대 비율을 지정하여 설계대상인구를 형성할 수 있도록 하였다. . . step : target anthropometric variable selection 본 시스템은 설계대상 인체변수들을 대분류, 소분류, 그리 고 치수유형으로 분류하여 사용자가 용이하게 선택할 수 있 도록 하였다. 예를 들어, figure 와 같이 가슴둘레(chest circumference)는 trunk(대분류), chest(소분류), circum- ference(치수유형) 순으로 탐색하여 선정된다. . . step : extraction of key dimensions 중요변수 추출단계는 대표적으로 사용되는 가지 통계적 분석 방법(regression analysis, factor analysis, principal component analysis)을 적용할 수 있는 각각의 인터페이스 를 제공한다. 예를 들어, regression analysis 인터페이스는 figure 와 같이 선택된 설계대상 인체변수들로부터 중요변수 개수 ( ~ 개)에 따른 중요변수 후보와 나머지 변수간의 평균수 정회귀계수의 경향을 graph 및 table로 제공한다. 또한, 사 용자가 중요변수를 사전에 알고 있을 경우 'user-defined' 버튼을 사용하여 직접 선정할 수 있다. . . step : determination of distributed method drhm 생성 방법 선정단계에서는 가지 drhm 생성 방 법(grid, cluster, optimization method)을 적용할 수 있는 figure . system overview figure . interface of target anthropometric variable selection baekhee lee · kihyo jung · heecheon you jesk 각각의 인터페이스를 제공한다. 예를 들어, grid method 인 터페이스는 figure 과 같이 선정된 중요변수들의 다양한 기술적 통계치(예: mean, percentile)를 제공하고(kwon et al., ), 생성될 grid의 설계허용공차를 인체변수마다 동 일한 혹은 다른 값을 설정할 수 있으며, 목표수용비율이나 각 격자의 최소인구수용비율을 선택할 수 있도록 구현되었다. . . step : determination of drhm's body sizes drhm 인체크기 결정단계에서는 중요변수 측면에서 drhm 생성 방법에 의해 생성된 격자들을 대표할 수 있는 두 가지 인체크기 선정 방법(estimated case 및 real case) 이 제공된다(figure ). estimated case 사용 방법은 생성 된 격자의 형상학적 중심(centroid)에서 drhm을 결정 하는 반면, real case 사용 방법은 centroid에서 euclidian distance가 가장 최소인 실제 case를 drhm으로 선정한다. . drhm analysis 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm의 인체크기 정보, 수용비율 분석 결과, 그리고 관련 정보의 시각화된 기능을 제공한다 (figure ). 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm의 설계대상 인체 변수별 인체크기를 table로 제공한다. 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm에 대하여 중요변수 측면의 인구수용비율과 선정된 인 체변수 개수에 따른 가지(mean, sd, minimum, maximum, median) 단일수용비율 및 다변량수용비율 분석 기능을 제 공한다. 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm에 대하여 중요변수 측 면에서 생성된 격자와 drhm의 시각화 정보를 제공한다. . discussion 본 연구에서는 다중치수제품 설계를 위한 drhm 생성 및 분석에 특화된 시스템이 개발되었다. 본 시스템은 단계 drhm 생성 절차(설계대상인구 선정, 설계대상 인체변수 선정, 중요변수 추출, distributed method 선정, 그리고 drhm 인체크기 결정)를 적용하여 사용자가 drhm 생성 을 용이하고 신속하게 할 수 있도록 제공하였다. 본 시스템 은 drhm 생성에 사용되는 통계적 기법을 총체적으로 제공 하여 사용자가 원하는 맞춤형 치수체계 설계가 가능하도록 인터페이스를 제공하였다. 본 시스템은 생성된 drhm 분석 에 특화된 시스템으로서 drhm의 인체크기, 인구수용비율 분석, 그리고 시각화된 정보를 제공하여, 인간공학적 제품의 치수체계 개발 시 유용하게 활용될 수 있다. 본 시스템은 설계 가능한 치수체계를 용이하고 신속하게 분석함으로써 체계적인 비교 분석을 통한 최적 치수체계 설계 시 활용될 수 있다. 기존 drhm 생성관련 연구들은 drhm 생성 시 체계적인 방법간의 비교 없이 연구자가 임 의로 선정한 방법을 적용하여 제품의 치수체계를 설계한 것 으로 파악되었다. 반면, 본 연구에서 개발된 시스템을 활용 (a) estimated case (b) real case figure . determination of the body sizes of distributed representative human models(illustrated) figure . interface of regression analysis figure . interface of grid method vol. , no. . . . distributed representative human model generation and analysis system 하면 치수체계 설계자는 drhm 생성 절차 별로 적용되는 다양한 기법들을 적용하여 치수체계 대안들을 파악하고 이 들을 비교 분석함으로써 최적 치수체계를 선정할 수 있다. 본 연구에서 개발된 시스템은 주변부 대표인체모델 (boundary representative human model, brhm) 생성 및 분석 시스템의 개발과 함께 dhm simulation system의 custom-built rhm 생성 인터페이스와의 연동이 필요하다. brhm은 자동차와 같은 단일치수제품(one-size product) 의 인간공학적 설계 시 적용되는데 본 연구의 drhm 생성 및 분석 시스템과 같은 특화된 시스템으로 개발되어 생성 될 수 있다. 또한, 개발된 시스템을 통해 생성된 rhm들이 dhm simulation system의 custom-built rhm 생성 기능 과 연동되어 인간공학적 평가(예: 도달성, 여유공간 등)가 수 행될 수 있도록 하는 시스템간 상호 운용(interoperability) 에 대한 연구가 필요하다. acknowledgements this research was supported by the basic science research program through the national research foundation of korea (nrf) funded by the ministry of education, science, and technology( - ). references chaffin, d. b., improving digital human modeling for proactive ergonomics in design. ergonomics, ( ), - , . gordon, c., et al. anthropometric survey of us army personnel: methods and summary statistics, technical report natick/tr- / , . hfes , guidelines for using anthropometric data in product design, santa monica, california: human factors and ergonomics society, . jung, k., kwon, o. and you, h., development of a digital human model generation method for ergonomic design in virtual environment, international journal of industrial ergonomics, ( ), - , . jung, k., development of a multivariate representative human model generation method for anthropometric design, unpublished ph.d. dissertation, pohang university of science and technology, pohang, korea, . jung, k., you, h. and kwon, o., evaluation of the multivariate accommo- dation performance of the grid method, applied ergonomics, , - , . kwon, o., jung, k., you, h. and kim h., determination of key dimensions for a glove sizing system by analyzing the relationship between hand dimensions. applied ergonomics, , - , . laing, r. m., holland, e. j. and niven, b. e., development of sizing systems for protective clothing for the adult male, ergonomics, ( ), - , . lee, b., chang, y., jung, k., jung, i. and you, h, ergonomic evaluation of a control room design of radioactive waste facility using digital human simulation, journal of the ergonomics society of korea, ( ), - , . mcculloch, c. e., paal, b. and ashdown, s. p., an optimization approach to apparel sizing, journal of the operational research society, , - , . park, j., jung, k., lee, w., kang, b., lee, j., eom, j., park, s. and you, h., development of an ergonomic assessment method of helicopter cockpit using digital human simulation, in proceedings of the spring conference of the ergonomics society of korea, . robinette, k. m. and annis, j. f., a nine-size system for chemical defense gloves (technical report aamrl-tr- - ), ohio: wright-patterson air force base, . rosenblad-wallin, e., an anthropometric study as the basis for sizing anatomically designed mittens, applied ergonomics, ( ), - , . zheng, r., yu, w. and fan, j., development of a new chinese bra sizing system based on breast anthropometric measurements, international journal of industrial ergonomics, , - , . author listings baekhee lee: x won@postech.ac.kr highest degree: m.s., department of industrial engineering, postech position title: ph.d., department of industrial engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, digital human modeling & simulation, vehicle ergonomic kihyo jung: kjung@ulsan.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial and management engineering, postech position title: assistant professor, university of ulsan areas of interest: ergonomic product design, digital human modeling and simulation, usability testing, musculoskeletal disorders prevention baekhee lee · kihyo jung · heecheon you jesk heecheon you: hcyou@postech.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial engineering, the pennsylvania state university position title: professor, department of industrial engineering, postech areas of interest: ergonomic product design & development, user interface design & evaluation, digital human modeling & simulation, human performance & workload assessment, usability testing date received : - - date revised : - - date accepted : - - microsoft word - x de magistris_no downsample.doc hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on jul hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis based on humanoid robotics techniques giovanni de magistris, alain micaelli, jonathan savin, clarisse gaudez, jacques marsot to cite this version: giovanni de magistris, alain micaelli, jonathan savin, clarisse gaudez, jacques marsot. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis based on humanoid robotics techniques. international journal of the digital human, inderscience, , ( ), pp. - . � . /ijdh. . �. �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr int. j. digital human, vol. x, no. y, xxxx copyright © xx inderscience enterprises ltd. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis based on humanoid robotics techniques giovanni de magistris* and alain micaelli cea, list, lsi, rue de noetzlin, gif-sur-yvette, f- , france e-mail: giovanni_demagistris@hotmail.it e-mail: alain.micaelli@cea.fr *corresponding author jonathan savin, clarisse gaudez and jacques marsot institut national de recherche et de sécurité (inrs), rue du morvan, cs , vandoeuvre-lès-nancy, f- , france e-mail: jonathan.savin@inrs.fr e-mail: clarisse.gaudez@inrs.fr e-mail: jacques.marsot@inrs.fr abstract: digital human models can be used for biomechanical risk factors assessment of a workstation and work activity design for which there is no physical equipment that can be tested using actual human postures and forces. yet, using digital human model software packages is usually complex and time-consuming. a challenging aim therefore consists in developing an easy-to-use digital human model capable of computing dynamic, realistic movements and internal characteristics in quasi-real time, based on a simple description of future work tasks, in order to achieve reliable ergonomics assessments of various work task scenarios. we developed such a dynamic digital human model, which is automatically controlled in force and acceleration and inspired by human motor control and based on robotics and physics simulation. in our simulation framework, the digital human model motion was controlled by real-world newtonian physical and mechanical laws. we also simulated and assessed experimental insert-fitting activities according to the occupational repetitive actions (ocra) ergonomic index. simulation led to satisfactory results: experimental and simulated ergonomics evaluations were consistent, and both joint torques and digital human model movements were realistic and coherent with human-like behaviours and performances. keywords: digital human model; dhm; human learning; dynamic control; ergonomic analysis. reference to this paper should be made as follows: de magistris, g., micaelli, a., savin, j., gaudez, c. and marsot, j. (xxxx) ‘dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis based on humanoid robotics techniques’, int. j. digital human, vol. x, no. y, pp.xxx–xxx. g. de magistris et al. biographical notes: giovanni de magistris received his ms in mechatronics engineering from politecnico di torino, italy, and from École nationale supérieure de mécanique et des microtechniques, besançon, france. he received his phd in robotics and mechanics in from the université pierre et marie curie, paris, france. he joined the systems and technologies integration laboratory, french atomic energy commission in . his current research interests include automatic control, whole-body control for virtual humans, and human behaviours. alain micaelli received his degree in engineering and phd in automatic control and signal processing in and , respectively, from the École nationale supérieure des télécommunications, paris, france, and from the university of paris-sud. he joined the french atomic energy commission in and has been involved in several national and international projects dealing with teleoperation and mobile robotics. he is currently a research director in the field of automatic control. his research interests include the control of manipulators, telemanipulators, mobile robots, virtual reality, and, more specifically, virtual manikin. jonathan savin is a graduated engineer from the national superior school of physics (telecom physique, strasbourg, france), and holds a master in mechanics and engineering (with a biomechanics specialisation). after working for various companies as a software development engineer, he joined the french research and safety institute for the prevention of occupational accidents and diseases (inrs) as a project leader. his work focuses mainly on the integration of occupational risks during the initial design phases for work equipment, and specifically on assessing emerging design tools/techniques in this field (digital humans, virtual reality, and augmented reality). clarisse gaudez is a medical doctor in charge of researches at inrs. she received her md in from the university of clermont ferrand and phd in biomechanics in from the university of paris vi. she also received her university degree in applied ergonomics in . she joined inrs in . her research interests are related to the prevention of work related musculoskeletal disorders and to the prevention of occupational accidents induced by movement disturbance. her work focuses on motor control, movement variability, gestures and strategies used by employees. she has conducted research protocol expertise from foreign counterparts of inrs and international journals. jacques marsot is a graduated engineer from enib (belfort national school of engineer). after ten years in the industry as designer and project leader, he joined in the french research and safety institute for the prevention of occupational accidents and diseases (inrs). he is currently in charge of the ‘design engineering of safe systems’ laboratory. activities of this laboratory focus for example on: ergonomic design of working equipment, drawing up methodologies to design safer machines, design of digital manikins or virtual environments to assess the potential strains related to working situations. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis introduction digital human models (dhms) can be used to improve workplace conditions that affect both worker safety and business success. the goal of this paper is to improve dhms so that they can be used to help workstation designers to reliably identify and assess workplace induced musculoskeletal disorders (msds) and other biomechanical risks factors in the early stages of design. due to computer technology progress in the past years, dhms were developed for computer-aided design (cad) software tools, in order to analyse workstation ergonomics (claudon et al., ). their diffusion has widely grown with the concept of the ‘digital factory’ (arndt, ). indeed, many cad software tools now integrate dhms, which allow designers, studies offices (haesen, ) and consultants (urbatic concept france, ) to represent and virtually simulate operators in order to evaluate future workstation ergonomics (reach areas, physical performances, time analysis). today, dhms which are used for design purposes are mentioned in different standards as potential tools for biomechanical risk factors assessment from the early stages of design (afnor, , ). used even before the achievement of a workstation physical prototype, dhms thus contribute to the application of safety principles in the early stages of design, in conformity with european standards (european union, ). regarding this topic, there is abundant scientific literature about dhms implementing ergonomics methods or industrial standards [for example, rula (macatamney and cortlett, ), ocra (occhipinti, ) and eaws (schaub et al., )] for workstation ergonomics assessment in the early stages of design (jayaram et al., ; annarumma et al., ; berlin et al., ). they may also play a positive role for communication and coordination between the different stakeholders of the project (designers, users, decision-makers, health and safety staff). the use of dhms hence makes sense for occupational risk prevention, for instance to reduce the risk of msd occurrence, which represents a major proportion of declared occupational disorders (sjogaard et al., ; bernard, ). in , msds in the usa represented a third of occupational disorders leading to leaves (bureau of labor statistics, ); in france, it is the number one disorder compensated by social security, amounting to roughly % of recognised occupational disorders, and more than nine million lost workdays (cnam-ts, ). actually, european designers must satisfy technical directive / /ec on machinery (european union, ) and related harmonised standards. this directive deals with a priori risks assessment. by successive iterations, designers must obtain the lowest possible residual risks level (this is the integrated prevention concept) (afnor, ). regarding the msd issue, the directive requirements were intensified in the early s: many standards related to physical risks assessment were added in the last five years, for instance nf en - (afnor, ) for msd risks assessment related to high rate repetitive tasks. these standards are partly based on identification and counting of the operator’s technical actions (conception data) and partly on assessments of biomechanical risks factors (postures, efforts, repetitive movements, task durations or other parameters). in industry, one can find two classical ergonomic assessment modalities. the first is coarse, it is based on observations of the operator’s activities through video recording and questionnaires, and it is used to qualitatively evaluate efforts and postures. the second is g. de magistris et al. more precise, it requires advanced metrology means (force sensors or surface electromyography systems to quantitatively measure the operator’s exertions; motion capture systems to measure the operator’s joint positions). however, the second modality can hamper, and thus modify, the analysed task executions (since the operator is geared with sensors). moreover, the second modality requires expert skills in biomechanics and physiology. in addition, both modalities cannot be used in the early design stages because they require prototypes of future workstations (badler et al., ; morrisey, ; zhang et al., ). dhms offer a complementary approach which relies on simulation. although dhms may cost more than the other two modalities in the early design stages of projects, they allow the examination of multiple design scenarios, even when physical mock-ups or prototypes are not available. as a result, they can rapidly lead to significant overall cost and development time reductions (chaffin, ). when using dhms, actual measurements using actual workstations are often eventually carried out to test final physical mock-ups or prototypes before the final products are produced and used. the focus of our research then was to develop dhms capable of performing simulated work tasks with dynamically consistent motions, behaviours and internal characteristics (positions, velocities, accelerations and torques) based on a simple description of future work-tasks, in order to achieve realistic ergonomics assessments of various work-task scenarios in the early stages of the design process. to obtain these goals, we developed dynamic dhms which ware automatically controlled in force and acceleration (de magistris et al., a), and which were inspired by human motor control (todorov and jordan, ) and based on physics simulation. in our simulation framework, dhm motions were controlled by real-world newtonian physical and mechanical laws and applied forces and torques were calculated by automatic control techniques. our controller also handled multiple simultaneous tasks (balance, contacts, manipulations) in real time. this paper consists of eight sections. the second and third sections describe existing dhms and their limitations. the fourth section presents the advantages of our dhms. the fifth section describes an application case which was used to experimentally validate our dhms and also outlines the principles of our dynamic dhm controls. the sixth section describes outcomes, and, in particular, compares experimental and simulation results. finally, the seventh and eighth sections present a discussion of the issues raised by the approach and its future prospects. a review of dhms around , scientific literature presented the first dhms. initially, dhms allowed graphical representation of a human in static conditions (for visualisation purposes users could primarily change the postures and anthropometric dimensions of the dhms). since then, dramatic improvements have been made, dhms were first integrated into cad software tools, and then have even been integrated into virtual reality systems (chedmail et al., ). today, designers can have their projects tested by future workers in complete ‘scale ’ virtual environments. now, various academic and industrial laboratories are still trying to enrich dhm functions and behaviours. for example, they are trying to upgrade them with advanced calculation units which can simulate realistic human-computer interactions (pouliquen, ), and with real time joint effort calculations and optimisations of the operator’s movements according to physical dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis capabilities and actual risks present in the work environments (shahrokhi and bernard, ). however, in this paper, we are primarily interested in the dhm tools which are used for workstation design. the main functions of such tools are: the digital operator’s representation in the d cad software tools. for this purpose, the dhms can be feminine and masculine models which are characterised by anthropometrical or biomechanical factors (angular range of motion, maximum exertion, etc.), which are selected by the designers from anthropometrical or biomechanical databases. simulation of postures and/or activity sequences (gestures, posture changes, object prehensions, motions, etc.). in other words, the dhms can be animated by either direct and/or inverse kinematic control, manually, from a database of predefined movements or by motion analysis systems. anthropometric prescriptions verification, collision detection and task execution time calculation. in other words, the operator’s reach area and visual field are realistically and accurately included in the functionalities of the dhms. biomechanical and/or physiological constraints assessment through the use of common ergonomic indices. various ergonomic evaluators such as revised equations from niosh ( ), rula methods (macatamney and cortlett, ), owas (karu et al., ), eaws (http://inderscience.metapress.com/ content/m j m /) and snook tables (liberty mutualtables, http://www.ccad.uiowa.edu/vsr/research/standard-ergonomicassesments/ liberty-mutual/) are used to evaluate the simulated tasks completed by the dhms. table sums up the main characteristics and functionalities of dhms used by the main industrial or academic stakeholders in the cad field. table shows that there are two groups of dhms: on one hand those used in generic industrial contexts [for example, jack (badler, ), delmia (http://www. ds.com/products-services/delmia), sammie cad (porter et al., ) and ergoman – process engineer (schaub et al., )] and those specifically designed for a specific type of application (for example, ramsis (seidl, ), bhms (rice, ), man d (monnier, ) and santoshuman (vsr research group, ; vignes, )). table includes the dhms’ names and their producers. columns three to ten stand for ‘animation method’ (am); ‘direct’ (d) stands for direct kinematics; ‘inverse’ (i) stands for inverse kinematics; ‘field of view’ (fov) stands for the extent of the observable world that is seen at any given moment by the dhm; ‘reach area’ (ra) stands for objects and the parts of the workstation that the dhm can reach; ‘collision detection’ (cd) stands for detection of contacts between two or more objects or between humans and objects; ‘static effort’ (se) stands for human efforts in static conditions; ‘ergonomic assessment indices’ (eai) stands for the types of workstation assessments; ‘motion capture’ (mc) stands for optional modules that can record the movements of objects or people; ‘methods time measurement’ (mtm) stands for calculation of standard times in which a worker can complete a task. g. de magistris et al. table main characteristics and functionalities of dhms model society am fov ra cd se eai mc mtm jack siemens plm software d/i yes yes yes yes niosh, owas, rula yes yes delmia dassault systèmes d/i yes yes yes yes rula no no ergoman process engineer dassault systèmes d yes yes no yes niosh snook tables no yes ramsis human solutions d/i yes yes yes yes no no no sammie cad sammie cad limited d/i yes yes yes no niosh, rula no no bhms boeing d yes yes yes no no no no man d ifsttar d/i yes yes yes yes no yes no santoshuman santoshuman inc. d/i no yes yes yes niosh, snook tables yes no dhm limitations when using dhms, which are integrated to cad software tools, during the early stages of design, one must consider various limitations, which are clearly described and identified in related literature: hm posture set up is complex. it can be completely subjective when controlled by the designers, whether this task is carried out, in a direct way, by using a keyboard or, in an experimental way, by using a puppet (yoshizaki et al., ). it can also rely on optimisation algorithms (chaffin, ; center for ergonomics, ), computer techniques (zhang et al., ), experimental data from motion capture devices (wang, ; fritzsche et al., ) or even the operating procedures given by process/method engineers (kuo and wang, ). most cad dhms only consider one or a few static postures, and thus they neglect constraints related to maintaining postures or balance (lämkull et al., ), and therefore they cannot calculate complete movements, with acceleration and inertia effects. dhm calculations for some ergonomic indices are not reliable, especially those that rely on relative exertions. in fact, when dhms calculate such relative exertions, they compare physics-based simulated exertions to built-in maximal effort databases which are generally incomplete or approximate. the resulting errors in maximal exertions consequently lead to erroneous ergonomic indices (savin, ). dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis interpretations of simulation results with dhms require real ergonomic skills and substantial knowledge of msd emergence mechanisms and related scientific fields (ergonomics, biomechanics, physiology, etc.) (dukic et al., ). actually, ergonomics processes require transverse cooperation between the different stakeholders (design, manufacturing, prevention) in a proactive ergonomic approach to design (falck and rosenqvist, ). for these reasons, biomechanical risk factor assessment based upon dhm simulations can lead to underestimation: some studies report that up to %– % of simulations classify risk lower than expected (lämkull et al., ; savin, ), which can lead to unsuitable design choices (malchaire, ). realistic simulation of human motion the aim of our work was to address some of the dhm limitations described in section : the aim of our work was to simplify and accelerate dhm simulation and animation processes. our dhm allowed autonomous simulation motions (not only postures) given only minimum information about future work tasks. the aim of our work was to give dhms autonomous, objective and realistic behaviours from a global movement standpoint (postures, trajectories) as well to improve the data which is used to quantitatively define such behaviours (positions, velocities, accelerations, efforts, etc.), in order to calculate reliable ergonomic assessment indices: our dhm took account of dynamics, balance controls and contact forces, which were not considered by current dhms in cad software tools. precedent works (colette et al., , ; mansour et al., ; liu et al., ) showed that humanoid robotics techniques can be used to simulate autonomous motions. so we tried to create dhm control algorithms that were more objective and reliable than those of dhms which were currently integrated into cad software tools, by simultaneously considering both human behaviours and newtonian mechanics laws. development and validation processes figure presents our development and validation process for the dynamic dhm command laws, which were based on humanoid robotics techniques and inspired by human motor control laws. the process relied on one hand on the development of a simulation tool, and on the other hand on the validation of the tool by comparisons between experimental and simulated data and corresponding ergonomic evaluations. g. de magistris et al. figure development and validation process . human subject experiments in the framework of our work, we chose to complete an experimental case-study. we chose to focus on repetitive manual assembly tasks, which can present significant msd risks (kilbom and persson, ) when performed daily as main work activities. assembly tasks being very diverse, we selected an activity of insert-fitting, which is a common work task, especially in the automobile or appliance industries. moreover, the laboratory for biomechanics and ergonomics (lbe) of institut national de recherche et de sécurité (inrs) has previously studied this task, which consists of positioning and clamping metallic inserts on a plastic dashboard for a vehicle, both in a laboratory and in industrial settings (gaudez, ). the institutional ethics committee approved our experiments. eleven healthy right-handed subjects (nine males and two females) took part in the case study [age = . ± . years (mean ± standard deviation), height = . ± . cm, body mass = . ± . kg]. the subjects gave written consent before the experiments, and they filled out a health questionnaire. they already had some experience in insert-fitting throughout their careers. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis in de magistris et al. ( a), we described experiments which were conducted by agents of the inrs, which consisted of reproducing an insert-fitting workstation (see figure ). in this paper, we used data from the experiments as test data for our model validation process. figure shows experimental set-up for the human subjects experiments in this paper. figure human subject experiment (see online version for colours) the subjects were asked to clip ten inserts [see figure (a)] into related supports [see figures (b) and (c)] using two methods: using only fingers or using a hand-held tool that meets specific ergonomic criteria (nst-n , ) (see figure ). figure insert and support, (a) insert (b) support (c) insert placed on the support (see online version for colours) (a) (b) (c) g. de magistris et al. figure hand-held tool that meets specific ergonomic criteria (see online version for colours) the subjects used four different strategies to fit the inserts using only fingers: four subjects picked up the ten inserts one by one and clipped them onto the supports using only their right hands four subjects picked up the ten inserts one by one from the table with their left hands, then transferred them to their right hands, which they then used to clip the inserts onto the supports two subject picked up the ten inserts all at once from the table with their left hands, then picked up the inserts from their left hands with their right hands, which they then used to clip the inserts onto the supports one subject picked up the inserts one by one from the table with their right hand, transferred them to their left hand to position them properly, then transferred them back to the right, which they then used to clip the inserts onto the supports. for the remainder of this paper, we only analysed the first two strategies. the last two strategies were not analysed because the number of subjects was not sufficient for meaningful analysis. when using the hand-held tool, all of the subjects used the same strategy: they all picked up the ten inserts one by one with their left hands and placed the inserts on the tool, which they held in their right hands. they then clipped the inserts onto the supports only using the tool. . dhm simulation . . human body dynamics model in this paper, the dhm was divided in two separately articulated rigid body branches, which were used to model the human body and hands. the human body was kinematically modelled as a set of articulated rigid bodies organised into a redundant tree structure (see figure ). the rigid bodies were characterised by their degrees of freedom (dof). depending on the functions of the corresponding human segments, each articulation of the tree was modelled by a number of revolute joints. the human body was modelled and controlled at two separate levels, to reduce complexity: the first level was used to control the body, the second level was used to control the hands. the body model comprised joint dof and root dof, with dof dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis for each leg and dof for each arm (see figure ). the root was not controlled. the dimensions were based on the subjects’ anthropometries (hanavan, ). control of the body model is described in more detail later. the dhm control is described later. the root was not controlled. the dhm dimensions were based on the subjects’ anthropometries. figure (a) body model with skinning and collision geometry (b) hand model with skinning and collision geometry (see online version for colours) (a) (b) each hand model had dof (see figure ).we used a proportional-derivative controller to control joint position θ where a set of desired position θd corresponds to opened/closed hand and different preset grasps. the dynamics model of a robot, which we used to control our dhm, was a second order system: j j k k r t r t r c c e c j j mt nt g lτ j w j w+ + = + +∑ ∑ ( ) in equation ( ), m is the generalised inertia matrix, nt stands for the centripetal and coriolis forces, t and [ · · · ]tndoft vrootq q= are respectively the acceleration and velocity vectors in generalised coordinates, gr is the gravity force, τ = [τ · · · τndof ] t is the joint torque vector, l = [ (ndof, ) indof ] t is the matrix used to select the actuated dof, w = [Γf]t denotes the external wrenches (see figure ) where Γ is the moment and f the force. the superscript r denotes ‘real’ wrench values in a simulation. the subscript c stands for non-sliding contacts at known fixed locations such as the contacts between the feet and the ground. the subscript e stands for unknown contacts with the environment. g. de magistris et al. figure dmu scenario with wrenches: com (centre of mass) for balance, head following end effector (ee) movement, thorax avoiding large movement, c (contacts) no sliding contacts, lhand (left hand) and rhand (right hand) end effectors for performing handling tasks (see online version for colours) note: the virtual object at the top right is a model of an insertion. . . human-like dynamic dhm controls to control dhm movements and postures, we developed a multi-objective dhm controller. common control techniques are based on pure stiffness compensation of internal and external disturbances. in this paper we used a controller which combined both feed-forward and feed-back techniques (de magistris et al., a), and which was inspired by human motor control principles. this is the novelty of our dhm, since precedent dhms were generally based on kinematic control techniques. in addition, when a multi-body system contacts another object, it is important to make the limbs more compliant to avoid ‘contact instabilities’ (hogan, ). therefore, we also noted that feed-forward control was also needed to properly control dhms as mechanical systems. a number of studies have shown that the nervous system uses internal representations to anticipate the consequences of dynamic interaction forces. in particular, lackner and dizio ( ) demonstrated that the central nervous system (cns) is able to predict centripetal and coriolis forces; gribble and ostry ( ) demonstrated dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis compensation of interaction torques during multijoint limb movements. these studies suggested that the nervous system has sophisticated anticipatory capabilities. we therefore also developed an accurate internal representation or an inverse model which we used to control body dynamics in object-filled environments. based on the notion underlying the acceleration-based control method (abe et al., ; colette et al., ) and the jacobian-transpose (jt) control method (pratt et al., ; liu et al., ; de magistris et al., , b), we developed a combined anticipatory feed-forward and feed-back control system. this controller was formulated as two successive quadratic programming (qp) problems with multiple dof which were used to simultaneously solve all the constraint equations. the first qp problem was the feedforward control and the second qp problem was the feed-back control. this computational optimisation framework was first described in de magistris et al. ( a, ). to simulate the tasks described in de magistris et al. ( a), several objectives were identified and prioritised: centre of mass (com). the dynamic controller maintained the dhm’s balance by imposing that the horizontal plane projection of the centre of mass (com) lied within a convex support region (bretl and lall, ). thorax. we observed that the subjects’ thorax orientation varied very little, during the experimental tasks. we therefore controlled the dhm’s thorax orientation to stay as close as possible to its initial orientation. posture. we specified one of the dhm’s joint positions as a reference position for the entire simulation, to obtain more realistic movements, and to avoid any singularities. end effectors (ee). this feature performed the specific manipulation tasks. head. during the experimental tasks, we observed that the head followed the movements of the end effector performing the predominant manipulation task. we therefore specified this as our head objective. contact force. we set the contact force to zero for a regularisation of the qp problem. gravity compensation. we included a gravity compensation objective to make the target tracking control independent of gravity compensation. . . human-like movements the dhm’s movements were characterised by the initial and final points of the trajectories (positions and orientations) and their durations. we also included imposed way-points in order to avoid potential obstacles (for instance a table edge) because the dhm’s controller did not include collision avoidance. for the calculation of desired trajectories and velocities, we took into account experimental studies of human movements found in literature. previous papers showed that voluntary movements obey the following three major psycho-physical principles: g. de magistris et al. • hick-hyman’s law: the average reaction time avert of a real human depends on the logarithm of the n probable choices (hyman, ): ( ) log avert d n= + ( ) • fitts’ law: the movement times of a real human depend on the logarithms of the relative accuracies (the ratios between movement amplitudes and target dimensions) (fitts, ): log ( )d g z p= + ϒ ( ) where d is duration time, ϒ is amplitude, p is accuracy, g and z are empirically determined constants. • kinematics invariance: the hand movements of a real human have a bell-shaped speed profile in straight reaching movements (morasso, ). for more complex trajectories (i.e., handwriting) a / power law can be used to predict the correlation between movement speed and trajectory curvature (morasso and mussa-ivaldi, ) described as: ˙( ) ss t z r − = ( ) where ˙( )s t is tangential velocity, r is radius of curvature and zs is a proportionality constant, also called ‘velocity gain factor’. for a real human, more complex trajectories can be divided into overlapping basic trajectories similar to reaching movements. such spatio-temporal invariant features of normal movements can be explained by a variety of criteria related to maximum smoothness, such as the minimum jerk criterion (flash and hogan, ) or the minimum torque-change criterion (uno et al., ). as a result, for the dhm, we implemented a modified minimum jerk criterion with via-points, which were used to calculate trajectories. the methods which we used were first presented in de magistris et al. ( a), and they were originally inspired by the work of todorov and jordan ( ). in order to calculate trajectories for both rotations and translations, we only needed to find start, intermediates and end points x, start and end velocities v and start and end accelerations a. intermediate times tp were found using a nonlinear simplex method, which minimised jerk over all possible passage times. . . contacts the simulations were completed using the xde-core physics simulation module developed by cea-list. the simulation module managed the entire simulation in real time, including collision resolution, contact constraints and friction effects, which were modelled in compliance with coulomb’s friction law: xy zf μ f≤ ( ) where || ||xyf is a tangential contact force, μ is a dry friction factor and || ||zf is a normal contact force. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis the central component of the xde-core physical engine was a generalised virtual mechanism (gvm) mechanical calculation module. the gvm module was used to manage multi-body systems and rigid or deformable contacts, and its mechanical formalisms were based upon lie’s groups (merlhiot, ). it also used interactive and real-time algorithms. the xde-core physical engine also included a component which detected multiple impacts. the module used a discrete local minimum distance (lmd) algorithm, which did not need to calculate the global distances between objects. the module could detect multiple impacts by only calculating the local minimum distances between one or two points on the surfaces of each of the objects. if one of these distances was zero, the module assumed there was an impact. the module also dilated the meshes used to represent objects, which rounded off edges, and gave the module the ability to tolerate minor defects in the meshes. previous related papers have verified that performance of the xde-core physical engine is good, when used in simulation contexts, for dhms in virtual reality environments (mansour et al., ; liu et al., ). . . digital mock-up the digital mock-up (dmu) scenario (see figure ) reproduced the experimental environment and ensured geometric similarity. the inputs used to build the dmu scenario were the workplace spatial organisation (x, y and z dimensions), inserts and tool descriptions (x, y, z positions and weights) and the initial dhm position. the virtual object at the top right of figure is a model of an insertion with force fins = kins · xins = n. . . task models to model an insert-fitting task, we proceeded just like work situation designers in design or methods offices: the task was divided into motion sequences or elementary postures. for a simulation, the insert-fitting task was modelled with the finite state machine (fsm) in figure . the fsm used terminology come from conception methods [for example, mtm – methods time measurement (maynard et al., )] or ergonomic evaluations [for example, ocra – occupational repetitive actions (occhipinti, )]. in figure , the states for the one-handed (right hand) insert fitting task were: wait: at the beginning of the insert-fitting task, the dhm’s body was in a vertical position, with its arms resting on its sides. reach: the dhm’s hand took a prehension position and reached for an insert. the dhm’s eyes followed the motion of the dhm’s right hand. grasp: the subject closed the fingers of the right hand and took the insert. position: the dhm’s right hand moved toward an insertion point. the dhm’s eyes followed the dhm’s right hand. place: the dhm fitted the insert into a vacant support. release: the dhm’s fingers on its right hand opened. g. de magistris et al. reach: the dhm’s body returned to its initial position. wait: at the end of an insert-fitting task, the dhm waited in its initial position. the dhm’s body was in vertical position, with its arms resting on its sides. figure also shows the states for the two-handed (right hand and left hand) insert fitting task. figure the states for an insertion task (one-handed at the top; two-handed at the bottom) the states for the insert fitting task with a tool were the same as the states for the two-handed insert fitting task, except the release lhand and grasp rhand states were replaced by a place lhand state, because the dhm placed an insert on the tool with its left hand. results to obtain the results presented in this section, we implemented our dhm on a pc ( m cache, . ghz processor, gb of ram). with a simulation step of . s, the joint torques were calculated in quasi-real-time (the computation durations were . times the simulation duration). . trajectories to compare trajectories from real human experiments xh and from simulations xs, we analysed the trajectories of the ‘position’ steps of the finite state machines for four subjects. we chose to compare six experimental medial clip insertion trajectories to six simulated trajectories. we did not compare trajectories for the first and last two clips. the experimental trajectories and the simulated trajectories had different start and end points, and they had different duration times. for this reason, we needed to apply a set of elementary affine transformations to compare these trajectories. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis . . spatial transformations translation. the first step of the spatial transformations consisted of matching experimental and simulated start points. the first step was used to translate the trajectories to their start points: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) s s h h s s s h h h s s h h x t x x t x x y t y x y t y z t z z t z − −⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = − = −⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟− −⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ( ) where time t ∈ [ ,...,tf]. rotation between vectors. the second step of the spatial transformations consisted of a rotation. the second step was used to rotate the experimental trajectory to match the simulated trajectory, by calculating the cross product and the angle between the experimental trajectory and the simulated trajectory: ( ) [ ]s s s sf f f fx t x y z= and ( ) [ ].h h h hf f f fx t x y z= the cross product was calculated by calculating the determinant of a formal matrix: ( ) ( ) s s sf f f f f h h h f f f t t x y z x y z ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ × = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦ s h i j k x x ( ) using sarrus’ rule, the cross product was expanded to: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +s h s h s h s h s h s hf f f f f f f f f f f f f f x y z t t y z z y z x x z x y y x u u u × = − − − = + + s hx x i j + k i j k ( ) where ( ), ( )s h s h s h s hx yf f f f f f f fu y z z y u z x x z= − = − and ( ) s h s h y f f f fu x y y x= − are the components of the unit vector u = (ux, uy, uz). the angle between the trajectories vectors was calculated by calculating the arccosine of the scalar product of the trajectories: ( ) ( )( ) arccos f fθ t t= ⋅s hx x ( ) homothetic transformation. the third step of the scalar transformations was used to match the positions in the experimental trajectory and the simulated trajectory. a homothetic transformation, with scale factor λ was used to match the positions: ( ) ( ) s f h f x t λ x t = ( ) g. de magistris et al. rotation to obtain coplanarity of three key-points. the fourth step of the scalar transformations was used to obtain coplanarity of three key-points in the experimental and simulated trajectories. the calculated the vector c = (cx, cy, cz) of the segment hox defined by the start and end points of each trajectory, and a rotation about hox was used to obtain coplanarity (see figure ). figure rotation to obtain coplanarity of three key-points to obtain coplanarity of the trajectories xh and xs, we rotated by γ the simulated trajectory onto the experimental trajectory: arccos ac bc γ ac bc ⎛ ⎞⋅⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ ⎠ ( ) where a and b are respectively the projections of c onto xh and xs. . . distances between trajectories various methods from previous literature can be used to calculate the distances between two trajectories, which are defined by two non-empty point sets. one common method consists of calculating the hausdorff distance between the two sets of points. this method can be used to measure the ‘closeness’ of two non-empty point sets which are subsets of a metric space. the method assigns a scalar score or distance to the two trajectories, which measures the similarity between the two trajectories (chen et al., ). this distance is defined as: ( ) { }h sup inf ( , ), sup inf ( , ), max y xx yd x y d x yd ∈ ∈∈ ∈= s hh sh s x xx xx x ( ) where sup is supremum and inf is infimum. the results in this section present both the hausdorff distances and the average distances between the experimental trajectories and the simulated trajectories. the average distances were calculated using the following definition: ( ), mean inf ( , )ave yx d d x y ∈∈ = sh h s xx x x ( ) dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis . . results table shows the distances between the experimental trajectories and the simulated trajectories, for the four experimental subjects, at the ‘position’ steps of the finite state machines (see figure ). the distances are given for the six central one-handed insertion tasks. figure , compares the experimental trajectories and the simulated trajectories, for all subjects, and for all of the right-handed insertion tasks. table right wrist trajectories – distances between trajectories for all insertions subject hausdorff distance average distance ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm ( . ± . ) cm figure right wrist trajectories for all subjects (see online version for colours) g. de magistris et al. . velocities to compare the trajectories, which were completed with different velocities, dimensionless normalised time was used: f t t t = ( ) where tf is the duration of the rigid body motion. multiplying v (t) by tf and substituting t by ,t makes the velocities independent of the time scale (schutter, ). figure shows the resulting velocities for the experimental trajectories and the simulated trajectories, at the ‘position’ step of the finite state machines (see figure ), for the four subjects, and the right-handed insertion tasks. figure right wrist velocities for all subjects (see online version for colours) . torque analysis the torques calculated during the simulations were suitable for human performance capabilities. for example, the maximum simulated value of the right elbow flexion torque was about n · m and n · m for the wrist torque (see figure ). the torque values dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis calculated during the simulations were always smaller than maximum admissible torques at the elbow and wrist joints (the maximum torques at the elbow are approximately n · m for men and n · m for women (askew et al., ) and approximately . n · m for flexion at the wrist and . n · m for extension at the wrist for both men and women (ciriello et al., ). figure simulated torques, (a) right elbow torque (b) right wrist torque (see online version for colours) (a) (b) . ergonomic assessment the ocra ergonomic index was used to evaluate both the experimental insertion tasks and the simulated insertion tasks (occhipinti, ; european union, ). tables to show the ocra assessments. the ocra index is the ratio between the total number of observed technical actions (ata) and the total number of recommended technical actions (rta) (for each upper limb): ata ocra rta = ( ) ntc· ata f·d ct·d = = ( ) where f is the frequency per minute; ntc is the number of technical actions in a cycle; ct is the cycle time in seconds; d is the evaluated net duration of the repetitive task during the work shift in minutes, and ( )rta cf · pom · rem · adm · fom · rcm · dum= ( ) where cf is a frequency constant related to the number of technical actions per minute, in this paper ( actions per minute); pom, rem, fom are multiplier factors, with values which range between and , and which are selected according to the characteristics of the posture (pom), repetitiveness (rem) and force (fom); adm are risk factors for additional elements; dum is a duration multiplier and rcm is selected based upon ability to recover. g. de magistris et al. table ocra index values for the one-handed insertion task human subject experiment dhms rul rul ntc ct . ± . . ± . f . ± . . ± . d . ± . . ± . ata cf fom . ± . . ± . pom . ± . . ± . rem . . adm rpa . ± . . ± . dum rcm rta . ± . . ± . ocra . ± . . ± . risk level risk risk note: mean ± standard deviation for four subjects. table ocra index values for the two-handed insertion tasks human subject experiment dhms lul rul lul rul ntc ct . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . f . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . d . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ata cf fom . ± . . ± . pom . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . rem . . . . adm rpa . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . dum rcm rta . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ocra . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . risk level no risk risk no risk risk note: mean ± standard deviation for four subjects. dynamic digital human models for ergonomic analysis table ocra index values for the insertion tasks with a tool human subject experiment dhms lul rul lul rul ntc ct . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . f . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . d . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ata cf fom . ± . . ± . pom . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . rem . . . . adm rpa . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . dum rcm rta . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ocra . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . risk level very low risk very low risk very low risk very low risk note: mean ± standard deviation for all subjects. discussion tables to show that the ocra assessments for the experimental and simulated insertion tasks were consistent with each other. the results also show that the simulated torques were compatible with human performance capabilities. this is particularly important, since common dhms may compute joint torques and/or working postures that are sometimes not compatible with human performance capabilities, which can lead to erroneous ergonomic assessments (lämkull et al., ; savin, ). although we obtained similar trajectories and speed profiles in the experiments and in the simulations, the differences were more noticeable for small subjects (see figure ). this could be due to the fact that the horizontal distances (distances between the subjects and the insert sockets, or the ranges between the extreme insert sockets) were not adjusted according to the subjects’ sizes [instead the heights of the table were set to % of the elbow-ground height, in accordance with european standards for a standing work activities which require normal visions and precisions (european standard en iso : , )]. g. de magistris et al. conclusions and future works in this paper, we introduced dynamic dhms which were controlled in force and acceleration. we used the dhms to simulate an experimental insert fitting tasks in quasi-real-time, and we used the simulated postures, times and exertions to calculate ocra index-based ergonomic assessments. given limited information on the scenarios (typically initial and final operator-positions and clipping forces), the simulated ergonomic assessments were still in the same risk levels as ocra assessments for corresponding experimental results. in addition, the simulated trajectories were similar to the experimental trajectories. these encouraging results show that our dhms could be used to overcome some of the limitations of common dhms. for the simulations, we explicitly specified the types of grasps (palmar, pinch, full-handed) and the orientations of the objects in the subjects’ hands. based on the final orientations (the objects were attached to the subjects’ hands). in the future, in order to generalise the dhms, prehension functions need to be added to our kinematic model. to avoid excessively increasing the complexity of our kinematic model, with segments and additional dof per hand (miyata et al., ), we need to replace the wrist model with an end-effector with characteristics (number of joints, types, rotational and translational ranges) that can be used to model observed dof for each type of grasp (miller et al., ). as a result, the end effector will have more dof in pinch mode than in full-handed grasp mode. in this article, we used several controller parameters. to improve the controller, the tasks weights could be automatically modified to reduce complex tuning (salini, ). in addition, to take account of obstacles in the workstation, path-planning (escande, ; toussaint et al., ; lamarche, ), obstacle avoidance and auto-collision (stasse et al., ) features could also be added. in the long term, the contributions in this paper, and in future work, will result in the creation of an ergonomic evaluation software tool that can be integrated into cad software tools, which consists of dynamic dhms with human-like behaviours and characteristics. references abe, y., silva, m.d. and popovic, j. 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( ) ‘back lift versus leg lift: an index and visualization of dynamic lifting strategies’, journal of biomechanics, vol. , no. , pp. – . digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge research article how to cite: fiormonte, domenico. . “digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge.” digital studies/le champ numérique, ( ): , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. published: october peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / fiormonte, domenico. . “digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge.” digital studies/le champ numérique, ( ): , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research article digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge domenico fiormonte dipartimento di scienze politiche, università roma tre, it domenico.fiormonte@uniroma .it in this article i briefly discuss the connections between the geopolitical scenario emerging from the creation of the brics new development bank, and the digitization of languages and cultures carried out in a substantially anglophone-driven economic and technological context. the appearance of the new brics bank, and especially the plan for an “independent internet” are not only challenging the financial system, but in the long-run could also affect the current digital knowledge monopolies, activating new ways to encode and decode cultural objects, and challenge present digital standards. digital humanists, on all levels, are called upon to react to this developing geopolitical scenario, asking themselves questions about political representation and cultural diversity, encoding standards, digital infrastructures and linguistic hegemonies. an old equilibrium based on unequal power relationships is perhaps close to an end, and this is a unique time and opportunity to create a genuinely democratic and international scholarly community. keywords: geopolitics (of knowledge); brics; south–south dialogue; technology and cultural diversity; linguistic tax dans cet article, je discute brièvement des liens entre le scénario géopolitique qui émerge de la création de la nouvelle banque de développement des pays du brics, et la numérisation des langues et des cultures réalisée dans un contexte économique et technologique essentiellement anglophone. l’apparition de la nouvelle banque des brics et en particulier le projet d’un « internet indépendant », remet en question non seulement le système financier, mais à long terme pourrait aussi toucher les monopoles de connaissances numériques actuelles, en mettant en œuvre de nouveaux moyens d’encoder de décoder les objets culturels, et remettre en cause les normes numériques actuelles. les humanistes numériques, à tous les niveaux, sont invités à réagir au sujet de ce scénario géopolitique émergent, et à se poser des questions au sujet de la représentation politique et la diversité culturelle, les normes d’encodage, les infrastructures numériques et les https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:domenico.fiormonte@uniroma .it fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge hégémonies linguistiques. un ancien équilibre fondé sur des relations de pouvoir inégales est peut-être près de prendre fin, et il s’agit d’une période et d’une occasion unique de créer une communauté érudite véritablement démocratique et internationale. mots-clés: géopolitique (de connaissances); brics; dialogue sud–sud; diversité technologique et culturelle; fiscalité linguistique the geopolitics of knowledge two years ago, the brics (brazil, russia, india, china and south africa) announced the foundation of their own bank (http://ndbbrics.org/). the new-born financial institution seems to be a direct challenge to the western supremacy led, ever since the end of wwii, by the world bank and the international monetary fund (totten ). the brics have signed agreements in different areas and aim to establish their own rating agency, their financial circuit and a “private internet” that would bypass the usa hubs, now a mandatory bottleneck-filter for all internet traffic (patrizio ; lee ). geography and politics are destiny even on the internet (blum : ), and some of the most important material pieces of the global network, from cables to data centers, are concentrated in few hands and places. when direct control is not technically feasible, governments take appropriate steps, as shown by the “security agreements” signed between the us government and foreign telecommunication companies for securing access to undersea cables’ data (timberg ; timberg and nakashima ). the internet infrastructure is not flat; it crosses borders and tends to overlap with existing paths of historical disputes and foster new political aspirations. in other words, “everything you read about geopolitics, about spheres of influence and national interests and so forth has a counterpoint on the internet, and how internet structure plays out” (cowie ; cited by hurst ). one relatively transparent aspect of this intricate geopolitical scenario is the map of the major connectivity providers, the so-called ‘tier one providers’ (t p). their networks are comprehensive in so far as they do not need to purchase transit agreements from other providers (denardis : – ; blum : – ). although the financial and commercial arrangements between these http://ndbbrics.org/ fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge giants are not publicly known, the t p are officially thirteen. nevertheless, the core of the backbone lies in the hands of seven sisters (some say three: cf. blum : ): level communications (usa), teliasonera international carrier (sweden), centurylink (usa), vodafone (uk), verizon (usa), sprint (usa), and at & t corporation (usa): “what results is a tightly interconnected clique of giants, often whispered about as a ‘cabal’” (blum : ). undoubtedly, this condition does not favor the brics. they represent the % of the world gdp, % of world population ( billion people) and possess hard-currency reserves estimated to be around . trillion dollars. recently, other emerging countries, such as turkey and indonesia, with yearly gdp growth rates of respectively around % and %, have been considered for inclusion in the group. keeping in mind these data, i would like to describe the “cost of knowledge” (http://www.thecostofknowledge.com) with the words of the spanish sociologist and writer joaquín rodríguez: three of the world top-five publishing groups are specialized in scientific, technical and professional content management and publishing for highly qualified communities that need constantly updated content. the anglo- dutch reed elsevier (also promoter of science direct and scopus), the canadian thomson reuters (producer of web of science) and wolters kluwer (dutch company which merged with the german colossal bertelsmann & springer, to become springer science+business) – not only have these three giants revenue figures unimaginable for publishers working in other sectors [in reed elsevier had a turnover of $ . billion]but, above all, they dominate and control the production, spread and use of the knowledge produced by the scientific community. (rodríguez ) although company’s operations are based in the us, thomson reuters is the result of thomson’s (a canadian corporation) purchase of british-based reuters group on april . while i was writing this article, thomson reuters announced it had agreed to sell its intellectual property and science business (including web of science) to private-equity funds affiliated with onex corp. and baring private equity asia for $ . billion in cash. for some reflections on this new scenario, see fiormonte and priego . http://www.thecostofknowledge.com fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge but what is the connection between the brics bank, the internet infrastructure and the western domain of scientific publishing? oligopoly and concentration of power in one area is certainly alarming, but the real danger come from the interconnections between different levels. mark graham reminds us that information and knowledge are the essential ingredients of the global economy, and so “it is important to understand who produces and reproduces, who has access, and who and where are represented by information in our contemporary knowledge economy” (graham : ). graham et al ( ) in their geographies of the world’s knowledge presented a series of maps showing the linguistic, cultural and geographical biases of global knowledge, in terms of both infrastructure and cultural discourse: the united states and the united kingdom publish more indexed journals than the rest of the world combined… most of the rest of the world then scarcely shows up in these rankings. one of the starkest contrasts is that switzerland is represented at more than three times the size of the entire continent of africa. the non-western world is not only under-represented in these rankings, but also ranks poorly on average citation score measures. despite the large number and diversity of journals in the united states and united kingdom, those countries manage to maintain higher average impact scores than almost all other countries. (graham et al. : ) the linguistic bias of the global journals system, an ingredient often neglected in the literature against the publishing oligopoly (larivière, haustein, and mongeon ; kieńć ), introduces a second devastating element: an evaluation system based on the “core journals” does not only limit or make impossible scientific innovation coming from non-core journals and geographic peripheries, but constitutes the biggest threat to cultural diversity. many non-anglophone countries in fact adopted evaluation criteria that favours english over native languages, even in humanities and social sciences (gazzola ; priego ; larivière and desrochers ): “eugene garfield, the impact factor’s inventor, claimed in fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge that “western journals control the flow of international scientific communication almost as much as western news agencies monopolize international news.” (garfield ; following guédon ). several changes have occurred since that time in research communication system, but despite them, western domination seems to be untouched” (kieńć ). although there is no necessary relationship between international visibility, language of publication and research quality, what happens today is that an italian or latin american lliterature scholar publishing in english would score/rank better than a colleague that writes on the same subject in italian or spanish. but are scholarly texts, as cultural products, independent from their language of production? and what will the destiny of our cultural heritage be if we will be discouraged to describe, analyze and study it through our own languages (fiormonte )? the geopolitics of dh let me step back a bit. in march there was a discussion on the mailing list of the aiucd (the italian association of humanities computing and digital culture) about joining the european association of digital humanities (eadh). it is not useful here to recall all the details of that discussion, however it was clear that two very different geopolitical approaches emerged. in my opinion much more than an evaluation about the possible membership of eadh was at stake. indeed, as i noted in an email sent to the list: three levels of issues are strictly interwoven: ) an exquisitely political issue, that is aiucd political delegation and the representation of other national organizations among the current containers (the alliance of digital humanities organization and the european association of digital humanities) as well as their own operation; ) an issue aimed at representing the cultural, linguistic and disciplinary differences existing inside and outside those organizations; ) an issue referred to the scientific presence of the non-anglophone researches inside the dh international background. (fiormonte ) fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge unfortunately, it turned out to be impossible to discuss these issues in a plenary assembly as proposed during the previous members meeting of the aiucd. that said, what is interesting to analyze, in my opinion, is the nature of the reasons (and of the argument) behind decisions which are quite common in academic and scientific organizations. what we are dealing with here is an anxiety and fear of being “cut out” from the “international” game. does this sound familiar? the membership of eadh was, after all, a secondary question. the real issue was adho, an organism that defines itself as internationally representative of the digital humanities, but that still lacks a bottom-up democratic structure. the members of the steering committee are not elected by the members, but by the boards of each constituent organization. the reason is that adho was created by a club of “constituent organizations” (usa, uk, australia, canada and japan), which, in fact, gets to decide the who, how and why of membership. the conduct of these and similar organizations, consortia and associations, recalls what the finnish jurist martti koskenniemi wrote in criticizing international law: “universality still seems an essential part of progressive thought – but it also implies an imperial logic of identity: i will accept you, but only on the condition that i may think of you as i think of myself.” (koskenniemi : ). it has to be said that the community of digital humanists has been historically more open to diversity than many other scientific communities, where anglophone supremacy is taken for granted (see milan politecnico’s self-harming case [frath ; gazzola ]). there is an old debate going on in the humanities about monolingualism in science (frath ; kiefer ), and several proposals have been made by dh scholars (risam ). the global outlook digital humanities group (http://www.globaloutlookdh.org) set up within adho shows the commitment of many colleagues to reduce the anglophone and western biases. but although information sharing and visibility of non-anglophone initiatives are important topics, go::dh and adho so far did not challenge the real power issues (grandjean ), that is political representation, evaluation of research products and inequality of access to resources and technology. http://www.globaloutlookdh.org fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge a cuban colleague more than one year ago wrote to the go::dh mailing list expressing a willingness to sign up to adho and received many encouragements. however, why, if i am a cuban or, say an uzbek citizen, i am individually allowed to become a member of adho, while, if i am italian, spanish, or german, i have to pass through eadh? the evident purpose is to encourage membership without the commitment to subscribe to the expensive journal. but this doesn’t call into question the closed model of adho; on the contrary, it reinforces it. as i noticed above adho in the last two years made a big effort to became more inclusive, as showed for example by the admission of humanistica, the francophone association of dh, as constituent organization, as well as by the new international composition of the steering committee. but while with these new changes adho is struggling to sell an “international” image of the community, most intellectual tools remain in the hands of the anglophones: the annual conference, the humanist mailing list, the monolingual llc/dsh journal, the more or less sponsored monographs (such as the companions). not to mention software, languages and so-called “standards” like the text encoding initiative. in fact, why english-speaking colleagues should ever give up this enormous capital of “symbolic power?” (bourdieu ). standards, codes and biocultural diversity geoffrey bowker and susan leigh star ( ) have pointed out that standards and information infrastructures (code and tools) have a strong symbolic value, which can be even more powerful than their material aspect, and that control of them represents one of the main characteristics of economic life. let’s think about time: the convention of the greenwich meridian ( ), which puts a local space-time model, that of the english town, at the world’s center (kern ). but the code hegemony exerted in the name and on behalf of the anglophone “distributed” empire can have more profound consequences on diversity. “technical is always political” galloway notes (galloway : ), and if we want to understand “how does it work” and “whom does it work for,” we should look at the political and institutional level: fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge i argue that the internet is distributed not decentralized and that it is in fact highly controlled despite having few if any central points of control. (…) a distributed architecture is precisely that which makes protocological/imperial control of the networks so easy. (galloway : ) the board of directors of the international union unicode, whose aim is the digital representation of all world’s languages, is composed of intel, google, microsoft, apple, ibm, oclc, and ims health. in this list, we don’t find representatives of any cultural, research, or educational institution. in this situation we can’t be surprised by the criticisms coming on different fronts (perri ; walsh and hooper ), charging unicode with ethnocentrism, and pointing out the difficulties faced by languages with a low commercial value of being properly represented (and therefore at risk of extinction): “even if unicode does not exactly ‘re-map’ real life politics onto the virtual realm, such technical solutions do point to the ideological, political, and economic forces that promote and serve to benefit from attempts at universal language” (pressman : ). at the core of digital communication protocols and languages there is therefore a mix of semiotic and/or representational issues. as george steiner wrote in after babel: [t]he meta-linguistic codes and algorithms of electronic communication which are revolutionizing almost every facet of knowledge and production, of information and projection, are founded on a sub-text, on a linguistic ‘pre-history’, which is fundamentally anglo-american (in the ways in which we may say that catholicism and its history had a foundational latinity). computers and data-banks chatter in ‘dialects’ of an anglo-american mother tongue. (steiner : xvii) the central issue is not the english language per se, but the hegemony of a single code (and encoding system) for everything. it is this ‘anglo-american esperanto’, which allows the inflection and organization of the digital knowledge empire in accordance with proportions and modes never experienced before in history (not even under fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge roman catholicism). but is this situation favorable to the rest of the world? the brics’ new bank, as well as other important moves on the scientific knowledge scenario (fiormonte and priego ; fiormonte ), are clear geopolitical (and cultural) signs: china, india, brazil, russia, and other emerging economies of the world are now standing up for a multipolar world. the united states, europe, and their satellites, at the moment, are not. from a geolinguistic point of view, none of the countries of the brics, including china, would be able to impose its language and cultural codes on the rest of the world. instead, the advantage of the current dominant language and its collective imagination is evident. obviously, we are not able to know whether the brics, after challenging the hegemony of the western-dominated financial system, will also take up a position against western’s monopolies of knowledge. on the other hand, we do not need a coalition of regional world powers to replace the existing empire; instead, what we need is to found a completely different system of political, social, and economical relations. a multipolar player on the field, however, is a good sign. can we keep on ignoring what is happening in the world and the connections we activate (or not) when making a choice? from massive network surveillance to scientific knowledge oligopolies, from monsanto-bayer to google-alphabet, there is a thread connecting the access to knowledge to a more equal political representation, the defense of local produce to the preservation of endangered languages and cultures (on july , monsanto, an american multinational agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation leading [among other things] the production of genetically engineered seeds and herbicides, received an offer from bayer for a takeover proposal. according to many commentators, the deal could have profound and negative effects on farmers, consumers and the global agricultural system [bunge and henning ]). which codes and languages, what kind of food, which memories are expected to survive in the future? and who is going to take the necessary decisions? cultural biodiversity is then intertwined with the questions of the energy, food, and technological interests at stake. the scientific community – in fact all scientific communities – are called upon to stand up for their own identities in a changing world – even if there is one part of it that doesn’t want to hear about fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge change. a strong imbalance cuts across internal and external boundaries of nations and world regions, and what we need now is a creative effort to counterbalance this trend. my own uncertainty about the aiucd partnership with eadh, rested upon nothing but this: a different vision of the relation between core and periphery (knowing how problematic those terms are [galina ]), the refusal to bow to hegemonic codes and mainstream research, the exploration of alternative alliances, and ultimately the creation of a cultural project aimed at breaking free from the boundaries imposed by fear, anxiety, and the need for legitimization. conclusions and some proposals in my view, the only way to begin to limit the damage caused by monolingualism and received geographies of knowledge in dh is to undertake a plan of action and adopt a kind of “border thinking” (mignolo ) from the margins, where often the means are less, but the freedom to innovate is greater. in the last decade the global north seemed to have abandoned theory, but “for the global south, the refusal of theory has long been an unaffordable luxury” (comaroff and comoroff : ). today the relationship between assumed innovations centers (i.e. silicon valley) and peripheries is faltering, and both the global south and the east are developing “radically new assemblages of capital and labor” that can “prefigure the future of the global north” (comaroff and comaroff : ). hence the provocative question by comaroff and comaroff: is euro-america evolving toward africa? it is therefore vital that the emerging peripheries talk amongst themselves, and boost the south- south dialogue on theoretical models and practical shared solutions. we can observe a similar vitality and intellectual curiosity in the digital knowledge scenario of many regions and countries of the global south (chan ). as octavio kulesz notes in discussing the model of the digital edition in developing countries. the electronic solutions that certain countries of the south have implemented to overcome their problems of content distribution can also serve as a model for others, thus facilitating south–south knowledge and technology transfer. ... sooner or later, these countries will have to ask themselves what kind of digital publishing highways they must build and they will be faced with two very different options: fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge a) financing the installation of platforms designed in the north; b) investing according to the concrete needs, expectations and potentialities of local authors, readers and entrepreneurs. (kulesz : – ). nevertheless the principle must also be established that the cost of anglophone monolingualism cannot borne entirely by non-anglophones. the suggestions set out below should not prove too costly to implement, and more importantly, do not renounce the use of english as a lingua franca: . apply the concept of “pluricentric standards” to publications in dh (schneider ) in the use of english, to mitigate the negative impact of centralized policy and knowledge supremacy (authors and editors mostly from the usa and the uk, or their anglophone allies), on the variety of expression and local cultures: as schneider says talking about “asian englishes”, the local variants of english reflect the multicultural richness of the speakers, and in any case the definition of a “standard english” is nowadays problematic (schneider : ). . develop several forms of “linguistic tax” to counteract the disadvantage or degree of exclusion of non-anglophones. . create a decentralized and federated organization that represents the vari- ous geopolitical and linguistic areas in the world, based on the principle of “one organization/country = one vote”. the founding principle of this federation should be multilingualism, decolonization of knowledge (adriansen ) and cultural diversity (see the universal declaration on cultural diversity, the vienna manifesto on european language policies, etc.). . create a genuinely multilingual free-access journal (which would investi- gate the possibility of annotating and translating articles, commentaries and reviews, etc. into other languages). . consider the possibility of changing post-publication practices (bastian ). this would mean complementing, or, in certain cases (for exam- ple articles by young researchers), replacing the peer review process by fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge an expedited editorial evaluation, and then allow readers/reviewers to comment and annotate the work in more detail. the authors could then include these revisions in their text. . translate websites, materials and resources connected with the organiza- tion or its various initiatives and publications into several languages. . create a collection of open access texts, calling on anglophone communi- ties to undertake the translation and circulation of studies from marginal or disadvantaged regions and communities. . connect the question of digital representation to technological choices and hence to cultural and linguistic issues. . as a result of what has been proposed so far, we should differentiate geopolitically and methodologically conferences in the field, allowing the possibility (as in a that-camp) of organizing basic events, at different times of the year and in different places, with no obligatory format, lan- guage, methodology, etc. so that the organization’s status as a federation is always maintained. these proposals can be grouped under concept of “cultural exception”, applied to the field of exposition, writing and publication of scientific research. “cultural exception” is an expression coined in the s to describe that set of political and commercial strategies put into action by the european union, particularly as a french initiative, to protect its own cultural industry from expansion by the us. although the cultural exception arose some years ago, it is conceptually an offshoot of unesco’s universal declaration of cultural diversity, signed in paris in november . article says: culture takes diverse forms across time and space. this diversity is embodied in the uniqueness and plurality of the identities of the groups and societies making up humankind. as a source of exchange, innovation and creativity, cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature. in this sense, it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations. fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge on the other hand, article says that states have a duty to create the necessary conditions for the efficient circulation of “diversified cultural goods and services through cultural industries”. in the opinion of some legal experts the cultural exception thus protects not only sectors that operate traditionally in the marketplace (cinema, tv, music), but also those areas of cultural heritage which are excluded by definition (rites, beliefs, folklore, etc. [foà and santagata : . ]). finally, there is an explicit reference (art. ) to the preservation of multilingualism. while the declaration does not cover the products of science and invention, which fall within the legal jungle of patents and copyright, it could form a viable basis for fashioning a more culturally and linguistically inclusive form of digital humanities. in addition, on point ) above, there is a case where institutional representation intersects with the linguistic and semiotic hegemony. one of the key slogans of the american revolution was “no taxation without representation”. if it is impossible to avoid the anglophone domain, then we can invert the slogan: “taxation against overrepresentation”. there are two ways to fight a monopoly: you either withdraw from the monopoly, which in the case of the english language is impossible, or you make some concessions to its competitors. if all the languages and cultures should be on the same level, and we all agree that the extinction of diversity must be avoided, then a moderate and symbolically variable “tribute” levied against the normative center would be one of the few viable options. acknowledgements this article combines and elaborates ideas and contributions that i have developed in different places and occasions (fiormonte a, b, c and ), or are currently underway (fiormonte ). i am grateful to ernesto priego for agreeing to use some of the ideas developed together in our proposal (fiormonte and priego ) and to desmond schmidt for 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http://www.eraonlus.org/it/politica-e-lingue/item/ -il-falso-mito-dell% inglese-n%c %a -democratico-n%c %a -redditizio.html#.vohdoezhmzn http://www.eraonlus.org/it/politica-e-lingue/item/ -il-falso-mito-dell% inglese-n%c %a -democratico-n%c %a -redditizio.html#.vohdoezhmzn http://www.eraonlus.org/it/politica-e-lingue/item/ -il-falso-mito-dell% inglese-n%c %a -democratico-n%c %a -redditizio.html#.vohdoezhmzn http://www.globaloutlookdh.org http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/publications/convoco_geographies_en.pdf http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/publications/convoco_geographies_en.pdf http://www.martingrandjean.ch/multilinguisme-dans-la-science-dh / http://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_la-geopolitica-dinternet/ http://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_la-geopolitica-dinternet/ https://figshare.com/articles/authors_from_the_periphery_countries_choose_open_access_more_often/ https://figshare.com/articles/authors_from_the_periphery_countries_choose_open_access_more_often/ http://alliance-lab.org/etude/?lang=en fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge larivière, vincent, and nadine desrochers. . “langues et diffusion de la recherche: le cas des sciences humaines et sociales.” découvrir. le magazine de l’acfas, november. http://www.acfas.ca/publications/decouvrir/ / / langues-diffusion-recherche-cas-sciences-humaines-sociales. larivière, vincent, stefanie haustein, and philippe mongeon. . “the oligopoly of academic publishers in the digital era.” plos one ( ). doi: https://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. lee, s. . “international reactions to u.s. cybersecurity policy: the brics undersea cable.” henry m. jackson school of international studies. january . https://jsis.washington.edu/news/reactions-u-s-cybersecurity-policy-bric- undersea-cable/. mignolo, walter. . local histories/coloniality, subaltern knowledges, and border thinking. princeton (nj): princeton university press. patrizio, andy. . “bric nations plan their own ‘independent internet’.” itworld. october . http://www.itworld.com/article/ /networking- hardware/bric-nations-plan-their-own--independent-internet-.html. perri, antonio. . “al di là della tecnologia, la scrittura. il caso unicode.” annali dell’università degli studi suor orsola benincasa ii: – . pressman, jessica. . digital modernism: making it new in new media. oxford: oxford university press. doi: https://doi.org/ . /acprof: oso/ . . risam, roopika. . “rethinking peer review in the age of digital humanities.” ada: a journal of gender, new media, and technology . doi: https://doi. org/ . /n wq rodríguez, joaquín. . “el coste del conocimiento.” madr+d. july . http:// www.madrimasd.org/blogs/futurosdellibro/ / / / . schneider, edgar w. . “asian englishes – into the future: a bird’s eye view.” asian englishes ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / . . steiner, george. . after babel: aspects of language and translation. oxford: oxford university press. http://www.acfas.ca/publications/decouvrir/ / /langues-diffusion-recherche-cas-sciences-humaines-sociales http://www.acfas.ca/publications/decouvrir/ / /langues-diffusion-recherche-cas-sciences-humaines-sociales https://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. https://jsis.washington.edu/news/reactions-u-s-cybersecurity-policy-bric-undersea-cable/ https://jsis.washington.edu/news/reactions-u-s-cybersecurity-policy-bric-undersea-cable/ http://www.itworld.com/article/ /networking-hardware/bric-nations-plan-their-own--independent-internet-.html http://www.itworld.com/article/ /networking-hardware/bric-nations-plan-their-own--independent-internet-.html https://doi.org/ . /acprof:oso/ . . https://doi.org/ . /acprof:oso/ . . https://doi.org/ . /n wq https://doi.org/ . /n wq http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/futurosdellibro/ / / / http://www.madrimasd.org/blogs/futurosdellibro/ / / / https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . fiormonte: digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge timberg, craig. . “nsa slide shows surveillance of undersea cables.” the washington post. july . https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/ economy/the-nsa-slide-you-havent-seen/ / / / -e e - e - aa f-c a e d _story.html. timberg, craig, and ellen nakashima. . “agreements with private companies protect u.s. access to cables’ data for surveillance.” the washington post. july . https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/agreements- with-private-companies-protect-us-access-to-cables-data-for-surveillance/ / / /aa d a-df - e -b d -ea d f a _story.html. totten, jordan. . “brics new development bank threatens hegemony of u.s. dollar.” forbes. december . http://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/ / / /brics-new-development-bank-threatens-hegemony-of-u-s-dollar/. walsh, john a., and wallace edd hooper. . “the liberty of invention: alchemical discourse and information technology standardization.” literary and linguistic computing ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /llc/ fqr how to cite this article: fiormonte, domenico. . “digital humanities and the geopolitics of knowledge.” digital studies/le champ numérique, ( ): , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: february accepted: february published: october copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/the-nsa-slide-you-havent-seen/ / / / -e e - e -aa f-c a e d _story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/the-nsa-slide-you-havent-seen/ / / / -e e - e -aa f-c a e d _story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/the-nsa-slide-you-havent-seen/ / / / -e e - e -aa f-c a e d _story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/agreements-with-private-companies-protect-us-access-to-cables-data-for-surveillance/ / / /aa d a-df - e -b d -ea d f a _story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/agreements-with-private-companies-protect-us-access-to-cables-data-for-surveillance/ / / /aa d a-df - e -b d -ea d f a _story.html https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/agreements-with-private-companies-protect-us-access-to-cables-data-for-surveillance/ / / /aa d a-df - e -b d -ea d f a _story.html http://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/ / / /brics-new-development-bank-threatens-hegemony-of-u-s-dollar/ http://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/ / / /brics-new-development-bank-threatens-hegemony-of-u-s-dollar/ https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqr https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqr https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / the geopolitics of knowledge the geopolitics of dh standards, codes and biocultural diversity conclusions and some proposals acknowledgements competing interests references linnea frangén computational literacy final project . research question and dataset in this project, i experiment with different computational methods to analyse the linguistic features of fake news. my research question is how language complexity differs between fact-checked fake and real news. previous research has connected fake news with shorter words, higher lexical redundancy and thus lower lexical diversity as well as shorter article length in comparison to real news (horne and adali ). other features that relate to language complexity are the number of prepositions, exclusion words and conjunctions, sentence length and the number of words with six or more letters (tausczik and pennebaker ). i have selected a number of these features which i analyse using voyant (sinclair and rockwell ), excel and python. deceptive speech has been connected with reduced complexity and also the level of complexity can indicate whether the text is showing multiple perspectives or not (tausczik and pennebaker , – ). based on these findings i hypothesize that the fake news will be less complex linguistically than real news, although the result may be less distinct since both the real and fake news come from fact-checking sites. the fact-checked news data come from a misinfotext github repository that contains articles that have been manually verified and labelled by fact-checking websites (asr and taboada b, link in the references). asr and taboada scraped the websites of two fact-checking sites, buzzfeed and snopes, and then manually cleaned and assessed a randomly selected portion of them ( a, - ). i chose to use only the snopes dataset in this study since the topics of fake and real news in this dataset are more varied and the labels were the most suitable for comparing real and fake news (asr and taboada a, ). the snopes dataset was also thoroughly cleaned, whereas the larger buzzfeed dataset consistently lacked whitespaces between words which would have distorted the results. . data processing the data was downloaded in csv format, which i saved as an excel file for pre-processing the data. this included filtering the articles based on their label: i deleted articles labelled as “mixture”, “mostly false” and “mostly true” so that only articles labelled as “true” and “false” remained. i divided the news to separate files according to their label, one containing all fake news and one all real news. additionally, i deleted all unnecessary information such as the url, titles and additional notes, so that the files contained only the full text of the original articles. i also manually deleted the text “[your user agent does not support frames or is currently configured not to display frames. however, you may visit the page menu.]” from the real news dataset as it is not meant as a part of the original body text of the article. i ran the data through openrefine as i initially assumed that the dataset contained duplicates. however, it turned out that there were no exact duplicates in the dataset, but instead separate articles written on the same topic which initially seemed as duplicates. since the data had already been cleaned thoroughly no changes were done to the data in the openrefine. i then converted the files back into csv for it to work more fluently with the python code. next, i will describe the workflow for each of the different methods used in this study. voyant: - i input the data to voyant and it automatically computed the following information: - fake news dataset contains , total words and , unique word forms. - real news dataset contains , total words and , unique word forms. - vocabulary density (type-token ratio): fake news %, real news %. - average words per sentence: fake news . , real news . . - i also searched the occurrence of a selection of conjunctions using the voyant interface, which were chosen based on a reading of longman student grammar of spoken and written english (biber, conrad and leech , – ). these were processed further in excel. excel - i entered the raw counts of the conjunctions in excel (and, but, or, nor, if, as, after, because, since, although, while, than, that, and whether), separately for both fake and real news datasets. - i calculated the total number of conjunctions. - entered the total number of words to the excel file which i previously got from voyant. - i calculated the normed rates using the formula: normed rate = (raw count / total word count) ∗ the fixed amount of text. in this study, the fixed amount of text was words. - rounded the normed rates of conjunctions off to two decimal places. - the normed rate of the conjunctions in total is . per words for real news and . for fake news. the exact rates for all the conjunctions are visible in the table in the next section. python i used python to compute first the average word lengths in the datasets and then the standard variation of the word lengths, which enabled me to better evaluate its statistical significance. a code from stack overflow was adjusted to suit the needs of this study, and below is a description of what the code does. the exact code can be found in the github repository for this project. - the code filters out punctuation and numbers because otherwise each instance would have been counted as an individual word. the exact items that were excluded are ".,;!?- ()[]{}. - i initially intended to simply copy-paste the news data into the code, but because the data had empty lines between each sentence or each paragraph, the code was not able to read it beyond the first empty line. removing the whitespaces would have been very time- consuming, so i created a step that fetched the data from the directory it is stored in. - prints out the average word length with all the decimals. when rounded off to two decimals the average lengths are . letters for fake news and . for real news. - to test whether the difference is statistically significant, i included a step that counts the variance of the word lengths. - variance for real news: . - variance for fake news: . - the code also imports a library called “math” in order to calculate the square root of a number, which is needed for the standard deviation. the code calculates and prints the square root of the variance: - standard deviation for real news: . - standard deviation for fake news: . - the same code is repeated twice on different datasets (first for the real news data and then the fake news data). . analysis and discussion the analysis shows that the differences in language complexity between the real news dataset and the fake news dataset are minimal. the average word lengths between the datasets differ by . , and when considering that the standard deviation is between . – . , the result is most likely not statistically significant. similarly, the sentence length and conjunction use differ only marginally from each other, as shown in the table “normed rates of conjunctions”. the type- token ratio which describes the vocabulary complexity would indicate that the fake news is even slightly more complex than the real news, as it contains less repetition. thus, the hypothesis that real news would be more complex than fake news was incorrect. however, the contradictory result may be caused by defects in the dataset as well as a methodology that was not refined enough. one aspect that should be improved in this study is the size of the dataset. it was insufficient especially for some of the less frequent conjunctions, such as nor. the normed difference is . , and the actual raw occurrences were in fake news and in real news, which are too low to provide reliable information. additionally, not all the articles in the misinfotext dataset fit the criteria generally given to fake news, which defines fake news as non-factual content that tries to appear as if it were legitimate news to gain the credibility generally given to news media (tandoc, lim and ling , and gelfert , ). it seems that there is a lot more variation in the types of articles included in the data, the fake news dataset included, for example, an article from rationalwiki, which is a completely different genre. it is not news and it does not attempt to appear as such, which might have distorted the results. however, what caused the lack of difference was most likely the fact that both the fake and real news stories were collected from fact-checking sites, instead of comparing, for example, the most trusted news outlets with counter media. the choice to compare fact-checked real and fake news was made deliberately to avoid possible bias caused by the decision making of fact-checking sites. they have been criticised for biased decision making since the articles are picked by individual people whose beliefs may influence the process (asr and taboada a, ) and it has been shown that fact-checking sites are more likely to pick up negative ads rather than neutral or positive ones (amazeen , ). furthermore, fact-checking websites aim to find and reveal misinformation, not to confirm accurate news, which affects the articles they choose to check (amazeen , ). therefore the articles included in the current dataset are likely to have all been written in a similar style. this indicates that the difference in complexity is not related only to the veracity of the articles, but rather their news genre. . references amazeen, michelle a. . “checking the fact-checkers in : predicting political ad scrutiny and assessing consistency.” journal of political marketing no. : – . asr, fatemeh torabi, and maite taboada. a. “big data and quality data for fake news and misinformation detection.” big data & society , no. : – . ———. b. misinfotext. a collection of news articles, with false and true labels. dataset. accessed november . https://github.com/sfu-discourse- lab/misinformation_detection. biber, douglas, susan conrad, and geoffrey leech. . longman student grammar of spoken and written english. harlow: pearson education limited. gelfert, axel. . “fake news: a definition.” informal logic , no. : – . horne, benjamin d., and sibel adali. . “this just in: fake news packs a lot in title, uses simpler, repetitive content in text body, more similar to satire than real news.” accessed october . https://arxiv.org/abs/ . . sinclair, stéfan and geoffrey rockwell. . voyant tools. accessed december . http://voyant-tools.org/. tandoc, edson c. jr., zheng wei lim and richard ling. . “defining “fake news”: a typology of scholarly definitions.” digital journalism no. : – . tausczik, yla r., and james w. pennebaker. . “the psychological meaning of words: liwc and computerized text analysis methods.” journal of language and social psychology , no. : – . https://github.com/sfu-discourse-lab/misinformation_detection https://github.com/sfu-discourse-lab/misinformation_detection https://arxiv.org/abs/ . http://voyant-tools.org/ developing literacies in the digital humanities classroom include, yet transcend, the ‘traditional’ passive literacies of reading, hearing and seeing into the active realms of finding, evaluating, creating, engaging and communicating with an audience that may extend beyond institutional boundaries. recognizing the overlaps between the core skills of digital pedagogy helps faculty identify how to leverage the expertise available through the library and centers for digital scholarship. including these campus stakeholders in the development of curricula--and potentially involving them in classroom instruction for discreet topics--fosters partnerships that can continue beyond a single course. the authentic, collaborative classroom environment described throughout this poster necessitates partnerships between it staff, edtech groups, and the library. instead of framing the contributions from staff as a service, these genuine collaborations foster an integrated classroom that encourages the growth of cross-campus relationships. building bridges: pedagogical strategies for introducing digital humanities in the undergraduate and graduate classroom sarah l. ketchley & wendy perla kurtz this poster highlights some of the challenges of teaching introductory-level digital humanities courses in undergraduate and graduate classrooms, and describes pedagogical solutions developed by faculty at ucla and the university of washington to address these complexities. these solutions include identifying and developing the core skill sets students need to begin work in digital humanities, including best practices for project management, for working with data, and interpreting and presenting analyses. from a faculty standpoint, the poster suggests strategies for building collaborative partnerships between libraries and faculty to best leverage each respective group’s expertise. the theoretical framework developed by eshet et al provides a robust framework for designing a course geared towards cultivating digitally literate students. in order to gather the data necessary to conduct meaningful research, work in the dh class combines ‘traditional’ linear search and retrieve exercises set against a backdrop of a more iterative and cyclical flow of retrieving digital material, evaluating and cleaning as appropriate, analyzing and visualizing, returning to repeat the process until satisfactory results are achieved. in this scenario, students are required to evaluate and order considerable amounts of information from disparate sources in a short period of time. repeating this process on multiple occasions, and perhaps across different platforms, helps reinforce this mental model for students, moving from an abstract concept into a defined workflow. the theory and practice of this type of work is the remit of librarians, who can offer advice on topics ranging from sourcing appropriately-licenced data, initiating efficient and comprehensive searches, curating data and working with metadata. finally, libraries can act as ‘skill-hubs’ providing recommendations for campus training resources that may not otherwise be readily discernible. . overview discussion and conclusions as well as playing a central role in the provision of digital services to faculty and students, centers for digital scholarship should, arguably, be equally involved in dh pedagogy. often housed in the library, they are staffed by librarians whose skills range from traditional librarianship, technical expertise, digital project development and management, as well as the provision of training, workshop development and education. although humanities faculty teaching with or about dh tools and methodologies may draw on librarians for support in developing their digital humanities curricula, more often they develop course materials without taking advantage of overlapping expertise and experience. the poster highlights areas of library expertise that we have drawn on in our own dh teaching, and will explore potential models for collaboration between faculty and librarians which address the issue of balance between technology and subject matter expertise. introduction contacts sarah l. ketchley, ph.d. department of near eastern languages & civilization, university of washington, seattle wa ketchley@uw.edu @sarahketchley wendy perla kurtz, ph.d. digital humanities program university of california, los angeles los angeles ca wpkurtz@ucla.edu @wendythedh figure . syllabus for ‘geospatial humanities: mapping space and place,’ ucla figure . after yoram eshet-alkalai. “digital literacy: a conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era”. journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia ( ) ( ), - . figure . syllabus for ‘an introduction to digital humanities’, university of washington, winter quarter both syllabi are designed as foundational courses in computation for humanities: one is an introduction to digital humanities and the other course focused specifically on geospatial techniques for the humanities. the commonalities ) planning and scoping; ) data wrangling; ) analysis; and ) a public-facing presentation. these syllabi examples from our classroom underscore the value of identifying common pedagogical ground in an effort to develop curricular materials and teaching strategies that are relevant for digital scholars and librarians, and taught by specialists from both fields. the goal is to make dh pedagogy extensible and an engaging experience for both instructors and students. just as dh has redefined the nature of traditional scholarship, so dh pedagogy is redefining how we build and deliver our courses. conversations with librarians early in the planning process can help identify the most appropriate digital tools to use in the classroom; considerations may include ease of installation and management, sustainability, good documentation and extensibility. the knowledge and skills developed by librarians naturally align with some of the principal concepts at work in dh pedagogical practices. these skills include traditional librarianship, technical expertise, digital project development and management, as well as the provision of training, workshop development and education. miriam posner has identified three core levels to any dh project, no matter which methodology is used, from mapping to text mining. curating, processing, presenting, and – we have added – preserving, are foundational to dh project work. these are also the core competencies of librarianship. figure showcases the skills and expertise the library can offer in support of dh research and pedagogy on campus. it can also be used to uncover gaps which require further funding and support from administration. most importantly, it is a means to shed light on the work librarians are already doing in support of the dh, underscoring the library’s status as a valuable stakeholder and partner. fostering collaborationpromoting digital literacies figure . librarians as digital experts: skills and expertise sample syllabi why collaboration matters the average dh project has many collaborators, since it is understood that no one person can be expert in all aspects of successful project-building. the dh syllabi we showcase here represent a full--albeit compressed--project cycle, with the addition of a pedagogical layer. it is therefore unsurprising that collaboration in the dh classroom setting is as important as it is in a dh research project. project-based learning and the group work that inevitably serves as the base for those projects rely on successful team dynamics. but fomenting prosperous partnerships takes time, patience, and mutual goals, which can be challenging. in addition there’s only so much bandwidth people have available in their current roles. so, why should we strive to foster meaningful collaborations? relationship-building between faculty and staff or student peer groups enriches the educational experience for students. faculty teaching dh courses find the necessary supports for planning and executing complex dh courses and librarians can contribute their expertise in support of student research and learning outcomes. creating a working agreement, project scoping, and establishing parameters and expectations is a crucial element to developing healthy and long lasting collaborative partnerships. course description spatial humanities, geohumanities, gis humanities, “deep maps,” “digital culture mapping,” and “the spatial turn” are terms that have grown in popularity over recent years in the humanities and digital humanities. digital mapping makes it possible to create rich stories of culturally, socially, and historically relevant materials on a cartographic interface converting a purely geographic space into a place. this course will provide an overview of gis and other mapping techniques through project-based assignments. students with little to no gis experience will be exposed to the theories, concepts, and methods used for mapping projects in the humanities and social sciences. student with a gis background will have the opportunity to explore non-traditional uses of mapping systems. course outcomes and learning objectives by experimenting with a wide range of tools that employ a variety of data types (both structured and unstructured), students will learn the basics of mapping and geospatial information. students will build skills necessary to enhance their spatial thinking and literacy. by learning to manipulate gis software and generate basic spatial analysis, students will be able to apply spatial research methods to enhance their research in their own subject areas. students will also learn best practices for planning, managing, and effectuating a digital mapping project by creating a web or mobile-based project. course description a no-prerequisite course to introduce students to concepts and methodologies of using digital humanities tools for dataset creation, analysis and presentation. students will explore primary source material related to the lives and achievements of early pioneers in near eastern archaeology, focusing specifically on the period known as the 'golden age' of egyptology at the end of the th and early th centuries. students will analyze primary source documents using text mining methodologies, build digital maps and timelines, and ultimately present research results on an online platform. course outcomes and learning objectives humanities and social sciences students will become familiar with a range of tools and technologies for text mining and text analysis that will enhance their abilities to succeed both as undergraduate researchers and in their lives after graduation. students in technology disciplines will be able to explore the applications of digital tools to humanistic endeavors. students in this course will: . learn the basic vocabulary of concepts and tools in digital humanities and become acquainted with a range of projects, best practices and resources in the field. . gain hands-on experience of humanities dataset creation, curation, analysis and presentation. . gain an introductory knowledge of many open source digital tools or methods useful to broad humanities disciplines. . create a digital narrative to present the results of work in ( ) . mailto:ketchley@uw.edu mailto:wpkurtz@ucla.edu dh | ottawa, canada digital humanities in spain: evolution and current scenario abstract: digital humanities (dh) has become a field of interest in spain, especially in the last decade, despite having arrived later than in most other european countries. in fact, it has become a leading trend in research, either as a field of study and as a preferential financ- ing topic. at the same time, because of its novelty, it is now under scrutiny by the research community and government institutions because neither the return of investment is clear nor the role that spanish researchers can play within european-wide research infrastruc- tures, such as dariah. in order to provide the global community of scholars working in this field with a greater understanding of the current spanish scenario, linhd (labor- atorio de innovación de humanidades digitales - uned) promoted a research on the evolution of dh in spain in the last years, using a quantitative approach. the objective of the study was to identify researchers in the field of dh and to explore their financing, institutional affiliations, research topics and developed resources. similar initiatives have been promoted in the past, producing internationally or regionally focused maps , some of them still available online, with differences ranging from the geographical coverage to the types of data mapped. others overviews on the subject have chosen a more qualitative approach, focused on identifying the most relevant steps in the evolution and consolida- tion of this research topic in the iberian country , still largely in place. the research has been very much data oriented, in order to assess primarily the quantitative dimension of dh in spain. this contribution describes the results of the find- ings after mapping and analyzing five main entities, specifically: researchers, projects, resources, bibliography and educational courses. the total volume of collected records was , , distributed as follow: researchers, projects, bibliographical rec- ords, resources, post-graduate courses and journals. interesting results come from the analyses of research fields evolution over time, the correlation among topics and research centers or topics and financial resources, as well as from visualizing the weighted contribution that different disciplines and fields of study make to the multidisciplinary character of dh. we are now able to identify and locate on a map the largest centers in dh as well as those institutions to which only few researchers belong; clustered aggregations as well as dispersed research groups and labs, the latter who can finally benefits the most from an initiative like this. half of researchers are affiliated to just nine major centers, while the other half belongs to a constellation of institutions. financing also uncovered meaningful information, with a very wide array, centernet, mapahd, grinugr and, more recently, red knowmetrics, among others. paul spence and elena gonzalez-blanco, a historical perspective on the digital humanities in spain, in: h-soz-kult, , ; antonio rojas castro, el mapa y el territorio. una aproximación histórico-bibliográfica a la emergencia de las humanidades digitales en españa, in: caracteres, , . ranging from less than , € (a significant % of total) to isolated multimillion projects, resulting into an average of , €, and a much more significant median value of , € per project. over % stay under , €. additionally, plotting projects over time allowed also to propose a first temporization of dh evolution in spain into three different stages. on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities research how to cite: fan, lai-tze. . “on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. published: march peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / fan, lai-tze. . “on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – , doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities lai-tze fan lingnan university, hk laitzefan@ln.edu.hk this paper returns to the relationship of “narrative versus database” (an argument originally made by lev manovich in ) as one that can be further addressed. a specific issue persists in text analysis research in the digital humanities: the difficulty of representing the figurative meaning of narratives through digital tools. towards an accommodation, this paper adopts a narratological framework in order to propose alternative models of content management and organization that more closely resemble figurative meaning making in human language. these alternative models therefore better allow for the computational representation of figurative elements that n. katherine hayles describes as “the inexplicable, the unspeakable, the ineffable” of narrative literature. this paper argues that the construction of figurative meaning through paradigmatic substitution (as part of an imaginary vocabulary that is drawn from in the process of meaning making) is difficult to account for in the relational database— arguably still the most culturally prominent database model. by focusing on nosql (“no” or “not only” structured query language) databases, this paper explores how layers of figurative meaning can be represented together through these flexible and non-relational models. in particular, the ability of non-relational databases to group together multiple values— encouraging their association, comparison, and juxtaposition—can be analyzed as a computational albeit imprecise counterpart to the formation of paradigmatic and figurative meaning. thus, towards accounting for a word, image, or idea’s layers of meaning as expressed in literature, this paper offers a study of the limitations of digital tools and their critical negotiation with humanities research and reflection. keywords: narrative; database; reflexive; figurative meaning; paradigmatic; language; digital tools; relational; non-relational; nosql; narratology; humanities advocacy https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:laitzefan@ln.edu.hk fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities cet article reprend la relation de « narration par rapport à base de données » (un argument posé à l’origine par lev manovich en ) comme une relation qui pourrait recevoir une plus grande attention. une question précise persiste dans la recherche de l’analyse de texte en humanités numériques: la difficulté de représenter la signification figurative des narrations par l’entremise d’outils numériques. comme mesure d’accommodement, cet article adopte un cadre de travail narratologique afin de proposer d’autres modèles de gestion et d’organisation de contenu qui ressemblent plus étroitement à la recherche de signification figurative en langage humain. par conséquent, ces autres modèles permettent une meilleure représentation informatique des éléments figuratifs que n. katherine hayles décrit comme « l’inexplicable, l’innommable, l’ineffable » de la littérature narrative. cet article soutient que la construction de la signification figurative par la substitution paradigmatique (dans le cadre d’un vocabulaire imaginaire qui en est tiré dans le processus de recherche de la signification) est difficile à représenter dans la base de données relationnelle —sans doute encore le modèle de base de données le plus prédominant sur le plan culturel. en mettant l’accent sur les bases de données nosql (« non » ou « non seulement » en langage de requête structuré), cet article explore comment les niveaux de signification figurative peuvent être représentés ensemble par l’entremise de ces modèles flexibles et non relationnels. de plus, la capacité des bases de données non relationnelles à regrouper des valeurs multiples —encourageant leur association, leur comparaison et leur juxtaposition — peut être analysée comme un homologue informatique quoique imprécis de la formation de la signification paradigmatique et figurative. ainsi, en ce qui concerne la représentation des niveaux de signification d’un mot, d’une image ou d’une idée tels qu’ils sont exprimés en littérature, cet article offre une étude des limitations des outils numériques et de la négociation critique avec la recherche et la réflexion des humanités. mots-clés: narration; base de données; réflexif; signification figurative; paradigmatique; langage; outils introduction as a field of scholarship, the digital humanities are increasingly important to understand and develop, as they are uniquely attuned to the wide-ranging impact of digital media and culture. yet, there remains a discrepancy between the epistemological underpinnings of the humanities and digital technologies and culture. on the one hand, we live in an information age that privileges technological progress and that is tasked with the creation, storage, and management of large amounts of data. on the fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities other, our (western) traditional methods of interpreting information are grounded in humanities philosophy—through theoretical, interpretive, and reflexive methods of understanding history, tradition, culture, and storytelling. the epistemological differences between digital technologies and the humanities are in one way exemplified by the relationship between the database and the traditional narrative. there is a discursive history of thinking about the database and narrative in terms of opposition, most notably beginning with lev manovich’s article “database as symbolic form” ( ) and its expansion in the foundational the language of new media ( ), in which he calls database and narrative “natural enemies,” even expressing “surprise” that narrative still exists in new media ( , ; , ). since such statements, the relationship between narrative and database has been examined to reveal more complexity. in the areas of digital humanities literary research and digital narratives in particular, narratives and databases are often analyzed in terms of their dynamicism, as digital tools can be used to store, manage, represent, share, and create narrative literature—for instance, through electronic literature. yet, many of these digital tools and methods have limitations that are at the crux of manovich’s original argument—namely the problem of juggling the ludic depth of literature with the qualities of precision, efficiency, and “knowing” that are dictated by rigid data management models and systems both on-screen and behind the screen. given that machinic operations are designed to produce outcomes, quantify data, and otherwise offer answers, is it possible for methods of quantification to represent, for instance, the depth or affect of a metaphor? databases in particular, as computational structures of content management, may struggle to store let alone re-present figurative meaning in literature. as this paper will show, this difficulty stems from the broader limitations of digital tools for representing the semiotic depth that is foundational to paradigmatic meaning manovich himself has since further explored the nuances of this relationship in his work on software studies, most recently in the – mellon research project on big data called “tools for the analysis and visualization of large image and video collections for the humanities.” fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities making through human language. in using digital tools and methods to represent literature, then, digital humanists must ask whether the methodological prowess and scope of digital tools risk any loss of literary- and humanistic-based reflection and interpretation. i am not in this sense the first to inquire into the wheres and whens of the “h” in dh. this does not imply that the digital humanities are not humanistic; rather, it refers to scholarship in literary studies, media studies, and the digital humanities that calls for investigative analysis that can account for more reflexive and interpretive ways of thinking. for instance, in response to manovich’s statements, n. katherine hayles ( ) contends that any scientific and engineering research presented through data and facts requires narrative for “the interpretation of the relations revealed by database queries” ( , ). narratives are necessary to articulate the contexts and implications of any data- or fact-based research, including: background information; relations between groups; examinations of patterns in statistics; possible applications and their outcomes; and alternative methodologies that had been or could be attempted. the use of explanation in these examples illustrates the praxis and necessity of narrative forms and training even for research that is grounded in data, presenting a significant case for the value of reflecting upon narratives and narrative representation. this includes digital humanities projects and texts that are digitized, born-digital, and digitally informed. i argue that the identification of the limitations and affordances of digital tools and methodologies for literary analysis only remind us of the value of two modes of inquiry in a humanistic digital humanities: • humanistic thinking: reflexive and interpretive modes of inquiry in which humanities scholars and students are trained. these modes uniquely posi- tion us to ask whether the use of quantitative digital methodologies and tools (which participate in a discourse of “efficient” and “precise” meth- in addition, for whom is the “h” in dh? further inquiry into this question can address critical issues surrounding (the politics of) representation in the digital humanities, as explored by scholars such as adeline koh and anne cong-huyen. fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities odological prowess) risks any priorities and responsibilities of the larger humanities project. • narratological thinking: an understanding of the linguistic play and semiotic depth of language as it is used to construct works of narrative literature. narratological thinking requires a consideration of literary ele- ments such as plot, theme, imagery, poetics, medium/media, and intertext. narratological thinking is, in this sense, a mode of inquiry that is necessary to understanding how figurative meaning functions as a unique and vital quality of meaning making in general, including how we communicate with each other by offering information in the form of stories. together, these modes of inquiry as applied to the digital humanities encourage the critical comparison, juxtaposition, interpretation, and reflection of digital tools and research—a critique that is a necessarily ongoing endeavour in the still-nascent stages of development for the digital humanities as an academic field. applying these two modes of inquiry to the analysis of specific database models that are popular for structuring, managing, and representing data reveals that the discussion of “narrative versus database” is not over. in fact, these database models point to an issue that continues to be a topic of inquiry and even skepticism in digital humanities text analysis projects: that, whether qualitative or quantitative, digital tools are not always capable of capturing the essence of makes literary texts “literary” in the first place—including the elements of figurative meaning that hayles describes as “the inexplicable, the unspeakable, the ineffable” of narrative literature ( , ). what humanistic and narratological modes of inquiry reveal, then, is the need for alternative models of content management that better accommodate for the literary. towards such an accommodation, this paper proposes that digital text analysis projects can utilize nosql or non-relational database models—an approach to content (as data) management that more closely resembles the paradigmatic dimensions of meaning making in human language and that therefore begins to address elements of figurative meaning that carry so much literary “weight” and semiotic depth through fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities their imagery, metaphor, and depth in human language. this alternative content management model is especially pertinent, i show, to address contemporary forms of narrative literature that mediate the impact of digital structures and representation on how we read, write, and think of literature itself today. seeking methods of representing figurative meaning is only one way that humanistic and narratological thinking can encourage reflexivity and interpretation in the digital humanities. in this sense, i offer this paper that explicitly focuses on figurative meaning as only the start of a broader study on the dynamic between digital and narratological meaning making. terms that i map throughout as a part of this ongoing comparison, juxtaposition, interpretation, and reflection may be aligned with my earlier descriptions of the epistemological underpinnings of a computational information age and (western) humanistic philosophies, whereby “database” and “narrative” as network nodes may branch out to include the quantitative and qualitative, data and interpretation, and the literal and the figurative. these terms, much like their nodal roots, are not to be considered in opposition, but rather, as in connection and thus conversation along with other existing epistemological modes of knowledge. the main difference i wish to illustrate is the wait and weight of the humanities: its position to inquire beyond that which is “known” and its critical negotiation with that which claims to know. database versus narrative: the known and the unknown/ indeterminate the “narrative versus database” discussion emerges from manovich’s description in the language of new media of the rise of a “computerization of culture,” in which the database plays a key role as a symbolic form and significant cultural form ( , ). while many scholars have sought to reframe the relationship between narrative and database to reveal more complexity (discussed further below), it remains the case that there are aspects of literary narrative that are not accounted for or represented by all digital tools, simply because of the ways in which these tools are designed to manage content. some database models are rigid in their parameterization of content and others are more flexible. it is therefore necessary to distinguish that while manovich and fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities hayles identify many models of databases and content management, each focuses on the relational database, which has been and arguably predominantly still is the database form of cultural choice (dourish , n.p.). relational databases resemble the format of spreadsheets such as those seen in ms excel, as both resemble print- based forms such as the index, their table structures remediating analogue methods of information organization that existed long before the digital computer was invented. it is perhaps this transferability of and therefore established literacy in more familiar cultural forms that attribute to the relational database’s continued popularity as a database form. for her own choice, hayles explains in that the relational database has “almost entirely replaced the older hierarchical, tree, and network models” and also object-oriented database models ( ). the relational database is composed of one or more tables (with rows and columns) that are drawn from for their data, a structure that is dictated by its programming language, sql (structured query language). sql offers a rigid form of data organization through which content is dictated by the model of the table: if one requests data from a relational database, one must specify its database location; in reverse, any changes to the database structure or hierarchy of organization are also expressed in the code. it can be said that this rigidity is unavoidable because of why the general database was developed in the first place. the influx of digital devices offers a bounty of data that has become our blessing and our curse, as we try to find the “best” ways to manage and access data, typically through the methods of structured languages, programs, and databases. this leads to the creation of databases as “collections of items on which the user can perform various operations: view, navigate, search” (manovich , ), and many computer operations function through the operations of requesting, adding, deleting, and updating data. two types of potential incommensurability between the narrative and database emerge: the structural/formal and the semiotic. manovich’s initial observations of the discrepancy between narrative and database involve a consideration of how content is maintained and managed differently among distinct cultural forms. specifically, it is the amount of information collated in digital culture that presents a conundrum fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities of structure and form: data storage and management in computational devices allows for a massive amount of content to be stored, often resulting in efforts to mass archive and digitize that began in the early s as a trend manovich describes as “storage mania” ( , ). in contrast, narrative cannot nor does it traditionally try to contain all information. as defined by narratology scholars such as mieke bal ( ) and david herman ( ), a literary narrative is defined by its dynamic movement between markers of time (the beginning and end of a trajectory), composed of what joseph tabbi and michael wutz ( ) describe as “the progression of a central protagonist from a beginning through a middle toward an end that progressively diminishes possibilities and so represents that character’s fate” ( ). the traditional narrative follows a cause-and-effect model, certainly a model of meaning making in which a linear pathway is developed in the mind of the reader and in which not all trajectories are mapped. for these reasons, manovich argues of database and narrative that “each claims an exclusive right to make meaning out of the world” ( , ). as the database is a dynamic body of information with no beginning or end, he asks, “how can one keep a coherent narrative or any other developmental trajectory through the material if it keeps changing?” ( , ). but more complicated is the question of language-based semiotic content when it is stored and represented as data. given the imposed rigid structure of relational databases in addition to its ability to edit content, the question of narrative versus database requires that we—and by this i mean digital humanists, but also computer scientists who work in linguistic-informed areas such as nlp (natural language processing)—further negotiate computational semantics of content organization (computer-specific meaning making) in relation to human languages and the semiotic construction of meaning through language. it is in part such a negotiation upon which manovich draws in order to anchor some of his juxtapositions between narrative and database, particularly through a delineation of the differing functions of paradigmatic and syntagmatic dimensions of each. these dimensions are important because they function as a core aspect of human language—the logic of syntagmatic grammar and paradigmatic substitution through which we form fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities semiotic meaning in sentences. here, manovich argues that “in the case of a written sentence, the words that comprise it materially exist on a piece of paper, while the paradigmatic sets to which these words belong only exist in the writer and reader’s minds,” and in contrast, in the database, the “paradigmatic dimension” has “material existence” ( , – ). he thus imagines, hayles describes, that “the paradigmatic possibilities are actually present in the columns and rows, while the syntagmatic progress of choices concatenated into linear sequences by sql commands is only virtually present” ( , ). hayles disagrees with the idea that databases possess much less relay paradigmatic meaning in this way. as content management tools such as the relational database may abstract content (such as text in words and clauses) into individual rows and columns, they force content (and any generation of content through a “transition” across rows of cells) to follow the organizational schema dictated by the database’s structure and organization. so, while all content is materially present in the relational database, hayles stresses that “in neither rows nor columns does [the paradigmatic dimension’s] logic of substitution obtain; the terms are not synonyms or sets of alternative terms but different data values” ( , ). her observation of the limits of this model of content management for paradigmatic and syntagmatic meaning making reveal that the way relational databases encourage us to interpret data is not how human language works, how humans make meaning out of language or narrative, or how humans construct meaning through narrative. hayles’ distinction matters to a discussion of figurative meaning because of the formation of figurative meaning through a paradigmatic set of associated meanings. figurative meaning, which can be described as the association of a signifier (as a word, image, or idea) with potential metaphors, similes, analogies, tropes, and metonymies, is constructed through the paradigmatic dimension—an imaginary set of affiliations that are shaped through composition of, and encounter and practice with, cultural texts and objects. figurative meaning can therefore only be constructed through a logic of substitution such that a subject can associate a signifier with a set of related meanings—a process of exploratory and imaginary substitutions that fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities i will describe as creating a depth of meaning and therefore as possessing a “deep movement” through the paradigmatic set. paradigmatic sets of literal and figurative meaning are thus different albeit related: for example, a paradigmatic set of literal meanings for the word “red” may include the synonyms “crimson,” “rose,” “carmine,” “cherry,” “scarlet,” and “vermilion,” while a paradigmatic set of figurative meanings may include “passion,” “lust,” “rage,” “fever,” and “violence.” the limits of the relational database for representing paradigmatic meaning in literature can be narrowed down to an aspect of what makes literature “literary” in the first place—and one characteristic is its depth of meaning beyond the literal and through the figurative that necessitates qualitative and reflexive analytical methods rooted in literary study, such as close reading. in particular, hayles proposes that the epistemological differences between database and narrative are rooted in their differing “worldviews” through the element of indeterminacy, as narratives reach for it and databases are designed to avoid it. the element of indeterminacy is attributed as a quality of the literary character of narratives and also encourages close reading for an interpretive exploration of a text’s layers of meaning. hayles juxtaposes narratives and databases through the indeterminate in this way, arguing that: narratives gesture toward the inexplicable, the unspeakable, the ineffable, whereas databases rely on enumeration, requiring explicit articulation of attributes and data values … databases in themselves can only speak that which can explicitly be spoken. narratives, by contrast, invite in the unknown, taking us to the brink signified by henry james’s figure in the carpet, kurtz’s ‘the horror, the horror,’ gatsby’s green light at pier’s end, kerouac’s beatitude, pynchon’s crying of lot . ( , ) in this string of examples, the figurative is indeterminate insofar as it provokes imagination and a depth of possible meanings: the single image of jay gatsby’s green light captures (at the same time that it overwhelms) the character’s yearning for a system of ideals that are epitomized in the character daisy. his yearning is metaphorized in the unreachable light, the hue of which also represents envy. if fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities there is a way to quantify the depth and affect of these layers of the indeterminate through figurative meaning, we have not necessarily yet found it. on limits and the value of humanistic and narratological thinking digital humanists have actively attempted to ameliorate such differences by drawing upon both digital and humanistic methodologies and philosophies. for instance, hayles proposes to “locate digital work within print traditions, and print traditions within digital media, without obscuring or failing to account for the differences between them” ( ). she has sought to address larger-scale ideas of difference between the logics of meaning making in the humanities and the digital through the specific media with which they are associated and through which they often work. this is the basis of her proposal of a “media-specific analysis” in ’s “print is flat, code is deep: the importance of media-specific analysis.” building on the need for media-specific analysis, one of her central arguments in how we think ( ) is that we require three modes of reading in an era in which “print is no longer the default medium of communication,” naming these modes as close reading, hyper reading, and machine reading ( , ). as the identification of literary studies with the practice of close reading risks pushing digital reading “to the margins as not ‘really’ reading or at least not compelling or interesting reading,” hayles examines the value of hyper reading as a necessary method for today’s scholar to engage with all the materials and resources that are made available today ( , ). drawing upon james sosnoski, she also offers examples of hyper reading texts through search queries, filtering with keywords, skimming, hyperlinking, fragmenting, “pecking” (“pulling out a few items from a longer text”), and juxtaposing (a comparative method of reading across, for instance, several open browser tabs and windows) ( , ). in regard to the number of books that can hypothetically be read in a single lifetime, hayles cites gregory crane’s argument “that the upward bound for the number of books anyone can read in a lifetime is twenty-five thousand (assuming one reads a book a day from age fifteen to eighty-five)” ( , ). fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities a “synergy” or “recursive feedback loop” among close, hyper, and machine reading is thus necessary in an era in which our understanding of communication must take into consideration the specific “affordances and limitations” of individual media systems, as marie-laure ryan describes ( , n.p.). we need methods of reading that are specific to interpreting and scrutinizing the minute of individual texts (close reading), methods of reading that can account for enormous collections of digitized texts (hyper reading), and methods of reading that can process computer code of varying degrees of abstraction (machine reading) (hayles , - ). hayles’ tripartite model of reading, then, shows that hyper reading and machine reading, which are digitally informed, can also be applied to methods of interpretation and by extension to reading narrative. in this sense, digital methods of information and content engagement can make room or account for narrative forms and narratological thinking. the development of the digital humanities has also seen a surge in literary text analysis projects that take quantitative, data-based, or algorithmic approaches to literary research, representation, and analysis. twelve years ago, franco moretti published graphs, maps, trees: abstract models for literary history ( ), a fascinating re-approach to literary study whereby the data visualization of hundreds of literary texts’ narrative content (through graphs, maps, and trees) allows us to grasp larger trends in literary history through a method he calls “distant reading.” six years ago, google books and harvard physicists attempted to quantify the english language through a database: drawing upon millions of digitized literary texts, they mapped patterns in the literary usage of words through a method called “culturomics,” whereby language is proven to reflect cultural atmospheres and change (michel et al. ). in the past five years, and with increasing urgency and interest, digital humanists and literary scholars have expanded methods of database for an excellent example of recursive and comparative reading in action, see reading project: a collaborative analysis of william poundstone’s project for tachistoscope {bottomless pit} ( ) by jessica pressman, mark c. marino, and jeremy douglass. fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities analysis to consider the computational representation and potential quantification of narrative. yet, if literature possesses a quality of the indeterminate and if the objective of the database is to avoid the indeterminate, we must question of limits of digital representation itself for analyzing aspects of the literary. the identification of these limitations occurs through two crucial modes of inquiry i describe in the introduction: humanistic thinking and narratological thinking. while relational databases are useful for counting instances, exploring degrees of relationships, visualizing patterns and shifts, and so forth, in the data itself there is little reflexive meaning; as hayles notes, it needs to be formed through interpretation ( , ). when examining databases, meaning and humanistic reflection come in at another layer, in part through additional information and in part through the interpretation of data. a narratological approach to digital text analysis may allow us to expand upon approaches to literary intertext as paratext that is significant to a work’s larger corpus—in write-ups, commentary, footnotes, endnotes, appendices, forwards, afterwards, glosses, and so forth—and to think of extensive metadata itself as an accompanying narrative about a text and its contexts. in particular, by examining descriptive metadata that articulates examples of data content and application, we may construct comprehensive narratives of the processes of content production, management, access, and reception, shaping narratives about the trajectory (the cause-and-effect) of digital humanities projects, tools, and research. to see how humanistic and narratological thinking aid in the identification of the limitations of digital tools for representing literary text, i will discuss a text analysis project that reflects upon these limitations: network theory, plot analysis ( ), which comes out of stanford university’s literary lab. the literary lab, co-directed by franco moretti and mark algee-hewitt, houses several collaborative projects that, upon completion, are published on the lab’s website as research pamphlets. in the project pamphlet of network theory, plot analysis, moretti analyzes narratives through the quantification of literary elements and variables. these and similar projects re-visit key ideas and principles of narrative hermeneutics through fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities their mediations of narrative data. at the same time, moretti’s use of data storage and visualization methods to represent literary features is paired with his reflexive mode of literary criticism, which observes that his methodology may be unable to capture what he calls the “weight” of narrative ( , ). the pamphlet’s write-up, which is itself a form of metadata and an integral part of the project’s paratext, is thus revealed to be necessary to understanding the data visualizations. it takes up a storytelling mode to speak to the project’s struggle to negotiate narrative factors with network diagrams. also, it considers this struggle in a way that retains and captures the humanistic inquiry of a digital humanities that is critically reflexive of its own tools and methodologies. the pamphlet utilizes network theory in order to visualize relationships between narrative characters, including in this article was written, reviewed, and revised for publication before allegations of intimidation and sexual assault were made against moretti by several former students (liu and knowles ). according to these reports, the unproven allegations are under investigation by stanford university as this article goes to press (editorial and authorial note). figure : network theory, plot analysis. literary lab, stanford university. . fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities shakespeare’s hamlet, the analysis on which i will focus. the research question for a network data visualization such as figure may be “who speaks to whom and how often?” whereby the most loquacious characters (here, hamlet, claudius, and horatio) occupy more central positions in the network and minor speaking parts are on the outskirts. the data that corresponds to and generates this network could (but does not necessarily) take the form of a relational database, as it is an excellent tool for methodological tasks such as counting the frequency of something. we may say that the parameters of this relational database are also defined by the same research question, “who speaks to whom and how often?” such that characters’ names could be charted on both x and y axes of a relational database, and their direct encounters could be ticked off. if the research question is intent on studying the frequency and relations of dialogue, a content analysis through the relational database is most apt; however, if the research question inquires more deeply into character relations and dynamics in the plot, then a relational database’s corresponding visualization is not as figure : network theory, plot analysis. literary lab, stanford university. . fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities clear. for example, figure is a visualization of deaths in hamlet. the “region of death” in red illustrates the group of people who kill each other off at the end of hamlet. the research question may be: “who dies and what is their relationship to other people who also die?” and the relational database parameters that produce the corresponding network may involve two layers: one table for character encounters and one for character deaths. the resulting data visualization allows researchers to compare characters’ encounters in dialogue to the actual people who die, and by doing so, we arrive at an analysis of the significance of certain relationships. the data visualizations developed by the network theory framework noticeably sway us toward the idea that the characters who engage more frequently in dialogue are also the ones that die, especially the ones that die together in the play’s final scene; yet, such a observation might discount the significance of characters such as polonius and ophelia, who die earlier in the play. while the pamphlet possesses data visualizations that are derived from the data of corresponding databases, some narrative thinking appears to be necessary to define the parameters of the databases. the pamphlet is also necessary to reflect upon how data visualizations encourage us to analyze narrative aspects of hamlet, especially compared to traditional narrative hermeneutic techniques. the visualizations may be more analytically interesting than charts of data alone, but it is arguable that their main function in the network theory, plot analysis pamphlet is to complement moretti’s explanation of the processes of the research. we may view this explanation as a narrative itself in the following structure: an original text was studied for features of plot (a narrative of text analysis); multiple narrative views were negotiated according to specific research questions that were derived from narratological thinking (a narrative of data analysis); and this exploration revealed discrepancies between narratological thinking and representing narrative through digital tools (a narrative of quantified text analysis). it is these discrepancies that allow moretti to identify and ruminate upon a significant idea: the uniqueness and complexity of what he calls narratological “weight” appears to elude his network visualizations. the “weight” of certain events for plot development, for instance, can be difficult to quantify, especially in a way that fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities is easily encoded for data management, and graphing and visualization purposes. to show the possible implications of attempting to quantify this literary weight, moretti discusses the clustering and positioning of character encounters (see figure ). the significance of hamlet, claudius, and horatio is spatially represented by the fact that they occupy central positions in the data visualization. in comparison, the ghost has few lines of dialogue and is therefore on the outskirts of the diagram, equated in spatial significance with characters such as “gravedigger” or “norwegian captain.” in fact, the scene between hamlet and the ghost is of fundamental importance to the rest of the narrative, as it is the ghost who inspires hamlet’s theory that claudius killed his father and thus his revenge plot. yet, as the data visualization is unable to represent this weight, in this way, network theory risks reducing and abstracting the plot (moretti , ). matthew jockers’ work in text analysis and plot visualization in macroanalysis: digital methods and literary history ( ) mollifies this specific issue, building on early work by kurt vonnegut in plot diagramming to capture the significance of chronological plot events in a linear series of crests and dips. his work figure : network theory, plot analysis. literary lab, stanford university. . fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities is related to that of the larger research team of novel tm (to which jockers belongs), a transnational research project on text mining the novel that is led by andrew piper. while the issues of representation that network theory, plot analysis identifies are being actively tackled, i find equal value in reflections on certain limitations of data-based digital representations and analyses of literature. reflexive inquires into digital humanities analysis, tools, and research production produce a text that is able to weave between this reflexive critique and the media-specific analytical affordances offered by digital media. in particular, what the observations reveal is that in the processes of both close and hyper reading, we should not make generalizations about content based on the data visualizations or their corresponding databases, as additional knowledge is often needed. in the case of hamlet, additional knowledge about the play’s specific narrative is helpful to effectively analyze the visualizations. and with regards to databases and data visualizations for plots that are not so well known or accessible as hamlet (for instance, rare texts, texts that are hard to access, or texts that are subject to copyright), it is through additional information and commentary that many of these difficulties are fleshed out. the metadata, here as a formal write-up, is crucial to clarifying where database forms and digital tools can fail, especially through their discrepancies with literary form, content, and hermeneutics. there is critical value in surprises, hiccups, obstacles, and failures, towards “failing better” so to speak. representing paradigmatic meaning in non-relational databases identifying the limitations of these forms and tools critically gesture towards seeking alternative methods of content management that better accommodate for and represent on-screen: literary weight, figurative meaning, narrative forms, and linguistic play. in this sense, greater commensurability between the database and narrative (and between the unique cultures or “worldviews” of meaning making to which each belongs) may be met through the design or at least imagining of digital tools that can represent the indeterminate in figurative meaning. there is no “one-size-fits-all” computational tool for content management and representation, requiring that a digital humanities researcher, teacher, or student who is offered fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities multiple possibilities for content mediality and mediation weigh the pros and cons, the affordances and limitations, of various digital tools. returning to the earlier differentiation between paradigmatic sets of literal and figurative meaning—where a paradigmatic set of literal meanings for the word “red” differs from a paradigmatic set of its figurative meanings—a digital tool that offers a paradigmatic approach to content management would better accommodate and account for both these literal and figurative paradigmatic sets, particularly if it is flexible enough to allow for set editing and expansion. as with when a subject mentally searches for synonyms and metaphors out of their existing vocabularies and can also expand those vocabularies through training and reference, in the same way, a database model with a paradigmatic approach to content could store sets of meanings as imaginary possibilities that could be expanded. to be clear: the relational database also allows for this expansion, because one can theoretically add to it forever. however, the difference between the relational database and a database model with a paradigmatic approach is in its structure: the latter offers a non-relational—that is, non-rigid—schema for storing, organizing, receiving, and engaging with content-as-data. relational databases are useful for when one chooses parameters and variables that are likely to be content-rich, or when one has the time, reason, and occasion to go through different possible transitions across rows of cells. these methods work best with small amounts of data; however, if a researcher or teacher is trying to organize or interpret an enormous amount of cells and transitions, and if many of these cells do not have values, then the relational database fails on accounts of digital scalability, memory, and speed. what happens when we move away from the relational database or if we at least incorporate other forms of database? in this regard, i do not refer to other traditional databases with sql encoding models such as attribute-value, network, or hierarchal databases, but to a more recent paradigm of information organization: publicly introduced in , and with particular significance starting around , computer scientists have begun to embrace the nosql (“no” or “not only” sql) movement, pushing for non-relational databases (dourish , n.p.). nosql is a database model that takes on several fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities formats, including a document style that allows data to be organized in groups and a graph model that can resemble a network. nosql was developed for programmers to code and alter data more easily through less rigid schema. as one aspect of this effort, content is less abstract and isolated in individual cells, often offering textual context in a way that can be read as metadata. nosql organizes data into a flow-chart form, with keys that can be defined by any consistent variable, such as a list of course codes or a series of dates. the particular trait and thus particular format of nosql databases that i want to focus on is the document- oriented database’s ability to group together multiple values for each key (called a key- value or attribute-value store). whereas in the relational database, each individual cell contains one value, for a nosql database, each key can contain a group of values (see figure ). for instance, for the database “eng_ ” (a course called “eng ”), each student could have associated values such as “name,” “major,” and “student id.” rather than being structured in relational tables, the key-value model of data management, especially through document-oriented databases, can organize content to more closely resemble the paradigmatic dimension of language. having associated values grouped together would allow multiple values to be read together as a set of paradigmatic words or associations, so that the values of the key “red” can contain “passion,” “anger,” “fever” and so forth, thereby offering an embodied version of a paradigmatic logic of substitution (see figure ). additional values can also be added to the group of values through client reading and writing (user engagement). applying non-relational databases to narratives: towards representing figurative meaning the layers of meaning in a figurative text and the weight that they carry to tell a story find a computational albeit imprecise counterpart in the paradigmatic approaches of content in non-relational databases. such alternative content management models it is entirely possible that the graph format for the network theory, plot analysis pamphlet was used because of the objective of generating network visualizations. i have analyzed these visualizations as if they are constructed through relational databases only because the accompanying observations about the potential limitations in network models for text analysis occur through—and therefore serve to underline—issues of rigidity in relational databases. fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities are important as we consider emerging forms of literature that increasingly trouble how we think of “narrative” and that highlight the difficulty that many digital tools have with capturing or supporting elements of figurative meaning. one particularly important shift in re-thinking “narrative” that has also reframed its relationship with the database as a dynamic is the cultural practice and advent of narratives that are digitally composed and informed—through hypertexts, born- digital narratives, and online texts that do not necessarily embody a linear cause- and-effect form. through the introduction of intermedial and transmedial (and thus trans-spatial and trans-temporal) qualities to cultural texts, digital narratives foster conversations about what it means to read and write creatively in and across various figure : a relational database compared to a document-oriented non-relational database. figure : document-oriented database containing the key “red”. fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities media platforms. for instance, variances have been identified between analogue and digital forms of textuality towards a complexity of their interrelations (see ryan ; hayles ; morris ; hayles ; and so forth). one premise in studies of new media, electronic literature, and literary studies is that in a so-called digital era, narrative persists, and often, that narrative resists by mediating their medium- specificity and unique material circumstances of meaning making (see fitzpatrick ; goldsmith ). digital narratives are especially unique because of their representational duality: on-screen narrative content always corresponds to what is behind the screen— computational methods of storing and managing content as data. the implications of this duality for digital writing lead alan liu ( a) to identify a deviation of rigid database, markup schema, and encoding formats from the textual practices of older communication forms such as print. he argues that such rigid factors can confine writing and today’s creative writer to the structure and content dictated by the database format and its behavioural parameters; this effect potentially leads to the author’s “surrender[ing] the act of writing to that of parameterization” ( ). these literary shifts and the attempts to grasp them in interpretive analysis and digital tools prompt a humanistic and narratological inquiry into the place of the digital relative to older literary genres and styles that are difficult to represent for their layers upon layers of meaning. how, for instance, can we use a database to represent the relationship between image and text in the graphic novel? how can we represent the technique of literary stream-of-consciousness and the thematics of disorientation and fragmentation that might provoke it? in terms of ontology, how would we visualize temporality versus duration, or how could we visualize reference and memory? towards addressing some of these questions, i will briefly discuss a nosql approach to representing the properties of literary weight and semiotic depth in the construction of a world and its specifically defined ontology—its properties of time, space, and of narrative movement that i describe as an “imaginary ontology.” databases could be described as imaginary ontologies insofar as they create defining fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities parameters of being within which things are and through which events—which is to say, the phenomenological reception and mediation of content—can emerge. i am specifically interested in literary texts that trouble what we mean by “narrative” or “book” through their mediation of the computerization of culture and representation, such as mark z. danielewski’s house of leaves ( ). house of leaves is a novel that plays with the cultural form of the print-based narrative at the same time that it composes this narrative through a collection of technological mediations. in doing so, it reflects the changing face (and body) of literature in a cultural era when narrative and database engage in recursive dynamicism. in fact, it is the structure and format of the novel’s mediations that attribute to house of leaves its digital character and that characterize it as a kind of database itself. others have described the labyrinthian and networked structure of the novel through its text, intertext, and paratext, as the novel offers multiple perspectives on the same events (see hamilton ; pressman ). it has at least four narrative trajectories, it employs various literary and mediated techniques to represent them, and it offers associated ideas, characters, and other information in a multi-linear way. this structure is comparable to the way content (as data) is stored in a database, as data must be hashed together from discrete locations to create digital objects and images. the scattering of texts, images, and symbols about the pages of house of leaves follows that the narrative is only formed through the compositing of fragments of information—and this action is also what makes house of leaves inherently literary. the reader is told at the beginning of the novel that the central object of the plot (the house) cannot physically exist; however, the plot revolves around the mystery of the house and its mediations by other characters. that is: the content of the novel itself does not exist without mediations (hansen , ). expanding this series of mediations further, the novel’s narrative and meanings are constructed by the reader’s mediations of textual fragments into a formed “story” through their narratological thinking. the reader’s reflection upon and engagement with such fragments—with the semiotic depth of texts and images as well as with layers of mediation—draw out fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities their paradigmatic as well as literary meanings. the agential subject’s mediations and narratological thinking, house of leaves shows, remain central to the construction of meaning, whether the content is stored in a database or presented as a book of literature. to this effect, the novel offers a recursive feedback loop between narrative and database that is intent on encompassing the reader’s mediations of the novel itself—what mark b.n. hansen describes as “copies with a difference” ( , )— and that legitimizes them as part of the novel’s (para)textual corpus. house of leaves is notably difficult to represent as data. to represent the intermediality, multimodality, and multi-linearity of the text in a relational database would result in a large collection of tables, many of which would be filled with empty values. a researcher may then have to compare the data in dozens of different visualizations while also addressing the database tables that such visualizations refer to. a digital text analysis project on house of leaves through a non-relational database would ideally: . represent the layers of meaning in its narrative content, including through literary elements such as metaphor and trope; . represent the novel’s discrete methods and instances of mediating the same narrative idea, space, or event; and . represent the various ways in which each of these methods and instances overlap and interact with each other. for example, consider that the narrative event when will navidson and his friends enter a labyrinthian hall occurs as a documentary scene, and that the reader does not have access to this footage, but instead, to the character zampanò’s textual mediation of the cinematic moment. zampanò’s text is also accompanied by ) his footnotes on this labyrinth event, ) the character johnny truant’s footnotes on zampanò’s text, and ) a comic book depiction of the scene in the appendices of the novel. to organize and encode the labyrinth event with a document-oriented nosql database, one possibility would be to list all of these mediations under the key of “labyrinth” and also their associations with the novel’s figurative themes and metaphors (see figure ). this database could thus be set up so that a search fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities for “labyrinth metaphor” could return the values “haunting,” “monstrosity,” and “uncanny” so that a reader can piece together these literary associations. the reader could also search for “labyrinth text” to discover the other ways in which the hallway scene is represented in the novel: “zampano’s manuscript,” “zampano’s footnotes,” “johnny’s footnotes,” and “comic.” this is only one example of the way that a paradigmatic approach to content management and representation can better account for figurative meaning in literary narrative, especially vis-à-vis digitally informed shifts to how we think of narrative creation, creativity, and engagement. mark z. danielewski’s current endeavour the familiar is a proposed -volume experimental book project that functions as an imagined layering of different characters over different times. it would be very difficult to represent this feat of temporal relativism in a digital humanities project or arguably even in traditional literary hermeneutics without further consideration of how it has been influenced by contemporary models and computational models of intertextual and networked content organization. feedback loops: between the “known” and the “unknown” in academic discourse as with digital tools, variously flexible methods of representing shifting concepts of narrative play and negotiating them with our expectations of literary form, genre, and convention can be posed as alternative modes of creative and critical inquiry, particularly in the next steps of the (digital) humanities’ project. figure : document-oriented database containing the key “labyrinth”. fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities by this, i do not mean to imply that the digital can match or account for all aspects of the literary; the separate togetherness of media-specific analysis and also of media- specific analytical affordances initiated my inquiry into the narrative and database in the first place, and also encouraged me to draw upon hayles’ proposal of more synergistic approaches that resemble a “recursive feedback loop” between the digital humanities and the traditional humanities ( , ). where we might move on from here is a return to a question posed in the introduction—a consideration of what aspects of the humanities may be at risk in the use of tools and text forms with distinct epistemological worldviews. after pondering over this by focusing on figurative meaning, i also find value in inverting the question. what aspects of the humanities and the literary might be upheld through the dynamic of a recursive feedback loop between the humanities and the digital, the narrative and the database? for one, reflexive observations reveal that research questions, surprises, and limitations are an origin or catalyst for a recursive feedback loop, as they necessitate a back-and-forth negotiation between what functions well (what we “know”) and what asks us to pause and think (what we do not “know”). the ultimate gesture of this negotiation might be understood in the vein of what alan liu calls “the ethos of the unknown”—a political mode that is rooted in humanistic philosophy (and also advocacy for this philosophy) by way of varying degrees of the critical infiltration, hacking, and implosion of systems of post-industrial information culture ( b, ; b, ). it is such post-industrial systems that help to shape the expansive scope and rigidity of computational data management in the name of efficiency, function, and performance. machines and databases prefer axioms, answers, and the determinate over reflections, interpretations, and the indeterminate, bringing this paper full circle in its consideration of the place of humanistic and narratological thinking amongst the digital. machines are designed to function as asked, such that they are meant to resist the indeterminate. this paper has sought to study their limitations in a way that is not meant to move in this direction of quantifying the figurative and determining the indeterminate; rather, it moves towards database forms (and content fan: on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities representation forms) that are more ludic like language and like all the things we can say in a single word, a phrase, a look, a light. i have sought to highlight the value of the indeterminate and the unknown in necessitating an ongoing comparison, juxtaposition, interpretation, and reflection of tools and work. in between the known and unknown—or, what is in between that which functions as defined, rigid, and expected and that which requires us to ponder, interpret, critique, remember, and return—is the weight and wait of the question, where even that which is determined can start to fall apart. acknowledgements thank 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contexts, technotexts, and theories, edited by adalaide morris, and thomas swiss. cambridge, ma: mit press. pressman, jessica. . “house of leaves: reading the networked novel.” studies in american fiction ( ): – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /saf. . pressman, jessica, mark c. marino, and jeremy douglass. . reading project: a collaborative analysis of william poundstone’s project for tachistoscope {bottomless pit}. iowa city, ia: university of iowa press. ryan, marie-laure. . “on defining narrative media.” image and narrative : n.p. accessed march , . http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/ mediumtheory/marielaureryan.htm. tabbi, joseph, and michael wutz. . “introduction.” in reading matters: narrative in the new media ecology, edited by joseph tabbi, and michael wutz. ithaca, ny: cornell university press. how to cite this article: fan, lai-tze. . “on the value of narratives in a reflexive digital humanities.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – , doi: https://doi. org/ . /dscn. submitted: october accepted: october published: march copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. http://litlab.stanford.edu/literarylabpamphlet .pdf http://litlab.stanford.edu/literarylabpamphlet .pdf https://doi.org/ . /saf. . http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/mediumtheory/marielaureryan.htm http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/mediumtheory/marielaureryan.htm https://doi.org/ . /dscn. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / introduction database versus narrative: the known and the unknown/indeterminate on limits and the value of humanistic and narratological thinking representing paradigmatic meaning in non-relational databases applying non-relational databases to narratives: towards representing figurative meaning feedback loops: between the “known” and the “unknown” acknowledgements competing interests references figure figure figure figure figure figure inderscience publishers - linking academia, business and industry through research log in log in for authors, reviewers, editors and board members username remember me go forgotten? help sitemap home for authors for librarians orders inderscience online news explore our journals browse journals by titleafrican journal of accounting, auditing and financeafrican journal of economic and sustainable developmentafro-asian journal of finance and accountingamerican journal of finance and accountingasian journal of management science and applicationsatoms for peace: an international journalelectronic government, an international journaleuromed journal of 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science, engineering and technology society and leisure all subjects research picks securing telemedicinetelemedicine is slowly maturing allowing greater connectivity between patient and healthcare providers using information and communications technology (ict). one issue that is yet to be addressed fully, however, is security and thence privacy. researchers writing in the international journal of ad hoc and ubiquitous computing, have turned to cloud computing to help them develop a new and strong authentication protocol for electronic healthcare systems. prerna mohit of the indian institute of information technology senapati in manipur, ruhul amin of the dr shyama prasad mukherjee international institute of information technology, in naya raipur, and g.p. biswas of the indian institute of technology (ism) dhanbad, in jharkhand, india, point out how medical information is personal and sensitive and so it is important that it remains private and confidential. the team's approach uses the flexibility of a mobile device to authenticate so that a user can securely retrieve pertinent information without a third party having the opportunity to access that information at any point. in a proof of principle, the team has carried out a security analysis and demonstrated that the system can resist attacks where a malicious third party attempts to breach the security protocol. they add that the costs in terms of additional computation and communication resources are lower than those offered by other security systems reported in the existing research literature. mohit, p., amin, r. and biswas, g.p. ( ) 'an e-healthcare authentication protocol employing cloud computing', int. j. ad hoc and ubiquitous computing, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ijahuc. . anticancer drugs from the monsoona small-branched shrub found in india known locally as moddu soppu (justicia wynaadensis) is used to make a sweet dish during the monsoon season by the inhabitants of kodagu district in karanataka exclusively during the monsoons. research published in the international journal of computational biology and drug design has looked at phytochemicals present in extracts from the plant that may have putative anticancer agent properties. c.d. vandana and k.n. shanti of pes university in bangalore, karnataka and vivek chandramohan of the siddaganga institute of technology also in tumkur, karnataka, investigated several phytochemicals that had been reported in the scientific literature as having anticancer activity. they used a computer model to look at how well twelve different compounds "docked" with the relevant enzyme thymidylate synthase and compared this activity with a reference drug, capecitabine, which targets this enzyme. thymidylate synthase is involved in making dna for cell replication. in cancer, uncontrolled cell replication is the underlying problem. if this enzyme can be blocked it will lead to dna damage in the cancer cells and potentially halt the cancer growth. two compounds had comparable activity and greater binding to the enzyme than capecitabine. the first, campesterol, is a well-known plant chemical with a structure similar to cholesterol, the second stigmasterol is another well-known phytochemical involved in the structural integrity of plant cells. the former proved itself to be more stable than the latter and represents a possible lead for further investigation and testing as an anticancer drug, the team reports. vandana, c.d., shanti, k.n., karunakar, p. and chandramohan, v. ( ) 'in silico studies of bioactive phytocompounds with anticancer activity from in vivo and in vitro extracts of justicia wynaadensis (nees) t. anderson', int. j. computational biology and drug design, vol. , nos. / , pp. – . doi: . /ijcbdd. . native reforestation benefits biodiversitytimber harvest and agriculture have had an enormous impact on biodiversity in many parts of the world over the last two hundred years of the industrial era. one such region is to kilometre belt of tropical dry evergreen forest that lies inland from the southeastern coast of india. efforts to regenerate the biodiversity has been more successful when native tropical dry evergreen forest has been reinstated rather than where non-native acacia planting has been carried out in regeneration efforts, according to research published in the interdisciplinary environmental review. christopher frignoca and john mccarthy of the department of atmospheric science and chemistry at plymouth state university in new hampshire, usa, aviram rozin of sadhana forest in auroville, tamil nadu, india, and leonard reitsma of the department of biological sciences at plymouth explain how reforestation can be used to rebuild the ecosystem and increases population sizes and diversity of flora and fauna. the team has looked at efforts to rebuild the ecosystem of sadhana forest. an area of hectares had its water table replenished through intensive soil moisture conservation. the team has observed rapid growth of planted native species and germination of two species of dormant acacia seeds. the team's standard biological inventory of this area revealed bird, mammal, reptile, amphibian, invertebrate species, and invertebrate orders present in the area. when they looked closely at the data obtained from bird abundance at point count stations, invertebrate sweep net captures and leaf count detections, as well as odonate and lepidopteran visual observations along fixed-paced transects they saw far greater diversity in those areas where native plants thrived rather than the non-native acacia. "sadhana forest's reforestation demonstrates the potential to restore ecosystems and replenish water tables, vital components to reversing ecosystem degradation, and corroborates reforestation efforts in other regions of the world," the team writes. "sadhana forest serves as a model for effective reforestation and ecosystem restoration," the researchers conclude. frignoca, c., mccarthy, j., rozin, a. and reitsma, l. ( ) 'greater biodiversity in regenerated native tropical dry evergreen forest compared to non-native acacia regeneration in southeastern india', interdisciplinary environmental review, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ier. . protection from coronavirus and zero-day pathogensresearchers in india are developing a disinfection chamber that integrates a system that can deactivate coronavirus particles. the team reports details in the international journal of design engineering. as we enter the second year of the covid- pandemic, there are signs that the causative virus sars-cov- and its variants may be with us for many years to come despite the unprecedented speed with vaccines against the disease have been developed, tested, and for some parts of the world rolled out. sangam sahu, shivam krishna pandey, and atul mishra of the bml munjal university suggest that we could adapt screening technology commonly used in security for checking whether a person is entering an area, such as airports, hospitals, or government buildings, for instance, carrying a weapon, explosives, or contraband goods. such a system might be augmented with a body temperature check for spotting a person with a fever that might be a symptom of covid- or another contagious viral infection. they add that the screening system might also incorporate technology that can kill viruses on surfaces with a quick flash of ultraviolet light or a spray of chemical disinfectant. airborne microbial diseases represent a significant ongoing challenge to public health around the world. while covid- is top of the agenda at the moment, seasonal and pandemic influenza are of perennial concern as is the emergence of drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis. moreover, we are likely to see other emergent pathogens as we have many times in the past any one of which could lead to an even greater pandemic catastrophe than covid- . screening and disinfecting systems as described by sahu could become commonplace and perhaps act as an obligatory frontline defense against the spread of such emergent pathogens even before they are identified. such an approach to unknown viruses is well known in the computer industry where novel malware emerges, so-called -day viruses, before the antivirus software is updated to recognize it and so blanket screening and disinfection software is often used. sahu, s., pandey, s.k. and mishra, a. ( ) 'disinfectant chamber for killing body germs with integrated far-uvc chamber (for covid- )', int. j. design engineering, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ijde. . wetware data retrievala computer hard drive can be a rich source of evidence in a forensic investigation... but only if the device is intact and undamaged otherwise many additional steps to retrieve incriminating data from within are needed and not always successful even in the most expert hands. research published in the international journal of electronic security and digital forensics considers the data retrieval problems for investigators faced with a hard drive that has been submerged in water. alicia francois and alastair nisbet of the cybersecurity research laboratory at auckland university of technology in new zealand, point out that under pressure suspects in an investigation may attempt to destroy digital evidence prior to a seizure by the authorities. a common approach is simply to put a hard drive in water in the hope that damage to the circuitry and the storage media within will render the data inaccessible. the team has looked at the impact of water ingress on solid-state and conventional spinning magnetic disc hard drives and the timescale over which irreparable damage occurs and how this relates to the likelihood of significant data loss from the device. circuitry and other components begin to corrode rather quickly following water ingress. however, if a device can be retrieved and dried within seven days, there is a reasonable chance of it still working and the data being accessible. "ultimately, water submersion can damage a drive quickly but with the necessary haste and skills, data may still be recoverable from a water-damaged hard drive," the team writes. however, if the device has been submerged in saltwater, then irreparable damage can occur within minutes. the situation is worse for a solid-state drive which will essentially be destroyed within a minute of saltwater ingress. the research provides a useful guide for forensic investigators retrieving hard drives that have been submerged in water. francois, a. and nisbet, a. ( ) 'forensic analysis and data recovery from water-submerged hard drives', int. j. electronic security and digital forensics, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ijesdf. . of alcohol and bootlacesthere is no consensus across medical science as to whether or not there is a safe lower limit on alcohol consumption nor whether a small amount of alcohol is beneficial. the picture is complicated by the various congeners, such as polyphenols and other substances that are present in different concentrations in different types of alcoholic beverage, such as red and white wine, beers and ales, ciders, and spirits. moreover, while, there has been a decisive classification of alcohol consumption as a cause of cancer, there is strong evidence that small quantities have a protective effect on the cardiovascular system. now, writing in the international journal of web and grid services, a team from china, japan, taiwan, and the usa, has looked at how a feature of our genetic material, dna, relates to ageing and cancer and investigated a possible connection with alcohol consumption. the ends of our linear chromosomes are capped by repeated sequences of dna base units that act as protective ends almost analogous to the stiff aglets on each end of a bootlace. these protective sections are known as telomeres. which each cell replication the length of the telomeres on the ends of our chromosomes get shorter. this limits the number of times a cell can replicate before there is insufficient protection for the dna between the ends that encodes the proteins that make up the cell. once the telomeres are damaged beyond repair or gone the cell will die. this degradative process has been linked to the limited lifespan of the cells in our bodies and the aging process itself. yan pei of the university of aizu in aizuwakamatsu, japan, and colleagues jianqiang li, yu guan, and xi xu of beijing university of technology, china, jason hung of the national taichung university of science and technology, taichung, taiwan, and weiliang qiu of brigham and women's hospital in boston, usa, have carried out a meta-analysis of the scientific literature. their analysis suggests that telomere length is associated with alcohol consumption. given that shorter telomeres, before they reach the critical length, can nevertheless lead to genomic instability, this alcohol-associated shortening could offer insight into how cancerous tumour growth might be triggered. telomere shortening is a natural part of the ageing process. however, it is influenced by various factors that are beyond our control such as paternal age at birth, ethnicity, gender, age, telomere maintenance genes, genetic mutations of the telomeres. however, telomere length is also affected by inflammation and oxidative stress, environmental, psychosocial, behavioural exposures, and for some of those factors we may have limited control. for others, such as chronic exposure to large quantities of alcohol we have greater control. li, j., guan, y., xu, x., pei, y., hung, j.c. and qiu, w. ( ) 'association between alcohol consumption and telomere length', int. j. web and grid services, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ijwgs. . quality after the pandemicadedeji badiru of the air force institute of technology in dayton, ohio, usa, discusses the notion of quality insight in the international journal of quality engineering and technology and how this relates to motivating researchers and developers working on quality certification programs after the covid- pandemic. in the realm of product quality, we depend on certification based on generally accepted standards to ensure high quality. badiru writes that the ongoing covid- pandemic has led to serious disruption to production facilities and led to the upending of normal quality engineering and technology programs. in the aftermath of the pandemic, there will be a pressing need to redress this problem and its impact on quality management processes may, as with many other areas of normal life, continue to be felt for a long time. badiru suggests that now is the time to develop new approaches to ensure that we retrieve the pre-covid quality levels. he suggests that in the area of quality certification, we must look at other methods in this field, perhaps borrowing from other areas of quality oversight. one mature area from which the new-normal of certification might borrow is academic accreditation. the work environment has changed beyond recognition through the pandemic and we are unlikely to revert to old approaches entirely. indeed, the pandemic has already necessitated the urgent application of existing quantitative and qualitative tools and techniques to other areas, such as work design, workforce development, and the form of the curriculum in education. action now, from the systems perspective in engineering and technology, "will get a company properly prepared for the quality certification of the future, post-covid- pandemic," he writes. this will allow research and development of new products to satisfy the triage of cost, time, and quality requirements as we ultimately emerge from the pandemic. badiru, a. ( ) 'quality insight: product quality certification post covid- using systems framework from academic program accreditation', int. j. quality engineering and technology, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ijqet. . spotting and stopping online abusesocial media has brought huge benefits to many of those around the world with the resources to access its apps and websites. indeed, there are billions of people using the popular platforms every month in almost, if not, every country of the world. researchers writing in the international journal of high performance systems architecture, point out that as with much in life there are downsides that counter the positives of social media. one might refer to one such negative facet of social media as "cyber violence". randa zarnoufi of the fsr mohammed v university in rabat, morocco, and colleagues suggest that the number of victims of this new form of hostility is growing day by day and is having a strongly detrimental effect on the psychological wellbeing of too many people. a perspective that has been little investigated in this area with regard to reducing the level of cyber violence in the world is to consider the psychological status and the emotional dimension of the perpetrators themselves. new understanding of what drives those people to commit heinous acts against others in the online world may improve our response to it and open up new ways to address the problem at its source rather than attempting to simply filter, censor, or protect victims directly. the team has analysed social media updates using ensemble machine learning and the plutchik wheel of basic emotions to extract the character of those updates in the context of cyber violence, bullying and trolling behaviour. the analysis draws the perhaps obvious, but nevertheless highly meaningful, conclusion that there is a significant association between an individual's emotional state and the personal propensity to harmful intent in the realm of social media. importantly, the work shows how this emotional state can be detected and perhaps the perpetrator of cyber violence be approached with a view to improving their emotional state and reducing the negative impact their emotions would otherwise have on the people with whom they engage online. this is very much the first step in this approach to addressing the serious and growing problem of cyber violence. the team adds that they will train their system to detect specific issues in socoal media updates that are associated with harassment with respect to sexuality, appearance, intellectual capacity, and political persuasion. zarnoufi, r., boutbi, m. and abik, m. ( ) 'ai to prevent cyber-violence: harmful behaviour detection in social media', int. j. high performance systems architecture, vol. , no. , pp. – doi: . /ijhpsa. . me too #metoosexual harassment in the workplace is a serious problem. to address it, we need a systematic, multistage preventive approach, according to researchers writing in the international journal of work organisation and emotion. one international response to sexual harassment problems across a range of industries but initially emerging from the entertainment industry was the "#metoo" movement. within this movement victims of harassment and abuse told their stories through social media and other outlets to raise awareness of this widespread problem and to advocate for new legal protections and societal change. anna michalkiewicz and marzena syper-jedrzejak of the university of lodz, poland, describe how they have explored perception of the #metoo movement with regards to in reducing the incidence of sexual harassment. "our findings show that #metoo may have had such preventive potential but it got 'diluted' due to various factors, for example, cultural determinants and lack of systemic solutions," the team writes. they suggest that because of these limitations the #metoo movement is yet to reach its full potential. the team's study considered students finishing their master's degrees in management studies and readying themselves to enter the job market. they were surveyed about the categorisation of psychosocial hazards – such as sexual harassment – in the workplace that cause stress and other personal problems as opposed to the more familiar physical hazards. "effective prevention of [sexual harassment] requires awareness but also motivation and competence to choose and implement in the organisations adequate measures that would effectively change the organisational culture and work conditions," the team writes. the #metoo movement brought prominence to the issues, but the team suggests that it did not lead to the requisite knowledge and practical competence that would facilitate prevention. they point out that the much-needed social changes cannot come about within a timescale of a few months of campaigning. cultural changes need more time and a willing media to keep attention focused on the problem and how it might be addressed. there is also a pressing need for changes in the law to be considered to help eradicate sexual harassment in the workplace. michałkiewicz, a. and syper-jędrzejak, m. ( ) 'significance of the #metoo movement for the prevention of sexual harassment as perceived by people entering the job market', int. j. work organisation and emotion, vol. , no. , pp. – . doi: . /ijwoe. . data mining big data newswhile the term "big data" has become something of a buzz phrase in recent years it has a solid foundation in computer science in many contexts and as such has emerged into the public consciousness via the media and even government initiatives in many parts of the world. a north american team has looked at the media and undertaken a mining operation to unearth nuggets of news regarding this term. murtaza haider of the ted rogers school of management at ryerson university in toronto, canada and amir gandomi of the frank g. zarb school of business at hofstra university in hempstead, new york, usa, explain how big data-driven analytics emerged as one of the most sought-after business strategies of the decade. they have now used natural language processing and text mining algorithms to find the focus and tenor of news coverage surrounding big data. they mined a five million-word body of news coverage for references to the novelty of big data, showcasing the usual suspects in big data geographies and industries. "the insights gained from the text analysis show that big data news coverage indeed evolved where the initial focus on the promise of big data moderated over time," the team found. there work also demonstrates how text mining and nlp algorithms are potent tools for news content analysis. the team points out that academic journals have been the main source of trusted and unbiased advice regarding computing technologies, large databases, and scalable analytics, it is the popular and trade press that are the information source for over-stretched executives. it was the popular media that became what the team describes as "the primary channel for spreading awareness about 'big data' as a marketing concept". they add that the news media certainly helped popularise innovative ideas being discussed in the academic literature. moreover, the latter has had to play catchup during the last decade on sharing the news. that said, much of the news coverage during this time has been about the novelty and the promise of big data rather than the proof of principles that are needed for it to proceed and mature as a discipline. indeed, there are many big data clichés propagated in an often uncritical popular media suggesting that big data analytics is some kind of information panacea. in contrast, the more reserved nature of academic publication knows only too well that big data does not represent a cure-all for socio-economic ills nor does it have unlimited potential. haider, m. and gandomi, a. ( ) 'when big data made the headlines: mining the text of big data coverage in the news media', int. j. services technology and management, vol. , nos. / , pp. – . doi: . /ijstm. . more about research picks news new editor for international journal of applied nonlinear science march, prof. wen-feng wang from the interscience institute of management and technology in india and shanghai institute of technology in china has been appointed to take over editorship of the international journal of applied nonlinear science. new editor for journal of design research march, prof. jouke verlinden from the university of antwerp in belgium has been appointed to take over editorship of the journal of design research. the journal's former editor in chief, prof. renee wever of linköping university in sweden, will remain on the board as editor. inderscience editor in chief receives humboldt research award march, inderscience is pleased to announce that prof. nilmini wickramasinghe, editor in chief of the international journal of biomedical engineering and technology and the international journal of networking and virtual organisations, has won a humboldt research award. this award is conferred in recognition of the award winner's academic record. prof. wickramasinghe will be invited to carry out research projects in collaboration with specialists in germany. inderscience's editorial office extends its warmest congratulations to prof. wickramasinghe for her achievement, and thanks her for her continuing stellar work on her journals. best reviewer award announced by international journal of environment and pollution february, we are pleased to announce that the international journal of environment and pollution has launched a new best reviewer award. the award goes to prof. steven hanna of the harvard t.h. chan school of public health in the usa. the senior editorial team thanks prof. hanna sincerely for his exemplary efforts. inderscience new address february, as of st march , the address of inderscience in switzerland will change to: inderscience enterprises limited rue de pré-bois meyrin - geneva switzerland for authors registered authors log in here online submission: new author registration preparing articles submitting articles copyright and author entitlement conferences/events orders journal subscriptions buying one-off articles and issues books and conference proceedings see our subscription rates (pdf format) new titles international journal of cybernetics and cyber-physical systems mena journal of cross-cultural management international journal of family business and regional development international journal of forensic engineering and management international journal of big data management previous next keep up-to-date our blog follow us on twitter visit us on facebook our newsletter (subscribe for free) rss feeds new issue alerts return to top contact us about inderscience oai repository privacy and cookies statement terms and conditions help sitemap © inderscience enterprises ltd. editoriale+articoli - nel corso dell’ultimo ventennio l’informatica umanistica, o digital humanities se si preferisce la formulazione anglosassone, si è affermata come una delle più impor- tanti innovazioni scientifiche e didattiche nel mondo della ricerca umanistica. nono- stante e, forse, grazie alla fluida definizione disciplinare, questo campo di studi ha conseguito rilevanti risultati sul piano della ricerca teorica e applicativa, ha guada- gnato una presenza stabile nell’offerta didattica e riscuote successo nell’accesso ai finanziamenti. esso si è anche dotato di infrastrutture e organizzazioni per la coo- perazione scientifica a livello nazionale e internazionale che raccolgono e coordi- nano un numero ormai grandissimo di studiosi a livello planetario, organizzano convegni mastodontici e pubblicano monografie e periodici autorevoli. se è vero che le ‘storie di successo’ più importanti si collocano nei paesi anglo- sassoni e in germania, anche la situazione italiana, nonostante ritardi, ritrosie cul- turali e crisi dell’università in generale, è molto soddisfacente. in primo luogo, si deve osservare che questi studi nel nostro paese hanno una storia pluridecennale. il riferimento a padre busa, universalmente riconosciuto come il fondatore dell’intero campo di studi, e alla sua opera di digitalizzazione e indiciz- zazione delle opere di tommaso d’aquino, avviato alla fine degli anni quaranta dello scorso secolo, è piuttosto ovvio. ma voglio far notare che il lavoro di busa non era assolutamente isolato in italia. È sufficiente ricordare che nel il prestigioso annuale almanacco bompiani fu dedicato a le applicazioni dei calcolatori elettronici alle scienze morali e alla letteratura, il che dimostra come anche in quegli anni remoti l’i- talia produceva ricerca di alto livello all’incrocio tra informatica e scienze umane. in secondo luogo, la tradizione italiana dell’informatica umanistica, pure nella sua diversità interna, ha sempre privilegiato un approccio rigorosamente fondato sulla teo- ria e sulla metodologia. la figura intellettuale principale in questo panorama intellettuale è stata quella di tito orlandi, intorno a cui sin dagli anni ottanta si è raccolta quella che si potrebbe definire la scuola romana dell’informatica umanistica. ciò che caratterizza questa esperienza è il rifiuto di una visione strumentale dell’informatica nelle discipline umanistiche (che era allora già abbastanza diffusa se non predominante nelle pur auro- rali sperimentazioni a livello internazionale) e la netta predilezione per un approccio teo- rico ed epistemologico. l’informatica viene intesa non come ingegneria ma come scien- za teorica della rappresentazione ed elaborazione (automatica) dell’informazione, e su questo terreno è evidente la convergenza con le scienze umane. il riconoscimento del valore di questa tradizione è stato sancito con l’assegnazione a orlandi del busa award , premio che la association of digital humanities organizations (adho) assegna agli studiosi che hanno conseguito risultati di alto profilo nella loro carriera. in terzo luogo, si deve osservare come la tradizione italiana della ricerca infor- matica nelle scienze umane ha avuto una stretta e proficua interazione con l’attività scientifica e applicativa condotta nelle istituzioni del patrimonio culturale, tanto che potremmo al suo interno individuare due rami: le digital humanities in italia: la tradizione del nuovo aib studi, vol. n. (maggio/agosto ), p. - . doi . /aibstudi- issn: - , e-issn: - . la tradizione di ricerche e sperimentazioni di metodi e strumenti digitali e com- putazionali in ambito linguistico, letterario, storico, storico artistico, che ha avuto luogo nelle istituzioni di ricerca e di istruzione superiore; . la tradizione delle iniziative digitali condotte dalle istituzioni per la conservazio- ne e diffusione del patrimonio culturale quali biblioteche, archivi e musei e le rela- tive istituzioni di coordinamento a livello locale e centrale. le prime, di solito, sono state orientate alla ricerca accademica, ma come è tipi- co di questo mondo, specialmente in italia, hanno sofferto di una maggiore disper- sione e mancanza di coordinamento (con il risultato di ridurre il loro impatto e la loro visibilità e di replicare errori metodologici e cattive scelte di implementazione). le seconde sono state generalmente orientate a fornire servizi efficienti a una comu- nità di utenti più estesa e non necessariamente a carattere professionale. sin dall’i- nizio, pertanto, esse hanno assegnato una grande importanza alla cooperazione alla condivisione e alla sostenibilità. il vivace panorama della ricerca italiana in ambito informatico umanistico è testi- moniato dalla recente costituzione di un’associazione scientifica nazionale. dopo numerosi tentativi infruttuosi condotti sin dagli anni novanta, nel è stata fon- data l’associazione per l’informatica umanistica e la cultura digitale (aiucd). aiucd ha conseguito eccellenti risultati sia a livello nazionale sia internazionale. È stata la prima tra le diverse associazioni nazionali di digital humanities che si sono costitui- te recentemente in vari paesi europei, ed è divenuta formalmente una organizza- zione associata alla european association of digital humanities (eadh). tra le sue molte attività aiucd organizza regolarmente una conferenza annuale e pubblica il giornale, open content, umanistica digitale. il quadro complessivamente soddisfacente che ho rapidamente dipinto finora non è certamente privo di macchie e lacerazioni. alcuni di questi limiti sono dovu- ti a ragioni estrinseche, determinate dalla situazione generale dell’università italia- na e dal contesto sociale ed economico del paese. nondimeno, occorre ammettere che il movimento ha anche delle debolezze intrinseche. la prima di queste è la endemica mancanza di coordinamento tra esperienze e progetti. come già rilevato, per motivi antropologici, culturali e sociali, istituzionali ed economici, queste iniziative di ricerca hanno raramente avuto la capacità di coor- dinarsi, di condividere strumenti approcci e conoscenze, con l’eccezione di pochi casi basati su relazioni personali. il secondo grande problema è, ovviamente, il finan- ziamento. nella fase economica in cui si trova l’europa e in particolare il nostro paese, gli investimenti nella ricerca stanno subendo dei drastici ridimensionamenti. l’u- nico modo per continuare nello sviluppo di ricerca di alta qualità è la costruzione di relazioni, la condivisione di risorse e tecnologie, la cooperazione nella costruzione di progetti in grado di accedere alle poche fonti di finanziamento disponibili a livel- lo europeo e nazionale. da questo punto di vista va considerato con grande favore il costituirsi di infrastrutture di ricerca a livello europeo per le scienze umane e le arti a cui anche l’italia ha aderito. mi riferisco alla digital research infrastructure for the arts and humanities (dariah) e alla european research infrastructure for language resources and technology (clarin), finanziate nel contesto dell’iniziativa comu- nitaria european strategy forum on research infrastructures (esfri). lo sviluppo di infrastrutture di ricerca di dimensioni nazionali ed europee costitui- sce un elemento centrale per affrontare e risolvere le storiche criticità nella valorizza- zione e nella sostenibilità della ricerca, a maggior ragione in un momento in cui il dibat- tito sull’open science ha assunto un rilievo centrale nel dibattito politico e istituzionale. editoriale ma la vera lacerazione nel quadro, che fa assomigliare il nostro bel panorama a uno dei sacchi di burri, è quello del riconoscimento accademico e istituzionale delle compe- tenze scientifiche informatiche e digitali nell’ambito delle discipline umanistiche, e la conseguente possibilità di accedere e progredire nella carriera accademica per i ricerca- tori, giovani e meno, che vi si dedicano. si tratta di un problema complesso e delicato, e si farebbe torto all’intelligenza e alla verità se si affermasse che si tratta di un problema solo italiano. tuttavia la crisi e la rigidità istituzionale del mondo universitario italiano rende la questione di certo più complessa. negli anni recenti aiucd ha perseguito una scelta tattica, basata sulla inclusione delle competenze digitali all’interno dei settori disci- plinari e concorsuali tradizionali e sull’inserimento delle riviste di riferimento nel campo delle digital humanities tra quelle esponibili in sede di valutazione. ritengo, tuttavia, che esiste oggi lo spazio per la creazione di un vasto ambito disciplinare autonomo che veda convergere la componente più metodologicamente avvertita delle digital humanities con le scienze dell’informazione e con alcuni ambiti disciplinari ‘tradizionali’ orientati alla teoria e alla metodologia delle scienze umane. si tratta senza dubbio di un percorso arduo, legato anche alle effettive volontà degli organi di governo dell’università di procedere a un rinnovo nell’organizzazione dei saperi. ma sono convinto che sia almeno utile ini- ziare a discutere la praticabilità di questa convergenza. la questione del riconoscimento istituzionale degli approcci digitali alla ricerca umanistica è questione complessa anche perché nasconde un sottotesto di più ampio respiro che riguarda in generale il rapporto tra scienze umane tradizionali e scienze umane digitali. dopo molti anni di crescita ed espansione senza che vi fosse una manifesta ostilità da parte dei settori tradizionali delle scienze umane (al massimo una malcelata supponenza), oggi la situazione sembra presentare un’inversione di tendenza. nonostante le difficoltà cui abbiamo accennato, le digital humanities rap- presentano un movimento in grande espansione e sono in grado di attrarre una gran- de quantità di finanziamenti, sottraendoli in parte alla ricerca umanistica tradizio- nale. questo ha determinato in alcuni esponenti del mondo umanistico reazioni di forte critica che in alcuni casi, soprattutto in ambito statunitense, hanno accomu- nato l’espansione delle digital humanities alla trasformazione in senso ultraliberista dell’educazione universitaria e della ricerca. questo dibattito in europa e in italia ha avuto toni diversi e tuttavia non sono man- cate e non mancano, su palcoscenici anche prestigiosi come le pagine culturali di impor- tanti quotidiani, attacchi all’informatica umanistica pronunciati da studiosi più o meno giovani che ne lamentano le velleità imperialistiche e la minaccia nei confronti dei cari valori dell’umanesimo. mi pare che i termini della questione siano diametralmente opposti. la strategia argomentativa che rivendica la nobiltà dell’educazione umanisti- ca, che asserisce apoditticamente la sua rilevanza sociale sulla base del fatto che essa forma le coscienze critiche e storiche dei cittadini non fa altro che spostare il problema: chi ci dimostra che oggi quel genere di coscienza critica e storica è socialmente rilevan- te? sto ovviamente estremizzando, ma il punto è che non basta rivendicare il passato illustre e il prestigio perduto per contrastare il declino dei saperi umanistici. in questo senso credo che temi e metodi specifici delle digital humanities (approccio modellisti- co, uso critico dei metodi computazionali, delle tecnologie e dei dati, modelli innova- tivi di rappresentazione e disseminazione dei prodotti culturali, ricerca collaborativa, crowdsourcing, public humanities e open science) possano fornire all’intero dominio dei saperi umanistici gli strumenti e gli argomenti per una rinnovata giustificazione socia- le della loro esistenza, all’altezza delle sfide dei tempi a venire. fabio ciotti editoriale digital humanities: new approaches to research and teaching of the medieval mediterranean ( th to th centuries). (digital research session) this webinar was funded by the society for the medieval mediterranean, thanks to the “simon barton postgraduate & ecr conference prize ” awarded to nerea fernández cadenas (https://www.societymedievalmediterranean.com/simon-barton-postgraduate-conference- prize) this webinar has been designed to offer a forum in which scholars can debate and share their experiences about the difficulties and advantages of researching and teaching through digital humanities when exploring medieval mediterranean history. moderated by nerea fernández cadenas , speakers were: dr david natal villazala: lecturer in history at royal holloway. his research has focused on the social history of late antiquity, with special attention to the western, latin-speaking part of the roman empire. related to this subject is his monograph: fugiamus ergo forum’. ascetismo y poder en ambrosio de milán with university of león in . his current project analyses how a ‘universal’ late antique church was constructed despite the end of the western roman empire through gis software. this project is funded by the erc-starting grant scheme (€ , , ) and hosted at royal holloway, university of london and at the austrian centre for digital humanities (vienna). dr antonio blanco gonzález: phd viva , held academic positions at the universities of durham (uk) as a eu-funded marie sklodowska curie fellow and valladolid (spain) as a juan de la cierva post-doctoral scholar. he nowadays works as a lecturer with the university of salamanca (spain). his interests include social and landscape archaeology and has published widely on these topics in top-ranked international journals. dr evina steinová: postdoctoral researcher at the huygens ing, an institute of the dutch royal academy of arts and sciences (knaw) in amsterdam. she is the principal investigator of a three- year veni project innovating knowledge dealing with the early medieval manuscripts of the etymologiae of isidore of seville, the innovations found in these manuscripts, and the intellectual networks that served as channels for the spreading of these innovations. her phd research focused on annotation symbols used in western manuscripts in late antiquity and the early middle ages. she published a monograph on this subject, notam supere studui: the use of annotation symbols in the early middle ages, with brepols in . this webinar was recorded on / / . https://www.societymedievalmediterranean.com/simon-barton-postgraduate-conference-prize https://www.societymedievalmediterranean.com/simon-barton-postgraduate-conference-prize anarchive as technique in the media archaeology lab | building a one laptop per child mesh network research article anarchive as technique in the media archaeology lab | building a one laptop per child mesh network libi striegl & lori emerson published online: april # springer nature switzerland ag abstract the media archaeology lab (mal) at the university of colorado at boulder (u.s.a.) acts as both an archive and a site for what the authors describe as ‘anarchival’ practice- based research and research creation. ‘anarchival’ indicates research and creative activity enacted as a complement to an existing, stable archive. in researching the one laptop per child initiative, by way of a donation of xo laptops, the mal has devised a modular process which could be used by other research groups to investigate the gap between the intended use and the affordances of any given piece of technology. keywords archive.anarchive.meshnetwork.medialab.mediaarchaeology.practice- based research . research creation introduction what follows in part one is an overview of the philosophy and holdings of the media archaeology lab (mal), based at the university of colorado at boulder (u.s.a), along with a summary of its key ongoing activities. we discuss the mal in terms of conventional notions of the archive and more anarchic notions of the anarchive as developed by siegfried zielinski, university of toronto’s walkinglab, and concordia university’s senselab. part two of our article focuses exclusively on our one laptop per child (olpc) xo mesh network project and the four-part set international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * libi striegl striegl@gmail.com; libi.striegl@colorado.edu * lori emerson lori.emerson@gmail.com; lori.emerson@colorado.edu intermedia arts, writing, and performance program, university of colorado at boulder, boulder, co, usa department of english and intermedia arts, writing, and performance program, university of colorado at boulder, boulder, co, usa http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf of guidelines we have developed as a result of this project and as a way of documenting our anarchival process. though our anarchival process is a living document and thus subject to change and revision, our guidelines serve as an initial point of consideration for future case studies. by approaching the olpc xo collection anarchivally, we suggest a novel approach to assessment and to knowl- edge creation related to this specific technology, while also suggesting how these guidelines might be developed to approach other technologies. the media archaeology lab as archive and anarchive in his essay ‘anarcheology for anarchives: why do we need—especially for the arts—a complementary concept to the archive?’ siegfried zielinski, who is some- times aligned with a somewhat softer practice or a mode of thinking called media archaeology, eloquently clarifies what a classic archive is: channeling michel foucault, the archive is, in short, ‘the externalization of historical consciousness, thereby documenting a consciousness fundamentally tied to power. the utterances, objects, and artefacts produced by artists and thinkers closely involved with the arts are liable to end up in these archives. once this happens, archivists, librarians, and curators trans- form heterogeneous objects into structures to whom they are and will remain profound- ly alien’ ( ). the ‘anarchive,’ however, is, zielinski posits, ‘a complementary opposite and hence an effective alternative to archive... following a logic of plurality and wealth of variants, they are particularly suited to handle events and movements; that is, time-based sensations. just as the anarcheological sees itself first and foremost as an activity, anarchives are principally in an active mode’ ( ). while the foregoing has helped us think through how to handle experiments with still-functioning but obsolete networks in the mal, zielinski also asserts that artists and researchers like us need both archives and anarchives: archives that collect, select, preserve, restore, and sort in accordance with the logic of a (dispositive) whole, and the autonomous, resistant, continually reactivated anarchives geared toward individual needs and work methods. it is the utopia, the non-place, which in an ongoing process reshapes and reinterprets the materials from which memories are made. anarchives necessarily challenge, indeed provoke, the archive: otherwise, they would be devoid of meaning. caring for anarchives may help prevent the many idiosyncratically designed particular collections from changing into a rule-bound administrative apparatus. it may even enable us to celebrate the past as a regained present. ( ) thus, since , when we founded the media archaeology lab, the lab has become known as both an orderly and an unruly place. on the one hand, the mal’s extensive collection of still functioning media from the late nineteenth century through the twenty-first century has been carefully accessioned and catalogued, and we have also created disk images of all our valuable pieces of early digital art and literature. if you visit the lab, you will be greeted by roughly one hundred and thirty years’ worth of media to turn on, play with, open up, create with, move around, and juxtapose with other media. our oldest media objects range from a camera from , a collection of international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – early twentieth-century magic lanterns, and an edison diamond disc phonograph player from . our more recent media range from the desktops, laptops, luggables, portables, and game consoles from the mid- s through the early s. we also have a collection of printed matter and software from the s through the s. highlights of the collection include: a altair b; a desktop computer from sweden; a vectrex game console; a desktop from east germany; and a rare ‘advanced work processor’ called the canon cat computer. on the other hand, the mal changes from year to year, depending on who is in the lab and what donations have arrived at our doorstep, and thus it undoes many assumptions about what archives as well as labs should be or do. as a testament to the flexibility and open-endedness of the mal, in the last three years (coinciding with the opening of the new intermedia arts, writing, and performance phd program at cu boulder) the lab’s vitality has grown substantially because of the role of three phd students affiliated with the program. these students have been invited to develop their own unique career trajectories in and through the lab. one student, who wishes to obtain an academic position after graduation, has created a hands-on archive of scanners in conjunction with a dissertation chapter, soon to be published as an article, on the connections between the technical affordances of scanners and online digital archives. another student, who wishes to obtain a curatorship after graduation, founded an event series called malfunctions, which pairs nationally and internationally recog- nized artists with critics on topics related to the mal collection; this student also arranges residencies at the lab for these visiting artists/critics who, in turn, generate technical reports on their time spent in the mal; furthermore, as a result of her work with this event series, she has been invited to serve as a curator for an annual media arts festival at the boulder museum of contemporary art. finally, another student (and a coauthor of this essay), who wishes to pursue a career in alternative pedagogical practice outside of higher education, has started a monthly retro games night for members of the cu boulder community; she also is running monthly workshops teaching students and members of the public how to fix vintage computers and game consoles and the basics of surveillance and privacy. thus, unlike archives or labs that are structured hierarchically and driven by a single person with a single vision, the mal takes many shapes. it is, as we write above, an archive for original works of early digital art/literature and their original platforms; it is also an apparatus through which we come to understand a complex history of media and the consequences of that history; it is a site for artistic interventions, experiments, and projects; it is a flexible, fluid space where students and faculty from a range of disciplines can undertake practice-based research; it is a space where graduate students come for hands-on training in fields ranging from digital humanities, literary studies, media studies, and curatorial studies to community outreach and education. in other words, the mal is an intervention in the notions of ‘archive’ and ‘lab’ insofar as it is a place where, depending on your approach, you will find opportunities for research and teaching in myriad configurations and a host of other, less clearly defined activities made possible by a collection that is both object and tool. the mal has also evolved into a ‘real life’ and virtual community enterprise: it has an international advisory board of scholars, archivists, and entrepreneurs; faculty fellows from across the cu boulder campus; and a regularly rotating cohort of undergraduate interns, graduate research assistants, post-graduate affiliates, and international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – volunteers from the general public who help with class tours and guest visits to the lab. we also host media studies reading groups, artist residencies, an event series called malfunctions, retro game nights, and workshops on how to fix old or new devices and even on how to build mesh network, as we discuss in part two. the more mal becomes a communal enterprise, the more it also appears open and accessible to all kinds of people who themselves may have no background in programming or tinkering or making or building, but who understand that we are increasingly compelled to have some understanding of how our everyday technologies work and how we might build alternatives. the objects in the mal demonstrate how determinisms (ideological and otherwise) are built into technologies of the past, and they do this partly as a result of hands-on interactions with them and partly as a result of experience with the ways in which objects in the lab depart from our present-day expectations. they show how technological determinisms are historical, and therefore changeable, according to the values and concerns we develop. what follows is a description of one particular archival/anarchival project on which we have been working in the mal since . by presenting this project, we wish not only to describe thoroughly one possible activity one might undertake archivally/ anarchivally in the lab, but also to explore the ways in which such an activity has the potential to guide other hands-on experiments with obsolete technology. in other words, while we are suggesting a novel approach to assessment and knowledge creation related to this specific technology, we hope this can serve as a model to approach other technologies within and beyond the mal. archiving and anarchiving the mal’s collection of olpcs in early , the mal received a donation of twenty olpc xo laptops, opening up an avenue for hands-on research into and critical consideration of the history, imple- mentation, and outcomes of the olpc project. the olpc initiative was founded in by then mit media lab director nicholas negroponte with the following mission: ‘to create educational opportunities for the world’s poorest children by providing each child with a rugged, low-cost, low- power, connected laptop with content and software designed for collaborative, joyful, self-empowered learning’ [olpc n.d.-e]. the goal was to design and manufacture laptops which could be sold en masse to governments or non-governmental organi- zations involved in educational programs for $ , approximately / th the cost of the average laptop at the time. the project was originally funded by member organizations including ebay, red hat, quanta, and google [olpc n.d.-g]. as the project continued, the price never actually dropped to $ and the initiative faced backlash from one- time member intel and a dramatic drop in overall funding. thus, the olpc project was immediately polarizing. positive responses came from within the tech industry, evidenced by the support of the member organizations willing to give funding to the initiative. several governments also responded positively with a willingness to sign up for the laptop distribution program, including uruguay, rwanda, and peru. negative responses came from the tech industry and from diplomats and leaders from countries in the target market. marthe dansokho of cameroon was quoted at the world summit on the information society held in tunisia as saying, ‘what international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – is needed is clean water and real schools.’ at the same summit, mohammed diop of mali stated, ‘it is a very clever marketing tool. under the guise of non-profitability hundreds of millions of these laptops will be flogged off to our governments’ [smith]. bill gates was skeptical of the project when it was proposed at davos [olson] and lee felsenstein, in a blog post written shortly after the initiative was founded, noted that ‘by marketing the idea to governments and large corporations, the olpc project adopts a top-down structure. so far as can be seen, no studies are being done among the target user populations to verify the concepts of the hardware, software and cultural constructs’ [felsenstein]. criticism notwithstanding, beginning in , laptops were distributed in countries [olpc n.d.-a]. philosophically, the olpc project was based on an educational foundation derived from the work of seymour papert. ‘constructionism’ was name of the philosophy papert developed around principles of student-centered, active learning; papert’s phi- losophy, in turn, was based on the work of jean piaget and his notions of constructivist ontology. the active, discovery-based, unstructured learning process advocated by papert formed the central tenet of the hands-off methods central to the olpc initiative. this hands-off method drives the belief that the xo laptops, through their careful design, can be handed to children in any situation, who will simply figure out how the devices work and progress via self-guided learning without the aid of a teacher. negroponte also took inspiration from sugata mitra’s ‘hole-in-the-wall’ project, which called for learning with no or minimal interaction from an instructor [venkatraman]; mitra’s project inspired negroponte to pursue implementation plans which included possible helicopter drops of xo laptops in remote locations [olpc news]. even though the olpc project is effectively over, research on the overall effective- ness of the initiative is ongoing. most studies have so far suggested that the success of the implementation depends on whether devices are properly integrated into class- rooms, whether there is appropriate teacher education with regard to laptop use and pedagogical deployment, and whether there is a general enthusiasm around the project in the target community. thus, since these devices have what one might call ‘contextual baggage’ as part of their associated global education project, their presence in the broader mal collection has special significance as a clear illustration of the nature of top-down technological solutions to global problems. by providing opportunities for active exploration, the mal opens up all devices in its collection to a consideration of their complexity through an investigation of their affordances. as we point out above, by design the mal is both an archive housing these and other devices and a lab for experimental work and knowledge creation. it provides space for archiving but also for moving beyond and through the archive (fig. ). at first glance, the xo collection exists as a static set of objects - nothing more than a pile of plastic and electronics in bright and ostensibly friendly colors sitting in a corner of the lab. in other words, these devices fit neatly into the least generous definition of archive as a collection of things in their original state which are usually only considered in terms of their place in whatever has been deemed ‘history.’ the aforementioned is true of any object in the mal. if they are not activated, they are lifeless. furthermore, while the xo collection could be used to illustrate the laptops’ original intended use, thereby demonstrating their capacity within that sphere (for example, as an educational tool for children in underserved communities and international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – developing countries), if the collection of xo laptops is only activated in this way it runs the risk of simply replicating the outcomes for which the olpc project’s initial implementation has been criticized. the archival impulse in this scenario is necessarily backwards-looking, where any attempts to reframe or reimagine the devices are bound to be purely abstract in the sense that they would merely serve the original intentions and even ideological purpose of the olpc project. thus, the mal’s research on the xo laptops is intended to move beyond simple situational replication and into active critique. in other words, we are constantly seeking ways to activate our collection which will enable us to examine the hardware and software independently of their original associations. by reflecting on the relationship of the technology to its broader socio-political context, we are able both to provide space for critique and to create pathways for future action. while the impulse is normally to dismiss a piece of technology entirely when the broader project of which it is part is unsuccessful or problematic, we are suggesting that the alternative is to reframe the technology in terms of its real potential and address how its associated project fell short of this potential. the challenge is to accept the technology for what it can do and compare these capabilities with what the technology was designed to do. . the anarchive and the counter-archival impulse our desire to do something new with the laptops, as opposed to preserving them in place, was, again, a decidedly counter-archival one. preserving in place, in the case of the xo laptops, seemed to give implicit approval to the olpc project as a whole without offering any space to negotiate and understand the project’s successes and failures, both ideologically and technologically. instead of figuratively and metaphor- ically placing the history of these devices on a shelf, ready to be abstracted and transported into a conventional narrative, we wanted to take the opportunity to confront the project’s history by experimenting with the devices’ aforementioned real potential activated via its functionalities; for example, the xo laptop is particularly well suited to low and/or variable power consumption and mesh networking. also, by expressing the fig. a part of the mal olpc xo collection in its inactive state. the collection contains an additional computers and accessories international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – capabilities of the hardware and software within the scope of what they seem well suited for rather than within the scope of what they were intended for, we hope to find a perspective from which accurately to critique a project like olpc, which had both complex intentions and outcomes. . inspiration we want to be clear that our olpc project is not intended to be scientific and it refuses a prescriptive methodology in favor of offering guidelines which we hope can be adapted to the circumstances of any particular research group. by proposing an explicitly open-ended and modular anarchival process for the lab, we are suggesting a way of channeling the counter-archival impulse. for our purposes, we are revising university of toronto walkinglab’s definition of the anarchive as ‘an activity that resists mere documentation and interpretation in favour of affective and material processes of production, where archival “technicities” create new compositions and new nodes of research’ [walkinglab]. combining this with the notions expressed by zielinski, we are declaring that the anarchive is deliberate activity which resists collection, documentation, and abstraction in favor of affective, concrete knowledge production wherein the archive is activated in order to create new directions for critique and research. we have also adapted a description from senselab (based at concordia university in montréal, canada) of their anarchiving process as a basis from which to construct our own process of approaching the xo laptops. senselab’s definition begins with the following assertions: . the anarchive is best defined for the purposes of the immediations project as a repertory of traces of collaborative research-creation events. the traces are not inert, but are carriers of potential. they are reactivatable, and their reactivation helps trigger a new event which continues the creative process from which they came, but in a new iteration. . thus the anarchive is not documentation of a past activity. rather, it is a feed- forward mechanism for lines of creative process, under continuing variation. and the authors continue, concluding with the following: . approached anarchivally, the product of research-creation is process. the anarchive is a technique for making research-creation a process-making engine. many products are produced, but they are not the product. they are the visible indexing of the process’s repeated taking-effect: they embody its traces (thus bringing us full circle to point ). [senselab] once again, the aim of this project is to construct a range of situations and interactions with the olpc xo’s which take advantage of the particular innate qualities of the olpc xo hardware in order to imagine alternative potential uses. iterating different versions of these interactions/situations will, ideally, generate a course of action for an anarchiving process which extends beyond the olpc project. with the formation of a process which is fundamentally both international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – iterative and generative, we hope that future projects carried out in the lab will build upon this anarchiving framework. . direction the questions we have sought to answer over the course of the project are: what relationship does a technology have to its intended deployment? does everything need to be preserved in its original state? can the process of engaging with the technology be preserved without the content? and, is it critically productive to interrogate the functional reality of an object and re-deploy it for new (potentially better suited) ends? in answering these questions within the framework proposed, the goal is both to examine this particular example of technology and also to create a framework for a process-based examination of technologies which can be transferred to other devices held in similar archives. the questions we have sought to answer require both that we examine the technology itself and work outwards; they also require that we examine the history and context of the technology within the context of the project for which it was designed and deployed. as such, initially we surveyed the technical specs of the hardware and software package that make up the xo. this survey was undertaken both by examining the laptops physically and interacting with them as a user, and also by accessing various online documentation about the device. this was a necessary step in order to understand the value of the device as it stands, rather than resting on the assumptions gleaned from press coverage as well as personal and academic accounts. in addition, we researched both the olpc initiative as it was first conceived, the immediate and ongoing critical response to the project, and the outcomes thus far from its various implementations. the olpc project is at present largely defunct, but the xo laptops are still in use in several countries, including uruguay and ethiopia, and they are still being deployed in these contexts by various non-governmental entities and other organizations with an educational mission. the research we conducted has largely been through reports available publicly, though some anecdotal information has been collected as well, including the origins of the mal collection. the mal collection was donated by one of the entities referenced above, a church mission group which purchased the devices for use in ethiopia. this contextual research was necessary to understand the archive from which we were drawing, through which we were moving, and from which we were exiting. from these initial explorations, we were able to derive the first two guidelines for our anarchival process: . become familiar with the context of the archived technology and understand the intended manifestation of the technology, both of which are necessary in order to move beyond them. . understand the technology itself. conduct hands-on research in order to determine the technology’s capabilities and failings. this might take the form of using the device as a primary computer for an extended period of time. conduct hands-off research as a supplement to this process, especially if there is something one cannot learn by hands-on use. this might take the form of international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – reading manuals or other documentation. document what is discovered during hands-on versus hands-off research. . learning the technology in terms of software, the xo laptops were designed with the idea that the user not require fluency in any particular computer language and not even have to have any previous experience with computers. surprisingly, in our own informal studies conducted in and around the mal, we found the foregoing generally holds true. we gave xos to people with varying degrees of computer literacy and they were all able to navigate the basic functions of the device within a very short period of time. text documents, camera, and games are all readily findable within a few minutes of opening the laptop. in fact, we observed that the way in which all of our testers are accustomed to the standards of computer layout and interface normalized by windows and apple ecosystems is a hindrance, as these users were forced to overcome their own presuppositions about interface design in order to familiarize themselves with the laptops. however, we also noted in our users’ interactions that there were some pieces of information about the devices not easily obtained by interaction alone and this required investigation in the secondary documentation available online. because open source is one of the tenets of the olpc project, the documentation of hardware and software specifications is extensive (fig. ). in terms of hardware, the xo laptops were also designed to be easy and intuitive to navigate, durable, and connectable. the devices also require little power and have variable power consumption which is directly tied to the software activities and the hardware use. devices have a wifi module which, in conjunction with the sugar os, is tailored towards transmission. in addition, devices which are in low power mode or even powered off can still be used as transmitters, all of which makes the laptops ideal for mesh networking. fig. the sugar interface in ‘neighborhood’ mode. the small ‘person’ icons indicate nearby xo laptops with open connections. the solid circles indicate available internet connections, the solid circles with parentheses around them indicate a connection in progress, the circles with a line across them indicate internet connections requiring a password, and the concentric circles indicate mesh networking channels international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – broadly speaking, a mesh network is a dynamic, nodal networking model that exists as a complement to the traditional single-access-point network familiar to most internet users. more specifically, a mesh network is an ad hoc, node-to-node network connection whereby each node provides and accesses a signal, as opposed to a direct connection with a single signal source. the xo laptops were designed for mesh networking in order to amplify an internet signal in areas with minimal connectivity, and the devices could use a single access point (ethernet line, satellite phone connection, landline) to provide internet access to many devices. the xo laptops can also connect to one another wirelessly even when no internet signal is available to facilitate data sharing on a local network (fig. ). . active process the anarchive pertains to events rather than objects. it extends outside of the archive and exists in addition to it. thus, for our purposes, we defined a third step in our process as follows: . determine a path by which you can escape the archive using the technology you are activating. follow that path to its logical conclusion and re-trace it with variations if necessary, for as long as necessary. this escape and activation might range from playful interactions to more rigorous hardware or software hacking. the active process is the anarchive. the anarchive may have byproducts (including documentation), but these byproducts are not the anarchive. document whatever seems appropriate. save the residue of all experiments wherever appropriate based on the information gathered during our survey of the physical capabilities of the xo laptops, we are in the process of creating a cross-campus mesh network using fig. available networks list showing the olpc-mesh adhoc network available for connection on a macbook pro international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – solely these devices which act as communication nodes and transfer points. in the case of our olpc mesh network project, the event or active process is the individual instantiations of network connectivity and the interactions made possible therein are the byproducts. when we treat the xo laptops as the objects in this case, it becomes clear they are ideal facilitation devices for the networking event rather than containers for it. if a network is not initiated and a place for connectivity is not created, the devices return to the archive and are no longer participants in the anarchival process. they can, however, always be reengaged for new instantiations of the network. we have so far formed active networks in both formal and informal sessions. each network activation builds upon previous activations. thus, while our first session involved two devices and two individuals working simultaneously in a shared text document, by the fifth session, the laptops had been ‘abandoned’ in a building with their network active so that users would interact with the network as they encountered it. every instance of the network has involved a shared text document because this has proven the best method for provoking and promoting interactions that will leave evidence of the network’s existence. however, just as the nature of the network is ephemeral and ad-hoc, the evidence of the network is fleeting. if it is not preserved at regular intervals during the event, it is possible for a participant to erase all traces of their participation or all traces of any participation. in this case, the anarchive carries out its function as an external energetic force around the archive, escaping the function of the archive as a located, documented, and catalogued entity. in other words, the counter-archival impulse expressed earlier is continued through these anarchival activities, wherein preservation neither is the goal nor is desirable. given our research thus far, we have decided that future network events should be broader and should take place outside rather than inside various campus buildings. exploiting the maximum range of the xo’s wireless unit and taking advantage of the unit’s ruggedness, we plan to conduct two network events, one involving facilitators guiding interactions with the network and one involving laptops that are simply left for passersby to investigate. these two modes of interaction are based directly upon the contextual research on the intended implementation of the laptops and the studies on post-implementation success of the project. from our plans for these next network activations, we have devised a final step for our anarchiving process: . resolve the archive and the anarchive, if possible. use the results of the events to address the context of the archive. this might take the form of repeating the activities with the original intended user base for the technology we have not yet reached the point of resolving the archive and the anarchive. in spite of this, the anarchival process is in constant conversation with the archive and with the contextual information surrounding the physical manifestation of the archive. without consideration of the history held within the archive, the next path for anarchival activity would not be so clear. conclusions our research into the olpc remains incomplete, as our anarchival activity around the olpc mesh network project is ongoing. though our four-step anarchival process is a international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – living document and as such is subject to change and revision, our guidelines serve as an initial point of consideration for future case studies. the anarchival process present- ed serves as an extension of the archival function served by the media archaeology lab and a supplementary activity which enlivens the archive as it stands. by ap- proaching the olpc xo collection anarchivally, we are suggesting a novel approach to assessment and knowledge creation related to this specific technology. we are also developing a model for approaching other technologies within or beyond the mal. references bender, w. 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(winthrop-young, g., trans.). journal of contemporary archaeology, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /jca.v i . . international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – http://www.fonly.typepad.com/fonlyblog/ / /problems_with_t.html https://doi.org/ . /tic-sth. . https://doi.org/ . /tic-sth. . http://mediaarchaeologylab.com http://laptop.org http://laptop.org/about/countries http://laptop.org/en/laptop/index.shtml http://laptop.org/en/laptop/hardware/specs.shtml http://laptop.org/en/vision/mission/index.shtml http://laptop.org/en/vision/index.shtml http://laptop.org/en/vision/project/index.shtml http://laptop.org/en/vision/mission/faq.shtml https://www.forbes.com/ / / /gates-laptop-microsoft-cx_po_ autofacescan .html# ce e https://www.forbes.com/ / / /gates-laptop-microsoft-cx_po_ autofacescan .html# ce e http://senselab.ca/wp /immediations/anarchiving/ http://senselab.ca/wp /immediations/anarchiving/ http://edition.cnn.com/ /world/africa/ / /laptop/ http://edition.cnn.com/ /world/africa/ / /laptop/ https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg . -i-want-to-give-poor-children-computers-and-walk-away https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg . -i-want-to-give-poor-children-computers-and-walk-away http://www.olpcnews.com/implementation/plan/implementation_miracle.html http://www.olpcnews.com/implementation/plan/implementation_miracle.html https://walkinglab.org/portfolio/walking-anarchive/ https://doi.org/ . /jca.v i . anarchive as technique in the media archaeology lab | building a one laptop per child mesh network abstract introduction the media archaeology lab as archive and anarchive archiving and anarchiving the mal’s collection of olpcs the anarchive and the counter-archival impulse inspiration direction learning the technology active process conclusions references barker, t. ( ) experiments with time: the technical image in media art and the digital humanities. visual communication, ( ), pp. - . there may be differences between this version and the published version. you are advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite from it. http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / deposited on: october enlighten – research publications by members of the university of glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ / http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/ experiments with time: the technical image in video art, new media and the digital humanities tim barker the university of glasgow the experimental is pervasive throughout culture, and, for many of us, life is increasingly an experimental process, in which to a lesser or greater extent we need to reinvent our bodies, ourselves and our community – culture is the laboratory in which these experiments take place and our media are some of the principle tools we use. charlie gere ‘research as art’, p. in mark hansen and ben rubin’s moveable type ( ) small vacuum- fluorescent tubes are assembled in two linear displays in the lobby of the new york times. the work gathers live data feeds from the upstairs offices, along with visitor comments taken from the times’ website and historical data drawn from their year archive and uses natural language processing routines to combine these into linguistic patterns. hansen and rubin’s installation, designed to provide a portrait of the history of the company and its daily news gathering and generating routines, re- assembles and dramatises archival and ‘real-time’ data based on a set of technical protocols. it is a way of making public the socially composed memory of an institution, letting a computer program mediate the archive and re-present it in meaningful and often poetic combinations. moveable type is based on hansen and rubin’s previous work listening post, an experimental investigation into the ‘chatter’ of early s internet culture. listening post ( ) (fig. ), now on permanent exhibition at the london science centre, uses similar small vacuum-fluorescent tubes to display text, scraped in real time from open access social media sites and vocalised by a computer synthesised voice. again, the use of natural language processing routines allows listening post to parse this ‘real-time’ data and trigger it based on linguistic patterns (hansen and rubin, ). the first movement invokes sentences that begin with the words ‘i am...’, giving audiences the opportunity to listen to pieces of online communication, which are removed from their usual context and put in new relations with other entries. other movements truncate the text feeds, reducing them to single words or short phrases that overlap one another and seem to come too quickly to be understood. in both installations words and sentences cascade over the screens in organised and complex patterns and in both there is a layering and overlapping of text and voice. institution, archive, technology and individual are heard at once. the works are, as lucy bullivant ( : ) points out, a visual and sonic response to the content, magnitude and immediacy of virtual communication. they are a way of making data aesthetic – in that they re-animate the archive by introducing a layer of data management software, combined with a scripting of sounds and images designed to make the unfolding relationships between data affectively felt in the installation space. both works offer a way to address questions of social memory, archives, historical time, data management and online communication in an aesthetic experiment. by creatively organising an archive of social media data, they experimentally and experientially grapple with questions to do with the material technologies of memory and the role of data storage and management in re-imagining concepts of linear time. through their content, they provide a way to approach time-based concepts via images. but they also offer a way to think about time through their technical architecture. using these works as a starting point and inspired by a tradition of the materially-oriented philosophy of media, in this paper i am interested in exploring how the technically produced images of video art, new media and the digital humanities produce new ways to think about the production of time in contemporary media culture. the works that i explore here provide the opportunity to work concepts of time through both percepts and affects, as what is seen and what is felt by a viewer. but they also provide the opportunity to generate new experiences of and ideas about time through levels of technology. in the wake of media philosophers such as wolfgang ernst and vilém flusser, in this paper i want to explore the relationship between the image, its interaction with a viewer and the technological processes, at the level of hardware and programming, that both produced it and are vicariously experienced through it. my hope is that, as well as contributing to the media philosophy of the technical image, this will add to discussion that formalise image-making practice as research (scrivener, and ; candy, ; nelson, ) by proposing a type of practice in the arts and humanities that could be described as a technically mediated mode of experimental inquiry. this paper is part of a larger research project on experimental methods in culture and in it i begin to identify a new way to conceptualise the term ‘experiment’ in the arts and humanities. generally speaking, the experiment is a mode of inquiry that manipulates by technical means the condition of a system under observation in order to further explore the conditions of this system. in other words, an experiment creates new phenomena in order to better understand the pre-experimental world (hacking, : ). in science, an experimental researcher usually applies an independent variable to a dependent variable and asks what are the effects of x (the independent variable) on y (the dependent variable)? through this process the experimental scientist aims to create an effect that tells us something about the condition of the dependent variable. in experimental art the artist likewise applies an independent variable to a system. they apply a piece of media technology and explore how the system changes in relation to this intervention. these of course are not experiments ‘on’ viewers. but rather experiments that provide viewers with the opportunity to think with and through technology and images. the experimental artist experimentally applies an apparatus that takes signal from the world and re-organizes it, intervening in the events of the world to show us something new about these events. it is though this experimental process – a special case of signal processing – that the image and the technical processes by which it actualises provide the conditions for the testing – rather than the illustration or representation – of concepts. experiments in the arts and humanities, much like experiments in science, amount to a process where, based on a set of technical parameters, the events of the world unfold in new settings that are designed by the artist. the processes involved in both listening post and moveable type, as indicative of the kinds of projects that i explore in what follows, constitute an experimental testing of online relationships in that they apply software and hardware to create scenarios that have no analogue in the pre-experimental world, but that nevertheless tell us something novel in their portrait of the online communication that takes place in this pre-experimental world. my use of the term ‘testing’, like the use of the term in the popper’s ( / ) philosophy of the experiment, is not meant to connote an intention to prove or disprove a theory. describing experiments as a ‘testing’ of concepts instead refers to the way experiments are designed to explore the strength of a theory in a given experimental setting. experimental artists, like scientists, apply a method and an apparatus to test problems (though they of course do not always look for solutions); they experimentally apply technology and artistic technique and, much like experimental scientists, explore a problem by using an apparatus to create technical images of the world. after framing the experiment as a cultural process involving the technical manipulation of a system, i then illustrate some earlier preconditions for contemporary experiments in the arts and humanities using examples that, it must be said, would already in the conventional vernacular of art history be considered as ‘experimental art’. this includes richard serra’s video piece boomerang ( ) and michael naimark’s projection environment displacements ( ), which could be gathered together under the often used, but somewhat general term ‘experimental’ in order to distinguish them from mainstream artistic practice. by focussing on an exploration of the experiment of experimental art, i suggest that these works are not only experimental in that they somehow represent an ‘underground’ or ‘alternative’ set of practices but more precisely because they can be used to identify a type of creative practice that can be considered as experimental in its methods and approaches to creative inquiry. from this rethinking of the experiment in experimental art, i suggest that the approach of artists such as serra, naimark and hansen and rubin has been re-iterated in more recent developments in data visualisation and digital humanities scholarship, with a tradition of experiments with media pre-supposing contemporary work in the digital humanities. if experimentalism is the general topic of this paper, my more particular interest is in the way artists have explored concepts of time through the application of media technology. questions regarding technology and the production of temporality have become an increasing concern for cultural theorists. databases, gaming, social media and networked communication have provided fertile ground for contemporary memory theorists (van dijk, ; guarde-hansen, hoskins and reading, ). philosophers, film theorists and art historians have likewise paid a great deal of attention to the way that time has been generated by images, both digital and analogue (deleuze, / ; lee, ; groom, ). testing these cultural observations, experimental artists and humanities scholars, using a different set of methods to the cultural theorist, have up-scaled these scenarios. they have used experimental methods and created new devices in which they explore the way that interactive databases, networked communication, film and computer simulations produce the time of contemporary media culture. an example of this is hansen and rubin’s work, where they build a new data management program to create scenarios that test the multi-temporality of digital culture, repurposing natural language processing software to generate a new image of the online organisation of data. where cultural theorists work concepts through language, the experimental artist explores concepts through technical images. throughout the paper my use of the term ‘image’ is not intended to signify, in the usual sense, a representation or illustration of an idea. but rather, following flusser it is used to refer to an ‘image that means ideas’ (jongen, : ). flusser states that “since photography was invented, it is possible to philosophize not only in the medium of words, but also in that of photographs. the reason is that the gesture of photographing is a gesture of seeing, and so engages in what the antique thinkers called ‘theoria’, producing a picture that these thinkers called an ‘idea’” (flusser, : ). the condition that flusser points to is one where the thinking processes afforded by the structural qualities of written language have been replaced by the thinking processes afforded by the structural qualities of technical images, produced first by photography and now by electronic communication. it is not the content of technical images that particularly concerns flusser, but the gestures and organisational systems invested within the image, that make up its program. after flusser, the image can be understood to provide the conditions for the emergence of concepts, allowing a ‘picturing of thoughts’, subject to the programmed technical apparatus that produces images. throughout this paper i use flusser’s concept of the technical image first developed in his philosophy of photography and designed to explain the image produced by the signal processing routines of a technological apparatus (flusser, : ). for flusser, technical apparatuses generate images automatically. rather than an artist directing the image making process, these apparatuses function based on a set of programmatic signal processing routines. the artist now sets the conditions for these routines to play out. like traditional images, the technical image presents artistic content. but, it also points back to the functioning and protocols of the technology that produced it. it’s character is not a product of direct manipulation by an artist, but instead generated by technical protocols and processing routines. and it is in this sense that the term ‘image’ is designed to signify not a top-down and artistically ‘intended’ representation, but rather a more bottom-up process of providing a set of technico-aesthetic conditions for the playing out of experiments. technical tests hansen and rubin’s listening post can be understood as an experiment designed to test the patterns emergent when thousands of simultaneous online conversations are subject to computational data analysis (hansen and rubin, ). moveable type could likewise be seen as an experimental testing of the organizational memory of the new york times, putting its archive into new combinations and indicating how meaningful connections can be formed between contemporary and apparently out-of- date text feeds. both works are a scaling up of the contemporary use of search engines to organise data: they intervene in computer culture by amplifying the everyday search-retrieve functions and the organisation of data associated with computer use. they demonstrate the cultural implications of organising the world based on mathematical principles and more specifically demonstrate in an experimental setting the types of time generated by such systems. hansen and rubin program the machine and design the installation, but it is the automatic function of the program, as it goes through its routines and processes the text feeds based on mathematical rules, which creatively re-images the temporality of electronic communication. both works produce – in the sense that they demarcate off – images of the world, putting text feeds in new experimental relations, so that they can be (re-)thought in that they are (re-)imaged and (re-)organized by mathematical principles. insert figure here figure mark hansen and ben rubin, listening post (installation detail), , london science centre on the level of surface content, the audio-visual images of the installation provides an opportunity for viewers to experience vicariously (but experience nonetheless) the workings of a computational system. the audio-visual images of hansen and rubin’s projects, as the effects of hardware and software processes, re-image networked relationships across different scales of time. listening post pulls together text feeds that discuss identity, whether this be social, sexual, political, age, class or national, and movable type puts organizational memory in contact with contemporary news gathering routines in order to generate a picture of the global and multi-temporal condition of networked communication, which ostensibly brings together events separated by distances of both space and time. listening post and moveable type through their content speak to the multi-temporal condition of communication on a conceptual level. they provide the condition for viewers to experience social media in a new way. but the material technical processes that occur – here in an artwork but that can also be seen to operate in a much wider digital culture – also generate temporality at the level of both the hardware and the software of the technological image making system. in both works the computer treats the text feeds as strings, an array of bits of information that are organised by mathematical rules. the printed word that once produced meaning in linear time, as it linked up with other words, phrases and sentences immediately before and after, is now made to operate in a multi-temporal structure based on relationships between data generated by algorithms. as shintaro miyazaki ( ) points out, a computer’s operation “is the result of an inter-play, orchestration and synthesis of abstract algorithmic and calculable organisational concepts, with rhythmic real-world signals, which have measurable physical properties.” real world events are feed into the computer as signal, cut up, delayed and re-arranged. it is at this level that the technical architecture of artworks – the things that make them work – also provides a mode of experimenting with and experiencing time and it is this quality of the computer, which amounts to a continual archiving and making past of the rhythms of ‘real time’, that hansen and rubin experimentally demonstrate in moveable type and listening post. the installations not only produce new senses of space through the use of images and sounds, but, perhaps more interestingly, use the computer to produce new senses of temporalities. an algorithm is developed for both listening post and moveable type that initiates a series of computational processes and which result in patterns of words being ‘recognised’ and triggered by the machine. these electronic processes involve various levels of delay, as signal is taken from the internet, queued, then stored in the computer’s memory to be triggered as green text on one of the led screens. it is seemingly true that the works bring archival data into contact with the present (eleey, ). but they do so by subjecting the present to multiple layers of delay. the present – the keys typed by new york times employees and social media users alike – is continually made past, continually archived, as it is always delayed in the circuits of hansen and rubin’s computational machines. the types of time produced by these works speak to the continual entropy of the present when put in contact with digital machines, which archive and make ‘real-time’ past. understood this way, through what ernst ( ) calls ‘time-critical’ media, it is not that the past is made present. instead the present is continuously made past by the computer. the present is continually delayed, given the same material existence as the past, so that it can become signal for the computer that is indistinguishable from the signal that it receives from the archived data. hansen and rubin’s experiment, by scaling-up the computational ordering of data also scale-up the production of time in contemporary culture; at the centre of the work is the delayed and relational organisation of time in contemporary media culture. hansen and rubin have intervened in the system of computer culture, amplifying one of its features, in such a way that allows viewers to experience new elements of the operation of the system. technical images in experimental art, the image and its technological architecture amounts to a setting up of an experiment. the camera and the projector become tools for the experiment as, much like the telescope, the microscope, and computer simulations, they become an apparatus for experiencing the world as an image. both art and science produce technical images of the world in equal measure, as the application of mathematical programs, developments in optics and scientific methods produce one image of the world and the experimental use of cameras, computer software and data visualisation in artworks produces another. earlier i described the experimental artist as a figure that tests aesthetic and cultural problems. to add to this definition we could say that an experimental artist is a figure that, like hansen and rubin, tests these problems by providing the conditions for the emergence of technical images. in the early modern world the experiment was described as a manipulation of naturally occurring events in order to observe the outcomes. the experiement was treated as a matter of fact. “experimental results were just there to be described, brute facts, so to say. observations were often mentioned in the same breath as experiments” (harré, : ). but within this history, instruments always played some role: experimental observation was always active and invasive. they produced, following davis baird ( ), a type of ‘thing-knowledge’, or what gaston bachelard has called a ‘phenomeno-technique’ (bachelard in schuster and watchirs, : ), a type of technical materialism where the phenomena of science are not discovered but made. for these thinkers knowledge is “threaded through the machinic field of science” (pickering, : ), and always indebted to the material properties of this mechanism. “when a science comes into being […] an artificial technical realm comes into being in which phenomena are literally manufactured under the joint guidance of the system of mathematized concepts and the instruments and experimental hardware in which those concepts have been realized” (schuster and watchirs, : ). as hacking states, most of the phenomena of modern physics are manufactured. the phenomena about the species – say the one that a pride of lions hunt by having the male roar and sit at home base while the females chase after and kill scared gazelle – are anecdotes. but the phenomena of physics – the faraday effect, the hall effect, the josephson effect – are the keys that unlock the universe. people made the keys – and perhaps the locks in which they turn (hacking, : ). the experiment is then, for hacking, a process of manipulating the conditions of the world under observation and producing phenomena to test out theories of this world. furthermore, it is, as gere ( ) using latour ( ) points out, no longer a method of inquiry that is the sole purview of science. it takes place well outside the scientific lab, in culture, with mass media. wolfgang ernst has recently pointed out that almost all our mass media were once used as analytical or storage devices for experiments. “the phonograph, kinematograph, radio and electronic television were first developed for experimental research [...]. the well known television tube was developed out of a measuring device, ferdinand braun’s electronic oscilloscope, just as edison’s phonograph was preceded by léon scott’s phonautograph, created to register the frequencies of the human voice for analytic purposes” (ernst, : ). the early cinematic experiments of muybridge, marey and the later studies of gheorghe marinescu, developed recording, storage and transmission media that isolated and made it possible to analyse movements as frozen moments in time. as we use these devices we enact what ernst calls a process of ‘reverse experimentation’. the computer, the radio, the television and the cinema – what we now have come to know as synthetic media – can be returned to their analytical roots and applied by artists, users and audiences in, to again borrow ernst’s term, “time-critical” experiments. michael naimark, one of the pioneers of media art, creates such time-critical experiments in his work displacements ( / ). he experimentally tests the time-based qualities of film by setting up situations that generate technical images and reformulate the traditional conventions of cinema. in displacement, the final piece from a series of works that explored what he terms ‘relief projection’ (naimark, : ) – a technique where recorded footage is projected onto similar shaped objects – a mm camera on a turntable is panned around a room to record relatively everyday family activities. the actors then leave the room and naimark coats the entire room and the objects within it in white paint, effectively turning the three dimensional room into a projection screen (naimark, : ). he then replaces the camera on the turntable with a projector, which now follows the camera’s original movements. the walls, the television, framed paintings, the sofa, the fruit bowl, bottles, plates, cups, everything, now become the white screen upon which the original footage is projected, as though a moving beam from a flashlight (naimark, : ). the concrete whitewashed object, as an image in the present, and the projected image, as an image of the past preserved via recording techniques, are thus tensioned in this work, as the past is projected on top of the present. actors move around the room, sitting on the ‘real’ sofa, adjusting the ‘real’ picture frame, moving the ‘real’ objects. in these moments the appearance of objects as both ‘hard’ ontological facts and ‘softer’ cinematic images is based on both their existence as a material whitewashed surface and their existence as a projected image, called forth from the storage medium of film. it is through this, the mixed cinematic space of naimark’s work, that he gives us not a representation of an external reality but gives us a new ‘displaced’ way to organise and analyse space and time. rather than turning the objects of the world into a film, naimark turns film into objects. displacements reformulates the conditions of cinema by presenting a space where projected images experimentally augment hard matter. but displacements, like hansen and rubin’s installations, is not simply about producing new experiences of space through the composition of images. instead, what is at stake in this work is the experimental demonstration of the technical conditions of images that produce new senses of time. naimark develops a new cinematographic technique to analyse time and movement, and through this his cinematic apparatus signals a return and a reformulation of cinema’s analytical roots. muybridge, marey and marinescu developed time-critical apparatuses to study movement. naimark likewise conducts an experiment with time by producing new images of movement. however, rather than freezing time in the same way as the early experiments with photography and movement, naimark’s experiment, operating within a vastly different media culture, duplicates time. both the earlier chronophotography projects and naimark’s experiment demonstrate how new media can be applied to create new senses of movement and time. marey’s chronophotographic gun and muybridge’s array of cameras provides new ways to study movement in an analytical context. similarly naimark’s experiment provides a new way to experience time as multiple in an artistic context. both sets of experiments are ‘time-critical’ in ernst’s sense as they are critical of time. both develop apparatuses to analyse the relationships of movement to different mediations of time. insert figure here figure michael naimark, displacements (still), / , san francisco museum of modern art, photograph scott fisher as has been recognised in the philosophy of science since hacking’s ( ) work on experimentation, the experimental researcher does not observe the bare facts of nature but rather ‘twists the lion’s tail’ to “manipulate our world in order to know its secrets” (hacking in shadish, cook, campbell, : ). through the creation of new scenarios, the experiment amounts to a “desire to uncover the new through a treatment and disruption of the real” (brown, : ). it is in this sense that naimark’s work is experimental in that it ‘uncovers the new’ by exploring the temporality generated when the technical image of a stored past is put in contact with a present object. displacement amounts to a technico-aesthetic intervention in, and manipulation of, the usual experience of objects and time to show us something new about the experience and existence of objects in time. the work disrupts the real, as steve brown puts it, by bringing new tools and methods of cinematic projection to bear on our experience of the world and, like hansen and rubin’s work scaling-up the multi-temporalities generated in contemporary media culture. technical interventions one of the major changes signalled by the development of the experimental devices in the scientific revolution of the th century was to the relationship between reason, experience and observation. shadish, cook, and campbell ( ) point out that “before the th century, appeals to experience were usually based on passive observation of ongoing systems rather than on observations of what happens after a system was deliberately changed. after the scientific revolution in the th century the word experiment came to connote taking a deliberate action followed by systematic observation of what occurred afterward” (shadish, cook and campbell, : ). the experiment came to stand for “a study in which an intervention is deliberately introduced in order to observe its effects” (shadish, cook and campbell, : ). as rom harré points out, “an experiment is the manipulation of an apparatus, which is an arrangement of material stuff integrated into the material world in a number of ways” (harré, : ). with the aid of apparatuses, experiments can make processes occur that have no analogue in the pre-experimental world, but that nonetheless provide new visions of the way the world looked before the experimental intervention. the experimental conditions set up by the automatic movement and organisation of images, as in hansen and rubin’s work, naimark’s project and the examples to follow, can be understood to ‘twist the lions tail’, precisely in this way, by manipulating a factor in our experience of the world. as mentioned earlier, whether ad hoc or methodical, an experiment tests causal relations by intervening and changing the existing system. hansen and rubin have disrupted the closed system of online social media by adding a data mining program that selects and cuts up texts, a computer program with natural language processing routines that assembles the text into patterns and an installation set-up that presents these texts as words, music and computer simulated voices. naimark has likewise manipulated the cinematic, literally turning projected images on themselves and experimentally studying the temporality of cinematic mediation. these types of experiments, by adding difference to a system, go about manipulating the world in order to give us an image of the world. the intervention of displacements experimentally demonstrates how cinema can organise time by re-imaging the past/present relationship. in their experimental application of technology, both naimark’s and hansen and rubin’s projects, by creating new processes and technical images of the world, give us a heightened sense of the temporality generated by popular media technology. they expand on the traditional qualities of data organisation, in the case of hansen and rubin, and the cinematic, in the case of naimark, scaling-up these media forms, to show us something about the cultural implications of signal processing and storage. in both science and in art experimental probing intervenes in the conditions of the real. it is a process that disrupts the goings on in the world, that manipulates and cleaves open a closed system so as to generate new potentials for experience, observation and knowledge. “experiments make a contribution when they simply probe whether an intervention-as-implemented makes a marginal improvement beyond other background variability” (shadish, cook and campbell, : ). an intervention makes a marginal improvement if it, in a world full of other variables, can be seen to indicate how things might change in relation to one another. hansen and rubin’s moveable type and naimark’s displacement do this by indicating how media can generate experiences of time and the relationships between past and present. to experimentally demonstrate this, in both works, new media systems were designed that re-purposed existing technology to heighten the media’s time-critical qualities. a similar time-critical experiment with media technology has been developed by richard serra in his video piece boomerang. in boomerang, a collaboration with the performance artist nancy holt, serra experimentally applies an audio system that delays holt’s voice and records the performer-machine interaction on video. again, like the experiments of muybridge, marey and marinescu, serra’s video piece is concerned with exploring how media can reformulate events in time. both the experiments in chronophotography and boomerang experimentally apply a storage medium in order to generate new ways to experience and analyse processes in time. in boomerang serra films holt as she describes the experience of hearing her own voice delayed by less than a second. in the piece holt, wearing headphones that playback microphone signal from a tape machine, tells us, in a slow, measured and seemingly artificial way, that she has the experience of “words spilling out of my head and then turning into my ear” and that “the words coming back seem slow, they don’t seem to have the same forcefulness.” the experimental setting of this work is designed to test the function of media in producing performances, thoughts and actions and the manner in which, as holt puts it, levels of delay and mediation cause her to have trouble making connections between thoughts and between moments in time. muyebridge, marey and marinescu developed camera-based systems that processed and stored light in order to freeze and study movement. similarly concerned with using media to create a new condition to observe and analyse behaviour, serra applies a system that processes and stores sound to show us something about the behaviours triggered by television. where the experiments with chronophotography produced an image of time as a series of movements, the delay of serra’s work produces an image of time as multi-temporal, as ‘real time’ is continually disrupted by moments from the past. serra’s work is different, however, from the experiments with chronophotography, as well as naimark’s and hansen and rubin’s work, in that it amounts to an experiment on a human subject. what we see in this work, like the famous photographic records of the experiments conducted by duchenne de boulogne in the mid th century, is serra applying an instrument to a subject in order study the outcome. duchenne applied electrodes to trigger facial expressions which supposedly related directly to emotional states. serra likewise applies electronic media to organise holt’s performance and drastically up-scales the disorientation that serra sees in a contemporaneous television culture. in the tradition of nam june paik and wolf vostell, serra uses the electronic reproduction of body and voice to criticise the same electronic reproductions carried out by television. the condition for the technical image is particularly evident in this piece when a logo referencing broadcast television appears and then when a blue screen with the text audio trouble interrupts the performance as serra reloads the tape machine. this immediately demonstrates how holt’s performance is dependent on and organised by the functioning and requirements of the medium. the performance cannot go on until the medium can record it. the experiments that i have looked at so far all involve the re-programming of machines, whether tape machines, film projection or data management software. serra’s headphones co-create holt’s performance, naimark’s recording and projection system creates the tension between past and present in his work, and hansen and rubin’s algorithm, and the very small delays caused as signal moves through transducers, demonstrates how temporality is produced as relational rather than sequential in computer culture. technology is used in these experiments to create an intervention in the world, to introduce difference to a system and study its effects. philosophers of science such as pickering ( ) and indeed latour ( ) have repeatedly shown that humans do not live in the bare hard facts of nature but rather in the spaces cleaved open by experimental processes, and it is in these processes that, in both art and science, images and technology have intervened in, and generated, visions of the world. peter sloterdijk understands this particularly well, telling us that “humans have never lived in a direct relationship with ‘nature,’ and their cultures have certainly never set foot in the realm of what we call the bare facts; their existence has always been exclusively in the breathed, divided, torn open and restored spaces.” (sloterdijk, / : ). humans have never lived amongst the stable and definite objects of the world represented by positivism in science, but always in that which is experimentally produced through the invention of the laboratory, the experimental intervention of technology and the composition of world images. and it is this that the experiment of experimental art achieves: it shows us technical images of the world that up-scale the functioning of technology in the world. it does not explore the ‘bare facts’ of the world, but produces new spaces and new times in which to come to think about our condition of living amongst technology in the world. from the previous three sections of this paper, ‘technical tests’, ‘technical images’ and ‘technical interventions’, we now have three definitions of the experimental artist, each of which is a function of the others: an experimental artist is a figure that ) tests aesthetic and cultural problems by ) providing the conditions for the emergence of technical images that ) intervene in and disrupt the sequence of events in the real world in order to gain a new perspective on these events. experiments in the digital humanities the experimental techniques applied in artworks like those by hansen and rubin, serra and naimark have recently re-emerged in a different disciplinary setting that likewise uses the technical image to create new experiences of time. the digital humanities were once primarily about digitising documents and artefacts. but, contemporary digital humanities scholarship is now primarily focussed on introducing a layer of computational organisation to the study of human culture. this new organisational system is applied to cultural data to indicate qualities and relationships that would otherwise have gone unnoticed, either because realising them using conventional methods is too difficult or too time consuming. digital humanities scholars, like the video and media artists discussed above, experimentally apply computer technology. like serra’s delay, naimark’s experimental projection and hansen and rubin’s natural language processing software, researchers in the digital humanities introduce difference into the world in the form of a technological re- ordering of events and study the outcomes. an example of this is work conducted as part of the stanford university spatial history project, which uses data visualisation techniques and global information systems (gis) to resituate historical data into geographic space. one part of this research programme is a project titled mapping the republic of letters, where data visualisation software is used to spatially map the circulation of , letters between , correspondents in what was known as the enlightenment’s republic of letters, a network of intellectuals that communicated across europe via written letters (chang et. al. ). the historical time of events is presented in this project as a geographic space where multiple times are accessed based on a set of their relations in space. users of the system are able to compose a history of events onto geographic space and uncover relationships by experimenting within the program. the rendering of maps made possible by the application of gis in this humanities project also imposes a particular spatial and multi-temporal rendering of time, which can generate new patterns in the data. mapping the republic of letters reveals new information about communication between scholars, such as revealing the patterns of voltaire’s correspondence, which number over , letters and reveal his travel patterns around europe, his links with other european and british intellectuals, along with uncovering several second degree connections with benjamin franklin (coleman, ). the project provides a spatial visualisation of these connections that allows researchers to immediately see patterns in the data as the computer organises them on a map of geographic space. what these experiments with time also allow us to see, as part of a larger move toward spatial history, is the patterns and insights emergent when multiple events from the past overlay one another in a multi-temporal present. like hansen and rubin’s, serra’s and naimark’s work, the digital humanities experiments with what, after flusser, we might now term technical images of time. these are images that are inextricable to the technology that produced them and that generate new experiences of time through both aesthetic and technical means. the technical image produced in media art and the digital humanities explored here all generate multi-temporal images that provides viewers with new ways to experience the relationships between events in time, whether this be letters sent throughout voltaire’s life, the much tighter time differences brought together by serra, who mingles the input signal from a microphone and the output from a tape machine, the recorded footage and actual objects brought together by naimark or the ‘real-time’ and archived text feeds brought together by hansen and rubin’s work. another example of the larger trajectory in the digital humanities concerning the visualisation of ‘big data’ is a recent experimental project conducted by lev manovich and the interdisciplinary team at uc san diego’s software studies initiative. running what manovich terms ‘cultural analytics’, software designers develop a programme to generate and visualise patterns in large data sets (see manovich and douglass, and manovich, ). they start with the question: “how can we explore patterns and relations between sets of photographs, designs or video that may number in the hundreds of thousands, millions or billions?” (manovich, : ). manovich’s answer is to experimentally apply computational tools to organise images and re-imagine the changing world as a complex spatial visualisation. events that once occurred in time are now organised in space. in the project one million manga pages , , pages from manga comics were uploaded and aesthetic patterns between the pages visualised based on the numerical qualities that the computer assigns to image properties (manovich, : ). in this project the computer produced relationships that would otherwise go unnoticed by suggesting the space of variation between pages and showing how the manga ‘style’ moves through these variations. rather than a standard search-retrieve system, the software allows a researcher to see the topological space of data, which can connect to and change shapes depending on relational criteria entered into the computer. the move from search to visualisation in the digital humanities, here illustrated in manovich’s recent projects and stanford’s spatial history projects, signals a new way for a researcher to approach data. previously the researcher was required to come to the often opaque space of the archive with a preconceived idea of what it is they were looking for: “search assumes that you want to find a needle in a haystack of information. it does not allow you to see the shape of the haystack” (manovich, ). this is the reason why i have described the experiment in digital art and humanities projects as an aesthetic and technical exploration of ideas. the material processes, fidelity and indeed the programming of the technology – if it is to be invested in the development of research and the conditioning of research questions – is fundamental to the emergent properties of data and the findings of the research, providing the structure necessary to visualise complex relationships between a world of images. conclusion this paper has begun to unfold a possible definition of the experimental researcher in the arts and humanities, with three interlinked components: they ) test aesthetic and cultural problems by ) providing the conditions for the emergence of technical images that ) intervene in and disrupt the events of the real world in order to gain a new perspective on these events. to experiment, following the description of the scientific method developed in the th century – whether one sticks to its reformulation set out in the falsification approach developed by popper ( / ), kuhn’s ( / ) conception of the theory ladenness of scientists, or the more ‘anarchistic’ approach set out by feyerabend ( / ) – a researcher develops a theory via observations and then tests these observations through a set of interventions in the real. for hansen and rubin these experimental interventions involve designing an aesthetic system of audio-visual images and a technological system based on a computer program that searches a dataset for relational phrases. for the researchers at stanford this involves working with computer scientists to develop data organisation techniques using gis to cluster a dataset of communication in the th and th century, based on spatial meta-data, such as where the content originated, the sender and recipient of letters. for all of the artists and researchers discussed in this paper their experimental practice involves applying a technico- aesthetic system that re-organises signal picked up from what flusser describes as the ‘swarm of particles and quanta’ that now constitute the world (flusser, / : ). based on the programming of an apparatus, the experiment, the intervention in the real, organises the particles of the universe and in doing so generates technical images of time. as discussed throughout the paper, this technical organisation of signal is based on something that is already going on in contemporary media culture. the experimental artists and humanists discussed use cinematic equipment, data organisation software, audio equipment and gis to scale-up the type of time already being produced in everyday computer culture but that quite often, without these experimental interventions, goes unnoticed. they provide the condition for the emergence of technical images, as ways of understanding the world through the automatic organisation of signal. acknowledgements many thanks to claudia gehrig for all her help while i was at the zkm archive. many thanks also to my friend and colleague karen lury for her feedback on an early draft of this essay. funding this work was supported by a grant from the carnegie trust for the universities of scotland. references baird d ( ) thing-knowledge: outline of a materialist theory of knowledge in: radder h (ed) the philosophy of scientific experimentation. pittsburgh: university of pittsburgh press, pp. - . brown s ( ) experiment: abstract experimentalism. in: lury c and wakefield n (eds) inventive methods: the happening of the social. london and new york: routledge, pp. - . bullivant l ( ) the listening post. architectural design ( ): - . candy l ( ) practice based research: a guide. report from creativity and cognition studios, university of technology, sydney. chang d, ge y and song s ( ) visualizing the republic of letters: an interactive visualization tool 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(v-i). url: http://dx.doi.org/ . /glr. (v-i). citation: khan, a., & rasul, s. ( ). extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools. global language review, v(i), - . doi: . /glr. (v-i). extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools azka khan* sarwet rasul† p-issn: - e-issn: - l-issn: - vol. v, no. i (winter ) pages: – introduction the widespread use of computer technology in the last decade of the previous century drastically increased the number and scope of computer-aided researches made in the fields of corpus linguistics. surprisingly, even after the availability of huge amounts of computer readable textual data and numerous computer-assisted automatic text analysers, computer-aided text analysis is still not a common approach in the sub fields of social sciences and humanities. this article endeavours to show the benefits and hurdles of using (semi-) automatic text analysis technologies for making qualitative studies in the field of digital humanities. this article does not suggest that the hindrances or limitations have been completely removed though; it proposes that there is a dire need to unlock the potential opportunities by encouraging the innovative researchers of digital humanities to explore, adapt and modify the newly developed approaches to the tons of digital texts available these days. this article also voices the concerns in extracting the dominant semantic domain from a fictional discourse with the help of corpus tools. this study also presents a systemized form of the selected features of three computer software for making qualitative researches easier. for many years now, computer-aided text analysis is not limited to just counting words. many new corpus software help the researchers explore the qualitative aspects of the data too. abstract: the increased interest in the techniques of corpus linguistics in the first decade of st century was based on the most important premises, which are valid even today – investigation of larger datasets in less time. this article compares the results of different corpus techniques employed for exploring the dominant semantic domains in a corpus. these corpus techniques include use of word clouds, frequency lists and kwic of a text. this study uses fictional discourse by kamila shamsie – namely broken verses ( ) – to illustrate the corpus methodology. in addition to different corpus techniques, this study also compares the usability of different corpus software for this purpose such as, antconc ( . . ), nvivo , and sketch engine. this article will prove to be a good beginning point for the researchers exploring a text in any field of corpus linguistics and digital humanities. key words: cads, digital humanities, e-humanities, kwic, lemma, semantic fields, stemmed. having a clear corpus methodology for extraction of semantic domains is important in a two-fold manner: for the language researchers it helps to understand the meaning of the text in less time; for the computational linguists it provides help to go beyond the simple counting of the most frequent words towards more complex understanding of human language by computer systems. thus, a conceptual understanding of the context, bridges the gap between quantitative and qualitative research designs which can eventually lead to more sophisticated automatic extraction of "meaning" from of a discourse. * phd scholar, department of english, fatima jinnah women university, rawalpindi, punjab, pakistan. email: azkakhan s@gmail.com † associate professor, department of english, fatima jinnah women university, rawalpindi, punjab, pakistan. azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) development of computer automated systems has helped to overcome many challenges faced by the researchers of digital humanities but working in natural languages is still not free from ambiguity and complexity and extraction of semantic domains remains a challenge for the social scientists even now. aim and objectives the current research has two main aims. first, it discusses the application and comparison of different corpus techniques to establish the dominant semantic domains in any discourse. a novel by kamila shamsie titled broken verses ( ) is used as an example to illustrate the findings but the methodology is applicable to any corpus in the field of digital humanities and social sciences. the corpus techniques used in this research include word clouds, frequency lists of both stemmed and synonymous words and kwic. secondly, the potential benefits of using different corpus software for extracting dominant semantic domains in a discourse are also pointed out, mainly by discussing three computer software, antconc ( . . ), nvivo , and sketch engine. this research is guided by the following research questions. . how can we extract dominant semantic domains from a literary text by using corpus techniques? . which features of the selected computer software help in this context? structure of the current research this article is structured in three distinct parts. the first part reviews the related researches in digital humanities especially focusing on corpus assisted discourse studies (henceforth cads) as an example. this section also explains the need for a replicable corpus methodology in extracting semantic domains from the selected text. in the second part the three methods for extracting the dominant semantic domains have been discussed. these three methods include usability of corpus techniques, namely, frequency lists, word clouds and kwic for extraction of semantic domains. this part also discusses the limitations and reliability of these corpus software. the last part of this article consists of concluding remarks about the three methods employed for the extraction of semantic domain. e-humanities/digital humanities and computer-aided researches in social sciences digital humanities (generally represented as dh) is an emerging field of study at the intersecting boundaries of digital technologies, mainly computers, and different sub-disciplines of humanities. in dh the development of scholarship involves collaboration in transdisciplinary researches and demands teaching and publication of computationally engaged researches (terras, ). production and employment of new computer applications and techniques, allows the dh researchers to experiment with new teaching techniques and adapted research approaches (burdick, et. al. ). thus, cultivation of a two-way collaborative relationship between the humanities and the digital, results in the development of a new scholarship. corpus linguistics is one such sub-discipline of dh rapidly flourishing by the use of innovative research methodologies. on one side it involves participation of computational linguists for development of computer software and on the other it relies on the verification and validation of these software by corpus linguists. historically, digital humanities have been associated with fields other than linguistics, such as humanistic computing, media studies, social computing but since the turn of the century, corpus linguistics has gained a prestigious position owing to the innovative researches made in it. methodological scepticism and semantic ambiguity in computer-aided analysis using innovative modes give the researchers new insights but poses methodological problems too. distribution of immense amount of informative data distribution on the world wide web, emails, blogs, memos, articles etc. demands extraction of useful information quickly and at a low cost. text mining, topic modelling, computational content analysis (cca) and computer assisted qualitative data analysis extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | (caqdas) are some of the areas which focus on refinement of automated computational methods for dealing with enormous amount of knowledge in dh (pollak, etal. ). the biggest hindrance in dealing with natural language texts is the problem of ambiguity of meaning and semantic uncertainty. very few automated text analysis software can claim to extract semantically correct information from linguistic texts. extracting linguistic information requires knowledge of lexemes and lemmas, a sound grip on specific syntax of the texts and understanding of the contextual context (pollak, etal. ). although syntactic parsing is used to solve the problem of lexical ambiguity, the problem is still not solved completely. the point is illustrated by discussing two examples given by (wiedemann, ). consider the following two sentences in this context. . i have put the baby in the pen. . he runs the company. the syntactic processing (pos tagging) will help the computer system determine that the word pen belongs to the noun category of lexemes. similarly the word runs is categorized as a verb. however, when the software tries to extract the semantic information of these two words, semantic ambiguity and uncertainty cause a problem. there can be at least three possible meanings of the word pen: a writing tool, a female swan, or an enclosure where babies can be lift. similarly the word run has two meanings: an activity of controlling or a physical action. a reliable automated text analyser should be able to correctly interpret such problems of semantic ambiguity. so far the automated text analysers available are not reliable for such semantic ambiguities of natural languages. thus using computational techniques for extraction of semantic domains in dh is not without problems and demands human intervention to avoid misleading results. therefore, the studies made in this field are relatively small scaled. secondly, the conclusions of such studies cannot be generalised to a broader scale. thirdly, the experts of natural languages need more explanations of the step wise statistical methods adopted in the computer based studies, even more so if they want to replicate the methodological framework. i have mainly drawn examples from the field of corpus linguistics and discourse studies in the next section to discuss some of the researches made in the interdisciplinary field of cads (corpus assisted discourse studies) by employing computer software to review the status of researches available. current trends in discourse and corpus linguistics corpus linguistic techniques help to reveal and analyse the recurrent linguistic patterns in any discourse in a way that is not possible intuitively. in the last decade of century, corpus stylistics established itself as a new field of interest (sinclair , stubbs ).one early influence on the corpus stylistic analyses is halliday ( ) who suggested that analysing the use of transitive and intransitive verbs in the inheritors by golding can lead to induce literary meanings from the text. halliday demonstrated that the unique usage of a grammatical feature influences the meaning and message of the literary text. tracing this link between the grammatical feature and the hidden message or, in other words, the link between form and content is almost imperceptible intuitively. corpus techniques can help the researchers to analyse large sample of writing by a single author in a little time and therefore, provide empirical proofs for the analysis of form/structure which eventually helps in understanding the content/theme. halliday ( ) concluded his research by suggesting that excessive use of intransitive verbs for describing a neanderthal tribe helped the writer to highlight the passivity and lack of innovativeness. these traits made the survival of the tribe impossible in the course of evolution. however, halliday’s analysis has received strong censure by hoover ( ) for problems of replicating the research methodology by future researchers. hoover ( ) considers halliday’s methodology lacking explicit documentation as well as transparency of analysis to other analysts for their own research work. burrows ( ) extracts literary meanings of discourse from linguistic data by discussing the relationship between idiolects used by the protagonist and their personality traits. examples of corpus stylistic analyses include burgess ( ), hardy & durian ( ) and tribble ( ). all of them adopted burrows’ ( ) methodology to understand the relationship between the usage of lexical and grammatical azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) critical discourse analysis (cda) (as theoretical framework) extraction of semantic domains (using ld as sample) corpus linguistics (cl)(as methodology) words in literary discourse and the meaning of the data. while analysing a discourse, the linguistic sample under investigation needs to be understood in relation to the accompanying context. this is one main reason that so far, discourse analysis has not been defined as a universal set of procedures which could be formalised into a computer package (antaki et al., ) and poses new problems. nevertheless, the use of corpus techniques for analysing discourse is termed a methodological synergy by baker ( ). this methodological shift allowed the corpus linguists and discourse analysts to access a large scale data for generating more quantitative evidence than the small-scale data used previously. corpus techniques allow not only for exploring the traditional texts like newspaper articles/editorial and speeches but also newer mediated texts for example face book comments and tweets. so far, fictional texts have not been explored much by them. the main reason of this neglect seems certain methodological problems faced by the language researchers. firstly, a corpus tool cannot differentiate between the reported and reporting speech. recently a software called clic has been introduced to analyse the local textual functions in fiction but its use is limited to searching only dickens corpus and a few other century reference corpora (mahlberg etal. ). nevertheless, the interface does not allow uploading a new text. secondly, it cannot identify which pronoun is used for which fictional character. thirdly, the figures of speech like metaphorical meaning, irony and pun on words, which are of great importance for meaning making in fictional discourse, cannot be identified by the corpus tool. the gap is still there and literary texts are used as a sample mostly in the field of corpus stylistics. the next section discusses the researches already available in the fields of cads. need for a systematic and replicable linguistic analytical framework for extraction of semantic domains owing to the few researches made by using corpus techniques, there is an increased need to fill the gap by proposing the replicable and systematic methodologies, especially to resolve the issue of semantic ambiguity. need for new methodologies fig : corpus methodologies for extraction of semantic domains sally hunt ( ) is one of those few researchers who analysed the process of representation of gender and agency in harry potter series by using corpus techniques. hunt ( ) has focused on the words used for body parts of the social actors in this series. since the field of cads is in its incipient years, the choice of literary text selected for such a research is very important. fischer-starcke’s work on pride and prejudice ( ) and stubbs work on heart of darkness ( & ) are discussed as examples who give very important rationale for selecting these texts. fischer-starcke ( ) states that he has deliberately chosen a extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | novel which has been widely discussed and analysed for nearly last two hundred years by numerous critics. this makes the novel an especially attractive text for developing and verifying new corpus methodologies since it enables a comparison of findings by traditional methods of text analysis and findings by corpus based analysis. this helps the researcher to evaluate the effectiveness of the corpus techniques employed on the novel. the analyst can also focus on the linguistic/discursive processes used by the writer to construct meaning. following the same rule stubbs ( & ) used a century old novel heart of darkness for corpus stylistic analysis in which he tried to illustrate that the cultural and literary aspects of the novel can be shown with the help of frequency lists and distribution of words and recurrent phrases. this analysis also helped to identify important linguistic features which are usually missed by literary critics. extraction of semantic domains semantic domains as defined by brinton ( ) are the groups of lexemes that share a common semantic property. mostly these fields are defined by commonality of subject matter, such as landforms, colours, names of food items, or kinship relations. computer-aided extraction of semantic domains from large amounts of texts can be useful in all the fields of digital humanities. establishing credibility or high- precision in terms of methodology demands checking credibility of the tools and software available for corpus analysis. extraction of semantic domains requires a three steps method: (i) syntactically categorizing the lexemes called pos tagging (ii) recognition of the lexemes from the same semantic fields (iii) clarifying semantic ambiguities (if any) to understand the relation between the selected lexemes and categorizing them semantically (sematic tagging). the reliability of some of the corpus techniques for extracting semantic domains available to the researchers of dh are discussed in the next section. employing frequency lists of stemmed words and synonyms for extracting semantic domains an important principle, on which the foundation of corpus studies is laid, is the assumption that the most frequent lexical items are the most significant ones for establishing the dominant semantic fields and understanding the discourse structures (sinclair ). therefore, the frequency of lexical items is directly related to the structure and the content of the discourse. on the basis of this assumption the first corpus linguistic tool used in this research is to establish the dominant semantic fields are frequency lists. a novel by shamsie titled broken verses is used as a sample in this research. the study corpus is abbreviated as study corpus broken verse (scbv). while generating the frequency lists the functional words are not taken into the account believing that the main semantic load is carried by the content words. the software nvivo is used for generating frequency list because of its unique features discussed in the next section. unique features of nvivo the unique features of nivivo include the ease in uploading the corpus files. nvivo (edhlund & mcdougall, ) is a powerful software for qualitative data analysis which can run pdf. txt. rtf. and other files containing visuals and graphics. unlike antconc it does not require the study corpus (sc) to be changed into txt. format prior to uploading it to the software. another important feature in nvivo is that for generating the frequency lists, it automatically deletes the function words from the sc (table and ). this way the researcher can focus only on semantically loaded words which are content words. this software provides two types of settings for generating the frequency lists. . frequency lists may be generated by considering all the stemmed words as one entry e.g., like, likes, liked, liking etc. for the purpose of ease, in this research this list is termed as stemmed freq. list (see azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) table ). the good thing in this setting is that it gathers all the lemmas of a lexeme as a single category. thus the stemmed freq. list can be helpful in identifying the most frequent lexeme in a corpus (see table ). the most frequent lexeme in scbv is mother. among the top twenty entries this is the only word which tells us something about the thematic content of the novel. the plot line in scbv revolves around the most important character in the novel named samina akram. her daughter aasmani is the narrator of the novel and she uses the word mother very frequently for samina akram. other than this word all the other words do not give any clue to the researcher for further exploration. table . stemmed freq. list of scbv (top entries) word length count weighted percentage (%) similar words mothers . mother, mother’, mothers, mothers’ ones . one, ones just . just looked . look, looked, looking, looks knowing . know, knowing, knowingly, knows hands . hand, handed, handful, handing, hands back . back, backed, backing, backs years . year, years even . even, evening, evenings time . time, timed, times, times’, timing poet . poet, poet’, poets lovely . love, loved, lovely, loves, loving, loving’ days . day, days think . think, think’, thinking, thinks way . way, ways away . away want . want, wanted, wanting, wants knew . knew never . never now . now . the second setting used for generating frequency lists through nvivo involves categorizing all the synonymous words present in the text as one entry e.g., the most common word in scbv is look. the software nvivo has the ability to categorise all its synonyms under one head. some of the words included in entry table carry a very different semantic shade. to illustrate this point some words from the beginning of the list of synonyms are compared to the end of the list of synonyms. words such as appear, count, front, smell, sound, await have many different shades of meanings (table ). the original entry look may be used as a synonym for these words but they are very different in meaning from one another. for example the word appear has a completely different meaning from the word search and wait has a completely different meaning from the word smell. this holds true for all the ten entries listed in table . therefore, relying solely on the synonym freq. list does not help a lot in the extraction of semantic fields. for the sake of brevity, top ten entries have been added to table . the words which have a very different meaning in the list of synonyms in front of each entry are put in the bold font. extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | table . synonym freq. list scbv (top entries) word length count weighted percentage (%) similar words looked . appear, appearance, appeared, appearing, appears, aspect, attend, await, awaiting, bet, count, counted, counting, depended, depending, depends, expect, expectant, expectation, expectations, expected, expecting, express, expressed, expresses, expressing, expression, expressions, face, faced, faces, facing, feel, feeling, feelings, feelings’, feels, front, fronts, look, looked, looking, looks, search, searched, searching, see, seeing, seem, seemed, seemingly, seems, sees, smell, smells, sound, sounded, sounding, sounds, spirited, tone, tones, wait, waited, waiting mother . engender, father, fathers, fuss, generate, generated, generation, generation’, generations, get, gets, getting, maternal, mother, mother’, mothers, mothers’ know . acknowledge, acknowledged, acknowledgement, acknowledgements, bang, banged, banging, bed, experience, experiment, experimenting, humps, intent, intention, intentions, intently, intents, jazz, know, knowing, knowingly, knowledge, knows, learn, learned, learning, learns, letter, lettering, letters, live, live’, lived, lives, living, love, loved, lovely, loves, loving, loving’, recognize, recognized, screw, wit, witness, witnessed, witnesses’ going . adam, become, becomes, becoming, belong, belonged, belongs, break, breaking, breaks, choke, choked, crack, cracked, cracks, departed, departure, die, died, dies, dying, endure, enduring, exit, exited, exiting, extended, extending, fail, failed, failing, failings, fit, fitted, fitting, flings, get, gets, getting, going, last, lasted, lead, leading, leads, leave, leaves, leaving, live, live’, lived, lives, living, loss, move, moved, moves, moving, moving’, offer, offered, offering, offerings, offers, operate, operating, operators, pass, passed, passing, plumpness, proceeded, proceedings, release, released, run, running, sound, sounded, sounding, sounds, spell, start, started, starting, starts, survive, survived, surviving, tour, touring, travel, traveller, travellers, travels, turn, turned, turning, turns, whirling, work, worked, working, workings, works just . bare, barely, exact, exacted, exacting, exactly, fair, fairly, good, goods, hard, hardly, just, justice, justify, mere, merely, precise, precisely, precision, right, righted, rightful, rightly, rights, scarcely, simply, upright azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) think . believe, believe’, believed, believing, conceive, consider, considered, considering, guess, guess’, guessed, imagination, imaginations, imagine, imagined, imagining, intelligence, intelligent, intend, intended, mean, meaning, means, reason, reasonable, reasonably, reasons, recall, recalled, recalling, remember, remembered, remembering, remembers, retrieve, retrieved, suppose, supposed, supposing, think, think’, thinking, thinks, thought, thoughtful, thoughts one . one, ones, single, unity make . attained, brand, build, building, buildings, cause, caused, causing, clear, cleared, clearly, clears, constitute, constitution, constitutional, construct, constructed, construction, cook, cooked, cooking, create, created, creates, creating, devised, draw, drawing, draws, earned, fashion, fashioned, fashions, fix, fixed, fixedly, fixing, form, formed, forming, forms, gain, gained, gains, get, gets, getting, give, gives, giving, hit, hitting, hold, holding, holdings, holds, make, makes, making, name, named, names, naming, piss, preparation, prepare, prepared, preparing, pretend, pretended, pretending, produce, produced, producer, producers, produces, producing, puddle, reach, reached, reaching, ready, realization, realize, realized, realizes, score, scored, scores, seduce, seduced, seduces, shit, shit’, shuffled, stools, take, takes, taking, throw, throwing, throws, urine, work, worked, working, workings, works hand . custody, deal, dealing, fist, fistful, fists, give, gives, giving, hand, handed, handful, handing, hands, handwriting, men, pass, passed, passing, paws, reach, reached, reaching, script, scripts years . age, aged, ages, classes, day, days, year, years for the sake of brevity, the complete frequency lists are not added here. nevertheless the top twenty entries in the stemmed freq.list (table ) and top ten entries in the synonym freq.list (table ) make this evident that we need to apply some other corpus technique for the extraction of semantic fields. for this purpose the reliability of word cloud is discussed in the next section. employing word clouds as a beginning point to extract semantic domains a word cloud is commonly defined as a visualization of most prominent and frequent content words in a corpus. word clouds are generated through frequency lists. the functional words are not added to word clouds as they reveal little about the semantic content of the corpus. they provide a low-cost and faster alternative than coding. word clouds are generated on the basis of frequency by breaking the whole text into component words. the font point assigned to the words is directly proportional to the frequency of the word in the corpus. word clouds have some benefits as well as some inadequacies as a corpus technique for revealing the semantic content of the corpus. it reveals only the essential information and provides an overall sense of the text. they have a visual appeal and are more extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | engaging than data in the stemmed tabloid form. the visual representation of word clouds generates interest but stimulates more questions than it answers. it can be a good entry point in a discussion about the data. the cons of word clouds in extracting semantic fields is that they can be misleading in interpretations. at times the size of equally frequent words is affected by the number of alphabets in a word or the size/shape of the glyphs. randomly assigned coloured word clouds can also be misleading as some colours stand out more than others. decorative fonts may have visual appeal but they sacrifice communication. word cloud based on stemmed freq.list word cloud based on synonym freq.list figure : word clouds of scbv based on stemmed freq.list and synonym freq.list two word clouds are generated for the scbv, one is based on the stemmed freq.list while the other is based on synonym freq.list. just like frequency lists the word clouds reveal little about the dominant thematic content of scbv. in the next section reliability and efficiency of key words in context (kwic) for extraction of semantic fields is discussed. employing kwic (key words in context) for extracting semantic domains list of keywords in context (kwic) is different from simple frequency lists. phillips ( ) suggests that keywords function to indicate the ‘aboutness’ of the corpus. the keywords may not be the most frequent words of the study corpus, yet they are the most significant ones. analysing the keyword list and categorizing the words according to their meaning reveal the dominant thematic content of the corpus. scott in and more recently, rayson ( ) and culpeper ( ) have used this approach to reveal the meaning contained in various corpora. creating a reference corpus unlike frequency lists, word clouds, collocation lists and list of concordance lines generating kwic requires a reference corpus (rc), in addition to the study corpus (sc). keyness of any sc can be found out only by comparing it to another body of data. some researchers (for example sperberg-mcqueen ) suggest that the keyword calculation of a sample text is somewhat effected by the rc chosen by the researcher. others such as baker ( ) and stubbs ( ) suggest that by increasing the size of rc three times the size of sc, a keyword list free of any bias can be generated. there are two options available to all the researchers, either they can use the available large corpus as a reference corpus or they can build their own rc and feed it into software like ant. conc . . . some software such as sketch engine and nivivo have the in-built rc. in this research, english web (ententen ) is available in the software sketch engine and is used to generate kwic identification of the frequently occurring content-bearing lexemes in kwic helped me derive the gist or aboutness or the dominant thematic content of scbv. the kwic are indeed the tip of the iceberg of meaning azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) but still provide reliable indications and manageable data for the detailed analysis of the main themes in the corpus. instead of simple frequency lists, only the kwic are focused for extraction of semantic fields in this section. the reason is that the word frequency lists are usually very long (reaching up to , items in scbv) and the manual extraction of semantically relevant terms requires a lot of time. in order to make the length of target lists manageable the cut-off point is set words. table contains the first keywords of scbv. the words which scored the highest in the keyness are the proper nouns. this is understandable because in broken verses most of the characters have pakistani names that do not appear very frequently in the rc, thus these words qualify for a high score of keyness. the proper names do not tell us much about the semantic content of the corpus. therefore, the names of the characters have been manually deleted from the list and after removing the names of the characters, top keywords have been categorised and colour coded in table . table . the top kwic from scbv top kwic of scbv single-word score f ref f karachi . , laila . , std . , ramzan . , mama . , urdu . , qais . grazia . minion . , iblis . , macbeth . , hilal . , eid . , aadam . archivist* . , fugue . , frass . inqalab* . ghazal . , shawl . , beloved . , lathi . hikmet . kabab . nimue . extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | maulana . , zia . , reshoot . , schoolmaster . , hoax . , bougainvillea . , sadequain . rafael . , hudood* . schoolfriend . mirage . , fata . , islamabad . , mediaeval . , crossword . , dad . , ān (quran) . , dialled . , impassioned . , calligraphy . , amma . , morgana . , stepmother . , haiku . , jalaibee . encrypt . , captor . , seekh . sprezzatura, . falsa . maulana . resent . , decrypt . , weep* . , strangeness . , iftar . , absurdly . , azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) fizz . , grandness . , ajar (open) . , aur . , punchline . , multan . , kurta . , ummah . , mother . , , kameez . , policewoman . , tyrant . , unforgivable . , newsreader . , couplet . , gonzales . , bhutto . , bookshelf . , resentful . , postmark . , fugues . nashaa . variedness . seventeen . , raqeeb . frass . imprisoned* . sixteen . , mohtarma . chowkidar . calligraphed . leucippus . aashiq . unnaturalness . kda . exile . gesture . , extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | the number of type and token of the first kwic in scbv is calculated in the following way. the total number of top keyword tokens are . the total number of tokens in scbv is , and total number of types is , . the total number of types and tokens of the top keywords from different semantic domains, their frequency, and percentage is given in the table . table . percentage of token of top kwic in scbv semantic fields/ topic indicators no. of types in kwic no and % of tokens in kwic definition and comment most frequent examples from the novel geographical locations . % to show the setting of the novel, there is frequent referring to karachi and a studio std karachi, fata, islamabad, multan, kda marriage and family life % familial ties and institute of marriage are a recurrent theme in scbv. dad, mother, mama, beloved, stepmother, amma words from regional languages . % this category consists of words mainly from urdu, and punjabi. nashaa, raqeeb, mohtarma, chowkidar, aashiq, aur, kurta, kameez, ghazal, shawl, lathi, hikmet, kabab, laila, ramzan, urdu, qais political setup % many words included in this category needed the context to be reviewed and then they are put in this category. zia, exile, captor, imprisoned, tyrant bhutto, archivist. inqalab an atmosphere of gloom and hopelessness . % the words in this category refer to negative feelings experienced by different characters but on the whole this group does not signify any one theme. unforgiveable, resentful, unnaturalness, resent, absurdly miscellaneous % keywords not indicating any category azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) religion family & marriage politics negative emotions historical allusions geographical location regional languages miscellaneus words the kwic analysis helped to identify eight semantic fields out of which three categories, negative feelings, natural environment and miscellaneous did not help to signify a single theme. figure shows a graphic representation of the most dominant and the less dominant themes. fig : the most dominant and the least dominant themes in scbv it needs to be made clear that some keywords are overlapping in terms of their thematic content for example a word which refers to an indigenous place can be put in either geographical locations or it can be taken as a historical reference. similarly, the name of a regional language can be used for discussing a literary allusion. therefore, figure does not represent very clear boundaries; nevertheless, it does give an idea of the dominant themes in scbv. it also shows the limitations of corpus techniques in terms of aboutness of the discourse. it is found that kwic lists can give only a vague idea and blurred picture of the thematic content of the discourse and detailed collocation or concordance analysis is essential for understanding the detailed picture. some methodological concerns extracting semantic fields from scbv through top kwic helped to gain the following methodological insights. . at the stage of categorizing kwic into different semantic fields, i realised that i cannot rely only on kwic for categorizing these words and the broader context of the words needs to be examined before categorising them into different semantic domains. two examples has been given to illustrate this point. the word heaven occurs times in scbv. superficially, it seems that this word belongs to the domain of religion but when the broader context is analysed, the findings were contrary to the initial expectations. this word is used two times for continuing the conversation in the phrase for heaven’s sake. similarly, the word god in scbv is used as thanks god, for god’s sake, god forbid etc. the researcher needs to note that these words are not actually referring to religion. on the other hand, some of the words such as terror/ism, fundamentalist, radical and extremist do not belong directly to extraction of semantic domains through corpus tools vol. v, issue i (winter ) page | the semantic field of religion but when the broader context of occurrence is observed through concordance lines and paragraph retrieval, it is found that they are actually referring to religion. . some words do not fit into any category. the category of words named miscellaneous in table do not signify any one theme. . some words with negative connotation (shown in grey colour in table , and figure ) in the corpus but they do not fit any one theme. it is still possible to conclude after concordance analysis of these words that the plot line is tragic or shows a gloomy atmosphere. . the code words used by asmani (one of the main protagonists in scbv) are recognised by the software as keywords because of their uniqueness but they do not reveal anything about the semantic content of the corpus so they are excluded from the list. these code words are ikrfb, fyfno, efac, smaani, anonkoh are excluded from these lists. despite these methodological concerns, the use of kwic for the extraction of semantic domains from a novel proved to be the most helpful when compared to all the other methods employed in this research. conclusion this article demonstrated the use of three corpus techniques for the extraction of dominant semantic domains from a corpus. for this purpose, the fictional discourse produced by shamsie titled broken verses has been used. the first two techniques, namely, frequency lists and word clouds can be used as the starting points to enter the data but they are not helpful in extracting the dominant semantic domains. the unique feature of the software nvivo is to produced frequency list based on synonyms also proved to be of little help due to the vast difference in the semantic shades of the words. the third method is consisted of manually categorizing the top kwic for extracting the semantic domains. this method is proved to be the most useful for the purpose of discourse analysis. the dominant semantic domains identified in scbv through kwic analysis are the same which are pointed out by literary critics after close reading of the texts. azka khan and sarwet rasul page | global language review (glr) references baker, p. 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( ). clic dickens: novel uses of concordances for the integration of corpus stylistics and cognitive poetics. corpora, ( ), - . pollak, senja, coesemans, r., daelemans, w., & lavrac, n. ( ). detect ing contrast patterns in newspaper articles by combining discourse analysis and text mining. pragmatics ( ): - rayson, p. ( ). from key words to key semantic domains. international journal of corpus linguistics, ( ), - . rayson, p. ( ). wmatrix: a web-based corpus processing environment. rayson, p., archer, d. e., baron, a., culpeper, j., & smith, n. ( ). tagging the bard: evaluating the accuracy of a modern pos tagger on early modern english corpora. in proceedings of the corpus linguistics conference: cl . rayson, p., archer, d., piao, s., & mcenery, a. m. ( ). the ucrel semantic analysis system. sharoff, s. ( , may). towards basic categories for describing properties of texts in a corpus. in lrec. stubbs, m. 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( ). opening up to big data: computer-assisted analysis of textual data in social sciences. historical social research/historische sozialforschung, - . artnodes ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.label## ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.main_navigation## ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.main_content## ##plugins.themes.bootstrap .accessible_menu.sidebar## register login change the language. the current language is: english castellano català toggle navigation current issue published issues who we are editorial team reviewers about the journal editorial policies indexing contact statistics subjects call for papers submit your article search online issn: - artnodes is an e-journal promoted by the universitat oberta de catalunya which analyses the intersections between art, science and technology. issn - . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /issn. - current issue no ( ): node «arts in the time of pandemic» (guest editors: laura benítez & erich berger) full issue pdf 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editorial board news statistics contact direct to… authors subjects participant journals information accessibility legal note cookies policy collaborations coordination slavistična revija, letnik / , št. , julij–september znanstveno vrednotenje slovenistike slavistična revija je, tako jo razumemo v strokovni srenji, osrednja slovenska znan- stvena revija za slovenski jezik in književnost ter slovanske jezike in književnosti. s letniki je tudi revija z najdaljšim stažem na tem področju. status ji priznava ministrstvo za znanost, ko se preko arrs odloča za višino njenega financiranja. uredništvo je zavezano k vzdrževanju strokovnega ugleda revije, tako s kvalitetno vsebino kot s šte- vilom bralcev. ker je prosto dostopna na spletu pod licenco creative commons . in vedno več bralcev posega po njeni spletni verziji, število naročnikov na plačljivo tiskano verzijo postopoma upada. gre za splošni in naravni trend, zato ob relativno zanesljivem državnem sofinanciranju revije sorazmernega krčenja naklade ne jemljemo usodno. drugačne narave pa je spreminjanje mednarodnega statusa revije. spremljamo ga lahko od leta , ko ga je začel meriti scopus, bibliografski servis komercialne za- ložniške hiše elsevier, pozorni pa smo postali nanj, ko je za leto reviji izračunal nično mednarodno vplivnost in se je to odrazilo v njenem slabem rangu na lestvici znanstvenih revij, ki jih vodi arrs. metrika je poznana pod imenom snip (source- -normalized impact per paper). istočasno, vendar na podlagi druge metrike, je po štirih letih preizkusne dobe revija izpadla s seznamov ahci (arts & humanities citation index) in ssci (social sciences citation index), ki ju vzdržuje založniški trust thom- son reuters, ker si zaradi premajhnega mednarodnega povpraševanja po slovenističnih člankih od nje ni nadejal profita. ironično je, da se je »padec kvalitete« revije zgodil v času, ko je bila zaradi naraščajočega števila oddanih člankov prisiljena v strožji recen- zentski postopek. objava v slavistični reviji uspe šele vsakemu drugemu predloženemu članku: večja selektivnost bi morala biti kvečjemu jamstvo višje kakovosti objavljenega. sveže scopusove meritve za leto so reviji sicer naračunale ugoden snip , , kar ji je na seznamu slovenskih humanističnih revij z znanstvenim statusom priskr- belo celo prvo mesto, vendar občutka eksistenčne varnosti ni več, saj se že naslednje leto račun namreč kljub zavzetemu uredniškemu delu lahko izide drugače. tolažba za izgubljeni status ahci- in ssci-revije (oba indeksa izrazito preferirata objave v angleščini in ju obtožujejo kulturne pristranskosti) je zanimanje drugih bibli- ografskih inštitucij. v svoje podatkovne zbirke so jo vključili cabell's, ebsco, infoda- tabase, erih +. za sveže zanimanje je verjetno bolj kot trenutni snip zaslužna nedavna uvrstitev slavistične revije v doaj (directory of open access journals), zbirko revij v prostem dostopu. kriterij mednarodne odmevnosti oz. vplivnosti za določitev znanstvenega ranga re- vije se je oblikoval v trdih znanostih. humanistične revije po svetu imajo z mednarodno uvodnik izhaja iz mojega članka z naslovom nevarni samim sebi: o domačem vrednotenju slovenistike, objavljenega v dnevnikovem objektivu . julija (predobjava na wikiverzi . julija ), in se pridružuje vrsti prispevkov na temo slovenščine v znanosti na forumih slovlit in humanist od . marca dalje. moji so: re: . national identity and digital humanities? humanist discussion group . jun. . — za znanost v slovenščini, slovlit . jul. . — . resisting a monocultural (digital) humanities, humanist discussion group . jul. . — kam slovenistika? bilten ob štiridesetletnici pokrajinskih slavističnih društev, ur. andreja Žele (ljubljana: slavistično društvo slovenije, ; zbornik sds, ). – (predobjava na wikiverzi). domenico fiormonte, towards monocultural (digital) humanities? infolet . jul. . slavistična revija (https://srl.si) je ponujena pod licenco creative commons, priznanje avtorstva . international. url https://srl.si/sql_pdf/srl_ _ _ .pdf | dost. / / . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://srl.si miran hladnik, znanstveno vrednotenje slovenistike odmevnostjo težave, saj je jedrni del humanistike (govorimo o t. i. véliki humanistiki, ki jo sestavljajo jezikoslovje, literarna veda in zgodovina) nacionalno specifičen in je njen domet lokalno omejen. filološke objave so samoumevno v jezikih, na katere se nanašajo, ker so tudi večinski interesenti za to znanje govorci obravnavanih jezikov. mednarodna vplivnost objav je zato težko primerljiva z naravoslovjem, ki znanstveno relevanco meri z globalnim metrom. izjema so pač svetovni jeziki in literature, ki so vključeni v univerzitetne kurikule po celem svetu. druga pomanjkljivost metrik je, da jemljejo samo znanstvene objave v revijah in ne upoštevajo monografij in zbornikov, ki so prvi medij humanističnih objav. v humanisti- ki je knjižna objava še vedno legitimacija strokovne zrelosti pisca. tretja ovira je splošno nezaupanje humanistike do kvantifikacij. bolj kot meritve naj bi veljale t. i. vsebinske presoje, ki naj jih opravijo verodostojni eksperti oz. strokovne avtoritete s pregledom nad dogajanjem v stroki. do tega ugovora sem kritično distanci- ran, saj bi ukinitev preštevanja, merjenja in rangiranja pomenila nezaupnico temeljnim znanstvenim početjem in prizadevanjem. alternative prinašajo veliko večje nevarnosti, kot jim je izpostavljeno preštevanje citatov. izkušnje potrjujejo, da se za intuitivnimi vsebinskimi presojami neredko skrivajo nespodobni vplivi nazorskih, političnih, me- todoloških, pokrajinskih, rodovnih, spolnih in osebnih preferenc, posebej v manjših raziskovalnih okoljih, kakršno je slovensko. napake algoritmov, ki merijo znanstveno težo, kličejo v življenje vedno nove in boljše algoritme. nobena meritev znanstvene relevance ni popolna, vsak novi algoritem nastane iz želje po odpravi napak predhodnega in je zato nekoliko objektivnejši in vero- dostojnejši od prejšnjega. scopus ponuja celo dve konkurenčni metriki, starejšo snip in novejšo sjr (od dalje). prva izračunava rang revij na podlagi citiranosti, druga pa je kompleksnejša, saj upošteva še druge parametre (število objavljenih prispevkov, bi- bliografskih referenc in citatov na dokument, odstotek citiranih člankov in mednarodno sodelovanje) in v izogib prevelikemu nihanju meri rezultate za več let skupaj. rezultati revij po snip-u so iz leta v leto drugačni, krivulja sjr pa manj niha in je ustreznejša za določanje statusa revije na daljši rok. slika : snip in sjr za slavistično revijo. slika : snip in sjr za slavistično revijo. scopus izrecno opozarja, da na podlagi ranga revij, izmerjenega s snip, ni dobro vrednotiti teže posameznikovih objav, vendar slovenski arrs počne prav to. zoprna posledica spremenljivosti snip-a je, da dobi avtor za članek v reviji letos recimo točk, če pa bi ga objavil naslednje leto, bi zanj lahko prejel točk. vrednost objave je za raziskovalca torej nekakšna tombola. to diletantsko računsko napako bi moralo ministrstvo nemudoma odpraviti. predlogov za izboljšave obstoječih načinov merjenja znanstvene veljavnosti nam na srečo ni treba izumljati, saj so jih artikulirali že drugje po svetu. posebej nam je v pomoč leidenski manifest za raziskovalno metriko, objavljen v reviji nature, ki priča, da so se bibliometrični obsedenosti s faktorjem vplivnosti (if) uprli tudi naravoslovci. spoznanja so strnili v deset točk: ocenjevalci naj se zavedajo usodnih posledic svojega dela, zato naj ocenjujejo odgovorno, stalno naj preverjajo in izboljšujejo indikatorje znanstvene kvalitete, upoštevajo naj, da se v vsaki stroki ta kaže na drugačen način (naravoslovci najbolj cenijo objave v znanstveni reviji, humanisti pa v knjigi), faktorju vplivnosti naj ne pripisujejo prevelike teže in naj ga raje kombinirajo z drugimi parametri. kvantitativni kazalci naj podpirajo kvalitativno strokovno ekspertizo (posebej pri oceni raziskovalnega opusa posameznika ima prednost kvalitativna presoja in ocenjevani naj ima možnost kontrole ocene), socialni in kulturni aspekti raziskav naj imajo prednost pred raziskovalnimi interesi posameznika, skupine ali akademske inštitucije, spodbujati je treba raziskave, ki so relevantne le za lokalno kulturo (tj. tiste, ki niso v angleščini), raziskovalni podatki naj bodo prosto dostopni in preprosto urejeni (to pomeni na spletu in v popularnem formatu). ob pomoči leidenskega manifesta zapišimo štiri priporočila inštitucijam, ki določajo status domačih znanstvenih publikacij s področja humanistike in tako odločajo o njihovi usodi: arrs-u, izumu, svetu za humanistiko, znanstvenemu svetu arrs in osic-u za humanistiko. . upoštevati je treba napotke bibliometričnih inštitucij, za kaj so meritve uporabne, za katere namene pa ne. snip je primeren za vsakoletno rangiranje revij, ne pa za rangiranje osebnih znanstvenih bibliografij. za te bi bilo nujno upoštevati tudi citiranost v monografijah in zbornikih. . kadar je na voljo več metrik, uporabimo najkompleksnejšo (najsodobnejšo) ali pa kombiniramo rezultate več konkurenčnih metrik. diana hicks idr., bibliometrics: the leiden manifesto for research metrics, nature . aprila ; na članek smo opozorili na slovlitu . okt. . , , , , , snip sjr slavistična revija (https://srl.si) je ponujena pod licenco creative commons, priznanje avtorstva . international. url https://srl.si/sql_pdf/srl_ _ _ .pdf | dost. / / . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / slavistična revija, letnik / , št. , julij–september scopus izrecno opozarja, da na podlagi ranga revij, izmerjenega s snip, ni dobro vrednotiti teže posameznikovih objav, vendar slovenski arrs počne prav to. zopr- na posledica spremenljivosti snip-a je, da dobi avtor za članek v reviji letos recimo točk, če pa bi ga objavil naslednje leto, bi zanj lahko prejel točk. vrednost objave je za raziskovalca torej nekakšna tombola. to diletantsko računsko napako bi moralo ministrstvo nemudoma odpraviti. predlogov za izboljšave obstoječih načinov merjenja znanstvene veljavnosti nam na srečo ni treba izumljati, saj so jih artikulirali že drugje po svetu. posebej nam je v pomoč leidenski manifest za raziskovalno metriko, objavljen v reviji nature, ki priča, da so se bibliometrični obsedenosti s faktorjem vplivnosti (if) uprli tudi naravoslovci. spoznanja so strnili v deset točk: ocenjevalci naj se zavedajo usodnih posledic svojega dela, zato naj ocenjujejo odgovorno, stalno naj preverjajo in izbolj- šujejo indikatorje znanstvene kvalitete, upoštevajo naj, da se v vsaki stroki ta kaže na drugačen način (naravoslovci najbolj cenijo objave v znanstveni reviji, humanisti pa v knjigi), faktorju vplivnosti naj ne pripisujejo prevelike teže in naj ga raje kombini- rajo z drugimi parametri. kvantitativni kazalci naj podpirajo kvalitativno strokovno ekspertizo (posebej pri oceni raziskovalnega opusa posameznika ima prednost kva- litativna presoja in ocenjevani naj ima možnost kontrole ocene), socialni in kulturni aspekti raziskav naj imajo prednost pred raziskovalnimi interesi posameznika, sku- pine ali akademske inštitucije, spodbujati je treba raziskave, ki so relevantne le za lokalno kulturo (tj. tiste, ki niso v angleščini), raziskovalni podatki naj bodo prosto dostopni in preprosto urejeni (to pomeni na spletu in v popularnem formatu). ob pomoči leidenskega manifesta zapišimo štiri priporočila inštitucijam, ki dolo- čajo status domačih znanstvenih publikacij s področja humanistike in tako odločajo o njihovi usodi: arrs-u, izumu, svetu za humanistiko, znanstvenemu svetu arrs in osic-u za humanistiko. . upoštevati je treba napotke bibliometričnih inštitucij, za kaj so meritve upo- rabne, za katere namene pa ne. snip je primeren za vsakoletno rangiranje revij, ne pa za rangiranje osebnih znanstvenih bibliografij. za te bi bilo nujno upoštevati tudi citiranost v monografijah in zbornikih. . kadar je na voljo več metrik, uporabimo najkompleksnejšo (najsodobnejšo) ali pa kombiniramo rezultate več konkurenčnih metrik. . za humanistične objave je pomembno, da servisirajo lokalne kulturne potrebe, zato njihove znanstvene odličnosti ni primerno meriti na globalni ravni. naravnost nespodobno je, če se filološke raziskave dogajajo v lingui franci angleščini namesto v jeziku, ki je predmet raziskav. cilj humanističnih raziskav je tudi ohranjanje lokalne oz. nacionalne kulturne specifike, to pa se lahko prepričljivo dosega le v jeziku, ki mu je prizadevanje namenjeno. angleško napisano razpravo o slovenščini sicer lahko razumemo kot dokument globalne vpetosti in globalne primerljivosti slovenistike, ampak taka razprava prejkone veliko očitneje kaže na funkcionalno omejenost razi- skovanega jezika in na njegov inferiorni položaj v razmerju do angleščine. diana hicks idr., bibliometrics: the leiden manifesto for research metrics, nature . aprila ; na članek smo opozorili na slovlitu . okt. . gregory crane, the big humanities, national identity and the digital humanities in germany, google docs . junija . slavistična revija (https://srl.si) je ponujena pod licenco creative commons, priznanje avtorstva . international. url https://srl.si/sql_pdf/srl_ _ _ .pdf | dost. / / . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / miran hladnik, znanstveno vrednotenje slovenistike resda arrs objav v angleščini ne spodbuja prozorno s samodejno višjim točk- ovanjem. ne, objave v slovenščini in v angleščini so v principu enakovredne, vendar imajo tiste v angleščini pač več možnosti, da so citirane (citati v literarni vedi in jezikoslovju v – % kažejo na objave v angleščini), tako da se avtorji odločajo za objavo v revijah, ki preferirajo angleščino in jim posledično prinašajo več točk. več točk prinašajo tudi objave v zbornikih z mednarodnim uredništvom ali v knjigah tujih založnikov, zato lahko sklenemo, da je znanstveno objavljanje v slovenščini zapostavljeno. . Četrto priporočilo zadeva medij objave. arrs se obnaša sodobno, ker spodbu- ja spletno objavljanje in ga vrednoti enako kot objave v tiskani znanstveni periodiki, seveda če gredo članki skozi enake recenzijske postopke kot tiskani. spletne objave so lažje dosegljive kot tiskane: nanje naletijo tudi strokovnjaki drugih disciplin mimo rednih naročnikov in bralcev tiskane periodike, ker jim jih pokažejo spletni iskalni- ki, in spletni prevajalniki interesentu tudi v grobem prevedejo raziskave v jezikih, ki so jim drugače nedostopni. meritve odmevnosti objav bi torej morale upoštevati tudi táko spletno poizvedovanje (število obiskov in nalaganj na osebni računalnik), če bi želele biti objektivne in pravične. akademski repozitoriji avtorje sproti obveščajo o recepcijski dinamiki njihovih posameznih objav, povejo jim, iz katerega dela sveta je prišlo poizvedovanje in objave sortirajo po odmevnosti. ponudniki spletnih vsebin znajo meriti celo čas, ki ga bralec porabi za tekst, in delež besedila, ki jim ga uspe prebrati, zato bodo prihodnje meritve znanstvene relevance vključevale tudi podatke o branosti. prva dva koraka v to smer bi bila podpora domačemu univerzitetnemu repozitoriju, ki trenutno močno zaostaja za mednarodno konkurenco (npr. za spleti- ščem academia.edu, researchgate ali doaj), in pritegnitev googlovega učenjaka ter algoritma pagerank. bomo zmogli? miran hladnik odgovorni urednik slavistične revije miran.hladnik@gmail.com slavistična revija (https://srl.si) je ponujena pod licenco creative commons, priznanje avtorstva . international. url https://srl.si/sql_pdf/srl_ _ _ .pdf | dost. / / . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / slavistična revija (https://srl.si) je ponujena pod licenco creative commons, priznanje avtorstva . international. url https://srl.si/sql_pdf/srl_ _ _ .pdf | dost. / / . powered by tcpdf (www.tcpdf.org) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.tcpdf.org microsoft word - rhss-vol. no. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , authorship verification in arabic using function words: a controversial case study of imam ali's book peak of eloquence khalid shakir hussein english dept. thi-qar university, an-nassiriyah, iraq abstract this paper addresses the viability of two multivariate methods (principal components analysis and cluster analysis) in verifying the disputed authorship of a famous arabic religious book called (nahjul-balagha/ peak of eloquence). this book occupies an exceptional position in the history of the huge debates held between the two basic islamic sectors: sunni'e and shia. therefore, it represents a serious challenge to the viability of the multivariate techniques in resolving certain types of historical and sectarian conflicts and controversies. furthermore, verifying the authorship of this book could be a good opportunity to find out whether there are certain quantitative techniques of attribution that hold for different languages such as english and arabic. function words have been targeted in this paper as possible indicators of the author's identity. accordingly, a set of arabic function words would be tested using wordsmith tools (version ). it turned out that the multivariate techniques are most likely robust for addressing the type of issues raised about nahjul-balagha. besides, it appeared that the statistical patterns of function word usages are quite sensitive to genre in arabic. keywords: authorship attribution, authorship verification, stylometrics, computational stylistics. . introduction this paper is an attempt to test the capability and efficiency of the multivariate methods in settling down a real case study of verifying the authorship of a heatedly debated arabic text. the book under investigation stands as a hallmark of the recently increased hassle between the two basic islamic sectors: sunni'e and shia. its authenticity is the real moot point that stimulates all kinds of sectarian dispute across the islamic world. here comes the role of the quantitative attributional verification to conduct a rather objective investigation of the problem. authorship verification is a particular case of authorship attribution. generally speaking, the questions usually posed in authorship analysis might vary according to the circumstances of the cases under investigation. however, two questions are basically addressed in authorship analysis: "which author, among a clear-cut set of candidate authors, has written the questionable document?" " . . . did a particular author write the document?" (luyckx, and daelemans ). the first question is approximated by attributing the disputed texts to one of the n candidate authors. the second is a consistency question approximated in cases where the researcher is faced with a set of textual samples attributed to a single author and he has to figure out whether a given disputed text sample belongs to this set or not. . nahjul-balagha authorship controversy nahjul-balagha (peak of eloquence) is a religious text well-known for its highly distinctive genre and style. the distinctive figurative style of the book and the various genres it involves crucially contribute to its uniqueness within the rhetorical map of arabic. it comprises a collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to imam ali ibn abi talib, cousin and son-in-law of prophet muhammed. this collection was compiled in a book in the fourth century (a.h) by a well-respected shi'i scholar and poet shareef razi over years after imam ali (nahjul-balagha ). the text he had selected fall into three different genres: sermons, letters and sayings. these numbers may vary in different editions of nahjul-balagha. known as a literary masterpiece, this book is deemed exceptionally distinctive in its eloquent standards and style in shia islam. it is seen by shia scholars as being above the words of human beings and below the words of allah and third only to the qur'an and prophetic narrations (see http://www.nahjulbalagha.org/sermons.php). since the time it has been collected, nahjul-balagha was and still a subject of analysis and interpretation. the genuineness and authenticity of this book were not questioned by shia scholars. they think that the references al-razi had made to the sources from which he collected the sermons, letters and sayings of imam ali were quite enough to guarantee the authenticity of the book (ibid.). however, al-razi did not dedicate an independent bibliography for the sources, he instead referred occasionally to certain books and their compilers as he incorporated some explanatory notes at the margins of the expounded sermons (see shttp://www.al-islam.org/nahjul/sources.htm) . the first person that suspected the attribution of nahjul-balagha to imam ali was ibn khalikan, a sunni scholar (see http://www.islamology.com/resources/nahj-imam/main/main .htm). then a series of sunni scholars followed ibn khalikan's doubts: ibn al-athir al-jazari, salah al-din al-safadi, and al-dhahabi. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , nevertheless, all the reasons such scholars used to back up their attributional doubts are more or less ideological and biased rather than professional and technical. the most controversial sermon that received a huge amount of denial from the sunni scholars is called al-shaqshaqiyyah (the roar of a camel) due to its sensitive subject matter. imam ali in this sermon unveiled quite clear and direct indications of the caliphate being snatched from him by the two caliphs abu-baker and umar. most sunni scholars abhor the downgrading of the two caliphs explicitly expressed throughout this sermon. therefore, this sermon, in particular, was and still deeply doubted and repeatedly attacked by them and seen as being forged and unauthentic. some other doubts are raised nowadays on websites by some modern wahhabi scholars claiming that the whole book has been authored collaboratively by a number of shia orators and outspoken experts of literature (see www.sunniforum.com/what do sunnis say about nahjul-balagha). the researcher will apply two multivariate techniques (principal component analysis and cluster analysis, henceforth pca and ca) to address only two types of skeptical questions commonly raised about the authorship attribution of nahjul-balagha. first, does this collection of sermons, letters, and sayings share a single author? or is it the product of a multiple-author conspiracy? second, does the sermon "al-shaqshaqiyyah" belong to this collection? . methodology six methodological procedures will be followed in analyzing nahjul-balagha corpus: . since the samples selected for this study are machine-readable, the scanning or retyping processes could be a very threatening source of all types of errors. the researcher tried his best to check the authenticity of each sample making sure that each one is highly representative of the hard copy. what is more, all the non- authorial materials have been removed from the main body of the texts such as, titles of sermons, author names, dates, quranic verses, prophetic narrations, poetic lines, etc . transcribing every individual sample into plain text format . grouping all the samples into one master corpus . analyzing samples with their master corpus via wordsmith tools ( . ) for frequency and word count, besides producing some sort of charts representing basic statistical descriptions . importing wordsmith tools ( . ) outputs into an excel spreadsheet in a form of matrix . conducting a thorough statistical analysis to the matrix using spss ( . ) (principal components analysis/pca and cluster analysis/ca). . . function words in arabic function words might be the commonest features that have been counted in the computational studies of authorship attribution. ever since mosteller and wallace ( ) published their influential study of the federalist papers, function words have been the focus of interest in numerous papers and studies dealing with these words as possible indicators of authorial styles. burrows ( ) has conducted another pioneeric study of function words demonstrating the efficacy of such words for attributing different texts and samples to different authors. then, grieve ( ) has produced an extensive quantitative evaluation of attributional techniques that underscored the powerful performance of function words in discriminating various authorial styles. the appeal of function words in attributional studies lies in their being important markers of authorial individuality. much has been written about the rationale behind the assumption that people tend to express themselves in stable and unique patterns of function words usage. this rationale almost always instigates three salient characteristics about function words: their high frequency, low semantic load, and the very fact that their usage lies beyond our conscious control (zhao and zobel : - ). determining function words hierarchical lists in nahjul-balagha, however, is not an easy process. arabic morphology is quite complex and demanding when it comes to the morphology of function words. there is a diversity of suffixes and prefixes that should be detached from the basic function words before measuring their frequencies and distributions. the inflectional morphology of arabic created a dilemma for the researcher as to whether to target only the function words occurred distinctly stripped off any further affixational elements, for example (min/from; fi/in; ina/is; . . . etc.) or to target the distinct ones along with their affixational occurrences, for example (min/from- minaa/from us- minhu/from him- minha/from her- minhuma/from them (dual)- minhuna/ form them (femi.)- minki/from you (femi.), minka/from you (masc.)) it was a crucial choice to be made, though the first choice sounds too easy to be worked out. on the one hand, selecting the non-affixational function words would save much time in figuring out the wordlist and even in conducting the statistical analyses. on the other hand, if we skip the affixed function words there might be a high risk of disturbing the actual statistics of these linguistic items leading to probably serious problems in attribution. it would be more reasonable if we try our hands at both choices to see how far the effects would be on the attributional process. first, the researcher will consider arabic function words that occur distinctly with no research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , affixes whatsoever. then the function words will be accounted for, in the second choice, regardless of how many affixes are attached to them. nevertheless, the traditional basic statistics of the book will be explored first to find out how far the traditional statistical characteristics might be of use in resolving the questions raised in this paper. . results (basic statistics) the collected texts in nahjul-balagha have been segmented into eleven ( , ) token blocks or samples. the authentication of these samples was painstaking due to the many and various citations incorporated into the textual body of the samples in question. the citations removed by the researcher were a diversity of quranic verses, poetic lines, major titles, prophetic narrations and alike. then the eleven samples were grouped into one master corpus. the latter was subjected to hierarchical processing for frequency and the table ( ) below explores the basic statistical descriptions of the master corpus. the mean of word-length is in particular appealing in the table below. the extremely narrow range of the word-length means (from . to . ) indicates a possibly significant characteristic of a single authorship. as for the mean of sentence-length in words, it is really statistically turbulent with a wide numerical band (from . to . ). there are (twelve) figures fluctuating between the statistical profiles of the samples. therefore, there is a rather wide range of statistical transition. hence, the mean of sentence-length does not help much in drawing any significant conclusion regarding the authorship of nahjul-balagha. table . basic statistics of nahajul-balagha corpus file size , , , , , , , , , , , tokens , , , , , , , , , , , types , , , , , , , , , , , type/token ratio (ttr) . . . . . . . . . . . standardised ttr . . . . . . . . . . . standardised ttr std.dev. . . . . . . . . . . . standardised ttr basis , , , , , , , , , , , mean word length (in characters) . . . . . . . . . . . word length std.dev. . . . . . . . . . . . sentences mean (in words) . . . . . . . . . . . std.dev. . . . . . . . . . . . the lexical diversity is indicated by a comparatively narrow range (from . to . ). the nine figures continuum of this range suggests an exceptionally rich vocabulary attributed to the claimed author of the samples. one particular finding, however, might be reached if one gives a quizzical look at the values of the type/token ratio (henceforth ttr). there is an observable shift in the ttr values scored in samples ( ), ( ), ( ) showing ( . ; . ; . ) respectively (see figure below). this range of values sounds quite stable and distinct in comparison to that of the rest of samples which ranges from ( . ) to ( . ). ttr discriminating power sample number t t r figure . ttr discriminating power in nahajul-balagha corpus research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , it seems that ttr values are perhaps highly sensitive to genre: the samples ( , ) constitute the letter- blocks, and ( ) the saying-block in nahjul-balagha, whereas the remaining ones represent the sermon-blocks. nevertheless, ttr does not provide us with any decisive and finite conclusions about the two questions raised about the authorship of nahjul-balagha. how about the hapax legomena/type ratio (henceforth htr)? the eleven samples reveal insightful and noticeable harmony in the htr values (see table below). the statistical consistency of the values provide us with an unavoidable avenue to draw rather concrete evidence of unitary authorship of nahjul-balagha. all the samples share a great deal of similar htr values ranging from ( . ) to ( . ). figure shows some sort of a straight line extending throughout the stable node-samples with roughly indiscriminate plottings. table . htr caculated for the master corpus of nahajul-balagha author segment types hapax legomena htr imam ali . . . . . . . . . . . htr discriminating power sample number h t r figure . htr discriminating power in nahajul-balagha corpus the turbulences seen in ttr values disappear in an exceptional way in the htr plottings. this underscores the significance of htr as a highly robust statistical feature of great usefulness in attributing samples. incorporating al-shaqshaqiyyah in sample ( ), the htr of this sample ( . ) stands high in favour of a strong attributional affinity that holds between this sample and the other ones. if al-shaqshaqiyyah was forged and unauthentic, it would not share the same range of unique occurrences with the other sermons. this might well be considered a plausible answer for the second question raised about nahjul-balagha in this study. . distinct function words frequency going through the distinct function words frequency, more than function words were tabulated after processing the master corpus. however, some function words had zero frequency for at least one of the eleven samples. thus, they were removed from the list. the list was left with only function words with non-zero frequencies all over the samples. below is a table showing the list of these function words, their distributions and percentages all through the master corpus. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , table . the top- distinct function words of nahjul-balagha-corpus wordsmith tools -- / / n word freq. % . و َl . ْnpِ . qِr . spَ . tَuvَ . ْnpَ . tَwِ . إ ْyَw . ْzَ[ . . أَنْ ْnvَ . َّlِ . إ tَّ_ َ̀ . . أَوْ saَ . نَ . إِنَّ َbِw . ذ . اeَِّwي َّyُh . َziَْj . skَِj . ْlَw . َlُ . ھ َznْvِ . َnoَْj . َpoَْw . . ھeَا . إَِذا sَّpَ . أ skَoِr . َqor . َsaُ . َtp . َuv . أ َsw[ . . إذ sv . أ q_w . ا xoa . the function words above account for . % of all the words in the master corpus. this percentage still falls within the limits set by burrows' guidelines ( ), but it is quite expected that the percentage will go a little bit down after removing function words with zero frequencies. three content words have been removed from the list: allah- tokens, th word on the list; adduniah/ the world- tokens, th word on the list, and alhaq/the truth- tokens, th word on the list. . . analysis matrix the researcher designed the analysis matrix that will encompass the frequencies scored for the ( ) function words. below is a sample of the matrix, the first four words in the hierarchy as well as the segment length. the complete matrix can be found in the appendix. the segment length is used in the matrix because the textual body can not be evenly divided into ( , ) word segments. sample matrix – nahjul-balagha corpus author text segment wa la min fi segment length in tokens a nb , b nb , c nb , d nb , research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , . . statistical analysis through pca principal components analysis was used to deal with the over-dimensionality of the function words that should be reduced into a more manageable number of components (factors). it is usually the first two dimensions or components that sufficiently explain the most interesting variables and determine which variable is correlated more highly with one component rather than with another (see craig and burrows ). this is the only way by which the researcher can draw conclusions about the behavior of the function words all through the eleven samples. some function words are expected to stand out constituting salient markers with crucial role in attributing nahjul-balagha. conducting pca on the corpus of the eleven samples indicates that the first two components could capture . % of the total variance within the data environment. these two components are quite enough to determine which variables are highly correlated with each one of them. the first component accounted for . % of the total variance and the second factor . %. table ( ) below explains the percentage of variance captured by each component. table . total variance explained component initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings total % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % . . . . . . . . . . . . then, the researcher can apply pca one step further to check the way the function words behave in respect of the two principal components specified above. figure below plots the statistical behavior of the function words throughout the eleven samples of nahjul-balagha. figure . the distinct function words behavior the first two principal components are represented in the figure above by the x-axis and y-axis. the working principle is rather simple and attractive: those variables or function words that come close together tend to have a similar plotting behavior. moreover, they tend to be found in one group of samples more often than in another. the function words in figure are not treated equally, only those variables that exist at either end of the two axes will be given an authorial weight in controlling the markers of the authorial style. it is evident that the function words found on the far right of figure are ella/to, leisah/not, min/from, zalika/that, bima/as. these words together with those located on the far left of the figure (keif/how, gheira/but, huwa/he, and wa/and) are highly correlated with component ( ). as for component ( ), its top is occupied by wa/and, men/who, fi/in, la/no and alla/on and the function words amma/either, anna/i am, aw/or, and fiima/while move significantly towards the bottom of it. table ( ) below indicates how far the variables have significantly influenced the variance across both components. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , table . components matrix of pca component wa -. . la . . min . . fi -. . ma . . alla . . ella . -. men . . lem . . qad -. . an . . aan -. . illa . . hatta -. -. aw . -. kaan . -. ina -. . zalika . -. ellathi -. -. thuma . . baada . . huwa -. . bima . . law . . inda . . bayina -. . leisah . . hazza -. -. iza . . amma . -. fiima . -. kulah -. -. gheira -. -. maah . -. aantah . -. qehbbla . . anna -. -. iz -. . allati -. -. keif -. . plotting the statistical behavior of the function words, the researcher needs to verify how much of each principal component is referenced by the individual samples. figure plots the eleven samples through a scatterplot giving us a representative graph of the way these samples behave based on . % of the data variance. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , figure . eleven samples behavior the scatterplot in figure above does not show clear cut clusters, though there is a major cluster lurking behind this chaos. it is plotted at the center of the figure with six samples orbiting around ( , , , , and ). while the remaining samples ( , , , , ) go in diverse and scattered directions along the two axes: ( ) jumps to the top right corner, ( ) diverts to the left on the further side of the horizontal axis, ( ) and ( ) tend to the lower right, and ( ) is on the lower left. the anomalous behavior of ( , , , and ) hints that the way function words are used in these samples is inconsistent with that in ( , , , , and ). this could cast some serious doubts about the claimed unitary authorship of nahjul-balagha. however, the researcher would not hasten to draw any premature conclusions about the two questions raised in this case study. further statistical analysis is required to confirm the outputs of the pca. . . statistical analysis through ca hierarchical cluster analysis is used to trace possible groups that might be observed in the numerical tables that we consider for the eleven samples. this analysis is always used regardless of any assumptions a researcher might make about the corpus he is interested in (baayen ). consequently, the researcher will allow this multivariate technique to trace groups or any possible clusters by calculating the degrees of similarity or difference between all the samples under consideration. the significance of this analysis lies in its outputs that might confirm or disconfirm the researcher's findings in pca. the outputs are usually presented in a graphic representation that visualizes the distance at which clusters come close to each other. this graphic representation is called a dendrogram. dendrograms are usually read from left to right. the groups of membership will be allowed to form relying on the statistical characteristics of the eleven samples. no presuppositions are undertaken by the researcher, the individual samples will behave in a way that complies with their own genuine statistical features. the groups that will be allowed to form by ca are measured in accordance with the statistical characteristics of the individual samples including the disputed sermon of (al-shaqshaqiyyah) incorporated in the body of the first sample. it is a privilege that ca does not pay attention to any assumptions might be taken about the data. it is quite independent of pca in terms of the way the latter addresses the targeted samples. it will figure out any possible similarity calculations between the samples that pca may have missed. nevertheless, ca credits or discredits the outputs produced by pca. it should be noted that the researcher is conducting ca assuming that he knows nothing about the clustering possibilities that the eleven samples might show. the dendrogram reported in figure below represents the findings of ca conducted on the eleven samples. what is immediately apparent is that there is a sort of clustering that identifies ( , , , , and ) rather closely with each other, though their subgroups are exhausted by some further lines at which they meet: ( ) and ( ) are identified most strongly on the first vertical line and then cluster with the rd sample. similar clusters continue to merge indicating similarity among the individual samples: ( ) and ( ) cluster on the second vertical line and then align themselves with ( ) on the fourth vertical line and with ( ) on the fifth vertical line. the latter in turn meets with ( ) on the sixth vertical line. it is notable that ( ) and ( ) cluster on the third vertical line, as research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , for ( ), it turns out to be an outlier clustering with little similarity to any of the samples involved. dendrogram using centroid method rescaled distance cluster combine c a s e label num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ a  b   c   d  e    h    g    k     i   j   f   figure . dendrogram using centroid method. it looks observable that there is an outdistancing effect pushing the samples ( , , ) in particular further into the margins of the figured analysis environment. this effect could be seen even in the ascending numbers of the vertical lines, the samples meet first at the first line and then ascend up to the sixth line. though the overall statistical behavior of these samples does not show a quite promising uniqueness in terms of the function words usage, the researcher can build an argument based on the highly distinctive and unique cluster of the first and second samples formed on the first vertical line. if sample ( ) is confidently attributed to imam ali, it is highly possible, then, that ( ) belongs to him on the ground of the intensive degree of similarity that holds between the two samples, though this is not enough. the scattered plottings of the other samples, however, suggest an evident disapproval of attributing them to a single author. . affixed function words frequency now it is the time for the researcher to try the second choice. the researcher thinks that all the statistical disharmony that hangs over the samples checked above is brought into the analysis environment by, first, ignoring those function words attached to affixes (prefixes or suffixes) and, second, by restricting frequency only to those function words stripped off any sort of affixational attachments. it is unreasonable to account for (fi/ in), for example, only if it occurs alone as a distinct preposition. the type of information that (fi) conveys is still stable no matter how many affixes are attached to it. therefore, its function is lying there intact even when a series of suffixes is annexed to it: (fihi/ in it – fiha/ in her – fina/ in us – fihim/ in them (masc.) – fihuna/ in them (femi.) – fihuma/ in them (dual)). even the difference in the frequencies of the distinct function words listed above is too considerable to be ignored or mitigated. as one can see from the frequency list of the affixed function words below, (fi), for example, occurs times as a morphologically distinct preposition, and as an affixed preposition all through the master corpus of nahjul-balagha. the same can be observed for the other function words: (min/from) rises in frequency from as a distinct to as an affixed; (illa/to) from to , and so on and so forth. unless this difference in frequency is taken into consideration, the attributional statistics will not be trustworthy. the function words in table ( ) attain comparatively a considerable percentage: they account for . % of the total words in the master corpus. this percentage is soundly higher than that of the distinct function words, . %, a matter which enhances the credibility of the scored affixed words. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , table . the top- affixed function words wordsmith tools -- / / n word freq. % . و َl . ْnpِ . qِr . spَ . tَuvَ . tَwِ . إ . إِنَّ ْnpَ . ْnvَ . ْyَw . ْzَ[ . . أَنْ َّlِ . إ saَ . نَ tَّ_ َ̀ . . أَوْ ِّsaُ . َbِw . ذ . اeَِّwي َّyُh . ِqoْrَ . َziَْj . َnoَْj . . ھeَا َlُ . ھ َuvَْ . أ skَِj . ْlَw . َznْvِ . َpoَْw . . إَِذا sَّpَ . أ skَoِr . َtpَ . َswَْ[ . . إِذْ sv . أ qِ_َّw . ا َxoْaَ . . . statistical analysis through pca the behavior of the affixed function words in the scattorplot below (figure ) shows slightly different statistical patterns in terms of the first two principal components accounting for . % of the total variance (see table below). table . total variance explained component initial eigenvalues extraction sums of squared loadings total % of variance cumulative % total % of variance cumulative % . . . . . . . . . . . . research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , figure . the affixed function words behavior the function words hatta, kulah, and bayina, on the far left of the same figure, and leisah, ma, and min, on the far right, are clearly correlated with component ( ). component ( ) is headed at the top by keif, wa, and huwa, and at the bottom we find amma, zalika, and aantah. table ( ) below indicates how much the variance in components ( ) and ( ) is conditioned by the affixed function words. table . components matrix of pca component wa -. . la . . min . -. fi -. . ma . -. alla . . ella . -. men . -. lem . . qad . . an . -. aan . -. illa . . hatta -. -. aw . -. kaan . . ina . . zalika . -. ellathi -. . thuma . -. baada . . huwa . . bima . -. law . . inda . -. bayina -. . leisah . . hazza . . iza . . amma -. -. fiima . -. kulah -. . gheira . . maah . -. aantah . -. qehbbla . . anna -. -. iz . . allati . . keif -. . research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , compared with the way the distinct function words behave, the vast majority of the affixed function words shown in figure tend to display a quite notable rush to the right side of the figure. this sharp shift in behavior gives rise to dramatic repercussions over the way the individual samples behave as it could be observed in figure " below. figure . eleven samples behavior. it is apparent by the vertical axis in figure above that samples ( , , , , , , , ) share noticeable similarities in the patterns of using function words. this most likely consolidates a sort of stylistic harmony that made them grouped in one cluster plotted in the upper left. also interesting to note is the way samples ( ) and ( ) divert from all the other samples identifying themselves in one cluster up to the right corner of the plotting. whereas sample ( ) goes down and resides as a single plot recognized on the horizontal axis. the differences in samples behavior are dramatically associated with considerable differences in genre. the latter plays an undeniable role in the way the function words are used. the sermons were segmented into eight subsequent samples represented by the first eight segments in nahjul-balagha corpus. samples ( ) and ( ) represent the letters. as for ( ), it comprises all what is left of the sayings. therefore, the stylistic differences reflected by the different plottings of the eleven samples might well be attributed to the different writing styles of the three different genres: sermons, letters, and sayings. does that mean the subconscious use of function words in nahjul-balagha corpus is significantly affected by the text genre? . . statistical analysis through ca at the present analysis, there is no need to run a big risk in drawing concrete conclusions as to the extent to which genre is influential in nahjul-balagha corpus. a cluster analysis is needed to verify the findings of pca and to investigate if the function words usage varies distinctively according to the genre used in the corpus. the dendrogram in figure represents the findings of conducting ca over the eleven samples. the first thing to be recognized in this dendrogram is the existence of two major clusters: the first encompasses the samples ( , , , , , , , ), and the second holds for two closely identified samples ( ) and ( ) with a third sample ( ) laxing as an outlier. the disputed sermon included in the first sample is still strongly identified with the other samples, especially with the second one. what holds the researcher's interest is the way all the samples are identified with each other: every two samples are intensively aligned on the first vertical line. it is notable that samples ( , ) cluster independently with a strong correlation that binds the two samples on the first vertical line. research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , dendrogram using centroid method rescaled distance cluster combine c a s e label num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ j  k   i   a   b    g    h   e   f   c  d  figure . dendrogram using centroid method. . conclusions it turns out that the multivariate methods (pca and ca) are perhaps robust for addressing the issues raised about nahjul-balagha. it is most likely that the eleven samples do share a single author. the stylistic continuities discerned throughout the stable statistical plottings and clusters of the samples would seem to suggest unitary authorship, even though the samples cross genre-lines. unlike the rest of the sermons attributed successfully only by targeting the affixed function words, "al- shaqshaqiyyah", interestingly, identifies itself most closely with the rest of the sermons regardless of the type of function words used whether distinct or affixed. this case study does confirm that the author of nahjul-balagha preserved approximately the same unique patterns of function words usage, though these patterns show a discriminatory change when crossing over genre lines (from the territory of sermons to that of letters and sayings). therefore, it appears that the multivariate methods based on function words usage are highly sensitive in arabic to genre. references baayen, r. . analyzing linguistic data. cambridge: cambridge university press. burrows, j. . computation into criticism: a study of jane austen's novels and an experiment in method. oxford: clarendon press. burrows, j. f. . "not unless you ask nicely: the interpretive nexus between analysis and information". literary and linguistic computing, ( ), ( - ). craig, h.,& burrows, j. . "lucy hutchinson and the authorship of two seventeenth century poems: a computational approach". the seventeenth century, , ( - ). grieve, j., . "quantitative authorship attribution: an evaluation of techniques". literary and linguistic computing, ( ), ( - ). mosteller, f., and wallace, d. . "inference and disputed authorship: the federalist". (reading, ma: addison-wesley pub. co., ); nd edition as applied bayesian and classical inference: the case of the 'federalist' papers. new york: springer-verlag. ibn abi talib, a. . nahjul-balagha, rd ed., qum: al-thaqalein library. luyckx, k. and daelemans, w. . "authorship attribution and verification with many authors and limited data". proceedings of the nd international conference on computational linguistics. manchester: coling, august, ( - ). zhao, y. and zobel, j. . "effective and scalable authorship attribution using function words". in g.g. lee et al. (eds.): airs , lncs ( - ). research on humanities and social sciences www.iiste.org issn (paper) - issn (online) - (online) vol. , no. , appendix nahjul-balagah matrix author text segment wa la min fi ma alla ella men lem qad an aan illa a nb b nb c nb d nb e nb f nb g nb h nb i nb j nb k nb hatt a a w kaa n in a zalik a ellat hi thum a baad a huw a bim a la w ind a bayin a leisa h hazz a iz a amm a fiim a kulah gheira maah aantah qehbbla anna iz allati keif segment length in tokens , , , , , , , , , , , microsoft word - dh proposal.docx framing the experience: a study of the history of interfaces to digital humanities projects the following paper is a slightly expanded version of the abstract that will appear in the conference book of abstracts. a longer version of the paper has been published before print by digital scholarship in the humanities at https://academic.oup.com/dsh/article- abstract/doi/ . /llc/fqz / . i am therefore not able to upload that paper to this repository, for copyright reasons. but please do read the full paper if you have access to it. introduction: drucker ( ) argues that, although the goals of human computer interface research are to render the interface invisible and facilitate access to digital content, interfaces themselves should be legitimate objects of study. yet little attention has been paid to this aspect of digital humanities resource design. the following paper therefore reports on a study of interfaces to long-lived dh resources to determine what information we may gain from them about the history of dh project development. research questions: the study addresses the following questions: • what can we learn from a study of interfaces to digital humanities material? • how have interfaces to digital humanities materials changed over the course of their existence? • do these changes affect the way the resource is used, and the way it conveys meaning? • should we preserve interfaces for future scholarship? experimental design the following research therefore adopts a case-study approach to a study of the interfaces to digital humanities resources, analysing a sample of projects and their progress over time, in detail. the sample is as follows: • the women writers project- brown university and subsequently northeastern university • the valley of the shadow project–university of virginia • the william blake archive- university of virginia, university of north carolina • proceedings of the old bailey online- sheffield university and hertfordshire university • digital images of mediaeval music- kings college london and oxford university • the oxford text archive- oxford university • virtual seminars for teaching literature- oxford university the reasons for choosing these projects are largely pragmatic: to reach a detailed understanding of interface development over an extended period it was important that resources had as long a lifespan as possible, but remained accessible and usable. the above projects were established in the s or early s and are still accessible, even if in a somewhat different form; relatively few dh projects with such a long history are still easily available. nevertheless, this is a proof of concept study, to investigate whether the proposed method produces useful results. it is not intended to represent a comprehensive audit of all such surviving projects. undertaking a larger study of this type could represent the next development of this research, were funding to be granted to do so. although digital humanities is now a global field, its antecedents in literary and linguistic computing were largely anglo-american, based in a small number of universities, some of which are represented in the sample above. thus the sample is skewed towards english language resources. it was also important to have fluency in the language of the resources, to gain the most complex possible understanding of them, and their accompanying documentation. however, important work was being done in humanities computing in countries such as finland, germany and italy during the same time. thus future work could be carried out on a sample of projects in collaboration with researcher fluent in such languages. the method of analysis is influenced by the work of vela et al. ( ) who used the internet archive’s wayback machine to investigate the design history of the perseus project. the wayback machine was therefore used to identify the original presentation of, then track every significant design change to, the websites in the sample. it is impossible to be certain when each change was made to the resources because, especially in its early days, wayback machine captures were relatively infrequent. nevertheless, this method does provide the most comprehensive insight currently possible into interface change over time. each website, and all significant design changes, were examined in detail, in terms not only of their visual design but also of their technical functionality, encoding and markup. findings: a great deal of valuable information may be derived from studying the interfaces of long- lived projects. the visual design can communicate subtle messages about the way the resource may have been conceived by its creators and the assumptions made, and perhaps subsequently altered, about user behaviour. it can also provide information about the changing place of digital humanities projects in local and national infrastructures, and the way that projects have sought to survive in challenging funding environments. a study of how interfaces have developed reminds us about how changing access conditions (modems to fibre broadband) and technical standards (hand-coded pages with blue hyperlinks to css, xhtml and postgres) have affected web design. when founded, these projects were pioneering users of an experimental medium, thus it was important to establish their intellectual credibility in the scholarly community. it is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that the interface designs of many early websites, such as that for brown women writers, refer to traditions of printed book design, and offered detailed information about the intellectual, and technical credibility of the project team. figure . original interface to the brown women writers project early interfaces were often visually experimental. project teams could assume no knowledge of digital resources, and so were creative in the use of visual navigation devices such as colour, the arrangement of resources in tables, or even an image of a floor plan of a physical archive building. figure . the floorplan navigational device for valley of the shadow growing awareness of user interface design conventions led to many interfaces being redesigned. however, the sample projects have preserved visual links to their original identity, for example by using an original colour scheme, fonts or the arrangements of images into a table-like frame. figure . detail of the original interface of virtual seminars for teaching literature figure . interface to the ww digital archive, successor project to virtual seminars some redesigns, such as that of the blake archive, changed the user experience, and the visual identity radically, emphasising high-resolution images over the original dominance of text. if current users cannot access earlier versions of the site, then valuable information about the assumptions made in designing the original resource is lost. figure . william blake archive- original interface figure . william blake archive- current interface conclusion: interfaces to dh projects provide valuable information about how their creators strove visually to communicate the meaning and importance of the material. subsequent changes provide evidence of how dh led, or responded to, advances in web technologies and interface design conventions. yet, while a great deal of attention is paid to digital preservation and curation, both in dh and information studies, the question of how, or whether, interfaces should be preserved remains unjustly neglected. it is still possible to find early versions of many digital resources using applications such as the wayback machine. however, this is not a perfect solution. once-experimental functionality, such as imagemaps, frames or animations may be incompatible with the wayback machine’s harvesting technology. this means that resources are already either wholly or partially inaccessible in their original form, and this may become even more of a challenge in future. this paper will therefore argue that the dh community should work with libraries to preserve original interfaces and their subsequent iterations. it is better to make conscious decisions to archive all versions of sites that are still accessible, as part of an agreed preservation strategy. not to do so means that we risk losing a wealth of information about the development of the early web and the status of digital humanities resources. references: drucker, j. . “reading interface.” pmla ( ): – . poole, a, h. . “how has your science data grown? digital curation and the human factor: a critical literature review.” archival science ( ): – . vela, s., cerrato, l. ilovan, m., li, t., rockwell, g., ruecker. s., . “the biography of an interface: perseus digital library.” in canadian society for digital humanities/société canadienne des humanités numériques (csdh/schn) conference. st catherine’s, ontario. cdh benevolence and excellence: digital humanities and chinese culture - , shanghai, china president of adho constitutent organizations board elisabeth burr . . . short introduction a very good morning to all of you. i have the great honour and joy to bring the greetings from the alliance of digital humanities organizations to you. as my internet connection is shaky, you will watch the video i have recorded beforehand. please go to adho’s website if you want to know which associations make adho, as this part of my speech was, sadly, cut for time reasons. have a very good conference! . recorded speech a very good morning to you all whether you are taking part in the conference in person or via computer screens. when i received the invitation to attend the opening ceremony of the chinese digital humanities conference from your colleague, dr jing chen, on behalf of the executive committee of this conference, i was thrilled. i could, however, not accept the invitation to be your distinguished guest straight away. as president of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) i obviously had to inform, first of all, those who i represent and ask them for their opinion. as the reaction was unanimously positive i have now the great pleasure and honour to welcome you to this conference, to bring to you the collegial greetings of the alliance for digital humanities organizations and to wish your conference with the wonderful theme “benevolence and excellence: digital humanities and chinese culture” a huge success. allow me to say a few words about the alliance of digital humanities organizations. the first digital humanities organisations, or better organisations for humanities computing, as the field was called at the beginning, were founded, as far as we know, in the ies. in fact, in the european association for literary and linguistic computing (allc) was founded at king’s college london, and in followed the foundation of the association for computers and the humanities (ach) in the united states of america. from onward, these two associations celebrated joint conferences, which took place one year in europe and the other year in the united states. in , discussions started about an umbrella organization which would foster closer collaboration and exchange within the field of digital humanities more widely and which also other organisations might want to join. these discussions led to the foundation of the alliance of digital humanities organizations, or adho as it is generally called, in . the first adho digital humanities conference was celebrated in paris in . adho’s aim is to promote and support digital research and teaching across all arts and humanities disciplines, and to foster excellence in research, publication, collaboration and training. over the years, more and more digital humanities associations applied to become constituent organisations of adho. in , the canadian society for digital humanities / société canadienne des humanités numériques (csdh / schn) joined adho, in centernet and the australasian association for digital humanities (aadh) followed, in the japanese association for digital humanities (jadh) became a constituent organisation of adho, saw the arrival of humanistica. l'association francophone des humanités numériques / digitales, and in adho welcomed the taiwanese association for digital humanities (tadh), la red de humanidades digitales (redhd) based in mexico, and the digital humanities association of southern africa (dhasa). as the legal entity for adho, the stichting adho foundation, was established in the netherlands, adho needs to respect dutch laws. adho sponsors a whole range of special interest groups (sigs) which enable members of adho constituent organisations who have similar professional specialties and interests, to exchange ideas, keep themselves up to date on developments in their specific field, and develop related activities: these include  digital literary stylistics (sig-dls)  audiovisual data in digital humanities (sig avindh)  global outlook::digital humanities (go::dh)  geohumanities sig  libraries and digital humanities  linked open data (dh-lod) adho offers its own constituent organisations and sigs a common infrastructure where web pages, mailing lists, and email addresses can be hosted, and where tools like wordpress, drupal and mediawiki and others are made available for the community. this infrastructure is also used by affiliated bodies like the text encoding initiative (tei) and by some of the digital scholarly journals, which are published by adho constituent organisations and which adho sponsors: the open access peer-reviewed digital humanities quarterly (dhq), digital studies / le champ numérique, and humanités numériques. the journal of the alliance of digital humanities organizations is the peer reviewed and impact factor holding digital scholarship in the humanities (dsh) published by oxford university press. among the many countries from which proposals for publication were submitted during the last year, the people's republic of china with submissions actually holds the top place of the list. every year adho organises the digital humanities conference. at first, this conference took place either in europe or in the united states. when more associations joined, adho’s conference started to travel to other continents and countries. this year’s conference was supposed to be in ottawa canada, but because of covid- it had to be cancelled. this was a very sad and frustrating experience for us all. that we managed to have a virtual conference in the end was only possible because some of our colleagues were prepared to invest a lot of their time and energy in its realisation. obviously, this virtual conference could not do away with the loss we feel. it would have been so much better if we could have met in person as at least some of you can do at this conference. we were longing all through the year to meet our colleagues, exchange ideas with them, construct networks and collaborations and above all get to know each other better. we come after all from very different countries and continents, belong to diverse cultures, speak different languages, and have different views and perspectives on digital humanities. as adho’s next digital humanities conference scheduled for in japan had to be postponed for a year because of the pandemic we will now have to wait until before we can meet the global digital humanities community again in person. this also means that we have to wait much longer than planned, before we can welcome the japanese language among the conference languages. over the years and because of the hard work of the standing committee on multi-lingualism & multi-culturalism (mlmc) adho experienced a process of growing awareness that english is not everything and that the diversity of our community cannot be bridged by having english only conferences. we had to acknowledge instead that the languages and cultures we call our own determine our doing and our concepts of digital humanities. slowly but continuously languages which are spoken by the people or important communities of the country where our conferences took place were admitted as conference languages and ways were found to be inclusive when we present our papers. we were really looking forward to take up the challenges, which japanese will certainly present for most of us. adho is governed by two boards, a constituent organizations board, composed of one representative from each of the constituent organizations (cos) and the special interest groups (sigs) coordinator. the role of this board is to establish vision, strategy, and policy for adho. the second board is the executive board, which enacts the decisions taken by the constituent organisations board and administers the day-to-day running of the organisation. as president of the board, which represents all the digital humanities organisations which together make adho, and also personally, i would have wished to be able to bring you adho’s greetings in person and to get to know the digital humanities community which gathers at this conference at least a little bit, but the pandemic makes this impossible. i hope very much that the present virtual encounter will not remain the only one and that sometime in the future i will meet members of this community and will be able to exchange ideas with them. i also hope that at some point in the future the digital humanities community of the people’s republic of china will be part of the adho “family” and will, by contributing its own perspectives and cultures, help adho to become ever more embracing and sensitive to the diversity of the field and its scholarly community. may you have a great conference and enjoy very enriching scholarly debates and friendly human encounters. datenbank spektrum ( ) : – doi . /s - - - e d i t o r ia l editorial andreas henrich · gerhard heyer · christoph schlieder · theo härder online publiziert: . februar © springer-verlag berlin heidelberg schwerpunktthema: informationsmanagement für digital humanities mit dem vorliegenden themenheft wollen wir ein feld be- leuchten, dessen wurzeln bis in die anfänge der informatik selbst zurück reichen. die nutzung it-gestützter verfahren in den geisteswissenschaften ist keineswegs neu. allerdings haben sich die sogenannten digital humanities in den letz- ten jahren durch verschiedene entwicklungen (leistungs- steigerungen bei hard- und software, fortschritte in me- thoden und algorithmen und nicht zuletzt der aufbau von infrastrukturen durch entsprechende förderprogramme) so- wohl quantitativ als auch qualitativ weiterentwickelt. für die geisteswissenschaften bringt diese entwicklung neue mög- lichkeiten zur bearbeitung ihrer forschungsfragen mit sich. parallel entstehen zum teil neue und spezifische anforde- rungen für die informatik. das datenmanagement und die analyse der daten bilden dabei wichtige bereiche der digi- t. härder (�) tu kaiserslautern, kaiserslautern deutschland e-mail: haerder@cs.uni-kl.de a. henrich fakultät wiai, medieninformatik, otto-friedrich-universität bamberg, an der weberei , bamberg, deutschland e-mail: andreas.henrich@uni-bamberg.de g. heyer institut für informatik, automatische sprachverarbeitung, universität leipzig, augustusplatz , leipzig, deutschland e-mail: heyer@informatik.uni-leipzig.de ch. schlieder fakultät wiai, angewandte informatik in den kultur-, geschichts- und geowissenschaften, otto-friedrich-universität bamberg, an der weberei , bamberg, deutschland e-mail: christoph.schlieder@uni-bamberg.de tal humanities, die in diesem themenheft exemplarisch an acht beispielen dargestellt werden sollen. der begriff der digital humanities (bisweilen auch als ehumanities oder abkürzend dh bezeichnet) ist so facet- tenreich und schwer abzugrenzen wie der begriff der gei- steswissenschaften selbst. zum einen liegt dies an der he- terogenität der geisteswissenschaftlichen gegenstände und der vielschichtigkeit der eingesetzten methoden, zum ande- ren sind aber auch unterschiedliche betrachtungsrichtungen möglich: • eine betrachtungsweise (und zwar die, die in diesem the- menheft auch weitestgehend eingenommen wird) bezieht sich auf die unterstützung geisteswissenschaftlicher for- schungsarbeiten mit methoden der digitalen informations- verarbeitung sowie forschungsfragen, die sich dadurch auch für die informatik ergeben. hier sind aspekte der automatischen textanalyse ebenso zu nennen wie ansätze zum forschungsdatenmanagement, der analyse von d- modellen oder der geoinformatik. • in einer zweiten betrachtungsweise wird die informatik selbst bzw. die software- und systementwicklung gegen- stand geisteswissenschaftlicher forschung. dabei wird die geschichte der informatik und der historische kontext ih- rer entstehung ebenso reflektiert wie digitale kunst oder die rolle von texten (dokumentation, quellcode etc.) sowie interaktionsstilen in der informatik. solche ohne zweifel wichtigen fragestellungen sind aber von der oben genannten betrachtungsweise abzugrenzen. • schließlich stellt auch die soziologische, philosophische oder anthropologische betrachtung der auswirkungen einer zunehmenden digitalisierung ein wichtiges for- schungsgebiet dar, das aber ebenfalls von einer unter- stützung geisteswissenschaftlicher forschungsarbeit mit digitalen methoden abzugrenzen ist. dabei wird es – als a. henrich et al. begleitforschung zu den digital humanities in der er- sten oben genannten betrachtungsweise – sehr wichtig sein, in wissenschaftssoziologischer betrachtungsweise die auswirkungen der digitalisierung auf die geisteswis- senschaftliche forschung zu betrachten. wenngleich wir im hinblick auf die zielsetzung des datenbank-spektrums in diesem themenheft den ersten blickwinkel einnehmen wollen, wäre eine einstufung der digital humanities als „weitere bindestrich-informatik“ zu kurz gegriffen. um die betrachtung geisteswissenschaftli- cher forschungsfragen im hinblick auf ihre unterstützung durch digitale methoden zielgerichtet durchführen zu kön- nen, ist eine methodische kluft zu überwinden. während bei einer ingenieurinformatik und letztlich auch bei einer wirt- schaftsinformatik von der methodik und von den betrach- teten forschungsfragen her eine gewisse nähe zwischen der informatik und dem jeweiligen anwendungsbereich exi- stiert, sind die unterschiede zwischen der informatik und „den geisteswissenschaften“ an dieser stelle deutlich grö- ßer. aus der sicht der datenbanktechnologie und des infor- mation retrieval stellt sich nun die frage, welche neuen herausforderungen sich aus den digital humanities für das informationsmanagement ergeben. facetten der „digitalen“ geisteswissenschaften der begriff der geisteswissenschaften selbst ist in der ab- grenzung gegenstand verschiedenster diskussionen. im ver- ständnis der digital humanities reicht das spektrum in der regel über geschichts-, kunst-, literatur-, religions- und sprachwissenschaften hinaus und umfasst auch kulturwis- senschaftliche, humanwissenschaftliche und sozialwissen- schaftliche fächer. hieraus ergibt sich für die digital hu- manities ein methodenrepertoire, das von digitalen textedi- tionen in der mediävistik über soziale netzwerkanalysen in der kommunikationswissenschaft bis zu kognitiven model- lierungen in der psychologie und d-rekonstruktionen in der bauforschung reicht. die inhaltliche breite der digital humanities drückt dabei auch ein verstärktes interesse an interdisziplinären forschungszusammenhängen aus. im gegensatz zu den natur- und ingenieurwissenschaf- ten haben die geisteswissenschaften in der breite erst ver- gleichsweise spät informatische methoden eingesetzt. dies schmälert nicht die bedeutung mancher pionierprojekte. so wurde der digitale thesaurus linguae graecae bereits begründet und geoinformationssysteme können sogar auf eine noch längere nutzung verweisen. der späte zugang zu informatischen methoden betrifft denn auch weniger die verwendung digitaler medien in einzelnen projekten als die umstellung auf integrierte digitale abläufe in der breite der wissenschaftlichen arbeit. der hauptgrund für die ungleichzeitigkeit, mit der sich die informationstechnologien in den verschiedenen wissen- schaften verbreiteten, liegt in der unterschiedlichen kom- plexität der zu lösenden probleme und den eingesetzten me- thoden. in den natur- und ingenieurwissenschaften sind die primärdaten oft messdaten, die leicht in digitale form ge- wandelt werden können und sich ohne informationsverlust als tabellen darstellen und statistisch verarbeiten lassen. die primärdaten in den geisteswissenschaften sind dagegen meist texte, etwa archivalien, die den geschichtswissen- schaften als quellen dienen. daneben treten materielle kul- turgüter und deren digitale repräsentationen in form von bildern, d-modellen oder metadaten, die kontextualisiert und interpretiert werden müssen. dieser gegensatz – struk- turierte daten der naturwissenschaften, unstrukturierte oder semi-strukturierte daten der geisteswissenschaften – erklärt einen teil der spezifischen anforderungen der geisteswis- senschaften. texte spielen in den digital humanities nach wie vor eine zentrale rolle. auf der anderen seite steigt aber die bedeu- tung der dokumentation materieller kulturgüter sowie sozia- ler beziehungen (soziale netzwerkanalyse, social-media- mining). in einer zunächst methodisch zu vollziehenden, dann informatisch zu realisierenden medienübergreifenden integration dieser daten mit herkömmlichen textdaten in form von durchgängigen wissenschaftlichen arbeitsabläu- fen liegt eine entscheidende herausforderung für die digital humanities. im letzten jahrzehnt haben sich diesbezüglich informatische lösungsansätze eröffnet, von denen zwei stell- vertretend erwähnt werden sollen, weil sie auch für tenden- zen der erweiterung des betätigungsfelds der digital huma- nities stehen: die semantische integration von verschieden strukturierten datenquellen mit technologien des semantic web (z. b. linked-data-repositories) und die social-web- technologien als quelle für verhaltensdaten sowie als ver- breitungsmedium für wissenschaftliche inhalte. themen in diesem heft unseren aufruf zur einreichung von beiträgen haben wir unter anderem gezielt an projekte versandt, die vom bundes- ministerium für bildung und forschung (bmbf) im rahmen der ausschreibung zur förderung von forschungs- und ent- wicklungsvorhaben aus dem bereich der ehumanities aus dem jahre gefördert werden. insgesamt wurden zwan- zig beiträge für das ihnen nun vorliegende themenheft vor- geschlagen, von denen wir leider nur acht annehmen konn- ten. natürlich spielt die text- und sprachverarbeitung dabei nach wie vor eine große rolle. immer stärker in den blick kommen aber – wie oben bereits angerissen – auch netz- werkstrukturen, raumbezogene aspekte sowie andere me- dientypen. editorial in den textbezogenen geisteswissenschaften kann man bisweilen eine kluft wahrnehmen zwischen ansätzen des close reading, die die sorgfältige interpretation einzelner textpassagen in den vordergrund stellen, und verfahren, die unter dem von franco moretti eingeführten begriff des distant reading zusammengefasst werden. dabei werden große textmengen quantitativ und statistisch analysiert. in ihrem beitrag content analysis between quality and quanti- ty – fulfilling blended-reading requirements for the social sciences with a scalable text mining infrastructure widmen sich matthias lemke, andreas niekler, gary s. schaal und gregor wiedemann dieser scheinbaren kluft. sie stellen da- zu das vermittelnde konzept des blended reading vor und präsentieren den leipzig corpus miner als ein werkzeug, das blended reading in den sozialwissenschaften ermög- licht. das papier führt damit in ein zentrales anwendungs- feld aus dem bereich der digital humanities ein und zeigt interessante möglichkeiten für das datenmanagement und die datenanalyse auf. von besonderem interesse in den textorientierten geistes- wissenschaften ist oft die aufdeckung von argumentations- mustern. der beitrag von constantin houy, tim niesen, jesús calvillo, peter fettke, peter loos, annika krämer, klaas schmidt, maximilian herberger, iris speiser, alfred gass, luc schneider und tim philippi zu diesem themen- feld trägt den titel konzeption und implementierung eines werkzeuges zur automatisierten identifikation und analy- se von argumentationsstrukturen anhand der entscheidun- gen des bundesverfassungsgerichts im digital-humanities- projekt argumentum und widmet sich diesem thema. konzept, architektur und umsetzung eines entsprechenden werkzeuges werden präsentiert und einblicke in mögliche anwendungen gegeben. der beitrag betrachtet damit einen sehr relevanten aspekt der digital humanities im bereich der jurisprudenz und juristischer textdatenbanken und dar- über hinaus. in der praktischen arbeit der textorientierten geistes- wissenschaften, beispielsweise den literaturwissenschaften oder der theologie, spielt auch die sogenannte textkritische edition eine zentrale rolle. in ihrem beitrag differenzanaly- se komplexer textvarianten: diskussion und werkzeuge be- schreiben andré medek né gießler, marcus pöckelmann, thomas bremer, hans-joachim solms, paul molitor und jörg ritter den editionsphilologischen textvergleich am bei- spiel von zwei editionen als eine besonders charakteristi- sche anwendung in den digital humanities. werkzeuge zum textvergleich wie etwa das unix-werkzeug diff erlauben es zwar, die unterschiede zwischen zwei texten darzustel- len, für die editionsphilologische frage der entstehung von texten und des zusammenhangs verschiedener textvarian- ten müssen jedoch aufgabenspezifische editionswerkzeuge bereit gestellt werden, wie sie im projektvorhaben sada: semiautomatische differenzanalyse von komplexen textva- rianten entwickelt werden. ein weiterer anwendungsfall von textanalyseverfahren findet sich in den qualitativ arbeitenden sozialwissenschaf- ten, in denen daten aus qualitativer sozialwissenschaftlicher forschung für eine sekundäranalytische nachnutzung bereit- gestellt werden sollen. der beitrag die erschließung von primärmaterial qualitativer studien für die sekundäranaly- se als herausforderung für sozialwissenschaften und infor- matik von volker baethge-kinsky und segej zerr beschreibt diese anforderungen und skizziert, wie ein werkzeug zur semi-automatischen metadatengenerierung für diese aufga- benstellung zum einsatz kommen kann. die leistungsfähigkeit computerlinguistischer verfahren hängt stark vom korpus ab, auf dem die lernalgorithmen trainiert werden. andrea horbach, stefan thater, diana stef- fen, peter m. fischer, andreas witt und manfred pinkal un- tersuchen in internet corpora: a challenge for linguistic processing, wie sich unterschiedliche zusammensetzungen des korpus auf die qualität der wortartenanalyse (part-of- speech-tagging) von twitter-nachrichten auswirken. im beitrag „im zentrum eines netzes [...] geistiger fä- den“. erschließung und erforschung thematischer zusam- menhänge in heterogenen briefkorpora beschreiben vera hildenbrandt, roland s. kamzelak, paul molitor und jörg ritter einen semi-automatischen ansatz zur unterstützung der kollaborativen verschlagwortung heterogener briefkor- pora. die manuelle verschlagwortung wird dabei basierend auf klassischen ir-verfahren durch die automatische ex- traktion vermeintlich sinntragender stichwörter unterstützt. im anschluss erfolgt eine semiautomatische zuordnung von schlagwörter zu diesen stichwörtern. die arbeit ist im bmbf-projekt „vernetzte korrespondenzen. erforschung und visualisierung sozialer, räumlicher, zeitlicher und the- matischer netze in briefkorpora“ entstanden und zeigt auf, wie interaktive werkzeuge die erschließung spezieller do- kumentarten unterstützen können. die beiden weiteren beiträge zum schwerpunktthema ha- ben zwar ebenfalls bezüge zu texten, sie zeigen aber bei- spielhaft medienübergreifende aspekte auf. so treten proble- me der geometrieverarbeitung in den digital humanities na- türlich im zusammenhang mit fragestellungen der archäo- logie oder bauforschung auf. gerfrid müller, frank wei- chert, denis fisseler, michele cammarosano, daniel bach- mann und jörg günnewig zeigen in ihrem beitrag über die modellierung einer raumbezogenen datenbank zur reprä- sentation und analyse syntaktischer und semantischer merk- male von keilschrifttafeln aber einen interessanten anderen anwendungsbereich. beschrieben wird ein verfahren, wel- ches keilschrift auf d-geometriemodellen von tontafel- fragmenten analysiert und so die tafelfragmente identifiziert, die von der gleichen tontafel stammen. schließlich führen auch musikwissenschaftliche editi- onsprinzipien zu neuartigen anforderungen an das daten- management, welches den notentext mit seinen Überar- a. henrich et al. beitungsstufen, musikwissenschaftliche anmerkungen und tondokumente aufeinander beziehen muss. im projektbe- richt das gesamtkunstwerk oper aus datensicht – aspekte des umgangs mit einer heterogenen datenlage im bmbf- projekt freischütz digital stellen daniel röwenstrunk, tho- mas prätzlich, thomas betzwieser, meinard müller, gerd szwillus und joachim veit eine entsprechende systemarchi- tektur vor, die tondokumente mit hilfe von referenzbasierter audiosegmentierung dem notentext zuordnet. zusammenfassung und ausblick die digital humanities als wichtiges und herausforderndes anwendungsfeld für datenbanktechnologie und information retrieval bringen neben fachlichen aspekten (wie sie in den beiträgen zu diesem heft beschrieben werden) auch zahl- reiche weitere fragen hervor: welche konsequenzen erge- ben sich für lehrangebote in der informatik im allgemeinen und zu datenbanktechnologie und information retrieval im besonderen? sind auf seiten der informatik und in der ge- sellschaft für informatik entsprechende Überlegungen und strukturen zur bündelung der initiativen zu digital huma- nities sinnvoll? im hinblick auf die lehre sind in den vergangenen jahren zahlreiche studiengänge und nebenfachangebote zum be- reich der digital humanities entstanden. einen ersten Über- blick gab die broschüre „digitale geisteswissenschaf- ten“. in fast allen angeboten kommen in unterschiedlich großem umfang auch lehrinhalte zum datenmanagement, zur datenbanktechnologie und zum information retrieval vor. für die einordnung der angebote wurde dabei das in abb. dargestellte modell entwickelt. es erlaubt eine auf- schlüsselung der lehrinhalte nach den bereichen a bis e ge- mäß der am unteren rand der abbildung angegebenen skala. im rahmen des bmbf-projektes dariah-de wur- de zum bereich d ein sogenannter informatik-kern be- schrieben . dieser versucht ein minimum an erforderlichen kompetenzen in informatik und angewandter informatik im umfang von credit points zu beschreiben. diese werden zu gleichen teilen auf abstrakte grundkenntnis- se, skills/programmieren, modelle und modellieren sowie inhaltliche anwendungen aufgeteilt. dabei sind algorith- dariah-de: broschüre „digitale geisteswissenschaften“. hg. vom cceh, universität zu köln. erstellt im rahmen des projekts dariah-de; gefördert vom bmbf ( ). http://dig-hum.de/sites/dig-hum.de/files/cceh_broschuereweb.pdf sahle, p.: dh studieren! auf dem weg zu einem kern- und referenz- curriculum der digital humanities. dariah-de working papers nr. . göttingen: goedoc , urn: urn:nbn:de:gbv: -dariah- - - ( ), s. https://de.dariah.eu/; letzter abruf . . nähere informationen hierzu finden sich auch bei sahle. inter-/trans- disziplinarität gegenstands- orien erung theorien methoden fragestellungen angewandte informa k a b c d e geisteswissenscha en informa kdh abb. dh an der schnittfläche von geisteswissenschaften und infor- matik mische grundlagen ebenso vorgesehen, wie programmier- kenntnisse oder x-technologien. auch datenmanagement (einschließlich relationaler und nicht-relationaler datenmo- delle), dbms und data-warehousing werden im umfang von mindestens doppelstunden vorgeschlagen. studierende in dh-studiengängen werden daher in zu- kunft verstärkt auch lehrangebote zu datenbanken und in- formation retrieval nachfragen. ob hierfür spezielle mo- dule sinnvoll sind oder ob eine nutzung der angebote für informatik-studierende wünschenswert ist, hängt natürlich von vielen faktoren ab und ist individuell zu klären. sinn- voll erscheint es aber in jedem fall, anwendungen aus dem feld der dh in der lehre zu datenbanken und information retrieval zu betrachten. neben der zunehmenden bedeutung des anwendungsfeldes können den studierenden so auch die verschiedenen einsatzmöglichkeiten der datenbanktechno- logie an interessanten beispielen verdeutlicht werden. wir würden uns freuen, wenn das vorliegende schwerpunktheft auch hierzu einige anregungen geben kann. im bereich der fachorganisationen gründete sich der verband digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum (dhd) als assoziierter regionalverband der euro- pean association for digital humanities (eadh). auf übergeordneter ebene ist die eadh wiederum mitglied in der dachorganisation the alliance of digital humanities or- ganizations (adho). auch auf seiten der computerlinguistik und der informa- tik haben sich arbeitskreise zum thema gebildet. so verfolgt der arbeitskreis computerlinguistik für digital humanities (cl dh) in der gesellschaft für sprachtechnologie & com- puterlinguistik das ziel „die leistungsfähigkeit computer- linguistischer werkzeuge und verfahren für den einsatz in http://www.dig-hum.de/; letzter abruf . . http://eadh.org/; letzter abruf . . http://adho.org/; letzter abruf . . http://dig-hum.de/sites/dig-hum.de/files/ccehprotect ly extunderscore broschuereweb.pdf https://de.dariah.eu/ http://www.dig-hum.de/ http://eadh.org/ http://adho.org/ editorial den digital humanities zu befördern“ . in der gesellschaft für informatik hat sich im dezember ein arbeitskreis digital humanities im fachbereich informatik und gesell- schaft (iug) gegründet. wegen der bedeutung des themas wäre es sehr wünschenswert, wenn sich hier auch verstärkt mitglieder aus dem fachbereich datenbanken und informa- tionssysteme engagieren würden. community-beiträge in diesem heft nachdem albrecht blaser im datenbank-rundbrief (ausga- be , november ) die ersten zehn jahre unserer btw- tagung sehr detailliert beschrieben und nach verschiedenen kriterien statistisch ausgewertet hatte, haben theo härder und erhard rahm in einem community-beitrag jah- re „datenbanksysteme für business, technologie und web“ – die btw im wandel der datenbank-zeiten die aufga- be übernommen, anlässlich ihres . geburtstags ihre ge- samte bisherige „lebenszeit“ zu betrachten. neben umfang- reichen statistischen auswertungen zum sich wandelnden btw-themenspektrum und zu den beitragsbeteiligungen von universitäten, forschungsorganisationen und der indu- strie konnte zum ersten mal auch eine genaue zitationsana- lyse aller btw-beiträge seit durchgeführt werden. in diesem heft bietet die rubrik „dissertationen“ einen beachtlichen umfang, da sie zwölf kurzfassungen von dis- sertationen aus der deutschsprachigen dbis-community präsentieren kann. die rubrik „community“ enthält schließlich unter news neben einer kurzdarstellung der beiden neuen big-data- kompetenzzentren in berlin und dresden/leipzig weitere aktuellen informationen aus der dbis-gemeinde. künftige schwerpunktthemen data management for mobility mobility is a major factor in our society and daily life. thus, approaches for data management need to address the resul- ting dynamics, geospatial and temporal relationships, and distribution of resources. in web design, the methodology of “mobile first”—developing new web applications for mobile usage first and adapt it later for the desktop case—is widely embraced by industry. however, it often only considers the user interface and not the data management. this special is- sue addresses novel approaches and solutions for mobile data management. we invite submissions on original research as well as overview articles covering topics from the following non-exclusive list: http://www.gscl.org/ak-dh.html; letzter abruf . . • data management for mobile applications • context awareness in mobile applications • analytic techniques in mobile applications • management of moving objects • data-intensive mobile computing and cloud computing • data stream management • complex event processing • case studies and applications • foundations of data-intensive mobile computing expected size of the paper: – pages (double-column) issue delivery: dasp- - (july ) guest editors: bernhard mitschang, university of stuttgart bernhard.mitschang@ipvs.uni-stuttgart.de daniela nicklas, university of bamberg daniela.nicklas@uni-bamberg.de best workshop papers of btw this special issue of the “datenbank-spektrum” is dedicated to the best papers of the workshops running at the btw at the university of hamburg. the selected workshop contributions should be extended to match the format of regular dasp papers. paper format: – pages, double column selection of the best papers by the workshop chairs and the guest editor: april th, guest editor: theo härder, university of kaiserslautern, haerder@cs.uni-kl.de deadline for submissions: june st, big data & ir the term big data refers to data and respective processing strategies, which, due to their sheer size, require a data center for the processing, and which become available through the ubiquitous computer and sensor technology in many facets of everyday life. interesting scientific questions in this regard are the organization and management of big data, but also the identification of problems that now can be studied and better understood through the collection and analysis of big data. in the context of information retrieval as the purposeful search for relevant content, there are two main challenges: http://www.gscl.org/ak-dh.html a. henrich et al. ( ) retrieval in big data and ( ) improved retrieval because of big data. retrieval in big data focuses on the organization, the ma- nagement, and the quick access to big data, but also addres- ses the creative process of identifying interesting research questions that can only be understood and answered in big data. besides the development of powerful frameworks for the maintenance and analysis of text, multimedia, sensor, and simulation data, an important research direction is the que- stion of what kind of insights big data may give us today and in the future. the second challenge in the context of big data & ir is the improvement of retrieval approaches through big data. examples include the classic question of improved web or ecommerce search via machine learning on user behavior data, the usage of user context for retrieval, or the exploitation of semantic data like linked open data or knowledge graphs. we are looking for contributions from researchers and practitioners in the above described context. the contributions may be submitted in german or in eng- lish and should observe a length of – pages in the datenbank-spektrum format (cf. the author guidelines at www.datenbank-spektrum.de). important dates: • notice of intent for a contribution: august th, • deadline for submissions: october st, • issue delivery: dasp- - (march ) guest editors: matthias hagen, universität weimar matthias.hagen@uni-weimar.de benno stein, universität weimar benno.stein@uni-weimar.de editorial data management for mobility best workshop papers of btw big data & ir << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (gray gamma . ) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket 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/tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages false /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (coated fogra \ iso - : \ ) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier (fogra ) /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname (http://www.color.org) /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /enu ([based on '[springeronline_ _acro ]'] use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /bleedoffset [ ] /convertcolors /converttorgb /destinationprofilename (coated fogra $iso - : $) /destinationprofileselector /workingcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks true /includehyperlinks true /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles true /marksoffset /marksweight . /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) 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da's study j. berenike herrmanna, anne-sophie boriesa, francesca frontinib, simone reborac, jan rybickid auniversity of basel, germany bpaul valéry university, montpellier cuniversity of verona duniversity of kraków, poland a r t i c l e i n f o article doi: . / c. journal issn: - a b s t r a c t the publication of nan z. da's study in critical inquiry has triggered a debate about the methodological and conceptual dimensions of digitally assisted inquiry in literary studies. nan z. da's fundamental critique of what she calls "computational literary studies" addresses the work of the international special interest group"digitalliterary stylistics"(sig-dls) of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho). thus we—the five scholars forming the sig's current steering committee—would like to make a short statement. the publication of nan z. da's study in critical inquiry has triggered a debate about the methodological and conceptual dimensions of digitally assisted inquiry in literary studies. nan z. da's fundamental critique of what she calls "computational literary studies" addresses the work of the international special interest group"digitalliterary stylistics"(sig-dls) of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho). thus we—the five scholars forming the sig's current steering committee—would like to make a short statement. initially, we found it a bit surprising that a paper with so many formal, methodological, and theoretical flaws has received so much serious attention. formal and conceptual problems of the paper have been documented in abundance (see andrew piper's do we know what we're doing?, the responses at the critical inquiry blog, and twitter), and we don't see it as our role to add much at this level of the discussion. however, from the point of view of an international sig dedicated to literary stylistics—and digital literary studies—stretching across traditional disciplinary and methodological boundaries, we would like to make a few observations. first, we observe that nan z. da does not refer to the wealth of european, south- american, australian, african, and asian contributions to what she calls j o u r n a l o f c u l t u r a l a n a l y t i c s "computational literary studies." meanwhile, there is a substantial body of non- north-american contributions to international journals (such as digital humanities quarterlyor digital scholarship in the humanities), and also our sig represents members from around the world. it thus appears that the paper is to be primarily understood within the north-american frame—including its particular reference frame of prestige, distribution of research funding and recruitment strategies. a geographic, or cultural, bias may thus indeed be added to the problems that the paper has. and of course, there is room for asking questions about the author's actual motives. second, the fact that the paper has triggered a very serious debate points to a larger phenomenon extending beyond the north-american scholarly frame. it is thus of direct importance to any scholar using computational assistance in the study of literary texts: within the humanities there exists a number of scholars and institutions mounting an irreconcilable reproach against any "digital" or "computational" approaches to literary texts. this position centers around the contention that "literature" is not "reducable" to "numbers" (as well as on a perceived excess in distribution of funds to "dh"). in its extreme forms, this position goes beyond a "healthy skepticism." past experience shows that limiting "permissible" scholarly approaches for ideological reasons is both harmful and ineffective. third, we would like to highlight the difference between "cls" and "dls", thus, between "computational" and "digital" approaches, where "digital" is the more encompassing notion subsuming contributions from the established disciplines of computational linguistics, text mining, and nlp, as well as corpus linguistics and corpus stylistics. it thus comprises also computer-enhanced close reading, for example by means of keyword in context (kwic), or digital annotations of various—including hermeneutic—kinds. this factual practice counters da's statement that cls analyses are essentially run "without regard to position, syntax, context, and semantics" (p. ). da does not seem to be aware of the actual range of methods and the various traditions present in dls. whether in quantitative or qualitative studies, scholars have persistently striven to account for the complexity of literary discourse, and thus get much beyond "basic word frequencies" (p. ). j o u r n a l o f c u l t u r a l a n a l y t i c s fourth, digital literary studies, including cultural analytics, are an interdisciplinary, collaborative, and highly diverse endeavor. in opposition to traditional literary studies, digital studies require many hands, with labs as spaces for collaboration. it is precisely at these spaces, which can have many different organizational incarnations, where an interface of "hermeneutic" and "computational" communities is created. with a growing number of opportunities for making this kind of contact, it is up to the individual scholar to explore the full range of methods, scaling the grade of reduction, contextualization, and degree of direct scholarly interpretation. finally, in his opening response, andrew piper (quite generously) states that nan z. da's paper "is part of a growing body of work that seeks to introduce the idea of replication into the humanities." we fully endorse this line of work, and see it as one of our sig's main offices to further it—by fostering exchange and discussion, as well as methodological and terminological transparency, and the fit of models to data and method. one of our current initiatives is the dls tool inventory, and an upcoming workshop at dh dedicated to the critical assessment of widely used methods in dls. durham research online deposited in dro: october version of attached �le: accepted version peer-review status of attached �le: peer-reviewed citation for published item: ross, c. and terras, m. and warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ) 'enabled backchannel : conference twitter use by digital humanists.', journal of documentation., ( ). pp. - . further information on publisher's website: http://dx.doi.org/ . / publisher's copyright statement: this article is c© emerald group publishing and permission has been granted for this version to appear here http://dro.dur.ac.uk/ /. emerald does not grant permission for this article to be further copied/distributed or hosted elsewhere without the express permission from emerald group publishing limited. additional information: use policy the full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-pro�t purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in dro • the full-text is not changed in any way the full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. please consult the full dro policy for further details. durham university library, stockton road, durham dh ly, united kingdom tel : + ( ) | fax : + ( ) https://dro.dur.ac.uk https://www.dur.ac.uk http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dro.dur.ac.uk/ / https://dro.dur.ac.uk/policies/usepolicy.pdf https://dro.dur.ac.uk ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists ross, c., terras, m., warwick, c., and welsh, a. department of information studies, university college london claire.ross@ucl.ac.uk keywords: microblogging, digital humanities, digital backchannels, conferences, user intention abstract: purpose to date, few studies have been undertaken to make explicit how microblogging technologies are used by and can benefit scholars. this paper investigates the use of twitter by an academic community in various conference settings, and poses the following questions: does the use of a twitter enabled backchannel enhance the conference experience, collaboration and the co-construction of knowledge? how is microblogging used within academic conferences, and can we articulate the benefits it may bring to a discipline? design/methodology/approach this paper considers the use of twitter as a digital backchannel by the digital humanities community, taking as its focus postings to twitter during three different international conferences. the resulting archive of “tweets” was analysed using various quantitative and qualitative methods including a qualitative categorization of twitter posts by open coded analysis, a quantitative examination of user conventions, and text analysis tools. prominent tweeters were identified and a small qualitative survey was undertaken to ascertain individuals‟ attitudes towards a twitter enabled backchannel. findings conference hashtagged twitter activity does not constitute a single distributed conversation but, rather multiple monologues with a few intermittent, discontinuous, loosely joined dialogues between users. the digital backchannel constitutes a multidirectional complex space in which the users make notes, share resources, hold discussions and ask questions as well as establishing a clear individual online presence. the use of twitter as a conference platform enables the community to expand communication and participation in events amongst its members. the analysis revealed the close ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . knit nature of the dh researcher community, which may be somewhat intimidating for those new to the field or conference. practical implications this study has indicated that, given twitter is becoming increasingly important for academic communities, new, dedicated methodologies for the analysis and understanding of tweet based corpora are necessary. routinely used textual analysis tools cannot be applied to corpora of tweets in a straightforward manner, due to the creative and fragmentary nature of language used within microblogging. in this paper, a method has been suggesting to categorize tweets using open coded analysis to facilitate understanding of tweet based corpora, which could be adopted elsewhere. originality/value this paper is the first exhaustive study that we are aware of that concentrates on how microblogging technologies such as twitter are used by and can benefit scholars. this data set provides both a valuable insight into the prevalence of a variety of twitter practices within the constraints of a conference setting, and highlights the need for methodologies to be developed to analyse social media streams such as twitter feeds. it also provides a comprehensive bibliography of other research into microblogging. keywords: microblogging, twitter, digital humanities, digital backchannels, conferences, user intention classification: research paper . introduction with improved accessibility to an increasingly mobile web environment, large numbers of users are creating content using a variety of tools, bringing about changes in the ways communities interact, socialize and collaborate. from sharing tedious and unremarkable babble of everyday life, to alerting people of breaking news, to sharing research resources, the uses of these web . applications are as diverse as the people who use them. the user-centered, decentralized concept (kilbitsch ) allows anyone to become an active participant in the conversation. in recent years a new form of blogging, microblogging, has become popular, pervading daily life as well as academic communities of practice, although it has been accused of being a disruptive, ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . distracting and inconsequential tool full of „pointless babble‟? i . microblogging, with special emphasis on twitter.com ii , the most well known service, is increasingly used as a means of undertaking digital “backchannel” communication (non-verbal, real-time, communication which does not interrupt a presenter or event, (ynge , kellogg et al ). digital backchannels are becoming more prevalent at academic conferences, in educational use, and in organizational settings. frameworks are therefore required for understanding the role and use of digital backchannel communication, such as that provided by twitter, in enabling participatory cultures. formal conference presentations still mainly occur in traditional settings: a divided space with a „front‟ area for the speaker and a larger „back‟ area for the audience, providing a physical platform for didactic transmission with limited interaction from others, implying a single focus of attention and restricting individuals to the role of either speaker or listener. there is a growing body of literature describing these problems; lack of feedback, nervousness about asking questions, issues raised by the single speaker paradigm where the focus on only one speaker can lead to a decrease in participation by others, reduction in collaboration and interaction due to the limiting factors of the setting (geske , bligh , gleason , anderson et al , reinhardt et al ). the use of a digital backchannel such as twitter, positioned alongside the formal or official conference programme, can provide an irregular or unofficial means of communication (mccarthy & boyd, ) which can extend beyond the lecture room to engage with scholars across the community. backchannel benefits include being able to ask questions, or provide resources and references, changing the dynamics of the lecture room from a one to many transmission to a many to many interaction, without disrupting the main channel communication. however, emerging issues regarding this type of communication include a cause of distraction, the generation of disrespectful content and the creation of cliques amongst participants (jacobs & mcfarlane , mccarthy and boyd ). nevertheless research shows that digital backchannels are a valuable way for active conference participation (kelly ) and that they are highly appropriate for use in learning based environments (reinhardt et al. ). recently microblogging has been adopted by conferences such as dh as it allows for the „spontaneous co-construction of digital artefacts‟ (costa et al ). however, little is known about how twitter is used within a conference setting. this paper presents a study that analyses the use of twitter as a backchannel for academic conferences, focusing on the digital humanities community in three different physical conferences held from june to september . digital humanities – the interdisciplinary field of research and ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . teaching concerned with the intersection of computing and humanities disciplines - was chosen due to its early adoption and acceptance of emergent technologies. during three key conferences in the academic field (digital humanities , university of maryland, - th june ; that camp , george mason university, - th june ; and digital resources in the arts and humanities , queens university, belfast, - th september ), unofficial twitter backchannels were established using conference specific hashtags (#dh , #thatcamp and #drha , #drha iii ) to enable visible commentary and discussion. the resulting corpus of individual “tweets” provides a rich dataset, allowing analysis of the use of twitter in an academic setting, and specifically presenting how the digital humanities community has embraced this microblogging tool. through this digital humanities case study, we demonstrate how the use of twitter as a platform for conference backchannels enables the expansion of communication and participation of events amongst community members. the positive and negative aspects of digital backchannel use in an academic community are presented. it is not our intention to make value judgments about the user of twitter at conferences based on a small sample of its use. however, we wish to raise awareness of its intellectual implications, to inform future use of microblogging as an academic backchannel . research on microblogging as digital backchannel activity the literature review has been used as an integral part of the research process providing an initial foundation for a new research topic. published work on microblogging is relatively sparse, one of the main attractions of this research is that there is plenty of scope for investigation but one of the disadvantages is discovering the relevant literature. a thorough critical evaluation of existing research was undertaken for a period of three months, utilising library catalogues (such as the british library), online repositories and digital libraries (such as the acm digital library).both google scholar and google alerts were used to keep us aware of emerging articles, which was particularly helpful in finding blog posts and other postings by individuals regarding their use of twitter. in addition, the twitter community themselves provided new postings and papers of relevance. we believe that this was the most comprehensive way possible to gather both formal and informal writing on a very new subject matter. in the particular case of this research, the systematic overview of the literature helped further refine the key topics. research exploring microblogging and digital backchannels has been undertaken in classroom settings (yardi , costa et al , anderson et al , grosseck and holoescu ), in the commercial sector (jansen et al , zhao and rosson ) and in more general terms (java et al , krishnamurthy et al ). however until recently there has been ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . very little research into the academic use of microblogging, or its use in a conference setting. digital backchannel communication is becoming an increasingly important area of research, and several studies (see below) have focused on twitter due to its growth as a persistent and convenient communication tool. the term „backchannel‟ is used in several different disciplines, allowing the definition to vary with context and usage. in public policy, politics and law, „backchannel‟ refers to a secret, irregular or unofficial means of communication (mccarthy and boyd ). linguistics commonly use the term to define face-to-face oral backchannels as mirror responses, repetitions and head nods by a listener to a speaker (mclaughlin : , gardner : , knight et al ). for the purpose of this paper the term backchannel is understood to imply that there are two channels of communication operating simultaneously, one formal and one informal; backchannel communication travels through informal channels as a secondary route of communication (yardi , mcnely ). the study of digital backchannel communication has recently developed with the growth of microblogging as platforms for academic backchannel activity (honeycutt and herring , zhao and rosson , mcnely ), there has previously been a lot of discussion about academic blogging practice (walker , davies et al ); over the past few years there has been a sharp rise in the number of academics who use blogging for scholarly communication. research has focused on linguistic features and conversational practices (efimova and de moor , stuart , luzon ), the motivations behind academic blogging (nardi et al ) and the creation of communities of practice through blogging (efimova and hendrick ). these discussions provide useful insights into academic use of social media; however they do not actively apply to looking at academic microblogging as a digital backchannel. microblogging is a variant of a blogging which allows users to quickly post short updates, providing an innovative communication method that can be seen as a hybrid of blogging, instant messaging, social networking and status notifications. the word‟s origin suggests that it shares the majority of elements with blogging, therefore it can potentially be described using blogging‟s three key concepts (karger & quan ): the contents are short postings, these postings are kept together by a common content author who controls publication, and individual blog entries can be easily aggregated together. however, many microblogging sites, specifically twitter, combine key characteristics from both social networking sites and blogging (boyd and ellison ). twitter allows users to construct a profile ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . within a bounded system, as well as articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, but these connections are directed rather than undirected (boyd et al forthcoming); users can make connections („follow‟) other users and see their microblog posts („tweets‟), but the other users need not reciprocate. in a flexible and ever increasing network of users, twitter offers new possibilities concerning lightweight information updates and exchange, fulfilling a demand for a faster and more immediate mode of communication than regular blogging. twitter participants are constrained to posting updates which are characters in length (short enough to be carried by a single sms (short message service) message). a series of conventions have emerged that allow structure to be added to tweets (boyd et al forthcoming), including ways to reference other users, language to disseminate messages, and labels to indicate topics in the form of hashtags (a simple way of grouping messages with a „#‟ sign followed by a name or code which forms a unique tag for a specific purpose). these conventions are discussed later in the paper. the short messages, and emerging conventions, mean microblogging systems lower the user investment required to generate and consume content. this lowered barrier also supports new communication modes, including what reichelt ( ) calls ambient intimacy: ambient intimacy is about being able to keep in touch with people with a level of regularity and intimacy that you wouldn‟t usually have access to, because time and space conspire to make it impossible. it is possible to suggest that microblogging platforms may serve as foundations for building or enhancing a community of practice. a community of practice is formed by people within a shared domain who engage in a process of collective learning by interacting on an ongoing basis (wenger , ). communities of practice are distinguished by five key features: their purpose, the personnel, the nature of the boundaries, the cohesive factor/s, and their longevity (wenger et al., , p. ). digital humanities can be regarded as a community of practice, due to the discipline being made up of individuals who self-select into the community on the basis of a unified sense of purpose and „expertise or passion for a topic‟ (wenger et al., , p. ) which become cohesive factors. terras demonstrated that there is an identifiable community operating in the field of computing and the humanities (terras, p. ). digital technology is often suggested as a tool to support communities of practice (see wenger et al , yardi , adams et al ). microblogging as a digital backchannel can be suggested as being such a tool by facilitating a forum ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . for community related discussion resulting in great levels of reflections, discourse, deep content knowledge (yardi ) and distributed expertise throughout the community. such collective learning and interaction results in the improvement of the knowledge of each participant in the community and contributes to the development of the knowledge within the domain. for this reason, this method can be regarded as promising for academic environments in facilitating informal communication, learning and the co-construction of knowledge. . method given the recent popularity of microblogging systems like twitter, it is important to understand why and how people use these tools. this will help to evolve social media tools and develop both client and infrastructure software. we undertook a study of the microblogging phenomena by analyzing different types of user intentions in a twitter enabled conference backchannel. the data set was collected and archived by a twitter archiving service, twapper keeper iv . tweet data from the three conferences which used the four distinct conference hashtags were archived. (these hashtags were used prior to and after the conferences, and have been reused by other conferences, therefore the corpus was limited to tweets posted during the span of each conference). this provided a corpus of tweets comprising of tokens from distinct twitter users, which was analysed using various quantitative and qualitative methods. although there are a number of automated twitter analysis tools v which look at twitter user ids, there are as yet no tools for hashtag analysis, therefore the analysis of the data set was completed manually. in addition, although other basic analyses of the digital humanities community use of twitter have been undertaken (fluharty , french ) this paper is the first exhaustive study concentrating on how such technologies are used by and can benefit scholars. this paper provides both a valuable insight into the prevalence of a variety of twitter practices within the constraints of a conference setting, and highlights the need for methodologies to be developed to analyse social media streams. data analysis involved a qualitative categorization of twitter posts and a quantitative examination of user conventions, in order to provide a deeper understanding of digital backchannel conference activity within the digital humanities community of practice. quantitative analysis such as identifying prominent tweeters, analysing the frequency of conversations between users, determining the frequency of reposting messages (“retweeting”), the frequency of users sharing resources, and the differing use of twitter at the three separate events, provided a context for understanding twitter conventions. ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . it was assumed that frequent terms from twitter traffic would reflect the topics and themes being discussed in the physical conference settings. the tweet corpus was run through the commonly used text analysis tool tapor vi , to highlight the frequently used words, and to enable a comparison against the themes of the conferences. however to overcome text length limitations of microblogging, users have developed their own form of shorthand, code or jargon, which created a problem for textual analysis as there were many unique spellings and shorthand conventions used. to characterize the type of user intention, individual tweets were categorized qualitatively using open coded content analysis. open coded analysis enables corpora data to be broken apart to delineate concepts (corbin and strauss : ). this methodology features heavily in grounded theory (glaser and strauss ) where initial and focused line by line coding produces label variables from within the data itself, which enables large amounts of data to be synthesised (charmaz : - ). each post was read and re-read and placed into a category, determining the apparent intention of each twitter post. much research on user intentions in digital spaces has focused on search queries (broder ) and blogging (nardi et al , lento et al ), but relatively little has been done on microblogging. it was necessary to develop our own categories: although java et al ( ) present a brief taxonomy of twitter user intentions (daily chatter, conversations, sharing information and reporting news) they are based on general twitter use and were too imprecise for our needs. ebner ( ) discovered four major categories whilst studying the use of twitter during the keynote presentation at the ed-media conference, but this is a small study limited to fifty four posts made by ten distinct users: the dh conferences involved a much larger user population. through our analysis, we were able to derive and develop concepts and categories from the corpus data. tweets were divided into seven categories: comments on presentations; sharing resources; discussions and conversations; jotting down notes; establishing an online presence; and asking organizational questions. these categories are specific to the digital humanities corpus: they were decided upon through close examination of the corpus content. given the short format and message content, the ability to code tweets without knowing the context is challenging and it was not always possible to attribute a coding category, therefore tweets which were highly ambiguous were placed in a final “unknown” category (resulting in % of the corpus being classified as unknown). it is important to note that the stated goal of the coding was to hypothesize on the intent of the user posting the message, rather than to provide a descriptive evaluation of the tweet content. in addition, a small qualitative study was undertaken to ascertain individuals‟ attitudes towards a twitter enabled backchannel. twitter users with the highest amount of tweets from the digital humanities conference data set were identified and then sent an online survey ( twitter users were ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . approached, and responses were received). the survey was designed to be answered anonymously, concentrating on gathering data specifically on user perspectives on the use of a twitter backchannel in a conference context. the survey was divided into ten questions, comprising of multiple choice open ended questions, in order to gain insights into the individual‟s motivation for using twitter, the purpose of tweeting in a conference setting, whether conference twitter use differs from normal everyday use, and whether they believe a twitter enabled backchannel encourages a more participatory conference culture. given our study was the first of its kind, it is difficult to establish what constitutes a “normal” use of twitter as this will differ according to the contexts of its use. to date, we are not aware of any available comparable statistics. . findings . corpus analysis conference hashtagged twitter activity does not constitute a single distributed conversation but, rather multiple monologues with a few intermittent, discontinuous, loosely joined dialogues between users. the majority of the activity was original tweeting ( %, tweets): only % ( tweets) were re-tweets (rt) of others‟ ideas or comments (fig ). the real time exchange and speed of review of shared ideas seems to create a context of users offering commentary and summaries and not spreading the ideas of others verbatim. however there is no universally agreed syntax for retweeting, though the prototypical formulation is „rt @user…‟ (boyd et al forthcoming), therefore some retweets using different syntax (for example „retweet‟, „retweeting‟, „via‟ and „ht‟) may have been missed. ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . twitter convention usage from the digital humanities corpus rt @ link twitter conventions n u m b e r o f t w e e ts fig : the use of twitter in a conference setting, indicating the number of tweets which included twitter conventions. % ( tweets) of the tweets during the conference proceedings included direct references to others‟ twitter ids, using the „@‟ sign, as the source of a quote, object of a reply or debate. twitter participants began using the @user syntax to refer to specific users as a form of „addressivity‟ (honeycutt and herring ). the @ sign acts as an indication to a recipient of messages posted in an public forum that the message is intended for them, therefore the @ sign is a tool to gain the target recipient‟s attention, which is essential for conversation to occur. werry ( ) notes that addressivity is essential in a digital multi-participant public environment because the addressee‟s attention must be recaptured with every new message. this practice can be clearly seen in the digital humanities conference community by the high proportion of tweets addressing other twitter users. additionally the @ sign is used to reference other users, this function is also attention seeking, specifically intended to alert the user that they are being mentioned in a tweet. this is also an indication of conversational and collaborative practice: by taking the appearance of the @ sign as an indicator for an act of conversation or attention seeking behaviour, the use implies a form of collaborative writing activity, driving a conference community of practice who are involved in shared meaning making and the co-construction of knowledge (mcnely ). the data supports the assumption in previous ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . twitter studies (specifically java et al and honey and herring ) that the presence of the @ sign signifies that the tweet is part of a conversation. however, the content of the tweets indicate that the discussion was between a few twitter users rather than mass collaboration and was not necessarily focused on conference content. on the other hand it is not self-evident that all uses of the @ sign are intended to be conversational (honeycutt and herring ( ) indicate twelve different functions for the @ sign in a twitter context), or that all the conversations in twitter use the @ sign. additional factors may need to be accounted for to determine the extent to which conference twittering is conversational including the perceived user intention, which will be discussed later in this paper. providing links to outside content is a central convention developed by users constrained by the character limit. posting links enables user to point other users to extended information on any given topic. sharing resources is a central practice in twitter as a whole, therefore the percentage of links posted in the data set should be high. sharing resources in a conference environment is an incredibly useful tool, as it provides context to discussion about specific projects or sites. % ( ) of posts in the digital humanities data set included a link to outside content. jacob and mcfarlane ( ) discuss polarization in digital backchannels, highlighting a conflict between an inclusive and participatory conference culture and a fragmentation of conference participants into cliques only intermittently engaged with the main presentations. there has also been a lot of discussion recently about the use of negative, disparaging and disrespectful comments within conference backchannels (kellog et al , yardi , mccarthy and boyd , parry ). a prime example of this was at the recent web . expo vii , where the actions of the audience and the architecture of the twitter backchannel during the keynote presentation produced a very negative experience (boyd , michéle ), provoking a very public discussion about the implications of using a digital backchannel in a conference setting. this negative use was not the case at the digital humanities conferences, with the majority of the content being open and encouraging. however, the formation of cliques does seem to be apparent during the digital humanities conferences. a small minority of users produce a disproportionately large amounts of tweets (fig ), interacting with each other about other matters, indicating an unevenness of participation amongst users. a high amount of users only produced tweet during the duration of the three conferences (fig ). this lends support to the notion of a ‟ : : ‟ rule (nielsen ) for new social media, where % of users are lurkers, % of users contribute from time to time and % participate a lot and account for the majority of contributions. this participation inequality has been observed in other collaborative online environments for more then a decade (nielson , anderson , nonnecke and preece , ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . kiesler et al ) and would seem to apply to twitter. the fact that this is demonstrated in our corpus suggests the close knit nature of the fairly small digital humanities researcher community, but may also be somewhat intimidating for those new to the field, conference, or twitter itself. this is a concern that should be focused on by any conference organizers. the potential for negative effects in a persistent and visible digital backchannel suggest that the implications of using a digital backchannel should be considered: there have been suggestions that a form of group censorship should be introduced (codgill et al ) enabling a community to become the authority of what is appropriate in any particular conference backchannel discourse. tweet density during the digital humanities conferences < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - < - number of tweets n u m b e r o f p e o p le fig : density of tweets produced by twitter users in the digital humanities conferences corpus, indicating that many users only tweet a few times, whilst a small amount of users tweet very often. when the figures are analysed, it can be seen that the tweeters who post the most often actually provide the majority of tweets across the conference. a question about official and unofficial backchannels can also be raised from these findings. when communication is digitally mediated, backchannels may not be visibly obvious. that is, even if participants know who else is participating in an interaction, it does not guarantee (as it does in the front channel) that the backchannel is accessible. visibility and awareness of backchannel activity is ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . an important issue. for example: the dh conference had attendees registered attendees (fig ); despite the profile of the attendees, all active in the digital humanities, only half used the twitter enabled backchannel. at a digital conference you may expect this percentage to be higher, yet only percent of the numbers registered for drha participated on twitter. however, % of the number of registrants for the thatcamp unconference were tweeting: indicating how twitter posts can reach out to the wider community of practice and involve those not actually attending the event (and also highlighting that it can be difficult from tweet postings to ascertain who is actually attending an event without close study of the content). conference dh thatcamp drha days number of attendees number of individual twitter users using the conference hashtag number of tweets average number of tweets per day twitter users as percentage of attendees % % % fig : number of conference attendees against number of twitter users there are numerous factors which can affect the involvement of a conference community on twitter. if the backchannel is set up unofficially and is not actively encouraged by the conference organizers it may be difficult to discover (exemplified by the use of two different hashtags in the twitter backchannel for the drha conference). an unofficial backchannel does not guarantee active participation. allowing communities to self organize is important, but potentially leads to inconsistencies: this was also apparent at the dh conference where additional hashtags were developed to represent different sessions, a practice only adopted by a few users. in addition, a major factor to consider is the physical conference infrastructure: the availability of an internet connection and adequate access to electrical power is a prerequisite to allow sustained microblogging activity. from anecdotal evidence, the low use of the twitter enabled backchannel at the drha conference appears to be caused by lack of infrastructure to support online communication. the proliferation of wireless networking, net books and mobile hand held devices has led to an acceptance of backchannel discourse; however it is essential that there are adequate resources ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . available for individuals to utilize that technology. conferences are only now routinely providing wireless access and electrical sockets for computers, (likewise, mobile phones that easily support technology such as twitter are a recent development). . . textual analysis it has been suggested that microblogging creates new kinds of aggregated texts that must be understood as creative entities rather than in their individual pieces (jones ). therefore any one tweet may not make sense outside of the larger discourse, the larger collective environment or the community of practice, in which the tweet is made. it seemed appropriate to create corpora of all tweets from all three hashtagged conferences in order to keep the collection environment intact. however, due to the character constraints placed upon users and the development of twitter conventions there has been a deviation from the standard form of languages used for writing, similar to the way in which sms language deviates from the standard form (ling and baron ). this type of abbreviated, truncated, coded and unstructured writing style presents problems in utilising textual analysis methodologies to facilitate analysis of the corpus. it may be useful, in future, to look towards methodologies that have been developed to analyse other short messaging technologies, such as sms messages (ling and baron , aw et al ) to develop relevant methodologies for our purposes. tapor, a frequently used tool for text analysis research, provided inconclusive results due to being unable to analyse the corpora fully, most likely because of the complex twitter conventions. therefore another textual analysis tool was used; antconc . . w viii . it is likely that new textual analysis tools and methodologies will need to be developed, as traditional methods of analysis are not designed for the stylistic features and conventions of twitter. antconc highlighted frequently used words from the corpus including; http, rt, bit, ly, and specific user names, indicating that the twitter conventions of sharing resources through link shortening services and retweeting strongly influence the order of the word list (fig ). this needs to be considered if textual analysis of tweets is to be utilized effectively, and a “twitter stop list” proposed to allow further analysis of tweets which would reduce noise. rank frequency count out of total ( ) word ( %) thatcamp ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . ( %) dh ( %) http ( %) s ( %) digital ( %) m ( %) t ( %) rt ( %) drha ( %) humanities ( %) bit ( %) briancroxall ( %) ly ( %) elli ( %) amandafrench ( %) session ( %) up ( %) dancohen ( %) com ( %) nowviskie fig : table showing highest ranking words in the digital humanities twitter corpus word frequency (count) in digital humanities abstracts ( total words) frequency in tweets digital ( . %) ( %) text ( . %) ( . %) humanities ( . %) ( %) s ( . %) ( %) analysis ( . %) ( . %) history ( %) ( %) data ( . %) ( . %) new ( . %) ( . %) case ( . %) ( . %) ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . project ( . %) ( . %) fig : table showing highest ranking words in the digital humanities abstracts (an amalgamation of dh abstract titles, that camp unconference session themes, and drha abstracts titles, and their frequency in the digital humanities tweet corpus when the tweet corpus is compared to a corpus containing the paper and unconference session titles from the three events, more potentially useful information can be found. digital, text, humanities, analysis, history, data, new and project all feature highly. it is also possible to extrapolate key themes from the content of the tweets without automatic analysis. in this instance, textual analysis did not enhance our understanding of the digital humanities twitter enabled backchannel. twitter challenges the traditional authorial boundaries that are associated with writing and the word „text‟. if scholars want to understand emergent services like twitter, particularly its use in academic conferences, there is a need to consider the cultural and linguistic importance of these texts and how they can be productively analysed. it is possible to gain an insight into the user intentions of the digital humanities twitter community through open coded content analysis. tweets were manually labelled into seven categories: comments on presentations; sharing resources; discussions and conversations; jotting down notes; establishing an online presence; asking organizational questions, and unknown. most tweets in the corpus fell into the category of jotting down notes ( %) (fig , fig ), triggered predominately by the front channel presentation, suggesting that participants are sharing experiences and to a degree co-constructing knowledge. what is surprising is the lack of direct commentary on presentations ( %) (fig , fig ). although reinhardt et al ( ) argue that twitter enables thematic debates and offers a digital backchannel for further discussion and commentary, the tweet data suggests that this does not appear to have happened at the digital humanities conferences. this raises the question of whether a twitter enabled backchannel promotes more of an opportunity for users to establish an online presence and enhance their digital identity rather than encouraging a participatory conference culture. nevertheless jotting down notes can be considered an active contribution to the community, enabling the expansion of communication and participation in the event. % of posts were categorized as establishing an online presence (fig ) within the digital humanities conference community (examples can be found in fig ). this is not to suggest that users are self indulgent, more that the users are alerting each other to their presence, and situating ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . themselves within a relatively small community of practice. naaman et al (forthcoming) suggests that these type of posts may play an important role in helping users maintain relationships. category tweet example comments on presentatio ns dh twitteruser: really enjoyed @dhtwitteruser presentation on how she used monk tool to read stein #dh dh twitteruser: have yet to hear anything new at the „deep reading‟ talk #dh sharing resources thatcamptwitteruser: fir the archiving social media group #thatcamp here is (among other things) what i use: http://dpante.de/fbud/ thatcamptwitteruser: http://www.speculativecomputing.org/ivanhoe/ ivanhoe: a game of critical interpration #thatcamp discussion s/ conversatio ns drhatwitteruser @drhatwitteruser #drha i‟d be interested to see how they dealt with intertineatins and corrections thatcamptwitteruser @thatcamptwitteruser i‟ll have to think about it. they‟re not totally orthogonal, but seem so in practice. #thatcamp jot down notes drha twitteruser: „archiving is now principally about commitments and relationships‟ #drha dh twitteruser: french: humanities are already digital, but not digitally literate. #dh establish online presence thatcamptwitteruser: feeling like a really nerdy kid in a really nerdy candy shop trying to decide which sessions to go to #thatcamp dh twitteruser: just remembered i have binary m&m‟s. oh joy of joy‟s! post organisatio nal questions dh twitteruser: can you use time stamps to navigate you tube videos? i thought you could. dh # thatcamptwitteruser: what‟s the trajectory of learning „digital‟ things in dh? simple skills that build into deeper understanding? #thatcamp fig : exemplar tweets in twitter user intention categories. user names have been anonymised. % of posts contained organizational questions (fig ), suggesting that within the digital humanities conference environment, it is more appropriate to ask questions in the physical setting. % of posts were categorized as discussions or conversations (fig ). traditional conference settings http://dpante.de/fbud/ http://www.speculativecomputing.org/ivanhoe/ ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . encourage conversations which derive order from turn taking and referrals to previous statements, but when utilizing a digital backchannel, the conversation, communications and commentaries are disrupted across a non-cohesive network in which the recipients are constantly changing. therefore traditional conversation structures are missing from the twitter corpus, resulting in a different type of participatory culture; rather than following interactions in an ordered exchange, users are placed within twitter‟s multidirectional discursive space ix , where they loosely inhabit a multiplicity of conversational contexts at once. users are potentially combating this disorientating context by simply providing step by step accounts of events, in an attempt to bring some coherence and order to the backchannel. this note taking activity provides an essential mediator in the co-construction of meaning within the conference and to the wider digital humanities community of practice. this, in turn, creates a stable environment for the mediation of knowledge and therefore suggests that the digital humanities conference twitter enabled backchannel is encouraging a more participatory conference culture through the practice of writing notes. twitter user intentions from the digital humanities corpus categories n u m b e r o f t w e e ts t w e e ts comments on presentations sharing resources discussions/conversations ons jot down notes establish online presence post organisational questions ambiguous ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . fig : perceived twitter user intentions in a conference setting, indicating that a large proportion of tweet content involved jotting down notes in , cogdill et al developed a taxonomy of backchannel discourse, which identified five categories of backchannel; process oriented, context orientated, participation-enabling, tangential and independent. from the data set of the digital humanities conferences it is possible to suggest that these categories are still current in a twitter enabled backchannel. content orientated discourse is a private response to the content of the front channel interaction. cogdill et al ( ) indicate that a content orientated backchannel offers commentary on the content of the public discourse. in the digital humanities data set, the open coded content categories comments on presentations would fit directly into the content orientated discourse. the participation-enabling backchannel bears more resemblance with the digital humanities conference twitter communications, helping users function better in the conference environment, providing information to help members of the community to participate more fully in discussions, gaining the community‟s approval and encouraging acceptance in the group. the high percentage ( %) of jotting down notes frames the conference community and allows others to participate (fig ). twitter user intention per conference c o m m e n ts o n p re s e n ta tio n s s h a rin g re s o u rc e s d is c u s s io n s /c o n v e rs a tio n s j o t d o w n n o te s e s ta b lis h o n lin e p re s e n c e p o s t o rg a n is a tio n a l q u e s ... a m b ig u o u s user intention categories n u m b e r o f t w e e ts thatcamp dh drha ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . fig : twitter user intention per conference, highlighting the high percentage of jotting down notes at both that camp, and dh . open coded analysis also enables us to look more directly at whether a twitter enabled backchannel enhances the conference experience or whether it is just full of „pointless babble‟. it is possible to split the categories into two larger groups; „information providers‟ and „whispering in class‟ (fig ). fig : twitter information providers or whispering in class, the majority of tweets fall into the information provider category whispering in class contains the categories establishing an online presence, and discussions and conversations. this is because a lot of the content of these tweets did not provide useful information about the conference or its themes. this does not mean that it is pointless babble however: networking with other members of the community and establishing your identity therein (whether in the backchannel or in the main channel) play a strong part in the conference experience. the information providers category contains comments on presentations, sharing resources, jotting down notes and posting organizational questions. these can be seen as actively co-constructing knowledge twitter information providers or whispering in class % % information providers whispering in class ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . and in essence amplifying the conference. being able to follow the actions of social reporters or following links to outside content allows a larger group of users to participate in the conference. . survey responses the eleven responses to the email survey on twitter usage is a small sample of the digital humanities community, and therefore results from the survey cannot be taken to be statistically indicative of the digital humanities as a whole. however, the survey responses do give an qualitative guide to the approach and opinion of those who routinely and frequently use twitter as part of their professional digital humanities activities. only respondents ( . %) have held twitter accounts for over months. it may be expected that this percentage would be higher due to the nature of the digital humanities community, who tend to be early adopters of new technologies. respondents ( . %) of those questioned have had active twitter accounts for - months and respondents ( . %) have been active for - months. the respondents of the survey reported that the main motivation for using twitter is to keep up to date with what is going on in the digital humanities sector ( respondents . %) as well as for professional development ( respondents . %) and developing existing networks ( respondents . %) (fig ). the open ended responses strongly support this, with the majority stating that the main benefit of using twitter is to gain to up to the minute digital humanities news, strengthening collegial relationships, maintaining connections with those in the field as well as being able to see who is working on similar research. respondent : i've been able to connect with other scholars who are working on topics that are related to my research. since most schools only need one person in a particular specialty, twitter allows me to stay connected with colleagues whose work is more closely aligned with my own. it's also allowed me to discover new people whose work is related but falls outside of my specific discipline. i now know many more history and american studies scholars than i did before. respondent : keeping up with what's going on in the dh community, making connections with others in that community, and maintaining those connections. respondent : twitter is a very effective means of keeping abreast with news and information in my areas of professional and personal interest. ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . the majority of respondents ( respondents . %) use twitter more in a conference setting than normal everyday use (fig ), suggesting that the conference environment is conducive to academic tweeting. the respondents stated several key reasons for the purpose of tweeting during conferences including taking notes and sharing information, aggregating points to attendees and non attendees, reporting on proceedings, holding discussions, recording thoughts and creating a personal record which can be reflected on at a later date. respondent : first, to let people who are not at the conference know what is happening. second, to communicate with others who are at the conference; it allows us to have a backchannel discussion to what is going on in the current presentation. third, to form my own thoughts and create a record of notes of what i've seen and/or learned. fourth, to share additional materials, such as links, etc., that are related to the presentation at hand. respondent : .reporting out to people who aren't there, . note taking, but in public, . backchannel these responses follow very closely the categories used to reflect user intentions, suggesting that the categories are representative of twitter use in a conference environment. main motivations for using twitter by digital huanities respondents professional development creating new social networks developing existing networks for personal use to keep up to date with what's going on in the sector other ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . fig : graph showing the main motivations for using twitter by the respondents to the small qualitative study, highlighting professional development and keeping up to date with the sector as the key motivations. how digital humanities respondents use twitter differently at conferences from normal twitter use use twitter more at conferences use twitter less at conferences only use twitter at conferences never used twitter before the conference but now use it a lot about the same fig : graph showing the how respondents twitter usage differs from normal use, strongly indicating that that the conference environment is conducive to academic tweeting. respondents ( . % ) always used the specific conference hashtag (fig ), suggesting that the convention of hashtagging content, topic and events is common practice. this implies that the use of conference hashtags establishes visible commentary and discussion within the community and provides a relatively reliable and searchable archive of events (should tweets be saved for future use). ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . digital huanities respondents usage of the conference hashtags to identify tweets (#dh , #thatcamp, #drha , #drha ) always most of the time ocassionaly hardly at all never categories n u m b e r o f r e s p o n d e n ts fig : graph showing the how respondents utilized the conference hashtags in tweet content, the majority always attaching the specific conference hashtag. respondents were asked their opinion on whether a twitter enabled backchannel encourages a more participatory conference culture. the majority of responses stated that twitter does encourage participation. one respondent, however, was unimpressed by conference backchannels, finding them distracting and concluding that tweeting should be „silent and discreet‟, which contrasts another respondents view that they should be visible. respondent : i have been unimpressed by backchannels presented on conderende podiums behind speakers. i find they distract from the presentation. i think tweeting should be silent and discreet. respondent : only if it's visible to all, while the talk is happening. doesn't have to be prominent, but should be obvious. several respondents also raised the concern that backchannel use could have negative effects, suggesting that users should be civil. ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . respondent : i think so, yes, although as with any online social medium, we should be mindful to be civil and not, say, gang up on a speaker. many respondents also believe that a participatory twitter enabled backchannel is an interesting dynamic that needs to be explored in further detail. participation in the backchannel may depend on users‟ roles in the conference setting. the survey asked for clear information about attendees participation at the events. (fig ). different conference roles of the digital humanities repondents speaker organiser attendee online attendee all of the above conference roles n u m b e r o f r e s p o n d e n ts fig : graph showing the different roles of the respondents at the digital humanities conferences this data provides inconclusive evidence as to whether twitter users‟ conference roles have a bearing on backchannel use, as all roles were utilized by the highest tweeters in the dh data set. the survey also inquired into the respondent‟s experiences of their ability to follow conferences on twitter, if they were not physically attending. the majority of respondents felt that it was fairly easy to follow an event online, particularly when tweeters are reporting on the presentations. the ease of following conferences via twitter raises issues regarding participation from online attendees. do the user intentions differ from those of the physical conference attendees? is one more for reporting and ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . the other more conversational? this is a key issue that should be investigated further. these issues and the inability of the data set to provide substantial evidence highlights one of the main difficulties in looking at a data set of conference tweets after the event has taken place; there is no way of qualifying the data in order to gain a deeper insight into the users themselves, so it is necessary to strongly focus on the content of the tweets. this small qualitative survey seems to indicate that the conference environment is conducive to tweeting, allowing users to aggregate proceedings for other attendees (both physical and online). a twitter enabled backchannel does seem to encourage a participatory conference culture and twitter as a tool is becoming incredibly useful to the digital humanities community. . conclusion this study of digital humanities conference tweets provides an insight into the digital humanities community of practice, and how academics use twitter in a conference based setting. the twitter enhanced backchannel utilized at three distinct digital humanities conferences did enable discussion to extend beyond the physical space of the conference to engage with scholars across the digital humanities community. this suggests that the use of a digital backchannel enhances the conference experience, creating a more participatory conference culture. digital humanists have, historically, been quick to adopt emergent media to aid their own tasks. the use of twitter as a platform for conference backchannels enables the community to interact in new ways, expanding communication and participation of events amongst its members, and allowing the digital humanities community to co-create knowledge ensuring that the „collaborative knowledge of the community is greater than any individual knowledge‟ (johnson , ). the digital backchannel constitutes a complex space, with users combating its disorientating context by providing step by step accounts of events, making notes, sharing resources, holding discussions and asking questions as well as establishing a clear individual online presence. while determining individual user intentions in twitter in a conference setting is challenging, it is possible to describe broad behavioural trends. the predominance of note taking suggests that the dh community could be classed as social reporters, commenting on the conference presentations for outsiders, rather than collaborating during the conference. this could be considered an active contribution to the development of community knowledge which expands the reach of the conference. there was also a tendency for a small group of users to produce the majority of tweets, interacting with each other about other matters. this suggests the close knit nature of the dh researcher community, but may also be somewhat intimidating for those new to the field or conference. this ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. ( ). "enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . should not detract from the backchannel's ability to co-create knowledge for the community as a whole. the potential for negative effects of conference tweeting suggest that the community of practice should consider the implications of using a digital backchannel as conference enhancer. conference organizers could introduce a form of group censorship (codgill et al ) or develop a form of digital backchannel etiquette, allowing users to monitor themselves as well as other contributors. a key difficulty in looking at a data set of conference tweets after the event has been presented: there is no way of qualifying the data in order to gain a deeper insight into the users themselves, therefore it is necessary to strongly focus on the content of the tweets. additionally, routinely used textual analysis tools cannot be applied to corpora of tweets in a straightforward manner, due to the creative and fragmentary nature of language used within microblogging. given that twitter is becoming increasingly important for academic communities, new, dedicated methodologies for the analysis and understanding of tweet based corpora are necessary. the use of digital backchannels is facilitating a change for conference events from largely one-to- many ephemeral broadcasts to exchanges with increasing interaction between speaker and audience, and between both local and remote participants (either in space or time). with the increasing prevalence of twitter in academic conference environments it is possible to present digital backchannel communication as a viable tool for the co-construction of knowledge within a community of practice. however, this argument is by no means complete or definitive. technology has changed how we think about communities of practice, presenting an ongoing activity of use, adaptation and dissemination of evolving behaviours. those who participate in digital backchannel communication at conferences, whether organizers, speakers or attendees, must understand and confront their visibility, issues of user awareness and potential negative factors, in order to influence the use of the twitter enabled backchannel as a effective conference tool which fully encourages a participatory conference culture. the twitter enabled backchannel thus raises questions about the nature of conference participation and whether or not it is helped or hindered by a digital backchannel. rather than mere whispering in class, the twitter record produced at each of the conferences featured here provides important, although transient, evidence regarding how digital humanities, as a community of practice, functions and interacts. an analysis and understanding of tweet based corpora can therefore inform our understanding of academic events, and the academic appropriation and application of social media. ross, c. terras, m. warwick, c. and welsh, a. 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"enabled backchannel: conference twitter use by digital humanists. journal of documentation. vol. iss: , pp. - . ii twitter was created by a san francisco based privately funded startup and launched publicly in august . http//:twitter.com/about iii the community aspect of twitter means that participants self organize, instigating tags themselves, hence the participants of digital resources in the arts and humanities used two different hashtags to discuss the conference depending on the twitter user. iv www.twapperkeeper.com, the early tweets from one conference (dh ) were not archived, and had to be recovered manually from users twitter streams. this was done by peter organisciak and alejandro giacometti. the twapper keeper archives for the three digital humanities conferences can be found at: http://twapperkeeper.com/dh /, http://twapperkeeper.com/thatcamp/, http://twapperkeeper.com/drha / and http://twapperkeeper.com/drha / v twitter analysis tools include http://twitteranalyzer.com/, http://www.twitalyzer.com/, http://trendistic.com/, http://twitturly.com/, http://tweetstats.com/, although these tend to focus on analysis of networks surrounding individual users names, instead of individual hashtags. as such, they were not appropriate for our purpose. vi http://portal.tapor.ca/portal/portal a text analysis portal for research vii http://www.web expo.com/ viii http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/software.html ix we have used the phrase multidirectional because unlike email there are numerous ways in which tweets can be sent and received, thus one to one private communication akin to email (direct messages); one to one public communication using the @ symbol; one to many communication but using a hashtag to relate the message to a particular subject of discussion, or completely open posting, which may or may not lead to further discussion. earlier messages may also be retweeted, without the original author’s permission. we believe that this environment may therefore be described as multidirectional. http://www.twapperkeeper.com/ http://twapperkeeper.com/dh / http://twapperkeeper.com/thatcamp/ http://twapperkeeper.com/drha / http://twapperkeeper.com/drha / http://portal.tapor.ca/portal/portal towards implementing a real-time deformable human muscle model in digital human environments - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference doi: . /j.promfg. . . procedia manufacturing ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect th international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics (ahfe ) and the affiliated conferences, ahfe towards implementing a real-time deformable human muscle model in digital human environments abhinav sharma*, angela dani, anith j. mathai, timothy marler, karim abdel-malek u.s. army virtual soldier research program, center for computer aided design, the university of iowa, iowa city, ia , u.s.a abstract the current state of the art digital human models are a visual proxy for humans in part due to the advances in computer graphics. they perform with biomechanical accuracy that mimics real human motion. models such as santos® have a biomechanically accurate skeleton driving the motion, which in turn controls the deformation of a flexible skin for added realism, all in real time. however, these models lack realistic musculoskeletal systems that respond in real time to biomechanical motion. they require varying levels of pre-processing before motion can be applied to them, thus preventing the real time effect; muscle models need to be flexible and deformable, which in computer simulations generally translates to higher computation requirements. by combining advances in computer graphics, especially the fast rendering game graphics capability, with known literature on musculoskeletal modeling, a preliminary full body musculoskeletal system that deforms in real time is presented along with the skeleton and skin. given the biomechanical studies focus of digital humans, the model implemented centers on the mathematical articulation, and not the graphical volumetric representation, of actual musculoskeletal systems. as such, each muscle is defined as a line that starts at an origin position, determined from anatomy, and ends at the corresponding insertion position, while wrapping as needed around cylindrical obstacles that emulate the minimum bulges required for that line to be at the centroid of the actual equivalent muscle. for each muscle, the origin position, insertion position and obstacle parameters (position, rotation, and scale) have to be obtained relative to key joints for accurate articulation. this was done manually on a per-muscle basis for muscles, and can be extended to any anthropometric avatar. with this initial real-time model, there is potential for a quicker assessment of the effect of muscles on human task performance, leading to a complete model that deforms in real time. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference. keywords: digital humans; muscle model; anatomy; real time graphics; musculoskeletal system * corresponding author. tel.: + - - - . e-mail address: abhinav-sharma@uiowa.edu © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.promfg. . . &domain=pdf abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . introduction . . digital human digital human models are representations of humans rendered within a d computer graphical environment. the digital human model is driven by a mathematical skeleton. unlike real human beings that comprise of bones, muscles, nerves, and organ systems, digital humans such as santos® consist mainly of kinematic skeleton and a skin. the digital humans or ‘avatars’, visually characterize a human body by using advanced graphical techniques to realistically represent human skin. the skin is connected to the skeleton by using a ‘skinning’ algorithm. the skin is essentially a mesh of polygons, almost always triangles, that interlock together to form a continuous and closed skin. the skinning algorithm allows the skin to deform and move along with the skeleton. the polygonal elements that make up the skin do not deform and are rigid, but the joints of the polygons are allowed to bend. the deformation of the skin is analogous to chain-link armor, where each joint cannot deform but the overall system is flexible and pliable. the skinning algorithm is essentially a mathematical formulation that assigns weights to certain polygons. these weights are usually ‘painted’ on by a d modeler. the process of skinning is an advanced and mature technique in the computer graphics world and has been utilized by digital human modeling. . . kinematic modeling of human mechanism the -degrees of freedom (dof) santos™ whole-body human model [ ] includes the six global dofs from a global origin as well as the lower/upper limbs, the torso, and the head (figure ). the pelvis is chosen as the base link for the global dofs under rigid-body assumption. the configuration of the human open loop kinematic chains is described by the denavit-hartenberg (dh) notation [ ]. the × joint variables uniquely determine the configuration of the system. the global motion (translations and rotations) of the body reference point located at the center of the human pelvis can also be described using the dh method with mass-free link-joint structure representing the global dofs. the displacements of the first three prismatic joints describe the global translations of the pelvis in the -d xyz cartesian coordinates (units in meters). the last three revolute joint variables represent the global orientations of the pelvis in terms of euler angles (units in radians) in a -d space. the global dof generalized coordinates are expressed as follows: where the superscripts (p) and (r) indicate the prismatic and the revolute joint, respectively, and α, β, and γ are the euler angles of z-x-y type. fig. . a whole-body human-like mechanism in zero joint variables and the global dofs. abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . biceps muscles in humans. fig. . simplified representation of the biceps muscles. . . background on musculoskeletal modeling musculoskeletal modeling is a field that has been in development for decades now. currently, several musculoskeletal simulation packages such as simm biomechanics and anybody technology are available commercially. these packages however, require a certain level of preprocessing before any results can be obtained and analyzed. furthermore, their sole purpose is musculoskeletal simulation; human performance cannot be analyzed as comprehensively as using digital humans. digital humans, that are developed based on ‘skinning’ algorithms, in contrast, lack musculoskeletal models that can be used for more accurate task simulations. this paper aims at introducing a combination of these two capabilities for the entire digital human body. using the santos® digital human developed by the virtual soldier research (vsr) team, this paper introduces a preliminary full body musculoskeletal system that responds in real time, without any noticeable delay, on an avatar. . methods . . transitioning from actual human muscles to computerized muscles figure presents what the bicep muscles look like in human beings. from the figure, three main parts can be identified; the origin tendon, the part that initially attaches the muscle to the skeleton; the insertion tendon, the other part that attaches the muscle to the skeleton; and the muscle bulk, the part that expands or contracts during muscle action (contraction, extension, adduction, abduction). trying to model and simulate the volumetric muscles presented in the figure will prove to be highly computationally expensive. as such, a mathematical, less intensive model based on the formulation proposed by charlton and johnson [ ] is used instead. more specifically, the modified charlton and johnson algorithm developed by amos patrick, from the vsr team, is used [ ]. figure summarizes this formulation. the muscle is depicted as a single line, rather than a volume, that still starts at an origin position and ends at the corresponding insertion position, but wraps around an obstacle, usually a sphere or a cylinder, placed such that the muscle line runs through the centroid of the actual equivalent muscle. that is, the obstacles serve to mimic the minimum bulges that will keep the approximating muscle line passing through the centroid of the actual volumetric muscle. this is usually accomplished by running the line from the origin, through known points called via points on the obstacles, to the insertion. the line in this formulation is referred to as the muscle action line. every muscle can be approximated with a number of muscle action lines. for most muscles such as the bicep muscles, just one line suffices. but for muscles such as the trapezius muscles whose insertion tendons cover a much larger area, more than one action line is needed. the model presented in this paper will be based on the approach patrick took; the number of action lines per muscle will be kept to a minimum [ ]. . . musculoskeletal modeling on santos® . . . inputs to extend the musculoskeletal modeling formulation onto an avatar such as santos®, three parameters first have to be obtained for each muscle action line. these are: the origin position, the corresponding insertion position, and the obstacle(s) information (position, rotation, and scale). to accomplish this, d human skeletal, and volumetric abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – muscle models are imported in the rendering environment and scaled to fit within the skin-based digital human, as it would in a real person. it is worth noting that these are just visual proxies; although all the models are stacked together, the santos® avatar, and the imported models remain entirely independent from each other in function. then, on a per-muscle basis, the parameters are obtained; d frames are manually placed where the origin and insertion tendons attach to the skeletal model, and their positions are retrieved relative to the santos kinematic skeletal joints. similarly, cylindrical obstacles are manually placed on the on the volumetric muscles such that the action line that would wrap around the obstacles will be at the centroid of the volumetric models. the obstacle parameters are then retrieved relative to the kinematic joints. the joints relative to which the parameters are obtained are determined based on biomedical intuition. consider the bicep short muscle, for example. this muscle originates from the shoulder and inserts on the ulna with the main bulge associated with the muscle being around the elbow. on the santos® joint based kinematic skeleton, this would translate into the origin position being obtained relative to the shoulder joint and the insertion and obstacle parameters being retrieved relative to the elbow joint, given the lack of an actual skeletal system. in this scenario, the origin is said to be ‘parented’ to the shoulder joint. similarly, the insertion and obstacle are said to be parented to the elbow given that their information was retrieved relative to the elbow joint. once these parameters are obtained, the obstacle wrapping algorithm can be run. . . . wrapping algorithm the wrapping algorithm employed is based on the approach suggested by charlton and johnson [ ], and patrick [ ], in which the muscle action line is assumed to be a frictionless elastic string. two cases are to be considered: when wrapping around the obstacle is required and when it is not. for illustration, assume the muscle being considered only has one obstacle. the muscle action line runs through points. the first and last points are the origin and insertion, respectively. the remaining points are the via points which would be on the surface of the obstacle in case wrapping occurs, or linearly interpolated between points and in case wrapping does not occur. using the obstacle position, rotation, and scale parameters, and the santos® joints chain information, a transformation matrix is constructed to obtain the origin and insertion positions in terms of the cylinder coordinate system. if wrapping must occur, it will occur along the shortest path from the origin to insertion around the cylinder. this implies that the via points will follow a helical pattern the cylinder. on the onset, not enough information is available to determine whether wrapping occurs or not. the problem here is a d problem. given two initial positions relative to a d cylinder with a longitudinal z-axis, positions must be determined. to accomplish this, the wrapping algorithm suggests carrying out an analysis in planes—the circular x-y plane and longitudinal x-z or y-z plane (since the base is circular, the x-z plane is similar to the y-z plane). the circular x-y plane is defined by the x and y coordinates of the origin, insertion and center of the cylinder, all three of which are purposely never collinear. from there, the x-y positions of via points and are determined. these positions are to and ti in figure a. with those, whether wrapping should occur or not can be assessed. wrapping occurs if the z component of the cross product between and is negative, and does not occur if it is positive. figure b highlights this difference. if wrapping does occur, the z-coordinate of to and ti must be determined. from those two points, the remaining via points can be readily determined by radial interpolation. the next step is to convert the via points from the coordinate system of the cylinder to that of the environment so that a line may be rendered through them for a visual check. finally, to create the real time effect, the origin, insertion, obstacle positions and consequently, all of the via points positions, are updated and recomputed every rendering frame to take into account any limb movement by the digital human. . . . multiple obstacle wrapping for complex muscles, more than one obstacle is needed. for such muscles, the wrapping algorithm must be run in series for each obstacle. figure presents this approach. the wrapping algorithm is run on the first obstacle, and if wrapping occurs, the last point of intersection, ti, is used as the origin position for the subsequent obstacle. abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . (a) cylindrical wrapping in the x-y plane (b) difference in wrapping depending on sign of z-component of cross product. [ ] fig. . multiple obstacle wrapping work flow. fig. . key joint concept used to establish minimum and maximum muscle lengths. . . . elongation feedback to accompany the real time musculoskeletal model, a novice scheme has been implemented for muscle elongation feedback. this scheme is based on the length of the muscle action line. first, a key joint for each muscle action line is determined. when the joint angle of this key joint is set to its maximum, the muscle action line attains its maximum length, and when the joint angle is set to its minimum, the muscle action line attains its minimum length. once the minimum and maximum lengths of each muscle have been established, elongation feedback given any muscle length can be provided through linear interpolation. figure illustrates the concept. the key joints are determined on the santos® avatar using a trial and error process. . results and discussion muscle action lines parameters were retrieved through manual placement of d frames and cylindrical obstacles. the parenting scheme for each of these muscles was tested and refined for proper biomedical motion. for illustrative purposes, consider the bicep short muscle again. originally, the insertion position of the muscle was (a) (b) abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. . preliminary musculoskeletal system on santos® with real time elongation feedback. retrieved relative to the santos® kinematic wrist joint. however, parenting the insertion to the wrist joint resulted in the muscle action line of the bicep short muscle protruding from the digital human during limb manipulation. when the insertion position was retrieved relative to the elbow joint instead, the problem was eliminated and the muscle action line moved approximately as anatomically predicted. furthermore, for each of these action lines, key joints that would set the minimum and maximum length limits were determined for elongation feedback. the result is a preliminary full body musculoskeletal system that deforms and responds in real time, while providing elongation feedback. figure presents a view of this capability. . . shortcomings of the musculoskeletal model of the several hundreds of muscles in the human body, only muscle action lines were able to be added to the santos® digital human. this is primarily because of the fact that the santos® kinematic skeleton is not representative of an actual human skeleton. for the muscles that were not added, changing the parenting scheme did not prove as successful as with the bicep short muscle; the action lines of those muscles still did not respond as anatomically expected. furthermore, the elongation feedback currently implemented using the preliminary musculoskeletal system is based on minimum/maximum limits established by key joints. this dependency on key joints makes using this feedback mechanism as constraint in human task simulation redundant in the santos® software which already uses joint angles as constraints in its simulations. a more scientifically sound feedback mechanism will involve having the ‘rest’ lengths of each muscle stored relative to a ‘neutral’ avatar position. any deviation from those muscle ‘rest’ lengths would then be reported as positive or negative elongation as necessary. . . . neutral posture a neutral posture is the body position at which muscle activation levels are at a minimum. in this position, the amount of electrical activity stimulating the muscles is at its minimum. a number of methods have to been used to accurately quantify this amount of electrical activity. amongst them, the use of electromyography (emg) signals has yielded the best results. in this method, either electrodes are attached to the skin, for superficial muscle activity detection, or needles are injected into the muscle, for more detailed analysis, and the electrical activity of the muscle recorded. abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – in the santos® model, neutral postures need to be examined and developed for standing, sitting and lying down. this is to ensure the proper calculation and execution of already existing tasks. emg signals have been used to determine neutral postures for the three cases. . . . . standing while standing, the human body is under constant stress as a result of the body trying to balance itself. the ankle joint experiences the most stress as the center of mass falls in front of, and not in line with, it. constant activity in the calves, and major superficial dorsal and ventral muscles of the torso is necessary for stability. this is similar to guy wires (tensioned cables designed to add stability) on a cell phone tower. without this constant activity, an individual would not be able to stand properly [ ]. the checkley system suggested by edwin checkley [ ] is recommended for santos. figure presents santos in this standing neutral posture. . . . . lying down not much muscle activity is needed in lying down. the lying down posture is completely at rest due to the absence of energy expenditure from having to balance the body [ ]. the woodhull-mcneal posture is recommended for use as the lying down posture in santos (see figure ). note from figure that the current santos skeleton does not allow for the neck joint to align with the spine as per the recommendation. . . . . sitting a muscle activation level study carried out by nasa in zero gravity is used as basis for the relaxed sitting position. according to it, the center of gravity of the head is situated slightly anterior to the atlanto-occipital joint (articulation between the atlas and the occipital bone). body weight is supported by the ischial tuberosities (known as the sitting bones) and the adjacent soft tissues. the degree of the lumbar curve during the sitting posture depends on sacral angulation which is governed by pelvic posture and the degree of mobility/fixation of the involved segments [ ]. figure presents santos in the suggested posture. fig. . sitting position (a) santos (b) nasa reference position [ ]. a b a b a b fig. . neutral standing posture on santos (a). standing posture depicting natural and forcible carriage of the body (b) [ ]. fig. . lying down neutral posture (a) top view (b) side view. abhinav sharma et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – these postures, once properly implemented in santos®, can be used as basis for better muscle elongation output. . future work given the described shortcomings of the current musculoskeletal system, the model is still incomplete. first, a new parenting scheme has to be devised to enable the addition of further muscles. secondly, based on the performed study, human ‘neutral’ positions for standing, lying down, and sitting have to be implemented on the santos® model. once that is done and the santos® digital human is set to those neutral postures, muscle action line ‘rest’ lengths can be computed and used for a more scientific elongation feedback. with a better elongation feedback scheme, the musculoskeletal model can be extended for use in task simulations. from simple tasks such as touching a point in space, to complex ones such as obstacle courses, the santos® digital human will be able to perform these out while minimizing or maximizing muscle elongation as required. once refined and proven adequate for biomedical studies, the musculoskeletal model will be extended onto the other santos® software digital humans. . conclusion this paper presents a breakthrough in full body musculoskeletal system modeling on digital humans. musculoskeletal system modeling and simulation has long remained a field quite separate from digital human modeling. the former requires a certain level of preprocessing before results can be obtained and analyzed, whereas the latter bases its simulations and resulting feedback on kinematic joint and skin movement. by combining known literature on musculoskeletal modeling with gaming graphics architecture, this paper presents a preliminary full body mathematical musculoskeletal system on a digital human that deforms and responds in real time, along with an amateur muscle elongation feedback mechanism. each muscle is approximated by one or more muscle action lines that start at the anatomically correct origin position, and travel through via points to the corresponding insertion position. the via points are determined using a wrapping algorithm on cylindrical obstacles that emulate the minimum bulges required to keep the approximating muscle action line running through the centroid of the equivalent volumetric muscle. for each muscle, key joints that set the minimum and maximum muscle action line lengths are also determined for elongation feedback. this model currently consists of muscle action lines. more muscles still need to be added. a more sound elongation feedback based on muscle action line length deviation from its ‘rest’ length still needs to be implemented. after this, human tasks can be simulated and analyzed using muscle elongation as a constraint. that is, a digital human such as santos® can then be instructed to carry a simple task such as touch a point in space while minimizing or maximizing muscle action line elongation in the process. acknowledgements the authors of this paper will like to acknowledge the virtual soldier research program, the university of iowa, amos patrick, john looft, and laura freylaw. references [ ] xiang y., chung h.j., mathai a., rahmatalla s., kim j.h, marler t., beck s., yang j., arora j., abdel-malek k. “optimization-based dynamic human walking prediction,” proceedings of sae digital human modeling for design and engineering, seattle, wa, june . [ ] denavit j., hartenberg r.s., “a kinematic notation for lower-pair mechanisms based on matrices,” journal of applied mechanics, vol. , pp. - , . [ ] chalrton ian w., johnson garth r., “application of spherical and cylindrical wrapping algorithms in the musculoskeletal model of the upper limb,” journal of biomechanics , pp. - , . [ ] patrick a., abdel-malek k., “a musculoskeletal model of the upper limb for real time interaction,” sae technical paper - - , [ ] poppen r., maurer j., “electromyographic analysis of relaxed postures,” biofeedback and self-regulation, pp. - , . [ ] checkley e., a natural method of physical training, making muscle and reducing flesh without dieting or apparatus, brooklyn, ny, . [ ] woodhull-mcneal a. p., “activity in torso muscles during relaxed standing,” european journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, pp. - , . [ ] mount f. e., whitmore m., stealey s. l., “evaluation of neutral body posture on shuttle mission sts- (spacehub- ),” pp. - , . i intersectionality in digital humanities for private and non-commercial use only ii collection development, cultural heritage, and digital humanities this exciting series publishes both monographs and edited thematic collections in the broad areas of cultural heritage, digital humanities, collecting and collections, public history and allied areas of applied humanities. the aim is to illustrate the impact of humanities research and in particular re lect the exciting new networks developing between researchers and the cultural sector, including archives, libraries and museums, media and the arts, cultural memory and heritage institutions, festivals and tourism, and public history. iii intersectionality in digital humanities edited by barbara bordalejo and roopika risam for private and non-commercial use only iv we dedicate this volume to tessa bordalejo robinson, who is already ighting to dismantle the heteronormative patriarchy . british library cataloguing in publication data a catalogue record for this book is available from the british library. © , arc humanities press, leeds the authors assert their moral right to be identi ied as the author of their part of work. permission to use brief excerpts from this work in scholarly and educational works is hereby granted provided that the source is acknowledged. any use of material in this work that is an exception or limitation covered by article of the european union’s copyright directive ( / /ec) or would be determined to be “fair use” under section of the u.s. copyright act september page or that satis ies the conditions speci ied in section of the u.s. copyright act ( usc § , as revised by p.l. – ) does not require the publisher’s permission. isbn (print): eisbn (pdf): www.arc- humanities.org printed and bound by cpi group (uk) ltd, croydon, cr yy v contents list of illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix introduction barbara bordalejo and roopika risam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all the digital humanists are white, all the nerds are men, but some of us are brave moya z. bailey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . beyond the margins: intersectionality and digital humanities roopika risam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . you build the roads, we are the intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adam vÁzquez digital humanities, intersectionality, and the ethics of harm dorothy kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . walking alone online: intersectional violence on the internet barbara bordalejo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ready player two: inclusion and positivity as a means of furthering equality in digital humanities and computer science kyle dase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gender, feminism, textual scholarship, and digital humanities peter robinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . faulty, clumsy, negligible? revaluating early modern princesses’ letters as a source for cultural history and corpus linguistics vera fasshauer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for private and non-commercial use only vi vi intersectionality in digital archives: the case study of the barbados synagogue restoration project collection amalia s. levi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . accessioning digital content and the unwitting move toward intersectionality in the archive kimberley harsley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all along the watchtower: intersectional diversity as a core intellectual value in digital humanities daniel paul o’donnell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . appendix: writing about internal deliberations daniel paul o’donnell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . select bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii illustrations figures figure . gender ratio at digital humanities conferences, – . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . proportion of men and women editors for the series surveyed, – . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . proportions of men and women editors by decade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . relative proportions of men and women editors by decade. . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . comparison of relative proportions of men and women editors by decade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure a. names of editors in the oxford editions series, and others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure b. names of recipients of the mla seal, and others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . an american editor: fredson bowers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . an eets edition not edited by a woman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . board members of the society for textual scholarship, june . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . annotation levels in the score editor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . figure . consonant duplication in sibylla’s page margin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . table table . graphic realization of in sibylla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . for private and non-commercial use only viii ix acknowledgements this volume originated from the intersectionality and digital humanities conference organized by barbara bordalejo at ku leuven. we gratefully acknowledge the support of the following sponsors for the conference: doctoral school of humanities and social sciences (doctoral school humane wetenschappen), ku leuven; faculty of arts (faculteit letteren), ku leuven; flemish research foundation (fonds wetenschappelijk onderzoek). we also acknowledge the social sciences and humanities research council of canada’s future commons partnership development grant. the collection was also greatly enriched by the thought- provoking presentations and conversations that took place at the conference. thank you, in particular, to keynote speakers alex gil, daniel paul o’donnell, padmini ray murray, melissa terras, and deb verhoeven, whose support and friendship has sustained our work in many ways, long past the conference itself. our gratitude, as well, to the presenters: koenraad brosens, j. de gussem, kimberley harsley, tiziana mancinelli, peter m. w. robinson, fred truyen, carole urlings, sytze van herck, paola verhaert, tom willaert, sally wyatt, and heleen wyffels. thanks are due, as well, to dymphna evans and danièle cybulskie for their guidance as editors. we also greatly appreciate the generous feedback that jacqueline wernimont offered during the editing process. additionally, roopika would like to thank dennis cassidy for his endless patience and support. for private and non-commercial use only x chapter all along the watchtower : intersectional diversity as a core intellectual value in digital humanities daniel paul o’donnell † this problem is signi icant because it indicates the failure of the traditional model for scholarship adequately to describe serious intellectual work in humanities computing, whose scope cannot be delimited in the same way and to the same extent as the traditional kind … a new de inition of scholarship, demanding new abilities, would seem to follow. the bonfi re of the (digital) humanities digital humanities came close to imploding as an organized discipline in the – academic year. the origins of the dispute lay in the deliberations of the program committee for digital humanities, the annual, usually very competitive, international conference organized by the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) and held in in krakow, poland. what criteria, this committee asked itself, should we use for accepting or rejecting submissions? should we privilege “quality”— presumably as this is measured by success in the conference’s traditionally highly structured and quite thorough peer review process? or should we privilege “diversity”— de ined largely in terms of ensuring that speakers from as wide a range of demographics as possible are given slots at a conference (and in a discipline) that has been accused of skewing heavily toward white, northern, and anglophone men? or, as one member of the committee put it with forceful clarity in an email: there’s a solid consensus that the conference is there in order to hear from diverse groups, but whenever one opts for diversity, it usually means opting for less quality (oth- erwise there would be no issue), so the danger is that one loses sight of this, very central goal of the conference. email is an informal medium, and it would be unfair to take the position expressed here and later circulated by others on social media as having been considered in the same way as this chapter or other formal presentations that have referred to this email † university of lethbridge, canada. willard mccarty, humanities computing (basingstoke: palgrave macmillan, ),  . adho conference coordinating committee email listserv, “re: dh and diversity,” september ,  . for private and non-commercial use only since this controversy irst arose. as steven ramsay has noted of his own apparently unintentionally provocative comments on the belief that coding is the core activity within digital humanities, “all quotes are by nature taken out of context.” in this partic- ular case, it is important to remember, the passage in question comes from the middle of an internal debate (most of which has not been published or released on social media) in which members of a conference organizing committee struggled to determine the best method of fairly distributing access to a major conference with a high rejection rate. at the same time, however, the “diversity debate” exempli ied (and in part provoked) by this email was real and involved the numerous regional, national, linguistic, and other organizations that make up adho and run the ield’s major journals, conferences, and societies. the debate led to the resignation of one of adho’s of icers and it resulted in inter- society debates about cultural norms surrounding issues of “diversity” and “quality” that are still ongoing. this resignation and these debates led to a brief threat from one of the societies to break away from the larger consortium, taking its journal and participation in the international conference with it. the debate provoked in part by this email, in other words, was serious enough to threaten some of the most prestigious and central organs and activities that characterize global digital humanities and undo what can be considered one of the most characteristic features of international digital humanities as it is currently constituted: its strong and highly centralized international organizational collaboration and cooperation. moreover, while people seem wary of putting it in writing, the sentiment that there is an opposition between “quality” on the one hand and “diversity” on the other remains relatively common within some parts of institutional digital humanities (as well as other industries). it also aligns to a certain extent with longer- standing positions and regional trends in how the ield as a whole is understood: between “those who build digital tools and media and those who study traditional humanities questions using digital tools and media,” as mark sample puts it: “do vs. think, practice vs. theory, or hack vs. yack.” i am a member of a national digital humanities society executive and a former chair of the special interest group (sig) global outlook::digital humanities (go::dh), an orga- nization that played a pivotal role in the recent “global turn” within digital humanities. i am also a middle- aged, white anglophone man who enjoys the security of a tenured north american professorship. and i have been, at various times, a member of the adho executive, adho conference organizing committees, and president of one of the national societies that collectively govern the organization. in these contexts, i have heard both stephen ramsay, “on building,” accessed june , , http:// stephenramsay.us/ text/ / / / on- building/ . see cleve r. wootson jr, “a google engineer wrote that women may be unsuited for tech jobs. women wrote back,” the washington post , august , , www.washingtonpost.com/ news/ the- switch/ wp/ / / / a- google- engineer- wrote- that- women- may- be- genetically- unsuited- for- tech- jobs- women- wrote- back/ . mark sample, “the digital humanities is not about building, it’s about sharing,” samplereality, may , , www.samplereality.com/ / / / the- digital- humanities- is- not- about- building- its- about- sharing/ . dismissive complaints about “diversity” as a way of promoting the less quali ied, and honest struggles with the question of how a desire to promote as wide participation as possible within digital humanities might con lict with de initions of various forms of “quality” within the  ield. as is true of many signi icant disciplinary debates within the digital humanities, how- ever, much of this discussion has taken place out of public view— on closed email lists used by the adho executive or in closed meetings of its various committees; as shelaigh brantford pointed out in an unpublished paper, a person unfamiliar with the details of the internal debate provoked by this email and resignation would not be able to build an accurate sense of the issues at stake (or just how serious the crisis had become) from the organization’s own public pronouncements. in this chapter, i would like to tackle the question of “diversity” and “quality” within digital humanities head on. that is to say, i would like to consider the question raised in the email thread from the digital humanities organizing committee directly and seriously. is there an inherent con lict between these two concepts within digital human- ities? is it the case that “whenever one opts for diversity, it usually means opting for less quality”? and is the promotion of “quality,” to the extent that it can be kept distinct from “diversity,” actually a “very central goal of the [digital humanities] conference,” or any other venue for disseminating our research? to anticipate my argument, i am going to suggest that the answer to each of these questions is “no.” that is to say, irst, that there is no inherent con lict between “diver- sity” and “quality” in digital humanities; second, that emphasizing “diversity” does not threaten the “quality” of our conferences and journals; and, inally, that “quality”— when taken by itself, without attention to questions of “diversity”— is in fact not the central goal of the digital humanities conference, or any other digital humanities dissemination channel. indeed, to the extent they can be distinguished at all (and to a great degree, in fact, i argue they are the same thing), “diversity”— in the sense of access to as wide a pos- sible range of experiences, contexts, and purposes in the computational context of the study of problems in the humanities or application of computation to such problems, par- ticularly as this is represented by the lived experiences of different demographic groups — is in fact more important than “quality,” especially if “quality” is determined using methods that encourage the reinscription of already dominant forms of research and experience. see daniel paul o’donnell and shelaigh brantford, “the tip of the iceberg: transparency and diversity in contemporary dh,” csdh- schn (congress ) , calgary, june , . for a summary, see geoffrey rockwell, “csdh- cgsa ,” philosophi.ca , august , , http:// philosophi.ca/ pmwiki.php/ main/ csdh- cgsa . examples of public statements showing this oblique approach include alliance of digital humanities organizations, “adho announces new steering committee chair,” adho, november , , http:// adho.org/ announcements/ / adho- announces- new- steering- committee- chair ; karina van dalen- oskam, “report of the steering committee chair (november — july ),” adho, july , , http:// adho.org/ announcements/ / report- steering- committee- chair- november- - %e % % - july- . it is important to remember that the purpose of such statements is administrative and political rather than academic and that an approach that makes things dif icult for the researcher may represent good management practice. for private and non-commercial use only full of sound and fury …? as intense as it was, the “quality vs. diversity” debate revolved around what can only be described as a very odd premise for a discipline that is commonly described as a “meth- odological commons” or “border land.” at the most literal level, the debate suggests that the two qualities in question (i.e., “diversity” and “quality”) have a zero- sum relationship to each other: the more “diversity” there is of participation on a panel or at a conference, the fewer examples (presumably) of “quality” work you are likely to ind. that this is inherently problematic can be tested simply by reversing the terms: if diversity of par- ticipation is thought to lead to lower “quality,” then, presumably, greater “quality” comes from increasing the homogeneity of participation. in certain circumstances and to certain degrees, of course, this can be true: a confer- ence that is focused on a single discipline or subject, for example, is likely to be of higher “quality” (in the sense of creating opportunities to advance that discipline or topic) than a conference that sets no limits on the subject matter of the papers or quali ications of the participants. faculty and students at the university of lethbridge participate in several conferences each year where the principle of organization is geographic (“academics living in alberta”) or educational status (“graduate students”) rather than discipline or topic. in such cases, the principal goal of the conference is less the advance- ment of research in a particular discipline (i.e., promoting the kind of “quality” that seemed to be at issue in the adho debate) than the advancement of researchers as a community. these conferences can attract a wide variety of approaches, subjects, and methods and, frankly, “quality” of contributions (in the sense of “likely to be of broad interest or impact to the ield or discipline in question”). the bene it they offer lies in the practice they afford early- career academics and students in preparing papers or the cross- disciplinary networking opportunities they provide for scholars working in a par- ticular geographic area. but while it would be wrong to measure the success of such conferences by the impact they have on their ield (since there is no single ield), it is also undeniable that such conferences generally have lower “quality” when measured from a disciplinary perspective. at the same time, however, absolute homogeneity is also obviously problematic. research, like many collaborative tasks, is an inherently dialectic process. it involves argument and counter- argument; debate over methods and results; agreement, dis- agreement, and partial agreement over signi icance and context. in many cases, this dialectic takes place within a broader context of theoretical agreement (the so- called “normal science” ), in others, it can involve sweeping changes to the framing theo- ries or concepts (the infamous “paradigm shift” ). advancement in research, in other mccarty, humanities computing ,  . julie thompson klein, interdisciplining digital humanities: boundary work in an emerging field (ann arbor: university of michigan press,  ). see thomas s. kuhn, the structure of scienti ic revolutions (chicago: university of chicago press,  ). see kuhn, the structure of scienti ic revolutions . while kuhn is discussing science, the same pattern can be found, mutatis mutandis , in the social sciences and humanities. words, requires there to be at least some difference among researchers in approach, goals, method, or context. for great advancement to occur— the kind that changes the ield or opens up new avenues of exploration— it is necessary for at least some of the participating researchers to understand the problems the discipline is facing from very different perspectives from those of the rest of the  ield. the relationship between lack of homogeneity and advancement of research is particularly true in the case of digital humanities. this is because the “ ield” is really a paradiscipline — that is to say “a set of approaches, skills, interests, and beliefs that gain meaning from their association with other kinds of work.” in contrast to many traditional humanities disciplines, digital humanities traditionally has been much more about methodology than content: that is, it is less about something than it is about how one studies or researches something else. advancing the ield in such cases requires developments either in the range of “some- thing elses” to which these “hows” can be applied (i.e., the range of subjects studied); or in the “hows” themselves (i.e., the methods that can then be used across disciplines and problems). novelty in digital humanities (and research is always about new ideas or concepts), in other words, requires either the application of existing techniques, models, or understandings to an ever widening range of humanities problems (testing the boundaries of our existing tools and approaches); or experiments in the develop- ment and application of new techniques, tools, theories, and approaches to new or old types of problems (expanding the range of digital humanities methodologies). in both cases, diversity of experience and situation are crucial preconditions for advancement. we improve our understanding of computers and the humanities by discovering new problems for old solutions and re- solving existing problems in new cultural, economic, social, and computational contexts. without such diversity of experi- ence and condition, digital humanities ceases to be a paradiscipline and becomes instead simply a computationally heavy sub- discipline within some larger traditional ield of research. medieval studies: a counter case this fundamental importance of diversity to digital humanities can be seen when they are compared to a more traditionally content- focused ield such as medieval studies. as a cross- disciplinary area study, medieval studies covers a wide range of topics, approaches, and subjects— from archaeology to philosophy to literature to geography— and involves a number of technical and methodological skills (e.g., paleography, linguis- tics, numismatics, etc.). the ield is commonly organized along cultural and temporal lines, with often parallel (but largely unconnected) research going on otherwise similar topics within different political, cultural, or linguistic contexts. a scholar of anglo- saxon daniel paul o’donnell, “ ‘there’s no next about it’: stanley fish, william pannapacker, and the digital humanities as paradiscipline,” dpod blog, june , , http:// dpod.kakelbont.ca/ / / / theres- no- next- about- it- stanley- ish- william- pannapacker- and- the- digital- humanities- as- paradiscipline/ . for private and non-commercial use only kingship may have little to do with somebody studying the same topic with regard to continental european or middle eastern cultures during the same time frame— or even with those studying the same topic in earlier or later periods in the same geographic area. medieval vernacular literary studies, similarly, tend to focus on relatively narrowly delimited languages, movements, or periods. apart from some common broad theoret- ical concerns, a student of early italian vernacular literature might have very little to do with research on early french, spanish, or english literature of the same or different periods. even within a single time or culture, the multidisciplinary nature of the ield means that it is quite common for research by one medievalist to be of only marginal immediate relevance or interest to another medievalist trained in a different discipline or tradition: art historians debate among themselves without necessarily seeking input from (or affecting the work of ) philologists or archaeologists working the same geo- graphical or cultural area and time period. but while the range of medieval studies is huge, its de inition is still primarily about content rather than methodology. that is to say, the goal of medieval studies ultimately is to know or understand more about the middle ages , not, primarily, to develop new research techniques through their application to the middle ages. while differences between the different sub- disciplines within medieval studies are such that advanced research in one area can be dif icult or impossible to follow by researchers trained in some other area, it remains the case that the overall goal of research across domains and approaches is to develop a comprehensive picture of the time or location under discus- sion: the history, archaeology, politics, language, literature, culture, and philosophical understandings of a particular place or time in the (european) middle ages. if a piece of research focuses on europe or the middle east (as a rule, research involving a similar time period in africa, asia, or the americas is not considered part of medieval studies) and if it involves or analyzes content or events occurring from (roughly speaking) the fall of the roman empire through to the beginning of the renaissance, then that research is likely to be considered “medieval studies” and its practitioner a “medievalist”; if, on the other hand, a piece of research falls outside of these temporal and geographical bound- aries, then it is not considered “medieval studies,” even if the techniques it uses are iden- tical to those used within medieval studies or could be applied productively to material from the medieval period. content vs. method in historical disciplines one implication of this is that in medieval studies, comprehensiveness or completeness can be as important a scholarly goal as novelty of method, and the discovery and expli- cation of additional examples of a concept or type of cultural object are as or more valu- able than more generalizable methods or studies. if having a scholarly edition of one anglo- saxon poem is thought to be useful for the study of the period, for example, then for a discussion of this with regard to medieval and classical studies, see gabriel bodard and daniel paul o’donnell, “we are all together: on publishing a digital classicist issue of the digital medievalist journal,” digital medievalist ( ), https:// doi.org/ . / dm. . having editions of two anglo- saxon poems— or, better still, all anglo- saxon poems— will be thought to be even more useful. a digital library of frankish coins, similarly, is the better the more it is complete. just how important this focus on the accumulation of examples and detail is can be seen simply by examining medievalist conference programs or publishers’ booklists. medievalist conferences, for example, place a premium on the speci ic. while broad generalized papers synthesizing across domains are not unheard of (they are in fact characteristic of keynote addresses), by far the majority of contributions focus on quite speci ic topics: “the music of the beneventan rite i (a roundtable)” or, in a session on “ lyting” (i.e., the exchange of insults in germanic poetry), papers on three or four spe- ci ic texts: “the old high german st. galler spottverse,” “flyting in the hárbarðsljóð,” “selections from medieval flyting poetry,” and “hrothgar, wealhtheow, and the future of heorot [i.e., in the poem beowulf ],” to take some examples from the international congress on medieval studies at western michigan university. indeed, it is signi icant in this regard that the dominant form of submission to a con- ference like the international congress on medieval studies is by externally organized panel (i.e., a collection of papers assembled and proposed by an external organizer) rather than through the submission of individual papers by individual scholars. given the level of detail involved in the majority of the papers (and the lack of generalizing emphasis), this is the only way of ensuring a critical mass of background knowledge in speakers and audience. book series on topics in medieval studies, similarly, tend to justify their claims to the scholars’ attention through their comprehensiveness. thus, the early english text society advertises for new subscriptions by pointing to its collection of: most of the works attributed to king alfred or aelfric, along with some of those by bishop wulfstan and much anonymous prose and verse from the pre- conquest period … all the surviving medieval drama, most of the middle english romances, much religious and sec- ular prose and verse including the english works of john gower, thomas hoccleve, and most of caxton’s prints … a similar emphasis on comprehensiveness is found in the advertisement for early english books online: from the irst book published in english through the age of spenser and shakespeare, this incomparable collection now contains more than , titles … libraries possessing andrew j. m. irving, “the music of the beneventan rite i (a roundtable) [conference session] and doaa omran, “dead poet flyting karaoke [conference session],” both in international congress on medieval studies , kalamazoo, mi, may , , https:// scholarworks.wmich.edu/ medieval_ cong_ archive/ / . this focus on speci icity is the norm across the traditional humanities; the annual conference of the modern language association, for example, the largest in the humanities, ills its program entirely by means of externally proposed sessions (nicky agate, personal communication). anne hudson, “the early english text society, present past and future,” the early english text society , accessed august , , http:// users.ox.ac.uk/ ~eets/ . for private and non-commercial use only this collection ind they are able to ful ill the most exhaustive research requirements of graduate scholars— from their desktop— in many subject areas: including english liter- ature, history, philosophy, linguistics, theology, music, ine arts, education, mathematics, and science. signi icantly, this interest in completeness is such that it can even trump methodological diversity: the goal of comprehensive collections of texts or artifacts, after all, is to pro- vide researchers with a body of comparable research objects— that is to say, research objects established using (more or less) common techniques and expectations. this is both why it makes sense for scholars to regularly re- edit core texts in the ield (the better to make them compatible with current scholarly trends and interests) and why it can make sense to explicitly require researchers to follow speci ic methodological approaches and techniques. thus, the modern language association’s (mla) committee on scholarly editions codi ies its views on best practice in textual editing in the form of a checklist against which new editions can be compared. this checklist and the associated guidelines include advice on the speci ic analytic chapters or sections that ought to be included in a “certi ied edition” as well as minimum standards of accuracy and preferred work lows. the early english text society, likewise, warns potential editors of its strong pref- erence for editions that follow the models set by previous editions in the series, recommending against experimentation without prior consultation: we rely considerably on the precedents set by authoritative earlier editions in our series as a means of ensuring some uniformity of practice among our volumes. clearly discre- tion must be used: departures from practice in earlier editions are likely to have been made for good, but particular, reasons, which do not necessarily suit others. moreover, if they wish to make an argument from precedent, editors should follow eets editions, in preference to those of other publishers. once again, please consult the editorial secretary in cases of doubt. this emphasis on continuity, consistency, and clearly identi ied standards is not (neces- sarily) evidence of unthinking conservatism. textual criticism and editing as a method has gone through some remarkable developments in the last three decades, and while not all presses or series are prepared to accept some newer methods for representing texts and objects editorially (the early english text society, for example, promises to issue separate guidelines for “electronic editions … as and when the society decides to pursue this manner of publication in the future”), others, such as the mla, have early english books online, “about eebo,” eebo , accessed august , , https:// eebo. chadwyck.com/ marketing/ about.htm . mla committee on scholarly editions, “guidelines for editors of scholarly editions,” modern language association , june , , www.mla.org/ resources/ research/ surveys- reports- and- other- documents/ publishing- and- scholarship/ reports- from- the- mla- committee- on- scholarly- editions/ guidelines- for- editors- of- scholarly- editions . early english text society, “guidelines for editors,” early english text society, , accessed august , , http:// users.ox.ac.uk/ ~eets/ guidelines% for% editors% .pdf . see early english text society, “guidelines for editors,”  . worked diligently to ensure their guidelines work with different prevailing methodol- ogies and approaches. what it does suggest, however, is a belief in the necessity of minimum common standards, in a minimal degree of common understanding about expectations and purpose, and that the purpose of method is to develop reliable content rather than, as both the mla and the early english text society emphasize, experiment for the sake of experiment— a sense of minimum “quality,” in other words, that is more important than “diversity” if “diversity” produces something methodologically or con- ceptually unexpected. given the choice between reliable content produced using a conservative, well- tested methodology and content of unknown quality produced using novel, but less well- tested methodologies, in other words, these examples suggest that mainstream medievalists will tend to prefer the reliable success over the interesting “failure.” this bias against (methodological) diversity need not, in principle, lead to a bias against participation by “diverse” communities (in the sense of gender, belonging to a racialized community, economic class, or educational background)— although medi- eval studies as a ield has recently begun to recognize both its lack of diversity in this respect as well, and the degree to which this homogeneity may leave it particularly vulnerable to co- option by explicitly racist political movements. but it does in current mla committee on scholarly editions, “mla statement on the scholarly edition in the digital age,” modern language association , may , www.mla.org/ content/ download/ / / rptcse .pdf . a famous example in medieval english studies is the reception of the athlone press editions of piers plowman, i.e., george kane, piers plowman: the a version. will’s visions of piers plowman and do- well (london: university of london, ); george kane and e. talbot donaldson, piers plowman: the b version (london: athlone press, ); george russell and george kane, piers plowman: the c version; will’s visions of piers plowman, do- well, do- better and do- best (london: athlone, ). these were generally criticized on the basis that their innovative editorial method, while interesting and perhaps theoretically sound, left the texts “unreliable” and incompa- rable to other editions of the poem. see, among many others, derek pearsall, “piers plowman: the b version (volume ii of piers plowman: the three versions), by george kane, e. talbot donaldson,” medium aevum , ; john a. alford, “piers plowman: the b version. will’s vision of piers plowman, do- well, do- better and do- best. george kane, e. talbot donaldson,” speculum , ; traugott lawler, “reviewed work: piers plowman: the b version. will’s visions of piers plowman, do- well, do- better, and do- best. an edition in the form of trinity college cambridge ms. b. . , corrected and restored from the known evidence, with variant readings by george kane, e. talbot donaldson,” modern philology , . lawler’s review is an interesting example as it praises the edition while mentioning these same caveats. robert adams, “the kane- donaldson edition of piers plowman: eclecticism’s ultima thule,” text ( ): – , contains a discussion of the reception. see, among others, candace barrington, “beyond the anglophone inner circle of chaucer studies (candace barrington),” in the middle , september , , accessed january , , www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / / beyond- anglophone- inner- circle- of.html ; wan- chuan cao, “#palefacesmatter? (wan- chuan kao),” in the middle , july , , accessed january , , www.inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / / palefacesmatter- wan- chuan- kao.html ; dorothy kim, “a scholar describes being conditionally accepted in medieval studies (opinion)” inside higher ed , for private and non-commercial use only practice discourage it, in part because it interacts poorly with the lived experience of intersectionally diverse participants: it allows for participation by “anybody,” but is methodologically suspicious of those whose experience, training, interests, or eco- nomic situation results in work that does not easily continue the larger common pro- ject using clearly recognized methods and meeting previously recognized standards. as a new generation of medievalists tackle this problem using an explicitly intersectional theoretical approach, the ield may gradually become more hospitable to a broader and more welcoming de inition of diversity. digital humanities as methodological science the focus on content, comprehensiveness, and, in the more technical areas, method- ological conservatism that i argue characterizes the practice of a traditionally histor- ically focused ield like medieval studies contrasts very strongly against what we can easily see to be the case within digital humanities. if medieval studies can be described as a discipline that marshals speci ic types of method and theory in order to apply it to the study of a speci ic temporally and geographically bound subject, digital humanities can be described as a ield that marshals studies of a variety of (often) temporally, geo- graphically, and similarly bound subjects in order to develop different types of method and theory. as in medieval studies, the range of topics, approaches, and subjects covered by dig- ital humanities is extremely wide— indeed, in as much as digital humanities does not focus on a speci ic temporal period or geographic location, far wider. and as in medi- eval studies, different streams of research in different areas of digital humanities— while engaged, broadly speaking, in the same large project— commonly advance with a fair degree of independence. advances in d imaging, for example, may or may not be related to or have an impact on developments in text encoding, media theory, gaming, or human- computer interaction, to name only a few areas commonly considered to be part of digital humanities. the difference, however, is that the project of digital humanities, in contrast to that of an area study like medieval studies, is primarily about the methods and theories used rather than the content developed. that is to say, the goal of digital humanities as a disci- pline is not primarily to know more about any speci ic period, text, idea, object, culture, or any other form of content (though it does no harm if it helps further this knowledge). rather, it is to develop theories, contextual understandings, and methods that can be august , , accessed july , , www.insidehighered.com/ views/ / / / scholar- describes- being- conditionally- accepted- medieval- studies- opinion ; dorothy kim, “the unbearable whiteness of medieval studies,” in the middle , november , , accessed january , , www. inthemedievalmiddle.com/ / / the- unbearable- whiteness- of- medieval.html ; and medieval institute, “featured lesson resource page: race, racism and the middle ages,” teams: teaching association for medieval studies , july , , accessed january , , https:// teams- medieval. org/ ?page_ id= . used in the context of the use of computation to study such periods, texts, ideas, objects, and cultures. this is not to deny that research in digital humanities can have an impact on our knowledge of such periods, texts, ideas, objects, and cultures. in fact, much good digital humanities work does have that impact. rather it is to claim that this impact is not the primary interest of such research to other digital humanities researchers. for example, a digital edition of an anglo- saxon poem can be at the same time a work of medieval studies (if it adds to our knowledge of the anglo- saxon period) and digital humanities (if it adds to our knowledge of how one can make digital editions or some other aspect of digital method or theory). to make such an edition a contribution to digital humanities, however, it must do something new computationally, regardless of its value to anglo- saxon studies. thus, the kind of methodological conservatism we have seen as being acceptable in medieval studies is simply fatal in a ield like digital humanities. where editing yet another anglo- saxon text improves our knowledge of anglo- saxon england, the simple application of well- known computational techniques to yet another cultural object of the same kind dealt with previously by others does nothing to advance dig- ital humanities as a paradiscipline. advancement in digital humanities requires there to be something new, innovative, or generalizable about the work from a digital/ methodological perspective. as is the case with medieval studies, this difference in emphasis is re lected in how digital humanities dissemination channels de ine themselves and operate. digital humanities book series, in contrast to the examples we have seen from medieval studies, tend to celebrate the methodological and disciplinary breadth of their catalogue, rather than the comprehensiveness of their collections. both “digital culture books,” a dig- ital humanities imprint of the university of michigan press, and “topics in the digital humanities,” an imprint of the university of illinois press, for example, advertise their series in terms of the breadth of topics covered in their volumes, the methodological diversity and innovation they entail, and the diverse experiences of their authors. in the case of “digital culture books”: the goal of the digital humanities series will be to provide a forum for ground- breaking and benchmark work in digital humanities. this rapidly growing ield lies at the intersections of computers and the disciplines of arts and humanities, library and infor- mation science, media and communications studies, and cultural studies. the purpose of the series is to feature rigorous research that advances understanding of the nature and implications of the changing relationship between humanities and digital technolo- gies. books, monographs, and experimental formats that de ine current practices, emer- gent trends, and future directions are accepted. together, they will illuminate the varied disciplinary and professional forms, broad multidisciplinary scope, interdisciplinary dynamics, and transdisciplinary potential of the ield. university of michigan press, “digital humanities series,” digital culture books , accessed september , , www.digitalculture.org/ books/ book- series/ digital- humanities- series/ . for private and non-commercial use only for “topics in the digital humanities”: humanities computing is undergoing a rede inition of basic principles by a continuous in lux of new, vibrant, and diverse communities or practitioners within and well beyond the halls of academe. these practitioners recognize the value computers add to their work, that the computer itself remains an instrument subject to continual innovation, and that competition within many disciplines requires scholars to become and remain current with what computers can do. topics in the digital humanities invites manuscripts that will advance and deepen knowledge and activity in this new and innovative ield. conference sessions, too, tend to be far less specialized and homogeneous in terms of subject. where in the case of area or historical studies, conference papers tend to focus on very speci ic research questions and outcomes, and submissions tend to be primarily through the externally organized panel, in the case of digital humanities conferences, papers tend both to be on a wider variety of topics in any single session (because the content is less important than the methodology) and organized by single- paper submis- sion rather than externally organized panels. i have been on conference panels in both digital humanities and medieval studies; in the case of medieval studies conferences, committees commonly look favourably on papers that emphasize new detailed indings, while digital humanities committees commonly ask the authors of papers that concen- trate too much on the details of their “case” and not enough on its generalizability to reorganize their paper or consider presenting their indings as a short paper or poster. the role of diversity this brings us, inally, to the role of intersectional diversity in the advancement of dig- ital humanities. thus far in this paper, i have been emphasizing the way in which digital humanities acts as what willard mccarty and harold short have described as a method- ological commons: an intellectual space in which researchers active in different discip- lines, in essence, compare notes and develop new approaches and ideas about the role, context, and use of the digital in relation to humanities questions. the great change in the last ive years within digital humanities, however, has been the recognition that this “commons” also involves lived experience within the digital realm. that is to say, that diversity of personal, gendered, regional, linguistic, racialized, and economic experience and context is as important to developing our understanding of method and theory in digital humanities as is diversity of subject or focus. what this means is that it is as important to promote diversity of experience in dig- ital humanities as it is diversity of methodology or topic. the experiences of researchers working with relatively poor infrastructure in mid- and especially low- income communities, for example, are as important to the progress of digital humanities as a discipline as those working with cutting- edge infrastructure in the most advanced technological contexts. the problem of doing good humanities work with “minimal” computing infrastructure is university of illinois press, “topics in the digital humanities,” university of illinois press , accessed september , , www.press.uillinois.edu/ books/ ind_ books.php?type=series&search=tdh . at least as challenging (and interesting) for digital humanities as the problem of adapting the latest tools from silicon valley in a high- bandwidth environment— and it remains so, even if the research in high- bandwidth infrastructures produces “better” content for the domain specialist (e.g., colour or hd imagery vs. black and white, for example, or larger collections taking advantage of the latest interfaces and technologies). the experiences of those working in rigid or very traditional research environments that discourage novel work with computation in traditional humanities ields, likewise, bring interesting cultural and methodological challenges that enrich the understanding of researchers working in environments in which digital humanities is “the next big thing.” because it also involves the application of computation to the humanities or the understanding of the humani- ties in an age of (mostly) ubiquitous networked computing, the research of underfunded researchers, those at non- research- intensive institutions, those without permanent fac- ulty positions, and those just beginning their careers as students is at least as important to our understanding of digital humanities as that of tenured researchers working with the best funding in the most elite institutions. digital humanities, in other words, is about the intersection of the humanities and the world of networked computation. it is not (solely) about the intersection of the humanities and the world of the fastest, most expensive, and best- supported examples of networked computation. because it is part of the contemporary humanities, the experiences of the marginalized in their use of computation or their understanding of and access to different computation contexts are at least as important to a full under- standing of digital humanities as are the experiences of those at the centre of our best- funded and most technologically advanced research and cultural institutions. diversity and quality there is in theory, of course, no reason why encouraging the contributions of the mar- ginalized alongside those of the non- marginalized (i.e., encouraging “diversity”) should result in lower “quality,” as measured by things like “impact,” citation rates, or peer review scores. researchers working with poor infrastructure can do as “careful” work as those working with excellent infrastructure and, as dombrowski and ramsay have pointed out, excellent infrastructure and funding does not preclude large- scale failure. the problem, however, is that measures of “quality” in the academy are as a rule, self- inscribing. that is to say, the mechanisms by which “quality” is determined strongly william pannapacker, “no dh, no interview,” the chronicle of higher education , july , , http:// chronicle.com/ article/ no- dh- no- interview/ / ; william pannapacker, “the mla and the digital humanities,” brainstorm , accessed june , , http:// chronicle.com/ blogpost/ the- mlathe- digital/ / . see stephen ramsay, “bambazooka,” accessed august , , http://web.archive.org/web/ / http://stephenramsay.us/ / / /bambazooka/ and quinn dombrowski, “what ever happened to project bamboo?,” literary and linguistic computing , no. (september , ): – . for private and non-commercial use only favour the already favoured: as my colleagues and i have demonstrated of “excellence” (a synonym for “quality” in this context): a concentration on the performance of “excellence” can promote homophily among … [researchers] themselves. given the strong evidence that there is systemic bias within the institutions of research against women, under- represented ethnic groups, non- traditional centres of scholarship, and other disadvantaged groups, it follows that an emphasis on the performance of “excellence”— or, in other words, being able to convince colleagues that one is even more deserving of reward than others in the same ield— will create even stronger pressure to conform to unexamined biases and norms within the disciplinary culture: challenging expectations as to what it means to be a scientist is a very dif icult way of demonstrating that you are the “best” at science; it is much easier if your appearance, work patterns, and research goals conform to those of which your adjudicators have previous experience. in a culture of “excellence” the quality of work from those who do not work in the expected “normative” fashion run a serious risk of being under- estimated and unrecognized. this is particularly true when measures of relative “quality” (or “excellence”) are used to distribute scarce resources among researchers. peer review is an inherently conser- vative process— the core question it asks is whether work under review conforms to or exceeds existing disciplinary norms. in zero- sum or close to zero- sum competitions— such as the distribution of prizes or space in a conference— it has a well- established record of both rewarding the already successful and under- recognizing the work of those who do not conform to pre- existing understandings in the discipline. in other words, as we have argued elsewhere: the works that— and the people who— are considered “excellent” will always be evaluated, like the canon that shapes the culture that transmits it, on a conservative basis: past per- formance by preferred groups helps establish the norms by which future performances of “excellence” are evaluated. whether it is viewed as a question of power and justice or simply as an issue of lost opportunities for diversity in the cultural coproduction of samuel moore et al., “ ‘excellence r us’: university research and the fetishisation of excellence,” palgrave communications (january , ): , https:// doi.org/ . / palcomms. . . internal bibliographic citations within this quotation have been silently elided. this is known as the “matthew effect”; see robert k. merton, “the matthew effect in science,” science , no. ( ): – , www.jstor.org.ezproxy.alu.talonline.ca/ stable/ . dorothy bishop, “the matthew effect and ref ,” bishopblog , october , , http:// deevybee.blogspot.ca/ / / the- matthew- effect- and- ref .html discusses the effect in rela- tion to the research excellence framework. as jian wang, reinhilde veugelers, and paula e. stephan, “bias against novelty in science: a cautionary tale for users of bibliometric indicators,” social science research network , january , , have shown, novelty in science is consistently underestimated by most traditional measures of “impact” in the short and medium term. there is a minor industry researching the failure of peer review to recognize papers that later turned out to be extremely successful by other measures such as citation success or the receipt of major prizes. see joshua s. gans and george b. shepherd, “how are the mighty fallen: rejected classic articles by leading economists,” the journal of economic perspectives: a journal of the american economic association , no. (winter ): ; juan miguel campanario, “rejecting and resisting knowledge, an emphasis on the performance of “excellence” as the criterion for the distri- bution of resources and opportunity will always be backwards looking, the product of an evaluative process by institutions and individuals that is established by those who came before and resists disruptive innovation in terms of people as much as ideas or process. diversity instead of quality taken as a whole, this bias among traditional measures of quality means that they are highly likely to underestimate the value of potentially excellent work by digital humani- ties researchers from non- traditionally dominant demographic groups— especially if this work challenges existing conventions or norms in the ield. but what about poor- quality work from “diverse” researchers? that is to say, what about work from researchers outside traditionally dominant demographic groups within digital humanities that can be shown on relatively concrete grounds to be below the accepted standards in the ield? work, for example, that does not use or recognize existing technological standards? that ignores (or appears to be unaware of ) basic disciplinary conventions? a student project, say, that encodes text for display rather than structure? or a project from a researcher working outside mainstream digital humanities that uses proprietary software or formats or strict commercial licences? it is easy to see, in theory, how a conference programming committee that had to choose between a good project by a research team from a dominant demographic group and a lawed project by a team working outside such traditionally dominant com- munities might struggle with the question of “diversity vs. quality” when it came to assign speaking slots. the answer is that it is a mistake to see “poor quality” as a diversity issue. while such problems can arise with researchers from demographics that are not traditionally dominant within digital humanities, they also arise among researchers from traditionally dominant demographics as well. indeed, the willingness to celebrate (or at the very least destigmatize) “failure” is one of the features of digital humanities that distinguishes it nobel class discoveries: accounts by nobel laureates,” scientometrics , no. (april , ): – ; pierre azoulay, joshua s. graff zivin, and gustavo manso, “incentives and creativity: evidence from the academic life sciences,” the rand journal of economics , no. ( ): – ; juan miguel campanario, “consolation for the scientist: sometimes it is hard to publish papers that are later highly cited,” social studies of science ( ): – ; juan miguel campanario, “have referees rejected some of the most- cited articles of all times?,” journal of the american society for information science , no. (april ): – ; juan miguel campanario, “commentary on in luential books and journal articles initially rejected because of negative referees’ evaluations,” science communication , no. (march , ): – ; juan miguel campanario and erika acedo, “rejecting highly cited papers: the views of scientists who encounter resistance to their discoveries from other scientists,” journal of the american society for information science and technology , no. (march , ): – ; kyle siler, kirby lee, and lisa bero, “measuring the effectiveness of scienti ic gatekeeping,” proceedings of the national academy of sciences , no. (january , ): – . moore et al., “ ‘excellence r us,’ ”  . for private and non-commercial use only from traditional area ields like medieval studies. mccarty has described digital human- ities as “the quest for meaningful failure” and many authors in the ield have devoted considerable attention to the “error” part of “trial and error” (i am aware of no such bib- liography or tradition within medieval studies). we have a proud tradition of accepting student papers at digital humanities conferences— indeed, there are often both spe- cial prizes and special adjudication tracks for such papers. as long as the researchers in question conform to dominant group expectations in other ways, it seems, referees and review panels are prepared to accept work that implicitly or explicitly violates disci- plinary norms on an exceptional basis because it helps de ine the ield. in the case of stu- dent papers, they also take positive steps to identify and support a demographic that, by de inition, is still presumably acquiring the skills that otherwise make for “quality” work. what this suggests, in turn, is that even “poor quality” is not a reason to avoid privileging diversity within digital humanities. digital humanities has a tradition of encouraging accounts of failure and accounts of structurally often less accomplished researchers such as students for the same reason it has a tradition of encouraging reports from researchers working in a wide variety of disciplinary contexts— because these accounts contribute collectively to the breadth of our understanding of the application of computation to humanities problems, expanding particularly our knowledge of method (i.e., the “hows,” or, in this case perhaps, “how not tos”). adding to this the occasional failed or less accom- plished work of a researcher from a traditionally non- dominant demographic will neither disturb this tradition of celebrating failure nor result in the crowding out of successful projects by members of traditionally dominant or non- dominant demographics. conclusion the history of digital humanities is often traced through landmark projects and movements, from the initial work by roberto busa on his concordance, through the stylometrics and statistical work of the s and s, to the “electronic editions” of the s and s, to big data and ubiquitous computing today. this history, however, is also a history willard mccarty, “humanities computing,” encyclopedia of library and information science (new york: marcel dekker, ), https:// doi.org/ . / e- elis . see, among many others, isaac knapp, “creation and productive failure in the arts and digital humanities,” inspire- lab, january , , https:// inspire- lab.net/ / / / creation- and- productive- failure- in- the- arts- and- digital- humanities/ ; katherine d. harris, “risking failure, a cuny dhi talk,” triproftri , march , , https:// triproftri.wordpress.com/ / / / risking- failure- a- cuny- dhi- talk/ ; brian croxall and quinn warnick, “failure,” digital pedagogy in the humanities , mla commons, accessed august , , https:// digitalpedagogy.mla. hcommons.org/ keywords/ failure/ ; jenna mlynaryk, “working failures in traditional and digital humanities,” hastac , february , , www.hastac.org/ blogs/ jennamly/ / / / working- failures- traditional- and- digital- humanities ; stephen ramsay, “bambazooka,” accessed august , , http:// web.archive.org/ web/ / http:// stephenramsay.us/ / / / bambazooka/ ; quinn dombrowski, “what ever happened to project bamboo?,” literary and linguistic computing , no. (september , ): – . of diversity. at each stage, progress in the ield has required the introduction of new problems, new methods, and new solutions: a broadening of, rather than simple repeti- tion or perfection of, the type of problems to which computation can be applied or which exist in an interesting computational context. digital humanities is what it is today because we did not privilege “quality”— of concordance- making or edition- making or other early forms of humanities computing— over other novel forms of computational work. rather, it has thrived because we have embraced new and (often initially) imperfect experiments in the application of computation to other problems or new approaches to understanding the signi icance of computation in the context of humanistic research. this is, indeed, as mccarty has pointed out, perhaps the most ironic thing about the decision of the editors of computers and the humanities to narrow the focus of their journal to language resources and evaluation in , just as digital humanities entered its most expansive and diverse phase. just as progress in humanities computing would have stalled if it had been unable to expand beyond roberto busa’s early interest in concordances, or the burst of activity in text encoding and presentation that characterized the “electronic editions” of the s and early years of this decade, so too digital humanities will fail to progress if it cannot expand its range of experiences beyond those whose work and experience have largely de ined it for most of its history: the white, northern, university researcher who is a man and has access to reasonably secure funding and computational infrastructure. as digital culture (and hence the scope of humanities research) expands globally, the type of methodological and theoretical questions we are faced with have become itself much broader: why are some groups able to control attention and others not? how do (groups of ) people differ in their relationship to technology? how do you do digital humanities differently in high- vs. low- bandwidth? how does digital scholarship differ when it is done by the colonized and the colonizer? how is what we discuss and research in luenced by factors such as class, gender, race, age, and social capital in an intersectional way? this expansion requires the ield, if it is to advance, to ensure that researchers with experience in these questions from different perspectives are given a place to present their indings in our conferences and journals. in some cases— and there is no reason to believe that the frequency of such cases will be more than we ind whenever new approaches and ideas enter the ield— this work will belong to the well- established tradition of “failure” narratives within digital humanities. much more often— again, in keeping with what we would expect from those belonging to more tra- ditionally dominant demographics— this work will represent the kind of “quality” we expect as the norm in our various dissemination channels. regardless of whether such “diverse” work is a “success” or a “failure,” however, it is crucial that it be heard. digital humanities only grows as a ield when researchers differ from each other in what they do, why they do it, and how they understand what it is that they are doing. without this diversity, there is no such thing as digital humanities— of any quality. see humanist discussion group (by way of willard mccarty), “ . computers and the humanities – from humanist discussion group (humanist archives vol. ),” accessed june , , http:// dhhumanist.org/ archives/ virginia/ v / .html . for private and non-commercial use only appendix: writing about internal deliberations daniel paul o’donnell† this chapter discusses the internal deliberations of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho), its constituent organizations, and committees (such as the steering committee, which i was a part of during some of this time, and its various con- ference committees, which i was not). these deliberations were carried out by email and in person. as the debate about “quality” vs. “diversity” broke out, parts of the debate were also discussed in social media, notably twitter and facebook. the debate inally became the subject of a number of conference presentations and, with this collection, chapters and articles. this history raises various ethical, evidentiary, and argumenta- tive challenges. as noted in the introduction, many of the key texts in this debate were composed as emails as part of an at times heated and semi- private discussion among committee members faced with the practical problem of how to distribute speaking spots at the annual and high- prestige digital humanities conference. as a result, they were not intended for publication (or even wide circulation) and, given the context of the discussion, they cannot be assumed to represent the considered, evidence- based, and reasoned positions of their authors. moreover, our knowledge of the discussion from which these emails come is by nature fragmentary and partial. in my experience of participating on similar committees, the collected correspondence for a conference programming committee can range into the hundreds (or even thousands) of emails. if the committee also meets in person or by tele- conference, this correspondence also has an unrecorded oral context. this means that the few emails from this debate that have circulated on social media, in addition to representing perhaps unguarded and also provisional and informal positions taken in the context of a larger discussion, are also by nature incomplete: we do not know (or it is impossible to report) the full context of the discussion from which they have been extracted or how views were modi ied, strengthened, or abandoned in the course of debate. having said all this, however, the discussion these emails prompted is important to the ield. while it is true that much of the evidence discussed in this essay was not intended for publication and may not represent the considered views of their authors, the debate from which it comes was much more than a private philosophical discussion among colleagues. conference programming committees play an important gatekeeping function in any discipline, and the debate that was going on in this case was about the practical de inition of digital humanities as a discipline as it would be manifested at what is its premier conference. as such, it has the potential to affect the direction of the disci- pline as much as any published theoretical piece or trendsetting project. † university of lethbridge, canada. for private and non-commercial use only : digital humanities as a discipline, moreover, seems to me to be unusual in the degree to which such “internal” administrative and institutional debates and acts affect its intel- lectual growth and direction, particularly in the course of the last twenty years. there are a number of famous and not- so- famous examples of this, beginning, perhaps most famously with the “internal” agreement between the publishers and editors of the irst companion to digital humanities to use “digital humanities” rather than “humanities computing” (or similar) to “brand” their collection of essays— an “administrative” decision that, as many have argued, has had a profound effect on the direction of the ield. a considerable amount of published scholarly discussion within digital humanities, moreover, focuses on the intellectual and practical signi icance of these organizational discussions and decisions— as a glance at the foundational essays in many of the most important collections suggests. what this means, therefore, is that the history of digital humanities simply cannot be written without reference to ostensibly private conversations and documents. in some cases, these references are seemingly positive and are willingly promoted by the participants to the conversation. for the same reasons that digital humanities also attempts to destigmatize failure, however, these conversations and documents cannot be ignored when they are less obviously lattering to the participants in the discus- sion, especially once, as in this case, they either become part of the public record or are hinted at in of icial, public pronouncements. given the degree to which research in digital humanities is networked, collaborative, and organized, ignoring what happens “behind closed doors” is both misleading to those “not in the know” and ultimately coun- terproductive in a ield that at least ostensibly emphasizes openness and transparency as primary values. in this paper, i have tried to respect both aspects of this problem. on the one hand, i have, as much as possible, tried to avoid tying some of the more provocative documents to named individuals and organizations— what is signi icant about this debate is not who held what position but rather what these positions were and the stakes involved in the debate. on the other hand, however, i have directly quoted from and commented on speci ic emails from this debate as they were released on social media. a discussion about what general kind of work is and is not allowed at a discipline’s major conference or what kinds of criteria should or should not be used to adjudicate access to speaking slots is more than a private conversation: it is as much about the de inition of the ield as any theoretical book or article. << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy 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.ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ dna and 普通話 (mandarin): bringing introductory programming to the life sciences and digital humanities doi: . /j.procs. . . dna and (mandarin): bringing introductory programming to the life sciences and digital humanities mark d. leblanc and michael d.c. drout computer science, english wheaton college, norton, ma, usa {mleblanc, mdrout}@wheatoncollege.edu abstract the ability to write software (to script, to program, to code) is a vital skill for students and their future data-centric, multidisciplinary careers. we present a ten-year effort to teach introductory programming skills in domain-focused courses to students across divisions in our liberal arts college. by creatively working with colleagues in biology, statistics, and now english, we have designed, modified, and offered six iterations of two courses: “dna” and “computing for poets”. larger percentages of women have consistently enrolled in these two courses vs. the traditional first course in the major. we share our open source course materials and present here our use of a blended learning classroom that leverages the increasing quality of online video lectures and programming practice sites in an attempt to maximize faculty-student interactions in class. keywords: programming, interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, genomics, bioinformatics, digital humanities, blended learning introduction teaching novices to understand, predict, and solve data-rich problems by writing software is an interdisciplinary endeavor. whereas “computational science is the new scientific field emerging from the fusion of mathematics and information technology” (koumoutsakos, ), there exists a heightened need for departments to offer creative and appropriate courses that acknowledge the need for students to be exposed to interdisciplinary teams and computationally-rich problems. while programming is not computational thinking, introductory courses that teach problem solving via scripting are important course offerings that “teach programming to enhance computational thinking” (falkner, ). procedia computer science volume , , pages – iccs international conference on computational science selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific programme committee of iccs c© the authors. published by elsevier b.v. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.procs. . . &domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.procs. . . &domain=pdf one goal is to offer programming courses that match the passions of rising computational scientists. we present a ten-year multidisciplinary effort to iteratively design and teach two introductory programming courses, one for students in the life sciences and the other for students in the humanities. these two introductory programming courses are both offered every other year in addition to our traditional introduction to computer science course that is offered each semester. after commenting on the spirit behind a computational thread between dna (the language of life) and mandarin (here just an example of a digitized corpora in most any language), we discuss the larger academic framework of these two interdisciplinary courses and present enrollment data that speaks to our efforts to increase the percentage of women who are exposed to computational science. finally, we present details of each course, including a discussion of how our use of blended learning is helping us maximize faculty-student interactions during class and is helping to challenge the traditional notion of how faculty and students define and recognize “classroom time”. a note on dna and (mandarin) counting character and word n-grams is an important step in many computational explorations of texts where vectors of token frequencies are used as “stock” in analyses of those texts; for example, an unsupervised cluster analysis of segments from a novel written by two authors. of course, it turns out that counting “words” (motifs) in dna (e.g., counting frequencies of motifs in a sliding window of every four nucleotides, each token referred to as a -mer) to detect regions of horizontal transfer is algorithmically similar to counting character n-grams in languages with little white spacing (e.g., counting instances of every four contiguous characters in the dream of the red chamber, one of the four classical chinese novels written in mandarin). although counting tokens is only one of many introductory techniques in text mining, we have found that teaching students to write software to count and store “words” for future analysis sparks their interest in computational experiments, whether that interest be in microbial genomics or text mining in a foreign language such as mandarin. connecting across campus the wheaton college curriculum is centered on “connections,” pairs of linked courses that connect significantly different disciplines. wheaton is a residential, liberal arts campus of students where courses are linked across any two of six academic areas: creative arts, humanities, history, math and computer science, natural sciences, and social sciences. each course in a pair of connected courses may be taken in either order and do not need to be taken in consecutive semesters (leblanc et al. ). our computer science program has established a suite of six connected courses, two of which are discussed here in this paper and listed in table . course name connected to area connected with courses computing for poets english, digital humanities j.r.r. tolkien or anglo saxon literature dna life sciences, philosophy bio-ethics or ethics table . two domain-focused, introductory programming courses for students in the humanities and life sciences. two english courses are connected to the poets course, and philosophy’s two ethics courses are connected to the dna course. ethics is also connected to other biology courses. unlike models that rely on “courses outside of computer science” (furst et al. ), connected intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout courses involve multidisciplinary faculty in the design of computer science courses. humanities students, typically from the highly enrolled english program who are taking either “anglo-saxon literature” or “j.r.r. tolkien” courses are encouraged to consider completing a connection by subsequently enrolling in “computing for poets” (comp ). given the explosion of digitized texts and our own ongoing research (cf. lexomics), this course connection is rich with opportunity for creative problem solving. likewise, the revolutions in personalized medicine and genome sequencing are generating a new thirst among students to computationally consider how “the stuff of life” is data. the “dna” course (comp/bio ) is cross-listed as a computer science or biology course and counts for a -level elective in bioinformatics, biology, or computer science. the “dna” course is aptly connected with philosophy’s bio-ethics or ethics courses; the fast- paced changes in genomic medicine alone keep us all on our toes regarding the implications of the scientific advances. overall, our experience supports the recommendation that faculty from other departments take an active role in course development and delivery (guzdial, ). we agree with cooper and cunningham ( ) that offering opportunities for problem solving and introductory programming with a specific context over an entire semester is an important element, whether the context is “genomics” for life science students or “text mining” for digital humanities students. introductory programming courses with a focus on media have been very successful (cf. guzdial, ). union college offers multiple perspectives when approaching cs (barr, ) as do our courses that reach two vibrant and broad audiences: the life sciences and digital humanities. the team-taught course at harvey mudd college (dodds et al., ) that integrates the first semesters of bio and cs is more ambitious than our dna course described here but is similar in spirit in that the entire semester is focused on modules that apply computing to genomics problems. bioinformatics- centric courses are more likely to appear at the upper-level (cf. tjaden, ); whereas, the courses described here assume no prior programming experience. a growing number of cs courses offer “data-centric” assignments with topics and applications that vary on each assignment (e.g., anderson, et al. ) whereas the dna and poets courses discussed here maintain a fixed context. perhaps most distinguishing is that the two courses presented here are introductory programming courses. although a rich collection of web-based bioinformatics and text mining tools are available and are integrated during final projects, the focus is on teaching good introductory programming skills to mix, mash, and morph scientific data within a context of an existing scholarly and scientific passion. towards gender balance increasing the percentage of women who enroll in introductory computer science courses has been an ongoing focus and continual challenge. in twenty offerings from to the present, our traditional first course in the computer science major (cs - “robots, games, and problem solving”), which itself continues to be oversubscribed each semester for the last few years, enrolls on average just over one-third female students ( . %). like at many institutions, this course serves potential computer science majors and as an elective for primarily mathematics and science majors. with an overall campus female-male student ratio of almost two to one and the relatively high proportion of women majoring in the life sciences and humanities, we knew we had positive recruitment potential if we could provide more options. since we have offered two additional introductory programming courses: “dna” for students in the life sciences and a course called “computing for poets” (hereafter poets) for students in the humanities. the two courses are separately offered as an alternative to our introductory (cs ) course, but specifically target the rapid need for and reliance on computational intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout thinking due to the revolutionary changes in the bioinformatics and digital humanities spaces. over the last decade, dna has been offered six times and poets has been offered five times since . as shown in figure , our two introductory, interdisciplinary courses (dna and poets) have consistently enrolled more women than the traditional offerings of cs . in all six offerings of dna and in all five offerings of poets since , women enroll in higher percentages than of the offerings of cs . since , women enroll in cs at an average of %. in contrast, from to the present, on average % of the students in dna and % of the students in poets were women. maintaining female enrollment percentages above % in introductory computer science courses is a significant and refreshing outcome. greater gender balance in the classroom has numerous benefits, including the benefits that the male students receive from working more closely with women early in their careers. the digital humanities the time has never been better for computational science to impact the humanities. the digital humanities represents a growing subculture on many campuses and the glut of digitized texts, many in languages from around the globe that match scholar’s areas of expertise, has radically altered what it means to be a scholar of texts. computational explorations of texts, sometimes referred to as computational stylistics is a subfield within the digital humanities and one where students need exposure to and practice with searching and analyzing large digitized corpora. the computing for poets course discussed next is approaching its sixth iteration to do just that. . computing for poets (comp ) the use of computers to manage the storage and retrieval of written texts creates new opportunities for scholars of ancient and other written works. recent advances in computer figure . percentage of women enrolling in three different introductory computer science courses: cs (introductory course for majors) and two focused offerings, one for students in the life sciences (dna) and the other for students in the digital humanities (poets). the moving trend line shows the -per-year average percentage for our traditional course (cs ). intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout software, hypertext, and database methodologies have made it possible to ask novel questions about a poem, a story, a trilogy, or an entire corpus. the poets course exposes students to leading markup languages (html, css, xml) and teaches computer programming as a vehicle to explore and “data mine” digitized texts. programming facilitates top-down thinking and practice with computational thinking skills such as problem decomposition, algorithmic thinking, and experimental design, topics that humanities students in our experience rarely see. programming on and with texts introduces students to rich new areas of scholarship including stylometry and authorship attribution. the course has no prerequisites other than a love of the written (and digital) word; no previous computer programming experience is required. a learning objective for students in this course is to articulate how computational analyses of digitized texts enables both a “close reading” of a single text and as well as a “distant reading” of many texts across time (moretti, ). the goal for each student is to master enough programming to modify digitized texts to help in a computational experiment that explores a question of a text or set of texts. for example, the assignments in fall (see table ) asked students to write and extend python scripts over the semester that analyze texts and store results in excel-ready output files to facilitate subsequent analyses, documentation, and scientific writing. the number, pace, and level of difficulty of assignments and labs in the course are coordinated to help most students conduct an introductory text mining experiment in the last three weeks of the course. assignment short description a : website – ngrams build a website with results from google’s ngram viewer to investigate how the frequency of words or phrases have changed over time as appearing in books from to a : deforming poetry write a program to help the reader more easily read poems that have been deformed in various methods, e.g., read a poem backwards a : regex play use regular expressions to solve some of will shortz’ word puzzles; shortz is national public radio’s (npr) puzzle master a : tall elves conjecture: tolkien wanted his readers to fully appreciate that his elves were large, thus he used the word “tall” (or other variants such as “big”, “giant”, “large”, etc.) in close proximity to the name of an elf (e.g., “legolas”, “galadriel” or even the generic word, “elf”). write a script(s) to generate data that will help experimentally verify if this conjecture is true or false. a : only in the poetry considering the entire digitized corpus of old english (anglo-saxon) poetry and prose texts, write a script to determine which if any words appear only in the poetry? table . five programming assignments in computing for poets (spring semester) developing programming assignments with an expert scholar in these spaces is critical when attempting to focus student attention on the current level of scripting practice and excitement that comes from studying the original texts. the poets course is “connected” with two courses in english: j.r.r. tolkien (eng ) and anglo-saxon literature (eng ). for example, in anglo-saxon studies, the relationship between old english poems has been a vexed question for nearly years. most of the poetry is anonymous and exists only as tenth-century copies in manuscripts (some of it is assumed to be much earlier). we have only three named authors of poetry in the anglo-saxon period and the majority of the prose is anonymous. thus for years scholars of old english have struggled to divine relationships between texts based on vocabulary, intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout meter, and style. these results have been at best contentious and at worst completely unsuccessful. as students learn more and more scripting in the course, we set up and run experiments using the entire anglo-saxon corpus. some of the questions asked by undergraduates may never have been asked before. in the case of the connection with the course on j.r.r. tolkien, students participate in the design and execution of an experiment across multiple texts, e.g., the lord of the rings trilogy which inevitably leads to follow up interests with other texts: what about the silmarillion? should we ask this computational question on the hobbit? . blended learning acknowledging that class time is precious, we have worked hard to maximize student problem solving practice in class. in a modest use of blended learning in a format sometimes called a “flipped classroom” approach, students use an online python interactive textbook (miller and ranum, ) and spend time outside of class completing the online code academy practice exercises. the level of quality in both the interactive textbook and practice lessons at code academy is notable. together these provide helpful benchmarks for student progress, helping ensure that students have practiced with the fundamental control structures, for instance, before participating in a hands-on lab. it has not escaped our notice that our open reliance on online reading and practice materials has forced us as instructors to critically consider the use of class time, for example, the time spent “writing notes on the board.” in-class problem solving sessions begin with brief discussions that map a problem at hand to the programming language control structures and/or data structures of the day, followed by pair-programming opportunities (switching the student typing every minutes) to refactor scripts to open and read from files in multiple languages, e.g., mandarin, latin, or middle english. . final projects from the initial day of class, students begin work on a final semester project to design an experiment on a set of digitized texts of their choice. in our experience, scholars who might like to perform computational analysis in their areas of expertise and/or wish to teach their students how to do so become discouraged too early in the game. the lexos software developed by our lexomics project provides a simple, web-based workflow for text processing, statistical analysis, and visualization. situated within a clean and simple interface, lexos consolidates the common yet frustrating pre-processing operations that are needed for subsequent analysis, e.g., a cluster analysis of segments from multiple novels. student programming in final projects is on an “as needed basis,” the focus being the use of a computational method in a small experiment. some recent undergraduate topics for final projects are listed in table . a complete syllabus and sets of programming assignments and other course materials are available at our lexomics website (http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu/). sample undergraduate final projects in computing for poets all of caesar is divided into five parts, but who wrote what? a look at the various authors of the complete works of julius caesar not so elementary: did sir arthur conan doyle write all of the sherlock holmes canon? found in translation: a comparative lexomic analysis of three translations of beowulf variation and influence using dendrograms to identify variations in style and influence in tolkien’s lord of the rings can bias be counted? political vocabulary in the news table . student topics for their final projects in computing for poets (the last three iterations of student topics are available at: http://wheatoncollege.edu/lexomics/computing-poets ). intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout reaching the life sciences the generation, storage, analysis, and visualization of bioinformatics data is happening at a dizzying pace and the next generation of scientists face great challenges in a post-sequenced world (macarthur, wired). since , our wheaton college genomics research group has influenced collaborative teaching between biology and computer science and our collaborations have in turn shaped directions for research (leblanc and dyer, ; ; dyer et al. ). . dna (comp/bio ) an amazing blend of science, computing, and mathematics emerges when considering the molecule “deoxyribonucleic acid” (dna). dna is the blueprint of life for all organisms on earth. its distinctive and beautiful physical nature, a double helix of four bases, maps onto its functionality as a bearer of information, generation after generation. fully sequenced genomes including the human genome and hundreds of microbial genomes have become the starting point for attempts to answer a wide range of biological and quantitative questions. a goal of the course is to enhance computational thinking via introductory programming as applied to the wealth of genomic data. a particular focus is on the exciting merge of personalized medicine and the ongoing human microbiome projects. table lists a set of learning objectives, what we hope become our students’ “take away stories”. “take away stories” (learning outcomes) for dna (comp/bio ) ( ) you are at a cocktail party and the topic of genomes comes up. you are able to recall significant phrases, terms, and techniques and your understanding of the main ideas and concepts enables you to lead the conversation for a while … which causes your friends to raise their eyebrows. ( ) you learn to identify and classify problems that are candidates for a computer to handle; this is the start of “computational thinking”. ( ) you demonstrate the ability to think algorithmically, breaking what originally seems like an overly complicated problem into a series of smaller, manageable tasks. ( ) you learn to craft creative solutions by “writing software” (“to program”, “to code”, “to script”). ( ) you appreciate the importance of microbes and the human microbiome project. ( ) you design experiments to first solve small computational tasks (e.g., one gene sequence) and then scale your solutions to very large sets of data (e.g., all genes in a genome). ( ) you learn to move around and perform some work in the linux (unix) operating system. ( ) you learn to professionally document your software and produce quality summaries, graphs, and reports of your computational methods and results. ( ) you begin to appreciate the (soon to be) revolution in personalized medicine, including knowing your way around a personalized report from the personal genomics company “ andme”. ( ) you feel empowered to evaluate the ethical implications of your work and learn to appraise, critique, and defend your own as well as the work of others. table . learning objectives for the cross-listed course dna (comp/bio ). this course is part of the connection “genes in context” with philosophy (ethics) or philosophy (bio-ethics). throughout the semester in the dna course, students are exposed to the ethical aspects of living in a post-genomic world and the increasing use and challenges of sequenced genomes as applied to “personalized medicine”. students access, explore, and discuss intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout the professor’s genomic report as obtained from the saliva-based dna service (in fall we obtained one of the last reports to include likelihoods of having certain diseases, just prior to the fda’s decision to halt such “interpreted” genomic profiles). in addition, students watch the movie gattaca together, a bioethics professor leads a discussion of “designer babies”, and students produce one-minute youtube “commercials” of companies currently promoting and selling medical profiles based on individual genomes. the commercials are framed from one of two points of view: (i) from the point of view of the company (e.g., andme) or (ii) from a consumer advocacy point of view. not unlike the poets course, the programming assignments are paced so that students may conduct a final project experiment and then share their methods and results, both orally and in writing. assignment short description a : playing with dna working with dna as a language: a string of characters in a four-letter alphabet a : chargaff’s numbers for any sequence or entire genome, report the proportions of a,c,g,t nucleotides a : gene finder simulate transcription and translation on strings and evaluate “appropriate” reading frames a : motif finder build and apply regular expressions to find relevant regulatory motifs upstream of genes a : comparative genomics use a “bag of words” to keep track of motif frequencies to assign a “genomic signature” to sections of a genome table . five programming assignments in dna (fall semester). . blended learning the fall offering of the dna course was our most significant blended learning trial to date. like in the poets course, students use an online python interactive textbook (miller and ranum, ) and spend time outside of class completing the code academy practice exercises. in addition, students watch at least five lectures outside of class on biological topics from a mooc (massive open online course), here udacity’s “tales of the genome” online course. the rationale for using this “outside” material is two-fold. first, the quality of these terminology-rich lectures is very good and improving; for example, students are encouraged to fill-in a template of a concept map during a lecture, where each concept map links to and from other lectures. the online material contains minimal “talking head” time, rather presenting a series of “whiteboard” illustrations, punctuated by just-in-time quizzes. a completed concept map is provided at the end of the lecture. the second and related rationale for using udacity’s materials is that class time is too precious to spend lecturing on basic biological processes, for example transcription and translation, especially in a one-semester programming course where time for problem solving is at a premium. intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout reaching the entire academy teaching programming to introduce and enhance computational thinking is a vital contribution to the academy. the life sciences’ genomic revolution and the digitization of books and manuscripts present unique opportunities for exposing a wider audience to computational science. we present two introductory programming courses over a ten-year period that target students in the life sciences and humanities, each attracting gender balanced enrollments that exceed traditional computer science introductory offerings. in particular, we remain convinced that learning to think algorithmically and to encode those ideas in software is a vital competency for today’s undergraduate. new opportunities for teaching computing to the growing constituencies that can benefit from introductory programming have led us to experiment with alternative, blended learning uses of class time, specifically fewer minutes lecturing and more hours solving problems in class. we advocate for more creative experimentation from faculty with how they use class time, including an increase in the infusion of “outside” course materials (e.g., mooc lectures) from the growing palette of good instructional materials available. programming is not an end all for computational science. yet, the academy faces a number of new audiences who will benefit from the ability to script in the midst of their data-driven world. how we reach them in introductory courses can make all the difference. this work was funded in part by the national endowment for the humanities (neh) and a google cs engagement award. references anderson, r., ernst, m.d., ordóñez, r., pham, p., and tribelhorn, b. ( ). a data programming cs course. proceedings of sigcse’ symposium on computer science education. kansas city, mo (mar. ), - . barr, v. ( ). create two, three, many courses: an experiment in contextualized introductory computer science. jcsc ( ) (june ), - . code academy: python course (accessed / / ). (http://www.codecademy.com/en/tracks/python). cooper, s. and cunningham, z. ( ). success in introductory programming: what works? communications of the acm. august, ( ), - . dodds, z., libeskind-hadas, r., and bush, e. ( ). bio as cs : evaluating a crossdisciplinary cs context. iticse’ , july – , , haifa, israel, - . downey, s., drout, m., kahn, m., and leblanc, m.d. ( ). “books tell us”: lexomics and traditional evidence for the sources of guthlac a. modern philology , - . dyer, b.d., kahn, m., and leblanc, m.d. ( ). classification and regression tree (cart) analyses of genomic signatures reveal sets of tetramers that discriminate temperature optima of archaea and bacteria. archaea , – . intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout falkner, n. ( ). computational thinking for all. keynote address at sigcse technical symposium on computer science education, atlanta, ga. furst, m., isbell, c., and guzdial, m. ( ). threads™: how to restructure a computer science curriculum for a flat world. proceedings of th sigcse symposium on computer science education. covington, ky (mar. ), - . guzdial, m. ( ). a media computation course for non-majors, iticse conference proceedings, - . guzdial, m. ( ). teaching computing to everyone. communications of the acm, , (may ), p - . koumoutsakos, p. ( ). the arrow of computational science. abstract of public lecture given at eth zurich, switzerland, june , . leblanc, m.d. and dyer, b.d. ( ). teaching together: a three-year case study in genomics. the journal of computing in colleges, ( ), - . leblanc, m.d. and dyer, b.d. ( ). bioinformatics and computing curricula – why computer science is well positioned in a post-genomic world. acm sigcse bulletin, ( ). leblanc, m.d., gousie, m., and armstrong, t. ( ). connecting across campus. proceedings of the st sigcse technical symposium on computer science education, milwaukee, wi. lexomics research group. http://wheatoncollege.edu/lexomics/computing-poets/ macarthur, d. (accessed / / ). why biology students should learn to program. wired: genetic futures. http://www.wired.com/ / /why-biology-students-should-learn-how-to- program/ miller, b. and ranum, d. (accessed . . ). how to think like a computer scientist. runestone interactive project (http://interactivepython.org/courselib/static/thinkcspy/index.html). moretti, f. ( ). distant reading. verso publishing. tales of the genome: an introduction to genetics for beginners. udacity. (https://www.udacity.com/course/bio ). tjaden, b. ( ). a multidisciplinary course in computational biology. the journal of computing in colleges ( ), - . related urls computing for poets: http://wheatoncollege.edu/lexomics/computing-poets/ dna: http://wheatoncollege.edu/genomics/dna/ lexomics research: http://lexomics.wheatoncollege.edu genomics research: http://genomics.wheatoncollege.edu intro programming for life sciences and digital humanities mark leblanc and michael drout [pdf] an assessment of the realism of digital human manikins used for simulation in ergonomics | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . / . . corpus id: an assessment of the realism of digital human manikins used for simulation in ergonomics @article{nrot anao, title={an assessment of the realism of digital human manikins used for simulation in ergonomics}, author={a. n{\'e}rot and w. skalli and x. wang}, journal={ergonomics}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } a. nérot, w. skalli, x. wang published medicine, engineering ergonomics in this study, the accuracy of the joint centres of the manikins generated by ramsis and human builder (hb), two digital human modelling (dhm) systems widely used in industry for virtual ergonomics simulation, was investigated. eighteen variously sized females and males were generated from external anthropometric dimensions and six joint centres (knee, hip and four spine joints) were compared with their anatomic locations obtained from the three-dimensional reconstructed bones from a low-dose x… expand view on taylor & francis sam.ensam.eu save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all topics from this paper manikins science of ergonomics citations citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency a markerless method for personalizing a digital human model from a d body surface scan g. beurier, xiaolin yao, y. lafon, x. wang computer science pdf save alert research feed a principal component analysis of the relationship between the external body shape and internal skeleton for the upper body. a. nérot, w. skalli, x. wang engineering, medicine journal of biomechanics pdf save alert research feed interactive tools for safety . : virtual ergonomics and serious games in real working contexts a. lanzotti, a. vanacore, + authors s. papa computer science, medicine ergonomics save alert research feed interactive tools for safety . : virtual ergonomics and serious games in tower automotive a. lanzotti, a. tarallo, + authors s. papa computer science save alert research feed in-vehicle driving posture reconstruction from d scanning data using a d digital human modeling tool junyi chen, b. jiang, s. song, hongyan wang, xuguang wang computer science save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency external and internal geometry of european adults s. bertrand, w. skalli, laurent delacherie, d. bonneau, g. kalifa, d. mitton computer science, medicine ergonomics view excerpts, references methods and background save alert research feed standardisation of digital human models g. paul, s. wischniewski engineering, medicine ergonomics view excerpt, references background save alert research feed validation of a model-based motion reconstruction method developed in the realman project x. wang, n. chevalot, g. monnier, sergio ausejo, angel suescun, j. t. celigueta computer science view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed a reference method for the evaluation of femoral head joint center location technique based on external markers. h. pillet, m. sangeux, j. hausselle, r. el rachkidi, w. skalli computer science, medicine gait & posture pdf view excerpts, references background save alert research feed fast d reconstruction of the lower limb using a parametric model and statistical inferences and clinical measurements calculation from biplanar x-rays y. chaibi, t. cresson, + authors w. skalli mathematics, medicine computer methods in biomechanics and biomedical engineering view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed effects of hip center location on the moment-generating capacity of the muscles. s. delp, w. maloney mathematics, medicine journal of biomechanics view excerpt, references background save alert research feed estimation of external and internal human body dimensions from few external measurements s. bertrand, i. kojadinovic, w. skalli, d. mitton mathematics view excerpts, references methods and background save alert research feed development of computerized human static strength simulation model for job design d. chaffin computer science pdf view excerpt, references background save alert research feed musculoskeletal computational analysis of the influence of car-seat design/adjustments on long-distance driving fatigue m. grujicic, b. pandurangan, x. xie, a. gramopadhye, david w. wagner, m. ozen engineering pdf view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed analysis of musculoskeletal systems in the anybody modeling system m. damsgaard, j. rasmussen, s. christensen, e. surma, m. d. zee engineering, computer science simul. model. pract. theory pdf view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed ... ... related papers abstract topics citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue translation and chaos: poetry translators’ agency in a non-hegemonic network. a digital humanities approach. raluca andreia tanasescu under the supervision of marc charron, ph.d. thesis submitted to the faculty of graduate and postdoctoral studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctoral degree in translation studies school of translation and interpretation university of ottawa © raluca andreia tanasescu, ottawa, canada, ii translation and chaos: poetry translators’ agency in a non-hegemonic network. a digital humanities approach. raluca andreia tanasescu school of translation and interpretation university of ottawa abstract: this project examines the role played by chaos in shaping and defining the translation activity in a non-hegemonic context, with a focus on literary translation. based on english-language u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry translation into romanian between and , it challenges the ‘major’ vs. ‘minor’ dichotomy and moves to show that a transnational framework and a networked understanding of translator agency are much better suited to account for the complexity of a translation sociography. acknowledging a necessary shift that draws on an economy of attention more than on an economy of production (cronin ), as well as on michael cronin’s politics of microspection and on kobus marais’ paradigm of complexity ( ), my work takes distance from the bourdieusian dynamics of power that has prevailed in translation studies since the late s and favors a network approach that accounts for disruption, decentralization, and voids. this dissertation seeks to acknowledge the role played by chance, chaos, and self-regulation in shaping the activity of literary translation through the deployment of a mathematical model that has been at the core of web . since its very inception. in doing so, my research sets out to complement bruno latour’s actor-network-theory with the mathematical notions of network and network of networks. i endeavor to explore the webs of connectivity as they appear in real-life contemporary poetry translator networks with the purpose of potentially laying the groundwork for a possible redefinition of translation across society and media of circulation. translation can be conceived, i propose, as an act that is essentially, simultaneously and irreducibly linguistic, cultural, iii and social, but also individual and collective, material and virtual, online and offline. under these circumstances, i conclude that a critical re-examination of translation studies in micromodernity through a digital humanities lens becomes necessary, if not imperative. keywords: chaos theory, networks, literary translation, translator’s agency, translation studies, digital humanities. iv traduction et chaos : l’agentivité des traducteurs de poésie dans un réseau non-hégémonique. une approche numérique. raluca andreia tanasescu École de traduction et d’interprétation université d’ottawa résumé: ce projet examine le rôle joué par le chaos dans l’élaboration et la définition de l’activité de traduction dans des contextes non-hégémoniques, en mettant l’accent sur la traduction littéraire. en s’appuyant sur la traduction de poésie contemporaine américaine et canadienne de langue anglaise en roumain de à , ma recherche remet en question la dichotomie « majeur » contre « mineur » et formule l’hypothèse selon laquelle un cadre transnational et une compréhension en réseau de l’agentivité des traducteurs sont plus adéquats pour rendre compte de la complexité d’une sociographie de la traduction. par la prise en compte d’un changement nécessaire qui se réclame d’une nouvelle économie de l’attention (cronin ), de la politique de microspection (cronin ) et du paradigme de la complexité (marais ) je cherche à m’éloigner de la dynamique bourdieusienne du pouvoir qui a régné en traductologie au cours des vingt dernières années, en proposant une approche en réseau qui interroge la perturbation, la décentralisation et les vides qui apparaissent dans les réseaux des traducteurs littéraires, notamment dans le cas des traducteurs de poésie. cette dissertation vise à reconnaître le rôle joué par le hasard, le chaos et l’autorégulation dans le façonnement de l’activité de traduction littéraire à travers le déploiement d’un modèle mathématique qui a été au cœur du web . depuis sa création. dans ce but, cette recherche combine la théorie de l’acteur-réseau de bruno latour et les notions mathématiques de réseau et de réseau de réseaux. je me propose d’explorer les réseaux de connectivité tels qu’ils apparaissent dans le monde des traducteurs de poésie contemporaine en roumain pour jeter les bases d’une v redéfinition de la traduction à travers la société et les médias de circulation. la traduction peut être ainsi conçue comme un acte essentiellement, simultanément et irréductiblement linguistique, culturel et social, mais aussi individuel et collectif, matériel et virtuel, en ligne et hors ligne. dans ce contexte, je conclus qu’un réexamen critique de la traductologie dans le cadre de la micro- modernité, et ce, suivant les enjeux des sciences humaines numériques devient nécessaire, voire impératif. mots-clés : théorie du chaos; réseaux; traduction littéraire; agentivité du traducteur; traductologie; sciences humaines numériques. vi to maria sophia and chris, with whom i connect the dots. vii acknowledgements i would like to express my hearfelt thanks to the social sciences and humanities research council of canada, the province of ontario, university of ottawa, and the faculty of arts for the consistent and substantial financial support i received during my studies: i have never felt so encouraged and valued before and i truly hope this research meets at least part of their expectations. it has been a priviledge to be a vanier scholar and to be calling canada home for the past five years. this network of institutional support would have been much more difficult to navigate without the invaluable guidance from my thesis director, marc charron—the center of my canadian clique. thank you so much, marc, for believing in me and for always having my back. few people are fortunate enough to meet a supervisor like you, so generous with his time and knowledge, so open and versatile. the slightest variation in picking my thesis director back in , while browsing the school’s website on a rainy day in paris, could have led to a totally different outcome. most of my inspiration in writing this thesis comes from my husband, chris, who has infected me with his enthusiasm for digital humanities and code, and for poetry translation. thank you for bringing home piles of books, for always scouring libraries in search of the latest releases and the most sophisticated research, for parenting a rambunctious toddler while i worked, for setting my alarm every night, and for always standing by my side. you, sophia, and i are the best team ever. i would also like to thank luise von flotow for her support during various stages of my studies and in organizing the conferences for the school of translation, to elizabeth marshman for her encouragement and support during my vanier canada graduate scholarship application, as well as to salah basalamah and rainier grutman, who both had a good word for my research at some point during these five years. finally, many thanks to my mother for her unconditional love and for feeding me good food—perhaps too good—, to seymour mayne, who inspired me to pursue a doctorate in translation studies, and to my extended family for the good vibes they always send my way. it has been an exciting time and i cannot believe this journey is over. viii table of contents list of abbreviations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. xi list of tables and figures ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi introduction . . behind the scenes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. . . summary of objectives, questions, and theoretical framework …………………………….. . . corpus and research design …………………....................……………………………………………… . . the state of research ……………………………………………………………………………………………… chapter . exploring ‘mess’ and connectedness . . from macro- to micro-modernity and digital humanism in translation studies ……… . . . partial pluralities …………………………………………………………………………………………….. . . . everything is a mess: ‘minority’ and ‘minorness’ …...……………………………………….. . . . a new politics of precariousness: acting at the edge of chaos …………………………. . . a chaos paradigm: applying network theory in investigating translators’ agency...... . . . complexity thinking in translation studies ……………………………………………………… . . . actor-network theory ……………………………………………………………………………………. . . . from network society (back) to network science …………………………………………. . . . . castells’ and van dijk’s ‘network societies’ ……………...………………………… . . . . network science and graph theory ……………...…………………………............ . . . chaos in translation networks ……………...…………………………................................ chapter . translator and author networks in periodicals ( - ) . . micro-charting poetry translation networks in romanian print literary journals ....... . . . endotic travels into contemporary poetry translation in print periodicals ......... ix table of contents (continued) . . . functionalist description of the corpus ............................................................... . . . a network analysis ……………...………………………….................................................. . . . network-driven translation and the poetics of fecundity ……………...…………….. . . (dis)connected transnationalism ……………...…………………………..................................... . . . translation and transnational movement ……………...…………………………............. . . . translating the land of exile ……………...………………………….................................... . . . transnational literary barters ……………...…………………………................................. . . . literary kinship, scholarly work, and academic mobility .................................... . . poetry translation in the technoscape ......................................................................... . . . a new economy of attention .............................................................................. . . . the connective turn: translation as echo-statement ......................................... . . . translators—the digital connection ................................................................... chapter . chaos out of order: translations of american and canadian contemporary poetry into romanian before . . translators’ agency in a centralized (‘star-like’) translation network ......................... . . the earliest connections to the ‘new world’ ( - ) ........................................... . . u.s. poetry translation between the two world wars ................................................. . . contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry in author-collections after world war ii ...... . . contemporary u.s. and canadian poets in anthologies during communism ................ chapter . order out of chaos: the self-regulation of the complex poetry translation network after the fall of communism .............................. . . the network effect: translating rock lyrics ................................................................. x table of contents (continued) . . . rock lyrics as subversion: jesus christ superstar ............................................... . . . bob dylan translated by musicians .................................................................... . . . dylan, a feather in a literary cap ........................................................................ . . . three times jim morrison .................................................................................. . . romanian mainstream and indie publishers of translated poetry after .............. conclusions ......................................................................................................................... on the usefulness of a digital humanities approach in translation studies ..................... bibliography ....................................................................................................................... annex – partial corpus of u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry translations in pp ( - ) ......................................................... annex – networkx analysis of the u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry translations in pp ( - ) ......................................................... annex – networkx analysis of the transnational u.s. and canadian poetry translations in pp ( - ) ................................................................................. annex – networkx analysis of the contemporary american poetry author-collections translated before ............................................................ annex – networkx analysis of the contemporary canadian poetry anthologies translated before ........................................................................ annex – networkx analysis of the contemporary american poetry anthologies translated before ........................................................................ annex – networkx analysis of the u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry author-collections translated between and ..................................................... xi list of abbreviations ant: actor-network theory bc: betweeness centrality cas(s): complex adaptive system(s) cc: closeness centrality dh: digital humanities nlr: national library of romania pp: print periodicals u.s.: united states ts: translation studies list of figures and tables chapter figure a. network of contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translations in pp between and (without node labels) .................................................................. figure b. network of contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translations in pp between and (with node labels) ....................................................................... figure a. the giant component (g ) in the - network of translations in pp (without node labels) .......................................................................................................... figure b. the giant component (g ) in the - network of translations in pp (with node labels) .......................................................................................................... table . the size of the - network of translations in pp ..................................... figure . the g component in the - network of translations in pp (translators: l. rusu, t. moțet, a.e. baconski, p. solomon) ............................................... figure . the g component in the - network of translations in pp (translators: f. samulescu, d. dragomirescu, s. mihalache) .............................................. figure . translator o. iacob (bc = . ) ......................................................................... figure . translator a. văsieș (bc = . ) ....................................................................... xii figure . author j. ashbery (bc = . ) ........................................................................... figure . translator c. tanasescu (bc = . ) ................................................................. figure . author c. simic (bc = . ) .............................................................................. figure . translator n. cassian (bc = . ) ................................................................... figure . translator l. ofileanu (bc = . ) .................................................................. figure . author c.k. williams (bc = . ) and d. levertov (bc = . ) .................... figure . author s. plath (bc = . ) ............................................................................. figure . transnational and academia-related translations in pp ( - ) – g ......... figure . transnational and academia-related translations in pp ( - ) – g ....... figure . the circulation of translations in the zona nouă complex network .................. chapter figure a. contemporary u.s. poetry collections translated before ....................... figure b. network of publishers, authors, and translators before ........................ figure a. anthologies of contemporary canadian poetry before .......................... figure b. contemporary canadian poets selected both by univers and albatros ......... table . number of poems per contemporary author in the albatros and univers anthologies of canadian poetry .......................................................................................... figure . network of u.s. poets published in anthologies before ........................... chapter figure . contemporary english-language u.s. and canadian poetry collections translated after ............................................................................ figure . translation projects associated with mainstream paralela , humanitas, cartea românească, and editura fundației culturale române ............................................. figure . translation projects associated with mainstream polirom and indie scrisul românesc .................................................................................... translation and chaos: poetry translators’ agency in a non-hegemonic network. a digital humanities approach. introduction . . behind the scenes as in any captivating movie script, arriving at the idea behind this research has involved a great amount of conflict and struggle. this is only to confess that writing this thesis has been quite a journey. in , my proposal started as a classical literary translation research project, whose main objective was to examine how various american poets came to be translated into romanian and how this process fitted with the process of globalization. then i entered a second stage, in which i began to realize that globalization was too homogenous a process and what i wanted to account for in my thesis-to-be appeared as one of the many stories of a ‘minor’ literature translating from the english. it didn’t feel accurate, so what was i to make of this? how was i to go beyond the dynamics of power professed by pierre bourdieu through the words of pascale casanova ( )? it seemed that i was doomed to remain in the well-structured republic of letters. so i trusted my intuition, which sensed there was something rotten in this republic: my experience as a romanian-language translator and publisher did not fit many of the categories engendered by the translation theories i was exposed to. the most important question i asked myself was: if there is a dynamics of power, is it unidirectional? the natural thing to do for me was to look into how ‘minorness’ handles power and what the mechanisms to overcome a ‘minor’ status are. while investigating practices related to romanian-language translation and publishing, i noticed that the digital world was gaining more and more traction, as it presented the perfect opportunity to overcome the much invoked ‘sense of space.’ the third stage of my journey was marked by the realization that this ‘sense of space’ and the many space-related metaphors in translation studies tether rather than advance research on minorness, as they naturally foster default communities, such as the nation-state, and admittedly limit research to how such states manage their economic resources. ‘tethered’ is the best word to express how my research felt for the first four years of my studies, but it was a necessary phase that helped me realize that more freedom was needed. my research had to be positively animated by the freedom i experienced as a translator and publisher who has actually never been tethered by the lack of economic resources of her country of origin, but was always connected to others: other cultures, other translators, other economic resources. thus it became clear to me that more fluidity and flexibility were essential in translation studies in order to account for the ‘mess’ that slipped between the cracks of clear-cut categories. this thesis is about ‘mess’, about the freedom to perceive ‘noise’ as ‘sound’ and randomness as a new order. it is an attempt to find a place for chaos in translation theory or, rather, to unleash it. . . summary of objectives, questions, and theoretical framework what has been keeping translation studies (ts) in a perpetual quest to define itself—with rather relative success at the end of each turn, i dare suggest—has been the inherent non-linearity, instability, and uncertainty of all the elements that collude to the realization of a translation. the stumbling block, to my mind, has always been the complex nature of translation and the potentially chaotic essence of the processes that surround it, alongside our difficulty to acknowledge such a composite reality in one single theory. things have become even more puzzling when this field decided it was time to emulate the social sciences during a period when social sciences themselves were considering their own complexity by means of chaos theory (albert , kiel and elliott , byrne , byrne and callaghan ) or assemblage theory (delanda )—which, drawing on deleuze and guattari’s a thousand plateaus ( ), provided a bottom-up framework for accommodating complex forms of causal productivity. instead of doing the same, ts has borrowed mostly relatively stable macro-structural concepts from sociology (such as “field,” or “system”) in an attempt to deal with its own shortcomings and as a result of a rather significant structuralist trandition and left out, intentionally or not, any natural science conceptualization. although scholars like jean-marc gouanvic ( ) and sergey tyulenev ( ) rightfully see “habitus” as a micro- structural approach, this notion cannot be divorced, in my opinion, from the whole theoretical apparatus of bourdieu’s theory of cultural fields. in other words, using bourdieusian concepts only selectively and in a way that matches the composite realities of a certain practice, in our case literary translation, is very far from their proponent’s intentions and vision. to my mind, it would be far- fetched to admit that translation is not a field (gouanvic ; heilbron and sapiro ) and use ‘habitus’ to designate a clustering of life experiences that may have an impact on translators’ activities. there are many possible scenarios for such a state of affairs. perhaps notions like bourdieu’s field of cultural production or luhmann’s systems were seen as bringing along a certain legitimacy and a sense of stability to a discipline that was defining itself. it may also be that the developmental hierarchy that characterizes natural sciences was not a good match for the subservient translator and their agency, until recently considered mere creators of second-rate texts. it may also be that humanists are simply hesitant to the prospects of mastering frothy mathematical formulae and complicated visualisation techniques. as we shall hopefully see as we move along, frothy math will not be needed, nor will i be engaging in any glorification of cyberspace or technology. the multifarious nature of the processes that accompany translation and the role played by translation in defining cultures alongside a number of cultural memes is appropriately described by michael cronin’s t paradigm: trade, technology, translation. cronin rightfully argues that “the tendency to exclude any of the three components tends to lead to isolationist or exclusivist readings of a particular culture.” ( b: ) he also complements this paradigm with the notion of gap in resources in the host culture and conjectures that rather than looking for values in another context cultures look for resources, a position he equates with the cultivation of fecundity. both the notions of trade and technology that accompany translation are thus grounded in and reflect on translator’s agency, making it one of the most important units of analysis in this field. in addressing agency, kobus marais ( ) sees translation related to the social and the cultural in so far as a translator’s action has an influence on the social reality or on the other agents, but he also addresses the case of translators’ possible lack of intent towards agency. this is a valid observation and, to my knowledge, there is no scholarship drawing on the idea of non-agency, although not all literary translators translate because they wear the label of literary translators by profession. some may translate because rendering a certain author in their language is a natural response to their meeting with that foreign author and this is how they become labelled as literary translators. others do have a sense of agency and use translation as literary capital added to their own literary persona. multiple scenarios are possible, as will become apparent in the following sections, and in order to capture best the complexity of this phenomenon, translator’s agency needs to be researched, i suggest, within what willard mccarty terms the digital social humanities, an umbrella-notion that situates any translated text in its contex of production, dependent on all levels on the agent(s) producing it and on the medium of circulation (online or offline). the discourse and methods of the digital humanities are an exercise in complexity themselves. complexity is essential to multiple readings and interpretations in academic research and coding is seen as essential to disentangling multiplicities. as mccarty notes, chaos underpins the economy of plenty as a fructifying and terryfing cornucopia in contemporary research (mccarty : ). in electronic scholarly editing, for instance, mary nell smith notes that complexity in general and coding in particular provide “a healthy self-consciousness” about the circumstances of knowledge creation ( : ). complexity is also permanently sought in charts and maps (drucker ), in preserving the multifariousness of cultural heritage through mapping “the complexity of cities – as embodied, lived in, built, imagined, and represented spaces” (presner and shepard : ), in the study of the human-computer interfaces (ruecker : ), in our delegations to technology as in the internet of things—“this process of offloading tasks to the internet of things, new possibilities come into being, some as synergetic effects and others as unintended consequences” (jørgensen : ), in linked data and semantic web as essential tools for understanding the complexity of humanists’ discourse and of the disciplinary developments in the humanities ( : oldman, doerr, and gradmann : ), in relation to data storage, hypertextual history, or virtual reality systems. a term occasionally used by willard mccarty—author of humanities computing ( ), internationally recognized for his achievements in digital humanities—about research situated on the border between digital humanities and social sciences. digital materiality, “the palpable bits and bytes of electronic hardware and software that are ubiquitous, that leave traces, and that can be read as evidence of the creation, dissemination, reception, and preservation of these new communication forms” (shep : ), has therefore become paramount in any discussion on human agency, especially in the context of cultural communication, where chaos theory engenders “a sisyphean perspective […] on cultural practice: the activity of making sense by way of recourse to chaos, noise, and chance circumstance is an interminable task because power, like desire, is protean and omnipresent.” (white : ) studying uncertainty and digital materiality by means of information visualization has gained more and more ground lately (lorna hughes, panos constantopoulos, and costis dallas : ), although scholars like johanna drucker ( ) have argued that the graphical approaches to the digital humanities, although perceived as very effective, need to be complemented by more criticial- humanistic methods of reading the data because graphs alone cannot render the complexity of the information they represent. this is because “data models exclude certain properties of data, which poses problems in a field such as humanities that works primarily with highly complex, heterogeneous, and nonconcrete data.” (zundert : ) also, the formalized data model reduces “to a certain extent the richness and complexity of the body of information,” (id.) and so it invites complementary approaches such as “rapid shuttling” (kirschenbaum cited in hayles ) or “algorithmic criticism” (ramsay ). this is precisely what i do in this dissertation: framing english-language poetry translation in contemporary romania as a complex human activity animated by uncertainty and modeling it study as a pendulum between network visualizations and traditional descriptive translation scholarship. the purpose of this research is to examine poetry translators’ agency in a non-hegemonic context and in relation to the contacts they establish with authors pertaining to other cultures (in my case, u.s. and canadian contemporary poets). to this end, i endeavor to unearth relationships and practices that are not currently addressed by the theories of translation and that shed a positive light on translators as connectors. the non-hegemonic context of choice is romania, a country which has never been perceived as socially, culturally, ideologically, or economically influencing other cultures significantly. on the flip side, it has always sought to align itself to the latest literary trends, started its own trends, and its intellectuals have never had a static mode of existence, but have participated to a large extent in a deeply transnational traffic of cultural goods. translation has always been part of this dynamics. in this context, my research is concerned both with translators living and publishing between the borders of this nation-state and with romanian translators from the diaspora or in a constant state of mobility between the host culture and the culture translation departs from. in order to achieve this analysis, three research objectives have been set. first, i shall address the risks of imbricating uncritically the label ‘minor’ in the discourse of ts by emphasizing the heuristic potential of minorness and precariousness in addressing translatorial agency. small european nations and minority cultures have yet to gain a firm foothold in our field as translation is still largely studied in contexts that it usually departs from (i.e., global languages like english). therefore one of the problems this investigation will address is the underrepresentation of small nations/cultures in ts as a result of the liberal use of a plethora of monolithic terms and dyadic associations, such as ‘european vs. non-european’, ‘major vs. minor’, or ‘center vs. periphery’. instead, i shall embrace the inherent precariousness of the ‘periphery’ and propose a paradigm built on the possibilities of chaos. second, i undertake to demonstrate that acknowledging the role played by heterogeneity in translation within a paradigm that allows for the phenomena’s uncertainty, indeterminateness, and randomness (callon et al. ) is a more revealing and thus productive stance than assigning translators to premade categories that they need to fit in no matter their background or the associations they form. to this end, i shall devote a large portion of this thesis to the investigation of the networks romanian poetry translators form with the authors they translate in order to establish both the complex relationships that lattice such networks and to offer a comprehensive image of a translation landscape that could otherwise appear as simply fragmented, or chaotic, and lacking creative potential. finally, the third and final objective of this dissertation is to demonstrate that a paradigm built on the possibilities of chaos unearth the full extent of human agency and creativity, which i shall exemplify through the concepts of “poetics of fecundity” and “network-driven translation.” thinking of all the things i know about american and canadian contemporary poetry translation in romania—a small world in which i belonged for over ten years—and trying to fit them into the confines of various theories i have been trained in for the past five years triggered a number of questions that are meant to address a certain general intellectual discomfort i felt. how do poetry translations come into being since they are neither economically, nor socially influential? how are theories based on the global book flows addressing this situation? can we still speak about the translators’ invisibility in the age of instant access to information and ubiquitous computing? what are these translators’ lines of flight? how do they associate among themselves and how do they get in contact with the contemporary authors they translate? and so on. faced with the rigor of academic research, all these musings turned into several research questions that will hopefully guide my way out of the reductionist quagmire and make room for a more non-linear way of thinking about translators and translation in general. chapter is meant to address two more theoretical research questions. first, how valid are the grounds for labeling a culture as ‘minor’ or ‘peripheral’? although recent work in ts has started to broach this topic (folaron , flynn , etc.), the ‘major vs. minor’ conundrum is still very much operational. the example of romania illustrates best itamar even zohar’s definition of ‘peripheral’—one of the smaller nations of europe—and is also mirrored by cronin’s argument according to which the linguistic diversity of europe has been levelled out by postcolonialism. relatively recent research on the internationalization of our field is extensive. in , Șebnem susam-sarajeva started to advocate for a multilingual and international ts, and, while still employing the same schismatic, monolithic paradigm, she acknowledged that “there is no way of measuring centrality or periphery.” (susam sarajeva : ) she also linked research carried out in ‘exotic’ languages to a peripheral condition of the respective scholars. other scholars like harish trivedi ( ) or maria tymoczko ( ) called for using words from other languages (from hindi to igbo) for a theoretical reconceptualization of translation. what if there is no one center, but ‘multiple center(s)’ that could provide invaluable knowledge for the field? scholarly articles on the downsides of english as a universal means of exchange abound. however, there are very few contributions dedicated to translations into lesser-known languages in the most prestigious academic journals. the main reason is related to the pervasiness of globalization’s homogeneous effects as a research topic and to an interest in how translation into ‘major’ languages increases the symbolic capital of ‘minor’ cultures. one of the main effects of globalization has been cultural homogenization, that is, the reduction of cultural diversity (or a shrinkage of the world) through the promotion and diffusion of a wide array of cultural symbols, be they physical objects, customs, ideas examples are offered in the literature review section ( . . the state of research). and values, coming from dominant cultures. cultural reductionism also refers to treating cultural agents as similar, no matter the culture they are grounded in, and not acknowledging their unique ways of operating within that culture and between the cultures they connect via translation. instead of looking at cultures that translate more, we look at those that translate less, but which confer on the authors they translate a high degree of symbolic capital. this situation is entertained by the relatively difficult access to ‘mainstream’ ts of scholars that work in ‘minor’ contexts and translate into lesser-known/used languages although they use english as a lingua-franca (susam-sarajeva ). in a recent response to another fellow academic’s work on translation and migration, edwin gentzler characterizes the state-of-the-art in our field as “an exciting time for translation studies, as it expands internationally, looking at more languages and cultural traditions for translation, including those of many immigrants’ home cultures, and as it turns inward intra-nationally, looking more at minority languages and immigrant groups within any given culture.” ( : , emphasis mine) research on minority languages understood as the languages of cultural minorities (as opposed to national languages) has been indeed extensive. important authors like cronin have drawn upon and emphasized the relational and dynamic dimension of the concept of ‘minority’, along with the fact that it is always “the expression of a relation and not an essence,” ( : ) as well as a status that makes a language more prone to translation, since small cultures are disproportionately important in terms of translation productivity. however, cronin himself ( ) and other authors, like mona baker ( ), could not disregard the fact that, from an economic and political standpoint, all languages other than english have become minority languages. at the same time, according to lawrence venuti, a “minor language is that of a politically dominated group, but also language use that is heterogeneous, that deviates from the standards, varies the constants.” ( b: , emphasis mine) it becomes obvious that ‘minority’ and ‘minor’ are sometimes used interchangeably. if we were inclined to think that ‘minority’ refers to a language-culture like catalan or quebecois, for example, whereas ‘minor’ refers to any small nation, such as romania or ireland, by comparison to economically and politically more powerful ones, the many confusing definitions in ts, paired with other leveling binarisms such as ‘center vs. periphery’, beg the question of the heuristic value of these terms. much of the work that has been done on translator’s agency (pym ; simeoni ; inghilleri ; gouanvic ; wolf and fukari (eds.) ; pym, shlesinger, and jettmarova (eds.) ; milton and bandia ) has been based on bourdieu’s concepts of ‘practice’, ‘habitus’ and ‘field’ ( ), therefore on the ‘physical’ (much in line with the concept of nationhood) and hierarchical world. also, a large part of this work has been centered on interpreters and on translators as political agents. in this context, michaela wolf sees the translation ‘field’ as highly problematic, because translators do not have long-lasting positions in this field and they have to renegotiate their status all the time ( ). as gouanvic noteworthily observes ( ), besides translators that act as political agents or translators that aim at gathering as much literary capital as possible by translating reputed authors, there are translators “by necessity,” that seldom compete for a certain position and render the solubility of a concept like ‘field’ problematic in relation to translation studies. to these examples, i would like to add translation for survival, which can never be associated with the producer’s ‘habitus’; not could it be socially sanctioned because of its context of production. the methodological contributions of sociology to the study of translation are unquestionable. however, as i have mentioned before, these sociological perspectives on translation in the context of globalization have often emphasized hierarchies, power relations, and macroscopic analyses hardly ever providing more detailed accounts from the field. one very pertinent example is cronin’s observation in translation and globalization ( ) that english became the only ‘major’ language, while all others are largely perceived as ‘minor’. another equally pertinent example is casanova’s world republic of letters and her article on translation as unequal exchange ( ). to casanova, translations from dominating cultures/fields to dominated ones help the latter gain literary capital, while the opposite brings consecration to the dominated one. the role of literary translators from the so-called ‘dominated’ cultures is still largely ignored because the advent of globalization shifted ts researchers’ focus on the international circulation of books and on the role major publishers play in this respect (venuti a; pym and chrupala ; sapiro a, b, , ). equally ignored is a very common practice according to which authors coming from dominating cultures ask to be translated by translators from dominated fields/cultures because that brings them a plus of literary capital at home. being translated into as many languages as possible, even if not into dominating ones, is a very sought-after status in the literary world; and, to our knowledge, this aspect of literary translation has never been pursued as worthy of scholarly research. i shall address this aspect in the case studies presented in section . . (literary barters). the second theoretical research question addressed in chapter is related to the possibilities presented by our acceptance and acknowledgement of chaos in translator’s agency in contemporary poetry translation: what are the shortcomings of the proposed macro-sociological theories (pierre bourdieu’s theory of cultural fields and especially niklas luhmann’s systems theory) and the benefits and risks of using a micro-sociological approach like bruno latour’s actor-network theory (ant)? several research sub-questions aimed at reconciling these shortcomings and possibilities seem in order. what can we learn from the evolution of social sciences over the past sixty years in terms of acknowledging and fostering heterogeneity? what is a viable theoretical model for the analysis of poetry translator’s agency in all its complexity? what research models and tools are available for exploring this complexity? sociologically-informed research in ts has made extensive use of the bourdieusian theory of practice as it presented a much-awaited solution to the long-standing lament that theory had been seldom grounded in practice, or, at least, not sufficiently accompanied by illustrative practical examples. after all, practice makes perfect, and translation is a social, cultural and political act connected to local and global relations of power (cronin ). bourdieu’s organismic model of society and his constructive structuralism allowed translation studies to turn translators into legitimate subjects of inquiry, capable of acting and free to act (gouanvic ). after a long formalist tradition which placed translated texts at the center of academic reflexion, bourdieu’s neofunctionalism (or structuralist constructivism) presented an excellent opportunity for translators to become visible, willful producers of meaning, capable to cause change, albeit one that still had to be ratified by the social structure they were part of. although apparently free to act and acknowledged in the complexity of their habitus, translators were still anchored in the social and dependent on social sanction. nevertheless, few have embraced bourdieu’s concepts unaltered as essential for furthering research in ts, and perhaps the most controversial notion of all was “habitus,” i.e., the set of one’s dispositions acquired by action and generating actions. given its arbitrariness, habitus, in spite of its emphasis on action, still does not place the individual in a state of productive tension with the field. out of the scholars who contributed to the collective volume titled remapping habitus (vordorobermeier et al. ), one the essays most relevant to this discussion is the one signed by rakefet sela-sheffy, who proposes the notion of ‘identity work’ to be added to the notion of ‘habitus’. the israeli scholar argues that a theory of practice such as the one professed by bourdieu needs to be anchored, ironically, into practice in order to account for the complexity of translators’ work. the essay continues an endeavor the author began in with “how to be a (recognized) translator: rethinking habitus, norms, and the field of translation,” which analyzes the case of contemporary translators in israel and argues that it is impossible to speak about universal dispositions of translators. sela-sheffy undertakes to explain “the tension between the constrained and the versatile nature of translators’ action, as determined by their cultural group-identification and by their position in their specific field of action,” ( : , emphasis mine) although they may be all animated by a struggle for symbolic capital. the contention is that “[w]e cannot take for granted that their role in the production of culture is always secondary and their attitude always passive.” (ibid.: ) during the past ten years ts scholars have become more and more aware of the complex relationships that underlie translators’ activity, as well as of the need to include technology and new media in the mix. in , meta : journal des traducteurs published a seminal issue on the connection between ts and network studies, curated by canadian scholars deborah folaron and hélène buzelin. the introduction offers an excellent overview of the notion of ‘network,’ moving across disciplines and schools with a familiarity and gusto that attest not only to the authors’ intellectual prowess, but also to the potential natural relationship between the two fields. it is here and in buzelin’s “unexpected allies: how latour’s network theory could complement bourdieusian analyses in translation studies” ( ) that the connection between latour’s relationist sociology and translation—more specifically in relation to the world of literary translation—is explored for the first time. however unexpected, the actor-network theory becomes a necessary ally to bourdieu’s sociology. the theory developed by latour together with michel callon and john law, opposes bourdieu’s single-world “irreducible, incommensurable, unconnected localities, which then, at a great price, sometimes end in provisionally commensurable connections.” (latour ) it posits that “neither the actor’s size nor its psychological make up nor the motivations behind its actions are predetermined,” (callon : ) making room for the idea of a self-made network of actants of different natures, that would include, alongside individuals, objects, hybrids, and quasi-objects. thus latour’s sociology of association offers literary translators a way to overcome the deterministic nature of autonomous organizations and a fertile ground for further research into their potential to bring about change by means of personal initiative. in the same issue of meta, Șehnaz tahir-gürçağlar explores the potential of networks to provide a more comprehensive inventory of historical facts related to literary translation, using the case of popular literature in turkey. she aptly notes that the notion of “context” has been vaguely defined in ts and that contexts are actually made of layers of contexts, from the micro- to the macro-level. citing law, who argues that the world cannot be fittingly explained and neatly structured using social categories because it also contains a high degree of mess (“vague, diffuse, unspecific, slippery, emotional phenomena that do not display much pattern at all” (law : )), gürçağlar advances that ts might mismanage findings in order to make them fall into certain categories, instead of allowing apparent “chaos” (that is, the reality of practice) to generate theories: i would like to suggest that the world of translation also involves a high degree of mess, confusion and disorder and that our current critical theoretical frameworks are forcing these conditions into set categories, organizing the disorder into seeming order, sometimes lumping together findings that agree with theoretical expectations and excluding or glossing over those that challenge them. ( : ) she sees the drawing of network maps as a felicitous method to account for translators’ agency, for the set of relationships they develop through their everyday work, as well as for the way certain genres relate in surprising ways with other genres. gürçağlar adds a visual component to the method proposed by buzelin, thus furthering the inclusive scope of a similar research agenda. both scholars zoom in on practices and networks of translators in order to provide a better contextualization for the translation practice, instead of first providing the framework and only subsequently dwelling on individual phenomena. however, no matter how promising the beginnings, these authors have not done further research and have not proposed clear research models and methodologies, as we shall see in the section dedicated to the literature review. after tackling these theoretical concerns, i shall move to an in-depth analysis of the networks of contemporary poetry translation into romanian from u.s. and canadian english. chapter is grounded in the lattices of print periodical publications between and and builds its complexity argument on the heterogeneity of translators’ agendas, affiliations, and mobility, with notions such as the nation-state and translator’s habitus fading into the background. from a theory of chaos point of view, i shall look for order in a seemingly chaotic network. to this end, my research will answer three questions. the first question is related to the possibilities presented by literary journals for instant, semi-mediated, and fertile translation publication. the second one remains in the realm of periodical publications, but investigates various types of translational agency in a transnational context, inquiring into the possibilities of diaspora and of academic mobility. finally, i shall address the problem of online translation publishing and specifically answer the following questions: how is digital space enabling translators’ agency and what are its repercussions on literary translators’ status? how does the online reshape the definition of translation? to my knowledge, these issues have never been broached in this field in relation to romanian translators. finally, my third assumption is that translators’ access to digital space enhances their chances at becoming agents of literary change and that such a phenomenon is more bound to happen in small cultures, since digital space offers the chance to circumvent the usual economic constraints presented by the more traditional publishing spaces. decentralization is closely related to the rise of the digital: decentralization has been lying dormant for thousands of years. but the advent of the internet has unleashed this force, knocking down traditional businesses, altering entire industries, affecting how we relate to each other, and influencing world politics. the absence of structure, leadership, and formal organization, once considered a weakness, has become a major asset. seemingly chaotic groups have challenged and defeated established institutions. the rules of the game have changed. (brafman and beckstrom : - ) the relatively low costs of engaging in literary translation in digital space, the diversity of digital publications, and their relative accessibility compared to that of traditional printing allow writers and translators a higher degree of freedom. in small countries like romania, especially in those with a communist past, these may be seen as a continuation of the samizdat tradition, the underground publications reproduced illegally by hand by dissident writers and translators and circulated among readers. the minor economic status of romania on the globalized market and the lack of financial support for the arts in general determined intellectuals to look for alternatives to the costly printing industry and to the even costlier press distribution networks, which charge commissions as high as % off of the cover price. the last two chapters are built on a chaos-out-of-order perspective and are dedicated to identifying self-regulation and personal initiatives in what can appear as the realm of order: the heavily censored cultural field during the communist regime and the capitalist market of the post- revolution era. as far as the first context is concerned, i shall describe the corpus and identify those initiatives that were actually the translators’ projects. in the latter case, i endeavor to describe and quantify indie poetry publishing in comparison to mainstream romanian publishing and to analyze the information offered here is based on our experience in romanian book publishing. other available sources generally list even higher retailer discounts: http://bit.ly/ huxds . http://bit.ly/ huxds several translations of the same works or authors that have been tackled by both worlds in hopes of answering a critical question: where is a contemporary author more visible? most scholarship on translation into romanian has been centered on the country’s communist past and has a strong historiographic character, with the exception of ioana popa’s traduire sous contraintes. littérature et communisme ( - ) ( ), which doubles the historical perspective by a sociological one. the few contributions tackling topics related to the country’s post-communist realities have yet to touch upon poetry translation; therefore contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translation in romania during the past years is virtually unaccounted for. hence the proposed research endeavors to look closely at all the details related to translators’ involvement in the publication process and to trace all cases of private initiative in contemporary poetry translation in romania, hoping to reveal new practices and new dimensions of the literary translator profession. the overarching theoretical framework of the proposed project is mainly informed by complexity theory, with a specific focus on network theory and chaos theory. whereas complexity theory in natural sciences was fueled by globalization, the same phenomenon intensified the reductionist line of thought in ts, as it quickly fostered the pattern of the shrinking world. i would like to offer an alternative view on globalization that follows cronin’s model of the expanding world, in which micro-cosmopolitanism and microspection are the politics of choice and foster the interconnectedness of the world. a complexity framework begs the adoption of a transnational stance (jay ), which engenders the analysis of translational phenomena outside a national paradigm and calls for contextual specificity. a transnational position also helps us avoid yet another dichotomy—global vs. local/national—by placing translators in what is called a “paradigm of mobility.” (stephane van damme cited in boschetti ) transnationalism lends itself very well to explaining the circulation of ideas and practices and complements the nationalist paradigm offered by polysystem theory or by the theory of the cultural fields. associating a transnational paradigm to cronin’s notion of micro-cosmopolitanism—an approach which “seeks to diversify or complexify the smaller unit” ( : ) will veer the discussion to particularity, to aspects that are seldom explored in relation to translation under a national paradigm, “show[ing] that elsewhere is next door, in one’s immediate environment, no matter how infinitely small or infinitely large the scale of investigation.” (ibid.: ) complexity also calls for considering decentralization and non-linearity. the decentralization of the translation network in romania gives it a particular strength and increases its scholarship potential for ts research. a groundbreaking book in business management and organizational behaviors, the starfish and the spider: the unstoppable power of leaderless organizations (brafman and beckstrom ibid.), explains that traditional, centralized organizations (the spiders), with top- down leadership and rigid hierarchical structure, started to incorporate more and more ‘starfish’ principles, namely principles that are typical of decentralized organizations, whose members rely on the power of and on their relationship with their peers. the book sets out to explain what happens “when no one’s in charge” (ibid.: ), when “there’s no hierarchy.” (id.): “you’d think there would be disorder, even chaos. but in many arenas, a lack of traditional leadership is giving rise to powerful groups that are turning industry and society upside down.” (id.) in regards to translation, i argue that contemporary poetry translation in romania echoes a starfish model. this starfish model takes advantage of the fact that there is no central funding agency for the activity of translation, nor an institution to regulate the activity of literary translators. the theoretical framework i shall use for explaining the differences between a centralized system and a decentralized one cannot be limited to bourdieu’s theory of the fields, as the latter does not take into consideration action, agency, and subjectivity unless they are ultimately socially sanctioned. my first assumption is that poetry translation in romania functions according to the rules of an actor-network (latour ), whose structure could account for the ‘holes’, for the lack of institutional representation, as well as for literary translators’ initiative, connectivity, use of the latest developments in technology, and sometimes even their lack of accountability. for those very reasons, i shall also refer to deleuze and guattari’s concept of ‘rhizome’ ( ) in order to describe the state of affairs in contemporary poetry translation in romania, since it captures multiplicities and allows us to access the network from multiple points of entry. the rhizomatic approach will be doubled by the actor-network theory developed by bruno latour together with michel callon and john law, which too was meant to shatter the shackles of dualism. both will hopefully leave little room for exclusion when accounting for the complexity of translation phenomena and their agents in any given culture. furthermore, the assumption that the decentralization of literary translation activity in romania offers more room for personal initiative will be illustrated by employing deleuze and guattari’s ‘line of flight’ (ligne de fuite) and ‘nomadism’ (ibid.), two relevant concepts to explain the attitudes of young romanian translators after the fall of communism in , after a period in which translation activities in romania followed the logic of a system shaped by communist propaganda and censorship for almost forty years. the existing scholarship on translators’ agency seldom references translators who discover and translate various authors according to their own taste or even on a whim, and not according to a specific, pre- established agenda that follows the rationale of the globalized book market. the practice of private cultural brokerage is certainly not new, but it is seldom referenced in relation to translation. one notable example is the one mentioned by venuti under “globalization” in the scandals of translation; he describes how south-american translation boomed in the united states via various private initiatives: “[…] a sudden increase in english-language translations supported by private funding (barbosa : - , rostagno ).” ( : ) the major risk faced when tackling translators’ agency under the auspices of complexity and chaos is chaos itself. an essential step in preventing this dissertation from turning into a “messy business” is defining the corpus and adopting a methodology that keeps the risk of chaotic research on a tight leash. . . corpus and research design the corpus in which i ground my analyses, descriptions, and interpretations consists of romanian translations of u.s. and canadian english-language contemporary poetry. by contemporary poetry i chiefly understand poetry that was published after by poets born during the last decade of the nineteenth century and onwards. in terms of selected authors, it reflects the work of us- and canada-born poets and of authors of various extractions living and writing in canada and the united states, as well as transnational poets of american and canadian origin, because i considered them as manifesting double loyalty. for instance, i included t.s. eliot, although he lived and worked in england for most of his life, as his work cannot be divorced from his origins and most publishers, critics, and literary historians, including the romanian ones, consider him to be an american. furthermore, i have not included authors who were not influential in the s although they died much later (such as roy helton, who died in the late s but did not publish any collection after t.s. eliot declared in an interview: “i’d say that my poetry has obviously more in common with my distinguished contemporaries in america than with anything written in my generation in england. that i’m sure of. […] it wouldn’t be what it is, and i imagine it wouldn’t be so good; putting it as modestly as i can, it wouldn't be what it is if i’d been born in england, and it wouldn't be what it is if i’d stayed in america. it’s a combination of things. but in its sources, in its emotional springs, it comes from america.” (hall : ) ). however, i did include marianne moore, who died in , but who published in the s and had her collected poems published throughout the s and onwards. i have also considered e. e. cummings (d. ) as being contemporary, whose posthumous work was published in and who had a collection of unpublished poems come out in and a significant and visible number of selected and collected poems published throughout the past decades. finally, i have considered t.s. eliot and ezra pound as contemporary poets, since they attract the same attention from writers and translators in the target culture as ever, and are evoked frequently in conversations about trends and evolutions in romania and world contemporary poetics. u.s and canadian contemporary poetry into romanian has never been approached as a corpus in translation studies scholarship. such translations have been analyzed only sparingly and in more general historical contexts, typically related to communist censorship before . the one notable exception is the monograph dedicated to the romanian translations of t.s eliot’s work both before and after by roxana Ștefania bîrsanu ( ). furthermore, no corpus analysis of contemporary poetry translations into romanian in periodicals exists, although, as this research shows, periodicals are the richest source of such translations. by addressing these translations as a two-layer corpus consisting of volumes and hundreds of translation features in periodicals i hope to offer a comprehensive image of contemporary english-language poetry translation in this small european country over the past years. however, the two corpora are unequal (author volumes and anthologies: - vs. periodicals: - ), as a result of my not carrying this research in romania. my lack of access to romanian libraries made the two corpora overlap only over a - year span. i used two sources for compiling the corpus: translations published in volumes by mainstream and indie publishers, and translation selections published in printed and online literary or cultural journals. as far as the first category is concerned, i have looked into everything that was published starting (annexes , , and ) and also mentioned a few publications that appeared prior to this date only to emphasize that a certain tradition of self-reliant poet-translators existed well before the established cut-out point. however, i have not included such modernist poets in my social network analyses—they are strictly limited to contemporaries. in terms of selections published in print periodicals (pp), i have mainly used the bibliographies available at the national library of romania (nlr) for journals published between and . however, since they were not complete, i have added a number of selections that appeared in certain periodicals not complying with the requirements of the legal deposit, but which i deemed as important for the activity of literary translation in our context. the bibliographic references i added thus add two more years to the bibliography compiled by the nlr, thus aligning the two corpora—author-volumes, anthologies, and translation features in periodicals—in terms of end dates. aligning the two in terms of start dates would have been too ambitious and unrealistic an objective, as i would have had to document probably thousands of entries, and while the network analysis would not have been a problem because of the computing capabilities used, the manual bibliographic work would not have been possible. the overall corpus is by no means exhaustive, but certainly contains most of the translations published within the specified timeframe: - . the titles, the overwhelming majority unique instances, are presented partly in footnotes throughout the dissertation and partly in annex . the selections that are also available online are referenced through bitlinks. web links shortened on the bitly link management platform for space purposes. the proposed research methodology echoes andrew chesterman’s propositions related to deploying a network as envisioned by latour: for instance, we might wish to establish what networks exist (in a given context): what the various nodes are, both human and non-human; what the range of the network is; what use is made of each of the nodes; the frequency of links in different directions; the flexibility of the network, the extent to which it remains stable or expands or contracts over time; even the way compromises are born and become necessary. how do translators build and maintain their networks? (chesterman : ) and is rooted in network analysis (na), which measures structural and process-related properties at the level of the whole network and of the sub-networks. na offers computational ways to wrangle large amounts of data and helps us grasp the structure of relationships between actors by offering a unique ‘outsider’ view of any given associations. this qualitative stage of the research starts with data collection (bibliographic research converted into a data matrix) and the formalization of the model (establishing which aspects of the subject will be computable and in what form, cf. flanders and jannidis ) and then employs a popular quantitative method: the network consisting of authors and translators as nodes and publication venues as links shall be measured and visualized by means of a dedicated software: the networkx libraries in python, which offers two-dimensional graph drawings (or network diagrams). networkx is a package for the creation, manipulation, and study of the structure, dynamics, and functions of complex networks. network studies have gained a lot of traction lately (kaufmann et al. ) because of the increasing pervasiveness of computational power and because computers are much more able to work in non-linear ways than humans. furthermore, besides feeding on graph theory, network analysis also uses data mining—the practice of analyzing large databases for the purpose of acquiring new information in computer science—, and information visualization (or visual data analysis)—the study of visual representations of abstract visual or non-numerical data, which take various spatial forms and help users understand intuitively how large amounts of information are organized. visualizing information as graphs is used “to summarize, present, and enact rich materials visually” (hughes, constantopoulos, and dallas : ) and is considered to have the potential to generate meaning (liu ) and work hypotheses, normally followed by more formal analyses. all these will be acquired by using python capabilities, which will determine a series of characteristics further described. besides its easy syntax and readability, my choice of python over other available tools, such as java or gephi, is motivated by its object-oriented programming, wide support libraries and community development, and integration features. that means it is unlikely for the results of this research to see difference across a wide range of other programming languages, such as c++ or java. furthermore, it runs on all major operating systems and, more importantly, it renders reseach accountable—users have access to the algorithms behind its libraries. one downside though is the low quality of the visualizations its produces, but this aspect was outranked by its network computing power. besides measuring the size of the network (the number of nodes and edges) and the clustering coefficient (a measure of the degree to which nodes in a graph tend to cluster together), i will look into its density—a ratio of the number of edges e to the number of possible edges in a network with n nodes—, as well as into its average degree—the average number of edges attached to a node in the respective network. connectedness (or connectivity)—how well components of the network connect to one another—is another feature i will examine, as it determines the nature of the structure: full connectedness is a feature of complete graphs (also known as “cliques”), in which a node is connected with any other node in the graph. connectedness will offer information on the giant component of a graph, which is a single connected component that contains the majority of the links in the network, as well as on weakly connected components—a series of nodes in which there exists a path (a sequence of edges) from any node to any other and on the strongly connected component. as far as centrality is concerned, that is, the measure of the most important vertices in the graph, the analysis will follow four avenues. first, i shall refer to the degree centrality of certain nodes which traditional functionalist analyses would consider to be the most important ones, by analyzing the number of links, or translations, incident on that node, i.e., that particular author or translator. high connectivity may translate into having more resources to attain an objective or to connect in the wider network. second, i shall examine betweenness centrality, which will help me establish the relative importance of a node by measuring the amount of translation traffic flowing through that node to other nodes in the network. this is done by measuring number of the shortest paths that pass through the node and connect other nodes, therefore it quantifies the number of times a node acts as a bridge along the shortest paths between two other nodes. this measurement is relevant for finding the agent that influences the network flow the most. third, i shall look into closeness centrality, to determine the shortest paths connecting that node to others in the network. this count helps me find out the agents that are best placed to influence the network the fastest. fourth, i shall determine the eigenvector centrality (or the eigencentrality), which assigns relative scores to all nodes in the network based on the concept that connections to high-scoring nodes contribute more to the score of the node in question than equal connections to low-scoring nodes. that makes this score qualify as the ‘all around’ grade for any agent in the network, as it is considered to quantify the influence of nodes on other nodes in the same network. in order words, the higher the value of the eigenvector, the more prominent a node is in the network. the particular effectiveness of the network analysis lies in its capacity to bring together quantitative and qualitative methods. however, since this is the first analysis ever done of the poetry translation network in romania, my main concern was related to accuracy, therefore i have not used any of the traditional qualitative methods typically associated with social network analysis, such as participatory mapping, walking interviews with ego and alters, or concentric circles, and opted to offer a qualitative approach based on discourse analysis of second sources, as well as analysis of the translator’s agency at the level of the text. the analysis of the corpus will involve a descriptive approach—that offers an ‘insider’s’ view—focused on paratexts, and will be doubled by an analysis of various other existing materials related to the publication of the respective translations: selections published in online literary journals and in printed press, reviews, interviews with the authors, translators and publishers, press releases, and events organized to promote the translations. in certain cases, i shall briefly compare several translations of the same texts in order to determine how translators’ real-life agency reflects on their rendition of the same source text. such comparisons shall be made especially between versions offered by mainstream translations and versions that are deemed to be the result of their translators’ agency. against this backdrop, the information offered by the quantitative analysis will help me understand whether centrality and agency have an impact at the level of the translated poem. analyzing a corpus of almost forty published volumes and hundreds of selections may appear unfeasible in terms of a reliable quantitative analysis. however, many of these translations are not accompanied by forewords, postfaces, or translators’ notes and the only available information on translators’ agency is to be found online, in the very few interviews with the translators or publishers. for example, the translations of leonard cohen’s book of longing (cartea aleanului, ) into romanian are referenced in a total of three sources (interviews, reviews, and publication ads). the volume is not accompanied by paratexts that are relevant to my research. if this is the case of leonard cohen, one of the most important contemporary poets in the corpus, the translation of other less visible authors is even less referenced. a rich corpus is, in this case, a safe way to acquire a relevant and sufficient amount of research data on the contemporary poetry translation network in romania. before i proceed, it is necessary to discuss the fact that my methodology of choice will have repercussions on the theoretical modelling of this dissertation. for delanda, for instance, considered to be bruno latour’s symmetrical opposite, “multiplicities are non-relational, (original emphasis) and robustly remain whatever they are, no matter what their relations might be.” (harman cited in byrne and callaghan ). considerations like these made me use social assemblage theory only a secondary framework in spite of the appeal it presents via notions such ‘lines of flight.’ that adds to social assemblage theorists’ rejection of coding. coding is at odds with post-structuralism because coding assumes and imposes a tree-like logic of hierarchical, fixed relations among descrete entities, which means that the grammar always pre-exists the pehnomena under investigation). deleuze also explicitly denounced code as part of ‘the numerical language of control.’ ( ) unlike these theorists, latour sees a great ally in coding, especially in terms of the potential of visualizations to provide horizontal, flattened (non-hierarchical) maps. during his opening plenary lecture for the world adho digital humanities conference at the university of lausanne in —“rematerializing humanities thanks to digital traces” (web )—latour noted that the digital does not (aim to) create a separate world from what we call the real world, but to “rematerialize all cognitively complex sets of practices,” that is, to emphasize only some of the the alliance of digital humanities organizations. available on youtube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= l zroks ia. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= l zroks ia elements of a world that remains “massively real.” (id.) the computational/digital is to him simply a re-engineering of the real and presents a great promise for the humanities. . . the state of research scholars on a more comprehensive approach to translation embraced especially for the appeal presented by his notion of ‘cultural field’ for various european nation-states (hayles ), pierre bourdieu has been at the core of the sociology of translation for more than twenty years. although arjun appadurai ( ) offered a radically new framework for examining globalization in the early s, it is only very recently that ts has become aware of the importance of ethnoscape, mediascape, technoscape, ideoscape, and financescape as alternative spatial renderings of the present phenomena and of the obsolescence of a center-periphery model. the five –scapes proposed by appadurai are the building blocks of the new reality, which can no longer be confined between national boundaries and thus becomes more fluid, connected to and influenced by phenomena impossible to contain in spatial terms. the four ts scholars that have theorized the need for a complex theory of translation are anthony pym ( , ), michael cronin ( , a, b, c, ), kobus marais ( ), and maria tymoczko ( , ). but well before them, in the late s, an m.a. thesis authored by martin malette at université de montréal and titled traduction et chaos : pour une «traductologie dynamique» ( ) made the case for applying chaos theory in the study of translation. emphasizing the complexity of any translation act, the author proposes edgar morin’s theory of complexity ( ) as a starting point for his theoretical discussion and proposes dynamic (or chaotic) systems as a theoretical model both in thinking about translation as a process and in the treatment of the texts, which are considered as chaotic attractors. although the thesis does not employ any of the methodologies used in natural sciences or in computational linguistics and remains a theoretical reflection, it is remarkable how ahead of its time it was during a period when ts research was for its most part animated by the cultural turn. malette’s reflection is an excellent early counter-reaction to the traditional binary mode of thinking that has been prevalent in this field since its beginnings. in his method in translation history ( ), pym had only proposed network “transfer maps” as a way to define relationships between cultures out of a correct intuition that political and geographical borders started to dematerialize. it is during the past thirteen years that ts researches have shown a more substantial preoccupation with complexity. for instance, cronin argues that “[…] one of the most common reasons for a failure to appreciate the complexity of translation is that it is viewed as the activity of the hack, a kind of slavish copying of the original that deserves all the scorn the romantic critic can muster for the curse of the derivative,” ( b) and conjectures that translators should be rather seen as master craftspeople who have a prime role in the chain of production, especially in the context of ubiquitous computing and instant access to publication venues. he proposes to look at the global shrinking world “by departing from the standpoint of the local, the nearby, the proximate, the micro” ( : ) in order to reflect the world in its fractal complexity and, thus, expand it. kobus marais approaches frontally the problem of complexity in ts in his translation theory and development studies: a complexity theory approach ( ). his first condition for achieving a complexity theory in the field of translation that would supersede the prevailing reductionism is to accept that the source and the target are always in an unbalanced relationship: that is, that a translation will always be an over- or an under-interpretation of an original. the second premise is rethinking the field’s notion of ‘system’, which should be seen as “complex adaptive systems” and “actor-network links,” ( ) in which agent and system need not be seen as opposites or binaries, but in tension. in marais’ words, “[…] translation studies need to conceptualize its interests as both agent and system, giving priority to neither.” (id.) finally, a third condition is to do away with conceptualizing translation using metaphors or equating translation with literature, ideology, politics, or history, for example, according to the turn that is fashionable at one given moment, but to think of translation as “a complex adaptive system constituted by complex adaptive sub-systems, or social reality as a complex adaptive supra-system.” (id.) marais accepts the fact that rational categories cannot always account for the complexity of the reality and proposes a complexity theory that includes binary notions and analyzes them in supra-systems. defined as “the principle that the whole has priority over its parts, the assumption that properties of the whole can’t be explained by the properties of its parts (doctrine of emergence), and reservations about any form of simplification” (voigt : unpaginated), holism appears to be a necessary complementary alternative to inherent methodological reductionism. indeed, in “trajectories of research in translation studies,” ( ) maria tymoczko suggested scholars try to see the field in its entirety, the alternative being the risk of not understanding “the structure of the discipline and the structure of its discursive field, as well as the relationships of particular discourses within it,” (ibid.: ) thus affecting, among other things, “the practices that a field such as translation studies promulgates in the world.” (id.) one of the ways to do that is by giving up antithetical positions, definitional impulses and generalizing aspects “to translation as a whole,” (ibid., ) thus, tymoczko advocates for a holistic perspective on the field, yet this approach brings about one major risk: the risk of perceiving the western and the non-western as two monolithic opposable notions, without differentiating among those smaller nations that each deserve our undivided attention. besides re-scoping a theory of translation, there has also recently been an increased interest in carrying out various forensic analyses of how terms like “eurocentric” or “western” are used in ts. one of the most pertinent observations is peter flynn’s analysis of the way in which various ‘eurocentric’ theories or concepts travel transnationally and inform other takes on translation. flynn aptly notes that concepts and theories change once they leave a certain culture and join a new one: in this sense, one might ask what indeed remains of “western” or “eurocentric” concepts once im/exported elsewhere? can we always assume that, in a similar vein to the ghost of corporate capitalism perhaps, they propagate and maintain some sort of nefarious skeletal cognitive superstructure that continues to frame local transformations? could they not, perhaps paradoxically, also help fire resistant transformations and hence unintentionally subvert themselves? ( : ) instead of simply qualifying former theories as ‘western’ and eagerly turning to new, more ‘exotic’ ones, flynn proposes an ethnographic approach that allows ua to examine, for example, translators ‘in their plurality’ (ibid.: ). he offers the example of a study he carried out on twelve dutch translators, a study whose results showed a plethora of different views on translation. ironically, a considerable number of these views were associated with the notion of ‘cannibalism’, typically connected with translation theory and practice in brazil. flynn calls his case study “an attempt […] to illustrate briefly how many other translators operating below the horizon of academic visibility have equally insightful things to say about their practices and to share with translation scholars. like the translators who have become visible to the discipline, they, too, are worth listening to.” (ibid.: ) even before authors like flynn and michaela wolf ( ) pointed out the overuse of ‘eurocentrism’ as a counter-concept that serves a number of research ends, sanctioning a certain discourse as part of a fashionable research agenda that is meant to legitimize a new generation of scholars, michael boyden stressed the overuse of this term in relation to identity matters as a counter-reaction to various hegemonic structures, which may lead to “linguistic paternalism.” ( : ) that said, scholarship on specific small european nations is not extensive. most of it is related to the idea of periphery in the context of the politics of globalization and its repercussions on various local cultures, rather than on what new approaches and body of information such nations could contribute to ts. scholars in transnational literary studies, like paul jay, have warned the community of the dangers posed by “making a fetish of the local in its resistance to global cultures and treating that resistance as more important than the detrimental effect it might have on the inhabitants of the so-called periphery.” (jay : ) while he ascertains the importance of looking at local cultures outside the dominant ones, he cautions against “a simple-minded binarism that facilely and uncritically celebrates the local as pure culture opposed to rapacious and homogenizing westernization.” (ibid.: ) jay also asserts the need to complicate the center-periphery model in the study of globalization; yet this is exactly the paradigm employed by various ts scholars in discussing the international translation and publishing flows in recent years. he posits that “globalization is characterized by complex back and forth flows of people and cultural forms in which the appropriation and transformation of things […] raise questions about the rigidity of the center- periphery model.” (ibid.: ) in the field of cultural studies, doris bachmann-medick calls for overcoming the monolingual condition in the study of culture, largely anglo-american, and for recognizing the merits of localization in theory formation: “even in times of global overlapping and mixing, processes of localization seem more important than ever – in order to stem hegemonic tendencies, in order to emphasize diversity, and in order to allow a multi-local production of theory.” ( : - ) overcoming the monolingual condition translates into a ‘postmonolingual condition’ (yɪldɪz ) that, on the other hand, takes distance from the idea of nationhood. the indeterminacy of nations and languages (solomon ) translates into a focus on agency and practices, into mapping the world multipolarly rather than according to the logic of a center-periphery model. other scholars, like liz medendorp ( ), have started to reassess the effectiveness of notions like ‘periphery,’ ‘margin’ or of other metaphors related to social and cultural situatedness. she notes that the ubiquity and essentialism of translation nowadays begs the question of nuancing a whole series of spatial metaphors, emphasizing the fact that translators should be now seen in their ideological dimension, rather than in their belonging to one culture or another. by the same token, in a world in which small cultures translate more, associating them with the ‘periphery’ invites a more critical treatment. in the same vein, paul jay argues that the emergence of a new form of agency calls for a reconsideration of the center-periphery model: […] what we have increasingly come to recognize about the locations we study is that they are not fixed, static or unchanging. we create the locations we study, and this recognition ought to encourage us to continue to remap the geographies of literary and cultural forms. (ibid.: ) scholars on translators’ agency the first to propose an actor-network theory-informed research in ts was hélène buzelin. her seminal article examines how marrying bourdieu’s sociology of fields and latour’s relational thinking could benefit “a more agent- and process-oriented type of research.” ( : ) this theoretical essay marked the beginning of a consistent program of research focused on latour’s actor-network theory, a research agenda which aimed at examining, by means of ethnographic observation, the production processes within a publishing house rather than the reception of the translation after its publication, aiming to unveil “practices that have received little attention from translation scholars, simply because they seem to transcend ready-made and traditional categories.” (buzelin : ). however, her research never did apply ant, but only the “participant observation” technique. in his article titled « le virage social dans les études sur la traduction », rainier grutman noted the fact that formalism and polysystem theory did not dwell enough on translators as agents of literary change. that same year, john milton and paul bandia ( ) edited a volume dedicated to agency in translation. out of fourteen articles, three are dedicated to poetry translators (jones , bradford , and módici nóbrega and milton ). bradford, nóbrega and milton address the issue raised by grutman and discuss the influence certain poet-translators had on argentinian and brazilian literatures and how they delineated themselves as genuine agents of change. the essay signed by francis r. jones broaches the topic of bosnian contemporary poetry translation into english and concludes that poetry translators establish networks across a ‘distributed’ space and that they are loyal to multiple cultural spaces. he also notes that anthologists have more influence than translators and that agents from source languages that work in the target language are very active in terms of publishing. most importantly, he uses the term “embassy network” to refer to the group of agents (translators, editor, and publishers) that work for the benefit of the source poet and source poem and supplements an ant-informed theoretical framework with insight from activity theory, and goffman’s social game theory in order to explain the links with the wider macro-social context. this essay is actually part of a consistent program of research focused on literary translators’ ideology ( ) and on the politics of literary translation in general (jones a, b). jones dedicated an entire volume to poet-translators as expert-agents ( ) and in one of the essays that followed argues that interpersonal networks are critical for the role that poetry translators play in a literature. he uses the example of james holmes and shows “how he gradually built networks with living dutch-language poets, with other poetry translators as a co-translator, editor and mentor, and with fellow editors and publishers.” ( : ) very recently, diana-roig sanz and reine meylaerts ( ) co-edited a volume in which not only does literary translators’ agency at the ‘periphery’ take center stage, but oscillates between gatekeeping (“customs officers”) and fellony (“smugglers”), an idea very similar to those leading to the present research. the concept of network was also exploited by kristina abdallah ( ), who followed professional translators’ agency in globalized production networks, in a chapter in the translators’ agency volume edited by tuija kinnunen and kaisa koskinen at the university of tampere. after an approximately five-year break, the topic is again being researched, with scholars like anne sophie voyer ( ) on barbara godard’s agency at the level of translated text; christian refsum ( ) in alvstad et al. ( ), on the work of poet-translators and their friendship and community-based networks; outi paloposki ( ), on traces of translators’ agency in archival material surrounding translation and on translators’ positioning in relation to the publishers; or kristina solum ( ) on how translators’ visibility could benefit translation quality-control mechanisms. scholars on literary translation in the digital age looking at translation from a digital humanities (dh) perspective is nascent. it was not until very recently that scholars like karen littau ( ) examined the possibilities of computational media on translation in the context of the media history of this field. a very active scholar working on sociology of translation from a global, network science and digital humanities perspective is roig- sanz, who maps transnational processes of cultural transformation in hispanic modernity by dint of network analysis in her research titled mapping hispanic modernity. cross-border literary networks and cultural mediators ( - ) (https://bit.ly/ yvkatd). the unprecedented development and visibility of the asymptote journal on the stage of online world literature has occasioned in an essay by contributor ellen jones on the topic of digital publishing of literary translation, and a book chapter co-authored by raluca tanasescu and chris tanasescu on the applicability of complex networks (cns), specifically networks of networks (nons) and their non-trivial topological features, their behavior at percolation, and their connectivity and expansion, in studying multilingual literary translation networks in digital space (marais and maylaerts ). this latter chapter aims at bringing ts and dh closer to one another and positions itself in the lineage of pym and chrupała ( ), among the first to explore a possible intersection with mathematics in a quantitative analysis of translation flows, and especially in that of tahir-gürçağlar ( ), who clearly anticipated the merits of a network model in providing various points of access to translation phenomena and in accounting for the mess that is oftentimes disregarded by the systemic mode of thinking: the network map will always appear more chaotic and complex than a “finished” system carrying a hierarchical organization. yet this will help expand the scope of the field under study and bring out border areas, highlight elements that escape categorization and phase out some of the binarisms inherent in systems theory. in other words, it will capture the “mess” that is normally discarded. ( : ) birgitta englund dimitrova’s experience and explicitation in the translation process ( ), uses triangulation to propose a model for a combined process and product analysis that sheds light on how expertise and experience are reflected in the translation process. her contention transpires an overt interest in complexity and departs from the same assumption like gürçağlar, namely that translation as process and translation as product need to be explored in conjunction with each other, and as marais puts it, in a “paradoxical tension” (marais : ). another contribution that explored the possibilities of a network model is pym’s essay describing the web of periodical distribution for a certain literary journal at the end of the th century. the added merit of this article lies in its employment of networks in cross-cultural context and in unearthing an inter-cultural sub- network of cultural influence. in recent years, several other scattered but very promising essays have examined the role of translation in small-scale dh projects, such as “translation arrays” ( )—a database of german translations and adaptations of shakespeare’s othello that mined information about world cultural variation and change; or the visualization of the franz rosenzweig archive at the university of kassel, one of the many dh projects that contains “salient yet undertheorized moments of translation.” (handelman ) moreover, the “renderings” project at the massachusetts institute of technology in aimed to translate “highly computational and otherwise unusual digital literature into english” (marecki and montfort ), therefore to translate electronic literature between programming languages. last but not least, manuel portela, maría mencía, and søren pold ( ) approached the topic of the exclusion of a text’s mediality and materiality via translation, which are not typically seen as part of the translation problem. it is my hope that, alongside contributions like these, the present research will shed light on the auspicious intersection between translation and dh. ts literature on romania and other small european countries although the references to translational activities in various european countries are still scarce, the second decade of the new millennium shows an overtly increased interest in the other europe. in , larisa schippel and cornelia zwischenberger edited a hefty volume dedicated to alternative ts traditions which included two contributions from romanian scholars magda jeanrenaud and georgiana lungu-badea. while jeanrenaud ( : - ) notes the skepticism of romanian letters of any theorizations of translation and of the role played by linguistics in theorizing it, alongside a strong focus on the practice of literary translation before and a void in any kind of theorization after , lungu dwells upon research in the same field in romanian universities ( : - ), after having remarked in one her previous works a complete absence of any romanian ts theories doubled by a strong practice of translation (lungu-badea ). in , the reputed journal translation studies dedicated a special issue to “contemporary perspectives on translation in turkey”. the year saw the first english-translation of jiří levý’s the art of translation, thus acknowledging the importance of the czech theorist for the field. between cultures and texts. entre les cultures et les textes. itineraries in translation history. itinéraires en histoire de la traduction (chalvin, lange, and monticelli ) is a collective volume whose purpose was to widen the territory of analysis to the so-called peripheral languages and, most importantly, insist on a more thorough reflection on translation historiography, methodology and research strategies. born out of an initiative of two scholars based at the tallinn university, the book offers ample space to the history of translation in estonia, but also contains contributions on translation in bulgaria, hungary, mexico, turkey, and the ukraine. finally, a more recent article published in in translation and interpreting studies by scholar lorenzo constantino deals with the polish tradition of translation, long ignored by scholars in the west. constantino’s essay is actually part of a larger project titled europa orientalis. translation theories in the slavic countries (a. ceccherelli, l. constantino, and c. diddi, eds.). contexts, subtexts, pretexts: literary translation in eastern europe and russia ( ), edited by brian baer, calls for the exploration of “alternative, non-western traditions” ( ), probably best embodied by the “europe internal other – the cultures of eastern europe and russia.” (id.) the volume features contributions on translation in bulgarian, hungarian, latvian, polish, russian, croatian/serbian, slovenian, ukrainian, as well as romanian. in the introduction to sean cotter’s essay titled “romania as europe’s translator,” which capitalizes on romanian philosopher constantin noica’s view of romania as a culture of translation, baer assumes that the reason underlying such a vision is “to catch up with the west.” (ibid.: ) constantin noica advocated openness towards translation, seeing romania as ‘europe’s translator’ ( ), a reparatory alternative to the status of a culturally and politically small nation who could not be insular and who had to translate out of its national specificity. it is obvious that noica’s point of view was in line with the later theory of literary polysystems, according to which translations become central in a literature when that literature is ‘peripheral’. in this respect, romanian critic paul cernat talks about “the periphery complex” ( )—which in romania’s case is rather a combination of superiority and inferiority. here, i would explain superiority as the superiority complex of a nation who gave the world very prominent intellectuals (mircea eliade, eugene ionesco, emil cioran, and others), but inferior in terms of political and economic power. in an essay titled “romania, europe’s translator,” sean cotter rightfully explains that “[noica’s] nationalism is a type of internationalism, his concern with definitions of romania is a concern, first of all, with the country’s connection with the west.” ( : ) indeed, noica’s concern with translations was not aimed at enriching romanian literature or culture in general by bringing in important titles from western europe, even if most of his translations were from british literature: charles dickens – bleak house, cecil day lewis – sagittarius rising or h. g. wells – the invisible man. on the contrary, he used to see translation as a practice which favored laziness and prevented the target reader from learning foreign languages and exploring foreign cultures: i myself have translated and fought, against others, for translations. but as exercises in themselves and in the language, not to satisfy higher cultural needs. forced to learn other languages, as we were, we benefited and brought benefit to our culture. (noica : , trans. cotter) noica insisted on the poly-disciplinarity of romanian intellectuals, on the adaptability of the romanian language—“cuvinte care ne pun în măsură să traducem orice din orice limbă” (noica : ) (words that allow us to translate anything from any language )—, and on the national specificity (reflected in a concept like lăutărismul românesc (romanian fiddlering). such a complex attitude reflects the infelicities of an insignificant political status in europe, at the crossroads of empires (austro-hungarian, turkish, and russian) and in the world, but certainly one that merits all the attention of ts scholars. noica’s attitude also reflects a kind of international nationalism, as long as it encourages the colonizations of romania, in the plural, including the cultural influence of the west, from paris to bucharest, micul paris (little paris), since small nations must not be insular. his philosophy towards translation is all the more interesting as it seems to contradict venuti’s assertion that all cultures are ethnocentric at home ( ). even if respectable scholars like sean cotter (who is also an active translator of romanian literature into english) regard noica’s attitude as confined by the limitations of a certain agenda— “europe’s translator” is noica’s version of a particular dynamic familiar to post- colonial studies, the incompatibility of the universalizing, globalizing drives of all translations are mine unless stated otherwise. western europe and the colony’s insistence on its cultural particularity. (cotter : ) i argue that this is a translational and transnational mode of thought, a perspective common to many other romanian critics and recent ts scholars, who also see translation as the perfect medium for personal and cultural enrichment, as well as for creativity. tudor vianu, one of the most significant critics and translators of the inter-war period, recommended translations as the best way to get closer to the international arena. for him, becoming more international was more important than any kind of ethnocentrism: a translation should not only bring great foreign writers closer to us, but it should also bring us closer to their world. a masterful translation opens new perspectives on a world unknown to us; it makes chords that had never vibrated resound in our soul. a translation should be a journey in a foreign country. (vianu : ) this view is actually still very current among romanian writers and translators. bogdan ghiu’s most recent volume, titled totul trebuie tradus. noua paradigmă (un manifest) (everything must be translated. the new paradigm (a manifesto) ) ( ), unveils a vision of translation that echoes noica’s: it’s only when you take yourself seriously that you want bring everything home, to turn the universal into particular, to measure yourself to the best known, that is, to transform your home from a bunker in the world itself. to translate means to create the world at home, to organize local conferences and gatherings of international interest. it’s a kind of imperialism and globalization reversed, in which you don’t invade other people’s homes, but you bring other people to your home, and not as they are, but by translation. (martin : web) cotter’s literary translation and the idea of a minor romania ( ) focuses, just like many other works on translations from/into romanian, on the formation of a modern romania after world war i. the book dwells on a conception of translation as instrumental in shaping a national bogdan ghiu’s substantial work as a translation theorist does not appear in any of the two essays on the romanian translation studies tradition (jeanrenaud , lungu-badea ). identity. the word ‘minor’ in the title refers to a mode of conceiving this identity through “intercultural exchange, adaptation, and ironic distance in the ways a nation thinks of itself,” (backcover) as it appears in the works of romanian canonical critics and philosophers such as lucian blaga, emil cioran, and, again, constantin noica. while cotter’s work needs to be acknowledged for its contribution to ts scholarship on this small nation, i cannot but note its exclusively historical and theoretical approach, which is not contextualized through examples from the field, although cotter has translated several important contemporary romanian literary pieces into english. the scope and historical period covered by his volume also coincide with other contributions on translation in communist romania, such as ioana popa’s traduire sous contraintes. littérature et communisme ( – ) ( ), a very well documented fresco of the translations into french in four eastern- european countries under communism: czechoslovakia, hungary, poland, and romania; and with one of cotter’s previous essays ( ) on the translation of soviet literature in romania after world war ii. there are only two significant contributions which tackle the issue of translations carried out in romania after —the period this project also proposes to account for. one belongs to muguraș constantinescu, of the university of suceava, and is titled « la traduction littéraire en roumanie au xxie siècle : quelques réflexions » ( ). her essay ostensibly addresses various views on translation pertaining to a number of romanian theorists and ts scholars and is situated against the expansion of the local book market after the revolution. the so-called ethnocentrism of small nations at home translates in the romanian translation culture as creativity. for example, what attracts ioana bălăcescu in the act of translating, says constantinescu, is the irreducible distance between the source text and the intuitive expression of that text in romanian: « c'est précisément la conscience de cet écart qui me satisfait, » ( : ) she says, concluding that we all have to assume the courage of being creative. another example is bălăcescu’s collaboration with the german scholar bernd stefanink, an article titled « le rôle du traducteur herméneute dans la construction d’une identité européenne, » in which they advocate for the involvement of scholars and translators in creating a european identity by translation, in order to overcome the crisis of conscience currently affecting the continent. the idea of creativity is also present in irina mavrodin’s notion of “total translator.” the scholar, translator of proust and cioran into romanian and based at the university of suceava, was awarded in france the title of “chevalier des arts et des lettres” for mediating intercultural dialogue. examples are many and they all reflect the importance of such a small country for our discipline, especially due to the interest shown by romanian translators, translation studies specialists and professors to the close relationship between theory and practice. the second essay which approaches the market of literary translation in romania after is iulia mihalache’s « acteurs du savoir et du savoir-faire dans le marché de la traduction en roumanie postcommuniste » ( ), an article inspired by her ph.d. thesis le modèle occidental et ses traductions dans une société postcommuniste: le cas de la roumanie ( ). her article sets out to explore the sociocultural and cognitive role played by translation in romania after the demise of communism and concludes that, although the circulation of ideas coming from western europe had a definite impact, this did not happen without any kind of control (understood as selection) from the part of the translating culture: la “production traductive” dans la roumanie postcommuniste pourrait être vue comme une oscillation entre transmettre la signification d’une manière rationnelle (envisager other-as-reason […] et traduire la “normalité” occidentale) ou relier cette signification à une expérience préverbale (approcher other-as-mystery). un ethos qui projette la traduction comme étant constamment “contrôlée” par des représentations de la société traduisante. mais aussi, une traduction solidement ancrée dans et explicable par un recours à l’histoire des croyances de la société traduisante. (mihalache : ) her research shows what has been the extent of the role of translators as intercultural mediators following a decisive moment for romanian society and culture. the proposed inquiry takes up the task of further exploring that role in a society which has left its communist past behind and is now trying to position itself in a globalized, transnational world. in doing so, i will model our theoretical framework in such a way that it accounts for the manifold dynamics of the literary translation practice in romania, for the romanian translators’ drive to transgress national borders, as well as for their double loyalty—both to the source and to the target culture—and, sometimes, to their lack of agency. chapter . exploring ‘mess’ and connectedness . from macro- to micro-modernity and digital humanism in translation studies a bird’s-eye view of translation grounded in the assimilationist paradigm of macro-modernity that has been prevailing for the past two hundred years (cronin ) can never be sufficient. as cronin argues, the difference between cultures has always been seen as oppositional, and all phenomena— including the translation-related ones—have mostly been approached from a comparative cartographic perspective, as physical spaces and boundaries usually invite dichotomous paradigms. influenced by the inescapable globalization, macro-modernity tried to explain most social and cultural events by building large-scale models meant to compress time and space, to shrink the world and make it more accessible, instead of dwelling on local phenomena in themselves and situating them in the larger picture only after properly describing and understanding them in their complexity. this is what cronin proposes through his micro-modernity, a notion grounded in the possibilities of the local and meant to expand our understanding of the world. the advantage of micro-modernity’s stance is that it offers hopes of preserving their uniqueness to even the smallest communities ever imagined. cronin’s concept favors the processes that underpin any association of human beings and emphasizes the webs of connectivity that permeate their existence. in micro- modernity translation and translators can be seen in their becoming, as agents crafting a “cultural complexity which remains constant from the micro to the macro scale.” (cronin : ) a first essential step in departing from the particular in my analysis, i argue, is renouncing as much as possible the concept of nation-border by adopting a transnational stance built on the concepts of de-territorialization (a weakening of the ties between culture and place) and of lines of flight (the desire to leave the status quo and innovate) proposed by deleuze and guatari ( ). two operations emerge from such a stance, one that sees translation as a language-centered operation with instrumental effects in the target network and another that sees translator’s agency as central to the act of translation. translators thus operate within their language but not necessarily between the borders of their nation-state. they are simultaneously disembedded from their local network and re-embedded in larger webs of connectivity, having the local examined through the prism of agents’ belonging to a wider network. these two aspects will be addressed in the dissertation mainly in the subchapters dedicated to translation in print periodicals ( . ) and to transnational translators ( . ). a second step that i take in this dissertation is situating translation in the digital humanities— the recent scholarly trend that endeavors to take advantage of the pervasiveness of artificial intelligence to increase knowledge in the humanities. i will do so only at a modest level, by enhancing our capacity to modeling the corpus through computational network analysis and by proposing, in subchapter . , a paradigm that takes stock of the possibilities offered by chaos theory. last but not least, i shall dedicate a section ( . .) to translators that increased their agency by taking advantage of the affordances offered by digital space—thus agents who enhanced their web of connectivity even more, by accessing the virtual world of instant communication. before i address the exciting possibilities of chaos and complexity in ts and, by way of consequence, in dh, i should refer briefly to the ways in which the field has tried to find order out of chaos by employing a never-ending series of homogenizing dichotomies. instead of trying to find better terms for the biased phrases to be encountered in this journey, i further suggest we embrace the inherent precariousness of these terms and see what the implications are for the field of translation. no magic powers are needed to foresee the interesting and potentially controversial conclusion that chaos might be an attractive prospect. . . . partial pluralities translation studies is one of the most open and most interdisciplinary areas of academic inquiry. yet, translation historiography did not take into account the social aspects related to the production of translations until only recently (hanna : ) and ostensibly showed interest in constructing a translation theory, rather than examining how various translational phenomena took shape. however, generating a theory needs “one origin that engenders them, justifies their existence and lends them a logical sequence in the historical narrative.” (ibid.: ) as a result, several reductionist theories have been built around a slew of dichotomous notions, such as domestication vs. foreignization, self vs. other, or product vs. process, which seems to have concurred with the development of a binary mode of thinking across the discipline (gouanvic ibid., wolf ). the use of such notions in pairs has long been doubled by a series of spatial metaphors, which place the act of translation between two points: a source and a target, in-between, the west and the rest. even translation itself used to be part of such dichotomy, since it would always be compared to the original. if until the late s (and still even well into the s) the majority of ts scholars talked about translation as a process, being interested in how meaning was transferred from the source language into the target language (berman , newmark , venuti , etc.) and focusing mostly on translations from/into languages of international circulation, such as english, french, and german—, in the early s their interest shifted towards translation as a product, as a result of the culture in which it was produced (niranjana , lefevere a and b, and others). what we call the “cultural turn” of the s was introduced by lefevere’s translation/history/culture: a sourcebook ( c), which proposed approaching translation from a cultural perspective. they were the first to sideline the interest in translation as text only, thus shifting researchers’ attention to matters pertaining to the historical, cultural, and political environment of translations. in her book translation studies, susan bassnett argues that the history of ts “should not be approached from a narrowly fixed position” ( / : ) and mentions carlo emilio gadda’s words with reference to a work “that has barely been begun” (id.): “we therefore think of every system as an infinite entwining, an inextricable knot or mesh of relations: the summit can be seen from many altitudes; and every system is referable to infinite coordinated axes: it presents itself in infinite ways.” (gadda cited in bassnett id: ) bassnett called for more documentation to be produced, more information about changing concepts to be examined and for the setting up of an international venture on translation history. “by understanding more about the changing face of translation studies and the changing status of the translated text,” she said, “we are better equipped to tackle the problems as they arise within our own contexts.” (ibid.: ) therefore the discipline acquired a strong culturalist orientation, one which has placed it under the sign of ‘cultural translation’ and of its intrinsic power asymmetries. the crisis of representation in ethnography, mirrored by the ‘writing culture debate’ (clifford and marcus ), has had enormous effects on translation as representation of the other. however, the reparatory standpoint of postcolonialism was not without fault: turning towards the other, an ‘other’ who had been neglected and misrepresented for so long, postcolonial scholarship failed to account for the diversity of the west, most notably for the linguistic and cultural diversity of europe, treating the said ‘west’, no matter how obviously general and ambiguous the term, as a uniform entity (cronin , ). a series of new dichotomies gained momentum: ‘the self’ vs. ‘the other’, ‘european’ vs. ‘non-european’, ‘western’ vs. ‘non-european’, etc. as michaela wolf aptly notes, the publication of edward said’s orientalism ( ) was the starting point for an attitude of hostility towards europe, perceived in “an alleged uniqueness of the region’s cultural tradition and a consequent disparagement of the culture of the ‘other.’” (wolf : ) although scholars realized that translation is a field in which interactions and relations are vital, reductionism did not lag behind. the whole system theory was built on the grounds of yet another binarism, via itamar even-zohar’s second condition for translations to have a central role in a host-literature—that is, when that literature is either peripheral and/or ‘weak’ and the need for new literary forms is strongly felt in its repertoire (even zohar ). thus the new binary pair was ‘center’ vs. ‘periphery’, a geographically informed distinction which offered the small nations of europe as an example of peripheral literatures. embracing post-colonial peripheries has resulted in implicitly creating other peripheries in academia, most notably exemplified by ‘the other europe.’ postcolonial scholars were the first to tackle the crisis of representation, by setting out to explore race and/or nationality from a feminist, “subaltern” perspective (spivak , von flotow ), to examine such concepts as hybridity, otherness, or marginality (bhabha ), and to generally “change the terms” of the discourse (simon and st. pierre ), seeing translation as “a site for investigating intercultural contact” (ibid.: ) and seeking “to recount the asymmetry and inequality of relations between peoples, races, languages.” (niranjana : ). postcolonial ts has focused on formerly colonized sites, such as india, africa, ireland, and china, aiming at adding a global dimension to research and understanding the dynamics of power relations and alterity worldwide: “for translation studies and literary study in general, adopting a postcolonial frame means enlarging the map which has traditionally bound literary and cultural studies. it means moving beyond the boundaries of europe and north america, and following more expansive itineraries, moving into new territories.” (simon : ) but in doing so, in broaching the crisis of representation, michael cronin argues that postcolonial scholars became victims of an imperialist attitude similar to the one they were trying to do away with: [the]… failure to account for the linguistic and translational complexity of europe in part stems from the tendency by post-colonial critics to reduce europe to two languages, english and french, and to two countries, england and france. thus, the critique of imperialism becomes itself imperialist in ignoring or marginalizing the historical and translation experience of most european languages. ( : - ) it so happens though that irony works both ways. michael cronin is the general editor of mtm: a translation journal, a publication that endeavors to promote the “discussion on the particularities of translation from major into minor languages and vice versa, as well as of translation between minor languages.” (mtm: homepage) in spite of its praiseworthy objectives, the journal entertains this biased distinction; and it is the biased distinction that sticks like a leitmotif with its readers and contributors. . . . everything is a mess: ‘minority’ and ‘minorness’ in translation studies with the advent of globalization, this biased pair gains more and more ground in the discourse of ts: we talk about ‘major’ and ‘minor’ cultures, where ‘major’ seems to be in direct relation to the political and economic power of certain nations and ‘minor’, related to all the others. this decontextualizing and objectifying qualifier (kant ) is regrettable for two reasons. first, it implies a biased, subjective comparison: while ‘small’ refers to a limited size, ‘minor’ means lesser, oftentimes even lower in rank. the second reason is related to this discipline’s insistence on a nationalist paradigm (notably via the polysystem theory and postcolonialism), which other fields, such as literary studies, have finally escaped by embracing transnationalism, by challenging the historical and geographical boundaries of traditional practices (fishkin , jay ). the sociological turn of the s appears to have strengthened the bias: translation seen as an unequal exchange between dominating and dominated cultures takes place in a world that is highly hierarchical (casanova , heilbron , heilbron and sapiro ), although pierre bourdieu’s praxeological mode of knowledge—one professing a dialectical relationship between various governing social structures and translators’ dispositions—presents the perfect opportunity for overcoming reductionism. a large number of contributions in ts focused at the beginning of the millennium on global translation flows, a preoccupation coming from the field of comparative literature. it is only recently that we have started to look more consistently at how translation happens and, more importantly, who is responsible for the things that happen (buzelin ; chesterman ; milton and bandia ), as well as at small languages that were placed at the periphery of the field by those studies dealing with global translation flows (chalvin, lange, and monticelli ; folaron ). outside academia, important translation journals, such as asymptote, are committed to a fairer representation of languages: their twenty issues to date host an impressive ‘eclectic platter’ of translations from languages. a recent interview with icelandic neo-surrealist poet sjón in the aforementioned journal reveals a similar approach to the one used in this research. talking about the threat of english over an isolated language like icelandic, sjón reveals his preference for a new term that appears to overcome the comparative bias of other proposed terms (i.e., “lesser”, “small”): i use the term “languages spoken by few” instead of “small languages.” it’s a term suggested by our former president, vigdís finnbogadóttir, a great champion of linguistic diversity. she says there are no big or small languages and that translation proves it. if the divine comedy can be translated into faroese, then the faroese language is big enough to accommodate it—proving to be as big as dante’s italian. (billey undated: web) it is obvious that designations like ‘minor’ or ‘small’ provoke irritation, even if authors like cronin point out that we should insist on the relational dimension of the term rather than on its designating an essence ( ). however, i argue it is perhaps time to shift the focus from how languages are related to what actually happens in those languages and cultures, because a small-scale analysis might prove instrumental in analyzing the larger picture. translation flows are not unidirectional— authors coming from small countries get translated too. and translators into languages spoken by few have a completely different type of agency from translators working in global languages and in contexts in which translation is highly institutionalized. the notion of ‘minor’ language/literature/culture is perhaps one of the concepts that most entertains the antithetical and monolithic positions in ts. and it is an odd situation, especially given the difficulty faced by various linguistics scholars when trying to offer a proper definition of minor languages. the complication lies in coming up with a suitable definition of ‘smallness’: “the criteria based on norms, writing, literature, etc. cannot be applied to the majority of languages and thus cannot provide a general definition of a minor language.” (wildgen : ) the same author notes that “[…] minor has connotations of negative value, including: irrelevant, bad, without power, etc. as a relational value, it requires a frame or a norm (average).” (id.) with respect to a weighted index of minorness, for example, the romanian language is neither statistically, nor geographically, nor historically minor: it has approximately million speakers, its literary language map has clear contours, and it dates as far back as the th century. it is not minor in relation to a set of social domains or in relation to cultural representation, as it has a written form and functions as the language of the national media and of the government, for example. the introduction written by thomas stolz and joel sherzer to the collective volume minor languages. approaches, definitions, controversies. papers from the conference on “minor languages: coming to grips with a suitable definition” bremen, june complicates things even further, as his definitions suggest equivalence between ‘minor languages’ and ‘minority languages’. he notes that “[f]rom the point of view of the world as a whole, a national language may be a major or a minor language. […] minority languages are languages of sociological minorities within particular countries.” (sherzer and stolz : viii), but, later on, he posits that “[m]inor languages also typically share certain sociolinguistic characteristics, including lack of written register, no legal recognition, and confinement to restricted domains of use,” (ibid.: ix) even if the characteristics he enumerates pertain to what is commonly referred to as ‘minority’ languages. however, he aptly observes that “[i]n general, minor languages are more diverse as a group typologically than major languages,” (id.) which should make them more interesting for our field of inquiry, since they are “translation cultures par excellence.” (cronin : ) besides the above references in the field of linguistics, other attempts at classifying languages as major and minor prove to be equally strenuous. while the french spoken in canada falls clearly in the category of minority languages (bertrand and gauvin ), things are again not clear in the case of romanian. in an ecology of world literature: from antiquity to the present day ( ), alexander beecroft proposes a classification that draws on dutch sociologist abram de swaan’s work, according to whom english is a hyper-central language, followed by twelve other languages seen as super-central (among which german, french, spanish, chinese, and others, in no particular order), and approximately other central languages, defined as those languages whose speakers “link peripheral languages through communities of bilingual speakers” (beecroft ibid.: ). while romanian does not make the top languages classified by their number of speakers, it ranks th in terms of source languages for literary translation and th as a target language for literary translations according to unesco. the great discrepancy between the number of titles translated from romanian ( , ) and the number of literary works translated into romanian ( , ) is a relevant instantiation of why the study of the role played by various small nations is so important for ts, at least just as important as the issues related to the centrality of certain prominent languages. de swaan’s work and the unesco statistics also set the grounds for johan heilbron’s essay on the world system of translations (heilbron ), in which he examines the international flow of translated books, basing his analysis on the prominence of source-languages only. he borrows the term from de swaan for categorizing english as hyper-central, but he uses three different terms for categorizing the others—german and french as central; spanish, italian and russian as semi-central; and all the others as peripheral, although de swaan includes, as mentioned before, languages in the category of central languages. heilbron’s entire argument is built on a core-periphery structure, which serves the purpose of a macro-overview of the global translation flows, but which implicitly reduces the role of small countries, no matter how important a role translation plays in those cultures. all these rankings demonstrate the relativity of these terms and classifications: if we take the example of romanian, according to de swaan it is a central language, according to beecroft it is a major national language, while according to heilbron it is a peripheral language. heilbron’s article is the perfect example for the way in which the sociology of translation centered its discourse on the power relations inherent in the encounter of cultures, which ordinarily have significant consequences on the production and reception of translations. aware of their eurocentric roots and biases (trivedi , tymoczko , gentzler ), ts started to aim at becoming more international. one of the most vocal in signaling the setbacks of the increasing hegemony of english as language of international communication, science, and scholarship in ts is mary snell-hornby, who posits that english as a global lingua franca is not a solution for “sophisticated academic discourse dealing with complex acts of communication across potentially all languages and cultures as in translation studies.” ( : ) she also emphasizes the danger for english to become, besides a means of communication, the sole object of discussion, thus “defeating the very purpose of translation studies as international and cross-cultural communication,” (ibid.: ) and proposes the use of bridge languages other than english, that would give access to the work of scholars coming from countries with lesser-known languages. the predominance of english with the advent of globalization has been qualified by authors like karen bennett as ‘epistemicide’ ( ), ‘first-class burial’ of any other language. snell-horby’s concerns had already been expressed by simon (ibid.) in postcolonial and transnational context: transnational culture studies has tended to operate entirely in english, at the expense of a concern for the diversity of languages in the world. the focus on translation within the global context is necessary to draw attention to language issues in cultural exchange. (simon ibid.: ) in spite of all these, there is still an ongoing debate on universalism (entirely built on the european/western tradition) vs. internationalism in ts. in a recent dialogue published in translation studies between andrew chesterman and Șebnem susam-saraeva, the latter argues that “both western and non-western scholars should be encouraged in their efforts in widening and diversifying their understanding of ‘translation,’ not chastised because the very tenets of their arguments are fundamentally misunderstood and misrepresented.” ( : ) however, other scholars like peter flynn ( ) caution against such an attitude imposing a fashionable research agenda in academia and, referring to edwin gentzler’s translation and identity in the americas: new directions in translation theory ( ), questions “what is meant by (outmoded) western or european translation models.” ( ) flynn criticizes tymoczko’s use of “western” or “eurocentric” as “everything obsolete, narrowly linguistic and deserving of rejection,” (id.) especially since tymoczko herself notes that geographic positioning is not without fault: “[a]t this point in time, however, when western ideas have permeated the world and there is widespread interpenetration of cultures everywhere, the terms east and west become increasingly problematic” (tymoczko : ). questioning the heuristic value of the reductionist ‘major vs. minor’ dichotomy is perhaps all the more legitimate since the term ‘minor’ appears to be the result of inaccurate translation. in the world republic of letters ( ), pascale casanova explains that the american curricula and the field of cultural studies were heavily influenced by various recent french philosophers, of which deleuze and guattari and their “highly ambiguous notion of ‘minor literature’” ( : ) are of particular interest. this notion stemmed from the concept of “small” literature in the sense used by kafka, the author the french philosophers were translating from at the time. casanova notes that the term used by the czech writer in the german original was klein (small), with an alternative rendition as “minor” in one of the translations of the book, by marthe robert. in note to her chapter titled “small literatures”, casanova mentions the fact that another translator of kafka’s, bernard lortholary, had qualified the term ‘minor’ as “inexact and tendentious.” (ibid.: ). however inexact and tendentious, these are the words that set the foundation of deleuze and guattari’s theory—criticized by casanova as “a crude and anachronistic interpretation” (ibid.: ) that deforms kafka’s meaning and as a misunderstanding that led the two french thinkers “astray” (grutman ; larose and lapidus ): minor literature is not the literature of a minor language but the literature a minority makes in a major language. but the primary characteristic of a minor literature involves all the ways in which the language is effected by a strong coefficient of deterritorialization. (deleuze and guattari : , emphasis mine) this first characteristic, a “literature a minority makes in a major language,” refers to literatures such as the one of quebec or wallonia (bertrand and gauvin, ibid.), for example, or that of colonial india writing in english or colonial vietnam writing in french, or native-american literature in english. the following two characteristics shed more light on the concept: the second characteristic of minor literatures is that everything in them is political. […] in “great” literatures, on the contrary, the question of the individual (familial, conjugal, etc.) tends to be connected to other, no less individual questions, and the social milieu serves as environment and background. […] minor literature is completely different: because it exists in a narrow space, every individual matter is immediately plugged into the political. (id., emphasis mine) the case of romania cannot be farther from such definition. it is a national language spoken by over twenty million people that has never tried to position itself in relation to any other language considered as dominant, neither directly, not through its literature. the third characteristic of minor literatures according to deleuze and guattari is that “everything has a collective value” (ibid.: ). the explanation that follows makes the major/minor dichotomy as we know it in ts even harder to apply: “in effect, talents do not abound in a minor literature, the conditions are not given for an individuated utterance which would be that of some “master” and could be separated from collective utterance.” (id.) romania, however small, is home to a very heterogeneous and effervescent literary scene, on which authors hope to make a name for themselves individually and to speak in their own name. the two most important moments of synchronization with world literature—the french revolution and postmodernism—have created writers with very unique styles and individual voices who, although perhaps sometimes speaking for their literary generations, have very individual messages and tone in their writings. in spite of this three-layer definition provided by deleuze and guattari and of its insistence on the potential of minority, the biased comparative paradigm that is still operational in ts appears as highly counter-intuitive. first of all, although the position of translated literature is less central in countries with a significant cultural production (cf. heilbron ), our eyes are still eagerly turned towards such countries instead of the small or less central ones, in which translations and translators have a more visible positioning. countries like the united states, where translations account for less than % of the total yearly book production are referred to in the literature as major cultures, while countries like canada, where translation has been a modus vivendi for many generations, or romania, where translations occupy a significant place in its literature, most often fall in the category of ‘minor’ cultures. for instance, one of the most cited books in ts is lawrence venuti’s the translator’s invisibility ( ), which is entirely built on translators’ experience in the united states—a major culture operating in a major language. in the age of plurality and transnationalism, i suggest we are moving too fast in many essential respects, just as we move too slowly in others that are equally essential. a first step in discovering underexplored sources that are bound to remain obscure if we continue to resort to subjective comparative binarisms is to look at the world as a huge interconnected network and access it through new points of entry. in order to be able to map theories (in the plural!) of a field as open as ts, we have to rethink and re-conceptualize a series of schismatic dichotomies that very often create a gap between theory and praxis or even propagate an erroneous understanding of the underlying concepts. i argue that the ‘major/minor’ dichotomy, along with others such as ‘western’/’non-western’ and ‘eurocentric’/’non-eurocentric’, ‘global-local’ (mercier ) are fuzzy at best (cronin , apter )—even if their intention is to draw clear-cut categories that a study by the national institute for cultural research and training in estimates that at least % of the book titles published in were translations. (ceobanu et al. ) other estimations (ursa ) place the proportion of translated literature anywhere % and % after . favor formerly un-favored cultures—and do not seem to lead to anything but a chain of entrenched distinctions that clearly miss all essential complications. these essential complications—or complexities, such as those arising from the cultural metabolism of a small nation like romania— might prove more useful to ts than any reductionist stance by narrowing considerably the gap between theory and practice. however, instead of constantly vacillating between a center and a periphery (baker ), between a process by which people make sense of the world and strive to control it (centering) and an entropy concept related to the process of change (peripheralizing), a balance act is needed in order to account for the complexity of translation. in other words, this balance act means to acknowledge precariousness and chaos as the driving forces of translation. . . . a new politics of precariousness: acting at the edge of chaos to be in a precarious state refers to finding oneself in a situation that is beyond control, unstable, uncertain, and insecure. in complexity theory, the overarching framework of this dissertation, precariousness is the condition for a system to survive and is reflected by a state commonly referred to as “at the edge of chaos,” between certainty and uncertainty, between stability and instability. the precarious state, a transition stage between order and disorder, is thus a condition for life, for the dynamics of a system, and for its evolution, which means that no system is purely chaotic or utterly ordered, otherwise it would be extinct. ultimately, precariousness is what maintains life and pushes the system to evolve through adaptation. in non-hegemonic contexts, precariousness is embedded in the very fiber the groups are made of (cronin ) and it also fuels our perception of the act of translation as a resource gap in the translating culture, as opposed to a gap in value. translators’ agency is thus grounded in their need to find resources they do not otherwise have in their proximity and translation is a reparatory act rather than a second-rate product. the literary form that usually fits a more liberal course of action on the part of translators is “poetry, the least translated literary genre, no matter where the translating literature ranks in the global hierarchy of symbolic capital that is so unevenly distributed among national literary traditions.” (venuti : ) and it is within a small country that translators are bound to act more according to their own circumstances and literary preferences and less according to some well-defined policies drawn up by publishing companies. as far as the precarious state of poetry as a socially and economically significant literary form is concerned, venuti posits that “[its] marginality is in fact the first reason to move poetry closer to the center of translation studies,” (id.) because “poetry translation is more likely to encourage experimental strategies that can reveal what is unique about translation as a linguistic and cultural practice.” (id.) precariousness is also the tenet that underpins deleuze and guattari’s assemblage thinking in general and the ‘lines of flight’ embarked upon by the body without organs in particular: multiplicities are defined by the outside: by the abstract line, the line of flight or deterritorialization according to which they change in nature and connect with other multiplicities. the plane of consistency (grid) is the outside of all multiplicities. the line of flight marks: the reality of a finite number of dimensions that the multiplicity effectively fills; the impossibility of a supplementary dimension, unless the multiplicity is transformed by the line of flight; the possibility and necessity of flattening all of the multiplicities on a single plane of consistency or exteriority, regardless of their number of dimensions. ( : - , emphases mine) precariousness is therefore present in the multiplicity’s lack of effectiveness in filling all the dimensions of reality, is caused by the multiplicities’ belonging to wider webs of connection, and eventually leads to evolution, to ‘a supplementary dimension’, to infinite possibilities of escaping. both lines of flight and precariousness facilitate an understanding of how things connect rather than how things are. they both are concerned with how things become. the line of flight is the elusive moment when change happens, therefore it too takes place at the edge of chaos. as far as translators’ agency is concerned, the line of flight happens when precariousness, when the need for resources, is acknowledged. this is when precariousness becomes translation. deleuze and guattari’s concept of rhizome “describes the connections that occur between the most disparate and the most similar of objects, places and people; the strange chains of events that link people: the feeling of ‘six degrees of separation,’ the sense of ‘having been here before’ and assemblages of bodies.” (colman : ) to them things are not substance, but processes, assemblages of multiplicities within which bodies move along “path[s] of mutation precipitated through the actualisation of connections among [them].” (lorraine : ) their assemblages bear striking resemblance to latour’s actor-network, whose sequential factor is exploration, similar to the line of flight—the permanent modification of the boundaries and of the reticulated structure of the network that allows for the continuation of the collective, for continuous formations of new associations. latour’s network acknowledges the precarious dynamic of collectives, as almost all assemblages are built on precarious socio‐material relations. both latour and deleuze reject singular modes of existence and see precariousness as the fueling force of any association or assemblage. by the same token, i would like to propose that precariousness offers a vantage point to ts. first of all, the ‘peripheral’ status of small countries should make them more visible in this field, since they bring new practices and new approaches that are more defining of decentralized systems. in smaller countries, perhaps more so than in others, do translators belong both to the literary and the translation fields, some of them even to a third field—the academic one. most of the time these three fields intertwine and offer translators lines of flight or modes of exploration that differ radically from what is generally described under the nation-bound paradigm of cultural fields and institutional power. second, i would like to propose precariousness as an auspicious angle for referencing self-reliant translators as agents of literary change and poetry translation as essentially a collaborative act, the result of a network of individuals living ‘at the edge of chaos.’ finally, i further suggest that ts theories should take their own precariousness to heart when defining their object and methodologies, and acknowledge that the digital age should permeate scholarly work in the field. at a lower level, i argue for the purpose of this research that a complex view of translators’ agency should take into account how the digital affects and enhances the work of literary translators—translation becomes user-generated. at a higher level, i shall try to incorporate computing power in my analysis of the corpora in order to offer a better understanding of connectedness in the world of literary translation. . . a chaos paradigm: applying network theory in investigating translators’ agency . . . complexity thinking in translation studies in translation theory and development study. a complexity theory approach ( ), kobus marais builds on social emergence and complexity theory in order to provide a complexity framework for further developments in the field of translation. the need for a more elaborate paradigm in ts was signaled by salah basalamah ( , ), maria tymoczko ( ) and also by arduini and nergaard ( ), who conjectured that the discipline plays with “a plethora of stagnant approaches” and that it needs a new epistemology engaged with “complexity and multiplicity, non-linearity and hybridity.” (arduini and nergaard : - ) after reductionism-informed modernity and post- modernity, it is time for an epistemology that is able to account for and embrace paradox, says marais quoting physical chemist and nobel prize laureate ilya prigogine, who argued that science’s new way of looking at the world needs to take into account “fluctuations, instability, multiple choices, and limited predictability” ( : ): before, science was about cause, not chance. now it is about chance, possibility, and probability. in this new view, freedom and determinism also seem to hang together in a complex relationship, at the edge of chaos. (marais : , emphasis mine) to this end, marais claims that three steps need to be taken: first, ts should acknowledge that its binaries (such as source and target, or agent and system, and so on) are part and parcel of non-equilibrium systems and exist “at the edge of chaos,” in a constant state of tension; second, the field should revisit its understanding of the notion of “system” by looking into complex adaptive systems (cass) and actor-network links; third, we should quit the reductionist way of seeing translation as something else and of inventing various turns that claim exclusivity over ‘the heart of the matter’ (singh ): rather than seeing either culture or sociology or any other type of phenomena lying at the core of ts, we should consider all these phenomena at the same time and view translation as translation—one of the most complex realities there are: conceptualized in the terminology of complex adaptive systems theory, translation is both a complex adaptive system constituted by complex adaptive sub-systems and a complex adaptive sub-system that co-constitutes a number of complex adaptive systems, or social reality as a complex adaptive supra-system. ( : ) first, what do we understand by complexity? according to systematic theologian niels henrik gregersen ( : - ), there are seven aspects of complexity: descriptive (requiring an endless sequence of descriptions, of which none can be said to be the ultimately right one); constitutional (consisting of many heterogeneous elements that need to be accounted for); organizational (as the constituent elements are structured into highly ordered complexes); causal (with context sensitivity leading to many different causal trajectories); functional (to the extent that the system as a whole can perform various actions according to its various internal rules); and computational. the latter complexity is formulated into two sub-categories: on the one hand, an algorithmic system is said to be complex “relative to the length of the minimal computer program needed to compress and regenerate a given series of numbers;” ( ) on the other, the effective complexity of a system is given by the large number of varied patterns “that are neither merely repetitive nor merely chaotic.” ( ) that is, effective complexity appears in systems living ‘at the edge of chaos.’ in order to properly describe a phenomenon, i surmise, one needs to address all these aspects in their variety, and while organizational complexity may be tackled by means of computational power, it is still mainly the humanities’ task to address all other aspects by describing them qualitatively and by critically assessing them. second, what is a system and what is a complex adaptive system? systems are now commonly defined as unified wholes, be they social, cultural, or economic, separated from other macro-units by spatial or temporal boundaries. the notion gained ground in the th century through the work of physicist nicolas carnot in the field of thermodynamics and in the th century the concept gained prominence due to the general systems theory advanced by biologist ludwig von bertalanffy ( ). according to a more recent definition proposed by biologist ernst mayr, they are animated by two properties: they act as wholes (as though they were a homogeneous entity), and their characteristics cannot be deduced (even in theory) from the most complete knowledge of the components, taken separately or in other combinations. in other words, when such a system is assembled from its components, new characteristics of the whole emerge that could not have been predicted from a knowledge of the constituents. (mayr : ) they are also essentially hierarchic (consisting of sub-systems which consist of sub-systems, etc.), distinct from the environment around them, and may be closed or open, the latter allowing interactions with the environment, while the closed ones are characterized by a deterministic model, according to which no random development is possible. as far as open systems are concerned, they allow for exchanges of energy, matter, or information with the environment, therefore they are in a constant state of flux. when the interactions with the environment result in a rupture in the system’s symmetry, such as is the case of extreme weather phenomena, for example, a system is dissipative (prigogine ). dissipative structures, descriptive of a system that is far from equilibrium and a result of irreversible processes, have been successfully deployed in the study of complex systems. the latter are difficult to model either because of the non-linear relationships, interactions, and dependencies between their parts or because of a complex relationship with their surrounding environments. they are caused by a variation in their energy flux and even the smallest variation may lead to great differences in the results. these variations are calculated in natural sciences using non-linear differential equations, a breakthrough after the long-time use of the linear ones. their use in describing weather as a dissipative system has led meteorologist edward lorenz to the discovery of chaos—that is, the impossibility of predicting the development of natural processes unless the initial conditions are % known, as even the smallest change in these initial conditions could lead to greatly varied results. let us keep chaos at the back of our minds for now—i shall get back to it shortly. in terms of complex adaptive systems, santa fe complexity experts john h. miller and scott e. page explain that “[a]t the most basic level, the field […] challenges the notion that by perfectly understanding the behavior of each component part of a system we will then understand the system as a whole.” ( : ) complex systems are a subset of non-linear dynamic systems and have been best and most extensively applied to the study of society, as they were found to account for the heterogeneity of the agents, for their emergent behaviour, as well as for phase transitions in social environments. they are self-organizing, dynamic, and built on positive feedback (contained in the notion of ‘feedback loops’), they evolve from simplicity to greater complexity and are sensitive to the smallest change in the initial conditions, which can lead to unpredictable outputs. such systems have been successfully deployed in the study of complex situations that arise in various social systems, like healthcare, international relations, or the military, because of their potential to solve problems for which traditional, hierarchical forms of control and negative feedback are ineffective. dealing with heterogeneity as a key driving force in social worlds may be what makes the notion of complex adaptive systems interesting to marais in the field of translation, alongside their capacity to prove that horizontally-distributed agents, be they individuals or institutions, can be just as effective in certain contexts as hierarchical agents can be in others. the complexity of the translation system at the level of agent-based modelling is given by the dynamics of the system, agent interaction, and agent heterogeneity. unlike traditional social sciences, which are focused on the social average, the analysis and modelling of such systems promise to offer a more complete image of translators’ actions, which may range from chaotic behaviours to assumed, intentional agency. using the example of economic systems, miller and page (ibid.) argue that homogeneity in such a complex system can only account for the proper functioning of institutions, but cannot explain an economic crash. therefore, for instance, complexity theory presents itself as a proper research paradigm to account for translation phenomena outside institutional contexts or for aspects that may be otherwise classified as accidental or unusual. and, in the context of my research, complex adaptive systems and complex networks (subsets of such systems) may offer a pertinent model for the analysis of translators’ agency in non-hegemonic contexts. however, as i argue further on, we see the notion of network as potentially bearing more fruits for the study of translatorial action than that of system; also, i would conjecture that, before conceptualizing translation as a system, it is important to look at its various components through the lens of network science. a third question related to the relevance of complex adaptive systems thinking for ts is: what are the features of these complex adaptive systems and, more importantly, how could they be used, alongside complexity theory in general, to properly research translators’ agency? also known as open systems—“system[s] in exchange of matter with [their] environment, presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of [their] material components,” (bertalanffy : )— or dynamic systems (in which motion is present), they present the “emergence of complex large-scale behaviours from the aggregate interactions of less complex parts.” (holland : ) there is a hierarchy insofar as there are “levels” of existence that emerge from one another—not from permanent additions to existing layers and certainly not from the primacy of human action. moreover, they are animated by a set of emergent properties, such as aggregation (extracting what is not important, retaining what is, and treating what remains as similar), large scale behaviour (behaviour of less complex agents that tend to act the same), non-linearity, diversity, and allowing for the existence of flows—“from node to node via a connector with the nodes acting as agents and the connectors as possible interactions.” (marais : ) these emergent properties are concerned with the interaction between the parts and not with the individual actions of the parts. emergence is doubled by downward causation, as complex systems also acknowledge the influence of the whole on its parts. furthermore, simple laws generate complex phenomena—this is “how large numbers of relatively simple entities organize themselves, without the benefit of any central controller, into a collective whole that creates patterns, uses information, and, in some cases, evolves and learns.” (mitchell : ) also, all systems have histories that act as initial conditions for evolutions. their historicity is a function of unidirectional time: open systems are subject to various flows of information and need to interact with other systems for their survival. one of the most important features of complex adaptive systems is self-organization. as marais notes, “agents act locally, with no view of contributing to the whole” (marais : ) and the whole emerges from local interactions. an equally essential feature is that complex systems do not operate in a state of equilibrium, as that would mean their death. instead, they live ‘at the edge of chaos,’ a state in between order and chaos. it is at the edge of chaos that complex systems manifest their self-organized criticality, tuning themselves to critical states through active, decentralized processes (bak et al. ). later on bak hypothesized that self-organizing criticality is a universal phenomenon that applies to complex systems in general and not only to the complex adaptive ones. finally, their behaviour can be predicted only by observation, because non-linearity makes prediction almost impossible (cf. mitchell : et infra). murray gell-mann ( ) emphasizes that the beauty of cass lies in the fact that they are not preprogrammed and reactive, but that they process information in such a way that it allows for surprise and creativity. enlarging on the functional organization of such systems, gell-mann notes that they need to be able to identify regularities, or patterns, in the environment, by avoiding to perceive randomness as order and order as randomness. once a pattern is identified, the system must be able to produce a schemata, or an internal model, that is able to identify any further similar regularities. one condition for achieving that is the capacity to filter out noise. another condition for a system to be complex is that the produced schemata are not fixed, but emergent and adaptive. conceptually illustrated by the bak-tang-wiesenfeld sandpile model, self-organized criticality is a process by which “many composite systems naturally evolve to a critical state in which a minor event starts a chain reaction that can affect any number of elements in that system.” (bak and chen : - ) as marais rightfully notes, the impossibility of predicting behaviour renders causality very problematic. these schemata are able to produce variants that compete among themselves and to anticipate surrounding activities. finally, cass are related to the environment by feedback loops that allow them to change and adapt. while the appeal of cass clearly stems from the variety of processes involved and from their potential to self-regulate, they are also subject to a number of mechanisms meant to make unpredictability more manageable. john h. holland ( ) describes a set of three operations that underlie the hidden order of complexity. one is tagging (or naming)—classifying types of interactions within the system), which may be used as a sound practice for identifying a plethora of interactions: filtering, co-operation, competition, formation of aggregates, manipulation of symmetries, and selection. tagging helps the observer discern between agents and agents to dissociate from other agents and is directly related to aggregation—the capacity to generalize into categories. the second mechanism are the internal models, a basic schema which allows for the anticipation and the prediction of system development. the last mechanism is reflected in the notion of building blocks—the basic constitutive units (the memes) of the internal models. in our case in point, what are the building blocks of translation studies? are they translations as communicative acts as proposed by luhmann, or the translator, as in the organicist system model proposed by scholars like maturana? the adaptive systems theory does not seem to solve this conundrum just yet. within a complexity paradigm, any social phenomenon, including translation, is caused by and causes a complexity of phenomena. thus it is an emergent phenomenon, but also a lower-level one that, in its turn, leads to emergent higher-level manifestations, “a lower-level semiotic phenomenon in the emergence of other social phenomena.” (marais : ) a complexity stance is a necessary step in accounting for “the wholeness and interrelatedness of reality.” (ibid.: ) complexity theory, a form of systems theory, accounts both for things and for the relationships between things and “a philosophy of complexity holds a view of reality that is hierarchical, non- linear, paradoxical, nonequilibrium and that views systems as open.” (ibid.: ) hence it is not enough to examine each part that forms reality, but one also needs to see how these parts are connected, how they relate to each other, how they influence each other, and how they become— that is, how constituent parts form wholes. applying all these to translation, we need to see how translators operate, how they relate to and influence other translators, how they get to operate as translators and, perhaps more importantly, how translation refashions in the light of such processes. complexity shifts focus to processes rather than on phenomena, as complexity is a philosophical stance that keeps the whole and the parts, as well as the universal and the particular, in a continuous tension, and that does not attempt to reduce messiness to some neat principle or law, marais explains quoting latour ( ). fourth, one may wonder: what do complex adaptive systems bring to the table that niklas luhmann’s systems do not? ts has emulated social sciences for quite some time now and it has been argued that translation is a sub-system of society (hermans , , ; vermeer ; tyulenev , , ) and a system in itself: social reality consists of intersemiotic exchanges among human agents, therefore translation is an intersemiotic phenomenon that builds social realities. in this society, which has “no center and no overarching rationale and narrative,” (hermans : ) translation is a sub-system which communicates with other systems “in terms of its interference and influence.” (tyulenev : ) luhmann’s social systems consists of communication events. in his theory, “systems [are] made up of decisions, and capable of completing the decisions that make them up, through the decisions that make them up.” (luhmann : ). furthermore, besides communication, luhmann’s definition of social system is also based on the concept of autopoiesis (luhmann : ), or self-creation, which radicalizes otherness: his notion of “soft” complexity is articulated around the concept of “complexity of operations,” that is, the number of possible relations between the constituents of a certain system exceeds the number of actual relationships that will happen in the said system. this form of organization is essentially different from chilean biologist humberto maturana’s organicist definition, according to which the participation of components and the relationships between components is instrumental for the unit (maturana : ). luhmann’s systems theory was not articulated around human beings, but only around their communication acts, so perhaps, i suggest, they are not a suitable paradigm to account for translators’ agency: just imagine for a moment a social system that is, in actual fact, functioning autopoietically. (...) this would entail that every single process taking place within this system would necessarily be subservient to the maintenance of the autopoiesis of the whole. consequently, the individuals (...) would vanish. they would have to subordinate themselves to the maintenance of autopoiesis. their faith is of no further relevance. (...) this kind of negation of the individual is among the characteristics of totalitarian systems. (maturana and poerksen : ). luhmann’s view of complexity is thus essentially reductionist, because the complexity of operations entails selection and because he does not seem to acknowledge the existence of systemic unpredictability. in explaining why luhmann is (not) suitable in ts, tyulenev ( ) notes that there are two kinds of complexity: incomprehensible complexity (arising from connecting everything with everything else) and determinately structured complexity, which means a “reduction of complexity [that] is inevitable in system formation.” (ibid.: ) in luhmann’s systems theory, systems are separated from the environment by a boundary, which means “applying a difference schema to an incomprehensible complexity.” (id.) the underpinning tenet of all this is that social systems are cohesive both in terms of interests and in terms of agents and that they are loyal to only one system. luhmann only acknowledges the differences that arise between systems (what makes one system different from another) and the difference between a system and the environment, but he does not fully address the problem of the differences arising between units in the same system—that is, the problem of heterogeneity. luhmann’s difference is contained within the system and is a condition of the system’s self-referentiality and closure. another shortcoming i would like to address in this research is luhmann’s organized complexity as a result of autopoiesis and selection. for our purpose, this organized complexity simply rules out the existence of chaotic behaviours through autopoiesis, as well as the reality of translators that do not have the conscience of their agency. also, the separation of the translation system from the environment in luhmann’s theory fails to address clearly the issue of translator’s multiple dependencies (or loyalties), alongside the influence of the technoscape on the work of translators, to name only two of such shortcomings. in defining society, tyulenev limits ‘the pillars of modern society’ to gidden’s transformation (the french revolution, the scientific revolution, and the industrial revolution), without alluding to the digital revolution of the s and to the increasing prominence of this new type of cultural interaction ever since. tyulenev’s essentially humanistic profile also has an impact on the series of quantitative and qualitative measures he proposes, which are all borrowed from sociology. last but not least, he uses luhmann in his own work to account for large-scale phenomena like the westernization of russia. a similar purpose is served in seyed mohammad seyed alavi’s ph.d. dissertation ( ) at university of ottawa, which employs sst to describe the role of translation in introducing modernity and islam to iran. in this latter example, seyed alavi has a different understanding of translation from tyulenev. unlike tyulenev, who sees translation as a functionally differentiated system, he treats translation as “a communication medium that facilitates the interaction among social systems.” ( : ) at this point i am wondering whether a general social system theory approach is suitable for researching translatorial action within a paradigm modeled by complexity and microspection. tyulenev certainly believes so, but senses that system theory is not enough. in translation and society ( ) he stresses the importance of combining the structural-functionalist macro- sociological approaches and micro-sociological approaches (such as functionalism) for offering a complex view of the role of translation in society and of the agency of translators, around whom the whole book is built. i conjecture that this is very problematic. sociologists have been struggling to find a suitable model to account for society’s diversity, and translation still follows in these sociologists’ footsteps, trying to solve a similar problem. furthermore, given the nature of the present research, which focuses on a small slice of literary translation into romanian, on a genre that is not considered socially influential, and on translators that run the whole gamut from being socially recognized for their work to translating only seldom and out of a whim, cannot find a proper ally in luhmann. working with contemporary literature translation means that the effects of translation become almost impossible to describe beyond bibliographical work. therefore i need a more rhizomatic approach that promises to produce more punctual information on their actions and on their position within the corpus, which would eventually translate into more general conclusions. therefore this research is modeled according to a bottom-up approach that feeds itself from incoming data on romanian translations to form a perception of how agency pans out in this specific context, rather than model my research on a top-bottom approach which assumes unity a priori. luhmann’s and bourdieu’s society as a harmonized organism, in which both individual and institutions are considered and individuals are seen in relation to the whole; or durkheim’s society as an evolving organism; or the sociological theories of action. we have briefly examined what systems are and how complexity could be a means towards a more nuanced translation theory. i agree with kobus marais that ts needs to look at translation as translation and not as something else. i recognize that the agent and the system should be considered in a constant, productive state of tension with repercussions on translation proper. nevertheless, i would like to suggest at this point that analyzing a translation phenomenon from a complexity point of view by means of complex adaptive systems is too much of an unrealistic endeavour for a single scholar. it should be perhaps a life-time scholarly goal and certainly a collaborative enterprise. from a dh point of view, computationally analyzing and modelling such a system properly requires acknowledging the limits of one’s competencies and either work towards enriching one’s knowledge and technical skills or inviting specialists to join such a project. still, before anyone engages in a hands-on project of such amplitude, analyzing translation starting from a smaller unit than the system may bring along multifarious benefits. . . . actor-network theory although i have closed the previous sub-section in a somewhat gloomy mood, i would like to open the present one on a much more optimistic note: complexity in ts is not an impossible goal—its success depends on where the quest for complexity starts and how it is represented. before addressing the thorny problem of causal and functional complexity, i posit that the analysis should be first concerned with descriptive and constitutional complexity. it has been argued that complex systems may be modeled and analyzed by means of adaptive networks (sayama et al. ) and as i am interested in individual agents, i did not include the organizational complexity in this research. that, in general, the formal language and the tools of network theory offer a more practical and user-friendly approach. complex systems run the risk of being too big a hat to wear and someone in the complexity business may want to start from the bottom layers of a phenomenon, working their way slowly but surely to the top ones. or start in one point and ramify, as the case may be. if complex systems may be regarded as networks of networks, then let us make the network the unit of our analysis and let us rather look, as marais suggested, into the actor-network links—the level zero of any translation act. in order to better understand what a complexity paradigm may bring that is new, i need to briefly discuss the actor-network theory, conceived as a means to analyze the processes underlying scientific and technological activities leading to innovations in and by society. unlike sociologist mark granovetter’s diffusion model ( ), innovation in ant is by and large treated as transformation (or translation), and not as the society’s response to a need, and situates itself in the lineage of the order-out-of-chaos philosophy. combining agency (actor) and structure (network), ant takes distance from any dichotomous understandings of society and focuses on the “irreducible, incommensurable, unconnected localities, which then, at a great price, sometimes end in provisionally commensurable connections.” (latour ) the unit of analysis, the networks, are omnipresent and dynamic and are grounded in association as performance of shared interests. also, they are concerned with making the unseen visible: i take the word network not simply to designate things in the world that have the shape of a net (in contrast, let’s say, to juxtaposed domains, to surfaces delineated by borders, to impenetrable volumes), but mainly to designate a mode of inquiry that learns to list, at the occasion of a trial, the unexpected beings necessary for any entity to exist. a network, in this second meaning of the word, is more like what you record through a geiger counter that clicks every time a new element invisible before has been made visible to the inquirer. (latour : web). although latour’s notion of ‘network’ points to a transformation, or a translation, it has not gained as much prominence in ts as social systems theory. its intrinsic fragmentarity, localism, alongside its focus on the meaningful relationship between humans and technology were not the key to success for a discipline that was striving for unity and legitimacy. however, although latour asks difficult questions that negate the existence of a principle of emergence or the existence of a macro-structure, such as—“what if the whole is less than its parts?”—his model is unique in that it acknowledges the voids that exist in any structure, it rejects any kind of aggregation, and sees power only in association: […] whenever an action is conceived as network, it has to pay the full prize of its extension, it’s composed mainly of voids, it can be interrupted, it is fully dependent on its material conditions, it cannot just expand everywhere for free (its universality is fully local). networks are a great way to get rid of phantoms such as nature, society, or power, notions that before were able to expand mysteriously. (latour : web) association is one of the main features of such a network, a type of connection, not a thing, whose specificity is to unite together, to associate, to do or to hold in common (strum and latour : - ). as pignuoli ocampo explains, [t]he property of being in common consists of actants remaining unified to facilitate a program of action; their own strength and capacity to determine events is based on this. action therefore is a program of action in common; it is never isolated. ( : - ) however mutual agents’ interests, heterogeneity is still very much present: actants can be ‘winners’, but they may very well be ‘losers’ too: “neither the actor’s size nor its psychological make up nor the motivations behind its actions are predetermined;” (callon : ) also, the network’s program of action is an associative unit whose distinctive feature is to perform an action together with other actants with which or with whom they are not initially connected. the non-deterministic, complex nature of their approach is also present in in their description of what networks are: “[they] may have no compulsory paths, no strategically positioned nodes.” (latour ) according to latour ( ), who addresses the problem of transdisciplinary complex systems theory directly, reality is a complex unity that cannot be reduced to the sum of its parts. systems are an ambiguous notion, i suggest, which sometimes eludes our attempts to pin it down. the ant he proposes—and which he specifically describes as not being a sociological model—focuses on the heterogeneous network of interactions of human and non-human actors and on how these interactions depend on both the quality of the actors and the network context of interaction. talking about how individual profiles have gained currency in recent years, latour notes that “[i]ndividual action is much too distributed to be defined in terms of interaction” ( : web) and that the notion of the “whole” has been refashioned: since a network has to accept the existence of multiple voids, it naturally follows that it cannot be necessarily greater than its parts. latour even stretches the conclusion to the point to which a network is less than its individual parts, thus contradicting three common metaphors: society as overarching the individuals, the economic metaphor of the invisible hand, and society as an emerging structure. he blames the inadvertent depiction of society as aggregation on the negligent collection of data available: when we gather statistics […] the sheer difficulty of getting the data means that you are going to focus on the individual as little as possible in order to get as quickly as possible at the aggregates. inevitably, you are going to begin to grant to those aggregates some sort of existence by themselves. ( : web) latour obviously alludes to the homogenous concepts of system or field. marais extends ant to translation as a social practice and notes that “a phenomenon such as the social cannot be thought of in terms of parts and wholes, but in terms of relationships between nodes.” (marais : ) as far as ant-informed research models in ts are concerned, two guiding principles emerge. the first one requires following the actors that produce the object—in our case, the translation— and account for their actions by looking at the translation from the point of view of the translator. the second principle refers to treating all actors equally, irrespective of their wins or losses, which turns the theory egocentric rather than sociocentric and makes it impossible to combine with any other sociological approach in ts. it is precisely why, to my mind, researchers such as hélène buzelin ( ) have retained only the participant observation technique to complement bourdieu’s theory of social fields. much in the same way, to many ts researchers the social dimension of translation has been too obvious to allow themselves to take distance from traditional sociologically-informed approaches. nevertheless, such approaches leave out important translation practices, such as re- translation, multilingual translation, or translational poetics. let me take, for example, an essential fragment of tyulenev’s argument that translation is a system: translation treats all phenomena as either mediated or unmediated, translated or not; this is the basic binary systemic code of translation: what translation sees as unmediated, it mediates; what it sees as not mediated properly, it remediates (cf. retranslation) translation also has flexible programmes reflecting changes in the mediation policies from culture to culture, from period to period and even from one translation agent to another translation agent. retranslation or remediation are made exactly because programmes change over time and space. (tyulenev : , emphases mine) the binary systemic code of translation rules out the possibility of half-mediated texts and involuntarily ignores texts that sit on the boundary between the translation system and the literary one, be they rewritings or texts that can be subsumed to an author’s translational poetics. also, the same boundary does not appropriately question an agent’s multiple loyalties, while in poetry translation, for instance, it is essential to do so, as the practice is not tributary to translation as a profession, but rather to translation as personal interest or ramification of an agent’s primary quality as author of literature. furthermore, the changes that take place in the mediation policies are a function of time, but they do not account for simultaneous retranslation within the same culture. finally, although luhmann’s systems are not concerned with the human being, in tyulenev’s extensive definition translation as a system is, simply because in reality translation and agent cannot be divorced. in explaining agency—that is, how to get someone to do something—latour ( ) addresses the question of boundaries in great depth. to him, boundaries do not exist because sociologists reflexively decided that they do and that they are located in a specific place, but because we constantly assign ourselves to a certain group: there is no group, but group formation and we are enrolled in such groups by our specific interventions or by others ( : , original emphasis). according to latour, the existence of boundaries should not be the primary object of sociology; rather sociology should be concerned with who traces them and with what sort of tools: to sum up, whereas for sociologists the first problems seems to settle on one privileged grouping, our most common experience, if we are faithful to it, tells us that there are many contradictory group formations, group enrollment—activity to which social scientists are obviously crucial contributors. the choice is thus clear: either we follow social theorists and begin our travel by setting up at the start which kind of group and level of analysis we will focus on or we follow actor’s own ways and begin our travels by the traces left behind by their activity of forming and dismantling groups. ( : , emphasis mine) unlike boundaries in general systems theory, which take the shape of operational closure and depend on the understanding of communications that are uttered, irrespective of their being accepted or rejected by the entities in that system, boundaries in ant are built on the key-notions of acceptance and conflict. the associative unit, the network, although unified by association, is based on conflict (or controversy), as a network actants’ acting in common is grounded on the tension between program and anti-program. action within networks may take place at a distance, which makes the unit of action take note of its own heterogeneity—it relocates and distributes (and thus, translates) the action to various places that have each their own features, but share the same objective, or program. thus the boundary is permeable, open to explorations, it is the expression of collectives’ needs to broaden their unity based on the tension between program and anti-program. exploration is the way the collective moves through new associations. there are no pre-established associations, or groups. it is the way such associations are formed, the way groups are born, that matters. therefore, if i am to follow a latourian train of thought, i should not depart in my research from the assumption that poetry translators belong to a group and further base my conclusions on the description of that group, because “[…] there is no relevant group that can be said to make up social aggregates, no established component that can be used as an incontrovertible starting point.” ( : ) latour proposes the actor-network, always with a hyphen, as a good compromise for the actor/system quandary (ibid.: ). instead of trying to decide on which side of the micro/macro debate we find ourselves, it acknowledges the impossibility to stay in one of the two sites for too long and advocates for the pluralism of the modes of existence—‘the pluriverses.’ in an inquiry into modes of existence ( ) latour rejects hidden social forces and ideology and embraces each individual’s awareness, which forms the grounds of his philosophy focused on the relational nature of existence. it is the individual’s awareness and actions that count—no matter how apparently insignificant—not the habit(us), as the habit means to function without the awareness of a background. according to latour, we become aware only when something out of the ordinary happens in the background that impedes its smooth operation, therefore it is into the uncommon— or the controversial—that we need to delve. the common, the smoothly-functioning, the well-oiled group ends up by going unnoticed, whereas the controversial will be always visible and the controversial is set to appear when a certain group starts taking shape: group formations leave many more traces in their wake than already established connections, which, by definition, might remain mute and invisible. if a given ensemble simply lies there, then it is invisible and nothing can be said about it; if it is visible, then it is being performed and it will then generate new and interesting data. ( : ) mapping the social context continuously engages the actors and forms anti-groups, which are needed in order to establish the boundaries, rather than have them set from the get-go: “group delineation is the very constant task of the actors themselves.” (ibid.: ) translators are not translators because we dub them as such, nor are they simple ‘informants’ that we deploy in a certain social context, but they are situated one reflexive loop ahead of us. in re-defining the social at a more general level, latour argues that maps are essential because the existing ones “designate territories with such different shapes that they don’t even overlap!” (ibid.: ) he also points out that these maps should overlap, as no one exists in one context and in one context only, and that they should be flat, not d, and certainly not vertical (hierarchical). to reassemble the social, the flattening of the maps should be followed by two operations: the relocation of the global (in order to elude permanent references to an overarching ‘context’ and to keep global and local actors side by side) and the redistribution of the local (in order to trace where the global was assembled, what the connectors are, and how the components have spread). the final and most important step is connecting the sites revealed through the first two operations. while zooming in on these maps, individual agency is so important to latour that it becomes one of the three embodiments of culture: “a culture is simultaneously that which makes people act, a complete abstraction of an ethnographer’s gaze, and what is generated on the spot by the constant inventiveness of members’ interactions.” (ibid.: , emphasis mine) it is only by considering these three aspects at once that one may have a veracious vista of translation within any given culture, because such a stance offers a substantial look into how translation comes into being. before we define translation, we need to see why and how it was made. before we analyze a translated text, we need to look at all associations around it. the rejection of pre-established social boundaries means that latour proposes a sociology of association as an alternative to the traditional sociology of the social. according to bourdieu, for instance, “[t]he relational mode of thinking [...] can only be applied to social realities at the cost of a radical rupture with the usual representation of the social world.” ( : ) to him, the relational mode of thinking, which is typical to sciences, “leads to privileging the different social realities, considered in themselves and for themselves, to the detriment of the objective relations, often invisible, which bind them, is never as powerful as when these realities – individuals, groups or institutions – entrench themselves with all the force of social sanction.” (id.) in latour’s view, associations are not necessarily social and i need at least to acknowledge the possibility that translation may just very well be a fact of association in addition to being a social one by the effects it produces. being a potential result of asocial associations—a hypothesis that intuitively looks very promising—begs the question of any social theory’s appropriateness in defining the grassroots of translation, as well as in identifying a suitable general framework for analyzing translators’ agency. let us thus give a chance to the mongrel-concept of ‘network society’ before i turn to the promises of network science. . . . from network society (back) to network science . . . . castells’ and van dijk’s ‘network societies’ the need to remap the social in general and various social phenomena in particular has been felt acutely by sociologists because of the constant changes in the way humans live and cohabitate. such a remapping is so much the more needed in the age of technological innovations. the only system latour endorses is the "sociotechnical’ one, but even that kind of system refers to the heterogeneity of technology, rather than to its unity. however, once it is functional not even technology forms a system because it tends to fade into the background, becoming embedded in the society. we may want to see translation in the same way, not as a luhmannian organism operating independently within its surroundings, but as an open network that permeates our daily operations, especially in the light of the pervasive presence of technology. we shall see in this sub-section that networks have recently become concepts and models that are often used in many disciplines to reflect the readjustment of the contemporary world to the realities of the new technoscape. as folaron and buzelin aptly observe, while network approaches and trends in mathematics, physics and computer sciences, for example, might seek to focus on structures to explain, elucidate and model, the network concept counterparts in the social sciences must be assessed additionally in terms of their capacities to critique and, perhaps to act, transform and improve. ( : ) in a talk at rutgers university in , titled “computer science for the next years,” (web: http://bit.ly/ p vvfg, last accessed: march , ) mark weiser proposed “calm technology” and “ubiquitous computing” as two essential notions to define how we should experience the presence of technology. http://bit.ly/ p vvfg this commonsensical remark echoes claus emmeche’s distinction between ontological and descriptive complexity ( ). on the one hand, ontological complexity refers to the great number of non-identical components of a structure whose interaction produces a collective behavior that is different from the behavior of the individual components. descriptive complexity, on the other hand, implies the use of multiple methods that are needed in order to describe a thing or phenomenon in a reasonably complex way. in other words and for the purpose of this research, i combine the use of computational methods needed for the identification of the nodes and edges of the network with descriptive perspectives and methods that are inherently subjective in order to be able to offer a complete image of translators’ agency. two approaches will thus be of great help in assessing poetry translation networks: the first one refers to computationally analyzing and building graph visualisations of the proposed network in order to offer as clear as possible a view of the structure of the network, that is, how actors (translators and authors) relate to each other; the second approach will offer a critique of the network based on the notions of ‘network society,’ borrowed from the social sciences, while bearing in mind the latourian tenet that associations may not necessarily be social (or have a ‘small world’ structure, as we shall shortly see). the network visualisations i am going to produce will arguably show whether poetry translation networks in romania are social assemblages/associations or not. should my conclusion pertain to the second scenario, there will be sufficient ground for advancing a reassessment of translators’ agency as network phenomena. as folaron and buzelin note in their overview dedicated to network studies, “the notion [of network] appeared as a way to move away from social determinism and to favour explanations based on the relations between entities rather than their substance. […] “network” was used as a representation of small-scale relations, but also intuitively felt as potentially applicable to society at large.” (folaron and buzelin : ) in sociology, a field favored by ts in its interdisciplinarity, the term ‘network society’ was coined as a result of the pervasiveness of digital information and communication technologies that have sparked significant changes in the way we experience social, cultural, and economic phenomena. patterns of affiliation, production, and organization have changed radically and have called for a more relational, agent-based mode of analyzing society. a pioneer in proposing a fragmented model of society was georg simmel, who perceived culture as “the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.” (cited in levine : xix) his propositions are still much referenced in social network analysis today. the main two advocates of the concept of “network society” are jan van dijk ( ) and manuel castells ( ). van dijk presents networks as the invisible nervous system of our society and dubs the st century as the age of networks, a natural evolution of the former mass society in a new informational context. the network society is […] a social formation with an infrastructure of social and media networks enabling its prime mode of organization at all levels (individual, group/organizational and societal). increasingly, these networks link all units or parts of this formation (individuals, groups and organizations). ( : ) he also distinguishes between western and eastern societies, a dichotomy that allows him to acknowledge both the role of the individual and the role of groups (such as the family) in the formation and topology of these modes of organization. according to van dijk, the main components of the network society are heterogenous individuals (or focal groups), linked by networks of various natures, while the network-society’s substance is information. the scale of such a network can be both extended and reduced, and the scope can be both local and global. it is characterized by high connectivity and connectedness between components, and by lower density, centralization, and inclusiveness. the types of communities they establish are virtual and diverse and communication within them is increasingly mediated, while their mode of organization is horizontally differentiated (non-hierarchical). castells proposes an even more complex definition of network society, one that insists on the usefulness of the very logic and morphology of networks for present-day modes of organization. unlike van dijk, who still sees individuals, groups, organizations and communities as the units of society, castells assigns the role of basic unit to networks themselves: the network society, in the simplest terms, is a social structure based on networks operated by information and communication technologies based in microelectronics and digital computer networks that generate, process, and distribute information on the basis of the knowledge accumulated in the nodes of the networks. a network is a formal structure (monge and contractor ). it is a system of interconnected nodes. nodes are, formally speaking, the points where the curve intersects itself. networks are open structures that evolve by adding or removing nodes according to the changing requirements of the programs that assign performance goals to the networks. naturally, these programs are decided socially from outside the network. but once they are inscripted in the logic of the network, the network will follow efficiently these instructions, adding, deleting, and reconfigurating, until a new program replaces or modifies the codes that command its operational system. (castells : ) network society does not equal information society, he rightfully argues, because society means more than technology. he recognizes the role of the cultural, economic and political in the life of any modern mode of organization and assigns essential roles to the spaces of flows, “the material organization of time-sharing social practices that work through flows.” (castells : ) however, since he still places a great emphasis on the role of digital technology, the final part of his definition is very deterministic, cognizant of an external mechanism or program that directs the network. this cannot be reflective of human agency in its entirety, therefore, while still retaining the idea of the social organized by the logic of networks, i turn my attention to where everything began: network science and graph theory. . . . . network science and graph theory network science uses developments in graph theory to study and describe complex networks (dorogovtsev et al. ; newman ; fortunato et al. ), such as the internet or various social networks, by means of a structure made of nodes (the actors) and links (the relationships or interactions between the actors). unlike complex systems, which base their scholarship on models and equations, network theory feeds off real-time dense datasets and offers accessible, intuitive visualizations that are closer to real-life phenomena that happen in complex systems. networks have the unique property of failing and recovering spontaneously (majdandzic et al. ; gao et al. ), thus offering the opportunity to examine various processes of formation and disaggregation in society and beyond: thinking through the model of the network—nodes, ties, flows—certainly helps us to understand a great deal about, for example, the restructuring of capitalist enterprise and work, the disaggregation of state sovereignty, the rise and operation of new social movements, and emerging practices of community and identity formation. (barney : - ) when representing a social network as a graph, for instance, the nodes are the members of that network and the vertices (edges or links) may be a variety of relationships, from family lineage to common hobbies (e.g., at the most basic level a is related to b and c because they are siblings, but a is also related to d and e because they have a common hobby—say, they are avid snowboarders, thus a belongs in two networks; at the same time d is related to c and f because they share a passion for exotic food, therefore the three networks form a complex, non-linear one, or a network of networks). the features of such complex networks were best described in the following definition: two main features seem to be shared by most complex networks, both natural and artificial. the first is their small world structure. […] the second is less obvious, but not less important: these webs are extremely heterogeneous: most elements are connected to one or two other elements and only a handful of them have a very large number of links. these hubs are the key components of web complexity. they support high efficiency of network traversal but are for the same reason their achilles heel. their loss or failure has very negative consequences for system performance, sometimes even promoting a system’s collapse. (solé et al. : , emphases mine) the ‘small world’ structure is conditioned by the clustering coefficient: if there is a high degree of clustering and small average distance between nodes, then the network is a small-world structure. based on granovetter’s highly influential paper “the strength of weak ties,” ( ) the small world model presents a structure of “highly connected clusters, or close-knit circles of friends, in which everybody knows everybody else. a few external links connecting these clusters keeps them from being isolated from the rest of the world.” (barabási : ) according to this model, we can think of translator networks as complete graphs—“tiny clusters in which each node is connected to all other nodes within the cluster.” (id.) simply put, translators’ world is one in which each translator is connected by several weak ties with translators and authors belonging in other networks. this model is essentially different from the previous random graph model proposed by hungarian mathematicians paul erdős and alfréd rényi, according to which there would be no circle of friends, as “our links to other nodes are completely random.” (ibid.: ) the clustering coefficient in a small world network is measured by dividing the number of actual links between nodes to the number of all possible links between the same nodes. the higher the coefficient (as close to as possible), the more likely it is for a network to present a small world structure, one in which the nodes strive to establish the maximum number of links possible. however, translators do not form a network only among themselves; they also have distant ties with the outside world. the nodes they link to in the outside world are the authors they translate, authors that belong to a different culture. if we consider translators in relationship only to their peers or only to the authors they translate, then we may consider the respective network as a simple one, while if we consider them in relationship both with their peers and in relationship with the authors of the works they translate, we are going to find ourselves in the business of complex networks. granovetter’s model was formalized by duncan j. watts and steven h. strogatz , who showed that, even by adding a few distant links, a large-scale random network will present small- world features, as that will decrease considerably the average distance between nodes (the number of edges in a shortest path connecting them, also called a graph geodesic). for instance, the network that emanates from bob dylan’s work: although thousands of miles apart and potentially not standing many chances to ever belong in the same circles, translators pertaining to various cultures and having various primary occupations will find themselves in a small world network through the distant links that connect them to dylan’s lyrics. however, the criticism brought to the models proposed by erdős and rényi and later by watts and strogatz is related to their intrinsic egalitarian value, which does not acknowledge the existence of hubs or connectors, that is, nodes with more links than any other nodes in the network. these critics of small world networks propose a scale- free model, which has a power-law degree distribution of the number of links connecting to a node (barabási and albert , barabási , etc.). not only does this scale-free structure have a large number of vertices with a high degree, but their number greatly exceeds the number of average ones, which gives the network robustness and makes it more resistant to failures. even in case of multiple failures, connectedness is not affected, as it is maintained by the large hubs. as the node degree increases, the clustering coefficient distribution decreases. such networks are characterized by two power-generating features. the first one is their preferential attachment, in the sense that rich networks tend to get richer—an edge tends to attach to an already heavily linked node (a the use of real-life distance here is simply explanatory and does not equal the graph distance mentioned before. connector) rather than to a poorly linked one. the second feature, described by guido caldarelli et al. ( ), is the fitness model which describes why fitter nodes attract more links than the less fit ones. this feature can be used to anticipate the evolution of a network, based on the idea of competition between nodes that may affect the whole structure. following the model of the internet or of the scientific publication network, on which the proponents of this model based their argument, various social networks have been reported as being scale-free, animated by a power differential. nevertheless, more recent research has contradicted these claims and shown that the power distribution was not present in networks where it was thought to exist (clauset et al. ). for example, clauset et al. have shown statistically that the network of “adherents of religious denominations, bodies, and sects”, or “the numbers of copies of bestselling books sold in the united states during the period to ” ( : ) have been misclassified as power-distributed. at this point we should ask ourselves whether literary translator networks are small-world networks or scale-free ones, as their configuration questions the topic of power and ideology. although latour has explicitly distanced himself from albert-lászló barabási’s linked ( ), by emphasizing that his concept of network “is a purely conceptual term that means that whenever you wish to define an entity (an agent, an actant, an actor) you have to deploy its attributes, that is, its network,” ( : web) actually deploying, analyzing, and modelling these networks does depend on a number of features proposed by barabási, such as his preferential attachment, which proved to be a salient concept in economics or in the design of the internet. . . . chaos in translation networks as this dissertation does not aim for a translation studies paradigm change, but intends to account for the complexity of translator agency within a certain non-hegemonic context in hopes of producing a model that may be successfully deployed in other contexts, i would like to propose to break down the translation system in smaller units, the networks. when reassembling the units, we will not necessarily have a unified system, but a larger network, which will allow for the analysis of translations done in a certain culture through the lens of the relationships they generated with a foreign one. these relationships will not be solely unidirectional, as the feedback loop of translation may generate a similar feedback loop in the other culture, as we will see in the chapter dedicated to transnationalism, through the concept of “literary barters.” therefore what i propose in this research does not entail a network model n that should eventually work for all agencies in all systems (or larger networks), but a network model n that will result in network models n to n when deployed in various contexts. thus translators’ agency will be the ensemble of all the phenomena that appear in those diverse circumstances. can we argue at this point that applying a systems paradigm in studying agency is opportune? although complex adaptive systems present a very tempting solution, i believe it should not be adopted from the very beginning. one of the main reasons why i think it would be wise to avoid such a paradigm is data aggregation, which confers the much needed stability to a system. before striving for stability, i conjecture that looking into instability is essential. a system may even be less than the sum of its parts, as latour suggested, because an actor’s agency may be so insignificant that it will eventually dissipate. but in order to determine the insignificance of a certain agency, one needs to look into it first and data aggregation (leaving out what is not important and treat the rest as similar) impedes on such an important first step. furthermore, a network may be asocial while a system has an intrinsic socialness, an in-built cooperation between its elements. it is only after the analysis of all possible translation networks within a culture that i believe it is possible to assemble and analyze translation as a (complex) system within a given culture and in relation to the network it establishes with other cultures. until then, i propose to fashion this research on a network model and think in terms of a paradigm that acknowledges chaos. a paradigm that acknowledges chaos is best shaped around a progenerative model—“concerned with current sets and fields of relationships for persons in a given lifeworld.” (cronin : ) citing tim ingold, cronin favors this model for its focus on “an entire field of relationships within which different beings emerge with their particular forms, capacities, and dispositions.” (ingold : ) while cronin does not specifically acknowledge the role of chaos, i would like to treat it as an auspicious point of departure in the analysis of any translatorial action. the relevance of the chaos paradigm for ts has to find a middle ground between the dangers of yet another metaphor, translation as chaos, and the appeal of hard sciences. generally thought of as providing valuable methodological insights for explaining human behavior (kellert ), chaos theory has been informing social sciences since the s, as it presents the right premises for a sociology of non-static, translating connections. also known as the science of surprises, of the unpredictable, chaos theory stipulates that even the slightest change in the initial conditions may lead to unpredictable, non-linear results. marais rightfully applies it to translation and concludes: “[…] in open systems, with the slightest difference in initial conditions, one cannot predict the outcomes: that is, one could not have identical translation.” ( : ) the main features of chaotic systems are non-linearity, complex forms, and feedback mechanisms that create loops in which output feeds back into the system as input. this boomerang effect is the very definition of any translation, which departs the network of origin as an agent’s intent and returns to the same network as translation. the contribution of chaos to the globalizing theories that have dominated the study of translation for decades may be crucial. to echo latour’s we have never been modern ( ), i dare suggest ts has never really been postmodern in defining itself and ostensibly preserving a genealogical model at the core of its definitions, a model concerned with past histories and relationships. kobus marais’ is the first attempt to look for explanations in disorder rather than in order. translation theory has not been really taken with the idea of deconstruction, with poststructuralism, and hasn’t really adapted its theories to the new technologies and the social changes produced by information (again, with the notable exceptions of cronin and marais). as nicole k. hayles argued in chaos bound in , “[the] paradigm of orderly disorder may well prove to be as important for the second half of the century as the field concept proved for the first half.” ( : xiii) the interwar period marked a shift from a focus on the dissipative energy within chaos to an ambiguity with order. that led to another shift, this time in the humanities, in the s and the s, towards a more local and fragmented mode of analysis of their objects of study. concomitantly, boundaries were admitted as arbitrary constructs and highly permeable membranes, very sensitive to historical, linguistic, and cultural variables. this shift was corroborated with an increasing attention dedicated to stochastic variables in the cultural field, to random fluctuations in complex systems, and generally with an awareness that chaos plays an important role in the life of such systems. this new realization led scholars to perceive chaos as presence, in we have never been modern (catherine porter, trans. harvard: harvard university press, ), latour argues that modernity has always promoted the human vs. nature dualism and has not allowed for the proliferation of hybrids, which now characterize all contemporary matters, from global warming to biotechnology. even in postcolonialism ‘difference’ is construed as ‘diversity,’ which “supposes that different groups are possessed of different sets of ready-made attributes.” (cronin : ) rather than absence: that is, rich in information rather than poor in order. as we will see in the following subchapter, a chaotic network like poetry translation into romanian is positively animated by a poetics of fecundity and is indeed in total disarray in terms of order. one may very well argue that many translations are not necessarily good translations; however, as hayles aptly notes, “implicit in the transevaluation of chaos is the assumption that the production of information is good in itself, independent of what it means.” ( : ) within chaos theory there are two lines of thought. the first one sees chaos as preceding and then accompanying order and is present in ilya prigogine’s work on dissipative systems and in the idea of spontaneous emergence of self-organized systems from chaos. more of a philosophical endeavor than a practical one because of the lack of consistent results, its interest lies in its potential to reconcile being and becoming by the focus it places on the arrow of time. the second sees a hidden order in any chaotic system and entertains the idea that there are certain deeply encoded structures called “strange attractors.” this line of thought is praised for its results, but it is poor in philosophy and lacks consistent theory. its main strength resides in seeing chaos as able to generate new information. no matter the focus, chaos theory has marked a very attractive paradigm shift in literary criticism, one that allowed critics, as hayles astutely notes, to unveil “ideological underpinnings of the traditional idea of order.” ( : ). it is my hope that chaos helps ts take a bit of distance from the strong ideologies that have informed the field for decades, at least as far as contemporary literary translation is concerned. just as hayles’ creative writers carry along more cultural substrata than professional writers—”writing is turbulence or, at least, it brings turbulence into being” ( : )—the same may be valid for literary translators. literary translation implies a high degree of transformation and creativity and a literary text will not be the same in the host culture. chaos does mean newness, but in a chaotic network both creative translation and translation as simply carrying across meaning will find the right environment to co-exist. they co- exist at the edge of chaos. although writers are considered creators who write out of ‘nothing’ (i.e., chaos), the comparison with translators is not far-fetched. if we consider translation as filling a gap in a culture rather than an import of value, translators become creators especially in case of self-reliant agency. the translator’s agency may follow the pattern of gaps in a given culture, but it also depends on the said translator’s own status and psyche, which affect their choices. in a paradigm dominated by chaos translators’ agency will need to be redefined, since it cannot simply and solely be amenable to some pre-established conditions in the host culture, professional regulations, or occupational prestige. typical agency, consisting of multiple elements, such as “the generation of intent, identification of contextual salience, recall of relevant memories, evaluation of choice options and their anticipated consequences, decision making, planning, implementing the action, and real-time monitoring and adjustment of the implementation,” (klemm : ) also needs to take stock of self-organization, which implies nonlinearity, far-from-equilibrium conditions, redundancy, reliability, systemic correlation, social system noise, and system containment (goldstein ). chaotic behaviors are present at the level of networks as well, where weak chaos is constructed mathematically and even desirable, so that we understand why a certain network exists at the edge of chaos (sprott ). besides having the power to cause events, translators as agents have the power of self-direction (smith : ). as folaron and buzelin correctly note, complex networks “are also the resulting organizational dynamics that emerge in the interplay of community goals, such as the self-organization and hierarchy” ( : ) in various situations, to which i would add, in the case of literary translators, that they are the consequence of individuals’ self-fulfilling prophecies. the self-fulfilling prophecy, itself a manifestation of non-linearity (goldstein ), is a prediction that, directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously, causes itself to become true. new thinking on the topic equates the self-fulfilling prophecy with the law of attraction, the belief that ‘like attracts the like.’ as will become apparent in the following sections, most poetry translators are not translators by profession and they do not see translation as an occupation. they rather consider themselves (and many are indeed) writers besides having a completely different paying job, and they translate from a genuine interest in a foreign author’s work. this genuine interest cannot be completely separated from a self-identification with the author of the original work. “i would love to be able to write like that,” thinks the poet while translating the poems into her mother-tongue. poetry translation can thus be considered a self-fulfilling prophecy of their translators and equated to individual agency—it triggers a line of events which otherwise would not have taken place, as such translations are not usually commissioned. in terms of self-organization and hierarchy, poetry translation functions as an appropriative mode of poetic innovation: […] translating poetry, just like composing poetry, has been celebrated as a kind of writing that allows the translator to find his or her language through that of another (“it spoke the same idiom that i was looking for in my contemporaries in my own language” [aulicino , ]). praising and preserving elements of the other is, ultimately, a way of defining oneself. (galvin : , emphasis mine) in the case presented here, what cannot be found in local contemporary authors is sought “in the company of strangers.” (cronin : ) the description of this phenomenon cannot be primarily based on economic factors, but needs to consider self-organization first . it is necessary to note at this point that i do not have a positivist attitute towards copyright—as it becomes evident in chapter —nor do i entertain the author’s hegemony in relation to translation. for the purpose of this research, the way i see the relationship between translation and the original echoes the mathematical operation of translation, in which the original is a pre-image, and the translation is considered to be the image. what may appear as the author’s hegemony in relation to their translators is simply a manifestation of literary kinship. in on interobjectivity latour gives the example of j.p. dupuy’s introduction aux sciences sociales. logique des phénomènes collectifs (paris: editions marketing, ) in note for a classical use of the biological self-organization metaphor instead of economics. the cultural personae of some translators or even the make-up of (a) certain translator network(s) may be considered similar to ‘chaotic attractors.’ in dynamic systems the attractors are a series of numbers towards which the system evolves. possessing an essentially connectionist mind, translators interact perpetually with their environment, a process which results in chaotic processes, one of whose primary functions is to learn different patterns. translation emerges from this semiotic interaction between translators and their environments, both the proximate and the distant ones, and the turbulences they produce in the spaces they inhabit or even connect to give birth to a butterfly effect that may not be visible to their contemporaries, but will perhaps give birth to meaningful mutations in not such a distant future. to make sure this kind of evolution is properly accounted for, i suggest that our discipline should take stock of difference and localize the global by refashioning its theory in such a way that it incorporates non-linearity. fostering non-linearity in translation invites for a redefinition of translation that may be worded as follows: (poetry) translation is a complex phenomenon carried out by translators who interact together and/or relate with each other at the smallest scale to organize themselves, voluntarily or involuntarily, into associations/structures at larger scales. these associations/structures might lack central authorities/leaders and are responsible for the appearance of translation and other related phenomena that could be neither predicted nor deduced from fully knowing its constituents in isolation or from making the sum of such experiences. the smallest variation in the initial conditions of translation production may lead to totally different outcomes in terms of rendition and types of agency. the following chapters are a demonstration in support of the key summative arguments of my theoretical stance. according to the theory of chaos, both individuals/objects and clusters of individuals/objects may act as attractors. by ‘chaotic’ i understand processes in which order co-exists with disorder, and not ‘randomness.’ chapter . translator and author networks in periodicals ( - ) . . micro-charting poetry translation networks in romanian print literary journals dispirited by statements like “unfortunately, modern and contemporary american poetry was little translated; practically, the overviews and anthologies published in romania after world war ii can be counted on one hand,” (chivu : web) one may fail to account for the richness of periodical publications that include poetry translations in many of their issues. if it were not for these publications, how would recent comments like “[…] almost all my favorite discourses in romanian poetry since the s are each attached to an important american poet or to one influential u.s. poetry school after the second world war” (komartin : web) ever be made? it is hard to believe that the few translated books published over more than seventy years have influenced an entire literature or that american poets have influenced their romanian peers without any kind of mediation via translation. if we look from very high above at the romanian book market, we will see merely a speck on the global book stage. if we hope to spot the portion dedicated to poetry volumes, the speck will disappear altogether. but if we zoom in, the number of translated poetry books and anthologies will remain the same, while a whole web of translators, authors, and literary journals that do not depend on the precarious book market will reveal itself to us. this is the ‘small world’ i hope to address in this subchapter, because however financially insignificant it is, its size in chapter and section . i show that it was the very interest of these poets and poet-translators in the american and canadian poetries that led to most publishing initiatives and that less than half of the total number of titles have been published under mainstream auspices since . according to the statistics published by the federation of european publishers, the total market value was estimated at - billion €. the total number of books published the same year was , titles. in romania, the total book market has an estimated value of million € ( . %) (chivu, dilema veche / : web. http://bit.ly/ cx e . last accessed: february , ). http://bit.ly/ cx e and mode of operation offer unparalleled insight into how poetry translators work and how they connect to all the other nodes in the network—in this case to other translators and to the authors they translate. in micro-modernity, one of the ways we look at the world shifts from looking at the local from a global perspective to looking at the global from a more proximate vantage point (cronin b). the other way is to examine how the object of this research refashions itself in the boundless digital world, as will be seen in subchapter . . this new perspective that originates in our immediate proximity has the advantage of opening up the world around us, of expanding it, rather than compressing it. in cronin’s words ( ), microspection is a way of positively reconfiguring the possibilities of the local, of re-enchanting a world formerly disheartened by globalization, of pursuing an endotic travel. at the same time, it seeks to avoid the dichotomy between the global and the local by emphasizing larger webs of connectivity and by going beyond the much invoked ‘sense of place’ that informs the literature on ‘default communities’, that is, nations (cf. appadurai). to the defamiliarization brought about by globalization cronin opposes a zooming-in process, or a process of endotic travel, which ultimately means getting acquainted with and understanding the world around us in its complexity, as the politics of microspection is essentially concerned with the unseen. analytical microspection—“the proper investigation of places and their inhabitants through methods and practices which reveal the full, fractal complexity of human habitation” ( : )— is, i suggest, an essential practice that allows me to bring out into the open the intricacies of poetry translation in romania. fundamentally unseen on the translated book market, where “competition is acerbic and almost everything boils down to money,” (stănescu : web) contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translation lives, for the most part, in the labyrinthine confines of periodical publications. in the case of a small literature like the one i refer to, the models that define translated poetry exchanges appear to be grounded in the logic of periodical publishing rather than in the mechanisms of local book markets. literary magazines play in this respect a triple role: first, they are a presentation and promotion platform used by translators for avant-premières or simply to present selections that may or may not end up being published in book form; second, they play an evaluation role, as they host reviews of translated books or essays on the works of the authors translated; and finally, they play an essential role in networking, acting as a link between translators, authors, publishers, and the readers. besides the salient role they have in the cultural life of any space (be it local, regional or national; be it online or offline), they are often much more accessible a publication site than the mainstream or even indie book publishing industry, since production costs are significantly lower and competition is less intense. furthermore, to quote a celebrated american translator, “[e]very good literary magazine worth its salt publishes translations,” (bernofsky : web) which means that, no matter how overlooked by scholarly literature in ts, literary journals are a fundamental player on any literary scene and they need to be acknowledged in any overview of literary translations that is worth its salt. . . . endotic travels into contemporary poetry translation in print periodicals in a ph.d. dissertation on the dialogue between french and american poetries since , matthew bingham smith ( ) discusses the convoluted web of poets that contributed decisively, through their own networks of friends, trips abroad, and poetry readings, to establishing a whole a first issue dedicated to this topic, “translation and/in periodicals” (guest-edited by maria constanza guzmán) will be hosted by translation and interpreting studies journal in summer (web: http://bit.ly/ jakjiq). set of practices at the institutional level. the work poets began was picked up and furthered by more formal modes of organization, such as national literary magazines or presses with national distribution, thus embedding translations of such poetries, for example, into a more centralized network of circulation. although poets (and poet-translators) have maintained their salient role in imagining and creating competing audiences through poetry readings and have been largely influencing writing practices, the mediation of the exchange between the two cultures has become more institutionalized over time. unlike in france, to whose practices romania might appear as tributary, the exchanges with the american or canadian cultures have never become institutional, with the notable exception of the u.s. department of state-run financing programs in place at the u.s. embassy in bucharest. however, the financial support they offer is mainly for projects that result in a book being published, hence their role is not relevant for the present subchapter. the work translators have been doing on such translations in periodicals has remained their own project and has not joined a centralized distribution network, but stayed rather local, according to the audience of the respective journal and to the translators’ network. nevertheless, their agency is of the utmost importance for the presence of these poetries in romania. for example, in the case of allen ginsberg: compared to france, a book market forty-six times larger than romania, where he was translated twenty-three times in anthologies and twenty-seven times in periodicals between and (morgan ), in romania he was translated only six times in anthologies, never in a volume, but almost equally in periodicals: twenty-seven times between and (ibid.). daily and periodical publishing in romania has always been a very fertile ground—in , a year of highly effective censorship and thorough control by the communist party, there were before the only translation ever published in a stand-alone collection by polirom in . such publications (Șercan ), while in the total number was , (excluding daily newspapers). the national library of romanian inventoried cultural journals in may , for example, but the number is thought to be much higher, anywhere around , with an average of three cultural periodical publications per county (dorian : web), which makes romania “the country with most literary journals” (id.) in europe. the discrepancy between official statistics and estimations is caused by the unregulated operation of many such publications, which do not comply with the national library’s legal deposit requirement, as well as by the appearance of various e- zines that are not yet listed by this institution. despite conflicting estimations, there is general consensus on the importance played by cultural journals in the history of the country: from a prime venue of literary and political effervescence that fueled the emergence of the country’s historical parties and interbellum modernity to a coalition against a totalitarian regime and its protochronist ideology during communism (vulpescu ), literary journals and journalism in general have been a driving force behind the country’s progress throughout its history. at the same time, it is no less true that the lack of interest shown by the state in financing these publications after the revolution and the continuous financial struggles they have been experiencing for the past twenty- eight years has resulted in a fluctuating number and in only some of them receiving steady financial support from the ministry of culture via the writers’ union, while others have been relying on funding from local administration. while there are no official statistics in this respect, an analysis of all articles published in any given month inventoried by the national library shows an interesting breakdown: between january according to the romanian national institute of statistics. anglicised term from the romanian protocronism—the tendency to attribute an idealised past to the whole country with questionable data and subjective, speculative interpretations—a very popular communist ideology. and march , for instance, there were a total of , articles published in legally deposited journals, out of which , entries were dedicated to literature. of these, (roughly %) involved literary translations and were poetry translations specifically. if one compares the latter with the general interest shown to poetry ( entries, excluding translations), it can be safely assumed that poetry in general stands its ground in literary journals compared to other literary forms. by extension, poetry translation is much more frequent than any other type. in light of all these data, the objective of this subchapter is twofold. first, i aim at quantifying the amount of contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translated in romanian literary journals between and by examining a built corpus. i first analyze the corpus using a functionalist approach, by dividing translators into categories according to the social actions they fulfill in conjunction with the action of poetry translating. from this perspective, it is very likely we shall notice that translation is often a function of academia and poetry authorship. however, such a perspective is not entirely useful, as it offers only a partial overview of any phenomenon by “minimis[ing] the role of agency, willful and intended human ability.” (tyulenev : ) second, once the explanatory potential will have been reached (marais : ) and we will have arrived at “quirks and the like,” (id.) it will be important to see how the parts relate to each other. thus, i set out to analyze computationally the network of translators that carried out these translations, with a view to identifying not only the connectors—agents who translated a large number of american and canadian authors for more than one periodical—, but also any sporadic contribution that might have occurred and if and how all these are in any way interrelated. in doing so, i shall depart from the common assumption in complex systems theory that “agents act locally, with no view of contributing to the whole.” (marais ibid.) . . . functionalist description of the corpus “[t]he era in which we could assume that viable public spheres were typically, exclusively, or necessarily national could be at an end,” ( : ) predicted arjun appadurai more than two decades ago. this conjecture rings especially true in the case of contemporary poetry, which is not considered, by any stretch of the imagination, as socially influential. many locally-based literary magazines present quality literary content and are considered champions of literary patronage, although they do not specifically address a national readership, but rather present cultural products originating in more local contexts. typically published monthly and financed either by the writers’ union or by the local administration of each county in romania, these journals cannot depend on the low advertising revenues or revenues from subscriptions, and are generally fed content by authors’ or translators’ demand: journals need content in order to exist, and authors need a publication venue. the main component of my corpus is the bibliography of articles in romanian cultural periodicals published between june and december , to which i added translations features in various other journals up to december . building the corpus has required a sizeable amount of manual work, as all bibliographies compiled at the nlr are presented as .pdf files, a format which is not supported by any text analysis software. the huge datasets documenting periodical publishing between and had to be browsed file by file and entries pertaining to poetry translation from u.s. and canadian poetries copy-pasted in a text file (.txt). i could not trust entirely the metadata behind the indexing either, as i soon discovered, for example, that the archive is available at http://www.bibnat.ro/arhiva-s -ro.htm# . http://www.bibnat.ro/arhiva-s -ro.htm# authors were simply missing from the final index or that american authors were filed under british authors; therefore the search was extended to all anglophone literatures presented in these bibliographies. i have also added selections that were published in orizont literar contemporan—since it is a literary journal that has translation at the heart of its mission, alongside poesis international—one of “the best independent romanian literary journals,” (chivu ) which is not indexed by the national library of romania, but which has been publishing a significant number of important american contemporary poets since its inception in . the corpus is partly listed in annex and also in this section’s footnotes: the only entries not listed here are the ones i included in the subchapter dedicated to transnationalism. however, the visual representation contains all these poetry selections. according to the bibliography compiled by the nlr, t. s. eliot is the most translated poet in the corpus, with various renditions by Șerban foarță, Șerban foarță and adriana carmen racoviță, Ștefan augustin doinaș, Șerban d. ionescu, laura sandu, aprilia zank, elena ciobanu, and florin dochia. there are also two unattributed translations in argeș literary eliot, thomas stearns. . “lune de miel; dans le restaurant.” (Şerban foarţă, trans.) in acolada : . eliot, thomas stearns. . “miercurea cenuşii.” (a. c. racoviţă and Ş. foarţă, trans.) in românia literară : - . eliot, thomas stearns. . “animula.” (Ştefan augustin doinaş, trans.) in plus - : . eliot, thomas stearns. . “tărâmul pustiirii, : o nouă traducere din t.s. eliot.” (Şerban d. ionescu, trans.) in românia literară : - . eliot, thomas stearns. . “vântul porni la ora patru; exerciţii pentru cinci degete; versuri pentru un bătrân.” (laura sandu, trans.) in idei în dialog, march (cf. bîrsanu ). eliot, thomas stearns. . “cîntecul de dragoste al lui j. alfred prufrock.” (aprilia zank, trans.) in românia literară - : . eliot, thomas stearns. “cântecul de dragoste al lui j. alfred prufrock.” (elena ciobanu, trans.) in ateneu : . eliot, thomas stearns. . “rânduri pentru o pisică persană; rânduri pentru un cățeluș.” (florin dochia, trans.) in cafeneaua literară : . journal in . as we shall see in chapter , foarță and racoviță also translated eliot’s selected poems, so publishing excerpts of this volume prior to the volume’s publication appears as only natural. since the selections by foarță and foarță and racoviță were published in and , respectively, well before the publication of the dedicated volume by humanitas in , this chronology could be indicative of the translators’ salience in proposing a translation project even in the case of major players on the publishing market, such as humanitas. the translation attributed to doinaș is in fact a re-publication of an old translation by ion pillat published in ; doinaș has never translated “animula,” but only co-translated “marina” together with virgil nemoianu and “cântecul de dragoste al lui j. alfred prufrock” (the love song of j. alfred prufrock) and “preludii” (preludes) together with toma pavel in a one-time selection in . the romanian version of “the waste land” by Ș. ionescu ( ) is unattributed in the online version of the journal, but likely signed by ionescu in the print version. the two unattributed translations remain a mystery: although they appear in the “traduceri aminte” (translations to remember) section of the journal, none of the titles are listed in the most comprehensive study on the romanian translations of eliot to date (bîrsanu ). finally, the translations done by l. sandu, a. zank, e. ciobanu, and f. dochia are one-time occurrences and cannot be associated with a certain translation program focused on bringing the vastness of eliot’s work into romanian culture. they are occasional translations by eliot, thomas stearns. . “devreme, la fereastră.” (unattributed translation) in argeş - : . web: http://bit.ly/ ng llp. last accessed: january , ; eliot, thomas stearns. . “mătușa helen.” (unattributed translation) in argeș : web. http://bit.ly/ ee pxe. last accessed: january , . pillat, ion. . “animula; marina.” in azi (cf. bîrsanu ). in secolul xx . the online edition of românia literară can be accessed at http://www.romlit.ro/. direct links to specific articles do not work, hence one needs to refer to the archived summary first: http://bit.ly/ gqrp , and then access the specific entry. last accessed: april , . the nlr bibliography wrongly lists issue / as the publication place. the correct issue is / . http://bit.ly/ ng llp http://bit.ly/ ee pxe http://www.romlit.ro/trmul_pustiirii_ http://bit.ly/ gqrp poets or professors who admire his work and make their admiration manifest through the act of translation. the corpus also reveals the most interesting fact about românia literară, the flagship journal of the writers’ union: the three translations of t.s. eliot’s poetry are the only translations of contemporary poetry published here between and . outside this timeframe i was able to locate only one selection of leonard cohen’s poetry translated by mircea cărtărescu in . two conclusions can be drawn. first, literary translation is not among the key areas the journal focuses on, although they do publish translation criticism articles. even grete tartler, the translator in charge of the “meridiane” section of the magazine, has published her translations of louise glück or theodore roethke elsewhere. second, when it does publish translations, texts have to belong to poets widely accepted by the canon (hence the lack of any paratextual notes, such as author’s bio or the translator’s note and bio): although glück and roethke are canonical american writers, in romania they are mostly known by poetry specialists and not by the public at large. translation criticism in that journal needs to follow the same established criteria of recognition and domination—the few reviews related to translation in my contemporary american and canadian poetry corpus are of translations of translators widely known in romania: l. cohen (urian ), e. e. cummings (sandu ), t.s. eliot (dima ), bob dylan (tartler ), and john berryman (coande ). among the very few journals that published thematic series of translations is steaua. the series titled poete americane de top (top american women poets) ran from to and was cohen, leonard. . “viitorul; toată lumea știe; ora închiderii.” (mircea cărtărescu, trans.) in românia literară : web. http://bit.ly/ edsfcv. last accessed: april , . glück, louise. . “macul roşu.” (grete tartler, trans.) in luceafărul : . roethke, theodore. . “Întoarcerea.” (grete tartler, trans.) in luceafărul - : . see annex for the bibliographic references. http://bit.ly/ edsfcv likely conceived by the editorial board of the journal, led by widely known feminist poet ruxandra cesereanu, its editor-in-chief. the objectives of the series are clearly outlined: to present via translation “[…] important american women poets who have nuanced and changed modern and post-modern poetry and whose influence was acknowledged by most literary histories and by most current criticism.” (in steaua - : ) the list opens with alice notley and diane di prima and continues with brenda hilman, karoline knox, bernadette mayer, eileen myles, elinor nauen, rosmarie waldrop, fanny howe, lyn hejinian, and amy gerstler. cesereanu entrusted lavinia rogojină, a doctoral student at the babeș bolyai university’s department of comparative literature in cluj and a regular collaborator of steaua, with the translation of all poems. the translations are preceded by very condensed and informative author biographies and are very accurate. this translation series was listed among the most valuable recent contributions the journal made to literary translation in romania (popescu ), a rare evaluation done to a translation series in a literary journal. a similar translation series appears in less known literary monthly fereastra, based in the little town of mizil in south-east romania. translated by poet liviu ofileanu (cf. annex ), the selections were grouped in four episodes, three published in and two four years later, in , which suggests a series proposed by the translator himself, who published the romanian versions at his idiosyncratic pace. it is highly unlikely that the series was in any way commissioned by the editorial board also because in the later issues there are republications of some of the translations. ofileanu’s selections offer a glimpse of high quality contemporary poetry by iconic american poets, such as gregory corso and elizabeth bishop, and reflect the poet-translator’s concern for form. another relevant indication of the translator’s agency and taste is his association of a poet like frank o’hara with jericho brown, a young american poet who made a name for himself in the s. such eclectic associations and the rhythm in which he published the translations suggest that the series was a direct result of ofileanu’s interest in american poetry and in these specific american poets. dan brudașcu, a highly prolific poetry translator and director of cetatea culturală literary journal in cluj-napoca dedicated seven pages to contemporary african-american poets in (cf. annex ). his selection is not necessarily a reflection of his interest in american poetry in particular, but in the world’s poetries in general. as a literary historian and translator, brudașcu has rendered a sizeable amount of various contemporary poets into romanian, including authors from malawi, myanmar, and korea. the eight african-american poets are presented with a poem and a photograph each and without any paratexts. the rest of the corpus offers the image of a translator motley crew that is very difficult to divide into categories, as many of them overlap. first, there is the very eclectic group of poets that only occasionally publish poetry translations. their choices depend heavily on literary kinship or occasionality. for instance, there is Șerban foarță, who besides the above-mentioned selections from t.s. eliot six years later published a selection from randall jarrell, an american poet with whom he shares a passion for valuable literature and an irresistible attraction to prosodic formalism. there is also the above-mentioned grete tartler, who published poems by l. glück and t. roethke in and has never broached american contemporary poetry ever since. like everything she does, her translations bore a superlative rubric moniker—„poezii în capodopere” (masterpieces)—, hence her choice of authors. iconic american and canadian poets often appeal to references do not offer a clear number of his translations, but the common estimation is over , articles, essays, studies, translations from world poetry and fiction, reviews, notes, and interviews. jarell, randall. . “casa din pădure.” (Şerban foarţă, trans.) in cafeneaua literară : - . Ș. foarță’s translation portfolio generally consists of works known for their prosodic formalism and creative use of language, such as georges perec’s la disparition or raymond queneau’s poetry. their romanian peers, who embark on sporadic translation projects as a sign of appreciation: emil nicolae is the first entry in my corpus, with a one-time translation from russian-american joseph brodsky. isabel vintilă tried her hand at translation with a rendition from rita dove, and so did sînziana mureșeanu with a selection from margaret atwood, andrei zanca with michael ondaatje, antonela suciu and marius conkan with anne sexton, vlad a. gheorghiu with gregory corso, and radu ulmeanu with a selection from romanian-american writer and literary critic claudia moscovici. andrei mocuța published translations from the work of richard brautigan in four episodes in various literary journals, alongside several other translations of his fiction. mocuța’s own work bears traces of brautigan’s writing: the affinity is so strong that the romanian poet curates some of brautigan’s work on the website of the writers’ union in arad, of which he is a member himself. other poets are associated with two or more american writers in romanian rendition: ovidiu simion, a poet and literary critic, translated three american poets—rita dove, john berryman, brodsky, joseph. m. b. . “cântec din belfast; exploratorul polar; etc.” (emil nicolae, trans.) in ateneu : . dove, rita. . “adolescenţă ii; bistro styx.” (isabel vintilă, trad.) in bucovina literară : . atwood, margaret. . “casa păpușilor înviată; poetul s-a întors; tăinuirea.” (sânziana mureseanu, trans.). in ateneu : . ondaatje, michael. . “Îngropat; Ţărmul medieval.” (andrei zanca, trans.) in euphorion - : . sexton, anne. . “sânul; celebrarea uterului meu; sângele meu la .” (antonela suciu and marius conkan, trans.) in steaua - : - . corso, gregory. . “mandat pe treptele unui harlem din puerto rico; am de ani; am avut un manuscris al lui shelley.” (vlad a. gheorghiu, trans.) in argeş : . moscovici, claudia. . “Îndemn; scrierea dragostei; rădăcini şi aer.” (radu ulmeanu, trans.) in acolada : . brautigan, richard. . “stau în apartamentul unei necunoscute; trăiesc în secolul douăzeci; mi-a îmbătrânit nasul.” (andrei mocuţa, trans.) in luceafărul de dimineaţă : ; brautigan, richard. . “autostopistul galileean; floriburgeri; ora eternităţii.” (andrei mocuţa, trans.) in arca - : - ; brautigan, richard. . “poveste de dragoste; visele sunt precum; scurtă incursiune în dispărut.” (andrei mocuţa, trans.) in arca - : - ; brautigan, richard. . “poeme de richard brautigan.” (andrei mocuța, trans.) in steaua literară, artistică și culturală, july : web. http://bit.ly/ nvy ka. last accessed: february , . dove, rita. . “grădina secretă; adolescenţă ii; zice shakespeare.” (ovidiu simion, trans.) in euphorion - : . berryman, john. . “cîntece onirice.” (ovidiu simion, trans.) in euphorion - : ; berryman, john. . “cîntece onirice.” (ovidiu simion, trans.) in vatra - : - . http://bit.ly/ nvy ka and sylvia plath —in local journal euphorion and in vatra, two magazines that also published his poetry; haiku poetess teodora moțet translated canadian haiku authors winona baker and bruce ross, but also left her comfort zone and translated selections from the poetry of langston hughes and leonard cohen ); late poet radu Șuiu translated linda gregerson, brian swann, and tony hoagland in constanța-based journals agora and tomis, dan sociu approaches poems by charles bernstein, james tate, paul killebrew in a short series of translations published in cuvântul. sociu’s meeting with killebrew resulted in the latter’s translation of one of sociu’s poems for the new york-based journal calque. ioan radu văcărescu, president of the writers’ union in sibiu, has approached only quintessential women writers like anne sexton and sylvia plath. at the opposite pole, young fiction writer florin buzdugan, a master’s student at the time, chooses to translate andrea cohen, a young writer herself, just like florin prodan, who appears in the corpus with a single entry, a selection from anna grace. to this motley crew, one must add republications of older translations, such as marin sorescu’s and gh. Șerban’s rendition of some of w.s. merwin’s plath, sylvia. . “tati; dama lazăr; colosul.” (ovidiu simion, trans.) in vatra - : - . baker, winona. . “kwaguilth.” (teodora moţet, trans.) in amurg sentimental : . ross, bruce. . “summer drizzles…” (teodora moţet, trans.) in amurg sentimental : . hughes, langston. . “negrul vorbeşte despre râuri.” (teodora moţet, trans.) in amurg sentimental : . cohen, leonard. . “love-dance.” (teodora moţet, trans.) in amurg sentimental : . gregerson, linda. . “sfârşitul zăpezii.” (radu Şuiu, trans.) in agora : . swann, brian. . “locul.” (radu Şuiu, trans.) in agora : . hoagland, tony. . “comenzi pentru pianul de jucărie.” (radu Şuiu, trans.) in tomis : - . bernstein, charles. . “mulţumesc pentru că spuneţi mulţumesc.” (dan sociu, trans.) in cuvântul : . tate, james. . “stră-stră-etc. unchiul meu patrick henry; niciodată la fel.” (dan sociu, trans.) in cuvântul : . killebrew, paul. . “urbancolia.” (dan sociu, trans.) in cuvântul : . sociu, dan. . “four sonnets.” (paul killebrew, trans.) in calque. new translations : . sexton, anne. . “atincerea; sărutul; interogarea bărbatului cu mai multe inimi.” (ioan radu văcărescu, trans.) in euphorion - : . plath, sylvia. . “oaie rătăcită; ariel; vânătaie; etc.” (ioan radu văcărescu, trans.) in euphorion february . web: http://bit.ly/ neorye. last accessed: january , . cohen, andrea. . “brutal; pricomigdale; natură moartă cu un copil.” (florin buzdugan. trans.) in steaua - : - . web: http://bit.ly/ h tjhi. last accessed: february , . grace, anna. . “legendă şi adevăr.” (florin prodan, trans.) in oglinda literară : . http://bit.ly/ neorye http://bit.ly/ h tjhi poems in plus, baconsky’s translations of e. e. cummings and langston hughes in fereastra, or the unattributed translations of t.s. eliot’s poetry. second, a much more coherent translation program can be attributed to poets like alex văsieș, chris tanasescu, and claudiu komartin. since january , steaua has been featuring monthly translations from american poets by young romanian poet alex văsieș. the two-year translation series—“autoportret în oglindă convexă” (cf. annex )—is identified from the get-go as the translator’s personal project, who borrowed john ashbery’s appropriated title to warn the readers about a subjective selection criterion: it is my turn to borrow this title for the series i propose in the upcoming several issues of steaua because these translations from english-speaking authors are subjective choices that i also consider to be essential for those romanian readers interested in fresh, personal forms of anglophone poetic discourse. (translator’s note to “autoportret în oglinda convexă,” steaua / : , emphases mine) the compilation proposed by văsieș mirrors his attention to contemporary world literature stage, also visible in his own writing through references to poets like shakespeare, ovid, yehuda amichai, or a. r. ammons (ciorogar : web). besides translating iconic poets like robert haas or philip levine, he also includes peter balakian, the year’s pulitzer-prize winner, or carolyn forché, whom he introduces as a prime representative of the poetry of witness, or liam rector, whose poetry always tries, as văsieș explains in his note, ‘to reorder a superabundant reality,’ just like the translator’s own poetry, which builds on the tiniest details of real life (baghiu : web). as a professor of american poetry at the university of bucharest and a poet himself, chris tanasescu showed interest in young american poetry and translated a series of authors that were merwin, w. s. . “despărţire; economie; poemul.” (marin sorescu, gh. Şerban, trans.) in plus - : . cummings, e. e. . “dacă nu poţi mânca.” (a. e. baconsky, trans.) in fereastra : . hughes, langston. . “jaz.” (a. e. baconsky, trans.) in fereastra : . in their thirties in the mid- s, such as roger craik and meghan o’rourke, along with others that i shall analyse in more depth in the following section on transnationalist poet-translators. his interest in contemporary american poetry found a good host in a new hip literary journal, poesis international, coordinated by claudiu komartin. komartin had toyed himself with translation from american poetry in with a selection from denise duhamel and in with a co-translation of a poem by w.d. snodgrass with vlad pojoga, published on his own personal blog. at poesis international, komartin brought together a number of poets who steadily supplied translations for every issue, so that the journal became a hub of quality u.s. and canadian contemporary poetries, featuring young poets like sherman alexie, ilya kaminsky, valzhyna mort, and martin woodside, along with celebrated established authors such as gary snyder and anne carson. a third category brings together graduate students that moonlight as literary critics and/or poets and who once in a while publish translations of poetry in the journals they regularly or only occasionally contribute to on other projects. it is the case of (at the time) doctoral student călina părău, a collaborator of cluj-napoca-based journal steaua, who published selections from the poetries of albert goldbarth, alan britt —an american poet and academic with strong ties to the babeș boliay university in cluj—, and florida-born poet and creative writing professor tara skurtu, who was a fulbright postdoctoral scholar in romania at the time. student-translators usually gather craik, roger. . “poeme de roger craik.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in familia - : - . o’rourke, meghan. . “poeme de meghan o'rourke.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in familia - : - . duhamel, denise. . “barbie budhistă; cea-al-cărei-vagin-înghiţea-bărbaţi; noe şi ioana d’arc.” (claudiu komartin, trans.) in cuvântul : . snodgrass, w.d. . “albert speer. ministru de război.” (claudiu komartin and vlad pojoga, trans.) web: http://bit.ly/ c c s. last accessed: february , . goldbarth, albert. . “dacă am admite; cântec dimensionat în marmură; etc.” (călina părău, trans.) in steaua - : - . britt, alan. . “ciocănitoarea pufoasă; geneza în această zi şi în acest veac; vise de august.” (călina părău, trans.) in steaua - : - . skurtu, tara. . “derivativi.” (călina părău, trans.) in steaua - : - . http://bit.ly/ c c s around journals that are committed to publishing debuts, translations included. it is the case of orizont literar contemporan (contemporary literary horizon), a bilingual multicultural journal whose editorial team consists of many graduate students in the literary translation master’s program at the university of bucharest. the structure of the team is a complex network that links authors and translators from various countries, such as great britain, united states, italy, brazil, and uruguay. with a consistent translation agenda and curated by translators, this journal is fed foreign contemporary poetry through the ties it established with many ‘small worlds’ abroad. it is a respectable publication venue for many young enthusiastic translators like ioana sabău, who translated spanish-american poetess lea diaz; zenovia popa, translator of peggy landsman; aura mircea, who renders mary ann mccarra fitzpatrick’s poems into romanian; florina sămulescu, translator of canadian jane mellor, american john tischer, and, in a different periodical, of jude english; cristiana ghiță, translator of another canadian, carole st. aubin; iulian trandafir, translator of burt rashbaum’s poetry; and adriana boagiu, who translates diaz, lea. . “griselda, mariposa de ensueño = griselda, dream butterfly = griselda, fluturele visului.” (ioana sabău, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . landsman, peggy. . “tuba libre; white table wine; the moon.” (zenovia popa, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . mccarra fitzpatrick, mary ann. . “page-turner (can one trust the narrator?); seven-on-five.” (aura mircea, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . mellor, jane. . “ days in new york = zile în new york.” (sînziana mihalache. trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : ; mellor, jane. . “stinson beach = plaja stinson.” (florina sămulescu, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . tischer, john. . “brownian life; ode to john lennon’s diary; poem to my teacher = viaţă brawniană = odă la jurnalul lui john lennon = poem pentru profesorul meu.” (florina sămulescu, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . english, jude. . “portret; pragul iadului; gânduri de ciocolată.” (florina sămulescu, trans.) in oglinda literară : . st.-aubin, carole. . “butterfly moon = luna fluturelui; the root of summer = esenţa verii.” (cristiana ghiţă, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . rashbaum, burt. . “wind takes over = stăpânirea furtunii.” (iulian trandafir, trans.) orizont literar contemporan : - . american poet donald riggs. the more prominent authors are also translated by the senior staff of the journal, such as editor-in-chief daniel dragomirescu, who offers romanian versions for john tischer’s poems. they also practice collective translation, as was the case of poems by americans jennifer ransom and mike foldes. academic programs have, i would maintain, a highly significant impact on contemporary poetry translations. many translators and poet-translators belong to academia and their selections echo their scholarly work, as wil become more obvious in the section on transnationalism and academic mobility ( . . ). another relevant example is the master’s program in the translation of literary text at the university of bucharest, a mother lode of good translations of contemporary british literature, published in volumes and in periodicals by graduate students under lidia vianu’s guidance. or a periodical like steaua dedicating a generous number of pages to irish literature on the occasion of declan kiberd’s doctor honoris causa award at the babeș-bolyai university in cluj, fifteen years after the university founded a program dedicated to irish studies. victor olaru, a professor at the university of craiova, has been publishing poetry translations on a regular basis since in local literary journals ramuri and scrisul românesc. since i have established as a starting point of this data-intensive subchapter, most of his translations have not been included in this corpus, but he needs to be retained as a classic example of a scholarly career significantly riggs, donald. . “after kirchway after keats = după kirchaway după keats.” (adriana claudia boagiu, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . tischer, john. . “locul de naștere al lui kafka, etc.” (daniel dragomirescu, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : - ; tischer, john. . “poet at work = poeta al trabajo = poet la lucru.” (daniel dragomirescu, trans.) in orizont literar contemporan : . ransom, jennifer. . “făcătorii de ploaie; vizită.” (translated collectively by the editors.) in orizont literar contemporan : - . foldes, mike. . “betsy tango.” (translated collectively by the editors.) orizont literar contemporan : ; foldes, mike. . “creeks and crayfish = păraie şi raci; lulla-bye = cântec de leagăn.” (mircea filimon, trans.). in orizont literar contemporan : - . his curriculum vitae lists sixteen american poets and two canadian poets translated between and : http://bit.ly/ bbiess. last accessed: february , . http://bit.ly/ bbiess complemented by poetry translations (cf. annex ). olaru’s interest in foreign literatures produced an impressive number of renditions from irish, british, scottish, australian, and jamaican poets, alongside over twenty american and canadian authors. he also translated occasionally theoretical essays on the practice of translation, signed by reputed authors like susan bassnett or adam sorkin —one of the most prolific u.s. literary translators of romanian literature. besides these examples that have articulated a sort of translation program, there are also episodic translations done by various romanian scholars in literary journals typically and very conveniently based in the cities where they work: university of iași professor ligia doina constantinescu translated elizabeth winder and alice vedral rivera in iași-based poezia; ana oloș, a former professor at the nord university in baia-mare and founder of a canadian studies program there translated canadian george elliott clarke and american nancy burke and published these translations in poesis and nord literar, both journals based in the same county; dan h. popescu, a professor at the partium christian university in oradea, co-translated bill knott with adrian olah, this time in a journal based in the south-eastern town of constanța. there is also the association between viorica patea, professor of american literature at the university of salamanca, and daniela oancea, a master’s student (at the time) in the ma program in the translation of cf. olaru’s cv, in ramuri september-october . cf. olaru’s cv: sorkin, adam. . “’boala traducerii’ și însănătoșirea poeziei.” in ramuri february issue. winder, elizabeth. . “anunţarea iernii.” (wojciech maślarz, trans. from the czech; ligia doina constantinescu) in poezia : - ; winder, elizabeth. . “sora lui kafka.” (ligia doina constantinescu, trans.) in poezia : . vedral rivera, alice. . “mamă a oraşelor.” in poezia : . clarke, george elliott. . “biserica baptistă africană din cherrzbrook; ecleziastul; sonet alb.” (ana olos, trans.) in poesis - : . burke, nancy. . “la început; meditaţii de iarnă; amintirile celorlalţi.” (ana olos, trans.) in nord literar - : . knott, bill. . “poem în proză; poem poeziei; moarte.” (dan h. popescu and adrian olah, trans.) in tomis : . literary text at the university of bucharest, who translated largely unknown transnational poetess patrizia de rachewiltz. finally, the fifth and most anomalous and heterogeneous category brings together the one- time translation by liliana rusu, a lecturer at the university of galați in eastern romania, who created a romanian selection of what appears to be her favorite pop song lyrics by leonard cohen, sting, richard marx, and chris rhea; young professional translator corina dragomir, who seems to have translated poetry purely haphazardly, out of her own personal interest, as there appears to be no other motivation for dragomir’s ambitious translation from the poetry of two important names like sexton or ginsberg; painter ileana grivu, who translated louise glück and gerard england, a poet i could not identify, but who is listed under american poetry translation in the nlr bibliography); and one translator that does not show up in any other literary context, alina sorescu, responsible for a selection from kathleen graber’s poetry. . . . a network analysis intuitively, poetry translation in romania resembles a small-world structure, but the nodes in this network, the translators, are part of a larger network that is set in motion by connectivity, both rachewiltz, patrizia de. . “unde tu eşti numai ochi; nu eu, ci copilul; arată-mi calea.” (daniela oancea and viorica patea, trans.) in luceafărul de dimineaţă : . cohen, leonard. . “dansează acest vals.” (liliana rusu, trans.) in negru pe alb : . sting. . “luna pe strada bourbon.” (liliana rusu, trans.) in negru pe alb : . marx, richard. . “hazard.” (liliana rusu, trans.) in negru pe alb : . rhea, chris. . “cafeneaua albastră.” (liliana rusu, trans.) in negru pe alb : - . sexton, anne. . “după auschwitz.” (corina dragomir, trans.) in tomis : . ginsberg, allen. . “un supermarket din california.” (corina dragomir, trans.) in tomis : . glück, louise. . “parabola credinţei; miez de noapte.” (ileana grivu, trans.). in oraşul : . england, gerard. . “previziuni de octombrie.” (ileana grivu, trans.) in oraşul : . graber, kathleen. . “regatul magic.” (alina sorescu, trans.) in ramuri : . internal and external (the way it relates to other exterior networks). each unit in the literary translation system—authors, translators, journals, presses, etc.—forms a complex network both separately and together; that is, each unit can be, in turn, vertex (or node) and edge. for the purpose of this section, the nodes will be the translators and the authors they translate, and literary journals will be the edges, a structure that will hopefully show us how “[t]he whole emerges, through self- organization, from the local interactions.” (marais : ) as explained in section . ., such real-life networks are characterized by non-trivial features. the first non-trivial feature is their scale-free distribution, that is, the number of links emanating from a node can be as low or as high as possible: translators can work on one hundred translations or on one translation only. scale-free distribution is driven by the power law, which stipulates that the proportion of nodes having k neighbours is [proportional to] k to a certain power, which results in the majority of nodes having a small number of neighbors, with only some of the nodes acting as hubs, or connectors. another feature is the (anti)correlation between degrees of neighboring nodes: nodes with a large value of the degree tend either to ‘attract’ or to ‘repel’ nodes with a similar degree, “a property known as assortativity or disassortativity, respectively.” (caldarelli and garlaschelli : ) finally, a third important feature is clustering. a clustering coefficient is a measure of connectedness, the degree to which nodes in a network tend to cluster together. as noted by caldarelli and galaschelli, high clustering is often combined with a small value of the average distance between pairs of node, and the term ‘small world effect’ is used to describe this combination. this third feature observed in real-life networks was actually the one that drove scientists to move away from erdős and rényi’s theory of random networks ( ), according to which n-labeled nodes are connected with randomly placed links. according to granovetter ( ), highly connected clusters (networks) are linked to other tightly knit networks by what he called ‘weak ties.’ as he further argues, clustering is ubiquitous, it is not only a property of society; and so, clustering is a generic property of networks and real networks cannot be fundamentally random, as claimed by erdős and rényi, who viewed society as a random graph. society is “a collection of complete graphs, tiny clusters in which each node is connected to all other nodes within the cluster.” (barabási : ) therefore weak ties are our bridge between our small world and the outside world. translation and the relationship literary translators and, by extension, a literature establish with foreign authors are such essential weak ties. the examination of hierarchical clustering— hierarchically arranging the network into groups according to a specified weight function—has proven very useful for identifying community structures in a network. marais suggests ts scholars should look into computational work done to study systems at the edge of chaos such as weather and traffic, as “the possibilities seem to be huge” ( : ). in order to visualize the topology of the literary translation network in periodicals i shall use graph models, “[…] important benchmarks for understanding complex networks, […] used to test candidate mechanisms believed to be responsible for the onset of a particular topological feature, thus providing an insight into realistic network formation processes.” (caldarelli and garlaschelli : ) after feeding the software with the bibliographic information presented in this section and in the following one (translations in periodicals done by local and transnational translators), the generated network presented in figures a and b shows a disconnected graph consisting of nodes (authors and translators) and edges (publication venues) (cf. annex ). this graph is organized in a giant component—a connected graph containing a significant proportion of the total number of nodes—and various other clusters (smaller connected graphs). the giant component (g , figures a and b) exhibits nodes and edges and accounts for . % of the network’s nodes and . % of the same network’s links. figure a. network of contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translations in pp between and (without node labels) figure b. network of contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translations in pp between and (with node labels) figure a. the giant component (g ) in the - network of translations in pp (without node labels) legend: red = translators, green = authors figure b. the giant component (g ) in the - network of translations in pp (with node labels) legend: red = translators, green = authors the second and third components are drastically smaller, each accounting for only . % of the nodes in the network. all the other clusters account for . % of the total number of nodes. although this is an unconnected graph and the connectedness (or the density) is very low, the analysis helps us understand that disregarding the “strays” (g – g ) means neglecting a fifth of the network—that is, components of translators and authors: g components = g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g nodes = g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g edges = g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g - nodes = ( . %) g - edges = ( . %) table . the size of the - network of translations in pp the disconnectedness of the graph has consequences on the graph’s density, which is very low ( . ), as well as on the average degree (the number of connections per node). with a number of links per node varying between and , the average degree for the whole network (g) is . and . for g , while g (figure ) and g (figure ) show slightly lower values (lower translations per node), of . ( ) and . respectively. the values increase in the case of the weighted average degree (with the number of translation features per author factored in) by % for g and by % for g . while this coefficient is obviously a useful measurement for the network in its ensemble, it also demonstrates how critical it is not to treat agents as a social average, like traditional sociology has taught us to. if we do so, an agent with links (translated authors) may be evaluated like one with two links only if those two links (authors) are deemed important for one reason or another. this shows us that our reading of data as human beings with a certain culturally- trained profile may be biased and may reflect on our analysis, whereas adopting an algorithmic and computational perspective can provide different kind of results encouraging a more rigorous reading of the same data. figure . the g component in the - network of translations in pp (translators: l. rusu, t. moțet, a.e. baconski, p. solomon). legend: red = translators, black = authors figure . the g component in the - network of translations in pp (translators: f. samulescu, d. dragomirescu, s. mihalache) legend: red = translators, black = authors finally, and very importantly, the low density and average degree and the extremely weak clustering of the network ( . both for g and g and for g and g ) demonstrate that the small world effect is not present and that, in spite of its size, this is a highly a-social, fragmented network that justifies seeing literary translation in this particular context in terms of associations rather than in terms of any other cohesive structure. a most relevant example in this respect is the association of reputed translator g. tartler with occasional translator i. grivu, whom i initially placed in two different categories in the functional analysis. the computational analysis, however, shows that tartler and grivu actually form a highly ranked component by themselves, g , due to their translations of louise glück. the danger of bias is also reflected by the betweeness centrality coefficient (bc), which is a measure of centrality in a graph based on the shortest paths—that is, a quantification of the number of times a node acts as a bridge along the shortest path between two other nodes. the investigation of the giant component g ( nodes and edges) reveals the most interesting facts. since authors and translators are treated equally (they are all nodes), both categories are bound to appear as central nodes in this network. according to the betweeness centrality coefficient, the top ten nodes in the network consist of an equal number of translators and authors (figures - ), who most influence the flow in the network. what is most striking though is the fact that one of these top agents is translator nina cassian, who is present in the corpus with only five translated authors in two haphazard translation events. however, the authors she translated and their popularity with other translators made cassian acquire a position of power in terms of placement in the network: she is so well positioned, that it is very likely for her to be “bumped into” by researchers accessing the network from very different points of entry. also, while i was expecting to see translators o. iacob (figure ), a. văsieș (figure ), c. tanasescu (figure ), and l. ofileanu (figure ) reflected by these measurements because of the make-up of their portfolios and number of edges departing from them, my initial reading of the corpus could not place authors and translators at the same level. the computational network analysis quickly disclosed that authors are also well-positioned in the network (figures , , , and ) due to the positions their translators hold, and not necessarily to the number of times they were translated: the more central the translator is in the network, the more visible authors become in the respective network. for instance, alice notley was translated only twice, but because she was translated by văsieș, she ranks the th (bc = . ), while lawrence ferlinghetti (bc = . ), rita dove (bc = . ), or langston hughes (bc = . ), who were each translated three times, but by various translators with lower centrality scores, do not come in anywhere close to notley. figure . translator o. iacob (bc = . ) figure . translator a. văsieș (bc = . ) figure . author j. ashbery (bc = . ) figure . translator c. tanasescu (bc = . ) figure . author c. simic (bc = . ) figure . translator n. cassian (bc = . ) figure . translator l. ofileanu (bc = . ) figure . authors c.k. williams (bc = . ) and d. levertov (bc = . ) figure . author s. plath (bc = . ) in terms of closeness centrality (cc), a measure of the degree to which an individual is near all other individuals in a network, the graphs shows a similar top six—o. iacob (cc = . ), c. simic (cc = . ), c.k. williams (cc = . ), d. levertov (cc = . ), a. văsieș (cc = . ), and n. cassian (cc = . )—, and four new author entries—a. ginsberg (cc = . ), l. ferlinghetti (cc = . ), s. plath (cc = . ), and r. jarrell (cc = . ). these are the individuals who are best placed to influence the entire network most quickly. in our case, o. iacob and n. cassian are the only translators in top ten who are bound to influence the network fast, the first due to her productivity (high number of links) and the latter due to her strategic choices. the ranking also reflects the relatively high number of translation events for each of these eight new authors in top ten ( translation events each) and the high profile of their translators, such as iacob and ofileanu, which places them close to the other nodes in the network. jarrell was translated only twice, but by well-positioned iacob and selective foarță, who himself has a strong position in the network because of his translations of eliot, not because of the frequent translations. closeness centrality has translator c. tanasescu down over spots and reflects his interest in having poets that have never been translated join the network. finally, the eigenvector centrality (or the eigencentrality) provides a very similar top to the closeness centrality (cf. annex ). although very similar to the latter type, the eigencentrality determines the importance of a node not only according to the number of links incident on that node, but also on the number of links their connections have. this is how, out of the following ten spots, five are claimed by authors like v. clemente, e. amatoritsero, or j. sadre orfai, who were translated by only one translator each (o. iacob and d. manole). however, because they were translated more than once and because they were published alongside poets like g. e. clarke (as is the case with e. amatoritsero), they acquire a high “all-around score,” making them very visible in the network. also, the eigencentrality ranks authors better than translators than the other types of centrality do, a result of their translators’ agency in making the selections and deciding on the associations. this concise analysis shows a highly polymorphic and disconnected network that fits the rich- get-richer model best. also known as the barabási-albert model, the rich-get-richer networks are an evolving model which changes as a function of time, by adding or dropping nodes and edges. translators who appear to publish according to a certain program are bound to acquire more links over time, while not the same can be said about the author-nodes. the network will mainly expand due to translators’ contributions, not necessarily due to the prominence of an author, as there seems to exist a critical mass of translations for each author, expressed by g’s average degree of approximately . moreover, authors gain centrality through their translators’ positioning, which emphasizes the bidirectionality of any author-translator relationship. of all romanian translators, the one whose influence drastically changes the positioning of any author-node is olimpia iacob, the subject of the following section. . . . network-driven translation and the poetics of fecundity olimpia iacob is a former associate professor of english at the vasile goldiș university in arad. unlike other translators working in academia, her translations are little related to her scholarly work, in the sense that the latter does not determine her translation choices. the work of canadian stephen gill has been to date the only topic she broached in her scholarly essays, as most of her other academic publications appear to be in the field of english as a second language. currently retired, dr. iacob translated just shy of american contemporary poets into romanian, totalling one hundred and ten selections for six literary journals, making her the best placed and most prominent translator within the network in question. she ranks first in all centrality charts and has the highest density of nodes attached ( ), a position which reflects the motto on her translator page on the on the writers’ union website: “…there is an urgent call addressed to romanian humanists that specialize in languages of wide circulation—that are also repositories of profuse cultural heritages— , a call which has to actually become a great responsibility, one that needs to be carried out perfectly and, most often, urgently.” (Ştefan stoenescu, ithaca, ny, usa, february , ) only one of the journals she has been contributing to is based in the capital city, bucharest, and has a national audience (contemporanul-ideea europeană), while all the others are supported by various regional branches of the writers’ union or local administration in north and north-east romania: convorbiri literare and poezia are based in iași, poesis and acolada are based in satu- mare, and nord literar operates in baia mare. her resumé lists a significantly higher number of literary journals to which she contributed, which indicates that her translation activity began many years before the nlr started the digitization of their bibliographies. in addition to the journals above-mentioned, she has been publishing selections in the following magazines: confesiuni, citadela, semne, steaua, cronica, caiete internaţionale de poezie, origini, hyperion, ramuri, viaţa românească, unu, porto-franco, centrul cultural piteşti, timpul, familia, vatra, and caligraf. according to the same source, she also translated selections by ten poets i did not include in the corpus, as i could not find any bibliographical reference for them: frank o’hara, charles simic, anne sexton, james wright, louis simpson, john fenton, marge piercy, john deane, ted kooser, and michael waters. further information on the bibliographic references for some other poets she these poets do appear in the corpus, but they are linked to other translators. listed on her page were available only by analyzing the url slugs of a suspended website showcasing the - archive of convorbiri literare. since the urls contained the year and month the selection was published, i included eleven more poets in the corpus: a.r. ammons (june ), w.s. merwin (september ), randall jarrell (may ), kenneth rexroth (october ), allen ginsberg (november ), louise glück (november ), derek mahon (october ), and david ignatow (december ). the corpus contains translations from the work of sixty-eight poets (cf. annex ), of which only four are canadian (stephen gill alongside tanka writers christina cowling, guy simser, and changming youan). her work is certainly not over. growing curiosity made me sample a random issue ( - / ) of confesiuni literary journal, based in the small town of petroșani. i was not surprised to find that ms. iacob supplied three full pages with translations from the work of canadian jennifer (jinks) hoffmann (p. ), americans carolyn mary kleefeld (different selections from what is presented in my corpus) (p. ), isaac goldenberg (p. ), and emily vogel (p. ). the latter two appear with only one poem each alongside poets of various extractions: marrocan, hindi, welsh, and others. further probing the journals she listed on her webpage led me to citadela, issue - / , which features iacob with a translation from an english-language poetry anthology published in in india. i posit that her eclectic translation program speaks for her agency in most projects she is associated with, just as her extensive selections and two volumes by largely unknown kleefeld do. her passion for poetry translation—for it is only passion that can animate a work which started back in and has continued to date—made her embark not only on a kleefeld. carolyn mary. . zori hoinari / vagabond dawns (al. zotta, foreword; olimpia iacob, trans.). cluj: editura limes; kleefeld. carolyn mary. . the divine kiss / sărut divin. nistor, ioan. În flăcările păpădiilor / in the flames of dandelions (olimpia iacob, trans.). cluj: editura limes, . our corpus lists thirteen selections, alongside the one i mentioned (in confesiuni - / , p. ). marathon of poetry selections published in various periodicals, but also on a sizeable amount of stand-alone collections by authors she likely admires. marius chelaru, a poetry editor for poezia and an author of haikus, offers a very rare testimony for iacob’s translation program: olimpia iacob has been working for some good years now on building an interesting bridge between romanian and english-language poetries. be they american or british poets and/or poets coming from other spaces (of various extractions, but all writing in english), iacob has authored the romanian renditions for books in which they appear either alone, or paired with romanian authors. (chelaru : web) what links chelaru to iacob is not only their affiliation with poezia, but also their mutual interest in haikus: the translator has published several selections of haiku and tanka poetry in various literary journals, along with selections from american poets that were representatives for this form, such as jim kacian, whom she pairs in numerous volumes with romanian writers interested in the same poetic form and whom she also features as her co-translator of several bilingual anthologies. in she also edited with chelaru an anthology of international haiku poetry that reunited american and romanian poets. but her wide-ranging interests are not at their best in a book like that: the bridges chelaru refers to in his review of iacob’s book are best represented in a volume these volumes are presented later in this section and in section . (“romanian mainstream and indie publishers of poetry in translation after ”). novăcescu, constantin and kacian, jim. . o linişte stranie / strange silence (olimpia iacob & jim kacian, trans.) timișoara: waldpress; kacian, jim and petean, mircea. . haiku & monoku (jim kacian); haiku şi poeme taoiste/ haiku & taoist poems (mircea petean) (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.) cluj: editura limes, ; kacian, jim, popin, eugen d. . no way out / prins (jim kacian); trupul țărânei / the body of dust (eugen d. popin). (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.) timişoara: david press print. cicio, ana and joussen, frank. . feţele iubirii/ the faces of love (ana cicio); shades of love / nuanţele iubirii (frank joussen). (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.) cluj: editura limes; ***. . stare la ora amiezii / mood at noon (lidia charelli. maria bennett. rebecca cook. mia barkan clarke. cassian maria spiridon.) (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.) iași: editura timpul; christi, aura and jones, peter thabit. . lăsaţi fluturii să zboare / let the butterflies go (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.). iași: editura timpul, ***. . the light singing / lumina care cântă (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.). deva: editura emia; barkan, stanley h. and corbu, daniel. the machine for inventing ideals / maşina de inventat idealuri (olimpia iacob and jim kacian, trans.) iași: editura princeps multimedia. ***. . călători pe meridiane haiku. de autori români și americani./ travellers on haiku meridians. romanian and american poets. (marius chelaru and ce rosenow, forewords; marius chelaru and olimpia iacob, trans.) ploiești: editura premier. like punți peste ape , a bilingual anthology of international poetry in which she brings together american poets, american poets of korean origin, korean poets, romanian writers, and ‘international’ poets. “how did she come to embark on such projects?” was the next question. a brief selection from this above-mentioned anthology published in convorbiri literare lists a book titled la margine de hudson, published in by cross-cultural communications, as a source for the selected poetry by vince clemente, arthur dobrin, john dotson, and laura boss. it is not a single occurrence, as cross-cultural communication, a new york state publisher, seems to have fueled many of her projects, just like the seventh quarry press, a poetry magazine and press in swansea, wales. further research into these presses led me to a volume they co-published in , titled poet to poet # : bridging the waters—swansea to sag harbor, by vince clemente and peter thabit jones, two authors iacob has translated extensively into romanian, both in journal selections and in stand-alone volumes. further research into clemente’s work revealed a long- time collaboration with cross-cultural communication, who published two more volumes signed by him, while it was readily apparent that thabit-jones was the founder and editor of the seventh quarry press. since , the american publisher has been a regular source for the romanian translator, who publishes numerous and extensive selections authored by stanley h. barkan, founder of the said american press, alongside selections by his daughter, mia barkan clarke. not ***. . “punți peste ape.” (olimpia iacob et al., trans.) in convorbiri literare . web: http://bit.ly/ nkiycg. last accessed: february , . the translator lists the title in romanian, not in the original language. iacob even published a series of translations from this very volume, which likely marks the beginning of her collaborations with the american and welsh publishers: “this first volume in a series, poet to poet # : bridging the waters, swansea to sag harbour, […] offers two selections, one by american vince clemente and one signed by welsh author peter thabit-jones.” (acolada - : , ) a note on clemente’s author page at river campus libraries mentions his collaboration on a bilingual volume of poetry, Șoapte ale sufletului / whispers of the soul ( ), with peter thabit jones, translated into romanian by olimpia iacob (iași: editura fundației poezia, ). she is also the translator of jones’s the boy and the lion’s head, a verse drama with an introduction by vince clemente (satu mare: editura citadela, ). http://bit.ly/ nkiycg before long my online ‘detective’ work related to the barkans ran into other familiar names—for instance, the reviews for stanley h. barkan’s abc of fruits and vegetables ( ) are signed by thabit-jones and maria mazziotti gillan, both poets iacob has translated. or here is s. barkan pictured receiving “homer—the european medal of poetry and art” along with william (bill) wolak, a poet that was translated by iacob in a dedicated volume and in two other volumes featuring poetic dialogues with romanian authors. or here is b. wolak’s volume illustrated by john digby and his wife joan, poets whom iacob translated and published before. and finally, the ultimate example of network-driven translation—iacob, a translator from the english exclusively, translated in annelisa addolorato, an italian poet writing in italian and spanish. the mystery is quickly solved unintentionally by the translator’s note, which lists the bibliographic information for her translation into english, addolorato’s english translation by bill wolak and his wife, poet maria bennett, who also appears on dr. iacob’s roster of translations. hence it is very likely that iacob translated addolorato via the english translation published by the same cross-cultural communication. it is also reasonable to think that she was introduced to addolorato’s work by the said american couple. her network is thus ever-growing and many of the poetries she has been translating since are interconnected in one way or another. that iacob is a networker extraordinaire is clear. in network terms, she is a connector, a hub: not only does she connect cultures by means of translation, but she also assigns new tasks to the wolak, bill. . deep into the erasures of night / răsăriturile nopții (olimpia iacob, trans.). oyster bay, ny: the feral press. nistor, ioan and wolak, bill. . seminţe căutătoare de vânt / wind-seeking seeds. (olimpia iacob and bill wolak, trans.) satu mare: editura citadela; wolak, bill and corbu, daniel. . in the hall of lost footsteps / În sala paşilor pierduţi (olimpia iacob and bill wolak, trans.) iași: editura princeps multimedia. addolorato, annelisa. . “frenezia cuvintelor; aparență; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : . addolorato, annelisa. . my voice seeks you (maria bennett and bill wolak, trans.). merrick, ny: cross-cultural communication. poets she translates, turning them into translators and co-translators of hers. bennett, whom iacob translated six times in selections for various journals according to the corpus, also features as her co-translator: once in a collection in which he appears as an author alongside romanian mircea petean and as a co-translator of the latter’s work, and once as a co-translator of haikus only. it is also the case of poets rebecca cook and kyung-nyun kim richards, both co-translators in the bilingual volume they each co-author. iacob operates within an unparalleled poetics of fecundity, which reflects on the wide range of roles that she assigns both to herself and to her around her, as well as in the varied nature of her projects, in the heterogeneity of publishers with whom she collaborates, and in her openness to all poetic genres. this poetics of fecundity that informs her work made me realize that iacob is part of many tightly-knit circles (small worlds) that are related through several ties and that actually form a complex network. the most important tie may have been marius chelaru himself, who teamed up with iacob on a quest to escort established international haiku poets to romanian literature. my corpus shows that the process began in - with poet and publisher stanley h. barkan. during the same period, chelaru himself published two selections by american haiku authors, kerry shawn keys and zinovi vayman. besides barkan and other poets affiliated with his press, that year iacob was still translating big names in american poetry, such as mark strand or robert creeley, bennett, maria and petean, mircea. . because you love / fiindcă iubeşti (maria bennett) and din poemele anei / from the poems of ana (mircea petean) (olimpia iacob and maria bennett, trans.) cluj-napoca: editura limes. dyson, ketaki kushari and chelaru, marius. . privirea ei ca o pasăre / her look like a bird. an anthology. (olimpia iacob and maria bennett, trans.). iaşi: editura timpul. tâlvescu, dumitru and cook, rebecca. . umbra apei / the shadow of water (olimpia iacob and rebecca cook, trans.) deva: editura emia, deva. chelaru, marius, and richards, kyung-nyun kim. . miroase atât de frumos a linişte. / it smells of silence so beautiful. antologie /anthology. (olimpia iacob & kyung-nyun kim richards, trans.). iaşi: editura timpul. keys, kerry shawn. . “morfină pe rîul susqueshanna; crescînd sălbatec cu indienii.” (marius chelaru, trans.) in poezia : - . vayman, zinovi. . “suferinda mea mamă...; universitate verde...; harta lacului baikal....” (marius chelaru, trans.) in poesis - : . but this kind of translation gradually subsided (with only ferlinghetti and plath in , adrienne rich, robert pinsky, and denise levertov in ) and she focused on the network of poets that gravitated around barkan. was a big year for chelaru and iacob, as they published a co- translation from jim kacian, “one of the half-dozen best-known practitioners of haiku outside of japan,” alongside a selection translated by iacob alone in acolada. most importantly, the two included kacian in the anthology of haiku authors they co-edited and translated. a publisher himself besides being a renowned haiku poet, kacian does not bring along any other american or international peers, but is present in various roles, as i have previously seen, in many projects curated by iacob—a collaboration that was still very much active in . although marius chelaru played an important part in iacob’s evolution, i suggest her network developed circles that were independent from their mutual interest in haiku and tanka poetry. unlike chelaru, she simply translates poetry, no matter what the poetic form is. another indication is her collaboration with publishers based in iași for those projects that included chelaru, and her subsequent collaboration with more obscure, regional publishers based in cities across romania, such as limes in cluj-napoca, citadela in satu-mare, or emia in deva. her projects with established publishers in iași, like timpul or fundația revistei poezia, are either projects with chelaru or projects which included prominent local authors, such as cassian maria spiridon, who is also the current editor-in-chief of convorbiri literare. such a convoluted publishing roadmap can obviously only be the outcome of the translator’s own grown network of relationships, and not the outcome of any local cultural policy. perhaps the most compelling indication that she acted mostly alone, without any significant institutional support, is the disheartening lack of reviews of her work kacian, jim. . presents of mind ( nd edition). winchester, va: red moon press. web: the haiku foundation digital library, http://bit.ly/ frkzcm. last accessed: february , . http://bit.ly/ frkzcm compared to the number of translations she has published. the very few reviews that do exist are brief and evasive, with only one or two praising the romanian rendition: “a fluent rendition […] done with empathy and delicacy,” (zanca ) or “a fresh reading.” (antonesei ) the only extensive review, occasioned by iacob’s translation of kleefeld’s vagabond dawns, awarded the (iași branch) writers’ union translation prize, does not assess in any way the translation and only mentions it as the sole measure against which one can judge the lyrical qualities of kleefeld’s poetry (nistor : ). another extensive review of the same collection (negreanu ) does not mention the translation at all, but talks only about the themes and motifs in kleefeld’s work, although illustrating copiously the otherwise simplistic observations with translated fragments. the evolution of iacob’s network of translated authors sheds light on two important phenomena that characterize certain chapters of poetry translation in romania: the lack of copyright and the butterfly effect of personal networks. shortly after i started researching her work i contacted the translator to let her know about this dissertation and ask for her help in locating the bibliographic information for the authors listed on the writers’ union website. the reply was prompt and stated that she was appreciative of my research and of my concern with copyright matters. that was obviously not the case at the time, as nothing in my e-mail message pointed at copyright issues, so it was most definitely the translator’s concern. she also tried to divert me from her corpus by pointing out that it had already been included in somebody else’s research. this incident made me realize why she stopped translating prominent poets and shifted her interest towards the network around cross cultural communications: it was most likely because she did not need copyright for these translations. specific nodes in her network, such as stanley barkan or vince see note . clemente—with whom she shares links which carry some of the greatest weight (six, respectively five features in literary journals)—were her very own lobbyists and all the other authors were happy to have their work translated into romanian. the butterfly effect of literature had a paramount role in her growing the network. the connectionist mind of translators is reflected best in iacob’s work, as well as in the case of many other translators, especially those that move constantly between cultures, as we shall see in the next subchapter. the concept of network-driven translation helps us pattern the apparent chaos that surrounds translators’ work in non-hegemonic contexts. it is built on the constant conflict between agent and system and is an expression of the network’s self-regulation. the continued work and efforts of iacob as a literary translator can thus be understood as shaping her own corpus. translators are denizens, agents who dwell knowingly in a certain place and know the rules of the place, therefore they constantly adapt to the make-up, or the topology of the network, understood in its real-world locales and societal nexuses. more importantly, translators influence the network accordingly, with significant effects on our understanding of agency. a networked understanding of these corpora (and their relations with the ‘originals’) within a poetics of fecundity has the potential to expand how we think of authorship and auctorial patterns in general. . . (dis)connected transnationalism . . . translation and transnational movement “translation by its very nature is transnational; it embodies intercultural exchange.” this is one of the key statements that open a recent book on the circulation and transmission of texts across languages as an enriching, productive process (nelson and maher : ). besides the very transnational nature of any translation act, increasing connectivity and the receding economic and sociologic significance of national borders beg the adoption of a transnational perspective that fosters the inclusion of translation projects happening across linguistic boundaries. translators who travel past national borders or who choose to emigrate oftentimes have publishing initiatives that link the spaces they inhabit or visit with their homeland and thus they take part in the global information flow. they also become small-scale actors on the stage of cultural diplomacy. they may even use translation as valuable currency for gaining literary prominence in the new space of adoption. in order to capture the complexity and liminality of such encounters, one needs to look at both the state and the non-state actors that contribute to the realization of such translation projects, alongside the unique sets of conditions that trigger these exchanges. discussing page and miller’s claim that complexity is interested in a state between stasis and chaos, control and anarchy, particularity and universality, marais argues, quoting latour, that complexity thinking is also keen on analyzing the in-between “as an action, a verb, a movement,” ( : ) thus it is interested just as much in “in-betweening”—in borders, hybridity, and the effect of a reorganization of the same substrata.” (id.). transnationalism is particularly well-suited for treatment within a chaos paradigm. cultural hybridity as a dynamic site of cultural production requires a new framework to account not only for the heterolingualism or the plurivocality of translation, but also for unconventional and non-hierarchical relationships between the ‘original’ and the translation, and between translators and authors (bandia ). in describing the agency of translators working in a certain language—in this case, the romanian—a transnational backdrop should gain, i suggest, more and more currency and salience. since the anti-communist revolution and, more acutely, since it has joined the european union in , romania has experienced a massive phenomenon of migration, which peaked in and placed the country second in the world after syria in terms of displaced workforce. however, referring to transnationalism only in relation to migration would be short-sighted. as aleida assmann ( ) notes, ‘transnational’ bears no less than four meanings: first, non-state actors that operate in different countries; second, geopolitical units comprising different nations (e.g. the european union); third, the impact of media beyond local and national frameworks; and fourth, “individuals and groups that move in space either voluntarily or under political or social pressure, while retaining and reconstructing within and among themselves a diasporic connection to their former homelands.” (ibid.: ) indeed, many of the romanian migrants are writers, for whom translation is a way to keep themselves plugged, or re-territorialized in the romanian literary world, as well as a way to help romanian writers ‘spill’ over the national borders and make their work known internationally via translation. eastern european poetry after communism was qualified by andrew wachtel as the new internationalism ( ), according to which “the writer moves beyond nationalism to refine and expand a sense of national identity in an increasingly transnational world” (woodside : web) in order to remain relevant. furthermore, besides immigrant writers there according to the united nation’s international migration report released in , p. . web: http://bit.ly/ b utmz. last accessed: january , . http://bit.ly/ b utmz are writers and translators that are often on the move, engaged in academic mobility projects, who borrow practices and concepts from other cultures and from new types of communities (such as the digital ones) and applying them to their own, fostering new collaborations and initiatives. the latter phenomenon is classified by moira inghilleri ( ) as a transnationalism of the elites, animated by a cosmopolitan freedom, which should be distinguished from the hybridity that characterizes migration. she describes cosmopolitan spaces as difficult to pin down, as contact is limited or even virtual and “there is an expectation of a more reflective connection to the other.” (ibid.: ) a first necessary condition for a transnational paradigm in ts is the abandon of binary structures of dominance. boris buden ( ) argues against the west vs. east dichotomy by using the very example of eastern europe. “who can speak in the name of eastern europe?” he rightfully asks, pointing out that what we collectively call eastern europe should not be seen as a general cultural concept. citing habermas and the expression he used for the fall of communism in — “the catching-up revolution” ( : cited in buden)—he summarizes a number of qualifiers that have been used for characterizing that part of the continent: underdeveloped, belated, provincial, peripheral, “doomed to struggles for recognition” (buden ibid.: ); instead of proliferating those terms, he argues that a transnational study of culture needs to go beyond the east-west difference, because “the use of the cultural concept of the east leads necessarily to what spivak calls complicity with imperialist or neo-imperialist projects.” (ibid.: ) it seems right to conclude for the purpose of this project that a transnational paradigm in ts needs to refer to nations / cultures by their name or by their language(s). on a related note, zrinka stahuljak posits that “the proliferation of conflicts of a non-colonial nature and their mediatization in the global context call into question the predominant reliance on the postcolonial framework of colonizer-colonized, colonial hegemony, center-periphery, metropole-colony, and hybridity.” ( : ) grounded in the theoretical notion of “minor transnationalism,” she proposes an elaborate and “plural concept of empire” (id.) in ts and illustrates her theoretical approaches with the example of former yugoslavia and of the balkans, rightfully observing that “[m]ulti-centric transnational translations, when superposed on the post- imperial configuration, flatten and circumvent the hierarchy of the binary structure of domination.” (ibid.: ) in the specific case of romania, transnationalism is a suitable descriptive paradigm because it mirrors the organic need of romanians to go beyond national identifications after and to reconfigure in themselves and in the ones around them the old ways of communism. just like other members of the former eastern communist bloc, romania was galvanized by “the desire to move toward a new political imaginary that dissolves the nation in ongoing local and global reconfigurations.” (assmann : ) besides the obvious reference to movement across nation- state borders (‘transit’), ‘trans-‘ is a premise for creativity, because it can also refer to ‘transfer’, ‘translation’, and ‘transmission’, to reshaping representations, relations, and recontextualizations within larger networks: the general challenge of the “trans-“ is to go beyond national identifications, investments, and interests, and to explore new forms of belonging, participation, and cultural identification in a world characterized by dispersed and displaced population with different historical experiences and trajectories. (id.) cronin goes even further in arguing for a ‘trans-‘ paradigm and switches the positionality of the vantage point from ‘the national’ to ‘the local’: the “[…] concentration on one particular place becomes an opening out rather than a closing down, a foregrounding of a complexity of connectedness to other cultures, languages, histories, rather than a paean to singular insularity.” ( : ) a trans-local vista would then require a progenerative rather than a genealogical model, “primarily concerned with current sets and fields of relationships for persons in a given lifeworld.” ( : ). it follows naturally in cronin’s argument that positionality is much more appropriate to speak of than diversity, because positionality is to do with the sets of relationships obtaining at any moment between and within groups, relationships that are subject to an endless process of change, change which is the very stuff of the human life-line and which crucially includes the dimension of power. […] maintaining the open-ended, fractal dynamic of micro-modernity […] involves a commitment to the progenerative model of human interaction. (ibid.: ) a second necessary condition for a transnational paradigm which is grounded in a progenerative model and which holds true especially in literary translation is the acknowledgment of a parallel kind of economy based on in-kind exchanges. admittedly or not, literary barters have long been in place and they have paralleled literary exchanges that followed the well-known logic of money economy. such barter exchanges may be fuelled both by literary kinship—we offer to translate authors that we like—and by the intimation of prospective gains—in our case, similar publication services in other cultures. in this parallel barter economy, translation is a very valuable currency—we need to remember and acknowledge that the value of a certain writer is measured, among other things, against the number of languages in which their work has been translated. this is one of the many cases in which so-called ‘major’ cultures look up to ‘minor’ ones—that is, relatively unknown authors from spaces of prominence look for literary legitimation by being translated in as many ‘small’ languages as possible. the prospects for both parties involved range from establishing a network of friends that share the same interest to extensive publication and travel opportunities. romanian writers have long been involved in literary projects that cross national boundaries. while there has not been a coherent translation-oriented institutional program in place, the number of such translation projects is far from being negligible and reflects romanian writers’ interest in establishing and developing relationships with their foreign peers. according to chapter , the beginning of the diplomatic relations between romania and the united states has been immediately followed by a slew of translation projects by various romanian scholars that benefited from the new academic mobility. the tradition continued until the second world war, and gained a new impetus during the s and the s, when many romanian writers either emigrated or asked for political asylum. this is also when the first translations from canadian contemporary poetry started to take shape. after , migration, the free movement of people, and academic mobility intensified exponentially. one of the most reputable global promoters of mutual understanding via cultural exchanges was the u.s. department of state, who were the ones who actually coined the term “cultural diplomacy.” (von flotow , ) several volumes of american poetry translated into romanian were the result of the availability of grants through the embassy of the united states in bucharest, just as several translation projects before were carried out after various academics took academic trips to the u.s. and returned home willing to share through translation the richness of the culture they had experienced. however, many transnational translation projects have been simply the result of interpersonal networks. this subchapter examines translation events occasioned by exiled or immigrant poets, as well as ventures that resulted from scholarly research and academic mobility (figure ). . % of the poetry translation in print periodicals is the result of transnational and academia-related initiatives ( nodes out of ). the corpus presented in these visualizations includes all the translations published in print periodicals by transnational translators and do not include the anthologies that i describe in this section. anthologies shall be approached separately from periodicals and stand-alone author volumes in section . . figure . transnational and academia-related translations in pp ( - ) - g out of these, almost half ( nodes) pertain to the main component (figure ), formed by translators c. tanasescu, n. cassian, c. firan, a. carides, r. hotăranu, and i. ieronim and their translated authors. figure shows a highly disconnected graph, with an extremely low density ( . ), average degree ( . ), and clustering coefficient ( . ). the main component (g ) displays significantly higher values for the average degree ( . ) and a weighted average degree of . , a result of multiple authors translated by translators in g and of multiple selections of the same author’s poetry published by poets in g compared to all the other components. g presents four critical nodes in terms of connectedness: poets stanley moss and j. ashbery, who, through occasional translator n. cassian, connect translators c. tanasescu and r. tanasescu to translators around scrisul românesc; and authors m. woodside and a. gritsman, who connect the same translators back to scrisul românesc (translators r. hotăranu, a. carides, and c. firan) through translator i. ieronim. this shows again that authors and translators are equally important in terms of network connectedness and that the disappearance of any two of these nodes may lead to further heterogeneity and even to the collapse of the whole network. the importance of each of these nodes shall be further analysed throughout the following three sub-sections. figure . transnational and academia-related translations in pp ( - ) – main component (g ) . . . translating the land of exile the first exile-born translation project of contemporary american poetry after was the anthology put together by george ciorănescu, a writer and translator who spent most of his life exiled in paris and munich. in munich, he was editor-in-chief of radio free europe, as well as in charge of the romanian department of the same station. it is during his time in munich, towards the end of his life, that he put together this anthology. his eight poetry books, along with his two anthologies, one on contemporary american poetry and one on religious poetry, indicate that these books were all his own personal projects. the publishing house, apoziția, bore the name of the journal founded by the romanian literary circle in munich, which he co-edited with ion dumitru towards the end of his life. ciorănescu had been a fervent supporter of romania’s european calling: in he defended his phd thesis titled “românii și ideea federalistă” (romanians and the idea of a federation), in which he used historical facts to make the case for a united europe and ignored the soviet occupation of his country (Ștefănescu ). poetry was for ciorănescu the privileged literary form and the ultimate path towards knowledge: while his own poems reveal a complicated, stern relationship with the craft, the poet is praised for his anthologies and is dubbed an importer of good poetry who moves easily between registers, an anthologist who believed he had a duty to bring valuable literary pieces to his own culture (ibid.). the anthology is pretty slim, only pages including color illustrations, but the contents lists important american poets, such as frost, masters, sandburg, pound, cummings, eliot, and ginsberg. the agency of the translator is clearly visible at the level of lexical choice. a comparison ciorănescu, george. . spicuiri din lirica americană contemporană (george ciorănescu, ed.; stephan eleutheriadis, il.). munich: apoziția, p. of his translation of “howl” by allen ginsberg with the translation done by petru ilieșu ( : ) for mainstream publisher polirom reveals a much more accurate and engaged version by ciorănescu. for instance, “the method must be purest meat / and no symbolic dressing” becomes in ciorănescu’s words fără sos simbolic (very idiomatic, as in the culinary doar carne, fără sos), while in ilieșu’s version the rendition is și nu un sos de înfrumusețare, which offers an unnecessary over- interpretation of ‘symbolic’ as ‘beautification’ (înfrumusețare). then, “actual visions & actual prisons / as seen then and now” benefits from a literal translation in ilieșu’s version, but becomes închisori adevărate / asa cum au fost percepute și asa cum sunt (“actual prisons / the way they used to be perceived and the way they actually are”), an interpretation ostensibly influenced by the former communist regime in romania, which the translator had fled. ciorănescu also preserves the original punctuation, but ilieșu drops the comma at the end of the second line, a technique which allows for a double interpretation of the romanian version and masks the translator’s insecurities. finally, the last stanza—“a naked lunch is natural to us, / we eat reality sandwiches. / but allegories are so much lettuce. / don’t hide the madness.”—reveals a very conservative translation by ilieșu, who chooses to render the absence of a subject before “don’t hide” as “they [the allegories]”. instead, ciorănescu interprets correctly the final line as an imperative and also translates “the madness” as “your madness”; in addition, he uses a much stronger word for the key in the whole text: nu vă ascundeti demența (don’t hide your dementia ). in stark contrast with his rendition, ginsberg, allen. . howl și alte poeme. antologie - (domnica drumea and petru ilieșu, trans.). iași: polirom, p. besides the medical connotation, the romanian word is also common for expressing out-and-out madness. ilieșu’s awarded version inappropriately renders “a naked lunch” by un prânz gol (an empty lunch), although the original poem contains a deliberate allusion to the phrase “naked truth”. a second example of translation from contemporary u.s. poetry during a translator’s exile comes from perhaps the most celebrated romanian writer that fled the country under communism, nina cassian, a poet based in new york for the last twenty-nine years of her troubled life, between and . besides being a successful poet and writer of children’s literature, cassian made her name as a translator of molière, bertold brecht, paul celan, or victor mayakovski. during her exile in the united states she published two short journal features of her most favorite contemporary american poets: stanley moss in , and a second one featuring richard wilbur, robert lowell, john ashbery, and charles simic in . somehow isolated from the hip literary scene in bucharest, cassian was guided by her close friend, poet carmen firan, to publish the translations in the provincial scrisul românesc literary journal, managed, as i will explain later in this subchapter, by firan’s father. her brief introduction to her contribution is very revealing: she confesses she took the liberty of deleting the second stanza in robert lowell’s poem because she didn’t think it was related in any way to the first one; she admits to having been tormented by the fixed form of wilbur’s poem, while also disclosing that the latter had also translated and included one of her poems in his selected poems; she identifies simic’s poem as the easiest to translate and the translation was awarded the “andrei bantaș” foundation prize for translation from the english at the romanian writers’ union gala in . i suggest that a more appropriate translation would have been “un prânz gol-goluț” (cf. adevăr gol-goluț > the naked truth). moss, stanley. . “flori de camp.” (nina cassian, trad.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . wilbur, richard. . “iertarea.” (nina cassian, trad.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . lowell, robert. . “sudoarea nopții.” (nina cassian, trad.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . ashbery, john. . “variațiuni.” (nina cassian, trad.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . simic, charles. . “clubul de noapte.” (nina cassian, trad.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . the “incoherently-sophisticated” ashbery as much more difficult. she concedes that her being low on energy was the reason why she did not translate more contemporary american poets ( : ). the choices she made in terms of translated authors place cassian in one of the most strategic positions in the general graph (figures , , and section . ). in terms of transnational publications, she holds an equally important place: betweenness and closeness centralities have her ranked fifth in g and g —a measure of her key-position in the network due to her translations of j. ashbery and s. moss, while the eigenvector places her just outside top because of her low adjacency—that is, low number of authors translated and low connection to other nodes in the network. although one-time events, cassian’s translation vignettes and ciorănescu’s anthology are the very illustration of kindred literary spirits and of the cosmopolitan ideal—that knowing the other and being open to how they perceive us will lead to a better understanding of the self. characterized by a high degree of spontaneity and of randomness in terms of publication plans (exemplified best by the one-time publication of a selection from poet john haines by immigrant author mariana zavati-gardner in regional literary journal provincia corvina or by the episodic translation of ts eliot by berlin-based author aprilia zank, both small, separated components in figure ), such translation initiatives are the expression of the translators’ interest in the literary values of their land of adoption or of the world literature in general, and the selection of authors simply reflect their personal taste. what defines such translations is a high degree of accuracy and a deep involvement with the text, which may often lead to better translations than the ones commissioned by publishing haines, john. . “hector; timpul răsună; pericol uşor.” (mariana zavati gardner, trans.) in provincia corvina : - . companies. they also tend to be forgotten or omitted from literary histories, as their translators are not physically present in the geographical space where they are published or circulated. . . . transnational literary barters in her doctoral dissertation at the university of michigan, nan z. da explains that “in occasional transnationalism, the literature or literary practices of the other are cited to enable a thought experiment or a political enunciation and are then set aside.” ( : vii) occasional transnationalism is thus an alternative mode of encounter in which none of the parties involved takes any kind of action, but uses the image of the other as an essential part of a poetics of recognition. in transnational translation, the poetics of recognition plays an at least equally important role: the translation of the other makes certain immediate and private possibilities more likely and intimation of prospective gains through literary barters becomes a much more enticing goal than ‘simple’ cultural cross-fertilization. unlike occasional transnationalism, what i call ‘in-kind transnationalism’ is very much based on a theory of social action that draws on motives, ends, purposes, and means. after the anthology assembled by ciorănescu, another anthology will appear only in . locul nimănui. antologie de poezie americană contemporană. de poeți americani contemporani (naming the nameless. an anthology of contemporary american poetry. contemporary american poets), a project managed and coordinated by new york city-based carmen firan and paul doru mugur, was part of a publishing agreement between an american press, in an interview nina cassian recounts how her work as an author of children’s tales was not included in a workshop on children’s literature that took place after the revolution, in . when she asked the organizer why that happened, the answer was: “well, you were not [in the country].” ( . “nina cassian: nu mă plâng. am iubit și am fost iubită,” web: http://bit.ly/ aw e. last accessed: january , ) http://bit.ly/ aw e talisman house publishers, and a romanian one, cartea românească. according to this agreement, two anthologies, one of american poetry, and one of romanian poetry were to be published concomitantly in the two countries. firan—also a former program director at the romanian cultural institute in new york, and mugur—doctor and writer—were the romanian coordinators of the two projects; they commissioned a team of romanian translators who most lived, at least at that time, in north america: adrian sângeorzan and liviu georgescu—both poets and physicians living in the new jersey area; ileana orlich—professor of romanian and english at the arizona state university; sanda agalidi—a long-time romanian émigré who co-edited, together with julian semilian, the first translation into english of paul celan’s romanian poems ; and alina savin—a translator residing in new zealand, who also worked on the romanian renditions of henri béhar’s monograph on tristan tzara. although two institutions were involved in these projects, it is not clear who was the initiator, but they may have both originated in the network firan developed during her tenure at the romanian cultural institute. what is of interest here is the extent to which she was personally involved in the creation and circulation of the book and what kind of relationships this anthology prompted. firan states in interviews that mugur and herself did more than coordinate the publication, as they were equally involved in the promotion and distribution of the books (zubașcu : web). moreover, neither the romanian anthology nor the american one benefitted from financial support from the romanian cultural institute in new york: in a public statement released ***. . born in utopia. an anthology of modern & contemporary poetry. jersey city, nj: talisman house publishers. celan, paul. romanian poems (julian semilian and sanda agalidi, eds., trans.). los angeles, ca: green integer books, p. béhar, henri. . tristan tzara (alina savin, trans.). iași: junimea. ***. . “tapiserii și foi întoarse.” in revista , march . web: http://bit.ly/ rclnfd. last accessed: january , . http://bit.ly/ rclnfd in the officials listed the romanian translation among the projects that received only support for its promotion. the selection of the pieces to be included in the anthology was made by two american poets, also based in new york city, whose own work is among the pieces selected: edward foster, professor of creative writing and director of talisman house publishers, and leonard schwartz, host of the cross cultural poetics radio show and editor of a volume of selected poems in english translation by romanian iconic avant-garde poet benjamin fondane. the rationale behind the selection of authors is clearly explained from the get-go: “to present voices that are original, strong (and sometime unconventional or „politically incorrect”) and that defy the prejudices the industry of fame and prizes in such a vast and varied culture such as the american one.” ( : ) however ambitious the objective, the anthology received very little attention in romania. poet claudiu komartin very briefly mentions it on his blog as “a flimsy book” that makes you think “there’s something really off about american poets,” ( : web) while others cannot seem to decide whether the book is “a defective success [or] a generous failure.” (Ștefan : web) firan herself admits in an interview that many of the authors included in the anthology published in romania gave her quite a few literary “headaches.” (zubașcu id.) the whole project seems to have the air of a ‘family affair’ for carmen firan, a romanian poet and translator turned hypnotherapist in new york city since (id.), for which she rewarded the american collaborators with further translations into romanian of their work: poetry cinepoems and others (new york review of books, ). selections of andrei codrescu—who wrote one of the blurbs for the anthology —and of edward foster—the project’s editor and publisher—appear in in scrisul românesc, a romanian literary journal in the southern city of craiova managed by her own father, florea firan. as a matter of fact, much of firan’s publishing activity in romanian revolves around this journal and its affiliated press. it is there that she publishes a selection of stanley moss’s poetry , alongside the translation of the same by her close friend, nina cassian. furthermore, other american writers with whom firan has been collaborating since her arrival in the united states get to travel to romania and be translated and published there in bilingual volumes. this is the case of richard milazzo, edward foster, and edward hirsch. the latter had published in the volume titled romanian writers on writing, edited with emigré-writer norman manea (trinity university press, ), and traveled to romania on the occasion of his own book in translation being launched at the international literary festival in iași in . there he sealed another translation agreement, this time with mainstream polirom press, for a different poetry volume, focul viu. poeme vechi și noi (the living fire. new and selected poems), and with the al. i. cuza university press for a volume of prose, co-translated by american literature professors radu andriescu and dana bădulescu. besides these poetry codrescu, andrei. . “vizitatori din lumea dansului” (alexandra carides and carmen firan, trans.). in scrisul românesc : ; foster, edward. . “cei care strang bani pentru tine; a fost el vreodată acolo?; bărbatul plin de rouă” (carmen firan, trans.). in scrisul românesc : . the relationship between firan and codrescu cannot be reduced to these exchanges. in , scrisul românesc press had published codrescu’s only poetry collection ever written in romanian—instrumentul negru. poezii, - — part of a series of concerted efforts by romanian writers to bring his work back in his home culture. moss, stanley. . “ascultând apa.” (carmen firan, trans.). in scrisul românesc : . milazzo, richard. . umbre din est/eastern shadows (adrian sângeorzan, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc; milazzo, richard. . acolo unde îngerii îşi arcuiesc spatele şi câinii sunt în trecere/where angels arch their backs and dogs pass through (răzvan hotăranu, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc. foster, edward. . febra albă. poeme alese (alexandra carides and carmen firan, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc. hirsch, edward. . nocturnal fire. poems /foc nocturn. poeme (răzvan hotăranu, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc. hirsch, edward. . focul viu. poeme vechi și noi. - (bogdan-alexandru stănescu, trans.). iași: polirom. hirsch, edward. . cum să citeşti un poem şi să te îndrăgosteşti de poezie (dana bădulescu and radu andriescu, trans.). iași: editura universităţii „alexandru ioan cuza”. translations in book form, many journal selections were contributed by people affiliated with scrisul românesc: răzvan hotăranu, carmen firan’s son and a car dealer in new york city, translated various poems by ralph angel, joy manesiotis, dave brinks, barbara ras, and andrey gritsman. gritsman, a russian poet and translator who works as a physician in the new york city area, had a poetry book of his own translated into romanian by firan’s step-daughter, doris sângeorzan, in , and consequently collaborated with firan on an anthology of american poets of recent foreign extraction in . gritsman is also the founder of the online poetry journal interpoezia, where firan collaborates as an international editor, as well as the initiator and patron of the international poetry reading series at the popular cornelia street café in new york city, which hosts periodic readings featuring firan. going back to scrisul românesc, the journal hosts further selections from hirsch and milazzo, translated by hotăranu; alexandra carides—an oncologist and a translator based in angel, ralph. . “testat aici pe pământ; Ştergere; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): ; angel, ralph. . “natură; conversaţie; nici sângele; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . manesiotis, joy. . “lamentare: “moirologia”; corbul; băiat frumos” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): - . brinks, dave. . “a merge înapoi la apă; concert în nouă fragmente, andante; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . ras, barbara. . “ultima piele; cântec; acum toate temerile; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . gritsman, andrey. . “liceul hudson; lac; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . gritsman, andrey. . in transit (doris sângeorzan, trans.). craiova: scrisul românesc. ***. . stranger at home. american poetry with an accent (andrey gritsman, ed.). san francisco, ca: numina press. hirsch, edward. . “noapte transfigurată, vino jos la mine, încet; incertitudine; În amintirea lui paul celan; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): ; hirsch, edward. . “colette; voi începe să trăiesc ca un mistic; din manuscrisele dorinţei propoziţia; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): ; hirsch, edward. . “cititorul; ne-a surprins vara; solstiţiu; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . milazzo, richard. . “umbra inimii; acea parte ascunsă; mormântul lui humayun; etc.” (răzvan hotăranu, trans.) in scrisul românesc ( ): . philadelphia—translates more milazzo, alongside elinor nauen, and robert harshon. these are only a few examples of a literary trade between romania and new york that has been taking place ever since carmen firan emigrated in , a fact confirmed by her father in an interview: i need to emphasize the impulse and the help received from carmen firan and adrian sângeorzan: not only through the publication of their own work in our journal and with our press, but also by their commissioning american writers or romanian writers in america, […] a cultural bridge that has been in place for over years. (jianu : web) this cultural bridge appears to be essential for the sometimes dusty craiova-based journal: in a review run by the parent literary association, a contributor criticizes the conformism and provincialism of the content and says that the only chance of the readers at quality content is to look for the americans, concluding that the americans are indeed present (cronicar : web). the translators and authors revolving around scrisul românesc are generally placed well in the transnational graph: fourth in terms of betweeness centrality (r. hotaranu, bc = . , rank ), but lower in terms of closeness and eigenvector values. that shows us they actually owe their ranking to other nodes in the network, notably ioana ieronim—through her translation of a. gritsman, also translated by r. hotăranu), as well as because of her translation of m. woodside, which connects her to c. tanasescu, the highest placed in terms of centrality and with the highest average degree in the whole translation network. ieronim’s connection to c. tanasescu and the co- translation done by nina cassian with c. firan are the links which confer the network its milazzo, richard. . “vâltorile din kerala; palatul sultanului în bangalore etc.” (alexandra carides, trans.). in scrisul românesc ( ): . nauen, elinor. . “transfigurare; urale pentru poezie; curaj din nimic: etc.” (alexandra carides, trans.). in scrisul românesc ( ): . hershon, robert. . “costumul de pui; istorie prin lipsă; măsline; etc.” (alexandra carides, trans.). in scrisul românesc ( ): . the exact date of her relocation is not clear: either sometime in the late s or in . connectedness: had these links not been present, the scrisul românesc clique would have been disconnected. another example of a romanian-born writer who lives abroad and translated u.s. and canadian poets into romanian is flavia cosma. now a canadian citizen based in toronto and a patron of the arts running a literary residence in val david (quebec), cosma translated acclaimed parliamentary poet laureate george elliott clarke’s selected poems in , followed by selections from the work of gloria mindock (poet laureate of sommerville, massachusetts), dae- tong huh (korea-born canadian poet), and jim heavily (poet and poetry editor of los angeles- based online literary journal www.hinchasdepoesia.com). it might be that these eclectic projects were fuelled both by her personal literary taste and by her various collaborations with the poets she translates: mindock is, for instance, the founding editor of cervena barva, the press that published two of cosma’s poetry volumes and for which cosma is, according to her own website, an international editor; jim heavily, whom i almost gave up trying to locate, turns out to be the editor who published one of cosma’s poems in the romanian original and in spanish translation the very year when a selection of his own poems appear in romania); finally, her literary barter with poet dae-tong huh becomes apparent in the publication of one of her books of children’s clique in graph theory is a basic term referring to a subset of vertices of an undirected graph such that every two distinct vertices in the clique are adjacent. i have used it in this context to emphasize the tightly-knit network that revolves around scrisul românesc. clarke, george elliott. . poeme incendiare (flavia cosma, trans.). oradea: cogito. mindock, gloria. . la portile raiului (flavia cosma, trans.). iași: ars longa press. cosma, flavia. . “murmurs of voices / murmure des voix / murmurul vocilor.” (flavia cosma, trans.) oradea: cogito. heavily, jim. . “au trecut cinci ani deja...; el pais (Ţara); strada morţilor; etc.” (flavia cosma, trans.). in vatra veche ( ): . cosma, flavia. . the season of love. somerville, ma: cervena barva press, pages; cosma flavia. . gothic calligraphy. somerville, ma: cervena barva press. cosma, flavia. . “man’s iron hand; la mano de hierro del hombre.” (luis raúl calvo, trans.) in hinchas de poesia / . web: http://bit.ly/ a lsum. http://bit.ly/ a lsum literature with korean-canadian literary forum- press. even her translation of clarke’s work— which marked her debut as a translator—appears to be, according to one of the very few reviews done in romania, the result of literary gratitude that adds to a not so apparent, yet plausible, degree of literary kinship: this [translation] cannot be only an elegant gesture out of her gratitute for the enthusiastic forewords he wrote to her own poetry books. i would feel inclined to think this is a reading experience that touched the poet’s receptiveness, hardened by her harsh destiny and her own sense of displacement. this is the source of her openness to acute existential problems, her understanding and compassion. we get a glimpse [in this translation] of a flavia cosma that speaks about human rights to canadian students, the tv producer that documented homelessness in toronto or the orphans in her home country [...]. in all these, she resonates with george elliott’s clarke’s militant social activism. (oloș : web) just like the poets she translates (with the notable exception of clarke), her translation projects stay very regional: the books are published with very small, provincial presses, either in her home town, oradea, or in iași, and the poetry selections generally appear in literary journals that are very regional (e.g., vatra veche from târgu mureș, citadela from satu mare, both cities in north-western romania). what seems to connect these publishers and journals, though, is the “lucian blaga” international festival in sebeș, another small city in transylvania, where cosma was awarded in the “title of excellence for outstanding contribution to the promotion and enrichment of the romanian culture within the european region and throughout the world.” from one of the two reviews of her translation of clarke to date it is clear that the canadian poet had visited romania prior to the launch of his book, on the occasion of another literary happening in satu mare, zilele poesis (pop ). after his return in for the launch of his translated poem collection, cosma, flavia. . the adventures of tommy teddy bear and alex little bunny. toronto: korean-canadian literary forum- press. various further selections by other translators appear in a number of literary magazines: two translations by canadian studies specialist ana oloș, who also favorably reviewed cosma’s rendition and dedicated a more in-depth academic study to clarke’s work (oloș ), and other two by diana manole, a toronto-based writer, director, and scholar specialized in drama studies. while oloș’s translation followed clarke’s lecture at the nord university, her home institution, and an award he received from the local literary journal, poesis, her translation and manole’s translation the very same year may be a reflection of clarke’s appointment as the toronto poet laureate at the beginning of . it may also be a natural development of a series of encounters between cosma, clarke, and manole. this network also prompts a substantial interview in the transilvania literary journal (oloș ibid.) by oloș and crina bud, lecturer at the romanian lectorate with york university, in toronto. g.e. clarke is the central node of the clique formed by translators f. cosma, a. oloș, and d. manole and ranks immediately after the authors and translators around c. tanasescu and r. hotăranu, as the most prominent node in g in terms of betweeness centrality. his prominence is given by the three translators associated with him. as far as the other two centrality measurements are concerned, clarke ranks fairly low, just like the other nodes in this sub-network, because the component he belongs in is disconnected. the frequency of the translations in clarke’s case shows us that his literary stardom only intensified the series of translations already initiated by cosma as both literary barter and literary clarke, george elliott. . “biserica baptistă africană din cherrzbrook; ecleziastul; sonet alb: etc.” (ana olos, trans.) in poesis - : ; clarke, george elliott. . “către guvernul din nova scoția; viață de albină; etc.” (ana oloș, trans.) in nord literar - : - . clarke, george elliot. . “unghi; sextina: aprilie; ii.iii. elegie albastră; etc.” (diana manole, trans.). in viaţa românească - : - ; clarke, george elliott. . “păcătoşi sfinţi; strigăt din piaţa haligoniană; copilărie ii: etc.” (diana manole, trans.) in luceafărul de dimineaţă : . affiliation. cosma’s interest in charity and immigrants’ sense of displacement must have felt at home, i would suggest, in clarke’s literary work, while the canadian poet might have appreciated cosma’s poetry, as a note on her website states that one of her volumes, leaves of a diary, was studied in clarke’s literature class at the university of toronto during the - academic year. similarly, manole, who holds a doctorate from the same university of toronto, was perhaps familiar with clarke’s interest in the loss of a sense of belonging, which resonated with manole’s own interest in foreign/immigrant notes in theater and performance. her pairing clarke with ede amatoritsero in the translation feature dedicated to african-canadian writers—another illustration of network-driven translation—likely influenced the roster of attendees in and the idea behind an event titled “shared dreams of freedom,” organized by the romanian consulate in toronto in january . the event was held as part of romania’s national cultural day and the anniversary of iconic early modernist mihai eminescu—romania’s national poet—and martin luther king, jr. such exchanges offer a vista foregrounded in an economy of literary barters, characterized by in-kind exchanges that energize the dialogue between contemporary poets and their translators. with the fallout of the recession still lingering in a country in which poetry is published in print runs equal to those in the united states, but does not sell, an exchange economy goes off well. translation becomes more and more a benefit in-kind and generates new kinds of partnerships, events, and literary associations that not only maintain and strengthen networks, but also extend them. the interpersonal relationships that result from and create these exchanges are salient and their multifarious nature occasions new roles for translators. as jones rightfully notes, “translators ede, amatoritsero. . “poems.” (diana manole, trans.) in luceafărul de dimineaţă : . often carry less power in a production network than an anthology/journal editor or a living source poet.” ( : ) this is precisely why poet-translators take on new challenges and assume new roles in the production chain. the gain is so much the more substantial if the services they render in their home culture are mirrored in the source culture by services benefiting their own work. transnational poet-translators do not play a twin role (jones ibid.), but a triple one: besides being converters of a text and representatives of a source-language culture or poet, they are also particularly effective publishing facilitators. the downsides of this new reality is the localism of many translation projects, as an exchange economy does not always involve major players on the book market. however, as edward foster notes in the presentation of naming the nameless, “even the most modest of attempts that may look like no more than tiny drops in the ocean are still to be preferred to laments and complexes, myths, and prejudices.” (foster : ) a progenerative model concerned with the dynamics of real-world relationships and backed by a politics of fecundity is to be preferred, i suggest, to sparse major-league translation phenomena. . . . literary kinship, scholarly work, and academic mobility if the above examples revolve around certain literary journals and affiliated presses and seem to be grounded in a barter logic, the next examples were fueled by three different factors, namely literary kinship, scholarly research, and academic mobility. translators’ literary kinship to the authors they translate has been largely ignored by ts literature and typically discussed in relation with translational poetics (simon ; médici nóbrega and milton ; bradford ; jacobs ; galvin ). scholarship and poetry translation have been specifically researched by scholar josephine balmer ( ), who shrewdly notes there is a symbiosis between academic research and classical poetry translation which often leads to poetry production on the part of the translator. in the context of contemporary poetry translation, academic mobility is often the trigger of such projects, hence the associations of the two in the title of the present subchapter. in addition, i present projects that have occurred as a result of academic mobility, but which have not been backed by literary affinities or by the translators’ poetic appropriation. the romanian translator whose work and trajectory is very much in line with a transnational paradigm and a progenerative model is chris tanasescu, who ranks first in the transnational graphs in all categories. tanasescu was working towards a ph.d. in american poetry in , writing a thesis on rock “poetry,” a category in which he included mainstream poetry informed by rock music, lyrics, or culture, when he came across a long poem of david baker’s (holler ), “sweet home, saturday night,” the title poem of a collection from . in it, the speaker tells the story of a rock concert he gave as a guitarist in a band playing in a pub somewhere in the southern us. the romanian translator was intrigued by the alternation of scenes from the show and the night bar ‘crazy life,’ classic rock lyrics, personal musings and lyric fragments, and excerpts of literary and cultural criticism, all fused in a polyphonic and alert discourse. he felt closely related to such an approach, as his own poetry was informed by notions of performance, polyphony, and multiple cross-boundary discourse, and after looking deeper into baker’s work he decided to write the american poet and translate some of his poetry. one year earlier, tanasescu had published a collection in which he experimented with syllabic verse (a meter never employed in romanian poetry since its late medieval and early modern periods) and camouflaging ‘classic’ forms, such as sonnets and ottava rimas, under heterogeneous dictions and nonconventional typography (gulea tanasescu, chris. . popular culture and border transgression in contemporary american poetry. the case of rock poetry. bucharest: university of bucharest. ). he discovered in baker a master of syllabic verse, and, if not an experimental, then an extremely subtle ‘translator’ of classic forms into new contexts and discourses. besides discovering a great poet that shared some of his topics—along with and maybe more significantly than rock culture, the poetry of place, environment, and landscape which somewhat matched tanasescu’s rather urban topologies—he discovered in baker a famous advocate of poetic options that the translator thought crucial in revitalizing the poetry written by the poets that were emerging in romania in the two decades after . in november , tanasescu published a volume of baker’s selected poems in romanian translation—preceded by a selection published in viața românească and further selections in convorbiri literare in . he also applied, through the margento foundation, for a grant with the u.s. department of state to bring the poet to romania for a series of book launches. in an interview, baker recounts of himself: [it was a] completely random thing, mr. baker says of that experience. this fellow, maybe two, two and a half years ago, emailed me. chris tanasescu, who is a romanian poet at the university of bucharest, had come across a poem of mine and wanted to translate it for a magazine. and he just kept going and about a year ago said that he would like to put together a ‘selected poems’ from all my books and show it to a publisher. he did, the publisher took it, the book was published [in november ] and i went over for the launch. i’d never been there, i know two words of romanian, but i’d apparently written a book called omul alchimic and had an amazing time. (holler : web, emphasis mine) this random act of translation occasioned a chain of other projects that furthered the long-standing relationship between u.s. and romanian cultures. in , inspired by his romanian tour, david baker initiated a translation experiment dedicated to his romanian translator (“to chris, who baker, david. . omul alchimic (the alchemical man) (chris tanasescu, trans.). bucharest: vinea press. baker, david. . “omul postum.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in viața românească - . web: http://bit.ly/ ddr kx. last accessed: january , . baker, david. . “romantism; piatra lui simonide; etc.” (chris tănăsescu, trans.). in convorbiri literare : - . baker, david. . hunger to hunger: hungry / foame. (tanasescu et al., trans,). toledo, oh: aureole press. http://bit.ly/ ddr kx opened the door”), which is to be considered a literary barter for tanasescu. baker departed from tanasescu’s translation of his poem “hungry” and submitted the romanian “foame” to a process of back-translation and re-translation between romanian and english for a total of fourteen times. the introduction describes the translator team as a network of acquaintances of the author and the translator and spells out author’s hope that “each iteration would be a coherent poem on its own merit.” (baker : web) the translators’ dialogue, a sort of literary telephone game (as one of the translators put it), bore no translation limitations and resulted in a whole new poem in english, which contained only those parts (syllables or whole words) of the original text that still existed in the last english translation. baker’s final poem was the embodiment of tanasescu’s tenet that a good translatable poem is always “transmutational and communal.” ( : web). ramifications of tanasescu’s translation of baker’s poetry into romanian led to the participation of the american poet in the international poetry festival in sibiu in and in a translation into english and publication in the kenyon review of a poem by the organizer, poet radu vancu, and by other participants in the festival. while searching the internet for young american poets to write about and translate, tanasescu came across the poetry of ilya kaminsky. a jewish-russian poet who emigrated from odessa at the age of , when his family fled a war going on at the time in neighboring moldova and who came from a region and had a background so relevant to the romanian translator. moreover, kaminsky’s energetically painful and rabbinically musical lyricism appealed to tanasescu for its genuine fusion of the most privately subjective and the traditional, the latter involving both a vancu, radu. . “[what’s one of your dead telling you]” (tara skurtu and radu vancu, trans.) in kenyon review ( ). web: http://bit.ly/ mglwmb. last accessed: january , . the research resulted in a scholarly paper: “the new taste of old taste: manifestos by younger u.s. poets in ”, published in the university of bucharest review (“a matter of taste”) ( ). bucharest: university of bucharest press. web: http://bit.ly/ dazkuf. last accessed: january , . http://bit.ly/ mglwmb http://bit.ly/ dazkuf mythologized and yet tragic history of odessa (and actually eastern europe) and deep immersions in the works and biographies of russian classic modernists like mandelstam and akhmatova. tanasescu’s choice seems to have been right, as the translation was met with great interest and even enthusiasm by many young poets, and both the book and the poet are still greatly admired in romania ten years after the publication. when he arrived in san diego, california, on a senior fulbright award hosted by the department where ilya kaminsky was a member, tanasescu met rothenberg, a legendary figure whose work he had admired, taught, and written about. being directly in touch with the remarkably personable master allowed the younger poet to observe two complementary aspects of the former’s personality and approach—one, rothenberg’s amplitude and complexity was indeed amazing, as grounded in an ongoing impatience to learn about poetries and cultures that could never be too (or rather enough) strange or uncanny, and, two, his ([de]constructed) indebtedness to romanian iconic figures like tristan tzara and mircea eliade. under the circumstances, it was fascinating for tanasescu and his co-translator to render in romanian the way in which one of the most internationalist and eclectic poets in the world spent an impressive part of his creative energy dialoging with master figures of the romanian culture and recuperating the historical and cultural experience of his ancestors, while at the same time opening the door of his poetry to localisms and untranslatable traditions from all corners of the world (tanasescu : - ). kaminsky, ilya. . dansând în odessa (chris tanasescu, trans.). bucharest: vinea press. chris, tanasescu. . “the shadowy (non-)identity of the shaman in contemporary u.s. poetry: jim morrison, gary snyder, and jerome rothenberg”. in the university of bucharest review (“identity and alterity: geographies of the mind”) ( ). bucharest: university of bucharest press, pp: - . web: http://bit.ly/ dazkuf. last accessed: january , . rothenberg, jerome. . mistici, hoți și nebuni (mystics, thieves, and madmen) (chris and raluca tanasescu (margento), trans.). bistrița: max blecher press. http://bit.ly/ dazkuf selections appeared in poezia in and , then in poesis international in (cf. section . and annex ), just before the publication of his selected poems in romanian. more than is the case with other romanian poet-translators, tanasescu’s own poetic work reveals his use of translation as a generative and creative act, “an integrative and restitutive gesture, a non-linear act of language.” (mironescu ) one of the features that characterise his poetry is an unmasked, playful and transgressive translational poetics which “affirms [his] ethnic and linguistic identity even more thoroughly by a ‘live’ dialogue with the other [poets].” (patraș : web) as patraș rightfully notes, his poems engage in a dialogue—a jam-session—with the poetry of many of the authors he translates, from baker to kaminsky to woodside or starzinger, “in a universal language of poetry and mathematics, which is essentially musical” (id.), making patraș compare him with john ashbery. patraș was certainly not mistaken in tracing the literary lineage. such as is the case with transnational literary contamination, which “reveals concerns about the development of innovative domestic poetics,” (galvin ) tanasescu had indeed translated ashbery , motivated by the desire to challenge and redesign contemporary literary fashions in native romania. the networks established in real life move into the poem of the self-dubbed ‘(trans)nationalist poet’ who “translates foreigners into romanian and romanian into the languages and mentality of the new rome” (nicolau : web) accompanied by ‘a band of translators’ (id.). his band of translators grows with every worthy poet he meets and, as woodside notes, is a reflection of his… passport ( ): this is how he gets to translate john taylor, whom he met in paris, or page hill rothenberg, jerome. . “călătoria de la o vară la alta; spania lui lorca: omagiu; etc.” (raluca and chris tanasescu, trans.) in poezia ( ): - . rothenberg, jerome. . “bunavestire (de marpa); polonia/ ; satan în goray: etc.” (raluca and chris tanasescu, trans.). in poezia ( ): - . ashbery, john. . “azi-noapte am visat că eram în bucureşti; istoria vieţii mele; calea de ieşire binecuvântată; etc.” (chris tănăsescu, trans) in viaţa românească - : - . taylor, john. . “din tapiseriile apocalipsei.” (raluca and chris tanasescu, trans.) in ateneu - : . starzinger , whom he met in romania, alongside other writers like meghan o’rourke , roger craik , or d.a. powell —young poets who may prove relevant to their romanian peers. furthermore, what marjorie perloff would call ‘uncreative writing’—“poetry that is entirely “unoriginal” and nevertheless qualifies as poetry” (perloff : )—is further networked by tanasescu in a series of assemblages he defines as “graph poems”: “an ongoing communal […] poetry project that involves poets and writers from various parts of the world collaborating by the principles of mathematical graph theory and in the spirit of jam sessions.” (tanasescu : web) as noted by nicolau, translation is not only vital for the poetic dialogue, but also makes possible the live connection of poems and people, in a transnational poetics in which “diverse poets launch lines of creation and others develop and multiply them.” ( : ) the diasporic condition of the poet and the network he builds around and in his poetry invite multiple ways of translation within the same volume: from translating other poets’ work and engaging in a dialogue with them to self- translation and inviting other poets to translate his own poems. at the end, all become translators and play in “a global, multi-language, powerful performance troupe,” (baker ), “an international coalition of writers and translators.” (woodside : web) the type of relationships c. tanasescu establishes within the transnational network has an influence not only on the writers and translators associated with him, but also on other nodes. for instance, because of his co-translations with r. tanasescu and m. surleac, the latter two are placed second and third in network-influence (eigenvector), although they score much lower in the other two centrality measurements. not only do these co-translators fare well, but so do the authors they starzinger, page hill. . “seria ; contracurent; eucharist nervosa.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in familia - : - . o’rourke, meghan. . “poeme de meghan o’rourke.” (chris tanasescu, trans.). in familia - : - . craik, roger. . “poeme de roger craik.” (chris tănăsescu, trans.). in familia - : - . powell, d. a. . “floare stranie-n mâinile mele.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in familia : - . co-translated (such as g. snyder and f. joudah), who score higher in eigenvector centrality compared to the authors translated by c. tanasescu alone (such as j. rothenberg or baker, who were even published more than once in periodicals). even more interesting is the fact that the best placed translator after c.tanasescu (bc = . ) is i. ieronim (bc = . ), a rank she owes to her translation of m. woodside. this re-translation of woodside one year after the one by tanasescu makes the author rank second in closeness centrality and third in betweenness centrality, becoming better positioned, thus more visible topologically than authors like j. ashbery, for instance. tanasescu’s influence on the network is most clearly expressed by the eigenvector, which ranks the authors he translated better than any other authors in the transnational network. poetry translation as complement to scholarly research has a strong representative in rodica grigore’s work, the main node in the g component (cf. annex ). a senior lecturer in comparative literature at the lucian blaga university of sibiu, grigore translated margaret atwood following an essay inspired by her work in , a literary analysis applied to the romanian translation of atwood’s novel in . grigore’s translation of michael ondaatje’s poetry is followed a year later by an essay dedicated to his poetic work. she also translates selections from the writings of paul auster , a selection preceded and followed by at least two scholarly articles. her translation atwood, margaret. . “să zbori înăuntrul propriului tău trup; cântec de sirenă; clipa” (rodica grigore, trans.) in euphorion ( - ): . grigore. rodica. . “spațiul literar și tradiția discursului distopic. margaret atwood, oryx și crake.” in revista transilvania . web: http://bit.ly/ mb l q. last accessed: january , . atwood, margaret. . oryx şi crake (florin irimia, trans.). editura leda, bucureşti. ondaatje, michael. . “culegătorul de scorţişoară; coasta medievală; la un strigăt depărtare; etc.” (rodica grigore, trans.) in contemporanul - ideea europeană ( ): - . grigore, rodica. . “dincolo de graniţe cu michael ondaatje.” in ziarul financiar june . web: http://bit.ly/ mntp t. last accessed: january , . auster, paul. . “credo (infinitul); printre rânduri; corală; etc.” (rodica grigore, trans.) in euphorion ( - ): . grigore, rodica. . “paul auster. călătoriile noului personaj picaresc.” in revista cultura . web: http://bit.ly/ dbvhkt. last accessed: january , ; grigore, rodica. . “o călătorie la capătul singurătății.” in ziarul financiar november . web: http://bit.ly/ dnqoiy. last accessed: january , . http://bit.ly/ mb l q http://bit.ly/ mntp t http://bit.ly/ dbvhkt http://bit.ly/ dnqoiy of ted berrigan seems to be related rather to her work on andrei codrescu, the romanian-born american poet that is difficult to pin down because of his affinities with numerous other writers, among whom berrigan and other new york school poets—very often mentioned in her scholarly essays on codrescu. finally, grigore’s selection of elaine equi’s work appears to be an isolated occurrence, not doubled by any scholarly work. however, equi’s interest in frank o’hara, the iconic poet of the new york school, seems to be the red thread that guided this translation choice. grigore’s translator notes are very informed and analytical and focus more on the themes and literary quality of the translated work than on the author’s biography and literary recognitions. she generally prefers literary criticism and scholarly essays published in mainstream literary or scholarly journals—venues that further legitimize the scholarly nature of her pieces. a dedicated follower of the literary translation scene in romania, she devoted at least two reviews to the translation of t.s. eliot’s poetry in . grigore’s example is not singular. elena ciobanu (g cf. annex ) is a professor of british and american poetry at the university of bacau in north-east romania. her list of selected academic papers shows an overt interest in the poetry of sylvia plath whose selected poetry she translates in a volume and publishes with paralela press in . her research interest in contemporary poetry results in further sporadic selections from t.s. eliot and canadian jeramy dodds, hosted berrigan, ted. . “frank o'hara; dragoste; oameni din viitor; etc.” (rodica grigore, trans.) in contemporanul - ideea europeană. ( ): . one of the many references to berrigan and codrescu appears in grigore’s book on the evolution of romanian literary forms: evoluția formelor românești (cluj-napoca: casa cărții de știință). equi, elaine. . “vampirela; fată vinerea; pentru hollis sigler; etc.” (rodica grigore, trans.) in contemporanul - ideea europeană ( ): . grigore, rodica. . “t.s. eliot. tărîmul poeziei: recenzie la opere poetice ( - ), traducere de Şerban foarţă. bucureşti: humanitas, ”. in observator cultural : - ; grigore, rodica. . “t. s. eliot. ambiguitate, detaşare, poezie: despre vol. opere poetice ( - ), traducere de Şerban foarţă.” in vatra - : - . plath, sylvia. . selected poems / poeme alese. (elena ciobanu, trans., foreword.) piteşti: paralela . eliot, t.s. . “cântecul de dragoste al lui j. alfred prufrock.” (elena ciobanu, trans.) in ateneu : . dodds, jeramy. . “inima uscata; leii saptamânii lucratoare.” (elena ciobanu, trans.) in ateneu : . exclusively by local literary journal ateneu, which also presented reviews of her translations and awarded her rendition of plath with the translation prize. another example comes from craiova, where victor olaru (presented in the previous section) works as a professor of anglophone studies and publishes most of his translated selections in local scrisul românesc, already mentioned extensively in this chapter in relation to other translation initiatives. academic mobility of english language and literature scholars is another significant phenomenon that usually prompts translation projects from canadian and u.s. poetries. the most visible and fruitful academic exchange program that benefited romanian universities has been for years the fulbright program, supported by the u.s. department of state. it has been customary for romanian-born american scholars traveling to universities in romania for such exchanges to have their work translated into romanian and, depending on their romanian language proficiency, to translate themselves other american fellow poets. it is the case of boston-based scholar and poet mihaela moscaliuc, a fulbright fellow with the al. i. cuza university in iași during the - academic year and during whose tenure a selection from the work of poets gerald stern and michael waters is published in a local literary journal and a poetry reading featuring translations of michael waters’ poems by her students is organized during the international education festival in iași in . another selection appears three years later in convorbiri literare, also based in iași. while the attention devoted to waters can be certainly explained by the incontestable value of his work, i also found out that moscaliuc and waters have long been married (welsh ) and that waters had himself been a fulbright lecturer with the same university only a few years before stern, gerald. . “românia românia; ukrainianul; fructul morţii.” (mihaela moscaliuc, trans.) În: poezia ( ): - . waters, michael. . “rochia de mireasă; irachieni morţi; măsline negre. (mihaela moscaliuc, trans.) În: poezia ( ) - . waters, michael. . “morpho; litoral; radu lupu.” (mihaela moscaliuc, trans.). in convorbiri literare : - . moscaliuc’s residency (id.). since the local literary scene might have been somewhat familiar with his work, a series of translations followed by an interview towards the end of his wife’s tenure made good sense. the association of waters’ work with translations of the celebrated poet gerald stern in the same journal feature, though, might appear as striking, but it can be easily explained by moscaliuc’s long-lasting academic interest in stern’s work. all these unique sets of conditions have led to a heterogeneous set of translation projects that cannot be the initiatives of anybody else but the translator herself. however, her exclusive focus on waters and stern makes her rank very low in all centralities and keeps her disconnected in the transnational graph. in terms of subsequent translation projects, moscaliuc’s residency with the university in iași differs significantly from tara skurtu’s experience during her two fellowships at the university in sibiu. although of romanian extraction, skurtu’s level of romanian did not allow her to translate from the english, but only into english. however, her encounter with radu vancu, a prominent player on the local and national literary scene, resulted in numerous selections of her poetry being translated into romanian. the prospect of relocation to romania, which took place in , after two fulbright residencies, as well as the prospects of an adjustment to and an integration in a new literary scene, likely asked for a generous number of translations that would properly introduce her to romanian audiences, and especially tightly-knit literary networks. skurtu’s selection of seven poems translated by radu vancu was most likely occasioned by her participation in the international literary festival in sibiu, a mention that appears in his translator’s note after a very detailed enumeration of eleven american journals that have published her work to date, alongside moscaliuc, mihaela. . ““unitatea poetică”: interviu cu poetul american michael waters.” (ioana lionte, trans). in convorbiri literare : - . moscaliuc, mihaela. . “insane devotion: on the writing of gerald stern.” (philip levine, foreword). trinity university press. skurtu, tara. . “indian river în amurg; foame; limită; etc.” (radu vancu, trans.) in mozaicul ( ): . a fellowship and a prize. after two more selections in and , in vancu even translates a full volume of skurtu’s, one that has been only very recently launched in the united states—in january . the release of a romanian translation before the launch of the original book may be very pertinently related to her adjustment to the new literary network she was about to join. another translation of her work was occasioned by the passing of romanian contemporary poet andrei bodiu, to whom she dedicated a poem. as a matter of fact, many of the poems she wrote during her academic residencies were heavily anchored in her new life in romania, which on the one hand made them very exotic for the american readership, and on the other made them easily translatable and approachable for a romanian audience. her presence in the transnational graph is due to micu’s one-time contribution, which is not enough to give her any kind of prominence. however, in the general network of translation in pp (figure , section . ), she belongs in the giant component due to the translations done by vancu. this is one of the most relevant example of how translators influence the network they are part of: although insignificant in the transnational component where one would naturally place her because of her profile, she gains more prominence in the general network because of the numerous translations by a translator well- positioned in that network. skurtu’s translation experience as an american scholar and poet is different from those of other scholars and poets involved in the same exchange. no other poet has benefitted from so many translations like she did. for example, christopher bakken, a fulbright scholar in , had only a skurtu, tara. . “indian river at dusk / indian river în amurg.” (radu vancu, trans.) in zona nouă. web: http://bit.ly/ fkwryl. last accessed: january , . skurtu, tara. . “stricat.” (radu vancu, trans.) in subcapitol, oct. . web: http://bit.ly/ em gx . last accessed: january , . skurtu, tara. . “amintindu-mi de andrei bodiu.” (alice valeria micu, trans.) in caiete silvane ( ): . http://bit.ly/ fkwryl http://bit.ly/ em gx journal selection of his poetry translated by ioana ieronim. ieronim—a poet who made a name for herself as one of andrei codrescu’s translators, but who also happens to be the sister of mihai moroiu, american program director with the fulbright commission in bucharest since — translates in fulbright grantee martin woodside. she had met woodside in person at a conference and literary festival in neptun, an academic and literary dissemination venue for all fulbright fellows each year. this is where ieronim also met canadian writer cheryl antao xavier and followed up with a translated selection of her work. the event also prompted a translation from her long-time acquaintance, new york city-based andrey gritsman. although woodside’s fellowship did not result in many translations of his own work, his meeting with chris tanasescu in bucharest was the trigger for further, more ample projects. besides being translated for the first time into romanian by tanasescu, woodside put together an anthology of romanian poetry in english translation in and co-translates with the romanian a volume of selected works by surrealist poet gellu naum in , finally, i would like to also mention here the translation done by aura taras sibișan, a lecturer at the transylvania university in brașov, of the poetry of jeremy bakken, christopher. . “paul celan; purgatoriul, carte poştală; egloga (matia).” in luceafărul ( ): . woodside, martin. . “livrare; spune-i dans; În acest oraş; etc.” (ioana ieronim, trans.) in luceafărul de dimineaţă - : . antao-xavier, cheryl. . “o lume a gunoaielor.” (ioana ieronim, trans.) in luceafărul ( - ): . gritsman, andrey. . “in memoriam; conversaţie; etc.” (ioana ieronim, trans.) in luceafărul de dimineaţă. - : . woodside, martin. . “de livrare; odă bucureştilor; dans, cum ar veni; etc.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in convorbiri literare ( ): - . ***. . of gentle wolves. an anthology of american poetry (martin woodside, ed.). new york, ny: calypso editions. naum, gellu. . athanor and other po(h)ems (martin woodside and chris tanasescu, trans.). new york, ny: calypso editions. hawkins, a fulbright grantee in - with the same institution, alongside the one-time translation by felix nicolau of visiting master of arts’ student d.m. andrei. although the amount of u.s. and canadian poetry translated as a result of transnational exchanges and by transnational poets is quite significant, one cannot talk about patterns of inclusion or exclusion or about a cultural poetics because all these translation acts are highly heterogeneous ( giant component and disconnected components) and depend on the positionality of poet- translators (bradford ibid.: - ). such transnational networks are highly interpersonal in poetry translation, even when they are the result of exchanges supported by various institutions. as jones rightfully argues, “[p]oetry translation is produced by networks of agents working across a ‘distributed’ space. this implies that it is simplistic to conceptualise literary translation in terms of one agent’s loyalty to one cultural space.” (ibid.: ) furthermore, a transnational paradigm and a network approach bring into discussion the idea of subjectivity, randomness, and even opportunism and nepotism as significant driving forces behind any translation project, all related to an increasing translator agency and resulting in a highly heterogeneous web of relationships. hawkins, jeremy. . “suprapunere: robert s. mcnamara; valjevo ; preludiul după; etc.” (aura taras sibişan, trans.) in vatra - : - . andrei, d. m. . “nu luna era cu răspunsul; baban, grăsan popă fluviu; fă stânga împrejur.” (felix nicolau, trans.) in arca - : . . . poetry translation in the technoscape . . . a new economy of attention as we are moving into an age of “post-print translation literacy,” (cronin : ) literary translators find themselves in a position that allows them to shake off the cloak of invisibility and become manifest players in the new economy of attention. the theoretical milieu from which this subchapter proceeds is michael goldhaber ( ), georg franck ( ) and jonathan beller’s ( ) notion of “attention economy,” according to which human attention is scarce and productive of value and is thus easily commodified by the contemporary digital technoculture. literary translation in the media milieu becomes information conveniently passed along for free in exchange for potential instant recognition on the part of the readers and is undergirded by the tenet that information is the newest kind of wealth available, one that can be acquired simply by reaching out into the cyberspace. in this new context, cronin notes, translators’ use of technology is bound up with ‘disintermediation’, which leads to their increased independence, allowing translation to become a kind of autographic work, radically different from the allographic work of invisibles (ibid.: ). in this new digital reputation economy, the heavily intermediated print runs of translated books and the circulation of magazines are replaced by convenient hyperlinks that one can access anywhere, at any time. literary translators realized very fast that “[…] obtaining attention is obtaining a kind of enduring wealth, a form of wealth that puts you in a preferred position to get anything this new economy offers.” (goldhaber ) this has led to new literary journals, blogs, and platforms being set up for the benefit of authors, translators, and literature consumers (jones ). not only do they offer instant access to potentially valuable literature, but they also propose variety, as “digital reproduction allows for endless replication of difference, not endless replication of same.” (cronin : ). managing the new bonanza of information we are perpetually faced with is possible only through culturally and historically-conditioned attention as a form of care (stiegler ), or as a struggle for criticality, as cronin puts it. attention as a scarce resource has brought about a significant shift from production to promotion, through a tendency to minimize the costs and maximize the profits. as gamboni rightfully notes, attention is relational—we pay attention to what we relate to, either physically or ideologically. the way we relate to, and thus pay attention to, a digital object, a translation in our case, makes it more, or less, visible: in the economy of attention, however, visibility is everything. if attention is the hard currency of cyberspace then […] attention flows do not simply anticipate flows of money but eventually end up replacing them. in attentional capitalism, attention is fast becoming the hegemonic form of capital. (cronin , web) in this new attention economy, there are numerous strategies that cater to the translator’s visibility, such as self-promotion via social network services, personal story-telling, and narrative self- presentation (van dijck : ). the way digital space operates and serves the need of translators shifts the discussion to non-monetization, to the free labor that characterizes online cultural production—“the ongoing constitution of a nonunified collective intelligence outside and in between the blind alleys of the silicon age.” (terranova : ). to latour, financial motivations are not among the things that make people act. famous for his disregard of the economics and the reification of institutions—“structure is very powerful and yet much too weak and remote to have any efficacy” (latour : )—the french theorist sees the main motivation of our action in the way we relate to others. he acknowledges the role played by web . in refashioning these relationships and the way we present ourselves to the world: “[t]he web is changing all of that and fast: “to have” (friends, relations, profiles...) is quickly becoming a stronger definition of oneself than “to be.” (latour : web) furthermore, the internet economy, characterized by scale economies, interdependencies, and abundance (bauer et al. ), also occasions a slew of economic advantages that give translators much more freedom, allowing them to pursue projects that would otherwise be deemed non-lucrative by most literary publishers. it is—again—the notable case of poetry translation, especially contemporary poetry translation, works of authors that have not yet joined the canon to justify the investment. instead, such works are often presented in the “electronic sweatshops” (terranova ibid.) of the internet. during the first decade of the s scholars warned about a series of potential drawbacks that stem from the vastness and democracy of the world wide web in relation to legitimacy of online cultural production and to the agency of poetry: […] amid the havoc of the “democratization” of cultural production in the last ten years due to the internet and satellite tv, one can only guess whether poetry agents will ever be truly interventional, local or geographically nuclear again. the intervention will be virtual and the legitimization ephemeral and skeptical, as is the attitude toward internet in general. as the intellectual field becomes larger and its outlines hazier, the poaching becomes more erratic, and the predictability of taste will respond more to a charting of the agility to pass from one form to another in the speed of upload and download and the flare for mimicry and pastiche than to the patience to read and digest. (bradford : ) however, as we have started to talk about the post-digital (berry )—that is, how we think with the digital instead of how we think about it, and, especially, how we relate to it—, research on the topic of digital innovations in how we relate to poetry has begun to appear. flemming-may and green ( ) explore, through a series of online surveys and subsequent series of individual interviews, stakeholders’ attitudes and practices regarding poetry published exclusively in web- based media. the article specifically examines the project’s gathered data on creative writing faculty from north american institutions who were surveyed and interviewed about online poetry publishing as both creators and consumers of the literary works. this study also explores creative writing instructors’ opinions about publishing in online literary publications in regard to career impact, including tenure and promotion. they depart from sandra beasley’s observation that “as glossy magazines die by the dozen and blogs become increasingly influential, we face the reality that print venues … are rapidly ceding ground to web-based publishing” (beasley : ). they asked survey respondents to report on their online behavior regarding discovering and reading poetry. for the purposes of this study, they regarded these two activities as connected, but distinct. respondents indicated that they visit the web to read poetry with great frequency: % indicated they did so either daily ( %) or weekly ( %) virtually all survey respondents ( %) reported using the internet to read poetry, even if they were among the respondents who preferred print publications or expressed skepticism about the quality of work published online. % reported that they publish, even if only occasionally, online. flemming-may and green concluded that, although online publications may present further challenges, most notably related to legitimacy, and although the innovation in question—the shift of literary publishing from the printed page to the web—has not been completely accepted by the literary social system, there are indications that the diffusion process for this model is well underway. . . . the connective turn: translation as echo-statement memory studies have been concerned lately with the way our remembering is influenced by the current post-scarcity culture—“the abundance, pervasiveness, and accessibility of communication networks, nodes, and digital media content.” (hoskins a: ) according to andrew hoskins, as the virtual world took hold of our memories through platforms such as facebook or flickr, what we previously conceived as place-bound (depending on family and nation and lodged in monuments and well-defined geographical locations) travels now in the digital space in unpredictable ways: the connective turn is the massively increased abundance, pervasiveness and accessibility of digital technologies, devices and media, shaping an ongoing re- calibration of time, space (and place) and memory by people as they connect with, inhabit and constitute increasingly both dense and diffused social networks. put differently, the stuff (people, relationships, objects, events) subject to the connective turn is potentially perpetually ‘in-motion’ and suddenly more visible through the connectedness of post-scarcity culture. (hoskins b: ) in the new culture of connectivity relationships are forged transmedially, both in the real and in the virtual world. translation, as a culturally and socially-informed practice, and translators’ agency in what hoskins terms “the connective turn” need to be looked at, i propose, from this point of view, in their capacity for creativity and collaboration stimulated by network technologies. as translation is “a kind of cultural kinship arrangement” (cronin : ) that goes beyond the assimilationist paradigm of space, examining the way cultures relate to each other both online and offline invites a new type of engineering that englobes the geographical space alongside the vastness of web . . since the pervasiveness of the digital has affected literary translation less than other types of translation, such an examination should not divorce place-as-we-have-known-it and ought to explore how the offline relates to the online. this stance is so much the more suitable since literary translation journals, platforms, or blogs are an advertising extension of the print. to this extent cronin adopts markus novak’s notion of ‘transarchitecture’ in order to account for a new digital reality, ‘a liquid architecture that is transmitted across the global information networks; within physical space it exists as an invisible electronic double superimposed on our material world.’ (marcus novak ( ) cited in cronin : ) for cronin, the transarchitectural is underpinned by the same promise for creativity and expansion, as “the micro-spaces of the transarchitectural become portals, not bolt-holes. any point in physical space is doubled by a potential point of entry into the vastness of computer networks.” ( : ) unlike macro-modernity, which views difference as oppositional by entertaining an assimilationist, dichotomous paradigm—host spaces receiving multilingual guest speakers that are forced to learn a dominant idiom (cronin )—micro-modernity looks for the company of strangers and takes advantage from the disintermediated access to the virtual space to establish connections. in this digital space, i argue, translation should not be necessarily analysed in terms of social networks, but as an information network fuelled by users through free labor—large corpora that exist in themselves and are critically dealt with by readers at any time. such critical treatment— otherwise known as “the network effect” —may lead to further refashionings of a translated text and, consequently, to a radically different way of connecting to the audience. besides a novel mode of translator-reader interaction, the digital space lends itself very well to new modes of author-translator associations. in the era of transnationalism and digital communication, contemporary literary translation appears to trigger various international collaborations that go beyond institutionalized practices, being rather driven by private initiative and by tight author-translator relationships. some of these collaborations have materialized in voluntary online associations/networks of agents (editors, translators, proofreaders, etc.) whose main aim is the popularization of literature originating in small countries or in languages that have been less translated. it has become much easier for such authors to cross the borders of their national literatures and become visible on the stage of world literature, as the post-gutenberg era helps them circumvent the economic and physical barriers presented by traditional print venues. a phenomenon where increased numbers of people or participants improves the value of a good or service (cf . investopedia). similarly, literary translators have started to find ways of soliciting the attention of audiences, and therefore have become involved in advertising the products they work on. the shift from the economy of production to an economy of promotion did not affect only cyber-actants, but also translation itself in terms of quality: as digital consumers’ attention cannot be as vast as the cyberspace, the quality of translations remains the only viable way to attract attention (cronin ). in chaos media, stephen kennedy discusses the virtues of digital space and, drawing on leibniz, underlines the fact that one of its main features is the precedence of the qualitative over the quantitative: “[…] a series of interconnections that need to be understood as relative and qualitative phenomena.” ( : , emphases mine) he then goes on to discuss foucault’s perception of space, which reveals a critique of “total history and the monolithical temporal blocs that it imposes” ( : ) at the expense of “specific, singular, local events.” (id.) kennedy characterizes digital space as a network of qualitatively connected floating locations. in much the same way, translations in digital space are freed of their spatial, geographic limits—they are offered more opportunities to exist by themselves and in themselves and, at the same time, together with other translations from different cultures—and thus all become freely traveling “echostates” (echoic statements) ( : et infra). furthermore, translators acquire a higher degree of mobility, a mobility different from the institutional one, and less dependent on financial circumstances. young or established translators take advantage of the liberties offered by blogs, online journals, and various electronic literary platforms, thus joining the network of digital publishing alongside that of translation. the concept of “sonic economy” that kennedy advances as typical of digital space is “an appropriately dynamic, mobile mode of analysis […]: one not tethered to representation, one that can accommodate an almost perpetually shifting ground.” (kennedy : web) it was designed to account for the complexities of contemporary technologically mediated environments and “sets out a mode of thought in which multiple aspects of production, communication and exchange are assigned and/or assume interrelated value, duration, and speed/tempo.” (id.) translation as transmedial embodiment—both representation and echoic statement that embodies text, culture, and ideology—takes stock of chaos, understood not as disarray, but as patterning, “as a relative continuity punctuated by difference,” (kennedy : ) rather than an immovable universal phenomenon. . . . translators—the digital connection the romanian literary scene has quickly caught up with the affordances of digital space. its use of such affordances ranges from personal literary blogs or simply making available the .pdf file of the printed journal, to hybrid websites (like poesis international ) and online literary platforms (zona nouă). however, only a few of these more complex initiatives take place exclusively online: many are extensions of traditional print venues that use digital space to expand their reach beyond print. those that stay exclusively online are either affiliated to mainstream literary entities (such as the literary translation journal of the writers’ union or polirom’s literary supplement ) or are various writers’ private initiatives, like crevice.ro—online multimedia literary journal, curated by young poet andra rotaru. the latter hosts a network of emerging romanian writers presented on the “poetry shelf” page alongside one of international writers translated into romanian. we find http://poesisinternational.com/ www.filialatradlit-buc-usr.ro suplimentul de cultură: www.suplimentuldecultura.ro www.crevice.ro http://poesisinternational.com/ http://www.filialatradlit-buc-usr.ro/ http://www.suplimentuldecultura.ro/ http://www.crevice.ro/ here names like u.s. poet lloyd schwartz , translated by young poet tiberiu neacșu, daniel owen of brooklyn-based ugly duckling press, or henry finch. the network that undergirds such a project is not complicated to track and is perhaps entirely based on friendship and literary affinities: for instance, in one interview tara skurtu identifies lloyd schwartz as her mentor in the creative writing mfa program at the university of boston and it is no wonder that it is her partner, tiberiu neacșu, that translates schwartz’s text on crevice.ro. this is not to offer unnecessary glimpses of romanian writers’ personal lives, but to emphasize, once again, that personal networks and private initiatives are salient in contemporary poetry translation: in an interview for the rumpus on the occasion of launching her latest book, skurtu declares that she and neacșu are “the american/romanian poetry-portal super duo, and [they] aim to get more u.s. poets known [in romania] and more romanian poets known in the u.s. and beyond.” (anderson ) another fully online literary journal is egophobia, founded and run by germany-based poet and mathematician sorin-mihai grad and philosophy professor and poet Ștefan bolea. with a history of issues as of april , egophobia has been hosting a sizeable amount of north american contemporary poetry in translation, from transnational derek walcott to americans gary snyder, michael heller, or canadian seymour mayne. what started in june as a literary venue for self-promotion—“a journal in which to invest time, ideas, and effort, but mostly schwartz, lloyd. . “lucifer in new york.” web: https://crevice.ro/lucifer-in-new-york/ owen, daniel. . “washing dishes by starlight,” “good fellowship of dust,” etc. web: https://crevice.ro/the- hardness-of-the-stone/ finch, henry. . “hot still scape,” “the bear and the hammer,” etc. web: https://crevice.ro/hot-still-scape/ walcott, derek. . “poeme de derek walcott.” (monica manolachi, trans.) in egophobia . web: http://egophobia.ro/?p= snyder, gary. . “poeme de gary snyder.” (raluca tanasescu, trans.) in egophobia . web: http://egophobia.ro/?p= heller, michael. . “poeme de michael heller.” (raluca tanasescu, trans.) in egophobia . web: http://egophobia.ro/?p= mayne, seymour. . “poeme de seymour mayne.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in egophobia : http://egophobia.ro/?p= https://crevice.ro/lucifer-in-new-york/ https://crevice.ro/the-hardness-of-the-stone/ https://crevice.ro/the-hardness-of-the-stone/ https://crevice.ro/hot-still-scape/ http://egophobia.ro/?p= http://egophobia.ro/?p= http://egophobia.ro/?p= http://egophobia.ro/?p= [the owners’] literature in which no one believes but [themselves]” —gathered a considerable network of collaborators who have been providing constant content, actually all subject to blind reviews, for the past fourteen years. a similar enterprise is tiuk! , which has been published exclusively online since . with a dedicated translation section that presents republications or new translations, this journal provides all the content for free. a more recent literary initiative is subcapitol.ro, a website with a pithy visual component, where scattered translations appear alongside poems by romanian authors. there is no search widget, therefore one cannot distinguish between translations and non-translations unless one clicks the featured image and opens the desired page. out of the online initiatives that unfold on a multi-layered network, both online and offline, zona nouă appears to be the most promising project run by young writers. according to chivu ( ), the initiative started out of a literary circle run by poets radu vancu and dragoș varga at lucian blaga university in sibiu and took the shape of a print journal in (zona nouă), a literary platform (www.zonanoua.com) in , and a festival (the zona nouă international poetry festival) in . financially supported by the lucian blaga university, by the local transilvania literary journal and the astra library, the project still owes a lot to the butterfly effect of literature. what started as a publication venue for literature students and young poets in sibiu soon became a the authors jocosely conclude: “so two self-proclaimed poets, bolea and grad, suddenly decided they wanted a journal that won’t reject their writings, they looked for a bunch of collaborators with similar expectations and we found ourselves with yet another so-called literary magazine on the local web.” (grad : web) www.tiuk.reea.net. a valuable example is the republication of a.e. baconsky’s translation of “grass,” by carl sandburg: http://bit.ly/ qy nh. they host translations from various languages, including from u.s. contemporary poets like jim harrison (translated by vlad drăgoi: http://bit.ly/ gyilme and http://bit.ly/ qxemnh). a recent example is a translation by radu vancu from the work of tara skurtu: http://bit.ly/ jnxyng. http://www.zonanoua.com/ http://www.tiuk.reea.net/ http://bit.ly/ qy nh http://bit.ly/ gyilme http://bit.ly/ qxemnh http://bit.ly/ jnxyng publication with a wider scope based one the desire of these young people to connect and to look for resources and practices beyond the national border: after we met young foreign writers and saw what they did in terms of literature and journalism, we started to want to do more and we began to have new poets and young fiction writers from all over the world join us by translating their work, asking them questions, trying to understand better what they did, and also to show what we read, what we discover, and what we like to those of them who were interested. (vasiliu : web) this long-distance networking resulted in two anthologies, one of ten spanish poets under thirty, and one of fourteen north-american young writers, as well as in a festival in , where they all met in the flesh and started developing new connections for further collaborations. as vlad pojoga—the editor-in-chief of zona nouă—recounts, the writers who took part in the festival “were following each other on facebook, instagram, and blogs, and formed a totally new generation, fully digital and very, very fresh.” (vasiliu ibid.) pojoga also recounts how they connected through one of the participants to other writers in many other countries, from the czech republic to portugal to south america, how they animated the city during the festival through volunteers who put up poems on fliers, telephone poles, laptops, wallets, in bookstores, libraries, and pubs. the networks formed online resumed communication in real life and then went back online. however, a different pattern can be noticed for the network of the texts that were exchanged and translated (figure ). supported by various institutions, zona nouă is sold in bookstores and through mail orders and not much content is actually open access, not even a few months after the publication of any of the issues. the content produced by fully-digital young poets remains very much offline. the website hosts only minimal content meant to guide readers to the actual print journal. in the case of the anthology of young american poets translated into romanian —actually a selection of fourteen writers hosted in a double magazine issue in — there is even a dedicated order form on the website. this example shows how digital space enables and furthers literary communication and writer networks and how it may serve in terms of marketing and distribution. the group’s use of the available technology, the image-based concept of the web page that offers minimal content, and the frequently updated facebook pages may suggest an inherently digital, hip endeavor when, in reality, it is a traditional publishing enterprise that is fuelled by a network of born-digital writers. figure . the circulation of translations in the zona nouă complex network. a third category of literary initiatives in digital space are literary platforms, which publish literature, non-fiction, criticism, cultural news, interviews, and inquiries. two of such endeavors are semnebune.ro and liternet.ro. semne bune started up in as an independent mouthpiece for the benefit of romanian publishers, essentially aiming at increasing the number of readers in general, especially among the youth. in , their offer diversified and now the website contains a very wide range of materials, from theater reviews to translations. the latter are seen as a ***. . “everything in its right place.” in zona nouă - . “playground,” brimful of creativity, and may be found in various sections of the website. liternet was founded and launched in as a website to promote romanian literature, but only two years later its scope was expanded, so that now it hosts a slew of different sections, from e-publications to music news. translations are usually hosted in the “atelier liternet” section, alongside theoretical essays on the craft of translation , interviews with translators, and translation reviews. under the moniker “poem of the week” one may find both poems in the original language and translations and the rubric is once in a while curated by a poet (http://bit.ly/ hsooyf). finally, like any other artists, poets have their own fandom and the dialogue with them often takes place on personal blogs, where the readers talk back through spatially-connected comments. fans, or readers, provide almost instant feedback and thus become participants in the creative process besides being authors of the respective blog themselves. while traditional media studies have considered blogging as “a space for one person to voice their opinion,” (booth : ) more recent approaches include readers as content makers and community builders, while blogs are seen as documents permanently expanded by comment additions, not only the owner’s publishing new posts (id.). if print capitalism led to a series of large-scale projects of ethnic affinity (appadurai : ), translation in the new economy of attention becomes a living text that gathers around it readers and agents with similar literary tastes, thus encouraging congregations of literary affinity that float in an indefinite space. for instance, some of seymour mayne’s word sonnets (http://bit.ly/ qxjaav), david baker’s (http://bit.ly/ hbwa ) and bruce bond’s (http://bit.ly/ qx fnv) most recent poems in romanian translation (all by chris tanasescu) or vlad a. gheorghiu’s translation of gregory corso (http://bit.ly/ vd dz) are listed in the section preface, which also hosts book launch ads and interviews. liternet.ro hosts a large amount of essays signed by bogdan ghiu, translation theorist and translator of m. foucault, j. derrida, p. bourdieu, g. deleuze, f. guattari, g. bataille, and others into romanian. while a curator of “poem of the week” in and , ioana ieronim published translations from various world poetries, including from the u.s. (christopher merril: http://bit.ly/ has s). liternet also hosted, among others, one of charles bukowski’s poems translated by dan sociu: http://bit.ly/ haobse. http://bit.ly/ hsooyf http://bit.ly/ qxjaav http://bit.ly/ hbwa http://bit.ly/ qx fnv http://bit.ly/ vd dz http://bit.ly/ has s http://bit.ly/ haobse literary blogs in romania are extremely numerous and publishing translations or translation reviews on such blogs is a current practice. for instance, an interesting discussion on the need for yet another anthology of contemporary american poetry has taken place on claudiu komartin’s blog, unanotimpinberceni.blogspot.ro. in a post about u.s. poetry anthologies published in romanian before , komartin provides his ideal line-up of contemporary american poets and evokes a number of other poets preferred by various romanian authors who commented on this piece of writing. the blog post also reveals the names of several translators that this community considers as experimented, like chris tanasescu, rareş moldovan, domnica drumea, dan sociu, radu vancu. the twenty-seven comments also contain three translations of poems by anne sexton and w.h. auden, posted by an anonymous user in response to komartin’s piece, without any other remark. each translation mentions the name of the translator, petru dimofte, a name i have not come across in any other context except for the digital one. further research does not reveal anything about this translator except for the hundreds of poems he has translated and published on various websites. however self-effacing the translator, the romanian versions he offers are good, while other translations from more formal poets published by him elsewhere are sometimes excellent. a final example is a translation-dedicated blog by young poet florin buzdugan, traduceriledesambata.wordpress.ro, where young translators offer their versions for poems by john berryman , james laughlin , daniel borzutzky , or sam hamill . komartin’s choices are: “john ashbery / w.h. auden / ted berrigan / john berryman / charles bukowski / billy collins / gregory corso / lawrence ferlinghetti / allen ginsberg / louise glück / jack kerouac / denise levertov / philip levine / robert lowell / w.s. merwin / frank o'hara / charles olson / robert pinsky / sylvia plath / elizabeth bishop / kenneth rexroth / anne sexton / charles simic / w.d. snodgrass / gary snyder / mark strand.” ( : web) berryman, john. . “două poeme de john berryman.” (ioana ungureanu, trans.) web: http://bit.ly/ h vhwl laughlin, james. . “trei poeme de james laughlin.” (ioana ungureanu, trans.) web: http://bit.ly/ hrnpmr borzutzky, daniel. . “două poeme de daniel borzutzky.” (ioana ungureanu, trans.) web: http://bit.ly/ jrd l ; and borzutzky, daniel. . “poem de stat.” (ioana ungureanu, trans.) web: http://bit.ly/ h pamt hamill, sam. . “poemul new-yorkez; ceea ce știe apa.” (florin buzdugan, trans.) web: http://bit.ly/ jlduff http://bit.ly/ h vhwl http://bit.ly/ hrnpmr http://bit.ly/ jrd l http://bit.ly/ h pamt http://bit.ly/ jlduff *** poetry translation in digital space is a current practice, but how does it affect translation as we know it? how does digital space enable translation? e-zines preserve intermediation through dedicated editing teams but disrupt other links in the trade publishing chain, such as printers, distributors, and retailers, and they enhance users’ access. digital space is not marred by the idea of translation as a second-rate text, as it is rarely presented alongside the original, and when it is, the two texts are not both on the same page: original and translation live their own separate lives due to the affordance of hyperlinks. moreover, whenever accompanied by images, translation becomes performed, visually-enhanced, itself translated into image. last but not least, digital space does not entertain obsolescence and therefore re-translation is generally far from being perceived as necessarily needed. besides offering instant access, the online also allows translators a high degree of liberty and the possibility of permanent revisions. translations thus become living texts, embodiments of their translator’s agency and of their readers’ feedback, or, in kennedy’s words, echostatements. chapter . chaos out of order: translations of american and canadian contemporary poetry into romanian before . . translators’ agency in a centralized (‘star-like’) translation network the purpose of this chapter in the economy of this research is twofold. after chapter explored translation features published in the print periodical network between and and illustrated the theoretical framework provided in the introductory section and in chapter , i set out to provide what i believe is a much needed brief historical overview of the role played by such literary journals in the circulation of u.s. and canadian modern and contemporary poetry translated into romanian before . chapter is intentionally displaced from a chronological point of view because it does not only facilitate a better understanding of why print periodicals have been so important in romanian literary history, but it also aims to describe the network of translated contemporary poetry author-collections and anthologies before the fall of communism. in doing so, it sets the context for investigating the translated book publishing network after , which i broach in the final chapter. understanding the practices of romanian poetry translators before and between the two world wars and then during the difficult years of communist rule is necessary because it allows us to have a better grasp of why and how translation happened, how such mechanisms were perpetuated after the country’s political status changed, and, more importantly for my objectives, what was the role of translators in shaping a corpus of american and canadian contemporary poetry. first, i point out the importance of literary translation for shaping up romanian poetry as we know it today, as well as the role played by poet-translators in this process. my contention is that modern and contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry translation between and owes greatly its existence to romanian poets’ work: while the overwhelming majority of author- collections were published by univers press, the landscape of poetry anthologies is more varied and emphasizes the essential role translators have always played. second, and in parallel, this chapter underscores the central position that literary journals have always had in the activity of literary translation, alongside translators’ initiatives and cultural mobility. while it can be argued that journals are institution-like structures that shape the taste of their audiences, in romania we have witnessed a reversal of this situation: most literary periodicals were founded or changed their orientation according to the taste of their following. finally, i posit that poetry translation in romania has followed its own pattern and was not only influenced by the practices of more hegemonic cultures: while their taste did have a role in modelling the translators’ wish to align romanian culture to the more established ones, patterns were also largely determined by translators’ personality, historical circumstances, and translators’ networks. the latest research carried out by various scholars on the position of romanian literature within and as world literature (martin, moraru, and terian, eds. ) conjectures that “the emphasis on the nation-state as a “basic unit” of analysis and on nationalism broadly can be defined […] as the tendency of a system to limit cultural mobility.” (goldiș : ) or, as these scholars demonstrate, romanian literary history, including the translations it contains, has never been subsumed to a static mode of existence, but to a deeply transnational traffic of cultural goods, “no matter how “marginal,” stable, all-of-a-piece, and well configured most literary histories picture them.” (ibid.: ) this new criticism of the old modes of analysis of europe’s southeastern the year the literary society junimea was founded, marking the beginning of modern romanian literature. peripheries includes the “original vs. translation” model, which they regard as obsolete and non- reflective of the mergers cultures establish and of the multiple cultural memberships foreign writers acquire through translation. alex goldiș proposes an interactional model for the analysis of literary histories grounded in stephen greenblatt’s notion of “cultural mobility” (greenblatt ) and notes that instead of trying to fill the gaps of national literary history by linking the numerous translations from allen ginsberg, for instance, to an autochtonous tradition, one may benefit more from an interactional model that unearths those geocultural nodes which enabled the meeting of the romanian and u.s. cultures and stimulated them. carmen mușat ( ) too goes beyond the imitation stereotype and analyzes the importance of geocultural networks for the rise of modern romanian literature. to her, looking at others does not mean imitation or a derivative body of work, but a highly formative act engendered by new aesthetic protocols, concordance, and kinship, all marked by the idea of exchange and not by mere emulation. mușat argues that the perpetually shifting borders of that part of europe have created a more complex literary environment, marked not by one national identity, but by multiple, “intersectional,” and “nodal” identities. a short relaxation in an otherwise very strict communist ideology during the late s and the early s had french structuralism enter romanian universities and caused a massive interest in the french nouveau roman and in contemporary american poetry. the interest in the latter was furthered by the large number of romanian writers and professors emigrating to the u.s. and also to canada after the cultural liberalization ended in the late s. as we shall see, they were salient in proposing anthologies mirroring their new cultures of adoption and influenced a whole new generation of writers, the the so-called ‘generation of the s,’ whose representatives integrated new american writing in their own postmodern work, as a reaction to a pithy european complex. according to mușat, this process happened in perfect synchronicity with american postmodernism and took place through a series of translations done in the s, a moment of perfect synchrony with the world’s literature. the corpus of author-collections (figure a and figure b) translated before and marking this generations’s interest in their american counterparts (diane wakoski, frank o’hara, alongside pound, plath, eliot, w. stevens, t. roethke, w.d. snoddgrass, and w.s. merwin) form a disconnected network dominated by a ‘star-like’ giant component—univers press as a central hub of translations from contemporary poets (higher clustering and higher average density, cf. annex ): figure a. contemporary u.s. poetry collections translated before . legend: red = publishers, blue = authors the most central and influential nodes are univers press and ezra pound both in g and g . however, it is the disconnected component, the translation published by albatros, which would be republished after , while none of the other translations have ever been republished. the only poets retranslated by different translators after are t.s. eliot and ezra pound. data visualization alone does not point to translators’ agency. when translators are factored in the visualization, the resulting graph indicates translators constantin abăluță and Ștefan stoenescu as preferred by univers press for contemporary poetry projects and all the others (l. ursu, i. caraion, v. teodorescu, p. negoșanu, ioan a. popa, and v. nicolescu,) as potentially having a more important role in the decision-making process prior to the publication of these translations: figure b. network of publishers, authors, and translators before . legend: red = publishers, blue = authors, green = translators throughout this chapter, i investigate available second sources and paratexts in an attempt to trace agency patterns related to the beginnings of american and canadian english-language translation into romanian that might have continued after . the only pre- translations included in the retranslation of poems by ezra pound ( ) and t.s. eliot ( ) published by humanitas belong to mircea ivănescu, who had included those poems in his anthology. . . the earliest connections to the ‘new world’ ( - ) in , romanian statesman, historian, and publicist mihail kogălniceanu had made what appears as a controversial, unsubstantiated statement: “translations do not make a literature.” kogălniceanu’s attitude was determined by the doubtful taste of romanian aristocrats for mediocre french poetry and, subsequently, by a series of low-grade translations from the french. his remark was only one moment in kogălniceanu’s goal for his newly-established dacia literară, a journal for the romanians in all three historic provinces, to promote original, local literature—inspired by romanian folklore and history—as well as an objective literary critique. however, it can be easily surmised that translations continued to play an important role in these provinces. as historian jános kohn aptly notes in one of the few overviews of this country’s tradition in translations that: the flourishing of translation activity during the nineteenth century had an enduring influence on romanian cultural life and helped to bring romania closer to the rest of europe. the influence of french culture could be seen in the overall process of modernization which began to take place. ( : ) indeed so, the beginnings of the activity of literary translation owe a lot to french, both as source language and as a bridge for those languages that were unfamiliar to the romanians. this process even led to the formation of the local literary language. the historical and religious writings of the th century had showcased a rigid language (with the exception of dosoftei ), which started to assimilate words from turkish, greek and russian in the th century, becoming almost incomprehensible. but romanians started to learn french and adopt french manners, also because of the bias caused by the close relationships they had with the russians and the greeks. also, ro. “traducțiile nu fac, totuși, o literatură.” (kogălniceanu, mihail. “introducție la dacia literară. (program estetic).” unpaginated. dosoftei ( - ): moldavian priest, scholar, poet, and translator, best known for his psalter in verse (“psaltirea în versuri”)—a translation that played a paramount role in the development of romanian literary language. starting in , french language and literature teaching became mandatory in the greek schools attended by romanian noblemen, and in , after the french (and romanian) revolution, french became the second language of the elite. little by little, the translations done from french enriched the language and modified the syntax. in her la traduction. là où tout est pareil et rien n’est semblable, romanian scholar magda jeanrenaud argues that there has been historically an objective necessity for translations from great [major] literatures and explains in very clear terms the utmost influence that translations from french had over the formation of the romanian literary language: c’est donc par l’intermédiaire des traductions que la langue roumaine prend conscience de son hétérogénéité, de son désordre, de sa pauvreté et ceci par le double effort de compréhension et de transposition des textes français dans le travail de traduction. […] le français aurait ainsi servi de principe ordonnateur, capable de déterminer l’appréhension du désordre, mais aussi d’offrir les instruments nécessaires pour y réagir. ( : ) since the second half of the th century, romania has been a strongly francophone country in spite of its distance from france and of the fact that this is not about a culture, the french, colonizing another culture, the romanian. the two countries had strong cultural, political and economic ties between the mid- th century and the beginning of the th, doubled by an extraordinary large number of translations from french literature that was aimed at compensating for the lack of strong literary production in romania. at the same time, they were both romance languages, a reality that had a great influence on the interest of many romanian upper class people in pursuing their studies in france. magda jeanrenaud rightfully concludes: « pour que cette littérature ‘morte’ ressuscite, il aura fallu un miracle et ce miracle eut lieu sous l’influence de la civilisation française […] » (ibid.: ) american literature became popular in moldova and wallachia due to the appeal of the enlightenment to the intellectuals of that time, and the beginnings of this activity takes place through the intermediary of french translations done by baudelaire or mallarmé. in transylvania, the mechanism was a bit different, because of the education that children of local boyars used to receive in paris, berlin, pisa, and vienna. if in the th century translations were meant only to bring prestige to the vernacular language and the th century was mostly marked by nationalism, resistance to foreign leanings, and translations limited to church doctrines and practical matters, the beginning of the th shifted the interest to the subject matter of such foreign texts. that is why the first american author whose work was ever translated into romanian was benjamin franklin— a philosopher and political theorist that was much admired for his common sense wisdom— followed by authors such as thomas jefferson or thomas paine. franklin’s experiments and interest in technological progress gained traction in transylvania towards the end of the th century. his livres de sagesse were much appreciated at the time and also, very importantly, approved by the orthodox church, but his literary works were translated only later. the flourishing of literary translations into romanian is related to the appearance of literary supplements. curierul românesc ( ), founded by ion heliade rădulescu in bucharest, albina românească, established at iași by gheorghe asachi, mozaicul, started by contantin lecca in craiova (oltenia), or gazeta de transilvania and foaie pentru minte, inimă și literatură, founded by george barițiu and timotei cipariu in transylvania, were instrumental in promoting literature in translation in all romanian principalities. it was due to such intellectuals that wallachians and moldavians learned about robertson’s history of america, niagara falls, the american declaration of independence, the american constitution, and about the american way of life in general. translated in by historian and academic simion bărnuțiu. let us turn back to kogălniceanu’s remark that translations do not make a literature. as paul cernat rightfully observes in his suggestively titled piece—“translations do make a literature” ( : web, emphasis mine) —, “[this remark] needs to be taken with a grain of salt: not as a form of cultural protectionism, but as a compensatory reaction against the excess of (superficially) executed adaptations, at the expense of original, local literary production.” (ibid.) rightfully so, kogălniceanu’s contribution to the development of literary translation was salient. he edited an almanac in the tradition of benjamin franklin and also declared that “[j]ournalism should follow the example of franklin.” (cited in perry : ). his own prose was modeled on franklin’s, albeit drawing heavily on romanian folk culture. kogălniceanu was part of the generation, the pașoptist, known for shaping political structures and for “providing the start toward a genuine, distinctive literature,” (perry ibid.) as well as for its synchronization with world literature. that happened especially after the union of moldova and wallachia under the rule of alexandru ioan cuza in , when various intellectuals trained in france or germany started to show interest in aligning their home culture to the western european and american ones. the interest shifted from the subject matter to the literary values of alien cultures. in this context, romania’s first literary critic, titu maiorescu, founder of the junimea (youth) society and of the convorbiri literare journal ( ), was a professed ‘retentionist’ and a fervent adversary of the ‘contentless forms,’ that is, the social and cultural life that slavishly imitates foreign models without being well-prepared to do so or that adopts foreign traditions which do not resonate with the cultural legacy of the romanian people. maiorescu dedicated special attention to new realist authors, such as americans brent harte and mark twain. and in his study titled “o cercetare critică asupra poeziei române de la ,” (a critical overview of romanian poetry as of ) maiorescu introduces his colleagues at junimea to the work of edgar allan poe through the latter’s celebrated poem the raven, arguably the first contact between the romanian and american poetry, via translations done in france by charles baudelaire, stéphane mallarmé and paul valéry (călinescu ). while baudelaire saw poe as a victim of american democracy and as a martyr in the catalogue of modern artistic alienation,” (călinescu ibid.: ) thomas amherst perry argues that the romanian critic was attracted by poe’s crusading attack on mediocrity and the attention to craftsmanship,” (ibid.: ) but also by poe’s philosophy of composition, which maiorescu thought should stress “rich overtones that expand meaning and feeling.” (id.) maiorescu’s admiration for poe bore immediate fruit: mihai eminescu—destined to become romania’s leading poet, and ion luca caragiale—later on the most valuable romanian playwright— became familiar with poe’s work and even translated quite extensively passages from his fiction. unlike baudelaire, who saw america as the embodiment of modern democracy, “which is nothing but the triumph of that which is both most natural and worst in man (self-interest, aggressiveness, herd instinct, etc.),” (ibid.: ) both romanian writers were attracted by poe’s use of folk motifs, by how his realism mingled with the supernatural, by his satirical overtones, alongside the paradoxical mixture of feelings, order, and reason. however, it is not eminescu or caragiale who translated from poe’s poetry. the raven is first translated at the beginning of the s, making it one of the texts that marked the arrival of modernism in romanian literature. poet and literary theorist alexandru macedonski, one of maiorescu’s opponents and a symbolist poet experimenting with free verse, showed an overt interest in the american’s poetry and qualified the raven as very “original and unsurpassed as fantasy.” (verzea: - , cited in perry ) macedonski’s associates translated the raven times between and , all but one rendered in prose. the first version in verse is the one published by i. c. săvescu in liga literară in . caragiale’s less famous son, luca ion caragiale— poet, novelist, and translator—, also “renders successfully the raven,” (szabo : ) published posthumously in in viața românească. viața românească has been one of the most influential journals in the literary history of romania, which owes its status to its long-time editor- in-chief garabet ibrăileanu, a promoter of “an interactive model of national cultures based on the dynamic character of global space.” (goldiș : ) as goldiș further notes, in spite of the rather nationalist tone of ibrăileanu’s own writing, his view of world literature is not anchored in a model of stable national cultures—quite an original take on the world’s literary map for his time. another version by george murnu (writer, translator and literary historian) is published that very same year in revista fundațiilor regale—the most reputed romanian cultural magazine between the two world wars, which only a few months later features a selection of poe’s poems translated by emil gulian, himself a poet. the selection was a preview of the volume published by gulian the following year: poems of edgar allan poe —“the first translation in book form by a single romanian translator.” (cotrău : ) later on poe’s popularity among romanian writers leads to another book of translations, titled poezii și poeme, this time under the umbrella of editura tineretului and translated by mihu dragomir, another poet, fiction writer and translator, a former cultural officer in the romanian communist party-affiliated organization of progressive youth and also an editor for various literary publications after world war ii. with mihu, poe enters a more institutionalized mode of translation, though one that does not want to do away with previous valuable versions. gulian’s rendition of the raven and of poe’s poems in general remains poe, edgar allan. . “corbul.” (l. i. caragiale, trans.) in viața românească xxix ( ): - . poe, edgar allan. . “corbul.” (g. murnu, trans.) in revista fundațiilor regale iv ( ): - . gulian, emil. . „poeme din edgar poe”. in revista fundațiilor regale iv ( ): - . poe, edgar allan. . poemele lui edgar allan poe (emil gulian, trans., foreword). bucurești: editura fundațiilor regale pentru literatură si artă. poe, edgar allan. . poezii si poeme (mihu dragomir, trans., foreword). bucurești: editura tineretului. the most popular (carlson ). the volume he published in at eplu bears the following subtitle: “translated from the english in their [original] meter, and with an introduction by emil gulian,” probably a response to the many previous renditions dubbed as ‘prose poems’, after the french fashion. however, the first attempt to translate poe’s the raven in rhymed verse belonged to g. d. pencioiu, who turned to a german version (ibid.). in , eplu publishes yet another selection of poe’s prose and poems, in which they include gulian’s translations alongside a version of the same text by dan botta, a poet and translator that belonged to the same generation as gulian. the book is re-edited in , followed by a fifth edition in . finally, in , editura univers publishes yet another selection of translations of corbul, versions of the raven by romanian translators, whose work covers only part of the impressive number of translations published starting in . a bibliographical study put together by the metropolitan library in bucharest lists features of corbul in periodicals between and and critical references to poe’s work, which bears witness to the immense influence the american poet had on modern romanian literature, as well as to the essential role played by individuals in disseminating his work through translation. a radiography of poe’s romanian translators shows that most of them were poets, among whom the american counterpart was extremely popular for his craft, outlined best in his the [ro.] traduse din limba engleză în forma lor cu un studiu introductiv de emil gulian. poe, edgar allan. . “corbul” (gripen = g. d pencioiu, trans.). in românul literar : . poe, edgar allan. / . scrieri alese (emil gulian and dan botta, trans.). bucurești: editura pentru literatură universală. poe, edgar allan. . scrieri alese (În româneste de ion vinea, constantin vonghizaș, emil gulian și dan botta; studiu introductiv de zoe dumitrescu-bușulenga). bucurești: univers. poe, edgar allan. . annabel lee și alte poeme (ediție îngrijită, prefață, cronologie și comentarii de liviu cotrău). bucurești: univers. available online at http://bit.ly/ efqwxt. st.[efan] p.[etică] ( ; poet); axelrad luca ( , jewish-romanian poet, translator, and publisher); nicolae daşcovici ( ; lawyer, historian, and publisher); emil gulian ( / / / ; poet); mihu dragomir ( ; poet, fiction writer); dan botta ( / / ; poet and essayist); g. d. pencioiu (gripen) ( , , , , http://bit.ly/ efqwxt philosophy of composition ( ). the essay on the romanian translations of poe, signed by liviu cotrău, rightfully notes that “the fact that three of romania’s most distinguished writers had chosen to translate [him] was to contribute decisively to his fame.” ( : ) poe’s impact does not cease with the end of modernism. matei călinescu ( ) demonstrates the american’s influence over the work of one of the most important romanian avant-garde poets, ion barbu, while cosmin ciotloș ( ) notes his impact on contemporary poet ioan es. pop’s ieudul fără ieșire (locked ieud), a cult-book of the s, typically seen as an alternative and personal history of the troubled communist period. the next in the series of american poets started by poe was henry wadsworth longfellow, first translated by bonifaciu florescu, a french professor and a historian of culture, associated with macedonski and a defendant of prosody. his versions, along with others that followed (by vasile alexandrescu-urechia or george coșbuc), were mostly published in the independent vatra (the hearth), and from the french. according to perry, “excelsior” is translated at least seven times by the end of the th century. the first translation from the english was done by poet Șt. o. iosif in . at the beginning of the th century, nicolae iorga, historian and literary critic extraordinaire, founded semănătorul, a moderate literary magazine that brought together independent-minded writers such as iosif, george coșbuc, ioan slavici and caragiale, all interested in longfellow’s work, lawyer, translator, travel writer); iuliu cezar săvescu ( , , , poet, translator); l. i. caragiale ( , , poet, novelist, translator); george murnu ( , , historian, translator, poet); n. parsenna ( , , poetry translator); p. p. stănescu ( , , , unidentified); teodor boşca ( , , playwright, translator); petre solomon ( , , professor of english, translator); mihaela haşeganu ( , , poet, translator); marcel breslaşu ( , , poet, composer, translator); i. cassian mătăsaru ( , , poet, translator); ovidiu bogdan ( , , unidentified); i. s. sp.[artali] ( , journalist, translator); i. th.[eodorescu] ( , unidentified); i. d. ghiocel ( , unidentified); dim. c. zavalide ( , journalist, translator); horia petra-petrescu ( , journalist, playwright, prose writer, translator); alexandru viţianu ( , poet, prose writer); paul sterian ( , poet, civil servant); alexandru t. stamatiad ( , poet, prose writer, playwright, translator); Ştefan augustin doinaş ( , , poet). ironically, he renders longfellow’s “excelsior” and “psalm of life” in prose. in his topics, and tone. verzea notes that Șt. o. iosif was attracted by longfellow’s “optimism, lively rhythms, sentimentalism, and moral tone,” (perry ibid.: ), while perry also adds the sweet sentimental sadness that would have matched iosif’s own tone (ibid.: ). iorga also becomes acquainted with ralph waldo emerson, from whose work he translates three poems—“freedom,” “fate,” and “pan,” which catered to romanians’ taste for realism, but also the sensible and the fantastic-mysterious. . . u.s. poetry translation between the two world wars with the birth of greater romania in and fueled by the victory of the allies, the country experienced a real synchronization with western europe. translations from american poetry via the french diminished in number, as romanian translators became familiar with the english and started translating from the original language. before the great war, an important moment for this activity had been the upgrade of the american diplomatic representation in bucharest to that of a legation and the appointment of eugene schuyler as diplomatic agent and general consul. schuyler and the following diplomats contributed to increasing trade between the two countries and american writers became more widely read. in addition, cultural exchanges with the new world started playing a role of paramount importance. iorga began collaboration with a romanian-american newspaper in cleveland—america—and various delegations of romanian writers participated in the meetings of pen club international. in bucharest, sculptor constantin brâncuși and musician george enescu are among the ones who establish a society for friendship with the united states, under the patronage of queen mary in . nine more translations of poe’s the raven were published between the two world wars, but the literary genre of preference remained fiction. romanians began to also show interest in critical articles on such writers, as well as in studies on american literature in general, with poe and whitman listed as “the american poets of first water.” (perry ibid.: ) but their attention is mostly focused on literary matters at home, on creating a cultural unity alongside the political one. many of the translators committed to opening romanian culture to american culture were men of letters, especially poets engaged in the debate between synchronism and protochronism, as kohn aptly notes in his entry on romanian translations: “during the first half of the twentieth century, a number of excellent translations were published by scholars who were established poets in their own right.” (ibid.: ) one of the few american poets that joined the ranks of romanian literature aficionados at the beginning of the century was walt whitman. the romanian avantgarde writers, although displaying a clear penchant for french literature, found a great model in whitman’s free verse, which served perfectly the rhythms of the local language. tudor arghezi translated “the gods,” while tristan tzara offered two renditions of “song of myself” in and (cf. perry ). the union of all the historic romanian provinces into one coherent country in brought along an awareness of a real danger the romanian culture faced: that of being perceived as a mere appendage of the french. since american culture was trying to assert its independence from british culture, the sympathy between the two strengthened, conscientiously or not. but, as perry shrewdly notes, “[t]he romanians exercised an individuality that set their interests in [american literature] apart from that of other europeans.” (ibid.: ). the selections of poems by poe, longfellow, or whitman were very different from the selections published in french or german, and the critical preferences were different from those in western europe. romanian poets before the word war i showed great interest in transcendental experiences, in the fantastic, the strange, and the absurd, as well as in the craftsmanship of the poets, especially expressed in short lyrics and free verse. the s mark the beginning of an interest in more contemporary american poets, such as edgar lee masters, william carlos williams, or langston hughes. this interest was mainly fueled by three influential books. the first one was america și românii din america ( ), nicolae iorga’s travelogue containing his impressions after a three-month visit to the new continent, in which he concludes that there are elements in this newly established culture that could be useful for the romanian one. in iorga’s spirit, a group of young intellectuals, noua generație, that wanted to go beyond the french influence and open romania to more diverse perspectives, started to be more and more vocal. one of them was petru comarnescu, who won a grant to study in the united states. his book—the second important one in establishing a more substantial relationship with america, homo americanus ( ), sets out to defend the new world and its noble spirit, a reaction to the mockery the country was subject to in western europe. this volume also presents some reflections on american literature: whitman was considered by comarnescu a “true poet,” alongside sandburg and masters, “because of his natural stoicism and resigned, detached observation of scenes of life and death;” (ibid.: ) frost’s poetry was seen as the most interesting mixture of nature and sensitivity; lindsay was appreciated for the mystic and pure notes of his verse, as well as for its biblical rhythms, while pound was extolled for his contributions to “revolutionary” american poetics, and “perfection of form.” (id.) besides this book on his american experience, comarnescu gives lectures in bucharest on american jazz (bârna ) and is the leader of a new generation gathered around the criterion literary circle, together with mircea eliade, mircea vulcănescu, dan botta, margareta sterian, and others. his position was in stark contrast with that of al. i. philippide, who thought that talking about american culture was a bit of a stretch, “for america has only technology.” a third seminal book for the history of poetry translation into romanian is portrete lirice ( ) by ion pillat, one of romania’s greatest modernists. pillat’s work aligned with critic eugen lovinescu’s principles of synchronism and differentiation. according to these two principles, despite the fact that romanian literature generally needs to coordinate its development with other european literatures, its writers should also broach new ways of writing. if romanian modernism is much influenced by established literary models, such as the greek and latin literary production, or french symbolism, it also draws heavily on the themes and myths of its own literary past. this is one of the reasons why interwar romanian poetry deeply resonated with that of t.s. eliot, for example, for whom tradition equated the cultural heritage of all humankind and experimentation was a quintessential part of a poet’s work: “only those who will risk going too far can possibly find out how far one can go.” (eliot : ix). anglo-american modernism was very attractive to pillat because he considered that, just like the romanians, american poets have their national specificity. pillat’s book includes translations from whitman, emily dickinson, edwin arlington robinson, robert frost, carl sandburg, edgar lee masters, vachel lindsay, and amy lowell. his own poetry volume, poezii , contains additional translations from masters and lowell, and includes a new poet in translation—sara teasdale. pillat resonated with their concerns for american folk life, humanism, primitive power, american transcendentalism, multi-planned perspective, rejection of symbol and allegories, preference for conciseness, precision, and condensation, and also with their simplicity without being banal. as perry shrewdly notes, pillat’s translations of eliot are an attempt to philippide, al. i. . “paul morand și americano-mania.” in viața românească - : - . pillat, ion. . poezii (vol. - ). bucurești: editura pentru literatură. synthesize modern poetic techniques, including film and theater devices. in her monography dedicated to the romanian translations of t.s. eliot’s the waste land, roxana bîrsanu notes that “[b]y means of [his] translation agenda, [pillat] revealed his intention to introduce the less known forms of european poetry to romanian redership,” ( : ) and “the preoccupation of romanian letters in the interwar period with reaching a point of convergence between the european spirit and the local forms of expression.” (id.) furthermore, pillat describes the new american poetry as characterized by popular motif, but expressed in sophisticated and refined forms. he recommended american poetry as an example to follow “because it has learned how to assimilate a true expression of its nation’s soul.” (perry ibid.: ) one of the most prominent literary journals of the period was gândirea (the thinking). although a proponent of home-grown traditionalist ideas, this cultural magazine was the literary hub that attracted most of the poets who translated various american poets, like al. busuioceanu— a translator of whitman’s work—, dragoș protopopescu—who translated robinson for his powerful syntax, tense phrases, severity of line, and amplified reticence —, petre grimm—the translator of longfellow’s “evangeline” and “excelsior,” reminiscent of romanian landscape. whitman had been introduced for the first time to romanian audiences by leo bachelin, the librarian of the romanian royal court, in an essay in convorbiri literare ( ). tudor arghezi is the first who translated several whitman poems in their entirety: in he publishes the romanian translation of “dalliance of the eagle” and “gods” in versuri, a newly-founded modernist literary journal. then the symbolist- turned-dadaist tristan tzara translates passages from “song of myself,” attracted by whitman’s irony and word music, which he emphasized in his translations. in , al. i busuioceanu began a “edwin arlington robinson,” published in gândirea , , nr. , p, cited in perry, , p. . series of translations from whitman, attracted by his transcendentalism and preoccupied with an ideological future for romania (“the base of all metaphysics” and “the song of the open road”). other notable translations from whitman’s work belong to lucian blaga (“not youth pertains to me”) and to marxist mihnea gheorghiu, who was attracted by whitman’s socialist thought, optimism, and technical skill as a versifier. the overwhelming majority of translations of whitman into romanian belong to him. a holder of a ph.d. in english and a dean of the school of english language and literature at the university of bucharest, dragoș protopopescu published a study in in gândirea about edgar lee masters, but critic ion caraion translated seventeen poems from the spoon river anthology only in . between and interest in american modernism diminished for obvious historical reasons—including romania’s declaration of war on the united states in december —, with only one notable exception: the anthology prepared in by al. t. stamatiad and published two years later: selections of american poetry ( ), in which he includes translations of poems by minor imagists and experimental poets, such as ralph cheyney, louis gilmore, emmanuel carnevali, david o’neill, alfred kreynborg, leon herald, and marion strobel, along with his translations of poe. whitman, walt. . poeme (traduse din engleză cu un studiu introductiv de al. busuioceanu). bucurești: editura cultura națională. fire de iarbă (editura de stat, . translations in collaboration with ion frunzetti); opere alese (editura de stat pentru literatură și artă, ); fire de iarbă (editura tineretului, ); poeme (editura de stat pentru literatură și artă, ); cântec despre mine (univers, ; ); opere alese (univers, ); leaves of grass (pandora, ). the only selections that were translated by other poets are poeme (margareta sterian, trans.; bucurești: pro pace, ) and poeme. walt whitman and carl sandburg. selected and translated by george macovescu (bucurești: editura eminescu, ). in the new millennium, a press in a small romanian city, deva, publishes a selection of whitman’s work three times, in , , and : the book bears the title fire de iarbă (leaves of grass), a selection made by paulina popa, a poet from deva, and was translated by alimpie grec. no further information was available about this translator. masters, edgar lee. . antologia orășelului spoon river (ion caraion, trans.; virgil nemoianu, foreword). bucurești: eplu. ***. . din poezia americană (al. t. stamatiad, trans.; perpessicius, foreword). bucurești: editura luteția. . . contemporary u.s. and canadian poetry in author-collections after world war ii the end of world war ii brought about a wave of new translations from american literature in various cultural periodicals, such as revista fundațiilor regale or the newly established revista româno-americană, founded by a mixed group of intellectuals that were supposed to represent a collaboration between marxists and americans: left-wing alf adania and gheorghiu, alongside their long-time friends dan duțescu and dimitrie gusti. more and more authors are translated by a number of young intellectuals dedicated to opening romanian culture to the new world: margareta sterian, ion caraion, george and monica dan, al. t. stamatiad, Șt. horia, barbu brezianu, ion frunzetti, or george macovescu. again, “[a]s in previous decades, the most successful translators were writers, especially poets, in their own right.” (kohn ibid.: ) marks a dark year in the history of romania. after the abdication of king michael i, the abolition of monarchy and the instauration of the petru groza government, romania entered the soviet union’s sphere of influence. many intellectuals were denied publication, were imprisoned, went under political surveillance, or went into hiding. some others decided it was safer to collaborate with the proletarian communist party, in spite of its anti-intellectual stance. talking about the period between and , marked by the ruthless rule of foreign affairs minister ana pauker and leading member of the communist party vasile luca, perry states that all the basic policies for romanians, including the cultural ones, were imposed by moscow: the few american books that were translated were books previously translated in moscow, usually from the russian translation, even when the translator was competent to work from the original language. the critics cited were russian. the whitman, poe, dickinson, macleish, lindsay, lowell, st. vincent millay, cummings, j.w. johnson, masters, prokosch, sandburg, frost, and e.a. robinson. commentary echoed commentary in the russian editions. the cues as to which authors to translate came from moscow. (ibid.: ) translation projects started immediately after the end of the war were postponed and books already published were banned. revista româno-americană had been established in by the friends of the united states foundation, under the aegis of queen maria of romania, but was forced to end its activities in , reopened in and concluded its operations again in , as a magazine whose first objective was “to present romanians with the true image of america.” (croitoru : web) as drace-francis notes, the few existing studies on romanian views of the outside world under the communist regime tend to treat the early (pre- ) period and stress the negative light in which the west was portrayed in official propaganda as against an idealised private view. (drace-francis : ) however, efforts by young writers and academics continued. most of the people who still had the power to bring american literature to romania were associated with various academic circles: mihnea gheorghiu, leon levițchi, dan duțescu, geo bogza, eugen schileru, mihail bogdan, and others. besides being paired with translators or, most often, with poet-translators—a customary practice in most publishing companies of that time (mincan )—young academics begin taking advantage of various exchange opportunities with universities in the states and return to their home country, where they capitalize on translating the literature with which they have come into contact. literary and cultural journals presented such translators with the possibility of publishing frequently selections of the authors they admired and also served a series of other purposes: “the journals serving either to introduce writers not yet published in book form, to test reader response to certain writers, to follow up on authors already introduced in book form, or to provide critical commentary.” (perry : ) the main outlets after were secolul xx, steaua, românia literară, iașiul literar, and tribuna, which functioned as perfect venues for translation from new contemporary poets. translators took advantage of the fact that translation was seen as “an ethically sound activity, whereas original literary works were subject to censorship and could only be published if they glorified the totalitarian regime.” (kohn ibid.: ). poet-translators used this situation to import cultural capital and to keep an open door to the rest of the world. in constructing cultures: essays on literary translation, susan bassnett confirms the role of poets in the eastern- european bloc: poets have very different functions in different societies, and this is a factor that translators need to bear in mind. in former communist eastern europe, for example, poetry sold in big print-runs (now replaced by western soft-porn and blockbuster crime novels); poets were significant figures, who often spoke out against injustice and oppression. ( : ) indeed, translation in romania was also a way to undermine the discourse and censorship of the communist party and poets were joined in their efforts by important scholars, such as dissident philosopher of culture noica. in national ideology under socialism: identity and cultural politics in ceaușescu’s romania, katherine verdery explains that sanctioned translation was doubled by a parallel activity of subversion via translations carried out by noica’s cercul de la păltiniș (an unofficial philosophy discussion and training circle, commonly referred to as ‘the noica school’ in english) in the s: translations […] were part of creating a larger public for culture, a sort of raising of the spiritual standard of living, parallel to the state’s claims to raise the material standard of living. at the same time, however, they were like “viruses” loosed into the mechanism by which culture was officially transmitted. they were a form of political action. ( : - ) such form of political action was too weak to undermine effectively the official discourse and publishing policies, but it was a natural reaction nonetheless, allowed by a short “defrosting” donald barthelme, sylvia plath, allen ginsberg, denise levertov, robert lowell, robert bly, james merrill, w.s. merwin, anne sexton, william stafford, john berryman, reed whittemore, james wright, james tate, robert duncan, robert creeley, and louis simpson (cf. perry ). from to —a “crisis” of marxist legitimation which partially liberated romania from socialist propaganda. the declaration of independence from the soviet union by the communist party in was the beginning of a period of cultural boom, when [t]he romanian man of letters […] was officially encouraged as nowhere else in eastern europe and he made notable progress in recovering synchronization with the west which his forebears had so avidly sought and achieved. this passion to participate in and to contribute significantly to the major literary currents of the day – inspired by an intense nationalism and by a personal hunger in some of the best romanian literary minds for the broader and more varied world of ideas and art forms, and inspired by the native romanian genius for experimentation and innovation in art forms and techniques – this passion now returned the romanian to a meaningful and original participation in the larger literary community. (perry : ) policies for cultural, scientific, and educational exchanges between the united states and romania were put into place, and in the legations of both nations were promoted to full embassies. as a result, the range of authors and modes broadens, although the publication policies remain basically the same. poets like wallace stevens, t.s. eliot, ezra pound, frank o’hara, jack kerouac, theodore roethke, william stanley merwin, and w.d. snodgrass were all translated and published in book form. a substantial selection from the poetry of t.s. eliot translated by Ștefan augustin doinaș, virgil nemoianu, and toma pavel, was included in the first issue of secolul xx in . a second selection translated by doinaș and pavel was published in a critical essay signed by virgil nemoianu. eliot, t.s. . selected (aurel covaci, trans., nichita stănescu, foreword). bucurești: editura albatros. pound, ezra. . cantos și alte poeme (ion caraion, trans., vasile nicolescu, foreword). bucurești: univers; pound, ezra. . cantos (virgil teodorescu, petronela negoșanu, trans. and postface; vasile nicolescu, foreword). iași: junimea. snodgrass, w. d. . un ghimpe în inimă și alte poezii (ioan a. popa, trans. and notes). bucurești: univers. eliot. t.s. . “cântecul de dragoste al lui j. alfred prufrock”, “preludii”, “ce a spus tunetul” (Șt. a. doinaș and pavel, t., trans.) and “marina” (Șt. a. doinaș, nemoianu, v., trans.). in secolul xx . dan grigorescu, a reputed romanian specialist in anglo-american studies and a manager of the arts department within the state committee for arts and culture, published an influential volume of essays titled thirteen american writers, in which he analysed “writers whose work [he] deemed paramount for modern american literature” and which left aside “writers to whom romanian critics have been dedicating substantial analyses […].” ( : ) among the thirteen writers, grigorescu included poe, whitman, longfellow, dickinson, pound, and frost. in the s, he is transferred as a lecturer to portland state university and to the university of california, los angeles, where he came in further contact with contemporary american literature. he is also known for having been the founder of the romanian library in new york city. other intellectuals of that time took advantage of the fulbright program that had been in place since : mihail bogdan received a fulbright fellowship at the east texas state university, virgil nemoianu—translator of denise levertov and whittermore in steaua—receieved his doctorate from the university of california in san diego. in their turn, american poets like w.r. snodgrass and diana wakoski went to romania through the exchange program in and . author collections were usually translated either by romanian poets alone, or by romanian poets in collaboration with university professors known for their scholarship in the field of english and/or american studies and literature. for example, wallace stevens’ world as meditation , theodor roethke’s selected poems , william merwin’s poems of the seventies: selected poems, - , and frank o’hara’s meditations in an emergency were all four translated by constantin abăluță and Ștefan stoenescu for the same publisher, univers press. a recent interview stevens, wallace. . lumea ca meditație (constantin abăluță, Ștefan stoenescu, trans.). bucurești: univers. roethke, theodore. . vorbe pentru vânt (constantin abăluță, Ștefan stoenescu, trans.). bucurești: univers. merwin, w. s. . poemele deceniului șapte: versuri alese, - (constantin abăluță, Ștefan stoenescu, trans.). bucurești: univers. o’hara, frank. . meditații în imponderabil (constantin abăluță, Ștefan stoenescu, trans.). bucurești: univers. (mincan id.) with denisa comănescu, a former editor for univers and currently the executive director of humanitas fiction, reveals that pairing a translator with a specialist in british or american studies was a common practice of that time. such teams were commonly referred to as “colectiv de traducere” (translation committee) and were meant to be a guarantee for the translation’s accuracy, as well as for the thoroughness of the paratexts. abăluță and stoenescu’s background in american poetry translation, mostly grown under the umbrella of univers press, influenced minerva press’s decision-makers to commission them for the translation of serge fauchereau’s introduction to modern american poetry in . the interest shown by univers in publishing contemporary u.s. poetry continued with selections from sylvia plath’s work, translated by poet and translator vasile nicolescu, alongside diane wakoski’s the magellanic clouds, translated by poet and creative writing lecturer liliana ursu. . . contemporary u.s. and canadian poets in anthologies during communism canadian poetry owes greatly to romanian émigré poet nicholas catanoy (or nicolae cătănoiu by his romanian name). in his translator’s note to the anthology of contemporary english canadian poetry —one of the three anthologies of canadian poetries ever assembled and translated into romanian—translator and anthologist ion caraion explains that the driving force behind that compilation was catanoy, “this strange enthusiast and hopeless poet.” ( : ) shortly fauchereau, serge. . introducere în poezia americană modernă (traducere, prefaţă şi tabel cronologic de Ştefan stoenescu; traducerea versurilor de c. abăluţă şi Şt. stoenescu; notă bio-bibliografică de teodor vârgolici.) bucurești: editura minerva. plath, sylvia. . ariel și alte poeme (vasile nicolescu, trans.). bucurești: univers. wakoski, diane. . norii magelanici (liliana ursu, trans.). bucurești: univers. ***. . poeți canadieni contemporani (de limbă engleză) (ion caraion, trans.). bucurești: albatros. after his arrival in canada, circa , catanoy came up with the idea of such an anthology, which caraion put together only about ten years later. the description of the romanian émigré is quite veracious: he has often been characterized as a ‘phenomenon’ that is hardly ever pinned down appropriately; a doctor and philosopher by profession and a globetrotter and a cosmopolitan by nature, he never felt at home in any foreign culture, but always wanted to incorporate these cultures and these languages in his own work: “the wish of this polyglot is to rebuild one single language, an integrating matrix for all things and phenomena, a universal vehicle which would carry his ideas across without any translation hurdles to the farthest corners of the world.” (mițariu : ) translation is an integral part of his work and reflects his perpetual mal du pays: in he published the second anthology of romanian poetry in north america, in which he included poets, selected “not on academic grounds, as he confesses, but according to his personal taste.” (ibid.: ). for walum olum. cântecele și proverbele indienilor din america de nord (walum olum. the songs and proverbs of native peoples in north america), catanoy collaborated with translators virgil teodorescu and petronela negoșanu. it opens with a preface and a foreword by catanoy, who offers the rationale for gathering the songs and proverbs that were representative of tribes, and also the mechanics of assembling the anthology. although the title refers to a north-american selection, the short preface reveals that most of the texts had been gathered by catanoy himself over twelve years and reflect the folklore of natives from various reservations, “either from the north-east coast of the continent, especially from the canadian maritimes, or from the north- ***. . modern romanian poetry. an anthology (nicholas catanoy, ed.) oakville, on: mosaic press. ***. . walum olum. cântecele și proverbele indienilor din america de nord (virgil teodorescu and petronela negoșanu, trans.). cluj-napoca: dacia press. [western] coast, namely the province of british columbia.” ( : ) the eleven-page introduction puts forward an analysis of the texts that mirrors his background as a poet and outlines the history, themes, motifs, and poetic devices and features apparent in native literature in general and in his anthology in particular. in tackling the limitations of his endeavor, he admits to a modus operandi that fits the patterns traced in translations from u.s. poetry in the early th century: “moreover, for this anthology we have only selected those songs that are comprehensible to our sensibility and lyrical universe.” (ibid.: ) unlike caraion, catanoy does not make any specific reference to the two translators and only briefly and indirectly tackles the issue of translation when he refers to the limitations of his endeavor: “stylization was needed whenever the asperities of the literal [translation] impeded on the musicality or whenever the long and obsessive choruses dislocated textual harmony.” (id.) he concedes that the original texts were sometimes modified and does not even mention translations per se, but uses ‘literal text’ for ‘literal translation’. furthermore, the anthologist sees no problem in manhandling essential features of native poetry, such as ‘long and obsessive choruses’, and makes any domesticating alterations that he sees fit, most probably on the literal renditions offered by the two translators. i would argue that the apparent lack of attention to translation on his part is not a demeaning stance, but only one that sees the act of translating foreign literary productions as natural for any literature. as mițariu aptly notes, catanoy had committed to “a courageous attempt at bringing the cultural patrimony of a native population to light,” (ibid.: ) an attempt which was motivated by the fact that catanoy identified himself in a way with “these outcasts of a hyper-ethnical north-american society, packed in reservations.” (id.) the foreword wrongly uses “north-eastern.” mițariu also advances that the spiritual world of the native populations might have borne similarities with the archaic world of witchcraft in his home culture. catanoy’s role in creating an awareness of canadian poetry began the moment he emigrated to canada. following his émigré friend’s suggestion, caraion authored an anthology of english language canadian poets, in which he played a multiple role: he made the selection, translated the poems into romanian, and wrote the preface. the anthologist’s preface notes that fragments had been previously published in various literary journals, along with poems by french canadian poets. caraion acknowledged two other anthologies from the same literature and qualified his own endeavor as “only quite a modest selection.” (ibid.: ) his foreword contains a critical apparatus that analyzes the translated poems within the work of the respective author, a natural choice for the literary critic. it also traces a common feature of their work: “[…] the rigorous consistency with which most of canadian poets insist not on a word, not on a concept, not on an idea, but on a true existential meaning and on a set of gnosiological implications expressed through the term consciousness.” (ibid.: ). each batch of translations is preceded by a short biography and analysis of that poet’s work. caraion’s roster includes poets born at the end of the th century and the beginning of the th, some even younger, such as margaret atwood. the most generous selection is from irving layton’s work, followed by fred cogswell, lionel kearns, john newlove, and michael j. yates. leonard cohen (whose last name is misspelled and reads coehn) is listed among the poets he did not include, along with elizabeth brewster, clarence major, henry beissel and others. the anthologist confessed that he would like to publish stand-alone collections dedicated to each of the poets he failed to include. interestingly enough, the other three volumes— Înțelegând zăpada. poeți canadieni de limbă engleză ( ), antologie de poezie canadiană de limbă franceză ( ), and steaua marilor lacuri. poeți canadieni de limbă franceză ( ) are published around the same date, done by translators typically associated with contemporary poetry translation, and published by different publishers, which is probably another indication of the personal nature of each of these projects. in each case, the translators are the ones who did the selection, the translations, and put together the preface. however, the anthology published by univers appears to be one of their , titles meant to bring valuable world literature into the local literature. this anthology precedes all the projects related to catanoy, but it includes catanoy himself among the selected canadian poets. the anthology by teodorescu and negoșanu does not acknowledge his role, or anybody’s role for that matter: the translators’ note is simply an overview of canadian literature that aims at establishing whether it brings something new compared to the british one, but catanoy’s presence among the selected authors is perhaps another indication of the latter’s involvement in the project. the beginnings of canadian contemporary poetry translated into romanian are presented below (figure a) and disclose two different translation programs: one interested exclusively in contemporary poets (caraion, for albatros) and one that encompasses both modern and contemporary poets (teodorescu and negoșanu, for univers). published only one year apart, thus most probably conceived at the same time, and with different publishers than the anthologists collaborated with for other projects, the selection of the authors reveals two different types of ***. . Înţelegând zăpada. de poeţi canadieni de limbă engleză (antologare, traducere, prefaţă şi note de virgil teodorescu şi petronela negoşanu). bucurești: univers. ***. . antologie de poezie canadiană de limbă franceză (selecție, prefață și traducere de al. andrițoiu și ursula Șchiopu. bucurești: minerva. ***. . steaua marilor lacuri. poeți canadieni de limbă franceză. antologare, traducere, prefaţă şi note de virgil teodorescu şi petronela negoşanu. . bucurești: univers. i have not included modern poets in this graph. agency. univers, known for its interest in both modern and contemporary literature and for the effectiveness in carrying out such large-scale projects, most likely commissioned teodorescu and negoșanu, translators who otherwise consistently collaborated with dacia press, because caraion was putting together his own selection to be published with albatros a year later. furthermore, as we explain further on, caraion publishes his next anthology (this time of contemporary american poetry) with univers one year later, which is another indication that the canadian poetry anthology was his own endeavor and was not commissioned by the publisher. there are thirteen canadian poets included in both anthologies (figure b), thus they are central nodes with equal values in all three measurements (cf. annex ). the best positioned nodes overall are the ones in the univers anthology due to their more numerous vicinities. the whole graph consists of poets, with % of the nodes in both anthologies, a percentage that attests both to the different programs of the two titles, and to the prominence of poets like romania-born irving layton or young margaret atwood and michael ondaatje in the cultural networks of the late s. figure a. anthologies of contemporary canadian poetry before . figure b. contemporary canadian poets selected both by univers and albatros the equal values of many of the nodes in this graph result from the equal weight assigned to the edges. had i factored in the number of poems selected for each of these authors, the values would have been different. however, since this research focuses on translators’s agency, i would have taken a great risk in doing so, especially in the case of the univers anthology, where the involvement of the translators in the selection is not clear, so i compared the eigenvector values with the number of poems selected by caraion for each of the fourteen poets: eigenvector = . albatros univers eigenvector = . albatros univers dorothy livesay barbara caruso john robert colombo andreas schroeder lionel kearns michael ondaatje irving layton margaret atwood john newlove tom marshall j. m. yates alfred purdy fred cogswell louis dudek table . number of poems per contemporary author in the albatros and univers anthologies of canadian poetry the distribution of poems per author shows great discrepancies between the two projects: while the univers anthology generally contains selections of three or four poems per author, the anthology compiled by caraion selects as few as two and as many as twenty poems per poet, a clear expression of the anthologist’s personal taste. thus it is safe to conclude that the two anthologies of contemporary english-language canadian poetry ever compiled in romania were as much the result of an institutional cultural agenda as they were the expression of a poet-translator’s personal taste and the outcome of a network whose driving force was poet nicholas catanoy. as far as american poets are concerned, anthologies played a salient role in romanians’ becoming familiar with their work and were put together or simply suggested mostly by writers and professors who benefited from academic mobility programs financed by the u.s. government. the first such translation project was curated by margareta sterian, translator and anthologist of an anthology of modern american poetry from whitman to the present . sterian was also a reputed poet and painter, one of the leaders of the generation of the s. her anthology was published by the state press only two years after her own poetry debut, but the whole print run was burnt in by the pro-soviet regime. the anthology presents the work of poets that were new to the romanians and was re-published in under the title i hear america singing. an anthology of modern american poetry. this latter revised edition reveals the history of the anthology, which was initially suggested to sterian by petru comarnescu. for this revised edition, the anthologist adds thirteen poets that were born between the two world wars, such as gary snyder, allen ginsberg, or gwendolyn brooks, and confesses in the translator’s note that the main criterion was her personal taste, followed by the selected poets’ stature in american literature. sterian also discusses translation proper and explains that her guiding principle was observing the original meter and, as much as possible, the rhyme, without trying to adapt the poems to match “our romanian poetic spirit” ( : ) and admits to revising many of the initial translations that had been published in . the note also acknowledges the role played by the publisher in reviving the translation project and professionally mentions the sources used for authors’ biographies. however, the book exudes its translator’s personality: its unusual large format recalls that of an art book; the soft, porous paper is reminiscent of that used for watercolor painting; and the text is interspersed by tasteful illustrations selected by the translator herself. also, the illustration on the cover bears her signature ***. . antologie a poesiei americane moderne de la whitman la contemporani (margareta sterian, trans.). bucurești: editura de stat. robinson jeffers, stephen vincent benet, maxwell bodenheim, elizabeth coatsworth, stephen crane, william everson, merrill moore, ogden nash, kenneth patchen, lola ridge, muriel rukeyser, stickney trumbull, jean and louis untermeyer, and william carlos williams. ***. . aud cântând america. antologie a poeziei americane moderne (margareta sterian, trans. petru comarnescu, foreword). cluj: dacia press. and is titled “the michigan brass band.” moreover, one of the very few analyses dedicated to her work as a translator confirm the personal nature of her projects: the poet’s translations, when not commissioned or requested by her need to practice, follow […] the road of self-discovery. technically exact and poetically inspired, their intention was to impose the free spirit of america […], turning her into a pioneer in this field in . (crețu : ) thirty two years later, the anthology was re-published by alicat press ( ), owned by anca vlad, a prosperous business woman, owner of a pharmaceutical distribution company. various press releases indicate that the objective of this publishing company was “to promote romanian modern and contemporary painting and literature by publishing original works, all of them exquisitely designed.” (web ) the first two titles they launched are sterian’s selected poems ( - ) and aud cântând america, with a preface by professor dan grigorescu and illustrations selected from sterian’s “new york snippets” painting collection. this third edition may seem haphazard, but i found out that anca vlad was one of the translator’s friends during her student years and also an avid art collector and admirer of the painter’s work (tronaru ). these details turn the story into only one of the many examples of private arts patronage that became the norm in poetry translation during the years after the romanian revolution, as we will later see. they are also relevant for the type of relationships that translators establish often with influent and affluent private individuals outside dedicated institutions. last but not least, the fourth republication of the anthology took place in and reinforced the value and the relevance of sterian’s selection seventy-one years after its first edition. cărți-eveniment ale primăverii , amos news. web: http://bit.ly/ h vcxo. last accessed: july , . ***. . aud cântând america. antologie a poeziei americane moderne / i hear american singing. anthology of modern american poetry. bucurești: contemporary literature press. http://bit.ly/ h vcxo the second anthology presenting contemporary poets in translation—din poezia engleză și americană ( )—was curated by philosopher, poet, playwright and novelist lucian blaga. the edition published in by humanitas press (which re-publish two older anthologies put together by blaga in one single volume) reveals the rationale behind his venture as an anthologist in În loc de prefață (instead of a preface): “i was not interested in their number. i was interested in their carats,” ( ) he says of the way he made the selection. “i selected authors from foreign anthologies, however best i could and whenever i had the occasion,” (id.) he confesses about his sources. he also explains what translation meant to him and why he selected certain texts and not others: by translating, i quenched a tremendous thirst. by translating, i became richer in experiences. i wanted to see the extent to which poetry can travel from one language to another. by translating, i felt myself growing. because i have been brooding only those poems which delighted me and which, through the act of translation, could become in a way mine, ours, could belong to the romanians. ( : - ) further selections from american poetry appear in anatol e. baconsky’s panorama poeziei universale (a panorama of universal poetry, ), considered by cernat ( ) and numerous other romanian critics as “fundamental” for the evolution of recent romanian literature. out of the poets selected on the grounds of the “meridiane lirice” publishing program, eight are american: eliot, faulkner, steinbeck, caldwell, sandburg, dickinson, miller, and capote. all translations belong to baconsky, an effort for which he received the prize of the romanian writers’ union the same year. the anthology followed the critically-acclaimed stand-alone volume he translated from carl sandburg . ***. . patru milenii de poezie în tălmăcirea lui lucian blaga (lucian blaga, trans.). bucurești: humanitas. din lirica universală (editura pentru literatură, ) and din lirica engleză (univers, ). sandburg, carl. . versuri (a. e. baconsky, trans.). bucurești: editura tineretului. a comprehensive anthology in two volumes appeared between and , a project edited by leon levițchi and tudor dorin: an anthology of american poetry from the beginnings to the present day. the authors presented in the second volume cover an impressive time span ( - ), but the selection of the poems is poor and translation is often improper. although translated by leon levițchi, a reputed specialist in english studies, along with tudor dorin, an excellent translator of rudyard kipling, among others, the general impression is that of a hasty execution. another example is the anthology curated by poet, essayist and translator ion caraion: the anthology of american poetry , a selection of poems by one hundred and thirty american authors translated by mihnea gheorgiu, petru solomon, emil gulian, vasile nicolescu, and ***. . antologie de poezie americană de la începuturi până azi (leon levițchi and tudor dorin, eds.; dan grigorescu, foreword and chronology). volumes. bucurești: editura minerva. edgar lee masters; willa sibert cather; robert frost; amy lowell; carl sandburg; vachel lindsey; wallace stevens; william carlos williams; sara teasdale; elizabeth madox roberts; ezra pound; louis untermeyer; elinor wylie; william rose benét; john gould fletcher ; hilda doolittle; roy helton ; robinson jeffers; marianne moore; t.s. eliot; john crowe ransom; conrad aiken; edna st. vincent millay; archibald macleish; elizabeth coatsworth; e.e. cummings; mark van doren; babette deutsch; robert hillyer; louise bogan; stephen vincent benét; hart crane; leonie adams; allen tate; robert francis; laura riding; kenneth fearing; langston hughes; ogden nash; maria zaturenska; merrill moore; richard eberhart; stanley kunitz; phyllis mcginley; robert penn warren; w.h. auden; theodore roethke; richard wright; james agee; edwin rolfe; winfield townley scott; elizabeth bishop; may sarton; karl jay shapiro; randall jarrell; john berryman; william stafford; thomas mcgrath; peter viereck; robert lowell; william jay smith; lawrence ferlinghetti; reed whittemore; howard nemerov; eleanor glenn wallis; richard wilbur; thomas cole; denise levertov; louis simpson; marvin solomon; philip murray; donald justice; john ashbery; robert bly; allen ginsberg; w.d. snodgrass; james wright; galway kinnel; w.s. merwin; gregory corso; gary snyder; sylvia plath; leroi jones; diane wakoski ***. . antologie de poezie americană (alcătuită de ion caraion; tălmăciri de: ion caraion, vasile nicolescu, mihnea gheorghiu, petre solomon şi emil gulian; note bio-bibliografice de petre solomon). bucurești: univers. poets, from anne bradstreet ( - ) to the present day: anne bradstreet, edward taylor, phillip freneau, joel barlow, w. c. bryant, r. w. emerson, j. g. whittier, h. d. thoreau, h. w. longfellow, e. a. poe, j. r. lowell, herman melville, walt whitman, emily dickinson, trumbull stickney, william w. moody, edwin markham, stephen crane, edward lee masters, e.a. robinson, robert frost, vachel lindsay, carl sandburg, james oppenheim, williams carlos williams, wallace stevens, ezra pound, amy lowell, jean starr untermeyer, marianne moore, hart crane, t.s. eliot, robinson jeffers, conrad aiken, stephen vincent benét, sara teasdale, elinor wylie, edna st. vincent millay, merril moore, archibald macleish, e.e. cummings, j.g. fletcher, j.c. ransom, allen tate, hilda doolittle, louise bogan, horace gregory, john peale bishop, w.h. auden, genevieve taggard, michael gold, kenneth fearing, louis zukofsky, muriel rukeyser, kenneth patchen, richard eberhart, elizabeth bishop, stanley kunitz, kenneth rexroth, theodore roethke, karl shapiro, randall jarrell, oscar williams, ogden nash, robert penn warren, edouard roditi, john berryman, william stafford, robert lowell, delmore schwartz, reed whittemore, richard wilbur, peter viereck, howard nemerov, william jay smith, joseph langland, anthony hecht, denise levertov, louis simpson, james dickey, edgar bowers, donald justice, lawrence ferlinghetti, robert duncan, charles olson, gregory corso, allen ginsberg, james merrill, frank caraion himself. the anthologist belonged to a generation of young poets that had been affected by the war, disillusioned with the old poetic techniques that still prevailed during the communist years, and animated by an energising rebellion against the marxist doctrine and values imposed through the formal education system. “my name is ion caraion and i am one of those writers that can no longer be ushered away from romanian literature by any party, dictator, bullets, or scoundrels and toads with the official media,” he boldly stated in , bitterly reminiscing about the years spent in communist detention from to and then again from to . after he was released from prison, he started to publish frantically, trying to make up for the lost time: tormented as i was by the years that had been stolen from me, by the manuscripts they had confiscated from me and destroyed, by the heart-breaking complex that i would not have enough time to write, obsessed by the idea that my message might have been stifled again […] i didn’t have any other solution, but to work tremendously, - hours a day, so that i can leave an oeuvre behind. as a result, he published twenty volumes of poetry, six volumes of essays and literary critique, and an impressive number of translations. for masters’ antologia orăşelului spoon river he received the prize of the writers’ union, then continued with the translation of pound’s cantos and finished the series of translations from american literature with the above-mentioned anthology. this project, however, may not have been solely his initiative. published by univers and bringing together renditions by five translators, the anthology fit perfectly the publication program the press was committed to, but may have been, in a way influenced, by the similar canadian project run by o’hara, paul blackburn, robert creeley, kenneth koch, w.d. snoddgrass, a.r. ammons, robert bly, w.s. merwin, galway kinnell, john ashbery, adrienne rich, adrienne rich, james wrights, joel oppenheimer, x.y. kennedy, sylvia plath, anne sexton, donald hall, gary snyder, john unterecker, john haines, john wieners, victor contoski, dave etter, stephen sandy, robert mezey, robert kelly, emmet jarrett, nancy willard, diane wakoski, alex raybin, jack anderson, james weldon johnson, paul laurence dunbar, angelina grimké, fenton johnson, georgia douglas johnson, claude mckay, frank horne, langston hughes, arna bontemps, countee cullen, waring cuney, richard wright, leroi jones, clarence major, julia fields, horace julian bond, and carl wendell hines, jr. insectele tovarășului hitler. bucurești: editura ion dumitru-verlag, . alex. leo Șerban. . “la o nouă lectură: ion caraion.” in românia literară . web: http://bit.ly/ r dfsp. last accessed: august , . http://bit.ly/ r dfsp caraion the year before. in any case, all these names associated with translations from american and canadian contemporary poets form a tightly-knit network of poet-translators committed to connecting these cultures either through projects commissioned by reputed publishers with a consistent program or through their own resourcefulness and extended network of acquaintances. unlike caraion, virgil teodorescu did not translate out of a need to react to the political regime and to update poetic techniques that had been in place for too long. one of the most renowned surrealist poets, he was famous for his “monotonous nonconformism,” and for his books resembling “the rich harvest of a peace-loving and thorough cultivator.” (Ștefănescu, : web) Ștefănescu explains that he combined systematic study with important positions in the communist cultural diagram: editor-in-chief of luceafărul, president of the writers union, vice-president of the great national assembly. interestingly enough, his co-translator, petronela negoșanu, was an editor of steaua in cluj who had spent two years in a correctional facility for “public agitation” at the same time with ion caraion. what is even more interesting is that hers and teodorescu’s translation projects are very similar to caraion’s: in they published american contemporary poetry, followed by pound’s cantos in . their anthology of american poetry was the first one which breaks with modernism and focuses only on contemporary poets. although limited by the small format of the cele mai frumoase poezii series of albatros press, the translators dedicated a one page presentation to each of the poets. selections vary between four and eleven pages and are ***. . lirică americană contemporană (virgil teodorescu, petronela negoșanu, trans. and foreword). bucurești: albatros. william carlos williams, ezra pound, babette deutsch, kenneth rexroth, theodor roethke, kenneth patchen, charles olson, william stafford, james laughlin, peter viereck, lawrence ferlinghetti, robert duncan, jack kerouac, james dickey, daniel hoffman, denise levertov, donald justice, bob kaufman, kenneth koch, allen ginsberg, robert creeley, w.d. snodgrass, robert bly, frank o’hara, james merrill, john ashbery, barbara guest, philip lamantia, james wright, w.s. merwin, gregory corso, joel oppenheimer, gary snyder, tom raworth. preceded by a clear and comprehensive preface, which outlines the main directions in american contemporary poetry. the last anthology of american poetry put together before belongs to poet mircea ivănescu, forerunner of romanian postmodernism. modern and contemporary american poetry is the most comprehensive and well executed translation project that has ever been published in romania, a status confirmed by the many republications of his translations. most importantly, the sole responsibility for a project of such breadth lay with the translator. influenced by the poetry of frank o’hara and other poets affiliated with the new york school, ivănescu left behind an impressive number of translations from t.s. eliot, john berryman, james joyce, william faulkner, and many others (exclusively in periodicals), alongside this anthology that gathered relevant samples from the work of poets. in it, he offered generous space to pound, eliot, cummings, berryman, lowell, and plath, and made up to the others through relevant notes and substantial commentaries. the preface signed by Ștefan stoenescu resonates with mathew arnold, according to whom “one cannot do informed literary criticism unless, besides mastering your national tradition quasi-exhaustively, you are also familiar with at least one other modern literature in detail.” (stoenescu : ) he also added that literatures should not opt for unlimited continentalism, nor for total insularization, but for the plural and relative metaphor of the “archipelago,” such as the anglophone one. ***. . poezie americană modernă și contemporană. selecție, traducere, note și comentarii de mircea ivănescu. (Ștefan stoenescu, foreword). cluj napoca: dacia. edwing arlington robinson, robert frost, amy lowell, carl sandburg, wallace stevens, vachel lindsay, william carlos williams, ezra pound, robinson jeffers, marianne moore, john crowe ransom, t.s. eliot, e.e. cumings, conrad aiken, edna st. vincent millay, archibald macleish, hart crane, allen tate, stanley kunitz, charles olson, william stafford, delmore schwartz, muriel rukeyser, weldon kees, randall jarrell, john berryman, robert lowell, robert duncan, howard nemerov, richard wilbur, anthony hecht, alan dugan, denise levertov, edward field, carolyn kizer, donald justice, lisel mueller, john ashbery, w.s. merwin, anne sexton, richard howard, adrienne rich, and sylvia plath. the last interview given by mircea ivănescu to poet radu vancu in march (vancu : web), only a few months before his passing, revealed the mechanisms that fueled his work as a translator. first, as a student, he took advantage of the fact that one of his relatives was a librarian for the french library at the university of bucharest, and he borrowed books that were normally banned by the party, hidden in “a bookcase with the display window covered in blue paper” (vancu ibid.): gide, valéry, giraudoux, or cocteau. later, as an editor for agerpres, the news agency of the communist party, ivănescu became familiar with various periodicals in western europe, especially in france and great britain, such as new republic. this is how he came to read jack kerouac in french for the first time, for example, but he also brushed up his english and started reading american writers in the original. finally, a third mechanism that underlined his work as a poet and translator was his network of friends: matei călinescu, who received a fulbright fellowship at the iowa university and never returned, but maintained a continuous dialogue with him on various topics pertaining to contemporary literature; denisa comănescu, an editor for univers press at that time, who helped him publish a translation that he had been brooding over for many years: james joyce’s ulysses; george serafin, his editor-in-chief at agerpress, who would bring him a massive anthology of american poetry when he returned from one of his many trips abroad. asked by vancu why he chose to translate american poetry, ivănescu answered that the trigger had been his friendship with one of the editors of dacia press, vasile igna (himself also a poet), and further explained: [igna] told me at a certain point let’s do this [an anthology]. they had already published an anthology of modern german poetry, made under similar circumstances, that is, proposed by one single person; so i made a list and i offered to put together an anthology of american poetry and an anthology of british poetry. and he said ok, let’s do this. and so it happened that we did both. (vancu ibid.) ivănescu also confessed that he strongly preferred american poetry to french poetry, although he had been thoroughly trained in french language and literature, and that all his work as a translator was a matter of circumstances, a happenstance. he revealed in the same interview that he chose to translate poets that resonated with him, confessional ones, like anne sexton, john berryman, or meryl moore and disclosed that even stoenescu, the author of the preface, was surprised by his selection. although not an anthology per se, marin sorescu’s tratat de inspirație (inspiration treatise) reunites translations from one hundred twenty poets from all over the world in an attempt to answer a series of questions related to the essence of poetry and to the best practices in poetry writing. widely translated abroad, sorescu took part in numerous literary events on all continents, where he interviewed writers on the craft of poetry: like a romanian poetry’s “ministry of foreign affairs” of sorts, marin sorescu took part in a slew of international literary happenings, and he did not return empty handed. on a paper napkin or in a small notebook, as conditions allowed, the poet wrote down with a diligence almost stripped of any kind of pride, musings that many of today’s good poets entrusted him with, be it on a ship, at a café, or on a bus. (pruteanu : web). the work he put into interviewing poets and making selections from their work was equated by sorescu to a unique chance for “landlocked” cultures to connect to others through translation. out of the one hundred twenty poets, eight are american and complete the network of u.s. contemporary poets that appear in anthologies (figure ) before : sorescu, marin. . tratat de inspirație. craiova: scrisul românesc. paul engle, lawrence ferlinghetti, a. ginsberg, michael march, peter meinke, w.s. merwin, dana naone, and mark strand. figure . network of u.s. poets published in anthologies before . eliot, pound, cummings, whitman, lowell, berryman, o’hara, ginsberg, or corso played a very important role in the education of the so-called generation of the s (crăciun , vakulovski ) and their influence still continues today. vancu’s interview with ivănescu and sorescu’s treatise speak volumes about the influence and the practice of poetry translation in romania before the revolution: although apparently organized around institutions, such as literary journals and presses controlled by the party in power, i hope to have shown how the taste of the poets and their networks of friends played an essential role in initiating, executing, and disseminating such translation projects. the network of contemporary u.s. poets in anthologies before is a highly connected graph of poet-nodes, which presents the small world effect. it shows us that translator- anthologists were paying attention to each other’s work and also manifested a preference for certain poets (cf. annex ), one which does not necessarily coincide with publishers’ interests and which in many ways changed after the revolution (cf. section . .). node centrality points to w.s. merwin as a preferred poet, followed by allen ginsberg, t.s. eliot, john ashbery, denise levertov, lawrence ferlinghetti, theodore roethke, gary snyder, d. justice, and w.e. stafford. of these poets only w.s. merwin, t.s. eliot, and t. roethke were published in dedicated volumes, which is another proof of translators’ attention to the local and foreign literary scene. as far as the anthologists are concerned, their selection of poets influenced their place in the analysed network, with ion caraion positioned first (eigenvector = . ) and ivănescu fourth (eigenvector = . ). however, the anthology put together by ivănescu is referenced most often even to this day and suggests that the amplitude of an anthologist’s persona contributed more to the visibility of the anthology than the selection itself. one may easily notice the thoroughness of these endeavors and the popularity of anthologies before . they were a strong argument made by poets about the need for romanian culture to open towards world literature, as well as a gesture of defiance towards an oppressive political regime. not only did these anthologies express their curators’ taste, but they also, and much more so, were a reflection of these poets’ vision for the future of their literature. the following chapter will investigate whether this type of agency changed once democracy took over romania. chapter . order out of chaos: the self-regulation of the complex poetry translation network after the fall of the communist regime following the revolution in december triggered a massive reconfiguration of the translation activity in romania. the interest in foreign cultural production increased “by leaps and bounds” (mușat : ) and literary translation gradually became “a range of uncoordinated ‘microprograms’ in which the translational discourse alongside other domains, discourses and practices of national culture traditionally does the bidding of the transnational.” (ursa : , first emphasis mine). first, translations invaded bookstores at the expense of local literary productions: in those times of turmoil, confusion, and general disagreement (everybody would contest everybody), romanian readers lost their faith in romanian writers, possibly also because romanians do not trust romanians. but, in any case, the specific reason was a lack of trust in romanian literature, compromised by its coexistences with communism. the few readers that still existed took refuge in translations. the book market, the bookstores, were all invaded by translations, which obscured romanian literature for a while. (simuț : web) second, the interest shifted from literature to non-fiction, philosophy, or history books, generally to books that had been censored by the communist regime. as far as literary genres were concerned, dystopias gained more and more traction: denisa comănescu discloses in one of her interviews (mincan ) that univers press received no less than seven translations of george orwell’s in alone. comănescu is in fact the editor that speculated best the lack of contemporary literature in translation after the revolution and started flagship collections for polirom (“biblioteca polirom ”) from to early and for humanitas fiction from onwards (“raftul the polirom library. denisei ”), capitalizing, as she herself admits, on the reputable series of foreign authors published by univers. however, contemporary poetry translation immediately after was the result of translators’ strong preferences for one poet or another (jim morrison, charles simic, etc.), as well as an effort to bring exiled authors, such as andrei codescu, back into their culture of origin, or simply republications of older translations (t.s. eliot by aurel covaci). in this respect, the border between mainstream and indie publishing began to fade away, and so did the importance of mainstream publishers, who initiated the publication of only seven out of the thirty three contemporary poetry titles since (cf. annex and figure ). with univers turned into a family- business operating on a totally different model than the pre- univers, with only three major players on the book market (humanitas, polirom, and paralela ), with a myriad of new presses that sprouted after democracy took over, and with a readership that was interested in everything that happened abroad, especially in the united states, the book market became the host of various private initiatives that i address in the following two sections. section . describes rock lyrics translation, a phenomenon that started well before the revolution and continued until a few years ago, as a common practice for most of the states in the former eastern bloc with repercussions on the current book market. the last section ( . ) addresses the thorny issue of mainstream vs. indie status and investigates translators’ roles in selecting, translating, and publishing most of the titles published in romania over the past years. denisa’s shelf. . . the network effect: translating rock lyrics interestingly enough, most academic essays about romanian cultural life during the communist regime, alongside those about the post-communist period, paint a much gloomier picture than one would like to see. for instance, a reader in international media piracy ( ) features an essay on subtitle translation into romanian, whose introduction thrillerizes the way in which foreign movies used to reach the local audiences: friday nights in romania under the communist regime […], friends and family would gather in front of their television sets trying to guess what they were actually watching. telephone calls would be made, film reference and theory books consulted. such detective skills were required due to the government’s censorship tactics which included screening foreign films (both on television and in cinemas) with their titles altered beyond recognition, credit sequences removed, entire scenes eliminated and dialogue ideologically cleansed through the subtitling process. (dwyer and uricariu : ) while it is certainly true that state media was heavily controlled by the censors, the account is exaggerated and obviously employs a scenario that would dignify even a hollywood blockbuster. however controlled and slashed subtitling was, there was still a great amount of exposure of the audiences to the realities of foreign life, especially american life, which was of the utmost interest to them. one of the most familiar slogans during and after world war ii until well after the cold war and during the transition years to the democracy that followed was vin americanii! (the americans are coming!), an expression of romania’s deepest desire to be rescued from the soviet burden. specters of america were made available via other media channels, such as radio shows, or via a parallel system of illegal video cassettes with hollywood movies of all stripes, including pornographic productions. such cassettes were readily available and many families owned a videorecorder to play them. the practice continued and intensified after the fall of the regime, then subsided once the romanian state television and the newfangled private tv channels started to air such productions themselves a few years after the revolution. similarly, specters of america were often made available through rock and roll music broadcasting. if romanian post-communism has known a strong movement of self- americanization—“a voluntary appropriation of all things american, rather than an effect of the much cited u.s. cultural imperialism.” (luca : )—the years under communism were marked by an americanization ‘on the stealth,’ through escapism into a music and a literature that did not comply with the party’s guidelines. however, this americanization did not take place necessarily as a result of romanians’ interest in the formerly dubbed ‘decadent west,’ but, as pop shrewdly notes, as a consequence of what was an easement of the stalinist grip on society from to , commonly referred to as ‘the thaw.’ ( : ). as a result, rock and folk music was among the genres that communist cultural officialdom tried to accommodate. this relative openness towards the west favored the appearance of a local rock culture disillusioned with the local practices and ideology of local leaders. in a scholarly article dedicated to the alternative culture of the s and s, madigan fichter remarks that the “romanian variant of the hippie movement was more discreet and less flamboyant than its western counterpart, but still incorporated eccentric dress and a love of rock and beat music with a desire to escape the cultural and political rigidity of socialist romania.” ( : ) she also notes that listening to rock music was not necessarily associated to hippiedom and that two staples of this counterculture activity were the purchase of black-market rock’n’roll records and listening ‘obsessively’ to radio shows such as metronom, by cornel chiriac. rock’n’roll was the music that helped young people create a private space away from the folk music was especially welcome by the party because it was perceived as critical of capitalist societies. collectivized, socialist way of life, as well as entertain a myth of europe and the united states and present forms of culture that originated within these spaces. most importantly, it was an informal network phenomenon that propagated fast and was entertained by the one-way network effect of forbidden radio broadcasting. one important media outlet that contributed to this phenomenon was radio europa liberă (radio free europe), which had a lasting influence on the “unknowing” romanians: “the average romanian is not allowed access to information, to experience. in constructing the images of the west, he cannot use personal experience or provable knowledge, because he doesn’t have any.” (biro and rostas : ) secretly listening to such radio stations was one of the favorite past times of many young romanians and music programs were extremely popular. heavily targeted by censorship, playlists of local radios were carefully combed and only classical love songs or folk music were accepted (pop ). however, many resourceful radio people would find ways to include otherwise banned rock songs in their programs and would cater to those rock fans with a certain limited access to western cultural products. rock music did not gain currency only because of the thrill of the banned, but mostly because of its socially-engaged content, because of the “smuggling of ideas and beliefs into the soviet world” (mcmichael : ) of which romania was part at the time, as well as because of young people’s interest in the western forms of expression (fichter ); thus radio programmers would also translate the lyrics (ionescu , vasiliu ), as we will see later in this subchapter, making sure the message would reach those listeners who didn’t have any knowledge of english. the tightly knit rock network vibrated at the lyrics of the beatles, although heavily controlled by the securitate, rock programmes were recorded on tape and then circulated within informal networks, between friends, to the extent to which they created social attitudes (pop, : ). led zeppelin, bob dylan, the doors, and other such bands and had private revelations about what the west looked like: the west looked like those bands and sounded like their hard-won music. both before and after rock lyrics were the ones typically associated with translation projects —be they personal or institutional. in this subchapter i analyze those projects stemming out of radio programs and those grounded in individual preferences and initiative. this node is formed of radio people that have been considered by the romanian rock community as trailblazers (cornel chiriac, florian pittiș), as well as of musicians (alexandru andrieș) and music enthusiasts (such as dănuț ivănescu). for lack of consistent academic sources related to three of these music specialists, this research is based on online audio and video recordings, interviews, and heartfelt accounts by people who knew them personally or professionally. . . . rock lyrics as subversion: jesus christ superstar postcommunist rock lyric translation needs to be analyzed in close relationship with the same phenomenon before because it owes a great deal to several romanian radio celebrities and musicians, who promoted jazz and rock music during the communist regime, sometimes at the expense of their own lives. at the onset of the liberalization period, in , the music scene in romania started to become familiar with the music of great american jazzmen, like louis armstrong, or american and english rock musicians and bands, such as bob dylan, the beatles, jimi hendrix, and since there is no official statistics related to lyrics translation, i rely completely on factual data identified during the present research. the only scholarly article in english that mentions florian pittiș is related to his activity as an actor: berlogea, ileana. . shakespeare in romania. in shakespeare quarterly, ( ): - . andrieș and ivănescu are not referenced in any scholarly work. many others. that came after almost twenty years in which jazz had been considered the art of the rotten west and forbidden by the propaganda. the jazz that still existed in romania during those years was a superficial version called muzică de estradă (a term imposed by the composers’ union in moscow), very similar to swing—the only kind that was allowed on the national radio and television. the lenient brought a change that was expected by many young people: jazz was called by its rightful name on national television, real jazz began to be played in fashionable clubs in the cities, international music festivals were set up, concerts were organized, and albums released. in this atmosphere, a radio show successfully counted for a sort of sound utopia for many young people: “metronom,” by cornel chiriac, a self-taught jazz and rock specialist, arguably the most famous romanian radio dj of all times. chiriac presented his audience with a special kind of show, in which not only did he play good music, otherwise inaccessible to most, but he also commented “on political issues and promoted the freedom of expression against the regime,” (pop : ) as well as on the lyrics; he would also translate them for those listeners that could not comprehend them. translation took an important part of his time: an incredible work capacity, musical knowledge, an infallible taste, a spiritual openness towards any viable experiment, knowledge of subtleties in literary english from which he translated hundreds of rock and progressive rock lyrics, a mission to promote culture on the radio that he shouldered not with self-importance, but naturally, with a passion and communicative warmth that made him extremely popular both in romania and also in many european countries. young italians, dutch, swedish, russians, bulgarians used to listen to his shows although they didn’t understand what he was saying. his intonation, impeccable pronunciations of names, his natural speech claimed everyone’s hearts. in the “prometeus” club i learned that metronom was listened to even in irkutsk, siberia. (vasiliu ibid.: web, emphasis mine) a musical genre similar to the vaudeville—characterized by simplicity and containing short, entertaining vocal and instrumental songs that audiences could dance on. his program started to broadcast in romania in , but ended in , when it was forbidden because chiriac dared to include a beatles song titled “back in the ussr” on his playlist. following the ban on his show, the dj defected to austria and then germany, where he was discovered by noel barnard, director of radio free europe. thus chiriac was given the opportunity to offer “his contagious lesson in liberty” (tismăneanu : web) again: “metronom” was broadcast anew between and , when he was stabbed in a parking lot in munich, an assassination possibly commissioned by the romanian securitate (ionescu : ; tismăneanu ibid.). chiriac was the first to put together a professional study on the roots and history of jazz music, a -page monograph published by secolul xx in , the one who signed the foreword to the romanian translation of my life in new orleans, by louis armstrong, and the one who wrote the introductory blurbs for several jazz lps released by electrecord, the national label at the time. besides thoroughly transcribing all the foreign sources on jazz and rock he managed to get his hands on, chiriac would sometimes translate the lyrics of the songs he played on the radio, especially the ones bearing political messages—his way of opposing the oppressive political regime in romania and of educating young people on democracy some twenty-five years before the romanians came to know it: to him, the social phenomenon, the revolt and the discontent that emanated from these songs and that were often mirrored by their lyrics were at least as important as the music. as you well know, cornel was an encyclopedia of modern popular music, one of the best specialists. a man that understood it to perfection because he understood its roots, he knew where it came from, and he empathised with its thirst for freedom and peace, its aversion to war and brutality. (bernard : web) during a visit he made to chiriac’s only living relative, cornel chiriac jr., his nephew, reputed rock specialist and radio programmer doru ionescu discovered the translation into romanian of jesus christ superstar: at junior’s i came across the translation of the jesus christ superstar rock opera (a sensational one, in my opinion!), brought from his house in munich... i hope that one day i’ll be able to support its staging. that would be something for cornel’s memory, how he remained in the hearts of millions of romanians (and this is not an exaggeration!) who used to listen to his music shows more than the political talk- shows by his colleagues at radio free europe… ( : web) intrigued by ionescu’s finding, i searched the internet for a recording of the radio show in which chiriac presented the jesus christ superstar lp. luckily, it is one of the very few recordings that are available today: the radio programmer presented the double lp during four -minute shows scheduled immediately after the release of the album, in . however, only three of them were available on youtube, but enough to offer a clear image of the way in which chiriac structured his show and presented the lyrics. the first part starts with the detailed presentation of the authors of the rock opera, followed by a presentation of the characters and the singers that interpret those characters. he would then start presenting the songs in the order in which they appeared on the lp, each song preceded by his own translation. chiriac is very aware of the translation process and explains that he found it to be “an interesting, but also tedious work,” (min. - , part ) as he tried to offer a rhymed version. he explains that he uses simple language, similar to the language in the original, but with “a light archaic nuance.” (ibid.) i listened to all three radio shows and transcribed all his translations and since i did not have the written version that ionescu discovered among chiriac’s personal things and there is not any other written copy, i relied completely on the oral version, therefore the formatting is mine and is also based on the formatting of the originals. chiriac’s translation shows his deep engagement with the message of the opera, which he renders faithfully in a compelling fashion; his commentaries demonstrate a thorough understanding of the cultural references and significance: “it is obvious youtube source: http://bit.ly/chiriacjcs http://bit.ly/chiriacjcs that jesus christ superstar is an attempt ro make a comparison between jesus’s passions and the fate of the modern musician. does he want himself to be—or do others want him to be—a mentor, a spiritual messiah of the young generation, or rather a social, political one?” he asks apparently rhetorically during the second part of the show; he also provides erudite explanations on various aspects such as the etymology of certain words and names (e.g., the origin of the name judas the iscariote, which derives from the latin sicarius, an assassin, a murderer, etc.), as well as on the historical background of the accounts. chiriac translates the title as “iisus cristos idol,” using idol as the equivalent for “superstar,” although the english term would be perfectly acceptable in today’s language. even if his choice may sound like an infringement of the second commandment that urges believers to “not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth” (exodus: , bible, king james version)—or, the more modern version “you shall not make idols.”—that is rather unlikely, as he sounds in fact quite attached to the story behind the opera. his word choice relates more consistently to pop culture and to the condition of modern musicians: in “this jesus must die”, he explains his translation of “jesus christ-mania” as iisus cristos mania (a calque after the english phrase) through an obvious hint to “beatle-mania” and to lennon’s remark that the beatles were more popular than jesus; he relates people’s request for a written proof from jesus to autographs offered to fans; and uses primul în clasament (first on top) for “he’s top of the poll.” chiriac’s attention to form, especially to rhyme—that he wants to preserve at all costs—and his lack of formal training in versification lead to a series of facile rhymes or awkward phrasings. as chiriac explains (part , minute - ). however, his translation is exquisite given the context: a radio show of the s, whose presenter had only a bachelor’s degree in english and was mostly self-educated, and could not take advantage of today’s affordances of the internet. he produces an oral version in romanian that can be easily understood and memorized. although he might not have been interested in how his renditions would work as lyrics, his versions sound remarkably convincing in oral performance. here is for example the romanian translation of “what’s the buzz?” what’s the buzz? apostles: what’s the buzz? tell me what’s a-happening. jesus: why should you want to know? don’t you mind about the future? don’t you try to think ahead? save tomorrow for tomorrow; think about today instead. part , minute : ce se-aude, ce se-ntâmplă? apostolii: ce se-aude, ce se-ntâmplă? iisus: de ce oare vreți să știți? viitorul – ce vă pasă? la ce vine nu gândiți? lăsați mâine pentru mâine, voi pe astăzi chibzuiți. his versification, lexical choices and diction bear a striking resemblance to those of famous poem “glossă” (gloss), by widely revered th century early modernist romanian poet mihai eminescu, but also offer an almost literal translation of the original. the first song that he translates, “cerul din mințile lor” (heaven on their minds), shows his great awareness of the different rhythms in the original: after he reads lines, he stops, explains a background fact, warns the listeners that there is a change in meter in the original, provides a translation that has a different rhythm and meter, then signals when the text goes back to the initial meter and adapts his translation accordingly. when literal translation and the preservation of the rhyme are not possible concomitantly, he does an excellent english translation by corneliu m. popescu is available at http://www.estcomp.ro/eminescu/gloss.html. http://www.estcomp.ro/eminescu/gloss.html not shy away from adapting his version. perhaps the best crafted adaptation is the introduction to “the temple”, which he translates as corul cămătarilor și al negustorilor (“the choir of moneylenders and merchants”): the temple i got things you won’t believe, name your pleasure i will sell. i can fix your wildest needs, i got heaven and i got hell. roll on up, for my price is down. come on in for the best in town. take your pick of the finest wine. lay your bets on this bird of mine. what you see is what you get. no one’s been disappointed yet. don’t be scared give me a try, there is nothing you can’t buy. name your price, i got everything. hurry, it’s going fast. borrow cash on the finest terms. hurry now while stocks still last. part , minute : corul cămătarilor și al negustorilor fă-te-ncoa, fârtate, vând la preț scăzut, neamule, am marfă cum n-ai mai văzut. pun pariu că vinul meu dă viață păsări c-ale mele nu găsești pe piață. spune ce dobândă și-ți dau oricât vrei vino, poți să cumperi tot pe banii mei. pe lungă scadență dau cu-mprumutare bani peșin, la bursă cursul e-n urcare. he provides a shorter version, only lines instead of , in which he takes the most important cues from the original (marked in bold) and recreates the poem, offering two vivid, springy, and funny balkan style quatrains. interestingly enough, there is no evidence of chiriac’s being aware of poets like john cage, jerome rothenberg, or charles bernstein and their “writing through” techniques, and therefore most likely such uncommon approaches to translation and the resulting brilliant versions emerged from his heartfelt dedication, playful ingenuity, and resourceful creativity. for jerome rothenberg, for instance, translation is a form of writing through the words of others. he also uses a technique he calls ‘variation’, which means deriving new poems from the key-vocabulary of poems he translated (cf. writing through: translations and variations. middletown, ct: wesleyan university press, ). chiriac’s example does not typify subversive radio activities under communist rule, but is a niche mode of engagement with the audiences through rock lyrics during a time when literature and music were the only refuge for many young people. translation of rock lyrics thus became, just as pirated subtitles (dwyer and uricariu ibid.: ), a by-product of censorship practices and illustrated the primacy of the agent, network, and the media, and the importance of the message, rather than of its originality or accuracy. in a country where in electric guitars were still ‘scarce,’ (negus : ) rock-mania provided a necessary escapism, while translating lyrics into romanian was perhaps a result of the introversion and insularity of the romanian hippie movement (fichter : ), in that they might have been the expression of a self-referential counterculture rather than arduous political activism. . . . bob dylan translated by musicians the tradition of translating rock lyrics continued after chiriac’s death with florian pittiș, one of romania’s most loved actors, radio presenters, and vocalists. known as “a perpetual teenager” (moceanu : web) passionate about theatre and rock music, pittiș never quite fell in line with the communist party and famously turned down even their request to have his hair cut. he had decisively contributed to promoting artists like bob dylan, the beatles, led zeppelin, and the rolling stones among romanian youth both before and after . after starting out as a successful actor in and after years of work with bulandra theater in bucharest, pittiș initiated in a series of galvanizing shows called “poezia muzicii tinere” (the poetry of young music), during which he he was one of the young people identified as objectors, who normally had their long hair and blue jeans scissored (ionescu, : , ). used to present and comment on the lyrics of various foreign rock bands and artists. his rugged, yet warm and fascinating voice, not only presented the english originals, but also delivered translations of the texts that he had done himself. to pittiș translation was a natural act, a spontaneous response to his meeting with a foreign culture, to which he added, just as naturally, a performative dimension: any text he would read was approached with the awareness of an audience. his show at the theater was banned in , but was followed by “cântece pentru mine însumi ,” (songs for myself) which ran between and , and by “cum se numeau cei patru beatles” (written by stephen poljakoff under the original title of city sugar) whose format allowed pittiș to play a music normally banned by the censors. the kind of shows he organized at various theaters allowed him to promote this type of culture through a two-way network effect: his shows were not only meant to disseminate the desired information to a specific audience, but also to have the audience interact with the artists and make their voices known in a unique type of rhizhomatic performance. theater was not the only venue where pittiș explored the advantages of the two-way network effect. after the revolution, he was the producer and presenter of two legendary radio programs, “pittiș show” and “rock panorama”, which ran for years before pittiș was appointed as a director of radio romania tineret in , a branch of the state-owned radio channel. passionate about information technology, pittiș moved his show online and thus revolutionized radio broadcasting by adapting to the requirements of the digital media and, more importantly, by involving—again—his abundant audience in his shows: he would maintain direct contact with his listeners via the chat room, he would broadcast live from the studio, and he would often propose the topics to be discussed in the forum section of the website. all these were the elements of a a title inspired by songs of myself by walt whitman, whose poems pittiș would often recite during the show. completely new work ethics in romanian radio and made pittiș a trailblazer of dynamic radio programming (moceanu : web). besides translating live the lyrics of the rock bands presented, he translated and adapted many of bob dylan’s songs, such as “death is not the end“ (sfârşitul nu-i aici), “don’t think twice, it’s all right“ (nu-i nimic, asta e!) or “rainy day women“ (toţi suntem puţin luaţi...). in , pittiș became lead vocalist for pasărea colibri, one of romania’s most famous folk bands, and started to sing his own translations of dylan’s. his penchant for rock music in general was expressed repeatedly in interviews: “[…] there are people that live passionately; i love such people. they feel that in rock music one cannot lie or, at least, it’s more difficult to lie than in any other genre. rock is still very much a howl.” (stoicescu : web) the obvious reference to allen ginsberg’s famous poem is one of the many proofs that pittiș had a deep understanding of what the role of young generations was: he believed in the power of people to shape the world and rejected their role as mere cogs in the social and political machine. he valued the importance of free speech, of freedom in general, and of each person’s ability to think for themselves—all masterfully expressed through the iconic lyrics of “vinovații fără vină,” a song he sang with his band pasărea colibri: “nu contează cât de lung am părul / important e ce și cum gândesc.” (it does not matter how long my hair is, / but how and what i think do). his affinity for bob dylan’s music should thus come as no surprise as the covers he played with his band are the natural extension of the ideals he shared with the legendary american artist all his life—and certainly not a faute de mieux, as musical covers are usually perceived. the interview he gave after having been appointed director of radio romania tineret in spells out his vision on education through the un-mediated absorption of culture: possibly included among the over , covers of dylan inventoried before (gezari and hartman, : ). i have faith in our true youth, in these children who refuse ready-made truths, who refuse to believe everything they are told at school or at home, who study because they need to study, because life will present them with hardship anyway and they will find useful for their education all those basics taught in school. fortunately, just like it used to happen when i was young, there is still a certain ‘underground’ culture, that they explore by themselves, during ‘school breaks’. when i was in school, i would read [lucian] blaga only because he was banned. but also because of my parents (may they rest in peace!), i would read gazeta literară and contemporanul. at the same time, i would listen to elvis presley, play football and be crazy about "rock around the clock." […] such young people still exist in our country! and they are very many! with a thirst for culture, a thirst for knowing all kinds of things! so my mission is to present romanian youth with such underground culture. (kerim : web) the translation of rock and folk lyrics represented both for chiriac and for pittiș a way to fill a cultural gap, the kind that widens uncontrollably under oppressive political regimes. besides filling this gap and importing resources, pittiș also used translation creatively, adapting dylan’s songs to speak to young romanians and to preserve their performativity. just to offer an example of such adaptation, he translated “rainy day women” as toți suntem puțin luați..., which is in fact a line in the chorus: “everybody must get stoned.” he employs the colloquial a fi luat (to be tipsy) and reads in romanian “we are all a bit tipsy…” (literally: “we are all a bit taken”), thus replacing stoned with “tipsy/drunk”, a translation that was bound to be more relevant for his listeners, much more familiar at the time with alcohol than with any kind of illegal substances. the reference to drugs is also suppressed in the body of the text: he translates “they stone you” by te iau, which can be interpreted both as “i take you”, but also as “they take you”. most importantly, his use of the verb “a lua” both for “they stone you” and “we are all tipsy” is a very creative way to avoid the reference to drugs, to use a leitmotif just as the original does, yet create two different meanings, of which one refers to alcohol, and one refers to political interference in and control over people’s lives. his choice also entertains romanian interbellum philosopher and writer who famously refused to support the communist regime. fired from his academic position with the university in sibiu, he worked as a librarian and became a prolific translator. the ambiguity of the original, which plays with the religious connotations of ‘to stone someone to death.’ furthermore, another simply genius solution for the first line of the chorus—“but i would not feel so all alone”—is the very idiomatic phrase “dar hai să ne avem ca frați” (“but let us all get along just like brothers do”), which creates a perfect rhyme with the final line: well, they’ll stone you when you are all alone they’ll stone you when you are walking home they’ll stone you and then say they’re all brave they’ll stone you when you’re sent down in your grave but i would not feel so all alone everybody must get stoned te iau când numai tu ți-ai mai rămas, te iau și-atunci când mergi și tu acas’, te iau și-apoi îti spun că esti bărbat, te iau când în mormânt te-ai așezat! dar hai să ne avem ca frați, toți sîntem puțin luați! finally, while the original quatrain employs an irregular iambic pentameter (with a syllable elision in the fourth iamb), which becomes regular only in the final line, the romanian version is built on a perfectly regular pentameter that helped the translator perform the song with much more ease and rhythm . a selection of dylan’s lyrics was translated and published in book form for the first time in by folk singer, song writer, writer, and architect alexandru andrieș. the collection was released on the american singer’s fiftieth anniversary and is titled (happy birthday) dylan. it contains twenty-five poems and a presentation by the translator himself, which includes five more translations (full texts or simply relevant fragments). andrieș explains from the get-go that the selection was made following his own taste and preference for one poem or another, rather than on grounds of a certain literary hierarchy, and that it offers more of a personal version in romanian rather than a translation proper. however, it is interesting to note that some of his translations are a very illustrative interpretation of dylan’s “rainy day women” by florian pittiș in romanian—a concert organized in —is available on youtube at http://bit.ly/ kp daq. the original can be accessed at http://bit.ly/ e lvhp dylan, bob. . (la mulți ani) dylan (alexandru andrieș, trans,). brașov: editura pronto. http://bit.ly/ kp daq http://bit.ly/ e lvhp quite accurate (at the expense of the rhyme), while others run the gamut from simple elisions of less familiar references (e.g., he drops the reference to anita ekberg and keeps the reference to sophia loren and brigitte bardot in his translation of “i shall be free”) to inserting words that were not in the original or even rewriting whole lines (e.g., “it’s president kennedy calling me up” becomes preşedintele kennedy exagerează (president kennedy is exaggerating), or “what do we need to make the country grow” becomes “ca să ne crească ţara ca lanul de ştevie” (so that our country grows like a field of patience dock ). i shall be free (fragment) by bob dylan well, my telephone rang it would not stop it’s president kennedy callin’ me up he said, my friend, bob, what do we need to make the country grow? i said my friend, john, brigitte bardot anita ekberg sophia loren country’ll grow translation by alexandru andrieș telefonul sună, mă enervează, preşedintele kennedy exagerează zice: prietene bob ce crezi că ne trebuie ca să ne crească ţara ca lanul de ştevie Îi zic: prietene john mai ești acolo, alo ne trebuie sophia loren şi brigitte bardot Şi creşte ţara. such inconsistencies in the manner in which he translated these lyrics stem from the personal nature of this translation initiative, as well as from the fact that some of them were performed in concert or on andrieș’s lps: the meter is not observed where it should be, rhymes are used although they are not present in the original, meter is more regular than in the original, whole songs are adapted or even rewritten, etc. for example, on his “alb negru” lp ( ), “oxford town” becomes “la noi” (in our neck of the woods) in the title proposed by andrieș, then various other romanian toponyms across the quatrains, which are all mockingly rewritten and brimful with cultural lat. rumex patientia, a plant used in eastern europe in soup stocks, especially in spring. it is referenced here as a symbol of abundance due to its perennial nature and leafy appearance. references (e.g., periş is a small satellite town of bucharest and also commonly known as the first train station after the capital, here praised for having houses with roofs and no mcdonald’s): oxford town by bob dylan oxford town, oxford town everybody’s got their heads bowed down the sun don’t shine above the ground ain’t a-goin’ down to oxford town la noi translated by a. andrieș la periş, la periş, casele-au acoperiş, nici mcchicken, nici mcfish, minunat e la periş! in our neck of the woods (back translation) in periş, in periş all houses are quite roofish, no mcchicken, no mcfish, it’s amazing in periş! the translator took many liberties, but fully acknowledged them in the foreword, emphasizing his need to render dylan into romanian over any personal creative merits. however, i consider his version of “rainy day women” to be less accomplished than the one by pittiș, although i believe he took his inspiration from it (e.g., andrieș uses Ți-o fac (“i’ll trick you”) for pittiș’s te iau: although an interesting choice, it was much easier to achieve with an established translation in place.) unlike andrieș, pittiș thrived in translation: he sounded much more natural, and the sense of appropriation felt less acute, as he would often sing the original lyrics after interpreting the cover version in romanian, therefore the relationship between the original and the translation was maintained explicit on more than just one level. to pittiș, translation came more fluidly, spontaneously, consistently (he even translated the name of the band rolling stones as “vântură lume” (the wanderers, quite a felicitous choice), perhaps from a more general awareness of what needed to be imported from other cultures or, better, of what romania needed to fill the gap created by the -year communist rule. translation was part of both his ‘program’ and of his sparkling personality while his agency was manifest in all he did, including creating communities. his only four translations of dylan are widely known in romania, and not only among the pasărea colibri fans. however, one of his radio co-workers recounts that he did not believe in ratings and offers on her website his exact words: “i need to tell you something about this stupid thing called ratings. back in the day, jesus’s rating was lower than barabas’s. and the people chose barabas. i wonder if that was ok.” (isopescu : web) although he didn’t believe in ratings, he managed to create covers of dylan’s music that most romanians passionate about music are familiar with. . . . dylan, a feather to a literary cap pittiș’s translations of dylan are so well done and so widely-known because of the networks he belonged in and effectively exploited, that any other translation of the same lyrics by dylan may be measured against them. in humanitas press published bob dylan’s selected, translated by the celebrated contemporary writer mircea cărtărescu, whose name is acknowledged in the very title of the book: suflare în vânt. de poeme traduse de mircea cărtărescu (blowing in the wind. poems translated by mircea cărtărescu). the translator also signs the foreword, in which he humblebrags in the most glorious way: i tried to be fully faithful to the original, but also to give it a certain flexibility in romanian. ‘this is not cărtărescu, this is dylan.’ this is what i was telling to myself all the time while i translated. cărtărescu is only the tool that can make dylan shine in romanian, i used to tell myself. and still, those readers that are truly familiar with my style will be able to recognize it in these one hundred poems of dylan, because this is inevitable. all i can hope is that it doesn’t bother the reader, that it is only part of the background, and maybe a necessary ‘shadow’. (cărtărescu : , emphases mine) it is no surprise that the most visible romanian writer was chosen to translate dylan’s lyrics and why he accepted. the reasons are manifold and before being a mainstream translation project, it is the project of a poet-translator with a manifested literary affinity for the american poet. his foreword reveals themes and images in dylan’s lyrics that he and the entire writer generation of the s share a taste for (david ), such as “surrealist, apocalyptic visions,” (ibid.: ) or “psychedelic flavors dear to [his] heart.” (ibid.: ) cărtărescu’s association with a title that was supposed to sell out soon after the release must have been complemented by the satisfaction of a personal project that made the poet one of the go-to names in lyrics translation into romanian, as this was the third such project, after two translations of leonard cohen’s poems in and (cf. section . ). no matter how promising in terms of sales and how felicitous the association between the two names, the romanian translation bears a hilarious title, which seems to have been overlooked by its most prominent and qualified reviewer, renowned translator grete tartler. initially translated by poet adrian păunescu as vânare de vânt (wind chasing), ‘blowing in the wind’ becomes suflare în vânt (literal rendition of the english original) in the humanitas translation, a phrase never used idiomatically in romanian and bearing unintended scatological connotations, since, just as in english, vânt (wind) is a common euphemism. i can only assume that cărtărescu tried to avoid păunescu’s established translation and to come up with a whole new dylan, a dylan of his own. however, vânare de vânt will likely remain the best romanian translation of “blowing in the wind”, one that has been sung by many folk singers since its premiere during communism. păunescu’s inspirational rendition of the phrase ‘blowing in the wind’ as vânare de vânt, a phrase that appears only in the romanian translation of the ecclesiastes : for ‘to chase/strive (after) the romanian writer and translator of german origin. she is known for her translations of goethe, as well as for many other translations of poetry and diction from the german, danish, english, french, and the arabic. controversial creator of the famous cenaclul flacăra (the flame literary circle), the event during which the first romanian version of “blowin’ in the wind” was launched towards the end of the s. the song was sung at that time by florian pittiș and became one of his bestselling songs, also included on one of pasărea colibri’s albums, În căutarea cuibului pierdut (released in ). wind’ is arguably the best rendition of dylan’s title. its rendition is in perfect harmony with the message of dylan’s songs and is a perfect translation of the title’s meaning, while cărtărescu’s version is both awkward and unintentionally funny, a failed attempt to avoid an established translation at all costs. in a blog entry on the two versions, constantin piștea admits to preferring pittiș’s version and indicates that performativity plays an essential role: it might also be [his] voice, low and a bit raspy and husky, yet unmistakable. it might be. but the truth is that every time i read another poem in [cărtărescu’s] book i would also listen to bob’s original song and, more urgently, the cover played by florian pitiș and his band, pasărea colibri. you wanna know what happened? i realized i terribly missed florian pitiș…! (piștea : web) pittiș’s translations do fit the score and sound impressive indeed in performance, but there is still more to them than just meets the eye… and the ear. if we look at dylan’s “death is not the end,” the first two lines, for instance, “when you’re sad and when you’re lonely / and you haven’t got a friend / just remember that death is not the end” become când necazuri te doboară, / Și prieteni n-ai să-i strigi / Ține minte, sfârșitul nu-i aici, which is translation by synthesis (e.g., “sad” and “lonely” are rendered by one word, “trouble”) followed by a generalization (“the end is not here”), while cărtărescu’s translation of the first line and of the chorus is literal, but then he has to make up a whole verse in order to preserve the rhyme: Şi nu mai vine răsăritul (“and sunrise is no longer coming” for “and you haven’t got a friend”). nevertheless, tartler’s review is highly praising, calling cărtărescu’s translations ‘much better’ than the originals and endowed with ‘a special charm’ that comes from the translator’s very alteration of the text. the departure from the original, when it happens, is considered by the reviewer as a lucidus ordo, a perspicuous arrangement. then tartler offers the example of “highway he used both orthographies alternatively: pittiș or pitiș. ” in translation, which she calls a ‘masterpiece’. the translation is indeed excellent, but the examples offered further depart from the original to such an extent that they become, just like tartler notes, poems by cărtărescu in the vein of various illustrious romanian predecessors, such as anton pann or ion barbu. not only does the translator use various regional terms (e.g., prișniță for medicament / medicine), but also rewrites whole lines so that he could stay close to the meter and rhyme. in “subterranean homesick,” (“dor de casă subteran”) “maggie comes fleet foot, face full of black soot / talkin’ that the heat put plants in the bet book” becomes “maggie vine repede/ plină de funingine/ să ne spună: «plantele/ au crescut sub plapume»./”, that is [...] to tell us / the plants have grown under duvets.” he renders ‘plants’ by plante, when the more common rendition would be flori (flowers). or “phone’s tapped anyway / maggie says “the man, he say / they must bust in early may, orders from the d.a.” becomes telefonu-i ascultat/ mulţi inşi zic că au aflat/ că inspectorul de stat/ nu mai trebuie votat, which means “[…] many dudes say they found out / that the state inspector / no longer must be voted for.” in the absence of the original (the book contains only the romanian translation), cărtărescu affords himself a wide range of liberties. the reviewer does not seem to be bothered, but, at the same time, starts out tongue-in-cheek by saying that she begins her review by talking about herself, just as the translator speaks about himself in the translator’s foreword. she admits to have never been into dylan at all and to only having become familiar with his music and ideology on the occasion of writing the review. all these may be an indication that her commentary was commissioned by the publishing company, a hypothesis supported by the lack of any other review before dylan was awarded the nobel prize for literature. the humanitas project is an interesting case of a translation whose author cannot overcome his own literary stardom and whose publisher uses the reputation of the poet-translator as a guarantee for quality: it is dylan, a dylan the translator clearly admires, but a dylan translated (of all, we might read) by none other than cărtărescu. even tartler’s review, “cărtărescu și dylan,” mentions the translator first, an inkling of the assessment the reviewer was about to make. both the author’s and the translator’s symbolic capitals work together for the success of the project, while also, by association, increase each other’s prestige: for those who have never heard of dylan— unlikely as it may sound—cărtărescu’s allegiance via translation is a guarantee of literary value, while adding dylan to cărtărescu’s portfolio is not only a translation event born out of translator’s admiration, but also one more famous feather to his own literary cap. . . . three times jim morrison the first translation of rock lyrics in book form in post-communist romania was jim morrison’s an american prayer and other writings. the book was the project of rock music enthusiast dănuț ivănescu, and editor of the romanian heavy metal magazin. the first bilingual edition was published in at quo vadis? press in chișinău. printing books with presses and printing houses in the republic of moldova was a common practice during those years, as prices were more affordable than in romania and local publishers welcomed the idea of facilitating projects in romanian. the first print run probably sold out very quickly, as two more editions were published in , this time with romanian publishers—cartea de nisip and karmat press. the books produced by these publishers reveal a very eclectic selection—a hodgepodge of cheap literature, poetry, in an interview for observatorul cultural in („stiu mai bine ce vreau si ce nu vreau de la literatura“, by ovidiu Șimonca), six years before the translation of dylan’s poems was launched, cărtărescu mentions the american singer’s album another side of dylan when he talks about his own multiple literary personae. morrison, jim. / . o rugă americană și alte scrieri (an american prayer and other writings (virgilia and mara popa, trad.). chișinău: quo vadis? press / cartea de nisip / karmat press. translations, memoirs, most of them being rather reflections of their authors’ personal agendas than a coherent publication portfolio. the translation of morrison’s poems and lyrics is the perfect example of such projects born from someone’s passion for a certain kind of music. its publication was an act of open admiration towards the poet and musician, as all paratexts and subsequent reviews of the translation to morrison’s life and music only. there are no translation excerpts online, nor are there any in other media. the only reference to the two translators appears on a blog run by the artist who designed the cover of the book, ionuț bănuță. this is how i found out that virgilia and mara popa are siblings. ana virgilia popa is in fact a researcher in veterinary medicine, whose other translations to date have nothing to do with poetry, but with science fiction and with specialized texts pertaining to the field of biology. such an eclectic profile is an indication of how virgilia popa came to translate this poetry collection: most probably because she was personally acquainted with the publisher. details from ana virgilia popa’s online cv confirm the fact that the first edition was published in at quo vadis? press (in chișinău, republic of moldova), while the other three were published between and by karmat press and cartea de nisip publishers (which all had the same owner, dănuț ivănescu). the translation was popular among morrison’s fans (e.g., one of the poems in translation, cine te-a speriat (who scared you)), was included on the romanian band blue spirit’s album titled cei mai frumoși ani! (the most beautiful years!), but was always sung alongside the original. the -poem selection follows an ample foreword from the publisher, dănuț ivănescu, titled “‘cel frumos și blestemat’ sau ‘la porțile percepției’,” (the handsome and cursed or at the doors of perception) which addresses the rock star’s troubled biography. the romanian versions the cover designer reveals that he designed the cover out of his “deep admiration” for morrison’s band, the doors. http://bit.ly/morrisonbanuta. follow the original quite accurately and sometimes manage to preserve the rhyme, but the prosody is not a concern for the two translators. a similar preoccupation for the meaning of morrison’s lyrics appears in tudor crețu’s essays on narcopoetics, a series of three pieces published in observatorul cultural in on his drug addiction as part of the artistic process. most excerpts from morrison’s poems are offered in romanian translation and a note at the end states that all translations were made by the author himself. *** these five examples related to rock lyric translation show that romanian rock music scene was a complex phenomenon that presented four ways of translation deployment, all indebted to a network of music enthusiasts rather than to any cultural politics. first, post-communist rock music was heavily influenced by the european and american countercultures, but still retained its own modes of expression, which revolved more consistently around presenting alternatives to mass- produced culture, and mostly lacked the dissident emphasis that characterized similar movements. instead, romanian underground culture gravitated around archaic ritualism, folklore, and mysticism (including shamanism and traditional magical practices), an attempt at embracing romania’s pre- communist past. while the existing literature generally links folklore-infused romanian rock to a nationalism that was accepted by the communist regime (pop , dobrescu ), one also needs to acknowledge the fact that it may have been a response to mircea eliade’s impact as a historian of religions (oișteanu ) and a symbol of the alternative ways of approaching romanian culture. i would argue here that, for example, cornel chiriac’s choice to translate jesus christ crețu, tudor. . “jim morrison, narcopoetica ( - ).” in observator cultural , , . web: http://bit.ly/narcopoetica. last accessed december , . andrei oișteanu also documented and explained the impact of this world-famous historian of religions on hippiedom beyond romania, specifically in california, during the s and the early s. http://bit.ly/narcopoetica superstar in its entirety may have been the result of an eliadesque mode of perceiving and promoting music and that translation was his very personal way of understanding it. claire bishop rightfully notes that self-organization and personal experience were important modes of experiencing art in general under socialism: “for artists living under communism, participation had no […] agitationary goals. it was, rather, a means of experiencing a more authentic (because individual and self-organized) mode of collective experience than the one prescribed by the state in official parades and mass spectacles; as such, it frequently takes escapist or celebratory forms.” ( : ) translation becomes, through the work of radio producers like cornel chiriac and florian pittiș, a celebration of rock music and of underground culture in general. second, the celebration of rock music via lyrics translation is also represented by a more popular form, that of cover versions. covers were the sole initiative of the artists, who chose either to observe the original poem and provide an accurate translation (like pittiș), or to adapt the original lyrics, offering an accurate rendition of the titles but largely modifying the main portion of the poem (like andrieș) in order to preserve the performative aspect. covers are either only performed, or are doubled by isolated publishing initiatives (e.g., andrieș published the anniversary volume of adaptations dedicated to dylan, but never published a similar work again). third, also in line with the celebratory function of translation, there are translation initiatives that stem from the publishers’ affinity with a certain artist. the extent of the initiative relies on the financial power of the publisher, and the degree of faithfulness to the original depends on the translator’s profile. fourth, and most importantly, all rock lyric translation in romania has been built on individual taste and the promotion of such work depended largely, with the notable exception of humanitas, on a tightly knit network of music enthusiasts who found ways to reach wider audiences. and even in the case of humanitas, cărtărescu’s admiration for dylan’s music—part and parcel of the american influence on the romanian generation of the s—might have had a say in the initiation of this translation project. . . romanian mainstream and indie publishers of translated poetry after there is a fine line between established and indie publishing in romania. generally associated with high levels of intermediation and with rigidity in terms of expected financial performance, mainstream publishers are not the typical venue for poetry translation unless the authors are iconic figures in their home literatures. one cannot measure how established a publisher is in terms of published translation by the number of reviews discussing these works either because reviewing translations is not a common practice. such evaluations are rarely made in literary periodicals and, when they are, what triggers them is rather the stature of the author or the translator and the network of the latter’s literary acquaintances, not necessarily the publisher or the quality of the translation. the corpus shows us that established publishers started to manifest a somewhat constant interest towards contemporary north american poetry in english just before the country joined the european union on january , . even so, this is only the case of humanitas and polirom—the two mainstream publishing houses that dominate the industry, with polirom more interested in promoting romanian fiction writers abroad and humanitas bringing foreign authors to the local market. it is safe to say that humanitas included t.s. eliot and ezra pound in their publishing plans because they are canonized authors, whose literary value is undeniable and who also align with the i have not included this translation (by radu vancu) in my corpus because volume , the only one published to date, contains only poems published in original between and . requirements of a globalized, capitalist market. the same goes for their choice of bob dylan’s lyrics or for polirom’s interest in leonard cohen, whose international fame was certainly in line with the sales policy of the publisher. by contrast, indie publishing in the romanian context is associated with self-publication, disintermediation, and almost complete control over the published product on the part of the translator. however, even this type of publishing is intermediated by presses that cannot be catalogued as fully mainstream or fully indie. unlike in other contexts, where an author can publish their work under their own auspices, indie publishing in romania means that an author, or a translator, in our case, uses a private company that has the legal right to operate as a publisher. private individuals are not allowed to, therefore they need to collaborate with a publishing house that supplies the much needed isbn. while most indie publishers typically issue the isbn and serve as intermediaries in the printing process, there are independent publishers who also get involved in the design and promotion of the book, which typically results in no further financial gains for the translator. royalties in poetry translation are not common and the amounts earned by such publishing houses by selling these books merely allow them to survive. however, this precariousness in means has beneficial effects in terms of productivity and the variety of authors translated (figure ). translated poetry publishing in romania appears as a disconnected graph with author nodes (for books) and publisher nodes—divided in fourteen components, zero clustering and density close to zero ( . ). translators are the edges that connect the publisher and author nodes, therefore they have no role in the economy of this particular graph. figure . contemporary english-language u.s. and canadian poetry collections translated after legend: red = mainstream; green = indie. the network includes the translation of jim morrison’s lyrics presented in section . . . the fine line between mainstream and indie publishers is given by a third category, such as paralela (figure ), the most central node in the network because of the number of authors published and the association with three more presses that published other books by the same authors (cartea românească, humanitas, and editura fundației culturale române). figure . translation projects associated with mainstream paralela , humanitas, cartea românească, and editura fundației culturale române (legend: red = mainstream; green = indie) their market presence and history point to a mainstream status, but the type of poetry titles they have hosted after the revolution actually show an openness to books that appear to be their translators’ projects. i would contend that this openness has been the result of the network of people around the late gheorghe crăciun (editorial consultant and then editor-in-chief), a poetry theorist who built his most reputed book, the iceberg of modern poetry (crăciun ), on the works of poets like walt whitman or frank o’hara. this press ranks first in all types of centrality in g (bc = . ; cc = . ; eigenvector = . ) and is best placed and most influential in g , followed in betweenness and closeness centrality not by a mainstream publisher, but by an independent one, scrisul românesc—the press which built its portfolio due to transatlantic connections (cf. section . . ). paralela starts its series of translations from u.s. contemporary poetry with a bilingual volume of selected poems by andrei codrescu, an established romanian-born american author translated by ioana ieronim. the translator confesses in her foreword that in she actually resumed her translations of codrescu’s poetry, one that had started five years before (ieronim : - ), and that paralela decided to make codrescu even more popular in romania after his first volume of translated poems, candoare străină, published only three years before by another press, sold out. the first volume was translated by the same ieronim and published by a different press, so we may assume both translations from codrescu’s poetic work were ieronim’s projects. the situation is actually not very different from the publication of his translated novels. all eleven novels and non-fiction books were translated by the same ioana avădani. avădani is not simply a translator appointed by the publisher to work on codrescu’s texts, but her relationship with the romanian-born writer dates back to the late s, when she started to translate his work with the novel mesi@ and the articles published by codrescu in reputed cultural journal dilema veche under the moniker scrisori din new orleans (letters from new orleans). translation is simply a pastime for avădani—as she confesses in many interviews and bio notes—and a reflection of her long-time friendship and literary affinity with codrescu: “i am not a professional translator, i don’t earn a living by doing this, so i can afford my own rhythm and choose what i want to translate. i codrescu, andrei. . selected poetry. poezii alese (ioana ieronim, trans.). pitești: editura paralela . codrescu, andrei. . candoare străină: poeme alese, - (ioana ieronim, trans.). editura fundației culturale române. codrescu, andrei. . mesi@ (ioana avădani, trans.). cluj: editura fundaţiei culturale române. revel in word hunting.” (vasilescu : web, emphasis mine). she is otherwise known as the director of the centre for independent journalism and has been for years a prominent figure in romanian media, a position which may have allowed her to successfully propose translation projects to visible publishers. her first translation, mesi@, was published by editura fundației culturale române, founded by the romanian writers’ union, where ieronim published her first poetry translation. when the press was shut down, the two translators took their projects to other publishers: ieronim to paralela , and avădani to polirom, who published six of codrescu’s titles. but the rhythm in which the prolific translator worked on her friend’s books required a second publisher, this time curtea veche publishing, and a dedicated series bearing the name of the author . while his prose was the result of his sole translator’s effort, the translation of his poetry is tributary to a second translator-poet, carmen firan, who took codrescu’s first and only book written in his native romanian, intrumentul negru , and published it in at scrisul românesc press. we have also seen in the section on translations in print periodicals that firan also translated selections of codrescu’s poems and published them in the literary journal affiliated with the press. all these collaborations are part of a process of poetic reinstatement carried out by a network of various romanian writer-translators that met codrescu in the united states. the next volume of american contemporary poetry published at paralela is the translation of charles simic’s the book of gods and demons in . there is no clear indication that this was a translator initiative; however, the volume differs in terms of design and is not contesa sângeroasă ( ), noi n-avem bun-gust, noi sîntem artiști ( ), wakefield ( ), mesi@ ( ), scrisori din new orleans ( ), casanova în boemia ( ). prof pe drum ( ), gaura din steag ( ), ghid dada pentru postumani - tzara şi lenin joacă şah ( ), ay, cuba! o călătorie socio-erotică ( ), lecția de poezie ( ). codrescu, andrei. . instrumentul negru. poezii, - . craiova: scrisul românesc. charles simic. . cartea zeilor şi a demonilor (mircea cărtărescu, trans.). pitești: paralela . bilingual, unlike codrescu’s selected in the gemini series. cărtărescu’s translation is preceded by a translator’s note, in which he places the volume in the wider context of simic’s poetry and where the presence of the translator is only visible in a comment related to his favorite poem in the volume, which also appears on the back cover. if we take into account the rhythm in which cărtărescu translates, the fact that the following american poetry books with the same publisher appear in the gemini series and in bilingual format, whereas cărtărescu never publishes translations alongside the originals, one may be right to assume this was the translator’s project. at paralela the translation of simic was followed by that of t.s. eliot’s the waste land in by young translator alex moldovan—“[a] free-lance translator and a self-declared agnostic, [who] included on his list of translated works titles from philosophy, theology, as well as some poetry signed by authors such as charles taylor, joseph ratzinger or william blake.” (bîrsanu : ) as noted by bîrsanu, “the publication of this version registered no echo whatsoever on the romanian literary scene,” ( ) probably because of the personal nature of a project by a young translator that was not a published author at the time. finally, the last poetry book with paralela in our corpus is sylvia plath’s selected poems translated and introduced by elena ciobanu in . plath’s rendition and publication into romanian appear to be ciobanu’s own endeavour, a classic example of collaboration with an established publisher that sits on the boundary between mainstream and indie publishing. the translator had defended her ph.d. thesis on plath’s poetry in and the influence of her scholarly interest reflects heavily on the book. the poems are preceded by a lengthy academic preface both in english and romanian, in which no reference is made to the translation process and which is followed by a list of works cited, a detailed bibliography, a short bio note, and eliot, t.s. . the wasteland (alex moldovan, trans.). pitești: paralela . plath, sylvia. . poeme alese (selected poems). (elena ciobanu, trans.) pitești: paralela . a list of plath’s published books. ciobanu’s bio mentions her interest in the anglophone world and her role as a curator of a rubric dedicated to anglophone literatures in the literary magazine ateneu, things that all suggest a personal project. alex moldovan’s ignored rendition of eliot’s the wasteland might have been a direct competitor of the republication by mainstream cartea românească, run by the romanian writers’ union. this bilingual book, coordinated by reputed british literature professor lidia vianu, contains two versions previously offered by ion pillat ( ) and aurel covaci ( ), and appears to observe the guidelines of mainstream publishing: established authors, established translators, and established endorsers. the same guidelines are observed by humanitas in their volume of t.s. eliot’s selected poems published in . humanitas collaborates with Ștefan stoenescu—the anglophone literature specialist whom i presented in chapter —for the preface and with professor ioana zirra for the chronology. this volume reunites old versions by mircea ivănescu and new translations by sorin mărculescu—seasoned translator of cervantes—, Șerban foarță—in my opinion the best romanian poetry translator—, and adriana carmen racoviță—a lecturer of english and seasoned translator herself—, all qualified as excellent by the numerous reviews after publications (grigore a, grigore b, dima ). the interest of all these presses in t.s. eliot ranks him first in node centrality in g and g and places humanitas second after paralela in eigen centrality, thus second in the general network in terms of influence. in our analysis, humanitas does not owe its position to a large portfolio, but to their strategic translation of eliot, an author translated by other important nodes. in the absence of such t.s. eliot. . the waste land / Țara pustie (ion pillat, aurel covaci, trans.). bucurești: editura cartea românească. eliot, t. s. . opere poetice. - (selected poems ( - )) (mircea ivănescu et. al., trans.). bucurești: humanitas fiction. translation, humanitas would have been one of the many small players that make up translated poetry publishing in romania. unlike the eliot translation, not much endorsement except for the translator’s name was needed for bob dylan’s blowing in the wind , published by humanitas in . praised by a single reviewer befoere dylan was awarded the nobel prize for literature, as we have seen in the previous subchapter, cărtărescu’s translation is not an exquisite rendition, but probably helped boost sales figures for a series that reportedly undersells (dinițoiu ). although the policy underlining the poetry series at humanitas fiction is for the romanian renditions to be done by “important poet-translators,” (dinițoiu ibid.: web) no other book has the name of the translator in the very title. the project most likely stemmed both from the translator’s interest in dylan’s poetry and from comănescu’s affinity for the american artist’s music, one of the many she was introduced to by cornel chiriac’s acclaimed radio show in the early s. asked in a recent interview about the books and music that shaped her destiny, comănescu admits to having been ostensibly influenced by american hippie counterculture: we used to like all important anglo-american artists. especially those dubbed the flower-power generation. when i was in high-school and jimi hendrix and janis joplin died, we wore mourning lapel bands. profs would ask us what happened and we would answer that a relative of ours had died. we were in mourning for a month after jimi and janis died. even the american poetry we read towards the end of the highschool years was influenced by their music. (mincan : web) this hypothesis is not far-fetched, as further translations from dylan’s work and biography have been published to date in the very series that bears her own first name, “raftul denisei” (denisa’s bookshelf), even if dylan’s selected reportedly didn’t sell as expected (dinițoiu ibid.). still, four years after publication, humanitas was still looking for ways to promote the book and commissioned dylan, bob. . suflare în vânt (blowing in the wind) (mircea cărtărescu, trad.). bucurești: humanitas fiction. dylan, bob. . cronica vieții mele (vol. i, dan silviu boerescu, trans.). bucharest: humanitas fiction; dylan, bob. . tarantula (sorin gherguț, trans.). bucharest: humanitas fiction. adevărul, one of the best-selling daily journals, to feature a presentation of the volume, accompanied by two translated poems and videos of bob dylan’s songs on the occasion of dylan’s being awarded the nobel for literature. the feature reveals that it has been cărtărescu who had picked the one hundred poems for the anthology (ghioca : web). another article in , this time an opinion piece by mihaela ursa, sees the humanitas translation as an ideological repossession: “the ideological confiscation of bob dylan by the communist dogma through adrian păunescu and his “flacăra” literary circle has only been rectified with cărtărescu’s version.” (ursa : web). in her view, although these versions cannot be put to music, they are an excellent poetic rewriting and where “păunescu used dylan as a songwriter cărtărescu reinvented a poet.” (id.) the critical bias thus becomes obvious, as dylan is both a songwriter and a poet, one that needs not be reinvented the way i have described in the previous section. cărtărescu’s preference for the translation of lyrics has been manifest since , when he translated thirty-two poems for the monograph dedicated to leonard cohen by romanian literary critic and academic mircea mihăieș, a long-time self-declared fan of the canadian poet and singer. the translation rights for the poems in let us compare mythologies ( ) and the spice- box of earth ( ) had been granted by the late poet himself, whom mihăieș personally had met at a certain point. the romanian version of the poems, published by polirom (figure ), produce a mixed reaction: mircea cărtărescu’s translation of leonard cohen’s poems is accurate and is an event in itself. cărtărescu is one of the most important romanian poets, one of the reasons why this translation cannot go unnoticed. but we have to say that it does not produce a big revelation about the quality of cohen as a poet. those who are familiar with cohen’s interpretation of songs like “the future” or “everybody knows” will certainly find it strange to read only the lyrics, let alone the lyrics romanian. in the absence of mihăieș, mircea. / . viața, patimile și cântecele lui leonard cohen. cu de poeme traduse de mircea cărtărescu. iași: polirom. music and of the sound of the english, these lyrics sound strange, although mircea cărtărescu renders the original accurately. (urian : ) the association between cărtărescu and mihăieș was fuelled by their common interest in cohen and is a clear indication of a deeply personal project. another indication is the fact that the only translation selection ever published by cărtărescu in a periodical is one of cohen’s poems in , two years before they were featured in a larger selection in mihăieș’s book, and under a similar title formula to his translation of dylan with humanitas—[...] în traducerea lui mircea cărtărescu—an acknowledgment of the translator’s prominent literary persona. polirom had been the first to translate cohen’s beautiful losers and the favorite game in and their continued interest in cohen resulted in in a translation of his poetry volume book of longing. this time, polirom commissioned Șerban foarță and cristina chevereșan. foarță, considered by many a language genius and untranslatable as a poet, offers an excellent version that focuses on the musical quality of the originals and observes the prosody. figure . translation projects associated with mainstream polirom and indie scrisul românesc. legend: red = mainstream; green = indie. cohen, leonard. . “leonard cohen în traducerea lui mircea cărtărescu.” in românia literară . cohen, leonard. . cartea aleanului (book of longing) (cristina chevereșan and Șerban foarță, trad.). iași: polirom. the cohen translation was the first in a polirom series which continued in with bukowski’s love is a dog from hell. erotic poems , translated by young poet dan sociu. the volume was met with contradictory reviews: while iulia popovici praised sociu for transferring the sound and direct language of his own poetry in his version of bukowski and saw this as a rare advantage in poetry translation into romanian (popovici ), paul gabriel sandu equated sociu’s treatment of the original poems with a bull in a china shop (sandu ). two years after the translation of bukowski poems polirom published sociu’s translation of irish poet seamus heaney, an anthology put together by the poet-translator himself. however, the publishing house might not have been interested in e. e. cummings, as in the translator takes this new translation project to a different publisher, art press. the hypothesis according to which the translator’s tastes and decision to translate cummings played a significant role in the publication of the book is also grounded in the fact that cummings’s volume is the only foreign poetry title in the publisher’s catalogue to date. moreover, unlike the more substantial translations published with polirom, this published version of cummings has only pages, including illustrations. as far as the illustrations are concerned, they bind all three translations by sociu like a red thread, irrespective of the publisher, which may be indicative of a certain vision on the translator’s part. polirom expanded their series of translations from u.s. contemporary poetry with allen ginsberg in and edward hirsch in . the format and design of these two new books bukowski, charles. . love is a dog from hell. erotic poems (dragostea e un cîine venit din iad. de poeme erotice) (dan sociu, trad.; gorzo, il.). iași: polirom. e. e. cummings. . poeme erotice (erotic poems) (dan sociu, trans.; tudor jebeleanu, il.): bucurești: editura art. ginsberg, allen. . howl și alte poeme. (howl and other poems.) (domnica drumea and petru ilieşu, trans.). iași: polirom. hirsch, edward. . focul viu. poeme vechi și noi. - (al. b. stănescu, trans.). iași: polirom. differ considerably from the volumes translated by sociu, and they are not accompanied by any illustrations or paratexts, except for brief author biographies on the inside covers and blurbs by established american authors or literary publications on the back covers. although awarded a translation prize, the only extensive review of it to date does not address the romanian version in any way and only comments on ginsberg’s literary magnitude (pîrvan-jenaru ). the “elegant and precise” (iovănel ) translation of hirsch’s poems was published alongside a translation of his acclaimed how to read a poem and fall in love with poetry appropriately curated by alexandru ioan cuza university press in the same city. it was hirsch’s translator, bogdan alexandru stănescu, the coordinator of polirom’s world literature series, who said that in poetry translation the competition is fierce and everything boils down to money. in this context, the association of the two titles in a simultaneous launch appears as a combo meant to work against poetry’s hard sell. polirom appears in the main component (g ) of the graph due to an infusion of nodes brought along by scrisul românesc, otherwise each of these publishers would have belonged in different smaller components and would not have been so visible in the network. it was this small press in craiova that published hirsch for the first time, via carmen firan’s transnational network, in a bilingual volume, three years before polirom did; and it was due to this network that hirsch visited romania and took part in the literature and translation international festival in iași in , where stănescu, bădulescu and andriescu, his future translators, met him. besides his participation in this festival, the small press facilitated a book launch in the popular bastilia bookstore in bucharest and organized a round table together with the prestigious literary journal observatorul cultural, thus checking all the promotion boxes normally associated with mainstream publishing. hirsch, edward. . foc nocturn (răzvan hotăranu, trans.). craiova: scrisul românesc. both small presses and individual translators appear to follow the same strategies to promote a book, sometimes with more success than mainstream publishers; for example, the translation of john berryman’s dream songs by radu vancu, published with independent max blecher press. this volume has benefited from the largest number of reviews of all contemporary u.s. poetry translations. while some of them insist on the differences between his version and the version published by mircea ivănescu in his anthology (nedelea ; chivu ), most of them are praising and salute the critical apparatus that accompanies the translation and situates berryman in a literary context meant to guide the readers that are not familiar with his poetry (coande ; dinițoiu ). although numerous and generally positive, the reviews never truly address the quality of translations and mostly analyze berryman’s motifs and the similarity between his work and the work of romanian mircea ivănescu, his first poet-translator and vancu’s own mentor. even if the translator is well aware of berryman’s sophistication in terms of poetic technique and even explains in detail in his postface the prosodic structure of the poems he chose, he does not seem to render the structure in romanian and focuses instead on rendering berryman’s “verbal jungle”—the colloquial vocabulary and intentional language mistakes. however, more of a publishing event than a felicitous translation, berryman’s dream songs remain their translator’s project and the translator’s gift to romanian literature. vancu entrusts the book to long- time friend claudiu komartin and his max blecher press, but the back cover features a second publisher, armanis, based in vancu’s hometown sibiu. deferred for quite a long time because of copyright issues, the translation might have been possible due to the financial support of the latter press, as this is the only title in max blecher’s portfolio that has ever been co-published. berryman, john. . cântece vis (radu vancu, trans.). bistrița: casa de editură max blecher. that year max blecher press published another poetry volume, this time by jerome rothenberg, co-translated by raluca and chris tanasescu. to our knowledge, only one review has been published to date, one that praises both the selection and the translation: varied and surprisingly representative for the work of a poet of such caliber, the anthology put together by raluca & chris tanasescu—which is not to quote selectively, but looked at, read and uttered in a loud voice—is a tour de force for which the two translators cannot be complimented enough. (chivu : web). however ignored by reviewers, like many other translations, the launch was actually a series of events meant to have rothenberg meet in person as many romanian writers and poetry readers as possible: besides taking care of the translation, the translators applied for funding with the united states embassy in bucharest so that rothenberg could attend the book launch in bucharest and receive a fee; they also asked the local jewish community for support to cover daily incidentals; they copy-edited the manuscript and organized three book launches—at the book fair, in a posh literary lounge, as well as at the jewish theatre, and took the poet and his spouse on a flash-trip to the romanian mountains. at the end, they paid for the whole print run, out of which they asked for a third for further distribution in their own network. the intervention of the press in the whole process was related only to the professional design and printing of the book. in addition, komartin and graphic designer ana toma, the two founders of the press, took part actively in most of the events organized and hosted the poet and the translators during one of their poetry reading circles, institutul blecher. the same modus operandi was observed four years before, when c. tanasescu successfully applied for funding with the u.s. embassy in bucharest to bring poet david baker to romania for rothenberg, jerome. . mistici, hoți și nebuni (raluca & chris tanasescu (margento), trans.). bistrița: casa de editură max blecher. the blecher poetry workshops (institutul blecher) have been organized by komartin for the past years ( editions as of march , ) without any financial support (crăciun ). the launch of his translated book—the alchemical man. the book was presented to romanian audiences in a series of various happenings, from book launches at that year’s book fair in bucharest to readings at the u.s. embassy and a lecture at the university of bucharest’s department of american studies. the first and last translation books related to the two tanasescus were handled differently. in , c. tanasescu entrusted vinea press, run by poet nicolae tzone and focused exclusively on poetry and avantgarde literature, with the production and printing of ilya kaminsky’s dancing in odessa, for which he paid a certain amount. the publisher presented the book at the gaudeamus bookfair and distributed it in several bookstores, as well as through direct orders he personally mailed. however precarious the financial state of vinea, tzone is the only romanian independent publisher that regularly presents his titles at the salon du livre in paris in spectacular formats and on luxury paper (andrei ). relying heavily on his network of friends and on his own creative stubbornness, as well as on a totally flexible in-home printing scheme, tzone manages to offer every year fresh copies of all the books he has published since and will probably never say that a certain title sold out. a totally different type of collaboration was established with tracus arte regarding the translation of canadian seymour mayne’s word sonnets: the two co-translators submitted the baker, david. . omul alchimic (alchemical man. selected poems). (chris tanasescu, trans.). bucurești: editura vinea. kaminsky, ilya. . dansând în odessa (dancing in odessa). (chris tanasescu, trans.). bucurești: editura vinea. although in very evasive terms, tzone does admit to the financial instability of his press: “somehow hazard helps too… i have never been able to work with planned budgets, at least not in romania. first i would make the books then i would manage to cover the expenses from sales or from other sources. there’s a whole machine behind this.” (andrei : web, emphasis mine) asked how he managed to have romanian authors translated into french and presented at the salon du livre, nicolae tzone replies: “it’s very difficult, but i have very good friends, genuine professionals, that help me. i set up a kind of branch office in paris for vinea together with miron kiropol, claudiu soare... we are five or six people, collaborators included.” (andrei ibid.) mayne, seymour. . caligrafomanție (augural calligraphies). (raluca & chris tanasescu (margento), trans.). bucurești: tracus arte. title for consideration with the publisher and upon acceptance delivered the text of the translation and provided the book designer with a series of corrections and edits, thus fully taking care of the text editing and proofreading process. the total printing cost was supported by the publisher and the translators received approximately a fifth of the print run. the same process was probably followed by translator marius surleac for his translation of marc vincenz’s propaganda factory in with the same publisher. however financially supportive the latter, the two translations hosted by tracus arte completely lack reviews and promotion events. it is worth mentioning at this point that seymour mayne’s participation in the book launch in bucharest in was self-funded and the only support received by the two translators from the local embassy of canada was the hosting of a poetry reading and cocktail at the embassy’s headquarters. finally, mayne’s reading and lecture at the university of bucharest’s department of canadian studies was made possible because of translator c. tanasescu’s long-time network at the university of bucharest. private initiative has also been salient in projects like cosma’s translation of clarke and mindock (cf. section . . ) and appears to have fuelled most of olimpia iacob’s author-volumes and anthologies. iacob, the most prolific translator of u.s. and canadian poetry selections in print periodicals, appears in this network in g , thus immediately after big players like humanitas fiction or paralela . she has been publishing stand-alone collections for some of the authors in her network (such carolyn m. kleefeld ), but most of her translated books are either duos by vincenz, marc. . fabrica de propagandă sau apropo de copaci (marius surleac, trans.). bucurești: tracus arte. clarke, george elliott. . poeme incendiare (flavia cosma, trans.). oradea: cogito. mindock, gloria. . la portile raiului (flavia cosma, trans.). iași: ars longa press. cf. section . . , footnotes and . although the translator refers to such books featuring a romanian and an american poet as anthologies, we consider them author-collections. english-language poets coming from different cultures (such as the poetic dialogue between american vince clemente and welsh writer peter tabith-jones), or duos by a romanian and an american writer , or anthologies in which she pairs romanian and english-language writers (cf. section . . ). her work increases significantly the number of anthologies published after . the first such work was george ciorănescu’s spicuiri din lirica americană contemporană (selections of contemporary american poetry), published in , followed three years later by vasile nicolescu’s lirică universală (universal poetry), only partially dwelling on contemporary american poets—such as sylvia plath or w.h. auden. the next anthology dedicated to contemporary american poetry was published ten years later, in , by cartea românească. locul nimănui is the editors’ manifest against poetry taught in u.s. academia rather than a selection to reflect local taste or topics and writing techniques that could have interested a romanian audience. in , the ‘jam session book’, nomadosophia, similar to marin sorescu’s inspiration treatise, only without the interviews and blending translations with original works, brings together contemporary poets that were popular in anthologies before , such as elizabeth bishop and gwendolyn brooks, with authors whose work had never been translated into romanian before, like rae armantrout or frank clemente vince and jones, peter thabit. . Şoapte ale sufletului / whispers of the soul (olimpia iacob, trans.) iași: editura fundaţiei culturale poezia. i add to the corpus presented in section . . (footnotes and ) the following titles: nistor, ioan and wolak, bill. . seminţe căutătoare de vânt / wind-seeking seeds (olimpia iacob, trans. from the english; olimpia iacob & bill wolak, trans. from the romanian). satu-mare: editura citadela; the bibliographic references are presented in section . . , notes and . i was unable to consult the table of contents of this anthology. however, one of the very few reviews of the anthologist’s works mentions the following contemporary poets: e. e. cummings, ezra pound, t.s. eliot, a. ginsberg. ***. . lirică universală (vasile nicolescu, trans.). bucurești: eminescu. (in alphabetical order) will alexander, anselm berrigan, ted berrigan, jim carroll, andrei codrescu, clark coolidge, joseph donahue, edward foster, jorie graham, fanny howe, lisa jarnot, ronald johnson, robert kelly, laura moriarty, nathaniel mackey, harry mathews, eileen myles, murat nemet-nejat, alice notley, geoffrey o’brien, michael palmer, simon pettet, ed roberson, leslie scalapino, leonard schwartz, david shapiro, aaron shurin, eleni sikelianos, arthur sze, john taggart, nathaniel tarn, tod thilleman. (in alphabetical order) rae armantrout, david baker, elizabeth bishop, gwendolyn brooks, albert goldbarth, fady joudah, philip levine, cate marvin, seymour mayne, j.d. mcclutchy, ken mccullough, robert pinsky, jerome rothenberg, charles simic, charles wright, frank zappa. zappa. finally, the anthology put together by the zona nouă poets, everything in its right place, gathered the work of fourteen young american writers and insisted on the fact that these writers were being translated into romanian for the first time. this corpus is undergirded by a focus on novelty and dialogue with contemporary romanian writers rather than on established american writing and emphasizes a translating agenda fashioned by the anthologists’ networks and by a sort of resistance to the mainstream. the poetry translators’ wish to mirror the ever-morphing contemporary worldliterature in its entire diversity, not only the “peaks” that have populated the national literature-building program of translations before (ursa ibid.), resulted in author-translator networks being built and, if such networks existed, in interpersonal relationships being exploited. the components, corresponding to a range of micro-programs, as ursa calls them, reflect the self-regulation of a literary translation structure with profound ramifications in the larger literary system and justify the use of a network model that emphasizes heterogeneity. the self-regulation of such a structure, be it a network or a system, has been the direct expression of a permanent interaction with other cultures and agents, as well as of the mission many of the poet-translators embarked on in order to synchronize romanian literature with the rest of the world and overcome the european bias. i would conclude this final chapter by saying that the transnational logic of the post-cold war era meant not only an economic reconfiguration of the book market, but a refashioning of poetry translators’ agency, who took upon themselves more than ever before the task of refreshing literary practices and their own writing through translation. daniel bailey, gabby bess, mike bushnell, ana carrete, noah cicero, juliet escoria, mira gonzalez, sarah jean alexander, tao lin, scott mcclanahan, ashley opheim, sam pink, michael j. seidlinger, and lucy k. shaw. it was impossible for me to find george ciorănescu’s anthology, hence the lack of networkx measurements for the network of u.s. poetry anthologies published after . conclusions “romanians, whether in the depths of the transylvanian provinces or in the better parts of manhattan, respond to the word ‘poetry’ with a straightening of the shoulders, a chin-forward movement, and a far-away gaze. we may not be sure of many things, they say with that rearrangement of the body, but we are sure of our poetry,” says andrei codrescu in his introduction to an anthology of romanian poetry (born in utopia, ), talking about the large number of poetry translations into english that occurred after the collapse of communism. i have argued in this research that romanian poets have also “assaulted” (to use the word codrescu employed for this outward cultural movement) english-language poetries in translation in a positive reflexive loop that galvanized both their own writing and the national literature in general. in doing so, they developed various types of agency that considerably multiplied once the country came to experience a free- market economy, covering a wide range of translating patterns, from no agency at all to full self- reliance, and a poetics of fecundity that testifies to their engagement with global events and with the microcosm of local literature. these literary translators’ practices of network-driven translation or of literary barters have been engendered by an assumed material precariousness (i.e., lack of funds for copyrights and a weak book market) and an overt desire for permanent change and synchronous alignment with world literature. i argued that these practices should be seen from a microcosmopolitan perspective, as paramount for establishing positive relationships with u.s. and canadian poetries and as energizing the local literary scene, rather than simply as reflective of a ‘minor’ mode of existence in the global economic and geopolitical arenas. the proposed framework of chaos theory within a fitting paradigm of complexity is grounded on the rhizomatic structure of networks, which enables us to consider both presences and absences and makes various points of entry available. on the one hand, when looking at what exists and functions according to an apparently clear pattern, chaos theory teaches us to look for disruptions and gaps and to see how these enable translation. we are trained to look at available data, but chaos theory and networks also point at absences. translation studies has a long history of neatly stacking everything in ready-made categories, but translators cannot always univocally be slotted in sociological categories because their agency changes according to the multiple spaces they create and inhabit and to the distances they configure in relation to other cultures. the growing mobility of people and the increasing popularity of digital media permanently create new realities that morph our existence. on the other hand, when everything appears as a conglomerate of chaotic processes, chaos theory teaches us how to look for patterns, that is, stability and order. processes in this universe are vacillations between chaos and order and they exist because they reach and strive to maintain themselves in a spot at the edge of chaos. translations should be no exception because they are not just a body of literary intercultural work, but an embodiment of their translators’ agencies. before they become objects that join any global or local flow of cultural goods, they need to be examined, as hayles suggests, at “the experiential level that captures the particular individual articulation of discourse.” ( : - ) once they are produced, translations are performed or enacted by their agents, by their medium of publication and by the network in which they are circulated. in other words, they are heavily agent- and context-dependent before they become hegemonic body of works. “relative to the body,” argues hayles, “embodiment is elsewhere, at once excessive and deficient in its infinite variations, particularities, and abnormalities.” ( : - ) since translation embodies translators’ cultural and social makeups, the way we approach translation, i proposed, needs to be reflective of human diversity besides acknowledging the disruption, decentralization, and voids that may exist in its network of circulation. to my mind, a theoretical framework that accounts for heterogeneity both in terms of predictability and in terms of variations and quirks, without reducing translation either to text, society, or culture only, is therefore most desirable. in chapter i examined the polarized center-periphery model of research and argued for the necessity of a reticulated investigation of agency by the adoption of a network model. unlike systemic models, be they open or closed, networks enable a two-pronged approach: on the one hand, an examination of local, particular, and infinitesimal processes and, on the other, a contextualization of such small-scale processes in the wider transnational webs of connectivity cultures are involved in. in terms of agency, networks emphasize the connectionist mind of translators. the edges that connect the dots in our graph visualizations do not represent only exchanges between cultures: they may also be lines of flight that translators embark on, they may represent the cooperation translators establish with authors, publishers, and other translators. thus, these network representations, although perhaps not the most visually clear, provide a layout of the distances translation sets to cross and of our potential to act through communication. accepting the precariousness of a minor status as a galvanizing creative force in the process of translation, chapter delved into the burrows of print and digital periodicals. backed by a network approach that showed us how romanian poetry translators go about their daily business, what are the venues they publish in, how they connect with the authors they translate, and, most importantly, how disconnected the world of literary translation really is, i hopefully demonstrated that chance and decentralization may play a much more important role than we are trained to in a keynote address for the international seminar on network theory: network multidimensionality in the digital age, latour complained that network visualizations are “not a pleasant landscape, but [it is] rather like watching lines and lines of barbed wire.” ( : web) others call them “hairballs.” perceive. just as anthony pym notes in his essay on intercultural networks, employing a structural model that allows for multiple centers “invite[s] us to grasp the ways in which [translators] have configured their own spaces,” (pym : ) and provides a context that does not make individual agency fade away against assumptions about economic power or hegemonic cultural policies. chapter shifted our attention to translated book production. employing the same network approach, i examined translations done during a period in the history of romania typically associated with a quest for national literary identity and with a strong control of the book market by communist ideology. my research showed that, even under such circumstances, many of these translation projects turned out to be nodes in interpersonal and transnational networks of individuals rather than institutional actors. for instance, applying this bottom-up ontological model to the production of anthologies of u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry in romania might provide a new explanation as to why such canadian poetry anthologies were not as numerous as the american ones and why their publication stopped after . the u.s. policies limiting migration but encouraging cultural and academic mobility bore more fruit for american cultural diplomacy than the more permissive immigration policies and the lack of consistent cultural diplomacy policies did for canada. while romanian intellectuals had a chance to travel to the u.s. and returned home with new ideas and aesthetic protocols engendered through translations from american literature, canadian poetry benefited only from the interest of one émigré, nicholas catanoy, who grew a much more limited network with his friends and acquaintances at home. instead of limiting the discussion to the cultural power america holds, the network approach helped me assess romanian translators’ drive in initiating and growing a series of exchanges between the two literatures, an interpollination that owed private initiatives at least as much as they owed institutional policies. chapter kept the discussion in the realm of book publishing, but attempted to emphasize the multiple social and cultural levels of existence on which a certain text can operate in a certain literature at any given time as a result of their translators’ agency. i have examined rock lyric translations and how the network effect of radio and theater increased the popularity of indie translations compared to versions of the same text circulating via traditional book distribution channels and considered to be part of the global book market. in the second part of the same chapter, i undertook to express visually the proportion of indie publishing initiatives after , a final well-meaning stab at totalizing approaches. the networks i represented in this research revealed a series of disconnected graphs with multiple centers. this took me back full-circle to the initial argument that agency in translation is better served by micro-sociological approaches, or simply by this mathematical model that may function as a point of departure for further conclusions on the socialness (or lack thereof) of superseding structures. unlike systemic representations, which assume or at least aim at cohesiveness, my representations disclosed that a certain cohesiveness existed only in the main component (or the largest sub-network) of these networks. since the main components account for % of the network or less, then i would like to argue that they should not be retained as the only measure of the translation landscape because that would mean ignoring the other %. in retrospect, this dissertation could have been organized in different ways. i could have settled on a smaller part of the corpus and analyzed it in closer detail, down to the nitty-gritty of, let’s say, how much a certain co-translator weighs in the economy of a -author anthology and of the whole respective network. that would have probably appealed more to statistically-inclined minds. i could have only looked into indie publishers to determine their role in the network or only into print periodicals as potentially relevant for the whole activity of contemporary poetry translation in romania. but i felt that such approaches would not have been sufficient because these networks to do not exist in a vacuum: what appears in print periodicals may also appear in digital journals, in author-collections, or/and in anthologies and how all these media, venues, and methods influence each other on various levels intimately imbricated and mutually dependent. in other words, the translation of american and canadian poetries into romanian is a complex network (or a network of networks), and accounting for only one of these networks may significantly compromise the accuracy and relevance of the account. also, i chose not to spend too much time or effort on meticulously differentiating between mainstream and indie since this aspect is most likely far from being as consequential as establishing how much and in what ways each publisher, irrespective of their status, contributes to the overall phenomenon. my purpose may seem therefore too ambitious: first, to present as much as possible of a corpus that has never been broached in ts and that may or may not be approached again by other scholars; second, to identify agency patterns that rarely make it into scholarly work on literary translation because such approaches are not necessarily socially sanctioned. however, they may prove essential in describing the activity of literary translation since they are reflective of human diversity. and third, to offer an interpretation of non-aggregated data different from what an inherently biased systemic mode of thinking would have offered. in trying to deal with such rich and diverse data and identifying models to analyze these complex phenomena, i feel that i have had a great ally in the burgeoning field of digital humanities and i will briefly summarize this aspect of my research in the final section. on the usefulness of a digital humanities approach in translation studies i freely concede that the computational work behind this research has been strenuous. it is not easy to teach a mind that was trained in the humanities only to read code and spend weeks trying to make sense of how python works, what are the differences between what appeared to be too many types of centrality in graph theory, or why a certain text editor used in coding in python suddenly crashed and refused to plot an image in a specific readable format just when you thought a certain chapter was done. i could never say i can code proficiently, but i would love to be able to. i am just a “smuggler” who learned how to deploy a series of in-built libraries in python because python developers were smart enough to realize that their programming language should serve master craftsmen and cobblers alike. science does help us. the new approaches championed by the field of dh have helped my research in countless ways. most importantly, as i have argued at various points, they helped me make clear sense of a large corpus and have a hopefully unbiased rendition of it. being able to include a large amount of data in my research, link these data, and then visualise the corpus with a single mouse click was in obvious ways more productive than trying to simply slot eighty-four translators into functional categories. to my mind, it would have been impossible to produce a coherent narrative about how they are related, because, as pym (ibid.) argues tongue-in-cheek, network visualizations are more than just banal images that result from our joining the dots: lines (or connections) are what is actually tricky because they purport to cross distances in a way the naked eye cannot do within a large corpus. a dh-inflected approach may help us reduce the disciplinary bias caused by the subjective processes surrounding translation and may bring in a certain scientific rigor, otherwise so far adopted in literary translation research only at the level of formulating one’s methodologies. besides making my bibliographical references much more manageable, a digital approach provided me with angles that would have been less likely for me to produce through traditional ts research. furthermore, various questions of power were unpacked by employing simple computational approaches. instead of analyzing data with a power bias in mind, i simply let the data speak and lead me to where power lay. at this point i would like to suggest that digital humanities presents a real chance at interdisciplinarity in relation to ts, since it is not simply about the digital or the mathematical. as michael cronin rightfully notes, “[d]igital humanism, […] an attempt to understand the fundamental changes that have occurred in contemporary culture and society with the advent of digital tools, is a movement of critical reflection, rather than a roadshow of cyber cheerleading.” (cronin : , emphasis mine). by employing a wide range of research methodologies that are equally used in the humanities and in natural sciences, dh presents truly appealing interdisciplinary and collaborative prospects. in addressing the advantages of a cross-disciplinary approach, willard mccarty does not see dh as disruptive, but as an enabler of change: “disciplines are autonomous epistemic cultures from which explorations begin and to which they usually return, bringing change with them.” ( : ) change is what the full-fledged discipline of dh may bring new in ts by resorting to novel methodologies and collaborative research. needless to say all these will not come without hardships from our peers, of which mccarty lists “incomprehension, misapprehension, indifference, hostility,” (id.) but i hope my dissertation showed that the two relevant disciplines can be meaningfully brought closer together and that such an approach may prove useful for other researchers in ts. i certainly feel that i returned to ts enriched. 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(lavinia rogojină, trans.). in steaua - : . fereastra: “traduceri din poezia americană.” translator: liviu ofileanu. angelou, maya. . “Încă mă ridic.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; brautigan, richard. . “san francisco.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; corso, gregory. . “nebunul iac.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; dunn, stephen. . “poem pentru oameni care sunt neînțeles de ocupați ca să citească poezie.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : . edson, russell. . “familia maimuță.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; ferlinghetti, lawrence. “riscând frecvent absurditatea.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; bishop, elizabeth. . “prima moarte în noua scoție.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : - ; bukowski, charles. . “un radio cu tupeu.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; doty, mark. . “metrou nord.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; soto, gary. . “o palmă roșie.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; alexander, elizabeth. . “blues.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; giovanni, nikki. . “prima mea amintire.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : . oliver, mary. “sălbaticul ‘hăis și cea’.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : . sadoji, ira. . “Înmormântarea mamei mele.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : . simic, charles. “ochii fixați cu ace.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; brown, jericho. and . “langston blue.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; ginsberg, allen. . “ de silabe la centrul dharma rocky mountain.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; sze, arthur. . “prova binecuvântată a unei canoe muckleshoot.” (liviu ofileanu, trad.) in fereastra : ; this corpus complements the selections presented as footnotes in section . . o’hara, frank. . “ave maria.” in fereastra : . mattawa, khaled. . “eccleziastice.” in fereastra : . cetatea culturală. translator: dan brudașcu. dove, rita. . “geometrie.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : . gex-breaux, que vadis. . “albastru profund.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : - ; jackson, angela. . “un început pentru noi începuturi.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : - . komunyakaa, yusek. . “ceară pierdută.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : - . miller, ethelbert e. . “moise; conversaţie spaniolă.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : . moore, lenard d. . “mesaj pentru etheridge knight.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : . thompton, julius e. . “cântecul inocenţei; muzică diabolică în iad.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : ; coleman, wanda. . “joc de cuvinte; las turistas negras grande.” (dan brudaşcu, trans.) in cetatea culturală : . steaua: “autoportret în oglinda convexă.” translator: alex văsieș. hoagland, tony. . “să nu mai spui la nimeni; america.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; kooser, ted. . “fermă abandonată; tată; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : ; wright, c.d. . “aproape pentru totdeauna; frânghie imaginară; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : ; carver, raymond. . “o după-amiază; ce a spus doctorul; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : ; balakian, peter. . “aici și acum; o scrisoare lui steven wallace; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : ; nurkse, d. . “aniversare in octombrie; mariaj in belmont; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : ; rector, liam. . “orașul ăsta; hans citind, hans fumând; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; haas, robert. . “mizerie și splendoare; sonet; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; angelou, maya. . “minciuna; coreograf marțial; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; phillips, carl. . “adevărul; strălucire versus lumină obișnuită.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; williams, c.k. . “rușine; În metrou; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua - : - ; lux, thomas. . “noaptea-i atât de înstelată că o veveriță citește; pentru a ajuta maimuța să treacă râul; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; padgett, ron. . “cum să fii perfect.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; levertov, denise. . “secretul; cum ar arăta casa mea dacă ar fi o persoană; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; waldman, anne. . “un apel telefonic de la frank o’hara; munciuna.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; wright, franz. . “singurul animal; o inimă; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; jones, rodney. . “ploaie pe tinichea; lectura de poezie; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; levine, philip. . “ce este munca; visul; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; notley, alice. . “nu puteam dormi în vis.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; ashbery, john. . “ei știau ce vroiau; cealaltă tradiție; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - ; forchÉ, carolyn. . “colonelul; doliu.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua : - . swenson, may. . “dormind singură; dimineață de primăvară; etc.” (alex văsieș, trans.) in steaua - : - . poesis international (various translators) sexton, anne. . “pentru drăgălașii mei; Și una pentru doamna mea.” (alina pușcaș, d. păcuraru, trans.) in poesis international : - ; baker, david. . “florile efemere; foame; prea multe; etc.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; berryman, john. . “din dream songs.” (radu vancu, trans.) in poesis international : - . rothenberg, jerome. . “acest joc al așteptării; puterea morților; etc.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; mort, valzhyna. . “sylt; sânge din sângele tatei; etc.” (silvia grădinaru, trans.) in poesis international : - ; woodside, martin. . “california de sud; pelin; etc.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in poesis international : - . snyder, gary. . “ce-ar trebui să știi ca să fii poet; o dimineață de toamnă în shokoku-ji; etc.” (raluca and chris tanasescu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; henry, brian. . “carantină.” (radu vancu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; wright, charles. . “confesiunile unuia care cântă și dansează; portretul artistului de li shang- yin; etc.” (chris tanasescu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; alexie, sherman. . “aș fura cai; turiști; etc.” (vlad pojoga, trans.) in poesis international : - ; kaminsky, ilya. . “trăiam fericiți în vreme de război; a trăi; etc.” (raluca and chris tanasescu, trans.) in poesis international : - . rothenberg, jerome. . “primul program; al doilea program; etc.” (raluca și chris tanasescu (margento), trans.) in poesis international : - . pinsky, robert. . “cântecul samuraiului.” (claudiu komartin, trans.) in poesis international : - . dimitrov, alex. . “plecând din oraș cu allen ginsberg; dormim puțin și trăim; etc.” (florin buzdugan, trans.) in poesis international : web. http://bit.ly/ e kcv . accessed: january , . strand, mark. . “corpul golit; moartea ta; etc.” (radu nițescu, trans.) in poesis international : web. http://bit.ly/ bs z h. accessed: january , . joudah, fady. . “drumul de întoarcere; sperietoare; etc.” (margento and marius surleac, trans.) in poesis international : web. http://bit.ly/ e ijda. accessed: january , . campion, peter. . “fiică; villa sciarra: azalee; etc.” (radu vancu, trans,) in poesis international : - ; merrill, christopher. . “băiatul cu mingea; poem care începe cu un vers al fiicei mele, abigail; etc.” (ioana ieronim, trans.) in poesis international : web. http://bit.ly/ bs o n. accessed: january , . schwartz, ruth l. . “cină la miezul nopții; să te îndrăgostești după patruzeci; etc.” (anastasia gavrilovici, trans.) in poesis international : - ; boyers, peg. . “pietà; rialto; etc.” (tiberiu neacșu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; bidart, frank. . “herbert white.” (tiberiu neacșu, trans.) in poesis international : - ; carson, anne. . “anne carson.” (teodora coman, trans.) in poesis international : - . translations by victor olaru (listed chronologically) duffy, carole ann. . extaz. (victor olaru, trans.) in scrisul românesc – : ; merwin, w.s. . “loc pustiu.” (victor olaru, trad.) in scrisul românesc – : ; collins, billy. . “profesorul de istorie.” (victor olaru, trans.) in scrisul românesc : ; olaru, victor. . “ted kooser "poet al poporului american".” (translated poems: zburând noaptea; aniversare; fără titlu.) http://bit.ly/ e kcv http://bit.ly/ bs z h http://bit.ly/ e ijda http://bit.ly/ bs o n (victor olaru, trans.) in scrisul românesc : ; hoagland, tony. . in ramuri web: http://bit.ly/ fbq ko. last accessed: february , ; translations by olimpia iacob (listed alphabetically) an’ya. . “ploaie cu stele.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; ash, john. . “cerul, soțul meu; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare, july . web: http://convorbiri- literare.ro/?p= last accessed: january , ; bar-lev, helen. . “frumuseţe; o plimbare de la calm la haos.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - . bar-lev, helen. . “o anume clipă; vremelnic; strădania polarităţii; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in poezia : - ; barkan, stanley h. . “ianuarie; iunie; misiune.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in nord literar : ; barkan, stanley h. . “din grădina raiului; dînd nume păsărilor; neclintită ca o mătură; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; barkan, stanley h. . “septembrie; octombrie; noiembrie.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; barkan, stanley h. . “uitând ierusalimul; zare de timp; frunzele lacului... decembrie.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in poezia : - ; barkan, stanley h. . “dând nume pruncilor.” (olimpia iacob, trans.). in convorbiri literare : - ; barkan, stanley h. . “pietre sacre; americanul statornic; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; boss, laura. . “mătuşa roza; cercuri perfecte; ultima data.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; barkan clarke, mia. . “acele violete; privire veninoasă; vînătorul de vise.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; bennett, maria. . “cum să rabzi durerea copleşitoare; pentru liniştea trupului.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; bennett, maria. . “rugăciunea mării; poem la cinzeci de ani; Înfloreşte din nou valea morţii.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; bennett, maria. . “cum să înduri durerea copleșitoare; pentru liniștea trupului; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; bennett, maria. . “patru metafore pentru trup; tu și iarna.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; bennet, maria. . “fiindcă iubești; din pricina ta.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; boss, laura. . “după abu ghraib.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; clemente, vince. . “lumina caisului; viaţă fără viaţă; cânt pentru gina.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in poezia : - ; clemente, vince. . “cântec nocturn; alee ninsă în zori.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; clemente, vince. . “margaret fuller către mama ei; zile cu pâine de secară; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; clemente, vince. . “te voi afla; acasă sâmbătă dimineața.”(olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; clemente, vince. . “delfin în lumină din montauk; dimineață de duminică la lumina liliacului.”(olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada - : ; cook, rebecca. . “Îndopată la refuz cu frică; numai glasuri; acest poem despre cicatrici; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; cowling, christina. . “rugă pentru surorile mele; lacrimi; stele; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; creeley, robert. . “cunosc un om; după lorca; avertisment; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; dalachinsky, steve. . “păr.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; digby, joan. . “cină în daegu.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; digby, john. . “vreau să plouă; ieșind din noapte; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; dobrin, arthur. . “o imitaţie a cântecelor antice; http://bit.ly/ fbq ko http://convorbiri-literare.ro/?p= http://convorbiri-literare.ro/?p= poetul nu e un tonomat, deci nu-mi spuneţi ce să scriu; schimbarea vieţii pe pământ.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; doll, kristine. . “prietenii mei; trupul; morţii.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; dotson, john. . “plaja carmel.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; dotson, john. . “locul sfânt; aurora consurgens; apel de trezire; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; ferlinghetti, lawrence. . “făcând dragoste în poezie; zbor peste ohio; nuferii lui monet cuprinşi de tremor.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; gershator, phillis. . “obsesie editorial.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; gill, stephen. . “eu; cine să cumpere; laude; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; gill, stephen. . “naşterea poemelor; fărâmituri uscate; arta însingurată.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; gill, stephen. . “azi; cine va cumpăra; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; gill, stephen. . “maicii mele; a fi; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; gill, stephen. . “(iubire).” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; gilli, ferris. . “[poem.]” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; gilli, ferris. . “[poem].” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; grange, janet la. . “vagă amintire din america.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; harris, paul. . “observînd albinele.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; harter, penny. . “ploaie de seară.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; heyen, william. . “primăvara mierlelor; capsulă.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in contemporanul-ideea europeană : ; heyen, william. . “albastru; ghicitoare: etc.”(olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; kacian, jim. . “după-amiază sufocantă; visare...; Înfrigurat.” (olimpia iacob and marius chelaru, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; kacian, jim. . “selected poems.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “poetul; mîna desfrânată a ursitei; din nou tînăr e noroiul; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “un soare veşnic; cuprins de dor; te-am pierdut?” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in contemporanul-ideea europeană, : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “lumina zorilor; cînd în sufletul meu; clepsidra timpului.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “fără să mă urnesc; poeme fărîmicioase; În adîncul misterului.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “cântecul pescăruşilor; palidă precum luna; o strălucire mistuitoare; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) poezia : - ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “Închinăciune momentului.” (olimpia iacob, trans.). in contemporanul - ideea europeană, : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “moment de graţie; cu recunoştinţă; sclavul meu fugar.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “licoarea înfloririi noastre; licoarea dragostei noastre; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; (olimpia iacob, trans.) kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “iubire născută din liniște; invidia cerurilor; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “cugetări aleatorii.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; kleefeld, carolyn mary. . “Între stânci dure, reci; o amintire ca a soarelui; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; krapt, norbert. . “orgasm.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in nord literar : ; kurowska, joanna. . “de ce?; motive; o altă față; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; levertov, denise. . “poemul nescris; Ştiind drumul; viaţa din jurul nostru; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in poezia : - ; mcfarland, elizabeth. . “un fulg fără cusur.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; mazziotti gillan, maria. . “băieţii îi spun vorbe de ocară nepotului meu; ce ştiam eu despre dragoste.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in contemporanul-ideea europeană : ; mazziotti gillan, maria. . “cămășuțe de noapte; tăticu, îți spuneam noi; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; metz, robin. . “cod albastru; o poveste de iarnă; lumina nopţii; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; metz, robin. “În valea tuturor sufletelor; Înainte; sănătos.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; mohr, marylin. “chai; toamnă.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in contemporanul-ideea europeană : ; moore, leonard d. . “selected haikus.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; moore, leonard d. . “poems.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; morrison, madison. “poems by madison morisson. “(olimpia iacob and nicolae popescu, trans.) in poesis - : - ; murray, gloria g. . “exploatare nabateană.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in nord literar : ; norris, christopher. . “despărţire.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; otomo, yuko. . “noapte de vară.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; owen, renée. . “o mie de forme.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; pinsky, robert. . “poem cu versuri în orice ordine; abc; cîntul samuraiului.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; plath, sylvia. . “primirea cutiei pentru albine.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in poesis - : ; rich, adrienne. . “baltimore; margini; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; richards, kyung-nyun kim. . “mușuroaie de furnici; ipocrizie; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; richards, steffen. . “mai mult decât paznic al zorilor.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; rosenow, ce. . “cuprinşi de căinţa vorbelor; urme lăsate; fixînd cu privirea pacificul.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; sadre-orfai, jenny. . “Înainte de semnarea cererii; cînd eşti plecat; soţul dintîi; etc.” in convorbiri literare : - ; sajÉ, natasha. . “milk river; circumflex.” in convorbiri literare : - ; sajé, natasha. . “anatemă; funia; scuză.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; salkilld, jean. . “căutătorii de moluşte.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; simser, guy. . “fantoma tatălui.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; squier, charles. . “poems.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada - : ; stiller, nikki. . “iarnă.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in nord literar : ; strand, mark. . “poştaşul; devorând poezie; singurul cînt.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; villanueva, tino. . “așa vorbea penelopa; strălucind ca marea; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; villanueva, tino. . “la muzeul holocaustului: washington d.c.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; villanueva, tino. . “lepădarea de absență; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; villanueva, tino. . “am descîntat o pagină; glas peste timp.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; whitman, neil. . “poem.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; whitman, neal. . “ger în miez de noapte.” (olimpia iacob, trans). in acolada : ; williams, c. k. . “aşa stau lucrurile cu oamenii; poemul mamei sinucigaşe; criticul; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; wolak, bill. . “zmei în flăcări.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : - ; wolak, bill. . “vântul escaladează mătasea; teama de calendare; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; wolak, william. . (olimpia iacob, trans.) “selected haikus.” in acolada : ; wolak, bill. .” Începutul dragostei; irezistibilă; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : ; wylie, elinor. . “incantaţie; să nu îngădui speranţei binevoitoare; piersic sălbatic; etc.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in convorbiri literare : ; yuang, changming. . “lotus; razele.” (olimpia iacob, trans.) in acolada : . annex – networkx analysis of the u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry translation network in pp ( - ) g’s nodes are: [('f_wright', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_craik', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_duhamel', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_swann', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_ras', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_lowell', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_gerstler', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_cohen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_st_aubin', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('w_baker', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_hughes', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('manole', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('n_giovanni', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('grivu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('alina_sorescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('f_joudah', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('vacarescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('r_wilbur', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('dragomir', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('surleac', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('j_sadre_orfai', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_oliver', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_collins', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ionescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('p_derachewiltz', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_harter', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_dobrin', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_soto', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_digby', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_edson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('dm_andrei', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_english', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('constantinescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('t_villanueva', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('f_gilli', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_ferlinghetti', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_lagrange', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('h_bar_lev', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_moore', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_yuang', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('v_clemente', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('anya', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_gill', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_gershator', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_metz', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_cook', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ar_ammons', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_mcfarland', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('olaru', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('da_powell', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_knott', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_riggs', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_hawkins', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('solomon', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('k_doll', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_codrescu', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ks_keyss', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_lewis', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_ash', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('gradinaru', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('t_roethke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('brudascu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('r_padgett', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('y_komunyakaa', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_vincenz', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ee_cummings', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_baker', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('n_burke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('av_rivera', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_jackson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('trandafir', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('muresanu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('moscaliuc', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('puscas_pacuraru', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('s_singer', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_landsman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_bishop', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('k_richards', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('parau', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('carides', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('v_mort', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_swenson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_cowling', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('mircea', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('m_mohr', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('marin_sorescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('r_marx', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('mihalache', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ge_clarke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_campion', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_ondaatje', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('suiu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('simion', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('vintila', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('r_pinsky', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_tischer', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_hillman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_rector', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_rhea', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_murray', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_stern', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_boss', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_moscovici', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_wylie', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('micu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('a_notley', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ck_williams', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('sandu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ghita', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('m_foldes', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_forche', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_nauen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('t_berrigan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('n_whitman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('nitescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('m_woodside', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_mayer', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_creeley', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('neacsu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('suciu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('boagiu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('hotaranu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('p_balakian', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('olah', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('foarta', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('c_antao_xavier', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_wolak', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_salkilld', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_taylor', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('vancu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('a_dimitrov', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_amatoritsero', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('filimon', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('t_kooser', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_angel', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_england', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_bennett', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('gavrilovici', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('coman', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('c_bakken', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_simic', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('popescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('k_rexroth', {'capacity': 'author'}), ("f_o'hara", {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ofileanu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('a_britt', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_haas', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_ashbery', {'capacity': 'author'}), all values are pesented with only decimals whenever the rest of the decimals are superfluous. the type of notation we used is the one generated by python. ('sting', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('patea', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('m_morrison', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_heavily', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_ransom', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_myles', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('collective_unattributed', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('w_coleman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_mahon', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('n_krapt', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('rl_schwartz', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ulmeanu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('vasies', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('zank', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('s_alexie', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('pojoga', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('a_waldman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('mocuta', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('k_mattawa', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_wright', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('grigore', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('p_boyers', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('nicolae', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('e_equi', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_owen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_richards', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('serban', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('prodan', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('j_dodds', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_carver', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_milazzo', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_strand', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_jarrell', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_nurkse', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('cd_wright', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_waters', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_berryman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_mellor', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('rogojina', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ce_rosenow', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('sabau', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('cosma', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ieronim', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('olos', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('s_plath', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_haines', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('raluca_tanasescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('rusu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('m_orourke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_simser', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_brown', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ws_merwin', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('mam_fitzpatrick', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_levertov', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('dochia', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('m_atwood', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('n_saje', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_grace', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_hershon', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_hejinian', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_auster', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_barkanclarke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_rashbaum', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('n_stiller', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('y_otomo', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_rich', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_phillips', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('sh_barkan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('gheorghiu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('a_cohen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('t_skurtu', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('z_vayma', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('komartin', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('gc_waldrep', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('unattributed', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('popa', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('c_bukowski', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('cm_kleefeld', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_ignatow', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('baconsky', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('s_dunn', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_bernstein', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ciobanu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('a_sze', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('sociu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('b_ross', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('qv_gexbreaux', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_snyder', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('doinas', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('dragomirescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('d_brinks', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_berman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_thompson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('iacob', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('j_kurowska', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('tartler', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('i_sadoji', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_ginsberg', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('t_hoagland', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('f_bidart', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_gluck', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('racovita', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ca_duffy', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_gritsman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('f_howe', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('oancea', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('motet', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('firan', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('j_dotson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('d_diprima', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_miller', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_carson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('chelaru', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('cassian', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('g_corso', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ph_starzinger', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_bateman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('chris_tanasescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('r_dove', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ts_eliot', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_waldrop', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_goldbarth', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_killebrew', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_manesiotis', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('mm_gillan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('gardner', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('john_digby', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_brautigan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_jones', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('k_knox', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_moss', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('phil_levine', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_winder', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_merrill', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_sexton', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_foster', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('buzdugan', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('nicolau', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('j_rothenberg', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('p_harris', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_henry', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('samulescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('t_lux', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('w_heyen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('i_kaminsky', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_doty', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_brodsky', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_norris', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_gregerson', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_squier', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('sibisan', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('e_hirsch', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_tate', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_alexander', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_kacian', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_dalachinski', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_diaz', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('zanca', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('conkan', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('k_graber', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_angelou', {'capacity': 'author'})] g's edges are: [('f_wright', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('r_craik', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'familia', 'weight': }), ('d_duhamel', 'komartin', {'journal': 'cuvantul', 'weight': }), ('b_swann', 'suiu', {'journal': 'agora', 'weight': }), ('b_ras', 'hotaranu', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('r_lowell', 'cassian', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('a_gerstler', 'rogojina', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('l_cohen', 'motet', {'journal': 'amurg_sentimental', 'weight': }), ('l_cohen', 'rusu', {'journal': 'negru_pe_alb', 'weight': }), ('c_st_aubin', 'ghita', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('w_baker', 'motet', {'journal': 'amurg_sentimental', 'weight': }), ('l_hughes', 'baconsky', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('l_hughes', 'solomon', {'journal': ' _plus', 'weight': }), ('l_hughes', 'motet', {'journal': 'amurg_sentimental', 'weight': }), ('manole', 'ge_clarke', {'journal': 'luceafarul_de_dimineata_&_viata_romaneasca', 'weight': }), ('manole', 'e_amatoritsero', {'journal': 'luceafarul_de_dimineata', 'weight': }), ('n_giovanni', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('grivu', 'g_england', {'journal': 'orasul', 'weight': }), ('grivu', 'l_gluck', {'journal': 'orasul', 'weight': }), ('alina_sorescu', 'k_graber', {'journal': 'ramuri', 'weight': }), ('f_joudah', 'surleac', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_dilema_veche', 'weight': }), ('f_joudah', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_dilema_veche', 'weight': }), ('vacarescu', 's_plath', {'journal': 'euphorion', 'weight': }), ('vacarescu', 'a_sexton', {'journal': 'euphorion', 'weight': }), ('r_wilbur', 'cassian', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('dragomir', 'a_ginsberg', {'journal': 'tomis', 'weight': }), ('dragomir', 'a_sexton', {'journal': 'tomis', 'weight': }), ('surleac', 'gc_waldrep', {'journal': 'timpul', 'weight': }), ('surleac', 'v_mort', {'journal': 'timpul', 'weight': }), ('surleac', 'chris_tanasescu', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_f_joudah_&_gc_waldrep_&_s_lewis', 'weight': }), ('surleac', 's_lewis', {'journal': 'timpul', 'weight': }), ('surleac', 'm_vincenz', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_agentia_de_carte', 'weight': }), ('j_sadre_orfai', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('m_oliver', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('b_collins', 'olaru', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('ionescu', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'romania_literara', 'weight': }), ('p_derachewiltz', 'oancea', {'journal': 'luceafarul_de_dimineata', 'weight': }), ('p_derachewiltz', 'patea', {'journal': 'luceafarul_de_dimineata', 'weight': }), ('p_harter', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('a_dobrin', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('g_soto', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('j_digby', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare_&_acolada', 'weight': }), ('r_edson', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('dm_andrei', 'nicolau', {'journal': 'arca', 'weight': }), ('j_english', 'samulescu', {'journal': 'oglinda_literara', 'weight': }), ('constantinescu', 'av_rivera', {'journal': 'poezia', 'weight': }), ('constantinescu', 'e_winder', {'journal': 'poezia', 'weight': }), ('constantinescu', 'p_bateman', {'journal': 'poezia', 'weight': }), ('t_villanueva', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare_&_[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('f_gilli', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('l_ferlinghetti', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('l_ferlinghetti', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('j_lagrange', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('h_bar_lev', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare_&_poezia', 'weight': }), ('l_moore', 'brudascu', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('l_moore', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('c_yuang', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('v_clemente', 'grigore', {'journal': 'ateneu', 'weight': }), ('v_clemente', 'iacob', {'journal': 'poezia_&_convorbiri_literare_&_[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('anya', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('s_gill', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_convorbiri_literare_&_[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('p_gershator', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('r_metz', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('r_cook', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('ar_ammons', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('e_mcfarland', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('olaru', 't_kooser', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('olaru', 't_hoagland', {'journal': 'ramuri', 'weight': }), ('olaru', 'ws_merwin', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('olaru', 'ca_duffy', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('da_powell', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'familia', 'weight': }), ('b_knott', 'olah', {'journal': 'tomis', 'weight': }), ('b_knott', 'popescu', {'journal': 'tomis', 'weight': }), ('d_riggs', 'boagiu', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('j_hawkins', 'sibisan', {'journal': 'vatra', 'weight': }), ('k_doll', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('a_codrescu', 'firan', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('a_codrescu', 'carides', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('ks_keyss', 'chelaru', {'journal': 'poezia', 'weight': }), ('s_lewis', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'timpul', 'weight': }), ('j_ash', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('gradinaru', 'v_mort', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('t_roethke', 'tartler', {'journal': 'luceafarul', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'y_komunyakaa', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'r_dove', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'qv_gexbreaux', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'a_jackson', the edges are the publication venues (periodicals) and the weights represent the number of times a poet was published in the respective periodical by a certain translator. {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'e_miller', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'j_thompson', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('brudascu', 'w_coleman', {'journal': 'cetatea_culturala', 'weight': }), ('r_padgett', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('ee_cummings', 'baconsky', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('d_baker', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_convorbiri_literare_&_viata_romaneasca', 'weight': }), ('n_burke', 'olos', {'journal': 'nord_literar', 'weight': }), ('trandafir', 'b_rashbaum', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('muresanu', 'm_atwood', {'journal': 'ateneu', 'weight': }), ('moscaliuc', 'g_stern', {'journal': 'poezia', 'weight': }), ('moscaliuc', 'm_waters', {'journal': 'poezia_&_convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('puscas_pacuraru', 'a_sexton', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('s_singer', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'familia', 'weight': }), ('p_landsman', 'popa', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('e_bishop', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('k_richards', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('parau', 'a_goldbarth', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('parau', 't_skurtu', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('parau', 'a_britt', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('carides', 'r_milazzo', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('carides', 'firan', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_a_codrescu', 'weight': }), ('carides', 'r_hershon', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('m_swenson', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('c_cowling', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('mircea', 'mam_fitzpatrick', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('m_mohr', 'iacob', {'journal': 'contemporanul_ideea_europeana', 'weight': }), ('marin_sorescu', 'serban', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_ws_merwin', 'weight': }), ('marin_sorescu', 'ws_merwin', {'journal': ' _plus', 'weight': }), ('r_marx', 'rusu', {'journal': 'negru_pe_alb', 'weight': }), ('mihalache', 'j_mellor', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('ge_clarke', 'olos', {'journal': 'nord_literar_&_poesis', 'weight': }), ('p_campion', 'vancu', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('m_ondaatje', 'zanca', {'journal': 'euphorion', 'weight': }), ('m_ondaatje', 'grigore', {'journal': 'contemporanul_ideea_europeana', 'weight': }), ('suiu', 'l_gregerson', {'journal': 'agora', 'weight': }), ('suiu', 't_hoagland', {'journal': 'tomis', 'weight': }), ('simion', 'r_dove', {'journal': 'euphorion', 'weight': }), ('simion', 's_plath', {'journal': 'vatra', 'weight': }), ('simion', 'j_berryman', {'journal': 'vatra_&_euphorion', 'weight': }), ('vintila', 'r_dove', {'journal': 'bucovina_literara', 'weight': }), ('r_pinsky', 'komartin', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('r_pinsky', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('j_tischer', 'samulescu', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('j_tischer', 'dragomirescu', {'journal': '[ x]_orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('b_hillman', 'rogojina', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('l_rector', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('c_rhea', 'rusu', {'journal': 'negru_pe_alb', 'weight': }), ('g_murray', 'iacob', {'journal': 'nord_literar', 'weight': }), ('l_boss', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('c_moscovici', 'ulmeanu', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('e_wylie', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('micu', 't_skurtu', {'journal': 'caiete_silvane', 'weight': }), ('a_notley', 'rogojina', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('a_notley', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('ck_williams', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('ck_williams', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('sandu', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'idei_in_dialog', 'weight': }), ('m_foldes', 'collective_unattributed', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('m_foldes', 'filimon', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('c_forche', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('e_nauen', 'rogojina', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('t_berrigan', 'grigore', {'journal': 'contemporanul_ideea_europeana', 'weight': }), ('n_whitman', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('nitescu', 'm_strand', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('m_woodside', 'ieronim', {'journal': 'luceafarul_de_dimineata', 'weight': }), ('m_woodside', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_convorbiri_literare_&_interreact', 'weight': }), ('b_mayer', 'rogojina', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('r_creeley', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('neacsu', 'p_boyers', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('neacsu', 'f_bidart', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('suciu', 'conkan', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_a_sexton', 'weight': }), ('suciu', 'a_sexton', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('hotaranu', 'r_milazzo', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('hotaranu', 'e_hirsch', {'journal': '[ x}_scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('hotaranu', 'a_gritsman', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('hotaranu', 'j_manesiotis', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('hotaranu', 'd_brinks', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('hotaranu', 'r_angel', {'journal': '[ x]_scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('p_balakian', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('olah', 'popescu', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_b_knott', 'weight': }), ('foarta', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'acolada_&_romania_literara', 'weight': }), ('foarta', 'r_jarrell', {'journal': 'cafeneaua_literara', 'weight': }), ('foarta', 'racovita', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_ts_eliot', 'weight': }), ('c_antao_xavier', 'ieronim', {'journal': 'luceafarul', 'weight': }), ('b_wolak', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare_&_[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('j_salkilld', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('j_taylor', 'raluca_tanasescu', {'journal': 'ateneu', 'weight': }), ('j_taylor', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'ateneu', 'weight': }), ('vancu', 'b_henry', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('vancu', 't_skurtu', {'journal': 'mozaicul_&_subacapitol_&_zona_noua', 'weight': }), ('vancu', 'j_berryman', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('a_dimitrov', 'buzdugan', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('e_amatoritsero', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('t_kooser', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('m_bennett', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_convorbiri_literare_&_[ x]_acolada', 'weight': }), ('gavrilovici', 'rl_schwartz', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('coman', 'a_carson', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('c_bakken', 'ieronim', {'journal': 'luceafarul', 'weight': }), ('c_simic', 'cassian', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('c_simic', 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('c_simic', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('k_rexroth', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ("f_o'hara", 'ofileanu', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'm_doty', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'j_brown', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'i_sadoji', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'm_angelou', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'a_sze', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'a_ginsberg', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 's_dunn', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'e_alexander', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'r_brautigan', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'k_mattawa', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'c_bukowski', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('ofileanu', 'g_corso', {'journal': 'fereastra', 'weight': }), ('r_haas', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('j_ashbery', 'cassian', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('j_ashbery', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'viata_romaneasca', 'weight': }), ('j_ashbery', 'vasies', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('sting', 'rusu', {'journal': 'negru_pe_alb', 'weight': }), ('patea', 'oancea', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_p_derachewitz', 'weight': }), ('patea', 'stancu', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_d_moody', 'weight': }), ('m_morrison', 'iacob', {'journal': 'poesis', 'weight': }), ('j_heavily', 'cosma', {'journal': 'vatra_veche', 'weight': }), ('j_ransom', 'collective_unattributed', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('e_myles', 'rogojina', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('d_mahon', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('n_krapt', 'iacob', {'journal': 'nord_literar', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'cd_wright', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'a_waldman', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'phil_levine', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'd_nurkse', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 't_lux', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'd_levertov', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'c_phillips', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'm_angelou', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'r_carver', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('vasies', 'r_jones', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('zank', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'romania_literara', 'weight': }), ('s_alexie', 'pojoga', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('mocuta', 'r_brautigan', {'journal': '[ x]_arca_&_luceafarul_de_dimineata', 'weight': }), ('c_wright', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_interreact', 'weight': }), ('grigore', 'm_atwood', {'journal': 'euphorion', 'weight': }), ('grigore', 'p_auster', {'journal': 'euphorion', 'weight': }), ('grigore', 'e_equi', {'journal': 'contemporanul_ideea_europeana', 'weight': }), ('nicolae', 'j_brodsky', {'journal': 'ateneu', 'weight': }), ('r_owen', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('s_richards', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('serban', 'ws_merwin', {'journal': ' _plus', 'weight': }), ('prodan', 'a_grace', {'journal': 'oglinda_literara', 'weight': }), ('m_strand', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('r_jarrell', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('j_mellor', 'samulescu', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('rogojina', 'k_knox', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('rogojina', 'r_waldrop', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('rogojina', 'l_hejinian', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('rogojina', 'f_howe', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('rogojina', 'd_diprima', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('ce_rosenow', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('sabau', 'l_diaz', {'journal': 'orizont_literar_contemporan', 'weight': }), ('ieronim', 'c_merrill', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('ieronim', 'a_gritsman', {'journal': 'luceafarul_de_dimineata', 'weight': }), ('s_plath', 'iacob', {'journal': 'poesis', 'weight': }), ('j_haines', 'gardner', {'journal': 'provincia_corvina', 'weight': }), ('raluca_tanasescu', 'j_rothenberg', {'journal': 'poesis_international_&_[ x]_poezia', 'weight': }), ('raluca_tanasescu', 'g_snyder', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('raluca_tanasescu', 'i_kaminsky', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('raluca_tanasescu', 'chris_tanasescu', {'collaboration': 'cotranslation_of_j_rothenberg_&_g_snyder_&_j_taylor_&_i_kaminsky', 'weight': }), ('m_orourke', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'familia', 'weight': }), ('g_simser', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('ws_merwin', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('d_levertov', 'iacob', {'journal': 'poezia', 'weight': }), ('dochia', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'cafeneaua_literara', 'weight': }), ('n_saje', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('m_barkanclarke', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('n_stiller', 'iacob', {'journal': 'nord_literar', 'weight': }), ('y_otomo', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('a_rich', 'iacob', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('sh_barkan', 'iacob', {'journal': 'nord_literar_&_[ x]_convorbiri_literare_&_poezia_&_acolada', 'weight': }), ('gheorghiu', 'g_corso', {'journal': 'arges', 'weight': }), ('a_cohen', 'buzdugan', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': }), ('z_vayma', 'chelaru', {'journal': 'poesis', 'weight': }), ('gc_waldrep', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'timpul', 'weight': }), ('unattributed', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'arges', 'weight': }), ('cm_kleefeld', 'iacob', {'journal': '[ x]_convorbiri_literare_&_[ x]_acolada_&_[ x]_contemporanul_ideea_europeana_&_poezia', 'weight': }), ('d_ignatow', 'iacob', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('c_bernstein', 'sociu', {'journal': 'cuvantul', 'weight': }), ('ciobanu', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'ateneu', 'weight': }), ('sociu', 'j_tate', {'journal': 'cuvantul', 'weight': }), ('sociu', 'p_killebrew', {'journal': 'cuvantul', 'weight': }), ('b_ross', 'motet', {'journal': 'amurg_sentimental', 'weight': }), ('g_snyder', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('doinas', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': ' _plus', 'weight': }), ('d_berman', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'familia', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'j_kurowska', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'a_ginsberg', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'mm_gillan', {'journal': 'acolada_&_contemporanul_ideea_europeana', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'john_digby', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'c_squier', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'j_dotson', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare_&_acolada', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'j_kacian', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare_&_acolada', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 's_dalachinski', {'journal': 'acolada', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'c_norris', {'journal': 'convorbiri_literare', 'weight': }), ('iacob', 'w_heyen', {'journal': 'acolada_&_contemporanul_ideea_europeana', 'weight': }), ('tartler', 'l_gluck', {'journal': 'luceafarul', 'weight': }), ('racovita', 'ts_eliot', {'journal': 'romania_literara', 'weight': }), ('firan', 's_moss', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('firan', 'e_foster', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('cassian', 's_moss', {'journal': 'scrisul_romanesc', 'weight': }), ('ph_starzinger', 'chris_tanasescu', {'journal': 'familia', 'weight': }), ('chris_tanasescu', 'i_kaminsky', {'journal': 'poesis_international', 'weight': }), ('chris_tanasescu', 'j_rothenberg', {'journal': '[ x]_poesis_international_&_[ x]_poezia', 'weight': }), ('a_sexton', 'conkan', {'journal': 'steaua', 'weight': })] size number of components, nodes, and edges g components = g nodes = g edges = g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g - nodes = ( . %) g - edges = ( . %) density the portion of the potential connections in a network that are actual connections def density(g): x = len(g.edges) y = len(g.nodes) return *x / (y*(y- )) g’s density is . g ’s density is . g ’s density is . g ’s density is . average degree the average number of edges connected to a node the degrees for all nodes in g are: degreeview({'oancea': , 'n_krapt': , 'komartin': , 'd_duhamel': , 'b_swann': , 'b_ras': , 't_kooser': , 'p_derachewiltz': , 'c_st_aubin': , 'l_hughes': , 'manole': , 'r_haas': , 'grivu': , 'alina_sorescu': , 'f_joudah': , 'vacarescu': , 'dragomir': , 'surleac': , 'j_sadre_orfai': , 'b_collins': , 'r_lowell': , 'p_harter': , 'a_dobrin': , 'firan': , 'g_soto': , 'j_digby': , 's_lewis': , 'j_english': , 'constantinescu': , 't_villanueva': , 'f_gilli': , 'l_ferlinghetti': , 'j_lagrange': , 'l_moore': , 'c_yuang': , 'v_clemente': , 'anya': , 's_gill': , 'p_gershator': , 'r_cook': , 'nitescu': , 'e_mcfarland': , 'pojoga': , 'da_powell': , 'popa': , 'ws_merwin': , 'j_hawkins': , 'solomon': , 'k_doll': , 'a_codrescu': , 'ks_keyss': , 'b_henry': , 'ulmeanu': , 'r_brautigan': , 'gradinaru': , 's_moss': , 'brudascu': , 'y_komunyakaa': , 'ee_cummings': , 'd_baker': , 'd_ignatow': , 'grigore': , 'r_wilbur': , 'm_strand': , 'muresanu': , 'moscaliuc': , 'puscas_pacuraru': , 's_dunn': , 'a_gritsman': , 's_singer': , 'john_digby': , 'p_landsman': , 'e_bishop': , 'k_richards': , 'parau': , 'carides': , 'v_mort': , 'ciobanu': , 'c_cowling': , 'mircea': , 'm_mohr': , 'marin_sorescu': , 'coman': , 'r_marx': , 'mihalache': , 'ge_clarke': , 'sting': , 'a_jackson': , 'suiu': , 'simion': , 'vintila': , 'r_pinsky': , 'j_tischer': , 'e_miller': , 'b_hillman': , 'l_rector': , 'boagiu': , 'c_rhea': , 'g_murray': , 'serban': , 'hotaranu': , 'd_nurkse': , 'e_equi': , 'micu': , 'a_notley': , 'ck_williams': , 'l_cohen': , 'ghita': , 'baconsky': , 'e_nauen': , 'n_whitman': , 'ar_ammons': , 'm_woodside': , 'b_mayer': , 'r_creeley': , 'j_haines': , 'dm_andrei': , 'suciu': , 'neacsu': , 'l_boss': , 'olah': , 'foarta': , 'c_antao_xavier': , 'b_wolak': , 'j_salkilld': , 'd_brinks': , 'vancu': , 'a_dimitrov': , 'e_amatoritsero': , 'filimon': , 'sibisan': , 'r_angel': , 'g_england': , 'm_bennett': , 'f_wright': , 'ionescu': , 'j_brown': , 'm_doty': , 'j_thompson': , 'c_simic': , 'popescu': , 'k_rexroth': , 'l_gluck': , 'ofileanu': , 'w_baker': , 'conkan': , 'patea': , 'm_morrison': , 'j_heavily': , 'nicolau': , 'j_ransom': , 'e_myles': , 'collective_unattributed': , 'w_coleman': , 'd_mahon': , 'r_craik': , 'j_kurowska': , 'a_gerstler': , 'vasies': , 'zank': , 'ce_rosenow': , 'zanca': , 'olaru': , 'a_waldman': , 'mocuta': , 'k_mattawa': , "f_o'hara": , 'av_rivera': , 'iacob': , 'p_boyers': , 'j_ashbery': , 'k_graber': , 'c_forche': , 'i_sadoji': , 'g_stern': , 'prodan': , 'm_foldes': , 'a_ginsberg': , 'r_milazzo': , 'r_jarrell': , 'cd_wright': , 'm_waters': , 'j_berryman': , 'j_mellor': , 'rogojina': , 's_alexie': , 'sabau': , 'cosma': , 'ieronim': , 'olos': , 's_plath': , 'gavrilovici': , 'raluca_tanasescu': , 'h_bar_lev': , 'r_padgett': , 'qv_gexbreaux': , 'rusu': , 'mam_fitzpatrick': , 'm_oliver': , 'dochia': , 'm_atwood': , 'n_saje': , 'a_grace': , 'r_hershon': , 'l_hejinian': , 'd_levertov': , 'c_norris': , 'b_rashbaum': , 'n_stiller': , 'y_otomo': , 'a_rich': , 'c_phillips': , 'sh_barkan': , 'gheorghiu': , 'a_cohen': , 't_skurtu': , 'r_metz': , 'gc_waldrep': , 'unattributed': , 'b_knott': , 'c_bukowski': , 'sandu': , 'n_burke': , 'trandafir': , 'r_carver': , 'c_bernstein': , 'm_swenson': , 'a_sze': , 'z_vayma': , 'e_wylie': , 'm_vincenz': , 't_berrigan': , 'doinas': , 'dragomirescu': , 'j_taylor': , 'd_berman': , 'g_simser': , 'r_edson': , 'rl_schwartz': , 'tartler': , 'r_owen': , 'j_ash': , 'm_orourke': , 'racovita': , 'ca_duffy': , 'm_barkanclarke': , 'f_howe': , 'cm_kleefeld': , 'motet': , 'g_snyder': , 'a_britt': , 'd_diprima': , 'p_campion': , 'a_sexton': , 'd_riggs': , 'chelaru': , 'a_carson': , 'e_foster': , 't_hoagland': , 'ph_starzinger': , 'p_bateman': , 'e_hirsch': , 'chris_tanasescu': , 'ts_eliot': , 'r_waldrop': , 'p_killebrew': , 'j_manesiotis': , 'mm_gillan': , 'n_giovanni': , 'cassian': , 'phil_levine': , 'stancu': , 'nicolae': , 'gardner': , 'r_jones': , 'k_knox': , 's_dalachinski': , 't_roethke': , 'g_corso': , 'l_diaz': , 'e_winder': , 'c_merrill': , 'c_moscovici': , 'f_bidart': , 'buzdugan': , 'c_bakken': , 'j_rothenberg': , 'p_harris': , 'j_dodds': , 'samulescu': , 't_lux': , 'w_heyen': , 'i_kaminsky': , 'm_ondaatje': , 'j_brodsky': , 'r_dove': , 'l_gregerson': , 'c_squier': , 'p_auster': , 'b_ross': , 's_richards': , 'j_tate': , 'e_alexander': , 'j_kacian': , 'sociu': , 'a_goldbarth': , 'j_dotson': , 'c_wright': , 'p_balakian': , 'm_angelou': }) average degree (average number of links per node) g = . g = . g = . ( ) g = . weighted average degree (mean sum of the weights assigned to the nodes’ links) g = . g = . g = . g = . clustering coefficient the degree to which nodes in a graph tend to cluster together g’s average clustering: . g = . g 's average clustering: . g = . clustering for g: ordereddict([('oancea', . ), ('p_derachewiltz', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('serban', . ), ('suciu', . ), ('olah', . ), ('popescu', . ), ('conkan', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('b_knott', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('racovita', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('foarta', .( )), ('patea', .( )), ('surleac', . ), ('firan', . ( )), ('ws_merwin', . ( )), ('carides', . ( )), ('a_sexton', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), all other nodes = . centrality betweenness centrality for g: ordereddict([('iacob', . ), ('vasies', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('ofileanu', . ), ('ck_williams', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('a_notley', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('rogojina', . ), ('simion', . ), ('foarta', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('firan', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('v_clemente', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('l_moore', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('vancu', . ), ('brudascu', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('carides', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('m_angelou', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('t_skurtu', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('manole', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('dragomir', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('parau', . ), ('suiu', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('r_pinsky', . ), ('vacarescu', . ), ('r_dove', . ), ('komartin', . ), ('r_brautigan', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('v_mort', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('olos', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('motet', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('rusu', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('samulescu', . ), ('j_tischer', . ), ('l_gluck', . e- ), ('j_mellor', . e- ), ('grivu', . e- ), ('constantinescu', . e- ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . e- ), ('tartler', . e- ), ('sociu', . e- ), ('patea', . e- ), ('collective_unattributed', . e- ), ('m_foldes', . e- ), ('moscaliuc', . e- ), ('neacsu', . e- ), ('chelaru', . e- ), ('buzdugan', . e- ), all other nodes= closeness centrality for g: ordereddict([('iacob', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('ck_williams', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('vasies', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('l_moore', . ), ('ofileanu', . ), ('v_clemente', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('r_pinsky', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('n_krapt', . ), ('j_sadre_orfai', . ), ('p_harter', . ), ('a_dobrin', . ), ('j_digby', . ), ('t_villanueva', . ), ('f_gilli', . ), ('j_lagrange', . ), ('c_yuang', . ), ('anya', . . ), ('s_gill', . . ), ('p_gershator', . . ), ('r_cook', . . ), ('e_mcfarland', . . ), ('k_doll', . . ), ('d_ignatow', . . ), ('john_digby', . . ), ('k_richards', . . ), ('c_cowling', . . ), ('m_mohr', . . ), ('g_murray', . . ), ('n_whitman', . . ), ('ar_ammons', . . ), ('r_creeley', . . ), ('l_boss', . . ), ('b_wolak', . . ), ('j_salkilld', . . ), ('m_bennett', . . ), ('k_rexroth', . . ), ('m_morrison', . . ), ('d_mahon', . . ), ('j_kurowska', . . ), ('ce_rosenow', . . ), ('h_bar_lev', . . ), ('n_saje', . . ), ('c_norris', . . ), ('n_stiller', . . ), ('y_otomo', . . ), ('a_rich', . . ), ('sh_barkan', . . ), ('r_metz', . . ), ('e_wylie', . . ), ('g_simser', . . ), ('r_owen', . . ), ('j_ash', . . ), ('m_barkanclarke', . . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . . ), ('mm_gillan', . . ), ('s_dalachinski', . . ), ('p_harris', . . ), ('w_heyen', . . ), ('c_squier', . . ), ('s_richards', . . ), ('j_kacian', . . ), ('j_dotson', . . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('m_angelou', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('a_notley', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('r_haas', . ), ('l_rector', . ), ('d_nurkse', . . ), ('f_wright', . . ), ('a_waldman', . . ), ('c_forche', . . ), ('cd_wright', . . ), ('r_padgett', . . ), ('c_phillips', . . ), ('r_carver', . . ), ('m_swenson', . . ), ('phil_levine', . . ), ('r_jones', . . ), ('t_lux', . . ), ('p_balakian', . . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('simion', . ), ('dragomir', . ), ('brudascu', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('vacarescu', . ), ('foarta', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('serban', . ), ('r_brautigan', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('g_soto', . ), ('s_dunn', . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('j_brown', . ), ('m_doty', . ), ('k_mattawa', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('i_sadoji', . ), ('m_oliver', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('a_sze', . ), ('r_edson', . ), ('n_giovanni', . ), ('e_alexander', . ), ('manole', . ), ('komartin', . ), ('nitescu', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('ca_duffy', . ), ('rogojina', . ), ('firan', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('r_dove', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('y_komunyakaa', . ), ('a_jackson', . ), ('e_miller', . ), ('j_thompson', . ), ('w_coleman', . ), ('qv_gexbreaux', . ), ('racovita', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), any such values represent exponenential notations for values that tend to absolute . ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('t_berrigan', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('mocuta', . ), ('gheorghiu', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('d_duhamel', . ), ('suiu', . ), ('b_hillman', . ), ('e_nauen', . ), ('b_mayer', . ), ('e_myles', . ), ('a_gerstler', . ), ('l_hejinian', . ), ('f_howe', . ), ('d_diprima', . ), ('r_waldrop', . ), ('k_knox', . ), ('carides', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('vancu', . ), ('suciu', . ), ('conkan', . ), ('puscas_pacuraru', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('vintila', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('ionescu', . ), ('zank', . ), ('dochia', . ), ('unattributed', . ), ('sandu', . ), ('doinas', . ), ('v_mort', . ), ('m_vincenz', . ), ('muresanu', . ), ('zanca', . ), ('olos', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('b_swann', . ), ('l_gregerson', . ), ('r_hershon', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('t_skurtu', . ), ('b_henry', . ), ('p_campion', . ), ('c_antao_xavier', . ), ('c_merrill', . ), ('c_bakken', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('j_dodds', . ), ('gradinaru', . ), ('n_burke', . ), ('parau', . ), ('micu', . ), ('b_ras', . ), ('d_brinks', . ), ('r_angel', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('j_manesiotis', . ), ('a_britt', . ), ('a_goldbarth', . ), ('motet', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('rusu', . ), ('w_baker', . ), ('b_ross', . ), ('samulescu', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('solomon', . ), ('r_marx', . ), ('sting', . ), ('c_rhea', . ), ('constantinescu', . ), ('patea', . ), ('sociu', . ), ('j_tischer', . ), ('j_mellor', . ), ('ee_cummings', . ), ('l_gluck', . ), ('grivu', . ), ('tartler', . ), ('j_english', . ), ('oancea', . ), ('p_derachewiltz', . ), ('collective_unattributed', . ), ('m_foldes', . ), ('moscaliuc', . ), ('neacsu', . ), ('olah', . ), ('popescu', . ), ('b_knott', . ), ('chelaru', . ), ('buzdugan', . ), ('mihalache', . ), ('dragomirescu', . ), ('av_rivera', . ), ('c_bernstein', . ), ('p_bateman', . ), ('p_killebrew', . ), ('stancu', . ), ('e_winder', . ), ('j_tate', . ), ('g_england', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('filimon', . ), ('j_ransom', . ), ('ks_keyss', . ), ('a_dimitrov', . ), ('p_boyers', . ), ('g_stern', . ), ('m_waters', . ), ('a_cohen', . ), ('z_vayma', . ), ('f_bidart', . ), ('c_st_aubin', . ), ('alina_sorescu', . ), ('pojoga', . ), ('popa', . ), ('j_hawkins', . ), ('ulmeanu', . ), ('p_landsman', . ), ('mircea', . ), ('coman', . ), ('boagiu', . ), ('ghita', . ), ('j_haines', . ), ('dm_andrei', . ), ('sibisan', . ), ('j_heavily', . ), ('nicolau', . ), ('k_graber', . ), ('prodan', . ), ('s_alexie', . ), ('sabau', . ), ('cosma', . ), ('gavrilovici', . ), ('mam_fitzpatrick', . ), ('a_grace', . ), ('b_rashbaum', . ), ('trandafir', . ), ('rl_schwartz', . ), ('d_riggs', . ), ('a_carson', . ), ('nicolae', . ), ('gardner', . ), ('l_diaz', . ), ('c_moscovici', . ), ('j_brodsky', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g: (ordereddict([('iacob', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('ck_williams', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('l_moore', . ), ('v_clemente', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('r_pinsky', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('n_krapt', . ), ('j_sadre_orfai', . ), ('p_harter', . ), ('a_dobrin', . ), ('j_digby', . ), ('t_villanueva', . ), ('f_gilli', . ), ('j_lagrange', . ), ('c_yuang', . ), ('anya', . ), ('s_gill', . ), ('p_gershator', . ), ('r_metz', . ), ('r_cook', . ), ('ar_ammons', . ), ('e_mcfarland', . ), ('k_doll', . ), ('k_richards', . ), ('c_cowling', . ), ('m_mohr', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . ), ('g_murray', . ), ('l_boss', . ), ('n_whitman', . ), ('r_creeley', . ), ('b_wolak', . ), ('j_salkilld', . ), ('m_bennett', . ), ('k_rexroth', . ), ('j_dotson', . ), ('m_morrison', . ), ('s_richards', . ), ('d_mahon', . ), ('ce_rosenow', . ), ('c_norris', . ), ('h_bar_lev', . ), ('n_saje', . ), ('m_barkanclarke', . ), ('n_stiller', . ), ('y_otomo', . ), ('a_rich', . ), ('sh_barkan', . ), ('d_ignatow', . ), ('john_digby', . ), ('e_wylie', . ), ('j_kurowska', . ), ('r_owen', . ), ('j_ash', . ), ('g_simser', . ), ('mm_gillan', . ), ('p_harris', . ), ('w_heyen', . ), ('c_squier', . ), ('j_kacian', . ), ('s_dalachinski', . ), ('ofileanu', . ), ('vasies', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('serban', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('brudascu', . ), ('dragomir', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('simion', . ), ('vacarescu', . ), ('foarta', . ), ('manole', . ), ('komartin', . ), ('nitescu', . ), ('m_angelou', . ), ('r_brautigan', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('m_oliver', . ), ('g_soto', . ), ('r_edson', . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('j_brown', . ), ('k_mattawa', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('i_sadoji', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('m_doty', . ), ('s_dunn', . ), ('a_sze', . ), ('n_giovanni', . ), ('e_alexander', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('a_notley', . ), ('f_wright', . ), ('c_forche', . ), ('r_carver', . ), ('cd_wright', . ), ('l_rector', . ), ('d_nurkse', . ), ('r_haas', . ), ('p_balakian', . ), ('a_waldman', . ), ('t_lux', . ), ('r_padgett', . ), ('c_phillips', . ), ('m_swenson', . ), ('phil_levine', . ), ('r_jones', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('r_dove', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('racovita', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('ca_duffy', . ), ('y_komunyakaa', . ), ('a_jackson', . ), ('e_miller', . ), ('w_coleman', . ), ('qv_gexbreaux', . ), ('j_thompson', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('t_berrigan', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('d_duhamel', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('mocuta', . ), ('gheorghiu', . ), ('rogojina', . ), ('suciu', . ), ('conkan', . ), ('puscas_pacuraru', . ), ('vintila', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('sandu', . ), ('zank', . ), ('unattributed', . ), ('doinas', . ), ('ionescu', . ), ('dochia', . ), ('firan', . ), ('suiu', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('vancu', . ), ('muresanu', . ), ('zanca', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('olos', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('b_hillman', . e- ), ('e_nauen', . e- ), ('b_mayer', . e- ), ('d_diprima', . e- ), ('e_myles', . - ), ('a_gerstler', . e- ), ('l_hejinian', . e- ), ('f_howe', . e- ), ('r_waldrop', . e- ), ('k_knox', . e- ), ('carides', . e- ), ('a_codrescu', . e- ), ('j_dodds', . e- ), ('e_foster', . e- ), ('b_swann', . e- ), ('l_gregerson', . e- ), ('t_skurtu', . e- ), ('p_campion', . e- ), ('b_henry', . e- ), ('v_mort', . e- ), ('m_vincenz', . e- ), ('n_burke', . e- ), ('ieronim', . e- ), ('r_milazzo', . e- ), ('r_hershon', . e- ), ('parau', . e- ), ('micu', . e- ), ('gradinaru', . e- ), ('a_gritsman', . e- ), ('c_antao_xavier', . e- ), ('c_merrill', . e- ), ('c_bakken', . e- ), ('hotaranu', . e- ), ('a_goldbarth', . e- ), ('a_britt', . e- ), ('b_ras', . e- ), ('r_angel', . e- ), ('j_manesiotis', . e- ), ('d_brinks', . e- ), ('e_hirsch', . e- ), ('motet', . e- ), ('l_cohen', . e- ), ('l_hughes', . e- ), ('rusu', . e- ), ('w_baker', . e- ), ('b_ross', . e- ), ('baconsky', . e- ), ('solomon', . e- ), ('r_marx', . e- ), ('sting', . e- ), ('c_rhea', . e- ), ('ee_cummings', . e- ), ('patea', . e- ), ('p_derachewiltz', . e- ), ('oancea', . e- ), ('stancu', . e- ), ('b_knott', . e- ), ('olah', . e- ), ('popescu', . e- ), ('samulescu', . e- ), ('j_tischer', . e- ), ('j_mellor', . e- ), ('j_english', . e- ), ('mihalache', . e- ), ('dragomirescu', . e- ), ('constantinescu', . e- ), ('sociu', . e- ), ('l_gluck', . e- ), ('grivu', . e- ), ('tartler', . e- ), ('av_rivera', . e- ), ('c_bernstein', . e- ), ('e_winder', . e- ), ('p_bateman', . e- ), ('p_killebrew', . e- ), ('j_tate', . e- ), ('t_roethke', . e- ), ('g_england', . e- ), ('collective_unattributed', . e- ), ('m_foldes', . e- ), ('filimon', . e- ), ('j_ransom', . e- ), ('moscaliuc', . e- ), ('neacsu', . e- ), ('chelaru', . e- ), ('buzdugan', . e- ), ('ks_keyss', . e- ), ('a_dimitrov', . e- ), ('p_boyers', . e- ), ('m_waters', . e- ), ('a_cohen', . e- ), ('z_vayma', . e- ), ('g_stern', . e- ), ('f_bidart', . e- ), ('ulmeanu', . e- ), ('c_st_aubin', . e- ), ('ghita', . e- ), ('j_hawkins', . e- ), ('trandafir', . e- ), ('gardner', . e- ), ('p_landsman', . e- ), ('alina_sorescu', . e- ), ('j_haines', . e- ), ('boagiu', . e- ), ('gavrilovici', . e- ), ('coman', . e- ), ('j_heavily', . e- ), ('nicolau', . e- ), ('rl_schwartz', . e- ), ('s_alexie', . e- ), ('pojoga', . e- ), ('prodan', . e- ), ('sabau', . e- ), ('cosma', . e- ), ('mircea', . e- ), ('mam_fitzpatrick', . e- ), ('popa', . e- ), ('j_brodsky', . e- ), ('a_carson', . e- ), ('dm_andrei', . e- ), ('nicolae', . e- ), ('d_riggs', . e- ), ('a_grace', . e- ), ('c_moscovici', . e- ), ('sibisan', . e- ), ('l_diaz', . e- ), ('b_rashbaum', . e- ), ('k_graber', . e- )]) betweenness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('iacob', . ), ('vasies', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('ofileanu', . ), ('ck_williams', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('a_notley', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('rogojina', . ), ('simion', . ), ('foarta', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('firan', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('v_clemente', . ), ('l_moore', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('vancu', . ), ('brudascu', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('carides', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('m_angelou', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('t_skurtu', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('manole', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('dragomir', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('parau', . ), ('suiu', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('r_pinsky', . ), ('vacarescu', . ), ('r_dove', . ), ('r_brautigan', . ), ('v_mort', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('olos', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('komartin', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), all other nodes = . ]) closeness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('iacob', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('ck_williams', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('vasies', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('l_moore', . ), ('ofileanu', . ), ('v_clemente', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('r_pinsky', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('n_krapt', . ), ('r_creeley', . ), ('j_sadre_orfai', . ), ('p_harter', . ), ('a_dobrin', . ), ('j_digby', . ), ('n_stiller', . ), ('t_villanueva', . ), ('j_lagrange', . ), ('c_yuang', . ), ('anya', . ), ('s_gill', . ), ('p_gershator', . ), ('r_metz', . ), ('r_cook', . ), ('ar_ammons', . ), ('e_mcfarland', . ), ('k_doll', . ), ('d_ignatow', . ), ('j_ash', . ), ('c_norris', . ), ('k_richards', . ), ('c_cowling', . ), ('n_saje', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . ), ('g_murray', . ), ('l_boss', . ), ('n_whitman', . ), ('j_salkilld', . ), ('b_wolak', . ), ('m_bennett', . ), ('john_digby', . ), ('j_dotson', . ), ('m_morrison', . ), ('s_richards', . ), ('d_mahon', . ), ('r_owen', . ), ('ce_rosenow', . ), ('h_bar_lev', . ), ('f_gilli', . ), ('m_mohr', . ), ('m_barkanclarke', . ), ('y_otomo', . ), ('a_rich', . ), ('sh_barkan', . ), ('k_rexroth', . ), ('e_wylie', . ), ('j_kurowska', . ), ('mm_gillan', . ), ('p_harris', . ), ('w_heyen', . ), ('c_squier', . ), ('j_kacian', . ), ('s_dalachinski', . ), ('g_simser', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('m_angelou', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('a_notley', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('c_forche', . ), ('t_lux', . ), ('r_padgett', . ), ('r_carver', . ), ('d_nurkse', . ), ('cd_wright', . ), ('m_swenson', . ), ('l_rector', . ), ('p_balakian', . ), ('r_haas', . ), ('f_wright', . ), ('a_waldman', . ), ('c_phillips', . ), ('phil_levine', . ), ('r_jones', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('simion', . ), ('dragomir', . ), ('brudascu', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('vacarescu', . ), ('foarta', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('serban', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('r_brautigan', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('g_soto', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('r_edson', . ), ('j_brown', . ), ('k_mattawa', . ), ('m_doty', . ), ('m_oliver', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('s_dunn', . ), ('a_sze', . ), ('i_sadoji', . ), ('n_giovanni', . ), ('e_alexander', . ), ('manole', . ), ('komartin', . ), ('nitescu', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('ca_duffy', . ), ('rogojina', . ), ('firan', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('r_dove', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('a_jackson', . ), ('y_komunyakaa', . ), ('qv_gexbreaux', . ), ('w_coleman', . ), ('j_thompson', . ), ('e_miller', . ), ('racovita', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('t_berrigan', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('mocuta', . ), ('gheorghiu', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('d_duhamel', . ), ('suiu', . ), ('e_myles', . ), ('l_hejinian', . ), ('b_hillman', . ), ('e_nauen', . ), ('b_mayer', . ), ('a_gerstler', . ), ('f_howe', . ), ('d_diprima', . ), ('r_waldrop', . ), ('k_knox', . ), ('carides', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('vancu', . ), ('suciu', . ), ('conkan', . ), ('puscas_pacuraru', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('vintila', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('zank', . ), ('unattributed', . ), ('sandu', . ), ('doinas', . ), ('ionescu', . ), ('dochia', . ), ('v_mort', . ), ('m_vincenz', . ), ('muresanu', . ), ('zanca', . ), ('olos', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('b_swann', . ), ('l_gregerson', . ), ('r_hershon', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('t_skurtu', . ), ('b_henry', . ), ('p_campion', . ), ('c_antao_xavier', . ), ('c_merrill', . ), ('c_bakken', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('j_dodds', . ), ('gradinaru', . ), ('n_burke', . ), ('parau', . ), ('micu', . ), ('b_ras', . ), ('r_angel', . ), ('d_brinks', . ), ('j_manesiotis', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('a_britt', . ), ('a_goldbarth', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('iacob', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('ck_williams', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('l_moore', . ), ('v_clemente', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('r_pinsky', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('r_creeley', . ), ('j_sadre_orfai', . ), ('p_harter', . ), ('a_dobrin', . ), ('j_digby', . ), ('t_villanueva', . ), ('j_lagrange', . ), ('c_yuang', . ), ('anya', . ), ('s_gill', . ), ('p_gershator', . ), ('r_cook', . ), ('ar_ammons', . ), ('e_mcfarland', . ), ('k_doll', . ), ('j_ash', . ), ('k_richards', . ), ('c_cowling', . ), ('n_saje', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . ), ('g_murray', . ), ('n_whitman', . ), ('l_boss', . ), ('j_salkilld', . ), ('b_wolak', . ), ('m_bennett', . ), ('john_digby', . ), ('j_dotson', . ), ('m_morrison', . ), ('s_richards', . ), ('d_mahon', . ), ('n_krapt', . ), ('ce_rosenow', . ), ('h_bar_lev', . ), ('f_gilli', . ), ('m_mohr', . ), ('n_stiller', . ), ('y_otomo', . ), ('a_rich', . ), ('sh_barkan', . ), ('r_metz', . ), ('d_ignatow', . ), ('k_rexroth', . ), ('e_wylie', . ), ('j_kurowska', . ), ('r_owen', . ), ('g_simser', . ), ('m_barkanclarke', . ), ('mm_gillan', . ), ('p_harris', . ), ('c_norris', . ), ('c_squier', . ), ('j_kacian', . ), ('s_dalachinski', . ), ('w_heyen', . ), ('ofileanu', . ), ('vasies', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('serban', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('brudascu', . ), ('dragomir', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('simion', . ), ('vacarescu', . ), ('foarta', . ), ('manole', . ), ('komartin', . ), ('nitescu', . ), ('m_angelou', . ), ('r_brautigan', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('g_soto', . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('j_brown', . ), ('k_mattawa', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('i_sadoji', . ), ('m_oliver', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('s_dunn', . ), ('a_sze', . ), ('r_edson', . ), ('n_giovanni', . ), ('m_doty', . ), ('e_alexander', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('a_notley', . ), ('c_forche', . ), ('t_lux', . ), ('r_padgett', . ), ('r_carver', . ), ('d_nurkse', . ), ('cd_wright', . ), ('l_rector', . ), ('p_balakian', . ), ('r_haas', . ), ('f_wright', . ), ('a_waldman', . ), ('c_phillips', . ), ('m_swenson', . ), ('phil_levine', . ), ('r_jones', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('r_dove', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('racovita', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('ca_duffy', . ), ('y_komunyakaa', . ), ('a_jackson', . ), ('e_miller', . ), ('qv_gexbreaux', . ), ('w_coleman', . ), ('j_thompson', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('t_berrigan', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('d_duhamel', . ), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('mocuta', . ), ('gheorghiu', . ), ('rogojina', . ), ('suciu', . ), ('conkan', . ), ('puscas_pacuraru', . ), ('vintila', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('zank', . ), ('unattributed', . ), ('sandu', . ), ('doinas', . ), ('ionescu', . ), ('dochia', . ), ('firan', . ), ('suiu', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('vancu', . ), ('muresanu', . ), ('zanca', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('olos', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('a_gerstler', . e- ), ('e_myles', . e- ), ('l_hejinian', . e- ), ('b_hillman', . e- ), ('e_nauen', . e- ), ('b_mayer', . e- ), ('f_howe', . e- ), ('d_diprima', . e- ), ('r_waldrop', . e- ), ('k_knox', . e- ), ('carides', . e- ), ('a_codrescu', . e- ), ('j_dodds', . e- ), ('e_foster', . e- ), ('b_swann', . e- ), ('l_gregerson', . e- ), ('t_skurtu', . e- ), ('p_campion', . e- ), ('b_henry', . e- ), ('v_mort', . e- ), ('m_vincenz', . e- ), ('n_burke', . e- ), ('ieronim', . e- ), ('r_milazzo', . e- ), ('r_hershon', . e- ), ('parau', . e- ), ('micu', . e- ), ('gradinaru', . e- ), ('a_gritsman', . e- ), ('c_antao_xavier', . e- ), ('c_merrill', . e- ), ('c_bakken', . e- ), ('hotaranu', . e- ), ('a_britt', . e- ), ('a_goldbarth', . e- ), ('b_ras', . e- ), ('d_brinks', . e- ), ('r_angel', . e- ), ('j_manesiotis', . e- ), ('e_hirsch', . e- )]) betweenness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('motet', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('rusu', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('c_rhea', . ), ('ee_cummings', . ), ('b_ross', . ), ('sting', . ), ('r_marx', . ), ('solomon', . ), ('w_baker', . )]) closeness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('motet', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('rusu', . ), ('b_ross', . ), ('w_baker', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('solomon', . ), ('c_rhea', . ), ('sting', . ), ('r_marx', . ), ('ee_cummings', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : (ordereddict([('motet', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('rusu', . ), ('b_ross', . ), ('w_baker', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('solomon', . ), ('c_rhea', . ), ('sting', . ), ('r_marx', . ), ('ee_cummings', . )]) betweenness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('samulescu', . ), ('j_tischer', . ), ('j_mellor', . ), ('mihalache', . ), ('j_english', . ), ('dragomirescu', . )]) closeness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('samulescu', . ), ('j_tischer', . ), ('j_mellor', . ), ('j_english', . ), ('mihalache', . ), ('dragomirescu', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : (ordereddict([('samulescu', . ), ('j_tischer', . ), ('j_mellor', . ), ('j_english', . ), ('mihalache', . ), ('dragomirescu', . )]) annex – networkx analysis of the transnational u.s. and canadian poetry translations in pp ( - ) size number of components, nodes, and edges g components = g nodes = g edges = g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g nodes = ( . %) g edges = ( . %) g - nodes = ( . %) g - edges = ( %) density the portion of the potential connections in a network that are actual connections def density(g): x = len(g.edges) y = len(g.nodes) return *x / (y*(y- )) g’s density is . g ’s density is . g ’s density is . g ’s density is .( ) average degree average degree (average number of links per node) g = . g = . g = . g = . weighted average degree (mean sum of the weights assigned to the nodes’ links) g = . g = . g = . g = . clustering g's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . clustering for g: ordereddict([('p_derachewiltz', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('olah', . ), ('popescu', . ), ('patea', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('b_knott', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('oancea', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('firan', . ( )), ('carides', . ( )), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), (all other nodes = . )]) clustering for g : ordereddict([('f_joudah', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('carides', . ( )), ('firan', . ( )), ('chris_tanasescu', . ), all other nodes, ]) clustering for g : ordereddict([('m_ondaatje', ), ('m_atwood', ), ('grigore', ), ('p_auster', ), ('e_equi', ), ('t_berrigan', )) the nodes, edges, and the degree for all the vertices in this network have been defined in annex . clustering for g : ordereddict([('t_kooser', ), ('b_collins', ), ('t_hoagland', ), ('olaru', ), ('ws_merwin', ), ('ca_duffy', )]) centrality betweenness centrality for g: (ordereddict([('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('firan', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('carides', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('manole', . ), ('constantinescu', . ), ('olos', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('moscaliuc', . ), all other nodes, . ]) closeness centrality for g: (ordereddict([('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('firan', . ), ('c_antao_xavier', . ), ('c_merrill', . ), ('c_bakken', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('carides', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('b_ras', . ), ('j_manesiotis', . ), ('d_brinks', . ), ('r_angel', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('r_hershon', . ), ('grigore', . ), ('olaru', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('t_berrigan', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('constantinescu', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('ca_duffy', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('manole', . ), ('olos', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('ciobanu', . ), ('p_derachewiltz', . ), ('moscaliuc', . ), ('olah', . ), ('popescu', . ), ('patea', . ), ('b_knott', . ), ('oancea', . ), ('av_rivera', . ), ('e_winder', . ), ('p_bateman', . ), ('e_amatoritsero', . ), ('n_burke', . ), ('zank', . ), ('j_dodds', . ), ('m_waters', . ), ('g_stern', . ), ('j_hawkins', . ), ('micu', . ), ('dm_andrei', . ), ('j_heavily', . ), ('nicolau', . ), ('cosma', . ), ('j_haines', . ), ('t_skurtu', . ), ('gardner', . ), ('sibisan', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g: ordereddict([('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('c_antao_xavier', . ), ('c_merrill', . ), ('c_bakken', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('firan', . ), ('carides', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('b_ras', . ), ('d_brinks', . ), ('r_angel', . ), ('j_manesiotis', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('r_hershon', . ), ('grigore', . e- ), ('t_berrigan', . e- ), ('e_equi', . e- ), ('m_atwood', . e- ), ('p_auster', . e- ), ('m_ondaatje', . e- ), ('olaru', . e- ), ('b_collins', . e- ), ('ws_merwin', . e- ), ('ca_duffy', . e- ), ('t_kooser', . e- ), ('t_hoagland', . e- ), ('p_derachewiltz', . e- ), ('olah', . e- ), ('popescu', . e- ), ('patea', . e- ), ('b_knott', . e- ), ('oancea', . e- ), ('constantinescu', . e- ), ('ge_clarke', . e- ), ('manole', . e- ), ('olos', . e- ), ('av_rivera', . e- ), ('e_winder', . e- ), ('p_bateman', . e- ), ('e_amatoritsero', . e- ), ('n_burke', . e- ), ('ts_eliot', . e- ), ('ciobanu', . e- ), ('zank', . e- ), ('j_dodds', . e- ), ('moscaliuc', . e- ), ('m_waters', . e- ), ('g_stern', . e- ), ('dm_andrei', . e- ), ('nicolau', . e- ), ('j_hawkins', . e- ), ('micu', . e- ), ('j_heavily', . e- ), ('cosma', . e- ), ('j_haines', . e- ), ('t_skurtu', . e- ), ('gardner', . e- ), ('sibisan', . e- )]) betweenness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('firan', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('carides', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('surleac', . ), all other nodes, . ]) closeness centrality for g : ordereddict([('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('firan', . ), ('c_merrill', . ), ('c_bakken', . ), ('c_antao_xavier', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('carides', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('b_ras', . ), ('r_angel', . ), ('j_manesiotis', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('d_brinks', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('r_hershon', . )])) ('eigenvector centrality for g :', ordereddict([('chris_tanasescu', . ), ('raluca_tanasescu', . ), ('surleac', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('j_taylor', . ), ('f_joudah', . ), ('s_lewis', . ), ('gc_waldrep', . ), ('m_woodside', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('r_craik', . ), ('m_orourke', . ), ('c_wright', . ), ('ph_starzinger', . ), ('da_powell', . ), ('s_singer', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('d_berman', . ), ('ieronim', . ), ('cassian', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('s_moss', . ), ('c_merrill', . ), ('c_bakken', . ), ('c_antao_xavier', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('hotaranu', . ), ('firan', . ), ('carides', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('b_ras', . ), ('d_brinks', . ), ('r_angel', . ), ('j_manesiotis', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('r_hershon', . )]) betweenness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('grigore', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('t_berrigan', . )]) closeness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('grigore', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('t_berrigan', . )])) eigenvector centrality for g : (ordereddict([('grigore', . ), ('m_ondaatje', . ), ('m_atwood', . ), ('e_equi', . ), ('p_auster', . ), ('t_berrigan', . )])) betweenness centrality for g : ordereddict([('olaru', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('ca_duffy', . )]) closeness centrality for g : (ordereddict([('olaru', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('ca_duffy', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('olaru', . ), ('t_kooser', . ), ('b_collins', . ), ('t_hoagland', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('ca_duffy', . )]) annex – networkx analysis of the contemporary american poetry author-collections translated before g's nodes are: [('albatros', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('d_wakoski', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('pound', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('univers', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('ursu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ws_merwin', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('caraion', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ("f_o'hara", {'capacity': 'author'}), ('covaci', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('wd_snodgrass', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_plath', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('t_roethke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ts_eliot', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ia_popa', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('nicolescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('junimea', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('w_stevens', {'capacity': 'author'})] g's edges are: [('albatros', 'ts_eliot', {'translator': 'covaci'}), ('albatros', 'covaci', {'translation': 'ts_eliot'}), ('d_wakoski', 'univers', {'translator': 'ursu'}), ('d_wakoski', 'ursu', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('pound', 'caraion', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('pound', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {'publisher': 'junimea'}), ('pound', 'univers', {'translator': 'caraion'}), ('pound', 'junimea', {'translator': 'teodorescu_&_negosanu'}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'junimea', {'translation': 'pound'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', "f_o'hara", {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 't_roethke', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 'univers', {'translation': "f_o'hara"}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 'ws_merwin', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 'w_stevens', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('univers', 'ia_popa', {'translation': 'wd_snodgrass'}), ('univers', 'ursu', {'translation': 'd_wakoski'}), ('univers', 'ws_merwin', {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('univers', 'caraion', {'translation': 'pound'}), ('univers', "f_o'hara", {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('univers', 'wd_snodgrass', {'translator': 'ia_popa'}), ('univers', 's_plath', {'translator': 'nicolescu'}), ('univers', 't_roethke', {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('univers', 'nicolescu', {'translation': 's_plath'}), ('univers', 'w_stevens', {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('covaci', 'ts_eliot', {'publisher': 'albatros'}), ('wd_snodgrass', 'ia_popa', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('s_plath', 'nicolescu', {'publisher': 'univers'})] size the number of g's components: g's size: the number of edges in g: g 's size: the number of edges in g : g 's size: the number of edges in g : average degree & density the average degree for g: . g's density: . the average degree for g : . g 's density: . g 's average degree: . g 's density: . clustering g's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . g 's nodes are: [('ia_popa', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('d_wakoski', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('pound', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('univers', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('ursu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('ws_merwin', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('caraion', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ("f_o'hara", {'capacity': 'author'}), ('wd_snodgrass', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_plath', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('t_roethke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('nicolescu', {'capacity': 'translator'}), ('junimea', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('w_stevens', {'capacity': 'author'})] g 's edges are: [('ia_popa', 'univers', {'translation': 'wd_snodgrass'}), ('ia_popa', 'wd_snodgrass', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('d_wakoski', 'univers', {'translator': 'ursu'}), ('d_wakoski', 'ursu', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('pound', 'caraion', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('pound', 'junimea', {'translator': 'teodorescu_&_negosanu'}), ('pound', 'univers', {'translator': 'caraion'}), ('pound', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {'publisher': 'junimea'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', "f_o'hara", {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 't_roethke', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 'univers', {'translation': "f_o'hara"}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 'ws_merwin', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', 'w_stevens', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('univers', 'ursu', {'translation': 'd_wakoski'}), ('univers', 'ws_merwin', {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('univers', 'caraion', {'translation': 'pound'}), ('univers', "f_o'hara", {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('univers', 'wd_snodgrass', {'translator': 'ia_popa'}), ('univers', 's_plath', {'translator': 'nicolescu'}), ('univers', 't_roethke', {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('univers', 'nicolescu', {'translation': 's_plath'}), ('univers', 'w_stevens', {'translator': 'abaluta_&_stoenescu'}), ('s_plath', 'nicolescu', {'publisher': 'univers'}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'junimea', {'translation': 'pound'})] g 's nodes are: [('albatros', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('ts_eliot', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('covaci', {'capacity': 'translator'})] g 's edges are: [('albatros', 'ts_eliot', {'translator': 'covaci'}), ('albatros', 'covaci', {'translation': 'ts_eliot'}), ('ts_eliot', 'covaci', {'publisher': 'albatros'})] clustering for g: ordereddict([('albatros', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('caraion', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('covaci', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('w_stevens', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('pound', .( )), ('univers', . )]) clustering for g : ordereddict([('ia_popa', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('caraion', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('w_stevens', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('pound', .( )), ('univers', . )]) clustering for g : ordereddict([('albatros', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('covaci', . )]) centrality betweenness centrality for g: ordereddict([('univers', . ), ('pound', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('albatros', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('caraion', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('covaci', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('w_stevens', . )]) closeness centrality for g: ordereddict([('univers', . ), ('pound', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('w_stevens', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('albatros', .( )), ('covaci', .( )), ('ts_eliot', .( )]) eigenvector centrality for g: ordereddict([('univers', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('w_stevens', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('pound', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('albatros', . e- ), ('covaci', . e- ), ('ts_eliot', - . e- )]) betweenness centrality for g : ordereddict([('univers', . ), ('pound', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('caraion', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('w_stevens', . )]) closeness centrality for g ordereddict([('univers', . ), ('pound', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('w_stevens', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('junimea', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('univers', . ), ('abaluta_&_stoenescu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('w_stevens', . ), ('pound', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('ia_popa', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('ursu', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('nicolescu', . ), ('junimea', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . )]) betweenness centrality for g : ordereddict([('albatros', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('covaci', . )]) closeness centrality for g : ordereddict([('albatros', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('covaci', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('albatros', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('covaci', . )])) the degrees for all vertices in g are: degreeview({'albatros': , 'd_wakoski': , 'pound': , 'nicolescu': , 'abaluta_&_stoenescu': , 'univers': , 'ursu': , 'ws_merwin': , 'caraion': , "f_o'hara": , 'covaci': , 'wd_snodgrass': , 's_plath': , 't_roethke': , 'ts_eliot': , 'teodorescu_&_negosanu': , 'ia_popa': , 'junimea': , 'w_stevens': }) annex – networkx analysis of the contemporary canadian poetry anthologies translated before size, density, average degree and clustering g's size: g's density: . the number of g's components: the average degree for g: . the number of edges in g: g's average clustering: . centrality betweenness centrality for g: ordereddict([('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('j.m. yates', . ), ('andreas schroeder', . ), ('dorothy livesay', . ), ('lionel kearns', . ), ('john robert colombo', . ), ('fred cogswell', . ), ('louis dudek', . ), ('barbara caruso', . ), ('michael ondaatje', . ), ('margaret atwood', . ), ('irving layton', . ), ('tom marshall', . ), ('alfred purdy', . ), ('john newlove', . ), all other nodes = )]) closeness centrality for g: ordereddict([('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('j.m. yates', . ), ('andreas schroeder', . ), ('dorothy livesay', . ), ('lionel kearns', . ), ('john robert colombo', . ), ('fred cogswell', . ), ('louis dudek', . ), ('barbara caruso', . ), ('michael ondaatje', . ), ('margaret atwood', . ), ('irving layton', . ), ('tom marshall', . ), ('alfred purdy', . ), ('john newlove', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('stanley cooperman', . . ), ('fred candelaria', . . ), ('jay mcpherson', . . ), ('gwendolyn macewen', . . ), ('pierre coupey', . . ), ('dennis lee', . . ), ('elizabeth brewster', . . ), ('michael bullock', . . ), ('nelson hall', . . ), ('henry beissel', . . ), ('milton acorn', . . ), ('alden nowlan', . . ), ('peter stevens', . . ), ('nicholas catanoy', . . ), ('phyllis webb', . . ), ('miriam waddington', . . ), ('leonard cohen', . . ), ('robin skelton', . . ), ('james reaney', . . ), ('patrick anderson', . . ), ('george howering', . . ), ('louis cormier', . . ), ('patricia k. page', . . ), ('eidon grier', . . ), ('raymond souster', . . ), ('eli mandel', . . ), ('d. g. jones', . . ), ('margaret avison', . ), ('alden a. nowlan', . ), ('r. c. everson', . ), ('nelson ball', . ), ('ralph gustafson', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g: ordereddict([('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('caraion', . ), ('john robert colombo', . ), ('barbara caruso', . ), ('john newlove', . ), ('andreas schroeder', . ), ('dorothy livesay', . ), ('lionel kearns', . ), ('irving layton', . ), ('j.m. yates', . ), ('margaret atwood', . ), ('fred cogswell', . ), ('louis dudek', . ), ('tom marshall', . ), ('michael ondaatje', . ), ('alfred purdy', . ), ('stanley cooperman', . ), ('nelson hall', . ), ('leonard cohen', . ), ('george howering', . ), ('fred candelaria', . ), ('dennis lee', . ), ('peter stevens', . ), ('louis cormier', . ), ('michael bullock', . ), ('milton acorn', . ), ('phyllis webb', . ), ('james reaney', . ), ('jay mcpherson', . ), ('gwendolyn macewen', . ), ('d. g. jones', . ), ('alden nowlan', . ), ('robin skelton', . ), ('nicholas catanoy', . ), ('eidon grier', . ), ('pierre coupey', . ), ('elizabeth brewster', . ), ('patrick anderson', . ), ('patricia k. page', . ), ('henry beissel', . ), ('miriam waddington', . ), ('eli mandel', . ), ('raymond souster', . ), ('ralph gustafson', . ), ('margaret avison', . ), ('nelson ball', . ), ('r. c. everson', . ), ('alden a. nowlan', . )]) the degrees for all vertices in g are: degreeview({'j.m. yates': , 'andreas schroeder': , 'stanley cooperman': , 'fred candelaria': , 'jay mcpherson': , 'margaret avison': , 'alden a. nowlan': , 'gwendolyn macewen': , 'pierre coupey': , 'dennis lee': , 'elizabeth brewster': , 'dorothy livesay': , 'michael bullock': , 'nelson hall': , 'teodorescu_&_negosanu': , 'henry beissel': , 'milton acorn': , 'lionel kearns': , 'john robert colombo': , 'alden nowlan': , 'fred cogswell': , 'peter stevens': , 'nicholas catanoy': , 'phyllis webb': , 'miriam waddington': , 'louis dudek': , 'leonard cohen': , 'caraion': , 'robin skelton': , 'barbara caruso': , 'james reaney': , 'patrick anderson': , 'george howering': , 'r. c. everson': , 'louis cormier': , 'nelson ball': , 'michael ondaatje': , 'margaret atwood': , 'irving layton': , 'patricia k. page': , 'eidon grier': , 'raymond souster': , 'eli mandel': , 'tom marshall': , 'd. g. jones': , 'alfred purdy': , 'ralph gustafson': , 'john newlove': }) annex – networkx analysis of the contemporary american poetry anthologies translated before size, density, average degree and clustering the number of g's components: g's average clustering: . the number of edges in g: the average degree for g: . g's size: g's density: . g's nodes are: [('e_field', {}), ('d_hall', {}), ('r_lowell', {}), ('blaga', {}), ('t_mcgrath', {}), ('jg_fletcher', {}), ('l_hughes', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', {}), ('r_creeley', {}), ('b_guest', {}), ('a_tate', {}), ('k_koch', {}), ('l_mueller', {}), ('g_kinnel', {}), ('l_ferlinghetti', {}), ('d_naone', {}), ('e_roditi', {}), ('xj_kennedy', {}), ('ar_ammons', {}), ('leroi_jones', {}), ('p_engle', {}), ('m_sarton', {}), ('ws_merwin', {}), ('e_jarrett', {}), ('l_zukofsky', {}), ('d_etter', {}), ('n_willard', {}), ('ee_cummings', {}), ('s_sandy', {}), ('m_gold', {}), ('r_wilbur', {}), ('j_kerouac', {}), ('m_strand', {}), ('r_francis', {}), ('m_van_doren', {}), ('e_bishop', {}), ('j_ashbery', {}), ('b_kaufman', {}), ('marin_sorescu', {}), ('r_howard', {}), ('v_contoski', {}), ('p_meinke', {}), ('p_viereck', {}), ('p_blackburn', {}), ('m_solomon', {}), ('l_simpson', {}), ('o_nash', {}), ('j_langland', {}), ('cw_hines', {}), ('l_untermeyer', {}), ('r_duncan', {}), ('t_raworth', {}), ('winfield_scott', {}), ('d_wakoski', {}), ('ph_lamantia', {}), ('c_olson', {}), ('j_fields', {}), ('k_rexroth', {}), ('d_justice', {}), ('m_zaturenska', {}), ('m_rukeyser', {}), ('rp_warren', {}), ('w_everson', {}), ('a_bontemps', {}), ('we_stafford', {}), ("f_o'hara", {}), ('m_march', {}), ('r_jarrell', {}), ('e_bowers', {}), ('ts_eliot', {}), ('r_whittemore', {}), ('l_bogan', {}), ('c_aiken', {}), ('j_berryman', {}), ('k_patchen', {}), ('s_kunitz', {}), ('s_plath', {}), ('k_shapiro', {}), ('d_levertov', {}), ('j_haines', {}), ('d_hoffman', {}), ('georgia_d_johnson', {}), ('j_wieners', {}), ('a_rich', {}), ('j_wright', {}), ('h_nemerov', {}), ('w_kees', {}), ('baconsky', {}), ('a_raybin', {}), ('j_laughlin', {}), ('g_snyder', {}), ('wd_snodgrass', {}), ('b_deutsch', {}), ('h_gregory', {}), ('c_major', {}), ('d_schwartz', {}), ('r_eberhart', {}), ('a_ginsberg', {}), ('r_mezey', {}), ('wh_auden', {}), ('h_doolittle', {}), ('sterian', {}), ('c_kizer', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('g_corso', {}), ('r_kelly', {}), ('wj_smith', {}), ('g_brooks', {}), ('jc_ransom', {}), ('j_anderson', {}), ('t_roethke', {}), ('m_moore', {}), ('ph_mcginley', {}), ('j_oppenheimer', {}), ('a_sexton', {}), ('o_williams', {}), ('l_riding', {}), ('caraion', {}), ('r_jeffers', {}), ('a_hecht', {}), ('hj_bond', {}), ('j_unterecker', {}), ('a_dugan', {}), ('j_merrill', {}), ('r_bly', {}), ('ivanescu', {}), ('w_cuney', {}), ('j_dickey', {})] g's edges are: [('e_field', 'ivanescu', {}), ('d_hall', 'caraion', {}), ('r_lowell', 'caraion', {}), ('r_lowell', 'ivanescu', {}), ('r_lowell', 'levitchi_&_dorin', {}), ('blaga', 'ts_eliot', {}), ('t_mcgrath', 'levitchi_&_dorin', {}), ('jg_fletcher', 'caraion', {}), ('l_hughes', 'caraion', {}), ('l_hughes', 'levitchi_&_dorin', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'e_bishop', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_eberhart', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'rp_warren', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'wh_auden', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'h_doolittle', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'we_stafford', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_jarrell', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'ts_eliot', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'm_moore', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_whittemore', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'l_bogan', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'g_corso', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'c_aiken', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'a_tate', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'j_berryman', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'a_ginsberg', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'wj_smith', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 's_kunitz', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'm_solomon', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'k_shapiro', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'o_nash', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'jc_ransom', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 's_plath', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 't_roethke', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'l_ferlinghetti', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'l_untermeyer', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'ph_mcginley', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'winfield_scott', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'b_deutsch', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'leroi_jones', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'd_wakoski', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'l_riding', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'm_sarton', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'ws_merwin', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'd_levertov', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_jeffers', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'j_wright', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'p_viereck', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'l_simpson', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'h_nemerov', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'ee_cummings', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_bly', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'd_justice', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_wilbur', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'j_ashbery', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'g_snyder', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'wd_snodgrass', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'r_francis', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'm_zaturenska', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'g_kinnel', {}), ('levitchi_&_dorin', 'm_van_doren', {}), ('r_creeley', 'caraion', {}), ('r_creeley', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('b_guest', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('a_tate', 'caraion', {}), ('a_tate', 'ivanescu', {}), ('k_koch', 'caraion', {}), ('k_koch', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('l_mueller', 'ivanescu', {}), ('g_kinnel', 'caraion', {}), ('l_ferlinghetti', 'caraion', {}), ('l_ferlinghetti', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('l_ferlinghetti', 'marin_sorescu', {}), ('d_naone', 'marin_sorescu', {}), ('e_roditi', 'caraion', {}), ('xj_kennedy', 'caraion', {}), ('ar_ammons', 'caraion', {}), ('leroi_jones', 'caraion', {}), ('p_engle', 'marin_sorescu', {}), ('ws_merwin', 'caraion', {}), ('ws_merwin', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('ws_merwin', 'ivanescu', {}), ('ws_merwin', 'marin_sorescu', {}), ('e_jarrett', 'caraion', {}), ('l_zukofsky', 'caraion', {}), ('d_etter', 'caraion', {}), ('n_willard', 'caraion', {}), ('ee_cummings', 'caraion', {}), ('ee_cummings', 'ivanescu', {}), ('s_sandy', 'caraion', {}), ('m_gold', 'caraion', {}), ('r_wilbur', 'caraion', {}), ('r_wilbur', 'ivanescu', {}), ('j_kerouac', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('m_strand', 'marin_sorescu', {}), ('e_bishop', 'caraion', {}), ('j_ashbery', 'caraion', {}), ('j_ashbery', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('j_ashbery', 'ivanescu', {}), ('b_kaufman', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('marin_sorescu', 'a_ginsberg', {}), ('marin_sorescu', 'm_march', {}), ('marin_sorescu', 'p_meinke', {}), ('r_howard', 'ivanescu', {}), ('v_contoski', 'caraion', {}), ('p_viereck', 'caraion', {}), ('p_viereck', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('p_blackburn', 'caraion', {}), ('l_simpson', 'caraion', {}), ('o_nash', 'caraion', {}), ('o_nash', 'sterian', {}), ('j_langland', 'caraion', {}), ('cw_hines', 'caraion', {}), ('l_untermeyer', 'sterian', {}), ('r_duncan', 'caraion', {}), ('r_duncan', 'ivanescu', {}), ('r_duncan', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('t_raworth', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('d_wakoski', 'caraion', {}), ('ph_lamantia', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('c_olson', 'caraion', {}), ('c_olson', 'ivanescu', {}), ('c_olson', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('j_fields', 'caraion', {}), ('k_rexroth', 'caraion', {}), ('k_rexroth', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('d_justice', 'caraion', {}), ('d_justice', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('d_justice', 'ivanescu', {}), ('m_rukeyser', 'caraion', {}), ('m_rukeyser', 'sterian', {}), ('m_rukeyser', 'ivanescu', {}), ('rp_warren', 'caraion', {}), ('w_everson', 'sterian', {}), ('a_bontemps', 'caraion', {}), ('we_stafford', 'caraion', {}), ('we_stafford', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('we_stafford', 'ivanescu', {}), ("f_o'hara", 'caraion', {}), ("f_o'hara", 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('r_jarrell', 'caraion', {}), ('r_jarrell', 'ivanescu', {}), ('e_bowers', 'caraion', {}), ('ts_eliot', 'baconsky', {}), ('ts_eliot', 'ivanescu', {}), ('r_whittemore', 'caraion', {}), ('l_bogan', 'caraion', {}), ('c_aiken', 'ivanescu', {}), ('j_berryman', 'caraion', {}), ('j_berryman', 'ivanescu', {}), ('k_patchen', 'caraion', {}), ('k_patchen', 'sterian', {}), ('k_patchen', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('s_kunitz', 'caraion', {}), ('s_kunitz', 'ivanescu', {}), ('s_plath', 'caraion', {}), ('s_plath', 'ivanescu', {}), ('k_shapiro', 'caraion', {}), ('k_shapiro', 'sterian', {}), ('d_levertov', 'caraion', {}), ('d_levertov', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('d_levertov', 'ivanescu', {}), ('j_haines', 'caraion', {}), ('d_hoffman', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('georgia_d_johnson', 'caraion', {}), ('j_wieners', 'caraion', {}), ('a_rich', 'caraion', {}), ('a_rich', 'ivanescu', {}), ('j_wright', 'caraion', {}), ('j_wright', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('h_nemerov', 'caraion', {}), ('h_nemerov', 'ivanescu', {}), ('w_kees', 'ivanescu', {}), ('a_raybin', 'caraion', {}), ('j_laughlin', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('g_snyder', 'caraion', {}), ('g_snyder', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('g_snyder', 'sterian', {}), ('wd_snodgrass', 'caraion', {}), ('wd_snodgrass', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('b_deutsch', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('h_gregory', 'caraion', {}), ('c_major', 'caraion', {}), ('d_schwartz', 'caraion', {}), ('d_schwartz', 'ivanescu', {}), ('r_eberhart', 'caraion', {}), ('a_ginsberg', 'caraion', {}), ('a_ginsberg', 'teodorescu_&_negosanu', {}), ('a_ginsberg', 'sterian', {}), ('r_mezey', 'caraion', {}), ('wh_auden', 'caraion', {}), ('sterian', 'g_brooks', {}), ('sterian', 't_roethke', {}), ('c_kizer', 'ivanescu', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 't_roethke', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'g_corso', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'j_oppenheimer', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'j_merrill', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'r_bly', {}), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', 'j_dickey', {}), ('g_corso', 'caraion', {}), ('r_kelly', 'caraion', {}), ('wj_smith', 'caraion', {}), ('jc_ransom', 'caraion', {}), ('jc_ransom', 'ivanescu', {}), ('j_anderson', 'caraion', {}), ('t_roethke', 'caraion', {}), ('m_moore', 'ivanescu', {}), ('j_oppenheimer', 'caraion', {}), ('a_sexton', 'caraion', {}), ('a_sexton', 'ivanescu', {}), ('o_williams', 'caraion', {}), ('caraion', 'hj_bond', {}), ('caraion', 'a_hecht', {}), ('caraion', 'j_unterecker', {}), ('caraion', 'w_cuney', {}), ('caraion', 'j_merrill', {}), ('caraion', 'j_dickey', {}), ('caraion', 'r_bly', {}), ('a_hecht', 'ivanescu', {}), ('a_dugan', 'ivanescu', {})] centrality betweenness centrality for g: ordereddict([('caraion', . ), ('levitchi_&_dorin', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('ivanescu', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('sterian', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('d_justice', . ), ('we_stafford', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('m_rukeyser', . ), ('o_nash', . ), ('k_shapiro', . ), ('k_patchen', . ), ('r_duncan', . ), ('c_olson', . ), ('p_viereck', . ), ('j_wright', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('r_bly', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('a_tate', . ), ('ee_cummings', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('s_kunitz', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('h_nemerov', . ), ('jc_ransom', . ), ('a_rich', . ), ('d_schwartz', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('a_hecht', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('g_kinnel', . ), ('l_simpson', . ), ('leroi_jones', . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('rp_warren', . ), ('r_whittemore', . ), ('l_bogan', . ), ('r_eberhart', . ), ('wh_auden', . ), ('wj_smith', . ), ('r_creeley', . ), ('k_koch', . ), ('j_dickey', . ), ('k_rexroth', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('j_oppenheimer', . ), ('j_merrill', . ), ('b_deutsch', . ), ('l_untermeyer', . ), ('c_aiken', . ), ('m_moore', . ), all other nodes = ]) closeness centrality for g: ordereddict([('caraion', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('levitchi_&_dorin', . ), ('d_justice', . ), ('we_stafford', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('p_viereck', . ), ('j_wright', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('r_bly', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('a_tate', . ), ('ee_cummings', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('s_kunitz', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('h_nemerov', . ), ('jc_ransom', . ), ('o_nash', . ), ('k_shapiro', . ), ('r_duncan', . ), ('c_olson', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('g_kinnel', . ), ('l_simpson', . ), ('leroi_jones', . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('rp_warren', . ), ('r_whittemore', . ), ('l_bogan', . ), ('r_eberhart', . ), ('wh_auden', . ), ('wj_smith', . ), ('m_rukeyser', . ), ('k_patchen', . ), ('a_rich', . ), ('d_schwartz', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('a_hecht', . ), ('ivanescu', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('r_creeley', . ), ('k_koch', . ), ('j_dickey', . ), ('k_rexroth', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('j_oppenheimer', . ), ('j_merrill', . ), ('d_hall', . ), ('jg_fletcher', . ), ('e_roditi', . ), ('ar_ammons', . ), ('e_jarrett', . ), ('l_zukofsky', . ), ('d_etter', . ), ('n_willard', . ), ('s_sandy', . ), ('v_contoski', . ), ('p_blackburn', . ), ('xj_kennedy', . ), ('j_langland', . ), ('cw_hines', . ), ('j_fields', . ), ('e_bowers', . ), ('j_haines', . ), ('georgia_d_johnson', . ), ('j_wieners', . ), ('a_raybin', . ), ('h_gregory', . ), ('c_major', . ), ('r_mezey', . ), ('r_kelly', . ), ('j_anderson', . ), ('o_williams', . ), ('hj_bond', . ), ('j_unterecker', . ), ('a_bontemps', . ), ('w_cuney', . ), ('m_gold', . ), ('b_deutsch', . ), ('sterian', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('c_aiken', . ), ('m_moore', . ), ('l_untermeyer', . ), ('t_mcgrath', . ), ('m_sarton', . ), ('r_francis', . ), ('m_van_doren', . ), ('m_solomon', . ), ('winfield_scott', . ), ('m_zaturenska', . ), ('h_doolittle', . ), ('ph_mcginley', . ), ('l_riding', . ), ('r_jeffers', . ), ('e_field', . ), ('r_howard', . ), ('l_mueller', . ), ('w_kees', . ), ('c_kizer', . ), ('a_dugan', . ), ('b_guest', . ), ('b_kaufman', . ), ('j_kerouac', . ), ('t_raworth', . ), ('ph_lamantia', . ), ('d_hoffman', . ), ('j_laughlin', . ), ('w_everson', . ), ('g_brooks', . ), ('blaga', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('m_march', . ), ('d_naone', . ), ('p_engle', . ), ('p_meinke', . ), ('m_strand', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g: ordereddict([('caraion', . ), ('levitchi_&_dorin', . ), ('teodorescu_&_negosanu', . ), ('ivanescu', . ), ('ws_merwin', . ), ('we_stafford', . ), ('j_ashbery', . ), ('d_levertov', . ), ('d_justice', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('t_roethke', . ), ('g_snyder', . ), ('l_ferlinghetti', . ), ('r_bly', . ), ('j_wright', . ), ('wd_snodgrass', . ), ('g_corso', . ), ('p_viereck', . ), ('r_jarrell', . ), ('r_wilbur', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('a_tate', . ), ('s_kunitz', . ), ('jc_ransom', . ), ('h_nemerov', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('r_lowell', . ), ('ee_cummings', . ), ('o_nash', . ), ('k_shapiro', . ), ('c_olson', . ), ('r_duncan', . ), ('g_kinnel', . ), ('rp_warren', . ), ('wh_auden', . ), ('l_simpson', . ), ('leroi_jones', . ), ('r_whittemore', . ), ('l_bogan', . ), ('l_hughes', . ), ('e_bishop', . ), ('d_wakoski', . ), ('r_eberhart', . ), ('wj_smith', . ), ('k_patchen', . ), ('m_rukeyser', . ), ('j_oppenheimer', . ), ('k_koch', . ), ("f_o'hara", . ), ('j_merrill', . ), ('r_creeley', . ), ('k_rexroth', . ), ('j_dickey', . ), ('d_schwartz', . ), ('a_rich', . ), ('a_sexton', . ), ('a_hecht', . ), ('sterian', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('b_deutsch', . ), ('c_aiken', . ), ('m_moore', . ), ('cw_hines', . ), ('j_unterecker', . ), ('jg_fletcher', . ), ('l_zukofsky', . ), ('h_gregory', . ), ('r_kelly', . ), ('a_bontemps', . ), ('w_cuney', . ), ('ar_ammons', . ), ('s_sandy', . ), ('xj_kennedy', . ), ('j_langland', . ), ('j_fields', . ), ('j_wieners', . ), ('a_raybin', . ), ('c_major', . ), ('o_williams', . ), ('d_hall', . ), ('e_roditi', . ), ('n_willard', . ), ('v_contoski', . ), ('e_bowers', . ), ('j_haines', . ), ('georgia_d_johnson', . ), ('e_jarrett', . ), ('d_etter', . ), ('r_mezey', . ), ('j_anderson', . ), ('p_blackburn', . ), ('m_gold', . ), ('hj_bond', . ), ('l_untermeyer', . ), ('h_doolittle', . ), ('l_riding', . ), ('winfield_scott', . ), ('r_francis', . ), ('t_mcgrath', . ), ('m_sarton', . ), ('m_zaturenska', . ), ('ph_mcginley', . ), ('r_jeffers', . ), ('m_van_doren', . ), ('m_solomon', . ), ('marin_sorescu', . ), ('b_guest', . ), ('ph_lamantia', . ), ('b_kaufman', . ), ('j_kerouac', . ), ('t_raworth', . ), ('d_hoffman', . ), ('j_laughlin', . ), ('r_howard', . ), ('l_mueller', . ), ('c_kizer', . ), ('a_dugan', . ), ('w_kees', . ), ('e_field', . ), ('w_everson', . ), ('g_brooks', . ), ('baconsky', . ), ('blaga', . ), ('m_march', . ), ('m_strand', . ), ('p_engle', . ), ('d_naone', . ), ('p_meinke', . )]) the degrees for all vertices in g are: degreeview({'e_field': , 'd_hall': , 'r_lowell': , 'blaga': , 't_mcgrath': , 'jg_fletcher': , 'l_hughes': , 'levitchi_&_dorin': , 'r_creeley': , 'b_guest': , 'a_tate': , 'k_koch': , 'm_march': , 'g_kinnel': , 'l_ferlinghetti': , 'd_naone': , 'e_roditi': , 'l_simpson': , 'ar_ammons': , 'leroi_jones': , 'p_engle': , 'm_sarton': , 'ws_merwin': , 'e_jarrett': , 'l_zukofsky': , 'd_etter': , 'n_willard': , 'ee_cummings': , 's_sandy': , 'r_wilbur': , 'p_meinke': , 'baconsky': , 'r_francis': , 'm_van_doren': , 'e_bishop': , 'r_jarrell': , 'b_kaufman': , 'marin_sorescu': , 'r_howard': , 'v_contoski': , 'j_kerouac': , 'p_viereck': , 'p_blackburn': , 'm_solomon': , 'xj_kennedy': , 'o_nash': , 'j_langland': , 'cw_hines': , 'l_untermeyer': , 'r_duncan': , 't_raworth': , 'winfield_scott': , 'd_wakoski': , 'ph_lamantia': , 'j_dickey': , 'c_olson': , 'j_fields': , 'k_rexroth': , 'd_justice': , 'm_zaturenska': , 'm_rukeyser': , 'rp_warren': , 'w_everson': , 'we_stafford': , "f_o'hara": , 'l_mueller': , 'j_ashbery': , 'e_bowers': , 'ts_eliot': , 'r_whittemore': , 'l_bogan': , 'c_aiken': , 'j_berryman': , 'k_patchen': , 's_kunitz': , 's_plath': , 'k_shapiro': , 'd_levertov': , 'j_haines': , 'd_hoffman': , 'georgia_d_johnson': , 'j_wieners': , 'a_rich': , 'j_wright': , 'h_nemerov': , 'w_kees': , 'm_strand': , 'a_raybin': , 'j_laughlin': , 'sterian': , 'wd_snodgrass': , 'b_deutsch': , 'h_gregory': , 'c_major': , 'd_schwartz': , 'r_eberhart': , 'a_ginsberg': , 'r_mezey': , 'wh_auden': , 'h_doolittle': , 'g_snyder': , 'c_kizer': , 'teodorescu_&_negosanu': , 'g_corso': , 'r_kelly': , 'wj_smith': , 'g_brooks': , 'jc_ransom': , 'j_anderson': , 't_roethke': , 'm_moore': , 'ph_mcginley': , 'j_oppenheimer': , 'a_sexton': , 'o_williams': , 'l_riding': , 'caraion': , 'r_jeffers': , 'a_hecht': , 'hj_bond': , 'j_unterecker': , 'a_dugan': , 'j_merrill': , 'r_bly': , 'ivanescu': , 'a_bontemps': , 'w_cuney': , 'm_gold': }) annex – networkx analysis of the u.s. and canadian contemporary poetry author-collections translated between and morrison, jim. / . o rugă americană și alte scrieri (an american prayer and other writings) (virgilia and mara popa, trans.). chișinău; ploiești: quo vadis? press; cartea de nisip; karmat press. codrescu, andrei. . candoare străină: poeme alese, - (alien candor: selected poems, ‐ ) (ioana ieronim, trans.). bucurești: editura fundației culturale române. codrescu, andrei. . selected poetry. poezii alese (ioana ieronim, trans.). pitești: paralela . eliot, t. s. . Țara pustie (the wasteland) (ion pillat, aurel covaci, trans.). bucurești: cartea românească. simic, charles. . cartea zeilor şi a demonilor (the book of gods and demons) (mircea cărtărescu, trans.). pitești: paralela . eliot, t. s. . the waste land (alex moldovan, trans.). pitești: paralela . gritsman, andrey. . in transit (doris sângeorzan, trans.). craiova: scrisul românesc. cohen, leonard. . cartea aleanului (book of longing) (cristina chevereșan and Șerban foarță, trans.). iași: polirom. clarke, george elliott. . poeme incendiare (flavia cosma, trans.) oradea: cogito kaminsky, ilya. . dansând în odessa (dancing in odessa). (chris tanasescu, trans.). bucurești: vinea. bukowski, charles. . dragostea e un cîine venit din iad. de poeme erotice (love is a dog from hell. erotic poems) (dan sociu, trans.). iași: polirom. baker, david. . omul alchimic (alchemical man. selected poems). (chris tanasescu, trans.). bucurești: vinea. foster, edward. . febra albă. poeme alese (alexandra carides and carmen firan, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc. ginsberg, allen. . howl și alte poeme. (howl and other poems.) (domnica drumea and petru ilieşu, trans.). iași: polirom. mindock, gloria. . la portile raiului (at heaven’s doors) (flavia cosma, trans.). iași: ars longa press. milazzo, richard. . umbre din est/eastern shadows (adrian sângeorzan, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc; cummings, e. e. . poeme erotice (erotic poems) (dan sociu, trans.): bucurești: art. eliot, t. s. . opere poetice. - (selected poems ( - )) (mircea ivănescu et. al., trans.). bucurești: humanitas fiction. dylan, bob. . suflare în vânt (blowing in the wind) (mircea cărtărescu, trans.). bucurești: humanitas fiction. plath, sylvia. . poeme alese (selected poems). (elena ciobanu, trans.) ploiești: paralela . milazzo, richard. . acolo unde îngerii îşi arcuiesc spatele şi câinii sunt în trecere/where angels arch their backs and dogs pass through (răzvan hotăranu, trans.). craiova: editura scrisul românesc. rothenberg, jerome. . mistici, hoți și nebuni (mystics, thieves and madmen). (raluca & chris tanasescu (margento), trans,). bistrița: max blecher. berryman, john. . cântece vis (dream songs) (radu vancu, trans.). bistrița: max blecher. kleefeld, carolyn mary. . the divine kiss. sărut divin. ioan nistor. În flăcările păpădiilor/in the flames of dandelions. cluj-napoca: limes. bennett, maria. . because you love / fiindcă iubeşti. mircea petean. din poemele anei / from the poems of ana (olimpia iacob & maria bennett, trans. from the romanian; olimpia iacob, trans. from the english. cluj-napoca: limes. stanley h. barkan; daniel corbu. . the machine for inventing ideals / maşina de inventat idealuri (olimpia iacob & jim kacian, trans. from the romanian; olimpia iacob, trans. from the english). iași: princeps multimedia. mayne, seymour. . caligrafomanție / augural calligraphies. (raluca & chris tanasescu (margento), trans.). bucurești: tracus arte. hirsch, edward. . foc nocturn (răzvan hotăranu, trans.). craiova: scrisul românesc. vincenz, marc. . fabrica de propagandă sau apropo de copaci (the propaganda factory) (marius surleac, trans.). bucurești : tracus arte. novăcescu, constantin and kacian, jim. . o linişte stranie / strange silence (olimpia iacob & jim kacian, trans. from the romanian; olimpia iacob, trans. from the english). timişoara: waldpress. tâlvescu, dumitru and cook, rebecca. . umbra apei / the shadow of water (olimpia iacob & rebecca cook, trans. from the romanian; olimpia iacob, trans. from the english). deva: emia, nistor, ioan and wolak, bill. . seminţe căutătoare de vânt / wind-seeking seeds (olimpia iacob, trans. from the english; olimpia iacob & bill wolak, trans. from the romanian). satu-mare: citadela. hirsch, edward. . focul viu. poeme vechi și noi. - (al. b. stănescu, trans.). iași: polirom. g's nodes are: [('a_ginsberg', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('cogito', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('a_gritsman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('scrisul_romanesc', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('ge_clarke', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('cm_kleefeld', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('s_mayne', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ts_eliot', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('sh_barkan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_morrison', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('citadela', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('polirom', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('i_kaminsky', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_berryman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_cohen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('emia', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('cartea_romaneasca', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('s_plath', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('g_mindock', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_milazzo', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('r_cook', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('limes', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('humanitas', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('paralela_ ', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('e_foster', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('b_wolak', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('j_rothenberg', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('cartea_de_nisip', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('a_codrescu', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('waldpress', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('art', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('b_dylan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('vinea', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('m_bennett', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_bukowski', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_simic', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ee_cummings', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_hirsch', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('princeps_multimedia', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('j_kacian', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_vincenz', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('max_blecher', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('tracus_arte', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('d_baker', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ars_longa', {'capacity': 'publisher'})] g's edges are: [('a_ginsberg', 'polirom', {'translator': 'polirom', 'weight': }), ('cogito', 'ge_clarke', {'translator': 'cosma', 'weight': }), ('a_gritsman', 'scrisul_romanesc', {'translator': 'sangeorzan', 'weight': }), ('scrisul_romanesc', 'r_milazzo', {'translator': 'sangeorzan_&_hotaranu', 'weight': }), ('scrisul_romanesc', 'e_hirsch', {'translator': 'hotaranu', 'weight': }), ('scrisul_romanesc', 'e_foster', {'translator': 'carides_&_firan', 'weight': }), ('cm_kleefeld', 'limes', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('s_mayne', 'tracus_arte', {'translator': 'raluca_tanasescu_&_chris_tanasescu', 'weight': }), ('ts_eliot', 'cartea_romaneasca', {'translator': 'covaci_&_pillat', 'weight': }), ('ts_eliot', 'humanitas', {'translator': 'foarta_&_marculescu_&_racovita_&_ivanescu', 'weight': }), ('ts_eliot', 'paralela_ ', {'translator': 'moldovan', 'weight': }), ('sh_barkan', 'princeps_multimedia', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('j_morrison', 'cartea_de_nisip', {'translator': 'v_popa_&_m_popa', 'weight': }), ('citadela', 'b_wolak', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('polirom', 'e_hirsch', {'translator': 'stanescu', 'weight': }), ('polirom', 'c_bukowski', {'translator': 'sociu', 'weight': }), ('polirom', 'l_cohen', {'translator': 'cartarescu_&_(foarta_&_cheveresan)', 'weight': }), ('i_kaminsky', 'vinea', {'translator': 'chris_tanasescu', 'weight': }), ('j_berryman', 'max_blecher', {'translator': 'vancu', 'weight': }), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', 'a_codrescu', {'translator': 'ieronim', 'weight': }), ('emia', 'r_cook', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('s_plath', 'paralela_ ', {'translator': 'ciobanu', 'weight': }), ('g_mindock', 'ars_longa', {'translator': 'cosma', 'weight': }), ('limes', 'm_bennett', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('humanitas', 'b_dylan', {'translator': 'cartarescu', 'weight': }), ('paralela_ ', 'c_simic', {'translator': 'cartarescu', 'weight': }), ('paralela_ ', 'a_codrescu', {'translator': 'ieronim', 'weight': }), ('j_rothenberg', 'max_blecher', {'translator': 'raluca_tanasescu_&_chris_tanasescu', 'weight': }), ('waldpress', 'j_kacian', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('art', 'ee_cummings', {'translator': 'sociu', 'weight': }), ('vinea', 'd_baker', {'translator': 'chris_tanasescu', 'weight': }), ('m_vincenz', 'tracus_arte', {'translator': 'surleac', 'weight': })] size the number of g's components: g's size: the number of edges in g: g 's size: the number of edges in g : g 's size: the number of edges in g : g 's size: the number of edges in g : degree the average degree for g: . g's weighted average degree: . the average degree for g : .( ) g 's weighted average degree: . g 's average degree: .( ) g 's weighted average degree: .( ) g 's average degree: .( ) g 's weighted average degree: . ) density g's density: . g 's density: .( ) g 's density: .( ) g 's density: .( ) g 's nodes are: [('r_milazzo', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('c_bukowski', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_ginsberg', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_hirsch', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('e_foster', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('l_cohen', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('scrisul_romanesc', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('a_gritsman', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('polirom', {'capacity': 'publisher'})] g 's edges are: [('r_milazzo', 'scrisul_romanesc', {'translator': 'sangeorzan_&_hotaranu', 'weight': }), ('c_bukowski', 'polirom', {'translator': 'sociu', 'weight': }), ('a_ginsberg', 'polirom', {'translator': 'polirom', 'weight': }), ('e_hirsch', 'scrisul_romanesc', {'translator': 'hotaranu', 'weight': }), ('e_hirsch', 'polirom', {'translator': 'stanescu', 'weight': }), ('e_foster', 'scrisul_romanesc', {'translator': 'carides_&_firan', 'weight': }), ('l_cohen', 'polirom', {'translator': 'cartarescu_&_(foarta_&_cheveresan)', 'weight': }), ('scrisul_romanesc', 'a_gritsman', {'translator': 'sangeorzan', 'weight': })] g 's nodes are: [('c_simic', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('cartea_romaneasca', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('s_plath', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('a_codrescu', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('paralela_ ', {'capacity': 'publisher'}), ('b_dylan', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('ts_eliot', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('humanitas', {'capacity': 'publisher'})] g 's edges are: [('c_simic', 'paralela_ ', {'translator': 'cartarescu', 'weight': }), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', 'a_codrescu', {'translator': 'ieronim', 'weight': }), ('cartea_romaneasca', 'ts_eliot', {'translator': 'covaci_&_pillat', 'weight': }), ('s_plath', 'paralela_ ', {'translator': 'ciobanu', 'weight': }), ('a_codrescu', 'paralela_ ', {'translator': 'ieronim', 'weight': }), ('paralela_ ', 'ts_eliot', {'translator': 'moldovan', 'weight': }), ('b_dylan', 'humanitas', {'translator': 'cartarescu', 'weight': }), ('ts_eliot', 'humanitas', {'translator': 'foarta_&_marculescu_&_racovita_&_ivanescu', 'weight': })] g 's nodes are: [('cm_kleefeld', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('m_bennett', {'capacity': 'author'}), ('limes', {'capacity': 'publisher'})] g 's edges are: [('cm_kleefeld', 'limes', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': }), ('m_bennett', 'limes', {'translator': 'iacob', 'weight': })] g's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . g 's average clustering: . centrality betweenness centrality for g: ordereddict([('paralela_ ', . ), ('scrisul_romanesc', . ), ('polirom', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('humanitas', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('limes', . ), ('vinea', . ), ('max_blecher', . ), ('tracus_arte', . ), all other nodes = . ]) closeness centrality for g: ordereddict([('paralela_ ', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('scrisul_romanesc', . ), ('polirom', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('humanitas', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('cartea_romaneasca', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('a_gritsman', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', . ), ('b_dylan', . ), ('limes', . ), ('vinea', . ), ('max_blecher', . ), ('tracus_arte', . ), ('d_baker', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . ), ('s_mayne', . ), ('i_kaminsky', . ), ('j_berryman', . ), ('m_bennett', . ), ('j_rothenberg', . ), ('m_vincenz', . ), ('cogito', . ), ('ge_clarke', . ), ('j_morrison', . ), ('citadela', . ), ('g_mindock', . ), ('r_cook', . ), ('emia', . ), ('b_wolak', . ), ('cartea_de_nisip', . ), ('waldpress', . ), ('sh_barkan', . ), ('art', . ), ('ee_cummings', . ), ('princeps_multimedia', . ), ('j_kacian', . ), ('ars_longa', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g: ordereddict([('paralela_ ', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('humanitas', . ), ('cartea_romaneasca', . ), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', . ), ('b_dylan', . ), ('limes', . e- ), ('cm_kleefeld', . e- ), ('m_bennett', . e- ), ('max_blecher', . e- ), ('j_berryman', . e- ), ('j_rothenberg', . e- ), ('emia', . e- ), ('citadela', . e- ), ('r_cook', . e- ), ('b_wolak', . e- ), ('g_mindock', . e- ), ('ee_cummings', . e- ), ('ge_clarke', . e- ), ('ars_longa', . e- ), ('cogito', . e- ), ('d_baker', - . e- ), ('art', - . e- ), ('j_kacian', - . e- ), ('sh_barkan', - . e- ), ('j_morrison', - . e- ), ('cartea_de_nisip', - . e- ), ('princeps_multimedia', - . e- ), ('waldpress', - . e- ), ('vinea', - . e- ), ('i_kaminsky', - . e- ), ('s_mayne', - . e- ), ('m_vincenz', - . e- ), ('tracus_arte', - . e- ), ('e_foster', - . e- ), ('r_milazzo', - . e- ), ('a_gritsman', - . e- ), ('a_ginsberg', - . e- ), ('c_bukowski', - . e- ), ('l_cohen', - . e- ), ('e_hirsch', - . e- ), ('scrisul_romanesc', - . e- ), ('polirom', - . e- )]) betweenness centrality for g : ordereddict([('polirom', . ), ('scrisul_romanesc', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('a_gritsman', . )]) closeness centrality for g : ordereddict([('e_hirsch', . ), ('polirom', . ( )), ('scrisul_romanesc', . ( )), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('a_gritsman', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('scrisul_romanesc', . ), ('polirom', . ), ('e_hirsch', . ), ('r_milazzo', . ), ('c_bukowski', . ), ('a_ginsberg', . ), ('l_cohen', . ), ('e_foster', . ), ('a_gritsman', . )]) betweenness centrality for g : ordereddict([('paralela_ ', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('humanitas', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('cartea_romaneasca', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('b_dylan', . ), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', . )]) closeness centrality for g : ordereddict([('paralela_ ', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('a_codrescu', .( )), ('humanitas', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('cartea_romaneasca', . ), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', . ), ('b_dylan', . )]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('paralela_ ', . ), ('ts_eliot', . ), ('a_codrescu', . ), ('humanitas', . ), ('c_simic', . ), ('s_plath', . ), ('cartea_romaneasca', . ), ('editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane', . ), ('b_dylan', . )]) betweenness centrality for g : ordereddict([('limes', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . ), ('m_bennett', . )]) closeness centrality for g : ordereddict([('limes', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', .( )), ('m_bennett', .( ))]) eigenvector centrality for g : ordereddict([('limes', . ), ('cm_kleefeld', . ), ('m_bennett', . )]) the degrees for all vertices in g are: degreeview({'a_ginsberg': , 'd_baker': , 'cogito': , 'a_gritsman': , 'scrisul_romanesc': , 'ge_clarke': , 'cm_kleefeld': , 's_mayne': , 'polirom': , 'humanitas': , 'j_morrison': , 'citadela': , 'ts_eliot': , 'i_kaminsky': , 'j_berryman': , 'l_cohen': , 'm_bennett': , 'cartea_romaneasca': , 's_plath': , 'g_mindock': , 'r_milazzo': , 'r_cook': , 'limes': , 'emia': , 'e_foster': , 'b_wolak': , 'j_rothenberg': , 'cartea_de_nisip': , 'a_codrescu': , 'waldpress': , 'c_simic': , 'sh_barkan': , 'vinea': , 'editura_fundatiei_culturale_romane': , 'c_bukowski': , 'art': , 'ee_cummings': , 'b_dylan': , 'e_hirsch': , 'princeps_multimedia': , 'j_kacian': , 'm_vincenz': , 'max_blecher': , 'tracus_arte': , 'paralela_ ': , 'ars_longa': }) uncertain spaces, uncertain places - dealing with geographic information in digital humanities on the example of a language legacy data set amelie dorn renato rocha souza, barbara piringer & eveline wandl-vogt austrian centre for digital humanities (acdh-oeaw) gi-forum @ salzburg (at) - . . https://www.gi-forum.org/ uncertain spaces, uncertain places - dealing with geographic information in digital humanities on the example of a language legacy data set renato rocha souza , amelie dorn , barbara piringer & eveline wandl-vogt austrian centre for digital humanities (acdh-oeaw) gi-forum @ salzburg (at) - . . presented by: https://www.gi-forum.org/ presentation outline ● uncertainty and complex/post normal science ● taxonomies of uncertainty ● uncertainty in digital humanities ○ the exploreat! project and the dbÖ collection ○ geospatial uncertainties in the dbÖ collection ● discussion uncertainty and complex/post normal science ● galbraith ( ) - age of uncertainty (!) ○ what about our times? ● jim gray ( ) - transformed scientific method. ○ transformation in the whole research cycle, from data capture and data curation to data analysis and data visualization ● nowotny et al ( ; ) - science and uncertainty ○ “science thrives on the cusp of uncertainty” ○ “it is therefore crucial to distinguish when and where science needs time and space when to engage with uncertainty” ● funtowicz and ravetz ( ) - post normal science ○ process that recognizes the potential for gaps in knowledge and understanding that cannot be resolved in ways other than revolutionary science ○ "facts [are] uncertain, values in dispute, stakes high and decisions urgent" ○ contradictory perspectives and multiple viewpoints should be incorporated in the scientific process based on "uncertainty." new world encyclopedia, jan , : utc. jun , : . taxonomies of uncertainty based on thomas ( ) taxonomies of uncertainty based on shattuck et al ( ) taxonomies of uncertainty based on lovell ( ) taxonomies of uncertainty based on vullings et al ( ) taxonomy of (spatial) uncertainties uncertainty in digital humanities • increased attention in recent years (cf. binder et al., ; track @ teem conference / / ) • project providedh (progressive visual decision-making in digital humanities) → supporting decision-making in uncertainty aware contexts • spatial concepts @ dbÖ → continuous & important element of data transformation & analysis (cf. wandl-vogt a; b; a; bartelme et al., ; bartelme & scholz, ; scholz et al., ; hrastnig, ; scholz et al., ) the exploreat! project and the dbÖ collection the exploreat! project and the dbÖ collection the exploreat! project and the dbÖ collection xml/tei files mysql db number of entries . . . associated locations total unique unique ● bundesland . . - ● großregion . . ● kleinregion . . ● gemeinde . . . . ● ort . . . . ● ort (without associated gemeinde) . . - with location without location with location without location entries vs. location . . . . time span of entries oldest newer oldest newer webbrowser based visual analysis @ exploreat! collection explorer v . source: benito et al, ; https://exploreat.acdh-dev.oeaw.ac.at/exploreat-collectionexplorer/ https://exploreat.acdh-dev.oeaw.ac.at/exploreat-collectionexplorer/ prototypical lod modelling of dbÖ spatial data source: scholz, hrastnig & wandl-vogt @ tu graz (our) taxonomy of uncertainties geospatial uncertainties in the dbÖ collection uncertainties intrinsic extrinsic ontological (lack of capacity to know what really exists) epistemic (imprecision / ignorance / incompleteness) user input (errors / misinterpretation s / entropy / information truncation) data conversion (uncertainties introduced by changing technologies) data record (ambiguities / undecibilities / data conversion errors / users’ introduced errors) spatial uncertainties - places that ceased to exist - unknown places - exact place vs. approximate/region - typos - abbreviations - changing transcription guidelines - assumptions on certain orthographies - lack of precision on creating data records - guessing - prejudice and biases - language codification errors - errors in the conversion of formats and databases - heterogeneity of data sources - homographs (places) - difference in details among records geospatial uncertainties in the dbÖ collection: changing borders grafenried, (= lučina) in the bohemian forest has completely vanished as a geographical name or political region. "oberplan" (= horní planá) is an example of a region that used to belong to the austrian empire, but now is in the czech republic. examples of spatial uncertainties on the original paperslips. source: the authors discussion ● factors increasing uncertainty ○ data collected over long periods; ○ heterogeneity of data set (multimedia sources, geospatial, temporal, linguistic); ● opportunities + future work ○ multidisciplinary approaches ○ crowdsourcing / citizens’ input: ■ e.g. confirming/correcting references to locations ■ e.g adding links to resources / adding own material ● future explorations of uncertainties & geolocation ○ distances / areas: concepts of nearness ○ fuzzy borders (linguistic) vs strict borders (administrative) ○ systematization of geolocations → one name/location referring to one hierarchy → potential for collaboration :-) amelie.dorn i renato.souza i barbara.piringer i eveline.wandl-vogt@oeaw.ac.at thank you @adooorn @rrsouza @barbarapiringer @caissarl @providedh #explorations u language technology for digital humanities: introduction to the special issue e d i t o r i a l language technology for digital humanities: introduction to the special issue erhard hinrichs • marie hinrichs • sandra kübler • thorsten trippel published online: november � springer nature b.v. the use of digital resources and tools across humanities disciplines is steadily increasing, giving rise to new research paradigms and associated methods that are commonly subsumed under the term digital humanities. digital humanities does not constitute a new discipline in itself, but rather a new approach to humanities research that cuts across different existing humanities disciplines. while digital humanities extends well beyond language-based research, textual resources and spoken language materials play a central role in most humanities disciplines. in order to showcase the use of language tools and resources in digital humanities research, the lt dh (language technology for digital humanities) workshop was held at coling in osaka, japan. discussions focused mainly on the following topics: – case studies of using language technology and/or language resources with the goal of finding new answers to existing research questions in a particular humanities discipline or addressing entirely new research questions. & marie hinrichs marie.hinrichs@uni-tuebingen.de erhard hinrichs erhard.hinrichs@uni-tuebingen.de sandra kübler skuebler@indiana.edu thorsten trippel thorsten.trippel@uni-tuebingen.de seminar für sprachwissenschaft, university of tübingen, tübingen, germany department of linguistics, indiana university, bloomington, in, usa lang resources & evaluation ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /s - - - – case studies of expanding the functionality of existing language processing tools in order to be able to address research questions in digital humanities. – the design of new language processing tools as well as annotation tools for spoken and written language, showcasing their use in digital humanities research. – domain adaptation of rule-based, statistical, or machine-learning models for language processing tools in digital humanities research. – challenges posed for language processing tools when used on diachronic data, language variation data, or literary texts. – showcasing the use of language processing tools in humanities disciplines such as anthropology, gender studies, history, literary studies, philosophy, political science, and theology. the motivation for this special issue was to provide a means for presenting work in these areas in greater detail. submission was open to anyone working at the interface of computational linguistics, digital humanities, and social science disciplines. furthermore, all participants of the lt dh workshop were invited to submit extended versions of their work. the collection of articles accepted for publication in this special issue covers a wide range of topics relevant to researchers in the digital humanities. our main objective for this introduction is to relate the individual contributions to larger, on- going research themes in digital humanities and to highlight the role of natural language tools and resources in each article. the articles can be grouped into three thematic clusters: text analysis, corpus building, and corpus annotation. the order in which the articles appear follows this grouping, starting with the largest cluster of six articles that address the use of language technology for different aspects of text analysis: – computational text analysis within the humanities: how to combine working practices from the contributing fields? by jonas kuhn. – dialogue analysis: a case study on the new testament by chak yan yeung and john lee. – vector space explorations of literary language by andreas van cranenburgh, karina van dalen-oskam, and joris van zundert. – geoparsing historical and contemporary literary text set in the city of edinburgh by beatrice alex, claire grover, richard tobin, and jon oberlander. – token-based spelling variant detection in middle low german texts by fabian barteld, chris biemann, and heike zinsmeister. – beyond lexical frequencies: using r for text analysis in the digital humanities by taylor arnold, nicolas ballier, paula lissón, and lauren tilton. the cluster of articles on text analysis begins with a position paper, followed by three use-cases in religious studies, linguistics, and literature, and ends with two articles about nlp tool building. the position paper by kuhn compares and contrasts the traditional hermeneutics paradigm for humanities research with recent e. hinrichs et al. data-driven, computational approaches. on the basis of his own research experience, kuhn proposes a new methodological framework that tries to bridge these two research paradigms. the article ends with two experimental scenarios that illustrate the use of this new integrative framework. the two scenarios are taken from the domains of corpus linguistics and literary studies. the contribution by yeung and lee presents an automated approach for analyzing dialogues in the new testament. the authors have developed a machine learning approach for identifying dialogues in three steps: first, they identify speakers and listeners, then they detect chains of quotes with alternating speakers/ listeners, and finally they determine the boundaries of complete dialogues. they use automatic pos tagging, dependency parsing, and named entity recognition to create features for the machine learner. based on these extracted dialogues, yeung and lee present a quantitative analysis of the dialogues. the article by van cranenburgh, van dalen-oskam, and van zundert investigates to what extent machine learning (ml) approaches can successfully predict the degree of literariness of a novel. more specifically, the authors utilize two types of unsupervised ml models that are widely used in natural language processing: a topic model and a neural vector space model which are trained on different text passages of – pages in length. they show how different notions of semantic complexity can be derived from these models and investigate how well these complexity measures correlate with the literacy ratings of dutch novels that were collected by an on-line survey. data-driven analysis of literary text is also the topic of the article contributed by alex, grover, tobin, and oberlander. the authors adapt the edinburgh geobrowser, an nlp tool for automatic enrichment of textual materials with geographical information, for use with historical literary texts set in the city of edinburgh. the tool allows fine-grained annotation of street names, monuments, and other landmarks. the quality of the automatic annotation is evaluated against a gold standard. the tool has a modular architecture and is therefore easily adapted to other geographical locations. a recurrent theme in the digitization and use of historical text corpora concerns wide-spread spelling variation for the same lemma. barteld, biemann, and zinsmeister offer a new computational approach to dealing with this issue for middle low german texts. contrary to most studies that deal with the phenomenon of spelling variation, the authors of the present article do not attempt to convert different spelling variants to a single, normalized form. rather, their spelling variant detection approach generates all potential spelling variants for a given lemma and filters the set of potential variants by systematically inspecting the linguistic contexts of the spelling variants that occur in the text. due to its focus on data analysis and visualization, its large number of processing packages, and an active user community, the statistical computing language r is well suited to text analysis tasks and is gaining popularity in digital humanities. the article by arnold, ballier, lissón, and tilton presents a collection of r packages, built around a common text interchange format, to be used in digital humanities workflows. they demonstrate the power and usefulness of the ecosystem, which includes nlp tools, in a digital humanities project. language technology for digital humanities... the second thematic cluster of articles on corpus building begins with an article about a spoken-language corpus, followed by two articles presenting text corpora for arabic and hebrew. the articles are as follows: – digitising swiss german—how to process and study a polycentric spoken language by yves scherrer, tanja samardžić, and elvira glaser. – studying the history of the arabic language: language technology and a large-scale historical corpus by yonatan belinkov, alexander magidow, alberto barrón-cedeño, avi shmidman, and maxim romanov. – historical corpora meet the digital humanities: the jerusalem corpus of emergent modern hebrew by aynat rubinstein. the contribution by scherrer, samardžić, and glaser reports on the creation of archimob, a spoken language corpus of swiss german variants. the corpus is based on transcribed spoken text of historical narratives. in the creation of the corpus, it was necessary to adjust tools and training material, originally developed for standard german, to improve the results on the language variants in the corpus. these tools include automatic speech recognition, spelling normalization, and pos tagging. the article concludes with three case studies, showcasing the usefulness of the corpus for a range of digital humanities questions. the lessons learned in creating the archimob corpus can be generalized to other languages. belinkov, magidow, barrón-cedeño, shmidman, and romanov describe the creation of a large scale diachronic corpus of written arabic, automatically annotated for sentence boundaries, morphological segments, lemmas, pos tags, and constituent syntax. they then develop a computational methodology to cluster the diachronic texts into periods. in a final analysis of the results of their periodization algorithm on the corpus, belinkov et al. not only confirm the established periodization of standard arabic into classical and modern standard arabic, but they also find evidence for a more differentiated periodization. rubinstein describes the process of creating an open-access corpus of emergent modern hebrew, which includes extensive metadata and linguistic annotations. throughout the process, care was taken to follow best practices and to comply with standards in the digital humanities. his article shows how the use of nlp tools, in combination with crowd sourcing and collaboration with external partners, made the construction of the resource possible. use-cases are presented to demonstrate the use of the corpus in diachronic linguistic research. the third thematic cluster on annotation starts with two articles about pos tagging, and ends with a project note on wsd. the articles are as follows: – from to million annotated words— part-of-speech tagging for middle high german by sarah schulz and nora ketschik. – exploiting languages proximity for part-of-speech tagging of three french regional languages by pierre magistry, anne-laure ligozat, and sophie rosset. e. hinrichs et al. – approaching terminological ambiguity in cross-disciplinary communication as a word sense induction task. a pilot study. by julie mennes, ted pedersen, and els lefever. the article by schulz and ketschik addresses issues similar to the ones addressed by barteld et al.: schulz and ketschik investigate approaches to pos tagging for middle high german given the non-standard spelling. their investigation addresses questions of the amount of training data, and methods for integrating information from a lexical database and another corpus, annotated for pos, but using a different tagset. additionally, they investigate domain adaptation in order to improve the performance of their pos tagger on their region-specific corpora. magistry, ligozat, and rosset also address the issue of pos tagging, but they investigate methods for pos tagging the regional languages alsatian, occitan, and picard. for these languages, no resources exist, thus magistry et al. leverage resources from the related, high-resourced languages german, catalan, and french using delexicalization and transposition of highly frequent words. linguistic enrichment and disambiguation of text corpora is by no means limited to morphological and syntactic information. mennes, pedersen, and lefever present a pilot study for sense clustering of ambiguous terms. the authors point out that such ambiguities can make communication difficult among researchers from different scientific disciplines in cross-disciplinary investigations, including in digital humanities. mennes et al. conduct a pilot study for automatically inducing different sense clusters for ambiguous terms. their study is based on the nlp software package sense clusters, previously developed by pedersen. we hope that this brief preview of each article will prove useful for navigating through this special issue and will stimulate readers to consult the individual contributions. we would like to take this opportunity to thank all authors for their contributions to this issue, and all referees who kindly agreed to review the submitted manuscripts for their in-depth comments and helpful suggestions. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. language technology for digital humanities... language technology for digital humanities: introduction to the special issue atari-go atari go st on es to p la y rules . two teams, black and white, take turns placing a stone (game piece) of their own color on a vacant point (intersection) of the grid on the board . once placed, stones do not move . a vacant point adjacent to a stone is called a liberty for that stone . connected stones formed a group and share their liberties . a stone or group with no liberties is captured . black plays first . the first team to capture anything wins th e bo ar d the white stone has liberty, while the black group has liberties white has been captured (no more liberties available), black wins cu t a ll th e bl ac k an d w hi te sq ua re s to g et th e st on es bonus implement the function below in python, that takes in input the colour of the player who has to play the turn (parameter colour), the sets of coordinates (i.e. sets of tuples) of all the black stones (parameter black) and white stones (parameter white) already positioned on the board, and returns the x, y coordinate (a tuple) of a free intersection where to place a new colour stone. the coordinates of the various positions of the board are those ones defined in "the board" in this paper. def place_stone(colour, black, white): # study the board and calculate the # best place where to position the stone return x, y # the coordinates of the new stone atari go, a.k.a. capture go, is a simplified version of go, usually proposed to beginners so as to learn the basic rules of go. improve the wikipedia page about it: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capture_go (for help in editing wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikipedia:faq/editing) this work has been designed by silvio peroni (twitter: @essepuntato) for the computational thinking and programming course of the dhdk degree at the university of bologna (twitter: @unibodhdk). all the rights have been waived worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /legalcode version . , december x axis y ax is https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capture_go https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikipedia:faq/editing https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /legalcode - _ raley ( - ).indd uc santa barbara uc santa barbara previously published works title digital humanities for the next five minutes permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ t qs journal differences: a journal of feminist cultural studies, ( ) author raley, rita publication date - - peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ t qs https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ volume , number doi . / - © by brown university and d i f f e r e n c e s : a journal of feminist cultural studies rita r aley digital humanities for the next five minutes alternatives are clearly needed, not merely objections. —drucker i am convinced that the answers don’t lie in what we have been, but in what we could be. —rockwell there are numerous origin stories for the digital humanities as an institutional entity. what they do not yet include is the advertisement for a faculty position in the english department at the university of california, santa barbara, written by alan liu and committee in and quite clearly specifying the desire for candidates whose work is recognizably literary, to some degree practice-based, and informed by cultural criticism. it read: assistant professor, tenure track, digital humanities. we antici- pate making one appointment effective july , . we seek can- didates who, while working in any literary field, have a major commitment to studying the historical and theoretical aspects of information technology and new media. applicants should also be committed to some dimension of digital practice such as web authoring or multimedia. we anticipate that the person appointed would teach courses on such subjects as the culture and aesthet- ics of information, hypertext literature, past and present writing technologies, and the relationship between information society and gender, ethnicity, or global cultures (as well as courses on d i f f e r e n c e s topics related to the candidate’s other literary interests). (ucsb department of english) at once descriptive and prescriptive, this advertisement for the position that eventually became mine gestured toward a nascent disciplinary field and articulated “digital humanities” in terms that we would do well to recuperate—not, it should be stressed, because this is a vision of what the field ought properly to be, but because this formulation tactically sum- mons a diverse and dispersed body of media, technological, and informatic practices and associates them as distinct but overlapping components of a shared enterprise. in the intervening years, however, the identity, role, and invest- ments of the digital humanities, or “dh,” have been subjects of impassioned debate within both profession and field. once out of the “wilderness that was humanities computing” (rockwell) and given a new title, the digital humanities became available to competing claims for intellectual and insti- tutional territory, and even now its semantic instability invites attempts to secure its meaning. a professional community not susceptible to factions and center/periphery dynamics is difficult to imagine, but the “anxiety of self-definition,” as rafael alvarado has written, clearly indicates “the emer- gence of a territorial instinct in an environment of scarce resources” ( ). it is thus not incidental that within our sociotechnological milieu, “digital humanities” should have come to function, as matthew kirschenbaum has argued, as a “free-floating signifier, one that increasingly serves to focus the anxiety and even outrage of individual scholars over their own lack of agency amid the turmoil in their institutions and profession” (“what is” ). particularly in a context of perpetual institutional crisis, uncertainty, and precarity, then, the argumentative stakes in the debate over “what is” are ineluctably economic, affective, and psychic. its locus is twofold: who are we? and who are they? the exercise of defining the digital humanities for the digital humanities—who are we?—has become almost absurdly self-referential. even as the digital humanities are formally declared to be a “transdiscipline” by thatcamp attendees, “embodying all the methods, systems and heuristic perspectives linked to the digital within the fields of humanities and the social sciences,” debates over who or what deserves the name seem unre- lenting (dacos). consider here the sheer number of manifestos, vision state- ments, faqs, short guides, and outlines of operational principles that are, by turns, reiterative and fundamentally contradictory. we must necessarily digital humanities for the next five minutes code, build, make; we must have some institutional recognition of our sta- tus (although the number of start-up dh centers desperately seeking staff means even this is no membership guarantee); we must fight the good fight against tradition and the status quo; we have always already been digital so dh itself is redundant (hall); and so on. but answering the question “what is dh” need not necessitate the wholesale adoption of a particular worldview or the pronouncement of an ontological truth. rather, the deployment of the “digital humanities” as a rubric can be, as kirschenbaum suggests, wholly practical and instrumental: it is one that can be recognized within differ- ent institutions, discourses, and disciplines, and it is an idea around which communities can form through the identification of shared investments. as he notes in a follow-up essay, this usage is fundamentally tactical: “[d]igital humanities is a term possessed of enough currency and escape velocity to penetrate layers of administrative strata to get funds allocated, initiatives under way, and plans set in motion” (“digital” ). indeed, a “tactical” usage acknowledges one’s position within an institutional structure that orders and conditions but can nevertheless be negotiated to advantage. for all of the bandwidth devoted to the problem of self-definition, it is the question “who are they ” that brings the players off the sidelines and the crowd out of the bleachers. the battles are semantic and substantive, practical and ideological, individual and tribal, and wholly academic. gaunt- lets in the form of sweeping assessments are thrown: quantitative analysis is unthinking and its investments in “precise measurement” hopelessly naive; the epistemological certainty that data visualization seems to offer is equally fantastic; dh itself is a capitulation to market logics of assessment and outcomes and the organizational forms of corporate culture; dh desa- cralizes the traditional humanities and legitimates the increasingly vocal proclamations of its inutility and irrelevance within a twenty-first-century economy—and several permutations of the same. new fields, particularly those that challenge extant paradigms and introduce “alien change,” will inevitably meet with resistance both thoughtful and intransigent (liu, “digital” ). this is expected and even welcome to the extent that opposi- tion tends to clarify one’s arguments. even so, the frequent response to the “vectors—i.e., carriers, viruses, bugs” that are carrying “alien disciplinary genes” (e.g., quantitative analysis) is prophylaxis, inoculation, and even out- right eradication ( ). seal off the disciplinary gates, isolate and expunge that which is foreign, and communicate the methodological principles that will prevent future outbreak. but too often, the counter response to the alarmist attempts at containment is equally dismissive generalization, as in the notion d i f f e r e n c e s that those who do not participate in or who even express skepticism about the digital humanities are “uni-medium scholars (most likely of print) who have been lulled into centuries of somnolence” (ucl a). it seems necessary to rehearse what otherwise might be disre- garded as counterproductive and even uninteresting personal squabbles because the very occasion for this special issue was a public forum that in hindsight might seem a watershed. the “dark side of the digital humani- ties” roundtable organized by richard grusin at the ml a convention in had been preceded by debates and debates, by a collection of sharp and at times sharply critical essays in cultural machine, by the active #transfor- mdh movement, and by vibrant exchanges at thatcamp events in the united states and europe. its direct predecessors were the ml a convention in , when the place of coding and cultural criticism in the digital humanities was energetically examined, and the convention, marked, as grusin reports, by “incommensurate affective moods” between the celebration of the digital and the worry over the crisis of the humanities and the univer- sity itself. and it is difficult to overestimate the disproportionate “network effects” (kirschenbaum, “what is” ) of william pannapacker’s now notori- ous pronouncement in the chronicle of higher education at the close of the convention: “the digital humanities seem like the first ‘next big thing’ in a long time.” in a moment of economic surplus, such a pronouncement would rightly have been disregarded as “click bait”—a sensational statement designed to increase web traffic—but from a professional community in stiff competition for ever diminishing resources, it elicited responses ranging from caustic resentment to the zealous enthusiasm of financial bubbles. for the “dark side” roundtable, my fellow participants and i were asked to produce short statements designed to stimulate wide-ranging discussion of the unsaid, understated, or undertheorized economic and political issues that are associated with, attend upon, or otherwise follow from the digital humanities as an institutional entity, administrative idea, and discursive formulation. the objective of the roundtable, and the ensu- ing journal issue, is not uniformly to fix what is after all a diverse set of techniques and activities within a singular homogenous frame so as to seek out the hidden ideological core buried deep within it: not, then, to bring to light “the” dark side of “the” digital humanities. in our respective prefa- tory statements we noted that we had been asked to provoke, but stimulate is closer to the thinking behind the event. the title of the roundtable was itself a provocation, however, and one imagines that even the addition of a question mark in the program copy might have produced a different affective digital humanities for the next five minutes response from the audience, which as it was might be fairly characterized as widespread indignation. that the indignation was reinforced with every blog post, comment, and retweet can only confirm kirschenbaum’s thesis about the “network topology” of the digital humanities community as it is constituted through social media, with “lines drawn by aggregates of affini- ties, formally and functionally manifest in who follows whom, who friends whom, who tweets whom, and who links to what” (“what is” ). the upset seemed in part to derive from a misunderstanding about the critical object at hand: though our roundtable referred in passing to actually existing projects, collectives, and games that we took to be affirmative and inspir- ing, the “digital humanities” under analysis was a discursive construction and clearly noted as such throughout. that audience members should have professed in response not to recognize themselves in our presentations is thus to my mind all to the good, even if it somewhat misses the mark. the digital humanities as the “next big thing” makes a claim to the virtual in the sense of an ideal that has yet to be realized. that is, the field “seems to be alive and well”—it has already arrived—but it might in the future be even bigger (pannapacker). but what if we were instead to consider the digital humanities as virtual in terms of potentialities—not what it is, but what it might have been if things had been otherwise, if there had been dif- ferent conferences, different grant lines and funding streams, different jobs, even different personalities? in other words, the digital humanities might make a claim to the virtual with respect to the circumstances, conditions, and contexts that might have produced, and might still produce, different research questions. the relations between the digital humanities and new media studies could have been otherwise, and their potential to be such has not yet been exhausted. so, too, the relations between the digital humani- ties and, variously, science and technology studies, race and ethnic studies, feminist studies, disability studies, and communication (liu, “meaning”; lothian and phillips; mcpherson; williams). let us then seize the opportu- nity to consider collectively, as geoffrey rockwell suggests, “what we could be.” this is by no means to suggest that we must discover and embrace a singular idealized and teleological rationale for the field; it is rather to note that its still amorphous aspects, along with the intellectual energies that lie behind it, have a generative potential that we would do well not to foreclose in the rush to institutionalize. the correlation between the rise of the digital humanities as the “next big thing” and the worst job market in mla history has been frequently noted (jaschik). john unsworth discerns a hint of causation in what we ought d i f f e r e n c e s not to misrecognize as coincidence, speculating that the relative availabil- ity of digital humanities positions might be attributable to the readymade argument that could be presented for hiring lines: the methodological “next best thing” is likely to result in external funding, and institutions would do well to get ahead of the crowd, particularly in the current organizational climate of continuing assessment. the entrepreneurial jockeying for soft money, physical space, and ftes (full-time equivalents)—the “gold rush”—is not unlike the start-up frenzy of the s, and there is more than a hint of speculative mania within the exuberant investment in centers and initiatives (fiormonte ). in a variation on the untitled barbara kruger print about the commodification of culture, when the innovative administrator hears the words “digital humanities,” he takes out his checkbook. the follow-up line: you can have any faculty or “alt-ac” position you like, as long as it is framed as digital. but keeping the checkbook reasonably balanced necessitates a reshuffling of resources and even divestment as manifest in the clustering or outright closure of departments and the elimination of faculty lines. as unsworth succinctly concludes, the uneasy relationship between the digital and traditional humanities is thus at core “about jobs.” grusin goes further in his identification of a causal relation between the arrival of the digital humanities at center stage and the macroeconomic conditions that have made it possible: “i would assert that it is no coincidence that the digital humanities has emerged as ‘the next big thing’ at the same moment that the neoliberalization and corporatization of higher education has intensified in the first decades of the st century.” in a report on the state of the digital humanities, liu sketches an account of a “purely economic rationale” for the field, which “might thus be that they re-engineer higher education for knowledge work by providing ever smarter tools for working with increasingly global-scale knowledge resources, all the while trimming the need to invest proportionally in the traditional facilities, support staff, and perhaps permanent faculty of what bill gates—in widely reported comments at the techonomy confer- ence—calls obsolete ‘place-based’ campuses” ( ). the state of the digital humanities, in other words, is that it serves both the postindustrial state and the university of excellence, which itself operates in accordance with postin- dustrial business principles of accounting and administration (readings). the idea of the digital humanities might therefore appeal to administrators— who distribute faculty lines, funds for postdoctoral fellows and technical staff, and equipment—even in a moment of scarcity in part because exter- nal grants determine institutional rankings. as well, certificate programs digital humanities for the next five minutes make traditional disciplines more marketable to potential students who seek added value for their escalating tuition payments. in this regard, the digital humanities as an administrative idea is a “rebranding” of the tra- ditional humanities for the very institutions from which support is sought (liu, “state” ). in our current mercantile knowledge regime, with its rational calculus of academic value—seats occupied, publications counted, funds procured, degrees obtained—the digital humanities are particularly well positioned to answer administrative and public demands to make knowledge useful: after all, research based on quantification is itself readily available to quantification. cynically, in an institutional context in which a corporate administrative class is already mystified by humanities research that it cannot assess in terms of the amorphous metrics of “excellence” and “inno- vation,” one might say that the digital humanities is also particularly well positioned to exploit the expectation that we should be affectively awed by instrumentation (“oh my god, this lab, this application, is so cool”). but we might also ask if there is a sense in which our institutions have been caught flat-footed by the forces of disruptive innovation and by the disaggregation of higher education: university education conceived as piecework is appor- tioned to tutors and lecturers; tutoring centers develop on the model of the call center; online study groups develop and gradually morph into online learning projects such as peer peer university (p pu). can we therefore understand the exuberance that surrounds the digital humanities to be less of an attempt to shape a future than a salvific attempt to develop a sustainable organizational model for our profession that would include evaluative crite- ria and pedagogical practices particular to our current sociotechnological milieu? are we still playing catch-up, and is the enthusiastic, transmedial promotion of the digital humanities a cover for our belatedness? in the “new world of brain-currency” shaped by engineers and economists, as richard hoggart once described it ( ), it is no longer ordi- nary schoolmasters peddling language as symbolic capital, but the digital humanists that serve as cashiers, academic service staff providing skills- based training—visual literacies, communicative competence, technological proficiency, data management—and reinstantiating in the process the very categorical distinctions between theory and practice that diy (do-it-your- self ) and maker culture have long sought to challenge. perhaps, then, the structural division of labor that geert lovink and ned rossiter identify as an inevitable aspect of the start-up culture of the digital humanities, with it (information technology) staff often providing technical expertise and d i f f e r e n c e s performing service work for “clueless arts and humanities scholars,” can tell us something about both the field and the university ( ). in an institu- tional context in which “expert dependent high-end tools” are the exclusive province of computer engineers, collaborative knowledge production is an idea rather than actual practice ( ). it is not that humanists do not want to read manuals, but that their particular aptitude for symbolicity is not useful as it once was because the dominant languages of the university (trans- actional, operational) are now those of computing. lovink and rossiter’s off hand remark concerning “servitude to the it staff and their authoritar- ian imaginations” might then be more significant than it otherwise seems ( ). if the paradigmatic practitioners of the idea of the multiversity were administrators, as clark kerr suggested (so, too, for the university of excel- lence), managerial support staff from the office of research to the office of instructional technology fulfill that role for the contemporary university. new instrumentalities (accounting systems, clinical trials, ethical proto- cols, it regimes) require new professionals (advocates, evaluators, principle investigators, ethicists). “faculty are no longer the only important group of professionals within universities”—and that importance, that bottom-line value, as we have seen from institutions in the united states and the united kingdom alike, is easily rendered as calculable (slaughter and rhoades ). as sheila slaughter and gary rhoades document, universities and the new economy are increasingly indissociable. nostalgic yearnings for the golden age of knowledge for the public goodwill thus remain fantasy: universities cannot be disentangled from the capitalist knowledge regime because that regime is itself fundamentally academic. their theory of aca- demic capitalism “focuses on networks—new circuits of knowledge, intersti- tial organizational emergence, networks that intermediate between public and private sector, extended managerial capacity—that link institutions as well as faculty, administrators, academic professionals and students to the new economy” ( ). knowledge production has been administratively cap- tured, as is evinced by patent deals, copyright disputes, measurable impact, pay-to-publish schemes, and corporate sponsorship of facilities and research processes alike. within the academic-capitalist regime, knowledge is fun- gible, alienable, and, of course, copyrightable. here, too, we might think of philip mirowski’s incisive analysis of the neoliberal corruption of scientific knowledge, an economy for which american universities are now merely the cash cows. there are various labels for the contemporary university, among them the corpiversity, the global university, and the global networked digital humanities for the next five minutes university. but none of these descriptors quite speak to its driving force and governing idea: accumulation and acquisition. all of the vision statements, entrepreneurial activity, and strategic development plans oriented toward innovation and the disruption of business as usual arguably boil down to this basic objective. the university of acquisition seeks global campuses, prop- erty, and new buildings, along with more exclusive architectural designs, artworks, endowment funds, stock portfolios, donors, patents, industry partnerships, state-of-the-art laboratories, new logo designs, athletic titles, higher rankings, star faculty whose perceived value exceeds formulaic calculation, and, more recently, celebrity presidents who will enhance the prestige of the name. instead of the “wisconsin idea” of extension, bringing the university to the public, it is a campus on saadiyat island that expands a real estate portfolio. if the multiversity was additive through fractionaliza- tion, with its “separate endeavors” of an “infinite variety,” the contemporary university functions, rather, as aggregator, pulling all manner of services and enterprises within its proverbial walls (kerr ). like that which has come before, it has a massive bureaucratic structure, but governance no longer occurs through checks and balances, mediation, and committee consensus. the autocratic presidential figure was superseded by bureau- cracy, which has in turn been superseded by politically appointed trustees whose primary concern is to reduce operational expenses and grow the brand. the university of acquisition is a status machine, qualitatively dif- ferent from the dawn of the “phd octopus,” when the currency of the realm was the degree titles shining “like the stars in the firmament” (james ). it claims as property research outcomes (books, cell lines, software) and services (distance education, tech training) alike. the historical function of the humanities, as thorstein veblen incisively claimed, was to “shape the character of the student in accordance with a traditional self-centred scheme of consumption” ( ). when consumption, status, and acquisition are the governing ideas of the university, however, the humanities must necessarily rebrand their mission. my suggestion, not mine alone, is that we need more critical reflection upon, and ironic self-awareness about, the embedded place of digital humanities in the contemporary knowledge economy. liu has posed the now legendary but not as yet fully answered question, asking how the field of the digital humanities “advances, channels, or resists today’s great postindustrial, neoliberal, corporate, and global flows of information-cum- capital” (“where is” ). the digital humanities has indeed had very little to say about protocols of finance and governance, but it has equally pressing d i f f e r e n c e s tasks. perhaps more than other academic professional communities, digital humanists need continually to work to perceive and negotiate the institu- tional imaginary of informational technology so as not to fall into the trap of unconsciously adopting its optics. this institutional imaginary informs the conditions of our labor. it shapes intellectual rhythms according to administrative calendars and asks that we adopt the habit of innovating for the next grant cycle. it mandates that knowledge become encoded into spe- cific repeatable forms—the graph, the map, the timeline, the scatter plot—in other words, grammatized, which for bernard stiegler means that it has been rendered “industrially discretisable, reproducible, standardisable, calculable and controllable by automata” ( ). in the context of the medial environment of the university, computational techniques also facilitate the grammatization of the disciplines, their “modularization and recombina- tion” in lockstep with discrete binary digits (berry, “computational” ). we ought, in my view, to be marshalling the full critical, philosophical, and rhetorical resources at our disposal in order to think about the very universities in which we are embedded, their organizational structures, instrumentalities, and governing ideas. we might even need a small dose of the self-reflexivity about situatedness that was inherent in cultural studies in its prime, a self-reflexivity announced in the critic’s account of herself both as a subject and in relation to her object. this need not involve the self-laceration of academic apology, but simply a willingness to investigate with some measured skepticism the institutional frameworks in which one operates. burdick et al. have made the case that we need more fully to engage “the structured spaces and processes” of our computational environments, “the graphical interfaces, the data types, the database relations” ( ). i would go further to suggest that this engagement ought to extend to the very procedures that govern our everyday use of university gmail accounts and indeed the whole of google education. a fully realized “critical digital humanities,” to borrow david berry’s formulation, would thus direct its attention to all of the protocols that structure our communicative acts, from rfc (request for comments) standards and interface design to unicode and the ascii (american standard code for information interchange) character set, the assignment of domain names and ip (internet protocol) addresses, privacy policies, and terms of service. computational techniques and methods affect the imagination just as they shape organizational structures. as johanna drucker has argued, we need to learn to negotiate the imperative to conform humanis- tic thought to the “logical systematicity” of computational processes ( ). digital humanities for the next five minutes with some regret, drucker contends that “from a distance, even a middle distance of practical engagement, much of what is currently done in digital humanities has the look of automation” ( ). claims that digital humanities projects are “not simply mechanistic applications of technical knowledge, but occasions for critical self-consciousness” must, she insists, be substanti- ated ( ). for drucker, the work of “speculative computing” is, in part, to think otherwise, to facilitate dynamic inquiry rather than “procedural and mechanistic” processing ( ). herein, then, lies the possibility of a true rapprochement between the digital humanities and new media studies: speculative play (building, tinkering, experimenting) coupled with critical reflection and critique—neither wholly or exclusively romanticized, and neither regarded as subordinate, but each attending upon and informing the other. if at the time of kirschenbaum’s meditation on the digital human- ities as a term the definitional statement was already a genre piece, a few years later, the critiques and calls to transform are much the same, and they firmly occupy the conversational center. it is not for nothing that “critiqu- ing the digital humanities” in matthew gold’s formative debates volume should be the pivot point between definition and theory, on the one hand, and teaching and practice, on the other. (the cultural politics of the digital humanities—its lacunae, protocols, and technocratic function—are primary research problems for many who work in the transcriptions center at the university of california, santa barbara. for example, our graduate students have been remarkably active in the #transformdh initiative that explores the intersections of the digital humanities with race, gender, and sexual- ity [lothian and phillips].) alongside calls for politics are visions of what jaime bianco names “an ethical turn” ( ), with the berne dh summer school declaration on research ethics in the digital humanities asking practitioners and administrators to reflect on the “environmental and social consequences” of technology together with “global inequalities in access to scholarly information and digital literacies” and to adopt a “duty of care towards precariously employed staff.” the importance of these directives is, one hopes, indisputable, but they presume a given institutional entity that is tasked with certain political and ethical responsibilities. what if we were instead to extend kirschenbaum’s account of the digital humanities as a tactical term and take a “tactical media” approach to the field? how might we think about the significance of asymmetric interventions manifested in hacktivism, net- worked art, and performance in relation to institutional and infrastructural d i f f e r e n c e s investment, the spatiotemporal horizon of which is markedly different from more immediate tactical events with an operational field circumscribed as the “next five minutes”? how might critical art ensemble’s delinea- tion of tactics as “immediate,” “ad hoc,” and grounded in community and concrete circumstance inform a digital humanist’s thinking about practice and method? the field is admittedly somewhat cluttered with manifestos and faqs, but it seems appropriate to suggest that a truly tactical approach to the digital humanities would necessitate the following: ) a structural shift away from the question of what is or is not properly dh and an openness to all manner of tactics, tools, and techniques, an openness to a “plurality of approaches” and a “constellation of concepts”; a corresponding abandonment of attempts to fix the digital humanities as a monolithic entity with an ontological core (good, bad, dark); ) the seeking of alliances regardless of differences that may be methodological and theoretical, aesthetic and political; a regard- ing of dh as a means of “creating ‘temporary consensus zones’ ” (lovink ; see also shapiro); ) exploitation of the inevitable “social-technical ephemerality” of a field aligned with technological development, whose archives, centers, and labs are a veritable graveyard of discarded tools and projects (lovink and rossiter ); caution against bureaucratic stasis and fantasies of institutional permanence; consideration of what is made possible when the emphasis shifts from annual results and infrastructural development to the here and now; ) wariness of top-down administrative agendas and directives that would harness creative energies for publicity and profit; recognition of the constraints that grant cycles impose on thought and practice and a more ironic and knowing negotiation of institutional demands for impact, outcomes, results; ) cognizance and even acceptance of one’s parasitic relation- ship to the institution as host; continuous adaptation to circum- stance and environment that endeavors instead to approximate symbiosis. a tactical media-informed approach to the digital humanities would begin from the problem of definition and codification. it is difficult to imagine a dh curriculum, much less a course, that would satisfactorily train students in different modes of text analysis and preservation, visualization digital humanities for the next five minutes techniques, and gis (geographic information systems) applications, along with media arts and literature and a philosophical approach to informat- ics. so, too, the diversity of artists and interventions that might plausibly be tagged as “tactical”—from the barbie liberation organization to the develop- ment of mobile labs and alternative networks such as wifi bedouin—makes for a rather unwieldy taxonomy. in each instance, the variety of work that could be so classified stretches the descriptive category to a kind of limit. but it is precisely this abstraction that makes it possible to articulate temporary, nonessential commonalities among disparate practices. from the anarchist cookbook to the culture jammer’s encyclo- pedia to the more recent beautiful trouble: a toolbox for revolution, there are a number of guidebooks for direct action: how to reverse engineer, how to sabotage, how to organize a clown protest, all “recipes for disaster” out- lining tactics for synergizing artistic practice and political action. manu- als prescribe—they illustrate “how to”—but they are also a means by which to document experiences, share information, and build a knowledge base. tactical activities are increasingly framed in terms of community and infra- structural investment, and the result has been a proliferation of community labs and gardens and alternative systems of exchange. to take a tactical, media-informed approach to the digital humanities is thus to renew one’s commitments to the sharing of knowledge—not simply references and links but, more important, ideas. the dhcommons and hastac scholars program are exemplary instances. equally necessary are dh labs that function as maker communities in their local contexts. the scanner praxis project in our transcriptions center evinces this diy sensibility. led by my colleague jeremy douglass, a team recently built a low-cost book scanner from parts using open hardware and software. designed as a resource for the depart- ment as a whole, it makes digitization processes visible and invites dialogue about the medial and conceptual relations between the diy scanner and the multipurpose copy machine in our administrative office. as has been frequently noted, academic disciplines tend toward “silo construction” at the expense of truly transdisciplinary collaboration (lovink and rossiter ). the digital humanities is in a position to present a challenge to these isolating structures if it can resist the lure of patents, trademarks, and brand identities, that is, if it prioritizes sharing over ownership. the lesson one would like to think that the university of cali- fornia office of the president had to learn with its attempt to modernize its logo is that interfaces and corporations alike have short life spans. indeed, the whole of the “institutional and social landscape of work” is arguably d i f f e r e n c e s marked by a kind of “short-termism”: temporary work, freelance produc- tion, adjunct teaching, “portfolio careers and project-driven jobs” (lovink and rossiter ). digital humanities centers are no exception, particularly those that need continually to secure grant funding for staff salaries. and the technological environment is of course itself structured in relation to the interval: versions, updates, and the half-lives of hard drives, optical media, platforms, applications, and devices. to exploit “social-technical ephemerality” is not, however, necessarily to recapitulate the postindustrial logic of short-termism. it is, rather, to seize the opportunity to experiment in and for the present, without the expectation that one’s activities necessarily eventuate in a consumable or citable product. ephemerality in the form of absent or weak infrastructure can be an asset rather than a liability. a key touchstone here is kavita philip, lilly irani, and paul dourish’s articulation of “postcolonial computing” as a tactical approach to technoscience: tactics lead not to the true or final design solution but to the contingent and collaborative construction of other narratives. these other narratives remain partial and approximate, but they are irrevocably opened up to problematization. such instability might earlier have been viewed as a problem (stability implying lack of truth, contingency showing lack of universality), but per- haps we can recognize, now, how instability can be a strength, not a weakness, of technoscientific practice and theory. ( ) the authors’ embrace of uncertainty is an ethical and political refusal of epistemic closure. tactics are designed to produce open-ended questions rather than definitive answers, to lead to new discovery rather than diag- nostic evaluation, such that the researcher remains continually aware of the mechanics of knowledge production and attuned to the possibilities of alternate techniques, frames, and paradigms. a tactical approach to the digital humanities would mean experi- menting rather than delivering, building prototypes to test a concept without the determination to actualize, regardless of circumstance or discovery. following drucker and uncertain commons, it would mean speculating rather than prescribing or programming outcomes, affirming rather than foreclosing latent potentialities. anticipating market testing and perfor- mance assessment constrains the imagination to “what will work” instead of “what can be.” regarding all building as inherently in a “middle state” between execution and completion means, rather, that the temporal scope digital humanities for the next five minutes of projects is not technologically defined and that emphasis falls on process rather than outcome. a tactical approach would, moreover, not seek to manage creative activity in accordance with best practices or frederick taylor’s “one best way.” the digital humanities should not, and cannot, bear the burden of transforming technocracy, the academic-corporate situation in which we are all mired. but within that situation, it has the capacity to tinker with the symbolic order of computing, such that it is not ultimately constrained by an agenda of efficiency, rationality, and optimization. the institute for applied autonomy, a tactical r&d organization, is a case in point. with “contesta- tional robotics” projects that appropriate defense-industry rhetoric about the utility of uavs (unmanned aerial vehicles), they position themselves as “trojan horses” who have been able to “infiltrate” engineering culture and reflect critically upon it through playful interventions ( ). just as ia a members perform as engineers in order to undermine the banal compromise of bureaucratic pragmatism, one might imagine how the experimental and playful activities of digital humanists could thwart expectations of efficient activity, of “getting things done,” and challenge the technocratic calculus of output (bell ). semantic battles about the institutional identity of the digital humanities are a symptom of a discipline that is perhaps overly fixated upon making a permanent space for itself within institutions. it perhaps goes without saying that infrastructure and a physical institutional presence facilitate fundraising and raise the profile of traditional departments and academic divisions. but projects and programs should not be built to speci- fications as actualizations of vision statements that foreclose the possibility of improvisation. digital humanities initiatives would do well to remain adaptable to new situations and collaborations and not use established real estate as the pretext for maintaining the status quo. sometimes the mobile community library is preferable to the architectural monument. ad hoc for- mations are especially ideal for institutions new to the game because they are situational and often insure a more organic connection with existing research and pedagogic practices. as a descriptor, “digital humanities” need not circumscribe or mandate. it can, in the more ordinary sense of tactical, facilitate the recognition of continuing lines of effort in both creative production and critical analysis. bureaucratization has not fully captured dh and crystal- lized its institutional identity. with a more expansive and flexible sense of the field, we might continue to speculate collaboratively upon a less d i f f e r e n c e s instrumental future for the humanities as a whole, one that brings into play the affordances of digital media but does so with a measured skepticism that might serve as a buffer against the irrational exuberance that too often characterizes the administrative framing of our projects, initiatives, and entrepreneurial efforts. rita r a ley is associate professor of english at the university of california, santa barbara. she is the author of tactical media (university of minnesota press, ), coeditor of the elec- tronic literature collection, vol. (electronic literature organization, ), and has more recently published articles in contemporary literature, minnesota review, and the edited collections “raw data” is an oxymoron and comparative textual media: transforming the humanities in the postprint era. some of the more widely circu- lated accounts of the history of the digital humanities as a field in relation to humanities computing and new media studies include berry, “computational”; hayles; kirschenbaum, “what is”; liu, “state”; schreibman, siemens, and unsworth; svensson; and unsworth. in his thoughtful lecture to the digital humanities summer insti- tute in , unsworth politely dismissed the imperative to define who is and who is not “doing dh” properly and suggested that the field needs to remain open to a new generation of scholars who have come of age with wikipedia and google books and are think- ing about the creative use of digital tools without necessarily being mindful of the history of humani- ties computing or of disciplinary battles. variations on these themes are ubiquitous, but the most reduc- tive statements are, as one might expect, often encountered in blog comments and -character tweets. the argument for the sci- entific inquiry and quantitative investigation (“precise measure- ment”) of cultural trends appears in one of the inaugural statements on culturomics (michel et al. ). in contrast, the annual “a day in the life of the digital humani- ties” is a serious attempt at edu- cational outreach (centernet). in their voluntary documentation of schedules, activities, and even bodily rhythms, participating digital humanists endeavor to translate the work of the field to a lay audience. many of the essays in debates in the digital humanities (gold) emerge from or otherwise respond to the conversations during and after the convention, particu- larly those occasioned by papers from ramsay and liu (“where is”). on the genesis of the alt-ac movement, see nowviskie. heroic individual efforts aside, it is, i trust, not controversial to suggest that the ml a as an organi- zation was slow to make structural adjustments that would reflect the profound transformations in our medial environments and prac- tices and that, from one angle, it is possible to read the overenthusias- tic embrace of social networking platforms, particularly twitter, as somewhat compensatory. anyone who has written an exter- nal grant application and thought about ways to increase cost-share notes digital humanities for the next five minutes for overhead will have a too inti- mate knowledge of the terms of measurable impact. at my own institution, “cost-share” is now known as “project contributions,” which makes the indebtedness that accompanies the gift more apparent. for calls for a humanistic under- standing of technology, see berry, understanding; frabetti. also see fiormonte on the “cultural, politi- cal, linguistic bias of digital stan- dards, protocols, and interfaces” ( ). beginning in , the dutch min- istry of foreign affairs funded four n m events as part of a program to stimulate international cultural cooperation. the festivals did not lead to a conventional institutional infrastructure with structural funding and standard practices, but there are even now a signifi- cant number of tactical media col- lectives, labs, and centers around the world (next minutes). the definitive resource is tactical media files, a “living archive” that connects past and present. berry, “critical”; ca e refers to “tactical media” with some regret as the “alt.everything” of culture and politics (“framing” ). the tendency toward the definitive and singular version and the stabiliz- ing of ad hoc practices as “best practices” are the inevitable con- sequences of a discursive frame; here, the parallels with dh as an institutional entity should be evident. liu reminds us that “the evolu- tionary path of the digital muta- tion, as it were, is littered with the dead bodies of hung servers, hacked sites, and aborted classes” (“digital” ). as another example, consider the activities and publications of the crimethinc. collective, esp. recipes for disaster: an anarchist cookbook. related are open- source software platforms for the sharing of resources such as di y for vagabonds: tactics on the move. for varied documentation of “middle-state” artifacts, see the mediacommons cluster “rough cuts,” edited by kari kraus. alvarado, rafael c. “the digital humanities situation.” gold – . bell, daniel. the coming of post-industrial society. new york: basic, . berne dhss declaration of research ethics in digital humanities. written collaboratively at the digital humanities summer school . https://docs.google.com/document/d/ a mj qs whnlldlozfv q sjc kum gq lhfonkcyu (accessed nov. ). berry, david m. “the computational turn: thinking about the digital humanities.” culture machine ( ): – . http://www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/viewarticle/ . . “critical digital humanities.” stunlaw jan. . http://stunlaw.blogspot .com/ / /critical-digital-humanities.html. . understanding digital humanities. basingstoke: palgrave macmillan, . bianco, jamie skye. “this digital humanities which is not one.” gold – . burdick, anne, johanna drucker, peter lunenfeld, and todd presner. digital humanities. cambridge: mit p, . works cited d i f f e r e n c e s centernet. day of digital humanities . http://dayofdh .artsrn.ualberta.ca (accessed nov. ). crimethinc. collective. recipes for disaster: an anarchist cookbook, a moveable feast. olympia: crimethinc. workers’ collective, . critical art ensemble (ca e). “framing tactical media.” next five minutes: international fes- tival of tactical media september – , . – . http://web.archive.org/web/ / http://www.debalie.nl/mmbase/attachments/ /n m _reader.pdf. . “tactical media—next five minutes .” steven barnes personal website. http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://mailer.fsu.edu/~sbarnes/lectures/script .html (accessed july ). dacos, marin. “manifesto for the digital humanities.” th atcamp paris march . http:// tcp.hypotheses.org/ . di y for vagabonds: tactics on the move . http://vagabondage.org (accessed nov. ). drucker, johanna, and bethany nowviskie. “speculative computing: aesthetic provocations in humanities computing.” schreibman, siemens, and unsworth – . fiormante, domenico. “towards a cultural critique of digital humanities.” historical social research . ( ): – . frabetti, federica. “rethinking the digital humanities in the context of originary technic- ity.” culture machine ( ): – . http://www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article /view/ / . gold, matthew k. debates in the digital humanities. minneapolis: u of minnesota p, . grusin, richard. “the dark side of digital humanities—part .” center for st century studies jan. . http://www.c uwm.com/ / / /dark-side-of-the-digital-humanities-part- . hall, gary. “there are no digital humanities.” gold – . hayles, katherine. how we think: digital media and contemporary technogenesis. chicago: u of chicago p, . hoggart, richard. the uses of literacy. new brunswick: transaction, . institute for applied autonomy. “engaging ambivalence: interventions in engineering cul- ture.” engineering culture: on “the author as (digital) producer.” ed. geoff cox and joasia krysa. brooklyn: autonomedia, . – . james, william. memories and studies. . rockville: arc manor, . jaschik, scott. “disappearing jobs.” inside higher education dec. . http://www.inside highered.com/news/ / / /mla. kerr, clark. the uses of the university. cambridge: harvard up, . kirschenbaum, matthew g. “digital humanities as/is a tactical term.” gold – . . “what is digital humanities and what’s it doing in english departments?” a de bulletin ( ): – . digital humanities for the next five minutes kraus, kari, ed. “rough cuts: media and design in process.” the new everyday: a mediacom- mons project. aug. – nov. . http://mediacommons.futureofthebook.org/tne/cluster /rough-cuts-media-and-design-process. liu, alan. “digital humanities and academic change.” english language notes . (spring/ summer ): – . . “the meaning of the digital humanities.” pml a . (mar. ): – . . “the state of the digital humanities: a report and a critique.” arts and humanities in higher education . – ( ): – . . “where is cultural criticism in the digital humanities?” gold – . lothian, alexis, and amanda phillips. “can digital humanities mean transformative cri- tique?” journal of e-media studies . ( ). http://journals.dartmouth.edu/cgi-bin/web objects/journals.woa/ /xmlpage/ /document/ (accessed apr. ). lovink, geert. dark fiber: tracking internet culture. cambridge: mit p, . lovink, geert, and ned rossiter. “in praise of concept production: formats, schools, and nonrepresentational media studies.” the international encyclopedia of media studies. vol. . ed. kelly gates. chichester: wiley-blackwell, . – . mcpherson, tara. “why are the digital humanities so white? or thinking the histories of race and computation.” gold – . michel, jean-baptiste, et al. “quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books.” science ( jan. ): – . mirowski, philip. science-mart: privatizing american science. cambridge: harvard up, . next minutes festival of tactical media. http://web.archive.org/web/ /http:// www.next minutes.org (accessed july ). nowviskie, bethany. “#alt-ac: alternate academic careers for humanities scholars.” bethany nowviskie (blog). jan. . http://nowviskie.org/ /alt-ac/. pannapacker, william. “the ml a and the digital humanities.” chronicle of higher education dec. . http://chronicle.com/blogpost/the-mlathe-digital/ . philip, kavita, lilly irani, and paul dourish. “postcolonial computing: a tactical survey.” science, technology, and human values . ( ): – . ramsay, stephen. “who’s in and who’s out.” lecture. the history and future of the digital humanities panel. ml a annual convention, los angeles, ca. jan. . stephen ramsay personal website. http://lenz.unl.edu/papers/ / / /whos-in-and-whos-out.html (accessed oct. ). readings, bill. the university in ruins. cambridge: harvard up, . rockwell, geoffrey. “inclusion in the digital humanities.” geoffrey rockwell personal website. http://www.philosophi.ca/pmwiki.php/main/inclusioninthedigitalhumanities (accessed july ). schreibman, susan, ray siemens, and john unsworth. “the digital humanities and humani- ties computing: an introduction.” a companion to digital humanities. ed. susan schreibman, ray siemens, and john unsworth. malden: blackwell, . xxiii–xxvii. d i f f e r e n c e s slaughter, sheila, and gary rhoades. academic capitalism and the new economy: markets, state, and higher education. baltimore: johns hopkins up, . spiro, lisa. “this is why we fight”: defining the values of the digital humanities.” gold – . stiegler, bernard. “relational ecology and the digital pharmakon.” culture machine ( ): – . http://www.culturemachine.net/index.php/cm/article/view/ / . svensson, patrik. “humanities computing as digital humanities.” digital humanities quar- terly . ( ). http://digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/ / / / .html (accessed july ). tactical media files. http://www.tacticalmediafiles.net (accessed july ). ucl a mellon seminar in digital humanities. “the digital humanities manifesto . .” a digital humanities manifesto may . http://manifesto.humanities.ucla.edu/ / / /the-digital-humanities-manifesto- . ucsb department of english. “faculty job search in ‘digital humanities.’ ” http://oldsite .english.ucsb.edu/events-detail.asp?eventid= (accessed july ). uncertain commons. speculate this! durham: duke up, . unsworth, john. “the state of digital humanities, .” lecture. digital humanities summer institute, june . http://people.lis.illinois.edu/~unsworth/state.of.dh.dhsi.pdf (accessed july ). veblen, thorstein. the theory of the leisure class. boston: houghton mifflin, . williams, george h. “disability, universal design, and the digital humanities.” gold – . / / refracting digital humanities – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-digital-humanities/ / hilt logo refracting digital humanities refracting digital humanities critical race, gender and queer theories as (digital humanities) methods     august – , course schedule course software course reading list hilt course description the methods and tools used and produced by digital humanists function as organizing principles that frame how race, gender, sexuality, and ability are embodied and understood within and through projects, code-bases, and communities of practice. the very ‘making’ of tools and projects is an engagement with power and control. through a critical theoretical exploration of the values in the design and use of these tools and methods, we begin to understand that these methods and practices are structures which are themselves marginalizing, tokenizing, and reductionist. by pairing hands-on learning/making with critical race theory, queer, and gender theories, we will interrogate the structures of the tools themselves while creating our own collaborative practices and methods for ‘doing’ (refracting) dh differently. to accomplish this, each day will focus on one tool or method. mornings will be a combination of reading-based discussion and experimental structural/tools-based exercises, while afternoon sessions will focus on pulling it all together in collaborative analytical projects. while no prior technical experience is necessary, you will be experimenting with, and creating your own theoretical practice that incorporates key themes in critical race, gender and queer theories with digital humanities methods and tools. therefore, the key requirement for this course is curiosity and a willingness to explore new ideas in order to fully engage with the materials. students are also encouraged to bring their own research questions to explore through these theories and practices. course process website: jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://thejarahtree.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /logo.png http://thejarahtree.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh http://thejarahtree.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ http://thejarahtree.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ http://www.dhtraining.org/hilt/ http://refractivemapping.wordpress.com/about/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / refracting digital humanities – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-digital-humanities/ / the j- software list: refracting dh this site reflects our process over the course, and is not a complete repository. student review of course (kayla hammond larkin) at digital library foundation dec , update: this syllabus is now part of the modern language association book project digital pedagogy in the humanities: concepts, models, and experiments, which is “an open-access, curated collection of downloadable, reusable, and remixable pedagogical resources for humanities scholars interested in the intersections of digital technologies with teaching and learning” to read more about this project go here: https://github.com/curateteaching/digitalpedagogy/blob/master/announcement.md to look at other resources for the keyword queer, go here: https://github.com/curateteaching/digitalpedagogy/blob/master/keywords/queer.md taught courses transhuman worlding art networks & media ecologies designing the post apocalypse fleshy futures practicum in design cultures + creativity perspectives on design cultures + creativity performing the virtual digital queers intro to digital cultures & creativity i feminist social media activisms women and the media television & society web programming jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-j- / http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ http://www.diglib.org/archives/ / https://github.com/curateteaching/digitalpedagogy/blob/master/announcement.md https://github.com/curateteaching/digitalpedagogy/blob/master/keywords/queer.md http://jarahmoesch.com/category/taught-courses/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /transhuman-worlding-how-to-abandon-the-earth-change-the-world/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /art-networks-media-ecologies-monsters-and-ghosts-of-the-anthropocene/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /designing-the-post-apocalypse/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /fleshy-futures-technologies-and-the-body/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /practicum-in-design-cultures-creativity/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /perspectives-on-design-cultures-creativity/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /performing-the-virtual-intro-to-digital-cultures-creativity-ii/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /digital-queerspublic-space-art-performance-in-the-digital-age/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /intro-to-digital-cultures-creativity-i/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /feminist-social-media-activisms- / http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /women-and-the-media/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /television-society/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /web-programming/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / refracting digital humanities – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-digital-humanities/ / introduction to digital media twitter: @thejarahtree powered by wordpress | theme: astrid by athemes. jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /introduction-to-digital-media/ https://twitter.com/thejarahtree https://wordpress.org/ http://athemes.com/theme/astrid http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / schedule: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ / hilt logo schedule: refracting dh day : see . introductions; discussion . discussion: images as objects . iteration : exploration & prototyping . iteration : images day : hear . discussion: what does race, gender sound like? . workshop: audio, exploration . iteration : audio editing & prototyping . iteration : out into the world day : know . discussion: critical code . workshop: basic electronics, intro to arduino . iteration : prototyping day : move . discussion: critical cartography & mapping . iteration : exploring & prototyping . workshop: mapping . iteration : prototyping day : make . workshop: next steps . workshop: completion of work . wrap-up: research & teaching jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://thejarahtree.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /logo.png http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / schedule: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ / software list: refracting dh reading list: refracting dh uncategorized the housemate collection ( ) lungs imagining access designing the sick body webs of knowledge refracting mapping: timeline reading list: refracting dh schedule: refracting dh software list: refracting dh mywaldo queer ghosts in the machine homeland security twitterbot the ego page massively multiplayer soba twitter: @thejarahtree powered by wordpress | theme: astrid by athemes. jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/uncategorized/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-housemate-collection/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /lungs/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /imagining-access/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /designing-the-sick-body/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /webs-of-knowledge/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-timeline/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /mywaldo/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /queer-ghosts-in-the-machine/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /homeland-security-twitterbot/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-ego-page/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /massively-multiplayer-soba/ https://twitter.com/thejarahtree https://wordpress.org/ http://athemes.com/theme/astrid http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / software list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ / hilt logo refracting digital humanities schedule: refracting dh software list: refracting dh these are the software that we will be using throughout the week. please pre-load them onto your laptop to keep the course on schedule. dropbox on phone and on laptop please email me with your dropbox info so i can invite you to join a shared folder google docs please email me with your google email info so i can invite you to join a shared folder audacity http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ soundplant http://soundplant.org/ arduino http://arduino.cc/ processing https://www.processing.org/ jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-digital-humanities/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ http://thejarahtree.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /logo.png http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ http://soundplant.org/ http://arduino.cc/ https://www.processing.org/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / software list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ / uncategorized the housemate collection ( ) lungs imagining access designing the sick body webs of knowledge refracting mapping: timeline reading list: refracting dh schedule: refracting dh software list: refracting dh mywaldo queer ghosts in the machine homeland security twitterbot the ego page massively multiplayer soba twitter: @thejarahtree powered by wordpress | theme: astrid by athemes. jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://jarahmoesch.com/category/uncategorized/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-housemate-collection/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /lungs/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /imagining-access/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /designing-the-sick-body/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /webs-of-knowledge/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-timeline/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /mywaldo/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /queer-ghosts-in-the-machine/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /homeland-security-twitterbot/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-ego-page/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /massively-multiplayer-soba/ https://twitter.com/thejarahtree https://wordpress.org/ http://athemes.com/theme/astrid http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / reading list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ / hilt logo reading list: refracting dh reading list for refracting digital humanities critical race, gender and queer theories as (digital humanities) methods note: students in this course will have access to book chapters via dropbox digital humanities background reading open thread: the digital humanities as “refuge” from race/class/gender/sexuality/disability? http://dhpoco.org/blog/ / / /open-thread-the-digital-humanities-as-a-historical-refuge- from-raceclassgendersexualitydisability/ dhpoco: founding principles http://dhpoco.org/founding-principles/ #transformdh: http://transformdh.org/ smith, martha nell the human touch software of the highest order: revisiting editing as interpretation textual cultures, vol. , no. (spring, ), pp. - day : see bailey, moya z all the digital humanists are white, all the nerds are men, but some of us are brave http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /all-the-digital-humanists-are-white-all-the-nerds-are- men-but-some-of-us-are-brave-by-moya-z-bailey/ gershenson, olga and barbara penner. ladies and gents: public toilets and gender • forward jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://thejarahtree.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /logo.png http://dhpoco.org/blog/ / / /open-thread-the-digital-humanities-as-a-historical-refuge-from-raceclassgendersexualitydisability/ http://dhpoco.org/founding-principles/ http://transformdh.org/ http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/ - /all-the-digital-humanists-are-white-all-the-nerds-are-men-but-some-of-us-are-brave-by-moya-z-bailey/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / reading list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ / • introduction: the private life of public conveniences • chapter : “our little secrets: a pakistani artist explores the shame and pride of her community’s bathroom practices hooks, bell the oppositional gaze in black looks: race and representation. • p - lutz, catherine a. and jane l. collins the photograph as intersection of gazes in reading national geographic mcfadden, syreeta teaching the camera to see my skin navigating photography’s inherited bias against dark skin http://www.buzzfeed.com/syreetamcfadden/teaching-the-camera-to-see-my-skin mcpherson, tara why are the digital humanities so white? http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ muñoz , jose esteban disidentifications queers of color and the performance of politics • introduction p - day : hear bradley, regina death wish mixtape. sounding trayvon martin’s death http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /death-wish-mixtape-sounding-trayvon-martins- death/ bradley, regina fear of a black in the suburb http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /fear-of-a-black-in-the-suburb/ casillas, d. ines. speaking “mexican” and the use of “mock spanish” in children’s books. or, do not read skippy jon jones. http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /speaking-mexican-and-the-use-of-mock-spanish-in- childrens-books-or-do-not-read-skippyjon-jones/ laorale. Óyeme voz: u.s. latin@ & immigrant communities re-sound citizenship and belonging http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /oyeme-voz-u-s-latin-immigrant-communities-re- sound-citizenship-and-belonging/ day : know enteen, jillana virtual_english queer internets and digital creolization • introduction life skills: p - • booting up the languages of computer technologies p - jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://www.buzzfeed.com/syreetamcfadden/teaching-the-camera-to-see-my-skin http://dhdebates.gc.cuny.edu/debates/text/ http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /death-wish-mixtape-sounding-trayvon-martins-death/ http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /fear-of-a-black-in-the-suburb/ http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /speaking-mexican-and-the-use-of-mock-spanish-in-childrens-books-or-do-not-read-skippyjon-jones/ http://soundstudiesblog.com/ / / /oyeme-voz-u-s-latin-immigrant-communities-re-sound-citizenship-and-belonging/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / reading list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ / introna & nissenbaum shaping the web: why the politics of search engines matter http://www.indiana.edu/~tisj/readers/full-text/ - % introna.html koh, adeline. less yack more hack: modularity theory & habitus in the digital humanities http://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/ / / /more-hack-less-yack-modularity-theory-and- habitus-in-the-digital-humanities/ kolko, b.e erasing @race: going white in the (inter)face in race in cyberspace: p - nakamura, lisa and peter chow-white race after the internet • introduction hastac book review of race after the internet: http://www.hastac.org/content/reviews-race-after-internet posner, miriam some things to think about before you exhort everyone to code: http://miriamposner.com/blog/some-things-to-think-about-before-you-exhort-everyone-to- code/ day : move chun, wendy control and freedom • introduction farman, jason mapping the digital empire: google earth and the process of postmodern cartography new media society : http://nms.sagepub.com/content/ / / kwan, mei-po affecting geospatial technologies: toward a feminist politics of emotion the professional geographer . ( ): - radical cartography http://www.radicalcartography.net/ other related readings (recommended): mulvey, laura visual pleasure, narrative cinema monmonier, mark how to lie with maps jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://www.indiana.edu/~tisj/readers/full-text/ - % introna.html http://www.adelinekoh.org/blog/ / / /more-hack-less-yack-modularity-theory-and-habitus-in-the-digital-humanities/ http://www.hastac.org/content/reviews-race-after-internet http://miriamposner.com/blog/some-things-to-think-about-before-you-exhort-everyone-to-code/ http://nms.sagepub.com/content/ / / http://www.radicalcartography.net/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / reading list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ / schedule: refracting dh refracting mapping: timeline • introduction • chapter map generalizations npr light and dark: the racial biases that remain in photography http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/ / / / /light-and-dark-the-racial-biases- that-remain-in-photography (audio) paglen, trevor blank spots on the map • chapter • chapter review: http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/ , , , .html smith, david racism of early colour photography explored in art exhibition http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/ /jan/ /racism-colour-photography-exhibition uncategorized the housemate collection ( ) lungs imagining access designing the sick body webs of knowledge refracting mapping: timeline reading list: refracting dh schedule: refracting dh software list: refracting dh mywaldo queer ghosts in the machine homeland security twitterbot the ego page massively multiplayer soba jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-timeline/ http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/ / / / /light-and-dark-the-racial-biases-that-remain-in-photography http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/ , , , .html http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/ /jan/ /racism-colour-photography-exhibition http://jarahmoesch.com/category/uncategorized/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-housemate-collection/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /lungs/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /imagining-access/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /designing-the-sick-body/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /webs-of-knowledge/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /refracting-timeline/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /schedule-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /software-list-refracting-dh/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /mywaldo/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /queer-ghosts-in-the-machine/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /homeland-security-twitterbot/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /the-ego-page/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ / / /massively-multiplayer-soba/ http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ / / reading list: refracting dh – jarah moesch jarahmoesch.com/ / / /reading-list-refracting-dh/ / twitter: @thejarahtree powered by wordpress | theme: astrid by athemes. jarah moesch scholar. artist. designer. a b o u t r e s e a r c h e x h i b i t i o n s p o r t f o l i o t e a c h i n g https://twitter.com/thejarahtree https://wordpress.org/ http://athemes.com/theme/astrid http://jarahmoesch.com/ http://jarahmoesch.com/about- / http://jarahmoesch.com/category/research/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/exhibitions/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/portfolio/ http://jarahmoesch.com/category/teaching/ digital archiving the space and memory of kyoto across space and time using gis naomi kawasumi a, *, hirotaka sato a, shunpei yamamoto a and keiji yano a a ritsumeikan university, japan; n-kawa@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp, lt rr@gmail.com, lt xr@ed.ritsumei.ac.jp, yano@lt.ritsumei.ac.jp keywords: digital humanities, gis database, open data, large-scale maps of kyoto city, modern kyoto abstract: digital humanities (dh) is expected to generate new knowledge within traditional humanities including history, literature, and the arts. dh utilizes computational media to conduct research on concepts such as consciousness and awareness, then analyzes, integrates and presents the outcomes. gis has become widespread within dh research (yano et al. ). this study aims to consider the archiving of various information concepting kyoto using gis. it also aims to understand landscape value in kyoto. since heian-kyo, kyoto has existed for over , years of history. so, it is necessary to collect various information about kyoto such as literature, art, maps, and photographs for research on the urban history of kyoto. the digitalization and construction of a gis database are useful to preserve and release information about kyoto. the digital archive of the historical city of kyoto that we are aiming to produce includes content such as literary works, paintings, photographs, and intangible cultural assets like festivals including the gion festival, traditional arts, and memories. them did not simply listed in a database but had released with geospatial information, such as maps, as a platform linked to place. figure . “overlaying maps of modern kyoto”. (https://www.arc.ritsumei.ac.jp/archive /theater/html/modernkyoto/) in , we published the overlaying maps of modern kyoto, which focus on between the meiji period and immediately after the second world war (figure ). it uses archives such as a “tentative topographic map” from the middle of the meiji period, “city planning basic maps” from the taisho to early showa periods, and an “official topographic map” published in (taisho ). the strong point of this web-based map system is that one can display several maps as overlays over google maps. additionally, roughly , photographs of the kyoto city tram system from around the s were archived. the research group identified places reflected in the photographs with the collaboration of experts and released those photographs and data with location information. there were some pictures whose location could not be identified. abstracts of the international cartographic association, , . © authors . cc by . license. th international cartographic conference (icc ), – july , tokyo, japan | https://doi.org/ . /ica-abs- - - we also added a system that allows people from the outside to enter information into the published database. furthermore, the kyoto memory map project was launched, and memories of places and periods reflected in old photographs and maps are also being collected and released. ) list of photographs ) metadata of photograph figure . “kyoto city tram and bus photograph database”. (http://www.dh-jac.net/db /photodb/search_shiden.php) the digital achieving and release of information are valuable for urban history research about kyoto. it is a treasure trove of historical and geographical documents that are useful for researchers. recently, a discussion on the occupation of kyoto after the second world war was published using maps accumulated in this way. in this case, the gis database of “large-scale maps of kyoto city” (kyoto-shi meisai-zu) owned by the kyoto institute, library and archives was used. some administrative documents concerning occupied kyoto owned by the kyoto institute, library and archives were shown in spring . one is a document about the car accidents that the occupation army caused in kyoto during the occupation period. another is a document concerning the buildings confiscated by the occupation army. these documents have positional information, so that previous research mapping these data by hand becomes important in understanding occupied kyoto (nishikawa, ). below, we examine the contents of the maps based on the results of the study of occupied kyoto. in the kyoto institute, library and archives, some administrative documents on occupied kyoto are stored. they include documents about car accidents and confiscated buildings. some buildings were confiscated for use by the occupation army. in this paper, we call buildings used for businesslike operation by the occupation army “confiscated establishments” and buildings used for dwellings by the occupation army “confiscated houses.” we constructed vector data for each confiscated building based on the positional information to improve the precision of previous research and facilitate the comparison of maps. additionally, memories of this period were collected and constructed gis database, so administrative documents and memories were linked with the maps (figure ). the current condition of occupying kyoto and the living conditions of local residents in this period then became clear (nishikawa, ). figure . map of occupied kyoto city. interdisciplinary research is progressing using archived information. also, the archives are widely used as sightseeing and learning tools for the general public. it is also meaningful as a material to understand the past, including in the field of community development by residents, which has flourished in the recent years. the archive is treasure trove of historical and geographical information that is useful for digital humanities research. abstracts of the international cartographic association, , . © authors . cc by . license. th international cartographic conference (icc ), – july , tokyo, japan | https://doi.org/ . /ica-abs- - - absorbing dirt: tool directories in the digital age research how to cite: grant, kaitlyn, quinn dombrowski, kamal ranaweera, omar rodriguez-arenas, stéfan sinclair, and geoffrey rockwell. . “absorbing dirt: tool directories in the digital age.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. published: june peer review: this is a peer-reviewed article in digital studies/le champ numérique, a journal published by the open library of humanities. copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access: digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal. digital preservation: the open library of humanities and all its journals are digitally preserved in the clockss scholarly archive service. https://doi.org/ . /dscn. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / grant, kaitlyn, et al. . “absorbing dirt: tool directories in the digital age.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. research absorbing dirt: tool directories in the digital age kaitlyn grant , quinn dombrowski , kamal ranaweera , omar rodriguez-arenas , stéfan sinclair and geoffrey rockwell university of alberta, ca stanford university, us mcgill university, ca corresponding author: kaitlyn grant (kgrant @ualberta.ca) in the summer of , quinn dombrowski, an it staff member in uc berkeley’s research it group, approached geoffrey rockwell about the possibility of merging the dirt directory with tapor, both popular tool discovery portals. dombrowski could no longer offer the time commitment required to maintain the organizational structure of the volunteer-run tool directory ( ). this decommissioning of dirt illustrates a set of problems in the digital humanities around tool directories and the tools within as academic contributions. tool development, in general, is not considered sufficiently scholarly and often suffers from a lack of ongoing support (ramsay & rockwell, ). when tool discovery portals are no longer maintained due to a lack of ongoing funding, this leads to a loss of digital humanities knowledge and history. while volunteer-based directories require less outright funding, managing and motivating those volunteers to ensure that they remain actively involved in directory upkeep requires a vast amount work to ensure long-term sustainability (dombrowski, ). this paper will explore the difficult history of tool discovery catalogues and portals and the steps being taken to save the dirt directory by integrating it into tapor. in particular, we will: – provide a brief history of the attempts to catalogue tools for digital humanists starting with the first software catalogues, such as those circulated through societies, and ending with digital discovery portals, including dirt directory and tapor. – discuss the challenges around the maintenance of discovery portals – consider the design and metadata decisions made in the merging of dirt directory with tapor. keywords: tool directories; tools; tapor; dirt directory; digital infrastructure À l’été , quinn dombrowski, un membre du personnel informatique du groupe de recherche informatique de l’université de californie berkeley, est allée discuter avec geoffrey rockwell de la possibilité de fusionner le https://doi.org/ . /dscn. mailto:kgrant @ualberta.ca grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of répertoire dirt avec tapor, tous deux étant des portails populaires pour découvrir des outils. dombrowski ne pouvait plus consacrer le temps requis pour maintenir la structure organisationnelle de ce répertoire d’outils géré par des bénévoles ( ). ce démantèlement de dirt démontre plusieurs problèmes existants dans les humanités numériques qui concernent des répertoires d’outils et les outils eux-mêmes en tant que contributions académiques. le développement d’outils, en général, n’est pas suffisamment considéré dans le domaine académique et souffre souvent d’un manque de soutien continu (ramsay & rockwell, ). lorsque des portails pour découvrir des outils ne sont plus maintenus à cause d’un manque de financement continu, il y a des pertes de connaissances et d’histoire dans les humanités numériques. bien que les répertoires gérés par des bénévoles nécessitent moins de financement initial, organiser et motiver ces bénévoles exigent une grande quantité de travail pour garantir qu’ils continuent à participer activement à la maintenance d’un répertoire et pour assurer sa viabilité à long terme (dombrowski, ). cet article examine l’histoire difficile de catalogues et de répertoires pour découvrir des outils, ainsi que les mesures prises pour sauver le répertoire dirt en l’intégrant à tapor. nous allons en particulier fournir une histoire brève des tentatives de catalogage des outils pour les humanités numériques, ce qui commence par les premiers répertoires de software, tels que ceux qui se sont diffusés dans la société, et ce qui finit par des portails numériques pour découvrir des outils, y compris les répertoires dirt et tapor. nous allons discuter des défis relatifs à la maintenance de tels portails. nous allons aussi considérer les décisions concernant les métadonnées et la conception, qui datent de la période de fusion du répertoire dirt avec tapor. mots-clés: répertoires d’outils; tapor; répertoires dirt; infrastructure numérique introduction in an essay entitled “humanities computing,” willard mccarty ( ) talks about a failure in the traditional model of bibliographic scholarship to capture the work of computing humanists. bibliographies that focus only on publications miss the intellectual work that goes into things like tools, infrastructure, web sites, games and other digital resources. this has made it difficult for the digital humanities (dh) to create its own historiography, to know itself through its history of intellectual contributions. this paper is about one type of resource, the tool directory, developed to try to keep track of the tools digital humanists have made. we will discuss the problems of tool development, discovery, and preservation; provide a brief history grant et al: absorbing dirt art. , page of of tool directories; and finally, we will provide an in depth look at the infrastructure and subsequent merging of two tool directories, tapor . (text analysis portal for research) and the dirt directory (digital research tools). tool knowledge part of the reason instruments have largely escaped the notice of scholars and others interested in our modern techno-scientific culture is language, or rather its lack. instruments are developed and used in a context where mathematical, scientific, and ordinary language is neither the exclusive vehicle of communication nor, in many cases, the primary vehicle of communication. instruments are crafted artifacts, and visual and tactile thinking and communication are central to their development and use.” —baird , xv as baird points out in thing knowledge ( ), tools have been ignored in the humanities disciplines that deal in discourse. humanists not only tend to study discourse as a privileged form of expression, but we also think of (print) discourse as the medium for our academic exchanges. this has been a perennial problem in the digital humanities because it means that the tools or new media works that we both study and express ourselves in are difficult to value in the academy (rockwell ). a set of tools like voyant (voyant-tools.org) might have hundreds of thousands of users a year, but it is difficult to formally justify it as a scholarly contribution to a tenure and promotion committee that counts publications. the problem is not limited to the scholarly value of tool building. most would agree that tools and their associated documentation can bear meaning, but dh is still struggling with ways to formally evaluate them without the apparatus of journals and peer-review. the problem is the infrastructure of valuation starting with the ways we remember what has been done and why. this is a problem the digital humanities shares with overlapping fields like instructional technology and game studies, both of which also value software things as objects of study and objects of creation (for example, see newman on the preservation of games). to properly value software things we need a stack of infrastructure, starting with records of https://voyant-tools.org/ grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of what was done, as software has a way of disappearing so quickly as to be almost ephemeral. for example, fangorn and snap are both historical tools that were designed specifically for humanists to assist with text analysis, but they are no longer maintained for active use (tapor ). there are some organizations doing this preservation work. for example, the internet archive’s software library preserves decades of computer software that can be accessed and used through their jsmess emulator (internet archive ). tapor . and the dirt ( ) directory are tool discovery portals for the digital age that try to meet the need for knowledge about tools by recording sufficient information about tools and other resources that can be discovered and surveyed, but, unlike the internet archive, they are not preserving the software itself. in this case, they provide access to the metadata and important information about a host of digital tools and software so that researchers can determine the best tool for their project, and also understand where the tools came from by examining the history. nonetheless, this is only one model for how knowledge about tools can be gathered and organized. the role of tool directories in the digital age should concern digital humanists as tool directories have a long history of supporting and providing recognition for dh software work. while tool directories began as published lists and collections of tools, such as stephen reimer’s “tcrunchers: a collection of public domain software and shareware for writers” (lancashire ), today, tool directories have taken an online format that requires continuous upkeep to maintain accessibility and relevance in a rapidly changing digital context (dombrowski forthcoming). the dirt directory and tapor . are two well-known digital tool directories in the english-speaking dh community. the dirt directory evolved from project bamboo, which developed “bamboo dirt” from lisa spiro’s “dirt wiki” (dombrowski forthcoming). meanwhile, the tapor project was initially developed as a full portal that could coordinate text analysis web services (rockwell ). when this proved hard to maintain, the creators of tapor developed text analysis tools, such as voyant, separately from tapor which was later redeveloped to support the discovery of text analysis tools and code to help humanists in their research (rockwell and sinclair ). grant et al: absorbing dirt art. , page of of the challenges faced by tool discovery portals, sustainability has proven to be the most intractable. in the summer of , quinn dombrowski, at that time an it staff member in uc berkeley’s research it group, approached geoffrey rockwell about the possibility of merging the dirt directory with tapor . . the elimination of funding for dombrowski’s digital humanities-focused position, and her transition into a research computing role, meant that she could no longer dedicate time to maintaining the organizational structure of the volunteer-run tool directory (dombrowski forthcoming). this decommissioning of dirt illustrates a set of problems in the field of digital humanities around treating tool directories and tool development as academic contributions. tool development, in general, has not been considered a “scholarly” activity and often suffers from a lack of ongoing support (ramsay and rockwell ). this is even more the case for the development and maintenance of tool directories, which require a great deal of time and some degree of curation, but do not align well to existing frameworks for incentivizing and rewarding work in a scholarly context. however, when tool discovery portals are no longer maintained, it can lead to a loss of digital humanities knowledge and history if the data is not, at the very least, archived. archiving data in a widely used text-based format (such as csv or json) may preserve this knowledge for certain kinds of digital humanities audiences, but for many humanities scholars, a mediating web-based interface is a de facto requirement for data to be meaningfully usable. scholars and developers who are more comfortable working with data (such as a content dump from a defunct tool directory) may be able to restore access to this content for their less-technical colleagues by ingesting it into a new interface, but the amount of work required to do so depends on how well aligned the source metadata is with the data model underpinning the new interface. while volunteer-based directories require less outright funding, managing and motivating those volunteers to ensure that they remain actively involved in directory upkeep requires a vast amount of ongoing work (dombrowski forthcoming). this raises the question: how can digital humanists better support digital tool directories, and, more broadly, tool development? grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of the digital humanities is often described as a type of scholarship that is bound in collaboration and public visibility that is different from traditional humanities research (kirschenbaum ). this nature is at the heart of discovery portals, which centralize multiple tools and different pieces of code in one place (dombrowski ). thus, it is not surprising that discovery portals serve as common starting points for scholars new to digital humanities, but there has been little discussion of the portals outside of this role. while these portals are generally viewed as useful, the difficulty of maintaining them makes it important to be clear about the nature and extent of their value, who their audience truly is, and under what conditions they can be sustained. furthermore, digital humanists could further engage the scholarly labour of tool directories by recognizing them in their scholarly work and providing links from blogs and library subject guides. while some of this recognition is already happening, it is not a formal practice in the field. tool directories: a history directories for finding tools are not new to the digital humanities. in the “prospect” of the first issue of computers and the humanities the editor talks about reducing the “wasteful duplication of key-punching and programming that exists” by publishing lists of “programs designed to solve humanistic problems” (prospect , ). to that end, tool reviews were published in computers and the humanities starting with the first issue which had a review of prora (lieberman ), a concording tool developed at the university of toronto. another approach to documenting tools that lasted for only a few years was the yearbook. ian lancashire ( ) and willard mccarty published two issues of the humanities computing yearbook, one in and one for – . the yearbook organized descriptions of tools and other resources under disciplines, but also had sections for general tools like bibliographic management tools that crossed disciplines. the yearbook was probably the most ambitious attempt in print to document the resources, both digital and in print, of interest to computing humanists. alas, only two issues were published before the task of keeping up across all the disciplines in the humanities became too difficult, not dissimilar to the struggles of online tool grant et al: absorbing dirt art. , page of directories. that said, yearbooks published from reputable imprints do have the advantage that they look like publications and can be preserved in libraries. lists, reviews and yearbooks are three approaches to documenting tools, another is software exhibits and associated catalogues. one of the most notable was the exhibit and accompanying catalogue at the first joint ach-allc conference held in toronto in . along with a conference guide entitled “the dynamic text,” willard mccarty edited a software tool guide called “tools for humanists, ” which described seventy-four systems that were displayed at the hardware and software fair by the same name ( ). with the accessibility of the internet it became both harder and easier to keep track of tools and other resources. on the one hand, there has been an explosion of dh websites, so the task has expanded, on the other hand, companies like google have provided useful industrial tools for searching the web. the tapor project was originally funded in to provide a vertical portal that would bring together services with information about available tools, especially those that could be used through the portal as web services. web directories like tapor . and dirt are, in principle, easier to maintain and can even be maintained by a community, such as the learning resource directory, merlot. merlot ( ) enlists editors from the community to curate disciplinary sub-portals for learning tools, resources and documentation. in another example, teresah ( ) is a tool registry managed by dariah that aims to provide a listing of active tools for social sciences and humanities researchers in europe. moreover, the dh toy chest offers users an ongoing development of free “guides, tools, and other resources for practical work in the digital humanities by researchers, teachers, and students” (liu ). these examples offer similar services as tapor . and dirt but use different methods to provide access to tools. maintaining infrastructure directories of tools are essentially a form of infrastructure. they do not present original research, though research may go into their design. if they are to work well they should a) support other activities like research, and b) be maintained over time so they are accessible to scholars. as many have noted, it is challenging therefore grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of to build infrastructure, especially fast changing digital infrastructure, using one- time grants (bement , green , rockwell ). the canada foundation for innovation (cfi) program that initially funded tapor recognizes this to some extent by asking for a maintenance plan and by providing ongoing funds for up to eight years. for humanities infrastructure projects, and, for that matter, any successful infrastructure, eight years (including the years of initial development) are too little. this means that infrastructure leads have to continually seek new sources of funding which in turn means adapting to new contexts and partnering with projects that could use the infrastructure. the tapor project has now lasted over years from when the cfi grant was first awarded in . the portal has been completely redeveloped (i.e. reprogrammed from scratch) twice, leading to its current designation as tapor . . tapor . and dirt directory both represent the latest iterations of past tool directories that have been updated or adapted for new purposes. most importantly, the continuation of these tool directories in this ad hoc fashion highlights a core issue with their development—the need for uninterrupted support. what this support could look like is not yet clear. nonetheless, both projects have key lessons and tactics for maintaining directory projects in the long term. first, keep infrastructure small and simple enough that it can survive during dry funding spells. while the initial idea of the tapor “portal” was to integrate various resources from social media, text repositories, tools as web services, and ways of chaining tools in one place, this proved very hard to maintain. there were, and are, better resources available that the tapor project was trying to replicate in order to have a full-service portal. in version . , tapor narrowed its focus to the discovery of tools. the tools themselves were spun off into projects like taporware, tattoo, and most importantly, voyant. taporware was a set of tools designed specifically for tapor . . they were simple tools that could be deployed as demonstration web services. tattoo was an embeddable toolbar that could be put into other websites where it would operate on the content of whatever page it was on (see rockwell et al. ). next, scale infrastructure down to what can be led and maintained by a faculty member with university support. faculty already have access to a certain number of resources, depending on local computing support. faculty at most research-intensive grant et al: absorbing dirt art. , page of universities can get small local grants, involve research assistants, involve students, apply for grants and so on. infrastructure that is scaled to the support that a faculty member can obtain on their own can survive the dry years; however, this necessitates a faculty lead for the project, rather than a librarian, it staff (such as dombrowski), or other alt-ac roles. keep infrastructure modular so that it can connect with other projects easily. rather than trying to create a vertical portal that includes everything and would be complicated to maintain. in version . , tapor focused on doing one thing well that others weren’t doing and doing it in a way that could fit with other projects. this can take multiple forms. while dirt focused on technological integration by developing an api, the tapor project took the approach of “political” integration by making it easy to be written into other projects’ grant proposals. the latter approach does not lead to further proliferation of infrastructure that must be maintained, making it, by definition, more sustainable. do one thing well and then build out features as new opportunities, partners and projects need them. version of tapor began adding features that made sense for the projects like text mining the novel (https://novel-tm.ca/), which was contributing funding. as well, projects could take new features that need to be implemented and implement them in a more broadly reusable and integrated fashion within an existing framework. this may take some rework in the existing code and appears to be more cumbersome, but it avoids bloated code in the long run. tapor . has, wherever possible, been implemented by the university of alberta’s arts resource center in a way that any custom code can be reused (and maintained) for other projects. finally, beware the siren call of crowdsourcing. since the success of the suda on line (mahoney ) there has been the hope that projects could get human labour from the crowd. the dirt directory has shown that often the work of motivating and organizing volunteers can be as time consuming as the work those volunteers do. as promising as crowdsourcing is, its value lies more in how it can engage a broader community than how much work it saves (rockwell ). as shown above, there are other ways of securing ongoing support that allow for more ambitious projects, this is how the tapor project has survived, and hopefully will continue to survive. with https://novel-tm.ca/ grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of the addition of dirt directory’s tool data and a larger mandate, tapor . plans to involve more scholarly associations in the support of the infrastructure which may provide other avenues for sustainability. dirt directory’s successes and failures in this regard may prove informative. in order to reduce the risk of being shut down by uc berkeley’s central it division on account of being unrelated to berkeley-specific it service offerings, ownership of dirt directory was formally transferred to centernet, an adho member organization. in this arrangement, centernet provided an organizational home for the project, and would coordinate opportunities for partnerships and joint development with other centernet projects (such as, the project directory dhcommons, which itself faced sustainability challenges similar to dirt’s). in principle, centernet’s member centers would serve as an ongoing source of volunteers for maintaining dirt. in practice, however, the volunteer model is crucially dependent on the active involvement of a project director, and the arrangement with centernet had no provisions for financially supporting the director position. this could be done through a buy-out of time to ensure the director could continue to work on dirt even in the absence of a dh-specific position funded by her employer, or for replacing the director if she became unavailable, perhaps through a more financially sustainable dedicated graduate student position. fundamentally, a tool directory’s survival is dependent on funding—which may be modest but must be fairly consistent—to pay for a position of some sort that can ensure the currency of the listings, either through their own labor or through engaging a community of volunteers. absorbing dirt the decision to merge the dirt directory with tapor . was a difficult one. it not only highlights the lack of ongoing support for tool discovery portals, but it also represents the end of a project (ruecker et al. ). as a part of this project, we specifically aimed to merge the two directories together into a larger tool discovery portal that combined the best parts of both original projects. this process used the following steps: grant et al: absorbing dirt art. , page of . first, we examined the metadata structure of the dirt directory to see what information the site was holding on each tool. at the same time, we explored possible ways to integrate dirt’s data with tapor . ’s. . next, we mapped a crosswalk of the metadata on dirt and the metadata on tapor . . this allowed us to see which fields are shared between the sites and determine which fields would need to be added to tapor . , and which fields on tapor . would need to be populated for the dirt directory’s tools. this process required meeting with programmers at the university of alberta’s arts resource centre. kamal ranaweera and omar rodriguez-arenas worked with us, providing technical support and advice throughout the project, and, most importantly, completing the actual mi- gration of the data to tapor . . . after finalizing the data and fields mapping, we moved on to data cleaning. quinn dombrowski provided a spreadsheet in comma-separat- ed-value format of all tools. this file was uploaded to openrefine (http://openrefine.org/), which was used to make overarching changes to the data. for example, using our fields maps, we relabelled dirt direc- tory’s platform data to match tapor . ’s web-usable data. the final step of this process was to delete any duplicates or empty tools. this process brought the total tool count to . . the final step of the project was to hand over the data to the arts resource centre and allow the ingestion process to begin. overall, the process went very smoothly. we began the project in september and successfully integrated the tools from dirt to tapor . in may . while the integration process is complete, there is an ongoing data cleaning project as we not only integrated almost a thousand new tools into tapor . , but we also added some new fields to the descriptive metadata of the tools, and we expanded the scope of tapor . beyond text analysis. most obvious, is a lack of consistency in the descriptions across the tool directory. moving forward, we continue to try and http://openrefine.org/ grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of find the most effective way to share important information about tools through trial and error. discussion records of software take many forms, and in this essay, we have outlined a history of one form, directories of digital humanities tools, but there are other types of records like grant proposals, design and development documents, manuals, brochures, web documentation, reviews, conference papers and code. developing memory infrastructure like directories is not as simple as preserving documentation. it is also a matter of structuring the records of tools so that they can be managed and found (bowker and starr ). as bowker ( ) points out, the development of memory infrastructure is a structuring process of developing practices that are supported by infrastructure and in turn reinforce the need for infrastructure. this is where we are in the digital humanities; we have experimental infrastructure, but it hasn’t yet been woven into the practices of the field partly because the practices are still emerging. dh has not become disciplinary in the sense of a self-perpetuating field that has stable practices and infrastructure. this means that there isn’t yet the recognition and support for infrastructure like directories and portals. it is possible to get grants to build them as experimental infrastructure, but we haven’t found a way to weave them into a changing discipline so that they are maintained. by contrast, we have developed journals in the field that do have long term support. this paper documents attempts to develop disciplinary infrastructure at, and as a moment of, disciplinary formation. the attempts, failures, and successes say much about our formation. inevitably one wonders how directories of tools could be better supported. how might knowledge about tools be preserved and made available? are directories the best way to do so, or should we give up and depend on google to manage our history? some directions suggest themselves: it may be time to go back to including reviews or notices about tools in journals. journals in the digital humanities like dhq (http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/) have proven maintainable and could integrate tool reviews and support for directories into their online practices. notices about notable new tools could be included in journal issues and then archived in a tool directory like tapor . . http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/ grant et al: absorbing dirt art. , page of as mentioned above, we could learn from the merlot model, where there are editors who get credit for maintaining a sub-portal on best learning resources for a discipline (https://www.merlot.org). tool directories could develop associate editor positions that would offer scholarly credit for curating and managing a list of specified tools. this would help maintain the directory while also providing an opportunity for moving tool directory maintenance into the traditional scholarly outputs that are more easily recognized by tenure and hiring committees. finally, it may be prudent to recognize that tool directories have a life span tied to funding, thus making long term support unnecessary. the important thing is to find a way to preserve the data so that it can be passed on and reused as new projects arise with new models (rockwell et al. ). conclusion in conclusion, absorbing the dirt directory into tapor . forced our team to wrestle with the some of the major problems facing the digital humanities as a field. first and foremost, the debate on the importance of tools and tool development, as well as, the role of tool directories in encouraging the maintenance of tools and software. furthermore, the process of integrating the two directories encouraged us to consider the issues of long-term access and support. this leaves us with an important question to consider: what will happen if tapor . is no longer able to be maintained or supported? if the experience and data is archived in an accessible form, does it really matter if any particular tool like tapor . disappears? we would like to thank dr. andrew piper (mcgill university) and noveltm: text mining the novel, a project funded by a sshrc partnership grant, for their support with this project. competing interest the authors have no competing interests to declare. author roles kaitlyn grant, university of alberta, kgrant @ualberta.ca – kg quinn dombrowski, stanford university, qad@stanford.edu – qd dr. kamal ranaweera, university of alberta, kamal.ranaweera@ualberta.ca – kr omar rodriguez-arenas, university of alberta, omar.rodriguez@ualberta.ca – ora https://www.merlot.org/ mailto:kgrant @ualberta.ca mailto:qad@stanford.edu mailto:kamal.ranaweera@ualberta.ca mailto:omar.rodriguez@ualberta.ca grant et al: absorbing dirtart. , page of dr. stéfan sinclair, mcgill university, stefan.sinclair@mcgill.ca – ss dr. geoffrey rockwell, university of alberta, grockwel@ualberta.ca – gr the order of the authors reflects the level of contribution to the overall research project, including the research, programming, writing, and funding of the project. conceptualization – kg, gr, qd, ss data curation – kg formal analysis – kg, gr funding acquisition – ss investigation – kg, gr, qd methodology – kg, gr project administration – kg resources – kg, gr, qd, ss software – kr, ora supervision – gr, ss writing – original draft – kg, gr, qd writing – review & editing – kg, gr, qd, kr, ora, ss editorial contributors congress special editor: dr. constance crompton, university of ottawa section editor/copy editor: darcy tamayose, university of lethbridge journal incubator layout editor: mahsa miri, university of lethbridge journal incubator references baird, davis. . thing knowledge: a philosophy of 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page of how to cite this article: grant, kaitlyn, quinn dombrowski, kamal ranaweera, omar rodriguez-arenas, stéfan sinclair, and geoffrey rockwell. . “absorbing dirt: tool directories in the digital age.” digital studies/le champ numérique ( ): , pp. – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /dscn. submitted: october accepted: february published: june copyright: © the author(s). this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (cc-by . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. open access digital studies/le champ numérique is a peer-reviewed open access journal published by open library of humanities. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / introduction tool knowledge tool directories: a history maintaining infrastructure absorbing dirt discussion conclusion competing interest author roles editorial contributors references j. anat. ( ) , pp – © anatomical society of great britain and ireland blackwell publishing, ltd. the chinese visible human (cvh) datasets incorporate technical and imaging advances on earlier digital humans shao-xiang zhang, pheng-ann heng, zheng-jin liu, li-wen tan, ming-guo qiu, qi-yu li, rong-xia liao, kai li, gao-yu cui, yan-li guo, xiao-ping yang, guang-jiu liu, jing-lu shan, ji-jun liu, wei-guo zhang, xian-hong chen, jin-hua chen, jian wang, wei chen, ming lu, jian you, xue-li pang, hong xiao, yong-ming xie and jack chun-yiu cheng department of anatomy, college of medicine, third military medical university, chongqing , china department of computer science and engineering, and department of orthopaedics and traumatology, chinese university of hong kong, china department of imaging diagnosis, research institute of field surgery, daping hospital, third military medical university, chongqing , china department of radiology, and department of radiation oncology, southwest hospital, third military medical university, chongqing , china abstract we report the availability of a digitized chinese male and a digitzed chinese female typical of the population and with no obvious abnormalities. the embalming and milling procedures incorporate three technical improvements over earlier digitized cadavers. vascular perfusion with coloured gelatin was performed to facilitate blood vessel identification. embalmed cadavers were embedded in gelatin and cryosectioned whole so as to avoid section loss resulting from cutting the body into smaller pieces. milling performed at − ° c prevented small structures (e.g. teeth, concha nasalis and articular cartilage) from falling off from the milling surface. the male image set (.tiff images each of mb) has a section resolution of × pixels ( ∼ µ m, the accompanying magnetic resonance imaging and computer tomography data have a resolution of × , i.e. ∼ µ m). the chinese visible human male and female datasets are available at http:// www.chinesevisiblehuman.com. ( the male is . gb and female . gb). mpeg videos of direct records of real-time volume rendering are at: www.cse.cuhk.edu.hk/ ∼ crc key words d reconstruction; chinese visible human; digital human; cryoembalming; cyrosectioning; human digital images; imaging. introduction the visible human project ( vhp) initiated visible human research ( vhr) by creating the visible human male ( vhm) and female ( vhf), publishing the datasets on the internet in and , respectively (spitzer et al. ; spitzer & whitlock, ; ackerman, ; http:/ / www.nlm.nih.gov / research / visible / visible_human .html). although the us vhp dataset has been widely used, it has limitations (e.g. it suffers from data loss of the three junctions caused by cadaver segmentation, and it is only typical of the caucasian population). digitized humans are clearly required that are repre- sentative of other populations, and the ‘visible korean human ( vkh)’ project was initiated in , with the first vkh dataset being of a -year-old patient who had died of cerebroma (chung & kim, ; chung & park, ). this therefore cannot represent a complete normal adult human. in november , the chinese visible human (cvh) project was set up to produce a dataset of a complete normal adult male and female from an asian popula- tion. the cvh project was planned to include digital images derived from computerized tomography (ct) together with magnetic resonance imaging (mri), and photographic images from cadaver cryosectioning. the cvh project set out to produce high-quality data and maintain image integrity through two correspondence dr shao-xiang zhang, department of anatomy, college of medicine, third military medical university, chongqing , china. e: zhangsx@mail.tmmu.com.cn accepted for publication january the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland improvements to the sectioning procedures. first, the milling machine table was made large enough to mount a whole embedded human body so as to avoid data loss caused by fragmenting the body before cryomacrotoming. second, milling was performed in a laboratory where the temperature was maintained at or below − ° c, to prevent small structures (including tooth, concha nasalis and articular cartilage) from falling off the milling surface. the cvh male and female were completed in october and in february , respectively. materials and methods acquisition of the dataset specimen preparation ten cadavers of each sex were gifted by the citizens of chongqing. a key aspect of the cvh project was to use cadavers that were from relatively young adults ( – years), and of typical height ( – cm) and weight (e.g. no evidence of obesity or emaciation). those meeting these criteria were screened macroscopically to exclude those with any superficial evidence of organic pathology. the remaining cadavers then underwent preliminary ct and mri examinations to exclude those with internal lesions or pathology. the final cadavers were then transported to the third military medical university imaging center to capture ct and mr images, which were kept to compare with later anatomical images, whereas those cadavers with internal lesions or pathology were further excluded. the man whose body was used as the cvh male was years old at the time of death. he was cm tall and weighed kg. he had died of carbon monoxide poisoning, and the body was received h after his death. ct and mr images were obtained of each region of the body in the laboratory of the hospital. at h after death, the cadaver underwent measurement of height, weight and configuration. the skin and subcu- taneous tissue were then cut below the mid-point of right inguinal (poupart’s) ligament and, the right femoral artery was opened longitudinally. two tubes were inserted, one cranially and the other caudally, and the cadaver was perfused with units of heparin in ml of physiological saline and . litres of % formalin was then injected into the artery ( litres of formalin was injected into the vessel cranially, and . litres caudally). the right femoral vein was opened and approximately litres of venous blood flow was drained. two hours later, the femoral artery was perfused with a % gelatin solution, which was coloured red with food dye: ml of the gelatin solution was perfused into the artery cranially, and ml caudally. the femoral cut was then sutured layer by layer. at h after death, the cadaver was transferred in the anatomical position to a specially constructed freezer, where the temperature was maintained at − ° c. the cvh female was years old at the time of death. she was cm tall and weighed kg. she had died of food poisoning and the body was received h after her death. the cvh female was prepared in essentially the same way as the male. at h after death, after undergoing ct and mri examinations, the cadaver was perfused with % formalin into the right femoral artery. we injected litres into the vessel cranially, and litre caudally. two hours later, the femoral artery was perfused with % red gelatin solution: ml of the gelatin solution was perfused into the artery cranially, and ml caudally. at h after death, the body was transferred in the anatomical position to the low-temperature freezer. ct and mr imaging ct transverse images were collected every millimetre (in all, there were ct images for the male and ct images for the female; see fig. a). a . -tesla superconducting magnetic resonance imager (siemens medical systems, germany) was used for mr imaging. spin-echo t -weighted images were obtained in the axial plane with the following parameters: repetition time (tr) – ms, echo time (te) ms, field of view ( – ) × mm, slice thickness: . mm for the head and cervix region and . mm for the other regions, pixel matrix × , number of acquisitions . in total, mr images were acquired for the male and mr images for the female (fig. b). cadaver embedding the specimen needed to be embedded in a suitable medium so that it could be cut in the milling machine. for this, a box was made of corrosion-resistant material (inner dimensions: mm × mm × mm). four plastic tubes that had been positioned longitudinally served as fiducial rods for three-dimensional ( -d) the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland reconstruction (fig. ). the specimen was then trans- ferred from the ultra freezer and placed in the box in the anatomical position, and the box was then filled with % gelatin solution coloured blue with food dye. the box was placed in a freezer ( − ° c) for week so that the body was frozen in an ice block mm wide × mm long × mm deep. sectioning of the cadaver to keep the ice block hard enough to keep the cutting surface slick and to avoid the ejection of small segments of tissue from the block, we constructed a low-temper- ature chamber ( . m long × . m wide × . m high) that could be maintained at or below − ° c. the milling machine was placed in the chamber, but its electronic control system was kept outside. for sectioning, the ice block was transferred to the chamber and mounted to the cryomacrotome table of the milling machine. sectioning of the intact block was performed using an improved tk- numerical control milling machine with a milling accuracy of . mm (the numerical control system was made in japan and the mill made in france; engineers from our team and the hanzhong machine tool factory, china, designed and implemented necessary modifications). slices of each body were then milled layer by layer, from head to toes, at − ° c in the low-temperature chamber. the serial cross-sections were photographed with a canon high-resolution digital camera and scanned into an animation computer (fig. ). images from the structural dataset are shown in figs – . the cutting process required three operators, two mill operators, one in the low-temperature chamber (appropriately clothed) and the other outside, together with a computer operator. communication was either visually through a glass window in the chamber wall or using a microphone. the process was as follows: the mill operator outside the room set the starting location of the block and recorded the x , y and z positions using the keyboard on the control table. after completing a newly cut surface, the operator in the room rotated the worktable through ° so that the camera was in the proper position to catch the image. the surface was then cleared with compressed air and sprayed with absolute ethyl alcohol, and a ruler and a chromato- gram label were then placed on the surface. the mill operator told the computer operator that preparation of the block surface was complete and optimal for photography. this was performed by the computer operator outside the low-temperature chamber, who then viewed the image (another image was taken if the first was not satisfactory), confirmed the slice number and saved the image on the hard drive of the computer. the mill operator in the chamber then rotated the worktable of the mill back to the original position while the mill operator outside the room fig. ct and mr images of the cvh male (a) and female (b) head. the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland set new x and z positions for the block for the next cycle. cutting of the cvh male block began on march and finished on august . cutting of the cvh female block began on october and finished on february . the axial anatomical images of the cvh male were obtained at . -mm intervals for the head and neck regions, . -mm intervals for the skull base, and . -mm intervals elsewhere. there were serial images (tagged image file format, tiff ), each of mb, and the complete data files occupy . gb. the axial anatomical images of the cvh female were obtained at . -mm intervals for the head and . -mm intervals for the other regions. in all, there were serial slices, with each tiff file occupying mb ( × pixels, approximate pixel size was µ m). the complete dataset occupies . gb. fig. four plastic tubes (a – d) were positioned longitudinally to serve as fiducial rods for -d reconstruction and as markers for cross-sections. the image of the block surface as the camera viewed it: the colour normalization strip is included at the top and the ruler is included at the bottom of each sectional image. fig. transverse section image of head (cvh female): , optic nerve; , mesencephalon; , cerebellum; ,occipital lobe; , temporal lobe. the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland fig. transverse section image of head (cvh male): , frontal bone; , corpus callosum, genu; , caudate nucleus; , putamen; , internal capsule, posterior limb; , corpus callosum, splenium; , occipital lobe; , insula; , temporal lobe; , temporalis muscle. fig. transverse section image of abdomen (cvh male) to show the blood vessels (inferior aspect): , left gastroepiploic artery; , ileocolic artery; , superior mesenteric vein; , superior mesenteric artery; , jejunal artery; , left colic vein; , accessory renal artery; , renal segmental artery; , renal artery; , abdominal aorta; , renal vein; , inferior vena cava. the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland image capture and photography images were captured by an external computer using a high-resolution canon eos-d digital camera (resolu- tion × [ ] pixels) protected in a wooden box that had been placed in the chamber before the temperature in the laboratory was lowered. to protect the camera, the temperature was lowered slowly over weeks from ° c to − ° c. once a newly milled surface was complete, cleaned, positioned and labelled (see above), the photography light was turned on and the picture captured and transferred to the animation computer. the computer operator then viewed the image to ensure that the image was of the required standard, assigned it the proper slice number and saved it on the computer’s hard drive. the mill operator outside the room also recorded the x , y and z position from the screen of the controlling table of the milling machine, confirmed that the slice number was correct and made a note of any features of interest. three-dimensional reconstruction and visualization of cvh dataset after data acquisition of the cvh male and female were completed, -d reconstruction was achieved by surface rendering and volume rendering reconstruction. surface rendering reconstruction triangular meshing of the boundary surface of the cvh male and female was achieved using the marching cube algorithm. this was then rendered using opengl (i.e. the same method that others have used for the original visible human dataset). volume rendering reconstruction volume rendering reconstruction was achieved through graphics hardware acceleration supported by opengl . . our algorithm consists of the following steps: ( ) polygonization of the complete volume data through layer-by-layer processing and generating correspond- ing image texture; ( ) carrying out all essential trans- formations through vertex processor operations; ( ) dividing polygonal slices into smaller fragments, where the corresponding depth and texture coordinates are recorded; and ( ) in fragment processing, deploying the vertex shader programming technique to enhance the rendering of fragments. according to the red–green–blue (rgb) components, the image data of the volume cross-sectional plane can be processed and displayed in both greyscale and colour mode. using voxels as the basic modelling unit, we can render the body directly without performing any segmentation. in this way, we can visualize the whole human body with great flexibility. figure shows two cut views of the cvh male and female. traditionally, the size limitation of texture memory has made real-time rendering of large-volume datasets difficult as existing hardware-accelerated volume ren- dering cannot render datasets exceeding the specified size limit. we have developed a programmable graphics accelerator and appropriate visualization techniques to enable real-time visualization of the cvh dataset in a -d virtual environment. the -d reconstruction of visible human slices can also be stereoscopically viewed in real time. using our modified volume-rendering pipeline, we can interac- tively rotate the -d images around any spatial axis and /or section them in any orientation. our visualiza- tion system, which is based on the initial transverse images, can display sagittal, coronal and arbitrarily orientated sections by -d reconstruction. it can also display organs separately, or as part of the whole by defining approximate multiple oblique clipping planes to single-out the organ/region of interest. real-time stereoscopic visualization of the × × dataset can be achieved on a pc with the following configuration: pentium , . ghz, gb ram, gb hard-disk and equipped with a display card that supports opengl . and mb texture memory. dataset access the cvh male and female datasets are held at http:// www.chinesevisiblehuman.com. the complete dataset of the cvh male is . gb in size, and the cvh female is . gb in size, and can be distributed via ftp or dvds. the full datasets are available from the third military medical university (tmmu) under a licence agreement (enquiries should be addressed to the chinese visible human project at the tmmu). in addi- tion, several mpeg videos of direct records of real-time volume rendering of the chinese visible human datasets can be accessed at www.cse.cuhk.edu.hk / ∼ crc. the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland results and discussion acquisition of the anatomical cross-sectional images for the cvh male took months. the dataset also includes ct, mr and radiographic images. axial and coronal mr images of the head and neck and axial sections through the rest of the body were obtained at . -mm intervals and in matrices of × pixels ( grey levels, approximate pixel size µ m). ct data consisted of axial scans through the body at . - mm intervals. ct images are × pixels, in which each -bit pixel value is related to the electron density of the specimen at that point. the mr and ct axial images have been aligned with the anatomical cross-sections. all digital images of milled surfaces had ( × ) pixels. the data file of each section occupies gb. the complete data files occupy . gb. acquisition of the anatomical cross-sectional images for the cvh female took months. the visible female dataset has the same characteristics as the male with the following exceptions. the serial sections were sampled at . -mm intervals for the head and . - mm intervals for other regions. ct data consisted of axial scans through the entire body at . -mm intervals. the data file of each section occupies mb. the complete data files occupy . gb. the korean vkh project initiated in march is still in progress, but the first vkh dataset has the limitation that the -year-old male patient had died of cerebroma and it thus has a pathological lesion. these images are at a higher resolution and are more complete than those produced by the ‘visible human project’, in which intervals between adjacent sec- tions of the visible male and female are . mm and . mm, respectively, with the image for each section being × pixels. each uncompressed data file was . mb, with the complete male and female data files occupying gb and about gb, respectively. in addition, the vhp dataset is incomplete: according to the us vhp, the physical limitations of the cutting system required that the cadaver had to be cut into four segments before sectioning, causing a loss of . mm between blocks. furthermore, because of the fig. sagittal and coronal sections of cvh, -d reconstructed. (a) sagittal section of cvh male: , cerebrum; , cerebellum; , left lung; , heart; , liver; , spleen; , left kidney. (b) coronal section of cvh female: , cerebrum; , left lung; , stomach; , liver; , uterus; , urinary bladder. the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland ejection of small segments of tissue from the block, some images of the vhp were imperfect. our methodology was designed to avoid these pro- blems. we improved the milling machine to make its table large enough for a complete body, and, by keeping the body in a frozen matrix at − ° c, kept all tissues in place that otherwise risked being lost (the last few millimetres of the condyles of the femur, some bones fig. continued the chinese visible human, s.-x. zhang et al. © anatomical society of great britain and ireland of the hand, foot, teeth, the concha nasalis, the articular cartilage, the temporal lobe of the brain, the cerebellum, etc.). the cvh male and female reported here as additions to the visible human dataset are more complete, representative and accurate than those hitherto published. acknowledgements this work was supported by the national natural science fund of china (nsfc) for distinguished young scholars (no. ), national science fund of china (no. ) and the research grants council of the hong kong special administrative region (no. cuhk / c). we thank investigators at the virtual reality, visualization and imaging research center and the chinese university of hong kong for dataset visualization. we thank computer experts at the department of computer science and technology, tsinghua university, for their support. we also thank our domestic colleagues for their dedication to chinese visible human research that made this project successful. we especially acknowledge those citizens who donated their bodies to medical research. references ackerman mj ( ) the visible human project: a resource for education. j . acad . med . , – . chung ms, kim sy ( ) three-dimensional image and virtual dissection program of the brain made of korean cadaver. yonsei med . j . , – . chung ms, park hs ( ) another trial for making serially sectioned images ( visible korean human). in international workshop on visible human , pp. – . chongqing, china: third military medical university. spitzer vm, ackerman mj, scherzinger al, whitlock d ( ) the visible human male: a technical report. j . am . med . inform. assoc. , – . spitzer vm, whitlock dg ( ) the visible human dataset: the anatomical platform for human simulation. anat. rec. , – . university of winchester skip to main navigation skip to search skip to main content welcome to university of winchester explore profiles, expertise and research at university of winchester advanced search research units research output projects prizes activities student theses university of winchester research portal welcome to the university of winchester's institutional repository which showcases the excellent research undertaken across the university. the repository enables open access to outputs where permitted, and full citation details where restrictions apply, making our research accessible worldwide through a searchable, browse-able database. new items are being added all the time. for further information about the repository, please contact repository@winchester.ac.uk collaborations within the past years. click dots and donuts to bring up details or select a country from the list collaborations within the past years. select a country to view shared publications and projects close powered by pure, scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine™ © elsevier b.v. we use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. by continuing you agree to the use of cookies log in to pure about web accessibility university of winchester contact form setting sail – opportunity in course changes imagine that you are intending to sail to a port you’ve never visited before. what would you do? plan the trip before you leave, measure the wind speed and direction, plot your course, lash the tiller, then do nothing further, and after the time needed for the trip had passed check whether you had reached your destination? probably not. you would be more likely to make some general calculations and adjust your course from time to time. it is precisely this ability to respond quickly and indepen- dently to changing conditions that is known in a business context as agility. i believe it has made a major contribution to daimler’s success. agile working speeds up the pace of innovation and increases competitiveness in a complex, volatile environment. my point is that daimler has around , employees from more than nationalities and the entire automotive industry is undergoing a period of upheaval. digitization, connectivity, electrification, autonomous driving, the shared economy, and mobility apps such as car go and moovel are all transforming the industry in previously unimagined ways. our aim is to play an active role in shaping these changes. with our corporate strategy, which has the four key themes of “connected, auto- nomous, shared & service, and electric drive” (case), we are on the right track and are focusing increasingly on new ways of working together. the characteristic features of agile working include signi- ficant freedom to design your own work and considerable responsibility. this type of cooperation requires a new form of management. in contrast to more authoritarian approaches, managers in agile teams are increasingly taking on the role of coaches who support their team, help it to develop, and create a framework for independent action. for example, in the field of development this means drawing up a clear description of specific product characteristics, func- tionality, and customer experiences without knowing what the finished product is. in this type of environment, employees need effective guidance that allows them plenty of freedom to act, make use of their own resources, and take the necessary decisions so that they can achieve the next goal independently. this involves a combination of autonomy and coordination with the relevant stakeholders. managers at daimler are learning to hand over control and transfer more responsibility for decision-making to the mem- bers of their teams. this requires a great deal of trust on both sides. sailors know that it makes no sense to sail directly toward their destination. sailing is the art of keeping your eye on your objective and using the wind to get there, even if it is blowing from the side or changing direction. (published in “digital human” by kai anderson and bettina volkens, campus verlag) dipl.-ing. wilfried porth member of the board of management of daimler ag, human resources and director of labor relations, mercedes-benz vans © d a im le r gue st c o mmenta ry collaborative writing to build digital humanities praxis collaborative writing to build digital humanities praxis the following is the rough text of my short paper given at the digital humanities conference in montréal. thanks very much for having me today! i’m brandon walsh, head of graduate programs in the scholars’ lab at the university of virginia library. i’ll be talking a bit today about “collaborative writing to build digital humanities praxis.” since the subject here is collaboration i wanted to spend a few minutes here on my collaborators. this work was begun at my previous position at washington and lee university’s library. my principal collaborator here is and was professor sarah horowitz, from washington and lee university. we conceived the project together, co-taught the associated course, and her writing figures prominently on the project i will describe. the other names here are individuals, institutions, or projects who figure explicitly in the talk, whether they know it or not. you can find a zotero collection with the resources mentioned during the talk here. so. to begin. emergent programs like those associated with the praxis network have redefined the possibilities for digital humanities training by offering models for project-based pedagogy. these efforts provide innovative institutional frameworks for building up and sharing digital skills, but they primarily focus on graduate or undergraduate education. they tend to think in terms of students. the long-term commitments that programs like these require can make them difficult to adapt for the professional development of other librarians, staff, and faculty collaborators. while members of these groups might share deep interests in undertaking such programs themselves, their institutional commitments often prevent them from committing the time to such professional development, particularly if the outcomes are not immediately legible for their own structures of reporting. i argue that we can make such praxis programs viable for broader communities by expanding the range of their potential outcomes and forms. in particular, i want to explore the potential for collaborative writing projects to develop individual skillsets and, by extension, the capacity of digital humanities programs. while the example here focuses on a coursebook written for an undergraduate audience, i believe the model and set of pedagogical issues can be extrapolated to other circumstances. by considering writing projects as potential opportunities for project-based development, i argue that we can produce professionally legible outcomes that both serve institutional priorities and prove useful beyond local contexts. the particular case study for this talk is an open coursebook written for a course on digital text analysis (walsh and horowitz, ). in fall of , professor sarah horowitz, a colleague in the history department at washington and lee university, approached the university library with an interest in digital text analysis and a desire to incorporate these methods in her upcoming class. she had a growing interest in the topic, and she wanted support to help her take these ideas and make them a reality in her research and teaching. as the mellon digital humanities fellow working in the university library, i was asked to support professor horowitz’s requests because of my own background working with and teaching text analysis. professor horowitz and i conceived of writing the coursebook as a means by which the library could meet her needs while also building the capacity of the university’s digital humanities resources. the idea was that, rather than offer her a handful of workshops, the two of us would co-author materials together that could then be used by professor horowitz later on. the writing of these materials would be the scene of the teaching and learning. our model in this regard was as an initiative undertaken by the digital fellows at the cuny graduate center, where their graduate fellows produce documentation and shared digital resources for the wider community. we aimed to expand upon their example, however, by making collaborative writing a centerpiece of our pedagogical experiment. we included professor horowitz directly in the creation of the course materials, a process that required her to engage in a variety of technologies central to a certain kind of web publishing workflow: command line, markdown, git, and github. we produced the materials on a platform called gitbook, which provides a handy interface for writing that invokes many elements of this tech stack in a non-obtrusive way. their editor allows you to write in markdown and previews the resultant text for you, but it also responds to the standard slew of ms word keyboard shortcuts that many writers are familiar with. in this way we were able to keep the focus on the writing even as we slowly expanded professor horowitz’s ability to work directly with these technologies. from a writing standpoint, the process also required synthesis of both text analysis techniques and disciplinary material relevant to a course in nineteenth-century history. i provided the former, professor horowitz would review and critique as she added the latter, then i would review, etc. the result, i think, is more than either of us could have produced on our own, and we each learned a lot about the other’s subject matter. the result of the collaboration is that, after co-writing the materials and teaching the course together, professor horowitz is prepared to offer the course herself in the future without the support of the library. we now also possess course materials that, through careful structuring and selection of platforms, could be reusable in other courses at our own institutions and beyond. in this case, we tried to take special care to make each lesson stand on its own and to compartmentalize each topic according to the various parts of each class workshop. one section would introduce a topic from a theoretical standpoint, the next would offer a case study using a particular tool, and the last would offer course exercises that were particular to our course. we hoped this structuring would make it easy for the work to be excerpted and built upon by others for their own unique needs. writing collaborations such as these can fit the professional needs of people in a variety of spaces in the university. course preparation, for example, often takes place behind the scenes and away from the eyes of students and other scholars. you tend to only see the final result as it is performed with students in a workshop or participants in a class. with a little effort, this hidden teaching labor can be transformed into openly available resources capable of being remixed into other contexts. we are following here on the example of shawn graham ( ), who has illustrated through his own resources for a class on crafting digital history that course materials can be effectively leveraged to serve a wider good in ways that still parse in a professional context. in our case, the collaboration produced public-facing web writing in the form of an open educational resource. the history department regarded the project as a success for its potential to bring new courses, skills, and students into the major as a result of professor horowitz’s training. the university library valued the collaboration for its production of open access materials, development of faculty skills, and exploration of workflows and platforms for faculty collaboration. we documented and managed the writing process in a github repository. this versioned workflow was key to our conception of the project, as we hoped to structure the project in such a way that others could copy down and spin up their own versions of the course materials for their own needs. we were careful to compartmentalize the lessons according to their focus on theory, application, or course exercises, and we provided documentation to walk readers through the technical process of adapting the book to reflect their own disciplinary content. we wrote reasonably detailed directions aimed at two different audiences - those with a tech background and those without. we wanted people to be able to pull down, tear apart, and reuse those pieces that were relevant for them. we hoped to create a mechanism by which readers and teachers could iterate using our materials to create their own versions. writing projects like this one provide spaces for shared learning experiences that position student and teacher as equals. by writing in public and asking students and faculty collaborators to discuss, produce, and revise open educational resources, we can break down distinctions between writer and audience, teacher and student, programmer and non-programmer. in this spirit, work by robin derosa ( ) with the open anthology of earlier american literature and cathy davidson with hastac has shown that students can make productive contributions to digital humanities research at the same time that they learn themselves. these contributions offer a more intimate form of pedagogy – a more caring and inviting form of building that can draw newcomers into the field by way of non-hierarchical peer mentoring. it is no secret that academia contains “severe power imbalances” that adversely affect teaching and the lives of instructors, students, and peers (mcgill, ). i see collaborative writing as helping to create shared spaces of exploration that work against such structures of power. they can help to generate what bethany nowviskie ( ) has recently advocated as a turn towards a “feminist ethics of care” to “illuminate the relationships of small components, one to another, within great systems.” by writing together, teams engage in what nowviskie ( ) calls the “perpetual peer review” of collaborative work. through conversations about ethical collaboration and shared credit early in the process, we can privilege the voice of the learner as a valued contributor to a wider community of practitioners even before they might know the technical details of the tools or skills under discussion. collaborative writing projects can thus serve as training in digital humanities praxis: they can help introduce the skills, tools, and theories associated with the field, and projects like ours do so in public. productive failure in this space has long been a hallmark of work in the digital humanities, so much so that “failure” was listed as a keyword in the new anthology digital pedagogy in the humanities (croxall and warnick, ). writing in public carries many of the same rewards – and risks. many of those new to digital work, in particular, rightfully fear putting their work online before it is published. the clearest way in which we can invite people into the rewards of public digital work is by sharing the burdens and risks of such work. in her recent work on generous thinking, kathleen fitzpatrick ( ) has advocated for “thinking with rather than reflexively against both the people and the materials with which we work.” by framing digital humanities praxis first and foremost as an activity whose successes and failures are shared, we can lower the stakes for newcomers. centering this approach to digital humanities pedagogy in the practice of writing productively displaces the very digital tools and methodologies that it is meant to teach. even if the ultimate goal is to develop a firm grounding in a particular digital topic, focusing on the writing invites students and collaborators into a space where anyone can contribute. by privileging the writing rather than technical skills as the means of engagement and ultimate outcome, we can shape a more inviting and generous introduction to digital humanities praxis. references • croxall, b. and warnick, q. ( ). “failure.” in digital pedagogy in the humanities: concepts, models, and experiments. modern languages association. • derosa, r. ( ). “the open anthology of earlier american literature.” https://openamlit.pressbooks.com/. • fitzpatrick, k. ( ). “generous thinking: the university and the public good.” planned obsolescence. http://www.plannedobsolescence.net/generous-thinking- the-university-and-the-public-good/. • graham, s. ( ). “crafting digital history.” http://workbook.craftingdigitalhistory.ca/. • mcgill, b. ( ). “serial bullies: an academic failing and the need for crowd- sourced truthtelling.” dynamic ecology. https://dynamicecology.wordpress.com/ / / /serial-bullies-an-academic- failing-and-the-need-for-crowd-sourced-truthtelling/. • nowviskie, b. ( ). “where credit is due.” http://nowviskie.org/ /where- credit-is-due/. • ———. . “capacity through care.” http://nowviskie.org/ /capacity- through-care/. ramsay, s. ( ). “learning to program.” http://stephenramsay.us/ / / /learning-to-program/. • ———. . “the hermeneutics of screwing around; or what you do with a million books.” in pastplay: teaching and learning history with technology, edited by kevin kee. university of michigan press. http://hdl.handle.net/ /spo. . . . • the praxis network ( ). university of virginia library’s scholars’ lab. http://praxis-network.org/. walsh, brandon, and sarah horowitz. . “introduction to text analysis: a coursebook.” http://www.walshbr.com/textanalysiscoursebook statistics for digital human motion modeling in ergonomics julian faraway and matthew p. reed department of mathematical sciences , univ. of bath, bath, ba ay, uk & transportation research institute univ. of michigan ann arbor, mi , usa (jjf @bath.ac.uk and mreed@umich.edu) april , abstract modern manufacturing industry demands that products be designed for the comfort and accessibility of consumers as well as workplaces for the health and safety of employees. speed of implementation requires that these designs be constructed in a virtual world. digital human models are required for these virtual worlds for the exploration of vehicle and manufacturing designs from an ergonomic perspective. this article provides an overview of the ergonomic issues and statistical methods for human motion modeling. we first describe methods for modeling the basic elements of motion, decomposed into univariate curves, d trajectories and orientation trajectories. methods for combining the components of the motion into a coherent whole are then presented. two application examples in truck driver behavior and sheet metal assembly illustrate the methodology. key words: functional data analysis, trajectories, orientation, quaternions, digital human model, virtual manufacturing. introduction consider the design and production of a new vehicle. the vehicle must be built and used by humans so the design must accommodate a wide range of heights, strengths, ages and so on. on the product side, we must ensure that the customer can perform all the necessary functions in a safe and comfortable manner, while, on the manufacturing side, we must ensure that large volumes of the vehicle can be made within the capabilities of a wide range of workers. years ago, manufacturers could build a sequence of prototypes and use these to discover and rectify any problems. but now competitive pressures mean that the time to bring a vehicle to market is greatly reduced. automotive manufacturers aim to produce the design for a new vehicle and the manufacturing facility to build it in an entirely virtual world. this speeds the introduction of the new product, but it does mean that designers must aim to anticipate any ergonomic problems before a physical build of the vehicle is completed or a new production facility is built. experience with similar vehicles produced in the past is useful, but new vehicles have new features that may require design modifications. for these reasons, we need models that predict how humans of different types will behave in vehicle and workplace environments. we can then experiment with different virtual humans in the vehicle or production environment to detect any ergonomic problems and suggest appropriate design modifications. one important aspect of human behavior that is relevant to ergonomic analysis is volitional, task-oriented movement. as can be readily seen, there is substantial variation in the way that people move that depends on their physical size, gender, age and other factors. there is also natural, but unexplained, variation in human movement. predicting human motion and modeling this variation is a task for which statistical methods can be useful. even so, there is a wide range of other approaches to motion prediction, discussed below, with which statistical methods must compete. our overall aim is to present a suite of statistical methods for human motion modeling. al- though most of our efforts have been directed towards digital human models for vehicle design and manufacturing, the methods we present are applicable to ergonomic issues arising in other industries and institutions. for example, digital human models have proved useful in the design of retail stores so that wheelchair users can comfortably use the checkouts, both as customers and sales assistants. human motion modeling is also used in a range of other areas such as sport, neuroscience and movie and video game production. the objectives in these areas vary, and while the methods we present here can be useful, other approaches may be better. for example, in current video games, the characters perform motions from a limited and precalculated library of motions due to the demands of real-time performance. in this article, we provide a background to the ergonomic issues in section . motion of the whole body is composed of several simpler parts — for example, how the head or the hand moves. in section , we describe the statistical methods which we have developed for modeling these elemental components of motion. we describe methods for modeling univariate curves, such as the angle of some body segment over time, d trajectories such as those formed by the hand during motion and orientation trajectories such as those formed by the head. we also describe how we collect human motion data and discuss how its characteristics affect the choice of analysis. the elemental motion must be combined into predictions of motion for the whole body in section . this is not straightforward as the parts have to be coherently combined to form the whole. in section , we present two application examples showing the utility of our research and finish with a discussion of possible future research in section . ergonomics background ergonomics is the study of people at work and the practice of matching the features of products and jobs to human capabilities, preferences, and limitations (chaffin, andersson, and martin ( )). industrial ergonomics focuses on ensuring that jobs are designed for safe and efficient work. in product design, ergonomics guides the selection of product features and design characteristics that will improve safety, comfort, and performance of users. ergonomics is also an important consideration in the design of products for maintainability and disassembly for recycling. historically, ergonomics has been largely reactive, fixing problems as they are identified. but computer-aided design tools increasingly allow ergonomics considerations to be addressed early in the design of products and industrial processes through computer simulations. human capa- bilities, requirements, and performance are represented in these simulations through the use of digital human models (dhm), software avatars that represent human size, shape, strength, vision, and movement as they interact with virtual geometry and environments (chaffin ( )). cur- rent commercial dhm tools, such as safeworktm (http://www.safework.com/) and jacktm (http://www.ugs.com/products/tecnomatix/human_performance/jack/) have sophisticated algorithms for body dimension scaling and for analyzing the internal forces and torques that would be experienced by a person performing the simulated tasks. porter, case, freer, and bonney ( ) summarized applications of digital human models in vehicle ergonomics during the early years of personal computers, at which time few of the current commercial dhm software tools were in use. dhm are now widely used in the design of products, particularly aircraft, cars, trucks, and other vehicles. industrial manufacturers are also increasingly using dhm to simulate workers in computer simulations of new plants or processes. in spite of these successes, the use of dhm has been hampered by the lack of fast, accurate, and reliable posture and motion simulation. until recently, simulating a task that would be very simple for a real human, such as walking to a shelf and picking up a tool, required the ergonomics analyst to perform time-consuming manual posturing of the figure at each critical transition in the motion. using this process, known in animation as keyframing, the skilled analyst requires many hours to create a simulation of a manual activity that would take a few seconds for a person to perform. yet this process does not necessarily provide accurate postures or motions, dependent as it is on the analyst’s judgement as to how a person would perform the task. moreover, the analyst must often redo much of the work if the environment is changed or the characteristics of the virtual human (such as body size) are altered. the extremely time-consuming nature of keyframe animation presumably creates a substantial incentive to develop predictive tools. yet, because of the difficulty of developing the necessary algorithms, human motion simulation for entertainment applications (films, video games) and for ergonomics has increasingly been achieved through the capture and editing of specific human motions. in feature films, commercials, and video games, nearly every movement of a computer- generated character is produced by playing back motion data obtained from a human actor, possibly after modifying or “warping” the motion. the seemingly insurmountable advantage of motion- capture data over motion prediction for commercial animation is the obvious naturalness of the motion. when the movie or video-game director knows that a particular character will perform a particular motion with a particular prop, or when the physical repertoire of a game character is limited to a handful of actions, motion capture (with sophisticated editing and modification software) meets the need. hence, relatively little effort has been directed toward the realistic prediction of novel human motions. as evidence of the importance of posture and motion simulation, dozens of papers in the au- tomotive engineering literature and in other forums have presented a wide variety of methods for human simulating postures and motions, including multiple-regression snyder, chaffin, and schutz ( ); analytic and numerical inverse kinematics (jung, kee, and chung ( ); tolani, goswami, and badler ( )); optimization-based inverse kinematics (wang and verriest ( )); differential inverse kinematics (zhang and chaffin ( )); functional regression on stretch-pivot parameters (faraway ( a)); scaling, warping, and blending of motion-capture data (park, chaf- fin, and martin ( ); faraway ( a); monnier, wang, verriest, and goujon ( ); park, chaffin, and martin ( ); dufour and wang ( )); and many forms of optimization (e.g., flash and hogan ( ); engelbrecht ( ); marler, rahmatalla, shanahan, and abdel-malek ( ); wang, xiang, kim, arora, and abdel-malek ( )). every software manikin used for ergonomics includes some inverse kinematics (ik) capability for posturing. given a particular position and orientation in space for a hand or foot, the software will use ik methods to calculate the angles of the joints of adjacent segments to attain the goal. the problem is underdetermined, because the linkage system (arm or leg) has more kinematic degrees of freedom than are specified for the hand or foot. the methods for performing inverse kinematics calculations and solving the redundancy problem vary widely. an extensive literature on inverse kinematics has emerged from the field of robotics, because placing an end effector at a particular location in space, or tracing a path, is an essential function of industrial robots. however, inverse kinematics alone produces a feasible posture, not necessarily a likely or accurate posture. in some cases, as in the ramsistm software, the joint angles are calculated to maximize the likelihood of the joint angles relative to a stored set of joint-angle probability distributions. when applied in task situations similar to those used for collecting the underlying data, this approach yields postures that have the most likely joint angles for similar size people while meeting the kinematic constraints. one common approach is to assume that humans will move in order to optimize some crite- rion that represents effort or comfort, for example, subject to the constraints imposed by the task. examples of this type of approach include the minimization of joint torques (uno, kawato, and suzuki ( )), the minimization of the rate of change of segment acceleration (flash and hogan ( )), the minimization of joint deviations from neutral (marler, rahmatalla, shanahan, and abdel-malek ( )), and the maximization of strength as a function of joint angles (zacher and bubb ( )). visually realistic motion is a necessary, but not sufficient level of fidelity for ergonomics anal- ysis. because dhm are used for quantitative assessments of reach capability, body clearances, strength, and tissue stresses, human simulations for ergonomics applications must be quantita- tively accurate, meaning that they are in some way quantitatively representative of the manner in which the people with the specified characteristics would perform the tasks being investigated. this necessity for quantitative accuracy means that the algorithms that are used to generate the motion must be developed and validated with reference to data from real, task-oriented human motions. and because the variation in the motions of people performing the same task is often of considerable interest, the algorithms, and the understanding that underlies them, must encompass important aspects of human variability. our strategy can be distinguished from others by the following characteristics. our approach is empirical and our models derive directly from data. this is, of course, natural to a statistician, but is not the path followed by many human motion modelers. the contrasting approach is to develop rules or theories about how people move, often embodied in the optimization approach discussed above, and use these to develop motion predictions. the efficacy of these models is then evaluated by a visual assessment of the authenticity of the motion perhaps combined with a comparison to smaller amounts of observed motion data. the two styles of modeling have different advantages. statistical approaches such as ours do allow an understanding of variation in human mation and permit statistical inference. motion predictions based on such models might be expected to perform relatively well in situations close to the data on which they are based. in contrast, the non-statistical approaches are typically more ambitious in their scope and might hope to outperform the statistical models in predicting motion in new environments for which no similar data is available. given the wide scope of possible human motion, we expect that a combination of the two styles of approach will be necessary for wider success. well-established, but simpler statistical methods have been frequently employed by human motion modelers. mostly these have been used for the simpler problem of static posture prediction. we have developed methods for modeling motion that use recent statistical advances in functional data analysis. statistical methodology in this section, we describe the nature of human motion data and the methods we have used to analyze it. . motion capture data data on how people move provide the raw material for our analysis. motion capture (sometimes abbreviated to mocap) is a technology for recording motion. markers are attached to a subject and then sensors track these markers as the subject moves. the most commonly used systems are optical or magnetic in nature. it is important to understand how the data is collected because this has an impact on the choice of methods used for analysis. in an optical system, reflective markers are attached to key locations on the body, such as the elbow and shoulder. the position of the markers is triangulated by special cameras. the accuracy of these systems is normally very good, with errors of one millimeter or less. however, various problems can occur that affect the quality of the data and the effort required to process it. the markers are indistinguishable and so need to be identified as the left wrist or the right shoulder and so on. (active optical marker systems currently becoming more widespread avoid this problem because the markers are uniquely identified). the processing software is then usually able to keep track of the identities of the markers, but confusion can occur when markers pass close to one another or are temporarily obscured. thus human intervention is necessary to “track” the data in its raw state to a form suitable for analysis. this processing can be quite time consuming, sometimes taking much longer than the original collection of the data, including the experimental set up time. optical systems require a clear line of sight to the target. although data collectors use several cameras, markers may be obscured by other parts of the subject’s body or the props used to simulate the environment. thus it is difficult to collect motion capture data outside the laboratory or for motions that require a large field of action. in a magnetic system, three orthogonal coils are mounted in a transmitter and in each marker. the relative magnetic flux between the transmitter and the receiver in the marker allows one to determine both the location and orientation of the receiver. this offers an advantage over the optical system in that to record the location and orientation of, say, the hand, three optical markers would be required while only one magnetic marker would suffice. the magnetic system also has the advantage of not requiring a line of sight making it useful, say, for recording the torso motion of a subject in a car seat. even so, magnetic systems often require that the markers be wired which restricts and sometimes interferes with the normal motion of the subject. magnetic systems are also sensitive to metallic objects in the environment such the steel reinforcement bars used in concrete in modern buildings or electrical fields caused by other experimental equipment. the accuracy of a magnetic system tends to be significantly worse than an optical systems particularly towards the boundaries of the operating region. one further difficulty is that the markers are mounted on the exterior of the body while we would prefer to model the motion of the joint centers. for example, consider a marker mounted on the shoulder, placed as consistently as possible on a specified bony location. instead of modeling this marker directly, it would be better to project down to the center of rotation of the shoulder joint. this is no simple task as it depends on the posture and anthropometry of the individual. nevertheless, algorithms exist for solving this problem. after processing, the data will consist of the d coordinates of the markers collected over time. a frequency of observation of - hz might be typical. recording motion for just a couple of seconds for enough markers to describe the motion will thus generate a moderately large amount of data, particularly when it is considered that this would be just a single data point of motion among a larger collection of motion data. statisticians should note that smoothing is typically not necessary as the data contain little noise and that the trajectory of a marker can reasonably be reconstructed by smoothly interpolating the points. at the humosim laboratory in the center for ergonomics at the university of michigan, we have collected data on more than , motions. the experiments have focused on driv- ing and workplace tasks such as reaching for controls within a car or truck, lifting objects onto shelves and stepping around a small area while performing a variety of tasks. other researchers have collected motion databases of humans performing a much wider variety of motions — see mocap.cs.cmu.edu for example. some motion capture from the humosim laboratory may be seen in figure . one of the inherent drawbacks of laboratory-based motion capture is that it places the subjects in an unnatural environment. the ability to reliably and accurately capture motion in workplace or on the street would be very valuable, but it is currently difficult to accomplish reliably. human motion can be captured directly from ordinary video footage. with more than one camera, the possibility of triangulating points on the body from the video images exists although this is by no means easy. with only one camera, motion capture is more difficult. in this case, we need a model for how people move in order to infer the d motion from the d data. since the purpose of our figure : motion capture in the laboratory. optical markers can be seen as small white balls. data collection is to build such a model, this would be problematic. . models for the elements of motion our strategy for modeling motion data is to break it up into its individual components and then combine the parts to form a coherent whole. for example, we will devise separate models for how the hand and torso move during a seated reach motion. the geometric characteristics of these body parts determine the types of functional data that we will need to model. the hand forms a d trajectory while the motion of the torso generates an orientation trajectory. we list the data types that we will consider: univariate curves for example, consider the angle formed between the upper and lower arms at the elbow or the distance of the foot from the floor while walking. d trajectories consider the motion of the hand when picking up an object. this will form a d trajectory in space. orientation trajectories consider the orientation of the hand while picking up an object. this will form a curve in a three dimensional non-euclidean space. ensembles consider the motion of the upper body during a seated reach or even the whole body during a lifting motion. these can be described with an ensemble of the three data types described above. we will now describe methods for modeling all these types of data. we are interested in several types of data analysis. in some cases, we will want to understand the structure of variation within a functional dataset. for example, when lifting a box from the floor, some people will bend their knees while others will keep their legs straight while bending over. we need a form of cluster analysis to detect groups within functional data. another example concerns facial motion which is typically described by very high dimensional data. however, we might believe that facial motions vary within a much lower dimensional space. principal components analysis (pca) is one method for discovering such a space — see faraway ( b). even so, standard cluster analysis or pca applied to the raw motion data will not produce meaningful results as some transformation is necessary as we shall describe below. we are also interested in predicting or explaining motion in terms of some predictors using regression analysis. the response is the functional data describing the motion and the predictors might be characteristics of the individual such as height, age and weight and characteristics of the task being performed such as the location of button to be pressed or the weight of an object to be lifted. this requires the development of new types of regression models for functional responses listed above. we envisage a designer asking how a certain person would move to perform a task in a specified environment, inputting the predictor variables and receiving the predicted motion. in some cases, the designer will also like to have some measure of the uncertainty in the predic- tion. we also value the explanatory uses of regression. for example, men might perform a task differently from women. but is the difference just due to the difference in height or does it reflect a gender difference? regression analysis can answer these kinds of questions. in general our strategy is to find a good low dimensional representation of the notionally infinite dimensional functional data and then apply the standard methods of multivariate data analysis. however, the representations are very important as the multivariate data analysis will only produce meaningful results when this choice is made carefully. some discussion of the contrast between functional and non-functional styles of analysis may be found in rice ( ) and zhao, marron, and wells ( ). . univariate curves many individual components of the motion, such as angles between body segments as they change over time, can be described as functions. for example, consider an axis joining the initial and final location of the hand during a reaching motion. we can compute the orthogonal distance of the hand from this axis during motion, which we will call the radial deviation. because we observe the data only at discrete timepoints, we have a sequence of observed values from the start to the end of the motion. these sequences are of different lengths because some targets are further away than others and people reach at different speeds. we rescale all these motions so that time t = is the start of the motion and t = is the end of the motion. we can save the actual time taken as a possible predictor of the motion and, perhaps, to be predicted itself. determining when a particular motion starts and ends is sometimes difficult. even at rest, the body will be moving slightly. furthermore, different parts of the body will start and stop moving at different times. for example, we might move our head to look at an object before reaching for it. when we combine the models for how individual parts of the body move, we will need to allow for these offsets. further difficulties arise when chaining sequences of motions together. plots of the radial deviation for subjects reaching with the right hand to a location somewhat to the left and front of the body and about the same height as the initial position of the hand are shown in figure . a typical dataset would contain reaches by several subjects to a range of targets so the plot shows only a small subset of the data. it would be reasonable to average (or take . . . . . . proportion of time c m figure : the radial deviation of the hand from a straight line path when reaching with the right hand to a location on the left front of the body for subjects. averages of subsets of) the curves in figure . one might also study the structure of variation using functional principal components methods – see, for example, rice and silverman ( ). there is a growing literature on functional data analysis for univariate curve data. a good place to start is ramsay and silverman ( ) while ramsay and silverman ( ) provides a collection of analyses of functional data. we outline the methods we have used below. for reasons of compactness and ease of manipulation, we represent the curves as linear com- binations of m cubic b-spline basis functions, b j(t), j = , . . . , m. a curve yi(t) is represented as Âmj= yi jb j(t) where the coefficients yi j are estimated using regression methods over the points at which yi(t) is observed. given that human motion is usually quite smooth, it is not necessary to have a large number of basis functions. we have found in our experience that eight basis functions provides a good com- promise between fit and simplicity. any approximation error is dwarfed by the variation within and between individuals repeating the same motion so there is little value in using more basis functions. using fewer basis functions is desirable especially when motion databases may be large. so each observed curve is represented by this small number of coefficients and the functional response is thereby converted into a multivariate response which is easier to work with. a parametric approach to modeling such functions in terms of the predictors may be found in faraway ( a). suppose that the functional responses depend on certain covariates, such as the location of the target being reached, the age and anthropometry of the subject and other factors. for the ith curve, these predictors are collected in a vector xi. we then propose a functional linear model: yi(t) = xti b(t) + ei(t) notice that this is similar to a standard regression model but the response is now a function, as is the error term ei(t). the regression coefficients b(t) are now a vector of functions. the particular coefficient function for a given covariate will now represent the effect on the response of that covariate over the duration of the reach. one can now estimate b(t) using least squares by: b̂(t) = (x t x )� x t y(t) where x is the matrix whose rows are given by the xi’s. this formula cannot be directly applied since one cannot observe a yi(t) at all possible t. one approach is to approximate the functions on a grid of values, as in faraway ( ). a fine grid of values is necessary for accurate representation which is somewhat inefficient. the b-spline basis functions representation is more compact. the model can be written in the form: yn⇥m = xn⇥pbp⇥m + en⇥m which is now a multivariate multiple regression model where the coefficient matrix b may be estimated using least squares. one may then use the standard methods of statistical inference using this modeling approach. details of such methods may be found in texts such as johnson and wichern ( ). variable selection on x is worthwhile for the usual reasons and can be accomplished using methods described in shen and faraway ( ) and elsewhere. however, we should bear in mind that the models for each element of the motion must be combined to predict the motion for the whole body. it will be inconvenient if different elemental models use different predictors. fur- thermore, predictors which are significant for some individual elements may not be significant for the combined motion. we have found that the best results are obtained by judging each candidate set of predictors by the fit obtained for the whole body prediction. formal inference is difficult in these circumstances, but an informal compromise between fit and complexity is possible. in general, the error e(t) contains three components: measurement error, within subject and between subject variation. when functioning correctly, motion capture systems are quite accurate so that the observed curves are typically smooth and there is little in the way of gaussian noise that may be seen in other applications. the data collection systems can occasionally fail due to markers being obscured or confused leading to missing or clearly erroneous measurements. in our experience, this is best handled by pre-filtering the data rather than the use of robust fitting methods. when a subject repeats a task, the motion will not be exactly the same; this is within subject variation. when two subjects with the same external characteristics of interests, such as height, age and gender for example, perform the same task, there will be some difference; this is between subject variation. we have made some progress in building mixed effects models for functional responses that incorporate these different sources of variation as may be seen in faraway and hu ( ). however, such models are complex and difficult to fit reliably. we have had more success estimating the fixed effects components of these models simply using least squares. the random effects components are then estimated conditional on these fixed effects estimates. one important feature of the statistical approach to human motion prediction, that is generally lacking in other methods, is the ability to produce more than just a point prediction. it is certainly useful to have a prediction of the most likely or mean motion for performing a particular task. however, it is even more valuable to understand how the motion is likely to vary around the mean. for example, some injuries occur when the subject performs a motion in an unusual way which induces much greater stress on the body. in principle, confidence regions could be constructed, but these would be complex and difficult to visualize for the whole body motion. instead, we can use the estimated random effects components to simulate variations around the predicted mean. there are now an increasing number of articles on functional regression. however, not all of these are relevant to motion capture data. in particular, the interface with longitudinal data analysis that arises with sparser data, considered in yao, müller, and wang ( ) for example, is not germane as motion capture data is dense with little noise. there is also some interest in time-varying x ’s the functional data analysis literature. however, in our applications the task environment and subject characteristics remain constant during the motion. . d trajectories in addition to predicting univariate functions, such as the radial deviation, one needs to predict the d curves formed by the trajectory of the hand or other body markers. there is substantial in- terest in modeling hand trajectories in several different fields including neuroscience, psychology, robotics and motor control. for an introduction from the motor control perspective, see winter ( ). even so, much of the research in this area has focused on particular characteristics of the trajectory, such as the maximum acceleration, for example, rather than on modeling the complete curve. one could simply model each of the three cartesian coordinates of the trajectory, but this is unsatisfactory as it is not invariant to rotations of the coordinate system which one may well wish to make. we describe two ways in which such trajectories might be modeled. in the physical applications we consider, the starting and ending position of the marker are either specified or modeled independently. for example, in modeling the hand trajectory of a driver reaching from the steering wheel to a control on the dashboard, the start and end location will be supplied by the designer. in foot motion to position the body to perform a reaching task, the end location of the foot is not given, but is best modeled separately based on considerations such as balance and comfort. in what follows, we assume the start and end location are known. the first trajectory modeling method we present uses a parametrization that has easily inter- pretable components. we define r(t) as the radial deviation at time t describing the orthogonal distance from the axis joining the endpoints, p(t) [ , ] as the proportionate progress along the axis at time t and v(t) = p (t) as the relative axial velocity. see the left panel of figure for a depiction of these quantities. let f(t) be the angle describing the position of the hand at time t on the circle orthogonal to the axis of the reach and whose center lies on this axis. we define f(t) = to be the projection of the unit vertical vector onto this circle. the trajectory is modeled using the triplet: (v(t), r(t), f(t)). since v( ) = v( ) = r( ) = r( ) = by definition, one can accommodate this by omitting the first and last cubic b-spline basis func- tion in the representation which, since these are, respectively, the only non-zero basis functions at r(t) p(t) start end position at t view down axis position at t axis φ( t) figure : on the left, a side view of the reach is shown with the axis drawn as a straight line connecting the start and end of the reach. on the right, the view is down the axis, looking from the start towards the end. t = and t = , will ensure the desired property. furthermore, one should not directly model f(t) because it is an angle. angles p � e and e are only e apart but averaging their numerical values produces p which is diametrically opposite. for this reason, one models the responses cos f(t) and sin f(t) and then uses the relation f = tan� (sinf/ cos f) to predict f which does respect the appropriate continuity properties of an angle. note that this representation contains no explicit information about the endpoints. more details may be found in faraway ( ). the second method we have used is based on work described in wang ( ) uses bézier curves. the model for the curve takes the form Âmi= pib m i (t) where b m i (t) are the bernstein poly- nomials defined on [ , ] by: bmi (t) = ✓ m i ◆ t i( �t)(m�i) the pi are called control points. p coincides with the starting point of the curve at t = while pm lies at the endpoint at t = . for d curves, the control points have three dimensions. the interior control points determine the shape of the curve. in our experience, relatively few control points are required; we obtained satisfactory results with m = . the fitting of a d trajectory is shown in figure . bézier curves have several desirable properties that have popularized their use in graphic design. details can be found in texts such as prautzsch, boehm, and paluszny ( ). in particular, they are invariant to rotations and translations of the coordinate system because the shape of the curve is determined by the relative position of the control points. also, the line segments p p and pm� pm are tangential to the curve at the start and end respectively. thus they represent the direction of take off and approach for the hand. this is particularly useful when modeling a task where the hand must reach in to perform a task where the approach is constrained by the surroundings or say, where an object must be gripped in a particular way. the length of these line segments control how far the influence of the initial and final periods of the reach extend into the middle period of the reach. ! ! ! ! top view side fr o n t ! ! ! ! ! ! front view side u p ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! side view front u p figure : three orthogonal views of a bézier curve with two internal (m = ) control points fit to some d trajectory data. the solid dots are the control points. to build a model for the trajectories, we merely need to predict the location of the interior control points (relative to the endpoints) in terms of the available predictors. standard methods of regression analysis can be used to achieve this. we have found that a model with two interior control points is effective in representing uncon- strained reaches where the subject is not influenced by avoiding obstacles, for example. for more complex trajectories, it would be necessary to add more control points. bézier curves are a special case of b-splines where all the knots are at the endpoints. their relative advantage in this application derives from the their simplicity resulting in a more com- pact parameterization together with the possibility of a physically meaningful interpretation of the control points. . orientation trajectories the orientation of a rigid body in d can be represented in various ways. rotation matrices and eu- ler angles, of which the aeronautical roll, pitch and yaw are an example, are both commonly used. this is discussed in books such as zatsiorsky ( ). however, there are drawbacks to these repre- sentations, particularly with respect to the application of statistical methods. rotation matrices use nine parameters to represent just the three degrees of freedom necessary to describe an orientation while euler angles are susceptible to the problem of gimbal lock and are non-commutative. quaternions provide a compact and elegant representation of orientation. we can think of a quaternion as a generalization of a complex number written as: q = ix + jy + kz + w ⌘ [v, w] where w, x, y, z ir and the imaginary numbers, i, j, k satisfy i = j = k = i jk = � . v = (x, y, z) is known as the vector and w the scalar. quaternion arithmetic for addition, multiplication, norm, conjugate and inverse may be found in standard texts. an orientation can be represented by a quaternion with vector of unit length. see books such as dunn and parberry ( ) for an intro- duction in the context of human motion applications. statistical applications involving quaternions may be found in prentice ( ) and rancourt, rivest, and asselin ( ). it is difficult to perform statistical methods directly on the quaternions. for example, the arith- metic average of two rotations represented as quaternions is not usually itself a rotation. an alter- native approach is to perform a tangent mapping on the quaternions and compute the statistics in the tangent space. the exponential map from a vector v in the tangent space to the space of unit quaternions with origin at the identity quaternion [ , ] can be obtained by: ex pmap(v) = ⇢ [ , ] if v = [v̂ sin q/ , cos q/ ] otherwise where q = ||v|| and v̂ = v/q. the inversion is obtained using the logarithm map which maps from the unit quaternion q to the tangent space at the identity: logmap(q) = v/sinc(q/ ) where v is the vector part of q and sinc(x) = sin x/x. for more details, see grassia ( ). we can then perform standard statistics in the tangent space and map back to the space of quaternions when we are done. the innaccuracy due to the non-linear mapping is small provided the rotations are not far from the origin. in practice, a hand might rotate across a wide range, but we have developed recentering techniques found in choe ( ) that minimize the error. combining elemental models of motion we have described some basic building blocks of motion, but these need to be combined into a coherent whole. the body parts do not move independently so we must link models for the components that respect the constraints imposed by the skeleton. some constraints are simple — for example, the distance between the elbow and wrist is fixed. other constraints involve joint angle limits — for example, consider the angle formed at the elbow by the upper and lower arms as this can be no more than �. now we describe some methods we have used at humosim to produce predictions of motion for all or most of human body. the first subsection tackles the problem of predicting a chain of body segments to satisfy an endpoint constraint. we show that an appropriate parameterization makes the problem much sim- pler. the second subsection considers the more nonstatistical practical issues in the combination of elemental motion models. the third subsection consider methods which are akin to nearest neighbor methods in statistics. . kinematic chains consider a chain of l jointed links in three dimensions as depicted in figure . suppose that one end of the chain is fixed at the origin, that the joints have full flexibility and that the segments are of known lengths. one wishes to position the other end of the chain at some specified target t . for example, the chain might represent the arm and torso of a person who must reach to some target. the inverse kinematics problem is to position the rest of the chain to satisfy this endpoint constraint. target fixed figure : inverse kinematics: chain must be positioned to meet endpoint constraints we have shown above how to model a hand trajectory, now we need to solve the ik problem to predict the movement of the arm and torso to follow this hand path. one approach is to parameterize the position of the chain in terms of two angles for each link. we might use functional response regression models for each of these angles as described earlier. however, if we use the forward kinematics approach of building the chain up from the origin using these predicted angles, the endpoint will likely not correspond with required endpoint. we must impose this endpoint which results in a least squares problem with a nonlinear constraint. this can be solved by methods such as those found in faraway, zhang, and chaffin ( ), but this becomes computationally difficult for longer chains, because end users require motion predictions in real time or close to it. we present here a parametrization of the posture such that the endpoint constraint is always implicitly satisfied. this allows for rapid and simple computation of postures and makes it easier to model the components independently. we call this parametrization, stretch pivot coordinates. the stretch pivot coordinates have the advantage that they can be averaged and still produce a valid configuration of the chain for any segment lengths and endpoints (provided the total segment length exceeds the distance between the endpoints). this allows the straightforward application of statistical methods. only l � parameters are necessary to describe a closed (i.e. endpoints fixed) l-link kinematic chain (two parameters for each segment minus three for the endpoint constraint). the key to success is selecting these parameters in a suitable way. consider first a closed -link chain in three dimensions, like the shoulder, elbow and wrist linkage, where the endpoints, the shoulder and wrist, are in fixed positions. only one parameter is need to describe this linkage, since the midpoint (the elbow) of the chain is constrained to lie on a circle whose center lies on and is orthogonal to an axis joining the endpoints. one needs only to specify the angle on this circle. we call this midpoint the pivot and we call this angle the pivot angle. such an angle was used by korein ( ), wang ( a) and wang ( b). the angle is illustrated in figure . now consider a longer l link chain and pick a marker in the middle of this chain as shown in figure . let us call the two endpoint markers the proximal and the distal and the selected midpoint, the endpoint endpoint midpoint pivot angle midpoint must lie on this circle figure : the pivot angle describes the location of the midpoint on the circle of its possible posi- tions ( d view). medial. let lp and ld be the distances between the proximal and the medial and the distal and the medial respectively. if lp and ld are considered fixed, then the position of the medial relative to the proximal and distal may be described in terms of a pivot angle, qm lying on the circle orthogonal to, and whose center lies on, the axis joining the proximal and distal. let mp and md respectively proximal medial distal m l lp d pd figure : stretch parameters illustrated. the distance between the proximal and medial if that part of the chain were fully extended is mp while the corresponding distance for the medial to the distal is md . we define pp = lp/mp and pd = ld /md . represent the total length of all the links joining the proximal and the medial and the distal and the medial. we define pp = lp/mp and pd = ld /md . we call the p’s the stretch parameters. the position of the medial may be described in terms of the three parameters (qm, pp, pd ). hence the name stretch pivot. once the position of the pivot has been determined, the problem is reduced to two smaller problems. the same procedure may be repeated on the two halves of the chain recursively. now each of the l � components describing the chain can be modeled using functional regression methods. further details may be found in faraway ( a) and faraway ( b). a different parametrization involving just the arm, but having the same desirable modeling characteristics may be found in tolani, goswami, and badler ( ). we now describe an example where the kinematic chain model may be used in combination with the other model components to produce a complete motion model. consider a seated reaching motion where the position of the body is described in terms of the following markers: the l /s joint (base of spine) which is held fixed, the c /t joint (back of neck), the sterno-clavicular joint (supersternale), the right and left shoulder, the right and left elbow, the right and left wrist, the right and left hand and the head. the subject makes a reach with the right hand starting and ending in known positions. the left hand remains in a fixed position. suppose we have a database of subjects making such reaches, but the characteristics of the subjects and the location of the targets reached varies. the reach is illustrated in figure : here is a scheme for modeling the reach: l /s c /t scj secondary kinematic chain primary kinematic chain left hand fixed trajectory of right hand right hand orientation varies head orientation varies figure : schematic of a seated reach. the right hand moves along with the torso while the left hand remains fixed. the linkage is rooted at the l /s (base of spine) joint. the head also moves. . compute the beginning and ending coordinates of the right wrist. we will need to know the task being performed to determine the orientation of the hand relative to the target. we will also need to know the dimensions of the hand. if the subject for whom the reach is to be specified is completely described, these will be known. in other cases, we might know only the height of the subject and the hand dimension would need to be predicted from this. large anthropometric databases and models for achieving this are available. . use the trajectory modeling method to predict the motion of the right wrist. this trajectory will vary according the location of the target and the characteristics of the individual. we can build a regression model to describe this relationship. . use the orientation modeling method to describe the rotation of the hand during the motion. we can build a regression model for this also. . consider the kinematic chain from the l /s , c /t , sternoclavicular joint, right shoul- der, right elbow to the right wrist. we can use the stretch-pivot method described above to parametrize this chain. we can build regression models to predict the components of this chain. . consider a second kinematic chain from the c /t , left shoulder, left elbow to the left wrist. a comparable model can be developed for this chain. . the motion of the head can be described using an orientation functional regression model. . motion framework the preceding discussion has focused on relatively simple human motions, e.g., a reach with one hand to a fixed target starting from a neutral seated posture. human tasks of interest in ergonomics are usually more complex, involving multiple sequential and concurrent tasks, often performed by an operator who is moving around a factory. the individual low-level actions, such as reaches, steps, and glances, are highly coordinated, evidence of high-level, hierarchical control. several research groups have developed integrated paradigms for generating realistic motions from task-oriented movement commands that are independent of the simulated actor and envi- ronment. badler, allbeck, lee, rabbitz, broderick, and mulkern ( ) presented a vision for a comprehensive system of control of avatars implemented as the human model testbed. the approach builds on other developments including parameterized action representation (badler, palmer, and bindiganale ( )) and recent progress in obstacle avoidance (zhao, liu, and badler ( )). commercial software developers are also addressing the need for integrated, high-level control of human simulations. raschke, kuhlmann, and hollick ( ) described the task sim- ulation builder, an approach to task programming in the jacktm human modeling system that incorporates aspects of the parametrized action representation. we have developed a research testbed for human motion simulation called the humosim er- gonomics framework (reed, faraway, chaffin, and martin ( )). the framework uses a mod- ular structure and hierarchical control to produce coordinated motion for complex task sequences. the structure of the framework is shown in figure . one of the design principles of the framework is that a hierarchical network of relatively simple models can produce accurate simulations of complex behavior. consequently, many of the components of the framework use empirical models based on the analysis of human motion data from laboratory studies. the motion characteristics predicted from data include: . the duration of motion components (for example, a hand reach to a target) is a function of reach distance and subject body dimensions. transit model: foot placement and timing resource-based component schedul- ing model: sequence and timing of head, upper-extremity, and torso motions, with dependencies upper-body coordination module right upper-extremity module: trajectory and grasp planning and execution left lower-extremity module: step following and inverse kinematics right lower-extremity module: step following and inverse kinematics balance and gait module: controls pelvis motion left upper-extremity module: trajectory and grasp planning and execution gaze module: head and eye control torso module: pelvis orientation and lumbar spine motion movement with trajectory and com- ponent timing information high-level task input: independent of figure and environment state (required) figure and environment state: current figure and posture, location of objects, etc. task planner mid-level task plan: walk, pick up, place, use, ... component-level motion plan: steps, reaches, gaze targets, etc. motion generator lower-body coordination module motion controller biomechanical posture planner: generate task posture targets based on biomechanical criteria figure : humosim motion framework. . the temporal offsets between the initiation of body component motions are predicted by task type (e.g., reaching with an open hand vs. moving an object). . the hand trajectories are modeled using bézier curves, as described above. head motion is predicted using two components developed by nonlinear regression from subject data. the static head orientation is predicted as a function of target azimuth and elevation, and the head motion to acquire a new gaze target is generated using quaternion interpolation with an empirically derived velocity profile. the task scheduler uses timing offsets obtained from data analysis to plan the sequences of head, torso, and extremity motions to accomplish discrete tasks, such as reaches and object transfers. . recent work on lower extremity motions has focused on the prediction of foot placements and movements from task and subject variables. in a multistep process, a transitionary lower- extremity behavior associated with picking up or putting down an object is selected. a ”behavior” is a sequence of footsteps on either side of the load transition that defines an approach or turning behavior. a discriminant analysis of laboratory data, validated by video analysis of data from an auto assembly plant, is used to predict the behavior category (wag- ner, reed, and chaffin ( )). the individual foot placements are then calculated based on a multiple linear regression model of laboratory data (wagner, reed, and chaffin ( )). the statistical models provide the opportunity to simulate the most likely behavior as well as several other behaviors that might be observed for the specified tasks. an analyst can then assess the relative musculoskeletal loading resulting from each behavior and use the behavior probabilities in determining whether a task should be redesigned to reduce the risk to the worker. . the statistical analyses used to set these aspects of simulation permit adjustments to sim- ulate some of the variance in the movements, particularly with respect to timing and hand trajectories. . motion warping the editing or “warping” of motion capture data is used extensively in the entertainment field to apply human motion capture data to character animation. application of these techniques in ergonomics has been problematic because of the potential to produce motions that are distinctly unrealistic. park, chaffin, and martin ( ) developed a motion-modification algorithm that pre- serves the coordinated structure of motion at the joint level. motion modification works best when the motion to be modified is similar in structure to the motion of interest. for example, a reach to a low shelf is poorly modeled by modifying motion data from reach to a high shelf. a critical contribution of park’s work was the development of an objective method for classifying different movement techniques. using cluster analysis, a set of motion capture data from multiple individu- als and tasks are segregated into movement categories within which motions can be modified while preserving the essential structure of the motion (park, martin, choe, chaffin, and reed ( )). this type of method can also be viewed as nearest neighbor regression where only one neighbor is used. faraway ( a) extends the method to average over several neighbors. application examples recent research in traffic safety has shown that driver distraction is a major cause of accidents along with fatigue, phone usage and drunkenness. yet modern vehicles are being fitted with an increasing number of features such as satellite navigation and entertainment systems that the driver may attempt to use while in transit. visualize the process of operating a control on the dashboard. many drivers use a sequence of glancing and reaching actions to perform the task. for example, first the driver glances at the control, the eyes then return to the road while the hand starts to reach for the target. as the hand nears the target, the driver glances over again to guide the hand onto the target. as the hand grasps the control, the eyes return to the road again while the task is being performed. we would like to study how this behavior varies as we consider shorter and taller, older and younger people. we would also like to experiment with changing the location of the control to, say, an overhead panel. a dhm can help explore these possibilities. figure shows a sequence of images from a simulation using the humosim framework with the jack human figure model. a simple reach to a dashboard control by a truck driver is used to illustrate some of the outcomes that are obtained from the statistical models underlying the framework. when the reach task is commanded, the gaze module determines the desired terminal head posture (nonlinear regression model) and computes a velocity profile (two-parameter model fit to head movement data). the task scheduler uses empirically derived offsets and a linear regression model to plan the initiation and duration of the head, hand, and torso motions. the component-level tasks are dispatched to the gaze, right upper-extremity, and torso modules, while other modules maintain lower extremity positions and hold the left hand on the steering wheel. the sequence of frames in figure was produced using mean predicted values, but the underlying models can be exercised stochastically to predict, for example, very slow or very fast motions within the range observed in the laboratory data. we are also able generate realizations, say, from the predicted distribution of hand trajectories which in turn affects the rest of the motion. stochastic simulations would be of value in predicting the likelihood of a driver failing to detect an obstacle in the roadway due to diverted attention or colliding with other vehicle controls while performing the reach. dhm are also widely used for industrial ergonomics, particularly in the automotive industry. the manufacturing facility that will be used to build a vehicle is developed in parallel with the vehicle itself. just as physical prototypes are being phased out in favor of virtual models, the physical mockups of assembly work stations are being supplanted by ”virtual builds,” in which the entire vehicle is assembled in computer simulation. dhm are increasingly used to determine whether the assembly workers’ tasks can be performed safely and in the allotted time. the typical applications of dhm in the virtual build process include assessing reach into parts bins and into the vehicle; comparing loads on the body, particularly at the low-back, shoulder, and wrist, with accepted limits; and determining the time that would be required for a worker to perform task. human motion simulation models based on statistical analysis of laboratory data are becoming increasingly important for these analyses. figure shows several frames from an animation of a typical simulation. in this case, a worker is stacking two sheet-metal parts together and placing them on a jig for welding. two conveyors feed parts to workstation. because workers range widely in body size, the positioning of the parts must be chosen carefully so that small workers can pick up statring posture. head and hand trajectories planned for a reach to the instrument panel. gaze motion with eyes and head initiated. hand movement begins. torso motion planned. torso coordinating left and right hand motions. movement completed. figure : still frames from a study of a truck driver reaching to a dashboard control. the parts without excessive stepping and large workers have sufficient clearance. figure shows a small woman performing the task. statistical models developed in the humosim laboratory can predict the foot placements for workers of various sizes relative to the hand locations required to pick up the parts. the torso orientation, which has a strong effect on low-back loading, can also be predicted from data. the development of architectures for simulation of sequential tasks, such as the humosim framework, allows this type of task to be simulated rapidly with a large number of different human figures representing workers with a wide range of body dimensions. figure : simulation of sheet metal assembly task. design of the work area must accommodate both short and tall workers. here a small woman is shown performing the task. it is difficult to portray motions in a few still frames. the reader may visit www.humosim.org to view movies showing this and other motions. information about how to obtain access to the data described in this article may be found at the same location. discussion human motion modeling gives rise to a wide range of novel statistical problems. functional data of various types must be modeled that have received relatively little previous attention in the sta- tistical literature. due to the inherent variability of human motion, statistical methods have clear application and yet despite the large amount of research from computer scientists, engineers and other scientists, the area has not attracted much interest from statisticians. thus there is substantial opportunity for both theoretical and applied statistical work in this field. the humosim framework, a hierarchical model of human task planning and movement coor- dination, provides a testbed for exploring how low-level, empirically derived movement models, coupled with relatively simple high-level task-sequencing models, can produce complex, coordi- nated behavior. future research will examine the extent to which the variance in uncontrolled variables (for example, elbow location during a reach) can be predicted by random sampling from the estimated residual variance in controlled variables (e.g., hand trajectory). the ability to gener- ate stochastic simulations of human operators has considerable potential for safety research (e.g., ambrose ( )) but reliable results will require valid models and methods. the application of the methods described in this paper has already begun to influence the conduct of ergonomics analysis using digital human models. over the next several years, motion simulation based on validated human models will become commonplace in a wide range of fields. ultimately, the value of the simulations will rest on the validity of the statistical methods used to analyze and to model human movement data. further advancements in these methods will be needed to expand the range of applicability of ergonomic analysis with simulated humans. acknowledgements don chaffin founded the humosim laboratory at the university of michigan and provided vital support without which this research would not have been possible. other colleagues at the labora- tory contributed to this effort. we thank the past and present industrial partners of the humosim consortium for their financial support. references ambrose, d. 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( ). kinematics of human motion. champaign, il: human kinetics. zhang, x. and d. chaffin ( ). a three-dimensional dynamic posture-prediction model for simulating in-vehicle seated reaching movements: development and validation. er- gonomics ( ), – . zhao, l., y. liu, and n. badler ( ). applying empirical data on upper torso movement to real-time collision-free reach tasks. sae technical paper - - . zhao, x., j. s. marron, and m. wells ( ). the functional data analysis view of longitudinal data. statistica sinica , – . from space to place: place-based explorations of text zurich open repository and archive university of zurich main library strickhofstrasse ch- zurich www.zora.uzh.ch year: from space to place: place-based explorations of text purves, ross s ; derungs, curdin abstract: new data sources, for example in the form of geotagged image libraries and digitised archives of historical text documents, provide us with new opportunities for exploring how place is described. using a framework derived from work in human geography and information science, we illustrate how there is more to place than names and coordinates. through a set of case studies we explore different aspects of the seemingly trivial query ‘mountains in the alps’ addressing a range of issues including ambiguity, the use of vernacular names, ways in which concepts such as mountain are used in different locations and by different groups, approaches to automatically generating macro-maps in space and time and, finally, techniques allowing regions to be characterised and compared based on the terms used to describe them. the use of all these methods in combination allows us to come closer to a meaningful representation of place in the sense of human geography within the context of geographic information science. however, our approaches focus on the naming of places and their material or perceivable properties, and there is still much work to do to properly represent place, and particularly sense of place. nonetheless, we suggest that such approaches have considerable potential for those working in the digital humanities, and especially those concerned with contributing to a spatial turn therein. doi: https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . posted at the zurich open repository and archive, university of zurich zora url: https://doi.org/ . /uzh- journal article published version originally published at: purves, ross s; derungs, curdin ( ). from space to place: place-based explorations of text. interna- tional journal of humanities and arts comouting, ( ): - . doi: https://doi.org/ . /ijhac. . from space to place: place-based explorations of text ross s. purves and curdin derungs abstract new data sources, for example in the form of geotagged image libraries and digitised archives of historical text documents, provide us with new opportunities for exploring how place is described. using a framework derived from work in human geography and information science, we illustrate how there is more to place than names and coordinates. through a set of case studies we explore different aspects of the seemingly trivial query ‘mountains in the alps’ addressing a range of issues including ambiguity, the use of vernacular names, ways in which concepts such as mountain are used in different locations and by different groups, approaches to automatically generating macro-maps in space and time and, finally, techniques allowing regions to be characterised and compared based on the terms used to describe them. the use of all these methods in combination allows us to come closer to a meaningful representation of place in the sense of human geography within the context of geographic information science. however, our approaches focus on the naming of places and their material or perceivable properties, and there is still much work to do to properly represent place, and particularly sense of place. nonetheless, we suggest that such approaches have considerable potential for those working in the digital humanities, and especially those concerned with contributing to a spatial turn therein. keywords: sense of place; vernacular place names; locale; macro-maps; gis international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press and the contributor. the online version of this article is published as open access under the terms of the creative commons attribution- noncommercial licence (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits non-commercial use, distribution and reproduction provided the original work is cited. for commercial re-use, please contact permissions@eup.ed.ac.uk. www.euppublishing.com/journal/ijhac place-based explorations of text . introduction in this paper, we aim to describe our ongoing work which sets out to explore notions of place using digital sources ranging from user generated content, for example flickr (www.flickr.com) or geograph (www.geograph.org.uk), to digitised historical documents such as text+berg . underlying our research is the observation that giscience has largely failed to deal with place, as elegantly stated by fisher and unwin : geographic information theory articulates the idea of absolute euclidean spaces quite well, but the socially-produced and continuously changing notion of place has to date proved elusive to digital description except, perhaps, through photography and film. following fisher and unwin, we wish to move from simply representing euclidean spaces using traditional topographic data collected by mapping agencies for a given purpose, towards associating fluid and socially-produced conceptualisations of place with given sets of coordinates. we assert that the increasing volume of data available digitally provides us with previously unimaginable opportunities to carry out such research. in particular, in this paper we concentrate not only through the ‘modern’ (e.g. tagged images such as those uploaded to flickr) but also the ‘old’ (in the form of digitised archives of textual documents). central to all of our work is the idea that we can somehow relate descriptions of place to locations in space – that is to say we can locate in euclidean space the data with which we work. from this overarching context we resolve the following set of general research questions, which aim to be sufficiently generic such that they can make a contribution to the spatial humanities in general: • what are the opportunities of our approaches and what new insights - on the notion of place - do we generate? • what are the major challenges and the limitations of such methods? • how can theoretical context influence the choice of methods? in the following, we will first briefly set out some background material, defining place and its characteristics from a number of perspectives. having done so, we will introduce some of the methodological approaches taken in our research to capturing place-based information. finally, we illustrate the use of these methods in a number of case studies, showing how these approaches start to facilitate more nuanced exploration. in doing so, it is important to state from the outset the limitations of our work. we have primarily analysed text either as an unstructured bag of words, or through simple co-occurrence. such approaches are typically based on frequencies, often normalised against some expected values. these methods are far from capable of representing the full breadth of ross s. purves and curdin derungs place – nevertheless, we claim they are a useful step where the spatial humanities can, and should, play a significant role. . background place is a familiar, if contested concept in human geography . tuan elaborates on the distinction between space and place by referring to a discussion between two physicists, namely heisenberg and bohr. heisenberg states: isn’t it strange how this castle [kronberg] changes as soon as one imagines that hamlet lived here? as scientists we believe that a castle consists only of stones, and admire the way the architect put them together. the stones, the green roof with its patina, the wood carvings in the church, constitute the whole castle. none of this should be changed by the fact that hamlet lived here, and yet it is changed completely. ironically, the two natural scientists explore the meaning of a place by referring to characteristics that are clearly beyond physical matter or laws. spaces, tuan argues, are demarcated by boundaries and consist of physical matter. when we are in a strange part of town, what stretches ahead of us is space: in time we know a few landmarks and the routes connecting them. eventually what was strange town and unknown space becomes familiar place. . the idea that with emerging local knowledge space can be transformed into place, is also represented in basso’s linguistic anthropology: and so, unavoidably, senses of place also partake of cultures, of shared bodies of ‘local knowledge’ (the phrase is clifford geertz’s) with which persons and whole communities render their places meaningful and endow them with social importance. doreen massey, in her essay ‘a global sense of place’ , zooms out from the meaning of place to individuals and at local scales, by drawing a complex picture of the world. every place is attached meaning through its relations not only with local places, but with all other places around the globe: it is a sense of place, an understanding of ‘its character’, which can only be constructed by linking that place to places beyond. a progressive sense of place would recognize that, without being threatened by it. what we need, it seems to me, is a global sense of the local, a global sense of place. place-based explorations of text from this short overview on how space and place are represented in the humanities, it is obvious that any representation of place must consider not only the physical objects found in a space, but also the meanings which those objects have for individuals and communities. furthermore, place is, at least according to massey, not only a local concept, but also a global one. in contrast, in geographic information science place is often used as a shorthand for a set of coordinates or, perhaps, a toponym (a placename). we would argue, however, that the name of the castle inhabited by hamlet tells us little in isolation about either the material form of the space or its socially produced meaning . in what follows we set out to anchor our explorations of place around agnew’s definitions of places as meaningful locations consisting of three key aspects: • location is defined as a location in space which can be named and thus, at least implicitly, assigned coordinates. • locales are effectively affordances , that is to say the properties of a location which allow a particular activity to take place. locales need not be tied to a fixed location, for example a bus or train allows particular sets of activities and interactions, in the same way as a church or indeed a mountain. • sense of place relates to the ways in which we might (or indeed might not) identify with a place and is necessarily based on our associations and experiences, or lack thereof, of a place. it is important to note that agnew’s model is debated, but we argue that it provides us with a basic framework to move beyond the much criticised, and still predominant, reduction of place to a name and a set of coordinates (i.e. the location). interestingly, agnew’s model of place has many overlaps with perspectives developed independently in information science to explore image classification and querying. the panofsky-shatford facet matrix describes the who, what, where and when facets, each in terms of three modes, the specific of, the generic of and the about. a closer reading of shatford’s work, and examples of its application, reveals that the where facet and its modes closely parallel agnew’s model of place. since the information science literature often uses this matrix as a starting point in classifications, it is a useful point of reference when looking for implicitly place-centered approaches to analysis of digital content. what then are the implications of such models? we choose to explore these by examining a potential search engine query ‘mountains in the alps’ which at first glance appears trivial, and analysing this query from a place-based ross s. purves and curdin derungs perspective. the query contains both specific and generic elements according to the panofsky-shatford matrix or, according to agnew, both location(s) and locale(s). further, its meaning is modified according to the individual who posed it, thus incorporating notions of sense of place. mountain is one of the most common terms offered as an example of a geographic object in empirical experiments . mountains are an excellent exemplar of locale, a place affording particular activities and interactions. this first query term is one which has seen much attention in giscience with respect to a wide range of notions, including both semantic and spatial vagueness. what is a mountain, and do we all agree? it seems obvious that this is not the case, and that a tourist from the netherlands might have a rather different view of what is (or isn’t) a mountain than a resident of switzerland, but how can we even start to model this? equally, how far down do we have to descend from the summit of the matterhorn until we are no longer on its slopes? again, it seems trivial to state that at no point one can simply ‘step off the mountain’, and yet typical gis representation of objects as either points or polygons imply exactly such a property. moving to ‘alps’, a number of issues become apparent. firstly, are the alps referred to in new zealand or europe? this is a classic example of referent ambiguity, to which most toponyms are subject . furthermore, many toponyms are also subject to semantic ambiguity – that is to say does alps refer to the european mountain range, or ‘an area of green pasture on a mountainside’ (oxford dictionary)? furthermore, having disambiguated the term alps and identified an unambiguous referent for the term, with what region should it be associated? not only is this region vague, but its extent might vary between different groups of individuals . finally, many toponyms are used vernacularly and are not found in official toponym gazetteers , as is indeed the case for alpen (the alps) in swissnames, the gazetteer of switzerland’s national mapping agency. all of these issues relate rather obviously to notions of location, and illustrate that the seemingly trivial assignment of a name to a point or region is in fact much more complex, and includes multiple challenges. furthermore, this naming might also relate to our sense of place, in so far as our experience of a location has much to do with the region to which we might consider it to belong. finally, the spatial relationship ‘in the’ seems to be a straightforward topological containment. but how can we deal with topological containment with respect to not only a vague region (the alps), but also a concept which is in itself vague (mountains). it is clear that to deal with the challenges posed by such a query, which we argue relate to many of the notions of place summarised in this paper, new approaches are required which take advantage of multi-faceted perspectives place-based explorations of text table . case studies discussed in this paper. specific / location ) delineating vernacular regions how can large digital data sources be used to delineate spatial footprints for regions that are in vernacular use and thus (often) not contained in official gazetteers (e.g. alps)? ) drawing macro-maps from historic text how can we automatically draw map representations of a historic text corpus containing landscape descriptions? generic / locale ) mapping locale how can geographic locales, such as mountains, be linked to space? ) describing locale through co-occurrence how can georeferenced text descriptions be used to gather information on locales and how can this information be structured? specific + generic / location + ) linking locations and locale locale how can toponyms in text (i.e. locations) be associated with local knowledge (i.e. locale), such that we for instance learn about the relation between the location alps and its descriptions in terms of associated locales, such as mountain? relating space to place. one strand of geographic research that has considerable potential for generating such (local) information, takes advantage of so called user generated content (ugc) or volunteered geographic information (vgi) . a further opportunity lies in the ever increasing volume of digitised historic data, currently being embraced in the digital humanities , and the opportunities presented by a spatial turn with respect to such data . we suggest that the trend of using multiple, identifiably human, data sources has the potential to facilitate the transformation of giscience from a space to a place based science. thus, we forecast that a future gis will represent kronberg castle in a more holistic way, where space and place based characteristics are consolidated. in this paper we set out to illustrate how we use the combination of methods from giscience in combination with both ugc and digitised text archives, allowing us to start to explore many of the issues discussed in the context of ‘mountains in the alps’ through the five case studies (table ). these are each associated with notions of location and locale and, implicitly, with sense of place. ross s. purves and curdin derungs . methodological approaches and examples the following examples aim to illustrate approaches which address different ideas related to place, primarily in terms of location (e.g. in work with toponyms) and locale (e.g. through exploring the properties of a region). they are all taken from previous work by the authors and colleagues, but applied to new data and examples related to the query ‘mountains in the alps’ as previously discussed. . delineating vernacular regions one key task in the place-based description of locations, is adding toponyms to gazetteers which are used in a vernacular sense and not contained in official gazetteers. furthermore, since such toponyms often refer to vague regions, methods are required which take cognisance of this property, and ideally allow reasoning with multiple vernacular toponyms or mixtures of vernacular and vague toponyms. early work in this area focussed on identifying such toponyms through readings of text and exploring the regions associated with them through empirical experiments . the development of internet search engines and associated apis enabled the use of co-occurrence of candidate vernacular toponyms with known toponyms to identify associated regions . these methods required the application of geoparsing methods to identify and disambiguate known toponyms found in text. the advent of georeferenced ugc where, for example, images are assigned not only descriptive tags but also coordinates, allowed simpler methods to be developed, which rely upon tags in such content referring to the location under investigation, and assume that the density of usage typically correlates with the region of interest . such densities also start to allow us to represent vagueness, though the question of how to use this in a query is still non-trivial. a simple schematic of the approach taken in this paper is given in figure . however, though such methods have been illustrated by a number of authors, the availability of gazetteers containing vernacular toponyms, and particularly which allow multiple representations of the same location is still uncommon, and although there is recognition that toponyms are inherently vague and contested in gazetteer development , this has not filtered through to many gazetteer implementations. equally, the identification of new, unknown vernacular toponyms is not addressed in many of these approaches, though the work of rattenbury and naaman starts to suggest possible approaches to finding locally salient labels, which may in turn represent toponyms. in figure we illustrate the identification of such regions for our query term (alps) and a second mountainous region (the cairngorms) in scotland. in both cases we identified all flickr images associated with a georeference and place-based explorations of text figure . methodology for delineating vernacular regions. the corresponding tags, before using kernel density estimation to estimate the regions associated with these tags. by filtering users (for example distinguishing between locals and tourists ) it would be possible to explore how perception of such regions varied for different groups. these regions could then form a basis for queries (for instance for texts describing visits to the cairngorms or alps) which might also be weighted such that descriptions in regions of highest densities were treated as being more relevant. of course, it is important to note that the regions thus derived reflect where people take pictures, what they take pictures of, and the individuals who take pictures and upload them. such regions are thus, as with all ugc, not representative of some global population, but rather the user groups and biases inherent in the content used to derive them . nonetheless, such data provide us with important insights into the use of vernacular toponyms describing vague regions which were previously only accessible through empirical experiments which are not scalable to large numbers of toponyms, and are also of course subject to biases. . drawing macro-maps from historic text cooper and gregory introduced the term macro-maps for an approach which effectively sought to summarise the spatial content of textual archives, arguing that: ross s. purves and curdin derungs figure . kernel density surfaces representing the use of the tags alps (top) and cairngorms (bottom) in flickr images of switzerland and great britain. percentages indicate quantile (e.g. top %) of surface volume enclosed. this macro-mapping will allow the literary critic to identify large-scale spatial patterns and to visualise how the representation of particular places and spaces may have shifted over time. however, a major stumbling block in such approaches is the development of methods which automatically process large volumes of digital text, and effectively deal with the issues of toponym ambiguity previously presented. in cooper and gregory’s work, although the archives were digitised, the process of toponym disambiguation was manual. figure describes a workflow for automatically creating a macro-map from a digitised archive. typical approaches to toponym disambiguation rely on rule-based methods using information found in gazetteers (e.g. population or attribute type) or place-based explorations of text figure . methodology for drawing macro-maps from historic text . machine-learning approaches which require labelled training data . however, when disambiguating toponyms describing mountain landscapes, very little such information is available, and we developed a method which can effectively be considered to take the locale, in the form of the topographic setting of a toponym, into account . this method first identified unambiguous toponym referents, before iteratively disambiguating other referents in a text using a combination of euclidean distance and topographic similarity derived from digital elevation models (dems) to describe the region around a toponym in terms of slope, curvature and roughness . figure shows the results of such a process, mapping the contents of the text+berg archive of swiss alpine yearbooks firstly into space, and then into space and time (figure ). these macro-maps allow us to rapidly explore locations that have been the subject of discourse in swiss mountaineering over the last years. however, these maps, as presented, only allow us to explore the locations which have been discussed – effectively to automatically produce macro-maps based on toponym occurrences in documents – but not to describe the properties of these regions – for example in terms of locale. the following sections address such issues. . mapping locale the advent of large volumes of ugc which are also explicitly assigned geographic coordinates gives rise to intriguing new opportunities for investigating notions of locale. in early work we explored the extent to which ross s. purves and curdin derungs figure . macro-map of , descriptions from the text+berg corpus. percentages indicate quantile (e.g. top %) of surface volume enclosed. note concentrations of texts in the bernese oberland, valais alps and albula region. category norms or basic levels identified in traditional empirical experiments were replicated in such content . having found that such data did indeed show considerable overlaps, with similar classes of landscape feature, such as river, hill and valley, being common, we set out to explore how such landscape features occurred in space. as was the case when mapping vernacular regions, the most straightforward approach is to use geotagged images containing these generic terms sensu shatford and to map these into space. however, simply mapping term densities without considering the overall image density leaves us at risk of understanding only where images are taken (and thus where people go). for this reason, we prefer to map !-surfaces (figure ), highlighting regions where terms are over/underrepresented with respect to the overall distribution of images . figure shows such representations for four generic terms related to locale: mountain; hill; lake and waterfall in switzerland and great britain. a number of features quickly become apparent. firstly, mountains in switzerland are found in broadly similar regions to those associated with the alps in figure . secondly, lakes and waterfalls in switzerland are punctually located, and typically (though not always) occur in areas related to mountains. finally, the use of the term hill in switzerland is related to only a few rather specific locations. by contrast, in great britain all four terms are more or less p la c e -b a se d e x p lo ra tio n s o f t e x t figure . temporal macro-maps of the text+berg corpus, computed for twenty year periods. note spread of text to east in the period from – , as the rhaetian railway opens up the region. ross s. purves and curdin derungs figure . methodology for mapping locale. spatially autocorrelated. in particular, mountain and hill are found in very similar regions, and waterfalls tend to be photographed in these areas of high relief, with some exceptions (for example the extreme south-west where waterfalls appear to occur more prominently). lake is very predominately associated with the lake district (roughly in the centre of the landmass), indicating semantic ambiguity and the link between the region’s name and its properties in this special case (the lake district is of course so named because of the prominence of water bodies). . describing locale through co-occurrence having identified which terms are used where, a second challenge is to explore how locales are characterised. through the use of treemaps , such co- occurrence relationships can be explored both in terms of locales, their qualities and associated activities . the methodology for computing such treemaps is sketched in figure . we originally set out to automatically identify nouns, adjectives and verbs and use these as terms and their descriptors. however, our experience has shown that such automatic classifications are often not very illuminating, and we have typically relied on annotating lists of common terms as elements, qualities and activities which appear to capture key parts of landscape scenes . these methods allow us to start to focus on the locale in and of itself – what is it about a particular region that makes it of interest – what do people notice there and how do they use it? the treemaps (figure ) reveal some basic differences place-based explorations of text figure . !-maps for four terms associated with locale in switzerland and great britain based on georeferenced flickr images tagged with those terms. blue regions show where terms are underrepresented with respect to the overall distribution of flickr images, red regions indicate where terms are overrepresented. in the use of terms. firstly, mountain is much more prominent in switzerland than hill, whilst in the uk hill and mountain appear to occur with similar frequencies. a closer look at the qualities co-occurring with these terms reveals further differences. hill in the uk is associated with very similar qualities to mountain (e.g. country, rural, wild, nature) suggesting that the use of mountain and hill is more or less synonymous. however, in switzerland hill is associated ross s. purves and curdin derungs figure . methodology for describing locale through co-occurrence. with some different qualities, in particular medieval, suggesting a quite different use (as also suggested in figure ). . linking locations and locale in our final example we illustrate how such explorations of locale as were illustrated above can be carried out for the rich text corpus for which we produced a macro-map in § . . figure describes the most important methodological steps for doing so. we index content to locations in a contiguous fashion, by use of an adaptive grid, which tessellates a whole region according to the amount of content found in individual grid cells. associated with each cell are landscape terms, for which term vectors of both raw frequencies within a grid cell (ignoring overall term occurrence) and spatial tf-idf values can be calculated. these term vectors in turn allow us to explore the similarity of locations (in terms of cells which can be associated with toponyms) through locale (represented in this case as the prominence of particular landscape elements at a location). figure shows such term vectors for twelve locations in switzerland. these methods go beyond simple density based macro-mapping, and start to suggest ways in which regions can be described using locale and, potentially, sense of place. although our current approaches treat the corpus as a bag of words, and thus mask different perspectives, it is easy to see how similar approaches could be used to describe locale from, for example, the perspective of a botanist or a mountaineer. p la c e -b a se d e x p lo ra tio n s o f t e x t figure . treemaps showing co-occurrence of elements identified in flickr (hill; mountain; lake; waterfall; river) with the ten qualities most commonly associated with the element for switzerland (left) and great britain (right). ross s. purves and curdin derungs figure . methodology for linking locations and locale. . concluding discussion in this paper we have tried to describe our work on both user generated content, typically in the form of geotagged images, and more traditional digitised text archives. we have concentrated on our research efforts, and tried to illustrate the overarching framework within which we are working – namely making a contribution from a giscience perspective to representations of place, and to describe some of the methods we are using to do this. we are of course acutely aware that in so doing we have illustrated a small subset of all that is going on in this, necessarily, interdisciplinary field. furthermore, the astute reader will have noted that though we introduced the notion of sense of place, we have failed to return to it in any substantive way. so, given these limitations, what contributions have we made to the research questions we sketched in the introduction? firstly, we believe that our paper illustrates very clearly the opportunities afforded to us by the combination of new and emerging data sources, which allow us to start to represent different conceptualisations of the same place, with theoretical underpinnings from, for example geography and information science. secondly, we believe that our methods demonstrate clearly that place is more than an empty placeholder, but rather a fundamentally useful way of structuring information, which can in turn start to address some of the criticisms of gis advanced by some of its strongest critics . thus, for example, by using locale to explore locations we gained insights into the way in which the concept of hill appears to mean something quite different in great britain to switzerland, with its use being effectively both spatially autocorrelated and synonymous to mountain in great britain, while in switzerland this is not the case. place-based explorations of text figure . locale based descriptions through landscape features for twelve locations in switzerland. note similarities between term vectors ranked using raw frequencies (tf), whilst rankings based on tf-idf values show more localised variation. ross s. purves and curdin derungs there are of course many challenges and limitations to the approaches we have described. even very large digital archives can be prone to issues of bias and contributor inequality, and these problems are often hard to disentangle from meaningful signal. thus, for example, we know little about the editorial policies of the swiss alpine club over the last years, and only a close reading of the texts, and associated materials could reveal to what extent our results are influenced by such effects. in this paper we have sought to illustrate how the theoretical context put forward by human geographers, and in particular agnew , has many parallels with practically useful approaches taken by information scientists . this enabled us to build a useful framework, through which we were able to explore both location and locale in the context of mountain landscapes in what we assert is a meaningful, and potentially useful, way. however, taking account of not only local, but global ideas of place will require the development of methods which not only allow us to drill down into data, but also make meaningful links between locations and locales. finally, much of the work here introduces methods which are explored in a given setting – however, the next, and crucial, step is to use these methods in research questions defined by domain experts. we look forward to stimulating interactions with colleagues in the future. acknowledgements this paper brings together methods developed with a wide range of colleagues over the years. they include jason dykes, alastair edwardes, christian gschwend, chris jones, livia hollenstein and jo wood. thanks are due to all of them, though any errors are of course our own. oliver zihler is thanked for his assistance with data preparation for some of the figures herein. comments from two anonymous reviewers helped us to clarify many points in the paper. some of the research reported in this paper was supported by the project folkont supported by the swiss national science foundation under contract and the university research priority program language and space. end notes m. volk, ‘how many mountains are there in switzerland? explorations of the swisstopo name list’, search. answers festschrift honour michael hess occas. his th birthd., ( ) – . p. fisher, and d. unwin, ‘re-presenting geographical information systems’, re-presenting gis, london wiley (london, ). cited at . t. cresswell, place – a short introduction, (chichester, ). y. tuan, topophilia. a study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values, (new york, ). tuan, topophilia. a study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values, . k.h. basso, wisdom sits in places: landscape and language among the western apache, (new mexico, ). cited at xiv. d. massey, ‘a global sense of place’, marx today, ( ), – . place-based explorations of text massey, ‘a global sense of place’, . for instance in r. coates, ‘properhood’, language, ( ), – . j. agnew, ‘space and place’, sage handb. geogr. knowl., ( ), – . j. j gibson, the ecological approach to visual perception, (london, ). s. shatford, ‘analyzing the subject of a picture: a theoretical approach’, cat. classif. q., ( ), – . b. smith, and d. m. mark, ‘geographical categories: an ontological investigation’, int. j. geogr. inf. sci., ( ), – . two examples are: b. smith, and d. m. mark, ‘do mountains exist? towards an ontology of landforms’, environ. plan. b plan. des., ( ), – ; p. fisher, j. wood, t. cheng, ‘where is helvellyn? fuzziness of multi-scale landscape morphometry’, trans. inst. br. geogr., ( ), – . e. amitay, n. har’el, r. sivan, a. soffer, ‘web-a-where: geotagging web content’, in m. sanderson, k. järvelin, j. allan, p. bruza, eds., proceedings of the th annual international acm sigir conference on research and development in information retrieval. (new york, ), – ; d. buscaldi, ‘approaches to disambiguation of toponyms’, in r. s. purves, and c. b. jones, eds., lett. geogr. inf. retr., ( ), – . amitay, ‘web-a-where: geotagging web content’. c. b. jones, r. s. purves, p. d. clough, h. joho, ‘modelling vague places with knowledge from the web’, int. j. geogr. inf. sci., ( ), – . c. davies, i. holt, j. green, l. diamond, ‘user needs and implications for modelling vague named places’, spat. cogn. comput., ( ), – . for instance m. haklay, and p. weber, ‘openstreetmap: user-generated street maps’, pervasive comput. ieee, ( ), – . m. f. goodchild, ‘citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography’, geojournal, ( ), – . d. m. berry, understanding digital humanities, (new york, ). g. lock, ‘representations of space and place in the humanities’, in d. j. bodenhamer, j. corrigan, t. harris, eds., spat. humanit. futur. humanit. sch., (bloomington, ), – . for instance d. montello, m. goodchild, j. gottsegen, p. fohl, ‘where’s downtown?: behavioral methods for determining referents of vague spatial queries’, spat. cogn. comput., ( ), – . for instance jones et al. ‘modelling vague places with knowledge from the web’. c. keßler, p. maué, j. t. heuer, t. bartoschek, ‘bottom-up gazetteers: learning from the implicit semantics of geotags’, in k. janowicz, m. raubal, s. levashkin, eds., geospatial semant., ( ), – ; c. grothe and j. schaab, ‘automated footprint generation from geotags with kernel density estimation and support vector machines’, spat. cogn. comput., ( ), – ; l. hollenstein and r. s. purves, ‘exploring place through user-generated content: using flickr to describe city cores’, j. spat. inf. sci., ( ), – . l. l. hill, georeferencing: the geographic associations of information, (cambridge, ); h. southall, r. mostern, m. berman, ‘on historical gazetteers’, int. j. humanit. arts comput., ( ), – . t. rattenbury and m. naaman, ‘methods for extracting place semantics from flickr tags’, acm trans. webi, ( ), – . f. girardin, f. calabrese, f. d. fiore, c. ratti, j. blat, ‘digital footprinting: uncovering tourists with user-generated content’, pervasive comput. ieeei, ( ), – . l. hollenstein and r. s. purves, ‘exploring place through user-generated content: using flickr to describe city cores’, j. spat. inf. sci., ( ), – . ross s. purves and curdin derungs d. cooper and i. n. gregory, ‘mapping the english lake district: a literary gis’, trans. inst. br. geogr., ( ), – . cited at . b. martins, i. anastácio, p. a. calado, ‘machine learning approach for resolving place references in text’, mach. learn., ( ), – . c. derungs and r. s. purves, ‘from text to landscape: locating, identifying and mapping the use of landscape features in a swiss alpine corpus’, int. j. geogr. inf. sci., ( ). for instance j. iwahashi and r. pike, ‘automated classifications of topography from dems by an unsupervised nested-means algorithm and a three-part geometric signature’, geomorphology, ( ), – . b. tversky and k. hemenway, ‘categories of environmental scenes’, cogn. psychol. ( ), – . a. edwardes and r. s. purves, ‘a theoretical grounding for semantic descriptions of place’, web wirel. geogr. inf. syst., ( ), – . shatford, ‘analyzing the subject of a picture: a theoretical approach’. j. dykes, r. s. purves, a. edwardes, j. wood, ‘exploring volunteered geographic information to describe place: visualization of the “geograph british isles” collection’, proceedings of gis research, ( ), – ; c. gschwend and r. s. purves, ‘exploring geomorphometry through user generated content: comparing an unsupervised geomorphometric classification with terms attached to georeferenced images in great britain’, trans. gis, ( ), – . j. wood and j. dykes, ‘spatially ordered treemaps’, ieee trans. vis. comput. graph., ( ), – . tversky and hemenway, ‘categories of environmental scenes’. three examples are: derungs and purves, ‘from text to landscape: locating, identifying and mapping the use of landscape features in a swiss alpine corpus’; a. edwardes and r. s. purves, ‘a theoretical grounding for semantic descriptions of place’, web wirel. geogr. inf. syst., ( ), – ; r. s. purves, a. j. edwardes, j. wood, ‘describing place through user generated content’, first monday, ( ). tversky and hemenway, ‘categories of environmental scenes’. derungs and purves, ‘from text to landscape: locating, identifying and mapping the use of landscape features in a swiss alpine corpus’. tf-idf (term frequency – inverse document frequency) is a standard measure in information retrieval which takes into account both the frequency of a term and its overall rate of occurrence. it is broadly analogous to the use of !-values as shown in figure . j. pickles, ground truth: the social implications of geographic information systems, (new york, ). agnew, ‘space and place’. shatford, ‘analyzing the subject of a picture: a theoretical approach’. massey, ‘a global sense of place’. the ‘assertive edition’ research article the ‘assertive edition’ on the consequences of digital methods in scholarly editing for historians georg vogeler published online: may # springer nature switzerland ag abstract the paper describes the special interest among historians in scholarly editing and the resulting editorial practice in contrast to the methods applied by pure philological textual criticism. the interest in historical ‘facts’ suggests methods the goal of which is to create formal representations of the information conveyed by the text in structured databases. this can be achieved with rdf representations of statements extracted from the text, by automatic information extraction methods, or by hand. the paper suggests the use of embedded rdf representations in tei markup, following the practice in several recent projects, and it concludes with a proposal for a definition of the ‘assertive edition’. keywords digital scholarly edition . history. rdf (resource description framework) . semantic web . historical documents . critial edition . tei (text encoding initiative) introduction the approach to scholarly editing used by historians differs from the approach used by literary scholars. both historians and literary scholars share an interest in a good text created by textual criticism, as texts are the main sources on which historians draw in their constructions of narratives about history. nevertheless, historians can have a slightly different approach to text: linguistic and physical aspects are considered mere intermediates to the information conveyed by the text. historians consider the content of the text ‘data’, and they want to use this data in their research to gain knowledge about the past. the circumstances under which archival documentation as a major type of text with which historians work was created support their perception of text: people recorded administrative activities in text to preserve information about these activities international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * georg vogeler georg.vogeler@uni-graz.at zentrum für informationsmodellierung, universität graz, graz, austria http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:georg.vogeler@uniraz.at for contemporary but absent clerks or for future clerks. in other words, they stored data in texts written on paper. in pre-digital editorial practice this can lead to decisions which are unacceptable to literary scholars, such as paraphrasing parts of the text. i will try to show that in digital scholarly editing the approach to editing used by historians can be reconciled with methods of textual scholarship. i suggest calling this combined method ‘assertive editing’ to avoid the impression that this method can only be used by historians. the method of assertive editing is not defined by disciplinary interests but by an interest in one facet of text: the information recorded. in terms of patrick sahle’s text wheel (sahle :iii, - ), the assertive edition is the editorial practice dedicated to the ‘text as content’ perspective. in the following i usually will oppose this ‘content’ to the ‘text’ as pure transcription and the result of textual critical work. contributions to the assertive edition assertive editing is fed by two streams in pre-digital and early digital scholarship. the ideas of content-oriented navigation, the possibility of multiple forms of representation, and extensive historical commentary are drawn from pre-digital editorial practice in historical research. i will try to show this by presenting on three major german historical printed editorial series: the monumenta germaniae historica (mgh), the records of the early modern imperial diet (breichstagsakten^), and the official minutes from the imperial chancellery (bakten der reichskanzlei^: bundesarchiv ). . pre-digital contributions to facilitate navigation and reception, the editions in the mgh diplomata series prepends abstracts of the legal core to each document. this is common practice in european charter editions, and it was codified by a committee of historical editors under the direction of robert-henri bautier in (bautier : , ). more recent diplomata series editions dedicate a paragraph in the introduction of each document to the historical context (e.g. the charters of emperor frederic ii by koch - ). some mgh editions of historiographical texts indicate the year to which the current text refers in the margins (e.g. georg waitz’s edition of the historia danorum roskildensi, : - ). this helps the readers find the events in which they are interested. of course, abstracts serve more purposes than simple navigation. in the editions of the imperial diets, abstracts replace some of the documents (e.g. heil , - ). dietmar heil describes the interest of the editors: bthe priority is … philological authenticity, but optimal accessibility^ ( , , trans. georg vogeler). they reduce historical orthography and change punctuation when it deviates from the modern syntactical analysis of the text (heil , - ). editors of correspondence have also considered this approach (steinecke ). editorial work in contemporary history is defined by the selection of significant material and contextualization of the text. the editors of the minutes of the cabinet of the german federal government (bundesarchiv ), for instance, explain their g. vogeler selection by relevance of content, discarding as irrelevant for instance the agenda in the head of each minute, invitations, and their attachments. this content-oriented approach can be found in other editorial principles of this edition. orthographic and syntactic errors are emended without notice, for instance. single entries start with a heading, persons present, and the place and time of the meeting, not as a verbal copy but as an extract created by the editors. the minutes also serve as an example of the third element of pre-digital editorial practice. they add extensive notes on the subjects of the meetings to each transcript with the aim of making the texts understandable. this kind of annotation is not specific to this one edition, but is generally recommended in historical editing (cullen ; stevens and burg , ). the edition of the minutes of the bundeskabinett serves primarily to illuminate government decisions, rather than their wording. similarily, many mgh editors add extensive comments on the historical context, e.g. in the pre- publication of anonymous continuations of frutolf - (marxreiter ). these approaches have been directly transferred into electronic editions. the idea of facilitating the understanding of the text accepts translations as a way of editing. this leads to solutions like david postles’ online representation of stubbington medieval records (postles ), which gives the text in a translation of the original latin. this not an individual practice, as p.d.a. harvey discusses in his introduction to historical translation as a method in editing ( , - ). from a historian’s point of view, a translation is a sensible solution, as it facilitates the use of the document. it would not satisfy the research interests of textual scholars. paul d.a. harvey argues that the edition of historical records can be reduced to a calendar of abstracts when the original or photocopies of the records are easily accessible ( , - ). several project follow an approach of this kind. the records of the swiss foreign office (zala et al. – ) replaces the transcription with images. this calendar plus image approach is also used by soundtoll registers (veluwenkamp and van der woude ; gøbel ) and peter rauscher and his colleagues in the donauhandel project ( - ). both create databases with struc- tured information directly from the source and link it to images of the source. . early digital contributions historians’ interests in the ‘facts’ and the dominance of sociologic approaches to history in the s to s led them to create ‘databases’ of historical information (boonstra et al. ). a famous example of this approach is the online catasto of (herlihy et al. ), an online edition created by r. burr litchfield and anthony molho based upon david herlihy and christiane klapisch-zuber’s project census and property survey of florentine dominions in the province of tuscany, - ( ; herlihy ; herlihy ). the data keeps close to the source, copying the information on wealth recorded for each taxable household in the city (as it is found in the initial tax declarations of plus additions and adjustments made in and ). seeing historical records as an accidental medial solution to preserve and process information, one could consider this database a simple change in recording medium, not in information itself. the needs of the recording medium require substan- tial changes in the recording method. herlihy / klapisch-zuber had to create new encodings and had to break the text rigorously into table columns. in the end, the ‘assertive edition’ the database tries to recreate the information recorded by the florentine offi- cials, addressing three essential questions: who had to pay what amount of taxes for which kind of property. philological editors certainly cannot consider this database an edition. the encoders did not copy family names, names, and patronymics letter by letter, but standardized them and truncated them when they went beyond ten letters. historians were well aware of the modifications that database encoding made to the original records. in the s, however, digital scholarly editing was not yet developed enough to provide a solution. the concept of scholarly editing does not even appear in the more recent book on historical information science by lawrence mccrank’s ( ). at the time, computing methods in the historical sciences chiefly meant the production of relational databases and spreadsheets. in the s, manfred thaller proposed a historical database system that kept closer to the original source ( , , , ). he developed the clio database as a ‘source oriented’ database. it would reduce the amount of encoding and transformation of the source customary. clio kept as much information from the source as possible by allowing for hierarchical organization of information, better representation of incom- plete data, and integration of alternatives and comments. this source-oriented database approach is clearly a type of editorial work, combining text from the source with interpretation by and for historians. at the same time, a philologist would regret the lack of a full transcription. digital editions and facts digital scholarly editing has developed since the days of clio and has built upon the methods developed for the mgh, the reichstagsakten, and the akten der reichskanzlei. the assertive edition developing out of these strands is something between pure textual representations and well-formed databases structured around specific research questions. no edition yet calls itself an assertive edition, but many bear features that fit the definition put forward here. a selection may be found by searching patrick sahle’s catalogue for bgeneral subject area: history^ (sahle – ). browsing through the projects on the list, one can identify four major questions: . which interface elements are typical for an assertive edition? . how can we use automatic information extraction processes in the scholarly edition? . is semantic markup (provided by the tei) sufficient? . how can we integrate the web of data (the ‘semantic web’) into scholarly editions? . interface elements editions like the letters of alfred escher (jung – ), the acta pacis westfalica (lanzinner and braun ), and the diplomatic correspondence of thomas bodley - (adams ) offer avenues of access to the text beyond the pre-existing g. vogeler textual structure. typically, tools include indices of persons, places, and subject keywords. other entry points to the texts show better what an assertive scholarly edition would concern itself with: apw, for instance, gives access via a timeline of events, a calendar of relevant dates, and a map. indeed, indices of persons, places, and events and calendars and maps are fast becoming default components for historical digital editions. additional fact-oriented interface elements seem to depend more on the type of documents edited: rich prosopographical information like in correspondence suggests using network visualisations, for instance in the diplomatic correspondence of thomas bodley (adams , visualisations). economic information suggests the use of bar charts to visualize income and expenditure, as in the case of the edition of the municipal accounts of basel - (burghartz , konten). the latter builds upon the source-oriented database approach advocated by manfred thaller by allowing the user to select entries from the accounts and collect them in a ‘data basket’ (burghartz , databasket). this allows the user to perform basic arithmetic opera- tions and download the results as a spreadsheet. finally, semantic networks like those used in burkhardt source (ghelardi et al. ) hold some general promise, but for the moment they remain lonely solutions for single projects. . information extraction the user interfaces, of course, are only the surface of the edition. how does one harvest information? what form does the information take as digital data? which models relate the information to the transcription? one approach to data harvesting from texts is automatic information extraction. computer linguists have been working on this since the s. their goal is to reduce free prose text to answers to the questions bwho did what to whom and when?^ and represent these answers in a structured way. a typical information extraction pipeline starts with generic natural language processing steps and then uses named entity recognition to mark up the words representing persons, locations, or organizations, temporal data, and quantifying data. the pipeline then relates these entities to one another, building connections between the entities. this can take the form of predicates in sentences, coreferences by pronouns, etc. the possible relationships can be inferred from external knowledge about the domain, like dates of birth and death for people mentioned in a text, or it can be the result of the semantic role, such as can be inferred from the predicate in a sentence. the task is very domain-specific, as it depends on what type of information is considered relevant. a typical task for historical research could be event extraction, which is already applied to automatic news analysis (see grishman for a general introduction). recent projects dealing with us foreign affairs records have taken this approach to transcripts of archival documents. they take the historical records as source data without any intermediate scholarly processing. using ocr to create a digital represen- tation of the text, scholars then apply distant reading methods like topic modelling or information extraction to this corpus (e.g. kaufmann – ). gao et al. ( ) have used even used the electronic texts of the cables in the s for their computer- based analysis. the aim of implementing this approach in scholarly editions would be to create a reliable text with classical textual criticism and to extract from this text the information for historians. existing information extraction methods are built for the ‘assertive edition’ modern texts, and thus they have to be modified to be applicable to historical texts or historical texts have to be modified to come closer to modern texts. piotrowski ( ) has described the many challenges in this task. some progress has been made e.g. in the handling of variants in historical language, for instance by bryan jurish ( , , , ) or kestemont et al. ( ). however, most of the problems still remain to be solved. scholarly editors still have to rely on their own competence and on human labour for the introduction of substantial knowledge about what people in the past wrote in their texts. . tei and semantic markup the problems computers still have with historical languages led to the decision to create manually annotated texts. digital editions use the extensible mark-up language xml to add semantic markup to texts. this is made possible in particular by the strong connection between the communities maintaining the guidelines of the text encoding initiative (tei) with the community of digital scholarly editors. tei provides semantic annotation for many phenomena interesting to historians: names of persons, locations, or organizations can be encoded as , temporal expressions as and . with the tei p there are even guidelines concerning how to encode structured descriptions of persons, places, and events, structures that are similar to database structures. still, the markup provided by the tei is deficient in ways of expressing historical information of interest in this present study. an example is the element. the tei guidelines consider it a concept independent from text, to which text can refer. an expression like ‘my inauguration’ in ‘after my inauguration, i decided to leave the town’ is not an ‘event’, but should be encoded like any other referring string with the element. nevertheless, while places and persons have a dedicated / tagging, historians interested in marking up named events like ‘world war i’, the ‘battle of marathon’, the ‘coronation of charlemagne’, the ‘contract of maastricht’, or the ‘lisbon earthquake’ in their sources have to employ workarounds. this observation illuminates the distance between a major practice in digital scholarly editing and the research interests of historians. one reason for this might be that scholars much more easily agree on the identification of individual names of concrete persons, places, and organizations than on more abstract events. the sample events above have formal names (some, more than one), but text often describes events in a much looser way: ‘my inauguration as bishop’ is clearly an individual event, but one unlikely to have formalized name. many events do not even bear names at all. rather, they are told as a story: ‘when hitler’s troops crossed the polish border on september in the year , world war ii started.’ this sentence clearly refers to the event ‘nazi invasion of poland’, but could just as easily be referred to as ‘start of world war ii’, or in many other ways. this example demonstrates that even these short identifiers are not just an arbitrary ‘name’. they create different contexts and are therefore part of a specific discourse. http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ref-event.html g. vogeler http://www.tei-c.org/release/doc/tei-p -doc/en/html/ref-event.html . web of data: semantic markup by reference linking different names for the same event is a typical competency of semantic web technologies as proposed by the w c since (berners-lee et al. ; rebranded as ‘web of data’ activities by w c ). the semantic web uses abstract unique identifiers (uris) as representations of the concepts covered by the name. with uris, scholars can create digital representations of events without relying on ambiguous natural language terms. an increasing number of digital scholarly editions use semantic web technologies to solve naming issues. the most prominent method is the extension of classical indices: while previously, such indices standardized names to represent the historical fact behind a name for a person or a place, uris allow identifying persons, places, and organisations for technical processing, even if there is no name. gautier poupeau described this approach in , and the digital edition of the fine rolls of king henry iii, created – (ciula et al. ), made extensive use of these technologies in its back-end. a good example of the use of semantic web technologies in scholarly editions is the teutsche academie der bau-, bild- und mahlerey-künste, by joachim von sandrart (kirchner et al. – ). the text refers to many artists and artistic objects, which are identified and described in the index and can be downloaded from the site as an rdf dataset. a more extensive formalisation than the index approach is demonstrated by the old bailey project (hitchcock et al. – ). the basic transcription of the text was annotated in xml in order to facilitate structured searching and statistical analysis. this approach works because the records already tend to have a regular structure. ´the meaning of particular words or phrases like names and crimes is tagged and further sorted into subcategories like types of verdict. the final encoding of the texts contains formal descriptions of the relationships established by the markup. they are processed in a separate database, but they are also kept together with the text in the xml. old bailey online is not just a database of criminal trials, but an assertive scholarly edition, representing the statements made by the transcription in a formal way and linking the statements to transcription, to image. following semantic web / web of data activities of the w c, the digital represen- tation of data is increasingly realized through rdf triples. in the context of the assertive edition, they have the advantage that they model facts as statements about reality in a simple but expressive way, as they can be read as subject predicate object propositions. parallel to the development of embedded annotation with xml, digital humanities has developed methods for stand-off annotation. since , stand-off annotation has been increasingly realized with rdf. a standard for this annotation has been found in the open annotation vocabulary (sanderson et al. ). digital editions have made use of this possibility. pundit (grassi et al. ; morbidoni and piccioli ; andreini et al. ; net ) is the most advanced application of the semantic web to digital scholarly editions, used for example in the scholarly edition of the correspon- dence of jakob burckhard (ghelardi et al. ). it allows annotation of any part of the http://ta.sandrart.net/data/ and single expressions via the rest api of the project at http://ta.sandrart. net/de/info/services/rest/, so http://ta.sandrart.net/services/rdf/person/ returns the rdf data for philipp melanchthon for example. https://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/project.jsp#mark-up the ‘assertive edition’ http://ta.sandrart.net/data/ http://ta.sandrart.net/de/info/services/rest/ http://ta.sandrart.net/de/info/services/rest/ http://ta.sandrart.net/services/rdf/person/ https://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/project.jsp#mark-up text. textual fragments can be used as the subjects or objects of an rdf triple. in the jakob burckhard edition, pund-it reduces the possible predicates to references to artworks and artists, general comments, quotations and references, dates, and geographical identifica- tion. pundit saves this as an rdf reference to the html elements. work is underway on linking the annotation directly to the xml/tei source. in the end, the semantic networks, which are a unique interaction feature of this digital edition, can describe the content of the text through direct links to part of the source text that contains the information. . how to combine transcription with databases? looking forward, a number of questions arise: can we build scholarly editions which include results similar to those created by information extraction software but controlled by hand, thus bringing the full power of human understanding to the annotation? can we encode the propositions made by the words of a text into the transcription? can we embed the statements extracted by the reader into the sequence of characters and thus create a single digital resource representing transcription and information conveyed by it to the editor? if so, how? one possible approach is suggested by rdfa, the w c’s proposed serialization of rdf embedded in html markup. it provides attributes for html elements describ- ing rdf triples. existing html element attributes like @href or @src can be used as objects in the ‘subject predicate object’ triple structure. additional attributes like @typeof, @resource and @property permit some of the full expressiveness of rdf. listing a: example of a sentence in rdfa encoding listing b: triples extracted from the sentence (in turtle/n notation) listing demonstrates which triples can be extracted from a sentence in a fictive letter by using rdfa markup as semantic annotation. this method is attractive, as it closely relates the assertive expression to the text how might tei be similarly extended? the standardized mark-of the tei covers some typical basic facts that might be extracted from texts. however, assertive anno- tation can be much richer and highly diverse. something more flexible is needed. therefore, i would suggest transferring the rdfa approach to tei, creating a ‘teia’ annotation style. the tei-community has already discussed the idea of directly importing the rdfa attributes into the tei (tei-community , ), but it was bertrand marched out with the guards battalion to breslau and writes gay letters gnd:bertrand ex:ispartof ex:guards ; ex:marchto geo:wrocław ; ex:writes [ ex:emotionalquality ex:serene ] . https://net .github.io/pundit /xmltei.html g. vogeler https://net .github.io/pundit /xmltei.html argued convincingly that foreign namespace is not controllable by tei and therefore not recommended. fortunately, tei provides attributes which cover much of a teia approach: @ref creates a link from a verbal expression to an entity, and @ana links textual fragments to any kind of analytical annotation. as the tei guidelines reduce the use of @ref to reference strings, the globally usable @ana seems to be the best candidate for a generic linking of textual fragments to rdf triple structures describing the relevant facts. the système modulaire de la gestion d’information historique (symogih), which was developed by francesco beretta and his team (beretta and vernus ; beretta et al. ), makes use of rdf-based semantic markup in combination with tei transcriptions. in the edition of the journal of léonard michon (letricot ), for instance, the transcribed texts are accompanied by a marginal index with short notes on events, facts, and persons. they are formalisations of the very text, e.g. ‘le roy luy a envoyé à marseille monsieur de saint olon, gentilhomme ordinaire, qui le suivra jusqu’à paris’ is represented by a descriptive text ‘françois pidou de saint olon accompagne l'ambassadeur perse de marseille à versailles’ and the people involved in the event. this information is represented as an rdf statement (http://symogih. org/resource/info ) about the two persons involved. the annotation is encoded with the tei, and the global attribute @ana links the text to a database of the formalized description of the content (beretta ). other examples of this approach are found in projects realized at the zentrum für informationsmodellierung at university of graz in cooperation with the historical department at the university of basel. susanna burghartz’s team created transcriptions of two sets of administrative records from the city of basel from the early modern period: the annual accounts of the city from to (burghartz ) and a criminal court record, the ‘urfehdebuch’ (register of oath of truce) from - (burghartz et al. ). while digital humanities projects related to the early modern period focus very often on handling the specific properties of early modern texts (nelson and terras ; estill et al. ), the basel editions can be considered assertive editions. both projects are realized in a very flexible technical environment, the gams (steiner and stigler – ), which is a framework for archiving and publication of humanities data sources, in particular digital scholarly editions. in the jahrrechnung der stadt basel the core information unit addressed is clear: the monetary amount of a single transaction, as transmitted by the historical accountant, i.e. his rubrics (vogeler a; vogeler b; cfr. vogeler for a deeper discussion of editorial methods appropriate for historical accounts). however, even this simple criterion needs interpretation: repaid loans and interests are mixed in one common category of income. for a financial analysis this is unacceptable; accordingly, stand-off annotation is used to apply sub-categories to individual entries. in the case of the urfehdebuch the main category is, as is true of the old bailey records, a single case. at least one core property of the data structure is already represented by the textual structure in the archival manuscript: the heading gives the name of the offender. however, type of offence, http://symogih.org/ http://journal-michon.symogih.org/documents/document-text.html?id=diob &volume_number= &page_number= http://gams.uni-graz.at the ‘assertive edition’ http://symogih.org/resource/info http://symogih.org/resource/info http://symogih.org/ http://journal-michon.symogih.org/documents/document-text.html?id=diob &volume_number= &page_number= http://journal-michon.symogih.org/documents/document-text.html?id=diob &volume_number= &page_number= http://gams.uni-graz.at victim, and punishment have to be extracted from the text and are encoded with links to a taxonomy developed for the project (pollin and vogeler ). embedding the interpretation of facts into the text seems straightforward, but it has several drawbacks. the examples above have shown that we need at least links to external knowledge organization systems and the translation into full rdf triples to express enough of the content of the texts. information science teaches us to go even further and to include time in the relationship between data and information, i.e. between edited text and the facts the historian considers to be represented by the text. börje langefors ( / ) has formulated his ‘infological equation’, according to which the information is a function of the data, the recovering structure, and the time when the interpretation takes place. this conceptualization of information argues in favour of stand-off annotation, as the semantic value of an edited text is an interpre- tations by the editor. in fact, there is a long-standing discussion in the text encoding community on the risks of embedded semantic markup, summarized by thaller and buzzetti ( ). standardized technical solutions for this approach do not yet exist. rdf has established itself as a common data structure for the exchange of the factual interpretations of text. the question of how to maintain the linkage between the text edited and the rdf is still under discussion. conclusion all of this leads to the following description of assertive editions: they are scholarly representations of historical documents in which the information on facts asserted by the transcription is in the focus of editorial work. they help the user/reader understand the text and use the information conveyed in the text as structured data. this data includes interpretations of the text based on the context and the expertise of the editor. in fact, interpretation is part of the core of the critical activity of the editor. she concludes on the basis of her knowledge about the written text, its layout, and the historical circumstances under which it was produced how to describe the content beyond pure transcription. this can include normalization, categorization, reference to external resources, formal knowledge representations, and many other forms of transformation. the assertive edition is not a well-defined type of scholarly editing yet. however, assertive editions exist. the methods according to which they are created, modelled, and made available online are becoming part of scholarship. digital assertive editions can be identified by the user interface and in the data structures, which try to combine the transcription with a database of statements made in the text. on the one hand, few historians have already implemented the concept. it allows them to employ source- oriented critical methods while working with large amounts of data. the majority of the historians still focus on the structured data extracted from the sources. databases are their major tool, often employing rich interfaces and elaborate visualizations. the majority of scholarly editors, on the other hand, employ traditional methods of textual scholarship; they ponder complex transcription problems, evaluate variants, and include textual materiality. the combination (deep links between structured data and text with assertive editing) is still rare. one reason for this is the technological ability to realize such links. tools like pundit, frameworks like symogih or gams, and best practice examples like the projects cited above are steps in the process of addressing this. g. vogeler acknowledgements open access funding provided by university of graz. this text profited very much from the suggestions of the reviewers, my colleagues at the institut für dokumentologie und editorik, and in particular the hard work of sean winslow, for which i am deeply grateful. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references all urls were last checked on apr. , and if possible archived via the web archiving service of http://archive.org. adams, r. 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( – ). diplomatische dokumente der schweiz. bern/zürich. https://www.dodis.ch/. g. vogeler http://www.w .org/ /data/ http://www.mgh.de/dmgh/resolving/mgh_ss_ https://www.dodis.ch/ the ‘assertive edition’ abstract introduction contributions to the assertive edition pre-digital contributions early digital contributions digital editions and facts interface elements information extraction tei and semantic markup web of data: semantic markup by reference how to combine transcription with databases? conclusion references all urls were last checked on apr.� , and if possible archived via the web archiving service of http://archive.org. june-dh newseye paper to appear in digital humanities , dh , book of abstracts, university of ottawa & carleton university, canada, july - , . alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) . newseye: a digital investigator for historical newspapers antoine doucet , martin gasteiner , mark granroth-wilding , max kaiser , minna kaukonen , roger labahn , jean-philippe moreux , guenter muehlberger , eva pfanzelter , marie-eve therenty , hannu toivonen , mikko tolonen university of la rochelle; university of vienna; university of helsinki; national library of austria; university of rostock; national library of france; university of innsbruck; university paul valéry montpellier the newseye h project, running from may until april , is an interdisciplinary undertaking that involves european national libraries, humanities and social science research groups and computer science research groups. the core concept of newseye is a seamlessly integrated armory of tools and methods that will improve the users’ capability to access, analyze and use the content in the digital libraries of historical newspapers. figure : beta version of the newseye demonstrator (june ) this work has been supported by the european union horizon research and innovation programme under grant (newseye). specifically, in the context of historical newspaper written in german, finnish, swedish and french, with a focus on the period - , the project aims to develop a toolbox consisting of two main layers, as well as novel research results on several topics and in several fields of digital humanities, based on documents in different languages, so as to demonstrate the potential extent of its usefulness as a catalyst for the seamless development of novel research. in details, the first layer of the newseye toolbox focuses on tools to improve and enrich historical newspapers, with improved text recognition and article segmentation, followed by semantic enrichment through the recognition and linking of named entities, stance detection, as well as novelty detection. a language-independent set of higher quality data results from this step, already allowing an enriched experience and access to the newspaper collections. the second layer of the toolbox provides ways to benefit from this enriched dataset, through dynamic text analysis tools interacting with respect to user activities: contextualized topic modeling, viewpoint and comparative analysis, etc. in addition, an innovative personal research assistant is able to design strategies (plans) for finding something interesting and to revise them on the fly when needed. it consists of an investigator (dynamically finding and suggesting novel ideas), a reporter (summarizing the grounds for all suggestions) and an explainer (allowing the user to understand the suggestions by herself, and to return to the original data to confirm or infirm them). within the project, several digital humanities case studies are led, with the aim to guide the development of adequate tools, and so as to demonstrate their potential for the development of novel research in digital humanities. in the case studies, groups of humanities scholars carry out investigations for representative research issues, such as “gender”, “migration”, “nationalism and revolutions”, and “media”. since there is plenty of existing qualitative research on these topics, the project strives towards making an impact in the fields of historical research and digital humanities by combining knowledge from qualitative analyses with new findings in big data analyses provided by the new tools in this project. figure : short description of the case study on return migration it is essential to understand that the newseye research topics and datasets are showcases, and that the seamless inclusion of additional research question is a key ambition. with this in mind, all the tools developed are language-independent, so as to be able to seamlessly integrate further datasets. in fact, newseye is both open to further research cases to be studied using its tools and to the integration of additional datasets and tools through the status of associated partner. further information [ ] newseye project website in languages: https://www.newseye.eu/ [de] [en] [fi] [fr] [ ] newseye demonstrator: https://platform.newseye.eu/ [ ] newseye twitter account: https://twitter.com/newseyeeu [ ] newseye project publications and data sets: https://zenodo.org/communities/newseye/ [ ] newseye project software and source code: https://github.com/newseye/ [ ] newseye podcasts: https://www.univie.ac.at/newseye/ [ ] newseye videos: https://www.youtube.com/channel/ucweqok jrfbjebyv- zkpcta/playlists web-based multimedia mapping for spatial analysis and visualization in the digital humanities: a case study of language documentation in nepal web-based multimedia mapping for spatial analysis and visualization in the digital humanities: a case study of language documentation in nepal shunfu hu & brajesh karna & kristine hildebrandt published online: january # springer international publishing ag, part of springer nature abstract there has been a growing interest in utilizing geographic information systems (gis) in the digital humanities and social sciences (dh). gis-based dh projects usually emphasize spatial analysis and cartographic capability (e.g., displaying the locations of people, events, or movements), however, gis alone cannot easily integrate multimedia components (e.g., descriptive text, photographs, digital audio, and video) of dh projects. multimedia mapping provides a unique approach to integrating geospatial information in digital map format and multimedia information, which is useful for dh integration into spatial analysis and visualization. as cartographic mapping and gis evolve from a traditional desktop platform to the world wide web, it is of significance to design and develop a web-based multimedia mapping approach that could carry out spatial analysis and incorporate multimedia components, which is greatly beneficial to the dh applications. our objectives of the language documentation research project in nepal were to ( ) use geo-tagging equipment to collect audio and visual recordings of three types of socio-linguistic data: language attitudes and practices interviews, free-form narratives, and elicited vocabulary and grammatical paradigm sets, from representative speakers of the four endangered languages in twenty-six manang villages; ( ) design and develop a web-based, interactive multimedia atlas that can display data points correspond- ing to the speakers, links to the three types of data gathered in multimedia format, provides friendly user interface for the manipulation and spatial analysis of all the data. it is anticipated that the web-based, interactive, and multimedia language atlas can bring all local and international stakeholders, such as the speech communities, linguists, local government agencies, and the public, together to raise awareness of language structures, language practices, language endangerment, and opportunities for preservation, all through this easy- to-use means that enhance the geo-spatial representation in engaging visual and sensory (multimedia) formats. google maps api and javascript are employed to develop this online, interactive, and multimedia language atlas. keywords multimedia mapping . spatial analysis . visualization . digital humanities . language documentation . www introduction there has been a recent and noticeable increase in connections between humanities and geography (including geographic information system (gis)), particularly in visualizations and in projects that spatially represent historical, narrative, and textual descriptions. this movement has been termed by harris et al. ( ) as the bgeohumanities.^ by bhumanities,^ we mean spa- tial considerations of disciplines concerned with the human con- dition, and involving largely qualitative, introspective and spec- ulative methods of inquiry (e.g., literature, anthropology, philos- ophy, history, communication studies, and languages/linguistics). the linkages between social sciences and gis geography have been substantive and productive, particularly in the rapidly expanding realm of the digital humanities (dh) (cf. goodchild and janelle ). in such projects, mapping is used in the spatial visualiza- tion of multimedia information, including digital still images, sound, and video. one discipline that is poised to greatly electronic supplementary material the online version of this article (https://doi.org/ . /s - - - ) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * shunfu hu shu@siue.edu department of geography, southern illinois university edwardsville, edwardsville, il, usa department of computer sciences, southern illinois university edwardsville, edwardsville, il, usa department of english language and literature, southern illinois university edwardsville, edwardsville, il, usa journal of geovisualization and spatial analysis ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /s - - - mailto:shu@siue.edu benefit from a deeper collaboration with gis is that of linguis- tics, particularly applied dimensions such as typology, socio- linguistics, historical linguistics, and language documentation and description. examples of such notable interdisciplinary collaboration include the autotyp linguistic typology pro- ject (http://www.spw.uzh.ch/autotyp/), der sprechende sprachatlas bthe speaking language atlas^ (http:// sprachatlas.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de), and the linguistic atlas of the middle and atlantic states (http://us. english.uga.edu/lamsas/) (kirk and kretzschmar ). recent geolinguistics publications also reflect this shift in col- laborative momentum (cf. auer and schmidt ( ), lameli et al. ( ), and gawne and ring ( )). at the same time, in a recent paper on sampling in dialec- tology research, buchstaller and alvanides lament that until recently, bthe majority of sociolinguistic work [could] be de- scribed as spatially naïve, using geographical space merely as a canvas…on to which the results of linguistic analysis [could] be mapped.^ ( : ). this need for inclusion and testing of different types of spatial factors alongside social ones is in- creasingly being addressed in regions like the usa and great britain (trudgill ; auer and schmidt ; lameli et al. ; buchstaller and corrigan ; cheshire et al. , ; labov et al. ; kretzschmar ; kretzschmar et al. ; britain and also the rise of bgeohumanities^ dear et al. ), but is still in its infancy in other regions of the world (but cf. stanford for a report on adjusted spatial factors on language practices and tonal patterns of sui communities in china). compounding this general gap, precious few quantitative studies have investigated language attitudes and practices in linguistically diverse areas. this gap is unfortunate because it is often these attitudes and reports of language practices that can shed light on shifting ideologies as precursors to endan- germent in areas where languages compete among each other and with prestige varieties (giles et al. ; coupland et al. ). in the nepal scenario, two of the languages in our larger documentation project (manange and gurung) are threatened but viable, while the other two (nar-phu and gyalsumdo) are highly endangered (technically moribund), with very few active younger speakers. our overall aim, there- fore, is to build an online, interactive atlas that contributes towards what britain ( : ) terms bsocially rich spatiality,^ taking into account speaker practices and networks as they intersect with geo-physical location. the potential for mutual benefit in the gis-linguistics and gis-language documentation collaborative contexts cannot be overstated and is the focus of this paper. increasingly, lan- guage documentation (particularly of vulnerable or threatened speech communities) relies on an awareness and understand- ing of the spatial-temporal interplay of language practices, structural variation, and contact dynamics, all working togeth- er to form a more comprehensive profile of the contributing variables to the survival and threat scenarios of these lan- guages. spatial visualization of documentation, through maps and atlases, for example, also benefits grammatical descrip- tion in itself as a product or output, as grammars vary widely in their coding and conceptualization of space-time continua (e.g., slobin ; bickel ; harrison ). this varia- tion can be more deeply appreciated in tandem with gis ap- plications as relevant to the language communities. gis is defined as a computer program for the capture, stor- age, manipulation, visualization, and spatial analysis of geospatial features (e.g., points, lines, or polygons) and their attributes (chang ). the attribute data of the geospatial features in gis are commonly alphanumeric values stored in an attribute table, thus termed as structured data. therefore, the spatial analysis of gis is often conducted using a struc- tured query language (e.g., bcountry_name^ = bnepal^). as a result, gis has traditionally lacked the ability to integrate non-structured data, such as digital photographs, digital audio and digital video clips (i.e., multimedia components). in the past two decades, a new trend of developing multimedia map- ping systems has been seen in the literature. multimedia map- ping refers to the integration of computer-assisted mapping systems and multimedia technologies that allow one to incor- porate not only geospatial information in digital map format, but also multimedia information. the development of multi- media mapping techniques has gone through several stages, including the emergence of interactive maps and electronic atlases (openshaw and mounsey ; rhind et al. ; shepherd ), the development of bhypermaps^ in the s (wallin ; laurini and milleret-raffort ; cotton and oliver ; cartwright ), the integration of hypermedia gis systems (which features hypertext, hyper- links and multimedia) and gis in the late s and early s (shiffer ; bill ; hu ; soomro et al. ; chong ; hu et al. ; yagoub ; goryachko and chernyshev ; belsis et al. ). after having compared the various multimedia mapping techniques, ranging from desktop-based multimedia mapping to web- based hypermedia gis, hu ( ) pointed out that the former relies heavily on computer programming languages (e.g., visual basic), and digital mapping software (e.g., arcview, arcgis, or mapobjects) with local data storage, local access, and single user. the media format is often in microsoft windows with large file sizes, such as .tiff for images, .avi for digital video, and .wav for digital sound. the latter relies on both computer programming languages (e.g., visual basic) and markup languages (e.g., html), and internet map server (ims) (e.g., mapobjects ims, arcgis ims) with remote data storage, network access, and internet users. the media format is often web-based with small file sizes, such as jpeg for images, .mov for digital video, and .wav for digital sound. in both cases, the multimedia map application developers must invest in dedicated computer hardware (e.g., web server, data page of j geovis spat anal ( ) : http://www.spw.uzh.ch/autotyp http://sprachatlas.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de http://sprachatlas.bayerische-landesbibliothek-online.de http://us.english.uga.edu/lamsas http://us.english.uga.edu/lamsas server) and computer software (e.g., map server), plus it per- sonnel. the developer often faces a steep learning curve to become knowledgeable about the coding in native language of the map server. now, as cartographic mapping system and gis evolve from traditional desktop platform to web-based online platform, there is a need and an opportunity, to develop a web-based multimedia mapping approach to integrating geospatial information in digital map formats and multimedia information, which is of significance for dh-centered visual- ization and spatial analysis. our objectives in our language documentation research in nepal were to ( ) use geo-tagging equipment to collect audio and visual recordings of three types of socio-linguistic data: language attitudes and practices interviews, free-form narra- tives, and elicited vocabulary and grammatical paradigm sets, from representative speakers of the four endangered lan- guages in manang villages; ( ) design and develop a web-based, interactive, and multimedia atlas that can display data points corresponding to the speakers, links to the three types of data gathered in multimedia format, provides friendly user interface for the manipulation and spatial analysis of all the data. it is anticipated that the online atlas can bring all local and international stakeholders, such as the speech communi- ties, linguists, local government agencies, and the public, to- gether to raise awareness of language structures, language practices, language endangerment, and opportunities for pres- ervation, all through this easy-to-use means that enhance the geo-spatial representation in engaging visual and sensory (multimedia) formats. the following section describes our methods and the atlas design and functionality. methodology study area as alluded to, nepal has a high degree of linguistic diversity, with approximately languages attested (cbs ; kansakar ). most are btribal^ languages (indigenous, lo- cally bounded, and strongly connected to community cultural identification and practices), concentrated in a couple of vil- lages over a small area. as an example, the manang district is both culturally and linguistically heterogeneous and can be divided into four ethno-linguistic areas across villages: manang gurung and gyalsumdo to the south (where manang gurung and gyalsumdo speakers live), the nar val- ley to the north (where nar-phu speakers live), and the upper manang valley in the west (where nyeshangte speakers live) (fig. ). all languages in this area are tibeto-burman. the manang district is appropriate for a case study of web- based multimedia mapping as it intersects with geo-linguistics and language documentation and it has undergone rapid envi- ronmental, economic, and infrastructure development and changes over the past years, including the ongoing con- struction of its first motorable road and the population shifts associated with this (see laurance for commentary on road-building impacts). some manang communities have also witnessed population movements associated with both the rise of boarding schools in the capital kathmandu, and also the rise of migrant worker opportunities where young adults relo- cate to gulf states like saudi arabia, bahrain, and united arab emirates for long-term employment (hildebrandt et al. ). these changes have mixed impacts. on the one hand, they can benefit rural communities by connecting them to business and other opportunities available only to more cen- trally located marketplaces. on the other hand, these changes can trigger language shift as local residents (particularly youn- ger ones) may emigrate away from their areas of traditional language practice for education and job opportunities. these changes introduce new, complex variables behind language contact and language endangerment beyond just social vari- ables, and further motivates a spatial perspective of language practices and patterns in this area. data source and data set the primary data source was the sociolinguistic interviews conducted in the villages of the manang district across the four language groups. there was a total of interviews conducted between and . each interviewee was asked a total of questions (see appendix for the full set of questions). the data sets for this project included the de- scriptive text from the interviews gathered from locally orig- inating and residing speakers of the four languages, geograph- ic coordinates in longitude (x) and latitude (y) of the residences where each interview took place, digital photographs, and digital video clips. digital photographs were taken using cannon slr -d digital camera and saved in jpeg format. digital video clips were acquired using a sony handycam hdr-xr digital video camcorder and stored in mpeg format. as part of the project agreement with the funding agency, the multimedia content from this project were ar- chived with the shanti (sciences, humanities, and arts network of technological initiatives) collection (http:// shanti.virginia.edu/wordpress/?page_id= ). shanti is housed in the university of virginia as a publisher of websites and other digital content on languages and cultures of the tibetan plateau and greater himalayan region. in addition, google maps was employed as the base map for the integration or bmashup^ of the multimedia information all interviews began with an oral consent process (originally composed in english and given in nepali, the regional contact language), which was based on a script approved by siue’s institutional review board (irb) for informed consent in research involving human subjects. this consent process included respondent awareness that his/her information would be made available for public access, through audio-visual and through still (photograph) images. j geovis spat anal ( ) : page of http://shanti.virginia.edu/wordpress/?page_id= http://shanti.virginia.edu/wordpress/?page_id= collected during the sociolinguistic interviews. the next sections describe the process of data preparation (buse of xml to store the data^ section), data loading and display on google maps (buse of jquery javascript library to load the xml file onto the google maps^ and buse of google maps javascript api v to display the data^ sections , respectively), and how the user interface for spatial analysis and visualization was developed (buse of javascript, xhtml, and css to design the user interface and functions for spatial analysis and visualization^ section). use of xml to store the data there are various ways to store and prepare the spatial data for display on google maps. among them, xml is the simplest and easiest method to use due to its free and open source. xml (extensible markup language, stored with the exten- sion .xml in plain text format) is similar to html but does not have any predefined tags and is platform independent. the authors defined the tags based upon project-specific require- ments. below is an example of the xml file (e.g., languages_pts_ .xml) that contains the information for one sociolinguistic interview, including the speaker id, the language name, the village name, the coded interview ques- tions and responses (e.g., aindex, bindex), interviewee age group, longitude (x), latitude (y), picture id, video link, and other information. for each interview, all relevant information was placed in a pair of and tags, each representing the point location of the interview. there are currently pairs of such tags in the entire xml file. notepad++, a free source code editor which supports sev- eral programming languages running under the microsoft windows environment (http://notepad-plus-plus.org/), was used to prepare the xml data file. it was also used to edit all of the javascript code for the project. for those using different platforms, such as macos or linux, there are numerous open-source editors, such as sublime text and atom. fig. locations of villages in the manang district of nepal page of j geovis spat anal ( ) : http://notepad-plus-plus.org use of jquery javascript library to load the xml file onto the google maps jquery is a cross-browser javascript library designed to sim- plify the client-side scripting of html. it is a free, open- source software designed to create dynamic web pages. therefore, jquery (version . . ) is selected in our applica- tion. there are two ways to integrate jquery library to the application. one way is to download the jquery library and place it at the same place where the main web page (e.g., index.html) is located, which is illustrated with the following code in html. another way is simply to point to the url where the jquery library is located, as shown below. the code below shows how the xml content (i.e., languages_pts_ .xml) is uploaded to the google maps using javascript jquery.get function ($.get in short) at the initialization of the google maps (i.e., function initmap()) and jquery(data).find(bpt^).each(function(){ }); is used to retrieve the information for each data point (notice the and tags in the xml file mentioned above). a variable, xmldoc, is declared to withhold the information (e.g., language_name, village_name, picid, and video) for each point. another variable, latlng, is de- clared to withhold the locational information (i.e., longi- tude (x) and latitude (y)). fig. conceptual framework for the integration of the google maps api, xml, and html for web-based multimedia mapping j geovis spat anal ( ) : page of use of google maps javascript api v to display the data the launch of google maps in has revolutionized web mapping service applications on the internet. based on asynchronous javascript and xml (ajax), a new type of client/server interaction was introduced in google maps to maintain a continuous connection be- tween the client and the server for immediate downloading of additional map information (peterson ). in addition to implementing a better client/ server interaction, google also provides programmers free access to its code in the form of an application programming interface (api). in other words, the api consists of a set of routines or functions that can be called by a programmer using javascript. linking the web page with the google maps api is straightforward in version , using a single html, shown below: this is a standard html directive to include an external javascript file, served by maps.google.com. this element is added to the … section of the web page where the map is loaded. the next key step is to initialize the api and load the map onto the web page as follows. first, we created a initmap() function to launch the google maps. in the initmap() func- tion, we defined the center of the map to be displayed on the fig. initial launch of the web-based multimedia atlas, which displays the three tabs, the google maps, the locations of all sociolinguistic interviews across four languages in manang, nepal, and the map legend page of j geovis spat anal ( ) : http://google.com web page at . ° n, . ° e. another function, pushmapdata(), was developed to load all data points from the xml to the map. a third function, addmaplegend, was developed to load the map legend. fig. search result from languages by village tab: in this case, the user selected chame village. there were six sociolinguistic interviews conducted in chame village. the marker icons on the map also indicate gyalsumdo and gurung as the mother tongue languages as reported in the interviews j geovis spat anal ( ) : page of use of javascript, xhtml, and css to design the user interface and functions for spatial analysis and visualization in the design of the web-based multimedia digital atlas, the layout design was adopted. there are three rows. the first row contains three tabs, the second row is the map container and the third row contains map legends. the three tabs serve as a user interface for spatial analysis and visualization. the first tab is named languages by village. with this tab, the user can search for the lan- guage identified by interviewees as their mother tongue. to do so, the user can first select a village from a dropdown list of all the villages where linguistic inter- views were conducted, and click the search button. the google map is zoomed into that selected village and customized marker icons that represent locations where the sociolinguistic interviews were conducted in that vil- lage are shown on the map. in this case, there are four customized marker icons for four different languages— the green balloon for bnyeshangte,^ the yellow balloon for bmanang gurung,^ the purple balloon for bnar-phu^ and the orange balloon for bgyalsumdo.^ in addition, tooltips (e.g., language name) to the markers are provid- ed. in addition, these marker icons are clickable. when the user clicks on an icon, it will launch a google maps api standard info-window in which the speaker id, age, mother tongue, residential picture, and a link to the video clip of associated recordings will be displayed. the second tab is named villages by language. with this tab, the user can search for all the villages in manang district where a selected language is spoken. to do so, the user can first select a language from the dropdown list of the four languages, and click the search button. the search result will be displayed on the map as customized marker icons. similarly, each marker icon is clickable. the third and last tab is question & response. with this tab, the user can select an interview question from the question dropdown list (see appendix for the entire list of the sociolinguistic survey questions), and click the search button. the search results will be displayed on the map as different marker icons, each representing an answer to that question. this function provides the user a tool to further examine the spatial distribution of language practices and attitudes in manang languages. fig. search result from villages by language tab: in this case, the user selected nyeshangte language, all locations of interviews with this language are displayed on the map page of j geovis spat anal ( ) : inside second row is the map container where the google maps is displayed. a few standard google maps controls, such as pan and zoom controls, map scale con- trol, and map type control–roadmap and satellite, are available for the user to interact with the map or satellite imagery. the last row is where the map legend is placed. if the user selects the first tab or the second tab, the map legend contains four customized marker icons that repre- sent four different languages; if the user selects the third tab, the map legend contains customized marker icons that represent different responses for the interview questions. finally, all the pieces were assembled. javascript is the native language of google maps. in addition, google maps is built from html and formatted with css (cascading style sheet). therefore, javascript, html, and css are used to develop the functionali- ties. these include creation of a user interface in the form of tabs using bootstrap and ajax, uploading xml data file via jquery, displaying points of locations for the sociolinguistic interviews with customized marker icons via google maps api, and providing the spatial analysis functions via google geocoder. figure illus- trates a conceptual framework for the integration of the google maps api and other javascript libraries in the world wide web environment. in fig. , the workflow begins with a user-initiated request for the url of our project website: https://mananglanguages. isg.siue.edu/atlas/. with the request, the server finds the page from the requested location and loads the default page, in this case, index.html. the server then sends the response back to the user with the content of the project page. we are using javascript, which is client-sided in its scripting, so all of the code execution takes places in the client browser and reduces the load on the server. this makes our server fast enough to process additional incoming requests. on the client side, the server loads the jquery library, including the google map api. it then loads a custom written javascript, which sends request to the server to retrieve and load the data from our xml into the background. this makes the script dynamic and more responsive to the user. when all processes are exe- cuted completely, the user can see the map, with various mark- er icons plotted on the map with respective legends. fig. search result from the question & response tab. here, the user selected the question bdo you think there will be child learners of your mother tongue in future?^ the different marker icons on the map indicate different answers from the interviewees j geovis spat anal ( ) : page of https://mananglanguages.isg.siue.edu/atlas/ https://mananglanguages.isg.siue.edu/atlas/ results the use of google maps api v provides an efficient and familiar mechanism to deliver digital cartographic information to internet users with a user-friendly interaction. with google maps standard map type control, the user is able to choose one of the two map types: roadmap and satellite imagery. figure shows an outlook of the online map service for our language documentation project in google chrome. at the initial launch of the web page, locations of the sociolinguistic interviews are displayed within the map container. notice also that in fig. , the three tabs are visible: languages by village, villages by language, and questions & responses. figure demonstrates the result when the user selects a village, for instance, chame village, from the drop-down list and then clicks the search button to show all the sociolinguistic inter- views conducted in that village, six in this example. the dif- ferent icons on the map also indicate the type of tibeto- burman languages, gyalsumdo and gurung identified as mother tongues by the interviewees in chame. figure dem- onstrates the result when the user searches for all the villages where one, two, three, or four selected languages is spoken. figure demonstrates the result when the user chooses the questions & responses tab, selects a question from the drop- down list of all the questions, and clicks the search button. figure illustrates the info-window when the user clicks on a marker icon on the google map. the info-window displays multimedia information related to the interview conducted at the marker location, including the speaker id, age, mother tongue, village name, a link to download the transcript of the questions and responses, and a hyperlink to the video clip of the interview. figure illustrates a sample video clip that may be played, and which is housed in the shanti collection at the university of virginia. discussion bmethodology^ and bresults^ sections detailed the workflow and elements of the bdocumenting the languages of manang, nepal^ atlas. however, this multimedia atlas is not the only example of ongoing efforts use geospatial technology in the digital humanities, particularly in geolinguistics and online, interactive language mapping. we summarize here examples fig. when the user clicks on a marker icon on the google map, an info-window is launched to display all relevant information, including the speaker id, age, mother tongue, village name, a link to download the transcript of the questions and responses, and a hyperlink to the video clip of the interview (see fig. ) page of j geovis spat anal ( ) : of three projects with parallels to the manang languages atlas, their similarities, and their differences. first, saint mary’s university uses online multimedia map- ping for the mi’kmaw place names digital atlas (url: http:// sparc.smu.ca/mpnmap/). this project makes use of arcgis maps and not google maps. additionally, adobe flash is required to load the content of the map in the browser. arcgis is not open source and can be expensive for some programs. similarly, flash is well known for causing spikes in cpu usage and comes with security holes. our project uses javascript and html, and the data are encoded on an open-source xml that uses fewer computer resources. fig. top: a video clip of a gurung speaker that is linked from the info-window on the atlas (fig. ) in which the speaker was describing his apple orchard using gurung language; bottom: language transcript. the first line is the local language (gurung), transcribed in the ipa (international phonetic alphabet). the nd line is the nepali free translation. the rd line is the free translation in english. the audio was tran- scribed in elan (download is free at https://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla- tools/elan/) and the language transcript is synchronized with the video, which was done by the thl (tibetan himalayan library) using a drupal platform j geovis spat anal ( ) : page of http://sparc.smu.ca/mpnmap/ http://sparc.smu.ca/mpnmap/ https://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/ https://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/ second, language landscape is a nonprofit british orga- nization that uses maps to plot languages as they are used around the world (url: http://languagelandscape.org). the project directors encourage people to get involved in the project by adding their own audio clips to the project, which are then displayed visually and interactively. this project uses the google map api for the map, javascript, and html. this map includes pins which display information in audio format which can be played in real time without page redirects. our project similarly displays map pins related to different languages and on click, and also provides information like speaker name, age, village. like language landscape, our project also includes links to other resources. third, atlas of pidgin and creole language structures project spatially represents pidgin and creole languages, and their structures, from around the world (url: http://apics- online.info/contributions# / . / . ). the map is developed using javascript and leaflet javascript library for mobile friendly interactive maps. more information about the leaflet javascript library can be found at (http:// leafletjs.com/index.html). the library is open source and lightweight in terms of cpu usage. pins are plotted to the map with various colors and also display an info-window with hyperlinks for additional information on a given lan- guage. this map lacks legends, which results in the need to click on each pin to learn more about language types. conclusion this paper has demonstrated a new and relatively easy ap- proach called web-based multimedia mapping that could in- tegrate not only geospatial data but also multimedia data in the form of digital photographs, digital sound, and digital video clips—which is very useful for digital humanities and social sciences. the use of google maps api and javascript libraries allow us to employ the digital maps and satellite imagery from google maps with only a few javascript codes. the apparent benefit of using existing maps apis may be of value to those who do not have the resources to invest in a dedicated computer for map servers and data servers. we used only a web host account provided by the home institu- tion to upload the atlas web page (index.html, kilobytes) and the xml file (languages_pts.xml, kilobytes). the latter stored only the bpointers^ to the digital multimedia files that are related to the social linguistic interviews and narratives collected for the project (archived in shanti). shanti offers the state-of-the-art technology to deliver the multime- dia content with the highest quality at a faster speed (e.g., video streaming) and is associated free of charge to this pro- ject. it is worth mentioning that for those who do not have their own video streaming service available, free video streaming professional services are provided by third parties, such as youtube. in addition to the google maps api, yahoo! maps apis and bing maps apis can also be used for the same purposes. it is also beneficial for college students to start off with multimedia mapping technology and for or- ganizations, such as the university in this case study, to see the benefits of the new technology. the web-based, interactive, and multimedia language atlas can be accessed on the internet; therefore, it can bring all local and international stakeholders, such as the speech com- munities, linguists, local government agencies, and the pub- lic, together to raise awareness of language structures, lan- guage practices, language endangerment, and opportunities for preservation, all through this easy-to-use means that en- hance the geo-spatial representation in engaging visual and sensory (multimedia) formats. one example of this potential contribution may be found in hildebrandt and hu ( ) which, through quantitative analysis of spatial distributions of respondent answer types, demonstrates that non-structural (language attitude and use) variables reveal different degrees of vitality vs. endangerment in nepal. the web-based multimedia mapping approach of- fers a unique tool for a spatial analysis and visualization of variations in self-reported attitudes and practices across the four manang languages, with adjusted spatial factors (e.g., location of communities to a newly built motor road, location of communities to the district headquarters, location within closely clustered communities) alongside traditional social factors (e.g., gender, age, education, occupation, and so on). as a result, this research project contributes to new under- standings of the relationship between space and language practices in nepal. acknowledgements this work is supported by the national science foundation’s division of behavioral and cognitive sciences - documenting endangered languages (funding no. ): bdocumenting the languages of manang^ and by an equipment support grant from siu edwardsville. we are grateful to members of the gurung, gyalsumdo, manange and nar-phu-speaking communities in manang, nepal, for their help in gathering these data. we are grateful to dubi nanda dhakal, oliver bond, sangdo lama, and ritar lhakpa lama for assistance with interviews. we are grateful to saita gurung and manisha chaudhary for assistance with atlas construction and development. all errors are the responsibility of the authors. funding this research was supported by the us national science foundation’s division of behavioral and cognitive sciences- documenting endangered languages (funding no. ): bdocumenting the languages of manang^ and by an equipment support grant from siu edwardsville. compliance with ethical standards the authors of this paper will agree, accept, and comply with all the ethical standards set by the journal. conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. page of j geovis spat anal ( ) : http://languagelandscape.org/ http://apics-online.info/contributions# / . / . http://apics-online.info/contributions# / . / . http://leafletjs.com/index.html) http://leafletjs.com/index.html) ethical approval the field data collection (i.e., field interviews) was approved by the siue’s institute research board. the authors used an approved oral informed consent script for data collection. 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use of google maps javascript api v to display the data use of javascript, xhtml, and css to design the user interface and functions for spatial analysis and visualization results discussion conclusion references we need to talk about the digital humanities job talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk we need to talk about the digital humanities job - minutes dr james o’sullivan, a lecturer in digital arts and humanities at university college cork, explains why institutions need to think very carefully about the demarcation between public and digital humanities, because while they are related, they are not necessarily the same thing. this is not a commentary on the definition, legitimacy, or future of digital humanities (dh) – there is already enough of that around. rather, it is a treatment of one of the field’s most significant yet elided aspects – jobs. not just any job, not the tenure-track professorship wherein digital humanities is combined with an established discipline like literary studies or history; this is an exploration of ‘the dh job’. i refer to positions largely considered to be ‘alt-ac’ designed to support the development of dh within a particular institution. this is both a matter of pragmatics and ethics: the extent to which such roles align with existing frameworks needs to be fully appreciated if they are to benefit higher education, and we shouldn’t be putting people in these positions until we’ve answered such questions. so, what is the dh job? it is one that tasks its holder with ‘supporting research and teaching in digital humanities’. we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : essentially, it goes to someone who quickly becomes ‘the dh person’ called upon to do a lot of things, from teaching classes to advising colleagues on how to install wordpress (which in my book, isn’t digital humanities). the tasks assigned to an institution’s post-holder can run the intellectual gauntlet, but a lot of time is spent explaining that, no, help with twitter isn’t really part of the purview. now would be a good time to point out that i have held two such positions, and in both cases, i have nothing but positive things to say about my colleagues, and the institutions for which i worked. but i do speak from experience, and if your job is to support digital humanities, you’re going to spend a lot of time explaining why you can’t support something. a common example would be web design. when faculty seek out a colleague who can help them with their dh activities, they often want someone who can make its work more accessible. institutions need to think very carefully about the demarcation between public and digital humanities, because while they are related, they are not necessarily the same thing. this is particularly problematic at institutions that want to align with digital humanities because everybody else is doing it – these are the institutions where the aim is to produce visible scholarship, not visible scholarship. it is a peculiar situation when one must ask a string of seasoned professors, ‘where is the scholarly value?’ essentially, the digital humanities person is responsible for all things dh, but this is entirely dependent on the support systems already in place. at some universities, you will be able to point colleagues towards resources more suited to their requirements. at others, you might just have to do the we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : collegial thing and help them out with their social media. but this is where collegiality becomes dangerous. at annual review time, the dh person might find it hard to articulate what’s been keeping him or her busy. those quick sit-downs to run through a platform and that one-to-one instruction and advice over lukewarm coffee adds up, but that time is often unaccounted for. six months into my first digital humanities job, it was clear that the bulk of my time had been spent being a good colleague, but a poor institutional resource. supporting the individual is part of the broader agenda, but one must distinguish between activity which supports the institution as a whole, and that which satisfies a colleague who’d like to try something digital, but isn’t committed in the long term to whatever that digital thing might be. most institutions want digital humanities, but only some know why, and even fewer have really thought about what it looks like in the context of their scholarship and teaching. there are places where ‘capacity’ relates to a concrete set of activities and processes to which the dh person will be contributing. but there are also institutions where ‘building capacity’ means, ‘we don’t really know what we want, we just know that we don’t have it’. i have a game i like to play with search committees when i interview for a job. i ask them for their understanding of digital humanities. you never get consensus, which is positive in some respects, but you often get such vague and tentative answers that you wonder if they have even heard of it before. how is the person in role supposed to build capacity if the we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : institution doesn’t know what it is they want to build? one could argue that this is the ideal scenario, as you can shape the agenda to suit your vision, but do we really want institutional capacity being guided by the perspective of someone, who, like everyone else, will be carrying preconceptions and assumptions forged by personal experiences and disciplinary biases? one of the hardest parts of being the dh person is that you’re often the lone ranger, deprived of a base department where you’re surrounded by an intellectual community of peers. faculty and staff must go somewhere, but while the colleague in the neighbouring office might be entirely amicable, the likelihood is that their interests will lie elsewhere. the dh person cannot be all things to all people so they need to be based in the school or department where they can have the most impact and where their interests and expertise can best be utilised and nurtured. if that person comes from a literary studies background for example, it will not be long before they become dissatisfied with being cut-off from the english department. community is as much a social matter as it is an intellectual one. the repartee in the corridor, the chance meeting of minds, the sympathetic nod when an application is rejected, the last minute decision to go for a quick drink – these are the things that make people like where they work. coupled with this risk of isolation is the need to avoid stepping on toes. institutional desires to hire someone responsible for digital humanities tend to emerge from pre-existing curiosities and activities, meaning the new employee might be perceived as we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : a threat by colleagues. it is not nice being the hire who is viewed with suspicion. where the dh person should live will also tell you something about how their time should be occupied. this goes back to notions of success: if you hire a postdoc then freedom to pursue their own scholarship is essential otherwise, a lot of time will be spent contributing to projects which fail to excite, and disinterested parties make for the worst collaborators. the more they are required to step beyond their own interests, the more concerned they will become with future prospects – if the dh person wants to go back to that traditional teaching role, or at least, keep the option open, how much of their current position is going to be relevant to their next application? it doesn’t matter if you’re a literary scholar with expertise in text analysis, if all your publications are in history and sociology. what are the prospects for someone who wants to stay in alt- ac? the dh job is usually a junior position, and as a role with no real antecedents in arts and humanities faculties, the avenues for career progression are not at all clear. often fixed-term roles, what happens when the contract runs it course? in my experience, search committees for the dh job do not ask where you see yourself in five years – it’s something they really don’t want to consider. will we start to see senior versions of the dh job emerge, or is the idea that capacity building will lead to new opportunities? professionals need clearly defined paths for advancement or they will not see their job as a career. maybe this is a feasible model – with all that capacity building, maybe the need for ‘a centre’ will emerge, with the we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : logical step being that the dh person runs such a resource. but if that’s the idea, then who should that person be? should he or she be a scholar, a domain-specific expert who has advanced computational expertise, or a community builder whose scholarly expertise is less important than the ability to engage others? perhaps the dh person should be a grant writer, because centres are expensive, or a project manager, capable of delivering digital projects and running a facility that would involve a considerable amount of development activities? ideally, the dh person would be all these things, a glorious amalgam that can single-handedly secure funding, execute the day-to-day administration of all that precious capacity, lead a team of humanities scholars and software developers, and maintain their own reputation as an international scholar. i don’t know many people who satisfy all these requirements, and those that do, tend to like where they live. the digital humanities job is a good thing. it creates a space for people who do not want that traditional role, and it allows institutions to build something. whether that something has value depends on the ability of stakeholders to really think deeply about what it is that they want, why they want it, who can provide it, and how that person might remain professionally engaged and personally fulfilled. dr james o’sullivan (@jamescosullivan) lectures in digital arts and humanities at university college cork. his work has been published in a variety of interdisciplinary journals, including digital scholarship in the humanities, digital humanities quarterly, leonardo, and hyperrhiz: new media cultures. he and shawna ross are the we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : editors of reading modernism with machines ( ). he is the author of several collections of poetry, including courting katie ( ), and the founding editor of new binary press. his writing has also appeared in the guardian and la review of books. we need to talk about the digital humanities job about:reader?url=https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/ /... of / / , : recognizing groups among dialects jelena prokić john nerbonne abstract in this paper we apply various clustering algorithms to the dialect pronunciation data. at the same time we propose several evaluation techniques that should be used in order to deal with the instability of the clustering techniques. the results have shown that three hierarchical clustering algorithms are not suitable for the data we are working with. the rest of the tested algorithms have successfully detected two-way split of the data into the eastern and western dialects. at the aggregate level that we used in this research, no further division of sites can be asserted with high confidence. introduction dialectometry is a multidisciplinary field that uses various quantitative methods in the analysis of dialect data. very often those techniques include classification algorithms such as hierarchical clustering algorithms used to detect groups within certain dialect area. although known for their instability (jain and dubes, ), clustering algo- rithms are often applied without evaluation (goebl, ; nerbonne and siedle, ) or with only partial evaluation (moisl and jones, ). very small differences in the input data can produce substantially different grouping of dialects (nerbonne et al., ). without proper evaluation, it is very hard to determine if the results of the ap- plied clustering technique are an artifact of the algorithm or the detection of real groups in the data. the aim of this paper is to evaluate algorithms used to detect groups among lan- guage dialect varieties measured at the aggregate level. the data used in this research is dialect pronunciation data that consists of various pronunciations of words col- lected all over bulgaria. the distances between words are calculated using leven- shtein algorithm, which also resulted in the calculation of the distances between each two sites in the data set. we apply seven hierarchical clustering algorithms, as well as the k-means and neighbor-joining algorithm to the calculated distances and examine these using various evaluation methods. we evaluate using several external and inter- nal methods, since there is no direct way to evaluate the performance of the clustering algorithms. the structure of this paper is as follows. different classification algorithms are presented in the next section. in section we discuss our data set and how the data was processed. various evaluation techniques are described in section . the results are given in section . in section we present discussion and conclusions. classification algorithms in this section we briefly introduce seven hierarchical clustering algorithms, k-means and neighbor-joining algorithm, originally used for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. . hierarchical clustering cluster analysis is the process of partitioning a set of objects into groups or clusters (manning and schütze, ). the goal of clustering is to find structure in the data by finding objects that are similar enough to be put in the same group and by identifying distinctions between the groups. hierarchical clustering algorithms produce a set of nested partitions of the data by finding successive clusters using previously established clusters. this kind of hierarchy is represented with a dendrogram—a tree in which more similar elements are grouped together. in this study seven hierarchical clustering algorithms will be investigated with regard to their performance on dialect pronun- ciation data. all these agglomerative clustering algorithms proceed from a distance matrix, repeatedly choosing the two closest elements and fusing them. they differ in the way in which distances are recalculated from the newly fused elements to the others. we now review the various calculations. single link method, also known as nearest neighbor, is one of the oldest methods in cluster analysis. the similarity between two clusters is computed as the distance between the two most similar objects in the two clusters. dk[ij] = minimum(dki, dkj ) in this formula, as well as in other formulae in this subsection, i and j are the two closest points that have just been fused into one cluster[i, j], and k represents all the remaining points (clusters). as noted in jain and dubes ( ), single link clusters easily chain together, producing the so-called chaining effect, and produce elongated clusters. the presence of only one intermediate object between two compact clusters is enough to turn them into a single cluster. complete link, also called furthest neighbor, uses the most distant pair of objects while fusing two clusters. it repeatedly merges clusters whose most distant elements are closest. dk[ij] = maximum(dki, dkj ) unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages (upgma) belongs to a group of average clustering methods, together with three methods that will be described below. in upgma, the distance between any two clusters is the average of distances between the members of the two clusters being compared. the average is weighted naturally, according to size. dk[ij] = (ni/(ni + nj )) × dki + (nj /(ni + nj )) × dkj as a consequence, smaller clusters will be weighted less and larger ones more. weighted pair group method using arithmetic averages (wpgma), just as upgma, calculates the distance between the two clusters as the average of distances between all members of two clusters. but in wpgma, the clusters that fuse receive equal weight regardless of the number of members in each cluster. dk[ij] = ( × dki) + ( × dkj ) because all clusters receive equal weights, objects in smaller clusters are more heavily weighted than those in the big clusters. unweighted pair group method using centroids (upgmc) in this method, the members of a cluster are represented by their middle point, the so-called centroid. this centroid represents the cluster while calculating the distance between the clusters to be fused. dk[ij] = (ni/(ni + nj )) × dki + (nj /(ni + nj )) × dkj− ((ni × nj )/(ni + nj ) ) × dij in the unweighted version of the centroid clustering the clusters are weighted based on the number of elements that belong to that cluster. this means that bigger clusters receive more weight, so that centroids can be biased towards bigger clusters. centroid clustering methods can also occasionally produce reversals—partitions where the dis- tance between two clusters being joined is smaller than the distance between some of their subclusters (legendre and legendre, ). weighted pair group method using centroids (wpgmc) just as in wpgma, in wpgmc all clusters are assigned the same weight regardless of the number of ob- jects in each cluster. in that way the centroids are not biased towards larger clusters. dk[ij] = ( × dki) + ( × dkj ) − ( × dij ) ward’s method this method is also known as the minimal variance method. at each stage in the analysis clusters that merge are those that result in the smallest in- crease in the sum of the squared distances of each individual from the mean of its cluster. dk[ij] = ((nk + ni)/(nk + ni + nj )) × dki + ((nk + nj )/(nk + ni + nj )) × dkj− ((nk/(nk + ni + nj )) × dij this method uses an analysis of variance approach to calculate the distances between clusters. it tends to create clusters of the same size (legendre and legendre, ). . k-means the k-means algorithm belongs to the non-hierarchical algorithms which are often re- ferred to as partitional clustering methods (jain and dubes, ). unlike hierarchical clustering algorithms, partitional clustering methods generate a single partition of the data. a partition implies a division of the data in such a way that each instance can be- long only to one cluster. the number of groups in which the data should be partitioned is usually determined by the user. the k-means is the most commonly used partitional algorithm, that despite its sim- plicity, works sufficiently well in many applications (manning and schütze, ). the main idea of k-clustering is to find the partition of n objects into k clusters such that the total error sum of squares is minimized. in the most simple version, the algorithm consists of the following steps: . pick at random initial cluster centers . assign objects to the cluster whose mean is closest . recompute the means of clusters . reassign every object to the cluster whose mean is closest . repeat steps and until there are no changes in the cluster membership of any object two main drawbacks of the k-means algorithm are the following: • the user has to define the number of clusters in advance • the final partitioning depends on the initial position of the centroids possible solutions to these problems, as well as the detailed descriptions of the k-means algorithm can be found in some of the classical references to k-means: hartigan ( ), everitt ( ) and jain and dubes ( ). . neighbor-joining apart from the seven hierarchical clustering algorithms and k-means, we also investi- gate the performance of the neighbor-joining algorithm. we introduce this technique at more length as it is less familiar to linguists. neighbor-joining is a method for re- constructing phylogenetic trees that was first introduced by saitou and nei ( ). the main principle of this method is to find pairs of taxonomic units that minimize the total branch length at each stage of clustering. the distances between each pair of instances (in our case data collection sites) are calculated and put into the n×n matrix, where n represents the number of instances. the matrices are symmetrical since distances are symmetrical, i.e. distance (a, b) is always the same as distance (b, a). based on the input distances, the algorithm finds a tree that fits the observed distances as closely as possible. while choosing the two nodes to fuse, the algorithm always takes into ac- count the distance from every node to all other nodes in order to find the smallest tree that would explain the data. once found, two optimal nodes are fused and replaced by a new node. the distance between the new node and all other nodes is recalculated, and the whole process is repeated until there are no more nodes left to be paired. the algorithm was modified by studier and kepler ( ), and the complexity was reduced to o(n ). the steps of the algorithm are as follows (taken from felsenstein ( )): • for each node compute ui which is the sum of the distances from that node to all other nodes ui = n∑ j:j =i dij (n − ) • choose i and j for which dij − ui − uj is smallest • join i and j. compute the length from i and j to the newly formed node v using the equations below. note that the distances from the new node to its children (leaves) need not be identical. this possibility does not exist in hierarchical clustering. vi = dij + (ui − uj ) vj = dij + (uj − ui) • compute the distance between the new node and all of the remaining nodes d(ij),k = (dik + djk − dij ) • delete nodes i and j and replace them by the new node this algorithm produces a unique unrooted tree under the principal of minimal evo- lution (saitou and nei, ). in biology, the neighbor-joining algorithm has become very popular and widely used method for reconstructing trees from distance data. it is fast and can be easily applied to a large amount of data. unlike most hierarchical clustering algorithms, it will recover the true tree even if there is not a constant rate of change among the taxa (felsenstein, ). data preprocessing the data set used in this research consists of transcriptions of the pronunciations of words collected from sites equally distributed all over bulgaria. all measurements were done based on the phonetic distances between the various pronunciations of these words. no morphological, lexical or syntactic variation between the dialects were taken into account. word transcriptions were preprocessed in the following way: • first, all diacritics and suprasegmentals were removed from word transcriptions. in order to process diacritics and suprasegmentals, they should be assigned cer- tain weights appropriate for the specific language that is being analyzed. since no study of this kind was available for bulgarian, diacritics and suprasegmentals were removed, which resulted in the simplification of data representation. for example, [u], [u:], ["u], and ["u:] counted as the same phone. also, all words were represented as series of phones which are not further defined. the result of com- paring two phones can be or ; they either match or they do not. for example, pair [e, e] counts as different to the same degree as pair [e, i]. although it is lin- guistically counterintuitive to use less sensitive measures, heeringa ( :p. ) has shown that in the aggregate analysis of dialect differences more detailed fea- ture representation of segments does not improve the results obtained by using simple phone representation. • all transcriptions were aligned based on the following principles: a) a vowel can match only with a vowel b) a consonant can match only with a consonant, semivowels [j], [w] and sonorants. the alignments were carried out using the levenshtein algorithm, which also results in the calculation of a distance be- tween each pair of words. a detailed explanation of the levenshtein algorithm can be found in heeringa ( ). the distance is the smallest number of inser- tions, deletions, and substitutions needed to transform one string to the other. in this work all three operations were assigned the same value: . an example of an aligned pair of transcriptions can be seen here: - e d e m j a d a - the distance between two sites is the mean of all word distances calculated for those two sites. the final result is a distance matrix which contains the distances between each two sites in the data set. this distance matrix was further analyzed using seven hierarchical algorithms, k-means and the neighbor-joining algorithm described in the previous section. evaluation we analyzed the results obtained by the above mentioned methods further using a vari- ety of measures. multidimensional scaling was performed in order to see if there were any separate groups in the data and to determine the optimal number of clusters in the data set. external validation of the clustering results included the modified rand index, purity and entropy. external validation involves comparison of the structure obtained by different algorithms to a gold standard. in our study we used the manual classifica- tion of all the sites produced by traditional dialectologist as a gold standard. internal validation included examining the cophenetic correlation coefficient, noisy clustering and a consensus tree, which do not require comparison to any a priori structure, but rather try to determine if the structure obtained by algorithms is intrinsically appropri- ate for the data. multidimensional scaling is a dimension-reducing method used in exploratory data analysis and a data visualization method, often used to look for separation of the clusters (legendre and legendre, ). the goal of the analysis is to detect meaning- ful underlying dimensions that allow the researcher to explain observed similarities or dissimilarities between the investigated objects. in general then, mds attempts to ar- range "objects" in a space with a certain small number of dimensions, which, however, accord with the observed distances. as a result, we can “explain“ the distances in terms of underlying dimensions. it has been frequently used in linguistics and dialectology since black ( ). . external validation the modified rand index (hubert and arabie, ) is used for comparing two differ- ent partitions of a finite set of objects. it is a modified form of the rand index (rand, ), one of the most popular measures for comparing partitions. given a set of n elements s = o , ...on and two partitions of s, u = u , ...ur and v = v , ...vc we define a the number of pairs of elements in s that are in the same set in u and in the same set in v b the number of pairs of elements in s that are in different sets in u and in different sets in v c the number of pairs of elements in s that are in the same set in u and in different sets in v d the number of pairs of elements in s that are in different sets in u and in the same set in v the rand index r is r = a + b a + b + c + d in this formula a and b are the number of pairs of elements in which two classifications agree, while c and d are the number of pairs of elements in which they disagree. the value of the rand index is between and , with indicating that the two data clusters do not agree on any pair of points and indicating that the data clusters are exactly the same. in dialectometry, this index was used by heeringa et al. ( ) to validate dialect comparison methods. a problem with the rand index is that it does not return a constant value (zero) if two partitions are picked at random. hubert and arabie ( ) suggested a modification of rand index that corrects this property. it can be expressed in the general form as: randindex − expectedindex m aximumindex − expectedindex the value of the modified rand index is between - and . entropy and purity are two measures used to evaluate the quality of clustering by looking at the reference class labels of the elements assigned to each cluster (zhao and karypis, ). entropy measures how different classes of elements are distributed within each cluster. the entropy of a single cluster is calculated using the following formula: e(sr) = − log q q∑ i= nir nr log nir nr where sr is a particular cluster of size nr, q is the number of classes in the reference data set, and nir is the number of the elements of the ith class that were assigned to the rth cluster. the overall entropy is the sum of all cluster entropies weighted by the size of the cluster: e = k∑ r= nr n e(sr) the purity measure is used to determine to which extent a cluster contains objects from primarily one class. the purity of a cluster is calculated as: p (sr) = nr max(nir) while the overall purity is the weighted sum of the individual cluster purities: p = k∑ r= nr n p (sr) . internal validation the cophenetic correlation coefficient (sokal and rohlf, ) is pearson’s correla- tion coefficient computed between the cophenetic distances produced by clustering and those in the original distance matrix. the cophenetic distance between two objects is the similarity level at which those two objects become members of the same cluster during the course of clustering (jain and dubes, ) and is represented as branch length in dendrogram. it measures to which extent the clustering results correspond to the original distances. when the clustering functions perfectly, the value of the cophe- netic correlation coefficient is . in order to check the significance of this statistics we performed the simple mantel test as implemented in zt software (bonet and de peer, ). a simple mantel test is used to compare two matrices by testing the corre- lation between them using the standard pearson correlation coefficient and testing its statistical significance (mantel, ). noisy clustering, also called composite clustering, is a procedure in which small amounts of random noise are added to matrices during repeated clustering. the main purpose of this procedure is to reduce the influence of outliers on the regular clusters and to identify stable clusters. as shown in nerbonne et al. ( ) it gives results that nearly perfectly correlate with the results obtained by bootstrapping—a statistical method for measuring the support of a given edge in a tree (felsenstein, ). the ad- vantage of the noisy clustering, compared to bootstrapping, is that it can be applied on a single distance matrix—the same one used as input for the classification algorithms. a consensus dendrogram, or consensus tree, is a tree that summarizes the agree- ment between a set of trees (felsenstein, ). a consensus tree that contains a large number of internal nodes shows high agreement between the input trees. on the other hand, if a consensus tree contains few internal nodes, it is a sign that input trees clas- sify the data in conflicting ways. the majority rule consensus tree, used in this study, is a tree that consists of the groups, i.e clusters, which are present in the majority of the trees under study. in this research a consensus dendrogram was created from four dendrograms produced by four different hierarchical clustering methods. clusters that appear in the consensus tree are those supported by the majority of algorithms and can be taken with greater confidence to be true clusters. results before describing the results of applying various algorithms to our data set, we give a short description of the traditional division of the bulgarian dialect area that we used for external validation in our research. . traditional scholarship traditional scholarship (stojkov, ) divides the bulgarian language into two main groups: western and eastern. the border between these two areas is so-called ’yat’ border that reflects different pronunciations of the old slavic vowel ’yat’. it goes from nikopol in the north, near pleven and teteven down to petrich in the south (bold dashed line in figure ). figure : traditional map of bulgarian dialects figure : the two-way and six-way classification of sites done by expert figure : mds plot figure : mds map stojkov divides each of these two areas further into three smaller dialect zones, which can also be seen on the map in figure . this -fold division is based on the variation of different phonetic features. no morphological or syntactic differences were taken into account. in order to evaluate the performance of different clustering algo- rithms, all sites present in our data set were manually put by an expert in one of the two, and later into six, main dialect areas according to the stojkov’s classification. this was done by professor vladimir zhobov, phonetician and dialectologist from the faculty of slavic philologies ’st. kliment ohridski’, university of sofia. due to various historical events, mostly migrations, some villages are dialectolog- ical islands surrounded by language varieties from groups different from the one they belong to. this lack of geographical coherence can be seen, for example, in the north- central part on the map in figure . . mds multidimensional scaling was performed in order to check if there are any separate clusters in the data. the results can be seen in the figure , where the first two ex- tracted dimensions are plotted against the x and y axes. in addition, all three extracted dimensions are represented by different shades of red, blue and green colors. this represents the third mds dimension. the first three dimensions represented in figure explain per cent of the varia- tion in the data set—the first dimension extracted explains per cent of the variation, and the second dimension per cent. in figure we can see two distinct clusters along the x-axis, which, if put on the map, correspond to the eastern and western group of dialects (figure ). variation along the y-axis corresponds to the separation of the dialects in the south from the rest of the country. using mds to screen the data, we observe that there are two distinct clusters in the data set—even though mds is fully capable of representing continuous data. this finding fully agrees with the expert opinion (stojkov, ) according to which the bulgarian dialect area can be divided into eastern and western dialect areas along the ’yat’ border. a third area that can be seen in figure is the area in the south of the country—the area of the rodopi mountains. in the classification of dialects done by stojkov ( ), this area is identified as one of the six main dialect areas based on the phonetic features. . external validation the results of the multidimensional scaling and dialect divisions done by expert can be used as a first step in the evaluation of the clustering algorithms. visual inspection shows that three algorithms fail to identify any structure in the data, including east- west division of the dialects: single link and two centroid algorithms, upgmc and wpgmc. dendrograms drawn using upgmc and wpgmc reveal a large number of reversals, while closer inspection of the single link dendrogram clearly shows the presence of the chain effect. the remaining algorithms reveal the east-west division of the country clearly (figure ). for that reason, in the rest of the paper the main focus will be on those four clustering algorithms, as well as on the k-means and neighbor- joining. figure : top left map: -way division produced by upgma, wpgma and ward’s method. top right map: -way division produced by upgma. bottom maps: -way divisions produced by wpgma and ward’s method respectively. in order to compare divisions done by clustering algorithms with the division of sites done by expert we calculated the modified rand index, entropy and purity for table : results of external validation: the modified rand index (mri), entropy (e) and purity (p). results for the , and -fold divisions are reported. algorithm mri( ) mri( ) mri( ) e( ) e( ) e( ) p( ) p( ) p( ) single link - . . - . . . . . . . complete link . . . . . . . . . upgma . . . . . . . . . wpgma . . . . . . . . . upgmc - . . - . . . . . . . wpgmc - . . - . . . . . . . ward’s method . . . . . . . . . k-means . . . . . . . . . nj . . - . . - . . - the -fold, -fold, and -fold divisions done by algorithms on the one hand, and those divisions according to the expert on the other. the results can be seen in table . the neighbor-joining algorithm produced an unrooted tree (figure ), where only - fold and -fold divisions of the sites can be identified. hence, all the indices were calculated only for the -fold and -fold divisions in neighbor-joining. figure : nj tree in table we can see that the values of the modified rand index for single link and two centroid methods are very close to , which is the value we would get if the partitions were picked at random. upgma, wpgma, ward’s method and k-means, which gave nearly the same -fold division of the sites, show the highest correspondences with the divisions done by expert. for -fold and -fold divisions the values for the modified rand index went down for all algorithms, which was expected since the number of groups increased. the two algorithms with the highest values of the index are ward’s method and upgma for -fold, and k-means for the -fold division. just as in the case of the -fold division, the single-link, upgmc, and wpgmc algorithms have values of the modified rand index close to . neighbor-joining produced a relatively low correspondence with expert opinion for the -fold division— . . similar results for all algorithms and all divisions were obtained using entropy and purity measures. external validation of the clustering algorithms has revealed that single link, upgmc and wpgmc algorithms are not suitable for the analysis of the data we are working with, since they fail to recognize any structure in the data. . internal validation in the next step internal validation methods were used to check the performance of the algorithms: the cophenetic correlation coefficient, noisy clustering and consensus tree. since k-means does not produce a dendrogram, it was not possible to calculate the cophenetic correlation coefficient. the values of the cophenetic correlation coefficient for the remaining eight algorithms can be seen in table . we can see that clustering results of the upgma have the highest correspondence to the original distances of all algorithms— . per cent. they are followed by the results obtained by using com- plete link and neighbor-joining algorithm. all correlations are highly significant with p < . . given the poor performance of the centroid and single-link methods in detecting the dialect divisions scholars agree on, we note that cophenetic correlation coefficients are not successful in distinguishing the better techniques from the weaker ones. we conjecture that the reason for this lies in the fact that the cophenetic correla- tion coefficient so dependent is on the lengths of the branches in the dendrogram, while our primary purpose is the classification. noisy clustering, that was applied with the seven hierarchical algorithms, has con- firmed that there are two relatively stable groups in the data: eastern and western. table : cophenetic correlation coefficient algorithm ccc p single link . . complete link . . upgma . . wpgma . . upgmc . . wpgmc . . ward’s method . . neighbor-joining . . dendrograms obtained by applying noisy clustering to the whole data set show low confidence for the two-way split of the data, between and per cent. after re- moving the southern villages from the data set, we obtained dendrograms that confirm two-way split of the data along the ’yat’ border with much higher confidence ranging around per cent. these values are not very high. in order to check the reason of the influence of the southern varieties on the noisy clustering we examine an mds plot in two dimensions with cluster groups marked by colours. in figure we can see mds plot of groups produced by wpgma algorithm. mds plot reveals two homogeneous groups and a third, more diffuse, group that lies at a remove from them. the third group of the sites represents the southern group of varieties, colored light blue and yellow, and is much more heterogeneous than the rest of the data. closer inspection of the mds plot in figure also shows that this group of dialects has a particularly unclear border to the eastern dialects, which could explain the results of the noisy clustering applied to the whole data set. since different algorithms gave different divisions of sites, we used a consensus dendrogram in order to detect the clusters on which most algorithms agree. since single link, upgmc and wpgmc have turned to be inappropriate for the analysis of our data, they were not included in the consensus dendrogram. the consensus dendrogram drawn using complete link, upgma, wpgma and ward’s method can be seen in figure . the names of the sites are colored based on the expert’s opinion, i.e. the same as in figure . the dendrogram shows strong support for the east-west division of sites, but no agreement on the division of sites within the eastern and western areas. figure : mds plot of clusters produced by wpgma. note that the good separation of the clusters is often spoiled by unclear margins. at this level of hierarchy, i.e. -way division, there are several sites classified differ- ently by algorithms and by expert. these sites go along the ’yat’ border and represent the marginal cases. the only two exceptions are villages in the south-east, namely voden and zheljazkovo. however, according to many traditional dialectologists these villages should be classified as western dialects due to many features that they share with the dialects in the west (personal communication with prof. vladimir zhobov). the four algorithms show agreement only on the very low level where several sites are grouped together and on the highest level. it is not possible to extract any hierarchical structure that would be present in the majority of four analyses. discussion and conclusions different clustering validation methods have shown that three algorithms are not suit- able at all for the data we are working with, namely single link, upgmc and wpgmc. the remaining four hierarchical clustering algorithms gave different results depending on the level of hierarchy, but all four algorithms had high agreement on the detection of two main dialect areas within the dialect space. at the lower level of hierarchy, i.e where there are more clusters, the performance of the algorithms is poorer, both with respect to the expert opinion and with respect to the mutual agreement as well. as shown by noisy clustering, the -fold division of the bulgarian language area is the only partition of sites that can be asserted with high confidence. the results of the neighbor-joining algorithm were a bit less satisfactory. the rea- son for this could be in the fact that our data is not tree-like, but rather contains a lot of borrowings due to contact between different dialects. a recent study (hamed and wang, ) of chinese dialects has shown that their development is not tree-like and that in such cases usage of tree-reconstruction methods can be misleading. the division of sites done by the k-means algorithm corresponded well with the expert divisions. two and three-way divisions also correspond well with the divisions of four hierarchical clustering algorithms. what we find more important is the fact that in the divisions obtained by the k-means algorithm into , , , and groups the two-way division into the eastern and western groups is the only stable division that appears in all partitions. this research shows that clustering algorithms should be applied with caution as classifiers of language dialect varieties. where possible, several internal and external validation methods should be used together with the clustering algorithms in order to validate their results and make sure that the classifications obtained are not mere artifacts of algorithms but natural groups present in the data set. since performance of clustering algorithms depends on the sort of data used, evaluation of algorithms is a necessary step in order to obtain results that can be asserted with high confidence. the fact that there are only two distinct groups in our data set that can be asserted with high confidence, as opposed to six found in the traditional atlases, could possible be due to the simplified representation of the data (see section ). it is also possible that some of the features responsible for the traditional -way division are not present in our data set. at the moment, we are investigating these two issues. regardless of the quality of the input data set, we have shown that clustering algorithms will partition data into the desired number of groups even if there is no natural separation of the data. for this reason it is essential to use different evaluation techniques along with the clustering algorithms. classification algorithms are nowadays applied in different subfields of humanities (woods et al., ; boonstra et al., ). it is a general technique that can be applied to any sort of data that needs to be put into different groups in order to discover various patterns. document and text classification, authorship detection and language typology are just some of the areas where classification algorithms are nowdays successfully applied. the problem of choosing the right classification algorithm and obtaining stable results goes beyond dialectometry and is present whenever applied. for this reason the present paper is valuable not only for the research done in dialectometry, but also for other branches of humanities that are using clustering techniques. it shows how unstable the results of clustering algorithms can be, but also how to approach this problem and overcome it. references p. black ( ), ‘multidimensional scaling applied to linguistic relationships’, in cahiers de l’institut de linguistique louvain, volume (montreal). expanded ver- sion of a paper presented at the conference on lexicostatistics. university of mon- treal. e. bonet and y. v. de peer ( ), ‘zt: a software tool for simple and partial mantel tests’, journal of statistical software, ( ), – . o. boonstra, p. doorn, and f. hendrickx ( ), voortgezette statistiek voor historici (muiderberg). b. s. everitt ( ), cluster analysis (new york). j. felsenstein ( ), inferring phylogenies (massachusetts). h. goebl ( ), ‘on the geolinguistic change in northern france between and : a dialectometrical inquiry’, in j. nerbonne, t. m. ellison, and g. kondrak, eds, computing and historical phonology. proceedings of the ninth meeting of the acl special interest group in computational morphology and phonology (prague), – . m. b. hamed and f. wang ( ), ‘stuck in the forest: trees, networks and chinese dialects’, diachronica, ( ), – . j. a. hartigan ( ), cluster algorithms (new york). w. heeringa ( ), measuring dialect pronunciation differences using levensthein distance (phd thesis, university of groningen). w. heeringa, j. nerbonne, and p. kleiweg ( ), 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(amsterdam). c. manning and h. schütze ( ), foundations of statistical natural language pro- cessing (cambridge, ma). n. mantel ( ), ‘the detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach’, cancer research, , – . h. moisl and v. jones ( ), ‘cluster analysis of the newcastle electronic corpus of tyneside english: a comparison of methods’, literary and linguistic computing, , – . j. nerbonne, p. kleiweg, w. heeringa, and f. manni ( ), ‘ projecting dialect dif- ferences to geography: bootstrap clustering vs. noisy clustering’, in h. b. chris- tine preisach, lars schmidt-thieme and r. decker, eds, data analysis, machine learning, and applications. proc. of the st annual meeting of the german clas- sification society (berlin), – . j. nerbonne and c. siedle ( ), ‘dialektklassifikation auf der grundlage ag- gregierter ausspracheunterschiede’, zeitschrift für dialektologie und linguistik, ( ), – . w. m. rand ( ), ‘objective criteria for the evaluation of clustering methods’, jour- nal of american statistical association, ( ), – . n. saitou and m. nei ( ), ‘the neighbor-joining method: a new method for recon- structing phylogenetic trees’, molecular biology and evolution, , – . r. r. sokal and f. j. rohlf ( ), ‘the comparison of dendrograms by objective methods’, taxon, , – . s. stojkov ( ), bulgarska dialektologiya (sofia). j. a. studier and k. j. kepler ( ), ‘a note on the neighbor-joining algorithm of saitou and nei’, molecular biology and evolution, , – . a. woods, p. fletcher, and a. hughes ( ), statistics in language studies (cam- bridge). y. zhao and g. karypis ( ), ‘criterion functions for document clustering: experi- ments and analysis’, technical report - , department of computer science, uni- versity of minnesita, minneapolis, mn. figure : consensus dendrogram for four algorithms.the four algorithms show agree- ment only on the -way division. it is not possible to extract any hierarchical structure that would be present in the majority of four analyses. (for the explanation of colors see figure .) surveymonkey analyze - export q name demmy verbeke q library ku leuven libraries, artes q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh research data management support; teaching about data science, rdm, databases, etc.; support for the preparation of project proposals with digital component; r&d projects initiated by the library (ocr, ner and linked data) q please describe the positive aspects of this activity re-establish the library as a central partner in research q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity not all library staff has received the necessary training, so there is big train-the-trainer need q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? no q are you assessing the impact of your work? if no, why not? , not exactly clear how we would do this please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we have a license to , a digitised collection we have a license to , a born-digital collection we created and curate , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, cc , any other cc- license , copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? training / outreach events , physical space – facilitating/hosting , other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , rdm training, oa training, copyright training please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to a personal professional development programme , it belongs to a library-wide training programme , it belongs to the scope of this activity q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? aware (they know (some of) the activities the library is active in) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, own website q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity https://bib.kuleuven.be/english/research; and esp. https://bib.kuleuven.be/english/research/digital-humanities see also http://www.tijdschriftkarakter.be/de-vrije-hand-de-valorisatie-van-digitaal-onderzoek-in-de-menswetenschappen/; https://lirias repo.kuleuven.be/bitstream/id/ /; https://lirias repo.kuleuven.be/bitstream/id/ /; http://www.northernrenaissance.org/renaissance-studies-digital-humanities-and-the-library/; https://www.digitisation.eu/tools-evaluation- university-library-ku-leuven/; https://acrl.ala.org/dh/ / / /opportunistic-librarian/; https://lirias repo.kuleuven.be/bitstream/id/ / / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name andreas degkwitz q library library of the humboldt university berlin q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh digitising the fairy tail collection within the private library of jacob and wilhelm grimm and make the annotations in these books searchable. we started to prepare the project and an application at the german reserahc foundation. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity the fairy tail collection - as the entire privare library of the both grimm brothers - is relevant for dh-projects by the annotations, comments amd remarks done by jacob and wilhelm grimm and other reseracher of the th century. the corpus of books covers about voulmes ( % of the privare library). we have to apply for funds at the german research foundation, that we can run the activity as a project. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity the cooperation between the library and the grimm researchers (grimm-arbeitsstelle) of the university is going very well. we have resp. had some problems to find the necessary technical expertise to identify the annotations in the full texts automatically and to make these elements searchable. our own competence is to less to realise the project. we need technical cooperation with an appropriate institution. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with external funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , the project will be a pilot to process further materials of the grimms private library in this way please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we created and curate q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, cc q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to a personal professional development programme / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? aware (they know (some of) the activities the library is active in) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, own website q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity the project is in the phase of preparation. therefore no project site is available yet. here are some links about our activities and collections: - https://www.digi-hub.de/viewer/ - https://www.digi-hub.de/viewer/sammlungen/ / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name sinéad keogh q library university of limerick q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh we created an online exhibition following the lives of one family throughout the first world war. using the letters, diaries and photographs from the armstrong family archive, we add a new post each week to show their lives years ago that week. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity engagement with the archive has dramatically increased, with subscribers, followers and likes on the site and social media platforms. we have also had people contact us to give further information, to correct errors and even to contribute material to the archive. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity with the ww centenary commemorations approaching, we really wanted to do this project but the resources were not available. so it became a labour of love to do it. more staff and time resources would have been useful. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? no, it is an ad-hoc activity q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? no q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , google analytics, social media, publications please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we created and curate q how is the data you are using licensed? copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , physical space – facilitating/hosting , other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , skills training and development q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , html, php, digitisation please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to a personal professional development programme / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? not aware (they have no idea the library does anything related to dh) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, own website, partner's website, social media, blog posts q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity http://longwaytotipperary.ul.ie/ https://www.facebook.com/armstrongfamilymoyaliffe https://twitter.com/ww ul / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name anda baklāne q library national library of latvia q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh provide collections of text files for researchers ("corpus on demand") q please describe the positive aspects of this activity ( ) there is a growing interest among researchers, we can see potential in this activity. ( ) allows to build upon already existing digital resources/services. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity unclear long-term funding solutions. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? under a year q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? no q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , not yet, but we plan to do so. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we created and curate q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? training / outreach events , online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , physical space – facilitating/hosting , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.), everything starting from understanding what kinds of files/data are needed, how to deliver them, what advice to give about the further handling and computation of data. if yes, please specify which skill gaps you indentified: / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , this summer we are organizing a day course at the library (with invited lecturers). try to learn from colleagues in conferences, seminars, by asking for advice. please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to the scope of this activity q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? aware (they know (some of) the activities the library is active in) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? conferences, own website, partner's website, social media q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity http://www.digitalhumanities.lv/ http://www.digitalhumanities.lv/bssdh/ https://www.lnb.lv/en/researchers/digital-humanities / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey q name q library stockholm university library q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website, but please do not include my name q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh digitization (scanning and, in some cases, optical character recognition of printed materials) q please describe the positive aspects of this activity increases findability and availability of research materials. full-text scans also allow for various types of new inquiry (text-mining, etc.). q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity a long-term plan with dedicated funding. we could also benefit from more detailed workflows. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? more than years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? no, it is an ad-hoc activity # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with internal funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , we have some limited statistics on numbers of views/downloads, but only for certain items, and these statistics are not collected systematically. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we have a license to , a digitised collection we have a license to , a digitised collection we created and curate q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? soft skills (communication, project management, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, our digitization personnel were self-taught. please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? not applicable, we did not follow or offer any training / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? not aware (they have no idea the library does anything related to dh) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? own website q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity su library digitization information site: https://www.su.se/english/library/research-support/digitalisation su map collections (in swedish): https://kartavdelningen.sub.su.se/kartrummet/ digitized su special collections in libris (federated catalog in sweden): http://libris.kb.se/hitlist? d=libris&q=db% adigi+images.sub.su.se&f=simp&spell=true&hist=true&p= digitized dissertations from su (in diva, federated infrastructure for academic publications in sweden): http://su.diva- portal.org/smash/resultlist.jsf?dswid=- &language=sv&searchtype=research&query=&af=[]&aq=[[]]&aq = [[{% dateissued% % a{% from% % a% % % c% to% % a% % }}% c{% publicationtypecode% % a[% monographdoctoralthesis% % c% comprehensivedoctoralthesis% ]}]]&aqe= []&noofrows= &sortorder=author_sort_asc&sortorder =title_sort_asc&onlyfulltext=false&sf=all / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name lotte wilms q library kb, national library of the netherlands q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh we run a researcher-in-residence programme where we invite an early career researcher to join the library for months for , fte to do a research project with our digital collections. we offer help from a programmer, advisor, and collection specialists. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity we build our network in the academic community, we learn a great deal from how researchers work with our collection and how we can improve access to and our collections for them. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity last year we had very few proposals, so this year we decided to open the call for proposals for a longer period, invite more researchers and set up consultation slots. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with internal funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , we recently did an evaluation and interviewed previous participants. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we created and curate , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? , through existing relationships , other (please specify): call for proposals q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles , other services or technical expertise (please specify): tool development / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? none q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? not applicable, we did not follow or offer any training q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? aware (they know (some of) the activities the library is active in) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, own website, partner's website, social media, blog posts q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity https://www.kb.nl/en/organisation/research-expertise/researcher-in-residence http://lab.kb.nl/about-us/blog https://arbido.ch/de/ausgaben-artikel/ /zusammenarbeit/the-researcher-in-residence-programme-at-the-kb-national-library-of-the- netherlands / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name kirsty lingstadt q library university of edinburgh q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh we are working on improving accuracy of ocr for mid th to mid th century scottish printed text with a focus on legal material. as part of this work we are looking at automated metadata extraction including places and people etc and are developing tools to facilitate this. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity though project specific the methods and tools can be more widely applied and will take us further forward with the development of digital humanities tools required for students and researchers. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity the challenge is funding as just now we are working on project specific funding. once this comes to an end we are looking for how we can ensure that we continue this work. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with external funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , measuring accuracy of tools and processes as well as the ability to use these for other projects. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? other (please specify): collection we are digitising and are making available cc-by q how is the data you are using licensed? any other cc- license q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? other (please specify): currently working to build relationships with researchers. q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , digital storage / preservation / hosting , other services or technical expertise (please specify): tools for metadata extraction. q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.), also attracting researchers to the content if yes, please specify which skill gaps you indentified: q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, more general training has been offered to library staff eg library software carpentry please specify: / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? other (please specify): wider dh training being delivered within the university and the library is engaged in developing some of the programming q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? conferences, own website, social media, blog posts q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity website area not live yet - due to go live late july . / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name per cullhed q library uppsala university library q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh the hosting of a digital repository (alvin) and services to promote the use of its content. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity the creation of digital media for use in for example dh without the subscription costs associated with bought digital media q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity growth is slowed down due to the need of maintaining traditional library services q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? more than years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? more than q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with a combination of internal and external funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , download statistics and other knowledge of usage please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we have a license to , a digitised collection we have a license to , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, cc , any other cc- license , copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? training / outreach events , online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? , through existing relationships / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development , other services or technical expertise (please specify): use of the web for building contexts based on a digital content q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.), therei s a general lack of combined programming and subject skills if yes, please specify which skill gaps you indentified: q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , promoting the new competences needed (in many ways) please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? other (please specify): lectures, workshops, study visits and regular courses q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? aware (they know (some of) the activities the library is active in) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, own website, social media, blog posts, other (please specify): lectures / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity www.alvin-portal.org http://ub.uu.se/om-biblioteket/forum-for-digital-humaniora https://liber .org/wp-content/uploads/ / /ws _cullhed_digital-humanities-forum.pdf http://www.ub.uu.se/anvand-biblioteket/labb/ / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name caleb derven q library glucksman library, university of limerick q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh building and deploying a digital library service q please describe the positive aspects of this activity offering a new service to the research community in our university; engaging with new technologies; creating a (hopefully) sustainable digital scholarship tool. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity more dedicated staff for creating resources; full time developer resources q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with internal funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , we regularly asses analytic metrics related to the use of the resource. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? cc , any other cc- license , copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? scoping tools – environmental scans, surveys , training / outreach events , other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , digital storage / preservation / hosting , advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , metadata training please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to the scope of this activity q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? not applicable, the library does not promote the activity q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity respondent skipped this question / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name clara riera q library universitat oberta de catalunya q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh give training and consultacy to dh researchers for digitals projects q please describe the positive aspects of this activity interdiciplinary, connnecting inside resaerch to outside infrastructure q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity more time at the beginning of the research project to spend with library research servicies q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? under a year q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? no, it is an ad-hoc activity # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? no q are you assessing the impact of your work? if no, why not? , at the moment the pilot is in a initial phase please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? other (please specify): catalogues q how is the data you are using licensed? cc , copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? training / outreach events , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , digital storage / preservation / hosting q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , we took part in a consortium course please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? not applicable, we did not follow or offer any training q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? not aware (they have no idea the library does anything related to dh) / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? not applicable, the library does not promote the activity q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity http://transfer.rdi.uoc.edu/en/node/ project website http://www.ub.edu/openscienceandthehumanities/ / / /social-networks-of-the-past-mapping-hispanic-and-lusophone-literary- modernity- - / conference presenting the research project / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name susan halfpenny q library university of york q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh digital creativity week (https://www.york.ac.uk/library/news/ /digital-creativity/): week long event working with archival data in creative ways. students spent the week looking at data from the yorkshire dictionary project (https://www.york.ac.uk/borthwick/projects/yorkshire-dictionary/). activities included, data cleaning and visualisation, image and audio editing, and coding. students showcased their outputs to staff at an event. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity collaborative endeavour: staff from library, it services and archives collaborated to host the event and provide a range of activities. damien murphy, the research champion for creativity supported with the development of the event and provided useful academic contacts. archival data: yorkshire dictionary data provided by the archives enabled students to get involved in a current project. students used this as a source of inspiration and also picked up other data sources as they progressed with the project. creative digital output: students produced a digital story linked to the data they had explored. the project ended with them presenting their work in the space to enable an immersive experience for the audience which incorporated a visual presentation, audio and ar triggers. # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity this is the first year we have run this event. however, the plan is to run the event again in . some of the considerations for going forward include: structure of the week: students came up with their own ideas and the output wasn't fixed. more direction and structure would be worthwhile in the future to enable students to fix on an idea for their projects earlier in the week. marketing and communications: we had a lot of students drop out of the event, which meant we only had participants. in future events earlier communications and over recruitment would be considered to enable us to work with a bigger group. smaller events: as well as running a week long event we would like to run more one off events to enable us to reach more staff and students. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? under a year q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? no, it is an ad-hoc activity q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with internal funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , participant feedback please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? other (please specify): archive data q how is the data you are using licensed? copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, staff involved had the skills to support with the activity please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? not applicable, we did not follow or offer any training q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? own website, social media, blog posts q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity https://www.york.ac.uk/library/news/ /digital-creativity/ / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name despoina gkogkou q library library and information center, university of patras q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh we hold several digital collections (digitized periodicals, books, manuscripts and other archival materials). we also run a digital publishing platform (open access serials on several humanities and social science disciplines). the library hosted a series of dh seminars on literary networks organized by the department of mathematics and a meeting on dh in greece by the department of philology. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity our collections of digitized press of the th and th centuries are considered of the most important in greece, being used widely by scholars and researchers. the content of our collections is valuable for greek and comparative philologists, historians of the press, archivists and the activity has bestowed the library with a stimulus towards digital humanities. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity it would be of great benefit if we could enhance the processing of our data (ocr, text mining techniques). q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? more than years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? no, it is an ad-hoc activity q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? no q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , through our in-person relation and communication with the academics in our university that use the collections mostly. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we have a license to , a born-digital collection we created and curate , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, cc , any other cc- license q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? training / outreach events , physical space – facilitating/hosting , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely , offer training and guidance to interns adding content and the metadata please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to a personal professional development programme q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, partner's website, social media q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity https://library.upatras.gr/english (general information) https://library.upatras.gr/digital (digital collections - in greek only) / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name ioannis clapsopoulos q library university of thessaly library & information centre q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh our main activity in dh is through a recently initiated research project titled “thessaly memory documentantion and communication” [the.me.do.com], which constitutes the main part of the more wide-ranging “university of thessaly historical archive design and implementation” project. the.me.do.com is a collaboration project, with a research team comprising central library [http://www.lib.uth.gr/lws/en/en_hp.asp] staff and teaching-research staff members of the university’s department of history, archaeology and social anthropology (http://www.ha.uth.gr/setlanguage.php?lang=en). a project webpage (in greek and english), including a progress log, is maintained at research gate platform: http://bit.ly/ uyaqbh q please describe the positive aspects of this activity our main activity in dh is through a recently initiated research project titled “thessaly memory documentantion and communication” [the.me.do.com], which constitutes the main part of the more wide-ranging “university of thessaly historical archive design and implementation” project. the.me.do.com is a collaboration project, with a research team comprising central library [http://www.lib.uth.gr/lws/en/en_hp.asp] staff and teaching-research staff members of the university’s department of history, archaeology and social anthropology (http://www.ha.uth.gr/setlanguage.php?lang=en). an initial project webpage (in greek and english), including a progress log, is maintained at research gate platform: http://bit.ly/ uyaqbh q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity since the.me.do.com project is at an early stage of implementation its progress will be evaluated for the first time by the end of . q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? under a year # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy , yes, it is part of the parent organisation’s policy q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with a combination of internal and external funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if no, why not? , the first impact assesment will be done within . please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we created and curate , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? cc , any other cc- license q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? other forums – committees, faculty liaison, others? , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , skills training and development / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? none, the the.me.do.com project is at an early stage of implementation, so no skill-gaps have been identified yet. if yes, please specify which skill gaps you indentified: q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, not yet - required training needs will be evaluated by the end of . please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to the scope of this activity q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? own website, social media, other (please specify): articles in journals and conferences will be presented as the project evolves q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity http://bit.ly/ uyaqbh : initial the.me.do.com project website (at research gate platform – a dedicated project website will be published by october (social media i.e. twitter, facebook and instragram project accounts will also be published by october ). http://bit.ly/ llmmsj : the university of thessaly historical archive powerpoint short presentation (in greek). / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name emmanuelle bermès q library bibliotheque national de france q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh the corpus project = a years internal research program aimed at defining new services for researchers using digital collections (gallica, web archives, metadata). cf. c.bnf.fr/fom q please describe the positive aspects of this activity iterations with researchers on their needs. concrete results using bnf collections. support from the library's direction. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity currently we struggle to get a clear view on physical space works programming & budget. we are lacking dedicated staff. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with internal funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , yearly reviews please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we created and curate , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? any other cc- license q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? training / outreach events , physical space – facilitating/hosting , through existing relationships , other (please specify): api website - api.bnf.fr q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development , other services or technical expertise (please specify): infrastructure, physical space (hosting research teams), tools to analyse the data q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, not yet, but we will please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? not applicable, we did not follow or offer any training q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, conferences, blog posts, other (please specify): workshops q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity c.bnf.fr/fom eleonora moiraghi's report: hal-bnf.archives-ouvertures.fr/hal- bnf research blog: bnf.hypotheses.org/ bnf.hypotheses.org/ bnf.hypotheses.org/ (reports from the workshops) webcorpora.hypotheses.org / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name agnes ponsati q library spanish national library q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh at bne we have created a portal bnelab under it we'll place different activities we are developing to improve the use and re-use of our digital/print collections and enrichment of our collection. take a look at www.bne.es/bnelab q please describe the positive aspects of this activity promotion of bne heritage collections with different narratives and also within new communities apart from the academic public. q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity n.a. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with external funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , we follow up the impact through some analysize tools, the social media impact, and impact on newspapers, radio and tv programs please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we have a license to , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, any other cc- license q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , digital storage / preservation / hosting , advisory / consultation roles q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? soft skills (communication, project management, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? yes, namely q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to the scope of this activity / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? own website, partner's website, social media, blog posts q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity http://www.bne.es/bnelab/ / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name helga kardos q library library of the hungarian parliament q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh digitisation of parliamentary documents, legal books, journals, other textual materials. digitised legislative knowledge base. q please describe the positive aspects of this activity - to know deeply the collection - to protect the collection - make the documents familiar to researchers and students q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity better and richer metadata (even in english). language limits are narrowing the audience and possibilities. q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy , yes, it is part of the parent organisation’s policy q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? yes, with internal funding q are you assessing the impact of your work? if yes, how? , with surveys please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , through existing relationships q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.) q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, lack of money please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? not applicable, we did not follow or offer any training / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? articles in journals, own website, social media, blog posts q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity dtt.ogyk.hu -> digital collection of th elibrary ogyk.hu -> website of the library / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q name karine bacher-eyroi q library université toulouse capitole / library research support dept. q is it ok if we share this use case (including the name of library)? yes, you may publish it on the liber website and please include my name as contact person q please describe one of the activities that you are doing in your library that you would define as dh - research materials & publications digitisation - digital research publishing q please describe the positive aspects of this activity - developing expertise & skills in our team - added-value projects highlighting the library in our university - working closely with researchers & research units as real partners and stakeholders of projects q please describe what could be going better concerning this activity - evaluating better the time needed - having a dedicated budget - upskilling the team on technical aspect of dh - integrating dh in our organisation chart - better advocacy towards researchers & university board - having an institutional policy on dh q how long have you been doing this activity in your library? - years # # completecomplete collector:collector: started:started: last modified:last modified: time spent:time spent: w page : liber dh & dch wg use case survey / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q how many people of your library are involved in the activity? - q is the activity being undertaken in an embedded program in your library? in other words, is it part of a policy? yes, it is part of the library’s policy q do you have a dedicated budget for this activity? no q are you assessing the impact of your work? if no, why not? , the activity is quite recent in the library, we lack of elements, and of evaluation tools. but this is a priority to develop the assessment of our work. please specify: q what kind of collection are you using in the activity? a born-digital collection we created and curate , a digitised collection we created and curate , metadata q how is the data you are using licensed? public domain, copyrighted q how did you find/built a relationship with the researchers working in this activity? online presence – dh lab/portal, social media , through existing relationships , other (please specify): responding the research units demands / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey q what would be the main topics describing your relationship with the researchers working in the activity? digital content / collections , advisory / consultation roles , skills training and development , other services or technical expertise (please specify): expertise on tools, formats, standards, legislation q what were the most significant skill-gaps you identified for this activity? hard skills (coding, tools, etc.), potential of tdm, advocacy & communication if yes, please specify which skill gaps you indentified: q did you follow or offer any training for librarians as part of this activity? no, because, we didn't really develop that for the moment, except for some specific tools presentation. we integrate professional training institutions programs. please specify: q if you have followed or offered any dh training for librarians, how is it organised? it belongs to the scope of this activity q how aware are academics in your institution of the dh activities the library is active in? somewhat aware (they know that the library does something, but are not sure what) q if the library promotes the activity, where does it do so? conferences, own website, other (please specify): internal university board of research units meeting q where can we find any extra information about the activity? please list all the links to websites, news items, blog posts, articles or any other communication about the activity http://www.ut-capitole.fr/bibliotheques/ / liber dh & dch working group - use case survey ku leuven libraries library of the humboldt university berlin university of limerick national library of latvia stockholm university library kb, national library of the netherlands university of edinburgh uppsala university library glucksman library, university of limerick universitat oberta de catalunya university of york library and information center, university of patras university of thessaly library & information centre bibliotheque national de france spanish national library library of hungarian parliament université toulouse capitole / library research support dept. comparing the quality of highly realistic digital humans in dof and dof: a volumetric video case study comparing the quality of highly realistic digital humans in dof and dof: a volumetric video case study shishir subramanyam* jie li irene viola pablo cesar cwi, amsterdam, the netherlands figure : users evaluating realistic digital humans in dof (left) and dof (right) abstract virtual reality (vr) and augmented reality (ar) applications have seen a drastic increase in commercial popularity. different repre- sentations have been used to create d reconstructions for ar and vr. point clouds are one such representation characterized by their simplicity and versatility, making them suitable for real time appli- cations, such as reconstructing humans for social virtual reality. in this study, we evaluate how the visual quality of digital humans, rep- resented using point clouds, is affected by compression distortions. we compare the performance of the upcoming point cloud compres- sion standard against an octree-based anchor codec. two different vr viewing conditions enabling - and degrees of freedom are tested, to understand how interacting in the virtual space affects the perception of quality. to the best of our knowledge, this is the first work performing user quality evaluation of dynamic point clouds in vr; in addition, contributions of the paper include quantitative data and empirical findings. results highlight how perceived visual quality is affected by the tested content, and how current data sets might not be sufficient to comprehensively evaluate compression solutions. moreover, shortcomings in how point cloud encoding solutions handle visually-lossless compression are discussed. index terms: human-centered computing—human computer in- teraction (hci)—hci design and evaluation methods—user studies; —interaction paradigms—virtual reality; introduction recent advances in capturing, media processing, and d rendering technologies make vr/ar applications popular for mass consump- tion [ ]. in this new media landscape, point clouds are becoming commonplace due to their simplicity and versatility. still, the size of dense point clouds is significant (a frame of roughly m points takes around - mbytes), which need compression techniques before transmission. this paper provides an exhaustive quality comparison between different encoding configurations of digital humans, repre- sented as point clouds. by investigating the differences in quality, we provide insights about how to optimise the delivery for both downloading and real-time communication. one key novelty of this paper is to study the quality based on realistic consumption conditions, in - and - degrees of freedom (dof) scenarios. *e-mail: {s.subramanyam, jie.li, irene.viola, p.s.cesar}@cwi.nl avatars are a core part of vr applications like social communi- cation [ ], sports training [ ], or healthcare [ ]. a major line of scientific work has focused on how to make such avatars more realistic, interactive, and autonomous [ , , ]. in this paper, we focus instead on point clouds as a suitable representation for digital humans based on tele-portation principles [ ]. in this case, the research problem is not so much how to render and animate them to make them look more realistic, but how to transport them optimally. given current advances in technology, real-time delivery of point clouds is becoming a realistic alternative; focusing the attention of the research community [ ] and industry [ ] in encoding and transmission. still, given the massive number of points per repre- sentation, decisions need to be taken regarding the delivery (type of encoder, bit-rate) to ensure an acceptable quality of experience depending on the viewing conditions ( dof, dof). this is the core research question this paper answers. contributions of the paper are two-fold: ) it provides a first evaluation of the quality of highly realistic digital humans repre- sented as dynamic point clouds in immersive viewing conditions. existing protocols [ , , , , ] did not consider the dynamic of the point clouds, focused on one type of data set, and did not take into account vr viewing conditions; ) it provides quantitative sub- jective results about the perceived quality of the contents, along with qualitative insights on what is important for users in interacting with digital humans in vr. such results will help in better configuring the network conditions for the delivery of points clouds for real-time transmission, and have implications over ongoing research and stan- dardisation work regarding the underlying compression technology. particularly, this paper extensively studies this current and rel- evant area of research by proposing ) a new evaluation protocol, including the work to create dynamic point clouds for evaluation, and ) quality of experience results. these results are based on an experiment with participants, evaluating stimuli based on eight dynamic point cloud sequences. each point cloud sequence was compressed in four bit-rates, using two types of compression techniques. these stimuli were evaluated in two viewing con- ditions ( dof and dof). the data gathered include rating scores, presence questionnaires, simulator sickness reports, and time spent watching the content. the results indicate that, while bit-rate savings can be obtained by choosing one compression solution over another, visually lossless compression has not been fully achieved by the algorithms under evaluation, even at rather large bit-rates. moreover, the choice of content can have an impact on how users rate its quality, influencing the discriminating power of the selected protocol. ieee conference on virtual reality and d user interfaces (vr) - / /$ . © ieee doi . /vr . . - (a) v-pcc (b) mpeg anchor figure : point cloud digital humans compressed using two point cloud codecs, v-pcc (left) and mpeg anchor (right), at the selected bit-rates. related work . quality assessment for point clouds capturing and displaying volumetric videos is becoming feasi- ble [ , ]. point clouds are frequently used as a data format for volumetric video in augmented reality (ar) and virtual reality (vr) applications. point clouds collate a large number of geo-referenced points to represent humans or objects in d. the color informa- tion can be provided with each point [ ]. to visualize d content sufficiently, the number of points must be high, which results in large size and increases the difficulty to store and transmit the point clouds. to support low latency transmission in ar/vr applications within a limited bandwidth, compression is necessary. however, it remains challenging to measure and predict the acceptable quality of compressed point clouds. there is a growing interest on subjective quality assessment of point clouds rendered on d displays. zhang et al. [ ] evaluated the quality degradation effect of resolution, shape and color on static point clouds. the results indicate that resolution is almost linearly correlated with the perceived quality, and color has less impact than shape on the perceived quality. zerman et al. [ ] compressed two dynamic human point clouds using a state-of-the-art algorithm [ ], and assessed the effects of this algorithm and input point counts on the perceived quality. their results showed that no direct correlation was found between human viewers’ quality ratings and input point counts. in a recent study [ ], a protocol to conduct subjective quality evaluations and benchmark objective quality metrics were proposed. the viewers passively assessed the quality of a set of static point clouds, as animations with pre-defined movement path. in a comprehensive work by alexiou et al. [ ], the entire set of emerging point cloud compression encoders developed in the mpeg committee were evaluated through a series of subjective quality assessment experiments. nine static models, including both humans and objects, were used in the experiments. the experiments provided insights regarding the performance of the encoders and the types of degradation they introduce. only a limited number of point cloud quality assessment studies have been conducted in immersive environments. mekuria et al. [ ] evaluated the subjective quality of their codec performance in a realistic d tele-immersive system, in which users were represented as d avatars and/or d dynamic point clouds, and could navigate in the virtual space using mouse cursor in a desktop setting. several aspects of quality, such as level of immersiveness, togetherness, realism, quality of motion, were considered. alexiou and ebrahimi [ ] proposed the use of ar to subjectively evaluate the quality of colorless point cloud geometry. tran et al. [ ] suggested that, in case of evaluating video quality in an immersive setup, aspects such as cybersickness and presence should not be overlooked. for the objective evaluation of point clouds, there are two main approaches. considering the availability of point location and color information, either point-based or projection-based metrics can be used [ ]. current point-based approaches can assess either geometry- or color-only distortions. for geometry errors, three met- rics were commonly used in studies [ , , , , ], namely the point-to-point metrics, the point-to-plane metrics and the plane-to- plane metrics. these metrics computed using the root mean square (rms) distance, mean square error (mse) or hausdorff distance. moreover, the geometric peak-signal-to- noise-ratio (psnr) is used for the point-to-point and point-to-plane metrics [ ]. for color distortions, the total color degradation value is based either on the color mse, or the psnr, computed in either the rgb or the ycbcr color spaces [ ]. the projection-based approaches map the rendered models onto planar surfaces, and conventional d imaging metrics are employed [ ]. a comprehensive study [ ] showed that the per- formance of the current objective metrics is not ideal, revealing the need for better solutions. therefore, in this study, we do not include any above-mentioned objective metrics, and focus on subjective quality assessment. . point cloud compression a single point cloud frame is represented by an unordered collec- tion of points sampled from the surface of an object. in a dynamic sequence of point clouds, there are no correspondences of points maintained across frames. thus, detecting spatial and temporal redundancies is often difficult, making point cloud compression challenging. octrees have been used extensively as a space parti- tioning structure to represent point cloud geometry. they are a d extension of the d quadtree used to encode video and images. research into point cloud compression can be broadly divided into two categories. the first is based on signal processing, zhang et al. [ ] proposed a method to compress point cloud attributes using a graph fourier transform. they assume that an octree has been cre- ated and separately coded for geometry prior to coding attributes. de queroz and chou [ ] used a region adaptive hierarchical transform to use the colors of nodes in lower levels of the octree to predict the colors of nodes in the next level. as these approaches require expensive computations of graph laplacians, they are not suitable for dynamic sequences in real-time applications. the second category of point cloud codecs are based on extending legacy solutions from image and video compression. intra frame coding in octrees can be achieved by entropy coding the occupancy codes, as shown in [ ]. the authors then compress the color attributes by mapping them to a d grid and using legacy jpeg image compression. in , mpeg started a standardization activity to determine a new standard codec for point clouds, to be launched in . they used the codec created by mekuria et al. [ ] as an anchor to evaluate proposals. to encode dynamic point cloud sequences mpeg provides two verification models [ ], geometry-pcc for point clouds with a sparse distribution, and video-pcc for dense point clouds. v-pcc is based on leveraging existing d video codecs to compress point cloud geometry and attributes. methodology . dataset preparation a dataset of dynamic point cloud sequences was used from the mpeg repository. all sequences were clipped to five seconds and sampled at frames per second. this included point cloud se- quences [ ] [ ] captured using photogrammetry (longdress, loot, red and black, soldier are shown in figure ) and one sequence of a synthetic character sampled from an animated mesh (queen). four additional point cloud sequences; manfred, despoina, sarge (shown in figure ) and rachel were added for the evaluation. these sequences were created using motion captured animated mesh se- quences. keyframes were selected at frames per second and extracted along with the associated mesh materials. particular care was put in ensuring the selected sequences have the characters facing the user and speaking in their general direction. then, million points were randomly sampled, independently per key frame to create a con- sistent groundtruth dataset. the points are sampled from the mesh surface with a probability proportional to the area of the underlying mesh face. this was done to ensure no direct point correspon- dences across point cloud frames, to mimic realistic acquisition and maintain consistency with the rest of the dataset. the point clouds sampled from meshes were used in test t and the point clouds captured using photogrammetry were used in test t . the x, y, z coordinates of each point is represented using an unsigned integer, as is required for the current version of the v-pcc software. colors are encoded as bits per color in the rgb color space. to encode the contents, we first use release . of the vpcc mpeg codec. for test , the configuration files provided by mpeg for the queen sequence are used for all the contents. we select the rate points , and from the provided preset v-pcc configurations and extend in to an additional final rate point using a texture quanti- zation parameter (qp) of , a geometry qp of and an occupancy precision of . we re-label the rate points as r , r , r and r , respectively. all sequences are encoded using the c ai (category all intra) config. for the photogrammetry sequences, we use the predefined dedicated configuration files for each sequence, at the same rate points. the vpcc compressed bitstream was used to set the bitrate targets for r to r , separately for each sequence. we then use the mpeg anchor codec [ ] in an all intra configu- ration, and match the bit-rates per sequence and rate point (r -r ) with a tolerance of %, as defined in the mpeg call for proposals. the codec was selected as it has a significantly lower encode and decode time and is suitable for real-time applications, as demon- strated by the authors. we use an octree depth from to for the rate points r to r respectively. the highest possible jpeg quantization parameter values were then chosen per sequence, while meeting the target bit rate set using vpcc. . experiment setup all point cloud sequences were rendered using the unity game en- gine, by storing all the points of each frame in a vertex buffer, and then drawing procedural geometry on the gpu. the point clouds were rendered using a quadrilateral at each point location with a fixed offset of . units (this corresponds to a side length of approx- imately mm) around each point (placed at the centre) for all the sequences, to be consistent. in the case of bitrate r generated using the mpeg anchor, we increased the offset value to . by eye, as the resulting point clouds were too sparse (shown in figure b). we maintain a fixed frame rate of fps throughout the experiment. participants were asked to wear an oculus rift head mounted display to view each of the point cloud sequences. for the dof condition, participants were asked to sit on a swivel chair placed at a fixed location in the room and navigate using head movements alone. for the dof condition, participants were allowed to navigate freely within the room, as shown in figure . each sequence was seconds long, after which the playback looped around. we set the background of the virtual room to mid-grey, to avoid distractions. the oculus guardian system was used to display in-application wall and floor markers if the participants got too close to the boundary. we used a workstation with geforce gtx ti in sli for the gpu and an intel core i skylake-x . ghz cpu. . subjective methodology to perform the experiments, the subjective methodology absolute category rating with hidden references (acr-hr) was selected, according to itu-t recommendations p. [ ]. participants were asked to observe the video sequences depicting digital humans, and rate the corresponding visual quality on a scale from to ( -bad, -poor, -fair, -good, and -excellent). a series of pilot studies were conducted to determine the posi- tioning of digital humans in the virtual space and the length of each sequence, to ensure the sequences were running smoothly within the limited computer ram. due to the huge size of the test material, it was not possible to evaluate all point cloud contents in one single session, as long loading times would have brought fatigue to the participants and corrupted the results. thus, we decided to split the evaluation into two separate tests: one focused on the evaluation of contents obtained from random sampling of meshes (t : contents queen, manfred, despoina and sarge), and one focused on contents acquired through photogrammetry (t : contents long dress, soldier, red and black, and loot). from each sequence, a subset of frames comprising seconds was selected. before the test took place, training sequences depicting exam- ples of -bad, -excellent and -fair were shown to the users to help them familiarize with the viewing condition and test setup, and to guide their rating. the training sequences were created using one additional content not shown during the test, to prevent biased results. for test t , content ana was selected, whereas for test t , content ulli wagner was chosen. each content sequence was encoded using the point cloud compression algorithms under test. for each test and viewing condition, stimuli were evaluated. for each stimulus, the second sequence was played at least once in full, and kept in loop until the participants gave their score. the order of the displayed stimuli was randomized per participant and per viewing condition, and the same content was never displayed twice in a row to avoid bias. moreover, the presentation order of viewing conditions was randomized between participants, to prevent any confounding effect. two dummy samples were added at the beginning of each viewing session to ease participants into the task, and the corresponding scores were subsequently discarded. after each view condition, participants were requested to fill in the igroup presence questionnaire (ipq) [ ] on a - discrete scale ( =fully disagree to =totally agree) and simulator sickness ques- tionnaire (ssq) on a - discrete scale ( =none to =severe) [ ]. ipq has three subscales, namely spatial presence (sp), involvement (inv) and experienced realism (real), and one additional general item (g) not belonging to a subscale, which assesses the general ”sense of being there”, and has high loadings on all three factors, with an especially strong loading on sp [ ]. ssq was developed to measure cybersickness in computer simulation and was derived from a measure of motion sickness [ ]. for both t and t , after the two viewing conditions, participants were interviewed to ) compare their experiences of assessing quality in dof and dof, and ) reflect on the factors they considered when assessing the quality. a total of participants were recruited for t ( males, female, average age: , years old), whereas participants were recruited for t ( males, females, average age: , years old). all participants were screened for color vision and visual acuity, using isihara and snellen charts, respectively, according to itu-t recommendations p. [ ]. figure : sequences used for the test, from left to right: manfred, sarge, despoina, queen, longdress, loot, red and black, soldier . data analysis outlier detection was performed separately for each test t and t , according to itu-t recommendations p. [ ]. the recom- mended threshold values r = . and r = . were used. one outlier was found in test t , and the corresponding scores were discarded. no outliers were found in the scores collected for test t . after outlier detection, the mean opinion score (mos) was com- puted for each stimulus, independently per viewing condition. the associated % confidence intervals (cis) were obtained assum- ing a student’s t-distribution. additionally, the differential mos (dmos) was obtained by applying hr removal, following the pro- cedure described in itu-t recommendations p. [ ]. non-parametric statistical analysis was applied to understand whether statistical differences could be found among variables, using the matlab statistics and machine learning toolbox, along with the artool package in r [ ]. results . subjective quality assessment figures and shows the results of the subjective quality assess- ment of the contents comprising test t and test t , respectively, for both dof and dof viewing conditions. in particular, the mos scores associated with the compressed contents are shown with solid lines, along with relative cis, whereas the dashed lines represent the respective dmos scores. the hr scores for each content are represented with a solid line to indicate the mean, and a shaded plot for the corresponding cis. to assess whether significant differences could be found between the two visual conditions under test, we ran a wilcoxon signed- rank test on the scores obtained in the two dof scenarios. the wilcoxon test was chosen as the gathered data was not found to be normally distributed, according to the shapiro-wilk normality test (w = . , p < . and w = . , p < . for tests t and t , respectively). results of the wilcoxon signed-rank test showed statistical significance for dof for test t (z = . , p = . , r = . ), whereas for test t , no significance was found (z = − . , p = . , r = . ). values seems to indicate an effect of the dof in test t ; however the small r-value indicates that while the effect apparently exists, it is small. it can be observed that codec v-pcc has generally a more fa- vorable performance with respect to the mpeg anchor. this is especially evident for the contents acquired through photogramme- try (see fig. ), for which the gap among the two codecs is more pronounced. wilcoxon signed-rank test confirmed statistical signifi- cance for the two codecs (t : z = . , p < . , t : z = . , p < . ), albeit with different effect sizes between test t and t (r = . and r = . , respectively). a friedman rank test performed on the scores revealed a signifi- cant effect of the content on the final scores, for both sets of contents (t : χ = . , p < . , t : χ = . , p < . ). table shows the results of the post-hoc test conducted using wilcoxon table : pairwise post-hoc test on the contents for test t and t , using wilcoxon signed-rank test with bonferroni correction. z p r t manfred - sarge . <. . manfred - despoina . . . manfred - queen . <. . sarge - despoina . . . sarge - queen . <. . despoina - queen . <. . t long dress - loot . <. . long dress - red and black . . . long dress - soldier . <. . loot - red and black . <. . loot - soldier . <. . red and black - soldier . . . table : pairwise post-hoc test on the bitrates for test t and t , using wilcoxon signed-rank test with bonferroni correction. z p r t r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . t r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . r - r - . <. . signed-rank test with bonferroni correction (α = . / ). contents manfred, sarge and despoina all show statistical significance with respect to content queen (p < . , r > . for all pairs). statis- tical significance has also been observed between content manfred and sarge, albeit with a smaller effect size ( p < . , r = . ). for contents acquired through photogrammetry, statistical significance was found between contents long dress and loot, and loot and red and black (p < . , r > . in both cases), as well as be- tween contents long dress and soldier, loot and soldier ( p < . , r > . ), and red and black and soldier (p = . , r = . ). results corroborate our previous statements on how contents long dress and red and black appeared to be given different scores with respect to contents loot and soldier. we also ran a friedman rank test on the scores to assess whether the selected bit-rates were showing statistical significance. results confirmed that the bit-rates have a significant effect for both tests (t : χ = . , p < . , t : χ = . , p < . ). post-hoc (a) manfred (b) sarge (c) despoina (d) queen (e) manfred (f) sarge (g) despoina (h) queen figure : mos (solid line) and dmos (dashed line) against achieved bit-rate, expressed in mbps. hr scores are shown using a shaded yellow plot. each column represents a content in test t , whereas first row and second row depict results obtained using the viewing conditions dof and dof, respectively. (a) long dress (b) loot (c) red and black (d) soldier (e) long dress (f) loot (g) red and black (h) soldier figure : mos (solid line) and dmos (dashed line) against achieved bit-rate, expressed in mbps. hr scores are shown using a shaded yellow plot. each column represents a content in test t , whereas first row and second row depict results obtained using the viewing conditions dof and dof, respectively. analysis using wilcoxon signed-rank test with bonferroni correction (α = . / ), shown in table further confirmed that all pairwise comparisons were statistically significant, for both test t and t (p < . , r > . for all pairs). in order to further analyze the effect of dof conditions, contents, codecs and bit-rates, and relative interactions, on the gathered scores, we fitted a full linear mixed-effects model on the data, accounting for randomness introduced by the participants. due to the non-normality of our data, the aligned rank transform was applied prior to the fitting [ ]. since the transform is designed for a fully randomized test, it is not suitable for the scores collected during the test, as the hr addition makes the design matrix rank deficient. however, the transform can be applied to the differential scores used to obtain dmos, as it follows a fully randomized design. thus, it was decided to perform the analysis on the differential scores. for test t , analysis of deviance on the full mixed-effects model showed significance for main effects content (f = . , d f = , p < . ), codec (f = . , d f = , p < . ) and bit-rate (f = . , d f = , p < . ), but not for dof (f = . , d f = , p = . ). moreover, significant interaction effects were found for dof - content (f = . , d f = , p = . ), content - bit-rate (f = . , d f = , p < . ) and codec - bit-rate (f = . , d f = , p = . ). post-hoc interaction analysis with holm p-value adjustment indicates that the difference between dof and dof has statistical significance at % level when comparing contents man- fred and queen (χ = . , p = . ), as well as inspector and queen (χ = . , p = . ). in other words, the relative differ- ence in scores between contents manfred and queen (and inspector and queen) was not found to be statistically equivalent in dof with respect to dof. this indicates that the dof might have an effect on how contents are scored with respect to one another, for example by increasing or reducing their differences. regarding the interaction effect between contents and bit-rates, post-hoc interaction analysis with holm p-value correction showed statistical significance in dif- ferences between contents manfred and queen at bit-rates r and r (χ = . , p < . ), between contents sarge and despoina at bit-rates r and r (χ = . , p = . ), between sarge and queen at bit-rates r and r (χ = . , p = . ), and between despoina and queen at bit-rates r and r (χ = . , p = . ), r -r (χ = . , p = . ) and r -r (χ = . , p < . ). results can be explained considering that the low hr scores given to content queen meant a narrower range of ratings. thus, bit-rate point r , for example, presents relatively higher differential scores for queen with respect to the rest of the contents, whereas for bit-rate point r , due to the hr removal, all contents have similar ratings. this is reflected in the statistical analysis conducted on the scores. finally, post-hoc interaction analysis with holm p-value adjustment on differences between codecs and bit-rates shows that the difference among codecs is statistically significant at % level only between r and r (χ = . , p = . ), r and r (χ = . , p = . ), and r and r (χ = . , p = . ). this indicates that the dif- ferences between codecs remain constant at all bit-rates, except for r . this is in line with what observed in fig. , which show similar trends for codec v-pcc with respect to the mpeg anchor, except for the lowest bit-rate point, for which v-pcc achieves better performance. results of analysis of deviance on the full mixed-effects model for test t showed significance for main effects content (f = . , d f = , p < . ), codec (f = . , d f = , p < . ) and bit- rate (f = . , d f = , p < . ), but not for dof (f = . , d f = , p = . ), similarly to what was seen for test t . in- teractions were found significant at % level between content and codec (f = . , d f = , p = . ), content and bit-rate (f = . , d f = , p = . ), and codec and bit-rate (f = . , d f = , p < . ). the lack of significance in interactions involv- ing dof is in line with the results of the wilcoxon signed-rank test, which showed no significance for dof in test t (z = − . , p = . , r = . ). post-hoc interaction analysis with holm p- value adjustment shows significance at % level for the differences among codecs for content long dress with respect to content loot (χ = . , p = . ). this confirms what can be seen in fig. : the gap among codecs is more prominent for content loot with re- spect to long dress, probably due to the reduced range associated with a low-rated hr. post-hoc analysis on the interaction between contents and bit-rates indicates statistical significance at % level for differences among contents long dress and soldier when consid- ering differences between bit-rates r -r (χ = . , p = . ) and r -r (χ = . , p = . ), and among contents red and black and soldier for differences between r and r (χ = . , p = . ). again, this can be explained considering that both long dress and red and black received remarkably lower scores, which resulted in a narrower rating range. thus, differences among lowest and highest bit-rates are quite different between those two contents and soldier, which benefited from a larger rating span. lastly, post- given score a vg t im e ( s) dof dof (a) t given score a vg t im e ( s) dof dof (b) t figure : average time spent looking at the sequence (in seconds) and relative cis, against score given to the sequence, for dof (blue) and dof (red), in test t (left) and t (right). hoc analysis on the interaction between codecs and bit-rates reveals statistical significance at % level for all pairwise comparison, ex- cept r -r (r -r : χ = . , p < . , r -r : χ = . , p < . , r -r : χ = . , p < . , r -r : χ = . , p < . , r -r : χ = . , p < . ). indeed, in fig. it is quite evident that the curves for the two codecs follow different trends. in particular, codec v-pcc seems to saturate between r and r , whereas a steeper slope is observed for the mpeg anchor. . additional questionnaires and interaction data . . ipq & ssq questionnaires for t and t , the collected ipq data under each subscale are all normally distributed as examined by the shapiro-wilk test (p > . ). a paired sample t-test was applied to check the differences between dof and dof in terms of sp, inv, real and g. for t , there was a significant difference in sp between dof (m= . , sd= . ) and dof (m= . , sd= . ), t( )=- . , p < . , cohen’s d = . and also a significant difference in g between dof (m= . , sd= . ) and dof (m= . , sd= . ), t( )=- . , p < . , cohen’s d = . . for t , sp was also significantly different in dof (m= . , sd= . ) and dof (m= . , sd= . ), t( )=- . , p < . , cohen’s d = . and so was g between dof (m= . , sd= . ) and dof (m= . , sd= . ), t( )=- . , p < . , cohen’s d = . . other factors showed no significant differences between dof and dof in both t and t . with respect to ssq, no significant differences (p > . ) were found between dof and dof in terms of cybersickness. we further tested whether there were order effects in experiencing cyber- sickness, where half of the participants started with dof as the first condition and dof as the second, and the remainder the inverse. no significant differences (p > . ) were found for any order effects in experiencing cybersickness. . . interaction time interaction time was found to be strongly correlated with mos val- ues in a study conducted on light field image quality assessment [ ]. in particular, it was found that users tended to spend more time interacting with contents at high quality, whereas for low quality scores, less time was spent looking at the contents. in order to see whether similar trends could be observed in our data, we compared the average time spent watching the sequence in dof and dof, separately for each quality score given by the participants. results are shown in fig. . a positive trend can be observed between the given score and the average time spent looking at the sequence, with the exception of score , which for test t shows a negative trend with respect to the time. however, it should be considered that on average, a small percentage of scores equal to were given in test t ( % of the total scores), thus, variations may be due to the difference in sample size. it is also worth noting that, on average, participants spent more time looking at the sequences in dof, with respect to the dof case. indeed, several participants pointed out that the lowest scores were the fastest to be given, whereas for higher quality, it was harder to decide on the rating. . . interviews we asked the same interview questions for t and t . so, we com- bined the interview transcripts of participants (t = , t = ). the categorized answers are presented as follows: factors considered when assessing quality. % of the partici- pants mentioned that they assessed the quality based on three criteria: ) overall outline and pattern distortion on body and on clothes, ) natural gestures and movements of the digital humans, and ) visual artifacts such as blockiness, blurriness, and extraneous floating arti- facts. % of the participants mentioned the quality assessment cri- teria are content related, who agreed that it is easier to spot artifacts for the content with complex patterns (e.g., long dress) and domi- nant colors (e.g., red and black) than the content with uniformed colors (e.g., soldier and sarge). % of the participants considered facial expressions as an unignorable factor for quality assessment, which they believe is an important cue for social connectedness. for the extraneous floating artifacts (e.g., bubbles flickering outside the digital humans), % found it very annoying and lowered the overall quality for the content, but a few participants ( %) thought these artifacts do not influence their quality judgement. difficulties in assessment. % of the participants pointed out the difficulties in assessing the quality, especially for the high quality contents, which are not perfect and still have missing details like blurry faces or wrong fingers. % of the participants specifically pointed out that it is difficult to distinguish between quality level to . % of the participants commented that it gradually became easier in rating the quality when they adapted to the contents. so, the second viewing condition was easier for them. comparison between dof and dof. % of the participants preferred dof, because it allowed them to move closer to examine the details (e.g., shoes and fingers). they felt more realistic when walking in the virtual space. however, they also commented that dof offered a fixed distance between them and digital humans, enabling a more stable and focused assessment. % of the partic- ipants preferred relaxation and passiveness in dof, because they did not find much differences between dof and dof in terms of quality assessment, but they found dof is less nauseous than dof. . analysis of results results vary considerably depending on the content under assess- ment. in particular, for test t , content queen is generally given lower ratings with respect to the other contents in the test. this is made evident by the mos score given to the hr, which is equal to . for the dof and dof condition, indicating that even when uncompressed, the content was never considered as having a good quality. as a result, the mos scores computed for the content have a limited range, spanning between . and . for the dof case, and between and . for the dof (excluding hr). such a nar- row range is inadequate in expressing the quality variations among different compression parameters: for the dof case in particular, paired t-test at % significance shows that bit-rate points r and r are statistically equivalent for both codecs, and for codec v-pcc r is considered statistically equivalent to r , despite the latter being times as large. statistical analysis results confirmed that content queen showed different rating patterns with respect to the other contents. the ratings given to the rest of the contents com- prising t have a larger range, seemingly covering the entire rating space. trends show that codec v-pcc is generally preferred to the mpeg anchor, especially at low bit-rates, whereas for the highest bit-rate point r , the codecs are always statistically equivalent at % confidence level, in both dof and dof. it is worth noting that the two codecs seldom reach the same quality level as the uncompressed hrs. in particular, for the dof viewing condition, transparent quality (as in, the level of quality for which the distortions are “transparent” to the user, meaning that statistical equivalence with the hr has been observed) is only achieved by content manfred at bit-rate r , by both codecs. on the other hand, in the dof scenario, v-pcc encoded contents at bit-rate r seem to always be statistical equivalent to the hr. rating variability among different contents is even more visible for contents acquired through photogrammetry. in particular, at high bit-rates contents long dress and red and black are consistently given lower scores with respect to contents loot and soldier, for both dof conditions. in fact, as seen with content queen above, both contents do not reach mos levels higher than , even when considering the hr content. this indicates that the source content is never considered of excellent quality, even when no compression artifact is involved. this impacts the way scores are distributed across the rating space: left with a smaller rating range (as the higher rating values are never given), mos results show that contents compressed at high bit-rates are considered statistically equivalent to the respective hr. this is particularly evident when considering the dmos scores, which have an operational range between and for codec v-pcc, for a range of bit-rates spanning between and mbps. on the other hand, for contents that were given higher scores (loot and soldier) and use the full rating space, results indicate what was already seen in test t : no codec is able to reach transparent quality, meaning that scores given to the compressed content are always statistically different with respect to the hr. decisions on which codec to employ should be made depending on the use case. the mpeg anchor is more suitable for real-time system, due to its fast encoding time, and at high enough bitrates, differences with the other codec become less noticeable. v-pcc, on the other hand, might be more appropriate for on-demand streaming and storage, since it retains better quality for the same bitrate. for the majority of the contents under test, a bitstream size between and mbps seems to provide an acceptable quality. however, regarding the selection of the appropriate target bitrate, the decision should be made taking into account other factors, such as network conditions, available bandwith and scene complexity. statistical analysis showed a small effect of the chosen dof condition on the gathered scores for test t . in general, the two visualization scenarios led to similar trends in mos values; however, several participants pointed out that, while dof offered a more stable assessment, as the same point of view is used for all contents, dof felt more realistic. any decision between the two viewing conditions for quality assessment, thus, should be made consider- ing the trade-off between immersive, personalized experience, and fairness of comparison between solutions. discussion . datasets despite the rich literature in point cloud acquisition and compression, few point cloud datasets are publicly available. this is especially true when considering point cloud datasets depicting photo-realistic humans. one of the most popular and widely used full-body dataset, created by i labs [ ], consists of only individual contents, whereas the hhi fraunhofer dataset has individual content [ ]. in the context of point cloud compression, such scarcity of available data may lead to compression solutions being designed, optimized and tested while considering a considerably narrow range of input data, thus leading to algorithms that are overfitted to the specifics of the acquisition method used to obtain the contents. the conse- quences of such a scenario are reflected in our results. whereas for the contents assessed in test t a large difference was observed between codec v-pcc and the mpeg anchor, for the contents in test t the gap was markedly lower, and indeed the significance of the effect of the codec selection had a smaller effect size for test t with respect to test t , as seen in section . . test t consisted of contents that had been used in multiple quality assessment experi- ments [ , , , ], notably including the performance evaluation of the upcoming mpeg standard [ ]. on the other hand, test t in- cluded contents that have not been used so far in assessment of point cloud compression solutions. the discrepancies in the results of the subjective quality assessment campaign indicate that performance gains may vary considerably when new contents are evaluated. a larger body of contents depicting digital humans, involving several acquisition technologies, is needed in order to properly design, train and evaluate new compression solutions in a robust way. . personal preferences and bias subjective evaluation experiments are complicated by many aspects of human psychology and viewing conditions, such as participants’ vision ability, translation of quality perception into ranking scores, adaptations and personal preferences for contents. through carefully following the itu-t recommendations p. [ ], we are able to control some of the aspects. for example, eliminate the scores given by the participants with vision problems; train participants to help them understand the quality levels; randomize the stimuli and viewing conditions to minimize the order effects. however, we noticed that personal preferences towards certain contents are difficult to control. satgunam et al. [ ]) found that their participants were divided into two preference groups: prefer sharper content versus smoother content. similarly, kortum and sullivan [ ] found that the ”desirability” of participants had an impact on video quality responses, with a more desirable video clip being given a higher rating. in our experiments, content queen is generally given lower ratings with respect to the other contents. in the interviews, many participants ( %) expressed dislike towards queen, because of her lifeless look and static gestures; % showed their preference towards soldier, due to his high-resolution facial features, unitoned clothes and natural movements. this observation suggests that quality assessment may need to be adjusted based on content and viewer preferences, and offering training with different contents. . technological constraints and limitations the two codecs used in this experiment introduce different distor- tions during compression. as the mpeg anchor codec uses the octree data structure to represent geometry, the number of points in the decoded cloud varies exponentially based on the tree depth. thus, at lower bitrates, the decoded point clouds are quite sparse, and when the point size is increased to make them appear watertight, they have a block-y appearance. this codec design allows for future optimizations based on human perception of d objects in vr. the low delay encoding and decoding of this codec makes it suitable for real time applications such as social vr. on the other hand, the v-pcc codec leverages existing d video codecs to compress both geometry and color, which introduces noise in terms of extraneous objects, and general geometric artifacts such as misaligned seams. however, the approach yields better results at low bitrates, as demon- strated in our results. the codec is optimized for human perception of d video and this might not transfer to perception of d objects in vr. the mapping from d to d is critical to codec performance, thus the encoding phase has high complexity. decoding has a lower delay, as it benefits from hardware acceleration of video decoders on gpus, making this approach suitable for on demand streaming. one of the main shortcoming of both compression solutions lays in their inability to reach visually-lossless quality, as demonstrated by our results. achieving a visually pleasant result is of paramount importance for the market adoption of the technology; indeed, poor visual quality might lead consumers to tune off from the experience altogether [ ]. visual perception should be taken into account when designing compression solutions, especially at high bitrates, to en- sure that in absence of strict bandwidth constraints, excellent quality can be achieved. . protocols for subjective assessment in vr choosing the right methodology to follow in order to collect users’ opinions is a delicate matter, as it can influence the statistical power of the collected score, and in some cases lead to difference in results. single stimulus methodologies, in particular, lead to larger cis with respect to double stimulus methodologies, and are more subject to be influenced by individual content preference [ ]. an early study comparing single and double stimulus methodologies for the evalu- ation of colorless point cloud contents indicated that the latter was more consistent in recognizing the level of impairment, as relative differences facilitate the rating task [ ]. however, the study pointed out that the single stimulus methodology shows more discrimination power for compression-like artifacts, albeit at the cost of wider cis. double stimulus methodologies, while commonly used in video quality assessment and widely adopted in d-based quality assess- ment of point cloud contents [ , , ], are tricky to adopt in vr technology, due to the difficulties in displaying both contents simul- taneously in a perceptually satisfying way [ ], while ensuring a fair comparison between the contents under evaluation. when dealing with interactive methodologies, in particular, synchronous display of any modification in viewport is usually enforced, to ensure that the two contents are always visible at the same condition [ , ]. this is clearly challenging to implement in a dof scenario, in which users are free to change their position in the vr space at any given time. positioning the two contents side by side in the same virtual space would mean that, at any given time, they are seen from two different angles; the same problem would arise when temporal sequencing is employed. a toggle-based method like the one proposed in [ ] is not applicable to moving sequences, as different frames would be seen between stimuli. in our study, we saw that content preference had an impact on the ratings, as several contents were deemed of lower quality, as the scores given to the hr exemplify. such bias resulted in a reduced rating range for the contents. results of the interviews also pointed out that naturalness of gestures were an important criteria in assess- ing the visual quality. such components would not be normally evaluated in a double stimulus scenario; however, they are important in understanding how human perception reacts to digital humans. conclusion we compare the performance of the point cloud compression stan- dard v-pcc against an octree-based anchor codec (mpeg anchor). participants were invited to assess the quality of digital humans represented as dynamic point clouds, in both dof and dof condi- tions. the results indicate that codec v-pcc has a more favorable performance than the mpeg anchor, especially at low bit-rates. for the highest bit-rate, the two codecs are often statistically equivalent. results indicate that the content under test has a significant influence on how the scores are distributed; thus, new data sets are needed in order to comprehensively evaluate compression distortions. more- over, current encoding solutions, while efficient at low bitrates, are unable to provide visually lossless results, even when large volumes of data are available, revealing significant shortcomings in point cloud compression. we also point out that commonly-used double stimulus methodologies for quality evaluation often reduce the rating task to a difference recognition, while insights on the quality of the original contents are missed. acknowledgments this work is funded by the european commission h program, under the grant agreement , vrtogether, http://vrtogether.eu/ references [ ] ott: beyond entertainment consumer survey report. https://www. conviva.com/research/ott-beyond-entertainment/. 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[ ] j. zhang, w. huang, x. zhu, and j.-n. hwang. a subjective quality evaluation for d point cloud models. in international conference on audio, language and image processing, pp. – . ieee, . editing social media: the case of online book discussion research article peter boot published online: may # springer nature switzerland ag abstract online book discussion is a popular activity on weblogs, specialized book discussion sites, booksellers’ sites and elsewhere. these discussions are important for research into literary reception and should be made and kept accessible for researchers. this article asks what an archive of online book discussion should and could look like, and how we could describe such an archive in terms of some of the central concepts of textual scholarship: work, document, text, transcription and variant. what could an approach along the lines of textual scholarship mean for such a collection? if such a collection holds many pieces of information that would not usually be considered text (such as demographic information about contributors), could we still call such a collection an edition, and could we call editing the activity of preparing such a collection?the article introduces some of the relevant (dutch-language) sites, and summarizes their properties (among others: they are dynamic and vulnerable, they contain structured data and are very large) from the perspective of creating a research collection. it discusses the interpretation of some essential terms of textual studies in this context, and briefly lists a number of components that a digital edition of these sites might or should contain. it argues that such a collection is the result of scholarly work and should not be considered as 'just' a web archive. keywords online book discussion . edition . textual scholarship . born-digital text . web archives introduction online book discussion is a popular activity on many social media sites: on weblogs, in facebook groups, in forums, on specialized book discussion sites such as goodreads and, international journal of digital humanities ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - * peter boot peter.boot@huygens.knaw.nl huygens institute for the history of the netherlands, po box , ewamsterdam, the netherlands editing social media: the case of online book discussion http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:peter.boot@huygens.knaw.nl perhaps most voluminously, on booksellers’sites, such as amazon. these discussions are important for research into literary reception (boot ) and, therefore, should be made and kept accessible for researchers. in this article, i ask what an archive of online book discussion should and could look like, and how we could describe such an archive in terms of some of the central concepts of textual scholarship: work, document, text, transcription and variant. the discussion is based on experiences gained in the creation of an archive of dutch online book discussions (boot ), a collection that now holds , items of book response downloaded from a number of different sites into a single database. what could an approach along the lines of textual scholarship mean for such a collection? conversely, perhaps, what could a study of these sites mean for textual scholarship? if such a collection holds many pieces of information that would not usually be considered text (such as demographic information about contributors), could we still call such a collection an edition, and could we call editing the activity of preparing such a collection? or is ‘thematic research collection’ (palmer ) or ‘archive’ (vanhoutte ) a better name? does it matter which name we use (price )? i will first introduce some of the relevant sites, and i will summarize their properties from the perspective of creating a research collection. i will then give an interpretation of some essential terms of textual studies in this context, and i will briefly list a number of components that a digital edition of these sites might or should contain. this will prepare us for a discussion of the wider issues raised above. dutch online book discussion sites at the moment of writing, the most prominent dutch book discussion platform is review site hebban (jessen ), comparable to goodreads in the english-speaking world (thelwall and kousha ). hebban claims to have , unique visitors per month, , registered users, who have left , ratings and , reviews. readers create a profile for themselves, with demographic data, a short description and perhaps links to other social media accounts. they create book lists, can follow other readers, and can respond to contributions from other people on the site. the site also keeps metadata about books, such as publisher information, a description, isbn and an aggregate rating. hebban is not just a collection of texts, but also a large collection of structured data. a very different way of discussing books is practised on bulletin-board style discussion forums. the largest one in the netherlands is ezzulia. the typical structure is an organisation into forums and subforums, divided into topics, which consist of an opening post and subsequent discussion. here, the interaction between readers is much more important than more or less formal reviews. there are usually no formal metadata about books, but the forum-post-response relation provides the organizing data struc- ture for the forum texts. the largest online bookseller of the netherlands is bol.com. it is the only online bookseller where buyers have left a substantial number of user reviews (daniels ). www.hebban.nl https://static.hebban.nl/files/files/hebban_prijslijst_ v - lr.pdf. the number of reviews is based on a download of the site in february . http://www.ezzulia.nl/forum/ p. boot http://bol.com http://www.hebban.nl https://static.hebban.nl/files/files/hebban_prijslijst_ v - lr.pdf http://www.ezzulia.nl/forum/ we downloaded , reviews from the site. in terms of facilities for discussion and interaction, the reviews at bol.com have little to offer, and users have no way to identify themselves with a picture or profile text. the most informal book discussion probably takes place in facebook book discus- sion groups. there exist a number of dutch language book discussion groups, some smaller, some larger. the largest one at the time of writing is samenlezenisleuker (reading together is more fun), with ca. , members. the focus here is on conviviality and sociability, for which books provide the occasion. a prominent characteristic of facebook groups is that they often span multiple sites: besides their facebook home, they also have a twitter presence, an instagram account and a weblog. unlike the sites discussed up to now, the typical weblog is an individual undertak- ing. because of that, it is much harder to give a brief characteristic of book blog (a weblog about books) based book discussion. some book blogs are maintained by teenagers, some focus on genre books (such as suspense novels or historical romances), some are written by people with a lifetime of thinking and reading behind them. although they are usually maintained by individuals, through their blog rolls (lists to other blogs they are following) and the comment facilities, weblogs and their main- tainers are part of a network. this network extends to the other sites we discussed: many bloggers are also active on the other sites, and there are many names that we encounter on many different platforms in the network of online book discussion. properties of sites supposing that we are going to create a research collection of online book discussion material, we should note that the material that we are going to archive or edit is very different from the sort of material that textual scholarship usually has to deal with. there are at least eight ways in which online book discussion is different. first of all, these sites are dynamic. many editorial projects deal with a closed corpus: the author is dead and though we may not yet know all relevant witnesses, no new text can be created. in our case, we deal with dynamic sites that grow each day; new book responses are added, new reviewers arrive, reviews may also be removed. people strike up friendships. an edition of a live site can never be complete. second, websites are transient, they need effort to be maintained. the absence of a material carrier makes web sites very vulnerable, and this lends a particular urgency to their archiving. some of the larger dutch book discussion sites have already disappeared. third, while there are many traditional edition projects that have to handle material in multiple media, for literary editions they are usually not the centre of attention. in contrast, the texts in online book discussion use rich text: they use all of the features of html, such as hyperlinks, use of other media (images, video, audio), different forms of highlighting and other rendering styles, such as different fonts. an edition of this material will have to know how to handle this from the start. fourth, these sites are structured networks of textual constituents, enhanced by metadata, often a collaboration of many participants. the display of the textual material is determined by the user’s interests: reviews, for instance, can often be accessed by book, by reviewer or by tag. reviews often spurn https://www.facebook.com/groups/ / editing social media: the case of online book discussion http://bol.com https://www.facebook.com/groups/ / conversations. pages are enriched with metadata. as we will see, this calls for an enriched concept of text, which includes the data underlying the navigational possibil- ities of the sites. fifth, sites are multi-platform constructions. as we saw for the facebook group, sites are often parts of a larger network. beyond that, users often employ multiple sites for different aspects of book discussion: to write reviews, to announce their reviews, to discuss reviews from others, or simply to hang out. a decision to archive or edit a single site is to limit ourselves to a to some extent arbitrary section of the book discussion environment. sixth, there are legal complications in publishing a collection of this material. even though texts have been published online, copyright has to be respected. in addition, privacy regulations may be problematic. seventh: depending on the site, the volume of material may be very large. together with the eighth and final property, that collections are electronic from the start, this implies that the creation of the collection will have to be automated and that it will be impossible to devote attention to the individual text (although the programs will have to be customized for the different sites or site types). for the user, the importance of the collection will probably be as much in the trends and patterns that the collection shows as in the individual texts, and the collections will have to offer ‘distant reading’—like research facilities. in editorial terms the book discussion sites’ properties have consequences for how an edition of these sites should be conceived. i briefly discuss some relevant terminology of textual scholarship in this context, mentioning the relevant properties from the previous section. work: the work that we would edit will usually be the site (or, based on the multi- platform property, a site cluster), as it is not the individual reviews that we are interested in but the ways these are organized in structured networks. in the case of mass reviewing sites, this is a highly collaborative work, with some people responsible for the design and maintenance and thousands of people responsible for the content. in terms of the frbroo ontology, the site is an ‘aggregation work’, a work that essentially consists ‘the selection and/or arrangement of expressions of one or more other works’ (ifla ); these other, individual works being the reviews, blogposts, etcetera that the site contains. a weblog, on the contrary, is usually the work of a single person (but can still be considered as an aggregate of its posts). in some situations, it might not be necessary to edit an entire site, e.g. for the reviews on booksellers’sites. it is also clearly impossible to edit facebook. state, version: as mentioned, the site, and thus the work, is a dynamic entity. it is therefore also what the frbroo ontology calls a ‘complex work’, a work for which there are multiple versions. a state or version of the work is the site as it exists at any specific moment. it is up to the editor to decide whether the edition should try to document a state of the site, or the development of the site through a given time period. we could call an edition of the former type a synchronic edition, and the latter type a diachronic edition. in any case, for a living site, the edition is necessarily incomplete, unless we devise some way to automatically enhance the edition with the latest live data. p. boot documents, witnesses: when we ask on the basis of what documents or witnesses we should edit the sites, the answer is not clear-cut. there are three options: the server database, the html and intercepted communication between server and browser, or saved output from api (application programming interface) calls. each of these options runs into some difficulties because of the sites being transient and dynamic. in a sense, the ultimate witness is the database from which the server constructs the html pages that the site’s users see. that database contains the posts, the user informa- tion, the book information, the book lists, etc., but there is a number of reasons why this answer is unsatisfactory. first, the database underlying the site is a live thing, constantly modified, and a witness that we cannot use to check our edition is not very useful witness. a read-only copy might be a better candidate, but there remain other problems. the database, or copies of it, may be out of reach of the editor, in the case where we create a research collection without asking for cooperation from the site. finally, and perhaps most fundamentally, the site as a publication is defined by the web pages that the user gets to see, and it may be a non-trivial effort to understand how exactly the database content is related to the content of the web pages. however, when we take our authoritative witness to be what the user sees, we run into other problems. what the user sees— by and large, a rendered html page — is sent to the user from the server. the user can save the html file to disk to create a basis for the edition, but in the process becomes a co-creator of the witness. in practice, requesting the site’s pages and saving them (a process known as ‘scraping’ a site) will be relegated to a program. but this doesn’t alter the point that the witness on the basis of which the edition will be created is no longer input to the edition project, but one of its outcomes. we also have to save any additional files, such as stylesheets, javascript, and images. a further complication here is that a web server may decide to show different things to different users, because of geographical location, hardware characteristics, or many other things. another complication is that in modern web pages, it is not just html that is passed around. much of the content is fetched using javascript in json format. to capture that content, the editor has to write a program to execute the necessary queries against the server and save the outcome, again creating the witnesses that should be the givens in an edition project. a final option is for the editor to use a published application programming interface (api) to the server collection, if the server offers this possibility. an api offers direct access to the underlying data of the site. it is, in a sense, the cleanest and most direct access to the data that is shown in the site. but similar problems arise as with the previous options: the program accessing the api would have to store the output of the api requests, and this saved output becomes the witness for the edition. that is: the edition creates its own witnesses, and it is not self-evident that content of the published site is identical to the output of the api requests. in the following, i will assume that saved html will provide the basis for our hypothetical research collection. that seems to be the practice in most projects that want to create web corpora. in any case, the witnesses are dated. they document the state of the site at a certain date. if we want our edition to document the development of the site, we’ll need to create witnesses at certain intervals, or perhaps set up a continuous monitoring process. text: with respect to the text of the edition, we have two terminological possibilities. the first option is to stick to the common-sense, linguistic notion of text, and then the text editing social media: the case of online book discussion of the edition is the collection of its text fragments: the posts, reviews, comments, and so forth, that is: the text of the individual works that the site aggregates. the site as an aggregate work does not have much text of its own, except for things like the help pages, the about pages and the publicity. what defines the site are the structures within which the aggregated text fragments are embedded and the data elements attached to that structure, which include the organisation of the text fragments by book or by reviewer, their dates, and the ratings. in this option, for this type of work, the establishment of a text as a prime task of editorial endeavour is joined on an equal footing with the establishment of the work’s structure and data. we should also note that even in this restricted notion of text, it has to be understood as ‘rich text’ because the text fragments can contain illustrations, lists, hyperlinks and all the other features that html offers. the second way of understanding the word text in this context takes into account the network character of these sites, and sees text as the structured whole of data and text fragments that forms the content of the site. from this point of view, we can safely say that text remains the main object of editing, but we should be aware that this text is in no way identical to the text as a concatenation of all the text fragments. as i take the view that text is always deeply structured and never identical to a mere sequence of signs or words on a page, this is the definition that i will use. transcription: the process of what would traditionally be called transcription depends on the type of the available witnesses. i assume here the situation of the intercepted witnesses, mainly html. it is clear that when editing a web site the verb ‘transcribe’ is no longer applicable, because of the volume and electronic properties. however, the text fragments, the data and their organisation have to be culled from the various witness files. automated processes will determine which book a review is about, what the text of the review is and which rating has been assigned. in this context, a better word than transcription is conversion: the process converts the information implicit in the scraped witnesses into explicit information. if we want to stress that this is a process of enrichment, we can say the process up-converts information into the explicit textual structure that underlies the edition. we should understand that the fact that conversion is automated does not make it objective or perfect. variation is related to the dynamics of the site. it cannot exist in what we have called a synchronic edition of a website. in a diachronic edition variation will be mostly of the structural kind: added or deleted responses, books and users. changes in the embedded text fragments will occur but will be infrequent. in an extended notion of text, this structural variation can still be called textual, but an apparatus with readings will not be the proper way to record it. researchers’ queries will determine when the edition will show all reviews or only a selection valid at a certain point in time. variation in a diachronic site model is essentially additive; while in many editions variants represent alternative readings and, depending on editorial orientation, may be seen as mutually exclusive, in the diachronic edition model a response no longer present in a later state of the site is not thereby invalidated. a conceptual model of the edition an edition of a book discussion site would probably consist of several layers. i suggest the following layers would be useful; not all are necessary: p. boot ) an archive containing witnesses for the entire site at a specific date or possibly at multiple dates. this is necessary because, as we have seen, the sites can easily change or disappear and we need a firm basis for further edition layers. ) a functional read-only reconstruction of the site. the reconstruction need not replicate the details of the interface, but it should include the content, main navigation paths and a search facility. in a sense, this is the edition’s ‘reading text’. a clean reconstruction is, however, bound to a certain date. a synchronic edition, which contains information from multiple dates, might offer multiple clean reconstructions. a reconstruction that blends information from multiple dates would probably not be a good idea. a reconstruction will contain the front pages, help pages and other site-level information that will probably be absent from a structured database of the site’s content (see next layer). a reconstruction of a site is not unproblematic, however. it was noted above that the display of web pages depends to some extent on user hardware and software and potentially other information the site has about the user. what platform do we see as canonical? is that the desktop view, the tablet view or the smartphone view? to some extent, the reconstruction may be an immediate display of the saved (html) witnesses. but in cases where javascript is used to dynamically manip- ulate the content of the web page, the reconstruction will have to go beyond display of saved html and might be based on the reconstruction of the site’s database (the next layer). the reconstruction layer is the primary access point for researchers interested in ‘close reading’ access to the collection. layers and together is what is offered in current web archives, such as the internet archive or the web archive of the national library of the netherlands. everything that requires modelling of specific sites’ content is clearly impossible for a general-purpose web archive. search facilities too are usually lacking or not functional in web archives. ) a database of the site’s content in terms of the site’s structure (or perhaps in terms of an overarching domain model). the database is the result of up-converting the html and other witnesses, as mentioned above. it may look like the database that underlies the live sites, and will contain entities such as books, reviews and users. ) a powerful search and query facility. as well as text-based searches this should allow structured queries that ask for e.g. the number of reviews by month or the books with more than fifty reviews that are rated . or higher. there might be a simple and an expert user interface. this layer would probably be the primary access point for researchers interested in ‘distant reading’ access to the material. ) the edition might include a number of curated paths through the material, for example for those who want to get to know the collection, those who are interested in the reception of an important work, or those who want to be introduced to certain prolific or otherwise interesting reviewers. ) the edition might offer further derived formats, such all texts organized as a linguistic corpus, queryable using the corpus query language (cql), or all https://archive.org http://webaccess.kb.nl: /archived/. unfortunately only accessible from the premises of the national library. editing social media: the case of online book discussion https://archive.org http://webaccess.kb.nl: /archived/ structural information in terms of a linked open data graph, queryable using the sparql query language. ) an application programming interface (api) for those that want to research the collection with their own tools; ideally, this would be the interface to the database that the edition itself also uses. ) an access control layer to restrict access to researchers only and, perhaps, to anonymize information. this is a layer that one would rather do without, but in cases where it is infeasible to ask the rights’ owners for permission it may be necessary. ) an introduction to the edition explaining the rationale for the edition and the decisions made in its creation, including access to the software used for creating the edition. editing online book discussion? to make online book discussion accessible to researchers can certainly be called, in patrick sahle’s convenient formula, ‘erschließende wiedergabe’ of historical documents (sahle ), and so could count as editing. the preparation of such a collection would then be an exercise in textual scholarship. the question is whether using these terms in this context is clarifying or obscuring the nature of such a project. it is not idle to invoke the term ‘textual scholarship’ in the context of born digital documents. kirschenbaum ( b) and ries ( ) use the concept in the context of the analysis of traces of the writing process left on computer hard disks that can shed light on the genesis of literary documents. hiller ( ) discusses textual scholarship and editing of computer program source code. since writing a popular blog has become a way of landing a book contract, we are seeing more and more books with a partially online avant-texte whose genesis cannot be studied without taking into account online text. it is clear that sooner or later textual scholarship will have to deal with texts that were born online. i also take it that there is no need to argue extensively that collecting online discussions is useful or even necessary to historians and to researchers more generally. political historians will need access to blogs and instagram to understand our election process (kirschenbaum a) and cultural historians will need access to ‘mum blogs’ to understand our concept of motherhood (friedman ). ‘the web […] is a key resource for understanding human behavior and communication,’ write dougherty and meyer ( ), and conclude ‘it is necessary to begin to take web archiving much more seriously as an important element of any research program involving web resources.’ there are many reasons why online book discussion should be included among these valuable sources. when, in a sixteenth- or seventeenth-century volume, we encounter contemporary underlinings or comments, we are glad because they help us assess how that book was read. online book discussion can fulfil that function for today’s literature. its availability can help move literary scholarship into a reader-oriented direction. though it cannot be considered representative of all readers, its volume makes sure that a wide spectrum of opinion is represented. its volume and its being digitally available also make it possible to do statistical analyses correlating properties of the discussed books, of the reviewers and of the language that the reviews use. p. boot that quantitative research is indeed possible on the basis of online book discussion has been shown by the example of marketing research based on amazon book reviews (e.g. chevalier and mayzlin ; danescu-niculescu-mizil et al. ). other topics of research for which online book discussion has served as input includes support for readers advisory services in the public library (ridenour and jeong ; spiteri and pecoskie ) and for social book search from an information retrieval perspective (koolen et al. ). for other research around online book discussion, see boot ( ). now, if online book discussion is relevant to scholarly research, and research is actually being done on it, the creation of the research collection is also a scholarly responsibility. it would be naïve to assume that just because we download large quantities of data that is online available, we need not be aware of the choices and limitations embedded in the process. social scientists have, earlier than humanities scholars, reflected on the dangers of naïve use of social media data. crawford and boyd ( ) warn that big data claims about objectivity and truth are misleading. they argue that decisions about what will be measured, about data cleaning, about how to handle errors, how to account for unavoidable bias, are all subjective and interpretive and therefore need scholarly reflection. to relegate these decisions to programmers merely means that the scholarly responsibility shifts, not that it disappears (van zundert ). for the field of history, hoekstra and koolen (in preparation) write ‘our main point is that data interaction should be seen as an integral part of doing research. there should be no more room for the sentiment that after the ‘data stuff’ has been done, the researcher can start doing ‘real research’. the data stuff is real research.’ what they could have added is: the ‘data stuff’ is thus a researcher’s responsibility, whether it is a programming researcher or a researching programmer. perhaps the most important of these scholarly tasks is the modelling activity that is required for the creation of any database, scholarly collection or edition. modelling was argued to be an essential activity in digital humanities scholarship by mccarty ( ). pierazzo ( ) identifies modelling as ‘the key methodological structure of digital editing.’ some of that modelling work for a collection such as the one that i envisage has been described in the previous sections of this article. for a model of the content of such a collection i suggest an entity-relationship model with embedded text fragments. the main entities in the model will be book responses, books and users. for a fuller discussion we have no place here. let us use elena pierazzo’s elaboration of sahle’s definition for a scholarly digital edition here: ‘an interpretative representation of historical documents which encompass a combi- nation of primary sources surrogates, edited text(s), and tools to exploit them’ (pierazzo ) and let us also assume that in this definition the ‘edited text’ clause does not introduce any new requirements on the process and merely means: the text being presented in this edition. we can now conclude that the collections that i have discussed in this article fulfil all the requirements in this definition and can be considered scholarly digital editions. unease with this result may be due to what this definition does not state, but what is true for most editing projects: texts that are being edited are usually canonical works, or works by canonical writers (and the act of editing contributes to that canonical status). the effort that a scholarly edition requires can only be justified for texts that are truly important: the laborious transcription and checking of transcriptions, the careful inspection of variants (if applicable), the various processes of normalisation, perhaps the conjectures aiming to restore corruptions, all of these rest on the assumption that the edited text is a text that editing social media: the case of online book discussion counts. the other side of the coin is of course that, given the limited availability of scholarly time and money, a decision to spend so much time on editing a work is eo ipso a decision not to edit so many other works that might also be interesting for researchers. the digital revolution is changing this situation in a number of different, but related ways. first of all the advent of web . has increased the availability of digital texts (in computer science terms, ‘user generated content’), clearly not all of them masterpieces, but still interesting for research purposes. second, these texts are online and electron- ically accessible; their volume necessitates and their being electronically accessible facilitates digital transcription (conversion). this reduces the time and effort needed to include a text in a research collection. third, the advent of tools for distant reading (such as topic modelling and sentiment analysis, to mention the best known examples) is making it possible to detect patterns in collections of ten thousands of texts that would have been impossible to discover for even the most industrious and perceptive of human readers. this implies that such a collection also becomes much more useful than it would have been without these tools. nevertheless, if the (computational) edition process that i propose is so different from what used to be the editor’s labour, if the individual texts that would be collected are of less importance than most traditional objects of editing, if our attention to individual words and sentences is necessarily minimal, it is a legitimate question to ask whether it makes sense to call the result of this undertaking an edition. pierazzo might have added (but did not) a clause that the edition should result from a careful (manual?) examination of all relevant text fragments. conclusion in the end, it may not matter very much what we call a collection such as the ones we have been discussing. they are editions in the sense of pierazzo’s definition, although they are so different from most current editions that it feels strange to call them so. they are also like web archives, in that they contain saved web pages and offer a way browsing web sites based on a date in the past, although they offer much more. they are thematic research collections, but that is a rather unspecific term. what does matter is that we begin to think about how we edit or collect texts that share some of the properties of the genre of online book discussion: born-digital online texts from transient, living, deeply-networked and large multi-media sites. for an edition of these, we’ll need to create our own witnesses, extend our notion of text, and replace the notion of transcription by upward conversion. an edition, if we may use that name, should be based on a model of the site and provide an archive of witnesses, access to a functional replica of the site, contain a database(−like) representation of the structured content of the site, offer various ways of tool-based access and finally explain the choices that were made in creating the edition. the task of providing trustworthy text to researchers is relevant in many scholarly fields and can take many forms. its main concerns, however, are the same everywhere: the respect for the source, the trustworthiness of the text, the transparency of the procedures that were applied, and the flexibility of its output. textual scholars are bound to encounter ever more online texts and online text collections, and so will scholars from other disciplines. they will have to learn how to handle these texts. in fields such as media studies or internet studies, collections of online material are, of p. boot course, nothing new. still, they should be able to learn something from the principled and conscientious approaches developed in textual scholarship, just like textual scholars can learn something new for their field from the study of online text. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references boot, p. 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( ). leveraging the power of social reading and big data: an analysis of co-read clusters of books on goodreads. iconference proceedings. ries, t. ( ). the rationale of the born-digital dossier génétique: digital forensics and the writing process: with examples from the thomas kling archive. digital scholarship in the humanities. https://doi. org/ . /llc/fqx . accessed may . sahle, p. ( ). what is a scholarly digital edition? in m. j. driscoll & e. pierazzo (eds.), digital scholarly editing. cambridge: openbook publishers. spiteri, l. f., & pecoskie, j. ( ). affective taxomonies of the reading experience: using user-generated reviews for readers' advisory. proceedings of the association for information science and technology, ( ), – . thelwall, m., & kousha, k. ( ). goodreads: a social network site for book readers. journal of the association for information science and technology, ( ), – . van zundert, j. j. ( ). author, editor, engineer—code & the rewriting of authorship in scholarly editing. interdisciplinary science reviews, ( ), – . vanhoutte, e. ( ). where is the editor? resistance in the creation of an electronic critical edition. human it, ( ) https://humanit.hb.se/article/view/ / . accessed may . p. boot https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqx https://doi.org/ . /llc/fqx https://humanit.hb.se/article/view/ / editing social media: the case of online book discussion abstract introduction dutch online book discussion sites properties of sites in editorial terms a conceptual model of the edition editing online book discussion? conclusion references exposing cultural heritage through computer screens: exposing cultural heritage through computer screens: the role of user-centered design in the dh alejandro benito santos universidad de salamanca alisa goikhman, amelie dorn, caitlin gura and barbara piringer austrian academy of sciences “you look at where you're going and where you are and it never makes sense, but then you look back at where you've been and a pattern seems to emerge.” ― robert m. pirsig, zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance: an inquiry into values ▪ humanity became digital only a few years ago. ▪ digital humanities changes continously. ▪ students are forced to choose: you are not supposed to be both! ▪ unfortunately official educational planning confirms this idea. ▪ our duty is to understand what a digital humanist is. ▪ future education will be based on these assumptions. digital humanities nowadays dialectology, cultural diversity, lexicography, ethnology, etymology, history, disambiguation... algorithms, nlp, graph theory, sna, data mining, semantic web, gis, datavis, machine learning... mighty computational powers humanists computer scientist ▪ we have to pay attention to the dynamics of the process. ▪ we must provide tools, workflows and methodologies that facilitate this dialogue. ▪ also keep an open-minded, proactive attitude towards the other party. ▪ enable channels to communicate needs, requirements and feedback. digital humanities is a dialogue ▪ cost-funded stsms were awarded to: ▪ a designer. ▪ a computer scientist. (that’s me!) ▪ hosts: centre for digital humanities (austrian academy of sciences) and visusal group. (universidad de salamanca) ▪ based on lexicographic data. ▪ interdisciplinary approach. results related ▪ design theory. (user-centered design) ▪ design/cultural probes. ▪ agile software methodologies. ▪ user stories. ▪ micro-prototyping. ▪ citizen science, serious games.. ▪ visual analysis and exploration. ▪ visualization is the communication channel! ▪ upward trend in difficulty and specificity of applied visual techniques. results in the fields of ▪ visual prototypes have been of major importance in the exchange of ideas. ▪ they have been one of the major research artifacts. ▪ they are the result of implementing in code the user stories and the materialisation of the design stage. visualization and prototyping ▪ first prototypes were naive. ▪ functionality was very reduced. ▪ they provided snapshots of small parts of the data. ▪ therefore: ▪ sometimes they were not useful at all. ▪ we detected this was something unexpected by a majority of team members. ▪ it was a tedious and necessary process. ▪ often we had to build something only to know what was possible and what wasn’t. evolution of prototypes (i) software design methodology bernard et al. ( ) what we initially had what we imagined we could have what we actually ended up having each micro-prototype explored one or more dimensions “a dictionary is a lexicographical product which shows inter-relationships among the data” ― sandro nielsen, the effect of lexicographical information costs on dictionary making each micro-prototype explored one or more dimensions https://drive.google.com/file/d/ b nuife h-ennvbavftauzptue/view https://drive.google.com/file/d/ b nuife h-ennvbavftauzptue/view ▪ user-centered design fits well in the digital humanities and e- lexicography in particular. ▪ visualization promotes the exchange of ideas and serves as an extra (non-written) channel of communication between different teams. ▪ in the digital humanities, close collaboration may be more important than the technical complexity of proposed software solutions. ▪ that is why we need to pay attention to information flows. ▪ identifying bottlenecks (amount) and miscommunication issues (quality) at early stages is vital for the success of a dh project. conclusions references ● bernard, jürgen, et al. "visinfo: a digital library system for time series research data based on exploratory search—a user- centered design approach." international journal on digital libraries . ( ): - . ● gardiner, eileen, and ronald g. musto. "the digital humanities: a primer for students and scholars." ( ). ● benito, a., losada, a., therón, r., dorn, a., seltmann, m. & wandl-vogt, e ( ) a spatio-temporal visual analysis tool for historical dictionaries. proceedings of the international conference technological ecosystems for enhancing multiculturality (teem).salamanca, spain. ● dorn, a.,wandl-vogt, e., bowers, j., piringer, b., seltmann, m ( ) exploreat! – perspectives of exploring a dialect language resource in a framework of european digital infrastructures. st international conference on sociolinguistics. insights from superdiversity, complexity and multimodality (ics- ), abstract band. budapest, hungary. ● wandl-vogt, eveline, et al. "database of bavarian dialects (dbÖ) electronically mapped (dbo@ema). a system for archiving, maintaining and field mapping of heterogenous dialect data." proceedings of the xiii euralex international congress (barcelona, - july ). barcelona: institut universitari de lingüistica aplicada/universitat pompeu fabra. cd. . ● abras, chadia, diane maloney-krichmar, and jenny preece. "user-centered design." bainbridge, w. encyclopedia of human-computer interaction. thousand oaks: sage publications . ( ): - . ● b. gaver, t. dunne, and e. pacenti. design: cultural probes. interactions, ( ): { , jan. . http://doi.acm.org/ . / . . ● nielsen, sandro. "the effect of lexicographical information costs on dictionary making and use." lexikos . ( ): - . apa http://doi.acm.org/ . / . white paper report report id: application number: hd project director: katherine walter (kwalter @unl.edu) institution: university of nebraska, lincoln reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / november centernet: cyberinfrastructure for the digital humanities white paper background: in response to a summit held at the national endowment for the humanities in and hosted by the maryland institute for technology in the humanities (mith), a north american group of centers began serving as a steering committee to foster collaboration. in , a digital humanities start-up grant was received by the university of nebraska-lincoln and the university of maryland to expand the idea of centernet worldwide, to create a formal structure, and to develop a business plan for long-term stability of the organization. activity: through the funding provided by the national endowment for the humanities, centernet has developed into an international network of digital humanities centers. to achieve this end, an international summit was held in july at king’s college london. about center directors and funders were invited to attend. there was tremendous enthusiasm for creating an international association, and a rationale and a general structure for doing so was discussed. consequently, four regional affiliates have formed in asia pacific, europe, north america and the u.k. and ireland, although we believe that the u.k. and ireland will merge with centernet europe in . many centernet members have been seeking centers in other parts of the world, however, it seems likely that libraries and information technology units may serve in place of centers in regions such as south america, africa and southeast asia and india. our hope is to help emerging centers develop by providing consulting and expertise. in order to conduct the business of centernet, each regional affiliate selected two representatives to serve on an international executive council. with the help and backing of the international executive council, the principal investigators have worked with many others to develop governance documents, membership and business plans, to form partnerships with other organizations, and to plan for centernet’s future programming. as of , centernet is a constituent organization of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho), and through this relationship, has a measure of stability for the future. as a constituent organization, centernet is unlike any of the others in adho. it is an organization of centers rather than an organization of individuals. because of the need to address membership fees differently for centernet, adho has worked with oxford university press to change the means of joining centernet november from paying subscription fees (to llc: the journal of digital scholarship in the humanities) to paying membership fees, resulting in a subscription to llc only if desired. while developing centernet’s governance structure and financial planning has taken a long time, the international board seems to have consensus now about our strategic directions, and as its organizational documentation and financial situation plays out, the council is now considering various programs and membership benefits of centernet.  one is the revitalization of arts-humanities. net under another name and in partnership with dhcommons. working with partners at king’s college london and the university of southampton, a new drupal backend is in place. an international transition committee has proposed several far reaching and exciting changes that are being considered by the international executive council.  day of dh, formerly managed by the university of alberta, has been adopted as a program of centernet and this in turn becomes a benefit of membership.  the centernet website includes a map of the world with the location of centers and an aggregated rss feed feature.  centernet has a listserve that will continue to be open. in addition to the work of the regional affiliates and the international executive council, centernet has an annual general membership meeting at the adho digital humanities conferences. the vision for centernet is to share expertise and promote collaboration among centers—whether to facilitate conferences or to foster innovation through collaborative project development. working with partners such as the consortium of humanities centers and institutes (chci), new curricular models are being developed for graduate education in digital humanities. we are establishing other formal affiliations with like-minded organizations, including the coalition of humanities and arts infrastructure network (chain), dhcommons, the digital library federation, and humanities. through these partnerships we believe that centernet will continue to make a difference. conclusion: although paperwork remains ahead of us, centernet is now a reality, and it has great potential for encouraging international collaboration for research and teaching. datenbank spektrum ( ) : – doi . /s - - - e d i t o r ial editorial andreas thor · stefanie scherzinger · günther specht online publiziert: . juni © springer-verlag berlin heidelberg schwerpunktthema: datenmanagement in der cloud anwendungen, institutionen und unternehmen müssen mit immer größeren datenmengen hantieren. sowohl wis- senschaftliche experimente (z. b. genomsequenzierung, teilchenbeschleuniger) als auch die aufzeichnung men- schlicher aktivitäten (z. b. soziale netzwerke, online- shopping) erzeugen datenmengen, die oft nur noch unter einsatz von cloud-infrastrukturen beherrschbar sind. die kopplung hunderter bis tausender rechner ermöglicht dabei eine ökonomische verarbeitung großer datenmengen, da ressourcen (u. a. rechenkapazität und speicherplatz) flex- ibel „on-demand“ an den bedarf von nutzern und anwen- dungen angepasst werden können. gleichzeitig ergeben sich jedoch eine vielzahl wissenschaftlicher fragestellungen hin- sichtlich der speicherung, verarbeitung und analyse großer datenmengen. dieses themenheft soll einen Überblick über aktuelle entwicklungen und herausforderungen im bereich cloud- datenmanagement geben und mögliche richtungen für forschung, lehre und entwicklung aufzeigen. es wird vom arbeitskreis datenmanagement in der cloud (ak dmc) herausgegeben. er ist der jüngste ak im fachbereich daten- banken und informationssysteme der gi und wurde im a. thor ( ) deutsche telekom, hochschule für telekommunikation leipzig, leipzig, deutschland e-mail: thor@hft-leipzig.de s. scherzinger oth regensburg, regensburg, deutschland e-mail: stefanie.scherzinger@hs-regensburg.de g. specht universität innsbruck, innsbruck, deutschland e-mail: guenther.specht@uibk.ac.at herbst gegründet. heute stellt er sich mit den ersten fünf beiträgen in diesem heft des datenbank-spektrums vor. aber auch sonst ist in den ersten knapp zwei jahren bereits viel passiert: ein erster workshop fand im frühjahr auf der btw in magdeburg statt; der nächste ist für die jahresta- gung der gi in stuttgart im september angekündigt und fungiert gleichzeitig als herbsttreffen der gi-fachgruppe datenbanksysteme. inhaltlich hat sich in den letzten jahren in der cloud- diskussion einiges getan. man braucht dazu nur die buz- zwords revue passieren lassen: wurden am anfang noch die unterschiedlichen servicemodelle zwischen saas (soft- ware as a service), paas (platform as a service) und iaas (infrastructure as a service) hervorgehoben, so standen bald mapreduce (und hadoop) als möglichkeit der parallelen datenverarbeitung sehr großer datenmengen in der cloud und die skalierbare und von überall zugängliche speicherung der daten in der cloud im vordergrund. das potenzial der auswertung und nutzung von big data führte spätestens mit dem nsa-skandal zur diskussion um datenschutz und datensicherheit in der cloud. dennoch ist die cloud ein voller erolg. die vir- tualisierung der speicherung und berechnungen in der cloud ermöglicht einerseits kostenvorteile für kleinere und mittlere unternehmen, gerade bei sehr variablen ka- pazitätsanforderungen. andererseits ermöglicht die Über- tragung der auswertung der daten in die cloud ger- ade im wissenschaftlichen umfeld überhaupt erst eine zeitnahe auswertung. letzteres wird nicht zuletzt in der genomanalyse augenscheinlich, wo performanzgewinne bei der sequenzierung eines ganzen genoms von tagen auf minuten erzielt werden können. bestehen bleibt die problematik der datensicherheit beim cloud com- puting. leichte benutzbarkeit (auch für endanwender) und state of the art-kryptographie oder -anonymisierung a. thor et al. stehen sich bisweilen gegenüber; erst recht bei freigiebigem umgang in social-media-plattformen, seien sie offen oder geschlossen. das gebiet des ak datenmanagement in der cloud ist also sehr weit gespannt, wenngleich naturgemäß der datenbankaspekt, also die speicherung und verarbeitung großer datenmengen in der cloud, im vordergrund steht. diese breite zeigt sich auch in den artikeln dieses heftes. der call for papers stieß wegen der aktualität und dynamik dieses themas auf große resonanz, sodass nur die hälfte der eingereichten beiträge zur veröffentlichung in diesem heft angenommen werden konnten. der erste beitrag database backend as a service – automatic generation, deployment, and management of database backends for mobile applications von fran- cis gropengießer und kai-uwe sattler (tu ilmenau) geht von den stark fluktuierenden lastanforderungen bei events, festivals oder konferenzen durch mobile anwendungen aus. die dynamische skalierung ist dabei die hauptheraus- forderung. dafür verlegen sie die datenbank als service in die cloud und stellen ein framework zur automatischen generierung, zum Überwachen und zur skalierung vor. der zweite beitrag a real-time materialized view ap- proach for analytic flows in hybrid cloud environ- ments von weiping qu und stefan deßloch (tu kaiser- slautern) schlägt einen ansatz für echtzeit-materialisierung von views in stark datenflussorientierten anwendungen wie business intelligenz, etl oder hadoop vor. in traditionellen datenbanken werden materialisierte views zur performanz- optimierung eingesetzt. in diesem beitrag wird untersucht, wie diese idee auf verteilte plattformen in der cloud mit großen datentransformationsprozessen übertragen werden kann und welche erweiterungen für stark datenflussorien- tierte auswertungen nötig sind. im dritten beitrag des heftes iterative computation of connected graph componentens with mapreduce von lars kolb, ziad sehili und erhard rahm (universität leipzig) werden drei erweiterungen vorgeschlagen, um sowohl die menge der zwischenergebnisse als auch die anzahl der it- erationen zu reduzieren, die zur berechnung zusammenhän- gender komponenten in großen graphen benötigt werden. dabei werden sowohl die map- als auch die reduce-phase genauer analysiert. insbesondere die frühe separierung sta- biler komponenten aus der weiteren berechnung bringt hier einen signifikanten performance-gewinn. der vierte beitrag datenbanken ohne schema von meike klettke (universität rostock), stefanie scherzinger (oth regensburg) und uta störl (hochschule darmstadt) beschäftigt sich mit der agilen anwendungsentwicklung mit schema-flexiblen nosql-datenbanksystemen. bei der speicherung und verarbeitung großer datenmengen in der cloud unter verwendung eines agilen ansatzes in der softwareentwicklung treten schemaänderungen gerade am anfang laufend auf. verwendet man relationale daten- banksysteme, geht man immer von festen, in die cloud zu exportierenden schemata aus. schemaänderungen sind dann aufwändig. demgegenüber werden in diesem beitrag schemalose nosql-datenbanken als lösung untersucht. schließlich rundet ein community-beitrag zu cloud- technologien in der hochschullehre – pflicht oder kür? von stefanie scherzinger (oth regensburg) und andreas thor (hochschule für telekommunikation leipzig) das schwer- punktthema dieses heftes ab. sie führten dazu eine umfrage unter zwanzig hochschulen durch und werteten diese aus. es zeigte sich deutlich, dass sich das thema cloud in der lehre zunehmend etabliert. die autoren zeigen auch interessante vorschläge in richtung praktische Übungen oder praktika in diesem bereich auf. die fünf beiträge zum schwerpunktthema dieses heftes werden durch einen fachbeitrag unleashing xquery for data-independent programming von sebastian bächle (sap deutschland) und caetano sauer (tu kaiserslautern) ergänzt. die sprache xquery wurde ursprünglich als sql- Äquivalent für xml-daten entwickelt. ihre wurzeln in der funktionalen programmierung erlauben jedoch eine ein- fache verarbeitung fast aller arten von strukturierten und semi-strukturierten daten, wobei die vollständige sprache insbesondere bei erweiterten sprachkonzepten für große datenvolumina kaum in effizienter weise zu implemen- tieren ist. daher schlägt diese arbeit eine neuartige com- pilierungsstrategie vor, die auf erweiterbarkeit und ef- fiziente verarbeitung von xquery abzielt. zur vereinfachung von optimierungs- und Übersetzungsprozessen strebt sie eine strikte trennung von logischen, mengenorientierten konzepten und physischen aspekten an. dadurch lassen sich teure iterative abschnitte bei einer anfragebearbeitung in eine pipeline von relationenartigen operatoren überführen, die dann für die optimierung von verbundverarbeitung, in- dexnutzung und parallelisierung zugänglich ist. der hybride compilationsansatz führt auf eine effiziente und hochgradig erweiterbare query engine, die eine berechnung von ein- fachen xml-transformationen bis zu komplexen daten- analysen, auch auf nicht-xml-daten, erlaubt. vielfältige experimente und vergleiche mit weltweit verfügbaren syste- men von wettbewerbern bestätigen die allgemeingültigkeit und effizienz des gewählten ansatzes. weiterhin finden sie unter der rubrik „datenbankgrup- pen vorgestellt“ einen beitrag von klaus meyer-wegener und richard lenz über die datenbank-forschung am lehrstuhl für informatik (datenmanagement) der friedrich-alexander-universität erlangen-nürnberg, der nach einem blick auf die geschichtliche entwicklung des lehrstuhls einen Überblick über die aktuellen forschungs- themen und die aufgaben in der lehre gibt. editorial in diesem heft bietet die rubrik „dissertationen“ sechs kurzfassungen von dissertationen aus der deutschen dbis- community. die rubrik „community“ enthält unter news den call for papers für die btw in hamburg und weitere aktuelle informationen. künftige schwerpunktthemen data management on new hardware continued progress and evolution of computer hardware and infrastructure provide new optimization opportunities for da- ta management concerning performance, scalability, avail- ability, energy efficiency, and more. the traditional db fo- cus on i/o optimization is not enough to fully utilize this potential. new aspects include processors (multi-core cpus, gpus, fgpas, etc.), multi-level memory hierarchies, stor- age systems (storage-class memories such as flash (ssds) and phase-change memory), or low-power hardware. they impose new challenges and bottlenecks to db performance, but, in turn, provide opportunities to improve and accelerate data-intensive systems for differing kinds of workloads (e.g., oltp, dw/olap, etl, streaming/realtime, or xml/rdf processing). an important goal is the automatic and transpar- ent adaptation to the new hardware characteristics, thereby achieving maximum gain (e.g., performance, energy efficien- cy, etc.) for the applications. a special issue of datenbank-spektrum wants to publish research contributions providing an overview over ongoing work in the data management area. submissions covering topics from the following non-exclusive list are encouraged: • database algorithms (e.g., caching) and data structures (e.g., indexes) on modern hardware • hardware or memory support for query processing • cost models and query optimization for novel hierarchical memory systems • database architectures on multi-threaded and chip multi- processors • databases and transactional memory systems • database systems supporting energy efficiency and energy proportionality • new benchmarks for or performance analysis of database workloads on modern hardware paper format: – pages, double column guest editors: theo härder, university of kaiserslautern, haerder@cs.uni-kl.de jens teubner, tu dortmund, jens.teubner@cs.tu-dortmund.de informationsmanagement für digital humanities in den geisteswissenschaften fallen in immer größerer menge digitale forschungsdaten an. dabei ergeben sich durch die spezifischen rahmenbedingungen zahlreiche her- ausforderungen für datenbanken und ir-systeme: die dat- en und dokumente sind heterogen in sprache, struktur und qualität. es gibt zwar eine vielzahl von standards und meth- oden, eine übergreifende sicht existiert aber kaum. rele- vante kollektionen mit elektronischen texten, metadaten, bildern und anderen multimedialen ressourcen liegen in verschiedenen disziplinen und institutionen vor und bilden eine hochgradig verteilte und heterogene informationsland- schaft, deren verarbeitung oft im rahmen spezifischer, geis- teswissenschaftlicher forschungsfragen erfolgt. von beson- derer bedeutung sind die erschließung, veröffentlichung und verwaltung digitaler ressourcen im rahmen spezifisch- er anwendungen z. b. in der archäologie, den geschichts-, sprach- oder religionswissenschaften, aber insbesondere auch im kontext interdisziplinärer forschung. im themen- heft sollen einführende und überblicksartige artikel sowie aktuelle forschungsergebnisse zu ausgewählten themen ein breites bild zum aktuellen stand des informationsmanage- ments für digital humanities geben. mögliche themen aus diesem bereich könnten z. b. sein: • integrierte analyse, verarbeitung und visualisierung verteilter bzw. heterogener kollektionen • nutzung, entwicklung und auswertung von vokabularen, thesauri und ontologien • langzeitarchivierung und datenprovenienz • katalogisierung, annotation und dokumentation von ressourcen (data curation) • erkennung, analyse und visualisierung kollektionsintern- er oder -übergreifender zusammenhänge z. b. durch anal- yse von ort und zeit, themen, named entities • aspekte der usability im umgang mit verteilten und het- erogenen ressourcen • anwendungen zum datenmanagement, zur suche und zur analyse in speziellen anwendungsfeldern aus den geis- teswissenschaften • big data-technologien für die digital humanities • forschungsinfrastrukturen für die digital humanities beitragsformat: – seiten, zweispaltig ankündigung einer beitragseinreichung bis zum . august gastherausgeber: andreas henrich, otto-friedrich-universität bamberg andreas.henrich@uni-bamberg.de a. thor et al. gerhard heyer, universität leipzig heyer@informatik.uni-leipzig.de christoph schlieder, otto-friedrich-universität bamberg christoph.schlieder@uni-bamberg.de einreichung der beiträge bis zum . oktober best workshop papers of btw this special issue of the “datenbank-spektrum” is dedicat- ed to the best papers of the workshops running at the btw at the university of hamburg. the selected workshop contributions should be extended to match the format of reg- ular dasp papers. paper format: – pages, double column selection of the best papers by the workshop chairs and the guest editor: april th, guest editor: theo härder, university of kaiserslautern, haerder@cs.uni-kl.de deadline for submissions: june st, editorial review: immersive scholar reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: immersive scholar angel david nieves san diego state university published on: feb , doi: . / e f f.a b dd a reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: immersive scholar project immersive scholar project team micah vandegrift, lead principal investigator, north carolina state university walt gurley, co-primary investigator, north carolina state university shelby hallman, co-primary investigator, north carolina state university project url https://www.immersivescholar.org/ project reviewer angel david nieves, san diego state university project over view micah vandegrift, shelby hallman, and walt gurley immersive scholar addresses the utilization and impact of visualization environments and visualization scholarship by developing extensible models and programs for the creation and sharing of digital scholarship in large-scale and immersive visualization environments. funded by the andrew w. mellon foundation, this project complicates digitally humanistic scholarship in that it is multilayered (project, products, principles), multi-institutional, and multi-f aceted in its intended reception. the locus of the project, or the ‘text’ itself, exists between the data and documentation, the code and context of the works, all inside the project frame. we present this work for review because of these complexities and the opportunity to stretch boundaries, definitions, and norms. intentionality is a core principle of this work. due to visualization’s dependence on technical expertise and innovation, the project team and cohort maintain a sense of process as product. nc state enacted this by recruiting “creative residents” through a competitive proposal process,reviewed on open source extensibility, use of fair (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) data, responsive and universal design, and cognizance of diversity and inclusion. the humanistic aspects of this project are evident in the residency outputs, aesthetic commentaries on human/data representations, engaging with issues like food and housing insecurity, social technology and agency, and awareness of human connections with a rapidly shifting environment. https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/staff/mlvandeg https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/staff/jwgurley https://www.lib.ncsu.edu/staff/sjhallma https://www.immersivescholar.org/ https://www.angeldavidnieves.com/about/ https://www.force .org/group/fairgroup/fairprinciples reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: immersive scholar the pi’s chose to utilize two methods to illuminate invisible labor and value individual contributions. first, the choice of the open science framework (osf) as the documentation hub provided the ability and flexibility to indicate contributions at different project levels. secondly, this project is developing and piloting a “contributorship data model”, referencing the taxonomy of digital research activities in the humanities (tadirah), contributor roles taxonomy (credit), and schema.org. version . of the contributorship data model is attached to coded glass as a markdown file. the final year of the grant will expand and apply this data model across the other component projects, as well as produce a machine readable version. our intentionality is documented in the project wiki, to inform and affect the value assigned across the project outputs. we are addressing the evaluation and validation of new forms of scholarship through the following: these documents are tangential, but central to the work of the project. we consulted disciplinary codes of evaluation (modern language association, american historical association, college art association, etc.) and several university guidelines in drafting these. it’s our hope that these documents will provide value beyond this project, as models for how addressing structural challenges in and throughout a digital humanities project, by being intentional and laying foundations on the documentary impulse that this kind of scholarship requires. project review angel david nieves despite all our best efforts in digital scholarship over the past decade, we still do not have a wide array of websites or available resources that address the importance of process as a significant, and critical part of our intellectual work. through immersive scholar, project co-pis micah vandegrift, shelby hallman, and walt gurley offer an important and noteworthy model for documenting process. immersive scholar is an online hub, funded by a $ , grant from the andrew w. mellon foundation, to assist with “the creation and sharing of digital scholarship in large-scale and immersive visualization environments.” the grant, awarded in , brings together an array of institutions to address the sorts of challenges that exist for the preservation of digital scholarship for large-scale . assessment framework for reviewing technical aspects of a visualization (https://osf.io/ hmcy/); . reference document to use as a tool in describing new forms of scholarship in promotion and tenure (https://osf.io/kbj d/); and, . best practices summary for promotion committees reviewing new forms of research products (https://osf.io/nk w /). http://tadirah.dariah.eu/vocab/index.php https://casrai.org/credit/ https://osf.io/k pd/ https://osf.io/ z k /wiki/contribution% methodology/ https://osf.io/ hmcy/ https://osf.io/kbj d/ https://osf.io/nk w / reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: immersive scholar visual environments. the project’s institutional cohort includes ncsu, brown, indiana, uc-berkeley, ui-urbana-champaign, and virginia commonwealth, all of whom provide immersive visualization environments in their library buildings or elsewhere on campus. the project features the multi-year efforts of each partner institution by bringing together their best practices and collaborative frameworks for comparison and further reflection. the project overall seeks to break down existing silos that emerge with the adoption of new technologies at institutions of higher education. irrespective of their institutional status (f aculty, librarians, technologists, etc.), peer collaborators willing to experiment and solve problems while developing new shared infrastructure models often find it difficult to disseminate their efforts as they work to foster new knowledge communities. digital scholarship using large-scale visualization today still requires the support of a community of practice that recognizes some of the difficulties and obstacles when promoting this kind of collaborative scholarship. practitioners also must find balance between process (the making and doing) and final product outcomes. immersive scholar helps build and promote communities of practice that bring together administrators, librarians, technologists, students, and the wider public while addressing these issues. the project website is a multi-layered support infrastructure that includes access to sample projects, research resources, an assessment framework, a methodology that embraces contributors, and a summary of best practices for tenure and promotion committees charged with evaluating immersive digital scholarship. an array of richly detailed planning documents on osf (open science framework) makes clear the important role of “process as scholarship” in the creation of networks often at the cutting-edge of innovation and technological experimentation. additionally useful resources on the project’s website include abigail mann’s essay, “supporting new scholarship: why and how,” which outlines the intellectual labor required to develop new tools and ways of incorporating those tools (and their methods) into classroom teaching. the project also demonstrates strong connections to the american library association (ala), the library and information technology association (lita), the college art association (caa), the society of architectural historians (sah), and the association of college and research libraries (acrl) digital scholarship centers interest group throughout the its documents and links. north carolina state university (ncsu) libraries’ implementation of immersive scholar demonstrates the value of the project. ncsu libraries support the use of tools and techniques for sharing large- scale, visualization technologies for research. a multi-disciplinary series of lead projects, including faculty clusters, recreating historical environments, listen to wikipedia, visiting artists, and code+art, highlight the scholarly potential of large-scale visualizations. additionally, the ncsu libraries scholars-in-residence program seeks to create open source, data-driven art and visualizations that bring together a clear set of practices based on an interaction framework and reviews in digital humanities • vol. , no. review: immersive scholar eventual content delivery. through a combination of workshops, mid-level project grants, and a residency program, the project fosters those communities of practice around visualization spaces to help develop their social and technical framework for wider use among academic libraries and institutions. immersive scholar, however, raises a broader issue around the evaluation mechanisms necessary for sustaining digital scholarship: their development, while important, does not necessarily translate into community usage and implementation. this perennial problem is seen, for example, in the f act that guidelines for evaluating digital scholarship produced by professional organizations like the modern language association, american historical association, and college art association have not solved the problem of valuing contributions to digital scholarship. although project funding concludes in april , with assessment currently underway, collaborating institutions will continue to develop their immersive visualization environments and promote continued scholarly community-building. as the co-pis undertake this work, greater attention to the dissemination and implementation of the project, particularly its evaluation mechanisms, will be of great value to digital humanities communities. immersive scholar’s model of providing project partners and new users with a wide array of resources, project examples, workflows, and technical guidelines as well as an established community of users is an important contribution, and its broader circulation and use is positioned to strengthen digital humanities knowledge infrastructures. microsoft word - -정기효.doc journal of the ergonomics society of korea vol. , no. pp. - , june http://dx.doi.org/ . /jesk. . . . an estimation method of representative humanoids for digital human simulation kihyo jung school of industrial engineering, university of ulsan, ulsan, - abstract objective: the present study developed an estimation method of boundary zone representative humanoids(hereafter, ebz method) using descriptive statistics on the design target population. background: the boundary zone method(hereafter, bz method) generates representative humanoids at a boundary zone that statistically accommodates a designated percent of the design target population; however, the bz method has a practical limitation because it requires a large scale anthropometric database on the design target population. method: the ebz method developed in the present study consisted of steps. in the first step, the boundary zone of accommodating a designated percent(e.g., %) is formed under the assumption of normal distributions for anthropometric sizes. in the second step, cases that fall within the boundary zone are estimated using descriptive statistics(mean, standard deviation, and covariance) on the design target population. in the last step, k-mean cluster analysis is conducted for the cases, and representative humanoids are selected from each of clusters. results: evaluation results showed that mean accommodation percent of the ebz method was . %(range: . ~ . %) which is similar to the target percent( %). in addition, standard deviation of accommodation percent for repetitions was . %. lastly, the number of representative humanoids generated by the ebz method(n = ) was similar to the bz method(n = ). conclusion: the ebz method can generate representative humanoids which accommodate a designated percent of the design target population using descriptive statistics. application: the ebz method can be utilized in the generation of humanoids for ergonomic design and evaluation of products when the large scale anthropometric database on the design target population is not existed. keywords: representative humanoid, digital human simulation, estimated boundary zone method, multivariate accommodation . introduction 가상환경상 인간공학적 평가 기술(digital human simu- lation; 이하, dhs)은 제품의 사용성을 향상시키고 설계 과 정의 효율성을 제고시킬 수 있다. dhs는 대표인체모델과 설 계 대상 제품 간의 상호작용을 컴퓨터 상에서 평가하여 설계 상의 문제를 조기에 발견 및 보완할 수 있게 한다(ryu et al., ; nelson, ; jimmerson, ; thompson, ). 그로 인해, dhs는 순환적 설계 과정을 단축시킴으 로써 신속하고 경제적으로 사용자 친화적인 제품을 개발할 수 있게 한다(chaffin, ). 가상환경상 평가를 위한 대표인체모델은 백분위 기법 (percentile method)을 이용해 생성되고 있다. 백분위 기법 은 백분위(예: th percentiles)로 대표인체모델의 크기를 결정하기 때문에 대표인체모델 생성 절차가 간단하고 생성 corresponding author: kihyo jung. school of industrial engineering, university of ulsan, ulsan, - . mobile: + - - - , e-mail: kjung@ulsan.ac.kr copyright@ by ergonomics society of korea(pissn: - eissn: - ). all right reserved. ○cc this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. http://www.esk.or.kr kihyo jung j ergon soc korea 개수(예: 명)가 적은 장점이 있다(hfes , ). 그러 나 백분위 기법은 figure .a에 나타낸 것과 같이 사용자의 다양한 인체크기를 대표하지 못하는 한계점이 있다(roebuck et al., ; porter et al., ). 백분위 기법의 한계점을 보완하기 위해 목표 비율(예: %)의 설계 대상 사용자를 포함하는 경계선에서 대표인체 모델을 생성하는 기법(boundary method; 이하, boundary 기법)이 개발되고 있다(bittner et al., ; meindl et al., ; kim and whang, ; bittner, ). boundary 기법은 figure 에 나타낸 것과 같은 단계 절차를 통해 대 표인체모델을 생성한다. 첫째 단계는 효율적으로 대표인체모 델을 생성하기 위해 자료 축약 기법(예: factor analysis)을 이용하여 인체변수를 소수(예: ~ 개)의 공통요인으로 축약 한다. 둘째 단계는 선정된 공통요인 공간에서 목표 비율의 사용자를 포함하는 사각형의 경계선을 형성하고, 경계선의 모서리에 위치한 사용자를 대표인체모델로 결정한다. 마지막 단계는 공통요인 공간에서 정의된 대표인체모델의 크기를 공통요인과 인체변수 간의 통계적 연관관계를 나타내는 요 인적재량을 이용하여 인체크기로 변환한다. boundary 기법은 가지 측면의 한계점이 있다. 첫째, boundary 기법은 효율적인 대표인체모델 생성을 위해 자료 축약 기법을 이용하여 설계 대상 사용자의 인체크기 분포를 대부분 설명(예: variance explained = %)하는 소수의 공통요인을 추출한다. 그러나 자료 축약 과정에서 인체크기 의 손실(예: %)이 발생하여 사용자의 인체크기 다양성을 대표인체모델 생성에 반영하지 못하는 한계점이 있다(jung et al., a; meunier, ). 둘째, boundary 기법은 figure .b에 나타낸 것과 같이 대표인체모델이 부재된 경계 선 상의 영역이 존재한다. 그로 인해, 설계 대상 사용자의 다 양한 인체크기 특성을 대표하지 못하는 한계점이 있다(jung et al., a). 최근 들어 boundary 기법의 한계점을 보완하기 위해 경 계 영역에서 대표인체모델을 생성하는 기법(boundary zone method; 이하 bz 기법)이 개발되었으나 방대한 인체측정 원시자료가 필요한 한계점이 있다(jung et al., a). bz 기법은 figure .c와 같이 목표한 비율을 포함하는 경계 영 역을 통계적 이론에 근간하여 설정한 후 경계 영역 내부에 포함된 사용자 중에서 대표인체모델을 선발한다. bz 기법은 목표한 비율을 이상적으로 충족하고 경계 영역 전반에 균형 분포된 대표인체모델을 생성함으로써 다양한 사용자의 인체 크기를 대표할 수 있다. 그러나 경계 영역 내부의 사용자 중 에서 대표인체모델을 선발해야 하기 때문에 경계 영역 내부 에 충분한 사용자가 포함될 수 있도록 인체측정자료가 방대 (예: n ≥ , )해야 하는 한계점이 있다. 본 연구는 기술통계자료를 이용하여 설계 대상 사용자의 (c) boundary zone representative humanoids figure . comparison of representative humanoid generation methods(large dot: representative humanoids, small dot: design target users, source of raw data: gordon et al.( )) (a) percentile representative humanoids (b) boundary representative humanoids vol. , no. . . . an estimation method of representative humanoids for digital human simulation 다양한 인체크기를 대표하는 경계 영역 인체모델을 추정하 는 기법(estimated boundary zone method; 이하, ebz 기 법)을 개발하였다. ebz 기법은 설계 대상 사용자의 인체크 기에 대한 평균, 표준편차, 그리고 공분산을 이용하여 목표 한 비율을 이론적으로 충족하는 대표인체모델을 생성한다. 본 연구는 가지 척도(수용률, 이상치 비율, 그리고 대표인 체모델 개수)를 이용하여 ebz 기법의 성능을 정량적으로 평가하였다. . estimation method of boundary zone representative humanoids 본 연구는 figure 에 나타낸 것과 같은 단계 절차로 구 성된 ebz 기법을 개발하였다. 첫째 단계는 인체크기에 대한 정규분포 가정에 근간하여 목표 비율을 수용하는 경계 영역 을 형성한다. 둘째 단계는 기술통계자료를 이용하여 경계 영 역 내부에 포함되는 사용자를 무작위로 추정한다. 마지막 단 계는 경계 영역 내부에 포함된 사용자에 대한 군집분석을 통해 군집의 중앙에 위치한 사용자들을 대표인체모델로 선 발한다. . formation of a boundary zone 경계 영역은 목표 비율에 허용 비율을 가감하여 결정되는 개의 경계선으로 형성된다. 예를 들면, % 경계 영역은 목표 비율( %)에 허용 비율( %)을 가감하여 결정된 % 와 % 경계선으로 설정된다. 목표 비율의 사용자를 포함 하는 경계선은 정규분포를 따르는 인체크기의 표준화된 제 곱 거리(식 )가 chi-square 분포를 따른다는 기존 연구 (jung et al., a; jung et al., b; johnson and wichern, )를 적용하여 파악된다. 예를 들면, 인체변수 가 개인 경우 사용자의 %와 %를 포함하는 경계선은 figure . generation process of boundary representative humanoids using factor analysis(ad: anthropometric dimension, f: factor, n: number of anthropometric dimensions; small dot: design target population, large dot: representative humanoids) figure . generation process of estimated boundary zone representative humanoids(dotted line: boundary line, small dot: design target users, large dot: estimated users, star: representative humanoids) step : extract factors by factor analysis step : determine factor scores of representative humanoids (rhs) step : convert the factor scores to body sizes of rhs step : formation of a boundary zone step : estimation of cases within the boundary zone step : selection of rhs by cluster analysis kihyo jung j ergon soc korea 식 에 의해 ).(  = . 과 ).(  = . 으 로 설정된다. ) ()()( padadd n t    ( ) where: d = normalized squared distance ad = n-by- body size matrix n = number of anthropometric dimensions μ = n-by- average body size matrix Σ = n-by-n covariance matrix ) ( pn  = chi-squared value for n degree of freedom and p probability p = target accommodation percent . estimation of cases within the boundary zone 경계 영역 내부에 포함된 사용자의 추정은 단계 절차를 통해 이루어진다. 첫째 단계는 설계 대상 사용자에 대한 기 술통계자료(평균, 표준편차)를 이용하여 사용자의 인체크기 를 무작위로 추정한다. 둘째 단계는 추정된 사용자가 경계 영역 내부에 포함되는지 여부를 기술통계자료(평균, 표준편 차, 공분산)와 추정된 사용자의 인체크기를 식 에 대입하여 판단한다. 예를 들면, 설계 대상 집단의 평균 신장 cm (표준편차: . ), 평균 체중 kg(표준편차: ), 그리고 신 장-체중 공분산 일 때 신장과 체중이 cm와 kg인 사용자는 표준화된 제곱거리가 . 로서 경계 영역의 범위 ( . ~ . )를 벗어난다. 반면, 신장과 체중이 cm와 kg인 사용자는 표준화된 제곱 거리가 . 로서 경계 영 역 내부에 포함된다. 마지막 단계는 경계 영역 내부에 포함 된 사용자를 지정된 수(예: , 명)에 도달할 때까지 반복 적으로 생성한다. . selection of representative humanoids by cluster analysis 경계 영역 내부에 포함된 사용자들은 figure 에 나타낸 것과 같이 유사한 인체크기를 가질 수 있다. 따라서 경계 영 역 내부의 사용자에 대한 군집분석을 통해 대표인체모델 생 성 개수를 최적화하는 것이 필요하다. ebz 기법은 k-mean cluster 기법을 이용하여 군집 개수를 다양하게 변화시켜 가 면서 사용자의 인체크기를 적합하게 집단화하는 최적의 군 집 개수를 결정한다. 최적 군집 개수는 figure 에 예시적으 로 나타낸 것과 같이 군집의 중심과 군집에 소속된 사용자 간의 평균 거리가 수렴하는 수준(예: 개 군집)에서 결정된 다(lattin et al., ) ebz 기법은 군집 분석을 통해 설정된 최적 군집에서 명 씩의 사용자를 대표인체모델로 선정한다. 본 연구는 군집에 소속된 사용자 중에서 군집의 중심에 가장 가까운 사용자를 해당 군집의 대표자로 선정하였다. 예를 들면, 군집에 소속 된 사용자가 군집의 중심으로부터 cm, cm, and cm 떨어져 있으면, 군집 대표자는 군집의 중심에 가장 가까운 cm 차이를 보인 사용자로 선정된다. . performance evaluation . evaluation methods . . anthropometric data and variables 본 연구는 ebz 기법의 성능을 평가하기 위해 원시자료 확보가 용이한 us army 인체측정자료(gordon et al., )를 사용하였다. us army 자료는 년에 미군 , 명(남: , 명, 여: , 명)을 대상으로 개 인체변수의 치수를 체계적으로 측정한 자료로서, 측정자 료가 방대하고 측정 신뢰성이 높다(jung et al., a). 그리고, us army 자료는 인터넷에 공개되어 있어(http:// mreed.umtri.umich.edu/mreed/downloads.html) 인체측정 원시자료를 쉽게 확보할 수 있는 장점이 있다. 본 연구는 ebz 기법을 적용한 대표인체모델 생성에 us army 자료로 부터 계산된 기술통계자료를 이용하였으며, 생성된 대표인체 모델의 성능 평가에 us army 원시자료를 활용하였다. ebz 기법의 성능 평가를 위한 인체변수는 현용 dhs 시 스템의 적용성을 고려하여 개의 인체변수(키와 몸무게)가 사용되었다. 대표적 dhs 시스템인 jacko®은 키와 몸무게 figure . illustration of an optimal number of clusters vol. , no. . . . an estimation method of representative humanoids for digital human simulation 를 입력 받아 가상환경상 차원 인체모델을 생성한다(ugs, ). 본 연구는 ebz 기법을 이용하여 생성된 대표인체모 델을 jack®에 연동시켜 사용할 수 있도록 키와 몸무게를 인체변수로 선정하였다. . . performance measures 본 연구는 가지 척도를 적용하여 ebz 기법의 성능을 정 량적으로 평가하였다. 첫째, 수용률은 생성된 대표인체모델 의 인체크기가 설계 대상 사용자의 인체크기를 통계적으로 대표하는 정도를 나타낸다. 수용률은 figure 에 예시적으로 나타낸 것과 같이 대표인체모델이 포함하는 영역 내부에 위 치한 사용자의 비율로 계산되었다. 본 연구의 수용 영역은 대표인체모델을 모두 포함하는 최소 면적의 타원을 찾아주 는 최적화 모델(식 ; moshtagh, )을 이용하여 정의되 었다. 둘째, 이상치 비율은 대표인체모델의 인체크기가 설계 대상 사용자의 인체크기 범위를 벗어나는 비율로 계산된다 (jung et al., a). 마지막으로, 인체모델 개수는 대표인 체모델의 설계 적용 용이성을 나타내는 척도로서, 인체모델 의 개수가 적을수록 설계 및 평가에 적용이 용이함을 나타 낸다. )()'( .. ))(det(logmin  cpacpts a ( ) where: a = n-by-n matrix of ellipse equation in the center form p = d-by-n matrix of body sizes of ebzrh c = n-by- matrix of the center of the ellipse . . evaluation procedure and program 본 연구는 단계 절차를 통해 ebz 기법의 성능을 체계적 으로 평가하였다. 첫째 단계는 us army 자료의 키와 몸무 게에 대한 기술통계자료를 계산하였다. 둘째 단계는 계산된 기술통계자료를 ebz 기법에 적용하여 대표인체모델을 회 반복 생성하였다. 마지막 단계는 생성된 개의 대표인 체모델 집단별 성능을 us army 원시자료를 이용하여 평가 하였다. 본 연구는 효율적인 평가 진행을 위해 figure 에 나타낸 것과 같은 평가용 소프트웨어를 matlab으로 개발하여 사용 하였다. 개발된 소프트웨어는 us army 인체측정자료에서 기술통계자료를 계산한 후 본 연구의 ebz 기법을 적용하 여 대표인체모델을 생성해준다. 또한, 개발된 소프트웨어는 us army 인체측정자료에 기반하여 생성된 대표인체모델의 수용률과 이상치 비율을 자동으로 계산해준다. . evaluation results ebz 기법의 수용률은 평균 . %(범위: . ~ . %) 로 목표 수용률인 %를 충족하는 것으로 분석되었다. ebz 기법의 수용률은 table 에 나타낸 것과 같이 bz 기 법( . %)과 유사한 것으로 나타났다. 또한, 반복에 따른 ebz 기법의 수용률 표준편차는 . %로 나타나 bz 기법 (표준편차: . %)과 유사한 것으로 파악되었다. ebz 기법의 이상치 비율은 bz 기법과 동일하게 %인 것으로 분석되었다(table 참조). 따라서 ebz 기법은 설 figure . generation and evaluation system of estimated boundary zone representative humanoids(small dot: target users, dotted line: accommodation boundary line, star: representative humanoids) figure . illustration of a minimum volume ellipse encompassing representative humanoids(small dot: target users, dotted line: accommodation boundary line, star: representative humanoids) kihyo jung j ergon soc korea 계 대상 사용자의 인체크기 범위에 포함되는 대표인체모델을 생성한다. 이러한 ebz 기법의 속성은 목표 수용률( %)과 허용률( %)을 이용해 형성된 경계 영역의 내부에 포함된 사용자 중에서 대표인체모델을 선정하기 때문이다. 마지막으로, ebz 기법의 대표인체모델 생성 개수는 평균 명(sd: . 명)으로 나타나 bz 기법의 명과 유사한 것 으로 분석되었다(table 참조). 또한, ebz 기법으로 생성 된 대표인체모델의 표준편차는 . 명으로 bz 기법의 표준 편차( . 명)와 유사한 것으로 파악되었다. . discussion 본 연구는 기술통계자료를 이용하여 경계 영역 대표인체 모델을 추정하는 ebz 기법을 개발하였다. bz 기법(jung et al., a)은 목표한 비율을 통계적으로 수용하는 대표 인체모델을 생성할 수 있으나, 방대한 인체측정 원시자료를 필요로 하기 때문에 적용이 제한적이다. 본 연구는 bz 기법 의 이론적 장점을 유지하면서 적용상의 한계점을 보완할 수 있는 ebz 기법을 개발하였다. ebz 기법은 다양한 인체크기 를 가지는 사용자를 수용하는 것이 중요한 자동차 운전석, 비행기 조종석, 그리고 작업 공간의 가상환경상 설계 및 평 가에 유용하게 활용될 수 있을 것으로 기대된다. ebz 기법은 인체크기의 정규분포 가정에 근간하여 목표 비율을 수용하는 경계 영역을 통계적으로 설정한다. 인체측 정 관련 연구들(roebuck et al.( ; fernandez and uppugonduri, ; schoor and konz, )은 일반적 으로 인체크기의 분포를 정규분포로 가정하고 있다. 그러나 vasu and mital( )은 개의 인체변수에 대한 정규성 검정을 통해 개(약 %) 인체변수가 정규분포를 따르지 않는다고 보고하였다. 따라서 ebz 기법의 이론적 타당성을 검증하기 위해 정규분포 가정의 위배에 따른 영향을 평가하 는 후속 연구가 필요하다. 본 연구의 ebz 기법은 다수의 대표인체모델을 생성하는 것으로 나타났다. ebz 기법은 경계 영역의 내부에 포함된 다양한 크기의 대표인체모델을 생성한다. 그로 인해, ebz 기 법은 평균 명의 대표인체모델을 생성하는 것으로 나타났 다. 대표인체모델의 개수가 많을 경우 사용자의 인체크기 다 양성을 보다 적합하게 대표할 수 있으나 dhs를 이용한 제 품 평가에 투입되는 시간과 노력을 증가시키는 한계점이 있 다(blome et al., ). ebz 기법의 활용성을 제고하기 위해서는 대표인체모델 개수가 많아도 효율적으로 가상환경상 설계 및 평가가 가능 한 dhs 시스템 개발이 필요하다. 대표적 dhs 시스템인 jack®은 수작업으로 대표인체모델 각각에 대한 평가를 수행 한다(blome et al., ). 그로 인해, 대표인체모델 개수가 증가하면 선형적으로 설계 및 평가에 소요되는 시간이 증가 하게 된다. 따라서 대표인체모델 증가에 따른 분석 시간을 줄이기 위해서는 대표인체모델 명에 대한 분석 과정을 기 록하여 다른 대표인체모델에도 동일하게 적용시킬 수 있는 반자동 분석 기능을 개발하는 것이 요구된다. 이러한 반자동 분석 기능은 대표인체모델 개수가 증가하더라도 설계 및 평 가에 소요되는 시간이 선형적으로 늘어나는 한계점을 효과 적으로 보완할 수 있을 것이다. acknowledgements this work was supported by the national research foundation of korea grant funded by the korean government (nrf- r a a ). references bittner, a.c., glenn, f.a., harris, r.m., iavecchia, h.p. and wherry, r.j. cadre: a family of manikins for workstation design. in s.s. asfour (ed.) trends in ergonomics/human factors 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(ed.), digital human modeling for vehicle and workplace design (pp. - ). sae international, warrendale, pa, . ugs., jack user manual (ver. . ). unigraphics corp, . vasu, m. and mital, a., evaluation of the validity of anthropometric design assumptions. international journal of industrial ergonomics, , - , . author listings kihyo jung: kjung@ulsan.ac.kr highest degree: ph.d., department of industrial and management engineering, postech position title: assistant professor, school of industrial engineering, university of ulsan areas of interest: ergonomic product design, digital human simulation, usability testing, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (wmsds) prevention date received : - - date revised : - - date accepted : - - uc santa barbara uc santa barbara previously published works title the meaning of the digital humanities permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ gc tw journal pmla/publications of the modern language association of america, ( ) issn - author liu, alan publication date - - doi . /pmla. . . . peer reviewed escholarship.org powered by the california digital library university of california https://escholarship.org/uc/item/ gc tw https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ what is the meaning of the digital humanities to the hu- manities? his question of disciplinary meaning—which i ask from the viewpoint of the humanities generally—is larger than the question of disciplinary identity now preoccupying “dh” itself, as insiders call it. having reached a critical mass of participants, publications, conferences, grant competitions, institutionalization (centers, pro- grams, and advertised jobs), and general visibility, the ield is vigor- ously forming an identity. recent debates about whether the digital humanities are a “big tent” (jockers and worthey), “who’s in and who’s out?” (ramsay), whether “you have to know how to code [or be a builder]” (ramsay, “on building”), the need for “more hack, less yack” (cecire, “when digital humanities”; koh), and “who you calling untheoretical?” (bauer) witness a dialectics of inclusion and exclusion not unlike that of past emergent ields. an ethnographer of the ield, indeed, might take a page from claude lévi- strauss and chart the current digital humanities as something like a grid of aili- ations and diferences between neighboring tribes. exaggerating the diferences somewhat, as when a tribe boasts its uniqueness, we can thus say that the digital humanities—much of which ailiates with older humanities disciplines such as literature, history, classics, and the languages; with the remediation of older media such as books and libraries; and ultimately with the value of the old itself (history, ar- chives, the curatorial mission)—are not the tribe of “new media stud- ies,” under the sway of the design, visual, and media arts; continental theory; cultural criticism; and the avant- garde new. similarly, despite signiicant trends toward networked and multimodal work spanning social, visual, aural, and haptic media, much of the digital humanities focuses on documents and texts in a way that distinguishes the ield’s work from digital research in media studies, communication studies, information studies, and sociology. and the digital humanities are exploring new repertoires of interpretive or expressive “algorithmic criticism” (the “second wave” of the digital humanities proclaimed alan liu , professor in the english depart- ment at the university of california, santa barbara, is the author of wordsworth: the sense of history (stanford up, ), the laws of cool: knowledge work and the culture of information (u of chicago p, ), and local transcendence: essays on postmodern historicism and the database (u of chicago p, ). he started voice of the shuttle, a web site for humanities re- search, in . recent projects he has di- rected include the university of california transliteracies project, on online reading, and rose (research-oriented social environ- ment), a software project. liu is a coleader of the humanities advocacy initiative. the changing profession the meaning of the digital humanities alan liu . ] © alan liu pmla . ( ), published by the modern language association of america in “the digital humanities manifesto . ” [ ] ) in a way that makes the ield not even its earlier self, “humanities computing,” alleged to have had narrower technical and service- oriented aims. recently, the digital humani- ties’ limited engagement with identity and social- justice issues has also been seen to be a differentiating trait—for example, by the vibrant #transformdh collective, which wor- ries that the digital humanities (unlike some areas of new media studies) are dominantly not concerned with race, gender, alternative sexualities, or disability. of course, there are overlaps of people and methods between tribes—to the point that, taking another page from lévi- strauss, we would want to mention trickster figures embodying both sides of digital humanities’ diferences. one such trickster is the ield of book history. proliic in its revisionary studies of matrial texts, ephemera, marginalia, social reading, publishing history, and so on, book history now partly parallels post- mcluhan media studies. peter stallybrass argues, for in- stance, that “the codex and the printed book were the indexical computers that christianity adopted” as its “technology of discontinuity” ( , ). book history therefore overlaps on its new- media- studies side with media archaeol- ogy (especially in the german lineage well rep- resented in this context by cornelia vismann’s files: law and media technology) and on its digital humanities side with approaches to digital texts rooted in revisionary textual edit- ing, bibliography as the sociology of texts, and the materiality of the digital. a similar trick- ster is science and technology studies (sts), which are curiously underrepresented in both new media studies and the digital humanities even as they are clearly relevant in a way repre- sented by such scholars as n. katherine hayles and tim lenoir. so, too, historical sociology— which now applies social- network analysis to document corpora—is a trickster splitting the diference between the social sciences and the digital humanities, the latter of which also in- creasingly use social- network analysis to study plays, novels, literary reception, history, and so on. and of the communities of people who overlap, trickster- like, between the digital hu- manities and new media studies, the hastac collaboratory—which has had enormous suc- cess tapping into the energies especially of graduate students (“hastac scholars”)—is perhaps the most coyote. yet even if we were to complete our hy- pothetical ethnographer’s chart, it would not adequately explain the digital humanities. we would be leaving unexplained the relation of the digital humanities to the humanities gen- erally. my thesis is that an understanding of the digital humanities can only rise to the level of an explanation if we see that the un- derlying issue is the disciplinary identity not of the digital humanities but of the humani- ties themselves. for the humanities, the digi- tal humanities exceed (though they include) the functional role of instrument or service, the pioneer role of innovator, the ensemble role of an “additional field,” and even such faux- political roles assigned to new ields as challenger, reformer, and (less positively) ith column. his is because the digital humani- ties also have a symbolic role. in both their promise and their threat, the digital humani- ties serve as a shadow play for a future form of the humanities that wishes to include what contemporary society values about the digi- tal without losing its soul to other domains of knowledge work that have gone digital to stake their claim to that society. or, precisely because the digital humanities are both func- tional and symbolic, a better metaphor would be something like the register in a computer’s central processor unit, where values stored in memory are loaded for rapid shuff ling, manipulation, and testing—in this case, to try out new humanistic disciplinary identi- ties evolved for today’s broader contention of knowledges and knowledge workers. he question of the meaning of the digi- tal humanities best opens such an argument to the meaning of the digital humanities [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n view because it registers both a speciic problem in the digital humanities and the larger crisis of the meaningfulness of today’s humanities. meaning is clearly a metavalue and also metaproblem for the digital humanities. to unpack this meaning problem, i will spotlight a recent work of digital literary scholarship by two beginning scholars that is state- of- the- art and representative of major trends in the digital humanities—a tactic that has the addi- tional advantage of providing outsiders to the ield with an end- to- end look at an example of research by digital humanists. he work is ryan heuser and long le- khac’s a quanti- tative literary history of , nineteenth- century british novels: he semantic cohort method ( ), the fourth of the inf luential digital pamphlets issued by the stanford liter- ary lab. heuser and le- khac report on their innovations in the methods of “distant read- ing” and text mining that are the signatures of the lab (where they worked with matthew l. jockers, franco moretti, and others), and they do so with a methodological self- awareness that puts the meaning problem front and cen- ter. hey relect near their opening: [w] hat is the meaning of changes in word us- age frequencies? what do we do with such data? with much current research drawing on word frequencies and other quantiiable aspects of culture, these are big questions. we can see now that the greatest challenge of de- veloping digital humanities methods may not be how to cull data from humanistic objects, but how to analyze that data in meaning fully interpretable ways. ( ; my emphases) and they add in their concluding section: he general methodological problem of the dig- ital humanities can be bluntly stated: how do we get from numbers to meaning? he objects being tracked, the evidence collected, the ways they’re analyzed—all of these are quantitative. how to move from this kind of evidence and object to qualitative arguments and insights about humanistic subjects—culture, literature, art, etc.—is not clear. ( ; my emphasis) throughout, heuser and le- khac give meaning a gravity that indicates that in the digital humanities the meaning problem has roughly the same weight as the “saving the phenomena” problem in the philosophy of science—the problem, that is, of relating em- pirically observed phenomena to explainable, theorizable, or predictable (“saved”) phenom- ena. in essence, heuser and le- khac are out to “save the data” by making it meaningful. he form of data they wish to save is quantitative. of course, no single example can typify all aspects of the booming ield of digital hu- manities. so before we examine the speciics of the meaning problem in this instance, it will be useful to make four observations that relate heuser and le- khac’s research to other work in the digital humanities. he meaning problem may not be as central everywhere, but its frame of analysis is convertible to other frames so that we can see that many parts of the ield link up to the same cluster of issues. he following is a kind of conversion table for relating heuser and le-khac’s work to other digital humanities areas. first, we note that heuser and le- khac select their research material from already digitized texts ( , british novels from to , all from the internet archive except for from chadw yck- healey). his means that their work belongs not in the orbit of digitizing, text encoding, publish- ing, or archiving (activities characteristic of many projects in digital editing, collecting, and curating) but in that of processing and analyzing already built digital repositories (in the manner of projects in text analysis, social- network analysis, visualization, spatial history, etc.). still, the digital humanities are young enough that these two broad modes of work are not fully specialized. on the one hand, leading text- encoding and digita l- . ] alan liu t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n archiving projects ind it necessary to create their own analytic, processing, and visualiza- tion tools to present materials. and, on the other hand, text- analysis, visualization, and other processing projects oten have to go to great lengths to select, clean, and prepare pre- existent digital materials as a usable corpus. second, while heuser and le- khac for- mulate their meaning problem in terms of quantification, that is not the only possible formulation. quantification is indeed a key digital humanities issue, especially when linked to sheer quantity in the wake of recent “big data” funding competitions in the ield. but digital humanists also have nonquanti- tative ways of putting the meaning problem. one is the idea of models (and modeling pro- cesses) as richly developed, for example, by willard mccarty. models reveal meaning (recognized in patterns, trends, forms) only by reducing the dimensions and features of meaning. diagrammatic models, especially the visualizations proliferating in the digital humanities (including heuser and le- khac’s essay), are a case in point, since large dis- course networks (visualized through such tools as gephi) are comprehensible when their scope or detail is kept low but otherwise grow into beautifully mystifying galaxies of nodes and links. another case in point is the kind of textual model (instantiated in document- type deinitions [dtds] and xml schemas) that enables text encoding. a well- known de- bate in the digital humanities thus concerns whether the principle of an ordered hierarchy of content objects (ohco) underlying such models makes texts machine- readable only by disallowing the full range of what jerome mc- gann calls human- readable “overlapping” and “recursive structures” (“position statement”). hird, even if we concentrate on quantii- cation as the key meaning problem, it makes a diference which disciplinary branch of the digital humanities we are dealing with, since digital history and digital literary studies, to take two major branches, arrive at quantiica- tion through diferent routes and at diferent stages. digital history emerged in a discipline that had already forcefully experienced nu- merical method—for example, the quantita- tive side of the annales school and cliometrics. perhaps as a result, digital history is farther along than most digital humanities branches in molding quantitative work to a related heritage of annales method: spatial and car- tographic history. he state of the art in digital history, as it were, is fernand braudel plus sat- ellite mapping (seefeldt and homas; owens). fourth, heuser and le- khac’s research required a combination of skills in program- ming and interpretation, thus addressing the “do you have to be a builder?” question that has recently bedeviled the digital humanities by answering, in efect, “you have to be both a builder and an interpreter.” less interesting than this question itself, which is based on an increasingly obsolete notion of solo work in which one is either a builder or interpreter, is the way heuser and le- khac are both builders and interpreters: through rich collaboration. here we reach the outer limits of the frame of the meaning problem, where it converts into a coextensive frame. just as meaning is both a metavalue and a metaproblem, so is collabo- ration as it bears on such urgent issues in the digital humanities as coauthorship, collec- tive project building, multigraph books, open peer review, social media, crowdsourcing, and the hiring and promotion implications of all these. rather than explore the collabo- ration problem in its own frame here, i note only that it is fundamentally convertible to the meaning problem. for example, the ques- tion of what kind of knowledge is produced by “the wisdom of the crowd,” “collective in- telligence,” “the long tail,” “the hive mind,” “folksonomy,” and so on (dominant memes of web . ) is essentially a question about the meaning of the social version of big data, the big crowd. he mind, or mindlessness, of that crowd has been a core problem of modernity since at least the french revolution. the meaning of the digital humanities [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n with these observations as a guide for re- lating heuser and le- khac’s work to other em- phases in the digital humanities, we can now look closely at their pamphlet. he meaning problem comes to the fore there as a conse- quence of heuser and le- khac’s key research innovation. hey report on their use of a tool they created called correlator, which, when fed “seed words” suggested in part by “exist- ing literary scholarship” ( ), processed their long- nineteenth- centur y corpus of novels (with the aid of a database designed by jock- ers that tabulated the number of occurrences of each word [heuser and le- khac ]) to ind other words that were statistically correlated with the seed words and whose frequency trends, measured longitudinally across the century in decade intervals, closely followed the frequency trends of the seed words. in other words, correlator finds what heuser and le- khac call “word cohorts” in the cor- pus, consisting of words that kept company with one another and behaved similarly over time, waxing or waning in frequency together and standing out from other companies of words. he inal result—which i jump to while skipping the details of heuser and le- khac’s algorithmic method as well as, temporarily, an important adjustment step in their method— is the identification in the word cohorts of “rich, consistent semantic f ields” that are “both semantically and culturally legible” in historical trends. an example is the words such as gentle, sensible, vanity, elegant, deli- cacy, reserve, mild, and restraint that they label the “social restraint ield” in the novels ( ). using this method, heuser and le- khac made two principal discoveries. first, they used the seed words integrity, modesty, sen- sibility, and reason (suited to scholarship on novels of the period) to ind a strikingly large cohort of “abstract, socially norma- tive, evaluative, and highly polarized words” whose frequencies declined dramatically over the century. his cohort they subcategorized into semantic ields labeled “social restraint,” “moral valuation,” “sentiment,” and “partial- ity” ( – ). hen, serendipitously (instead of under the sway of preexisting scholarship), they fed the unlikely seed word hard into cor- relator to discover a strikingly distinct, very large cohort of “concrete description words of a direct, everyday kind” whose frequencies rose dramatically over time. his cohort they subcategorized into semantic ields for action verbs, body parts, colors, numbers, locational and directional adjectives and prepositions, and physical adjectives ( – ). he strongly inverse correlation between these two large and diferentiated word cohorts, which they further statistically corroborated ( – ), started them on the path of interpretation. he “abstract” cohort, they concluded, con- sists of words whose usage, while unanchored in speciics, was “monitored and tightly con- strained ” by the traditional smaller, rural communities represented more or less ear- lier in the century in evangelical, gothic, and village novels and the novels of jane austen, walter scott, and george eliot (eliot is a chronological outlier), while the “hard” co- hort is populated by words whose stand- alone referentiality and alienation from larger con- texts correlated later in the century with the “wider, less constrained social spaces” of the urban centers represented in city, industrial, adventure, fantasy, science iction, and chil- dren’s novels ( – ). this insight finally led heuser and le- khac at the highest level of interpretation to follow raymond williams’s culture and society and he country and the city in sug- gesting that the inverse “abstract” and “hard” trends reveal something signiicant about the “social space of the novel.” hey argue that the “values of conduct and social norms” in “knowable communities” (a phrase from wil- liams) declined in the face of “urbanization, industrialization, and new stages of capital- ism” ( , – ). he computational veriica- tion of this previously known thesis, coupled with the discovery of precise word cohorts . ] alan liu t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n giving genuinely fresh insight into the thesis, enables them in later sections of their pam- phlet to ofer more recognizably normative literary and cultural criticism, touching on action, setting, and character ( – ). here they closely read texts (including, for the irst time, block quotations), match aggregate trends to “units understandable and famil- iar to us as readers and literary scholars[:] the actual novels, genres, and authors” ( ), and generalize about sweeping changes in cultural history, but with the important dis- tinction that their reading is based not on the usual anecdotal, faux- empirical, or unique- case observations of literary criticism (e.g., noticing that a word appears “oten” or in an “important” location) but on lines of inter- pretation generated by machine observation. here we reach the crux of the meaning problem in the digital humanities. while heuser and le- khac mix “supervised and unsupervised procedures” ( ), the newest, boldest, and most interesting part of their met hodolog y is unsuper v ised. they help advance an important, general digital hu- manities goal that might be called tabula rasa interpretation—the initiation of interpreta- tion through the hypothesis- free discovery of phenomena. also shared by such digital humanities methods as topic modeling (a mathematics- based way to discern differ- entiated clusters of words that heuser and le- khac use to corroborate their findings), the ideal in its purest form is what heuser and le- khac call “an unsupervised method that generates topics without subjective in- put from users” ( ). that is, a computer should be able to read texts algorithmically and discover word cohorts or clusters lead- ing to themes without acting on an initial concept from an interpreter looking to con- firm a particular theme. of course, heuser and le- khac assume that there are preexist- ing themes to be found in the word cohorts of primary materials and also that the main mission is to discover them. but tabula rasa interpretation is equally a goal of the more postmodern side of the digital humanities, which argues that critics should use algo- rithmic methods to play with texts experi- mentally, generatively, or “deformatively” to discover alternative ways of meaning that are not so much true to preexisting signals as rifs on those signals. he common goal is to ban- ish, or at least crucially delay, human ideation at the formative onset of interpretation. however, tabula rasa interpretation puts in question heuser and le- khac’s ultimate goal, which is to get from numbers to human- istic meaning (“qualitative arguments and insights about humanistic subjects—culture, literature, art, etc.”). it is not clear epistemo- logically, cognitively, or socially how human beings can take a signal discovered by ma- chine and develop an interpretation leading to a humanly understandable concept unless that signal (in order to be recognized as a sig- nal at all) contains a coeval conceptual ori- gin that is knowable in principle because, at a minimum, the human interpreter has known its form or position (the slot or approximate locus in the semantic system where its mean- ing, or at least its membership in the system, is expected to come clear). if the machine can discover word cohorts triggered by seed words, in other words, then what seed con- cepts—which is to say seed semantics (using “semantics,” for the moment, as overlapping with “concepts” in a manner consistent with heuser and le- khac’s usage)—lurk in the background as a latent, classificatory form of relational semantic positions able to make word cohorts into “proto- semantic ields” ( )? hus the immense importance of the ad- justment step in heuser and le- khac’s method that i earlier elided. in fact, heuser and le- khac used correlator by itself to produce only initial word cohorts and not inished semantic ields because they realized that they needed to ensure that their cohorts had a semantic consistency that quantitative correlation alone could not ofer. some word cohorts discovered the meaning of the digital humanities [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n by machine, for example, suggested only fuzzy semantic ields that seemed blurred by extra- neous words or, inversely, to lack words that should have been there. in other words, word cohorts had to be iltered and illed out in ways that made sense. heuser and le- khac thus re- alized that they needed not just seed words but seed semantic concepts suspended precisely in what i above called a classiicatory form of re- lational semantic positions, endowing cohorts with a sense of what is and is not proximate in meaning. in short, heuser and le- khac needed a thesaurus, and not just any thesaurus but one ofering a historical semantics matched to the longitudinal dimension of their word cohorts. ater they had already begun using correlator, they pulled a rabbit out of the hat. hey turned to the remarkable historical hesaurus of the oxford en glish dictionary ( ; hereafter htoed), which had just been published, and borrowed its historical semantic classiications through what they call “a dialogic method that drew on both quantitative historical data and qualitative semantic rubrics to construct semantic ields with precision and nuance”: having moved through an empirically and his- torically focused stage of semantic ield devel- opment, we needed to return to the semantic focus in order to make such purely empirical word cohorts interpretable and meaningful. our initial approach was to ilter through these words for groups that seemed semantically co- herent, but this proved too loose and subjective. . . . finally we turned to the [ht]oed. . . . it’s nearly exhaustive, its categories are nuanced and specific, and it’s truly organized around meaning. we used this powerful taxonomy to do two things: irst, be more speciic in identi- fying the semantic categories that constituted our word cohorts; second, to expand these word cohorts with many more words. ( ) created at the university of glasgow be- ginning in , the htoed taxonomizes the en glish language into three master semantic concepts, “the external world,” “the mind,” and “society,” and then, descending its clas- siicatory tree by stages, into myriad ramiica- tions. on the lower branches of the taxonomy, synonyms appear in the chronological order in which they entered the language. at irst glance, therefore, the htoed is the perfect concept- hunting guide for heuser and le- khac’s word- cohort- hunting machine. his seems even more apparent when we realize just how human- powered the semantic in- terpretation involved in making the htoed was. as documented in reports by christian kay and irené wotherspoon, among its chief editors, and in a detailed e-mail to me from the current htoed associate director, marc alexander, the editors’ sorting of words by meaning and chronology recapitulated the famous use of paper slips in the compilation of the oed itself. started before humani- ties computing was practical, the htoed required human beings over decades to write down individual words from the oed on paper slips with meanings, usage dates, and sparse metadata, then to sort, bundle, and ile the slips in conceptual groupings and hierar- chies. when computation entered the picture, it did so originally in a secondary capacity (to drive the print run of the work). in its forma- tive state, the htoed was a human labor of semantic ordering. b y i n s t a l l i n g t h e h t oe d a s w h a t amounts to a plug- in for correlator, heuser and le- khac sowed their hermeneutical pro- cess with a coseed of human semantic inter- pretation. they thus “solved” the meaning problem only by deftly turning the aporia between tabula rasa quantitative interpreta- tion and humanly meaningful qualitative in- terpretation into its own apparent solution: a “dialogic approach that oscillates between the historical and the semantic, between empiri- cal word frequencies that reveal the histori- cal trends of words and semantic taxonomies that help us identify the meaning and con- tent of those trends” ( ). hey add, “strictly . ] alan liu t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n speaking, the methods developed here are not looking at word cohorts, which have histori- cal consistency but may lack semantic coher- ence, or semantic ields, which have semantic coherence but may have an ahistorical rela- tionship. he real object of study is a hybrid one that satisies both requirements” ( – ). such hybridity is a prevalent feature of digital humanities method. how might such hybrid method be better grounded theoretically? i return to my earlier diferentiation of the digital humanities from neighboring ields. two of the deiciencies in the digital humanities revealed by that ethno- graphic map of ields are relevant. one i s de sig n t he or y a nd pr ac t ic e , which anne burdick, johanna drucker, pe- ter lunenfeld, todd presner, and jef frey schnapp in their recent digital_ humanities declare with manifesto- like boldness to be central to the ield (esp. – , – ). cur- rently, it seems to me, the union between the digital humanities and new- media- studies communities that would be needed for full realization of this vision is more a goal than a reality, existing in speciic projects and not programmatically. but the book’s coauthors, expressing a west coast view of the digital humanities rooted in media and design arts, are right to aim for design as a principle of knowledge discovery and generation rather than (more typical in the digital humanities) as an ater- the- fact rendering of data in scat- ter plots, social- network graphs, and other stale visualizations or, equally tired, book- like or blog- like publication interfaces. as the coauthors put it, when “used to pose and frame questions about knowledge,” design is “an intellectual method,” an “embodiment of a project’s argument and methodology,” “an act of thinking,” and a “new foundation for the conceptualization and production of knowledge” ( , , , ). interactive, mul- timodal, dynamic, and participatory design in the digital age is a method not just of pat- tern recognition but of pattern understand- ing. seeing design in data is a method for knowing meaning in the digital humanities. he other deiciency i refer to is science and technology studies (sts), which digital humanists oten occlude even as they speak of “digital technology,” “media technology,” and so on, as if technology were an indivis- ible part of the digital and media without its own history, philosophy, sociology, poli- tics, economy, and aesthetics all tangled up with, yet also distinct from, science. i invoke especially the postmodern branch of sts (e.g., feyerabend; latour; pickering), whose “against method” view of science (especially in its weird relations with technology) is that any quest for stable method in understanding how knowledge is generated by human beings using machines founders on the initial fallacy that there are immaculately separate human and machinic orders, each with an ontologi- cal, epistemological, and pragmatic purity that allows it to be brought into a knowable methodological relation with the other— whether a relation of master and slave, cause and efect, agent and instrument, or another. what could we learn from sts if we took the stanford literary lab and other digital hu- manities centers and programs at their word and studied them as labs, much as andrew pickering studied the “hunting of the quark” in a physics lab ( – )? he answer is likely that digital humanities method—converg- ing with, but also sometimes diverging from, scientif ic method—consists in repeatedly coadjusting human concepts and machine technologies until (as in pickering’s t he- sis about “the mangle of practice”) the two stabilize each other in temporary postures of truth that neither by itself could sustain. knowledge is an ice- skater’s dance on a slip- pery epistemic surface, on which neither the human nor the machine—the dancer nor the skates—alone can stand. sts, in other words, is another method for knowing mean- ing in the digital humanities. in fact, it can be thought of as complementing the method the meaning of the digital humanities [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n of design. he diference between a mangle of practice and a dance, ater all, is design. indeed, an sts approach opens a fasci- nating chapter in our reading of heuser and le- khac’s work that i can only briely relate. while i have not conducted sts- style eth- nographic and documentary research on the stanford literary lab (except through infor- mal observations during a daylong visit at the invitation of the lab), i have looked from a distance into the “lab” of the making of the htoed—that is, the human- semantics lab that heuser and le- khac position as the part- ner to their computational- analysis lab. when we view the htoed in this way, we realize that heuser and le- khac pulled not just any rabbit out of a hat but a special rabbit much like the one that led alice down the rabbit hole. he htoed is less a solution to the meaning prob- lem than a recursive, looking- glass version of the very same problem. at least ive aspects of its making are relevant in this regard: . while the creation of the htoed was essentially precomputational, it was not pretechnological. requiring human be- ings to write words, meanings, and meta- data on paper slips and then to sort the slips in drawers (and later in databases), the htoed originated as a thoroughly en- tangled human- technological, rather than simply human, semantic act. . following heuser and le- khac, i have so far treated “semantics” and “concepts” as coincident. but in relecting on the htoed’s method, kay separates out lexical semantics (meaning relations among words) and conceptual semantics (meanings linked to external- world referents). a focus on the former, she says, was “essentially the procedure adopted in htoed, and is what we mean by saying that the classiication should ‘emerge’ from the data,” meaning the purely lexical data in their source text, the oed (“classiication” – ). . he phrase “‘emerge’ from the data” is the cue for an important tenet of the htoed. as kay argues, “our theoretical position on htoed has always been that the classiica- tion at whatever level should develop from the data rather than be imposed upon it using some predetermined schema” (“clas- siication” ). he underlying authority of the htoed, it turns out, is “data” (the record of the en glish language observed through the instrument of the oed). hat is, the htoed itself adhered to the princi- ple of the tabula rasa discovery of phenom- ena and initiation of interpretation (in this case, taxonomic interpretation). . it was thus ater surveying their lexical data that the htoed editors contravened the ordering scheme of their canonical predecessor, roget’s hesaurus, which had put “abstract relations” irst. he htoed puts the “external world” irst in its tri- nary taxonomic structure. hat’s because concrete and near- to- hand word senses relating to the external world entered the language earlier (kay, “classiication” – ). he implications for our read- ing of heuser and le- khac are startling. he long historical trend identiied by the htoed, in which concrete words precede abstract ones, is the reverse of the long- nineteenth- century novelistic trend that heuser and le- khac identify, in which “abstract” words dominate earlier and “hard” words later. of course, this by no means contradicts their thesis, since in more fully stated form their argument may well be that, because of urbanization, the nineteenth century (and the novel form) was exceptional, or at least matched the trend of only a few other centuries (and forms) in history. but a commitment to reading nineteenth- century novels in con- junction with the htoed’s larger corpus would require further testing to see how exceptional the nineteenth- century trend really was and thus whether additional sociocultural or other phenomena must be factored in to explain its speciicity. . finally, as a grace note, i add that while computation was an aterthought in mak- ing the htoed, today it is crucial for advanced uses of the work. he htoed . ] alan liu t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n editors eventually migrated their content into a succession of relational databases be- cause they realized that computation might support advanced, real- time querying (wotherspoon, “historical hesaurus” ). even more dramatically, a recent essay by alexander shows that querying the htoed for insight into the history of the language can itself be a form of the digital humanities (“‘various forms’”). alexander conducts quantitative computational analysis of the htoed to generate visualizations leading to hypotheses about language changes (see the igure below). connecting the sts and design approaches i outlined earlier, we might even say that at this point using the htoed becomes an experiment in digital design. in the end, the htoed is not the “other” that heuser and le- khac need to help make the work of their correlator meaningful; it is the precursor of correlator. but going down a rabbit hole, while nec- essary in pursuing any case of the digital hu- manities to its methodological foundation, is not how we must conclude. i thus climb out of the speciic purview of my example, and even of the digital humanities ield, to open my argument to its most general extent. ap- ropos is the following insight from n. kath- erine hayles: he further one goes along the spectrum that ends with “machine reading,” the more one implicitly accepts the belief that large- scale multicausal events are caused by conluences that include a multitude of forces interacting simultaneously, many of which are nonhu- man. . . . if events occur at a magnitude far ex- ceeding individual actors and far surpassing the ability of humans to absorb the relevant in- formation, however, “machine reading” might be a irst pass toward making visible patterns that human reading could then interpret. ( ) it is not accidental, i can now reveal, that at the beginning of this essay i alluded to lévi- strauss and structural anthropology. structur- alism is a midpoint on the long modern path toward understanding the world as system fig. marc alexander’s tree- map visualiza- tion of present- day en glish in the htoed. each dot represents a word, and the shade of the dot corresponds to when the word entered the lan- guage (darker dots show earlier words). words are arranged by semantic prox- imity as indicated in the labels. the meaning of the digital humanities [ p m l a (e.g., as modes of production; weberian bu- reaucracy; saussurean language; mass, media, and corporate society; neoliberalism; and so on) that has forced the progressive side of the humanities to split of from earlier humanities of the human spirit (geist) and human self to adopt a worldview in which, as hayles says, “large- scale multicausal events are caused by conluences that include a multitude of forces . . . many of which are nonhuman.” his is the backdrop against which we can see how the meaning problem in the digital humanities registers today’s general crisis of the mean- ingfulness of the humanities. the general crisis is that humanistic meaning, with its residual yearnings for spirit, humanity, and self—or, as we now say, identity and subjectiv- ity—must compete in the world system with social, economic, science- engineering, work- place, and popular- culture knowledges that do not necessarily value meaning or, even more threatening, value meaning but frame it systemically in ways that alienate or co- opt humanistic meaning. humanistic knowledge today is thus increasingly assimilated to what humanists themselves call research, evidence, analysis, method, productivity, and “impact” (as this term is institutionalized in “research assessment exercises” in british universities), with no unfilled time and space left for any old ghosts in the machine—unless, as i have argued in laws of cool, there remains a yearn- ing, nowhere keener than among our students, caught in the educational mangle, to be cool. cool people say nix to today’s knowledge- work system even as they walk into the cubicles. of course, if this were only a problem of research methodology, then i would be extrav- agant to call it a “crisis” in the meaningfulness of the humanities. but “crisis” is appropriate when we realize that the meaning problem also afects pedagogy and jobs in the wake of economic recession, which brings the problem cruelly to bear on individual humanists in training or seeking jobs (not to mention on the humanities programs that nurture and employ them). here opens a set of topics that i cannot deal with in present limits but that more fully demonstrate how the digital humanities regis- ter the larger issues of the humanities. one topic is the way digital pedagogy— as witnessed in current controversies over massive open online courses (moocs), all- digital “campuses” in public universities, and so on—registers the possibility of gigantic changes in the aims, practices, audiences, in- frastructure, and staf of humanities teaching. he bluf is now called on decades of defen- sively legitimating the humanities as thinking and language “skills” added on top of tradi- tionally meaningful humanistic knowledge. if the humanities it that mold in part, then maybe—some administrators and legislators think—they should it it entirely so that their content can be “delivered” modularly through the internet in the manner of the moocs or khan academy courses in science, technol- ogy, engineering, and mathematics that have made the biggest public impression. another topic is the job market for digital humanists, especially in regard to tenurable faculty lines versus “alt- ac” (alternative aca- demic career) adjunct, staff, support, and cultural- institution positions. he turmoil and uncertainty in the nature of digital humani- ties jobs register the larger uncertainty of em- ployment in the humanities as “meaningful” jobs transition away from tenure and toward a corporatized ideal of reconigurable and re- placeable professional- managerial knowledge workers perpetually threatened with restruc- turing layofs in favor of even more exploited “permatemp” and outsourced labor. in all these ways, the digital humanities register the crisis of the humanities. for that reason, i and others started the humanities advocacy initiative, “powered by the digital humanities community,” so that the digital humanities can try to advocate for the hu- manities and not just register their crisis. i do not know how much diference that ini- tiative and others like it will make in the . ] alan liu t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n meaningfulness of the humanities to the world. but i do know that such an effort— dedicating the digital humanities to the soul of the humanities—is what is meaningful for a humanist, digital or otherwise, now. notes . among recent surveys and overviews of the digi ta l hu ma nit ies a re svensson’s a r t icles; hayles; k ir schen baum, “digital humanities” and “what is digital humanities”; liu, “state” and “where is cultural criti c i sm”; bu rd ic k , dr uc ker, lu nen feld , p re sner, a nd schnapp; and “digital humanities manifesto . .” re cent or forthcoming essay collections about the digital humanities include schreibman, siemens, and unsworth; gold; price and siemens; and goldberg and svensson. on whether the digital humanities are a ield and on the linguistic usage of the phrase digital humanities, see liu, “is digital humanities a field?” . these expressions in recent conferences, blogs, tweets, discussion threads, papers, etc., have become im portant “memes” shaping the digital humanities commu nity. on the issues of theory, building, and hack versus yack, see also cecire, “introduction.” . since the question of who is included in the digi tal humanities can be a sensitive one, i should clarify my understanding of the scope of the ield. while i focus in this essay on digital literary studies and one concrete re search example, the digital humanities are much broader. i thus take care to relate my example to shared methods and problems across the ield (including, e.g., digital his tory). however, while my goal is to address a fairly broad notion of the digital humanities as they are commonly practiced and discussed, i do not try to make the tent so big—by, for instance, covering what should or could be part of it but so far is not commonly recognized to be so (e.g., the design ield)—that the term digital humanities becomes formless or aspirational. also, i do not specif ically discuss digital work in such near humanities as the branches of the social sci ences, archaeology, and anthropology that have joined the humanities in the so called linguistic and cultural turns and related trends. whether such work is consid ered digital humanities depends on the prior issue of whether, digital methods aside, it is humanistic (itting, e.g., the loose deinition in the national foundation on the arts and humanities act: “those aspects of social sciences which have humanistic content and employ hu manistic methods” [national endowment ]). caveats a lso apply to my genera l i z at ions about new media studies and to the gross simpliication here (given nuance below) by which i separate them from the digital humanities. for helping me think about these inclusion issues, i am grateful to members of the audiences at talks where i de livered versions of this essay who pointed out that they do not entirely recognize their ield or work in my description of the digital humanities. ultimately, of course, the “who is in the digital humanities?” issue will be adjusted on the ground through normal professional processes of adjudica tion—where one gets a job or places one’s students, where one publishes in print or online, which forums or blogs one posts on, which twitter hashtags one is associated with, which conferences one goes to, which grants one gets, etc. . on algorithmic criticism, see ramsay’s essay by that title. . on #transformdh, see phillips. he collective now appears through its hashtag on twitter, has a tumblr page, and is a hastac group. . examples of the textual editing, bibliography as sociolog y of texts, and materiality of the digital ap proaches in the digital humanities include, respectively, mcgann, radiant textuality; the text encoding initia tive’s tei: p guidelines, with its attention to prosopog raphy and social relations (“names, dates, people, and places”); and kirschenbaum, mechanisms. . examples of the historical sociology i refer to in clude franzosi; bearman and stovel; and mohr and duquenne. an example of social network analysis in dig ital literary studies is moretti, network heory. (on such analysis in general, see my “from reading.”) an example of social network analysis in digital history is lemercier and rosental. (for other historians using the methods and tools of social network analysis, see “bibliography.”) . see also heuser and le khac’s “learning to read data,” which summarizes the research reported in their pamphlet. . for a discussion of “saving the phenomena” that bears centrally on the issue of data, see bogen and woodward. . he full list of the novels in heuser and le khac’s corpus can be found in their “online companion.” in formation on the source of the digitized texts is from an email from heuser to the author. . goldstone and under wood of fer an explana tion and example of topic modeling of special interest to readers of pmla. separately, underwood more fully explains the methodology. for a succinct discussion of the diference between supervised and unsupervised data mining—a distinction originating in the ield of machine learning—see “analytics.” . sculley and pasanek consider the problem of “cir cularity” (and other issues) in humanities data mining. . for a fuller description of the way heuser and le khac used the htoed, see appendix c in their quantita- tive literary history. . for this essay, i have consulted the online htoed, which now appears as part of the online oed. on the the meaning of the digital humanities [ p m l a t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n htoed’s classiication system, see “structure of the histor- ical hesaurus.” for additional general information about the work, see kay, “what is the historical hesaurus.” . for information about the making of the htoed referred to below, i have consulted kay, “classiication” and “what is the historical hesaurus”; kay and chase; and wotherspoon, “historical hesaurus” and “making”; as well as alexander’s e‑mail. for photos of the paper slips, iling drawers, and computers used, see historical hesaurus photo gallery. my special thanks to alexander for helping me gather resources and for his e‑mail illed with details and relections on the manual and techno‑ logical processes used in making the htoed. . see, e.g., gibbs and cohen’s discussion of their hybrid method ( , ). . i abbrev iate here a longer d isc u ssion of t he htoed to be included in a version of this essay for my book in progress on the digital humanities. my thanks to clare birchall, who, in a conversation with me ater i presented an early version of this essay at king’s col‑ lege, asked a question that made me start looking into the technological dimensions of the htoed. . my thanks to the stanford literary lab for invit‑ ing me to visit on may . on the genesis and prin‑ ciples of the lab, see jockers. . in their statistical analysis of diction in en glish lit‑ erary works over a longer period (the eighteenth and nine‑ teenth centuries), underwood and sellers make a related point when comparing their indings with heuser and le‑ khac’s. hey track a rise in the nineteenth century in the proportional incidence of earlier‑ vintage, oten anglo‑ saxon words in literary genres (including prose iction) that is “largely consubstantial” with the rising incidence of “hard” words in novels of that century found by heuser and le‑ khac. however, they add that their longer histori‑ cal baseline shows that the trajectory of such words “had recently reversed direction” as part of a new way of be‑ ing “literary.” “he relative scarcity of simple action verbs in early‑ nineteenth‑ century writing, for instance,” they note, “was a recent development” in literary language that reveals social transformations only through the me‑ diation of “competing ideals of literary reinement.” my thanks to le‑ khac for his e‑mail calling my attention to underwood and sellers’s article, which i had not seen. . advocating for the humanities does not necessar‑ ily only mean defending older or disciplinary notions of the humanities. my “humanities and tomorrow’s dis‑ coveries” attempts to reframe the humanities in common cause with other disciplines and with public needs. works cited adams, michael, ed. “cunning passages, contrived cor- ridors”: unexpected essays in the history of lexicogra- phy. electronic ed. monza: polimetrica, . pdf ile. alexander, marc. message to the author. oct. . e‑mail. ———. “‘he various forms of civilization arranged in chronological strata’: manipulating the htoed.” adams – . “ana ly tics: super v ised vs. unsuper v ised learning.” monk: metadata of fer new knowledge. n.p., n.d. web. dec. . bauer, jean. “who you calling untheoretical?” journal of digital humanities . 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( ): – . print. ———. “he making of he historical hesaurus of the oxford en glish dictionary.” adams – . . ] alan liu t h e c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n digital humanities a tale of two cities: implications of the similarities and differences in collaborative approaches within the digital libraries and digital humanities communities siemens, lynne siemensl@uvic.ca faculty of business/school of public administration, university of victoria cunningham, richard richard.cunningham@acadiau.ca acadia digital culture observatory, acadia university duff, wendy wendy.duff@utoronto.ca faculty of information, university of toronto warwick, claire c.warwick@ucl.ac.uk department of information studies, university college london besides drawing on content experts, librarians, archivists, developers, programmers, managers, and others, many emerging digital projects also pull in disciplinary expertise from areas that do not typically work in team environments. to be effective, these teams must find processes – some of which are counter to natural individually-oriented work habits – that support the larger goals and group-oriented work of these digital projects. this paper will explore the similarities and differences in approaches within and between members of the digital libraries (dl) and digital humanities (dh) communities by formally documenting the nature of collaboration in these teams. the objective is to identify exemplary work patterns and larger models of research collaboration that have the potential to strengthen this positive aspect of these communities even further, while exploring the key differences between them which may limit digital project teams’ efforts. our work is therefore designed to enable those who work in such teams to recognise factors that tend to predispose them to success, and perhaps more importantly, to avoid those that may lead to problematic interactions, and thus make the project less successful than it might otherwise have been. . context traditionally, research contributions in the humanities field have been felt to be, and documented to be, predominantly solo efforts by academics involving little direct collaboration with others, a model reinforced through doctoral studies and beyond (see, for example, cuneo ; newell and swan ). however, dl and dh communities are exceptions to this. given that the nature of digital projects involves computers and a variety of skills and expertise, collaborations in these fields involve individuals within their institutions and with others nationally and internationally. such collaboration typically must coordinate efforts between academics, undergraduate and graduate students, research assistants, computer programmers and developers, librarians, and other individuals as well as financial and other resources. further, as more digital projects explore issues of long term sustainability, academics and librarians are likely to enter into more collaborations to ensure this objective (kretzschmar jr. and potter ). given this context, some research has been done on the dl and dh (see, for example liu and smith ; ruecker and radzikowska ; siemens ) communities as separate entities (see, for example johnson ; liu, tseng and huang ; johnson ; siemens et al. b), but little has been done on the interaction between these two communities when in collaboration. tensions can exist in academic research teams when the members represent different disciplines and approaches to team work (birnbaum ; fennel and sandefur ; hara et al. ). collaborations can be further complicated when some team members have more experience and training in collaboration than other members, a case which may exist with digital projects involving librarians and archivists, who tend to have more experience, and academics, who have tend to have less. ultimately, too little is known about digital humanities how these teams involving dl and dh members collaborate and the types of support needed to ensure project success. . methods this paper is part of a larger project examining research teams within the dh and dl communities, led by a team based in canada and england (for more details, see siemens et al. a; siemens et al. b). it draws upon results from interviews and two surveys of the communities exploring the individuals’ experiences in digital project teams. the findings include a description of the communities’ work patterns and relationships and the identification of supports and research preparation required to sustain research teams (as per marshall and rossman ; mccracken ). a total of seven individuals were interviewed and another responded to the two surveys. . preliminary findings at the time of writing this proposal, final data analysis of the surveys and interviews is being completed. however, some preliminary comparisons between the two communities can be reported. as a starting point, similarities exist among dl and dh projects. first, digital projects are being accomplished within teams, albeit relatively small ones, as defined by budget and number of individuals involved. both communities report that the scale and scope of digital projects require individuals with a variety of skills and expertise. further, these collaborations tend to operate without formal documentation that outline roles, responsibilities, decision making methods, and conflict resolution mechanisms. the survey and interview respondents from both communities report similar benefits and challenges within their collaborations. finally, these teams rely heavily on email and face-to-face interaction for their project communications. some interesting differences between dl- and dh-based teams exist and may influence a digital project team’s effectiveness. first, the dl respondents seem to have a greater reliance on email as opposed to face-to- face communications and tend to rate the relative effectiveness of email higher than the dh respondents. several explanations may be offered for this. according to survey results, dl teams appear more likely to be located within the same institution, which means that casual interpersonal interaction may be more likely to occur between team members than with groups that are geographically dispersed, as many dh teams are. for dispersed teams, meetings need to be more deliberately planned, which may mean a higher consciousness about the importance of this kind of interaction and the necessity to build this into project plans. also, given that many of the dl teams are within the same organization, team members may be more familiar with each other in advance of a project start, meaning that more communication can be done by email. less time may need to be spent in formal meetings developing work processes as is the case with those teams whose members may not have worked together on previous projects. second, a greater percentage of respondents ( %) within the dh community indicated that they “enjoyed collaboration” than the dl respondents ( %). comprising of more academics, the dh community tends to undertake more solitary work, and therefore collaboration may be seen as a welcomed change and may be a deliberate choice that they have made to undertake this type of work. in contrast, team work is more the norm for librarians and archivists, and thus they may feel it is an expected part of their jobs, rather than a choice and welcomed activity. as a result, members of these two communities approach collaboration from two fundamentally different positions, which must be understood from the outset of a digital project in order to reduce challenges and ensure success. further, differences in roles and perceived status may complicate collaboration. often, tensions may exist between service departments, such as libraries and computer support, and the researcher, who is perceived to have higher status (warwick ). these differences in perceived status can complicate work process as those with lower status may have difficultly directing those with perceived higher status (hagstrom ; ramsay ; newell and swan ). the benefits to the dl and dh communities will be several. first, the study contributes to digital humanities an explicit description of these communities’ work patterns and inter-relationships. second, it designed to enable those who work in such teams to recognise factors that tend to predispose them to success, and perhaps more importantly, to avoid those that may lead to problematic interactions, and thus make the project less successful than it might otherwise have been. references birnbaum, philip h. 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'no such thing as humanities computing? an analytical history digital humanities of digital resource creation and computing in the humanities'. joint international conference of the association for computers and the humanities and the association for literary & linguistic computing. sustainability enhancement of a turbine vane manufacturing cell through digital simulation-based design sustainability enhancement of a turbine vane manufacturing cell through digital simulation based design caggiano, a., marzano, a., & teti, r. ( ). sustainability enhancement of a turbine vane manufacturing cell through digital simulation based design. energies, ( ), [ ]. https://doi.org/ . /en published in: energies document version: publisher's pdf, also known as version of record queen's university belfast - research portal: link to publication record in queen's university belfast research portal publisher rights © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc-by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /),which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the author and source are cited. general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the queen's university belfast research portal is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the research portal is queen's institutional repository that provides access to queen's research output. every effort has been made to ensure that content in the research portal does not infringe any person's rights, or applicable uk laws. if you discover content in the research portal that you believe breaches copyright or violates any law, please contact openaccess@qub.ac.uk. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . /en https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/sustainability-enhancement-of-a-turbine-vane-manufacturing-cell-through-digital-simulation-based-design( a aa- b- e e- d - f ca bdeaa).html energies article sustainability enhancement of a turbine vane manufacturing cell through digital simulation-based design alessandra caggiano ,*, adelaide marzano and roberto teti fraunhofer joint laboratory of excellence on advanced production technology (fh-j_leapt naples), department of industrial engineering, university of naples federico ii, naples , italy school of mechanical and aerospace engineering, queen’s university belfast, belfast bt nn, uk; a.marzano@qub.ac.uk fraunhofer joint laboratory of excellence on advanced production technology (fh-j_leapt naples), department of chemical, materials and industrial production engineering, university of naples federico ii, naples , italy; roberto.teti@unina.it * correspondence: alessandra.caggiano@unina.it; tel.: + - - ; fax: + - - academic editor: hua li received: july ; accepted: september ; published: september abstract: modern manufacturing systems should satisfy emerging needs related to sustainable development. the design of sustainable manufacturing systems can be valuably supported by simulation, traditionally employed mainly for time and cost reduction. in this paper, a multi-purpose digital simulation approach is proposed to deal with sustainable manufacturing systems design through discrete event simulation (des) and d digital human modelling. des models integrated with data on power consumption of the manufacturing equipment are utilized to simulate different scenarios with the aim to improve productivity as well as energy efficiency, avoiding resource and energy waste. d simulation based on digital human modelling is employed to assess human factors issues related to ergonomics and safety of manufacturing systems. the approach is implemented for the sustainability enhancement of a real manufacturing cell of the aerospace industry, automated by robotic deburring. alternative scenarios are proposed and simulated, obtaining a significant improvement in terms of energy efficiency (− %) for the new deburring cell, and a reduction of energy consumption around − % for the coordinate measuring machine, with high potential annual energy cost savings and increased energy efficiency. moreover, the simulation-based ergonomic assessment of human operator postures allows % improvement of the workcell ergonomic index. keywords: manufacturing systems; sustainable development; simulation; discrete event simulation; d digital human modelling; energy management; ergonomics . introduction in recent years, sustainable development is claiming increasing attention worldwide as the importance of economic, social, and environmental challenges has grown significantly [ , ]. in this scenario, manufacturing can valuably contribute to global economic growth, wealth generation and job creation; however, manufacturing activities have a high impact on the environment, consuming a large amount of limited resources and producing heavy environmental pollution ( %– % of the global environmental pollution [ ]). an evolution of traditional manufacturing products, processes, and systems is required to achieve new environmental objectives, such as increased resource and energy-efficiency, as well as improving occupational health and safety which are critical for sustainable development [ ]. energies , , ; doi: . /en www.mdpi.com/journal/energies http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies energies , , of the enhancement of the sustainability of manufacturing systems should yield benefits related to all the three principal dimensions of sustainability: economical, environmental, and social [ – ]. these dimensions are strictly interrelated and sometimes overlapped: as an example, energy consumption, raw and supplementary material consumption, waste generation and disposal, and resource utilization can be cited as main performance indicators related to economical sustainability, but they also affect environmental sustainability. main metrics related to environmental sustainability of manufacturing systems include emission of air pollution, amount of water used, emission of water pollution, and impact on ecosystem. social sustainability of manufacturing systems is particularly complex and difficult to measure, including both internal and external focuses. in [ ], the authors breakdown the main social sustainability criterion in four sub-criteria related to: internal human resources, external population, stakeholder participation, and macrosocial performance. with particular focus on internal human resources, sustainability concerns health and safety, employment stability, and capacity development, where a number of metrics can be defined, including accident prevention, security, usability, working conditions, and work impact on workers’ welfare [ , ]. many of the aforementioned aspects related to the sustainability of manufacturing systems can be assessed and improved with the help of new digital technologies such as advanced simulation tools. in recent years, simulation has been increasingly employed in the different phases of a manufacturing system’s life cycle, providing notable advantages in terms of time and cost reduction. however, environmentally related aspects are currently not available in commercial manufacturing system simulation software tools [ ]. to evaluate the energy efficiency of manufacturing plants, benchmarking and auditing tools, such as the u.s. environmental protection agency (epa) energy performance indicators (epi), have been developed in recent years for specific industrial sectors (e.g., automotive industry, etc.) using annual plant energy and production data [ ]. however, these tools are not able to adapt estimations to short run variations of production schedule, working shifts, operations, etc. simulation tools would allow for more adaptive energy management strategies by predicting future energy consumption using real time feedback and optimizing energy distribution within the manufacturing plant, accordingly [ ]. in the very recent literature, some approaches based on planning and optimization methods supported by simulation have been proposed to minimize energy consumption and improve energy efficiency, which are main issues in a sustainable manufacturing system [ , – ]. in [ ], the authors presented an energy oriented simulation model for planning of manufacturing systems in which the major energy flows of factories can be simulated in order to identify measures for improvement. a hybrid simulation model, including discrete and continuous modes, was proposed in [ ] to predict energy consumption and flows at both the plant and the process levels for an automotive production facility integrating sub-models based on regression analysis of historical data, forecasting, and physical modelling. the study in [ ] investigated the application of a simulation-optimization approach based on a model predictive controller equipped with linear programming to optimize energy management within an automotive assembly plant. the approach was meant as a decision making support tool for planners to better control and forecast energy needs and energy mix. in [ ], a methodology was developed to represent machine power consumption in simulation models of factories with the aim of measuring the amount of total energy consumption, including non-value-added activities, which can be reduced by optimizing the production flow using dynamic simulation. with the same scope of improving energy efficiency of manufacturing systems, in [ ] a systematic approach for layout modification including an assessment of energy efficiency through discrete event simulation was proposed. on the other hand, as concerns the improvement of human factors and ergonomics, a number of studies have been focused on the use of digital modelling and simulation tools for the analysis of energies , , of manual operations such as assembly. in [ ], the authors developed a methodology to automatically estimate the ergonomic parameters of operations in assembly cells based on simulation in a virtual environment. in [ ], a review was carried out on the use of various methodologies to develop computer-aided design systems for assembly simulation, planning and training. the authors considered that the process of virtual assembly planning should take into consideration assembly time and sequence, tooling and fixture requirements as well as operator safety and ergonomics, since the latter affects operation times and assembly reliability. most of the presented research studies are focused on achieving one specific objective, e.g., cost reduction, energy efficiency improvement, ergonomics assessment. an approach for combining lean production objectives—such as setup time reduction, quality rate increase, machine availability improvement, etc.—with green strategies such as reduction of energy consumption, which are typically simulated, optimized, and validated independently, was proposed in [ ]. however, sustainability of manufacturing systems should be assessed according to a holistic perspective, taking into account all three dimensions of sustainability. the traditional life cycle assessment methods developed in the last years to quantify the environmental impact of manufacturing do not deal with other sustainability aspects such as social and economic impact [ ]. to overcome these limitations, the life cycle sustainability assessment (lcsa) approach—addressing sustainability with a life cycle perspective based on interdisciplinary integration of life cycle analysis with economic models, ecological models, and social theories—has been proposed in the literature [ ]. in this framework, a life cycle sustainability dashboard was presented in [ ] to compare different scenarios of photovoltaic modules production through the evaluation of economic, environmental, and social sustainability indicators and the definition of an aggregated sustainability performance index. a holistic sustainability index embedding environmental, social, economic and manufacturing variables has been also proposed in [ ]. the authors integrated manufacturing indicators and analyzed the interrelationships among sustainability factors by using the analytic hierarchy process (ahp) method. according to the holistic perspective in which the focus is widened to the economic, environmental, and human issues of sustainability, a multi-purpose digital simulation approach is proposed with the aim to deal with the diverse aspects of sustainability of manufacturing systems according to a global approach. the multi-purpose digital simulation approach is based on the incorporation of data related to energy flows and productivity into discrete event simulation (des) models combined with ergonomics assessment through d digital human simulation. this methodology is validated with reference to a real manufacturing cell of the aerospace industry with the aim of enhancing the cell in the perspective of sustainability through the assessment of relevant performance indicators such as productivity, resource utilization, energy efficiency, and workcell ergonomics index. a significant improvement is obtained based on the analysis performed through the digital simulation of the manufacturing cell, providing quantitative measures of the main relevant sustainability indicators. . multi-purpose digital simulation approach manufacturing systems—traditionally designed and optimized based on the requirements of cost, quality, time, and product customization—are today challenged to meet emerging needs imposed by sustainable development [ , , – ]. in this scenario, the aim of the proposed approach is to deal with multiple sustainability objectives in the reconfiguration of manufacturing systems. the proposed approach considers not only traditional performance indicators, such as productivity, lead time, etc., but also new indicators related to energies , , of the sustainability of a manufacturing system, including energy efficiency, resource utilization and human factors. the scheme of the proposed multi-purpose digital simulation approach, based on the joint employment of discrete event simulation (des) and d human modelling software tools, is shown in figure . energies , , of the scheme of the proposed multi-purpose digital simulation approach, based on the joint employment of discrete event simulation (des) and d human modelling software tools, is shown in figure . figure . scheme of the proposed multi-purpose digital simulation approach. des is employed to study material flow and utilization of resources (e.g., machines, equipment, robots, etc.). the information provided by des, integrated with data on power consumption of the manufacturing system components, is utilized to assess relevant performance indicators and to configure alternative scenarios to attain optimal resource utilization and avoid energy waste. different scenarios are set-up by modifying input variables—such as number of machines, operators, process sequence, cycle times, etc.—and simulated to increase resource utilization and reduce the idle time of critical resources to improve the energy efficiency. thereafter, with the aim to deal with human factors issues related to the sustainability of manufacturing systems, with specific focus on ergonomics and safety of the working environment, d digital simulation, based on kinematic models of humans, robots, and machines, is employed. the starting point for the d digital human modelling simulation is represented by the des simulation results, which provide the manufacturing cell configuration able to meet the desired objectives (productivity, energy efficiency, etc.). this configuration includes the required number of stations, the number of operators, the optimized process sequence, the task assignments, the processing times, the time and frequency of the part transportation tasks, etc., which represent the necessary information to carry out the d digital simulation on the manufacturing cell. the d digital human modelling simulation, on the other hand, may lead to a modification of the manufacturing system layout to improve the ergonomics, and may be used to better estimate the cycle times of the manual operations in the improved configuration. the new output data determined via the d digital human modelling simulation, such as the cycle times of the manual operations after the ergonomics optimization, are fed back as input to des with the aim to evaluate the final performance of the enhanced-sustainability manufacturing cell. in this way, the integration between the results of the two simulation approaches is carried out to complete the sustainability enhancement of the manufacturing system. industrial scenario the multi-purpose digital simulation approach for manufacturing system sustainability enhancement is implemented with reference to a real industrial manufacturing cell dedicated to the fabrication of aircraft engine parts requiring two sequential grinding operations, geometrical inspection on a coordinate measuring machine (cmm), and final deburring. figure . scheme of the proposed multi-purpose digital simulation approach. des is employed to study material flow and utilization of resources (e.g., machines, equipment, robots, etc.). the information provided by des, integrated with data on power consumption of the manufacturing system components, is utilized to assess relevant performance indicators and to configure alternative scenarios to attain optimal resource utilization and avoid energy waste. different scenarios are set-up by modifying input variables—such as number of machines, operators, process sequence, cycle times, etc.—and simulated to increase resource utilization and reduce the idle time of critical resources to improve the energy efficiency. thereafter, with the aim to deal with human factors issues related to the sustainability of manufacturing systems, with specific focus on ergonomics and safety of the working environment, d digital simulation, based on kinematic models of humans, robots, and machines, is employed. the starting point for the d digital human modelling simulation is represented by the des simulation results, which provide the manufacturing cell configuration able to meet the desired objectives (productivity, energy efficiency, etc.). this configuration includes the required number of stations, the number of operators, the optimized process sequence, the task assignments, the processing times, the time and frequency of the part transportation tasks, etc., which represent the necessary information to carry out the d digital simulation on the manufacturing cell. the d digital human modelling simulation, on the other hand, may lead to a modification of the manufacturing system layout to improve the ergonomics, and may be used to better estimate the cycle times of the manual operations in the improved configuration. the new output data determined via the d digital human modelling simulation, such as the cycle times of the manual operations after the ergonomics optimization, are fed back as input to des with the aim to evaluate the final performance of the enhanced-sustainability manufacturing cell. in this way, the integration between the results of the two simulation approaches is carried out to complete the sustainability enhancement of the manufacturing system. energies , , of industrial scenario the multi-purpose digital simulation approach for manufacturing system sustainability enhancement is implemented with reference to a real industrial manufacturing cell dedicated to the fabrication of aircraft engine parts requiring two sequential grinding operations, geometrical inspection on a coordinate measuring machine (cmm), and final deburring. deburring, traditionally performed manually by high skilled operators, is a critical process that should meet close tolerances, during which minor human errors can result in severe damage to the products. a new robotic cell capable of performing automatic deburring was included in the manufacturing cell to improve process repeatability and reduce scrap rate and labor risks, key issues for sustainable development. as shown in figure a, the reconfigured manufacturing cell consists of the following components: a grinding machine tool with a loading/unloading robot; a cmm; a robotic deburring station including a robot, a deburring tools post, a rotary table for part input/output, and a touch-probe inspection device to check the part before deburring. energies , , of deburring, traditionally performed manually by high skilled operators, is a critical process that should meet close tolerances, during which minor human errors can result in severe damage to the products. a new robotic cell capable of performing automatic deburring was included in the manufacturing cell to improve process repeatability and reduce scrap rate and labor risks, key issues for sustainable development. as shown in figure a, the reconfigured manufacturing cell consists of the following components: a grinding machine tool with a loading/unloading robot; a cmm; a robotic deburring station including a robot, a deburring tools post, a rotary table for part input/output, and a touch- probe inspection device to check the part before deburring. figure . manufacturing cell: (a) schematic representation; (b) digital model. through the employment of digital simulation tools, the reconfiguration of the manufacturing cell can be analyzed in terms of productivity and resource utilization as well as layout configuration to verify the feasibility and the performance of the reconfigured cell [ – ]. moreover, specific aspects relevant for the sustainability of the manufacturing cell, such as power load, energy efficiency, safety of working environment, and ergonomics, are assessed in this paper through the multi-purpose digital simulation approach based on des and d simulation. . des for resource utilization analysis des is well known as an effective tool for manufacturing system performance analysis, which allows mapping of a set of decision variables to a set of performance measures (such as productivity level and resource utilization), to evaluate the behavior of a manufacturing system and make decisions on the appropriate strategy to adopt [ – ]. with this aim, a des model representing the starting scenario of the reconfigured manufacturing cell was set-up (figure b). the following main assumptions were made: the grinding machine performs, alternatively, phase and phase grinding processes and no set-up time is required to switch between processes since the parts are mounted on their fixtures off the grinding machine, while the latter is still working on the previous part. the maximum availability of the grinding machine is set to % and the machine maintenance time is taken into account in the model. deburring is performed at the end of the production cycle after both grinding processes. as soon as three fully ground parts are collected, they are introduced into the deburring cell through the rotary table provided with three loading positions. the deburring tools, consisting of two abrasive discs and one milling tool need to be frequently replaced due to tool wear. accordingly, failures have been included in the model to simulate the tool change performed by the human operator (after every nine operations). human operators work on three shifts of eight hours each, with breaks distributed during the day, for a total of shifts per week (one shift on saturdays and no shifts on sundays). first-in, first-out (fifo) logic was assigned to the buffers in the manufacturing cell, and the machines’ process logic were set so that as soon as suitable input parts are available for the machine, the corresponding process is started (first possible process). tables and charts representing the busy and idle times of machines, robots, and laborers were generated and analyzed to assess the performance level and identify possible improvements. the results concerning the utilization of the main manufacturing cell components (cmm, grinding figure . manufacturing cell: (a) schematic representation; (b) digital model. through the employment of digital simulation tools, the reconfiguration of the manufacturing cell can be analyzed in terms of productivity and resource utilization as well as layout configuration to verify the feasibility and the performance of the reconfigured cell [ – ]. moreover, specific aspects relevant for the sustainability of the manufacturing cell, such as power load, energy efficiency, safety of working environment, and ergonomics, are assessed in this paper through the multi-purpose digital simulation approach based on des and d simulation. . des for resource utilization analysis des is well known as an effective tool for manufacturing system performance analysis, which allows mapping of a set of decision variables to a set of performance measures (such as productivity level and resource utilization), to evaluate the behavior of a manufacturing system and make decisions on the appropriate strategy to adopt [ – ]. with this aim, a des model representing the starting scenario of the reconfigured manufacturing cell was set-up (figure b). the following main assumptions were made: the grinding machine performs, alternatively, phase and phase grinding processes and no set-up time is required to switch between processes since the parts are mounted on their fixtures off the grinding machine, while the latter is still working on the previous part. the maximum availability of the grinding machine is set to % and the machine maintenance time is taken into account in the model. deburring is performed at the end of the production cycle after both grinding processes. as soon as three fully ground parts are collected, they are introduced into the deburring cell through the rotary table provided with three loading positions. the deburring tools, consisting of two abrasive discs and one milling tool need to be frequently replaced due to tool wear. accordingly, failures have been included in the model to simulate the tool change performed by the human operator (after every nine operations). human operators work on energies , , of three shifts of eight hours each, with breaks distributed during the day, for a total of shifts per week (one shift on saturdays and no shifts on sundays). first-in, first-out (fifo) logic was assigned to the buffers in the manufacturing cell, and the machines’ process logic were set so that as soon as suitable input parts are available for the machine, the corresponding process is started (first possible process). tables and charts representing the busy and idle times of machines, robots, and laborers were generated and analyzed to assess the performance level and identify possible improvements. the results concerning the utilization of the main manufacturing cell components (cmm, grinding machine, and handling/deburring robot) show that the bottleneck of the system is the grinding machine, with the highest utilization ( %), while the deburring robot and the cmm display a very low utilization ( % and %, respectively). to improve the sustainability of the manufacturing cell, a more comprehensive analysis is recommended to investigate the manufacturing cell energy efficiency together with the productivity indicators. . des for energy efficiency estimation and optimization the application to manufacturing systems of des models integrated with the most relevant energy flows represents a promising approach to identify and digitally assess different strategies to manage energy consumption [ ]. traditional des applications in manufacturing are aimed at improving the performance of manufacturing systems in terms of productivity, throughput time, and utilization of resources (machines, robots, operators, etc.). different experimental scenarios can be identified, modelled, and simulated to get numerical results useful to investigate the impact produced by the variation of specified parameters on the manufacturing system performance. on the basis of the performance indicators to take into consideration, the main task is the correct modelling of the system and the identification of the most significant scenarios to investigate. however, traditional des applications are time or cost-driven, and do not support any consideration about the energy consumption or energy efficiency of the manufacturing system. as the latter performance indicators have become a major issue in modern manufacturing industries, due to the increase of energy prices and the recent worldwide regulations to reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing, des modelling should be integrated by incorporating all relevant energy flows. in this way, des tools can be employed as effective decision making support tools aimed at the achievement of energy driven objectives, beyond conventional time and cost-based targets. as a matter of fact, different performance indicators can lead to different manufacturing system configurations. a great advantage offered by des is that it allows reproduction of the dynamic nature of production by simulating the different states of manufacturing resources, which is particularly relevant since energy related consumption and emission is not static but depends on the operation mode of the manufacturing resources. moreover, cumulative load profiles for the whole manufacturing system may be generated during simulation as the sum of the single machine profiles. in accordance with this new approach, des has been employed in this paper to provide information on the distribution of power consumption during production time, allowing estimation of the consumed energy and the manufacturing cell energy efficiency (i.e., the energy required per manufactured unit) which represents one of the most relevant issues to be addressed in a sustainable manufacturing system. in order to properly feed the des model, information on power consumption of each manufacturing cell component needs to be provided. . . power monitoring of the manufacturing cell components experimental measurements were performed on the physical manufacturing cell to gather the required data concerning power consumption of its components. power monitoring was carried out through a fluke power quality clamp meter, calculating and recording the active power consumption values at hz sampling rate based on the measured values of current and voltage. energies , , of monitoring was performed during both the working and the idle phases of each manufacturing cell component in order to take into account the power consumption also when the component is inoperative. for each component, the data related to active power consumption were collected and imported in matlab to be first visualized and then processed to extract the features of interest for the des model, i.e., the average values of power consumption during the different states (idle, busy, etc.) of each manufacturing cell component (figure a). energies , , of figure . (a) power consumption of the grinding machine tool under idle and busy state; (b) des plot of power load [w] vs. time [mm:ss] for the grinding machine and the hydraulic pump during fabrication of one part. . . distribution of power consumption during production time the features extracted from power monitoring data were used to model power consumption in des. a new variable representing power demand was added in the model and related to the diverse states (e.g., busy, idle, off) of each manufacturing cell component. the production of one batch of parts was simulated with the added information on power demand to examine power consumption of the main manufacturing cell components: grinding machine, deburring station, and cmm. when applicable, the power consumption of auxiliary equipment (e.g., air compressor, hydraulic pump) was added to the power consumption of the machine itself. the simulation run, giving an estimated batch production time of about h, was able to generate plots of power load vs. time (figure b, showing a time window of min) and provided the evaluation of energy consumption for the main manufacturing cell components. the energy consumption of the manufacturing cell components during the fabrication of one batch of parts was equal to kwh for the grinding machine; kwh for the cmm; and kwh for the deburring station (table ). . . energy efficiency improvement strategies based on the information provided by des on machine power load during the production time of a batch, suitable strategies can be adopted to improve the manufacturing cell energy efficiency. a first strategy to improve this index is related to the reduction of component idle times that consume energy without producing any output. as resulting from des, the deburring robot utilization, i.e., the ratio of working time over batch throughput time, is very low (about %) and the power consumption under idle state is % of the one in a busy state. the robot is able to perform deburring very fast but, as the grinding machine is the bottleneck of the manufacturing cell, its production capacity cannot be fully exploited. in order to increase the deburring robot utilization, units of a different part number produced by adjacent manufacturing cells of the same industrial plant could be introduced for final deburring. this new scenario, identified as scenario , was modelled and simulated to investigate and quantify the resource utilization improvement. while the grinding machine processes the entire batch of the original part number units, the robotic deburring station operates on the new part number units. an average set-up time of min to switch between the two different part numbers in the deburring station was taken into account. as soon as the entire batch of the original part number units is completely ground and measured, it is introduced in the deburring station. figure . (a) power consumption of the grinding machine tool under idle and busy state; (b) des plot of power load [w] vs. time [mm:ss] for the grinding machine and the hydraulic pump during fabrication of one part. . . distribution of power consumption during production time the features extracted from power monitoring data were used to model power consumption in des. a new variable representing power demand was added in the model and related to the diverse states (e.g., busy, idle, off) of each manufacturing cell component. the production of one batch of parts was simulated with the added information on power demand to examine power consumption of the main manufacturing cell components: grinding machine, deburring station, and cmm. when applicable, the power consumption of auxiliary equipment (e.g., air compressor, hydraulic pump) was added to the power consumption of the machine itself. the simulation run, giving an estimated batch production time of about h, was able to generate plots of power load vs. time (figure b, showing a time window of min) and provided the evaluation of energy consumption for the main manufacturing cell components. the energy consumption of the manufacturing cell components during the fabrication of one batch of parts was equal to kwh for the grinding machine; kwh for the cmm; and kwh for the deburring station (table ). table . energy consumption of the manufacturing cell components during the fabrication of one batch of parts for the different simulated scenarios. energy consumption (kwh) component scenario scenario scenario grinding machine cmm deburring station energies , , of . . energy efficiency improvement strategies based on the information provided by des on machine power load during the production time of a batch, suitable strategies can be adopted to improve the manufacturing cell energy efficiency. a first strategy to improve this index is related to the reduction of component idle times that consume energy without producing any output. as resulting from des, the deburring robot utilization, i.e., the ratio of working time over batch throughput time, is very low (about %) and the power consumption under idle state is % of the one in a busy state. the robot is able to perform deburring very fast but, as the grinding machine is the bottleneck of the manufacturing cell, its production capacity cannot be fully exploited. in order to increase the deburring robot utilization, units of a different part number produced by adjacent manufacturing cells of the same industrial plant could be introduced for final deburring. this new scenario, identified as scenario , was modelled and simulated to investigate and quantify the resource utilization improvement. while the grinding machine processes the entire batch of the original part number units, the robotic deburring station operates on the new part number units. an average set-up time of min to switch between the two different part numbers in the deburring station was taken into account. as soon as the entire batch of the original part number units is completely ground and measured, it is introduced in the deburring station. the simulation run of this new scenario shows that the utilization of the deburring cell increases from % to %. moreover, its throughput is considerably increased as it includes a large amount of new part number units deburred: while the grinding machine works on one batch of the original part number units, units of the new part number are deburred. by implementing this optimized solution in the manufacturing layout, the advantages in terms of productivity would be certainly extended to the adjacent manufacturing cells, where the manual deburring process is still carried out, which could delegate most of their deburring processes to the automated deburring cell. the overall energy consumption results are higher because the deburring station keeps working for a longer time and its busy state corresponds to a higher power demand condition ( kwh instead of kwh in scenario , see table ). however, the energy efficiency of the deburring station, given by the ratio between energy consumption and number of deburred units, is considerably improved (− %) as the increase of energy demand of kwh (+ %) is distributed over a much larger number of products ( units vs. units). a further strategy to reduce energy consumption is the selective activation of devices which are not working full-time. this strategy can be performed by shutting down the devices that are not required in specific periods, e.g., switching to lower energy consumption in the stand-by state [ ]. in the present case, such a device should be the cmm with a utilization as low as %. the cmm total energy consumption during idle time could be significantly reduced by turning off the compressed air supply when the machine is not operating. the power consumption of the air compressor is about % of the cmm electrical power consumption under idle state. the fear of lowering the reliability of measuring machines by regularly turning on and off the compressed air supply has traditionally been a concern, but new technology advancements in cmm design allow to automatically turn off the compressed air after a user-defined period without any drawback: the cmm becomes immediately operational as soon as a measuring program starts or the joystick is moved [ ]. by simulating this shut down procedure in scenario , a reduction of cmm energy consumption around − % ( kwh instead of kwh, see table ) was verified, with high potential annual energy cost saving and increased energy efficiency. . human factors in sustainable manufacturing in the last few years, the concept of sustainability, traditionally focused on the natural environment, has been redefined including the sustainability of human resources [ ]. the latter is based on long-term workability and employability, which represent key elements in ergonomics and human energies , , of factors. ergonomics has ancient roots in the age of ancient egypt and the greek and roman period [ ]; in more recent times, research studies have shown the positive effects of applying ergonomic principles to manufacturing, e.g., in workplace design [ , ]. in [ ], a study was described to demonstrate how the application of ergonomic principles during product design can effectively reduce life cycle costs. based on the concept that comfort affects productivity, different approaches have been proposed to achieve the optimal posture for workers in a manual work cell. finding the optimal ergonomic layout of a work cell is essential to maximizing long lasting methods of operations, which benefit the worker and the time required to complete the process. therefore, human factors and ergonomics contribute to socially sustainable development and also foster productivity and effectiveness [ ]. therefore, in view of accounting for all relevant sustainable issues related to the reconfiguration of the manufacturing cell under examination, the social dimension of the proposed evaluation was focused on the internal human resources, concerning the well-being of employees as well as the company’s performance toward the ergonomic requirements fulfilment. in particular, the specific aspect of ergonomics was dealt with as this could be effectively studied through digital simulation approaches in order to achieve the ergonomic optimization of the manufacturing cell work place. as regards the risk of worker injuries and ergonomics, it is worth mentioning that the previous manual deburring process was very labor intensive, requiring a human operator to stand and bend for a significant amount of time every day while deburring the parts. accordingly, the introduction of the automated deburring station has drastically reduced all ergonomic risks while simultaneously reducing cycle time and enhancing quality, safety, and efficiency. although manual processes were reduced in number due to the introduction of the automated deburring robot, many operations, such as assembly of parts and fixtures, loading and unloading of parts, still need to be carried out manually and therefore still require an accurate ergonomic analysis. . design for ergonomics through d digital simulation a detailed analysis of the ergonomic aspects can be effectively supported by simulation tools, enabling the performance evaluation of human operators in a workplace before the physical system is set-up [ ]. a methodology based on d digital human modelling was employed to simulate different scenarios of the manufacturing cell and identify the optimal layout configuration taking into account human factor issues and time savings in manual operations. the applied methodology makes use of d digital human manikins that simulate human tasks in a virtual environment. the manikins have a complex kinematic linkage system that closely resembles the human skeletal structure, joints that obey the physiological range of motion restrictions, and a geometric shell that closely resembles the human shape. for the manufacturing cell under study, a range of percentiles, namely ansur (u.s. army anthropometric survey) th, th, and th percentiles, and japanese th percentile, were chosen from the anthropometric database of the d human simulation software. on these digital models, an accurate ergonomic analysis was performed by simulating the manual operations occurring within the work cell [ ]. . . definition of the ergonomics indices in particular, d digital simulation was employed to calculate two ergonomic indices, namely the posture evaluation index-pei, and the work cell evaluation index-wei, defined in [ ], making it possible to numerically assess the ergonomic postures so that critical configurations can be identified and optimized through a proper layout reconfiguration. the posture evaluation index allows us to identify whether a specific posture is deemed critical or not by integrating the results of the low back compression analysis (lba) [ ], rapid upper limb assessment (rula) [ ], and ovako working energies , , of posture analysis system (owas) [ ] in a synthetic adimensional index able to evaluate the “quality” of a posture, according to the equation presented in [ ]: pei = lba + owas + ru la ( ) once the pei values for each operation i within the manufacturing cell have been identified, the work cell evaluation index can be used to determine the optimal ergonomic configuration of the entire cell. wei includes multiple pei results and allows identifying the optimal configuration j of a manual work cell. for each configuration, the wei is calculated as: w ei (con f iguration) = ∑ i peii ∗ wi ( ) where wi = time o f o perationi work cell cycle time ( ) the best manufacturing cell configuration in terms of ergonomic condition is the one corresponding to the lowest wei value, i.e.: w eibest = m i nj [ w ei ( con f igj )] ( ) . . ergonomic analysis of the manual operations in the manufacturing cell all the manual operations to be carried out by the operator in the manufacturing cell were identified and individually examined according to a design for ergonomics approach. the first operation to be carried out by the operator is the manual assembly of turbine vanes and grinding fixtures, positioned in dedicated shelfs just outside the grinding machine. afterwards, the handling robot picks the vane-fixture assembly and moves it to the proper position inside the grinding machine. following grinding, the turbine vane is manually dismounted from the fixture and it is placed on the cmm for measurement. once the vane has been measured by the cmm machine, the operator lifts the part and places it on the rotating table at the entrance of the automated deburring cell. after deburring, the finished parts are collected in an output buffer. to identify the most critical postures, the pei values of all the manual operations were calculated and reported in the bar chart of figure . energies , , of 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ( ) the best manufacturing cell configuration in terms of ergonomic condition is the one corresponding to the lowest wei value, i.e.: 𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐵𝐸𝑆𝑇 = 𝑀𝐼𝑁𝑗 [𝑊𝐸𝐼(𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑗 )] ( ) . . ergonomic analysis of the manual operations in the manufacturing cell all the manual operations to be carried out by the operator in the manufacturing cell were identified and individually examined according to a design for ergonomics approach. the first operation to be carried out by the operator is the manual assembly of turbine vanes and grinding fixtures, positioned in dedicated shelfs just outside the grinding machine. afterwards, the handling robot picks the vane-fixture assembly and moves it to the proper position inside the grinding machine. following grinding, the turbine vane is manually dismounted from the fixture and it is placed on the cmm for measurement. once the vane has been measured by the cmm machine, the operator lifts the part and places it on the rotating table at the entrance of the automated deburring cell. after deburring, the finished parts are collected in an output buffer. to identify the most critical postures, the pei values of all the manual operations were calculated and reported in the bar chart of figure . figure . pei values for the manual operations carried out in the manufacturing cell. the chart shows that the most dangerous operations in terms of ergonomics are mounting and dismounting of parts and fixtures as well as placing vanes in the output buffer, requiring the digital manikin to bend significantly, as shown in figure . the postures required to carry out these operations are deemed critical in the tested percentiles and their repetition could lead to health and safety problems up to resulting in permanent injuries to the worker. figure . pei values for the manual operations carried out in the manufacturing cell. energies , , of the chart shows that the most dangerous operations in terms of ergonomics are mounting and dismounting of parts and fixtures as well as placing vanes in the output buffer, requiring the digital manikin to bend significantly, as shown in figure . the postures required to carry out these operations are deemed critical in the tested percentiles and their repetition could lead to health and safety problems up to resulting in permanent injuries to the worker.energies , , of figure . postures required to perform the most critical manual operations: (a) mounting and dismounting a vane on the grinding fixture; (b) placing a vane in the output buffer. with the aim to improve the overall ergonomics of the manufacturing cell, these manual operations were analyzed with particular attention to optimize and ergonomically reassess them by lowering the pei values and improving the overall wei value of the manufacturing cell. . optimization of the manufacturing cell based on design for ergonomics . . pei analysis based on the d digital simulation results, the operation of mounting the vanes on the grinding fixtures appeared critical due to the required postures of the operator. with the aim of improving the operator posture, an optimization process based on an incremental method was applied to identify the best location of the fixture shelf covering the needs of all percentiles. starting from the original position, the height of the fixtures shelf was gradually increased by cm at a time and each configuration was tested for all the human percentiles. as shown in figure , lower pei values were obtained by increasing the fixture shelf height up to mm, which was therefore selected as the best configuration. this configuration allows the operator to work in a very comfortable posture, standing with elbows at -degree flexion (figure ). figure . pei values vs. height increase of the grinding fixture shelf. figure . new fixture level configuration: the human operator stands in a more comfortable posture. figure . postures required to perform the most critical manual operations: (a) mounting and dismounting a vane on the grinding fixture; (b) placing a vane in the output buffer. with the aim to improve the overall ergonomics of the manufacturing cell, these manual operations were analyzed with particular attention to optimize and ergonomically reassess them by lowering the pei values and improving the overall wei value of the manufacturing cell. . optimization of the manufacturing cell based on design for ergonomics . . pei analysis based on the d digital simulation results, the operation of mounting the vanes on the grinding fixtures appeared critical due to the required postures of the operator. with the aim of improving the operator posture, an optimization process based on an incremental method was applied to identify the best location of the fixture shelf covering the needs of all percentiles. starting from the original position, the height of the fixtures shelf was gradually increased by cm at a time and each configuration was tested for all the human percentiles. as shown in figure , lower pei values were obtained by increasing the fixture shelf height up to mm, which was therefore selected as the best configuration. this configuration allows the operator to work in a very comfortable posture, standing with elbows at -degree flexion (figure ). energies , , of figure . postures required to perform the most critical manual operations: (a) mounting and dismounting a vane on the grinding fixture; (b) placing a vane in the output buffer. with the aim to improve the overall ergonomics of the manufacturing cell, these manual operations were analyzed with particular attention to optimize and ergonomically reassess them by lowering the pei values and improving the overall wei value of the manufacturing cell. . optimization of the manufacturing cell based on design for ergonomics . . pei analysis based on the d digital simulation results, the operation of mounting the vanes on the grinding fixtures appeared critical due to the required postures of the operator. with the aim of improving the operator posture, an optimization process based on an incremental method was applied to identify the best location of the fixture shelf covering the needs of all percentiles. starting from the original position, the height of the fixtures shelf was gradually increased by cm at a time and each configuration was tested for all the human percentiles. as shown in figure , lower pei values were obtained by increasing the fixture shelf height up to mm, which was therefore selected as the best configuration. this configuration allows the operator to work in a very comfortable posture, standing with elbows at -degree flexion (figure ). figure . pei values vs. height increase of the grinding fixture shelf. figure . new fixture level configuration: the human operator stands in a more comfortable posture. figure . pei values vs. height increase of the grinding fixture shelf. energies , , of energies , , of figure . postures required to perform the most critical manual operations: (a) mounting and dismounting a vane on the grinding fixture; (b) placing a vane in the output buffer. with the aim to improve the overall ergonomics of the manufacturing cell, these manual operations were analyzed with particular attention to optimize and ergonomically reassess them by lowering the pei values and improving the overall wei value of the manufacturing cell. . optimization of the manufacturing cell based on design for ergonomics . . pei analysis based on the d digital simulation results, the operation of mounting the vanes on the grinding fixtures appeared critical due to the required postures of the operator. with the aim of improving the operator posture, an optimization process based on an incremental method was applied to identify the best location of the fixture shelf covering the needs of all percentiles. starting from the original position, the height of the fixtures shelf was gradually increased by cm at a time and each configuration was tested for all the human percentiles. as shown in figure , lower pei values were obtained by increasing the fixture shelf height up to mm, which was therefore selected as the best configuration. this configuration allows the operator to work in a very comfortable posture, standing with elbows at -degree flexion (figure ). figure . pei values vs. height increase of the grinding fixture shelf. figure . new fixture level configuration: the human operator stands in a more comfortable posture. figure . new fixture level configuration: the human operator stands in a more comfortable posture. table shows the improvement of the pei values across all percentiles obtained by optimizing the fixtures’ shelf height. the most significant enhancement was achieved for the ansur th percentile, where the pei values dropped to % of the starting configuration. table . pei values resulting from the fixtures shelf level optimization and the output buffer optimization. configuration index human percentile a average fixtures shelf level optimization old level pei . . . . . new level pei . . . . . output buffer optimization old box pei . . . . . new lower shelf pei . . . . . new middle shelf pei . . . . . new top shelf pei . . . . . the second critical operation, shown in figure b, was the positioning of vanes in the output buffer box. the th and th percentiles scored pei values of . and . respectively, exceeding the critical limit of [ ], while the th percentile scored a pei value of . . moreover, the repetitiveness of this task over time could have a negative impact on the work force. therefore, to fulfil the ergonomic requirements of the operation posture, an alternative output buffer consisting of a multi-level rack of shelves was proposed and assessed. the multiple levels allow workers to carry out the tasks more comfortably and can be accessed from both sides, saving time and effort. d digital human simulation was used to obtain the lba, owas, and rula indices in order to calculate a pei value for each rack level posture (figure ). energies , , of table shows the improvement of the pei values across all percentiles obtained by optimizing the fixtures’ shelf height. the most significant enhancement was achieved for the ansur th percentile, where the pei values dropped to % of the starting configuration. table . pei values resulting from the fixtures shelf level optimization and the output buffer optimization. configuration index human percentile a average fixtures shelf level optimization old level pei . . . . . new level pei . . . . . output buffer optimization old box pei . . . . . new lower shelf pei . . . . . new middle shelf pei . . . . . new top shelf pei . . . . . the second critical operation, shown in figure b, was the positioning of vanes in the output buffer box. the th and th percentiles scored pei values of . and . respectively, exceeding the critical limit of [ ], while the th percentile scored a pei value of . . moreover, the repetitiveness of this task over time could have a negative impact on the work force. therefore, to fulfil the ergonomic requirements of the operation posture, an alternative output buffer consisting of a multi-level rack of shelves was proposed and assessed. the multiple levels allow workers to carry out the tasks more comfortably and can be accessed from both sides, saving time and effort. d digital human simulation was used to obtain the lba, owas, and rula indices in order to calculate a pei value for each rack level posture (figure ). figure . analysis of postures for reaching the rack shelves: (a) bottom; (b) middle; (c) top. the height of the middle shelf resulted to be the most comfortable for the human operator, as shown in table summarizing the average pei value across all percentiles. the pei values were significantly reduced in comparison with the initial output buffer configuration, with a reduction of % in the case of the middle shelf. with the aim to estimate the time saving achieved by improving the postures assumed by the operators, time analysis was performed on the optimized manufacturing cell by means of d digital human modelling. in the case of mounting and dismounting of vanes on the grinding fixtures, no major time variation was observed in the new configuration, whereas a % time reduction after optimization was achieved for the manual task of positioning of vanes in the output buffer. therefore, this new configuration provides advantages to the manufacturing company both in terms of ergonomics and time. figure . analysis of postures for reaching the rack shelves: (a) bottom; (b) middle; (c) top. energies , , of the height of the middle shelf resulted to be the most comfortable for the human operator, as shown in table summarizing the average pei value across all percentiles. the pei values were significantly reduced in comparison with the initial output buffer configuration, with a reduction of % in the case of the middle shelf. with the aim to estimate the time saving achieved by improving the postures assumed by the operators, time analysis was performed on the optimized manufacturing cell by means of d digital human modelling. in the case of mounting and dismounting of vanes on the grinding fixtures, no major time variation was observed in the new configuration, whereas a % time reduction after optimization was achieved for the manual task of positioning of vanes in the output buffer. therefore, this new configuration provides advantages to the manufacturing company both in terms of ergonomics and time. . . wei analysis the main objective in terms of ergonomic improvement was to obtain a lower wei value for the manufacturing cell. based on the pei values of each operation and the corresponding estimated operation time, the wei values for each percentile were calculated for the manufacturing cell before and after the posture optimization. the values for the different percentiles are shown in figure . energies , , of . . wei analysis the main objective in terms of ergonomic improvement was to obtain a lower wei value for the manufacturing cell. based on the pei values of each operation and the corresponding estimated operation time, the wei values for each percentile were calculated for the manufacturing cell before and after the posture optimization. the values for the different percentiles are shown in figure . figure . wei comparison before and after optimization. the figure shows that, by changing the posture of two manual operations, the wei value of the whole manufacturing cell significantly dropped across all percentiles. in particular, the main improvement was obtained for the th percentile that achieved a wei reduction of %. moreover, it is worth noting that the optimized manufacturing cell is characterized by more homogeneous wei values across the percentiles, which means that the new configuration is more suitable to meet the different needs. an overall wei reduction of % has several positive implications for the work cell. a more ergonomically friendly work cell reduces the chances of stress or strain related injuries for workers over time and helps improve their productivity and working endurance. moreover, the safety of the work cell as a whole increases, making work related accidents less likely to occur. . conclusions and outlook a multi-purpose digital simulation approach was proposed with particular attention to sustainability issues from the economic, environmental, and human factors viewpoints. the approach was validated with reference to a real industrial manufacturing cell of the aerospace field. des integrated with power demand enabled the envisaging and digital experiment strategies to improve energy efficiency and optimize the exploitation of available resources during the design stage. different alternative scenarios were proposed and the results showed that a significant improvement in terms of energy efficiency (− %) was achieved for the new automated deburring cell, and a reduction of the cmm energy consumption around − % was verified with high potential annual energy cost saving and increased energy efficiency. finally, with the aim of improving the human factors related sustainability of the manufacturing cell, ergonomics analysis carried out by means of d digital human simulation allowed verification of the suitability of the designed layout for the well-being of human operators. the manual operations in the manufacturing cell were examined and two main ergonomic indices, the posture evaluation index (pei) and the work cell evaluation index (wei), were estimated. to enhance the ergonomics of the manufacturing cell, a methodology was applied to improve the comfort of the human workers during manual operations and changes to the layout of the cell were proposed. the new postures were ergonomically assessed and an overall wei reduction of % was achieved across all the considered human percentiles. further research work will focus on the integration of data concerning costs related to materials and energy flows into the simulation model to allow for the economic assessment of the different alternatives. moreover, future developments will involve the joint use of digital simulation and figure . wei comparison before and after optimization. the figure shows that, by changing the posture of two manual operations, the wei value of the whole manufacturing cell significantly dropped across all percentiles. in particular, the main improvement was obtained for the th percentile that achieved a wei reduction of %. moreover, it is worth noting that the optimized manufacturing cell is characterized by more homogeneous wei values across the percentiles, which means that the new configuration is more suitable to meet the different needs. an overall wei reduction of % has several positive implications for the work cell. a more ergonomically friendly work cell reduces the chances of stress or strain related injuries for workers over time and helps improve their productivity and working endurance. moreover, the safety of the work cell as a whole increases, making work related accidents less likely to occur. . conclusions and outlook a multi-purpose digital simulation approach was proposed with particular attention to sustainability issues from the economic, environmental, and human factors viewpoints. the approach was validated with reference to a real industrial manufacturing cell of the aerospace field. des integrated with power demand enabled the envisaging and digital experiment strategies to improve energy efficiency and optimize the exploitation of available resources during the design stage. different alternative scenarios were proposed and the results showed that a significant improvement in terms of energy efficiency (− %) was achieved for the new automated deburring energies , , of cell, and a reduction of the cmm energy consumption around − % was verified with high potential annual energy cost saving and increased energy efficiency. finally, with the aim of improving the human factors related sustainability of the manufacturing cell, ergonomics analysis carried out by means of d digital human simulation allowed verification of the suitability of the designed layout for the well-being of human operators. the manual operations in the manufacturing cell were examined and two main ergonomic indices, the posture evaluation index (pei) and the work cell evaluation index (wei), were estimated. to enhance the ergonomics of the manufacturing cell, a methodology was applied to improve the comfort of the human workers during manual operations and changes to the layout of the cell were proposed. the new postures were ergonomically assessed and an overall wei reduction of % was achieved across all the considered human percentiles. further research work will focus on the integration of data concerning costs related to materials and energy flows into the simulation model to allow for the economic assessment of the different alternatives. moreover, future developments will involve the joint use of digital simulation and suitable optimization tools to effectively support the search for the optimal system configuration in a broader solution space. acknowledgments: the fraunhofer joint laboratory of excellence for advanced production technology (fh-j_leapt) at the department of chemical, materials, and industrial production engineering, university of naples federico ii, and the school of mechanical and aerospace engineering, queen’s university belfast, are gratefully acknowledged for their contribution and support to this research activity. acknowledgements are also due to the “adaptive manufacturing” project on “modular and adaptive approach for the digital factory” (ctn _ _ ) of the italian national technology cluster on intelligent factory. author contributions: all authors contributed substantially to the study reported. alessandra 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[crossref] © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc-by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.procir. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jmsy. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / x. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijpe. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / x. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / x. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) -s http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) - http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. introduction multi-purpose digital simulation approach des for resource utilization analysis des for energy efficiency estimation and optimization power monitoring of the manufacturing cell components distribution of power consumption during production time energy efficiency improvement strategies human factors in sustainable manufacturing design for ergonomics through d digital simulation definition of the ergonomics indices ergonomic analysis of the manual operations in the manufacturing cell optimization of the manufacturing cell based on design for ergonomics pei analysis wei analysis conclusions and outlook digital human modeling (dhm) for improving work environment for specially-abled and elderly vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y review paper digital human modeling (dhm) for improving work environment for specially‑abled and elderly charu m. maurya · sougata karmakar · amarendra kumar das © springer nature switzerland ag abstract digital human modeling (dhm), a technique of simulating human interaction with the product or workplace in a virtual environment is gaining popularity. this virtual evaluation process is useful in developing user-centered products by incorporating human factor principles at an early design phase, which reduces the design time and improves quality. application of dhm has gained attention in the design process of the manufacturing industry, agriculture, healthcare sectors, transportation and aviation sectors, etc. however, the use of dhm for designing ergonomic products and work environment for the specially-abled and elderly is quite limited. this, otherwise, is more important as their real-life par- ticipation in experiments pertaining to the ergonomic evaluation of any product, workplace or public facility may cause discomfort to them. moreover, improved products or workplace reduces their dependence on others and enables active involvement in work, communication, and social life. therefore, an attempt has been made in this paper to explore the state of the art literature review on the applications of dhm based virtual ergonomic approaches to improve products and workplaces designs for specially-abled/elderly. the paper also proposes a way forward to continue research and developmental activities towards the betterment of the quality of life of the elderly and specially-abled persons through proactive and inclusive design strategies. keywords digital human modeling (dhm) · ergonomic design · specially-abled · elderly introduction the ergonomic design of the work environment reduces postural stress, improves organizational productivity, enhances job satisfaction, and results in a better quality of work-life [ , ]. with the advent of virtual ergonom- ics, user-centered workplaces and/or products are being developed and tested in a virtual environment at an early design phase. human modeling software enables design- ers to simulate human –workplace interaction by insert- ing a digital human model in the cad generated work environment. cad-based virtual ergonomics evaluation process shortens design time, lowers development cost, improves quality and enhances productivity [ ]. . digital human modeling (dhm) software digital human modeling software is a computer-aided design tool for the construction of d and d human mod- els from anthropometric data of targeted users/population for ergonomic analysis of virtual human fit to virtual work- station components [ ]. any design or work environment can be evaluated from an ergonomics perspective using virtual simulation before making the real physical proto- type [ ]. the study of digital prototypes in virtual environ- ment reduces the developmental cost and design time [ ]. the correlation between the results of dhm simulation and real-life assessment is fairly high [ ]. a few popular dhm software, which is commercially available include jack, sammie, ramsis, delmia, santos, etc. received: may / accepted: october / published online: october * charu m. maurya, mauryacm@iitg.ac.in | department of design, indian institute of technology, guwahati, assam, india. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -y&domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - vol:.( ) review paper sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y . application of dhm software for improving the work environment digital human modeling software has gained atten- tion for proactive design and ergonomic evaluation of products and workplaces in diverse fields that include manufacturing industry, healthcare sectors, transporta- tion, agriculture, defense research and development, aerospace-aviation sectors and so on. in industrial work- place, dhm has been applied for improving the designs of work cells in car manufacturing plants [ ], designing of small fishing vessels to reduce work-related musculo- skeletal disorders of fisherman [ ], redesigning of work accessories for minimizing awkward postures in indian shop floor workstation [ ], workplace evaluation of coir industry, etc. [ ]. the ergonomic analysis of refrigerated cabinets [ ], shoe rack [ ], adjustable walking cane [ ], modified cycle rickshaw [ ], improved load carrier for coolie [ ] improved design of wearable load assisting device [ ] etc. are few examples where dhm has been applied effectively. in the healthcare sector, dhm has been suc- cessfully utilized for improving laparoscopic surgery [ ], evaluation of bathing system design for patients [ ], patient lifting devices for healthcare personnel [ ], etc. dhm also finds its application in the field of trans- portation, aviation, and aerospace viz. vision analysis of pilots in jet aircraft [ ], evaluation of cockpit design [ ], vehicle interior design [ ], evaluation of seat belt, driver posture and comfort in vehicles [ , ]. inclusion of dhm in the design process of the agricultural tools and machinery [ – ] is also gaining popularity. . need of dhm application for improving the work environment of the specially‑abled and elderly following the literature review, it is evident that a large number of research and developmental activities have been carried out by applying dhm in product and work- place design for military personnel, automobile drivers, healthcare professionals and for general civilian popu- lations. researches on dhm applications in the design and development of products for specific population subgroups like elderly and specially-abled persons have received less attention. thus, there is a scope for need- based design of products and support systems for such specific sub-populations by taking the advantages of dhm technologies. a user-centric work environment or ergonomic products is an utmost necessity for the spe- cially-abled or elderly as they encounter various barriers like inadequate policies and standards, negative attitude, lack of provision of services and the problem with ser- vice delivery, etc. [ ]. specially-abled employees who work in uncomfortable workplaces have also complained of mobility trouble, problems associated with heart and blood circulation, depression, etc. [ ]. they also face difficulties while traveling and using public transport [ ], which prevents their participation in social and work life [ ]. apart from that, specially-abled persons also encounter other disparities like lower average pay, job insecurity, lack of training facilities, participation in decision-making, etc. [ ]. hence, convenient housing and adequate support services should be provided to the specially-abled or elderly people [ ]. moreover, planners, designers, and architects should adopt univer- sal and inclusive designs approach to remove obstacles in accommodation, transportation and communication to empower the specially-abled to participate indepen- dently and comfortably in education, employment and social life [ ]. in the scenario described above, virtual prototyping with dhm could enable the designer to evaluate the product and modify it by simulating the interaction of digital manikin with the cad model of the product [ ]. digital manikin-based virtual testing of the product-user interface also reduces discomforts/troubles to the elderly and specially-abled persons by eliminating their actual participation in real experiments of physical compatibility evaluation. aim the aim of the current paper is to explore the state of the art literature review on applications of dhm based virtual ergonomic approaches in improving the product and workplaces designs for specially-abled/elderly. the paper also proposes a way forward to continue research and developmental activities towards the betterment of the quality of life of the elderly and specially-abled persons through proactive and inclusive design strategies. results the papers published in peer-reviewed english journals and conference proceedings using dhm for a product or work- place analysis and having the specially-abled or elderly as participants were considered for the present review. the studies pertaining to anthropometric databases of elderly and specially-abled for making their digital manikin were identified from the available literature. areas such as indus- tries, public places, sports, product design, healthcare, etc. vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y review paper were also explored where dhm has been used for solving design related issues of specially-abled and elderly. . anthropometric database of the specially‑abled and elderly for dhm anthropometry is one of the important aspects of dhm based product/workplace design and evaluation. different anthropometric databases are incorporated in dhm soft- ware to get the digital manikin for the targeted population in the simulation process [ ]. fourteen ( ) studies dealing with the creation of anthropometric databases of elderly and specially-abled have been included in the present review. d’souza et al. [ ] in their study created functional reach database of users of wheel mobility devices using dmh software and applied it for calculating vertical reach ranges for forward and side-ways. a model to predict reach envelop of digital human model based on data collected from elderly subjects was also proposed [ ]. another human modeling software “hadrian” (human anthropometric data require- ment investigation and analysis) was developed [ – ] where anthropometric data, range of motion data, reach range, data regarding the ability to do kitchen based activi- ties in daily life were recorded from respondents. the elderly having age-related impairments and specially-abled persons (covering a wide range of disability) were selected as respondents. the hadrian software was validated by comparing the results of hadrian manikins with the actual users while performing the task such as retrieving a ticket from the machine, using atm to obtain cash or using the lift at the railway station [ ]. hogberg et al. [ ] developed digi- tal human models of the elderly by modifying the anthro- pometric and joint range of motion data. anthropometric data of elderly and their caregiver was also collected [ ] to develop d digital interactive works environment through which movements of caregivers of elderly can be studied and improved through training. chaffin [ ] recorded , motions from people in the age group of – years for developing a database of human motion prediction models. the motions of the people while reaching and moving the light to moderate objects in either seated or in standing pos- tures were recorded. the models can help to predict various motor behavioral strategies adopted by a different group of people within a virtual workplace. motion capture tech- nology to create digital human models of specially-abled people was also applied [ , ]. . dhm application for improving industrial workplace earlier researchers have reported few studies where dhm has been applied for improving the workplace of specially-abled and elderly. aubry et al. proposed an approach for the ergonomic analysis of the specially- abled person’s workplace. in this approach gesture - based description of the workplace, virtual environment and modeling of disability as motion constraints were utilized. thus, motions of the specially-abled person affected by his/her disability were generated and ergo- nomic analysis of workplace ( d cad model) was per- formed [ ]. a discomfort model of the climbing task for a specially-abled worker with prosthesis limb was also developed. the model was validated by simulating ladder-climbing task with the model of digital under knee prosthesis wearer and the results were compared with statistical data from the observed experiment [ ]. kaklanis et al. introduced a new virtual modeling tech- nique comprising virtual user models, task models, and simulation models as a core component of a simulation module, expressed in usixml format. here, the virtual user model was described as a virtual user with disabili- ties, simulation model was described as the product/ services to be tested, and a task model was described as the complex tasks of the user. the effectiveness of the proposed framework was evaluated virtually by exam- ining the accessibility of a workplace to five virtual user models with different disabilities [ ]. in a study, a digi- tal manikin of the wheelchair user was developed and interfaced with the simulated workplace environment. the work environment was evaluated and all modifica- tions were incorporated virtually [ ]. in another study, immersive virtual reality technology was used to assess the modified workplace where a person with disability accessed virtual reality environment. the specific behav- ior of physically handicapped was studied in a virtual environment by integrating task and physical disabil- ity constraints. their model considered three levels of constraints namely appearance (broken arm or ampu- tation), kinematics (inaccurate pointing or less degree of freedom of joints) and physical (strength limits) that affect the motion and posture of physically handicapped in task performance [ ]. an office environment for the elderly and disabled was evaluated using dhm soft- ware in a simulated environment and in a real scenario with actual users. both evaluations gave similar results regarding accessibility features in office design [ ]. digital human modeling based inclusive design strat- egy was adopted in a study for evaluating furniture manufacturing assembly for an elderly worker having joint mobility constraints. a human model based on joint mobility data of elderly worker from hadrian database was developed. the posture adopted by workers in the furniture assembly environment was replicated virtually on a human model of the elderly worker to assess the acceptability of posture [ ]. vol:.( ) review paper sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y . dhm application for public utilities a few reported studies have illustrated the use of dhm for making public utilities comfortably accessible to the specially-abled. li et al. examined the interaction behav- ior of wheelchair users with atm machine in a virtual environment using dhm and immersive virtual reality technique. comfort analysis of digital manikin was per- formed in dhm software. emg measures of a person while using atm with immersive virtual reality technique were also recorded. both the results were compared with the subjective responses of real respondents [ ]. in another study, the design of the atm machine was also virtually evaluated and modified by studying its interaction with the digital human model of a wheelchair user from had- rian database [ ]. a pedestrian simulation model to make the barrier- free environment for elderly and specially-abled at pub- lic buildings is being developed [ ]. such a simulation model at public places will be able to evaluate the visibility of the guidance system and reveal the areas not visible to the specially-abled [ ]. . dhm application in healthcare sectors healthcare sector is also taking benefit of dhm technol- ogy for designing prosthesis, exoskeleton and assistive aids. morotti et al., colombo et al. and colombo et al. created two digital human models for transtibial ampu- tee and transfemoral amputee. its gait was simulated for analyzing causes of gait deviations related to prosthesis set up and socket modeling [ – ] (fig. ). a system for designing sockets for lower limb prosthesis was also devel- oped. this system designs sockets based on the patient’s weight, lifestyle, tonicity level and geometry of residuum [ ]. a virtual prototype of intelligent bionic leg (ibl), an advanced trans-femoral prosthesis, was developed and virtually evaluated by xie et al. [ ]. for designing exoskeletons, musculoskeletal analysis of upper limb exoskeleton in a simulated environment was performed [ ]. in this way, the designs of the exoskel- eton can biomechanically be evaluated before making an actual prototype. to analyze the effect of the strap that connects the exoskeleton with the human body, a com- bined human exoskeleton model was developed and evaluated in a simulated environment [ ]. virtual pro- totyping of rehabilitation exoskeleton by merging com- putational musculoskeletal analysis with simulation was also proposed [ ]. in the proposed framework an exo- skeleton–limb musculoskeletal model is developed first and then its performance is assessed using biomechanical, morphological and controller parameters. these param- eters are optimized for developing the virtual design. the virtual experiment is then carried out to generate a modi- fication in the design if required. the application of such a framework was illustrated by developing the index finger exoskeleton prototype. in the area of assistive aids, a modified dhm tool was applied for ergonomic evaluation of a bathing system design from caretakers’ (elderly) and caregivers’ point of view. most suitable bathing posture was also defined. anthropometrics, joint range of motion, description, and appearance were customized for developing manikins of the elderly. rula and joint comfort values were used to evaluate bathing system design [ ]. a walker with sit- stand assistance for the elderly was developed and virtu- ally evaluated on the human model before experimenting on real users [ ]. a sit to stand and mobility assistance fig. dhm application in a prosthesis design from colombo et al. [ ] and b assistive aids for elderly and specially-abled from khan et al. [ ] vol.:( ) sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y review paper device for the elderly was also developed and virtually evaluated by khan et al. [ ]. out of numerous case exam- ples, two prominent usages of dhm in the design of pros- thesis for the person with amputated leg and assistive aids for the elderly and specially-abled have been depicted in fig. for the easy understanding of the readers. application of virtual human for assisted healthcare is also evolving. the virtual human with characteristics like speech recognition, natural vision, and language allows a human user to interact with their computer in a more natural way. the virtual human monitor the type of user such as old age person or disable, record data from sensors and communicate the data to healthcare professionals. currently, virtual patient technology has been applied for mental health diagnosis and clinical training [ ]. kakijaki et al. applied digital human modeling to physiotherapy education for d visualization and analysis of gait motion of the normal and hemiplegic patient [ ]. . dhm application in sports dhm was applied by holmberg et al. for understanding the effect of the impairment on sport’s performance [ ]. in their study musculoskeletal simulation for skiing sport was carried out on digital manikin with lower leg pros- thesis. the influence of technique, fitness, and training was taken as negligible. two full-body simulation models with identical anthropometric data were created having similar kinematics and external kinetics. in order to assess the impact of prosthesis on muscular work, one model was composed of full muscle setup and the other without muscle setup in right lower leg and foot. biomechanical simulation of cross-country skiing was performed on both manikins. the output was used for computing metabolic muscle work and skiing efficiency. the results indicated that without muscles in leg and foot, skiing demanded more muscular efforts in total. . dhm for vehicle design and assessment dhm has also gained the attention of researchers for design- ing and analyzing vehicles, which can be comfortable to specially-abled and elderly. a humanoid model was used for analyzing techniques adopted by the elderly in getting into a car [ ]. vehicle egress strategies and constraints faced by the elderly were also evaluated using ramsis bodybuilder [ ]. a virtual modeling technique was used for evaluating car designs for hand brake and storage compartment use with a virtual model of the elderly having spinal cord injury by kaklanis et al. [ ]. erdelyi et al. virtually evaluated the vibrational comfort level of the motorcycle ride with human models of able-bodied riders and people with different dis- abilities using root mean square (rms) and vibration dose value (vdv) [ ]. the suitability of a bus design for elderly and disabled people was also analyzed by marshall et al. using digital manikin of specially-abled and elderly from hadrian database [ ]. to provide the glimpse of applica- tion of dhm software in vehicle design and evaluation tar- geting for elderly and specially-abled people as the users, current researchers have compiled images from various pieces of literature and presented in fig. . . dhm application in other areas a model for simulating motion according to age by incor- porating age-related changes in gait pattern, kinemat- ics, and kinetic values has also been developed [ ]. the model can be used for analyzing crowd behavior in the virtual environment. wyk [ ] worked on a methodology which can help to set up an open framework where a vir- tual human can be animated for visualizing sign language. in this method, any verbal language can be translated into a sign language in a machine translation system. future work the participation of specially-abled or elderly in the real- life design development and evaluation process might cause discomfort to them. however, ergonomic design that suits their needs is very much required for minimiz- ing the effects of constraints caused by their disability. the review presents the holistic knowledge base regarding the applications of dhm technology by various research- ers in improving the quality of life of the elderly and spe- cially-abled people. it is hoped that it would encourage researchers to develop and modify designs of products of everyday use for the aforesaid targeted users. dhm based virtual ergonomics evaluations in the field of transport, public utilities like hospital environment, markets, parks, temples, etc. are needed for modifying existing design towards more inclusive considering the specific require- ments of the elderly and specially-abled persons as these public places are frequently accessed by them. in the living environment, designs of the bathroom, toilets, furniture, etc. can also be evaluated and accordingly design modifi- cations can be performed to address ergonomic issues if any. dhm can also be applied to design and evaluate assis- tive aids and prosthesis to make them more user-friendly. discussion and conclusion the present paper explores the areas where dhm has been applied for ergonomic evaluations and improving the work environment of elderly and specially-abled persons. the paper highlights the efforts done by researchers for vol:.( ) review paper sn applied sciences ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y recording anthropometric and biomechanical data of spe- cially-abled and elderly people and developing software such as hadrian. dhm has been applied for evaluating and modifying the workplaces viz. industrial workplace, public utilities, vehicle design, prosthesis design, etc. to make it compatible with elderly and specially-abled. specially-abled employees often encounter problems viz. trouble in mobility, blood circulation, and depression in the industrial workplace. dhm can be of immense help in solving the workplace-related problems of the specially- abled as done in case of office design [ ] and furniture assembly [ ]. physical disability often hampers the move- ment of specially-abled and elderly and absence of appro- priate physical infrastructures discourages their interac- tion in the social environment. dhm can be effectively used for virtual evaluation and improvement of the infra- structural facility of public places like atm, railway station, bus-stop and public transportations. the current paper also highlights the research and development activities carried out by the researchers for designing assistive aids, prosthesis, and exoskeleton with the help of dhm and its successful evaluation in a simulated environment. in the automotive industry, suitable modifications in the design of hand brake, storage compartment has been undertaken using dhm in order to make it comfortable for specially- abled and elderly. though limited, dhm has now been applied by researchers in the design process for making the work environment suitable for the specially-abled and elderly people. the major bottleneck for application of digital human modeling for product and facility design for elderly and specially-abled is the unavailability of anthro- pometric and biomechanical (total range of motion and comfort range of motion of body joints) databases of the aforesaid populations. this is true for most of the countries all over the world. hence, the need of the hour is to develop such databases for effective use of dhm software to provide a better quality of life to these targeted users. it is envisaged that the body of litera- ture presented in the current review would encourage designers and engineers to use dhm based ergonomic evaluation as an inclusive design approach for ensuring a barrier-free environment for the specially-abled and the elderly persons. the future research pertaining to applications of dhm software in developing manikins (with anthropometric and biomechanical data of elderly and specially-abled population) for ergonomic design and development of various products and facilities as described in current review would facilitate the quality of life of the elderly and specially-abled persons. fig. dhm application in vehicle design and evaluation for elderly and specially-abled. images adopted from a kaklanis et al. [ ], b erdelyi et al. [ ] and c marshall et al. 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- - - _ https://doi.org/ . / - - - - _ https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eb b/ da c d beee d bea aa dc e .pdf https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eb b/ da c d beee d bea aa dc e .pdf https://doi.org/ . /detc - https://doi.org/ . /j.ergon. . . https://doi.org/ . /j.ergon. . . https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ https://link.springer.com/chapter/ . / - - - - _ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ _multibody_simulation_with_a_virtual_dummy_for_motorcycle_vibration_comfort_assessment https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ _multibody_simulation_with_a_virtual_dummy_for_motorcycle_vibration_comfort_assessment https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ _multibody_simulation_with_a_virtual_dummy_for_motorcycle_vibration_comfort_assessment https://doi.org/ . /si.v i . http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxiv/ -w /papers/le.pdf http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxiv/ -w /papers/le.pdf digital human modeling (dhm) for improving work environment for specially-abled and elderly abstract introduction . digital human modeling (dhm) software . application of dhm software for improving the work environment . need of dhm application for improving the work environment of the specially-abled and elderly aim results . anthropometric database of the specially-abled and elderly for dhm . dhm application for improving industrial workplace . dhm application for public utilities . dhm application in healthcare sectors . dhm application in sports . dhm for vehicle design and assessment . dhm application in other areas future work discussion and conclusion references [pdf] devil in the digital: ambivalent results in an object‐based teaching course | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. doi: . /muan. corpus id: devil in the digital: ambivalent results in an object‐based teaching course @article{turin devilit, title={devil in the digital: ambivalent results in an object‐based teaching course}, author={m. turin}, journal={museum anthropology}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } m. turin published sociology museum anthropology in , i piloted a course in which students used web-based tools to explore underdocumented collections of himalayan materials at yale university. through class-based research and contextualization, i set students the goal of augmenting existing metadata and designing media-rich, virtual tours of the collections that could be incorporated into the sparse catalogue holdings held within the library system. the process was experimental and had mixed results, as this article documents. the class… expand view via publisher halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures from this paper figure figure figure figure figure view all figures & tables one citation citation type citation type all types cites results cites methods cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency big data, bad metadata: a methodological note on the importance of good metadata in the age of digital history kimmo elo computer science pdf view excerpt save alert research feed references showing - of references engaging with pasts in the present: curators, communities, and exhibition practice m. k. scott history view excerpt, references background save alert research feed salvaging the records of salvage ethnography: the story of the digital himalaya project m. turin engineering pdf view excerpt, references background save alert research feed from sage on the stage to guide on the side a. king psychology pdf save alert research feed the cultural biography of objects c. gosden, y. marshall art save alert research feed himalayan exhibit unites regional artifacts yale daily news cultural property: a contribution to the debate related papers abstract figures citations references related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes: from texts to spatiotemporal analysis through collaborative work and gis daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz abstract this article argues that the study of literary representations of landscapes can be aided and enriched by the application of digital geographic technologies. as an example, the article focuses on the methods and preliminary findings of litescape.pt—atlas of literary landscapes of mainland portugal, an on-going project that aims to study literary representations of mainland portugal and to explore their connections with social and environmental realities both in the past and in the present. litescape.pt integrates traditional reading practices and ‘distant reading’ approaches, along with collaborative work, relational databases, and geographic information systems (gis) in order to classify and analyse excerpts from works of portuguese literature according to a set of ecological, socioeconomic, temporal and cultural themes. as we argue herein this combination of qualitative and quantitative methods—itself a response to the difficulty of obtaining external funding—can lead to (a) increased productivity, (b) the pursuit of new research goals, and (c) the creation of new knowledge about natural and cultural history. as proof of concept, the article presents two initial outcomes of the litescape.pt project: a case study documenting the evolving literary geography of lisbon and a case study exploring the representation of wolves in portuguese literature. keywords: portuguese literature, interdisciplinary research, collaborative work, databases, gis international journal of humanities and arts computing . ( ): – doi: . /ijhac. . © edinburgh university press www.euppublishing.com/journal/ijhac january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz . literature and cultural geography as the canonical work of john wright, david lowenthal, and hugh prince suggests, geographers have long valued literary texts as sources of geographical knowledge. among portuguese geographers, amorim girão long ago expressed a similar conviction in the value of literature in his foundational geografia de portugal, where he argues, for example, that no one has captured the spirit and the features of the beira transmontana (a region in the north of the country) more powerfully than the author nuno de montemor. in a similar way, contemporary cultural geographers advocate that works of literature are able not only to capture the significance of specific locations, but also to ascribe new kinds of significance to those locations and, in the process, to influence how readers understand and interpret them. by associating places with particular facts and events, it is claimed, writers foster ‘processes for making places meaningful in a social medium’. given the wide-ranging implications of such meaning- making activities, it comes as little surprise that studying literary representations of landscapes—and the changing cultural geographies those representations reveal—involves integrating concepts, ideas, and approaches from several fields, including ecology, geography, anthropology, and history. for cultural geographers, the interdisciplinary study of literary texts is useful because literature often includes both objective descriptions of space and subjective accounts of place, as well as information about spatial patterns and processes. literary texts can, moreover, be usefully integrated with other source materials to give new insights about not only how landscapes change, but also how those changes are culturally documented and perceived. reading literary texts alongside land-use maps, for example, has been shown to reveal different kinds of information about content and scope, spatial scale, time scale and perspective. applying literature in cultural-geographical research is, however, not without its potential challenges. one must, after all, take the inner subjectivity of literary texts into account and, accordingly, allow for the fact that each text presents a partial, and to some degree biased, vision of reality. in order to accommodate this particularity and bias, it is useful to work not with individual texts but with many texts that can then be compared and contrasted. for the purposes of the litescape.pt project (which we outline below), this was achieved by designing and creating a large, trans-historical corpus of portuguese literature ( works dating from to ), which in comprising a variety of different writers and genres—and, accordingly, an array different ideas and perspectives—can be taken as a representative sample. assembling and working with a corpus of this kind poses a number of practical and interpretive challenges, which we will address in our discussion of the litescape.pt project below. for now, it is worth clarifying that january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes our aim in creating this corpus was not to explain the meaning and role of specific places used by writers in their creative activity (a recurrent subject within literary scholarship), but rather to use a large collection of texts to examine how literary representations of portugal’s landscapes have changed over time. in this way, our research can be viewed as embedded both within the specific framework of ‘macroanalytic’ literary history (as advocated by matthew jockers) and within the wider framework of geo-criticism, as well as ‘literary cartography’, ‘literary geography’, and ‘literary gis’. in addition, as will be clarified below, our approach also takes a theoretical orientation from ecological criticism in that it draws on literature as a resource for studying environmental history. . quantitative and qualitative analyses quantitative digital methods are useful for working with large amounts of data. they allow the researcher not only to observe and compare patterns, but also to define goals and to test hypotheses. such methods are, of course, most commonly associated with research in the social sciences. however, they have more recently begun to be championed by scholars in the humanities. franco moretti, for one, has advocated that literary historians should move away from the ‘close reading’ of individual texts and instead engage in the ‘distant reading’ of large text corpora. according to moretti, one of the main limitations of close reading is that it tends to create blind spots in literary history. this is because the reading of individual texts often leads scholars to focus solely on major works and, accordingly, to ignore lesser-known texts. in response to this problem, moretti has proposed distant reading as a more scientific and operational method for literary studies. the use of such scientific approaches in the humanities can be seem to reflect a desire to follow the example of disciplines, such as physics and evolutionary biology, in using large amounts of data to guide critical inquiry. not without causing controversy, this ‘identification with new scientific methods gives the impression of a revolutionary new style of research emerging in the humanities’, as paul gooding, melissa terras, and clair warwick have put it. beyond the understandable refusal to change scholarly paradigms and procedures, criticism of the application of scientific methods in the humanities is also based on the problems raised by the manipulation of large volumes of digital data, including both technical issues (such as the mixed quality of optical-character- recognition digitisation) and epistemological concerns (such as bias generated by the automated creation of textual metadata). largely on account of this, the current trend in the humanities is to strive for a better integration of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. underlying this trend is a desire to make more efficient use of large volumes of texts that january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz remain the fundamental sources for researchers in this field. mass digitization efforts and the democratization of the world wide web have made digital texts more accessible than ever before. the tools needed to extract data and to perform spatial analyses of it are now also increasingly available through the capabilities of database management and gis platforms, which are enabling researchers around the globe to generate new pathways for research and even, in some cases, to address old questions in new ways. with the development of gis technology many areas of knowledge, the humanities included, have sought to use and to incorporate new methodologies. in the discipline of history, for example, the main methodological innovation has been the incorporation of time as a variable in historical geographic information systems (hgis) research. as has elsewhere been shown, including temporal data enables researchers to join attributes commonly evaluated using gis such as location, extent, and volume. researchers have also sought to consolidate temporal components by spatialising historical information and by analysing the evolution of geo-referenced datasets. some of the more recent developments along these lines have focused on the exploration of literary texts and the construction of spatial narratives. as yet, however, the use of gis tools is not sufficiently widespread in the humanities. as a result, their potential is not fully recognised. there are many plausible explanations for this, not least the difficulties involved in planning, creating, and managing a gis project. moreover, the application of gis in the humanities is often less than straightforward. gis were designed to handle large volumes of quantitative data and, in many cases, this not the type of data that scholars in the humanities use. when joining information and geography to temporal attributes, for example, relations tend to multiply and generate datasets that contain more exceptions than rules, more arbitrariness than standards. several models have been proposed to resolve these problems and to provide gis with a better way of working with texts. among the more recent is the proposal to integrate gis with database management systems (dms). this integration has only recently become possible, when it materialized stephen ramsay’s thinking on the evolution of relational database design and its future impact in research. as ramsay explains a ‘database . . . can be set up in such a way as to allow multiple users access’, and data entry ‘from a number of different sources’. in this way, he concludes, ‘the logical statements that would flow from that ontology would necessarily exceed the knowledge of any one individual. the power of relational databases to enable the serendipitous apprehension of relationships would be that much more increased’. alongside these innovations, the recent advent of ‘cloud’ databases offers increasing functionalities for structuring, searching, and accessing information, allowing scholars greater freedom to engage in collaborative research. january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes . litescape.pt—atlas of the literary landscapes of mainland portugal portuguese literature includes a wide variety of landscape representations that have never been studied systematically at a national scale. litescape.pt is an on-going interdisciplinary project that emerged in this context in order to aid the analysis of literary representations of the landscapes of mainland portugal: see http://paisagensliterarias.ielt.org. the project works with a corpus of texts (comprising nearly . million words) published between and ; its overarching aim is to investigate how this corpus can serve a resource for exploring not only environmental and sociological changes, but also how the landscapes of portugal have evolved in the popular imagination over time. embracing the idea that writers are also mapmakers, the project places the mapping the literary texts at its core. the identification of the geographical references within the corpus is therefore key to our research. in order to facilitate the identification of these references, each literary representation of mainland portugal in our corpus has been digitized and then registered in a shared database as a discrete literary excerpt. these excerpts are passages that can be read and understood independently and that, moreover, give a clear sense of the aesthetic aspects of the works from which they derive. once identified and extracted, these excerpts were classified into categories (to indicate whether they were concerned with geographic, ecological, socioeconomic, cultural, and/or temporal issues) and then geo-referenced. ultimately, this will enable us to depict the spatial and thematic information the excerpts contain on an interactive map, called the ‘atlas of literary landscapes’, that will serve as a source for the development of further interdisciplinary research. as the foregoing account of the project suggests, the litescape.pt project uses a hybrid methodology. specifically, it combines traditional close- reading methods with ‘distant reading’, collaborative work, a shared postgresql database, gis tools, and quantitative methods. the project, at this level, has similarities with other digital literary mapping project around the globe. but in addition to being unique in the field of portuguese literary studies, it also has some other special defining features. for instance, it is as a large, trans-historical corpus that not only includes contemporary works, but also writings from the romantic era, when the appreciate of landscape as an aesthetic apprehension of nature came to the fore. litescape.pt, moreover, focuses not on a particular region or location, but instead embraces the entire national mainland territory of portugal with all its natural and cultural diversity. the project, furthermore, focuses on landscape changes by using a set of analytical descriptors relating to five main categories. these descriptors included relief forms, land use, natural heritage, cultural heritage, and human activities. january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz classifying the excerpts in this way, and compiling a list of metadata to facilitate searching through and analysing them, is a time consuming task, especially given that the project does not, as yet, have a fully funded research team. in order to address this, we invited fellow academics and graduate students in literary studies, as well as school teachers of portuguese language, geography, history and science, to assist us in collecting, recording, and classifying the texts. we used a standardised reading protocol (introduced through a short training session) to ensure that each of our participants (hereafter called ‘readers’) followed the same procedures and offered them continuous supervision and support. the database was made accessible to the readers through odbc (open database connectivity). this allowed for the database to be shared and for the information recorded by every reader becomes immediately available to the group. it also allowed readers who wished to find out more about a specific topic to explore the entire corpus. the subjects explored in these texts can cover a wide range of topics, including ( ) the identification of fictional and non- fictional place names and their relation to human occupation in the territory; ( ) the characterisation of land uses; ( ) the exploitation of natural resources; ( ) landscape processes associated with human activities; ( ) landscape changes observed over suitably organised time periods; and ( ) the identification of plant and animal species mentioned in the literary scenarios. the goal, in this sense, is not to engage in a philological approach to a small set of literary works, but instead to provide for a thorough analysis of texts to be carried out by the team members on a wide range of literary works. this approach has the virtue of retaining the advantages of the traditional reading methods while, in the process, overcoming some of the pitfalls related to other ‘distant reading’ approaches, such as the need to disambiguate place names, proper nouns and other errors that normally emerge from an automated computational process of text mining. recognising that digital literary mapping is potentially an extremely broad field of research, litescape.pt defines its parameters by establishing the identification of a geographical unit as a minimum criterion for selecting and registering the literary excerpts. three inclusive administrative divisions were considered. the larger of these (the so-called nuts ) is a cluster of twenty- eight municipalities in mainland portugal. whenever possible, municipalities or civil parishes have also been identified. in some cases (for instance in urban centres or in descriptive literary works) a precise location was registered by combining places mentioned in the texts with latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates extracted from google maps or other gazetteers. the resulting information can be read into a gis application in order to analyse the different excerpts according to the five thematic categories mentioned above. the gis can also facilitate spatiotemporal analysis of the excerpts and allow the research to integrate (and draw comparisons with) data from other sources. in this way, january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes litescape.pt has made it possible to analyse the deeper significance of each place or geographical unit registered in each excerpt. one methodological challenge facing the project at present is the difficulty of using more advanced computational-linguistic techniques for exploring the portuguese texts. computational linguistic software is mainly available for english. although a research team is building a version for portuguese, to date, only a very small sample of the portuguese literature has been scanned and digitized. accordingly, it is difficult to take advantage of the automated text extraction tools that other mapping projects employ. ultimately, the project aims to design a methodology that could overcome this and to extract from the literary texts their ‘absolute singularity, but with potential links to broader phenomena; [their] irreducible difference, but with similarities that may nonetheless be discerned’. keeping up with all those links and similarities, the database will preserve the original text for subsequent interpretation while at the same time enabling a quantitative and spatial approach. in this process a literary excerpt become part of the relevant material for analysis with a set of structured metadata. relevant links, trends and patterns are then detectable between many excerpts, even from different works and writers. in this sense ‘the corpus as entity shifts meaning away from the text and towards the network’. . landscape changes in portuguese literature the results of the collaborative work can be summarized in a few numbers gathered from the litescape.pt database. on july , the database comprised authors (mainly portuguese), literary works (published between and ), , literary excerpts, and almost , , words. all the excerpts have one or more mandatory geographical descriptors. in addition to the twenty-eight nuts municipalities, readers associated the literary excerpts with more than , locations. . % of these locations were assigned exact geographical coordinates. the rest were either found to be fictional places, locations that no longer exist, or that are still in the process of being identified. of all the excerpts, . % were found to have at least one thematic descriptor. on average, readers classified each literary excerpt within two categories and around five thematic descriptors. there are therefore more than , thematic descriptors in the database, all organised into the five aforementioned categories and twenty-seven subcategories. up to now, the project has involved thirty-six readers. their overall contribution is displayed in figure . two of these readers have been responsible for over % of all the work in the database. the work of the five most active readers (all of whom have contributed more than excerpts) accounts for more than two-thirds of the total. most of the readers recorded excerpts from only one to three books, whereas only four failed to contribute a complete literary work. january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz figure . distribution of the excerpts registered in the litescape.pt database per readers. (readers who recorded more than registers are identified by their initials). an overall identical level of participation was observed in similar crowdsourcing projects that use multiple collaborators to foster digitization, despite their focus on different sources and different research questions. an overview of the entire corpus showed that landscape descriptions are spread across mainland portugal, although some territorial units showed a higher concentration (figure ). lisbon and its surroundings stood out with a maximum of , excerpts, followed by the douro region with , excerpts. this different distribution results from the literary production itself (which privileges some regions) and the readers’ interest in certain regions, writers, or subjects. understanding these two aspects helps avoid a biased conclusion about the distribution of literary landscapes, their meanings and scope throughout the portuguese literature. january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes figure . distribution of the excerpts registered in the litescape.pt database per nuts municipality in mainland portugal. january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz lisbon has been widely portrayed in art and literature and was even considered one of the three world literary cities, along with rome and constantinople. additionally, it was the scene of major urban, political, and cultural transformations, which is a relevant research topic in the context of the project. in addition to the beauty and cultural appeal of the literary landscapes of the douro region depicted in many texts, including those of aquilino ribeiro and miguel torga, who were born in the douro and portray the region in their works. this spatiotemporal reading, which has recently come to the attention of several researchers, was until recently commonly overlooked in portugal. as for our project, several specific research projects have profited from the material stored in the database. since it is not been feasible to document all these projects in this article, we have decided to focus on two exemplary case studies: one concerning literary representations of lisbon and one concerning literary representations of wolves. the spatiotemporal analysis applied in both studies is representative of the potentials of litescape.pt project. . lisbon as a literary space this case study reveals the benefits of integrating methods from different fields. it assesses the development of the literary space of lisbon over time and it discusses how literary representations of the city resonate with lisbon’s evolving identity as a cultural and social space. bringing together novels published from the mid-nineteenth century onwards, the study relied on an interdisciplinary approach to identify and to present literary geographical patterns and to combine these with other sources of information about lisbon. the literary space of the city, which can be geo-referenced and drawn on a map, was assumed to be defined by the period setting or as evoked by the characters. all of the literary works analysed were chosen because they have lisbon as the central stage in the narrative, and also according to the clearly identified historical period in which they were either written or published. converting literary locations from points to spots, through density analysis, and then to polygons; developing the concepts of literary space cumulative literary space and common literary space; and using methods borrowed from animal ecology: taking each of these steps made it possible to introduce size calculations and to build on the findings of other researchers. from a comparative or evolutionary perspective, the polygon shown in figure enable sequential and overlapping visualizations, which in turn facilitate comparisons with demographic data from different sources that were spatially referenced using the same framework. the results of the study suggested that the literary space did not match the urban space and, furthermore, that it commonly took thirty to forty years for lisbon’s literary geography to catch up with the city’s expanding urban january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes figure . common and cumulative literary space in lisbon as calculated by the minimum convex polygon (at %), in four historical periods: st (until , the period of monarchic rule); nd ( – , the republic); rd ( – , the dictatorship); th ( onwards, the period of democratic rule). landscape. accordingly, whereas the old commercial and political centre of the city, persists as its literary space in all the novels analysed, lisbon’s peripheries are either absent or underrepresented until . this occurs in spite of the fact that many of these peripheral areas were included in lisbon’s administrative limits as far back and were intensively urbanized during the s and s. in this way, the study showed that the mapping of an enlarged literary corpus, collected collaboratively and analysed by a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches (and through a combination of traditional and digital techniques) can produce new insights the cultural evolution of urban landscapes. the methodology employed in this study is fully replicable; it could be applied to another literary corpus to study other cities in other times and to investigate the relationship between real and imagined geographies. accordingly, it has the potential to lead to a better understanding of the process of ‘how city boundaries january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz figure . distribution of literary representations of wolves throughout time (main time of the narrative) by nuts municipality: tn , before ; tn , between and ; tn , after . shaped visions of the urban space as it was lived and experienced’, and how literature can elucidate about ‘the history of space becoming place’. . representations of wolves in portuguese literature in this case study, the researchers created a lupine corpus containing literary representation of mainland portugal that contained representations of wolves. this ‘lupine corpus’ was then augmented by the work of seven other readers, who classified other works that had not been identified in the first stage. this common effort led to the creation of a corpus of excerpts from literary works by writers, published between and . a content analysis was performed using a grid with several categories. these categories encompassed the various forms that the relationship between humans and nature can take. all literary representations were spatially referenced to one or more nuts municipalities and they were also associated with three time periods that applied to the first publication date and the time setting of the narrative. in order to study the literary representation of wolves, these time- stamps were then compared with other three time periods extrapolated from the historical knowledge about the trends of the iberian wolf’s range across portugal and its different conservation statuses (figure ). january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes quantitative analysis revealed that although wolves have been represented in literature since the late nineteenth century, the proportion of representations was not independent of the time period of publication. notably, a strong decline occurred in the works published after . literary representations of wolves were found to be combined with a variety of topics, approaches, and perspectives, although they were generally found to be less rich and less diverse in terms of their composition over time. the results also suggest the literary representation of wolves is not homogeneously throughout mainland portugal, and that the geographic distribution of these representation more-or-less matches that of the iberian wolf’s range and distribution over time. the approach followed here was enhanced by teamwork, which facilitated the shared analytical effort of classifying and organising the contents of the database concerned with humans’ relationships with wolves. by using quantitative and digital methods (namely, mapping with gis) this explanatory analysis was able to highlight the structure and composition of literary representations of wolves across time and space. from an eco-critical perspective, this approach can be seen as ‘an example of the advantages of researching into an enlarged sample of literary texts, producing accurate and comparable results and discussing them using current ecological knowledge’. . bridging the divide the advance of digital methods is a challenge both for those who produce tools and use them in digital humanities. despite technological advances, difficulties persist for their application within the humanities. these difficulties can no longer be viewed exclusively as a consequence of the refusal to embrace new technologies, as was the case some years ago. instead, the must be seem to arise because most of the sources and methodologies used by the humanists are hard to fit into the structured data embedded in the operation model of databases and gis. this gap results, in part, from the fact that narrative texts are the main sources and outputs of literary or historical analysis, and these cryptic or nuanced texts may be difficult to read and analyse with digital tools, largely because of their inherent standardisation, where everything has to fit into pre-formatted ‘boxes’. but even if the digital approaches may present some pitfalls (supposedly reductionist features that some authors associate with the use of these tools in humanities research) researchers should not refrain from using them. in this context, landscapes representations in literature are challenging objects of study, not only because of their inner complexity, but also because of their continuous changes over time and space. if an appropriate procedure is applied, it necessarily results in converting texts to comparable and measurable features through digital methods and technologies. as we have tried to show above, january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz these results are becoming available and the effort made during the compilation process will probably be fully rewarded. from an extensive archive of literary representations of landscapes, a varied range of inquiries with ambitious goals may be pursued. the studies of the literary space of lisbon and of literary representations of wolves demonstrate but do not exhaust the full potential of information we have compiled. the main value of these studies results in combining the traditional academic reading ( st stage identification and selection) with ‘distant reading’ strategies ( nd stage, analysis and outcomes) with the focus given to certain aspects of the text. these studies relied on a collaborative approach that improved the chances of analysing, on solid ground, the topics depicted in the literary texts as well as increasing scientific productivity. relying on a single reader would be unfeasible for exploring an enlarged literary corpus such as litescape.pt, and might cause one either to overlook influential, contemporary works or even to ignore ‘forgotten titles’. furthermore, collaborative work helps one deal with large amounts of information and to overcome a lack of time and funding. from this perspective, participatory and collaborative research cane be seen to have far more benefits than drawbacks for the digital humanities, since it allows scholars to engage with more information and promotes interdisciplinary research. there are, of course, concerns about projects based on an ‘imperialistic division of labour among scholars’. but, as litescape.pt affirms, one can pursue collaborative work in a way that shares knowledge equally among participants and, in the process, addresses ‘the common problem by giving other voices a chance to speak’. academia would benefit from more research projects working from texts to spatiotemporal analysis using collaborative work and gis. technology-mediated approaches, such as the use of digital materials, methods, and perspectives, can become a fruitful trend. the methods and outcomes presented in this article contribute to that trend by fostering new insights and by modelling new interdisciplinary practices for bridging the divide between the sciences and the humanities. end notes j. wright, ‘geography in literature’, geographical review , no. ( ), – . d. lowenthal and h. prince, ‘english landscape tastes’, geographical review , no. ( ), – . a. girão, geografia de portugal (porto, ), . m. crang, cultural geography (london, ), . p. lewis, ‘beyond description’, annals of the association of american geographers , no. ( ), – . f. moreira, ‘patterns and processes’, working paper for ‘landscape ecology: its methods and their applications’, april-may , faro, portugal. january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes a. i. queiroz, ‘landscape and literature: the ecological memory of terras do demo, portugal’, in z. roca, t. spek, t. terkenli, t. plieninger and f. höchtl, eds., european landscapes and lifestyles: the mediterranean and beyond, (lisboa, ), – . m. l. jockers, macroanalysis: digital methods and literary history, (illinois, ). see also, f. moretti, atlas of the european novel, – , (london, ). b. westphal, la géocritique, réel, fiction, espace, (paris, ). r. tally, ‘literary cartography: space, representation, and narrative’, faculty publications— english, < https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/ / > [accessed may ]. b. piatti, a. reuschel and l. hurni, ‘literary geography – or how cartographers open up a new dimension for literary studies’, in proceedings of the th international cartography conference (santiago: international cartographic association, ) < http://icaci.org/files/ documents/icc_proceedings/icc /html/nonref/ _ .pdf > [accessed july ]. d. cooper and i. gregory, ‘mapping the english lake district: a literary gis’, transactions of the institute of british geographers , no. ( ), – . l. buell, the future of environmental criticism: environmental crisis and literary imagination (malden, ). see, for instance, s. dunn and m. hedges, ‘crowd-sourcing as a component of humanities research infrastructures’, international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. – ( ), – . moretti, ‘conjectures on world literature’, new left review ( ), – . cited here at – . moretti, ‘operationalizing’: or, the function of measurement in modern literary theory’, pamphlets of the stanford literary lab ( ), – , < http://litlab.stanford.edu/ literarylabpamphlet .pdf > [accessed january ]. p. gooding, m. terras and c. warwick, ‘the myth of the new: mass digitization, distant reading, and the future of the book’, literary and linguistic computing , no. ( ), – . cited here at . dunn and hedges, . ian gregory, ‘exploiting time and space: a challenge for gis in the digital humanities’, in d. bodenhamer, j. corrigan and t. harris, eds., the spatial humanities: gis and the future of humanities scholarship, (bloomington, ). see d. bodenhamer, corrigan, and harris, eds., op. cit. l. silveira, ‘geographic information systems and historical research: an appraisal’, international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. ( ), – . s. ramsay, ‘databases’, in s. schreibman, r. siemens and j. unsworth, eds., companion to digital humanities, (oxford, ), – . cited here at . ibid. tally, ‘literary cartography’. this interactive map is not yet available due to insufficient funding. applications for funding were submitted in and again in , and although the project was rated as ‘outstanding’, due to budget constraints, the application was not successful. since the beginning, the litescape.pt project has received financial support from the research unit (ielt-fcsh, unl); further support was also given by the municipality of lisbon, through egeac. these projects include a literary atlas of europe < http://www.literaturatlas.eu/en/ > ; digital literary atlas of ireland, – < http://www.tcd.ie/trinitylongroomhub/ digital-atlas/ > ; géoculture, le limousin vu par les artistes < http://geo.culture-en- limousin.fr/?lang=fr > ; litmap project < http://www.litmapproject.com/ > ; mapping canada: an interactive resource < http://aelang.net/projects/canada.htm > ; mapping lake january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex daniel alves and ana isabel queiroz district literature < http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/projects/spatialhum.wordpress/?page_ id= > ; placing literature < http://www.placingliterature.com/ > ; stanford literary lab < http://litlab.stanford.edu/ > ; the space of slovenian literary culture < http://isllv. zrc-sazu.si/en/programi-in-projekti/the-space-of-slovenian-literary-culture-literary-history- and-the-gis-based > [accessed july ]. i. gregory and a. hardie, ‘visual gisting: bringing together corpus linguistics and geographical information systems’, literary and linguistic computing , no. ( ), – ; see, especially – . european commission, ‘nuts - nomenclature of territorial units for statistics - introduction’, eurostat, < http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/nuts_ nomenclature/introduction > [accessed january ]. this is a methodological approach applied on several researches and projects. see, for instance, r. mostern and i. johnson, ‘from named place to naming event: creating gazetteers for history’, international journal of geographical information science , no. ( ), – ; h. southall, r. mostern, and m. berman, ‘on historical gazetteers’, international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. ( ), – . creating computational linguistic software for portuguese is challenging because the language that has undergone several reforms since the beginning of the twentieth century. our corpus, for example, contains a number of linguistic variations (including spelling variations). see, on this topic, p. garcez, ‘the debatable luso-brazilian orthographic accord’, language problems & language planning , no. ( ), – . see also, a. baron, p. rayson and d. archer, ‘automatic standardization of spelling for historical text mining’, in digital humanities (maryland, ); i. hendrickx and r. marquilhas, ‘from old texts to modern spellings: an experiment in automatic normalisation’, in proceedings of the workshop on annotation of corpora for research in the humanities (germany, ), – . ‘close reading: a preface’, substance , no. ( ), – . cited here at . gooding, terras and warwick, ‘the myth of the new’, . see, for instance, t. causer and m. terras, ‘crowdsourcing bentham: beyond the traditional boundaries of academic history’, international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. (april ), – . dunn and hedges mention other projects and similar conclusions, stating that this kind of collaborative approach to research ‘is relatively new to academic research, and even more so to the humanities’ (‘crowd-sourcing’, ). j. c. osório, ed., cancioneiro de lisboa (seculos xiii - xx) (lisboa, ). see, for example, the works of moretti, tally, piatti et al., and cooper and gregory mentioned above. a. i. queiroz and j. carrilho, ‘stone metaphors about a village: a ‘stone vessel’ or ‘the most portuguese’?’ ecozon@: european journal of literature, culture and environment , no. ( ), – ; a. lavrador and a. c. tavares, ‘a literary ride through bacchus’ landscapes’, in enometrics xviii, (angers: ) < http://paisagensliterarias.ielt.org/ config/paisagensliterarias/conteudo/pp/a% literary% ride% through% bacchus% % landscapes_anger .pdf > [accessed july ]; f. cunha, a paisagem e as palavras que lá estão. levantado do chão, um romance político (lisboa, ); a. i. queiroz and d. alves, lisboa, lugares da literatura: história e geografia na narrativa de ficção do século xix à actualidade (lisboa, ); a. i. queiroz, ed., lisboa nas narrativas. olhares exteriores sobre a cidade antiga e contemporânea (lisboa, ) < http://paisagensliterarias. ielt.org/config/paisagensliterarias/conteudo/ebooks/lisboa_nas_narrativas.pdf > [accessed july ]; a. i. queiroz, ed., sofrimento, resistência e luta. ressonâncias na literatura portuguesa do século xx (lisboa, ) < http://paisagensliterarias.ielt.org/config/ paisagensliterarias/conteudo/ebooks/anaisabel_ _final.pdf > [accessed july ]; d. alves and a. i. queiroz, ‘studying urban space and literary representations using gis: lisbon, portugal, – ’, social science history , no. ( ), – ; and january , time: : pm ijhac. . .tex exploring literary landscapes a. i. queiroz, m. l. fernandes and f. soares, ‘the portuguese literary wolf’, literary and linguistic computing (december , ), – . for more information about this case study, see alves and queiroz, ‘studying urban space’. alves and queiroz, ‘studying urban space’, . see alves and queiroz, ‘studying urban space’, – . specifically, i. n. gregory and d. cooper, ‘thomas gray, samuel taylor coleridge and geographical information systems: a literary gis of two lake district tours’, international journal of humanities and arts computing , no. – ( ), – ; and cooper and gregory, ‘mapping the english lake district’. alves and queiroz, ‘studying urban space’, ; see also, l. buell, the future of environmental criticism, . for more information about this case study, see queiroz, fernandes, and soares, ‘the portuguese literary wolf’. see queiroz, fernandes, and soares, ‘the portuguese literary wolf’, – . queiroz, fernandes and soares, ‘the portuguese literary wolf’, . d. cohen and r. rosenzweig, digital history: a guide to gathering, preserving, and presenting the past on the web (philadelphia, ), introduction < http://chnm.gmu.edu/ digitalhistory/ > [accessed september ]. bodenhamer, corrigan, and harris, eds., the spatial humanities, . a. khadem, ‘annexing the unread: a close reading of ‘distant reading”, neohelicon , no. ( ), – : . m. simeone, j. guiliano, r. kooper and p. bajcsy, ‘digging into data using new collaborative infrastructures supporting humanities-based computer science research’, first monday , no. ( ) < http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/ view/ > [accessed november ]. khadem, ‘annexing the unread’, . w. mccarty, ‘collaborative research in the digital humanities’, in m. deegan and w. mccarty, eds., collaborative research in the digital humanities, (surrey, ), – . cited here at . terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities melissa terras reader in electronic communication, department of information studies, university college london. m.terras@ucl.ac.uk abstract digital humanities faces many issues in the current financial and educational climate. in this closing plenary from the digital humanities conference at king’s college london, major concerns about the current role and function of digital humanities are raised, demonstrating the practical and theoretical aspects of digital humanities research in regard to an individual project at university college london: transcribe bentham. it is suggested that those in the digital humanities have to be more aware of our history, impact, and identity, if the discipline is to continue to flourish in tighter economic climes, and that unless we maintain and establish a more professional attitude towards our scholarly outputs, we will remain ‘present, not voting’ within the academy. the plenary ends with suggestions as to how the individual, institution, and funding body can foster and aid the digital humanities, ensuring the field’s relevance and impact in today’s academic culture. this paper is a transcript of what was planned to be said at dh , although the spoken plenary digresses from the following in places. the video of the speech can be viewed at http://www.arts- humanities.net/video/dh _keynote_melissa_terras_present_not_voting_digital_humanities_panopt icon. . introduction . preamble, the first. firstly, let me say how honoured i am to have been asked to be the plenary speaker at dh . i understand that this is a deviation from previous conferences – for the first time, instead of getting someone external to the community to talk about semi-related research areas, they’ve asked someone from well within the discipline to present. i’m aware that, in a room that holds people, there are people other than myself who are more than qualified to stand up for an hour and say what they terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . currently think of the digital humanities (not to mention the other folks registered for the conference who may be watching from the streaming lecture theatre). it’s also worth saying that i am incredibly nervous. many of those in the audience are close colleagues, many are good friends. this is not a conference i can walk away from and forget a disastrous presentation. i’m very aware that the rules of giving plenary speeches have changed as rapidly as the information environment over the last few years. i remember a plenary at allc/ach (as the conference was then known) ten or so years ago where the speaker read out a chapter of their book, never looking up at the audience once, and with no concession given for the change of presentational mode: ‘as i said on page . as i will discuss in chapter five...’ nowadays, given that i’m being recorded and simultaneously broadcast online, that just won’t cut it. you expect more. as well as being , i’m aware that i’m being #nervous. many of you will already have tweeted comments about what i’ve said online, even though i’ve not really begun yet. that’s fine, and i’m not looking for any special treatment. i just want you to be aware that i’m aware that these are changed days. i don’t know how i’m being watched and perceived, as much as you don’t know what i’m going to say next. in fact, surveillance is just one of the things i want to talk to you about today. . preamble the second for those of you who don’t know me, i’m from university college london (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/), just a mile north from king’s. ucl and king’s were both founder members of the university of london in (harte , university of london ), and the two universities have an interesting, competitive history. ucl was set up as a secular educational establishment, letting in anyone who could pay the fees (such as gandhi. and women. (harte , harte and north )) whereas king’s was set up as an anglican church based institution, in reaction to the ‘great godless of gower street’ threatening to allow education to all just up the road. the two institutions have remained locked in friendly – but sometimes fierce – competitive mode, ever since. a recent provost’s newsletter from ucl ran with a headline that ucl had beaten king’s in the women’s rugby varsity match - (grant ). on the academic front, we are often competing for the same staff, students, grants, even facilities. ucl has recently established its centre for digital humanities (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/), which forms a competitive alternative to the teaching and research that has been established at king’s centre for computing in the humanities (now the department of digital humanities, http://www.kcl.ac.uk/ddh/). and so it goes on. we’re proud at ucl of the different nature of our university. as opposed to king’s, we never will have a theology department, and do not provide a place of worship on campus. much of the founding principles of ucl were influenced by the jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer, terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . jeremy bentham who believed in equality, animal rights, utilitarianism, and welfarism (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/). ucl special collections host , folios of bentham’s letters and manuscripts, many of which have not been transcribed. upon his death, bentham’s skeleton was preserved as an ‘auto-icon’ (a two fingers up to those who believed in religion and the need for a christian funeral) which now sits, dressed in his favourite outfit, in the cloisters at ucl. there is an oft repeated story that bentham’s body is wheeled into senate meetings, although he is noted in the minutes as ‘present, not voting’ (bentham project ). you will notice that in early colour photos, you can still see bentham’s real preserved head at the base of the auto-icon. this has been stored in special collections ever since , when (the story goes) students from king’s stole it, merrily kicked it around the quad, and then held it to ransom. friendly competition, indeed. . introduction proper time to draw this properly back to digital humanities and the plenary in question. one of bentham’s main interests was penal reform, and he is perhaps most famous for his design of the panopticon, a prison which allowed jailors to observe (-opticon) all (pan-) prisoners without the incarcerated being able to tell whether they are being watched. this psychologically, and physically, brutal prison was never built, but the concept has lived on as metaphor, influencing a wide range of artists, writers, and theorists, including george orwell (who worked in room of senate house, in-between ucl and king’s, and would have been well aware of jeremy bentham’s work) and foucault ( ). indeed, the panopticon can be taken as a metaphor for western society, and increasingly, online communication, particularly social media. every time you tweet, do you know who is paying attention? what audience are we performing for, and can you be sure you are in control of how our actions are viewed and used? now, i cannot pretend to be an omnipresence that has been watching all that has been happening in the digital humanities over the past few months. but when you are asked to do a plenary speech such as this, believe me, you start to pay attention to things. you do your homework. i’ve been peering into the twittersphere panopticon and wondering what to say. which will be the following: i’m going to talk briefly about the transcribe bentham project, as a type of dh project that can objectively demonstrate the changes that are occurring in our field at the moment. i’m going to use this project as a window to peer at current issues in dh – or at least things that i’ve learnt from the project – and the wider community – over the past few months. terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . and finally, i’m going to set you all homework based on the key things that are emerging in our field. friendly competition is not so friendly just now. there are tough times ahead for academia, given the current financial crisis and promised cutbacks. what can we learn from the areas highlighted by this discussion, and what can we do better as a field, so those who are looking at us (and believe me, managers and administrators and financial experts are looking at us) can visibly see what we are up to? . transcribe bentham transcribe bentham is a one-year, arts and humanities research council funded project, housed under the auspices of the bentham project at ucl (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/). the bentham project aims to produce new editions of the scholarship of jeremy bentham, and so far twelve volumes of bentham’s correspondence have been published by the bentham project, plus various collections of his work on jurisprudence and legal matters (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham- project/publications). however, there is much more work to be done to make his writings more accessible, and to provide transcripts of the materials therein. although a previous grant from the ahrc in - has allowed for the completion of a catalogue of the manuscripts held within ucl (http://www.benthampapers.ucl.ac.uk/), and transcriptions have been completed of some , folios (currently stored in ms word...), there are many hours of work that need to be invested in reading, transcribing, labelling, and making accessible the works of this interdisciplinary historical figure if they are to be analysed, consulted, and utilised by scholars across the various disciplines interested in bentham’s writings. crowdsourcing - the harnessing of online activity to aid in large scale projects that require human cognition - is becoming of interest to those in the library, museum and cultural heritage industry, as institutions seek ways to publically engage their online communities, as well as aid in creating useful and usable digital resources (holley ). as one of the first cultural and heritage projects to apply crowdsourcing to a non-trivial task, ucl's bentham project has recently set up the ‘transcribe bentham’ initiative; an ambitious, open source, participatory online environment which is being developed to aid in transcribing , folios of bentham’s handwritten documents (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham/). to be formally launched in september , this experimental initiative will aim to engage with individuals such as school children, amateur historians, and other interested parties, who can provide time to help us read bentham’s manuscripts. the integration of user communities will be key to the success of the project, and an additional project remit is to monitor the success of trying to engage the wider community with such documentary material. will we get high quality, trustworthy transcriptions as a result of this work? will people be interested in volunteering their time and effort to read the (poor) handwriting of a great philosopher? terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . what technical and pragmatic difficulties will we run into? how can we monitor success in a crowdsourced environment? one of the other things that is interesting about the bentham project, and the transcribe bentham initiative, is that it demonstrates neatly the progression of digital humanities in historical manuscript based projects. the bentham project has been primarily occupied with print output, gaining a web presence in the mid s, then an online database of the bentham archive in the early th century, and is now carrying out a moderately large-scale digitisation project to scan in bentham’s writings for transcribe bentham. in addition, the bentham project has gone from a simple web page, to an interactive web . environment, from ms word to tei-encoded xml texts, and from relatively inward looking academic project to an outward facing, community- building exercise. we can peer at dh through this one project, and see the transformative aspects that technologies have had on our working practices, and the practices of those working in the historical domain. . transcribe bentham, and emerging issues in dh i could talk about crowdsourcing for an entire hour, but i thought it would be more useful to point out to those involved in the digital humanities community some of the emergent issues that i have found myself tackling whilst engaging in the transcribe bentham project. it’s certainly true that for every project that you work on you learn new things about the field, and over the past year various aspects of dh research and issues that concern the dh community have raised their head. i’m going now to talk about some of these issues, backing up what i say with some observations of what has been happening in the dh community, through conversations that others have been having on twitter. forgive me if you just think i’m a stalker. a lot of these issues are becoming more visible in the dh community, so i’m going to quote you on those. . our dependence on primary sources, our dependence on modern technology i’ve never felt more of a jack of all trades, master of none working on transcribe bentham. and it’s great. let’s be clear – the bentham project belongs to professor philip schofield, who has been working on it for over years (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/academics/profiles/index.shtml?schofield). i’ve just been drafted in to help bridge the gap between primary sources, dedicated scholars, and new technology. on the one hand, i’m utterly dependent on scholars who know less than me about it, and more than me about their subject domain, to make an academic contribution. on the other, i’m utterly dependent on some programmers who have the time to work up the ideas we have for transcribe bentham into a complex (but seemingly simple!) working environment for transcribing documents, in just a few months. i’d be lost without access to historical knowledge and source material, but i’d be lost without access to new, online cutting edge, technologies. terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . this is something i see repeated across our discipline. when ray siemens tweets ‘among many highlights of an excellent week, holding a well-read copy of thynne’s chaucer, as well as an ipad...’ we get the joy (siemens ). when brian croxall tweets ‘gah, can’t get online at this hotel’ (croxall ) we feel his frustration at being cut off from a service and an environment which is becoming as essential to us as running water or oxygen. when bethany nowviskie tweets ‘dreamed last night that my #dh poster was a set of flexible, give away, interactive touchscreens. maybe not too far in the future’ (nowviskie ) we nod in recognition, and go, yeah... that would be cool... let me google that and see if they exist... we exist in this parallel state where we are looking towards humanities research, and computational technology, and it can be immensely rewarding, and great fun. i’m really enjoying working on transcribe bentham. i really enjoy the duality of dh research (as long as i can get online when i want). . legacy data but as well as working with historical documents (or artefacts, or whatever), it’s becoming increasingly common with the digital humanities that we have to work with historical digital documents – or legacy data, left over from the not-so-distant past, in different formats and structures that need bringing into current thinking on best practice with digital data. this can take immense amounts of work. converting , transcribed bentham documents from ms word to tei- compliant xml, with any granularity of markup, is not a trivial task. linking these transcripts with the records currently held in the online database, and then ucl’s library record system (to deal with usability and sustainability issues) is not a trivial task. linking existing transcriptions with any digitised images of the writings which exist is not a trivial task. transcribe bentham, then, is dealing with sorting its own ducks into a row, as well as undertaking new and novel research. most of us understand this, and we understand just how much work (and cost) is involved in continually ensuring we are maintaining and updating our work and our records to make sure that our digital resources can continue to be used. so we understand that a seemingly simple tweet by tom elliott saying ‘more batlas legacy data added to pleiades today, courtesy of @sgillies http://bit.ly/dbuyfg’ (elliott ) belies an incredible amount of work to convert and maintain an existing resource. as well as looking forward to the future, and new technologies, us dh peoples must be our own archivists. . sustainability which brings me to the thorny issue of sustainability. we hope with transcribe bentham that the project will continue far beyond its one year remit, but there are some decisions to make in that regard. will the user forums, and user contributions, continue to be monitored and moderated if we can’t afford a staff member to do so? will the wiki get locked down at the close of funding or will we terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . leave it to its own devices, to become an online-free-for all? we are at the stage, in a one-year-project, where we already need to be applying for future funding, before we have even got anything to demonstrate that it’s worth continuing our funding (and there is no guarantee in the current climate that any funding will be forthcoming, see below). but we are lucky in transcribe bentham – its father project, the bentham project, will continue whatever happens, under the watchful auspices of philip schofield. so when dan cohen is quoted, by shane landrum, in a tweet that reminds us ‘being a labour of love is often the best sustainability model’ (landrum ) we understand what that means. sustainability is an area of huge concern for the dh community, and is going to become more so as financial issues get more complex. . digital identity transcribe bentham is going to live or die by its digital identity and digital presence. it doesn’t have any equivalent in the offline world. it is what it is: an online place to hang out and help transcribe some documents, should that take your fancy. to be a success, then, our functionality, digital presence, and digital identity need to be absolutely spot on. ironically, i’ve never worked on a digital humanities project before where the digital presence mattered so much, and i’ve come to realise that we all should be taking our digital identity and digital presence a lot more seriously. it’s not enough just to whack up a website and say ‘that’ll do, now back to writing books’. if we are going to be in the business of producing digital resources, we have to be able to excel at producing digital resources, and be conscious of our digital identity and digital presence. we are lucky at transcribe bentham to have gained the input of one of my phd students, rudolf ammann (@rkammann) who is also a gifted graphic designer. he has taken it upon himself to whip both ucl centre for digital humanities, and transcribe bentham, into online shape, whilst designing logos for us which are both fitting, useful, and memorable. we’re being careful with transcribe bentham to roll our presence out over twitter and facebook to try and encourage interaction. we hope that someone will be watching. suddenly, it matters in a way that didn’t matter before, if people are looking at our website and our resource. i believe that digital presence and digital identity is becoming more important to digital humanities as a discipline. so when amanda french jokily tweets ‘i feel like a got a rejection letter yesterday from @dhnow when too few rted my ‘binary hero’ post http://bit.ly/akpbix’ (french ) we understand the complexity of interacting in the new digital environment: we want the discourse, and want the attention (and if you don’t know what dhnow is, you should be reading it every day: http://digitalhumanitiesnow.org/). likewise when matt kirschenbaum tweets ‘has twitter done more as dh infrastructure than any dedicated effort to date?’ and this is immediately retweeted by tim sherratt with an addendum ‘[for me it has!]’ (sherratt ) we understand the possibilities terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . that are afforded with new modes of online communication. how we can harness this properly for transcribe bentham remains to be seen – but we are at least aware we need to make the effort. . embracing the random, embracing the open there are large differences between producing a perfect (or as near perfect as can be) print edition of bentham’s letters, and learning to deal with the various levels of quality of input we will be getting with transcribe bentham. there are large differences between working in a close knit group of scholars, to working with the general public. there are also differences in producing online editions and sources which you are willing to open up to other uses – and one of the things we want to do with transcribe bentham is to provide access to the resulting xml files so that others can reuse the information (via web-services, etc). the hosting and transcription environment we are developing will be open source, so that others can use it. and this sea change, from working in small groups, to really reaching out to users is something we have to embrace, and learn to work with. we also have to give up on ideas of absolute perfection, and go for broader projects, embracing input from a wider audience, and the chaos that ensues. so we understand when dan cohen tweets ‘another leitmotif i’m sensing: as academics, we need to get over our obsession w/ perfect, singular, finished, editorial vols’ (cohen ). bring it. let’s see what happens... . impact i only realised recently that my automatic reaction to getting involved with the transcribe bentham project was ‘how can i get from this some output that counts for me’. we wrote into the grant bid a period of user testing and feedback, and one of the reasons is to get a few pretty much guaranteed publications out of the project, looking at the success – or not! – of crowdsourcing in cultural heritage projects. get few academic outputs in there, then we can go and play online, and not have to worry too much about how creating an open source tool, or reaching out to a potential audience of thousands, will ‘count’ in the academic world. because no matter how successful transcribe bentham, the ‘impact’ will be felt in the same usual way – through publications. this is a nonsense, but it’s part of the academic game, and is becoming of increasing frustration to those working in the digital humanities. it’s not enough to make something that is successful and interesting and well used: you have to write a paper about it that gets published in the journal of successful academic stuff to make that line on your cv count, and to justify your time spent on the project. so we understand the frustration felt by stephen ramsay when he puts a mini-documentary online which goes as viral as things really get in the digital humanities, viewed by thousands of people, but which will have no real impact on his career: ‘i’ve published some print articles. funny thing though: none of them were read by people in the space of weeks .... had their titles printed on t-shirts, or terras, m. 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"present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . resulted in dozens of emails from adoring fans. so why am i writing journal articles again? .... oh wait, nevermind, my department doesn’t count movies.’ (ramsay a, b, c). . routes to jobs this is a tricky one. should those hired in digital humanities projects to do technical work have a phd in digital humanities – even if the tasks in the role are service level (such as marking up tei) and don’t require that academic training? i’m willing to admit that transcribe bentham walked right into the storm with this one when our job adverts for our two ras went up. we advertised for two postdocs: one with a historical background that had experience working in the bentham studies area, one with tei chops to help us with the back end of the system. we specified that we wanted phds because of the changed rules in employment at universities in the uk (well, at least those involved in the common pay framework): if we had advertised for posts at non-phd level, we wouldn’t have been able to employ someone with a phd, even if they wanted to work for less money, because of the spine point system. so, we advertise for two postdocs, and if someone good comes through without a phd, we can employ them on a lower rate. but we forgot to mention that applications from those without a phd may also be considered. cue much online discussion in various forums. we get this frustration. dot porter said, on facebook rather than twitter, ‘i get annoyed when i read job postings for positions that require a phd, and then read the job description and can’t figure out why. maybe i’m sensitive, not having a phd? is a phd really required for one to take part in the digital humanities these days, even in supporting (non-research) roles?’ (porter ). this is becoming a real issue in digital humanities. there is no clear route to an academic job, and no clear route to phd, and there are a lot of people at a high level in the field who do not have phds. yet increasingly, we expect the younger intake to have gone down that route, and then to work in service level roles (partly because there are few academic jobs). it remains to be seen how we can address this. in transcribe bentham, we changed the advert to make it clear we accepted applications from non-phds. in the end we did appoint two post-docs, but at least we made it clear that people had the option to apply for a job where, ostensibly, you didn’t need a phd, just the skill set, to undertake the task properly. . young scholars this problem of employment and career and progression taps into a general frustration for young scholars in our field. it can be hard to get a foothold, and hard to get a job (not just in digital humanities – in the uk over % of graduates under the age of are currently unemployed. it’s a tough time to be coming out of university, phd or no phd). perhaps twas always difficult to make the transition from academic student to academic academic, but twitter amplifies the issues that are terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . facing young scholars in the field trying to make headway. i was very aware when hiring for transcribe bentham that there were some very good candidates out there who just weren’t getting a break (the person who came second in the interview, and who we would have employed instantly had we had two historical post-doc positions, later told me that he had had over interviews, but we were the first people to give him any feedback). we shouldn’t forget the pressure young scholars are under (at a time when we are complaining of the financial pressures that us paid academics are under) and how difficult it can be for them on both a professional and personal level. it makes me sad to hear tweets like the one from ryan cordell saying ‘just wrote a tough email withdrawing from #dh . even if i got a bursary, i just couldn’t swing it in the same summer as our move #sigh’. (cordell ). (however, it is worth noting that the digital humanities conference currently offers four different types of bursary to young scholars, as well as mentoring schemes such as those provided by ach). . economic downturn which brings me to the next doom and gloom point. when brett bobley tweets ‘two weeks ago, no one in my kid’s school had silly bandz; now they all wear them. how come higher ed never moves that fast?’ (bobley ) we all chuckle at the thought of the academy as being a reactive, immediate place to be. it takes a few years for the impact of outside events to trickle down. its only now that the economic downturn is starting to hit higher education. in the uk, cuts over the next few years are predicted to be anything between % to %, depending on what leak or rumour or governmental minister you believe. these are uncertain times for research, and for institutions, and for individuals, and for projects. we don’t know if there will be money to even apply for to continue the research and application in the transcribe bentham project. we don’t know, even if we submit an application, that the funding council won’t suddenly reject all applications due to their funding cuts. we don’t know how to make an economic case for projects in the arts, humanities, heritage, and culture, so that when panjandrums and apparatchiks are deciding which swinging cut to make next, we can display our relevance, our impact, the point of our existence, and why people should keep writing the cheques. these are uncertain times. how this is affecting digital humanities is slowly beginning to be played out. . money, the humanities, and job security i feel that it would be morally wrong of me to come to a conference at king’s that has the word humanities in the title and not broach the subject of what had happened over the past year to the humanities at king’s (morgan a, morgan b, tickle and bowcott ). palaeography is a subject close to my heart, and as @drgnosis tweeted during the opening speech of #dh , ‘i weep for palaeography’ (@drgnosis ). i also like to think that had any one of the other registered terras, m. 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"present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . conference attendees from the digital humanities community been asked to give this plenary that they would have the guts to raise this issue. but i am guest here and do not want to be rude or impolite. so i’ll repeat what was tweeted by john theibault: ‘there’s going to be a bit of a pall over dh because of all that’s gone on with kcl’ (theibault ). and i recommend if you do not understand what i am talking about, then you read about it, and understand how little respect was given to humanities academics at kings over the past year from their management (pears ). and i suggest you hope that your own management have not been taking notes, and do not proceed in a similar fashion, for what hope is there then for the humanities? it’s very difficult for those in the humanities to make the economic case for their existence, and that is what we are being expected to do in the current climate. we need to be able to explain why projects like transcribe bentham are relevant, and important and useful. those in the humanities are historically bad at doing this, and those in dh are no different. but dh is different from traditional humanities research: on the plus side, we should be able to articulate the transferable skill set that comes with dh research, that can educate and influence a wide range of culture, heritage, creative, and even business processes. on the downside, projects like transcribe bentham are more expensive than paying one individual scholar for a year to write their scholarly tome on, say, byzantine sigillography – the digital equivalent will require researchers, computer programmers, computer kit, digitisation costs, etc. to ensure that the digital humanities are funded at the time when funding is being withdrawn from the humanities, we need to be prepared, and to articulate and explain why what we do is important, and relevant. . fears for the future of course, it’s not just the humanities that are in a perilous financial state: in the uk, it’s the whole of the sector. at king’s, it’s not just humanities that have taken the hit, but also the engineering faculty (hurst ). profitable groups from disciplines such as computer science have been poached wholesale by other universities (not so friendly competition now, is it?). and this is a pattern we are seeing across the universities in the uk. we’re all scared; for the continuation of our projects (such as transcribe bentham), for our students, for our young scholars on temporary contracts, for our ‘research profile’ (whatever that may mean) and for our own jobs. we understand the implicit horror in a tweet such as that from simon tanner saying ‘england next? plan to close smaller #welsh #universities broadly welcomed by #education professionals. http://bit.ly/dxwbsj #he #wales.’ (tanner ). if we think that no-one is watching us and making value judgements about our community, our research, our relevance, and our output, then we are misguided. it’s not just other scholars who are paying attention, but those who hold the purse strings – who often have no choice but to make brutal terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . cuts. the humanities are one of the easiest targets, given scholars’ reluctance or inability to make the case for themselves. i’m reminded of a phrase from orwell’s , and what happened to society when under the horrific pressure and surveillance within. allow me to paraphrase: if we are not prepared, and if we are not careful, these cuts will be ‘a boot stamping on the face of the humanities, forever’. i remember very strongly that at the end of an upbeat dh neil fraistat stood up and said ‘the digital humanities have arrived!’. but in , the place we have arrived to is a changed landscape, and not nearly as optimistic. we are not in kansas now, toto. . digital humanities in the panopticon so let us pretend that we are someone from outside our community, watching the goings on in academia and making value judgements, and financial judgements, about our discipline and field. how does digital humanities itself hold up when under scrutiny? how do we fair with the crucial aspects of digital identity, impact, and sustainability? the answer is – not very well. from the outside looking in, we look amateur. we should know and understand best, amongst many academic fields, how important it is to maintain and sustain our digital presence and our community. but our web presence, across the associations, sucks. the ach website says it was last updated in (http://www.ach.org/). the allc web site is a paean to unnecessary white space (http://www.allc.org/). sdh/semi is not so bad, but has its own problems with navigation and presentation (i’m including it here so as not to leave out a whole association, http://www.sdh-semi.org/) – but the adho website is a prime example of what happens when wikis are not wiki-ed (http://digitalhumanities.org/). these are our outward faces. these are our representations of the field. we’ve been slow to embrace other social media and new technologies when we are the field that is supposed to show how it is done. but what you may not know is that the associations have recently taken this on board. there is a lot of hard work going on behind the scenes on all accounts, so i don’t want to lay into folks too badly on this. a wireframe of the new adho site, which should be up and running shortly, demonstrates that we are moving into the st century, finally. what’s interesting is the big space for a mission statement, and a definition of the field (which we at dh don’t have, yet!). we need to take our digital presence more seriously, and to embrace the potentials that we all know about, but haven’t pitched in to help represent for the discipline. what about impact? we’ve been historically bad at articulating our relevance and our successes and our impact beyond our immediate community (and sometimes within our immediate community – it surprised me recently when a leading scholar in the field was told, via twitter, of the terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . role the dh community had in the formulation of xml). we’re bad at knowing our own history, as a discipline, and having examples listed off the top of our heads of why our research community is required in today’s academe. as for sustainability, digital humanities scholars should know how important it is to preserve our discipline’s heritage, and should lead the way in demonstrating this to other fields. yet it’s only been recently that scholars in the field have started to note the disappearance of abstracts from previous conferences, websites which have disappeared overnight, the fact we don’t have, and can’t locate, a complete back run of the journals printed by the associations. for example, we don’t have any of the image files included in the allc/ach abstract book. we need to look after our heritage: no-one else will. what you may not know, again, is that a few people are working behind the scenes to try and build up digital copies of our discipline’s history, and hopefully over the next year or so we’ll see this available online. we need to be leading the way in the humanities for publishing and maintaining and sustaining our discipline, to demonstrate that, yes, we really do know what we are talking about. at the moment, it looks like we don’t. why does all this matter? i bring you back to the title of my talk: ‘present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon’. our community matters - although heck, a lot of you are not voting – for the ach and allc elections, turnout was around %. we need new blood in the associations. we need people who are not just prepared to whine but prepared to roll up their sleeves and do things to improve our associations, our community, and our presence in academia. but the fact of the matter remains: if we do not treat our research presence seriously, if we are not prepared to stick up for digital humanities, if we are not prepared to demonstrate our relevance and our excellence and our achievements, then the status of those working within dh (including the relevance of digital scholarship, and how it is treated by those in the humanities) will not improve, and we’ll be as impotent as we have ever been. we should be demonstrating excellence and cohesion and strength in numbers. we should be prepared, as best we can, for whatever is coming next in the financial downturn, and in academia. if we self identify as digital humanists – and i presume many of those here at the conference would – then we need to articulate what that means, and what’s the point of our community. it’s the only way to prepare for what is coming. . homework so far, so doom and gloom. but we are a community who are full of those who like to do things, and make things, and achieve things. and there are plenty of practical things we can do to ensure the continuation of our individual careers, our individual projects (such as transcribe bentham), our centres, and our teaching. terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . for the individual, we can be prepared by having at the tip of our tongues what we do and why we matter and why we should be supported and why dh makes sense. (those definitions of dh must be personal, and must vary – but how many of us, when asked to explain dh, go ‘well, its kinda the intersection of...’ – and you lost them at kinda). we need to have thought about the impact of our work, and why it is relevant. when asked, or queried, about this (either in a personal or professional setting) we should know. and it really doesn’t hurt to have learnt a little about the background of our field, and its impact, and its successes, so we can throw in a few ‘for examples’ when the blue-sky nature of research pays off, and for when the application of our research in the wider community works, and for some major problems that need to be solved about digital culture and use and tools and why we are the people to do it. individuals can find support in networks of scholars, and become active in communities (both dh and individual subject organisations): there is strength in numbers. individuals can take their digital identity seriously – let’s show other scholars and other disciplines how best to proceed. we need to learn to play the academic game with regard to publications, though, and ensure all of our wonderful whizz bangy tools are equally followed up with research papers in important places, which is a bit of a bind, but the only way with which to maintain and improve our academic credentials at present. individuals can promote and be the advocates for dh, and for dh-based research. we can also ensure that we support the younger cohort and students and young scholars who are just entering our field: it’s our role to be ambassadors for dh in every way we can. for those individuals who do have some management sway and some management clout, there is also plenty that can be done to push forward the digital humanities agenda, within departments and institutions. more support and kudos can be given to digital scholarship and digital outputs within the humanities, and this becomes something that can be raised and pushed within institutional committee structures, to ensure they count for hiring and promotion and tenure. (indeed, established devoted tenure track posts for digital humanities scholars may be something those in the united states could work towards). issues of funding and employment for young scholars in the discipline should be watched out for, including the phd and hiring/ qualification issue, but this is something that can be tackled through careful, watchful leadership. my main advice to those in dh management, though, would be to ensure you fully embed your activities within institutional infrastructures: become indispensible. get involved with academic departments and service areas. provide advisory services and engage with as wide a spectrum as people within your institution as you can. be ready to defend your staff and your projects in the current financial climate, and be forewarned. there is also strength in numbers in management, in local, regional, national, and international communities. collaborations should be entered into, rather than competition, to further terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . embed projects and people into the wider academic field. strategies and policies should be developed to deal with the coming hardships that face us. from an institutional point of view, building up a centralised record of all the individuals and projects involved in dh within an institution can facilitate new research, and build on existing strengths to make it clear where new research opportunities may lie. i would suggest that dh centres should integrate closely with library systems (and ischools). institutions can also support digital outputs as being research in the internal promotion of individual scholars. the establishment of teaching programs (such as the new ucl centre for digital humanities ma in digital humanities, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dh/courses/mamsc) provides essential training for young scholars entering our field, and institutions should look to the opportunities which exist in providing this graduate-level training – which is sorely needed in our field. institutions can also encourage collaboration with other institutions, and provide facilities, for example, for visiting scholars, to encourage cross-fertilisation of teaching and research ideas. the adho organisations can also do plenty to maintain and support research, teaching, and the dh community. our digital presence should be (and is being) sorted out as a matter of urgency. within those digital resources, adho and its constituent organisations should provide the community with the ammunition which is necessary to defend dh as a relevant, useful, successful research field. information about the successes of dh can be pushed, including projects and initiatives that have been important to both our and other communities. the value and impact of dh can be documented and presented. a register of good projects can also be maintained. best practice in the running of projects and centres can be pushed, and advice given to those who need it in all matters dh. collaboration should be encouraged, and the associations should continue the work they are doing in supporting young scholars. if anyone has any further ideas, then please do contact the associations. they are there to help you. my suggestions for funding agencies are relatively succinct – i am not sure how much leeway they have in providing funds at the moment, although it is worth saying that certain funders (more than others) have been and are being very supportive to dh, and are engaged with and listening to our community. we need financial support, both to carry out blue-sky research, and to build dh infrastructures. funding agencies can also help with the sustainability of projects, and in wrapping up and archiving projects. they can aid, encourage, and facilitate collaboration, and graduate research. considering the large investment that has been made in dh, particularly over the past ten to fifteen years, it makes sense for them to continue supporting us to ensure our research comes to fruition, although we are all very aware of the changed financial academic world in which we live. . wrapping up terras, m. ( ). "present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . this has been an honest tour of what dh means to me, and some of the issues which dh is presented with at the moment. it’s been necessarily negative in places. but i hope i have left you with the feeling that there is proactive activity which we, as individuals, departments, institutions, organisations, and agencies can take to further entrench ourselves in the humanities pantheon and to demonstrate that we really are indispensible to the humanities. i don’t know what is going to happen with transcribe bentham, whether the project itself will be a success, whether the resulting transcriptions will be accepted by the historical community, or whether we’ll still have a funded project to talk about in a year’s time, but for me it is part of the learning curve to distil and understand how our current research aims fit into the current academic framework. one thing i do know, is that jeremy bentham would have loved the fact that a picture of his manky embalmed head was being broadcast on a giant screen at king’s college london (especially when involved with a speech that raises issues about kcl!). i’ve really enjoyed having the chance to talk to you about my thoughts about transcribe bentham, and the digital humanities in general. thank you for listening in person, and see you on twitter, and in the panopticon. . references @drgnosis. 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"present, not voting: digital humanities in the panopticon closing plenary speech, digital humanities ". literary and linguistic computing, ( ): - . white paper report report id: application number: ht project director: philip ethington (philipje@usc.edu) institution: university of southern california reporting period: / / - / / report due: / / date submitted: / / office of grant management room national endowment for the humanities pennsylvania avenue, n.w. washington, d. c. . nov. dear office of grant management: please find attached the white paper for the “broadening the digital humanities: the vectors-cts summer institute on digital approaches to american studies,” july to august . (id number: ht- - ) awarded to the university of southern california. do not hesitate to contact us if you have any questions or require additional materials. sincerely, philip j. ethington, tara mcpherson, john carlos rowe white paper grant id number: ht- - grant term: / / to / / grant title: “broadening the digital humanities: the vectors-cts summer institute on digital approaches to american studies,” july to august . project directors: philip ethington, tara mcpherson, john carlos rowe grant institution: university southern california nov. white paper: “broadening the digital humanities: the vectors-cts summer institute on digital approaches to american studies,” co-hosted by the vectors-center for transformative scholarship, and american studies and ethnicity department at usc, july to august . nov. background: during the summer of , we held a very productive four-week summer institute on “broadening the digital humanities: the vectors-cts summer institute on digital approaches to american studies,” co-hosted by the vectors-center for transformative scholarship, and american studies and ethnicity department at usc, july to august . our primary audience was the american studies humanities scholar who does not have a great deal of computing experience but who has begun to express an interest in the digital humanities and in interactive media more broadly. scholars were offered the opportunity to explore the benefits of interactive media for scholarly analysis and authorship, with an emphasis on two, interoperable authoring and publishing platforms: the multimedia authoring platform scalar, and the geohistorical narrative visualization platform hypercities. please “outcomes”, p. below, for detailed project descriptions and post-institute project developments. response to the call for proposals: the response to the call for proposals was very strong. ninety-nine ( ) proposals were submitted and reviewed, indicating a high level of interest in the institute’s vision. after review, seventeen fellows representing fourteen proposals were selected. both the submitted proposals and the selected fellows came from applicants from a range of career levels (from advanced ph.d. student to an endowed professor), a variety of colleges and universities, and a broad geographic distribution. (see below for a list of summer fellows.) additionally, an advanced undergraduate was included in the pool, working alongside his father, a professor of africana studies. we were quite gratified at the strong overall quality across the applicant pool and could easily have accepted additional high-caliber proposals. in fact, narrowing the final pool to ten proved very difficult and, in the end, the decision was made to accept seventeen fellows, through tapping additional usc financial resources. our selection criteria was threefold: to achieve a diversity of content matter and theoretical frameworks: to optimize the match-up between our expertise and that of the applicants; and to achieve a balance of junior and senior scholars. in keeping with the value that many place on collaborative scholarship in digital humanities, we accepted four two-scholar partnerships, pushing the total number of fellows to , all of the highest caliber. neh summer institute fellows: fellows project titles nicholas brown and sarah kanouse recollecting black hawk wendy cheng a people’s guide to los angeles elizabeth cornell keywords collaboratory brandon costelloe-kuehn and nick shapiro networking asthmatic spaces matt delmont the nicest kids in town: american bandstand, rock 'n' roll, and civil rights in s philadelphia kara keeling and thenmozhi soundararajan digital media and social movements david kim and mike rocchio mapping the murals: chicano community murals in la debra levine act up oral history project curtis marez cesar chavez’s video library mark marino critical code studies carrie rentschler there/not there: witness in genovese case nicholas sammond biting the invisible hand: blackface minstrelsy and animation jonathan sterne mp : the meaning of a format kara thompson a future perfect: time, queerness, indigeneity oliver wang legions of boom: mobile sounds, sights and sites scott wilson century villages of cabrillo (adjacent to the port of long beach) usc instruction team: steve anderson craig dietrich phil ethington (pi) erik loyer tara mcpherson (co-pi) jillian o'connor john carlos rowe (co-pi) visiting presenters (please see appendix, p. for biographical sketches) mark allen anne balsamo randy bass anne burdick sharon daniel kathleen fitzpatrick gary hall alexandra juhasz marsha kinder caroline levander work timeline: based upon our assessments and those of our fellows, the institute was a strong success. the institute began july , , ran for four weeks, and brought fellows to the usc campus. our work on the grant began well in advance of the institute and continues on to the present, as we continue to support various fellows in ongoing projects. specifically, we have undertaken the following, in line with our proposed activities in the initial grant proposal: fall-winter -  call for proposals, curriculum, lining-up visiting presenters  call for proposals posted online and broadcast via discussion lists.  logistical planning for the summer institute began (housing, lab schedule, etc.) spring  erik loyer and craig dietrich worked with todd presner and dave shepard of hypercities to established interoperability between the platforms. hypercities was established as a partner archive and hypercities can be inserted into scalar pages.  proposals received and evaluated by review committee  participants announced and confirmed  visiting faculty for the institute confirmed  travel and housing plans established  workshop curriculum fine-tuned. june  finalized logistics, technical support, and curriculum  finalized daily schedule  opened institute wiki  assisted fellows with travel and housing needs  finalized travel for guest presenters july-august  broadening the digital humanities: the vectors-cts summer institute on digital approaches to american studies,” july to august neh july – august fall -present  continued assessment of outcomes  continued support of several fellows projects  publication and publicity support for fellows evaluation of the institute: fellows and presenters quickly established an atmosphere of risk-free learning and creativity. institute co-pis and instruction team carefully interviewed and tracked each participant to support participants’ visions, helping them to understand the affordances of each platform, strategies for choosing between goals for each project, and how best to position the project to become a “publication.”. each participant received weekly instruction concerning a) needed tutorials and support, arranging for hands-on expert help and lab time on specific topics from spatial data processing, -d tools, to audio and video processing and archiving; b) reasonable goals and best use of time. the morning sessions of the institute were comprised of seminar-style discussions led by guest presenters, the grant pis, or the fellows themselves. afternoon sessions were comprised of labs, technical workshops and demonstrations, and project development time. this mix of activities seemed to strike a balance that allowed “something for everyone.” while some fellows seemed to garner more from the seminars, others gravitated toward the hands-on aspects of the workshops and lab time. there were several things that the fellows all seemed to appreciate. most found the quality of the guest presenters to be top notch, and many commented on how useful it was to see a range of types of work presented. each also expressed gratitude for the way in which the institute interwove both conceptual questions and technical approaches. for this set of scholars (all tied to the “traditional” humanities), lodging questions of the digital within larger intellectual frames proved deeply satisfying. this indeed proved key to “broadening” the digital humanities (as was our theme.) assessment protocol: pis and instruction team met weekly with each fellow in scheduled meetings, to assess each participant’s satisfaction with the curriculum and rate of progress, immediate, intermediate, and longer-term goals. assignment of hands-on experts, lab topics, and demos were adjusted accordingly. outcomes: projects update reports, as of november we are very pleased that about half of the projects launched during the summer institute are either already published (eg matt delmont, uc press), are being submitted (eg, curtis marez, to the journal american literature), or are being presented at major conferences (eg keeling and soundarajan). these projects are listed first under “a. projects being published, submitted, or presented at conferences.” of course, several of the projects have entered longer development cycles, but these also seem to hold promise for the participants. these projects are listed second below, under “b. projects with longer development timelines.” a. projects being published, submitted, or presented at conferences we followed our work in the four-week summer institute with several reports at the american studies association annual conventions. at the convention, john carlos rowe advertised the institute at the digital caucus and with handouts at the convention; at the convention, he reported on our results to the digital caucus. finally, at this year's asa convention, he discussed long-term implications of the institute at a panel on transnational publishing and another on digital education for graduate students. ************* matt delmont, professor of american studies, scripps college http://mattdelmont.com/ project title: the nicest kids in town i used scalar to create working on a digital project companion to my book. i "published" the scalar project in january . the scalar project adds to the book because i was able to include + images (compared to in the book), as well as video clips related to my research. the link is here: http://scalar.usc.edu/nehvectors/nicest-kids excerpt from review citing the scalar site gayle wald ( ). the nicest kids in town: american bandstand, rock ’n’ roll, and the struggle for civil rights in s philadelphia. by matthew f. delmont. berkeley: university of california press, ./the nicest kids in town digital project, http://scalar.usc.edu/nehvectors/nicestkids/index.. journal of the society for american music, , pp doi: . /s “some of the sources that delmont uses in this regard are available in a free online companion to thenicest kids in town, constructed using innovative scalar software developed by the alliance for networking visual culture. scalar allows content producers to author projects, or “books,” that combine text and media, without subordinating the former to the latter. as users navigate the text of the scalar-based nicest kids in town, images and video clips scroll into view, accompanied by useful links to information about their provenance and content. a “stripe,” or index, running down the left-hand side of the page provides the user with an index to the material, making it easy to navigate among the three “paths,” in addition to an introduction, which constitute the main body of the project. the dozens of images on the digital nicest kids in town are of far higher quality than the illustrations in the book, with its grainy black-and-white reproductions. users will also appreciate what amount to visual “footnotes”—images of the newspaper clippings from which delmont quotes. it’s easy to imagine the digital nicest kids as a nice tool for helping undergraduates understand the significance and use of primary sources and other archival materials in the production of knowledge.” ************* kara keeling and thenmozhi soundarajan project title: digital media and social movements kara keeling, assistant professor in the division of critical studies in the school of cinematic arts and in the department of american studies and ethnicity at the university of southern california http://dornsife.usc.edu/ase/people/faculty_display.cfm?person_id= thenmozhi soundarajan, ph.d. student, school of cinematic arts, usc from third cinema to media justice: third world majority and the promise of third cinema is a collaborative multi-media archive and scholarship project consisting of an archive that contains the materials produced by third world majority (twm) during the years of their existence as a collective and a collection of scholarly pieces, historical retrospectives, and other dialogues with the work of twm. twm was one of the first women of color media justice collectives in the united states. it operated from to . both the twm archive and the writings about it are part of the scalar project. since the institute ended, we have successfully uploaded the entire twm archive to the internet archives and begun the process of linking that material to the scalar anthology. we also have collaboratively produced content for the anthology, started recruiting others to contribute to the volume, presented about the project on a plenary for the us cultural studies association's annual conference in san diego. we are scheduled to present about it at the allied media conference in detroit, mi and the association for cultural studies conference in paris, france in june and july of . both presentations provide opportunities to produce additional content for the anthology and to identify and solicit contributors to the volume. we plan to have the archive available in scalar and issue invitations to contributors by the end of august . ************* elizabeth cornell project title: keywords collaboratory elizabeth cornell, project coordinator, keywords collaboratory, fordham university http://www.elizabethfcornell.net/ i worked on a digital version of the book, keywords for american cultural studies, edited by bruce burgett and glenn hendler and published by nyu press. at the moment, we plan to use scalar for keyword essays, to be published alongside the second edition of the print version, which will contain other essays. we anticipate publication to be the fall of . ************* curtis marez project title: cesar chavez’s video library curtis marez, associate professor of ethnic studies at the university of california, san diego my project is called “cesar chavez’s video library, or farm workers and the secret history of new media” it argues that farm workers have been influential actors in the political history of new media. farm worker unions, most notably the ufw, have been early and innovative adopters of older forms of “new media,” such as portable film and video technology, in ways that illuminate the political limits and possibilities of more recent new media practices among immigrant rights activists. i have continued to work on the project and have recently submitted a multimedia “essay” to the journal american literature. ************* david kim and mike rocchio project title: mapping the murals: chicano community murals in la david kim, ph.d. student, department of information studies (expected ), ucla mike rocchio, ph.d student, department of architecture and urban design, ucla mapping chicano murals in la is a digital model and simulation of the estrada court public housing in east los angeles which features + community murals installed in the s and the s. during the summer institute, we built the beta version of the model in google sketchup and integrated the model into hypercities platform, which allowed us to combine narratives, archival materials and other resources towards spatial analysis of race, ethnicity and cultural nationalism as these concepts are embodied in the murals. currently, we wrapped up the digital publication version of the project in hypercities and will be presenting it in mla (special session: race in the digital humanities) and architecture studies conference. we submitted the online version for peer-review in the cambridge university press journal urban history in october . ************* nick shapiro and brandon costelloe-keuhn project title: networking asthmatic spaces nick shapiro, graduate student, university of oxford http://oxford.academia.edu/nickshapiro brandon costelloe-keuhn, phd candidate, department of science and technology studies, rensselaer polytechnic institute http://rpi.academia.edu/brandoncostelloekuehn we created a scalar site that includes a short film, gis maps and an oral history journey through the experiences of residents in the "fema" trailers. these temporary housing units, originally built to accommodate gulf coast residents who were displaced by the hurricanes of , were found to contain potentially toxic chemicals, and have been resold across the united states in tandem with a widening foreclosure crisis. the project enhances users' capacity to ) visualize connections between environmental, public health and economic crises, ) move across scales, engaging material that situates them inside the trailers and the lives of residents, and then zooming out to see how hazards at the local level are distributed nationally, ) understand how scientifically-engaged media can generate new perspectives on complex problems. as these units continue to be sold to every corner of the u.s., we have been interviewing residents with irritated eyes, bloody noses, memory loss, insomnia, diarrhoea and respiratory issues. we have launched an auxiliary study in collaboration with a private indoor air quality lab which questions the prevailing scientific consensus that the trailers have off-gassed their store of potentially toxic chemicals in the almost seven years since they were manufactured. to date, the average level of formaldehyde found, across eight states, is over parts per billion, the epa’s recommended maximum indoor air concentration. we are currently working on a paper that layers the embodied knowledge of fema trailer inhabitants and our numerical data on the ongoing toxicity of these domestic spaces. building on our work with scalar, we aim to craft new contexts in which layered claims of toxicity, based on embodied awareness and technologically mediated measurements and visualizations, can be heard, making these trailers and the effects and affects they engender graspable as objects of epistemic action. we are in conversation with the interactive web designer at wired.com to develop a website and we have lectured internationally on our research in addition to having been featured in internationally syndicated news media. ************* oliver wang project title: legions of boom: mobile sounds, sights and sites oliver wang, assistant professor, sociology department, california state long beach http://www.csulb.edu/colleges/cla/departments/sociology/people/oliverwang.htm my digital project is a research repository focused on the history of the filipino american mobile disc jockey community in the san francisco bay area. it includes text, audio and visual resources, designed to introduce the social history of this community to both newcomers and those who grew up in the scene. the long-term goal is to create a dynamically-updated repository that can include contributions from visitors, thus emphasizing the community aspect of "community history." as i was preparing for my tenure file and book revisions (the latter of which relates to the research on the site), i have made minimal progress this past year. however, now that i have gained tenure and a fall semester sabbatical, i will be completing the site this summer and publicly launch it by early fall ( ). b. projects with longer development timelines wendy cheng project title: a people’s guide to los angeles wendy cheng, assistant professor, asian pacific american studies and justice and social inquiry, school of social transformation, arizona state university https://webapp .asu.edu/directory/person/ project title: a people’s guide to los angeles i worked to develop a digital, interactive version of my coauthored book, a people's guide to los angeles, which presents sites of struggles over power and alternative and minority histories throughout los angeles county. although the book has now been published, unfortunately i have not made any progress on the digital project since the end of the institute. we (my coauthors and i, in conversation with uc press) are currently working to develop a people's guide book series and would like to return to the question of a digital, interactive online presence in the future that would serve as a hub for these various projects, but i don't have a sense of when or how that would develop. the institute helped tremendously, however, to identify what the digital project might look like, and what the questions, problems, and needs would likely be in order to realize the project.” ************* nicholas sammond project title: biting the invisible hand: blackface minstrelsy and animation nicholas sammond, associate professor, cinema studies institute and department of english, university of toronto http://www.utoronto.ca/cinema/faculty-sammond.html my project entailed developing an online companion to my upcoming book, biting the invisible hand: blackface minstrelsy and the industrialization of american animation (duke university press, forthcoming). the companion is not a literal translation of the book, but a complementary resource, one that permits the reader (or stand-alone visitor) to view the cartoons, minstrel ephemera, and other media elements to which the book refers, but which the book cannot deliver in substantial form. to date, the companion, which is only a prototype, has been undergoing beta testing by student workers, with the goal of refining its organization, structure, and flows. with the book slated to be under review by the end of the summer, significant development on the companion will commence from july forward, intensifying in september and october. ************* sarah kanouse and nicholas brown project title: recollecting black hawk sarah kanouse, assistant professor�intermedia program�school of art and art history http://www.readysubjects.org/bio.html nick brown, phd candidate, department of landscape architecture and american indian studies, university of illinois at urbana-champaign http://walkinginplace.org/ http://criticalspatialpractice.blogspot.com/ last summer, we set out to work on a digital supplement to the photo-text book re-collecting black hawk. immersion in the discussion of digital humanities at the summer institute helped us to realize that a spin-off project--related but stand alone--would be more appropriate than what we initially envisioned. the reconceptualized project has been delayed by the need to finish the print book, but we plan to return to it, using resources at our home campuses, once the publication timeline is firmed up. ************* carrie rentschler project title: there/not there: witness in genovese case carrie rentschler, associate professor and william dawson scholar of feminist media studies in the department of art history and communication studies at mcgill university http://www.mcgill.ca/igsf/about/staff my digital project is an annotated archive of materials that animate the cultural life and case construction of the infamous kitty genovese murder. while the archive constitutes the research materials for a book i am writing, when complete, the digital archive will have significance beyond that publication, and will be of interest to students who are taught the case in high school and university classrooms. the project is not yet complete. it is much as it was at the end of the seminar last summer due to my current administrative responsibilities. i am, however, quite eager to complete it, because of how useful i believe it will be pedagogically and as a small research archive. ************* jonathan sterne project title: mp : the meaning of a format jonathan sterne, associate professor, department of art history and communications studies, mcgill university. http://media.mcgill.ca/en/jonathan_sterne my project was to create a digital companion to my book mp : the meaning of a format. i was especially interested in expanding the audio capabilities of scalar and companion sites like critical commons. i've made some progress but am not yet that close to done. i hope to "go live" with something in august when my book comes out. i've replotted the project -- the concept was a little foggier last summer and i tried using existing models like pouring in text. instead, what i need to do it pick a few core "takeaway" concepts and provide additional illustration and material to the book, especially audio material. ************* kara thompson project title: colonized time kara thompson, assistant professor of english & american studies college of william and mary ktthompson@wm.edu i submitted a project proposal for “mapping with reservations,” a multimedia, multilayered cartographic representation of the reservation system in the u.s., beginning in and continuing to the present day. this was clearly a project much too onerous for the time and scope of the fellowship. after some training with scalar, i created a minimal framework for “colonized time,” which is a cultural history of the black hills from - . i try to use the paths and visual orientations of scalar to show how the black hills is a site well known in a dominant tourist imagination, but underneath the venerated, re-enacted “wild west” is the very present colonization of the lakota people. i have not made any progress on the project since i left the institute. immediately following our time at the iml, i began my first tenure track position, which completely consumed my research and writing time. i do hope to take up the project again and devise a way to use it for either research or teaching. http://scalar.usc.edu/nehvectors/kara-thompson/index. [i notice the hypercities inserts are not loading properly, at least not on my computer, which is why i am sending a link instead of a screen shot]. ************* debra levine project title: act up oral history project appendix visiting presenters mark allen is the founder of machine project, a non-profit community space in the echo park neighborhood of los angeles investigating art, technology, natural history, science, music, literature, and food. in the machine project storefront on north alvarado street, allen and his colleagues produce events, workshops and site-specific installations using hands-on engagement to make rarefied knowledge accessible. in his own work, allen is interested in sculpture and performance, asking how they can affect the viewer in a deep, personal way. how can the viewer be moved from a passive position to a state of engagement and communal experience? allen has been working with these concerns since graduate school, and his practice has transformed from studio artist to include collaborator, facilitator and producer as he has investigated these questions. under his direction, machine functions as a research laboratory, investigating performance, sculpture and installation as lived experience for the viewer. anne balsamo is professor of interactive media in the school of cinematic arts, and of communication in the annenberg school of communication and journalism at the university of southern california. from - , she served as director of the institute for multimedia literacy. her work focuses on the relationship between culture and technology. in , she co- founded onomy labs, inc., a silicon valley technology design and fabrication company that builds cultural technologies. her first book, technologies of the gendered body: reading cyborg women (duke university press, ) investigated the social and cultural implications of emergent bio-technologies. her new book project, designing culture: the technological imagination at work, examines the relationship between cultural reproduction and technological innovation. randy bass is executive director of georgetown's center for new designs in learning and scholarship, a university-wide center supporting faculty work in new learning and research environments. he is the director of the visible knowledge project (vkp). in conjunction with the vkp, he is also the director of the american studies crossroads project, an international project on technology and education in affiliation with the american studies association, with major funding in the past by the us department of education and the annenberg/cpb project. in conjunction with the crossroads project, bass is the supervising editor of engines of inquiry: a practical guide for using technology to teach american studies, and executive producer of the companion video, engines of inquiry: a video tour of learning and technology in american culture studies. he has served as co-leader of the neh-funded "new media classroom project: building a national conversation on narrative inquiry and technology," in conjunction with the american social history project/center for media and learning (at the cuny graduate center). he is also co-editor of the electronic resources editor for the heath anthology of american literature (third edition, paul lauter, ed.). anne burdick is chair of the media design program at the pasadena art center. she is a regular participant in the international dialogue regarding the future of graduate education and research in design. in addition, she designs experimental text projects in diverse media, for which she has garnered recognition, from the prestigious leipzig award for book design to i.d. magazine’s interactive design review for her work with interactive texts. burdick has designed books of literary/media criticism by authors such as marshall mcluhan and n. katherine hayles and she is currently developing electronic corpora with the austrian academy of sciences. burdick’s writing and design can be found in the los angeles times, eye magazine and electronic book review, among others, and her work is held in the permanent collections of both sfmoma and moma. burdick studied graphic design at both art center college of design and san diego state university prior to receiving a b.f.a. and m.f.a. in graphic design at california institute of the arts. sharon daniel is professor of film and digital media at the university of california, santa cruz where she teaches classes in digital media theory and practice. her research involves collaborations with local and online communities, which exploit information and communications technologies as new sites for “public art.” daniel is the co-creator of the web- based interactive project public secrets, which examines the spaces of the prison system through the voices of incarcerated women. the award-winning project exemplifies precise and elegant interface design and the use of an algorithm to generate random “text boxes” that act as metaphors for the project’s central thesis. kathleen fitzpatrick is associate professor of english and media studies and chair of the mediastudies program at pomona college in claremont, california. she is the author of the anxiety of obsolescence: the american novel in the age of television (vanderbilt up, ), which was selected as an “outstanding academic title” for by choice. she serves on the editorial board of the pearson custom introduction to literature database anthology, as well as of the journal of e-media studies and the journal of transformative works, and is a member of the executive committee of the mla discussion group on media and literature. she has recently finished a book-length project, to be published by new york university press, entitled planned obsolescence: publishing, technology, and the future of the academy. she is a founder of mediacommons and a frequent blogger and has recently been appointed the first director of scholarly communication for the mla. gary hall is a london-based cultural and media theorist working on new media technologies, continental philosophy and cultural studies. he is professor of media and performing arts in the school of art and design at coventry university, uk. he is the author of culture in bits (continuum, ) and digitize this book!: the politics of new media, or why we need open access now (minnesota up, ) and co-editor of new cultural studies: adventures in theory (edinburgh up, ) and experimenting: essays with samuel weber (fordham up, ). he is also founding co-editor of the open access journal culture machine, director of the cultural studies open access archive csearch, co-founder of the open humanities press and co-editor of the ohp's culture machine liquid books series. his work has appeared in numerous journals, including angelaki, cultural politics, cultural studies, parallax and the oxford literary review. he is currently developing a series of politico-institutional interventions - recently dubbed 'deconstructions in the public sphere' - which use digital media to creatively perform critical and cultural theory. in / he will be a visiting fellow at the centre for research in the arts, humanities and social sciences at cambridge university. alexandra juhasz is professor of media studies at pitzer college. she makes and studies committed media practices that contribute to political change and individual and community growth. she is the author of aids tv: identity, community and alternative video (duke university press, ), women of vision: histories in feminist film and video (university of minnesota press, ), f is for phony: fake documentary and truth’s undoing, co-edited with jesse lerner (minnesota, ), and media praxis: a radical web-site integrating theory, practice and politics, www.mediapraxis.org. she has published extensively on documentary film and video. dr. juhasz is also the producer of educational videotapes on feminist issues from aids to teen pregnancy. she recently completed the feature documentaries scale: measuring might in the media age ( ), video remains ( ) and dear gabe ( ) as well as women of vision: histories in feminist film and video ( ) and the shorts, released: short videos about women and film ( ) and naming prairie ( ), a sundance film festival, , official selection. she is the producer of the feature films, the watermelon woman (cheryl dunye, ) and the owls (dunye, ). her current work is on and about youtube: www.youtube.com/mediapraxisme and www.aljean.wordpress.com. marsha kinder is a cultural theorist and prolific film scholar, whose specializations include narrative theory, digital media, children's media culture, and spanish cinema. she has published more than essays and books, including blood cinema: the reconstruction of national identity in spain with companion cd-rom ( ), playing with power in movies, television and video games: from muppet babies to teenage mutant ninja turtles ( ), self and cinema ( ) and closeup ( ). since kinder has directed the labyrinth project, an art collective and research initiative on interactive cinema and database narrative. labyrinth has produced a series of award-winning interactive installations and dvds that have been exhibited at museums, conferences, film festivals and new media festivals worldwide. kinder has worked for sega as a rater of violence in video games, has written, directed and produced game protoypes and online courseware projects, and received a number of awards, including the sundance online festival jury award for new narrative forms, british academy of film & tv arts for best interactive project in the learning category, and new media invision award for best overall design. caroline levander is the vice provost for interdisciplinary initiatives, carlson professor in the humanities, and professor of english at rice university. she is currently writing laying claim: imagining empire on the u.s. mexico border (oxford university press) and where is american literature? (wiley-blackwell’s manifesto series). levander has recently co-edited teaching and studying the americas ( ), a companion to american literary studies ( ), and "the global south and world disorder," with walter mignolo, for the global south ( ). she is the recipient of grants and fellowships from the mellon foundation, the national endowment for the humanities, the national humanities center, the huntington library, and the institute of museum and library science's national leadership grant, among other agencies. in addition to co-editing a book series, imagining the americas, with oxford university press, levander is author of cradle of liberty: race, the child and national belonging from thomas jefferson to w.e.b. du bois (duke up ) and voices of the nation: women and public speech in nineteenth-century american culture and literature (cambridge up , paperback reprint ) and co-editor of hemispheric american studies ( ) and the american child: a cultural studies reader ( ). she is also involved in the our americas archive partnership (oaap), a digital archive supported by search tools and teaching materials that provides open access to historical documents on the americas, which are housed at collaborating institutions. ramesh srinivasan is assistant professor of information studies with a courtesy appointment in design|media arts. srinivasan, who holds m.s and doctoral degrees, from the mit media laboratory and harvard's design school respectively, has focused his research globally on the development of information systems within the context of culturally-differentiated communities. he is interested in how an information system can function as a cultural artifact, as a repository of knowledge that is commensurable with the ontologies of a community. as a complement, he is also interested in how an information system can engage and re-question the notion of diaspora and how ethnicity and culture function across distance. his research therefore involves engaging communities to serve as the designers, authors, and librarians/archivists of their own information systems. his research has spanned such bounds as native americans, somali refugees, indian villages, aboriginal australia, and maori new zealand. he has published widely in scholarly journals. hbem_a_ .dvi u n i v e r s i t y o f c o p e n h a g e n the web and digital humanities: theoretical and methodological concerns brügger, niels; finnemann, niels ole published in: journal of broadcasting and electronic media doi: . / . . publication date: document version publisher's pdf, also known as version of record citation for published version (apa): brügger, n., & finnemann, n. o. ( ). the web and digital humanities: theoretical and methodological concerns. journal of broadcasting and electronic media, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / . . download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . this article was downloaded by: [ . . . ] on: december , at: : publisher: routledge informa ltd registered in england and wales registered number: registered office: mortimer house, - mortimer street, london w t jh, uk journal of broadcasting & electronic media publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hbem the web and digital humanities: theoretical and methodological concerns niels brügger a & niels ole finnemann b a internet studies at the centre for internet studies, aarhus university b aarhus university published online: mar . to cite this article: niels brügger & niels ole finnemann ( ) the web and digital humanities: theoretical and methodological concerns, journal of 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out of the use of the content. http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hbem http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showcitformats?doi= . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . this article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. terms & conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions the web and digital humanities: theoretical and methodological concerns niels brügger and niels ole finnemann since the mid- s the web has constituted an increasingly important source for studies of the recent history of society and culture, and a number of na- tional and international web archiving institutions have been established. this article discusses the different characteristics of web materials and archived web materials. it is argued that both of these characteristics differ from the concepts of digital materials developed within the frameworks of digital hu- manities and that the growing variety of different kinds of digital materials and processes calls for a reinterpretation of the computer, stressing the variability of the functional architecture of digital media. today the internet is the medium which holds the most multifaceted set of ma- terials documenting contemporary social, cultural, and political life. it has become the fulcrum for the general development of media, including mass media and a growing variety of digital devices. if the communicative infrastructure of society in the late th century was centered on television, it is today centered on the internet. as a variety of digital media penetrates all spheres in society, they also play a still more dominant role for the social sciences, humanities, and arts. they do so in three respects: as archives for contemporary life, as a toolbox for the study of all sorts of digital collections, including digitized collections of non-digital materials (often labeled cultural heritage), and as a means for enforced communication within all spheres of society. in this article we will concentrate on the first of these aspects, the role of the internet and particularly its public part as a source material for scholars studying contemporary political, social, and cultural phenomena. the public part of the inter- net is mainly found on the web. the article therefore focuses on web materials, as niels brügger (ph.d., aarhus university) is a director and an associate professor of internet studies at the centre for internet studies, aarhus university. his research interests include internet theory, web history, web archiving, and digital humanities. niels ole finnemann (dr. phil., aarhus university) is a professor of internet studies and a director of netlab at aarhus university. his research interests include evolutionary media theory, software supported methods, theories and history of digital media and culture. the authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of the cost action is www.webdatanet.eu and the cost action is ‘‘transforming audiences, transforming societies.’’ © broadcast education association journal of broadcasting & electronic media ( ), , pp. – doi: . / . . issn: - print/ - online d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities their characteristics will have to inform further reflections on methods and research strategies. web materials represent a unique type of source material, and they also include a significant repertoire of links connecting source materials in media otherwise unconnected and unavailable for scholars. unfortunately the uniqueness of web materials also includes ongoing changes, modifications, disappearances of content, and reconfigurations of relations. for varying estimates of the average lifespan of web materials see guy, . in so far as web materials constitute unique source materials, they have to be preserved by some sort of archiving strategy. otherwise it will not be possible to document what took place on the internet at any given time. this is a problem for documenting the history of the internet and the web and the general history of society. the early years of the web are already out of sight. archiving web materials is not only of relevance to the study of particular forms of web communication, but also crucial to other sorts of scholarship and social sciences. politicians and other (commercial and civic) agencies use the web to bypass the mass media gatekeepers. hence, a growing part of public life takes place on a huge network of blogs, debate forums, and semipublic facebook sites. if these materials are not archived they will be unavailable for future studies of the past. history cannot be written without the documents that allow us to make distinctions between past and present. for these reasons efforts have been made to collect, store, and preserve web materials. some of these initiatives are coordinated by the international internet preservation consortium (iipc) founded in (see also brügger, ). due to the particular nature of web materials, archived web materials pose a number of new questions. web materials differ from most former digital collections, as they are born digital, and archived web materials differ from both, as they are ‘‘reborn.’’ we present three perspectives on digital materials within the humanities in this article. the first two perspectives are well-established within digital humanities, while the third perspective emerges out of internet studies. from that perspective we suggest a reinterpretation of the notion of the computer and of digital processes due to the growing variety of networked digital media. this is followed by a discussion of the character of web materials and the character of ‘‘reborn’’ archived web materials. digital humanities and digital materials within the humanities digital materials and methods have been approached mainly from two different perspectives. one perspective originating in the s and s (e.g., chomsky) has in recent years developed into what is today labeled ‘‘digital humanities,’’ focusing primarily on digitized source materials and ‘‘compu- tational’’ methods (the journal computers and the humanities was founded in . see also hockey, ; mccarty, ). in recent years digital humanities has also d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r journal of broadcasting & electronic media/march included multimodal features and become an umbrella term related to the building of new research infrastructures (see e.g., the report research infrastructures in the digital humanities [european science foundation, ]). a second perspective develops around the human-computer interaction studies (hci) and the idea of the computer as a toolbox (norman & draper, ). while the first perspective originates in relation to mainframe computers, the second perspective originates as an interpretation of the ‘‘personal’’ computer in the s. in both cases the standalone computer is taken for granted, and the concept of the computer is more or less explicitly rooted in the idea of digital processes as computational processes. still, digital humanities is rooted in a framework defined by the digitization of analog sources rather than born-digital materials. svensson ( ) discusses two us mainstream positions, similar to the two first positions mentioned here, and two extremes: a ‘‘surfer perspective’’ and a ‘‘making-code’’ perspective. during the s a third perspective develops around the interpretation of digital media, including a growing array of networked digital devices from the s and onwards. within all these perspectives the web is present as a platform for presentation, distribution, and communication, and they include the use of software-supported and eventually web-based methods. however, the web plays no particular role as a source material in its own right in the digital humanities and hci traditions, while archived web materials and web history have only played a minor role in internet and ‘‘new’’ media studies. this is still the case in recent publications such as berry ( ), svensson ( ), and gold ( ). for an exception see foot & schneider ( ). dougherty et al. ( ), and thomas et al. ( ) discuss scholars’ use of web archives. from the idea of uniform computers to digital media to bridge these gaps one may want to modify the uniform concept of the computer and ‘‘computing’’ to a concept of digital media reflecting the fact that the functional architecture of computers is variable and subject to ever ongoing developments in different directions. since digital processes are processed in different ways and on different levels of meaning, the notion of computation is also affected. such a move seems inevitable to embrace all sorts of digital processes: word, image, and sound processing, all sorts of hypertextual, interactive, and multimodal usages as well as operations in traditional machines, in the growing array of dedi- cated digital devices, mobile devices, digital circuits in our bodies, in the cities and other surroundings, including processes in our relations to the internet of things. what, if any, are the basic and shared characteristics of all these different forms of digital processes? our suggestion is that all digital processes share three basic features: ) rules as well as data are—at least partly—processed as binary sequences; most digital media are dedicated and not ‘‘universal’’ machines, as some parts of d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities the functional architecture are built into the hardware and not delivered as editable software. ) the processing is partly controlled by means of algorithms (which are syntac- tical in nature, specifying a particular functional architecture), ) the algorithms are controlled on the semantic level of the interface. in the end the two bits—often labeled and ,—which are completely void of meaning (similar to letters, rather than numbers) are also the only invariants, while syntax and interface/semantics may be varied endlessly (cf. finnemann, b). this definition of digital media deviates, on the one hand, from the concept of the computer as a rule-governed machine which has dominated humanities computing and which is still at work within digital humanities—and rightly so in some particular cases. on the other hand, it deviates from the widespread ‘‘new media’’ concept (or the implicit assumption) of the computer as a plastic and freely malleable device that comes with no built-in constraints. the malleability of the computer was introduced in the hci tradition in the late s (bolter, ; ehn, ) and later became an implicit assumption in the new media studies, where it is hard to find any explicit concept of the computer as a constraining device. since the machinery is not conceived of as uniform, the idea of computation as a uniform (mathematical, logical, rule-governed) process is also replaced by the idea of a variable functional architecture. the functional architecture can be modified, suspended, or over-coded on many levels, some of which may be processed on the level of the basic machine architecture, of operating systems, of network connec- tions, of possible configurations of in- and output devices, of programs, of settings, etc. this is compatible with the idea that both ‘‘the digital’’ and ‘‘the humanities’’ should always come in the plural. to study web materials scholars from any field will have to use software-supported methods, but scholars from different fields or with different research questions may often want to use them differently and to project different perspectives onto the archived materials. a main issue here is the particular relation between research questions and the basic criteria for legitimizing the results. in our view digital humanities is at risk to validate itself only due to internal standards. as there is no such thing as ‘‘digital physics’’ to be clearly separated from physics, we assume that there is no such thing as ‘‘digital humanities’’ to be clearly separated from the variety of humanities disciplines and forms of scholarship, on the one hand, and the variety of software- supported methods developed in studying all sorts of digital sources in all academic fields, on the other. the distinction is questionable both on the side of the ‘‘digital’’ and on the side of the ‘‘humanities.’’ web materials—a particular set of digital born materials digitized data corpora have been a main source within digital humanities and the antecedent humanities computing traditions. such materials can be characterized d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r journal of broadcasting & electronic media/march as homogenous data sources. they are stored in particular formats defined by researchers. the formats chosen may be a general storage format for the types of materials in question (e.g., the text encoding initiative, tei) or be specifically oriented toward a particular research question. in both cases the basic formats are defined a posteriori and extrinsic to the materials, which are usually produced in non-digital form. this is often also the case for many digital born materials such as standardized text and image formats. these characteristics do not apply to web materials. contrary to the tei notion of ‘‘text,’’ we use ‘‘text’’ in the wide sense, including written, aural, and visual formats. to distinguish between these formats we use ‘‘writing’’ or ‘‘word processing,’’ referring to the narrow concept of a linguistic text. due to the non-proprietary network structure of the web, allowing everybody to publish software applications as well as any kind of content, eventually per- sonalized by the user or the content provider, web materials become increasingly heterogeneous in character over the years. the features making digital media and the internet superior to former media are precisely those that also cause the greatest difficulties for studying and archiving such materials. first, we have the full array of (type)written, visual, and aural formats of non-digital media; next we have their dig- ital equivalents. digital equivalents differ from their non-digital precursors, because a part of the physical manifestation is replaced by coded sequences, thus chang- ing some formerly physically invariant properties to editable symbolic variables. for words it is not simply the fonts that become replaceable, but also the coded equivalent of the paper. furthermore, digitized text can be printed in a variety of physical forms. to this comes, however, a number of features and characteristics which are distinct for digital media, features and characteristics which are distinct for web materials, and finally for a variety of less dominating protocol formats, such as mobile formats like wap, apps, and tweets. main characteristics of web materials digitized and digital born materials are normally embedded in hypertextual, interactive, and multimodal contexts, defined on the level of the interface and characterizing both standalone machines and networked machines. digital born materials also include these features in the grammatical repertoire. hypertext, in- teractivity, and multimodality are potentially present in all media, but in forms which are particular for each medium. print media offer the footnote, the table of contents, and other sorts of fixed references which are both similar to and different from digital hypertext. the concepts grew into prominence only in the eras of the pc and of the internet. digital hypertext is rooted in the basic searchable address system and random access; interactivity is rooted in the need for input and output formats; multimodality is rooted in the relation between ordinary language and programming language. in the present context of digital media the three notions refer to significant trajectories in the development of digital genres (cf. finnemann, ). d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities the web provides a hypertextual, interactive, and multimodal context built into browser interfaces, and it also offers these features as a grammatical repertoire, which may be utilized in a growing variety of forms within any particular site. in the following we delineate the characteristics of web materials with respect to four dimensions of digital materials: hypertextuality, interactivity, multimodality, and fluctuation. hypertext was first defined by ted nelson in the s as collections of writ- ten materials connected by hyperlinks between nodes (nelson, ). modified concepts played a role in the development of software for standalone pcs in the s (notecard, hypercard, storyspace), closely connected to the development of interactive formats with respect to both content and functional architecture. not just letters and words, but any unit was now included in the array of hypertextual linking. some of the hypertextual characteristics mentioned here are discussed in dewitt & strasma ( ), finnemann ( a), and kirschenbaum ( ). the web protocols widened the reach of hyperlinks to a global scale, and they opened up for a variety of trans-site and in-site applications, such as the organization of a site due to a particular menu structure, and for establishing a multiplicity of routes and passages between elements within any given site and between elements on other sites. the hyperlink is the fundamental glut of the web, because it connects the visual present with the immense array of hidden materials both within a given site and between sites. the ‘‘spatial’’ scaling and reach of hyperlinks is variable, but hypertextual relations may also vary due to the timescale (new links can always be added) and due to authorship relations (existing links and nodes may be modified and new connections and nodes may be added over the years by different authors). hyperlinks also differ in their semantic nature. they can establish a relation within a work, between works, or between elements in different works. they can be used for associative browsing or goal-oriented navigation. they may be part of a lexical relation, part of the menu structure of a site, or part of fictional relations. thus, they can be motivated due to different criteria for consistency and overarching ideas. hyperlink relations may also be motivated as more or less strong author-defined suggestions or as optional choices due to the individual user’s motivations, closely related to the variety of possible forms of interactivity. in the end any kind of search due to any kind of search criterion is hypertextual in nature. while a free text search leaves a wide semantic variation open to the user, a meta-tag-based search limits the variation in favor of more goal-oriented link relations. menu links and navigational links represent a third kind of particular, author-defined utilization of hyperlinks on the web. especially in the s hypertext was seen as a means to break down the or- ganizational hierarchy of printed books, but the use of hypertextual relations on the web shows that it is rather an indispensable instrument for navigating through increasingly more complex and hierarchically layered amounts of source materials otherwise inaccessible and irretrievable. the most conventional form of interactivity is when a reader is allowed to com- ment on a text on a given web page. more distinct for digital media, if compared d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r journal of broadcasting & electronic media/march to older media, are formats allowing personal, typed communication between indi- viduals, as it is known from chat forums, instant messaging, status updates, tweets, and text messages, whether web-based or not. even more distinct is the array of possible interactions directed toward changes in the functional architecture of the medium. interactivity has been discussed both from a sociological perspective and in the context of human-computer interaction and computer-mediated communication (cf. jensen, ; quiring & schweiger, ). interactivity toward the functional architecture is most often ignored. still, it is one of the main characteristics of computers as distinct from other mechanical devices. to prevent unwanted changes a number of restrictions are programmed into the web sites, but if access is given the source code of the web page is permanently editable. in principle there is no lower limit for user-generated changes in the functional architecture, in so far as the architecture is defined on the level of the software. however, many devices limit the array of possible changes physically, as they are dedicated to particular purposes by implementing parts of the functional architecture in the hardware. a second limitation is that changes in the functional architecture are risky and beyond the competence of most users—except for the array of possible variations of the settings made available in a menu structure. still, it can be done by skilled users. it is a significant part of the innovative dynamic on the web, because the functional architecture may be modified and changed by means of new software on the top of the system. this was exemplified, for instance, by the publication and implementation of the www protocols in the early s (berners-lee, ; finnemann, , p. ). the variability of the functional architecture also allows the content and service providers to modify the operations of the visitor’s machine, to collect information, to deliver personalized services, and to make the services sensitive to the individual messages and actions of any visitor. however, the usage of these interactive features may vary, both due to the service providers and the users’ needs and ideas, but they form a constitutive part of web materials, thus making these materials distinct from other forms of digital materials. on a particular web page the use of hyperlinks and interactive formats can be limited or nearly eliminated. many web pages delimit the use of hyperlinks to navigational purposes and refrain from utilizing intrinsic content-sensitive link relations. still, the hypertextual and interactive features are not simply variable from site to site or from time to time, they also change the very nature of the materials and the set of possible relations between units within the materials. multimodal communication is less constitutive for web communication than hypertext and interactivity. you may do well without it, and word-based communi- cation is by far the most dominating format. still, multimodal communication may, in a long-term perspective, become as significant as hypertext and interactivity. most significant is the circulation of still images, graphs, and short videos, predominantly in youtube format, which also allows for easy embedding on any site. in these cases we still have clearly delimited units of expressions. however, many web sites also d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities provide dynamic visualizations, tag clouds, and a growing number of blending in of dynamic features on an otherwise static page. fluctuation—a result of hypertextual and interactive web dynamics. all sorts of digital materials are in principle permanently editable and reproducible in ways distinct from former media. units and sequences are delimited by coding, and all units and sequences can be blended deliberately with other units and sequences. in the case of digitized materials one may want to make blends for analytical purposes, but it would be a distortion of the original source and not a legitimate part of the original source material. for web materials such blends are legitimate parts of the object, such as, for instance, the embedding of a youtube video in a particular context, or the viral spread of a meme across the web. web materials are permanently editable. they may be remixed, migrated into new contexts and meanings, processes which are often also the offset of the development of new genres, such as the migration of texting into status updates on facebook and into tweets. most of these features apply to all sorts of digital born materials. distinct for internet and web materials are the seamless scales of reach with respect to local- global, public-private (not least many new forms of semi-public spaces), and the array of differentiations of possible connections between sender and receiver. even if the web protocols are unidirectional, they are so from the position of both the sender and the receiver. finally, web materials are also distinct compared to digitized materials, as they are born with a particular interface which comes with the materials, even if it is separated and modifiable, but still a part of the materials. digitized materials are on their side only accessible through interfaces, which are not part of the source, but defined by researchers and archivists as part of the chosen digitization strategy. a few remarks on methodological implications the general characteristics described here may be more or less relevant to partic- ular studies of particular aspects and themes, but they are highly relevant to the un- derstanding of the overall dynamic and complexity of the web and make it clear that web materials pose a particular set of methodological issues and document the need to archive web materials. some of these issues depend on the particular research question, while others are more generic for a broader range of research perspectives. first, there is no overarching system of metadata. many web sites offer a freely chosen set of keywords, but there are no mechanisms capable of providing consis- tency, neither in a synchronic nor in a diachronic perspective. second, each research project will have to delimit its own timescale and to take into account the stability of the relevant materials. third, the identification and delimitation of the relevant materials will often pose problems. before the breakthrough of the internet questions such as ‘‘where does d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r journal of broadcasting & electronic media/march public opinion building take place?’’ could be answered by listing the main media and rostra in a society, whereas today it may depend on the particular role of the web in a particular society, on the issue in question, and on the relevant agencies and their preferred ways of using the web and particular sites on the web. the challenges of the archived web web archiving can be performed in a variety of ways regarding archiving purpose and strategy as well as technological choices. on the one end of a continuum we have the very broad web archiving made by archiving institutions, such as national libraries, aiming at preserving the cultural heritage of, for instance, a nation state. and on the other end one finds the very detailed and narrow archiving in relation to, for instance, a specific research project. in the first case the goal is to archive the web in such a way that it allows for as many different kinds of research projects as possible in the future, whereas in the latter web archiving is usually calibrated to fit the research project in question (for an example of the latter, see foot & schneider, ). in the following we will focus on broad archives such as national web archives, since future historical studies will to a large extent have to be based on these kinds of already existing web archives. however, many of the points below also apply to narrow web archiving. compared to digitized as well as born-digital materials, archived web materials are specific in a variety of ways, each of which raises a number of new questions as to analysis and methods. we do not address issues of copyright and privacy protection, although these issues are very important in relation to web archiving. the characteristics of the archived web the web archive is a real-time archive. since the online web is changed or deleted at an unprecedented pace, compared to earlier storage media, the selection of what to archive cannot be postponed to future selections. the online web one wants to preserve must be collected and archived here and now, while it is still online. the archived web is a reborn, unique and deficient version and not simply a copy of what was once online. the archiving institution that wants to archive the online web must make a number of choices: what to archive and what to omit (specific domain names, types of web sites, parts of a web site, archiving depth, specific file types etc.)? which archiving software and strategy should be used? how to handle updates taking place during the process of archiving? how should the archived material be made accessible in the web archive? as a consequence of the many possible answers to these questions what is archived is almost never a copy on a : scale of what was once online; it is rather a collection of unique versions that did not exist before the act of archiving. in addition to the classical d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities questions regarding selection, which also apply to web archiving, it has to be taken into consideration that the archived web material did not exist in the archived form online. it is created in and by the process of archiving, which is why it can be considered ‘‘reborn’’ digital material, in contrast to digitized as well as to the born- digital material on which it is based (see also brügger, , pp. – ). as was the case with digitized data corpora, the archivist decides how the material is integrated in the web archive and how it can be made accessible for future use. however, one important difference has to be noted: in contrast to digitized material archived web material always comes with its own interface, namely the interface of the online web. the web archive can make its own interface, but it must be on the terms of the web’s original born-digital interface. the broad web archive is multitemporal and multispatial. since a web archive usually covers more than one point in past time, numerous versions of the same web element will exist—a url, a web page, an image, a web site, a hyperlink etc.—each from a different point in time. thus, in contrast to the online web where only one copy of each web element exists at each point in time (even in the case of different user-dependent versions of the same web page), the time factor implies that the web archive is multitemporal. in addition, most often web sites (especially larger web sites) are not continuously archived in their totality. at one point in time certain parts are archived; at a later time other parts are archived. in contrast to the online web where a web site only has one spatial extension, that is, a certain number of web pages distributed on the levels below the front page, the spatial extension of the same archived web site is not necessarily identical throughout time. thus, the patchwork of web elements in the web archive makes it multispatial. the web archive tends to be reactive. the rapid and endless new developments of software and use forms on the web—be that flash, java scripts, facebook, twitter, the seamless integration of video on web pages, etc.—force the archiving institutions to try to keep pace with these changes. however, the scale and the rapid turnover of the changes usually hinder a proactive approach to the fluctuation and dynamics of the web. therefore, the web archive is often reactive in the sense that it is constantly struggling to keep up with the changes. the result is that the web archive is out of sync for a period of time, until new developments have been discovered and mapped and adequate archiving techniques and routines have been invented, if possible. analytical and methodological consequences the above-mentioned four characteristics of the broad web archive have a num- ber of consequences for the subsequent analytical use of it and for the methods that can be used. d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r journal of broadcasting & electronic media/march something is missing one of the major consequences is that the web scholar will probably have to make do with web material that is incomplete compared to what was once online. that an archive is incomplete is a constitutive element of any kind of archive, since coincidences and deliberate as well as unintended choices often affect what is included in an archive and what is discarded and/or destroyed. however, the question of incompleteness unfolds differently in web archives compared to digitized material. digitized collections can be considered complete in so far as the archive or the scholar selects the material that is to be digitized, and the collection’s degree of completeness is usually known when selecting the material. thus, completeness relates to the analog material itself and not to the fact that it is digitized. in contrast, the web archive is characterized by two general types of incomplete- ness compared to what was once online. first, the user of a web archive will miss some of the information about the web which is usually at hand on the online web, such as search results or information about the current state of the web (statistics, ranking, number of domain names, users etc.) (cf. brügger, a). second, on a more detailed level individual web elements and possibilities of interaction may be missing in the web archive, be that streamed audio/video, images, graphics, hyperlinks etc. the first incompleteness is a result of the fact that the material is no longer online, whereas the latter is often due to an opaque combination of the chosen archiving strategy, deliberate deselections, archiving errors, and technical insuffi- ciencies. what is specific for the incompleteness of web archives is not that things are missing, but rather that they may be missing in ways which make it very difficult to determine if something is missing at all as well as what and where. first, this is so because, in contrast to many digitized data collections, the web archive does not have at its disposal a stable original to compare with; the live web is forever gone. second, on a detailed level incompleteness is rarely documented—things may simply be missing without explanation. thus, web archives as well as the scholars using the archives lack trustworthy methods for determining whether—or to what extent—material in a web archive is complete. heterogeneity and complexity are multiplied the time factor implies that the complex blend of hypertextuality, interactivity, multimediality, and fluctuation which characterizes the born-digital material on the web at a given point in time increases when combined in the web archive with ma- terial from other points in past time. thus, each synchronic and historically distinct form of heterogeneity and complexity is multiplied, accumulated, and combined diachronically, and the further the archive stretches back into the past, the more heterogeneous and complex the archived material becomes. d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities hyperlinks become inconsistent the structure of hyperlinks is an integrated part of the archived web and not just an added feature of the archive, such as, for instance, a menu structure or other means of navigation in relation to digitized collections. however, this gives rise to problems of inconsistency related to time and space. first, a temporal inconsistency may exist between the link source and the link target. the link source may have been archived one day and the link target days later. second, the link target may not have been archived at all, thus giving rise to a spatial inconsistency. in both cases it is difficult to determine if—and to what extent—the archived web material is inconsistent. and the consequence may be that certain types of studies become very complicated, for instance, historical network analyses of hyperlinks (cf. brügger, b). the archived web is edited and editable as argued above archived web material is an edited, ‘‘reborn’’ version of what was online. however, once the web material has entered the web archive, it is also editable, but in other ways than digitized collections and the online web, since the archived content itself as well as the division of the material in elements can be changed. any ‘‘montage’’ of the archived elements in the archive—or any extraction from the archive—is also an editing of these elements. this is so because the subdivision of the archived material and the subsequent combination of elements are not necessarily inscribed in the archived material itself as is, for instance, the case with newspaper or television archives where the producer selected the material to be archived (date, hour, section, program, etc.). in contrast, an archived web site is a continuum with no clear-cut temporal or spatial subdivisions inscribed by the producer; the subdivisions are editable, scalable, and random, and they are made a posteriori by either the web archive or the scholar. an archived web corpus is a double construction although a broad web archive is a collection of web material, it cannot be considered a corpus, that is, a clearly delimited and structured set of elements (words, texts, images, etc.). when studying the online web, one can select a corpus to study, for instance, a set of urls or file types. but since a number of versions of each element exist in a web archive (cf. above), one has to construct not one corpus, but two. first the urls that should be included in the study, and second the specific versions of each of these urls. and because of the limited possibilities of documenting the completeness of a web archive it can be challenging to construct such a double corpus in an informed way. d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r journal of broadcasting & electronic media/march subsequent processing is lacking when making a broad web archive the traditional subsequent processing made by archivists and librarians (e.g., quality checking or adding metadata) or by scholars (e.g., annotating) is usually not an option—the amount and the complexity of the archived material simply do not allow for systematic and detailed processing of the entire archive once the web has been archived. thus, the archive and the scholar have to make do with either the metadata provided by the archived web itself— for instance, meta-tags in the source code—or with the log files from the archiving process, if the archive makes them available. the interoperability between web archives is challenged since the web is transnational by nature, and since global issues and events tran- scend the national web sphere, it would be obvious to undertake transnational and comparative research projects. however, if such studies are to be based on archived web material, all the analytical and methodological consequences outlined above are multiplied by the number of involved web archives. the combination and interoperability of existing web archives may turn out to be one of the major challenges in the future (cf. brügger, a). concluding discussion in this article we have mainly focused on the web, because it has been the main platform for the public use of the internet so far, but there is a need to consider and eventually include other platforms and forms of digital materials and their possible mutual integration as relevant in the perspective of historical documentation. with the growing number of more or less dedicated devices, mobile devices, the internet of things, and an increasing number of online-mediated services, the production of all sorts of information tends to exceed any former limitations. thus, web archiving strategies become part of the wider issue of what sorts of information society should keep, how it should be done, and what should be left to oblivion. we will not enter into the discussion of how to combine the general web archiving strategies (domain snapshots, different criteria for selective harvesting, and event harvesting), but mention a few game changers of archiving. first of all digital media and not least the internet and networked mobile media open up new spaces for stored semiprivate and semipublic communication. among these forms we find facebook and facebook-like forms of social communication, which in some countries play an increasingly influential role in establishing social bonds and public connections. people on facebook may still be ‘‘bowling alone,’’ but they are connected in their everyday life relations (putnam, ). at the same time public opinion building is increasingly influenced by or takes place d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r brügger and finnemann/the web and digital humanities on facebook sites, which thereby become a relevant source for future historians. it is not clear how it would be possible to establish solid archives for these materials, due to the technical, legal, and ethical issues. this is even more so for the relevance of such materials as a source for the study of mental life in our age. a second game changer is the issue of the delimitation and selection of materials. this is not simply a matter of why and what we want to keep, but also an issue of what it is actually possible to get. a number of limitations are mentioned above. to these should be added the lack of log information and usage patterns, not least the use of hyperlinks. even if hyperlinks and their functionality are preserved, they do not reveal whether they are used and they reveal even less about the behavioral patterns of the individual users. while historical perspectives have been maintained within digital humanities as efforts to preserve and analyze cultural heritage, web materials have been almost completely overlooked, even if they may be considered one of the most significant contemporary contributions to the cultural heritage of mankind. in ‘‘new media’’ studies, which have developed outside the digital humanities and which have in fact been interested in studying web materials, historical perspectives have been dismissed. if society still wants to be capable of writing its own history, it will need web archives and methods for studying these archives. if the humanities should regain its historical position in academia, it will have to be capable of interpreting the stories told in digital materials and among them most significantly archived web materials, as most other digital materials will vanish in the near future. references berners-lee, t. 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( ). researcher engagement with web archives: challenges and opportunities for investment. london, uk: jisc. d ow nl oa de d by [ . . . ] at : d ec em be r the taming of the shrew non-standard text processing in the digital humanities von der fakultät informatik, elektrotechnik und informationstechnik der universität stuttgart zur erlangung der würde einer doktorin der philosophie (dr. phil.) genehmigte abhandlung vorgelegt von sarah schulz aus gÖppingen hauptberichter: prof. dr. jonas kuhn mitberichter: prof. dr. günther görz tag der mündlichen prüfung: . . institut für maschinelle sprachverarbeitung der universität stuttgart author’s declaration h iermit erkläre ich, dass ich die vorliegende arbeit selbständig verfasst habe und dabei keine andere als die angegebene literatur verwendet habe. alle zitate und sinngemäßen entlehnungen sind als solche unter genauer anga- be der quelle gekennzeichnet. die eingereichte arbeit ist weder vollständig noch in wesentlichen teilen gegenstand eines anderen prüfungsverfahrens gewesen. i declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the requirements of the university’s regulations and code of practice for re- search degree programmes and that it has not been submitted for any other academic award. except where indicated by specific reference in the text, the work is the candidate’s own work. work done in collaboration with, or with the assistance of, others, is indicated as such. any views expressed in the dissertation are those of the author. signed: .................................................... date: .......................................... i acknowledgements m y main motivation for pursuing a phd was the curiosity to dive deeper into the world of natural language processing. after i had studied theater and media science and german in my bachelor’s , i only spent an intense two and a half years studying computational linguistics in my master’s. naturally, i had the feeling that there was much more to be learned about this subject that seemed to fit my interests exceptionally well with its humanistic core and yet analytic methods. now, after almost five years of research, i still have that feeling: learning never ends. however, i have learned a lot and not just about nlp but also about humanities and social sciences, about work methods, about people, about communication, about myself and about the world. this knowledge i owe to countless people i had the pleasure to work with throughout the last few years. people who believe in you make all the difference. i want to thank my supervisor, jonas kuhn, for never doubting that nlp research is the right place for me and for all his support. i am grateful to günther görz who actually set the starting point for my career as a “computer person” many years ago and agreed to be the second examiner of my dissertation. i am also greatly indebted to mechthild habermann who gave me the necessary push to change my path. while my name may be on the front cover of this dissertation, i am by no means its sole con- tributor. thank you, nils, you shared a lot of your experience with me. also, your t-shirts always make my day. andré, thanks for your help with all the web stuff. to all my colleagues at ims: thank you for having an open door and an open ear. this is not self-evident and i appreciate it. it is impossible to write a thesis about digital humanities without mentioning the countless colleagues from the humanities who discussed their research with me and who reminded me of why i started my academic career as a humanities scholar. nora, sandra, max, mareike and all creta members: thank you for being an inspiration and the best collaboration partners one can ask for. and to all the people behind the scenes, especially leo, my parents, jürgen, michi and tarek: you inspire me, you motivate me and you kept me going. iii table of contents page list of abbreviations ix abstract xi deutsche zusammenfassung xiii list of tables xv list of figures xix preface xxi introduction . motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . publications relevant for this dissertation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . digital humanities: chance and challenge . a brief history of digital humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dh conferences – the witness of a time period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . digital humanities: an attempt at a definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . towards a methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . interdisciplinarity and collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reusability and adaptability through modularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specific problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . research contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse . non-standard text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . why we need data: machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v table of contents . . what is machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (big) data and digital humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . annotation of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . corpus annotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital hu- manities . related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the werther corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the deutsches textarchive (dta) corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gutenberg data for language modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . why ocr post-correction is hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . specialized multi-modular post-correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . suggestion modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . decision modules: the ranking mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . adaptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . digitization workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . research contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . text normalization . user-generated content - a challenge for nlp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . text normalization - related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a multi-modular approach towards normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . preprocessing layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . suggestion layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . decision layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . modeling ugc language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the bigger picture - extrinsic evaluation and portability . . . . . . . . . . vi table of contents . research contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing . training data: the influence of quantity and quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data quantity and quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . manual annotation – how much is enough? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . additional data: exploiting existing resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . corpus middle high german (rem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a general model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . region-specific corpora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . finding the right method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . learning from within the text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stretching out: including text-external resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . research contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . exploiting language similarities: a usecase . code-switching – yet another deviation from the norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . automated processing of mixed text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . language identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . part-of-speech tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . language identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . part-of-speech tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tools for digital humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . research contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . problems solved? – future directions for digital humanities . towards standard-free text processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . digital humanities: towards key concepts of a methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dh and nlp: a joint future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bibliography vii list of abbreviations ann artificial neural network aadh australasian association for digital humanities ach association for computers and the humanities adho alliance of digital humanities organizations allc association for literary and linguistic computing asr automatic speech recognition ca cluster analysis cer character error rate cgn corpus gesproken nederlands cos code-switching crf conditional random fields cs computer science csdh canadian society for digital humanities dh digital humanities dhq digital humanities quarterly dt decision tree dta deutsches textarchiv (german text archive) eadh european association for digital humanities enhg early new high german fema feature embeddings for domain adaptation hits historical tagset icch international conference on computers and the humanities iso international organization for standardization jadh japanese association for digital humanities lob lancaster-oslo-bergen corpus lid language identification lstm long short-term memory mhdbdb mittelhochdeutsche begriffsdatenbank (middle high german conceptual database) mhg middle high german ml machine learning ix list of abbreviations mlp multi-layer perceptron mnn multi-layer perceptron neural network ne named entity ner named entity recognition nhg new high german nlp natural language processing nn neural network ocr optical character recognition pos part-of-speech rem referenzkorpus mittelhochdeutsch (reference corpus middle high german) schn société canadienne des humanités numériques sdi shannon diversity index sgml standard generalized markup language sms short messages smt statistical machine translation sns netlog message stts stuttgart-tübingen-tagset tei text encoding initiative ttr type-token ratio twe twitter ud universal dependencies ugc user-generated content ut universal tagset wer word error rate w c world wide web consortium xml extensible markup language x abstract n atural language processing (nlp) has focused on the automatic processing of newspaper texts for many years. with the growing importance of text analysis in various areas such as spoken language understanding, social media processing and the interpretation of text material from the humanities, techniques and methodologies have to be reviewed and redefined since so called non-standard texts pose challenges on the lexical and syntactic level especially for machine-learning-based approaches. automatic processing tools developed on the basis of newspaper texts show a decreased performance for texts with divergent characteristics. digital humanities (dh) as a field that has risen to prominence in the last decades, holds a variety of examples for this kind of texts. thus, the computational analysis of the relationships of shakespeare’s dramatic characters requires the adjustment of processing tools to english texts from the th-century in dramatic form. likewise, the investigation of narrative perspective in goethe’s ballads calls for methods that can handle german verse from the th century. in this dissertation, we put forward a methodology for nlp in a dh environment. we inves- tigate how an interdisciplinary context in combination with specific goals within projects influ- ences the general nlp approach. we suggest thoughtful collaboration and increased attention to the easy applicability of resulting tools as a solution for differences in the store of knowledge between project partners. projects in dh are not only constituted by the automatic processing of texts but are usually framed by the investigation of a research question from the humanities. as a consequence, time limitations complicate the successful implementation of analysis tech- niques especially since the diversity of texts impairs the transferability and reusability of tools beyond a specific project. we answer to this with modular and thus easily adjustable project workflows and system architectures. several instances serve as examples for our methodology on different levels. we discuss modular architectures that balance time-saving solutions and problem-specific implementations on the example of automatic postcorrection of the output text from an optical character recognition system. we address the problem of data diversity and low resource situations by investigating different approaches towards non-standard text processing. we examine two main techniques: text normalization and tool adjustment. text normalization aims at the transformation of non-standard text in order to assimilate it to the standard whereas tool adjustment concentrates on the contrary direction of enabling tools to successfully handle a specific kind of text. we focus on the task of part-of-speech tagging to illustrate various ap- proaches toward the processing of historical texts as an instance for non-standard texts. we discuss how the level of deviation from a standard form influences the performance of different methods. our approaches shed light on the importance of data quality and quantity and empha- size the indispensability of annotations for effective machine learning. in addition, we highlight the advantages of problem-driven approaches where the purpose of a tool is clearly formulated through the research question. another significant finding to emerge from this work is a summary of the experiences and xi abstract increased knowledge through collaborative projects between computer scientists and humanists. we reflect on various aspects of the elaboration and formalization of research questions in the dh and assess the limitations and possibilities of the computational modeling of humanistic research questions. an emphasis is placed on the interplay of expert knowledge with respect to a subject of investigation and the implementation of tools for that purpose and the thereof resulting advantages such as the targeted improvement of digital methods through purposeful manual correction and error analysis. we show obstacles and chances and give prospects and directions for future development in this realm of interdisciplinary research. xii deutsche zusammenfassung d ie maschinelle sprachverarbeitung (ms) hat sich viele jahre lang hauptsächlich mit der automatischen analyse von zeitungstexten beschäftigt. mit zunehmender bedeutung automatischer textanalyse in verschiedenen bereichen wie sprachverstehen, verarbei- tung sozialer medien und der interpretation von texten aus den geisteswissenschaften müssen sowohl verarbeitungstechniken als auch methoden überdacht und überarbeitet werden, da so genannte nicht-standardtexte eine herausforderung auf lexikalischer und syntaktischer ebe- ne insbesondere für ansätze des maschinellen lernens darstellen. automatische verarbeitungs- werkzeuge, die auf der basis von zeitungstexten entwickelt wurden, liefern schlechtere ergeb- nisse für texte mit abweichenden merkmalen. digital humanities (dh) als forschungsbereich, der in den letzten jahren an dominanz gewonnen hat, hält eine anzahl unterschiedlicher bei- spiele für solche texte bereit. so erfordert die computergestützte analyse der beziehungen von charakteren in shakespeares dramen die anpassung von verarbeitungswerkzeugen an das englisch des . jahrhunderts in dramatischen texten. die untersuchung von erzählperspek- tiven in goethes balladen wiederum bedarf methoden, die deutsche verse aus dem . jahr- hundert handhaben können. in dieser dissertation schlagen wir eine methodik für ms in einer dh-umgebung vor. wir untersuchen, wie ein interdisziplinärer kontext in verbindung mit spezifischen zielen innerhalb von projekten den allgemeinen ms-ansatz beeinflusst. wir schlagen eine durchdachte zusam- menarbeit und erhöhte aufmerksamkeit gegenüber der einfachen anwendbarkeit resultieren- der werkzeuge als lösung für unterschiede im wissensschatz zwischen den projektpartnern vor. projekte in dh beschränken sich nicht auf die automatische verarbeitung von texten, son- dern sind eingebettet in die untersuchung einer bestimmten forschungsfrage. die dadurch ent- stehenden zeitlichen einschränkungen erschweren die erfolgreiche implementierung von ana- lysetechniken, zumal die vielfalt von texten innerhalb verschiedener projekte die Übertrag- barkeit und wiederverwendbarkeit von werkzeugen beeinträchtigt. darauf antworten wir mit modularen und damit leicht anpassbaren projektabläufen und systemarchitekturen. mehre- re projekte dienen als beispiele für die vorgeschlagene methodik auf verschiedenen ebenen. wir diskutieren eine modulare architektur am beispiel der automatischen nachkorrektur der ausgabetexte eines optical character recognition systems. wir unterstreichen, wie diese ar- chitektur eine zeitsparende lösung mit einer problemspezifische implementierungen verbindet. wir befassen uns mit dem problem der datenvielfalt und geringen ressourcenlage, indem wir verschiedene ansätze zur nicht-standardtextverarbeitung untersuchen. hierzu stellen wir zwei ansätze vor: textnormalisierung und werkzeuganpassung. die textnormalisierung zielt darauf ab, nicht-standardtexte zu transformieren, um diese an den standard anzupassen, wohingegen sich die werkzeuganpassung auf die gegenteilige richtung konzentriert, in der die werkzeuge befähigt werden, eine bestimmte art von text erfolgreich zu handhaben. wir konzentrieren uns auf die aufgabe der wortartenerkennung, anhand derer wir verschiedene ansätze zur verarbei- xiii deutsche zusammenfassung tung historischer texte als instanz für nicht-standardtexte veranschaulichen. wir diskutieren, wie das niveau der abweichung von einer standardform die ergebnisse verschiedener metho- den beeinflusst. unsere ansätze beleuchten die bedeutung von datenqualität und -quantität und betonen die unverzichtbarkeit von annotationen für effektives maschinelles lernen. dar- über hinaus heben wir die vorteile problemorientierter ansätze hervor, bei denen der zweck eines werkzeugs durch die fragestellung klar formuliert wird. ein weiterer wichtiger befund, der sich aus dieser arbeit ergibt, ist eine zusammenfassung der erfahrungen und des wachsenden wissens durch gemeinsame projekte zwischen computer- und geisteswissenschaftlern. wir reflektieren verschiedene aspekte der ausarbeitung und for- malisierung von forschungsfragen in dh und bewerten die grenzen und möglichkeiten, diese fragen mit computergestützten methoden zu beantworten. ein schwerpunkt liegt auf dem zu- sammenspiel von expertenwissen in bezug auf einen untersuchungsgegenstand und die im- plementierung von werkzeugen zu diesem zweck. dieser vorteil wird verstärkt durch die be- reitschaft von seiten der geisteswissenschaften durch zielgerichtete manuelle korrektur und fehleranalyse zur gezielten verbesserung digitaler methoden beizutragen. wir zeigen hinder- nisse und chancen auf und geben perspektiven und richtungen für die zukünftige entwicklung in diesem bereich der interdisziplinären forschung. xiv list of tables table page . research activity taxonomy given in the tadirah (borek et al., ) initiative. . . . . contextual levels that enclose nlp in a dh context and the issues, goals and strate- gies related thereto. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tagging accuracy on pos tagging models for latin dependent on the sampling method (random, type-token ratio based on word form (wf) and lemma (lem.) and shannon- diversity index) and size of the training set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . werther texts included in our corpus from different authors and times of origin. . . . . werther-specific parallel corpus of ocr text and corrected text showing the number of tokens before and after post-correction along with wer and cer . . . . . . . . . . . . dta parallel corpus of ocr text and corrected text showing the number of tokens before and after post-correction along with wer and cer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wer and cer for both test sets before and after automatic post-correction for the system trained with the small training set (train) and the larger training set (trainext). baselines: the original text coming from the ocr system and the character-level smt system trained on the werther data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . number of overcorrected, corrected and uniquely corrected words per module out of , tokens in testinit ( , erroneous words) and , tokens in testunk ( , erroneous words) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . number of tokens in the english and french corpus provided by the competition on ocr-postcorrection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . example of badly recognized text in the english part of the corpus. . . . . . . . . . . . . the results reported in word error rate (wer) and character error rate (cer) for the english and french test set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . number of tokens of the training, development and test sets listed by subgenre. . . . xv list of tables . data statistics of the three genres of ugc: the number of messages and the number of tokens before and after normalization, together with the overall expansion rate (left- hand side); normalization effort expressed in the number of operations on character level (right-hand side). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . overview of corpora used for language modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . evaluation results of the tokenization module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . performance of the filtering methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . wer, cer, precision and recall of the general modules with and without filtering of suggestions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . number of problems each specialized module is responsible (res) for, has solved correctly (cor) and has overcorrected (over). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . precision, recall and wer of the normalization in five different settings for each genre and on the entire test set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oracle recall values for the tuned, soft filtered genre-unbalanced system compared to the recall values achieved by the system in this setting without oracle. . . . . . . . . . . performance of different nlp tools before and after normalization with the all-data- in multi-modular system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ud-tagset. the tag sym was not needed; we added combined tags for mhg as well as the tag spunct to distinguish sentence-ending characters from other punctua- tion marks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . list of grammatical tags included in the mhdbdb along with examples for each cat- egory given by mittelhochdeutsche begriffsdatenbank ( ). this table is extracted from http://mhdbdb.sbg.ac.at/help/grammar-tags.de.html, possible mistakes are not corrected. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . features for the example word “næhest” (engl. closest) used to disambiguate the grammatical information contained in the mhdbdb in context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . comparison of tagging results achieved by using , manually annotated tokens (setting a), million semi-automatically annotated tokens ( . % annotation accu- racy, setting b), combination of semi-automatically annotated and manually anno- tated (scaled up to mio) data (setting a+b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . direct mapping from hits to universal dependencies tagset. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cross-evaluation results for experiments with the rem and the disambiguated mhdbdb. . cross-evaluation results after improvement of the mapping from hits to ud. . . . . . overview of the subcorpora annotated along with the time of origin, number of tokens in the gold standards and number of tokens in the subcorpora which are used for training specific pos models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . average number of sentences and tokens in train, development and test set of our gold standard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi list of tables . mapping between stts and universal dependency pos tags. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . overview of pos-annotated cos corpora. s&l’ :solorio and liu ( b), v’ :vyas et al. ( ), j’ :jamatia et al. ( ), Ç&Ç’ :Çetinoğlu and Çöltekin ( ), s’ :sharma et al. ( ), ut: google universal tags (petrov et al., ). ud: universal depen- dencies tag set (nivre et al., ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . labels annotated for lid along an explanation for each label and the occurrence in percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . labels annotated for pos tagging along with the explanation for each label and the occurrence in percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . performance of the crf system for language identification compared to the baseline (bl). precision, recall and f-score per class and macro-average of all classes. . . . . . . percentage of incorrectly labeled tokens per class along with the distribution of in- correct labels among the other labels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . performance of the crf systems for pos tagging compared to the majority baseline (bl ), the confidence baseline (bl ). crfbase: system with the basic features, crfpr edli d : system with predicted lid as an additional feature, crfgol dli d : sys- tem with gold-standard lid as an additional feature. precision (pre), recall (rec) and f-score (f) per class and macro-average of all classes are given. the task- relevant results are emphasized in bold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . percentage of incorrectly labeled tokens per class along with the distribution of in- correct labels among the other labels for the crfpr edli d system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . different portions of the training set along with precision, recall and f-score for lid and pos tagging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii list of figures figure page . context levels of dh research that influence nlp approaches with their challenges and solution strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . term frequency normalized to for concepts important to dh in the past years in the books of abstracts from the digital humanities conference. . . . . . . . . . . . . collaborative workflow of digital humanities projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . context levels of dh research that influence nlp approaches with their challenges and solution strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a workflow describing two dh projects with different research objectives. . . . . . . . . constituent tree using standford’s corenlp constituency parser on the first stanza of “to a lady”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pos results a modern german tagger model (stts tagset) on the first stanza of the songs of the nibelungs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dependency analysis using standford’s corenlp dependency parser on verses from shakespeare’s “taming of the shrew”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the annotation workflow as described by hovy and lavid ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . learning curves for different sampling methods for , to , tokens. . . . . . . . three stages that a text has to go through from the scanned image of a book to the perfect transcription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . multi-modular ocr post-correction system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . scans of three different texts from our corpora. emphasizes differences in quality of scan and differences in type setting, font and genre (e.g. drama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . irregular type setting in german gothic lettering. sind and insgemein are two sepa- rate words but yet written closely together. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . abstract workflow for the digitization from the scan to the digitized text. . . . . . . . . . screenshots of two steps of the workflow implementation of ocr post-correction. . . . xix list of figures . multi-layer architecture of the ugc normalization system with the preprocessing layer on top, the context-based modules on the left-hand side, the token-based mod- ules on the right-hand side and the decision module on the bottom. . . . . . . . . . . . . relative location of the data sets used in this chapter with respect to availability of resources and closeness to a standard form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . learning curve for both classification algorithms trained on an increasing size of training data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . results for the search word schatz for the nibelungenlied at http://mhdbdb.sbg. ac.at where statistics for the word forms linked to this search are given together with direct links to the context in the nibelungenlied. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pipeline for incorporating a lexical resource into the development of a pos tagger model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . example for the multilayer annotation in the rem in coraxml format for the word “mag”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . accuracies achieved by the general pos tagger model on the genre-specific, author- specific and region-specific subcorpora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dimensions of non-standard text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . accuracies of all pos tagging approaches evaluated in a -fold monte carlo cross- validation setting along with the standard deviation of the accuracy values for the samples are reported. accuracy is given on the y-axis. the experiments are sorted by their increasing use of external resources and combination of classifiers: clustering (ca), conditional random fields classifier (crf), mlp neural net (mlp nn), lstm neural net (lstm nn), mnn self-learning (mlp nn self) and crf self-learning (crf self) represent the experiments that use only text internal knowledge. on the right-hand side the results for experiments with external resources are listed in the following order: model transfer from new high german (nhg) and middle high german (mhg), tritraining (tri), majority voting (vote) and stacking (st). . . . . . . simple web interface for the submission of mixed text for pos tagging. . . . . . . . . . . search interface of icarus returning results on a query for an english adjective followed by a latin noun within the next tokens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx preface t his dissertation is about natural language processing (nlp) and more precisely about the processing of non-standard texts in the context of digital humanities (dh) projects. i had the opportunity to learn more about dh-specific challenges in general throughout the last few years while working on nlp for dh. one important insight i gained is the fact that the methodology that computational linguists use in their research cannot deal with all aspects of the data and the context of dh. thus, the main objective of this dissertation is to strengthen the peculiar characteristics of computer-aided aspects of dh projects. to do so, i will portray which implications the dh context can have for a methodology for nlp. i want to establish an interdisciplinary perspective on the topic, yet i am biased by the fact that i am a computational linguist. interdisciplinary work is always a balancing act on a high wire and it is challenging to satisfy everybody involved. in order to paint a picture of these challenges and perks of auto- matic text processing for the humanities, i draw on my personal experience and introduce dh with respect to all aspects i deem relevant for the context of this thesis. in this specific case, this means that i mainly focus on digital literary studies as an interesting example for the ambitious application of digital methods to research questions from the humanities. i am aware, though, that dh is a heterogeneous field and others might perceive it in a way very different from the view i take in this dissertation. as someone who has her roots in the humanities but grew to love the analytic and yet cre- ative world of computational linguistics, the contributions i aim to make with this dissertation are manifold and aspire to bring the two fields closer together. i want to facilitate a dialogue between humanists and computer scientist by sharing my ex- periences on the advantages and disadvantages of collaborative projects that i came across in years of interdisciplinary work. i remember to have followed countless heated discussions be- tween humanists and computer scientists with a silent grin. both parties meant to say the same thing but lacked the common vocabulary to communicate their thoughts; they unconsciously throughout this dissertation i will use both pronouns “i” and “we”. i will use “i” to indicate that the text speaks about my own decisions and choices, as well as to mark personal views. “we” is used whenever the text speaks about an insight or a result which was produced in a collaboration. moreover, i use “we”, whenever the discourse is explanatory, such as an exposition of a proof. therein, “we” stands for “me and the reader”. xxi preface talk past one another. i can, moreover, report on many unfulfilled expectations of collaboration partners since they did not have the basic understanding of their mutual fields to be realistic about what to expect. i hope to contribute to a basis for communication and mutual understand- ing for both fields by detailing points of view that might be self-evident for one, but not for the other person. i will stress the advantages that arise from collaborative work such as the mutual learning process, a heightened perception of which aspects are important for the other party and the facilitation that detailed knowledge of the subject of investigation can have especially for the development of modeling techniques. additionally, i hope to push dh forward. this field certainly suffers from ineffectiveness with respect to many aspects. similar problems are tackled in the context of different projects repeatedly, even though there clearly is no need to reinvent the wheel over and over again. this is not due to a lack of commitment or intention of the research community. often such ineffec- tiveness arises from lack of expertise. by pointing out which aspects of methodologies developed by the nlp community could be fruitful for dh and offering suggestions on how to adapt them to the dh context, i hope to facilitate research carried out in this field. eventually, i hope to draw the attention of the nlp community to the complex and inter- esting challenges that humanistic research objects offer for automatic processing. it is time to move on and turn towards more diverse manifestations of language and its context of use and the development of solutions that such scenarios require. xxii c h a p t e r introduction . motivation humanities as the academic disciplines studying human society and culture can be traced back to ancient greece. over the course of the years, different subdisciplines developed a conglomer- ate of methods and analytic instruments to approach their research questions. a subfield that shows a special interest in a diversity of views on its objects of investigation are literary studies. literature scholars have contrived different theories that can be applied to support text inter- pretation. for instance, structuralist criticism relates literary texts to universal structures such as narrative patterns or genre-specific structures. vladimir propp ( ) sets an impressive ex- ample of structured intertextual analysis of fairy tales by identifying prototypical functions. as another example, psychoanalytic literary criticism is influenced by the interpretation of dreams by sigmund freud ( ) which caused a massive surge of the use of methods borrowed from psychoanalysis to dive into the psychological motivations of the author or specific characters of the fictional world in the beginning of the th century. bonaparte ( ) connects the fiction written by edgar allan poe to his desire to be reunited with his dead mother. the results of one or several of such methods to approach literary texts flow together in a hermeneutic process of interpretation which eventually leads to an answer of a research question based upon the insights gained through applying these methods. this collection of contributors to the hermeneutic process has recently been extended by a new methodology adding a digital component to research in the humanities. it has gained such prominence throughout different subdisciplines that its realizations are subsumed under their own name: digital humanities (dh). being initially limited to frequency analysis of texts for the purpose of e.g. authorship attribution via stylometric analysis (holmes and forsyth, ), these digital methods are evolving to approach deeper and more complex concepts for text anal- chapter . introduction yses. it is no surprise that disciplines such as literary studies, which can be characterized by their variety of theories, demonstrate curiosity for a new method to potentially discover new vantage points for text interpretation. in his book “distant reading”, moretti ( ) illustrates the conceptual development of digital methods for the analysis of literature and shows how to e.g. approximate plot analysis via ideas inspired by network theory. while individual research guided by the scholar’s intuitions still remains the prevalent form in the humanities, the intro- duction of formal digital methods and a collaborative context builds up an interesting tension. one important characteristic that all dh approaches have in common is their starting point; in the beginning of each analysis there is a research question or research interest. the goal is it to support the answering process with the newly developed methodology. thus, the digital method itself is embedded within a thematic context originating from the humanities. as the complexity of research questions that scholars approach with digital methods grows, the difficulty to for- malize them to be fitting for a digital interpretation increases. this calls for an evolution of the methodology. to account for the challenging nature of these approaches, a new player entered the field in order to support such ambitious goals. natural language processing (nlp) as a field originating from the humanities has shown considerable interest in dh research. collaborative work has e.g. been done by kao and jurafsky ( ) who report on the stylistic analysis of english poems using a variety of features motivated by traditional analytic techniques extracted with the help of methods from nlp. milli and bam- man ( ) contribute to the deeper understanding of fanfiction by systematically comparing the characteristics found in such texts to the characteristics of their canonical work utilizing nlp techniques such as automatic character detection, gender identification and opinion prediction. this interest is not only motivated by the diversity and complexity of the research questions, which offers an ideal environment for the development of new methods and combined work- flows, but also by the nature of texts found in the context of these research questions. texts that serve as a basis for answering humanistic research questions are diverse with respect to their lexical and syntactic range. the object of investigation can be a play by shakespeare, a sermon given in latin mixed with middle english or a collection of recipes from medieval german times. in order to understand what makes these texts attractive, one has to understand which kinds of texts have been the focus of nlp for a long time. plank ( ) calls it a “historical coincidence” that nlp has focused on the processing of newspaper language in its early days. this is due to its early availability in digital form which made newspaper texts to be what we consider the “standard”. this poses some issues. the standard form is the point of reference for definitions of basic concepts. this means that the characteristics of the standard define what a word is or give an idea of what constitutes a sentence. in a world in which nlp becomes increasingly impor- tant in the interaction between human and machine (manaris, ), this fixation on one type of text that is far away from e.g. spontaneous speech is a clear disadvantage; other sorts of text do not necessarily corroborate our basic assumptions about characteristics of words, sentences but . . motivation also syntactic or lexical features that are defined by means of newspaper language. thus, the results achieved with tools trained on such standard data are often disappointing when applied to non-standard texts (cf. foster et al. ( ); mcclosky ( )). the goal to make nlp more applicable to other manifestations of a language is not new. much work has been done in the field of domain adaptation (e.g. blitzer et al. ( ); daume iii ( ); ben-david et al. ( )). however, a recurring issue is the lack of data available to develop and test new methods. dh as a source for diverse texts turned up at just the right time to meet the need for data in nlp. this data offers the opportunity to propose solutions for more flexible nlp. following plank ( ), three suggestions can be distinguished on how to approach the problem of non-standard text processing. she suggests the annotation of more data, the normalization of text towards the standard form and domain adaptation. in this dissertation, i will provide insights into all of these possible solutions and discuss their advantages and disadvantages in different contexts. even though joining forces between the humanities and nlp promises enhancements for both fields, it comes with a number of specific challenges. the tasks that this highly collabora- tive research field set out to solve require experts in more than one area which often leads to non-overlapping levels of expertise of the scientists involved. interdisciplinary work requires a large degree of tolerance, awareness and trained communication skills. this concerns not only the collaboration between computer scientists and humanists but also among subdisciplines of both fields. since collaboration must not refer to the mere combination of subparts of projects that are being processed separately by the respective experts, reflected inclusion of different viewpoints regarding all subparts is required. as an additional advantage, successful collabora- tion contributes to an increase in knowledge on both sides. through dh collaborations, human- ists learn a lot about abstraction from concrete instances whereas computer scientists can get immediate feedback from human experts about the strengths and limitations of their models. the context of a project with its specific research motivation necessitates nlp solutions that are time-saving as the application of digital methods is framed by the hermeneutic process. ideally, methods and implementations should be reusable and adjustable to other research interests. modularity of workflows and implementations could be a solution. this modularity also allows for concrete and applicable nlp solutions. with general submodules and a general basis, tech- niques are applicable and transferable between different data sets and can therefore help to account for specificities of texts at hand. figure . illustrates how these contextual levels en- close nlp in the context of dh and underlines that the approach towards the incorporation of nlp into a digital methodology for the humanities has to account for these contexts. the goal of this thesis is it to map out the challenges that come with this particular setting and suggest potential solutions and promising approaches and workflows for nlp in dh with an emphasis on solutions for non-standard text processing. i address the challenges in chap- ter . in chapter , i focus on the characteristics and peculiarities of the texts investigated chapter . introduction nlp da ta s p e cificity dive rs it y pr oject m o d u larity ti m e re sea rch field interdiscip lin ary, c ollaboration lack of mu tua l u nd er st an di n g figure . : context levels of dh research that influence nlp approaches with their challenges and solution strategies. in this thesis since textual data is the linking element between nlp and dh. i motivate the need for text-specific nlp approaches by highlighting the implications of the characteristics of non-standard texts for a machine learning methodology. in chapter , i suggest an adaptable pipeline for the digitization of texts from books as a solution to the reoccurring problem of low availability of texts that can serve as basis for dh research. subsequently, i tackle two ways of computationally dealing with non-standard texts. normalization of text aims at the assimi- lation of text characteristics to texts for which processing tools or data resources are available. in chapter , i validate this solution with the example of dutch user-generated contents. as an alternative, i investigate different methods of tool adjustment and look into the importance of data as well as advantages that algorithms yield for specific kinds of data. in chapter , i connect my findings to different types of non-standard texts and show that there is no general approach towards non-standard text processing but that approaches are highly dependent on the characteristics of the text at hand. i especially highlight the importance of data quality and quantity and emphasize the indispensability of annotations for effective machine learning. in chapter , i put the pieces back together. i show how i can include insights regarding meth- ods investigated in chapter into a collaborative project. i underline how expertise from the humanities can support tool development and highlight the importance for application-oriented implementations. . . contributions . contributions in this dissertation, i make a number of methodological contributions to the field of dh as well as to the area of non-standard text processing in nlp. dh, especially in its increasingly ambi- tious form, is still a young field of research. even though involved researchers can profit from the interdisciplinary work, it suffers from a lack of primary “digital humanists”. i introduce a model of three contextual levels of dh that influence the nature of nlp for dh. on the first level, i discuss how the context of dh is normally accompanied by a lack of mutual expertise be- tween the involved areas. the goal, however, is the support of humanities research with digital methods without the need to have humanists understand the details of the implementation. this can be achieved by intense and reflected collaboration and communication. the second level highlights the context of a project which is driven by a research question. since the computer-aided part of dh projects are often only subparts of the entire workflow, there are serious time limitations with respect to the time available for method development. the goal, therefore, are transferable methods that can be reused and easily adapted among projects. as a solution, i suggest the modularization of workflows and system architectures, which allows for the introduction of problem-specific parts into established systems. these problem-specific solutions are conceptualized with the help of the expertise of the humanities scholar regarding the object of investigation. the third contextual level is the data level. central to the development of computational meth- ods are the texts that have to be processed. however, the diversity of text characteristics within and across projects is immense and the lack of fitting processing tools for this kind of data is evident. the goal for this level are problem- and data-specific problem solutions that are concep- tually transferable to other data sets. the concentration on specific aspects of a task facilitates the solution and simplifies successful implementations when combined with modularization. i illustrate these aspects and suggested solutions with the help of diverse examples. i start with the implementation of a digitization workflow using a modular system architecture that allows for the introduction of problem-specific as well as general subsolutions to the problem. i account for a lower level of technical expertise of the user by integrating all modules by estab- lishing an automatic workflow for the digitization process. since i see the diversity of data as a central challenge for the transferability of methods between projects, i concentrate on solutions for the processing of texts with various characteristics. i detail the approach of text normal- ization on the example of dutch user-generated content utilizing the architecture i introduced for the digitization process. this illustrates the flexibility of modular architectures not only re- garding the specific data but also their adjustability to similar tasks. eventually, i fathom the prospects of different approaches towards the processing of text in a low resource setting, inves- tigating the influence of data quality and quantity as well as the significance of algorithms and a basic understanding of the inner workings of the applied method, however, is recommended since this enables a reflected application of the method. chapter . introduction techniques for the performance of models. i investigate the task of part-of-speech (pos) tagging with the example of different historical languages. i highlight applicability and usability of research results for the dh community as distin- guishing aspect between nlp in the context of dh and general nlp. this is based on the con- textual layer of the interdisciplinary research community where humanities scholars should be given easy access to the results of the automation process. i put this to practice by deliver- ing actual implementations of solutions to support dh research through easily accessible web interfaces. within the context of digitization, i implemented a pipeline reaching from optical character recognition via automatic post-correction of the resulting text and the provision of a format that can easily be accessed and processed further manually with an existing tool avail- able in the community. the tools aided the compilation of a corpus of adaptations of goethe’s “the sorrows of young werther”. as it is a typical issue for historical languages that they lack a number of important preprocessing tools which influences the possibilities of deeper syntac- tic and semantic processing, i provide a pos tagger for middle high german to improve this situation. this will accelerate the field of nlp for this stage of language since it opens a door for pos-dependent processing tools. furthermore, i offer a combined pipeline for language iden- tification and part-of-speech tagging for mixed texts using the example of mixed latin-middle english. i make sure that the output can be integrated with a query and visualization tool for the investigation of the results. the following software is made available to the research community: • optical character recognition post-correction system • pos tagger for middle high german • system for language identification and pos tagging of latin-middle english text for all of these tools the source code and/or models have been published. this allows more advanced (dh-)users to retrain models and gain deeper insights into the implementation of the systems. however, the additional implementation of easy-to-use interfaces enables humanities scholars to easily access my tools and independently process their data without immediate sup- port by their collaboration partner after the phase of development has been concluded. . publications relevant for this dissertation in the course of the past years, i worked with a lot of different researchers from different dis- ciplines to answer research questions of humanistic nature and in computer science. visiting different conferences, in the field of dh and nlp, allowed me to gain insights into both research http://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/ocr/. http://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/mhdtt/index.html. https://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/normalisierung/mixed-pos.html. http://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/ocr/ http://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/mhdtt/index.html https://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/normalisierung/mixed-pos.html . . publications relevant for this dissertation communities and connect with a number of research groups and people. this is reflected in the diversity of my publications. these publications are of varying focus but share the aspect of relevance for dh. • chapter publication multi-modular domain-tailored ocr post-correction (schulz and kuhn, ). contribution i implemented the complete multi-modular system for this research. i offer an easy way to access the nlp pipeline and suggested an additional external tool for the inspection of the results. project specific data has been provided by colleagues from literary studies. • chapter publication multimodular text normalization of dutch user-generated content (schulz et al., ) contribution i implemented the multi-modular architecture and the majority of the modules for this research. the initial idea of the system architecture has been developed in col- laboration with bart desmet, orphée declercq, véronique hoste and els lefever. the preprocessing has been implemented by bart and orphée. the g p g and transliteration module has been suggested and implemented by guy depauw. arda tezcan contributed the idea to use a language model for the preclassification of to- kens for normalization. bart contributed the idea for the decision module. the ar- ticle has been written collaboratively whereas the largest portion has been written by me. • section . publication from to million annotated words – part-of-speech tagging for middle high german. manuscript (university of stuttgart) under review for publication in “lan- guage technology for digital humanities” a special issue of “language resources and evaluation” (schulz and ketschik, ) contribution the motivation of this work resulted from joint work between nora ketschik and myself. i implemented and trained the different systems compared in this article, the annotation guidelines where established in collaborative work. nora annotated the data and shaped the process with insights from medieval german literature and linguistic points of views. error analysis was done jointly at all times. the chapters of this dissertation are based on the following publications chapter . introduction • section . publication learning from within? comparing pos tagging approaches for historical text (schulz and kuhn, ) contribution i am the only content contributer of this work. • chapter publication code-switching ubique est - language identification and part-of-speech tagging for historical mixed text (schulz and keller, ) contribution my contribution is the implementation and workflow conception of the entire nlp pipeline. the annotation guidelines were established in collaboration with mareike keller. there was a close feedback loop between mareike and me which led to lin- guistically motivated improvement of the features used in the machine learning approach. moreover, in agreement with mareike, i offer an easy way to access the nlp pipeline and suggest an additional external tool for the inspection of the re- sults. mareike contributed the data and research question to the project. she anno- tated the data and gave feedback on the output of different stages of the systems. this facilitated the goal-oriented improvement of the system. publication challenges of computational processing of code-switching (Çetinoğlu et al., ) contribution this is an overview publication about the state-of-the-art of nlp approaches to- wards code switching. the largest portion of this work has been done by Özlem Çetino ‘glu with whom i also shared theoretical and practical insights into the pro- cessing of code switching research. in this dissertation only parts to which i con- tributed are used. publications relevant for the contents of a chapter are indicated in the introduction of the respective chapter. c h a p t e r digital humanities: chance and challenge in this chapter, i introduce concepts that are relevant to understand natural language process- ing (nlp) in a digital humanities (dh) context. i draw a picture of the historical background of dh which has its beginnings with digital methods for linguistics. this is especially interesting since linguistics can be viewed as one of the most analytic humanities disciplines. this means that the subject of investigation, structure of language, is not per se something that is contrary to the formal and operationalized approach of computer science. this aspect is important in order to get a sense of the significance of a recent trend in dh which pursues a much harder task: the modeling of complex humanities research questions with digital methods. i give a short overview of different voices elaborating on dh in order to create an intuition concerning the di- versity of approaches towards the inclusion of digital methods into the humanities. based on this, i develop the definition of dh that underlies this dissertation. subsequently, i zoom in to the consequences that the context of dh for how nlp has to be approached. . a brief history of digital humanities . . origins in the s, roberto busa, theologist and linguist, decided to use computational power in or- der to support his endeavor to lemmatize and digitize the massive corpus of thomas aquinas’ works which comprises more than million words. his efforts resulted in printed volumes of all collocations included in this corpus, the index thomisticus (busa, ). the index thomisti- cus treebank project started the syntactic annotation of this index in . this corpus is a computational power provided by ibm. http://itreebank.marginalia.it/, / / . http://itreebank.marginalia.it/ chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge byword for the change that linguistics has undergone throughout the last years. fields that were characterized by the expertise of the individual, opened up to more quantifiable methods using corpus statistics as their supporting argument. however, in this example the application of digital methods merely extends an approach that already existed: frequency-based analysis of texts, especially in linguistics, was not invented with the introduction of digital methods. the in- volvement of computers allowed the expansion of analyses to larger amounts of texts and helped to shift the focus of the scholar back to the actual analysis and interpretation of the statistical findings. this focus on word-frequency-based analysis and therefore the restriction to research questions that can be answered with such methods has a prevalent influence on the orienta- tion of the field. apart from the mere analysis of linguistic structure such as e.g. the analysis of quantified noun phrases (vannestål, ), throughout the last decades computational stylom- etry which is approximated via the frequency of function words representing author style has been a popular subject of investigation. the main reason for this limitation to analyses based on word counts was the lack of annotations. annotations as the enrichment of texts with explicit linguistic, semantic or pragmatic information, sets the basis for analytic and yet complex ap- proaches to understanding texts. thus, with the rise of more structured and semantically rich annotations of often highly specialized nature, the complexity of questions that can potentially be answered with these methods increased. as an example, the annotation of named entities (chinchor and robinson, ) in texts can serve as a basis for the computer-aided analysis of character relationships in literary text (chaturvedi et al., ). this evolution from frequency-based computer-aided linguistics towards the support of hu- manistic research in e.g. literary studies was accompanied by the creation of national and inter- national organizations which helped to establish a network of joint efforts in dh. the european association for digital humanities (eadh) was founded in (back then bearing the name association for literary and linguistic computing (allc)) and to date liaises with three na- tional dh organizations: • italian organization aiucd - associazione informatica umanistica e cultura digitale • german language based dhd - digital humanities im deutschsprachigen raum • nordic organization dhn - digital humaniora i norden. moreover, eadh is a founding chapter of the alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) which was formed in and which is an international umbrella organization for regional dh organizations. besides eadh, adho includes a number of associations: • the australasian association for digital humanities (aadh) • the european association for digital humanities, the association for computers and the humanities (ach) . . a brief history of digital humanities • the canadian society for digital humanities / société canadienne des humanités numériques (csdh/schn) • centernet, humanistica, l’association francophone des humanités numériques/digitales (humanistica) • the japanese association for digital humanities (jadh) this notable tendency towards a joined and strongly connected international research com- munity despite the inconceivable diversity of disciplines subsumed under the term digital hu- manities is remarkable. along with the tendency to organize and channel efforts in the fields of dh, early on journals dedicated to report on significant advances in research related to computational humanities got established. the first edition of computer and the humanities was already published in . the journal of digital scholarship in the humanities which publishes work related to digital literary studies and language research on behalf of the eadh and the adho exists since . since , adho releases an open-access, peer-reviewed, digital journal which carries dh in its name. digital humanities quarterly (dhq) aims at providing a forum for everyone inter- ested in dh and offers space for sharing theories, methods and technology. even though text processing is emphasized in this thesis, dh is not merely restricted to text-based humanities. the first issue of international journal for digital art history appeared in . yet, up until now the contributions to national and international dh conferences coming from e.g. musicology or art studies is vanishingly small. this might be related to the differences of digital methods that are applied. text-based studies share the digital access provided by nlp, whereas artwork (or images thereof) would rather be approached with methods coming from image processing. analysis of music could be supported by sound processing techniques. however, since the ma- jority of humanities focuses on texts as their object of investigation, humanities disciplines with an emphasis on the analysis of other modalities are with only few peers. . . dh conferences – the witness of a time period the first adho conference was held at the university of toronto as a joint event of allc and the international conference on computers and the humanities (icch). this was already the th annual meeting of allc and the ninth annual meeting of the ach-sponsored icch. since , this annual meeting is called digital humanities and includes additional organizers. the first edition in took place at the sorbonne in paris and the conference has since then paid a visit to three continents (europe, north america and australia) and twelve countries . comparing the development of popular topics, it is most striking that the program offered and still offers an astonishing diversity in research topics from stylometry, over text mining, http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/dah/, / / . for information about the history of conferences visit https://adho.org/conference, / / . http://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/dah/ https://adho.org/conference chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge semantic assessment of text and digital editions. as already mentioned, a strong focus on text- based research has been maintained over the years. this is partly due to the fact that humanities scholars have leaned on texts as their primary source of knowledge for many centuries. more- over, text is a medium that is easily and intuitively accessible with a computer as opposed to e.g. images of art work. nevertheless, there is still a large potential of dh barely explored and accessible by employing multi-modal material to shed light on one subject from different an- gles and through unusual combinations of perspectives. the surplus value of such approaches is demonstrated e.g. by a project including spatial data into the analysis of the dissemination of opinion via social media, whereby echo chambers as regions in which opinions are amplified via repetition can be identified (hundt et al., ). likewise in the context of user-generated online data, o’halloran et al. ( ) combine text based and visual social media analysis to gain a social semiotic perspective on urban life in singapore. . . year t e r m f r e q u e n c y collaboration theory application method tool figure . : term frequency normalized to for concepts important to dh in the past years in the books of abstracts from the digital humanities conference. to gain an atmospheric picture on how dh relevant concepts changed over the years, i analyze word frequencies in the books of abstracts of the dh conferences from to . i use simple matching rules of word stems such as “collaborat*” to circumvent lemmatization. i normalize the word frequencies to words to account for different numbers of words in the books of abstracts of different years. the results are visualized in figure . . many of the concepts stay rather constant in their frequencies over the years. however, all of for an interdisciplinary introduction into space informed research in various fields cf. warf and arias ( ). is missing since it has not been published as book of abstracts but only as html-based online proceedings. . . digital humanities: an attempt at a definition them show at least one peak. theory is the least mentioned concept of all five and reaches its highest point in . in comparison to that, the concept of application shows a low point in and peaks one year later in . in general, applications are mentioned much more frequently than theories. along that line, tools are mentioned with the highest frequency. however, this concept shows the highest fluctuation throughout the years, reaching its peak in . a rising tendency can be observed with collaboration with a peak at around but a rather constant growth in importance. the importance of method similarly gains importance rather slowly but constantly and reached its highest point recently in . . digital humanities: an attempt at a definition after discussing dh relevant concepts and the development of the field over the past decades one question arises: what does dh actually stand for? a glimpse at the literature shows that there is no agreed-upon definition on what constitutes dh, yet. in the following, different perspectives on dh are discussed and a narrower definition underlying this dissertation is introduced. in their textbook, jannidis et al. ( , p. ) give a descriptive definition. they call dh the sum of all attempts to apply information technology to the subject of the humanities and illus- trate the scope that research published under the term of dh can take. they mention texts as well as non-textual media as research objects alongside historical sources or the digital meth- ods themselves as the object of investigation. burdick et al. ( , p. ) state that “however heterogeneous, the digital humanities is unified by its emphasis on making, connecting, inter- preting, and collaborating”, as an answer to voices claiming that a discipline called digital hu- manities cannot exist for the simple reason that there is no single discipline called humanities. this results in their definition expounding that dh “refers to new modes of scholarship and institutional units for collaborative, transdisciplinary, and computationally engaged research, teaching, and publication.” (burdick et al., , p. ). the mere fact that there are textbooks such as jannidis et al. ( ) and burdick et al. ( ) that spend several hundred pages to illustrate the scale of dh shows its complexity and diversity. in the following, i attempt to give a rather shallow first idea of the main concepts and aspects of dh. the definitions quoted below, have been uttered on day of dh between and by members of the dh community. there is the recurring opinion, that dh as such does not need a definition. this is reflected in the rejection (in often humorous ways) of definitions: dh is me, devin higgins. hi (devin higgins, january ) who the hell knows....i certainly don’t (ethan watrall, january ) https://twitter.com/dayofdh, / / , quotes have been collected by jason heppler: https://github. com/hepplerj/whatisdigitalhumanities. https://twitter.com/dayofdh https://github.com/hepplerj/whatisdigitalhumanities https://github.com/hepplerj/whatisdigitalhumanities chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge a strange question. the only winning move is not to answer (jeremy boggs, january ) kirschenbaum ( ) closes his essay called what is “digital humanities” and why are they saying such terrible things about it? with the following conclusion: i will be as plain as i can be: we will never know what digital humanities “is” because we don’t want to know nor is it useful for us to know. (matthew kirschenbaum, ) generally, the manifold definitions flying about in the community are dependent on the back- ground of the individual. they put emphasis on different aspects of dh. a diversity in perspec- tives is characteristic for the field and in itself highlights a crucial aspect of dh. nevertheless, there are basic concepts of dh that most people working in this field can agree on. one straight forward definition is given by david n. wright. the building and use of digital tools for studying the humanities. (david n. wright, january ) this definition captures two aspects that lead to a number of implications for the nature of dh projects. one aspect is the use of digital tools for the purpose of answering questions in the fields of social sciences and the humanities. this requires a scholar who can actually interpret results suggested by these tools, thus someone equally specialized as the computer scientists but in a humanistic discipline. the other aspect that is mentioned is the building, thus the con- ception and implementation, of digital tools. since humanities scholars are highly skilled in the reflected analysis and interpretation of humanistic subjects but not necessarily in the implemen- tation of automatic routines, collaborative projects including experts in computational methods can support dh research without taking too much attention away from the humanistic core of the project. computer scientists of any kind of specialization, typically from nlp, visualization, computer-human interfaces or similar areas are involved. these two aspects are by no means to be seen as two individual parts of dh. the building of the tool is initiated by the expertise of the humanities scholar and the concrete development of the methods should be a collaborative pro- cess. likewise is it the task of the computer expert to facilitate the use of the resulting method for the humanities scholars which also includes the empowerment of the humanist to interpret the results through basic knowledge about the underlying technique. the first challenge this setup reveals bare is the fact that these two expert groups are rarely overlapping. ideally, this triggers what is described in a definition given by dr. craig bellamy, an analyst within the dh based at the university of melbourne in australia and the found- ing secretary of the australasian association for digital humanities and co-chair of its recent inaugural conference. . . digital humanities: an attempt at a definition the digital humanities is about creating people. creating people who intersect with and apply the tools and methods of computer science using the principles, values, and techniques of the humanities. (craig bellamy, january ) this trend to educate people to create skill sets which enable well-founded dh research is also indicated by the emergence of study programs that teach dh as a discipline. these pro- grams aim to create researchers who can take both perspectives, the point of view from the humanities side and the computer science perspective by simultaneously educating them in hu- manistic subject matters and computational methods and making them aware of new aspects that emerge in such contexts. closely related to this is the aspect of mutual learning that is a crucial part of this rather early phase of dh. learning is a key advantage of interdisciplinary research. this focus on learning also finds expression in the opportunities that dh can offer to support learning in general. education studies as part of the humanities profit from advances in tools that can aid individual learning and serve different learning types with reasonable effort. jana remy, associate director of digital scholarship at chapman university, emphasizes this supportive side of dh for different kinds of tasks: it’s using technology for humanities research, teaching, and publication. (jana remy, january ) in practice, as already mentioned there is often a lack of personnel that is experienced in both computer science and in humanities studies and thus patrick murray-john, assistant professor at george mason university, is not too far from the truth when he defines dh as “smashing data into computers” indicating a lack of theory and methodology: short definition: taking the humanities, smashing it into computers, and see- ing what happens. long definition: starting with ‘texts’, defined as broadly as the humanities can sustain, seeing them as ‘data’ (as broadly as computer science can sustain), and using that view of the text/data to formulate and respond to new ques- tions or issues in the humanities. (patrick murray-john, january ) this lack of structured and methodologically well-defined frameworks for dh is problematic. yet, this seemingly unstructured approach in dh introduces new aspects to the humanities. the aspect of exploration and less theory-guided but data-driven research holds opportunities for new findings. at the same time, the immediate response to the output of a digital method forces a certain need for reflection upon computer scientists. this reflection ranges from the un- derstanding of the suitability of features and algorithms to the limitations that digital methods have for deep semantic analysis. as automation needs to be understood in order to enable inter- pretation of the results they deliver, reflection is a part of dh that needs to be emphasized as it is done by bobby smiley in his definition. chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge the use of computational tools and techniques to explore questions in the hu- manities, and the concomitant reflection on the use of those tools and techniques in that exploration. (bobby smiley, january ) theoretical reflection is part of dh and is concerned with how the involvement of digital methods change the humanities and how data from the humanities as well as their questions change the way computer scientists work. the interpretation of results gathered by compu- tational methods requires knowledge in both fields. as mentioned earlier, since “real digital humanists” are rare, the aspect of interdisciplinary work and communication is a crucial part of dh. interdisciplinarity thus becomes the basic condition for the success of dh. moreover, syn- ergies are expected by the interaction of other research environments, research methodologies and points of view from a variety of humanities and social science disciplines. the definition of dh underlying this thesis comes close to the one laurie n. taylor, digital scholarship librarian at the university of florida, gives: [digital humanities are] [t]he humanities in and for a digital age (laurie n. taylor, january ) i consider dh to be a new methodology in the collection of methods for (text) analysis. the fact that different fields within the humanities discover this new access to their objects of in- vestigation at the same time and join forces makes it a movement that deserves its own label. jockers ( ) calls dh a revolution for literary studies pointing out how especially the advances in annotated texts will change the possibilities for new research questions: though not “everything” has been digitized, we have reached a tipping point, an event horizon where enough text and literature have been encoded to both allow and, indeed, force us to ask an entirely new set of questions about literature and the literary record. (matthew l. jockers, ) in fact, up to now dh has often just been the quantitative confirmation of knowledge that humanists have had for long already. this marks a phase in which computational methods are still – and rightly so – questioned in their abilities to capture the crucial points that are in- herent to a humanist’s question. however, the goal has to be finding some middle ground on which these methods can maybe not fully account for the complexity of the research questions but still support a broader and deeper understanding of the texts. through the advances in text annotations and the availability of automatic tools for the enrichment of texts with semantic information, confidence in the new methodology increases. these methods might cause a shift in how questions are asked, how views are shaped, how answers will sound. dh – and this is a subjective view – is not a discipline that can stand independently. it is rather an umbrella term for all those subdisciplines of traditional humanities which are willing and keen to add . . digital humanities: an attempt at a definition this minute tutorial will show you just how easy canva is to use. figure . : collaborative workflow of digital humanities projects. digital methods to their collection of traditional methods and use them as a extension and ad- dition. what all of these branches of traditional humanities share are the challenges that this brave endeavor entails: the doubt of the validity that this automation involves, the blurriness and uncertainty that more curious and explorative approaches bring along and yet, the amaze- ments that quantitative analysis can bring upon a scholar once he finds a well-known object of investigation in a new light. figure . , illustrates the workflow advocated in this dissertation. research questions com- ing from humanities scholars need to be formalized in a process involving close consultation with computational linguists. nlp techniques have to be adjusted to handle the specific characteris- tics of the text at hand. since these texts are contributed from the humanities side, humanists can help to understand the specificities of the text. the computational methods return an output which corresponds to the operationalization. this output might highlight certain aspects of the data which in turn can lead to further insights into the subject under investigation. in order to streamline the results, humanists together with computer scientist possibly under considera- tion of further theoretical analytic methods interpret the results including knowledge about the digital method that has been applied, which eventually leads to a sound interpretation of the textual basis. chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge . towards a methodology i have established that dh per se is not a recent research methodology. yet, just like it lacks a widely accepted definition, it does not yet have a full-fledged common set of methods, sources of evidence and infrastructures. this can mainly be attributed to the diversity of disciplines and thus the diversity of types of research questions and methodological approaches subsumed under the umbrella of dh. each field brings its very own research tradition into the dh context which often comes with a specific way of approaching problems. however, there are efforts to structure the field. with the goal to describe activities across disciplines unsworth ( ) gives a coarse-grained list of so called “primitives”. these categories are abstract “functional primitives of humanities scholarship”. he names discovering, annotat- ing, comparing, referring, sampling, illustrating and representing as basic building blocks of projects. similarly, the tadirah (borek et al., ) initiative ventures to compile a taxonomy of dig- ital research activities in the humanities. it differentiates research activity, research object and research techniques. whilst the techniques such as named entity recognition, sentiment anal- ysis or cluster analysis originate from computer science, many of the objects that are listed are clearly contributions from different humanities disciplines. literature, manuscripts and sheet music are traditional research objects that have been investigated over the course of hundreds of years. however, the taxonomy also contains code, methods and infrastructures as new objects of investigation. most interesting for the establishment of a methodology is the activities taxonomy. it lists eight main activities. they are displayed in table . . some of the activities mentioned, such as creation and interpretation correspond to primitives such as annotating, sampling and discovering by unsworth ( ). yet, the activities are substantiated by the manifestations they can take in different project contexts. this taxonomy is descriptive. it summarizes the variety of activities encountered in dh and focuses on the collection and creation of data sets as well as the analysis with the help of automatic processing tools and the aspect of storing data and disseminating results. the question arises whether there are certain activities that make up “good practice” of dh. warwick et al. ( ) identify some of the activities as a determining factor for successful dh projects, namely documentation, users, management, sustainability and dissemination. borgman ( ) takes a rather normative perspective. she emphasizes that the “humani- ties need not emulate the sciences, but can learn useful lessons by studying the successes (and limitations) of cyberinfrastructure and escience initiatives”. she identifies six factors inspired by the sciences which have implications for the future of digital scholarship in the humanities. she names the print-only publication practice which has to experience a shift to online publi- cations, data as an essential future scholary object, the need for research methods which are linked to the data under investigation, the necessity for an increase in collaborative projects, the requirement for incentives to participate in the form of open access with respect to sources . . towards a methodology activity specification capture conversion, data recognition, discovering, gathering, imaging, record- ing, transcription creation designing, programming, translation, web development, writing enriching annotating, cleanup, editing analysis content analysis, network analysis, relational analysis, spatial analy- sis, structural analysis, stylistic analysis, visualization interpretation contextualization, modeling, theorizing storage archiving, identifying, organizing, preservation dissemination collaboration, commenting, crowdsourcing, communicating, publish- ing, sharing meta-activities assessing, community building, give overview, project management, teaching/learning table . : research activity taxonomy given in the tadirah (borek et al., ) initiative. and infrastructures and cyberlearning as a means to gain skills needed in this interdisciplinary field. many of these aspects have flourished in the past view years. the number of collaborative projects has increased and infrastructures got established. however, infrastructures have to be general enough to be widely accepted in order to build the foundation of a methodology of the field. in this dissertation, i abstain from the formulation of a methodology for dh but focus on a methodology for nlp in dh instead. inspired by borgman ( ), unsworth ( ) and borek et al. ( ), i focus on the implications that the multidisciplinary context has on the method- ology of nlp. similar to borgman ( ), i concentrate on the comparison of sciences and hu- manities in order to give directions for structured text-based dh research. this comparative approach for the development of a useful methodology is grounded in the origins of dh. as in- troduced further above, linguistics can be considered to be one of the earliest disciplines among the humanities that decided to use computational methods. as a result, nlp constitutes its own discipline today. this discipline, however, has experienced a shift of emphasis. even though its focus lies on the automatic processing of natural language, its aim is no longer exclusively the analysis of linguistic phenomena but rather offering general solutions in nlp for different levels of analysis of language. this tendency might relate back to the aim to abstract from concrete languages to describe general patterns in linguistics. tasks in nlp are frequently solved with- out any context of application and tested on benchmark data sets to show the effectiveness of a technique. due to this shift and the differences in the objective of the corresponding hu- manities disciplines, the dh and nlp communities have significant commonalities, while also differing in important ways. to get closer to a methodology of dh, i discuss aspects that dh and nlp have in common but emphasize the particular aspects that distinguish both fields. i believe that nlp holds a toolbox of methods and techniques that can successfully be adapted chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge to dh. nevertheless, there are various aspects of dh that call for the introduction of specific concepts into this ready-made toolbox to fit the needs of dh research. these aspects originate from different contextual levels that nlp is embedded in when applied within a dh research project. figure . visualizes these contextual levels. i highlight the goals, current issues and my suggested strategies as key differences between nlp and dh. these aspects propagate through all levels. this means that the lowest level – the data level which directly influences the nlp approaches – incorporates the aspects related to the top-levels. nlp da ta s p e cificity dive rs it y pr oject m o d u larity ti m e re sea rch field interdiscip lin ary, c ollaboration lack of mu tua l u nd er st an di n g figure . : context levels of dh research that influence nlp approaches with their challenges and solution strategies. the first and broadest context layer is the layer of the research field of dh. above, i have discussed the characteristics of this research area and have found interdisciplinarity to be one of the most prominent and both advantageous and difficult features. interdisciplinar- ity is connected to potential weaknesses in mutual understanding for certain parts of collab- orations. thus, interdisciplinary research requires mechanisms which compensate for lack of shared knowledge. certainly, interdisciplinarity can as well benefit the collaboration partners since it triggers the acquisition of new knowledge. the next context layer is the specific research project. research projects in the humanities usually have a humanistic research question at their core and therefore aim to answer this question with the support of digital methods. this requires project workflows that have a spe- cific goal and follow specialized problem solving strategies. however, since time is of the essence, reusability and adaptability of already existing tools and workflows is a preferred characteristic. this can be tackled with the introduction of modular system and modular project setups . . towards a methodology that allow for specific solutions via problem-relevant combinations of already existing partial solutions. the last context level above the actual application of nlp techniques is the data level. depend- ing on the research question, the data that is used as a basis to answer the research question can vary a lot among projects. texts from the humanities often deviate from the newspaper-based linguistic standard that nlp has primarily worked with for the last few decades and it is there- fore necessary to come up with data-specific solutions for the specific kind of text a project is based on. moreover, the availability of data is not guaranteed. oftentimes data acquisition is the first step towards text-based (quantitative) research. these facts make the transferability of tools developed within one project to another difficult. it is obvious that nlp as the lowest level has to deal with these influences coming from different contextual levels in order to guarantee successful implementation of digital methods for the humanities. in the following, i will discuss these aspects in more detail. i will touch upon categories introduced by borgman ( ), unsworth ( ) and borek et al. ( ) since i believe that many of the points they make are essential for methodology of digital tool development for the humanities. i discuss the overall tendencies with respect to methodological decisions made in both general nlp and nlp for dh and link them back to the limitations, requirements and strategies that the different contextual levels induce. i advocate an nlp-based application- focused methodology for dh text processing. . . interdisciplinarity and collaboration as already mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, the dh community is strongly interested in interdisciplinary connections as indicated by the founding of organizations subsuming all fields interested in computer-aided humanities research. the motivation for collaborations is the assumption that collaborations will lead to new knowledge that goes beyond the mere sum of what participating individual parties of the collaboration could accomplish on their own. however, collaborations come with certain challenges. kanfer et al. ( ) discuss the ten- sion between effort and knowledge growth in interdisciplinary collaborations. the most chal- lenging – but at the same time most defining – of these interdisciplinary ties is the collaboration between humanists and computer scientists. at first glance, their collaboration seems imbal- anced: the humanist delivers the research question and the computer scientist solely functions as a service provider to support the humanist with their methods. in many collaborations the goals are not defined in such a way that both parties benefit. since dh can roughly be defined as the investigation of humanistic research questions with the help of computational methods, the clear beneficiary seems to be the humanist in this duo. however, any computer scientist should be clear about the variety of new computational challenges these collaborations offer. there are hardly more challenging tasks in nlp than working with texts from the humanities such as e.g. poems or narrative fiction. nlp has focused on the processing of newspaper text and texts chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge that are free of ungrammatical contents for long. recently, the interest in so called non-standard data is growing with increased popularity of e.g. social media analysis. dh research yields the most diverse collection of this kind of data originating from all stages of language, reaching from poem to essays and beyond. yet, there is still a certain degree of ignorance for the potential that dh holds for the development of nlp towards the processing of more diverse texts. this is one of the reasons that dh is still in a phase in which humanists do not fully trust automatically extracted knowledge. likewise, computational linguists often still lack the confidence to tackle humanistic research questions with their methods. the key to progress into the right direction is thoughtful collaboration. siemens ( ) de- veloped recommendations for successful interdisciplinary team work. they highlight mutual understanding of each other’s goals, challenges and possibilities as important factors. thus, one integral part of each collaborative project has to be the establishment of a common vocab- ulary. as trivial as this may sound it requires a lot of consciousness and sensitivity to detect situations in which communication fails without obvious signs. raising awareness for the is- sue of differing terms and traditions of explaining, describing and tackling problems is the best basis for a slowly emerging common ground. tolerance and mutual respect for what collabora- tion partners know and also might not know is equally crucial. occasionally, disciplines tend to put their status above others. this might happen unconsciously and can result from a strong specialization of researchers who are often focused on just one way of thinking. collaboration, however, should not be dominated by one discipline. just if both (or all) parties contribute to an equal extent the collaboration can be fruitful for all partners, since otherwise a one-sided teacher-student relationship gets established. such teacher-student relationships might indeed emerge throughout the process of a project. if they go both ways, however, all parties can profit from each other. this aspect of learning has been also emphasized by borgman ( ). along these lines, i recommend a close feedback loop between the experts from differ- ent backgrounds within a project as a main component of a methodology of dh. different ways to approach problems can be a productive source for progress. the computer scientist might re- quest a formalization of the research agenda which forces the humanist to more concretely think about the goal and the necessary steps. in turn, detailed knowledge about a problem or specific data can support the development and improvement of automatic processing tools by pointing out the right direction. immediate feedback on the strengths and limitations of computational models and the willingness to contribute manual corrections from the side of humanities schol- ars are a rare and luxurious situation in nlp which can be utilized for targeted refinement of modeling techniques. collaboration is successful when new knowledge arises from a vivid exchange for each of the collaboration partners. thus, communication between collaboration partners, taking turns in teaching and learning and a close feedback loop between experts with different backgrounds should be taken into account when thinking about a methodological approach towards dh . . towards a methodology projects. an aspect that is often overlooked especially in the academic context of nlp research is the applicability of tools. recently, the open source mentality amongst nlp researchers has increased considerably. however, tools are often badly maintained and it takes considerable knowledge of programming languages to make them work. this limits the usefulness of these tools for dh. bulatovic et al. ( ) report on the importance of usability of tools and services based on usability studies. they highlight the interoperability aspect between several infras- tructure components. burghardt ( ) report on a gap between developers and scientific users. this gap becomes a severe problem in the context of dh. in dh collaborations, there is often a clearly defined project goal. tools are developed for a specific purpose and will be applied. this forces humanists to utter their wishes with respect to the features a tool needs to have and requires the computer scientist to think beyond evaluation of a tool on a test set for proof of concept. warwick et al. ( ) highlights the importance of the user as the addressee of research output in form of user-friendly tools. an important contribution of this thesis is it therefore to raise awareness for easily acces- sible tools which provide the outcome of research to the potential user. however, this assumes good communication between d and h to become clear about the needs and limitations. this dis- sertation contains several examples of successful collaborations concluded with the publication of tools via webapplications. these have the advantage that the humanist can autonomously process data after the development phase is completed since they are easy to use and make the local installation of tools superfluous. the disadvantage of such solutions is the further “black-boxification” of the d-part. as mentioned earlier, teaching and learning is one of the key aspects of dh collaborations. withholding the technical aspects of computer-aided components of a project indirectly keeps the humanities scholars from dealing with these components. how- ever, in a well-structured and strongly intertwined work progress, the technical understanding which is also needed for a reflected use of resulting tools should ideally be covered by the devel- opment phase. . . reusability and adaptability through modularization projects in nlp often evolve around the improvement of a specific automatic processing task, such as parsing, or the understanding of algorithms for a specific task, such as the role of neu- ral networks for prosody analysis. on the contrary, computer-aided projects with a humanistic research question at their core have to complete more steps to reach their goal. as just estab- lished, collaborations add phases of intense communication and mutual learning to the project workflow. research questions have to be formulated, data as a basis for the analysis has to be collected, automatic processing tools have to be trained and applied and the results have to be evaluated in the context of the research question. thus, a certain paradox emerges. i mentioned that the processing of texts in the context of dh is often challenging due to the nature of the chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge texts. however, the portion of time that can be spent on tool development is way smaller than in nlp projects. this establishes the need to find time-saving solutions. a key concept that can alleviate this time issue is the prioritization of reusable and adaptable systems and project workflows. kuhn and reiter ( ) advocate a modular architecture for dh workflows. they claim that modularization as a key concept in computer science is underexploited in dh. i agree that modularization on workflow level as well as on the level of implementation is the key to reusable results. dh projects often share a number of substeps that can be solved in simi- lar ways. these substeps can be as abstract as the “primitives” introduced by unsworth ( ) or the research activity taxonomy in tadirah (borek et al., ). i visualize a typical dh workflow and show how it generalizes over two different objectives in figure . . the abstract workflow described in the middle of figure . is instantiated by the examples of network anal- ysis on middle high german texts and the analysis of mixed phrases in latin-middle english sermons. even though the project goals and the techniques relevant to reach these goals (named entity recognition (ner) vs. part-of-speech (pos) tagging) are different, the steps that revolve around them are similar in both projects as summarized in figure . (b). thus, i advocate the idea of a modularized, cross-project dh methodology. goal and vocabulary definition middle high german literature guidelines for literature characters annotation annotation of lit- erature characters ner/ character recognition feedback on missing/ overextracted characters network extraction based on co-occurrence counts network interpretation (a) objects and techniques in a project with the goal of extracting character net- works from middle high german literature collaboration initiation data collection creation of anno- tation guidelines annotation automatization expert-informed tun- ing of the system extraction of rel- evant information analysis of results (b) workflow goal and vocabulary definition latin-middle english sermons guidelines for pos annotation annotation of pos pos tagging feedback on pos related errors extraction of rele- vant pos patterns analysis of code-switching rules in mixed phrases (c) objects and techniques in a project with the goal of an- alyzing mixed latin-middle english noun phrases figure . : a workflow describing two dh projects with different research objectives. the biggest challenge for the consolidation of such a modular methodology in dh, is the dif- ference in problem solving strategies. a research question is traditionally examined within its context in humanities disciplines. taking a problem apart into its individual subparts means . . towards a methodology a temporary loss of context which on first sight seems counterintuitive. the challenge is it to bring the parts back together after a step-wise processing to consider context for the final analy- sis. initiatives such as clarin and dariah focus on such modularized research infrastruc- tures for the humanities. the underlying concept of these services comes from computer science. through modularization and interfaces between modules, they promote a building block con- cept with the aim of serving as many different research objectives as possible. this principle has been known for long in nlp. once such modules are established they can guarantee the reusability throughout different projects with little adjustments or simply through a different arrangement. modules are shared across projects. pos tagging in our example in figure . is given as the main technique to extract specific pos patterns from mixed texts. moreover, pos tagging can function as a module in the development process for named entity recognizers by contributing informative features and thus become a module in network analysis projects. due to the importance to the task of pos tagging for a series of subsequent task, we investigate this task in the context of non-standard data situations later in this dissertation. . . specific problem solving the research goal of general linguistics is to find generalizable patterns. similarly applied nlp is mostly interested in universal systems and findings. the central point is no longer the sup- port of linguistic research questions with computational methods but rather the computational methods in themselves. nlp has evolved to a discipline in which general problem solving is highly emphasized. tasks such as pos tagging get solved without a specific application purpose in mind. data is often only used to test the algorithm at hand. tools are considered to be useful if they can be applied to different texts. recently, the trend has been shifting towards power- ful models that can learn to solve multiple problems at once as e.g. suggested by collobert and weston ( ) or kaiser et al. ( ). however, i mentioned that text processing in dh can be challenging due to the nature of texts. thus, general problem solving often fails since the char- acteristics of the data used for training general models and the characteristics of dh data drift too far apart. even though the complexity of the data and the objectives make dh challenging, the very specific foci of such projects come with certain advantages. specific research questions allow for specific problem solving. the knowledge about the context of application for a tool or analysis pipeline holds advantages. specific (or goal-oriented) problem solving starts already with the choice of specific data. consider a project including an optical character recognition post-correction system as a preprocessing step for the analysis of goethe’s works. this system does not have to perform well for texts from the th century since goethe lived in the th and th century. thus a training corpus for such a system can be compiled with respect to the needs of this system. in addition, a clear picture of what the data https://www.clarin-d.de/de/, / / . http://www.dariah.eu/, / / . https://www.clarin-d.de/de/ http://www.dariah.eu/ chapter . digital humanities: chance and challenge within a project looks like can help to adjust a tool specifically to the data characteristics which in all likelihood improves automatic processing results. as an example, tools in nlp often rely on a set of basic assumptions. one of these assumptions can be the availability of sentence delimiting punctuation marks. however, especially older texts often lack reliable punctuation. this knowledge is important when developing tools that work on sentence level. the definition of sentence in this context can e.g. be changed to those of verses in poems and verse novels or paragraphs or entire texts need to be chosen as minimal context. moreover, automatic processing tools can be trained to solve simpler tasks than general tools that are not informed about the context of application. in a project that promotes the use of adjectives in beowulf, there is no need to implement a full-blown automatic system for old english pos annotation. it suffices to focus on the recognition of adjectives which should – with the help of an expert for old english – be much simpler to extract. feature sets can be designed for a specified task and also annotation can be done more easily, just covering certain aspects, not accounting for all possibly interesting concepts. even though specific problem solving and generic modular approaches seemingly build nat- ural contrasts, easily adaptable architectures that can, with little effort, be customized to dif- ferent text types and research questions, are the key to keeping a balance between time-saving modular solutions on the level of implementation and problem-specific content-related solutions. . . evaluation transparent and methodologically sound evaluation is one of the main criteria for judging the quality of research in nlp. this evaluation is normally applied to developed tools for a specific purpose and is based on a ground truth or gold standard (sparck jones and galliers, ). these are usually manually annotated data sets – ideally by multiple annotators – that are supposed to contain the objectively correct answer. partly due to this practice, nlp problems are formulated in such a way that there is a single objective correct answer. in case a subpart of a dh research project can be formalized in such a way, the evaluation methodology developed within the nlp community can suffice and should be applied to this subpart. this is the case for e.g. pos tagging or ner as part of network analysis. bögel et al. ( a) argue that the permis- sion of ambiguity in annotations and thus in the evaluation data is crucial in the humanities. due to the eventual (hermeneutic) interpretation for which the context is highly relevant, a phe- nomenon cannot be treated as something fixed and definite since the context will determine the actual meaning and interpretation. this makes the objective approach of nlp difficult for the application in a dh context. while this problem describes the difficulties of evaluation on the level of automatic process- ing, the evaluation of an entire collaboration proves to be even more challenging. for the evalu- ation of the overall success of an entire dh project and the assessment whether a research question could be answered satisfactorily the nlp approach towards evaluation is not adequate. . . research contributions humanities research evaluation is based on recognition of the findings by the community. this is commonly indirectly measured via the number of citations a publication receives (thelwall and delgado, ). this measure can naturally also be applied to dh research. in addition, since dh projects often have output beyond publications such as e.g. tools, workflow documen- tations, digital edition etc., these aspects can be taken into consideration when evaluating the outcome of a project. one assessable aspect is the efficiency with which tools can be adapted to other data sets. this links back to the criterion of reusability and influences the outcome of a project as well as its usefulness to the community. rockwell ( ) mentions several aspects that can be evaluated to assess the success of a dh project. among other aspects, he mentions the accessibility of the study to the community, publication output, connectedness to other work in the field, archiving and long term accessibility. these factors for success are also described in warwick et al. ( ). . research contributions in this chapter, i have introduced the definition of dh that underlies this thesis. the main focus of this dissertation is the processing of non-standard text which i will approach under the consideration of the aspects discussed in section . . i formulate the contextual framework of this dissertation. by detailing the challenges and perks of dh research, i have motivated why i approach nlp in the context of such projects from a slightly different angle as it is done in general nlp. the contextual levels of nlp for dh are summarized in table . . contextual level goal current issue strategy dh field applicable solution lack of mutual understanding interdisciplinarity, collaboration, easy-to-use nlp project adaptability, reusability time limitations, modularization of workflows and architectures, data specific methods diversity/sparsity of data, lack of tools, , specific problem solving, , table . : contextual levels that enclose nlp in a dh context and the issues, goals and strate- gies related thereto. i have shown how the different context levels create certain issues for nlp, i have formu- lated the goals for successful implementations and suggest strategies to reach these goals. in the following chapters, i will show how to emphasize reusability and adaptability on different levels of implementation, utilize the advantages that collaborative work offers, and demonstrate how specific problem solving facilitates the successful realization of computational support for humanistic research questions. c h a p t e r data in digital humanities: wild and sparse in this chapter, i discuss what constitutes non-standard texts in the context of this dissertation. the knowledge of the characteristics of these texts is essential for the understanding of poten- tial problems encountered when using machine learning (ml) techniques for their automatic processing. since ml-approaches are the most popular approaches towards automatic text pro- cessing, i investigate such techniques in this dissertation. therefore, the basic understanding of ml and the relationship between data, features and transferability of such approaches is introduced in this chapter. the term “data” has fueled a discussion in the digital humanities (dh) about whether or not one can speak of “data” (marche, ) when talking about a research object of the humanities. schöch ( ) concludes that “[d]ata in the humanities could be considered a digital, selectively constructed, machine-actionable abstraction representing some aspects of a given object of hu- manistic inquiry” and schmidt ( ) calls it “digital surrogate”. i will use the word data to refer to digitized texts that serve as the basis for the computer-aided investigation of humanistic re- search questions. i give examples to illustrate the wide spectrum of characteristics one can expect working with non-standard texts and detail how this poses problems for existing natural language processing (nlp) tools. since low data availability is one of the primary characteristics of the data i work with, i moreover discuss this problem in the context of machine learning. subsequently, i take a methodological perspective on this matter by emphasizing the importance of high-quality man- ual annotations as a basis for the automation of processing tasks. i show how existing workflows from nlp, such as the annotation workflow, can be adjusted to fit the needs of dh projects. i conclude this chapter with a small experiment in which i show how the selection of training data can influence the quality of resulting models. chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse . non-standard text non-standard text (occasionally also non-canonical text ) is a term that refers to texts containing language which differs from some agreed-upon form. this definition shows that in order to define “non-standard” it is indispensible to previously define “standard”. it is important to note that a definition can only be given in a specific context and that a general definition – other than the observation that a standard is a convention – is neither achievable nor desirable. therefore, in this dissertation the definition of the standard form and consequently the definition of a non- standard form will just be applicable within the context of nlp. in nlp this agreed-upon form, henceforth standard form, usually equals to the form of a language used in newspapers due to historical reasons. newspaper texts where the first sort of texts widely available in digital form for the development of nlp tools. therefore, this domain represents the standard domain for which these tools perform particularly well. plank ( ) raises the question whether this standard would be different in a world in which nlp had its beginnings in a time when e.g. user-generated content (ugc) is widely available online. presumably, the standard form would be different. stepping out of the standard domain and moving on to other sorts of texts, we can be faced with a drop in performance of automatic processing tools since the material the tools were trained with demonstrates properties different from those of non-standard text. this implies that any language for which sufficient digitized texts and trained resources are available, can be considered a standard form in the nlp sense and that there is more than one standard form, e.g. standard forms for different languages. the deviation from the standard form can manifest on various levels and to different degrees. there are manifestations of a language that deviate on the lexical level from a standard form such as e.g. variants of the same language. ( ) het het meisje meiseke draagt draagt een een jurk. kleed. ‘the girl wears a dress.’ in example ( ), the two sentences stem from two varieties of dutch, the first spoken in the netherlands, the second spoken in belgium (known as flemish). the syntactic structure of the first and the second sentence is the same whereas two lexical items differ. considering the avail- ability of tools that rely on lexical features trained on the variety spoken in the netherlands, this will influence performance on flemish texts. while these differences in the dictionary amount to a manageable number of words, as soon as pronunciation manifests in written text, as e.g. seen in ugc found on social media platforms online, they become increasingly problematic: personally, i experienced that the term non-canonical causes a lot of confusion especially in collaborations with literary scholars since they mistakenly interpret it as “not in the literary canon”, thus not part of a collection of major literary works. therefore, i prefer the term non-standard over non-canonical. . . non-standard text ( ) kebda ik heb dat ni niet gedaan gedaan i have that not done ‘i did not do that.’ in spoken flemish, multiple words tend to melt together as exemplified in ( ). the second line shows the normalized version of line one. the token kebda resolves to three lexical items ik heb dat. this obviously has an influence on prediction tasks such as part-of-speech (pos) tagging where pos are assigned on token level. the difficulty is amplified when genre-specific characteristics crop up, such as flooding characters, abbreviations or emoticons in ugc: ( ) @misjeke hahaha you goooo girl;-) laat je ma es volledig gaan @misjeke hahaha you go girl;-) laat je maar eens volledig gaan @misjeke hahaha you go girl;-) let you just one complete go ‘@misjekei you go girl;-) let yourself completely go for once’ example ( ) illustrates a number of difficulties that ugc poses for nlp. first of all, we are regularly faced with code-switching. code-switching describes the mixture of one or more languages within the same context, in this case one tweet. to appropriately process such data, the preliminary step of language identification has to be performed, which is difficult in the context of ugc since vocabulary and syntax differ from the standard form. the differences include the flooding of characters (goooo) or the assimilation of orthography to pronunciation such as ma instead of maar (engl. but). moreover, presumably simple tasks such as tokenization are impaired due to emoticons or so called @-replies. besides this, there are numerous non-words (such as hahaha which symbolizes laughter) or abbreviations (such as lol for laughing out loud). beyond that, there are non-standard texts that differ from the standard in terms of syntax such as e.g. poetry: ( ) o! had my fate been join’d with thine, as once this pledge appear’d a token these follies had not, then, been mine, for, then, my peace had not been broken. (lord byron, to a lady) the parse tree for this first stanza of lord byron’s “for a lady” (cf. example ( )) is shown in figure . . the parser struggles on one hand with the upper-case spelling at the beginning of a verse, as well as the interjection o followed by an exclamation mark. even though the assignment of pos works well since the poem is not that different from standard english on the lexical level, normalization is considered as the conversion to the standard form which in this case equals the dutch spoken in the netherlands. chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse f igu re . :c on stitu en t tree u sin g s tan dford’s c oren l p con stitu en cy parser on th e fi rst stan za of “t o a l ady”. . . non-standard text the parser struggles with the coordination of subclauses since there is an obvious deviation on the syntactical level. as a result, e.g. verse three (“these follies had not, then, been mine”) is torn apart. there are texts that combine both, lexical as well as syntactical deviations, e.g. texts from former stages of a language. this can be illustrated by middle high german (mhg), the historical stage of german spoken between and , which differs considerably in syntax (cf. ziegler and braun ( )) and lexicon from its modern stage. ( ) a. uns ist in alten mæren wunders vil geseit von helden lobebæren, von grôzer arebeit, von fröuden hôchgezîten, von weinen und von klagen, von küener recken strîten muget ir nu wunder hœren sagen. b. in alten geschichten wird uns vieles wunderbare berichtet: von ruhmreichen helden, von hartem streit, von glücklichen tagen und festen, von schmerz und klage, vom kampf tapferer recken: davon könnt auch ihr jetzt wunderbares berichten hören. c. wonderous things are told in ancient tales of famous men and bold, of great travails, of joy and festive life, of woe and tears, of warriors met in strife – the wonder shall fill your ears! example ( ) shows the first stanza of one of the most famous mhg works of epic poetry, the “song of the nibelungs”. ( a) displays the mhg version, ( b) the modern german translation by brackert ( ) and ( c) the translation into english by ryder ( ). as opposed to modern german, adjectives can e.g. still appear postposed and the verb order differs (cf. hœren sagen (engl. heard said) vs. berichten hören (engl. said hear)). in addition, even though some words have kept their surface form, a few have changed their meaning, such as hôchgezîten) which means festive life and not weddings – as the modern german word hochzeiten would lead one to believe. other words were completely replaced by different words, such as muget ( . person plural of mugen) which translates to könnt (engl. can) in modern german. the results of a german pos tagger model (schneider and volk, ) on the first stanza of the songs of the nibelungs is shown in figure . . even though the result is not catastrophic – about half of the words are tagged correctly –, problems with special characters, word order and unknown words become apparent especially in verse and . the same holds true for dramatic text. in “the taming of the shrew” by william shake- speare the main character katharina exclaims: chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse uns ist in alten mæren wunders vil geseit pper vvfin appr adja adja nn ne vvfin von helden lobebæren , von grôzer arebeit , appr nn vvfin $ appr adja nn $ von fröuden hôchgezîten , von weinen und von klagen , appr nn vvfin $ ne vvinf kon ne vvinf von küener recken strîten muget ir nu wunder hœren sagen appr adja vvfin adja adja adj itj adja nn vvinf figure . : pos results a modern german tagger model (stts tagset) on the first stanza of the songs of the nibelungs. ( ) nay, then, do what thou canst, i will not go to-day; no, nor to-morrow, not till i please myself. the wildness of katharina, the shrew, can be found in her language. the verses are char- acterized by written orality in combination with upper-case writing in the beginning of verses and a vocabulary originating from the late th century. automatic syntactic analysis of such dramatic text is difficult. figure . : dependency analysis using standford’s corenlp dependency parser on verses from shakespeare’s “taming of the shrew”. even though the pos tagging results are reasonably good despite the upper case writing of the beginnings of verses, the coordination of the sentences resulting from the imitated orality poses a problem for the parser (cf. figure . ). for more successful processing the text first requires “taming”. dependent on the level on which the data differs from the standard form and the degree to which it differs, various issues using standard text processing tools can be expected. solutions to these issues depend on the type of data at hand. examples ( ) and ( ) serve as instances that are still relatively close to the standard form. the deviations appear only on the lexical level and are systematic to a certain extend. in this case, text normalization can be a solution. text normalization is the transformation of non-standard text to a standard form. text normalization as an option to deal with the drop in performance of nlp tools observed for non-standard text is discussed in chapter . for historical texts or texts which follow another syntactical form (such as a poem), text normalization might not be promising. this has various reasons, one of which being the fact that . . why we need data: machine learning the structure and features of the texts would be altered to such an extent that a back-projection of annotations to the original text is difficult. however, normally one wants to work with the original form since, especially in dh, its specific features are often the focus of research. for these sorts of text, the adjustment or development of customized tools is more suitable. different training techniques for non-standard text are discussed in chapter . . why we need data: machine learning . . what is machine learning ml is a research field which is concerned with teaching computers to learn through the use of statistics without being explicitly programmed. in the following, i will not give a complete introduction into ml but rather focus on the relevance of data for ml. many of the problems in this dissertation are approached as ml problems and as such are influenced by the nature of the data. the statistical explanations are kept simple to make the them accessible to the non-technical reader. shalev-shwartz and ben-david ( ) define ml as the automated detection of meaningful patterns in data. the goal of machine learning is the generalization of these patterns learned from known data to unseen data (domingos, ). the capacity to learn is a basic character- istic of humans and animals. we learn from experience – our personal data. humans have the advantage of having common sense that on one hand speeds up learning by specifically being able to confirm or reject assumptions by seeking for more input for uncertain cases and on the other hand helps to reject nonsensical conclusions drawn from incomplete or skewed data. since computers lack this ability, the sensitive choice of data is crucial to the outcome of machine learning. thus, the importance of data becomes immediately obvious. the patterns that are to be detected, however, can be very complex dependent on the task and the data. ml is especially helpful for tasks that cannot simply be described by a handful of handcrafted rules. supervised vs. unsupervised learning there are two basic types of learning. viewing learning as a process of using experience to make predictions about similar situations, super- vised learning describes a scenario in which we are provided with training examples (experi- ences or observations). those training examples contain information about the so called label of an example. for instance, in school we learn that beautiful, hopeful and careful are adjectives. the label is thus the pos “adjective”. our training set contains three data points. the pattern we might be able to extract from this data is the fact that all three words end in -ful. if we are faced with an unseen word such as wonderful, we can apply the knowledge we gained from our seen data, namely that words ending in -ful are adjectives. this allows us to label an unseen word with the correct label. more formally, supervised learning is having input variables (x) chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse and an output variable (y) and using an algorithm for the mapping function from the input to the output. unsupervised learning in turn does not make use of labels (output variable (y)). assuming that you have the knowledge about what adjectives in english look like but not how to determine whether a word is an adverb or a noun, you might nevertheless be able to group them without knowing their label. unsupervised learning relies on finding similarities of patterns in unlabeled data. for instance even without knowing the labels, a human can probably divide the words clarity, actually, completely, ability, comfortably and solidity into two groups. one of the groups contains the words ending on -ty the other group the words ending on -ly. if a computer is told to use the suffix as a criterion for these groups (or even a couple of other so called features), it can perform such a grouping task. in unsupervised learning this task is called clustering. moreover, there are intermediate learning types called weakly supervised learning where the model is trained using examples that are only partially labeled. in this dissertation mainly supervised methods are applied. unsupervised and weakly su- pervised methods are implemented as points of comparison in some cases. formalization in the following, the framework of supervised learning is described. it is based on the formal model given by shalev-shwartz and ben-david ( ) in their chapter about the statistical learning framework and by manning and schütze ( , p. ff). the following ingredients are part of a supervised classifier: • the learner’s input – domain set or unlabeled set or test set: a set x that we may wish to label. in our pos example this set will be the set of all english words, the domain points. usually, these domain points are represented by a vector of feature values indicating characteristics of each word such as the suffixes, whether they start with an upper case letter or not, whether they contain a digit etc. i also refer to domain points as instances and to x as instance space. – label set: this set contains as many elements as you have labels to predict. labeling words with the pos classes noun, adjective, verb and rest, one has four labels and the set therefore contains four elements. this can e.g. be represented as a set of numbers y = { , , , } where corresponds to noun, to adjective, to verb and to rest. – training data: s = ((x , y )...(xm, ym)) is a finite sequence of pairs in x xy : that is, a sequence of labeled domain points. this is the input that the learner has access to (like a set of word that have been labeled with their part-of-speech and their suffixes, upper case letter information and whether they contain digits). such labeled exam- . . why we need data: machine learning ples are often called training examples. i sometimes also refer to s as a training set . • the learner’s output: the learner is requested to output a prediction rule, h : x → y . this function is also called predictor, a hypothesis or a classifier. this predictor can be used to predict labels of new domain points. algorithms machine learning comes in many flavors. the different approaches can range from simple to tremendously complex. the common goal of these approaches is to estimate the functional relationship between the input features and the target variable. ml algorithms can be divided into parametric and nonparametric methods (manning and schütze, , p. ). parametric algorithms simplify the function used for prediction to a known form. these algorithms involve two steps. first a form for the function is selected and then the coefficients for the functions are learned from training data. linear regression, logistic regression, percep- tron, naive bayes and simple neural networks are examples for such parametric methods. even though these algorithms are simple and fast and can be trained with relatively small data sets, they have limitations. due to the fixed form of the function they are highly constrained to this specific form. normally, those methods are suited for simpler problems. in practice, they will very likely not match the underlying mapping function perfectly and can in many cases be a poor fit. nonparametric algorithms do not make such strong assumptions about the form of the mapping function. the form can therefore be learned directly from the data. the point is to balance the fit of the function to the training data and yet to maintain the ability to generalize to unseen data. examples for such algorithms are k-nearest neighbors, decision trees or support vector machines. these models are more flexible and powerful but need more data to fit the form which also makes them slow. for successful modeling of a task with nonparametric algorithms the quality and quantity of training data is key. measuring success after fitting a machine-learning model, the next step is to assess the accuracy of that model. having an impression of how well a classifier works before applying it to unseen data is essential in order to trust the results it returns and to comfortably carry out analyses on the results. likewise, if the predictive performance is not satisfying for the task at hand, you can revisit your data and model to try to improve and optimize its accuracy. there are a variety of evaluation measures which usually make use of manually labeled gold standard (or ground truth) data (sparck jones and galliers, ). these are evaluation sets for which the correct labels are known. thus, it is possible to compare the predictions made by a classifier to the actual labels. in section . . , i discussed the appropriateness of such numerical measures despite the “set” notion, s is a sequence. in particular, the same example may appear twice in s and some algorithms can take into account the order of examples in s chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse to assess the quality or results of a project. for nlp subcomponents of such projects, numerical values might show improvements through changing e.g. a parameter of an algorithm which one can expect to reflect an improved performance for the whole system on an application task. which evaluation measure to apply depends on the task and the distribution of labels in the data. equally important as the choice of the right measure is the comparison of the results to an upper bound or lower bound (baseline) (manning and schütze, , p. ). the upper bound is usually the human performance on a task since it is assumed that a computer cannot outperform a human on complex tasks that require expert knowledge. a baseline gives an impression of how hard the task at hand really is. % accuracy can be quite a high accuracy value if the baseline achieves merely %. however, if a baseline already reaches % accuracy, % is not much of an improvement. baselines can e.g. be results achieved by previously developed approaches, randomly assigned labels or the assignment of the majority label to all data points. since the goal is to evaluate how well a classifier generally works on unseen data, cross-validation is a common method to ensure that the evaluation does not reflect oddities in the training as well as the test set (manning and schütze, , section . . ). by repeatedly splitting the labeled data into different training and test sets and averaging the results, a more realistic picture of the actual performance of a classifier can be given. non-standard data and machine learning the importance of data as a surrogate for real- world experiences in ml is significant. as mentioned above, this data is often presented to an algorithm in the form of vectors consisting of feature values. the set of informative features varies throughout tasks and data sets. features can obviously also be extracted for non-standard data. the question arises where the problem of decreased performance of nlp tools on such data is rooted. the problem is illustrated by example ( ) and ( ). ( ) they obviously will be there ( ) they obv will b there :) the principle of features for learning relies on the fact that instances of the same class have similar feature vectors. in the example of distinguishing adjectives and adverbs, all adverbs have the same feature value for the feature ends in -ly. example ( ) is a version of ( ) as it could be found in ugc. due to character limitations in sms or tweets words often get abbreviated. even though the abbreviated form obv for obviously still functions as an adverb, the telling fea- ture of the -ly suffix would take another value than in the original sentence. applying a pos tagger trained on data like example ( ) with only this feature would not label obv in exam- ple ( ) as an adverb. i make two observations. the first observations is that the characteristics of training data and the data of application should not differ considerably with respect to their features. this is the main problem when applying tools trained on standard data to data from non-standard domains. this holds for different tasks and levels of deviations from the norm. the . . why we need data: machine learning second observation is that the choice of features matters. how hard or easy learning is might be decided by how well your features correlate with your class (domingos, ). in this case a feature has been chosen which is very sensitive to the surface realization of the specific word. if word order features would be included, they could make up for deviations in spelling, since the word order does not vary between example ( ) and ( ). the fact that there are features that are more robust than others is utilized in feature-level domain adaptation (cf. blitzer et al. ( )). another important factor is the size of the dataset. especially for nonparametric algorithms a certain amount of data is needed since the predictor function is learned from the data without assumptions about its form. data in dh, however, is often not available in sufficient quantity. how this is reflected in annotation practice, choice of algorithms and the general relationship between ml and dh is discussed in the following sections. . . (big) data and digital humanities in recent years, there has been a successful comeback of artificial neural networks (anns) in different fields of computer science and particularly successful in nlp. the advances in avail- able memory and computational power in the last two decades solved some of the initial prob- lems that neural networks (nns) where faced within the early s. today, artificial neural net- works are often implemented using deep architectures of several hidden layers of artificial neu- rons (bengio and bengio, ; ranzato et al., ). this method is referred to with the term deep learning which was first introduced in connection with anns by aizenberg et al. ( ). the strong interest in this particular type of ml is partly grounded in the fact that the time- consuming feature engineering task is left to the learning algorithm itself . this can be a big advantage for non-standard data. given a complex task such as automatic syntax annotation, high quality features such as pos annotation or chunking are often a requirement for successful modeling with many traditional learning algorithms. however, this assumes the availability of preprocessing tools for this kind of data such as pos taggers or chunkers to extract these fea- tures. this assumption often is not met when working with non-standard texts. an avoidance of such feature input is desirable. as nns can be considered non-parametric algorithms as they do not assume any specific form of predictor function, they are in need of rather large amounts of data. big data and anns therefore seem to be the perfect match (chen and lin, ). this builds up to a problem for non-standard text processing: even though the avoidance of explicit feature modeling in the framework of neural modeling would be an advantage, the lack of sufficient data makes these methods inappropriate. kaplan ( ) argues that big data (diebold, ) and dh are not contradictions by opposing big data digital humanities with small data digital humanities. big data digital humanities, he reasons, focus on massive cultural digital objects and include even though this is only partly true since the problem is shifted to how to represent the input to a neural network and the choice of architecture. chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse large-scale corpora such as the millions of books scanned by google and can therefore make use of recent developments in machine learning. this, however, covers just the few projects that are interested in these large-scale corpora. schöch ( ) describes that big data in the humanities is not the same as big data in the natural sciences. he argues that there is neither a constant influx of new data as typical for big data such as e.g. the internet nor are there amounts of data available that would seriously qualify as “big”. however, an important aspect of dh big data according to schöch ( ) is the variety of formats, complexity and lack of structure which is what causes a shift from “close reading” to “distant reading” (moretti, ) in the humani- ties. borgman ( ) devotes an entire chapter to diversity of data due to diversity of research projects in data scholarship. this diversity is the reason of the claims made in section . . methods have to be reusable and adjustable to account for this diversity and to serve as an ori- entation for different projects. at the same time due to this diversity specific problem solving is needed to account for specificities of data and research questions. in the following, i elaborate on thoughtful data annotation as basis for successful application of ml techniques in the context of humanities research. . annotation of data due to the lack of vast amounts of data, the data has to be “smart” (schöch, ). this means that data has to be structured or semi-structured; it has to be explicit and enriched. this means that in addition to the raw text, it should contain markup, annotations and metadata. labels are feedback for a classifier in order to group data points together. these labels are usually annotated manually and can contain information on different levels such as syntax, morphology, lexical information or semantics. . . corpus annotation corpus linguistics as a field going back to the s (busa, ), involves the collection of texts in digital form for more than half a century already. in chapter , i have described how the lack of annotations led to a concentration on research questions that could be inspected with the analysis of word frequencies. the tradition of enrichment of raw text corpora with manually an- notated layers of information started in the s with the brown corpus (francis and kucera, ) and the lancaster-oslo-bergen corpus (lob) (johansson, ). they contain pos an- notations for the extraction of linguistically interesting patterns. these labeled data sets served as first training material for ml approaches in nlp. the success of these corpora triggered a predominance of ml in this field. since ml entered into the world of dh, annotations became an indispensable element of its methodology. within the last years, the nlp community has worked out a feasible workflow for data annotation that serves to ensure high-quality annota- . . annotation of data figure . : the annotation workflow as described by hovy and lavid ( ) tions. i introduce the main concepts of this workflow based on the article by hovy and lavid ( ). . selection of text: biber ( ) describes that corpus design is an iterative process that has to be initiated by theoretical research. in the context of general corpora, which serve as a basis for training generally applicable tools , balancedness of genres and modality are important factors. . annotation guidelines: often also called codebook or manual, the set of tags used for annotation have to be determined based on a theory or linguistic concept and concrete decisions on how to annotate the data have to be made. . pilot annotation: some corpus fragments of the training corpus are annotated using the initial guidelines in order to determine the feasibility of the decision stated therein. these annotations are done by more than one annotator (parallel annotations). . inter-annotator agreement: determines the agreement between annotators and decides on a satisfactory level. if the agreement is too low, ml algorithms cannot be trained suc- cessfully. refinements of the guidelines starting from step are repeated until the agree- ment suffices. . annotation of corpus: with the final guidelines large portions of the corpus can be an- notated. if such tools exists. chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse figure . visualizes the annotation workflow described by hovy and lavid ( ). it shows how theories from the humanities initiate the compilation of annotation guidelines. these guide- lines are then tested and refined in an iterative process until they reach a high level of inter- annotator agreement which shows that the right level of abstraction and concreteness has been reached. even though dh projects can draw on this well-developed nlp workflow for annotation, there are a few differences that have to be emphasized. one difference is the representativeness of the corpus. manning and schütze ( ) define a corpus as “representative” of a phenomenon when what we find for the phenomenon in the sample corpus also holds for the general population or textual universe. in nlp, corpus develop- ment is rarely just for single use. usually corpora are developed to serve as a training corpus for one of the basic nlp tasks in a language and should thus be representative for the entirety of a language. corpora in dh often serve to answer a specific research question. this influences the selection of texts that are contained in this corpus as well as the categories that are annotated. in nlp, there are established definition for diverse categories such as pos and named entities which can be used for annotations with just slight adjustments for different languages. to be useful for the investigation of humanistic research questions, these categories often have to be extended or varied. an example for such a case is the cute project in which the basic definition of named entity is extended to make it more suitable for dh-specific research questions . the guidelines of this project state that not only the mention of an actual name is considered an entity but any mention of an expression referring to an entity. blessing et al. ( ) show how the creation of character networks in literary texts can profit from such an extended concept of entities since it leads to a more complete impression of character relations. another difficulty is the change of culture that comes along with rather operationalized an- notation of concepts. belanger ( ) describes the creation, use and organization of annotations in dh research and how the digital documents lead to a dual-medium representation. moreover, the level of abstraction from actual data that is necessary to find a certain level of consensus is an unusual approach in the humanities. annotations in dh can be seen as a close reading step in which the humanities scholars who annotate one or several aspects familiarize them- selves with the textual material especially through the process of finding agreement between annotators. this leads to a deep understanding of the texts and a more objective view. thus, annotation in dh is not merely a necessary step to create training data for ml approaches but rather a substantial part of understanding the problem and developing a theory. bögel et al. ( a) call this the extended hermeneutic circle. the heureclÉa project is an example of a dh project based on an nlp inspired annotation workflow. the project uncovers the methodological transformations that annotation brings upon https://www.creta.uni-stuttgart.de/cute/datenmaterial/annotationsrichtlinien- - /, / / . http://www.heureclea.de/, / / . https://www.creta.uni-stuttgart.de/cute/datenmaterial/annotationsrichtlinien- - / http://www.heureclea.de/ . . annotation of data humanistic disciplines by investigating the interplay between humanities research informed annotations and ml. bögel et al. ( a) argue that bögel et al. ( b) argue that “epistemo- logical reconceptualization[,] (...) propagation of an empiristic humanistic research practice[,] (...) renewed interest in the sociological dimensions of interpretative practices [and] (...) social dimensions of the humanities research practice itself ” are influenced by this methodological shift. in contrast to nlp annotations which require unambiguous and agreeable annotation de- cisions, bögel et al. ( b) describe ambiguity as a condition for “an adequate conceptualization of the notion of ‘object’ common to the humanities”. they explain that a hermeneutic interpreta- tion is not static but can only be successful in the historical context of an object. therefore, there cannot be only one correct annotation. zweig et al. ( ) implement the potential ambiguity or uncertainty with an extra label in their annotation of humor in youtube comments. this explicitly models the fact that not all annotation decisions are straight forward and are often dependent on the context. such information can be taken into account for the evaluation of a system. these humanistic approaches towards textual phenomena lead to the desirability of flexible annotation schemes for dh. this goes hand in hand with the development of markup schemes that allow for such flexibility. different markup schemes have been used for annotating struc- ture of text and for text enrichment. the key requirements are reusability, interchange, system- and software-independence and portability to facilitate collaboration in the humanities. in , the standard generalized markup language (sgml) was published as an iso standard (iso : ) (goldfarb, ). in , the world wide web consortium (w c) published their recommendation on extensible markup language (xml). this laid the foundation for the prob- ably most important dh markup language, the text encoding initiative (tei) which is an xml-based scheme, specifying encoding methods for machine-readable texts. it is chiefly used in the humanities, social sciences and linguistics. the reason for its success is the freedom of expression this scheme leaves to the user. it allows for their own theory of text by enabling the encoding of features they deem important in the text. at the same time, it ensures a certain degree of standardization and thus reusability and interoperability as pointed out by renear ( ). . . data selection apart from the creation of precise annotation guidelines, one has to take the composition of the data to be annotated into account. this composition might naturally be determined by the re- search question. in a project in which we focus on the analysis of goethe’s werther, we most likely want to annotate text parts coming from this work. this criterion of relevance is an im- portant point and subsumes the condition that training data should be close to the target data, https://www.youtube.com/, / / . http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml, / / . https://www.youtube.com/ http://www.tei-c.org/index.xml chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse i.e. the data that will eventually be automatically annotated with the resulting tool. in nlp, researchers often tend to cover “as much ground” as possible in order to develop generally ap- plicable tools. dh offers the advantage that the domain of application is known, which allows for a much more target-oriented collection of training data. therefore, it is worth optimizing the data compilation to this end. first and foremost, it is important to represent all target cate- gories in the annotations. categories that do not appear in the manually annotated data, cannot be learned by a classifier and will therefore not be annotated automatically later. furthermore, there is the recurrent question of quantity of annotations. the answer “the more the better” is neither concrete enough nor necessarily correct. the question arises, how many annotated ex- amples are enough and whether there is an optimal distribution of categories to be annotated. it is important to point out that the answer to this question is dependent on the actual task and the number of labels. i will investigate the example of pos annotation. to this end, i use the index thomisticus treebank , a latin data set which is already annotated with pos categories . this way, different sampling techniques along with different numbers of annotated instances can be tested in order to evaluate how these factors influence the performance of the resulting classifier. the influence of different training set sampling methods is evaluated in terms of accuracy of the resulting tagger model. accuracy is defined as follows: (accuracy) a cc = true positives + true negatives true postives + true negatives + false positives + false negatives the following four methods are compared: . random sampling . maximizing the type-token ratio (ttr) based on word forms . maximizing the type-token ratio (ttr) based on lemmas . maximizing the shanon diversity index (sdi) of pos tags the measures are defined as follows: (type-token ratio) t t r = # types in corpus # tokens in corpus http://itreebank.marginalia.it/, / / . for further information visit http://universaldependencies.org/la/pos/index.html. http://itreebank.marginalia.it/ http://universaldependencies.org/la/pos/index.html . . annotation of data (shanon diversity index) h = − s∑ i= pi ln pi type-token ratio is a measure commonly used in quantitative linguistics and gives insights into the diversity of vocabulary of a text dependent on the text length. the shanon diversity in- dex (shannon, ) is commonly used in biology to characterize the diversity in a community. the proportion of species i relative to the total number of species ( pi ) is calculated, and then multiplied by the natural logarithm of this proportion (ln pi ). the resulting product is summed across species, and multiplied by - . replacing species by pos classes in our application guar- antees us a high diversity of classes in our training set. this method can only be applied in scenarios in which one wants to sample from an already annotated data set and not for situa- tions in which it still has to be decided which data portions ought to be annotated. sampling , , , , , , , , , , random . . . . . . . . . . ttr wf . . . . . . . . . . ttr lem. . . . . . . . . . . sdi . . . . . . . . . . table . : tagging accuracy on pos tagging models for latin dependent on the sampling method (random, type-token ratio based on word form (wf) and lemma (lem.) and shannon-diversity index) and size of the training set. the training sets are iteratively compiled for - by adding one sentence at a time from a set of sentences, which increases the respective measure further until the target size of the set is reached. i do not choose the sentence that increases the measure the most to avoid a bias towards short sentences. instead, ttr and sdi are calculated for all sentences in the option pool and are then sorted in ascending order. the sentence that ranks at of the ordered list is added to the training set. this is repeated until the desired number of tokens per training set is reached. all four settings are evaluated for training set sizes between , and , tokens in incrementing steps of , . the results are summarized in table . . notably, a crucial difference in accuracy between the sampling techniques can be observed for the smallest training set. the accuracy of the randomly sampled set, is consistently below the accuracy of those sampled with a more elaborate technique. nevertheless, these differences disappear for larger training set sizes for all but the sets sampled based on higher ttr in which types are word forms. even though the ttrs and sdis are significantly different (cf. figure . (b)) from a rather small number of tokens on, these do not influence the accuracy of the resulting model. thus, attention in sampling methods needs to be paid especially in projects where only a really small number of annotations are planned. chapter . data in digital humanities: wild and sparse number of training instances in thousands p o s t a g g in g a c c u r a c y random sampling ttr word form ttr lemma sdi (a) learning curve for all pos tagging models for latin dependent on the sampling method and size of the training set. . . . . . number of training instances in thousands t t r random ttr word form ttr word form random ttr lemma ttr lemma . . . . . s d i random ttr word form ttr word form random ttr lemma ttr lemma random sdi sdi (b) ttr/sdi curves for all pos tagging models for latin de- pendent on the sampling method and size of the training set. figure . : learning curves for different sampling methods for , to , tokens. . summary in this chapter, i introduce the definition for non-standard text along with two levels of devi- ation, namely lexical and syntactical deviation. i illustrate these deviations with different ex- amples and i show how they influence typical nlp tasks. in order to describe the consequences that these deviations have for the application of standard tools on such data, i introduce ba- sic concepts of ml-based techniques with the focus on supervised ml. i discuss the influence of the low resource situation on potential techniques and highlight the importance of targeted annotations and data selection for the successful modeling of humanistic research questions. c h a p t e r data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities in the previous chapter, i discussed the non-standard nature of texts in the digital humanities (dh) and the consequences for natural language processing (nlp) applications and machine learning techniques. in this chapter, i will take one step back and explore an option for data acquisition since the basic requirement for the successful implementation of such text-based projects often is a possible stumbling block. large digital corpora comprising textual material of interest are rare. archives and individual scholars are in the process of improving this situ- ation by applying optical character recognition (ocr) to the physical resources. in the google books project, books are being digitized on a large scale. but even though collections of literary texts like project gutenberg exist, these collections often lack the texts of interest to a specific question. as an example, we describe the compilation of a corpus of adaptations of goethe’s the sor- rows of young werther. this epistemic novel published in triggered an unprecedented flood of adaptations starting right after its publication and still persisting today (cf. scherpe ( ), piper and algee-hewitt ( )). there are various aspects that a text has to exhibit in order to be considered an adaptation of goethe’s werther, a so-called “wertheriade”. these aspects such as stylistic similarity, references to concepts invoked in werther, typical character constel- lations and alike are discussed in secondary literature (cf. martens ( ), horré ( )). even though these aspects clearly constitute important factors for the identification of wertheriaden, the definitions remain blurry because they are considered jointly and not as independent crite- ria. creating a digital collection of adaptations allows for the systematic investigation of these https://books.google.de/, / / . http://www.gutenberg.org, / / . https://books.google.de/ http://www.gutenberg.org chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities (a) scan with fraktur script. (b) ocr output. (c) desired corrected digitized text. figure . : three stages that a text has to go through from the scanned image of a book to the perfect transcription. aspects, such as the analysis of character networks throughout the publishing history of this work (murr and barth, ). the success of ocr is highly dependent on the quality of the printed source text. recognition errors, however, impact the results of computer-aided research (strange et al., ). especially for older books which are set in hard-to-read fonts and with stained paper the output of ocr systems is not good enough to serve as a basis for dh research. figure . shows how the text written in fraktur in the scan shown in (a) contains a variety of recognition errors in (b). the desired output, thus the perfect transcription of the text in (a), is shown in (c). to reach this tran- scription, the recognized text needs to be post-corrected in a time-consuming and cost-intensive process. we describe how we can support and facilitate the manual post-correction process with the help of informed automatic post-correction. we illustrate the importance of reusability and adaptability of nlp tools in dh which we discuss in section . . . to account for the prob- lem of relative data sparsity, we highlight how a generic but highly modularized architecture that is agnostic to a specific domain can be adjusted to text specificities such as genre and font characteristics by including only small amounts of domain-specific data. we emphasize the sig- nificance of problem-specific solutions for dh. moreover, we show how the same architecture can be adjusted to different languages with only little expenditure of time. we suggest a system architecture (cf. figure . ) with trainable modules which joins general and specific problem solving as required in many applications. we demonstrate that the concepts of reusability and specific problem solving are mutually compatible. we find that the combination of modules via a ranking algorithm, including a language model, yields results far above the performance . . related work preprocessingocr text preprocessed text original specific statis- tical machine translation general statis- tical machine translation specific vocab compound split spell check correction suggestions decision module corrected text figure . : multi-modular ocr post-correction system. of single approaches. in section . , we discuss the point of departure for our research and we introduce our eval- uation metrics in section . . in section . , we present the data we base our system on. in section . , we illustrate the most common errors and describe our multi-modular, partly cus- tomized architecture. section . gives an overview of techniques included in our system and the ranking algorithm. in section . , we discuss results, the limitations of automatic post- correction, and the influence the amount of training data has on the performance of such a sys- tem. a general architecture that is easy to adjust is an important part of dh projects, since time limits frequently do not allow for “from-scratch” development. we demonstrate that it is possible to easily adapt our architecture to other languages in section . . in section . . , we address the need for real-world applications for dh. section . describes a way to meet this need by efficiently integrating the results of our research into a digitization work-flow. we consider the easy accessibility of computational methods to be a central point in dh collaborations. parts of this chapter were published in schulz and kuhn ( ). publication . related work there are two obvious ways to automatically improve quality of digitized text: optimization of ocr systems or automatic post-correction. commonly, ocr utilizes only basic linguistic knowl- edge like the character set of a language or reading direction. the focus is on the image recogni- tion aspect, which is currently often done with artificial neural networks (cf. graves et al. ( ), desai ( )). post-correction is focused on the correction of errors in the linguistic context. it thus allows for the purposeful inclusion of knowledge of the text at hand, e.g. genre-specific vocabulary. nev- ertheless, post-correction has predominantly been tackled in a way that is agnostic to the ocr chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities system as outlined below. as an advantage, post-correction can also be applied when no scan or physical resource is available. there have been attempts towards shared data sets for evaluation. mihov et al. ( ) released a corpus covering four different kinds of ocred text comprising german and bulgarian. how- ever, in the corpus was untraceable for download and no recent research relating to the data could be found. ocr post-correction is applied in a diversity of fields in order to compile high-quality data sets. this is not merely reflected in the homogeneity of techniques but in the metric of evaluation as well. while accuracy has been widely used as evaluation measure in ocr post-correction research, reynaert ( a) advocates the use of precision and recall in order to improve trans- parency in evaluations. depending on the paradigm of the applied technique, even evaluation measures like bleu score can be found (cf. afli et al. ( )). since shared tasks are a good opportunity to establish certain standards and facilitate the com- parability of techniques, the competition on post-ocr text correction organized in the context of the th international conference of document analysis and recognition (icdar ) could be a milestone for more unified ocr post-correction research efforts. regarding techniques used for ocr post-correction, there are two main trends to be men- tioned: statistical approaches utilizing error distributions inferred from training data and lexical approaches oriented towards the comparison of source words to a canonical form. combinations of the two approaches are also available. techniques residing in this statistical domain have the advantage that they can model specific distributions of the target domain if training data is available. tong and evans ( ) approach post-correction as a statistical language modeling problem, taking context into account. pérez- cortes et al. ( ) employ a stochastic finite-state automaton along with a modified version of the viterbi algorithm to perform a stochastic error correcting parsing. extending the sim- pler stochastic context-sensitive models, kolak and resnik ( ) apply the first noisy channel model, using edit distance from noisy to corrected text on character level. in order to train such a model, manually generated training data is required. reynaert ( b) suggests a corpus- based correction method, taking spelling variation (especially in historical text) into account. abdulkader and casey ( ) introduce a neural network for error estimation that learns to assess error probabilities from ground truth data which in turn is then suggested for manual correction. this decreases the time needed for manual post-correction since correct words do not have to be considered as candidates for correction by the human corrector. llobet et al. ( ) combine information from the ocr system output, the error distribution and the language as weighted finite-state transducers. reffle and ringlstetter ( ) use global as well as local error information to be able to fine-tune post-correction systems to historical documents. in relation to the approach introduced by pérez-cortes et al. ( ), afli et al. ( ) use statistical machine https://sites.google.com/view/icdar -postcorrectionocr/home, / / . https://sites.google.com/view/icdar -postcorrectionocr/home . . evaluation metrics translation for error correction using the moses toolkit on a character level. volk et al. ( ) merge the output of two ocr systems with the help of a language model to increase the quality of ocr text. the resulting corpus of yearbooks of the swiss alpine club which has been manu- ally corrected via crowdsourcing (cf. clematide et al. ( )) is available from their website. lexical approaches often use rather generic distance measures between an erroneous word and a potential canonical lexical item. strohmaier et al. ( ) investigate the influence of the coverage of a lexicon on the post-correction task. considering the fact that writing in histori- cal documents is often not standardized, the success of such approaches is limited. moreover, systems based on lexicons rely on the availability of such resources. historical stages of a lan- guage – which constitute the majority of texts in need for ocr post-correction – often lack such resources or provide incomplete lexicons which would drastically decrease performance of spell- checking-based systems. ringlstetter et al. ( ) address this problem by suggesting a way to dynamically collect specialized lexicons for this task. takahashi et al. ( ) apply spelling cor- rection with detection of the preceding candidate word. bassil and alwani ( ) use google’s online spelling suggestions as they draw on a huge lexicon based on contents gathered from all over the web. the human component as final authority has been mentioned in some of these projects. vi- sual support of the post-correction process has been emphasized by e.g. vobl et al. ( ) who describe a system of iterative post-correction of ocred historical text which is evaluated in an application-oriented way. they present the human corrector with an alignment of image and ocred text and make batch correction of the same error in the entire document possible. they can show that the time needed by human correctors considerably decreases. . evaluation metrics we describe and evaluate our data by means of word error rate (wer) and character error rate (cer). the error rates are a commonly used metric in speech recognition and machine trans- lation evaluation and can also be referred to as length-normalized edit distance. they quantify the number of operations, namely the number of insertions, deletions and substitutions, that are needed to transform the suggested string into the manually corrected string and are computed as follows: (wer) w er = word insertions + word substitutions + word deletions # words in the reference (cer) cer = char insertions + char substitutions + char deletions # characters in the reference chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities berichtigung der geschichte des jungen werthers h. von breitenbach schwacher jedoch wohlgemeynter tritt vor dem riss, neben oder hinter her- ren pastor goeze, gegen die leiden des jungen werthers und dessen ruchlose anhänger anonymous lorenz konau david iversen werther der jude ludwig jacobowski eine rührende erzählung aus geheimen nachrichten von venedig und cadir (first letter) joseph codardo und rosaura bianki afterwerther oder folgen jugendlicher eifersucht a. henselt der neue werther oder gefühl und liebe karl p. bonafont leiden des modernen werther max kaufmann table . : werther texts included in our corpus from different authors and times of origin. . data as mentioned in the introduction, errors found in ocred texts are specific to time of origin, quality of scan and even the characteristics of a specific text. our multi-modular architecture paves the way for a solution taking this into account by including general as well as specific modules. thus, we suggest to include domain-specific data as well as larger, more generic data sets in order to enhance coverage of vocabulary and possible error classes. the data described hereafter constitutes parallel corpora with ocr output and manually corrected text which we utilize for training statistical models. . . the werther corpus since our system is developed to help in the process of compiling a corpus comprising adapta- tions of goethe’s the sorrows of young werther throughout different text types and centuries, we collected texts from this target domain. to be able to train a specialized system, we manually corrected a small corpus of relevant texts (cf. table . ). we use the output of abbyy fine reader for several werther adaptations (table . ), all based on scans of books with german gothic lettering. . . the deutsches textarchive (dta) corpus even though manual ocr post-correction is a vital part of many projects, only very little de- tailed documentation of this process exists. das deutsche textarchiv (the german text archive) (dta) is one of the few projects providing detailed correction guidelines along with the scans and the text corrected within the project (geyken et al., ). this allows the compilation of a comprehensive parallel corpus of ocr output and corrected text spanning a period of four centuries ( th to th) in german gothic lettering. for ocr, we use the open source software tesseract (smith and inc, ) which comes with recognition models for gothic font. considering the open source aspect of our resulting system, we decided to use the open source ocr software tesseract and move away from abbyy some time after our project started: https://github.com/tesseract-ocr. https://github.com/tesseract-ocr . . data (a) werther der jude ( ) (b) lorenz konau ( (c) dta: blumenbach ( ): handbuch der naturgeschichte figure . : scans of three different texts from our corpora. emphasizes differences in quality of scan and differences in type setting, font and genre (e.g. drama). . . gutenberg data for language modeling since the output of our system is supposed to consist of well-formed german sentences, we need a method to assess the quality of the output language. this task is generally tackled by lan- guage modeling. we compiled a collection of randomly chosen texts from project gutenberg comprising , , tokens. with its relative closeness to our target domain, it constitutes the best approximation of a target language. the language model is trained with the kenlm toolkit (heafield, ) with an order of on token level and an order of on character level following de clercq et al. ( ). project gutenberg. retrieved january , , from www.gutenberg.org. www.gutenberg.org chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities . why ocr post-correction is hard in tasks like the normalization of historical text (bollmann et al., ) or social media, one can take advantage of regularities in the deviations from the standard form that appear throughout an entire genre or in the case of social media e.g. dialect region (eisenstein, ). errors in ocr, however, depend on the font and quality of the scan as well as the time of origin, which makes each text unique in its composition of features and errors. in order to exemplify this claim, we analyzed three different samples: lorenz konau ( ), werther der jude ( ) and a sample from the dta data. figure . (a-c) illustrate the point at which the quality of scan is crucial for the ocr success. figure . (a) shows a text from the th century where the type setting is rather regular and the distances between the letters is uniform as opposed to figure . (b). figure . (c) shows how the writing from the back of the page shines through and makes the script less readable. thus, we observe a divergence in the frequency of certain character operations between those texts: the percentage of substitutions ranges between % for lorenz konau and % for werther der jude, as well as % and % of insertions, respectively. the varying percentage of insertions might be due to the fact that some scans are more “washed out” than others. successful insertion of missing characters, however, relies on the precondition that a system knows a lot of actual words and sentences in the respec- tive language and cannot be resolved via e.g. character similarity like in the substitution from l to t. another factor that complicates the correction of a specific text is the number of errors per word. words with an edit distance of one to the correct version are easier to correct than those with more than one necessary operation. with respect to errors per word our corpus shows significant differences in error distributions. especially in our dta corpus the number of words with two or more character-level errors per word is considerably higher than those with one error. for werther der jude (wer . , cer . ) the number of errors in general is much lower than for konau (wer: . , cer: . ). these characteristics indicate that subcorpus-specific training of a system is promising. . specialized multi-modular post-correction in order to account for the nature of errors that can occur in ocr text, we apply a variety of modules for post-correction. moreover, the modular implementation of the system ensures a certain flexibility with respect to the data and research objective. the system proceeds in two stages. in the first stage, a set of specialized modules (sec- tion . . ) suggests corrected versions for the tokenized ocr text lines. those modules can be context-independent (work on just one word at a time) or context-dependent (an entire text line tokenizer of treetagger (schmid, ). . . specialized multi-modular post-correction figure . : irregular type setting in german gothic lettering. sind and insgemein are two sepa- rate words but yet written closely together. is processed at a time). the second stage is the decision phase. after the collection of various suggestions per input token, these have to be ranked to enable a decision for the most proba- ble output token for that specific context. we achieve this by assigning weights to the different modules with the help of minimal error rate training (mert) (och and ney, ). . . suggestion modules in the following, we give an outline of techniques included into our system. word level suggestion modules by combining token-based and context-based modules, we try to combine the best of different methods. • original: the majority of words do not contain any kind of error, thus we want to have the initial token available in our suggestion pool • spell checker: spelling correction suggestion for misspelled words with hunspell • compounder: merges two tokens into one token if it is evaluated as an existing word by hunspell • word splitter: splits two tokens into two words using a compound-splitter module from the moses toolkit (koehn et al., ) • text-internal vocabulary: extracts highly frequent words from the input texts and sug- gests them as a correction of words with a small adjusted levenshtein distance the compound and word split techniques react to the variance in manual typesetting, where the distances between letters vary. this means that the word boundary recognition becomes difficult (cf. figure . ). a problem related to the spell-checking approach is the limited coverage of the dictionary since it uses a modern german lexicon. related to this is the difficulty of out-of-vocabulary words above average for literature text. archaic words from e.g. the th century or named entities cannot be found in a dictionary and can therefore not be covered with any of the approaches mentioned above. however, especially named entities are crucial for the automatic or semi-automatic anal- ysis of narratives e.g. with the help of network analysis. our text-internal vocabulary technique is designed to find frequent words in the input text, following the assumption that errors would https://github.com/hunspell/hunspell. ocr-adjusted levenshtein distance taking frequent substitution, insertion and deletion patterns learned from training data into account. chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities not be regular enough to distort those frequencies. we compile a list from those high-frequency words. subsequently, erroneous words can be corrected by calculating an ocr-adjusted lev- enshtein distance. in this way misspelled words like loveuzo could be resolved to lorenzo if this name appears frequently. since the ranking algorithm relies on a language model which will most probably not contain those suggestions, we insert the high-frequency words into the language modeling step. sentence level suggestion modules as has been suggested by afli et al. ( ), we include phrase-based statistical machine translation (smt) into our system. we treat the post-correction as a translation problem trans- lating from erroneous to correct text. like in standard smt, we train our models on a parallel corpus, the source language being the ocred text and the target language being manually cor- rected text. we train models on token level as well as on character-level (unigram). this way, we aim at correcting frequently mis-recognized words along with frequent character-level errors. we train four different systems: • token level – domain-specific data (cf. section . . ) – general data (cf. section . . ) • character level – domain-specific data (cf. section . . ) – general data (cf. section . . ) the models are trained with the moses toolkit (koehn et al., ). moreover, we use a subse- quent approach by forwarding the output of the character-based smt model to the token-based smt. additional feature the information whether a word contains an error can help to avoid the incorrect alternation of an initially correct word (overcorrection). in order to deliver this information to the decision module without making a hard choice for each word, we include the information whether a word has been found either in combination with the word before or after in a corpus (cf. section . . ) into the decision process in the form of a feature that will be weighted along with the other modules. this naive language modeling approach allows for a context-relevant decision as to the correctness of a word. . . experiments set # tokens (ocr) # tokens (corr) wer cer train , , . . trainext , , . . devs mt , , . . devoveral l , , . . testinit , , . . testunk , , . . table . : werther-specific parallel corpus of ocr text and corrected text showing the number of tokens before and after post-correction along with wer and cer . . decision modules: the ranking mechanism since the recognition errors appearing in a text are hard to pre-classify by nature, we run all modules on each sentence of the input, returning suggestions for each word. since the output of some of our modules is entire sentences, input sentence and output sentence have to be word- aligned in order to be able to make suggestions on word level. the word alignment between input and output sentence is done with the needleman-wunsch algorithm (needleman and wunsch, ), an algorithm originally developed in the context of bioinformatics. it is the task of the decision module to choose the most probable combination of suggestions to build a well-formed sentence. to solve the combinatorial problem of deciding which suggestion is the most probable candidate for a word, the decision module makes use of the moses decoder. as in general smt, the decoder makes use of a language model (cf. section . . ) and a phrase table. the phrase table is compiled from all input words along with all possible correction sug- gestions. in order to assign weights to the single modules and the language model, we tune on the phrase tables collected from a run on our devoveral l set, following the assumption that sug- gestions of certain modules are more reliable than others and expect their feature weights to be higher after tuning. . experiments . . experimental setup to guarantee diversity, we split each of the texts - (cf. table . ) into three parts and combine the respective parts: % train (train), % development (devs mt ) and % test (testinit). test setup we introduce two different test scenarios. even though both test sets are naturally compiled from unseen data, the first test set consists of a self-contained werther adaptation in- troducing new named entities, originating from a different source and thus showing a different chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities set # tokens (ocr) # tokens (corr) wer cer train , , , , . . dev , , . . table . : dta parallel corpus of ocr text and corrected text showing the number of tokens before and after post-correction along with wer and cer training set system testinit testunk wer cer wer cer original text . . . . train baseline . . . . overall system . . . . trainext baseline . . . . overall system . . . . table . : wer and cer for both test sets before and after automatic post-correction for the sys- tem trained with the small training set (train) and the larger training set (trainext). baselines: the original text coming from the ocr system and the character-level smt system trained on the werther data. error constitution. this constitutes an evaluation in which no initial manual correction as sup- port for the automatic correction is included in the workflow. we henceforth call this unknown set testunk (text ). in contrast, the second set contains parts of the same texts as the training, thus specific vo- cabulary might have been introduced already. the results for this test set give a first indication of the extent to which pre-informing the system with manually corrected parts of a text could assist the automatic correction process. since this scenario can be described as a text-specific initiated post-correction, we henceforth refer to this test set as testinit. we further on experiment with an extended training set trainext (train with texts and ) to assess the influence of the size of the specific training set on the overall performance. the sizes of the data sets before and after correction along with wer and cer are summarized in table . . the sizes for the general data set before and after correction along with wer and cer are summarized in table . . . . evaluation in the following we concentrate on the comparison of wer and cer before and after automatic post-correction. as a baseline for our system we chose the strongest single-handed module (smt on character-level trained on werther data). overall performance as indicated previously, our test sets differ with respect to their sim- ilarity to the training set. the results for both test scenarios for systems trained on our two training sets are summarized in table . . the results from testinit and testunk show that our . . experiments testinit testunk module # overcorr. # corr. # unique corr. # overcorr. # corr. # unique corr. smt werther token , smt werther character , smt werther cascaded , smt dta token , , smt dta character , , text-internal vocab , , word split spell check , , compound overall system - , - table . : number of overcorrected, corrected and uniquely corrected words per module out of , tokens in testinit ( , erroneous words) and , tokens in testunk ( , erroneous words) system performs considerably better than the baseline and can improve quality of the ocr output considerably. for testunk, the system improves the quality by almost points of wer from . to . and over points in cer from . to . . for testinit, our system improves the quality of the text with a reduction of approximately points of wer from . to . and points in cer from . to . . it is not surprising that the decrease in wer is stronger than the decrease in cer. this is due to the fact that many words contain more than one error and require more than one character level operation to get from the incorrect string to the correct string. only slight improvement can be shown by adding training material to the werther-specific parts of the system (cf. trainext row of table . ). merely the cer can be improved whereas the wer stays about the same. the improvement in testunk is higher than for testinit. module-specific analysis since a wer and cer evaluation is not expedient for all modules as they were designed to correct specific problems and not the entirety of them, we look into the specialized modules in terms of correct suggestions contributed to the suggestion pool and cor- rect suggestions only suggested by one module (unique suggestions). as the system including the extended training set trainext delivered slightly better results, in the following we will describe the contribution of the single modules to the overall performance of this system (cf. table . ). for testunk the number of corrected tokens along with the number of overcorrections is higher than for testinit throughout all modules. clearly, for testinit the werther-specific modules are strongest. the more general modules prove useful for testunk. the number of corrected words increases for the smt module trained on dta data on character-level. the usefulness of the module extracting specific vocabulary (text-internal vocab) as well as the general smt model and the spell checker becomes evident in terms of unique suggestions contributed by those mod- ules. the analysis of the output of the individual modules and their contribution to the overall sys- chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities tem uncovers an issue: those modules that produce a high number of incorrect suggestions, thus overcorrecting actually correct input tokens, are at the same time those modules that are the only ones producing correct suggestions for some of the incorrect input words. consequently, those uniquely suggested corrections are not chosen in the decision modules due to an overall weak performance of this module. these suggestions are often crucial to the texts like the sug- gestions by the special vocabulary module which contain named entities or words specific to the time period. for our testunk set, the text-internal vocabulary module yields around unique suggestions, out of which are names (friedrich, amalia) or words really specific to the text (auftrit spelled with one t instead of two). challenges in the context of literature ocr post-correction is a challenging problem since the texts themselves can be considered non-standard text. the aim is not to bring the text at hand to an agreed upon standard form but to digitize exactly what was contained in the print version. this can be far from the standard form of a language. in one of our texts, we find a character speaking german with a strong dialect. her speech contains a lot of words that are incorrect in standard german, however, the goal is to preserve these “errors” in the digital ver- sion. thus, correction merely on the basis of the ocr text without consulting the printed version or an image-digitized facsimile can essentially never be perfect. it follows that the integration of automatic post-correction techniques into the character recognition process could lead to further improvements. . adaptability reusability as a key concept in nlp for dh originates in the time limitations given in such projects. since dh projects do not evolve around the development of tools but the analysis per- formed with the help of these tools in order to answer a specific question, the tools are expected to be delivered in an early phase of collaborative projects. from-scratch development easily ex- ceeds these time limits. therefore, tools need to be built in such a way that they can be adjusted to other sorts of texts, languages or even purposes (cf. section ) with minimal effort. in order to prove that our ocr post-correction system is modular enough to be adjusted to correct texts from other languages, we train two other versions of the system. we train systems for english and french with data released in the ocr post-correction competition organized in the context of the th international conference of document analysis and recognition (icdar ) (ch- iron et al., ) . the data is a subpart of the corpus collected in the context of the ameliocr project, led by the l i laboratory (university of la rochelle, france) and the bibliothèque https://sites.google.com/view/icdar -postcorrectionocr/home, / / . http://www.bnf.fr/fr/acc/x.accueil.html, / / . https://sites.google.com/view/icdar -postcorrectionocr/home http://www.bnf.fr/fr/acc/x.accueil.html . . adaptability nationale de france (bnf) . for both languages, there are texts published in monographs and periodicals available. they originate from the last four centuries. the documents come from different collections (e.g. bnf, british library) supported by various projects (e.g. europeana newspapers, impact, gutenberg, perseus, wikisource and bank of wisdom) and therefore have been digitized using different ocr systems. the data is summarized in table . . language trainocr train gol d d ev ocr d ev gol d d ev ocr d ev gol d testocr test gol d english , , , , , , , , french , , , , , , , , table . : number of tokens in the english and french corpus provided by the competition on ocr-postcorrection. the sizes of the training corpora are clearly much bigger than the size of our werther-specific corpus but considerably smaller than the dta corpus. we use two development sets, one for tuning the smt models and the other for the tuning of the weights assigned to each of the modules in our overall system. we observe a much higher decrease in number of words from the ocred text to the manually corrected text for english than for french. this might be due to the differences in quality of source material. since the originals were not made available, we cannot verify this guess. inspecting the data, however, shows examples where certain text areas seem to not be recognizable by the ocr system, which supports this claim (cf. table . ) ocred manually corrected certainly much superior thumb ot liquid blu ’ i- ’ - o ’ ’ i n l .ri ov t -the number of per- sons killed in the rectnt ea-thquake shocks in southern italy is officially stated to bo eighty- six . certainly much superior thumb or liquid of persons killed in the recent earthquake shocks in southern italy is officially stated to be eighty-six . table . : example of badly recognized text in the english part of the corpus. we adjust our system to the language by retraining the smt models and including spell- checkers for the respective languages. due to the modular architecture these adjustments can be made easily and with a low expenditure of time. since the data sets are a compilation of a variety of texts, we use all modules but the domain-specific smt models. we solely include two smt models per language, one on token-level and the other on character-level. the test set does not comply with the official shared task set since the manually corrected data is not yet available for the test set. we test on a combination of periodicals and monographs. the strongest unique modules for these two languages is the subsequent combination of the character-level smt and the token-level smt models (cascaded). for english it performs just slightly worse on wer and even outperforms the overall system on the cer. for french, the http://www.bnf.fr/fr/acc/x.accueil.html, / / . http://www.bnf.fr/fr/acc/x.accueil.html chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities language system wer cer english original . . smt cascaded . . overall system . . french original text . . smt cascaded . . overall system . . table . : the results reported in word error rate (wer) and character error rate (cer) for the english and french test set. overall system is clearly stronger than the cascaded smt system with more than percent improvement of wer but also performs worse in terms of cer by . percent. generally, the ocr post-correction system achieves about % reduction of wer for english and over % reduction in wer for french. the english data set generally poses a bigger problem for post- correction as also illustrated by the example in table . . . digitization workflow we consider it an integral part of our research to make the resulting system available to the humanities. this goal requires that we develop a workflow that allows the humanities scholar to submit scans or already ocred text files without any knowledge about the actual system ar- chitecture. the solution we implemented accepts various file formats such as pdf, jpeg and png and returns corrected texts. since ocr can be a process that is very time-consuming, especially if done via a graphical user interface where only one scan at a time can be processed, we decided to facilitate the task by adding ocr to our pipeline. this results in a workflow with three steps. firstly, we apply an ocr system. subsequently, our post-correction system processes the output of the ocr system further. as an important final component of this workflow, we have to ensure that the output files which potentially contain remaining ocr errors are compatible with a sys- tem that allows for manual post-correction. this abstract workflow is illustrated in figure . . ocr automatic post-correction manual post-correction figure . : abstract workflow for the digitization from the scan to the digitized text. the implementation of an easy-to-handle workflow is an often underemphasized aspect of dh. it needs to be intuitive enough to not absorb the time that has been saved via automa- tion. we have implemented a pipeline combining the automatic ocr recognition followed by automatic post-correction. for ocr, we utilize an open-source software called tesseract which . . digitization workflow (a) web interface for the submission of scans. (b) pocoto showing the text from the scan aligned with the post-correction output. figure . : screenshots of two steps of the workflow implementation of ocr post-correction. we have directly integrated with our automatic post-correction system. this means that the first and second step of the abstract workflow are combined into one step for our users. in our project, this has been realized as an easy web-based service (cf. figure . (a)) that allows the user to upload scans or images online. the post-correction system returns an hocr file which is an ocr-specific xml-format. this format is readable by pocoto (vobl et al., ), a tool for supporting manual post-correction of ocred text through alignment of image and digitized text (cf. figure . (b)). this system provides visual aid and batch correction support as an answer to the fact that automatic post-correction can hardly ever resolve all ocr errors. the tool has been developed at the university of munich. by integrating already existing tools, we illustrate how the combination of tools specifically developed for our data set and already existing tools can build a complete pipeline in a time-saving manner. moreover, we added our tool to the clarin-d repository to ensure sustainability . http://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/ocr/, for access please contact the author. clarin-d repository, metadata handle: http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - -c a-d. http://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/ocr/ http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - -c a-d. chapter . data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities . research contributions in this chapter, we focus on all three crucial aspects of the nlp for dh methodology suggested in chapter : specific problem solving, reusability of systems and application-oriented research. the werther corpus is characterized by a specific vocabulary. the post-correction problem itself highly depends on the original sources of the text. due to the complexity of ocr post- correction, there cannot be a general solution. due to these facts, a system that is tuned to these texts is necessary for the highest possible success rate. we tackle this by including specialized modules into general architecture. this approach to specific problem solving exemplifies a difference in strategies between general and dh-focused nlp. at the same time, reusability plays a crucial role in dh since there is rarely time to de- velop an entire processing pipeline from scratch for a specific type of text. we show that specific problem solving and reusability do not exclude each other. reusability can be facilitated by highly modularized architectures and workflows. we present an example for a generic architec- ture which can easily be adjusted to specific texts. thus, modularity and adaptability are key features that make systems valuable in such contexts. we can show that the enhancement of a general architecture by including small but specific data sets can improve results within a specific domain. moreover, this combination of different techniques for ocr post-correction is significantly superior to single techniques. especially the integration of smt models on token level and character level contributes to the overall success of the system. even though the rank- ing algorithm achieves large improvements, further potential lies in the inclusion of fine-tuned language models since the decision process highly depends upon it. the intrinsic characteris- tic of literature as being non-standard complicates the task. however, techniques that focus on these features such as our module that is specialized on extracting text-specific vocabulary show promising results for e.g. named entity correction. in addition, we ensure the usefulness of the system by implementing an easy-to-use dig- itization workflow. by providing a web-based data submission interface, we guarantee that users using different operating systems can use our system. moreover, we integrate a tool with visual post-correction support developed in the context of ocr post-correction which takes over where our system reaches its scope. c h a p t e r text normalization thus far, we have focused on text coming from traditional humanities disciplines such as liter- ary studies. however, also texts from new media have come to the fore in recent years. with the advent of web . , user participation on the internet has become common practice. according to murugesan ( ), web . is a conglomerate of technologies and strategies aimed at online user participation: it is highly dynamic and characterized by a productive user community. the online content these users produce is called user-generated content (ugc). van dijk ( ) discusses this new concept of user and their role and participation mechanisms in the virtual world. phe- nomena known from face-to-face interaction are taken over into the virtual space and adjusted to it. this makes ugc an interesting research subject for the field of social science. riegner ( ), for example, describes how the concept of word-of-mouth is adopted in cyberspace. from a commercial perspective, ugc has attracted the interest of research in a variety of text min- ing applications (cortizo et al., ), including sentiment and opinion mining (paltoglou and thelwall, ), which is used in e.g. user-tailored advertising (aven et al., ). besides an interest for commercial applications, this kind of text holds potential for e.g. sociological appli- cations. similar methods can be used to automatically trace harmful content on social media (peersman et al., ; desmet and hoste, ; van hee et al., ). this is especially im- portant for the protection of teenagers and fits an urgent need. royen et al. ( ) describe the harmfulness of cyberbullying on social network sites and state the need for prevention methods. it goes without saying that solving these tasks requires a deep linguistic processing of the text at hand. the automatic analysis of ugc poses a problem for nlp, as discussed in chapter , since the kind of language used in social media highly differs from standard language. eisenstein ( ) even goes as far as to call it bad language. the noisy nature of ugc complicates the task of chapter . text normalization automatically processing this valuable data source, because the performance of standard nlp tools significantly decreases on social media data (melero et al., ; eisenstein, ). this is because these tools have originally been developed for standard language and, as a consequence, cannot deal with many of the peculiarities encountered in ugc. two different computational approaches have been suggested to tackle this problem (han et al., ; plank, ): tool adaptation and text normalization. tool adaptation aims at in- cluding ugc data into the training process. as such, tools are made robust with respect to the text type at hand. work in this field has been performed by, amongst others, ritter et al. ( ) for named-entity recognition (ner), gimpel et al. ( ) for part-of-speech (pos) tag- ging and foster et al. ( ) for parsing. a disadvantage of this approach is that it is non- transferable, which means that every single tool would have to be adapted individually. we will discuss this approach in chapter . the other approach is text normalization, which envisages to first bring non-standard language closer to the “norm”, i.e. better conforming to the standard rules of spelling, grammar and punctuation of a particular language. in this way, standard nlp tools can be applied in a next step. in this chapter, we follow the latter approach. we assess the significance of text nor- malization for non-standard text processing. moreover, we explore the ways in which the concept of reusability can be extended to adaptatbility across tasks. to show that the sys- tem architecture introduced in chapter can not only be adapted to other languages but also another task, we adjust our multi-modular system to the task of text normalization. the data used in our experiments has been collected in the context of a project with the goal to automatically monitor cyberspace applications. the ultimate goal is to prevent life and privacy threatening situations caused by harmful content online. the automatic tracing of such harmful content could help informed decisions by policy makers and law enforcement, online restorative and assistance services, moderators of social network sites, parents and – most im- portantly – by the young users themselves . ( ) pleeg pleeg gew gewoon zelfmoord, zelfmoord, iedereen iedereen haat haat u. je. commit just suicide, everyone hates you. ‘just kill yourself, everyone hates you’ an example for such content is given in ( ) . this example of so-called cyberbullying contains a direct prompt to commit suicide. organizations such as suicide prevetion centers monitor social media in order to find such utterances which gives them the possibility to intervene early enough. however, this post contains normalization issues such as the abbreviation of gew for gewoon (engl. just) or the dialectal use of the formal pronoun u instead of je (engl. you/yourself). for more information on the project visit http://www.amicaproject.be/, / / . example given in van hee et al. ( ). http://www.amicaproject.be/ . . user-generated content - a challenge for nlp in order to reliably perform complex nlp tasks, such as the prediction of cyberbullying on social media posts, the data has to be normalized. several task-specific modules solve the different normalization problems that can be encoun- tered in ugc (see below) similar to the ocr post-correction problem. more general modules are implemented to tackle all normalization issues in one step. to assess the suitability of the dif- ferent modules, we evaluated the performance of each module separately. it has been shown in chapter that a multi-modular system covering a variety of approaches can outperform simple individual approaches. we thus combine the output of the different modules in several ways and analyze the overall performance of our system. we furthermore reveal the impact of text normal- ization on different nlp tools by comparing the output of ner, pos tagging and lemmatization on ugc before and after normalizing. the remainder of this chapter is structured as follows. section . discusses the charac- teristics of ugc, while section . gives an overview of related work on text normalization. section . presents how we use our modular approach for text normalization. in section . , we introduce the data sets that were used for the experiments, analyze the experimental results and illustrate the usefulness of text normalization on three nlp tasks. parts of this chapter were published in schulz et al. ( ). publication . user-generated content - a challenge for nlp what started as online chatting on a pc and text messaging on cell phones has now evolved into a continuous stream of content that is being produced online using a variety of devices. this evolution has led to the creation of a language that often strongly deviates from standard language, characterized by abbreviations, omissions, spelling mistakes and grammatically in- correct utterances. eisenstein ( ) relates these phenomena to text input affordance, which might vary de- pending on the input method used (e.g. mobile phone keyboard vs. touch screen keyboard vs. com- puter keyboard). he also notes that the type of social media application (e.g. online chat, inter- net forum, or social network status updates) influences the language used. in addition, social variables, such as age (rosenthal and mckeown, ), ethnicity (eisenstein et al., ) and location (wing and baldridge, ; eisenstein et al., ) can influence wording and writing style. vandekerckhove and nobels ( ), for example, observe regional variation in ugc and discuss the example of different graphemic realizations of words ending in -en in flemish (-en, -n or -e), and attribute these to different phonetic realizations depending on the regional dialect. they conclude that the large variety of dialects in flanders leads to a strong variation in the graphemic realization of words in ugc. chapter . text normalization vandekerckhove and nobels ( ) relate the language phenomena in ugc to two writing principles: write as you speak and write as fast as possible. along the same line, de clercq et al. ( ) divide the language deviations of ugc into three linguistically motivated categories, namely abbreviations, orthographic and phonetic variants. very typical of ugc is the large number of abbreviations, which can be explained by different factors: space limitations (e.g. in twitter posts or sms) and time limitations. as vandekerckhove and nobels ( ) point out, the internet is a medium in which communication is fast. nevertheless, most abbreviations are easy to understand as they occur either frequently or are straightforward in a specific context. social media users most commonly abbreviate facebook as fb, react to funny content with lol (laughing out loud) or talk about their bf (boyfriend) or gf (girlfriend). quickly produced text also leads to typos and other orthographic issues. uppercasing is often ignored, or unconventionally used to emphasize something or to convey a specific emotion. letter transpositions can be observed due to fast typing and a lack of correction. again, the frequency of these error types varies strongly depending on the social media application used. the tendency to “write as you speak” can be observed across languages. it seems as if users mimic direct social interaction online by using phonetically motivated realizations of words. in english, this is largely realized by using homophonous graphemic variants of a word such as r for are or dey for they. in dutch, words are often transformed or even fused on the basis of the regional pronunciation of the user. this leads to variants such as zoiso instead of sowieso (engl. in any case) or kheb instead of ik heb (engl. i have). very typical of ugc is also that emotions are often orthographically expressed. this can be done in the form of flooding (i.e. the repetition of characters), capitalization and the productive use of emoticons. each of these characteristics contributes to the challenge of linguistically processing this type of text using standard nlp tools. in the next chapter, we give an overview of some research efforts that have attempted to automatically normalize such non-standard data. . text normalization - related work originally, text normalization referred to a preprocessing step for text-to-speech synthesis. it dealt with domain-specific problems that were often solved using hand-crafted rules. as such, the expected input was limited to a few patterns known a priori (taylor et al., ) and the normalization problems were often restricted to words without context. in this form, the nor- malization problems to be addressed were often restricted to words without context and could therefore easily be solved at the token level using rules. sproat et al. ( ) were the first to extend this technique by treating normalization as a language modeling problem and to propose a taxonomy of normalization types. this was done based on four rather distinct text types, news- paper articles, real estate ads, daily digests from a mailing list and recipes. their work marked the beginning of more intricate text normalization research. . . text normalization - related work in more recent years, text normalization has been studied in the framework of ugc. as previously explained, this genre can be characterized by many issues which are not limited to the word level and very often context is needed to normalize correctly. moreover, ugc is an umbrella term, which covers different text types such as sms, tweets, chat logs and the like. as a consequence, the frequency and density of normalization problems also varies strongly depending on the social media application used. han and baldwin ( ) and baldwin et al. ( ), for example, observe that english twitter is more dissimilar compared to other forms of social media such as blogs and comments. previous research on ugc normalization has been performed on diverse languages using different techniques. kobus et al. ( a) introduced three metaphors to refer to these normal- ization approaches: the spell checking, translation and automatic speech recognition metaphor. the spell checking metaphor leaves correct words untouched and only performs normal- ization on the incorrect words. choudhury et al. ( ) use a hidden markov model trained on sms data to find the most probable mapping from an erroneous word to its standard equiva- lent, thus treating ugc as a noisy version of standard language. closely related is the use of a dictionary containing both standard and oov entries for the purpose of normalization. in this respect, gouws et al. ( ) suggest a method for the extraction of frequent domain-specific lex- ical variants, which can serve as a basis for rule-based normalization systems. such a system is described in clark and araki ( ). they normalize english tweets as a preprocessing step for machine translation from english to japanese, based on a database of frequent erroneous words in twitter posts and pattern matching rules. since the coverage of these dictionaries often poses a problem, han et al. ( ) introduces a method to automatically compile a large dictionary. the translation metaphor treats social media language as the source language and stan- dard language as the target language. as in general statistical machine translation (smt), a translation model is trained on parallel data. this model is then combined with a language model to transform a noisy input string into a string that is closer to the standard. the advan- tage of using smt is that it directly makes use of contextual information during translation. this approach is described in aw et al. ( ) who use phrase-based machine translation to normalize english sms data and by kaufmann and kalita ( ) to normalize english tweets. pennell and liu ( ) were the first to also perform machine translation at the charac- ter level, as well as tiedemann ( ), who uses this technique to translate between closely related languages. applied to abbreviation normalization, they find that character-based ma- chine translation is more robust to new abbreviations. li and liu ( ) likewise describe a character-level machine translation approach to normalizing tweets and extend it to also work with character-blocks in order to improve on the automatic alignments. they also suggest a two-step mt approach that converts tokens into phonemes and phonemes into dictionary words, thereby incorporating the sensibility that people write as they speak. de clercq et al. ( ) show an improvement using character-based models over token-based models for text normalization chapter . text normalization when applying this technique to the entire range of normalization problems and not only to ab- breviations. at the same time, ling et al. ( ) introduce an approach based on paraphrasing by also building two translation models, one on the token-level and one on the character-level. combining these two in a subsequent decoding step proved beneficial for normalizing english tweets. text found in social media also shares features with spoken language and the metaphor of automatic speech recognition utilizes this similarity. here, text encountered in social media is treated as an alphabetic approximation of a phonetic string and is brought to a standardized written form using techniques from automatic speech recognition (asr). kobus et al. ( b) propose an asr-like system for text normalization based on this idea and, like li and liu ( ), combine it with smt-like approaches to normalize french sms messages. this metaphor has mostly been merged with other techniques to boost performance. xue et al. ( ) show that com- bining phonetic with orthographic and contextual information together with acronym expansion works well for microtext normalization when combined in a multi-channel model. for their au- tomatic dictionary construction, baldwin et al. ( ) similarly rely on the morphophonemic similarity between standard tokens and ill-formed tokens, which leads them to use both edit distance and phonemic transcription to create word candidates, which are subsequently ranked by a trigram language model. some approaches fall beyond the scope of these metaphors, such as the character level se- quence labeling technique described in li and liu ( ) and li and liu ( ), which uses a variety of phonetic, syllabic and orthographic features to construct likely abbreviations for words in a dictionary. this information is then used during testing as a reverse-lookup table to suggest expansions of observed oov words. a similar approach is suggested in liu et al. ( ) that learns character transformations on the basis of token-word pairs that were collected in an unsupervised fashion. liu et al. ( ) also suggest a cognitive-sensitive visual priming tech- nique that favors candidate words that are frequently used and bear an orthographic similarity to the token. a log-linear model is proposed by yang and eisenstein ( ) that scores the conditional probability of a source and target sequence by means of language modeling of the latter and log-likelihood maximization of the former. they report state-of-the-art f-scores that improve on previous research efforts on the same data set (han and baldwin, ; liu et al., ). another log-linear approach, albeit over a series of replacement generators on the character level, is presented in zhang et al. ( ), who evaluate the technique extrinsically, by comparing the performance of a dependency-parser on non-normalized, gold-standard and automatically normalized data. with such a wide variety of techniques at our disposal, system combination seems very promising for text normalization. yvon ( ) describes a normalization device based on finite state transducers using a phonetic representation as an intermediate step. he concludes that . . a multi-modular approach towards normalization the two systems perform better on different aspects of the task and that combining these two modules works best. a similar method is presented in beaufort et al. ( ), who combine both spell checking and machine translation approaches on french data, which leads to good results. they conclude, however, that including phonetic information into the system is crucial. li and liu ( ) demonstrate state-of-the-art performance using a rule-based combination of a variety of techniques. in later work by li and liu ( ) the rule-based approach is aban- doned for a discriminative reranking technique that operates on the word level as well as on the sentence level. similar to liu et al. ( ), they also report good results when performing sentence level viterbi decoding, through the incorporation of a language model. finally, wang and ng ( ) report good results using a novel beam-search decoder that iteratively produces normalized sentence candidates according to several hypothesis producers and consequently evaluates these sentences on the basis of language model scores and a set of count feature func- tions. for our approach, we assume that in order to find a way to automatically normalize highly di- verse texts containing a wide variety of normalization issues, a multi-modular system is needed. moreover, we utilize different techniques to interpret the metaphors (e.g. we include three tech- niques focusing on different spelling errors and implement different mt approaches both on the token level and character level). as such, we end up with a multi-modular system that should be able to tackle the full normalization task. different to the approaches described above, we do not just combine two of the metaphors, but apply all three of them. also in contrast to re- search efforts such as yang and eisenstein ( ) or li and liu ( ), we do not consider the non-standard tokens to be known in advance and consider their identification an integral and non-trivial part of the normalization task. we are the first to apply such an exhaustive approach on diverse genres of dutch ugc. . a multi-modular approach towards normalization our multi-modular ugc normalization system relies on on the same architecture as the ocr post-correction system introduced in chapter . preprocessing and included modules vary from the ocr post-correction system due to the different nature of data encountered in ugc process- ing. the system consists of three main layers: . a preprocessing layer, in which the input text is split into tokens and flooding (word length- ening) is corrected. . a suggestion layer, in which each module generates suggestions; either for tokens (i.e. the token-based modules) or for a message as a whole (i.e. the context-based modules). most since our system works on dutch text, we will illustrate various parts using dutch examples, with an english translation. chapter . text normalization preprocessingnoisy text preprocessed text flooding correction originalsmtwaystransliterate compound word split spell check abbreviation correction suggestions decision module corrected text figure . : multi-layer architecture of the ugc normalization system with the preprocessing layer on top, the context-based modules on the left-hand side, the token-based modules on the right-hand side and the decision module on the bottom. of the token-based modules focus on well-understood normalization issues (such as abbre- viations, compounds, split words). context-based modules can operate on the word level, as well as the character level and differ from token-based modules, in that they can look beyond word boundaries to make normalization decisions. . a decision layer, in which the best combination of suggestions is chosen from the pool of suggestions. the architecture of the multi-modular ugc normalization system is depicted in figure . . . . preprocessing layer contrary to the ocr post-processing system where we simply take the tokenized lines recog- nized in the recognition step as an input, for ugc we add a specific preprocessing layer. this preprocessing layer consists of two modules. a first module splits the text into tokens, a task for which we adapted the rule-based tokenizer of treetagger (schmid, ) to cope with ugc- specific phenomena such as e-mail addresses, hyperlinks and emoticons. whereas previous work focused on the tokenization of twitter posts (o’connor et al., ; bontcheva et al., ), we investigate different genres of ugc, requiring us to build a more general tokenizer, covering a wider range of smileys, emoticons and other tokenization issues. the necessity to adjust the tokenization to the specificities of ugc, exemplifies that assumptions learned from the investi- gation of newspaper text with respect to words and punctuation are not universal to all kinds of text. moreover, the definition of a sentence needs to be rethought: . . a multi-modular approach towards normalization ( ) ik heb geprobeerd bellen . . . maar jij nam niet eens op :( i have tried to call . . . but you picked not once up :( ‘i have trid to call . . . but you did not even pick up :(’ in ( ), the subordiate clause ‘maar jij nam niet eens op :(’ is separted from the main clause using ‘. . . ’ indicating a break in the train of thought of the writer. nevertheless, one would consider these two subclauses to make up one sentence. a standard sentence splitter, however, would split the sentence at the three dots. in additon, the emoticon in the end of the sentence apparently ends the sentence of the writer but since emoticons can appear at any place in a message, this is not a clear indicator. we therefore decide to work on the level of messages rather than sentences. a second phenomenon dealt with in the preprocessing layer is character flooding, i.e. the repetition of the same character or character sequences, which is often used in ugc to express emotion, as illustrated in the example below. to reduce the number of out-of-vocabulary words in the subsequent modules, we limit the number of repetitions to a maximum of two for all char- acters except for the vowel “e”, where a maximum of three is allowed. the flooding correction module makes use of the hunspell spell checker to generate the most probable correction and to ensure that correct words are not overcorrected. the module corrects repeated characters and character combinations in the following way: ( ) jij hebt egggggt zooooooooooooooooooo onwijse mooie lipjes ... jij hebt eggt zoo onwijse mooie lipjes ... ‘you have really such incredibly beautiful little lips ...’ note that version corrected for flooding still contains normalization problems. the flooding o is incorrectly substituted by zoo (engl. zoo) and not by zo (engl. such), as both words do exist in dutch. the dutch adverb echt (engl. really) should be spelled with ch instead of g. . . suggestion layer the suggestion layer comprises a variety of modules which have been conceived to account for the different normalization issues encountered in ugc (cf. section . ). like in the ocr post- correction system, included modules can be divided into two main groups. the first group con- tains the token-based modules, which are responsible for a specific type of issues. the second group comprises context-based modules, which can correct a variety of normalization prob- lems. since the problem of text normalization shapes different from ocr post-correction, we include a slightly different collection of modules into our architecture. http://hunspell.sourceforge.net/, / / . http://hunspell.sourceforge.net/ chapter . text normalization the token-based modules are designed to solve specific normalization problems. they are not expected to return normalized messages but to find a solution to just one problem, more specifically to tackle abbreviations and various misspellings. • abbreviation module language used in ugc often shares certain abbreviations and uniform ways of reference such as hash tags in twitter posts. therefore, lookup approaches can cover a reasonable number of issues. the abbreviation module relies on a dictionary of about frequent abbreviations appearing in social media texts, such as lol (laughing out loud) and aub for alstublieft (thank you) . • spell checking modules the spell checking modules are also included in the ocr post-correction system even though the origin of errors is different. these modules account for normalization problems such as typos, for example the transposition in spelne which should be spelen (engl. play), or orthographic mistakes such as the omission of diacritics, for example in cafe, which should be café. we include three modules in the suggestion layer which relate to the spell checking metaphor. we use a plain spell checker , which uses levenshtein distance to suggest the most probable correction. the spell checker can correct minor misspellings in a word such as gzien to gezien (engl. seen) or zowiezo to sowieso (engl. in any case). the second module that uses the spell checker is the compound module. it checks whether words that have been written as two separate words, should have been written together. it verifies all token bigrams and can solve cases such as split verbs, e.g. langs komen to langskomen (engl. drop in), a phenomenon that frequently occurs in dutch. the word split module is the opposite of the compound module and splits words that have been erroneously written together. in ugc, words are often concatenated in order to save space. the word split module is based on the compound-splitter module of moses (koehn et al., ) and has been trained on the corpus gesproken netherlands (cgn) (oostdijk, ). problems such as misje to mis je (engl. miss you) or perse to per se (engl. at any price) can be solved. a problem related to the spell checking approach is the limited coverage of the word list that the spell checker is based upon. to improve the coverage, we extended the spell checker’s dictionary with a word list containing about . million words compiled from a dutch wikipedia corpus. considering the highly productive nature of ugc, this partly alleviates the problem of out-of-vocabulary words. this dictionary is available for download at http://www.lt .ugent.be/amica/chat_abbreviations_dutch hunspell: http://hunspell.sourceforge.net/, / / . http://www.lt .ugent.be/amica/chat_abbreviations_dutch http://hunspell.sourceforge.net/ . . a multi-modular approach towards normalization the context-based modules have a wider range of responsibilities. besides the smt mod- ules described in chapter , we include two other context-based modules. they cover a variety of normalization issues and can solve phonologically motivated problems, as well as spelling mistakes and abbreviations. their main strength is that they use contextual information during normalization. • smt modules following previous experiments described in de clercq et al. ( ), the smt models have been trained on the token and character level using moses (koehn et al., ). we include a token-unigram-based module, a character-unigram-based module, a character-bigram- based module and a combination of a token-based and a character-unigram-based module which is reported to perform best in de clercq et al. ( ). the combination follows a cascaded approach, which means that we first process a message with the token-unigram- based module and subsequently forward the output of this module to the character-unigram- based module. the token model can solve problems of rather frequent shortenings, such as ng to nog (engl. still) or na to naar (engl. to). character-based models on the other hand, tend to solve problems such as character transposition, but also problems across tokens such as fusions as in kheb and ik heb (engl. i have). additionally, they may offer better generalization, since they can learn productive alterations and correct them in words that do not occur in the training data. • transliterate module this module approaches the normalization task as a transliteration problem to be solved using a discriminative sequence labeler. the normalization problem is defined on the level of the grapheme, not unlike the smt-character-unigram module. it uses the manually an- notated data of the training corpus (see section . ) as an information source to build a supervised machine learning classifier in which each grapheme in the non-normalized in- put sequence is associated with a class in the output sequence. this class can be empty (deletion), the input grapheme itself or a sequence of graphemes, potentially also contain- ing word boundaries (insertion). this is illustrated in the following example: ( ) kebda ni gedaan ik heb dat niet gedaan ‘i did not do that’ in preprocessing, we first align these sequences using a dynamic programming script based on wagner and fisher ( ), so that they are of equal length: +k +eb+da+ ni++ gedaaan ik heb dat niet gedaa+n chapter . text normalization this data is consequently presented as training material to a memory-based learner (daele- mans and van den bosch, ) that learns to associate the individual input graphemes with a contextually appropriate output class (input/output with “-” indicating a word boundary): k/ik- e/he b/b- d/d a/at -/- n/n i/iet -/- g/g e/e d/d a/a a/a a/+ n/n the classifier takes different types of context into account: the input characters on the left and the right of the current input character, but also the already transliterated output characters on the left. • ways module the ways module (write as you speak) attempts to model idiosyncrasies of ugc in which users write words as they speak, for example kep as the contracted representation of the expression ik heb, or ma instead of maar. the module is built as two machine learning clas- sifiers: a grapheme-to-phoneme converter (g p) and a consecutive phoneme-to-grapheme converter (p g). we used the phonetic transcriptions of the cgn corpus (oostdijk, ) to train our machine learning classifiers. cgn contains , transcribed sentences us- ing graphemes and phonemes, as illustrated in the following example: ( ) die net daar in de zee ligt zeg maar di net tar in d ze lixt sex mar ‘which is lying there in the sea say’ similar to the transliterate module, preprocessing involves aligning the sequences of graphemes, so that input and output sequence are of equal length. die net daar in de zee ligt zeg maar di+ net ta+r in d@ ze+ lixt sex ma+r this is used as training material for the aforementioned memory-based learner, which now converts a sequence of graphemes into phonemes as follows: d/d i/i e/+ -/- n/n e/e t/t -/- d/t a/a a/+ r/r -/- i/i n/n -/- d/d e/@ -/- z/z e/e e/+ -/- l/l i/i g/x t/t -/- z/s e/e g/x -/- m/m a likewise, a memory-based learner was built that converts a sequence of phonemes back into graphemes. finally, as a high percentage of tokens do not contain normalization problems and should there- fore not be changed, we also include the original input token in the word candidate list to ensure that we do not lose correct tokens in the input text. therefore, the original module just adds the original token to the list of suggestions. . . evaluation subgenre train dev dev test all sms balanced , , , , , sms all , , , , , sns balanced , , , sns all , , , twe , , , , , total balanced , , , , , total all , , , , , table . : number of tokens of the training, development and test sets listed by subgenre. . . decision layer the decision layer is implemented in the same way as the decision layer of the ocr post- correction system. it is the task of the decision module to choose the most probable combina- tion of suggestions to build a well-formed sentence. the language model has been built from a combination of four corpora using kenlm (heafield, ) (see section . . for more details). the phrase table is a lookup table containing words and word sequences along with the normal- ization suggestions generated by the modules. the decoder can be tuned by allocating weights to the language model and phrase table, setting penalties for phrase reordering and sentence length. we also included features in the phrase table that indicated which module(s) generated a specific normalization suggestion. these features can be tuned as well. we assume that the normalization suggestions of certain modules are more reliable than others, and expect their feature weights to be higher after tuning. all tuning was performed on the development data (see section . for a description of the data sets). . evaluation . . data set the language encountered in ugc differs among different social media applications (baldwin et al., ). to account for this variety, we include three different types of social media content in our corpus, namely texts from twitter (twe) accompanying a flemish tv show , texts from the social networking site netlog (sns) and short messages (sms) from the flemish part of sonar (reynaert et al., ). the voice of flanders http://nl.netlog.com/; the sns data is a combination of the netlog data sets of de clercq et al. ( ) and kestemont et al. ( ) chapter . text normalization table . gives an overview of the size of our experimental corpus. in order to measure the cross-genre performance of our normalization system, we also compiled a genre-balanced data set, which includes an approximately equal number of tokens from each of the subgenres. we split our corpus into a train set, development set and test set, setting aside about % for training, % for development and % for testing. we use half of the development set for tuning the individual modules (dev ) and the other for tuning the overall system (dev ). all data have been manually normalized and annotated following the guidelines described in de clercq et al. ( ). all operations that are necessary to transform the anomalous text into standard language have been added to the data. these operations are: • insertions (ins): stappe → stappen (engl. step) • deletions (del): schatjeeeee → schatje (engl. honey, darling) • substitutions (sub): egt → echt (engl. really) • transpositions (tr): ftoo → foto (engl. photo) this fine-grained annotation facilitates the analysis of normalization issues that are present in the data. inter-annotator agreement was calculated between the two fully normalized ver- sions for the sms genre, which is the genre that includes the highest number of normalization problems. this was done by calculating the accuracy of taking one annotator as gold standard to score the annotations of the other. this results in an accuracy of . for both annotators. if we compare this to the non-normalized accuracy score, i.e. . , we conclude that we have a nearly perfect inter-annotator agreement. genre # msg before after % #ins #del #sub #tr sms , , , . , sns , , , . , , , twe , , - . , table . : data statistics of the three genres of ugc: the number of messages and the number of tokens before and after normalization, together with the overall expansion rate (left-hand side); normalization effort expressed in the number of operations on character level (right-hand side). the normalization effort calculated on a part of our data can be seen in table . . the left- hand side of the table shows the number of messages and the number of tokens included in the corpus per subgenre before and after normalization, and the expansion rate. on the right-hand side the number of individual operations that have to be performed to reach the normalized ver- sion are shown. the large number of insertions hint at a high rate of abbreviations and phono- logically realized words in our data, whereas deletions can be mainly attributed to flooding. substitutions and transpositions roughly correspond to spelling problems. the slight decrease in tokens observed in twitter data is due to words that are spread over multiple tokens in the original text which should actually be written as one word. . . evaluation . . modeling ugc language apart from normalization problems, ugc language differs from standard language in terms of word choice, syntax and style as well. as the language model is a core element of the smt modules and the decision module, we want to build a high-quality language model that fits the data that needs to be normalized as well as possible. we have built language models from three corpora and combinations thereof. the corpora, listed in table . , were all chosen because of their relative closeness to the target domain, i.e. they all contain a high degree of spoken language features. in order to maximize this similarity, we also added all the training data of our ugc corpus. we used kenlm (heafield, ) to evaluate the perplexity of different language models trained on different combinations with respect to our development corpus (dev ). we varied the order of the models from -grams up to -grams, but could not observe any improvements above the order of . a -gram language model, built on the combination of all corpora, obtained the lowest perplexity of . , and was used in the experiments. corpus sentences words corpus gesproken nederlands (cgn) (oostdijk, ) , , , sonar (oostdijk, ) , , , open subtitles dutch (osd) , , , , training set (ts) , , table . : overview of corpora used for language modeling. . . evaluation metrics we evaluated our results using standard evaluation measures for lexical normalization, i.e. word error rate (wer) and precision and recall calculated at the token level. word error rate is a commonly used metric in speech recognition and machine translation evaluation. it takes into account the number of insertions, deletions and substitutions that are needed to transform the suggested string into the manually normalized string and is computed as follows: (wer) w er = insertions + substitutions + deletions # tokens in the manual reference besides wer, we also calculate precision and recall which are widely used metrics in infor- mation retrieval. they give information about the degree of overgeneration and undergeneration in the suggested string. precision and recall are computed as follows: chapter . text normalization (pre) p r ecision = # correct tokens # tokens in the suggestion (rec) r ecal l = # correct tokens # tokens in the manual reference as the token-based evaluation metrics are rather strict and do not reward improvements that are not entirely correct (e.g. the suggestion antworden (correct form: antwoorden (engl. answer)) for the anomalous form antwrdn), we also report character error rate (cer). this is inherently the same formula as for wer, but instead of tokens it looks at characters. as we want to focus on the performance of the normalization modules, we take as input the manually tokenized and automatically flooding-corrected version of the data, and each time compare the output with the gold standard data set. we evaluated the performance of the tokenizer and sentence splitting component in a sep- arate experiment, in which we compared the automatically and manually tokenized strings. tokenization in ugc is known to be a difficult task due to the productive use of emoticons, punc- tuation for emphasis and the appearance of concatenated words. the results in table . show high precision scores, ranging between . and . for the three ugc genres. recall scores are equally high, ranging between . and . . given that this preprocessing step comes before a whole range of normalization modules, high precision is important. we assume that some un- solved tokenization problems might find a solution during the normalization process. a notable problem for the tokenizer are cases in which words are strung together, such as teveel which should be tokenized into te veel (engl. too much); this is also a problem for which a dedicated word split module was designed in the next layer. genre sms sns twe all metric prec. rec. prec. rec. prec. rec. prec. rec. tokenization . . . . . . . . table . : evaluation results of the tokenization module. . . experiments our experiments are structured in two main parts. first, we investigate the performance of each module separately by presenting precision, recall, wer and cer scores. because some modules were specifically designed to solve a certain type of normalization issue (cf. section . ), we also performed a task-specific evaluation for them, i.e. the compound, abbreviation and word split module. this was done by evaluating each module with respect to its responsibility range, . . evaluation which was manually annotated. in a next step, we evaluate the overall performance of our multi- modular system using the same evaluation metrics. in this setup, we apply different settings by weighting the individual modules differently for the decision making process, by adding more information about the necessity to normalize a token and by using different training sets. since only a portion of the tokens in the input sentence exhibit normalization issues, we ex- perimented with filtering the module suggestions, to assess the impact on performance (both of individual modules and of the combined systems). the reasoning behind this is that we want to filter out unlikely suggestions to avoid overcorrection during the normalization process, viz. to- kens which do not include any normalization problem should not be changed for the worse. we use two filters: a classifier trained on a bigram language model and a named entity recognizer. the classifier is trained on a simple bigram language model compiled from the data described in section . . . we look up each token of the input sentence in the context of the preceding and subsequent token and only retain normalization suggestions for tokens for which we cannot find both bigrams in the language model. the second filtering mechanism aims at detecting named entities (nes). nes typically con- sist of out-of-vocabulary words which should not be normalized. it is therefore important to rec- ognize them as such in order to avoid overcorrection. named entity recognition (ner) in tweets is a far from trivial problem (liu et al., ): nes in ugc often have different characteris- tics than in standard texts (nes frequently lack capitalization or are introduced with specific characters such as @ or #), we developed a dedicated ner tool (schulz, ). the ner tool is hybrid in the sense that it uses gazetteer lookup and classification. the gazetteers contain a variety of named entities. moreover, it includes a simple pattern-matching rule to find words with a capitalized first letter that does not appear at the beginning of a sentence. given the productive nature of nes, we also added a dedicated conditional random field classifier trained on the training set of our corpus. module sms sns twe all metric prec. rec. prec. rec. prec. rec. prec. rec. bigram lm . . . . . . . . ner . . . . . . . . table . : performance of the filtering methods. table . shows the results of these two types of filtering for the three genres. for both tech- niques, we compared the output of the filtering with the gold standard. the precision obtained with bigram filtering is high, ranging between . and . , whereas the recall scores range between . and . . the precision of the ner module is high for twitter data and reasonable for sms. for sns we observe a large number of tokens mistakenly classified as ne. this could be attributed to a non-standard usage of uppercase and lowercase letters. chapter . text normalization module sms sns twe all metric pre rec wer pre rec wer pre rec wer pre rec wer cer baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . without filtering smt token . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt unigram . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt bigram . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt cascaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . transliterate . . . . . . . . . . . . . spell checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . abbreviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . word split . . . . . . . . . . . . . with filtering smt token . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt unigram . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt bigram . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt cascaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . transliterate . . . . . . . . . . . . . spell checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . abbreviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . word split . . . . . . . . . . . . . table . : wer, cer, precision and recall of the general modules with and without filtering of suggestions. module-specific evaluation the evaluation scores for all modules are presented in table . . baseline scores are calculated by comparing the manually tokenized original input with the gold standard normalized text. a first observation is that, in general, the performance varies significantly between the different ugc genres. the highest scores are obtained on the twitter data, followed by sms and sns. this variation can be explained by the difference in density of normalization problems, which is in line with the data statistics that were presented in table . . table . also illustrates that the smt and transliterate modules reveal particularly high performance. the character-based smt modules outperform all other modules, with and without filtering. it performs best with a wer reduction of almost % over the input text. cer shows a similar tendency. the strength of the character-based smt modules lies in resolving concatenations such as keb to ik heb, whereas the token-based module is doing well in resolving frequent abbreviations. the transliterate module also shows good normalization capabili- ties. even though it does not contain any mechanism to prevent out-of-vocabulary words on the output side, it is able to resolve quite a few issues of compounding and cliticization. we observe that without filtering, four modules are never able to beat the baseline (ways, pell checking, compound and word split). these are modules that typically overcorrect, . . evaluation and as a result, we observe some moderate improvements after applying filtering. while the ways module is able to model some aspects of write-as-you-speak effects, its us- ability on our data is rather limited. correct words in the input sequence are very often con- verted erroneously through the processing chain. furthermore, it is by definition not able to convert abbreviated forms, such as ff for effe, which are plentiful in our data. finally, write-as- you-speak effects are very dependent on regional varieties of dutch. as a result, a single pro- nunciation model capturing all such regional variants is just not tractable. specialized region- specific ways modules may obtain better results. since the compound, abbreviation and word split modules have been designed with a specific normalization issue in mind, these modules have a specific range of responsibilities (cf. section . . ). table . gives an impression of the absolute number of problems each module is responsible for, based on a manual analysis and the actual performance with and without filtering. besides the fact that the type of problems encountered in the three ugc genres differs considerably, we can also observe that some specialized problems are rather infrequent in our data, such as the small amount of compounding issues. we will now discuss the results of those three modules in closer detail. module sms sns twe res cor over res cor over res cor over without filtering compound abbrev. word split with filtering compound abbrev. word split table . : number of problems each specialized module is responsible (res) for, has solved correctly (cor) and has overcorrected (over). without filtering, the compound module can only solve about half of the problems of its responsibility range. in addition, we notice that it returns a lot of incorrect suggestions. as mentioned earlier, the number of problematic compounds is small in our test set. in total, there are just problems that have to be solved, amongst which compounds such as songkeuze (engl. song choice) and dragqueen (engl. drag queen), which are very uncommon in dutch. introducing filtering leads to a drastic decrease in the number of overcorrections, but it also harms the ability of the module to solve problematic compounds correctly. we can observe that the abbreviation module is able to solve around % of the issues in the sms and sns genre, and % in the twe genre. if we translate these numbers into precision and recall, we can see that it achieves a high precision and a rather low recall (averaged over all chapter . text normalization genres, we reach a precision of . and a recall of . ). this high precision can be attributed to the lookup approach it is based on. the low recall points to a coverage issue of the dictionary. a manual analysis revealed for example that abbreviations such as hvj, which stands for hou van jou (engl. i love you), or ipv for in plaats van (engl. instead of) remained uncorrected as they are not yet included in our dictionary, although they are highly frequent in dutch. nevertheless, high precision means that the module does not harm the overall performance of our system. extending the dictionaries represented in this module could lead to a more valuable module contributing well to the normalization success. it is also worth mentioning that the filtering method works well for this module, because no overcorrections remain after filtering. finally, the word split module has the lowest performance of all. this can be attributed to the modules’ inherent capacity to only split a word into two when those two words are actu- ally existing and correct words. as a consequence, it cannot split words containing additional normalization problems. typical examples are kzit which has to be split into k and zit. since k has to be transformed into ik in order to build the correct bigram ik zit (engl. i sit), the module cannot cope with those problems. the same problem occurs in fused words such as loveyouuu, where the second token is anomalous. again we see that this module accounts for a large num- ber of overcorrections. introducing filtering leads to a decrease, but not as clearly as it was for the previous module. to conclude, we can state that the actual responsibility range of the compound and word split modules looks rather limited. however, in order to evaluate the complementarity of the different modules, we also manually checked the number of unique suggestions each module (without filtering) proposes on the development data set. this revealed that even these three worst performing modules each return unique correct suggestions. we therefore decided to keep all modules in our multi-modular system and leave it up to the decision module to select the best suggestion. this is certainly not a trivial task. the two modules that suggest the highest number of unique correct suggestions (ways and spell checking each offer ) also generate the highest number of unique incorrect suggestions ( and , respectively). multi-modular system having explored the performance of all modules separately, we also evaluated the interaction of all our modules in combination. as described in section . . , we include features that provide information on which module(s) generated a normalization suggestion into the decoding process using the moses decoder. initially, these features were uniformly weighted (setting ), but after further tuning on the development set (settings – ), we set the decoder to trust certain modules more than others. it is important to note that these are overall module weights, which do not take into account the particular normalization issue at hand. since we observed that filtering improved the output of some of the modules that tend to overcorrect, we also experiment with two different approaches to include this filtering in our . . evaluation system. in one setting, which we label “hard filtering" (setting ), we remove suggestions for tokens that according to the filters should not be normalized. in the second approach (setting ), “soft filtering" is applied by adding this filtering information in the form of two additional features (ner and bigram lm) to the decoding process. the weights for these two additional features are tuned alongside other decoder parameters. in a last evaluation scenario, we built a system using all our training data using the best settings of the previous experiments (i.e. with tuning and soft filtering) and compare the results of the all-data-in setting to an all-data-in baseline. all in all, we have thus set up five evaluation scenarios: ( ) genre-balanced system without tuning ( ) genre-balanced system with tuning ( ) genre-balanced system with tuning and hard filtering ( ) genre-balanced system with tuning and soft filtering ( ) all-data-in system with tuning and soft filtering for the evaluation of the entire system, we decided to focus on minimizing wer. the first baseline is again calculated on the original, manually tokenized data. as a second baseline, we took the single best-performing module (mt unigram). a combined approach should in any case beat the second baseline in order to show that a combination of modules leads to an improvement over a single module approach. system sms sns twe all prec rec wer prec rec wer prec rec wer prec rec wer cer baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt uni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . smt uni all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . table . : precision, recall and wer of the normalization in five different settings for each genre and on the entire test set. the results in table . show that the genre-balanced system without tuning (setting ) improves wer on the entire test set by about % over the first baseline and reaches high recall and precision scores. model tuning (setting ) improves results noticeably by lowering wer to . %; a decrease of more than % over the baseline. this experimental set-up beats the best performing single module, which has a wer of . %. in order to gain some insight into the contribution of the different modules to the overall system, we inspected the feature weights of the modules. the weights do not entirely correlate chapter . text normalization with the ranking of the performance of the modules in terms of wer, but do reveal the same tendency. the highest weight is allocated to the smt modules. the abbreviation module, which shows reasonable performance, gets the third highest weight. as expected, modules that highly overgenerate receive a low weight. interestingly, we cannot show an overall improvement in wer over setting by adding hard filtering (setting ). it especially impairs results for the sms test data which contain the high- est number of normalization issues. this means that hard filtering removes too many correct suggestions for anomalous words. the cer values slightly improve by hard filtering, which can be explained by the limitation of overcorrection. soft filtering (setting ) performs better in comparison to hard filtering on all genres. it ap- pears that adding filtering information as decoding features to be tuned achieves slightly better results than when such filtering is absent (setting ) for sms and achieves the best scores for all data amongst the genre-balanced systems. this shows that flagging a token which contains a normalization problem by the bigram language model or a ne adds valuable information to the decoding process. adding more training data (setting ) introduces a slight bias towards sns data. the perfor- mance for twe slightly suffers, whereas the performance for sns and sms noticeably improves, since we substantially extend the training set for sns. the wer calculated on the entire test set is the lowest amongst all systems. we achieve significantly better results with our multi- modular system compared to the smt unigram module with all training data as a baseline. significance has been calculated using the monte carlo algorithm (efron and tibshirani, ) with a resulting % confidence interval of . and . of difference in mean using , test suits. since we cannot presuppose that the decision module always picks the right suggestion even if it is provided by the modules, we also calculated the upper bound performance for system setting , which assumes a perfectly working decision module. these oracle values are shown in table . . genre sms sns twe all oracle . . . . . . . . table . : oracle recall values for the tuned, soft filtered genre-unbalanced system compared to the recall values achieved by the system in this setting without oracle. a first observation is that our system almost reaches the upper bound of . with an actual recall of . , which means that the decision module performs really well. nevertheless, the oracle values also show that not all normalization issues are handled by the modules of the sug- gestion layer. a manual inspection of the tokens for which no correct suggestions are provided, shows that those tokens often contain more than one normalization issue. an example is tuurlyk . . evaluation for natuurlijk (engl. of course) which is not only shortened but also has the homophones ij and y exchanged. therefore, a spell checking approach or a machine translation approach will prob- ably struggle to solve such issues since they deviate too strongly from the standard form. the problem of multiple corrections within one word could possibly be solved by a sieve technique in which modules are called consecutively instead of in parallel. . . the bigger picture - extrinsic evaluation and portability since the main motivation for text normalization is to counter the drop in performance of nlp tools on non-standard text, we also performed an extrinsic evaluation of our approach, similar to the work described in (zhang et al., ). we evaluated the performance of a pos tagger (pos), a named-entity recognizer (ner) and lemmatizer (lemma) (van de kauter et al., ) before and after normalization (norm) on a test set from a subgenre which had not been included in training. therefore, we additionally annotated posts ( , tokens) from the social network ask.fm for these four tasks. we used the best-working multi-modular system including all training data with soft filter- ing (setting ) to normalize the posts. as can be seen in table . , for the normalization of this new subgenre, the system performs much better than the baseline (wer of . ). to assess the impact of normalization on other nlp tasks, we include the results for our gold standard data to set the upper bound we can reach with perfect normalization and cal- culate accuracy and f-score. for all three tasks (pos tagging, lemmatization and named entity recognition), we observe a clear improvement after normalization, with an accuracy of . % (af- ter normalization) vs. . % (before normalization) for pos tagging, and an accuracy of . % (after normalization) vs. . % (before normalization) for lemmatization. metric wer accuracy f-score task norm pos lemma ner gold standard - . . . before normalization . . . . all-data-in system . . . . tuned module weights, soft filtering table . : performance of different nlp tools before and after normalization with the all-data- in multi-modular system. the performance improvement for ner, on the other hand, is very modest. the low scores of ner on the gold standard data set further illustrate that named entity recognition is a very difficult task in ugc. http://ask.fm/ http://ask.fm/ chapter . text normalization . research contributions automatic normalization of ugc is a complex task with many challenges. in this chapter, we work with three different types of dutch ugc, namely sms, blog and forum posts and tweets. as can be seen in the expansion rate before and after normalization (table . ) and the baseline wer scores (table . ), the normalization effort for the different subgenres varies considerably, with tweets being easier to normalize than sms and posts on social network sites. to account for the diversity of normalization problems, we implemented eight different mod- ules that make use of three well-known metaphors for normalization: spell checking, speech recognition and machine translation. the module-specific evaluation shows that especially the modules belonging to the machine translation metaphor (the smt and transliterate mod- ules) perform well. however, as even the low-performing modules generated unique suggestions, we built a multi-modular system based on all modules. the real challenge of the multi-modular system is the selection of the best (combination of) candidates from the pool of suggestions, which is the task of the decision module. we store all normalization suggestions in a phrase table and make use of the moses decoder to tackle this problem. in contrast to previous research efforts that were limited to language model-based de- coding, we use the phrase table infrastructure provided by moses and add additional features to it that encode information about which module(s) generated a normalization suggestion. these features were tuned on the development set, thus permitting the decoder to learn to trust certain modules more than others. furthermore, we experiment with two types of filtering (hard and soft filtering) to reduce overcorrection. the oracle values show that the decision module obtains a high performance, despite the large number of suggestions. since the main motivation for text normalization is the improvement of the performance of state-of-the-art nlp tools on ugc data, we also perform an extrinsic evaluation on data normalized by our system on yet another type of ugc, namely posts from ask.fm. we demon- strate that automatic normalization indeed improves the performance of pos-tagging, lemmatization and ner. however, the performance level of the standard nlp tools on ugc data (after normalization and even on the gold standard data) is still far below the performance level of those tools on standard language. this might be due to the high degree of syntactic anomalies and english words in dutch ugc, which our system at this moment is not able to tackle. we show that modular software architectures do not only offer the opportunity to adjust to different data sets but moreover can be used for different objectives. text normalization shares characteristics with ocr post-correction as it attempts the automatic transformation of erroneous input text to some corrected form. by exchanging various modules with modules suited better to a specific problem, this generic architecture can easily be used to different ends. c h a p t e r tool adaptation for non-standard text processing the application of automatic text processing methods has the purpose of enriching text with information on different levels such as syntax and semantics. as discussed in chapter , in the context of digital humanities (dh) projects this commonly comes with a particular challenge: the texts under investigation usually deviate from some agreed upon form. in the previous chapter, we offer text normalization as a solution to this issue. in cases where the language under investigation differs considerably from its standard form, text normalization is a prob- lem that is difficult to model. errors made in the normalization propagate down to subsequent processing steps which influence the results of the final analysis. moreover, text normalization requires a considerable amount of training data which dh projects are often lacking. commonly, deviations from the standard form are exactly the focus of the investigation and thus have to be handled with care. if one wants to compare the different ways mark twain lets the characters speak in tom sawyer, the orality twain gives to the different voices is the focus of investigation and must be preserved. as an alternative to the normalization approach illustrated in chapter , we propose a data- oriented methodology for the development of dedicated tools for non-standard texts in this chapter. tools can be trained from scratch or adjusted from related languages. we focus on machine learning (ml) solutions. training data, its quality and quantity, are the central points in natural language processing (nlp) with a focus on ml. as outlined in section . , those ml algorithms rely on the correctness of annotations. if one can provide the algorithm with enough data, statistics can be used to fit a model to solve problems that can be formalized in such a way that they can be modeled with a computer. in dh, the data sparsity issue caused by the before mentioned data characteristics makes ml solutions difficult. often only small corpora are of interest to answer a specific research question. even if annotated data is available for training, chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing the extraction of informative features as input to ml algorithms is difficult due to the lack of preprocessing tools for these specific kinds of data such as part-of-speech (pos) taggers, parsers and tools for automatic discourse analysis. this creates a vicious circle which traditionally is solved by expenditure of time and money for extensive manual annotation. this is worthwhile when developing tools and resources for popular languages which guarantee progress for a wider community, whereas for very specialized types of texts possibly only used within one project, this cannot be the solution. thus, non-standard text processing poses challenges that have to be tackled in ways that are different from those for standard data. pos tagging is the task of assigning a category from a given set to each input token of a text. it has a popular use as standalone application or is used as part of a preprocessing step for other tasks, e.g. parsing. it therefore needs to be done with high accuracy to ensure success in the subsequent task. thus, it is a well understood field offering a variety of techniques suit- able for different languages. we choose this problem for our experiments since it is considered to be “solved” for standard texts but not for non-standard texts with tagging accuracies that reach human performance. we focus on the pos tagging of historical texts. historical stages of languages are one example of non-standard texts. these texts do not just differ from the mod- ern stage of the language but commonly also show a large diversity within what is considered to be one stage of a language due to missing regulation of spelling and grammar and ununi- fied vocabulary. thus, features of texts coming from different regions, time periods, genres or even authors might vary enough to entail a noticeable difference in performance of automatic language processing tools. these features also make the normalization approach difficult, since they deviate significantly from the modern form. even if texts were normalized before process- ing, important characteristics would be lost and could not be reflected in the processing results. moreover, due to the diversity within one language stage, one normalization system would not suffice to normalize the different regional or time-dependent deviations. the best pos taggers that are available for english reach an accuracy of up to . % on the wall street journal (choi, ) and the best german models perform around % for newspa- per texts (brants, ; schmid, ). however, the performance for texts from the web drops to – % (giesbrecht and evert, ) and more significantly decreases for middle high german to % . in this chapter, we detail the difficulties inherent to non-standard text processing and sug- gest techniques for successful automatic annotation. historical languages share impor- tant characteristics that can be utilized in its automatic processing: usually, earlier stages of a language share a fair number of features with their modern stage. we can exploit this related- ness to facilitate tagging by bootstrapping tools developed for the modern stage or by enhancing algorithms tailored to these older stages with information from these tools. accuracy achieved applying a german model trained on the german universal dependency treebank using treetagger to our test set described in section . . appropriate approaches strongly depend on the characteristics of the data and the nature of the task. to be able to compare techniques for different kinds of data, we evaluate the task of pos tagging throughout different data sets with a varying degree of divergence from the standard form and differences in terms of availability of preprocessing tools. we experi- ment with three different degrees of non-standard data which allow for different approaches towards their processing. we investigate tagging of middle high german (mhg) text, a for- mer language stage of german, originating from between to . even though there are few automatic processing tools, there is a considerable amount of digitized data available. in addition, we experiment with heinrich von neustadt’s apollonius von tyrland , a , verses long opus containing approximately , types and , tokens. this is a unique text which mixes features from mhg as well as from new high german and ranges therefore high on a scale of “non-standardness”. there is no other text available that shares its really spe- cific characteristics. as the last example of a text that deviates from a standard, we investigate the automatic processing of mixed sermons written in middle english and latin (horner, ). these texts are constituted by a combination of two different standard forms and thereby develop characteristics not associated with either one of both standard forms. they are consid- erably close to both of these standard forms and available resources and tools can be exploited for their processing. we illustrate the processing of these sermons in the context of a research question coming from linguistics in chapter . . . . . . . . . standard code-switching historical language stages unique texts supervision "distance from standard" "r es ou rc e a va il ab il it y" figure . : relative location of the data sets used in this chapter with respect to availability of resources and closeness to a standard form. the differences of the languages that manifest in these texts with respect to the standard based on the gotha manuscript edited by samuel singer, berlin . digitalized version from http://www. mhgta.uni-trier.de (gärtner, ). http://www.mhgta.uni-trier.de http://www.mhgta.uni-trier.de chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing can be expressed in two dimensions: the availability of data resources and automatic processing tools for a language and their dissimilarity to a language that is considered as standard. this is visualized in figure . . these two dimensions are by no means independent of each other. a language for which there are large amounts of annotated data available will not be considered a non-standard language in our context since it thereby establishes a standard itself. at the same time, a language that is relatively close to a standard form has a decent supply condition of processing tools coming from the standard domain, even though they might not work perfectly. with a falling availability of resources of whichever kind and simultaneously increasing distance of a text to a standard, the viability of supervised methods decreases. this means the further a text can be located in the lower right corner of this two-dimensional space, the more one needs to focus on weak supervision or even unsupervised learning techniques. we examine different aspects of non-standard text processing with respect to a text’s localization in the spectrum of non-standard data. at first, we investigate the influence of the quality and quantity of training data in section . . we introduce strategies for the adaptation of data resources developed for a different purpose to serve as training material for pos tagging. in section . , we subsequently aim to answer the question as to which algorithms and processing techniques are most promising in historical non-standard text processing. in the following, we investigate three major questions: . in which way does the quantity and quality of training data influence the performance of a model? . how can existing pos models and resources be utilized in order to benefit the goal of tagging related text? . which algorithms and techniques are suited best for the purpose of pos tagging in the domain of historical texts? . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality . training data: the influence of quantity and quality historical linguistics is a field in which scholars early on showed an affinity for computer-aided investigations of their research topics. one of the first digital corpora was a latin corpus contain- ing the works of thomas of aquin (busa, ) constructed over the course of years starting in the s. it is thus even more astonishing that there is a lack of nlp tools for older stages of languages. this can be explained by the fact that even though digitized raw text is available for e.g. statistical analysis, there is hardly a tradition of enriching these corpora with manual anno- tations. this tendency to digitize historical text, however, could be exploited in order to change this situation. in the following, we want to investigate which approach is most promising when developing tools for historical stages of language. we exemplify our approaches by means of pos tagging of middle high german (mhg) texts. pos taggers have been a formidable obstacle in the computer-aided analysis of medieval german texts as they serve for the basic preprocess- ing before several more extensive steps in an automatic analysis of text. pos tagging has been tackled for different historical languages such as e.g. ancient greek (celano et al., ), histor- ical dutch (hupkes and bod, ) and coptic (zeldes and schroeder, ), which are trained on annotated historical corpora. hardmeier ( ) trains taggers for early modern swedish and german texts from between and using annotated corpora for only the modern stage of the languages but not for the historical stages. the historical languages described in this work, however, are close to the modern language due to their relatively late time of origin. schulz et al. ( ) describe an approach to pos tagging of one specific mhg text. barteld et al. ( ) train a pos tagger for middle low german. dipper ( ) reports an accuracy of about % for tag- ging of specific dialects of central german and upper german trained on normalized lemmata. all of these models are either restricted to certain varieties of mhg or work on normalized text. to the best of our knowledge none of these models is publicly available. the term middle high german (mhg) denotes the stage of german spoken in the high middle ages ( – ), following the period of old high german ( – ) and preceding the period of early new high german ( – ) (hennings, , p. – ). the notion high german refers to the distinction between the varieties of german spoken in the south of ger- many (high german) and those spoken in the north (low german), which were not affected by the second germanic consonant shift. beyond this large division into two language areas the mhg speaking area can be further subdivided into various dialects (e.g. bavarian, alemannic, east franconian). the mhg literature shows a high diversity which arises from its different traditions. it has its beginnings in the th century and reaches its high point with the “clas- sic” courtly literature between and . central “genres” in mhg literature are courtly romances, heroic epics, and lyrical poetry e.g. “minnesang”. the genres differ in their form – strophes versus verses –, in their mediality – writing versus oral tradition – and in the sub- jects they discuss. thus, the linguistic diversity of mhg is complemented by a heterogeneity of literary genres and traditions. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing the development of tools for historical languages is clearly related to nlp for low resource languages where the biggest challenge is the lack of annotated data for the supervised training of classifiers. some advantages arise, however, from working with historical data in the context of digital humanities projects. firstly, in collaborations expert knowledge is accessible. this means that trained experts can provide annotations and give feedback on tagging results which can in turn be used for improvement. moreover, even though there is a lack of annotated data for specific purposes such as pos tagging, early interest of historical linguists in digital methods results in a moderate availability of raw digitized data as well as digital lexical resources which can be exploited to make up for missing manual annotations. we investigate various aspects of pos tagging in a non-standard data context generally following a supervised machine learning approach. we firstly evaluate the influence of data quality and quantity via different annotation schemes on tagging results and then show how to exploit other existing data resources. we show how we take advantage of the large size of the mittelhochdeutsche begriffsdatenbank (mhdbdb) by adjusting this database of mhg to our annotation scheme. as a result, we present a pos tagger which performs well on different genres, time periods and dialects of mhg. we do not just report on the development of a tagger model but in addition aim to answer the following questions: • how much annotated data is needed until the learning effect is decelerating? • is there a way to incorporate large resources that have been developed for a different purpose to improve tagging? • can large data quantity make up for low data quality? parts of this subchapter have been submitted for publication to a special issue of the journal “language resources and evaluation”. publication . . data quantity and quality we do not just report on the development of a tagger model but also aim to answer the following questions: • how much annotated data is needed until the learning effect decelerates? • in which way can large resources that have been developed for a different purpose be incorporated to improve tagging? • can large data quantity make up for low data quality? . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality tag explanation adj adjective adp adposition adv adverb aux auxiliary cconj coordinating conjunction det determiner intj interjection noun noun num numeral part particle pron pronoun propn proper noun punct punctuation sconj subordinating conjunction sym symbol verb verb x other table . : ud-tagset. the tag sym was not needed; we added combined tags for mhg as well as the tag spunct to distinguish sentence- ending characters from other punc- tuation marks. given that our collaboration includes scholars of me- dieval literature who are willing to invest some time into annotating pos tags, we investigate the quantity of pos annotated data needed to train a pos tagging model. it is often assumed that a large amount of annotated data is necessary to develop tools. we show that accept- able results can be achieved with a few thousand anno- tated words. moreover, we demonstrate how resources that have been developed for other purposes can be har- nessed when included in an intelligent manner. data ob- tained in this manner is of lower quality regarding the task of pos tagging since the annotation is not manually overseen. yet, the inclusion of such data into the train- ing process can lead to an increase in the ultimate tagger quality due to the increase in data quantity. . . manual annotation – how much is enough? even though the comparison of results across languages and data sets is difficult due to differences in tagsets and annotation schemes, we have a look at sizes of training sets of previous approaches towards pos tagging to get an impression on how much data is recommendable. the state-of-the-art results for english pos tagging reported by choi ( ) are achieved by training on a data set com- prising more than , tokens. brants ( ) show learning curves for pos tagging ranging from , to , tokens with accuracy values between . % and . %. on the other hand, schmid ( ) reports state-of-the-art results of around . % for a system trained on just , tokens along with a large list of word forms. garrette and baldridge ( ) describe how about , tokens of manual annotation can be exploited to train taggers for low resource languages. even though they achieve impressive results, their work does not allow insights into how much results could be improved by just a little more annotation effort. this raises the ques- tion of how much training data is actually necessary until the learning curve decelerates, which we aim to answer in the following. data we manually annotated a corpus consisting of , tokens with pos tags. this corpus is compiled by including parts of a variety of texts included in the middle high german conceptual chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing database (mhdbdb) (mittelhochdeutsche begriffsdatenbank, ) which cover a period of four centuries. to make sure that we include different genres, dialects and language stages, we randomly select pieces from different texts. this accounts for the diversity we encounter in mhg. initially, a part of the manual annotation ( , tokens) was done in parallel by two different annotators to compute the inter-annotator-agreement (cohen’s kappa: , (cohen, )). due to the rather low agreement, we investigated the disagreements and specify the guidelines with the help of examples accordingly. disagreements became evident especially in cases such as the selectivity of participles and adjectives or determiners and adjectives. our pos categories follow the tagset established by the universal dependency (ud) project (nivre et al., ), which provides a universal inventory of categories to facilitate a consistent annotation of similar constructions across languages and is thus also suitable for the annotation of historical languages. the pos tagset consists of universal categories (cf. table . ). the pos tags are strictly annotated in their syntactical context which avoids ambiguities. one surface form, e.g. “daz” (engl. the, that) can represent different functions and pos classes in a sentence, as shown in example : ( ) a. daz (article, det) edel kint hât mir verjehen, daz ez in troume sî geschehen. the (article,det) noble child had me told, that it in dream was happened. ‘the (article, det) nobel child had told me that it had happened in a dream.’ b. wie staete ist ein dünnez eis daz (relative pronoun, pron) ougestheize sunnen hât? how stable is a thin ice that (relative pronoun, pron) august hot sun has? ‘how stable is thin ice that (relative pronoun, pron) gets hot in the august sun?’ c. daz (demonstrative pronoun, pron) sage ich iu vür ungelogen. that (demonstrative pronoun, pron) say i you for truly. ‘this (demonstrative pronoun, pron) i truely tell you’ d. der knappe wânde sunder spot, daz (subordinating conjunction, sconj) ieslîcher waere ein got. the squire believed without mockery, that (subordinating conjunction, sconj) each was a god. ‘the squire believed indeed that (subordinating conjunction, sconj) each was a god’ word classes can be identified with the help of the substitution test according to which words can be substituted within a class to still yield syntactically valid sentences . e.g. “schoene” (engl. pretty) in a is an adjective and can therefore be replaced by another adjective (e.g. “minnicliche”, engl. lovely), whereas in b “schoene” can only be substituted by another noun and is therefore annotated as a noun. since mhg is a language for which a feeling for language is not a reliable criterion due to the lack of native speakers, we rely on the validity judgement of educated german medievalists. . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality ( ) a. daz schoene wîp (engl. the pretty woman), or: daz minnecliche wîp (engl. the lovely woman) b. die schoene saz bî ime (engl. the beauty sits next to him), or: die maget saz bî ime (engl. the maid sits next to him) the distinction between determinant and adjective poses difficulties especially for indefinite words such as “manec”, “al” (engl. many, all). furthermore, the annotation of words which are in progress of being lexicalized or grammaticalized is difficult given the fact that the pos classes are often changed by this progress (e.g. the old form “sît daz” is annotated as adposition and pronoun since it is not yet lexicalized whereas the form “seitdem” (engl. since then), the derived modern form from the combination of “sît” and “daz”, is a conjunction or an adverb. both of them are equivalent in meaning). since mhg allows the fusion of adjacent words, we extended the tagset by combining tags to annotate merged words such as “weistu” (“weist+du”, engl. know+you) where a verb fuses with a pronoun. in such cases, the “+” represents the fusion of two or more words and allows it to be decomposed into its individual constituents which can be annotated (e.g. “weistu”: verb+pron). experiments we use the manually annotated corpus to train pos models for mhg. to determine the point of deceleration when increasing the amount of data used for training, we subsequently enlarge our training data by , tokens at a time starting with a training size of , until we reach the full size of our available data set. in order to ensure that we are not simply capturing an oddity in the relation between the number of training instances and the training algorithm we use, we compare two different existing trainable taggers, which are based on two algorithms namely decision trees (dt) (treetagger, schmid ( )) and conditional random fields (crf) (marmot, müller et al. ( )). for both taggers we use their default settings for training to avoid the influence of finding better hyperparameters on our data quantity experiment. since there is no lemmatizer for mhg, we solely base our pos taggers on the default features extracted by the implementations of these algorithms from the word surface. these features are character prefixes and suffixes of different length and the word itself. context windows of width are taken into account by the crf algorithm and the preceding words by the dt. the learning curves for both classifiers measured in accuracy are displayed in fig. . . results as expected, the type-token ratio of the training set decreases with the increase in words. most notably, the performance of the crf model is consistently significantly above the performance we use -fold cross-validation for all settings. the test set splits are kept the same throughout the experiments. according to mcnemar’s test using the “mid-p” variant (fagerland et al., ). chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing number of training instances in thousands p o s t a g g in g a c c u r a c y dt (treetagger) crf (marmot) . . . . t y p e -t o k e n -r a t io type-token-ratio figure . : learning curve for both classification algorithms trained on an increasing size of training data. of the dt model. however, they show a similar learning pattern with respect to increase in training data. the effect of additional data is a steep increase for the first , tokens. from , tokens on, the increase of performance drops below %. surprisingly, results of around % accuracy can already be reached with a training set size of just , tokens. this means that starting pos annotation from scratch leads to an expedient model relatively quick. a train- ing set size of , tokens leads to . % accuracy with treetagger and . % with marmot. analyzing errors per pos classes, we find that increasing the data from , to , words significantly improves tagging accuracy for the smaller, less frequent classes such as particles, numbers and proper nouns but also for some high frequency classes such as nouns. . . additional data: exploiting existing resources nlp for historical language has a lot in common with data processing for low resource lan- guages: annotated data is often not, or insufficiently, available and also the amount of digitized raw data is limited. one distinctive feature, however, is the fact that there are often entire fields of research built around historical stages of a language. even though the research tradition in these fields often focuses on other factors than automatic processing of the data and thus annotations are missing, there are commonly other resources available that can be utilized to substitute them. these resources can e.g. be dictionaries where the vocabulary of a language is listed along with grammatical characteristics. these type-based grammatical annotations can . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality then be projected onto tokens in context and thus can support pos tagging. type-supervised pos tagging was first introduced by merialdo ( ). smith and eisner ( ) depart from the assumption of having a complete tagging dictionary as given in merialdo ( ) by deliberately removing knowledge to simulate a more realistic scenario. in a similar fashion, goldberg et al. ( ) train a pos tagger for hebrew. in addition to a lexicon, they assume the availability of a morphological analyzer, a tool typically not available for many historical languages. in sec- tion . . , we show the influence of the size of high quality, manually labeled training data on the accuracy of the resulting pos tagger. in this subchapter, we investigate the influence of using a larger amount of training data with a reduced annotation quality on the results. we describe an approach departing from a large but not entirely reliable lexical resource as a basis for a pos tagger. we compare our results achieved using a large but qualitatively low resource to the pos tagger introduced in section . . . data tag description example german example english nom noun acker, zît field, time nam name uolrîch, wiene, rhîn uolrîch, vienna, rhine adj adjective grôz, schoene big, beautiful adv adverb schone, schnelleclîche already, fast art determiner der, eine the, a det demonstrative pronoun ditze, mîn, ieman this, mine, someone pos possesive pronoun mîn, dîn, unser my, your, our pro pronoun ich, es, wir i, it, we prp preposition ûf, zuo, under on, to, under neg negation nie, âne, niht never, without, not num numeral ein, zwô, zweinzegest one, two, twentieth cnj conjunction als, und, abr when, and, but gra graduation particle sêre, vil very, much ipa interrogative particle swer, war, wie whom, where, how vrb verb liuhten, varn shine, drive vex auxiliary verb haben, sîn have, be vem modal verb müezen, suln must, shall inj interjection ahî, owê ow, oh dear cpa comparative particle als, wie as, like dig digit ix, xvii, ii ix, xvii, ii table . : list of grammatical tags included in the mhdbdb along with examples for each category given by mittelhochdeutsche begriffsdatenbank ( ). this table is extracted from http://mhdbdb.sbg.ac.at/help/grammar-tags.de.html, possible mistakes are not corrected. the mhdbdb is a long-term project with the goal of collecting as many complete mhg texts as possible and making them digitally available and searchable. after already years of work http://mhdbdb.sbg.ac.at/help/grammar-tags.de.html chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing (a) search for schatz in the nibelungenlied (b) lemmas for schaz in the mhdbdb figure . : results for the search word schatz for the nibelungenlied at http://mhdbdb.sbg. ac.at where statistics for the word forms linked to this search are given together with direct links to the context in the nibelungenlied. it offers access to a large number of texts of mhg literature and provides search functions for linguistic or semantic queries. it resembles a comprehensive glossary of mhg with references to the source texts of the words. an example for a search placed at the interface online is displayed in figure . . the word forms are linked to a lemma entry in the database which contains all related word forms and their grammatical information. the texts contained in the database cover four centuries (ca. – ), different dialects of mhg and early new high german, and a wide range of literary genres (e.g. arthurian romance, heroic epic, short epic, lyric) as well as non-literary texts (e.g. cookbooks or medical texts). the database encompasses texts which amounts in total to nearly million tokens. the data is tokenized, partly lemmatized and enriched with grammatical categories. the grammatical categories (cf. table . ) are similar to pos classes, but they cannot be equated for several reasons: firstly, they are ambiguous and ignore the syntactical context of a token (cf. example ), secondly, they are incomplete because they do not cover all possible pos classes a word can be assigned to in different contexts (cf. example ), and in addition to this, they include morphological information which linguistically belongs to another level than pos tagging (cf. example ). ( ) “ist” (engl. is): vrb|vex; the disambiguation by context is missing according to which “ist” is either verb or auxiliary. ( ) “daz” (engl. the, that): art|cnj; the categorization is incomplete since “daz” can also http://mhdbdb.sbg.ac.at http://mhdbdb.sbg.ac.at . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality be a pronoun (relative or demonstrative pronoun). ( ) “drîvaltigkeit” (engl. trinity): nom|num, “ungern” (engl. unwillingly): neg|adv; the categorization includes morphological information such as neg for the prefix "un". the approach taken by the mhdbdb illustrated in example and example leads to the fact that approximately one half of the tokens ( , , of , , tokens) have multiple annotations, which means that they have more than one grammatical tag assigned to them. furthermore, the data is only partially annotated: , , of , , tokens are neither lemmatized nor annotated with grammatical categories. thus, the mhdbdb represents a large resource of mhg data but cannot be used for the task of pos tagging without adjustments since it has been developed for another purpose. feature example surface form næhest -gram word prefix næ -gram word prefix næh -gram word suffix st -gram word suffix est lemma nâch -gram lemma prefix nâ -gram lemma prefix nâc -gram lemma suffix ch -gram lemma suffix âch is upper case false word length mhdbdb tag grad mhdbdb tag adv mhdbdb tag adj mhdbdb ud tag none mhdbdb ud tag adv mhdbdb ud tag adj table . : features for the exam- ple word “næhest” (engl. closest) used to disambiguate the grammat- ical information contained in the mhdbdb in context. to incorporate the data into the development of a pos tagger for mhg, we take advantage of the man- ually annotated data described in section . . . since those texts where taken from the mhdbdb, we have a translation of the grammatical categories contained in the mhdbdb to the ud-tagset at our disposal. some classes such as adverbs or conjunctions allow for a straight forward mapping to ud-tags (adv >adv, vex >aux, cnj >conj) whereas other classes do not (for example, the tag adj can be adj or noun depend- ing on its syntactical function in the sentence, cf. exam- ple ). furthermore, multiple annotations (words have up to grammatical tags) complicate the automatic dis- ambiguation in context. this excludes the possibility to carry out a solely rule-based transfer from the mhdbdb annotations to in-context ud pos tags. the automatic translation technique is described in the following. experiments to arrive at a pos tagger model, two steps are neces- sary: first, we disambiguate the grammatical categories in the mhdbdb with the help of a classifier trained on our manually annotated data. subsequently, we can train a pos model on this newly compiled data source. we start by training a crf model (marmot) and a dt model (treetagger) on the manually labeled training data introduced in section . . for the disambiguation of the grammatical tags available for the data described in section . . . to this end, we extract features from the infor- mation contained in the database for all tokens where grammatical information is available. for chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing data accuracy crf accuracy dt setting a . . setting b . . setting a+b . . table . : comparison of tagging results achieved by using , manually annotated tokens (setting a), million semi-automatically annotated tokens ( . % annotation accuracy, setting b), combination of semi-automatically annotated and manually annotated (scaled up to mio) data (setting a+b). tokens where annotations are missing, we introduce dummy features. a sequence labeling algo- rithm is trained with features listed in table . . the surface-related features can be extracted for every word. the mhdbdb annotation-based features are extracted for all words that have annotations. the number of mhdbdb tags along with their direct mapping to ud tags (re- gardless of the context) varies between one and five. the resulting disambiguation model is subsequently used to transform the database into a fully (but semi-automatically) annotated corpus. this corpus comprises almost million tokens. however, due to the imperfect results of the disambiguation, this huge corpus has errors in about % of all annotations. we compare the results achieved by the models trained on the manually annotated small training data to the results achieved by training a model on this huge but low quality training data. we use three settings for comparison, as visualized in fig. . : a) we only use the manually annotated corpus ( , tokens), b) we only use the automatically disambiguated corpus ( million tokens), a+b) we combine the mhdbdb corpus with the manually annotated data scaled up to mil- lion tokens ( million tokens). disambiguater (accuracy . %) manually annotated data mhdbdb mhdbdb with ud annotation tagger model setting a) tagger model setting b) tagger model setting a+b) diverse selection along with grammatical tags train disambiguated in context (ud labels) train (setting b) train (setting a) figure . : pipeline for incorporating a lexical resource into the development of a pos tagger model . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality results the results are summarized in table . . these results show that task-external resources can be adapted to support training in a low resource situation. even though the data quality with a disambiguation accuracy of . % is not perfect, the massive increase in training size helps to improve the tagging performance significantly over the small but high-quality data set. a significant improvement of about % over the model that has been trained on the manually annotated data can be shown. the increase of data has an even more significant impact on the results achieved by training with treetagger. we improve the accuracy from . to . . the differences between the two algorithms observed in our experiences with just little training data are evened out by the number of training examples. thus, even though the data the models are based on contains annotation errors, we can still improve tagger performance. especially the performance for nouns, numbers, proper nouns, verbs and adjectives can be improved due to a much wider lexical coverage. however, weighing the manually annotated data as equally strong as the automatically disambiguated data and including it into the training process does not yield better results. the differences between the two classifiers in setting b and setting a+b and within using the same classifier are not significant. in the following experiments, we rely on the dt model trained in setting a+b. . . corpus middle high german (rem) soon after we had finished our work on the automatic disambiguation of the mhdbdb, the corpus middle high german was released in december . the rem is a huge corpus of mhg texts subsuming four different corpora, comprising about . million words with several layers of annotations. next to a normal form , it contains lemma annotations as well as pos annotations. according to mcnemar’s test using the “mid-p” variant (fagerland et al., ). normal form is a term used by klein and dipper ( ) and describes a word form to minimize the differences in spelling and use of diachritica, but do not standardize dialectal varieties (cf. klein and dipper ( , pg. , )). figure . : example for the multilayer annotation in the rem in coraxml format for the word “mag”. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing an example for this multilayer annotation is given in figure . in coraxml format. the tagset used for the pos annotation is hits (dipper et al., ). hits consists of tags which can – with the exception of punctuation tags – deterministically be mapped to our ud tagset (cf. table . ). the pos tag given in figure . is mapped to aux in the ud tagset. hits ud adja, adjd, adjn adj adjs noun appo, appr adp avd, avg, avneg, avw adv carda, cardd, cardn num cards noun dda, ddart, ddd, ddn det dds pron dga, dgd , dgn det dgs pron dia, diart, did, din det dis pron dnega, dnegd, dnegn det dnegs pron dposa, dposd, dposgen, dposn det dposs pron drels pron dwa, dwd, dwn det dws pron fm x itj intj kokom part kon conj kous sconj na noun ne propn pavap, pavd, pavg, pavrel, pavw adv pg, pi, pneg, pper, prf pron ptka, ptkant, ptkint, ptkneg, ptkvz part ptkrel, pw pron vafin, vaimp, vainf, vapp, vaps, vmfin, vmimp, vminf, vmpp, vmps aux vvfin, vvimp, vvinf, vvpp verb vvps adj ,( spunct, punct table . : direct mapping from hits to universal dependencies tagset. even though the annotation guidelines are mainly in accordance with our own annotation guidelines, we observe differences in annotation decision. in the phrase “die schoenesten unde die besten” (engl. the most beautiful and the best) we treat the nominalized adjectives as nouns. . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality in the rem they are annotated as adjectives. experiments having a fully annotated corpus with a size of over million tokens, we are curious to compare our results to the results that can be achieved by training a model on the rem corpus. we use the normal form since it is closest to the forms found in edited texts which often serve as a basis for dh research. we train the following models: a. train a model on the rem data with hits annotation b. train a model on the rem data mapped to ud annotation even though the rem contains pos annotation, the use of a different tagset makes a direct comparison of results difficult. we cross-evaluate the rem models and our models on test sets coming from both corpora. we train a model on the original annotation with hits (setting a) and map the predictions made for our test set after tagging as well as a model for which we map the rem data before training (setting b), and predicting and evaluating ud tags for both test sets. the results are summarized in table . . model test rem our test set setting a . . setting b . . our model . . table . : cross-evaluation results for experiments with the rem and the disambiguated mhdbdb. training and testing inside of the rem delivers good results, even though the size of the corpus would suggest even higher accuracy. the results of training and testing on ud tags are higher since the number of tags is crucially smaller. inspecting the errors found in the sets, we see that the punctuation annotation is problematic for the pos tagger. in the rem, periods may serve as a sentence delimiter, a verse delimiter or as a comma. accordingly, a comma can also take over the function of a sentence delimiter. this is an effect of edition practice since medieval manuscripts often lack punctuation and therefore the editor inserts punctuation at his or her own discretion. thus, it is not particularly surprising that testing on our data the results achieve an accuracy significantly below the one our model achieves. apart from the punctuation issue, this indicates that there are considerable differences in the annotation decisions even though they are not obvious from reading the annotation manual. in a way, we are faced with a situation as described in section . . . this time the data has not been compiled with another purpose in following the mapping given in table . . chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing mind but with a different understanding of several aspects of pos. in order to determine which these aspects are, we manually annotated , tokens from the rem corpus following our annotation approach outlined in section . . . comparing the automatically mapped subcorpus to our manually annotated corpus shows us the disagreements. the direct mapping from hits to ud tags leads to an accuracy of . when comparing with manually assigned gold labels following our own annotation approach. an analysis of the disagreements leads to the following insights: • sentence delimiting punctuations are hard to determine by the algorithm • in the rem, latin is sometimes annotated and sometimes marked with fm for foreign material • in the rem, auxiliary verbs are also annotated as auxiliary when they are used as a main verb • lexicalized adverbs consisting formerly of two adverbs are just tagged with one adv in our corpus and not with adv+adv as in the rem (“dâmite” (engl. therefore) annotated as adv in our corpus, adv+adv in the rem) • in the rem, proper nouns are not always annotated as such • in the rem, adjectives in a nominal usage are often annotated as adjectives informed tagset mapping in order to adjust these disagreements in pos tagging to our understanding of context-dependent annotation, we extend the direct mapping in table . by rules to replace the tags in question. similar to the disambiguation in section . . , we thus adjust a resource to fit our needs as a resource for training. this time we resort to a heuristic approach. we include the following rules into the mapping mechanism: replace all punctuation marks annotated as sentence delimiting with a period and anno- tate the tag spunct replace all punctuation marks not annotated as sentence delimiting with a comma and annotate the tag punct if there is no verb to be found close to an auxiliary , tag an auxiliary with verb “niht” (engl. not) is always tagged as part lexicalized adverbs consisting formerly of two adverbs are just tagged with one adv not with a combitag adv+adv the definition of closeness being either a clause or in case of missing sentence delimiters the context window of . . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality “iè-man” and “niè-man” (engl. somebody, nobody) are always tagged as pron words with the lemma “wante” (engl. because), “ouch” (engl. also) or “doh” (engl. but) are tagged as conj if hits tag is kous or ko* words with a lemma starting with upper case and noun tag are tagged as propn words tagged as adj that are preceded by a determiner and not proceeded by a noun or adjective are tagged as noun (nominal adjective) after these adjustments to the mapping mechanism we could only improve mapping accu- racy by a mere %. this is mainly due to the fact that an accurate improvement of the agreement of the two annotation methods can only be achieved with the help of a broad understanding of context. with simple heuristics and missing sentence boundaries, in-context corrections are dif- ficult. to test whether this small improvement affects the tagging results, we re-train a model for setting b on the adjusted rem data following our extended mapping. moreover, we combine the training sets of the rem and the mhdbdb and train a combined model (setting c). the results are shown in table . . including heuristics to make the rem annotation look more like our annotation does indeed boost the performance for almost all settings. the increase in improvement, however, is due to the consistency in punctuation. the combination of the rem and the mhdbdb data leads to an improvement in accuracy of about % on the rem test set, but does not yield any further improvement on our test set. model test rem our test set setting b . . setting c . . our model . . table . : cross-evaluation results after improvement of the mapping from hits to ud. we attempt the combination of corpora developed for similar texts, but following different annotation guidelines. even though the models do not profit from a combination, the cross- evaluation can show annotation inconsistencies and lead to improvement inside of one model (cf. table . and table . for test rem). for a successful combination of both resources, the combination of both taggers via stacking could be fruitful as shown by schulz and kuhn ( ). . . a general model by developing a pos tagger for mhg, we close a gap in the preprocessing of medieval german that will facilitate the further automatic processing of such texts. in the introduction of this article, we described the high degree of diversity of mhg texts, even though it is commonly chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing genre or author time of origin # tokens gs # tokens corpus arthurian romance ca. – , , , heroic epic ca. – , , short verse narratives (“mären”) ca. – , , “minnesang” (“minnesangs frühling”) ca. – , , hartmann von aue ca. – , , wolfram von eschenbach ca. – , , hessian ca. – , , middle lower german ca. – , , table . : overview of the subcorpora annotated along with the time of origin, number of tokens in the gold standards and number of tokens in the subcorpora which are used for training specific pos models. understood as one stage of the language. the question arises as to whether such a diverse lan- guage can be served well by just one model. in the following, we evaluate the performance of the best model described in section . . on subcorpora of different genres and authors. we show that the heterogeneity of the training corpus compiled from the mhdbdb leads to a generally applicable model. subcorpora to cover important genres and significant authors of mhg, we compile corpora for a variety of genres following the classification of the mhdbdb. they differ in heterogeneity and quantity. even though a thematic consistency is given, the arthurian romance genre represents the most heterogeneous corpus, embracing texts from the early th century to the end of the th cen- tury written in rhyming couplets as well as in prose. the heroic epics ( – ) constitute the second largest genre-corpus and are more homogeneous regarding their form (stanzaic). the subcorpus of short verse narratives is smaller but comprises the highest number of single texts. since the texts were mostly transmitted anonymously, deal with different topics and originate from different time periods, the corpus exhibits a relatively high diversity. in contrast, the “min- nesang” (including only the texts edited in moser ( )) is characterized by homogeneity given the fact that it is a lyric genre in strophic form with a restricted vocabulary, dealing with one and the same topic and comprising songs from a limited time period ( – ). in addition to the genre-specific corpora, we create two author-specific corpora consisting of the epic and lyric texts of hartmann von aue and of wolfram von eschenbach. the author-specific subcorpora do not contain dialectal and temporal linguistic varieties but do embrace different genres. another part of the diversity of mhg is based on linguistics such as dialectal varieties. the mhg speaking area is separated from the middle low german language area and furthermore subdivided into various dialects of mhg. to evaluate the performance of the tagger on linguis- tic varieties, we annotate two supplemental subcorpora: a corpus with texts from the hessian . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality and thuringian area containing texts in a dialect of mhg, and a corpus with texts from the middle lower german speaking area which are thus linguistically more distant from the mhg language. those two corpora represent two of the subcorpora of the rem (reference corpus of middle high german ) (klein and dipper, , p. ). we will henceforth call them region- specific corpora . thus, we do not only evaluate the performance of the pos tagger on different linguistic varieties and language areas but also test its applicability to “unknown” data. all subcorpora along with the number of tokens and the covered time periods are summarized in table . results evaluating the applicability of the pos tagger for mhg reveals that the model trained in set- ting a+b described in section . . using dt performs well throughout all genres and for the author-specific subcorpora covered by the mhdbdb, whereas the results for the region-specific subcorpora are much shorter of these for other subcorpora (cf. fig. . ). this is on the one hand due to the fact that these corpora contain dialect forms that are not included in the mhdbdb (e.g. “niet” instead of “niht” (engl not); “sal” instead of “sol”, (engl. should)). on the other hand, the region-specific corpora show a significantly higher number of fusions of words like “wandeer” (wande+er conj+pron, engl. because+he)) which generally perform badly since they allow for numerous tag combinations. besides this, we found minor reasons such as unknown characters such as verse delimiters that were not included in the mhdbdb which could not be labeled cor- rectly. moreover, the data lacks most of the punctuation marks, which leads to extremely long sentences and makes it difficult to identify syntactical units. . . region-specific corpora the performance of the tagger on the region-specific corpora lags behind the performance on the other texts. we use these corpora as an example for specialized subcorpora, which share a considerable number of features with mhg but differ in other key characteristics due to their dialectal features. to give an example for how to improve tagging accuracy for text sorts related to – but not directly included in – the mhdbdb, we address domain adaptation as a solution and experiment with weakly-supervised learning. domain adaptation domain adaptation aims at extending a classifier’s abilities from a known source domain to a new, unseen target domain. the source domain usually provides reliably annotated data. a lot of work has been done on domain-adaptation in nlp e.g. ben-david et al. ( ), daume iii https://www.linguistics.rub.de/rem/, / / . for more information on geographical devision of the speaking areas compare hennings ( , p. – ) https://www.linguistics.rub.de/rem/ chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing ge ne ra l ar th ur ia n ro m an ce h er oic ep ic m är en “m in ne sa ng ” h ar tm an n vo n au e w olf ra m vo n es ch en ba ch h es sia n m id dl e l ow ge rm an . . . . . . . . a cc u ra cy figure . : accuracies achieved by the general pos tagger model on the genre-specific, author- specific and region-specific subcorpora. ( ). the transfer to the new domain can be done with an emphasis on different levels, e.g. the feature space or the data set composition. one strategy is the transfer of feature knowledge to the target domain. blitzer et al. ( ) emphasize features equally important in source and target space in their structural cor- respondence learning approach. another technique is described in jiang and zhai ( ) who take different distributions of instances and classification functions in the source and the target domains into account and exploit knowledge about the instances of the target domain to adapt to it. the most successful method reported for historical languages is feature embeddings for domain adaptation (fema) suggested by yang and eisenstein ( ). they propose to learn domain-invariant properties of features from feature embeddings. these robust representations are learned from the combined source and target domain data using the skip-gram model intro- duced by mikolov et al. ( ). yang and eisenstein ( ) report improvements for pos tagging of historical portuguese and historical english. another factor is the composition of the data set used for training a domain-specific clas- sifier. commonly, the labeled data available in the source domain is extended by unlabeled data from the target domain. there are different techniques to perform this extension. diverse self- training algorithms were introduced for different problems in nlp. one of the earliest is the yarowsky algorithm (yarowsky, ). given a labeled data set in the source domain, it can be iteratively extended with unlabeled data from the target domain using different strategies to arrive at a data set which represents the target domain well enough to train a model on it. this way, the classifier bootstraps itself. over the years, more elaborate techniques have been devel- oped to integrate unlabeled data with labeled data, e.g. tritraining, first introduced by zhou and . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality li ( ) and successfully applied to pos tagging by e.g. søgaard ( ). error-driven autocorrection all of the above mentioned domain adaptation approaches rely on the availability of labeled source data. in a dh context this is a serious disadvantage since data that has been used for training a model is not always available due to copy right issues for example. therefore, we in- troduce a technique in which we merely use the model trained on source data to tag unlabeled data. subsequently, we learn to autocorrect the predicted labels from a very small sample of labeled data in the target domain and train a classifier on the automatically labeled and cor- rected target data. we iterate these steps until there is no improvement on the development set anymore. we call this approach error-driven autocorrection. this weakly supervised self-learning approach can be easily applied in a dh context constituting an automated active learning approach. the autocorrection is implemented as follows: we utilize the corpus-specific error distributions for each pos class learned from a small development set , thus a small an- notated portion for each region-specific subcorpus. to use these distributions for improvement, we compile a confusion matrix containing all parts-of-speech along with the classes they are confused with frequently. since pos tagging is context-dependent, we add statistical knowledge about highly frequent pos trigram patterns found in the development data. we label our unla- beled region-specific data with the general treetagger model and request the confidence values the model returns. we replace pos tags with a low confidence score (lower than . ) in the automatically tagged region-specific corpus. the pos tag with which the low confidence tag gets replaced is chosen based on two criteria: a) it is among one of the three most often confused pos tags for this tag in our development data, b) we choose the one tag out of those three tags that has the highest pos trigram count in our development if it is inserted at the position of the low confidence tag. subsequently, we train a tagger model on the region-specific data. note that there is no need for access to the labeled data from the source domain but merely the tagger model trained on labeled source data. this difference is crucial in comparison with the domain adaptation approach described further above, since it obviates the assumption that labeled data in a source domain is available. example illustrates the correction approach. ( ) a. jâ yea wile want ich i dîner your lêre teaching vile much gerne gladly volgen follow ‘indeed i want to follow your teaching very gladly’ b. part_ . noun_ . pron_ . det_ . noun_ . verb_ . adv_ . verb_ . c. verb is most often confused with aux, adv, adj development set sizes for hessian , tokens and for middle low german , tokens. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing d. noun aux adv and noun adj adv is not found as a trigram sequence in the development data e. noun adv adv appears in the development data f. jâ.part wile.noun ich.pron dîner.det lêre.noun vile.adv gerne.adv volgen.verb the word vile is highly ambiguous in mhg and belongs to different pos classes depending on the context. therefore, the confidence of the tagger is often rather low for this word. in this example, it is mistakenly labeled as verb as shown in b with a low confidence of . . the label verb is often incorrectly given to auxiliary verbs, adverbs and adjectives. we extract this information from the region-specific development set. to choose which one of those labels to select for correction, we access the pos trigram counts in the development set and pick the label for the word for which the trigram counts are highest, thus for which the context of the incorrectly labeled word supports the correction decision. in example , the only trigram found in the development set is noun adv adv. we therefore replace the label verb with the label adv. the automatically corrected tagging is shown in f. note that the word wile is incorrectly labeled as noun in this sentence as well. however, since the treetagger confidence lies above . for this word, our autocorrection approach will not change the label. this approach is clearly a simple approximation of a correction in context and therefore makes wrong correction decisions as shown in example . even though it is correct in the assumption that the pos sequence adv adv verb is valid, in this context it represents the less probable reading of the sentence, namely that the action of being born was performed in a noble manner. the second likely correction pattern adv adj verb is the correct labeling in this context. ( ) a. newart never was nie never keiser emperor sô such hêre noble geboren born an on der the erde earth ‘there has never been born such a noble emperor on earth’ b. verb_ . adv_ . noun_ . adv_ . verb_ . verb_ . adp_ . det_ . noun_ . c. verb is most often confused with aux, adv, adj d. rank adv aux verb rank (improbable trigram) e. rank adv adv verb rank (most probable trigram) f. rank adv adj verb rank g. never was.verb never.adv emperor.noun such.adv noble.adv born.verb on.adp the.det earth.noun the main problem of domain-adaptation approaches relying on an extension of the training set is that they are based on sentence selection. however, the region-specific corpora lack con- siderably many sentence delimiters. we thus decide to experiment with a technique relying on . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality extrapolation of the feature space. we compare domain-adaptation in the flavor of fema (yang and eisenstein, ) and results of our error-driven autocorrection approach. following yang and eisenstein ( ) and ratnaparkhi ( ), a baseline is trained on three broad types of templates: five lexical feature templates, eight affix feature templates, and three orthographic feature templates using dt. due to computational limitations, we use only half of our auto- matically disambiguated -million-token corpus described in section . . as labeled data and unlabeled data with corpus sizes of , for hessian and , for middle low german. results we evaluate fema in comparison to a baseline (bl fema) where the same features are used but without feature embeddings. this way, we get a realistic impression of how much the domain- adaptation technique contributes to the results. in addition, we compare the results achieved with the model described in section . . (general) and the results of our error-distribution- driven autocorrection (autocorrection). for comparison, we apply this automatic error-correction directly to the test set (directcorrection) without iterative training of a model on auto-corrected unlabeled data to see whether the correction improves results. h es sia n m id dl e l ow ge rm an . . . . . . . . . regions a cc u ra cy general bl fema fema directcorrection autocorrection the results for fema as well as for autocorrection are significantly above the results achieved with the general model. we improve the tagging performance from . % achieved by our general model on hessian to . % and from . % to . % on the middle low german sub- corpus applying error-driven autocorrection. error-correction applied directly to the test set (di- rectcorrection) impairs results. the reasons for improvement of fema to . for hessian and . for middle low german, however, are not referable to the domain-adaptation via feature embeddings but rather the set of initial features used to train the dt suggested by ratnaparkhi according to mcnemar’s test using the “mid-p” variant (fagerland et al., ). chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing ( ). this becomes evident comparing fema to its baseline. thus, for our data adding feature embeddings does not show the effect described in yang and eisenstein ( ). this might be due to the fact that the variety is too close to the source language. adding more features neverthe- less improves results. domain-adaptation requires the availability of the training data for the general model, whereas error-driven autocorrection relies on a very small development set to learn error distributions from the unlabeled target data and can thus be applied in scenarios in which source data is not accessible. . . summary by illuminating the case of mhg, we demonstrate how to deal with a low resource, diverse and non-standard language in the domain of nlp. we investigate various aspects of pos tagging in a non-standard data context. starting from manual annotation of data, we evaluate how much annotated data is needed to achieve acceptable results in the performance of a pos model. surprisingly, we find that around , tokens are enough to reach an accuracy of % and that the learning effect decelerates after around , tokens. another possibility to close the gap in data quantity in a low resource situation is the adap- tion of existing data resources by adapting their annotation schemes. departing from a large lexical resource, the mhdbdb, we show how to incorporate task-external annotated data via a disambiguation algorithm in the development process of a pos tagger. moreover, it becomes clear that a large but qualitatively low resource achieves better results than a small, qualita- tively high data set. thus, we can conclude that data quantity – though not perfect – at a cer- tain point outweighs the high quality of manually annotated data. also, the choice of algorithm (crf vs. dt), which had a relatively high influence on the small data set, loses its influence when working with a large amount of data. the example of the rem shows how to incorporate another annotated resource even though it follows other annotation guidelines. by using an informed mapping from one tagset to the other we can make the two corpora more compatible. since the texts included in the mhdbdb cover different stages of the language (mhg and early new high german), dialectal varieties as well as literary and non-literary genres, we can benefit from the heterogeneity of training data and develop a nearly “general” pos tagger for mhg. after having tested its applicability to different subcorpora, we found that the tagger per- forms well on the genre-specific and author-specific corpora taken from the mhdbdb, whereas the performance on the region-specific texts (hessian and middle lower german) extracted from the rem lags behind the others. we suggest a new weakly supervised technique based on error- driven autocorrection which can improve results on specific corpora. experiments with fema domain-adaptation did not improve results but highlight the importance of feature selection. since the mhg has a lot in common with other non-standard and low resource languages, we plan on transferring our approaches to other historical languages which suffer from data- sparsity and thereby aim to contribute to solving the problem of lacking data in the context of . . training data: the influence of quantity and quality historical language data processing. with the development of a pos tagger and the release of rem, mhg moved one step further towards constituting a standard form by itself. in the next subchapter, we investigate a text for which mhg is considered one possible standard form. in order to guarantee sustainable retrievability, we submitted the best model for mhg pos tagging to the clarin-d repository . this ensures that the model as well as the metadata remain permanently findable. clarin-d repository, metadata handle: http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - - b-d, landing page of treetagger where the model can be found: http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - - e d-b. http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - - b-d http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - - e d-b chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing . finding the right method after we have investigated the influence of data quality and quantity on tagging results, we focus on training techniques in this subchapter. various approaches have been applied to solve the task of automatic pos tagging and pos tagging in a low resource context. these approaches make assumptions such as the availability of resources for related languages or disposability of task-foreign resources as shown in the previous subchapter. these assumptions, however, are not always met. to illustrate this, we investigate pos tagging of a unique late mhg text in the transition period between mhg and early new high german (enhg). this leads to a text with mixed features of two historical stages of german. apollonius von tyrland written by heinrich von neustadt (hvn) in the late th century is a translated text that shows an interesting relation- ship to its source text, a latin original. hvn is suspected to have incorporated other sources into the translation of the text from latin to german. an interesting question for medieval scholars is the verification of assumptions regarding a segmentation of this text into parts supposedly tracking back to different sources. in order to support this investigation with digital methods, the enrichment with linguistic features such as part-of-speech information for a detailed analy- sis of features related to content and to style seems promising. we compare different approaches towards boosting performance of pos tagging of this text for which no suitable pos tagger is available and for which there is no or really limited an- notated data. departing from the assumption that we have no text-external resources at our disposal, we experiment with unsupervised and weakly supervised learning methods. moreover, we follow experiments performed by garrette and baldridge ( ) who describe pos tagging research for low resource languages using really small amounts of annotated data. unlike in section . . where we included task-foreign lexical resources, in this subchapter we include tools that have been developed for related languages into our experiments. the aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of pos tagging considering different supply conditions of data and related external resources utilized in different learning techniques. moreover, we experi- ment with a variety of algorithms. our findings can serve as a reference point for dh projects dealing with non-standard data and offer a roadmap on how to approach text processing in similar contexts. we strive for a better idea of how one can gain performance. the approximation of the obtainable gain in proportion to the spent effort is an important consideration given that those texts often have very specific characteristics and developed resources might not be reused in another context. parts of this subchapter were published in schulz and kuhn ( ). publication . . finding the right method . . related work completely unsupervised pos tagging is still in its very early stages. biemann ( ) relies on a graph clustering method. unlike in current state-of-the-art approaches, the kind and number of different tags are generated by the method itself. contrary to this, haghighi and klein ( ) use distributional prototypes in the learning process of their log-linear model. this way they inform the algorithm indirectly about the pos classes. these unsupervised or semi-supervised approaches make use of distributional semantics (turian et al., ). in this context, the use of word embeddings has to be mentioned. their ability to capture syntactic and semantic regulari- ties (mikolov et al., ) can be utilized to compensate for the high number of hapax legomena in sparse data by concentrating on the similarities of contexts in which they might appear. word embeddings have been used by lin et al. ( ) for unsupervised pos induction. weakly supervised techniques can involve supervision of different degrees and of differ- ent kinds. there are approaches using parallel data like moon and baldridge ( ) who use aligned text to compensate for the lack of annotated data in the language under investigation. sánchez-martínez et al. ( ) unsupervisedly train an hmm-based occitan pos tagger used within an mt system using translation probabilities of tag assignments to inform the hmm. agic et al. ( ) introduce an approach using the bible as a parallel corpus aggregating over the tags from annotated languages. this way, they train pos taggers for languages such as cakchiquel and akawaio. das and petrov ( ) locate their approach on the unsupervised side, however, they use translated text in a resource-rich language for cross-lingual knowledge transfer. several other approaches utilize lexicons providing the learning algorithm with pos- sible valid pos for a part of the vocabulary (ravi and knight, ). garrette and baldridge ( ) show that there is no need for huge annotated corpora but that reasonable results can be achieved by generalizing from just a little amount of annotated data. moreover, pos taggers developed for closely-related languages can be applied as done in zeman and resnik ( ). this requires a proper mapping from one tag set to another. in the field of low resource language processing, not just parallel data of closely-related lan- guages is used, but the task is often tackled as domain-adaptation of tools developed for a related language. blitzer et al. ( ) introduce structural correspondence learning for domain adapta- tion from newspaper text to the biomedical domain also for the setting when there is no labeled data from the target domain. being confronted with a diversity of methods to tackle pos tagging for underresourced lan- guages, we investigate those being feasible regarding our data situation. therefore, we focus on weak supervision following garrette and baldridge ( ), the unsupervised approach by bie- mann ( ), model transfer similar to zeman and resnik ( ) and explore the opportunities that word embeddings (mikolov et al., ) and combinations of methods hold. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing set # sentences av. # tokens train dev test table . : average number of sentences and tokens in train, development and test set of our gold standard. data as introduced in section . , mhg texts are characterized by their high degree of diversity with respect to graphematic realization and choice of vocabulary (dipper, ). depending on the exact period and point of origin, the author and even the printer, a text may or may not be read- able even for native speakers of modern german. in fact, even though mhg constitutes an early phase of nowadays german, it differs significantly with respect to different linguistic features. these characteristics make it impossible to directly use any off-the-shelf tool for automatic pro- cessing of this kind of text and moreover complicate the development of domain specific tools. we work on heinrich von neustadt’s apollonius von tyrland , a , verses long opus con- taining approximately , types and , tokens. heinrich von neustadt lived in the th century and just two writings can be attributed to him, the other one being gottes zukunft. considering these two texts as an independent text domain, this leaves us with a quite limited amount of data. moreover, the language he uses can be located in an intermediate phase be- tween mhg and enhg. this is crucial to know since this means that neither tools developed for mhg (dipper ( ); bollmann ( ), the tagger introduced in the previous subchapter) nor tools for standard german will work reliably. however, its relative closeness to both can nevertheless be beneficial. we annotated sentences comprising tokens with universal dependency pos tags as described in section . . . we use train and development sets of sentences each since de- velopment will be used for training in some scenarios and a test set of sentences (table . ). in the first phase of our experimentation we are evaluating different techniques using noth- ing but the text at hand. we call this learning from within. we use unsupervised methods as well as weakly supervised techniques. this scenario covers the lower right area in figure . . in the next sequence we will treat the text as any historical text for which we assume a closeness to other stages of the language. we utilize tools that have been developed for those stages in or- der to boost performance. accordingly, we move up to the region covered by historical language stages in figure . and the degree of supervision increases. we will refer to these techniques as text-external resource learning. based on the gotha manuscript edited by samuel singer, berlin . digitalized version from http://www. mhgta.uni-trier.de (gärtner, ). http://www.mhgta.uni-trier.de http://www.mhgta.uni-trier.de . . finding the right method . . . . . . . . standard code-switching historical language stages unique texts supervision "distance from standard" "r es ou rc e a va il ab il it y" figure . : dimensions of non-standard text . . learning from within the text training a tagger from scratch, we are confronted with the issue of extreme data sparsity. dif- ferent from a low resourced language, our text at hand provides us with just some thousand sentences in total (including a high number of hapax legomena) and considerably less anno- tated data. thus, abstraction from the surface form is preferable. in the context of language modeling with the help of neural networks, it has been shown helpful to train what are known as word embeddings (e.g., mikolov et al. ( ), lebret and lebret ( )). these embeddings are high dimensional vectors representing features of words in a high feature space and are able to capture syntactic and semantic regularities (mikolov et al., ). these characteristics make them a good departure point for a scenario in which one faces data sparsity. we train -dimensional word embeddings using word embeddings (al-rfou et al., ) and a window size of five tokens on our entire corpus. although this oversteps the clear division be- tween training and test data because those vectors summarize the context of the words in the entire corpus, we consider this a valid approach since we can assume the same treatment during application to the rest of the corpus. moreover, we do not claim generalizability of our tagger to other data but are driven by the goal to tag in-domain text. word embeddings are used as a way to abstract from surface form in two of our approaches: in an unsupervised clustering approach and for training a multilayer perceptron neural net (mnn). we compare these approaches to a sequence labeling approach (crf) (lafferty et al., ) using only surface forms. to compare the performance of different neural net architec- tures, we additionally experiment with a long short-term memory (lstm) neural net. moreover, we investigate self-learning for the mnn and the crf training aiming at further improvement. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing k-means clustering we experiment with k-means clustering informing the cluster analysis (ca) algorithm with the number of pos classes we have annotated in our gold standard. moreover, we initialize our cluster centroids with prototypical words from the training data for each pos inspired by haghighi and klein ( ). this rather simple approach does not take the sequence in which words appear in the text into account but relies only on the context information encoded in the word embeddings that serve as features to locate each word in a multidimensional space. this means that each token can only be assigned to one pos. neural networks neural networks are known for their success in many nlp applications. however, one charac- teristic emphasized is their ability to learn patterns from huge numbers of labeled instances. we have only a small number of training instances at our disposal, but nevertheless aim to eval- uate the performance that can be reached with a neural approach. we train both a multi-layer perceptron (mlp) neural net using nlpnet (fonseca et al., ) and an (lstm) neural net using an integrated compositional character to word (c w) model based on a bidirectional lstm (hochreiter and schmidhuber, ) using the java neural network (jnn) toolkit (ling et al., ). as an input to the mlp, we use the -dimensional word embeddings described further above. the architecture is relatively simple. we follow parameter settings that are reported as successful by fonseca et al. ( ). we use hidden neurons, a learning rate of . and hyperbolic tangent for activation. the c w technique of the used lstm can be beneficial in case of a high number of oov words, since character-level similarities between words can be utilized. even though the jnn toolkit allows to extend the feature space by additional features, we do not add information on the words, suffixes and prefixes to the training process but rather rely on the c w method. the bidirectional setting enables a notion of context. we use a learning rate of . . a comparison of the performance of these two architectures is interesting since lstms are known to capture long term dependencies and could therefore perform better in learning the structure of sentences. conditional random field we train a crf tagger (lafferty et al., ) using a context window of tokens and features. we include the following features for each token: • token is punctuation or not this also facilitates the evaluation because clusters can be mapped to pos more easily. . . finding the right method • word length • character prefix of length • character prefix of length • character suffix of length • character suffix of length self-learning self-learning or self-training algorithms are bootstrapping methods with the goal to achieve improved performance of a supervised algorithm by employing different strategies to incorporate unlabeled data into an iterative training process (cf. e.g. (mihalcea, )). with the intention to overcome the sparsity of training data, we apply self-learning. we tag the unannotated part of our corpus with the crf tagger and the neural net tagger, respectively. subsequently, we sort the automatically tagged sentences by tagging confidence (viterbi scores for the neural net and the conditional probability for the crf) and add the best sentences to our training data and retrain the tagger. we evaluate the performance before and after extension of the training data on the development set. in case the performance increases after extension, we keep the new classifier and start the next iteration by tagging the unannotated data anew. in case the performance decreases, we discard the new classifier and append the next sentences of the automatically tagged data. this way we extend our training set by an average of times for neural net training. surprisingly, we cannot improve the crf tagger. to make sure that the batch size of sentences is not too big, we experiment with , and . however, we consistently experience a decrease in performance even when just adding one automatically tagged sentence from our raw corpus to the training data. . . stretching out: including text-external resources following the assumption that closely-related languages have similar features, applying taggers trained for those languages is promising. we use the treetagger for german (schmid, ) and the treetagger model described in section . . . both, new high german and middle high german, share a considerable number of characteristics with the apollonius text. we map the stts (schiller et al., ) to the ud tagset. suspecting that different models have different strengths, we use the meta-learning method of stacking (wolpert, ) to combine these advantages. we use the predictions of the weakly- supervised crf classifier and the neural net classifier along with the predictions of the tree tagger models for mhg and nhg on the development for training a meta-learner. the meta- learner we use is a crf classifier (lafferty et al., ). moreover, we implement tritraining (zhou and li, ). in randomized sub-sampling setting. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing stts tags ud tags adja, adjd adj adv, pav, pwav adv appo, appr, apprart, apzr adp art, pdat, piat, pidat, pposat det card num fm x itj intj kokom, kon conj koui, kous sconj ne propn nn noun pds, pis, pper, pposs, prelat, prf, pwat, pws pron ptk, ptkzu, ptkneg, ptkvz, ptkant, ptka part trunc, xy x vvfin, vvimp, vvinf, vvizu, vvpp verb vafin, vaimp, vainf, vapp, vmfin, vminf, vmpp aux $, $., $( punct table . : mapping between stts and universal dependency pos tags. cross-lingual model utilization working on a text with characteristics from both nhg and mhg, we use a tagger built for ger- man and mhg respectively for our data. an issue arising from this otherwise simple approach of applying the model of a related language to another is the mapping of the tag sets. this pro- cess of mapping one tag set to the other is accompanied by a loss of information considering that even though languages might be related, they rarely cover exactly the same space of grammati- cal features. a solution is offered by language-independent tagsets such as the universal tagset (petrov et al., ) or the universal dependency pos tagset (nivre et al., ) which model pos on a level on which cross-lingual differences can be subsumed by a common tagset. since the mhg tagger has been trained on ud tags already, the mapping issue only remains for the nhg model which has been trained on the stts tagset. the mapping from a fine to a coarse tagset as in the case of nhg to ud tags is rather unproblematic as intended by these cross- linguistic annotation initiatives. the mapping from stts to ud tags is described in table . . ensemble learning ensemble learning is an approach in machine learning where the knowledge of multiple algo- rithms is employed to obtain better predictions. the basic idea is the combination of comple- mentary strengths of different classifiers. we combine the knowledge of the mnn tagger, the crf classifier introduced in section . . and the two taggers for closely-related languages. we implement three strategies: stacking (wolpert, ) using a crf meta-learner, voting and tritraining (zhou and li, ). the meta-learners base their decision upon the pos tags at- . . finding the right method tributed by each of the four taggers. the simplest technique is the unweighted majority voting approach (boyer and moore, ) in which we decide for the pos that has been voted domi- nantly by the classifiers in the ensemble. the stacking approach uses the surface form of the word and a context window of over all the classifiers’ predictions. we train the meta-classifier on the labeled development set. as another instance of self-learning and in this form an en- semble learning method this time using external classifiers, we use tritraining (zhou and li, ). we use two classifiers, our external taggers for mhg and the crf tagger, to inform our third classifier about which sentence from the unlabeled data set to add to the training process. for this decision, we choose simple agreement of both classifiers on sentence level. we add all sentences labeled by our algorithm that have not more than one differently tagged word. . . evaluation ca cr f m lp nn ls tm nn cr f se lf m lp nn se lf nh g m h g vo te tr i st . . . . . . . . . . a cc u ra cy figure . : accuracies of all pos tagging approaches evaluated in a -fold monte carlo cross- validation setting along with the standard deviation of the accuracy values for the samples are reported. accuracy is given on the y-axis. the experiments are sorted by their increasing use of external resources and combination of classifiers: clustering (ca), conditional random fields classifier (crf), mlp neural net (mlp nn), lstm neural net (lstm nn), mnn self-learning (mlp nn self) and crf self-learning (crf self) represent the experiments that use only text internal knowledge. on the right-hand side the results for experiments with external resources are listed in the following order: model transfer from new high german (nhg) and middle high german (mhg), tritraining (tri), majority voting (vote) and stacking (st). chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing results it is a challenge to evaluate the clustering performance and not a combination of clustering and mapping induction to the pos classes. moreover, evaluation on a gold standard for pos tagging seems counter-intuitive given that the clustering is not informed about the task at hand. vlachos ( ) advocates the evaluation as clustering-based word representation induction. extrinsic evaluation is suggested as a solution to this problem. having all these drawbacks in mind, we evaluate the overlap between the clustering results and the gold standard data without drawing strict conclusions about the usefulness of the clustering results for downstream tasks. to facili- tate the mapping and weakly inform the clustering about the task at hand, we use a typical word for each pos as seed for each cluster inspired by prototype learning introduced by haghighi and klein ( ). this leaves us with four clusters in which none of the prototype words can be found and four clusters containing two of them. in favor of the clustering method, we assume a cluster containing two prototype words to cover both their pos classes. those not containing any of the prototype words are analyzed with the help of the data in our gold standard. the pos most often found in the gold standard for the words in the cluster is attributed to it. we evaluate our experiments in a -fold monte carlo cross-validation setting. accuracy scores for all experiments averaged over all samples are given in figure . along with the standard deviation for the samples. statistical significance is calculated using mcnemar’s test (mcnemar, ). cluster analysis performs significantly worse than all other approaches with an accuracy of . . the fully supervised classifiers crf and the multilayer perceptron neural net perform around % with no significant difference. the lstm, however, shows a performance of only . % accuracy and moreover a large standard deviation of over % over the cross-validation sets. inspecting the separate cross-validation sets shows that there are two outliers with a per- formance of around % accuracy. leaving these two outliers out of the evaluation of the rest of the sets leads to a performance of . % of accuracy. even though this is still lower than the accuracies achieved with the crf or mlp nn classifier, this seems to be closer to the ex- pected performance. we interpret the results as a demonstration of the shortcomings of neural net approaches, where wrong initialization and local minima in the error function can lead to poor results. at the same time it confirms the importance of cross-validation settings. the re- spective self-learning approaches lie significantly below the crf and mlp nn classifier with performances of . % accuracy. also the tritraining does not exceed their level of performance. the tagger model for mhg introduced in section . . outperforms the modern german tagger model with a significant increase of over % but not the classifiers trained on the small anno- tated data set. this shows that applying models of related languages is only then a preferable solution if there are no annotations to obtain. however, their performances can outperform the best standalone classifiers (crf and mlp nn) in an ensemble together with them. this indi- cates that voting as well as stacking shows to be a valid technique to combine the strengths of . . finding the right method different classifiers in a meta-classification approach. with performances of . for voting and . for stacking, there is no significant difference for those combination strategies. the results of this series of experiments confirm the observation that we made in sec- tion . . . already a small number of annotated instances can lead to reasonable results. training words can lead to a classifier with a tagging accuracy of around %. really promising is the combination of classifiers in so-called ensembles. they outperform single classifiers by combining the strengths of different classifiers. this effect is reported to be amplified by boot- strap aggregating as done by e.g. dietterich ( ). the model variance is promoted by training on random samples of the training data. discussion non-surprisingly, approaches using external resources perform generally better than approaches without external resources. however, also approaches only relying on a few annotated sentences achieve results that can serve as a basis for the investigation of many research questions in dh projects. especially results achieved using a crf classifier or a multilayer perceptron neural net are convincing. we want to emphasize that our weakly supervised methods make use of about tokens as opposed to e.g. million tokens used for training of the mhg tagger. however, self-training approaches do not show any improvement but rather lower accuracy. clustering, in turn, has to be evaluated in an extrinsic setting in order to make reliable statements about the usefulness. . . summary in this subchapter, we give directions towards the tagging of languages or domains for which no labeled data is available. we can show that even for a very specific text we can successfully apply semi-supervised methods. already using a small amount of annotated data can lead to reasonable results using neural nets. adding resources developed for related languages boosts results even further. thus, even though training data is sparse, algorithms designed for learning from huge amounts of data can perform reasonably well. yet, the combination of resources in an ensemble method setup approach outperforms any single technique even though the involved individual approaches might be developed for text far from the text at hand. chapter . tool adaptation for non-standard text processing . research contributions in this chapter, we set out to explore techniques for the development of tools for non- standard texts. the key strength of this chapter is the investigation of data with different degrees of deviation from their respective standard form which allows the examination of dif- ferent resource supply conditions with respect to annotated data, tools for related languages and other available resources. the different conditions suggest different courses of action in or- der to develop dedicated tools for these texts. we experiment with different degrees of supervision reaching from unsupervised meth- ods to weak supervision to fully supervised techniques using little training data. with our exper- iments, we emphasize the importance of small sets of manual annotation as a basis for successful development. already small sets enable the training of classifiers that perform reasonably well and moreover have the chance of utilizing them for the adaptation of task-external resources. these adapted resources can successfully be included in the development, even if they quali- tatively lag behind manually annotated data. attention should also be paid to the choice of the training algorithm. results show that especially when working with small data sets dif- ferent algorithms show different performances. this is, moreover, related to different feature extraction strategies. we find that the best strategy for the development of non-standard text processing tools is the combination of different techniques in an ensemble. by exploiting the strengths of different classifiers possibly trained on different data, we can improve over single-handed approaches. even though these findings have been made within the context of historical text processing which clearly profits from a tradition of digitizing text, we believe that these directions should prove to be particularly valuable for non-standard text processing in general. other research shows that meta-classifiers are superior in many non-standard text contexts. gamon ( ) re- ports a sustainable gain using ensemble methods in the context of error correction of language learners. martínez-cámara et al. ( ) show that stacking outperforms the individual classi- fiers for spanish polarity classification and kennedy and inkpen ( ) present similar results on sentiment classification of english movie reviews. c h a p t e r exploiting language similarities: a usecase throughout this thesis, we have investigated various aspects of non-standard text processing. in addition, we have strengthened the idea that the context of digital humanities (dh) adds some advantages and a shift in focus concerning general natural language processing (nlp) to this task. in this chapter, we aim at an illustration of how our findings support the successful realization of dh projects by means of an example. we apply techniques that proved useful in the context of text processing of historical languages. we give emphasis to three important aspects of dh collaborations. firstly, we exemplify how expert knowledge can be exploited throughout the development process of methods for non-standard language processing. secondly, we demonstrate how the focus on a specific research question can influence the objective and thereby facilitate the development of a classifier. finally, we bring back our claim made in section . . that nlp in dh cannot stop with proof-of-concept systems. we argue that one key attribute of successful collaborations between computer scientists and humanists is the easy availability of any resulting software for humanities scholars. in the following, we outline a dh workflow motivated by a research question from the humanities and conclude with the implementation of a webapplication which answers to this question. . code-switching – yet another deviation from the norm the analysis of mixed language is not a new field and has been extensively studied from sev- eral sociological and linguistic aspects (poplack, ; myers-scotton, ; muysken, ; auer and wei, ; toribio and bullock, ). this has also brought different perspectives on the definition and types of mixed language. switching between sentences (inter-sentential) is distinguished from switching inside of one sentence (intra-sentential). poplack ( ) defines code-switching as ‘the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or con- chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase stituent’. muysken ( ) avoids this term arguing that it suggests alternation but not insertion, and prefers code-mixing for intra-sentential switching. myers-scotton ( ) employs the cover term code-switching for the use of two languages in the same conversation, sentence, or phrase. in this paper we follow her definition and use code-switching (cos) for all types of mixing. however, cos is not just a recent phenomenon but can already be observed in medieval writ- ing. as has been pointed out in several studies (wenzel, ; schendl and wright, ; jef- ferson et al., ), historical mixed text is an interesting, yet still widely unexplored, source of information concerning language use in multilingual societies of medieval europe. even though some studies use text corpora in order to qualitatively describe the phenomenon (cf. nurmi and pahta ( )), a deeper analysis of the underlying structures has not been carried out due to the lack of adequate resources. computational approaches in the analysis of cos data are quite recent as compared to lin- guistic studies. the first theoretical framework to parse code-switched sentences dates back to the early s (joshi, ), yet few studies are done in the s (goyal et al., ; sinha and thakur, ; solorio and liu, a,b). with the beginning of the last decade, this picture has changed due to increasingly multi-cultural societies and the rise of social media. supported by the introduction of annotated data sets on several language pairs, different tasks are applied to cos data. the characteristics of mixed data affect tasks in different ways, sometimes changing the def- inition (e.g. in language identification, the shift from document-level to word-level), sometimes by creating new lexical and syntactic structures (e.g. mixed words that consist of morphemes from two different languages). thus, there is no doubt that mixed data calls for dedicated tools tailored to the specific problems and contexts encountered. in order to take these specialties into account, these different cases have to be understood. this way, differences in techniques for monolingual and mixed language processing can be unfolded to yield good results. in order to pave the way for an in-depth corpus-based analysis, we promote the systematic annotation of resources and concentrate on developing and implementing automatic processing tools. to this end, combining forces from humanities and computer science (cs) seems promising for both sides. as an additional challenge, joint work in this context and with a specific purpose in mind does not just require developing proof-of-concept tools. we need to tackle the issue of how to make tools available to humanities scholars. consequently, we do not just focus on developing techniques for automatic processing but also take into consideration how to share tools and make them useful for interpreting and analyzing data. for the project presented in this study, we annotate macaronic sermons (horner, ) with language information and pos, and use this resource to develop tools for automatic language identification (lid) on the word level and pos tagging of mixed latin-middle english text. the resulting tools allow for the automatic annotation of larger quantities of text and thus for we are greatly indebted to the pontifical institute of mediaeval studies (pims), toronto, for their support and kind permission to use a searchable pdf version of the sermon transcripts. . . related work the investigation of cos constraints within specific syntactic constructions on a larger scale. in particular, we aim at an analysis of cos rules within nominal phrases. in the following example, the determiner and modifier (þe brizt / the bright) are written in middle english whereas the head of the noun phrase (sol / sun) is written in latin. keller ( ) provides an analysis of adjectival modifiers in the framework of the matrix language frame model introduced by myers-scotton ( and following). þe brizt sol sapiencie subtrahit lumen suum the bright sun wisdom withdraws light its eng. eng. lat. lat. lat. lat. lat. the goal is the extraction of such phrases with the help of pos patterns along with the language information for all words of each phrase. the body of this chapter is organized as follows. section . gives an overview of work that has been done in the context of cos. in section . , we describe the data set that serves as a basis for the experiments described in sections . and . . section . details how our tools are made available for wider use by the academic community. parts of this chapter were published in schulz and keller ( ) and Çetinoğlu et al. ( ). publication . related work previous work on automatic processing of mixed text can be divided into two main areas: re- search on lid and work on pos tagging. lid for written as well as for spoken cos has been tackled for a wide range of language pairs and with different methods. lyu and lyu ( ) investigate mandarin-taiwanese utterances from a corpus of spoken language. they propose a word-based lexical model for lid integrat- ing acoustic, phonetic and lexical cues. solorio and liu ( a) predict potential cos points in spanish-english mixed data. different learning algorithms are applied to transcriptions of code- switched discourse. jain and bhat ( ) present a system on using conditional posterior prob- abilities for the individual words along with other linguistically motivated language-specific as well as generic features. they experiment with a variety of language pairs, e.g. nepali-english, mandarin-english or spanish-english. yeong and tan ( ) use morphological structure and sequence of syllables in malay-english sentences to identify language. barman et al. ( ) in- vestigate mixed text including three languages: bengali, english and hindi. they experiment with word-level lid, applying a simple unsupervised dictionary-based approach, supervised word-level classification with and without contextual clues, and sequence labeling using crfs. chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase pos tagging is the second most popular task after language identification in the current state of cos research. unlike lid, cos does not change the definition of the task. neverthe- less the task gets harder compared to tagging monolingual text. while state-of-the-art models reach over % accuracy on canonical data , in work on cos data scores mostly around % are reported. one problem, as expected, is the lack of large annotated data. table . shows all the pos- annotated cos corpora to our knowledge and their sizes. cos pos tagging requires more anno- tated data compared to monolingual tagging, as cos increases the possible context of tokens. corpus language tokens tag set s&l’ en-es k ptb + es v’ en-hi k ut + ne j’ en-hi k hi + twitter icon’ en-hi k hi + twitter en-bn k hi + twitter en-ta k ud Ç&Ç’ de-tr k ud s’ en-hi k ut table . : overview of pos-annotated cos corpora. s&l’ :solorio and liu ( b), v’ :vyas et al. ( ), j’ :jamatia et al. ( ), Ç&Ç’ :Çetinoğlu and Çöltekin ( ), s’ :sharma et al. ( ), ut: google universal tags (petrov et al., ). ud: universal dependencies tag set (nivre et al., ). the last column of table . shows the tag sets used in annotating pos. only one corpus uses language-specific tags (solorio and liu, b), which predates universal tag sets. with the introduction of google universal tags (ut) (petrov et al., ) and later its extended ver- sion universal dependencies (ud) tag set (nivre et al., ), preference has moved to using a common tag set for all tokens. vyas et al. ( ) employ additional tags for named entities. jamatia et al. ( ) and icon shared task use a hindi tag set that is mappable to ut. they also adopt twitter-specific tags. solorio and liu ( b) show that high accuracy english and spanish taggers achieve only % and % accuracy respectively on their data, indicating that off-the-shelf monolingual tag- gers are not suitable for cos text. common methods applied to overcome this problem in several experiments (solorio and liu, b; vyas et al., ; jamatia et al., ; sharma et al., ) are to choose between monolingual tagger outputs based on probabilities, utilizing mono- lingual dictionaries and language models and applying machine learning to the annotated cos data. one feature that deviates from standard pos tagging is language ids, which are shown https://aclweb.org/aclwiki/index.php?title=pos_tagging_(state_of_the_art), / / . solorio and liu ( b) report the tagset is a slightly modified version of ptb but do not give the exact number of tags. data from the icon shared task on pos tagging for code-mixed indian social media text. it is available at http://amitavadas.com/code-mixing.html . . data label explanation % l latin . e middle english . a word in both languages . n named entity . p punctuation . table . : labels annotated for lid along an explanation for each label and the occurrence in percent. to be quite useful in previous work. thus another challenge that comes with cos is predicting language ids as a prior step to pos tagging. solorio and liu ( b) achieve a high score of . % with an svm classifier, but this could be partly due to monolingual english sentences that constitute . % of the corpus. in corpora with a higher level of mixing, e.g. (vyas et al., ; jamatia et al., ; sharma et al., ) best scores drop to . %, %, and . % respectively. at the icon shared task, the best system has an average of . % accuracy. these scores show pos tagging on cos data has room for improvement. considering the rather limited number of automatic processing tools for our languages at hand, we focus on those methods suggesting the application of shallow features for written language. thus, we renounce morphological processing as described in yeong and tan ( ) and prosodic features since we are working with written text. . data the texts addressed in the following are so-called macaronic sermons (horner, ), a text genre containing diverse cos structures of middle english and latin which is thus highly infor- mative both for historical multilingualism research and for computational linguistics. our aim is to investigate phrase-internal cos. this requires language information on the token level on one hand and a basic understanding of the syntax of a sentence on the other. we aim at pos tagging as a basis for a pattern-extraction-based approach. in particular, we are interested in extracting mixed-language nominal phrases with a focus on determiners, attributive adjectives and adjective phrases as adnominals. since we are often dealing with a critically low data situation in dh focusing on historical topics, we experiment with a data set which can realistically be acquired with just a few hours of annotation effort. this implies that our approach is easily applicable to language pairs for which there is only a limited amount of annotated data. our annotated corpus comprises about tokens. in a first step, we annotate the tokens for the following language information, mostly latin chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase label explanation % adj adjective . adp adposition (pre- and post) . adv adverb . conj conjunction . det determiner . noun noun (common and proper) . num cardinal number . pron pronoun . prt particle or other function word . verb verb (all tenses and modes) . x foreign word, typo, abbrev. . . punctuation . table . : labels annotated for pos tagging along with the explanation for each label and the occurrence in percent. and middle english. the two languages share a small part of their vocabulary. those words can e.g. be simple function words such as in. for these items the attribution to one or the other language is not possible. we label these words with a separate tag to preserve the information that no decision on language could be made. moreover, we mark named entities since they are often not part of the vocabulary of a language, as well as punctuation. just about % of the tokens are middle english, compared to more than % of latin words (cf. table . ). our data set comprises sentences with an average length of . tokens. overall we observe switch points, which means an average number of two cos points per sentence. in a second step, we annotate coarse-grained pos using the universal tagset (ut) suggested by petrov et al. ( ). this choice facilitates a consistent annotation across languages since language specificities are conflated into more comprehensive categories. nouns constitute by far the most frequent pos (cf. table . ), which makes our data set a promising source for the investigation of nominal phrases. . automated processing of mixed text we model lid and pos tagging as both two subsequent tasks in which pos tagging builds upon the results of the lid and two independent tasks where pos tagging and lid do not inform each other. lid can be understood as a step to facilitate pos tagging and any further processing of mixed text. in order to be used as a feature for pos tagging, it needs to be solved with a high accuracy to avoid error percolation through the entire processing pipeline. . . automated processing of mixed text . . language identification we use an approach similar to the one described by solorio and liu ( a). since there is no available lemmatizer for middle english, in contrast to solorio and liu ( b) we cannot add lemma information to our training. to compensate for the lack of lemmas, we include pos in- formed word lists for both languages extracted from manually annotated corpora. following the pos introduced by the universal dependency initiative (nivre et al., ), we extract lists for the following pos: adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, proper nouns, nouns, determiners, interjec- tions, pronouns, verbs, auxiliary verbs and conjunctions. for middle english, we extract these lists from the penn parsed corpora of historical english (kroch and taylor, ). for latin, we revert to the latin corpora included in the universal dependency treebank namely latin de- pendency treebank . (ldt) (bamman and crane, ), latin-proiel ud treebank (haug and jøhndal, ) and the latin-ittb ud treebank (mcgillivray et al., ). in case a word is found in one of the lists, we add its pos as a feature. crf classifiers are known to be successful for sequence labeling tasks. based on features extracted from the results given by monolingual taggers for our data, we train a crf classifier (lafferty et al., ) combining those features with several other features. the features we implement are the following: surface form pos tag treetagger latin treetagger confidence latin pos tag treetagger middle english treetagger confidence middle english pos from middle english word list pos from latin word list character-unigrams prefix character-bigrams prefix character-trigrams prefix character-unigram suffix character-bigram suffix character-trigram suffix features - are generated by the latin and middle english treetagger (schmid, ), res- pectively. this means that this method is only an option for languages for which a treetagger model is available or can be trained . we include character-n-gram affixes from length - to we want to thank achim stein, university of stuttgart, for providing the parameter file for middle english. chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase label l e a n p all pre bl . . . . . crf . . . . . . rec bl . . . . . crf . . . . . . f bl . . . . . crf . . . . . . table . : performance of the crf system for language identification compared to the baseline (bl). precision, recall and f-score per class and macro-average of all classes. account for the fact that latin is characterized by a relatively restricted suffix assignment. in addition, we use a context window of tokens on all features. . . part-of-speech tagging for pos tagging, we use the same features as described in section . . (crfbase). in order to investigate the influence of lid as a feature on pos tagging, we also train the crf classifier (crfpr edli d ) using information generated by the lid system (feature .a). since we cannot assume perfect lid, we evaluate the performance of a crf classifier (crfgol dli d ) having the gold standard lid (feature .b) at its disposal. in this way, we can investigate to which degree differences in the quality of lid influence the pos tagging quality. .a lid label predicted by the system described in section . . .b gold lid label manually annotated for our corpus . results we evaluate our systems in a -fold cross-validation setting using % for training, and % each for development and testing. we tune the hyper-parameter settings of our learning algo- rithm on our development set by testing different manually chosen parameter settings. the crf classifier is trained with the crf++ toolkit (lafferty et al., ) using l -regularization and a c-value of . we report average results over all sets. . . language identification since the sermons are primarily written in latin featuring middle english insertions, we use a combination of latin and perfect punctuation labeling as a majority baseline (bl) for our lid system. we report per-class precision, recall and f-score along with macro-averages for the overall system. we do not report accuracy since the number of instances per class highly varies. . . results as was to be expected, our system reliably finds the right label for latin text and just a little less so for english. we attribute the poor performance for named entities and words appearing in both languages to the low number of training instances in our corpus. in order to investigate the primary sources of errors, we inspect the incorrectly labeled to- kens per class. table . shows that all but . % of the latin tokens are labeled correctly. the erroneous labels can be attributed to about % to english, % to the class that can appear in both languages. the remaining % contain wrong labels for punctuation. the performance for english tokens is slightly lower with an error rate of . % incorrect labels which are almost all tagged as latin. this can be due to the fact that our data contains more latin tokens overall. the same effect is observable for the labels a (word in both languages) and n (named entities). since the corpus contains just a few instances with those labels, they get incorrectly assigned to latin. the small error in classifying punctuation appears in one of our cross-validation sets where colons are not part of the training but the test set. . . part-of-speech tagging for the evaluation of our pos tagger, we use two baselines. we compare the output of our systems to the output of the monolingual latin tagger after mapping the latin tagset to the ut. moreover, we add a strong baseline, drawing on the confidence feature of the monolingual treetagger models. we choose the pos label of the monolingual tagger with a higher level of confidence. in case the label indicates that a word is a foreign word, we choose the label from the other language (in our case middle english). we map all pos tags to the ut. per-class results along with macro-f-score are shown in table . . all our systems beat the baseline systems for almost all classes (except for bl adverb and verb) (cf. table . ). with overall f-scores between . and . our systems achieve better f- scores than the baseline systems with an f-score of . and . , respectively. for our further analysis we leave the results for num and x aside cause they appear just once and three times in the entire corpus, respectively. even though the average scores for all classes combined range just between about and , we achieve good results for classes with a high number of tokens in our corpus (e.g. nouns and verbs), and also for adpositions and conjunctions. since macro-f-score label % err % l % e % a % n % p l . - . . . . e . . - . . . a . . . - . . n . . - . p . . . . - table . : percentage of incorrectly labeled tokens per class along with the distribution of incor- rect labels among the other labels. chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase label adj adp adv conj det noun num pron prt verb x . all pre bl . . . . . . . . . . . . bl . . . . . . . . . . . . crfbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfpr edli d . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfgol dli d . . . . . . . . . . . . . rec bl . . . . . . . . . . . . . bl . . . . . . . . . . . . crfbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfpr edli d . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfgol dli d . . . . . . . . . . . . . f bl . . . . . . . . . . . . . bl . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfpr edli d . . . . . . . . . . . . . crfgol dli d . . . . . . . . . . . . . table . : performance of the crf systems for pos tagging compared to the majority baseline (bl ), the confidence baseline (bl ). crfbase: system with the basic features, crfpr edli d : system with predicted lid as an additional feature, crfgol dli d : system with gold-standard lid as an additional feature. precision (pre), recall (rec) and f-score (f) per class and macro- average of all classes are given. the task-relevant results are emphasized in bold. gives equal weight to all classes the numbers might be misleading, depending on the purpose of the system. given that we built the pos tagger with a specific task in mind, namely the extraction of nominal phrases, we calculate the f-score for the pos classes relevant to this task (determiners, adjectives and nouns). this gives a task-specific macro f-score of . (crfbase), . (crfpr edli d ) and . (crfgol dli d ), respectively. those f-scores are noticeably above the average f-scores for the overall systems and also beat the task-specific f-scores of bl ( . ) and bl ( . ). the relatively high average recall of almost for these three labels combined for all three systems is important for the task whereas precision has lower priority, since the extracted phrases are manually inspected afterwards. since our lid system performs well, the system with automatically predicted labels shows a slight increase in performance compared to the system without lid information. the system with manually annotated lid information yields the best performance. however, according to mcnemar’s test the differences are not statistically significant. the analysis of the incorrectly labeled tokens shows which pos tags are difficult to distin- guish (cf. table . ). since we are especially interested in adjectives, an error rate of % is rather high. out of these, about % have been incorrectly labeled as nouns, which has con- siderable negative effect on our objective, especially since most of the incorrectly labeled nouns are labeled as adjectives. almost % of the adjectives that are incorrectly labeled as nouns are latin. this can be explained by the morphology of adjectives in latin. as latin adjectives and . . results label % err adj adp adv conj det noun pron prt verb . adj . - . . . . . . . . . adp . . - . . . . . . . . adv . . . - . . . . . . . conj . . . . - . . . . . . det . . . . . - . . . . . noun . . . . . . - . . . . pron . . . . . . . - . . . prt . . . . . . . . - . . verb . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - table . : percentage of incorrectly labeled tokens per class along with the distribution of incor- rect labels among the other labels for the crfpr edli d system. nouns often have similar, if not the same suffixes of case marking, the two classes cannot be dis- tinguished using the suffix as a defining feature. these difficulties are also observed by vor der brück and mehler ( ) who present a morphological tagger for latin. þis made hom to lede this made them to lead lang. eng. eng. eng. eng. eng. gold pron verb pron prt verb pred pron verb pron prt verb super terram celestem conuersacionem on earth heavenly regime lang. lat. lat. lat. lat. gold adp noun adj noun pred adp det noun noun the first half of the sentence is written in middle english. the assigned pos tags are correct and also the first latin word after the cos point is labeled correctly. the subsentence terram clestem conuersacionem is tagged in the pattern of a noun phrase with a determiner and a compound noun instead of a prepositional phrase super terram (engl.: on earth) and a noun phrase clestem conuersacionem (engl.: heavenly behavior) consisting of an adjective and a noun. the similar syntactic function of pronouns (in case of possessive pronouns and demonstrative pronouns) and determiners leads to an additional source of error. the following example dis- plays a tagging error in which the demonstrative pronoun isso (engl:. this) is used as a pronoun. since it can be used as a determiner in other sentences, the tagger mislabels it as a determiner here. translation by horner ( ): this made them lead on earth a heavenly regime. translation by horner ( ): in it there is no confidence. chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase lid pos size pre rec f-score pre rec f-score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . table . : different portions of the training set along with precision, recall and f-score for lid and pos tagging. in isto non est fiducia in this not is confidence lang. lat. lat. lat lat. lat. gold adp pron prt verb noun pred adp det prt verb noun on closer inspection, we find that many of the incorrectly tagged words appear in pos se- quences which are either rarely or not at all contained in the training data. we predict that adding more training data will significantly decrease errors of this kind. since data sparsity in general is an issue dealing with historical text, we investigate how different sizes of the training set influence the results. we compare results for tokens, tokens, and for the complete training set (around tokens). with an increase of training instances, the results improve for both tasks (cf. table . ). the increase from to is higher than from to . this suggests that the f-score might grow logarithmically with increasing training size. . tools for digital humanities since the aim of our project is not only to build a proof-of-concept system but to enable hu- manities scholars to automatically process their data with the help of our tools, we implement a simple web service in java to offer an easily accessible interface to our tool (cf. figure . ) . moreover, we added our tool to the clarin-d repository to ensure sustainability . the data is returned in a format compatible with icarus, a search and visualization tool which primarily targets dependency trees (gärtner et al., ). despite the present lack of a dependency-parsed syntax layer, icarus offers the opportunity to inspect the data and pose complex search requests, combining the three layers of token, language information and pos tag. figure . shows a query that extracts all sequences of a determiner in either of both lan- guages followed by a middle english adjective followed by a latin noun (cf. figure . ). icarus shows the results within the sentence of origin. icarus also allows searches including gaps. the web service is hosted at https://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/normalisierung/mixed-pos.html for access, please contact the author. clarin-d repository, metadata handle: http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - -c b-c. https://clarin .ims.uni-stuttgart.de/normalisierung/mixed-pos.html http://hdl.handle.net/ / - - -c b-c. . . tools for digital humanities figure . : simple web interface for the submission of mixed text for pos tagging. (a) formulation of a search query in icarus. (b) results shown by icarus figure . : search interface of icarus returning results on a query for an english adjective followed by a latin noun within the next tokens. this is helpful since nominal phrases vary according to the number of adjectives and as to whether or not they contain an overt determiner. thus, flexibility in formulating the search query facilitates an in-depth search of all possible constructions. our method can easily be adapted to other languages by inserting the fitting monolingual taggers (treetagger) and pos related word lists (if available). for this purpose, the code is publicly available on github . https://github.com/sarschu/codeswitching. https://github.com/sarschu/codeswitching chapter . exploiting language similarities: a usecase . research contributions we show the implementation and application of two systems, one for language identification and one for pos tagging, developed for a specific purpose capitalizing on the insights we gained throughout our experimentation in section . and section . . we achieve reasonable re- sults given the very low number of annotated training instances. considering the detailed error analysis for our system, we can purposefully extend our training data in order to correct the sources of error in the future by for example adding monolingual data from the penn-helsinki parsed corpus of middle english (kroch and taylor, ). we believe that not just the development of tools but also the support with respect to apply- ing them constitutes an important component of successful collaboration between humanities and cs. in return, a task-oriented tool development along with immediate feedback on the performance and analysis of error from the humanities side facilitate the imple- mentation of systems that do not only serve the proof of a concept but are applied to real-world data. we believe that this kind of collaboration is the way to give cs the chance to support other fields in their research and find new and interesting challenges throughout this work. c h a p t e r problems solved? – future directions for digital humanities in this dissertation, i set out to introduce various aspects of digital humanities (dh) research and relate them to natural language processing (nlp). these aspects especially emphasize the differences between general nlp and application-oriented text processing in an interdis- ciplinary context. the main focus of this work is on the automatic processing of non-standard texts. throughout my dissertation, i visit a whole string of examples illuminating challenges and potential solutions. i report on a computer-aided digitization project and discuss two main approaches towards non-standard text processing – text normalization and tool adaptation – through the example of different kinds of text. these dh model projects highlight the aspects of application-oriented, reusable, problem-specific and collaborative implementations from various angles and on different levels. since it is the main focus of this thesis, i will start to summa- rize the findings on non-standard text processing. subsequently, i will broaden the scope of the discussion to more general aspects of dh and nlp, further challenges and opportunities. . towards standard-free text processing non-standard text processing is a difficult task. this is generally not due to the individual char- acteristics of each single non-standard text genre, but rather due to a fixation of nlp on one specific sort of text over the past years. with various examples from different kinds of text, i show that some of the basic assumptions that are taken for granted, such as a clear definition of sentence boundaries or the definition of a token, can cause problems in approaches towards non-standard text processing. i demonstrate how the use of emoticons and other unconventional usages of punctuation marks in user-generated content (ugc) requires an adjusted definition chapter . problems solved? – future directions for digital humanities of these concepts. we e.g. work on the level of messages for ugc rather than on sentence level. moreover, one has to be aware that the lack of punctuation in historical texts impairs approaches such as sentence-based self-learning. processing of non-standard texts is not hard per se. neither is the vocabulary in middle high german bigger than in modern newspaper texts nor is the syntax more complex. a standard language is defined by a sufficient availability of annotated data and a certain knowledge of the characteristics of the language found in this sort of text. thus, any sort of text can be a standard form given a sufficient availability of data. an implication of this is that there is not a single standard but various standards. an ambitious aspiration is to move away from an nlp situation in which there is one very strong standard form that determines the limitations of our processing tools towards a broader understanding of language in nlp. all of these issues root in a machine learning (ml) tradition for solving nlp tasks. the fact that learning takes place in a relatively static feature space makes a transfer to data that varies in its characteristics difficult. starting from ground zero is not a solution for every newly encountered genre or language. thus, there are two main approaches for tackling the processing of such data: the assimilation of the non-standard texts to the feature space of the training data (text normalization) or the desensitization of processing methods to only one data source (tool adjustment). tools need to be less dependent on specific characteristics of one sort of text. in addition, text annotation efforts have to be extended to all kinds of text. i illustrate the approach of text normalization by means of normalization of flemish ugc. i demonstrate how normalization can successfully improve results of standard nlp tools on such data by adjusting non-standard texts to the training domain. text normalization itself, however, is again based upon the availability of training data. for extremely small genres or texts which are far away from the standard with respect to their characteristics, this approach is not promising. in anticipation of a world in which the nlp community aims to cover as many languages as possible, this is likely to be a rather inefficient solution. as an alternative, i show various methods of tool adaptation and training techniques that can be applied to non-standard texts. i focus on ideally utilizing small training sets, exploit- ing task-related resources and tools and taking advantage of resources from similar languages. the main insight is the fact that there is no single solution and no “best” approach to non- standard text processing. solutions are dependent on the data situation and the proximity to better-resourced languages. nevertheless, the experiments and insights of this dissertation can serve as a guidebook and orientation for which techniques are promising. the universal dependency project provides a good data basis for language processing across language boundaries. largely unified annotations of language phenomena help to trans- fer knowledge from one to another language. the resources collected within this project thus far, however, often also just extend to the “standard manifestation” of a language. a similar scenario http://universaldependencies.org/, / / . http://universaldependencies.org/ . . digital humanities: towards key concepts of a methodology for texts coming from dh is envisioned by bamman ( ). he argues for a shared repository of linguistic annotations for all kinds of data which enables the leveraging of complementary sources. it is an open question how to handle the diversity of resource questions and project- specific annotations in such a context while still enabling the interoperability of schemes. yet, shared diverse data indeed is the foundation of a standard-free nlp. . digital humanities: towards key concepts of a methodology one aspect that can make dh inefficient is that there are only few standardized methodologies. this results in an overload through the repetition of basic tasks throughout different projects. as an attempt at a solution, i introduce key concepts for the successful development of nlp tools in the context of dh but also for workflows in dh projects in general. i show how flexible and modular system architectures can be used to optimize different objectives and to fit different data sets. the concepts of reusability and adaptability as time- saving factors determine the way that nlp has to take in order to be successful in a dh context. however, not only the implementation of nlp tools can profit from the concept of reusability. many of the steps in a project workflow such as data collection, annotation and analysis of results follow a pattern. these patterns can be optimized and transfered between projects just like workflows for the development of tools. furthermore, i show how using expert knowledge as input during the development pro- cess can improve performance. especially in the process of data annotation and feature design, experts from the humanities can contribute valuable insights to ensure successful ml solutions. the deep knowledge of the data can compensate for the often only small number of training examples. immediate feedback on the performance of a modeling technique and the expertise in annotating data for targeted improvement of a system, as e.g. done in active learning environ- ments, are advantages that arise from the collaborative context. in line with this, i illustrate that problem-specific solutions are vital for successful im- plementations in dh. putting the focus on small subproblems without having to solve a task in a general manner, can make up for the lack of larger amounts of data. i present this by means of pattern extraction from code-switching texts. the focus on the extraction of adjectives, determiners and nouns facilitates the task compared to the task of general pos tagging. in addition, i emphasize the importance of the easy accessibility of tools. general solu- tions and proof-of-concept systems are not enough in the context of dh. applications need to be delivered to the project partner tailored to the demands and abilities of the user. chapter . problems solved? – future directions for digital humanities . dh and nlp: a joint future the added benefit of dh for nlp became obvious through this dissertation. nlp has focused on a limited variety of texts. dh offers plenty of different kinds of text and interesting problems for computational models along with the aspect of application which will force nlp researchers to take a step forward and develop real nlp for real people. other non-standard text domains can profit from methods developed in the context of nlp for dh. in this dissertation, i focus on a methodology from the computational point of view. work- flows for steps apart from the automatic processing, however, have to be established as well. i review one of these steps in section . of this thesis, in which i detail how the annotation method that has proven useful in nlp can be adapted to fit the need for more flexible annota- tion in dh. the differences in the ways in which problems are approached in the humanities and in computer science are more challenging: often it is hard to define research problems from the humanities in such a structured way that formalization is easily possible. in addition, the hermeneutic interpretation requires the embedded interpretation of a research object in its con- text. contrastively, computer science often approaches problems in a strongly modularized way. problems are taken apart into subproblems which leads to a temporary decontextualization. the real challenge is it, therefore, to harmonize these two strategies. a narrow feedback loop between all collaboration partners helps to understand subparts and supports the maintenance of the “bigger picture”. in chapter , i argue that the “real digital humanist” – a person who has deep knowledge in computer science as well as in a humanities discipline – is still rare. this is a crucial short- coming that makes dh vulnerable to criticism. there is dh scepticism eloquently formulated by e.g. marche ( ). he reduces the significance of dh to some minor niche fields inside the humanities. he mainly criticizes the inadequacy of treating literature like data. however, his definition of data as a complete collection is not used as such by researchers in the dh. he seems to assume an unreflected and meaningless approach toward the analysis of literary texts which is neither the goal nor common practice in recent dh. kirsch ( ) rightfully discusses the limitations of dh and warns against following a rhetoric style that preaches the redemption of the humanities. clearly, this is a reminder for a reflected usage of digital methods for the investigation of humanistic research questions and has its justification in a debate in which a few seem to forget that computers will likely never outperform humans in tasks such as the interpretation of literary texts. reflection of automatically achieved results is a key point in a competent analysis for which a basic understanding of the inner workings of the applied algo- rithm is required. in turn, the mere competence to interpret why an algorithm suggests certain results is not sufficient for the correct interpretation of these results in the humanistic context. proper reflection on automatically extracted data can be decisive for determining the validity of results of an entire dh project. kirsch ( ) neglects that such meaningful implementations of thoughtful and successful dh projects are widely achieved, as pointed out by worthey ( ), . . dh and nlp: a joint future as an answer to kirsch’s article. thus, his generalizations seem hard to maintain. allington et al. ( ) reduce dh to “the promotion of project-based learning and lab-based research over reading and writing, the rebranding of insecure campus employment as an em- powering ‘alt-ac’ career choice, and the redefinition of technical expertise as a form (indeed, the superior form) of humanist knowledge” and deprive them of their defined goal of using “digital or quantitative methodologies to answer research questions in the humanities”. this opinion has to be considered within a bigger debate introduced by harpham ( ). he describes a crisis of the humanities in the early st century: sometimes the crisis – whose dimensions can be measured by declining numbers of enrollments, majors, courses offered, and salaries – is described as a separate, and largely self-inflicted, catastrophe confined to a few disciplines; sometimes it is linked to a general disarray in liberal education, and sometimes to the moral collapse and intellectual impoverishment of the entire culture. but one point emerges with con- siderable regularity and emphasis: humanistic scholars, fragmented and confused about their mission, suffer from an inability to convey to those on the outside and even to some on the inside the specific value they offer to public culture; they suffer, that is, from what the scholar and critic louis menand calls a “crisis of rationale”. (harpham ( , p. - )) the point of departure for the fast rise of popularity of digital methods in the humanities was the search for a way out of this crisis that according to harpham ( ) has lasted for already half a century. this illustrates the high hope that the mere existence of dh as such fuels. i see the real endeavor in creating something new beyond the traditional humanities. this means that dh is not merely seen as the upscaling of traditional methods to more textual evidence without questioning the implications this might have for the results. the opposite approach undeniably exists. especially the problem of financial shortcomings in humanities research might be a motivation for one or the other project proposal referring to the application of digital methods. this, however, does neither solve the crisis of the humanities nor are these the projects in which the employment of digital techniques unravels new insights. a key point for new paradigms in dh is a shared way of evaluation. zuccala ( ) claims that “the products of humanities research are not ‘empirical’ enough for objective forms of evalu- ation”. instead, evaluation is mainly based on metrics derived from academic citations (thelwall and delgado, ). the dutch royal academy of arts and sciences has published a report on assessment within the humanities . therein they request a peer-reviewed, twofold assessment bethany nowviskie has called “#alt-ac” positions doing the digital humanities- “alternative academic careers” – including postdocs, jobs in libraries, and administrative and staff positions at newly founded or expanding digital humanities centers. https://www.knaw.nl/en/news/publications/quality-indicators-for-research-in-the-humanities, / / . https://www.knaw.nl/en/news/publications/quality-indicators-for-research-in-the-humanities chapter . problems solved? – future directions for digital humanities strategy based on scholary output and benefit for the society. the scholary aspect can be indi- cated by publications, reviews and citations, prizes and personal grants whereas the societal aspect can be assessed via specialist publications, contract research, projects in collaboration with civil-society actors and societal prizes. since the focus of dh differs from the humanities in the sense that it aims for more objective research, this objectivity can and must be reflected in its evaluation. steiner et al. ( ) suggest a user-centered evaluation methodology for human- ities research environments and they emphasize that there are different groups of users that expect different functionalities. this relates back to the aspect of interdisciplinarity where easy applicability cushions the differences in expertise with computational methods. besides, repro- ducibility is an aspect that is supported by a formalized approach. leblanc ( ) names two important aspects of reproducible research: verification and inspiration. introducing the crite- rion of reproducibility into an evaluation methodology could enforce a methodological approach throughout a project that ensures validity and makes the approach more transparent. as a side effect, this would lead to a reduction of developmental overhead since components are easier to identify and to reuse. along these lines, there is the criterion of sustainability. since a major sur- plus of this kind of research is the archiving and the increase of accessibility from everywhere and from any time, sustainable support and future maintenance can be an important point for evaluation. however, since this aspect often shows at a later date, it cannot be used immediately as feedback for assessing the quality of research at the time of publication. whilst many humanists fear the diminution of the genius of the individual, i strongly believe that the genius of the individual does still prevail in dh. computational methods do not replace the ambitious step of making sense of whatever the data shows. it is clear that humanistic research questions are far too complex to be operationalized to their full extent. however, a formalized investigation can highlight outliers and thus lead to refinements of existing theories. this interplay between the underlying theory and the challenges but also the surprises that computational modeling holds is one of the most valuable aspects of dh. the limitations of computer-aided analysis become clear. yet, this is only a disappointment when the expectations towards such methods are unrealistic. their proper application and engagement, however, are the real goal which requires trained humanists. in addition, a more formal approach brings higher transparency to the line of argumentation. it merely points towards the places where the individual might find the relevant information in order to put it all together into a traceable, yet inspired line of argumentation. the future of the humanities will be a digital one. the humanities are generally defined as the disciplines that examine human culture, or in other words the products of the human mind. since human life and human creativity increasingly take place in a digital environment, the science of understanding these products has its future in digital methods. bibliography abdulkader, a. and casey, m. r. 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( ). funtube: annotating funniness in youtube comments. in proceedings of the international workshops on treebanks and linguistic theories (tlt ), workshop corpora in the digital humanities (cdh). list of abbreviations abstract deutsche zusammenfassung list of tables list of figures preface introduction motivation contributions publications relevant for this dissertation digital humanities: chance and challenge a brief history of digital humanities origins dh conferences – the witness of a time period digital humanities: an attempt at a definition towards a methodology interdisciplinarity and collaboration reusability and adaptability through modularization specific problem solving evaluation research contributions data in digital humanities: wild and sparse non-standard text why we need data: machine learning what is machine learning (big) data and digital humanities annotation of data corpus annotation data selection summary data harvesting: modularized and adaptable architectures for digital humanities related work evaluation metrics data the werther corpus the deutsches textarchive (dta) corpus gutenberg data for language modeling why ocr post-correction is hard specialized multi-modular post-correction suggestion modules decision modules: the ranking mechanism experiments experimental setup evaluation adaptability digitization workflow research contributions text normalization user-generated content - a challenge for nlp text normalization - related work a multi-modular approach towards normalization preprocessing layer suggestion layer decision layer evaluation data set modeling ugc language evaluation metrics experiments the bigger picture - extrinsic evaluation and portability research contributions tool adaptation for non-standard text processing training data: the influence of quantity and quality data quantity and quality manual annotation – how much is enough? additional data: exploiting existing resources corpus middle high german (rem) a general model region-specific corpora summary finding the right method related work learning from within the text stretching out: including text-external resources evaluation summary research contributions exploiting language similarities: a usecase code-switching – yet another deviation from the norm related work data automated processing of mixed text language identification part-of-speech tagging results language identification part-of-speech tagging tools for digital humanities research contributions problems solved? – future directions for digital humanities towards standard-free text processing digital humanities: towards key concepts of a methodology dh and nlp: a joint future bibliography s jra .. essay cluster: the futures of feminist criticism introduction talia schaffer in may , the annual city university of new york (cuny) victorianconference addressed the history of victorian feminist criticism. our conference coincided with the fortieth anniversary of a literature of their own and the thirtieth anniversary of desire and domestic fiction, affording us a chance to think about the legacy of these groundbreaking texts. elaine showalter, martha vicinus, and nancy armstrong spoke about their struggles to establish and maintain victorian feminist work in the twentieth century, often against outright hostility. we also heard about issues in twenty-first-century victorian feminist practice: alison booth spoke about digital-humanities codification of victorian women’s lives, jill ehnenn discussed queer revisions, and maia mcaleavey explored new theories of relationality, while i gave a response to armstrong’s talk. meanwhile, carolyn oulton’s discussion of the ongoing struggle to canonize victorian women writers spoke to the continuous work required to make victorian women’s writing familiar to the field. it was an emotional day, for we all recognized that this might be one of the last times that the founding generation could be together to share these stories. when vlc offered us a chance to publish some of this work in a fem- inist cluster, three pieces stood out as already connected. jill ehnenn’s “from ‘we other victorians’ to ‘pussy grabs back’” and my “victorian feminist criticism” both argued for changes in the ways we understand influence and textual interrelationality. both turned to ethics for an alternative model, both engaged alternative temporalities, and both used lesser-known victorian writers as case studies. this convergence sug- gests that there may be a larger turn in the field. meanwhile, alison booth’s “particular webs” provides a third new paradigm, drawn not from ethics but rather from digital humanities, although sharing our victorian literature and culture, vol. , no. , pp. – . © cambridge university press . doi: . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core desire to find a more capacious mode of categorizing. booth explores how we recover women’s writing in the digital era, rethinking archival practices and book history. yet her work also intersects with mine and ehnenn’s in its emphasis on collectivity, its turn to a wider community —whether a crowd of women or of editions—in lieu of exalting a few chosen feminist role models. we hope that these articles will contribute to a fruitful review of the critical protocols we already use, too often assumed rather than exam- ined, and help the practitioners of a new generation of feminist criticism. the future of feminist criticism, as we see it, will have to cope with vast numbers: crowds of texts, editions, authors. it must therefore allow for interactivity, multiplicity, and variation. we advocate for ehnenn’s “grab,” booth’s “mid-range reading,” and my “community of care”—dif- ferent ways of naming powerful feminist practices—and for leaving behind essentialist identifications of women, fantasies of exemplary fem- inists, anachronistic political formulations, and heroic rescue fantasies. all three articles debate how to handle a larger field of subjects while doing justice to them, and all three recognize that this project may require new rules and new practices. when we held our conference in may , we were reeling from a catastrophic election six months prior, as memorialized in ehnenn’s use of “pussy grabs back” and booth’s reference to “she persisted.” our conference felt like a deeply moving declaration that feminism had a robust life in spite of national events. it allowed us to assert that we were still here. our conference honored the past, the founders of victorian feminist criticism, and we claimed the present, asserting our own participation in the robust continuing tradition of feminist work. my hope is that the articles that came out of that conference can help guide us toward the feminist criticism of the future. vlc • vol. , no. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction foreword a survey on topics, researchers and cultures in the field of digital heritage s. münster a a media center, technische universität dresden, d- dresden, germany - sander.muenster@tu-dresden.de commission ii, wg vi/ key words: digital heritage, survey, topics, scholarly area abstract: digital heritage comprises a broad variety of approaches and topics and involves researchers from multiple disciplines. while the use of digital methods in the text-oriented disciplines dealing with cultural heritage is widely discussed and canonized, an up-to-date investigation on cultural heritage as a scholarly field is currently missing. the extended abstract is about a three-stage investigation on standards, publications, disciplinary cultures as well as scholars in the field of digital heritage, carried out in and . it includes results of a workshop-based survey involving researchers, qualitative interviews as well as an online survey with nearly participants. as an overall finding, a community is driven by researchers from european countries and especially italy with a background in humanities, dealing with topics of data acquisition, data management and visualization. moreover, conference series are most relevant for a scientific discourse, and especially eu projects set pace as most important research endeavours. . introduction digital heritage comprises a broad variety of approaches and topics and involves researchers from multiple disciplines. while the use of digital methods in the text-oriented disciplines dealing with cultural heritage is widely discussed and canonized (eg. svensson, ; terras et al., ), an up-to-date investigation on cultural heritage as a scholarly field is currently missing. possible reasons may be seen in the “diverse nature of the methods used in art history” and adjacent disciplines (long and schonfeld, , p. ), but also in the heterogeneous level of establishment of digital research methods in disciplines related to cultural heritage (hicks, ). but what are characteristics of an academic area? a therefore prominent approach characterizes fields of research by specific epistemic cultures in terms of different "architectures of empirical approaches, specific constructions of the referent, particular ontologies of instruments, and different social machines" (knorr-cetina, , p. ), different approaches to gain insights, different vocabularies, different publication bodies and habits (cetina and reichmann, ). on a more operational level, disciplines are characterised to „(a) have a particular object of research […], (b) have a body of accumulated specialist knowledge […], (c) have theories and concepts […], (d) use specific terminologies […], (d) have developed specific research methods […], and (e) must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects taught at universities or colleges […]” (krishnan, ). against this background, my research is intended to investigate a range of digital heritage studies with regards to the following questions: • what are research areas and topics in the field of digital heritage? • what are leading publications and projects? . related work digital heritage as scholarly area with regards to a scholarly area of digital heritage and its adjacent field of digital humanities, hicks et al. (hicks, ) stated that publication habits as well as research habits widely differ between single disciplines in the (digital) humanities. with regards to a scholarly community in digital humanities, terras (terras, ) examined that especially us, canadian and uk-based researchers contributed to an academic discourse until . scott et al. performed a similar analysis for the digital humanities conference submissions (weingart, ). while a community in terras’ analysis exclusively dealt with textual and – few – image sources, digital heritage related aspects such as visualization, geospatial analysis or vr/ar got into the top keyword list. with regards to digital heritage, scollar (scollar, ) investigated the conference on computer application in archaeologies (caa) from to , and münster and ioannides (münster and ioannides, ) investigated the proceedings of caa, dh, cipa, vast, darch and euromed between and . as a finding of both studies, researchers in the fields of digital heritage are primarily located in mediterranean countries and have backgrounds in various disciplines – including computing, humanities, architecture and geo- and natural sciences. an academic discourse takes mainly place on technology-related topics as well as dealing especially with architectural heritage. topics and methods in digital heritage what are research topics and methods? a general overview on cultural heritage as a research area in the first years of the millennium was described by the epoch project (arnold and geser, ). particularly with regards to the use of digital methods in cultural heritage and digital humanities, drucker (drucker, ) sketches a historical evolution as well as a current state of application of digital methods in humanities. additionally, both heusinger (heusinger, ) and kohle (kohle, ) define fields of supplement by digital tools and practices in research processes related to cultural heritage. similarly, many texts describe a comprehensive state of the art and methodologies for digital archaeology (e.g. evans and daly, ; frischer and dakouri-hild, ; kansa et al., ). furthermore, there are many standards and guidelines as well as rules defined and discussed for dealing with historical content (beacham et al., ; bendicho, ; kiouss et al., ; isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume iv- /w , th international cipa symposium , august– september , ottawa, canada this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprs-annals-iv- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. pfarr, ; sürül et al., ). in contrast, there is little empirical research on practices and users of digital heritage (c.f. huvila, ). . research . research design in-conference survey from a theoretical point of view, the communities of practice approach originally introduced by lave & wenger (lave and wenger, ) defines that these communities are marked by mutual engagement, a joint enterprise as well as a shared repertoire of knowledge and culture (wenger, ). a resultant assumption is that publications such as conference papers and journals are main podia for knowledge sharing in academia. consequently, the investigation of conferences dealing with that topic is my primary approach to discover a research community on digital cultural heritage. my research started with a series of questionnaire-based surveys on research topics, podia and standards which took place during a track on visual knowledge management at the international forum for knowledge asset management (ifkad) and the arkdis conference on information in archaeology, both held in june (münster and niebling, ) as well as during a lecture held at city university in london in the department of human computer interaction in october . in total, researchers participated. since these investigations represented very specific facets of digital cultural heritage, these were done to gain a general overview on topics and standards of relevance. qualitative interviews an adjacent interest was to investigate research topics and methods and scholarly culture more in detail. i interviewed researchers at several universities in london between september and november , via guideline-based expert interviews (gläser and laudel, ; mieg and näf, ). an analysis of data is proposed to take place using approaches of qualitative content analysis (mayring, ) to ( ) inductively gain an initial category scheme and ( ) deduce it to further materials. an expected outcome of that step comprises both an inductively generated categorization scheme as well as a set of related variables and occurrences. online survey since various phenomena have been identified via these investigations, a follow-up interest was to investigate these issues for a larger number of researchers. for thus, another survey included all authors from caa, cipa, vast, digital heritage, darch and euromed conference series proceedings dating between and (münster, ). i extracted all provided email addresses published under the author information section – in total addresses out of publications. against this background, several factors were limiting . only recent publications contain email addresses of authors. . often only the email address of the first author is included. . nearly ¼ of the email addresses ( of ) do not exist anymore. the survey took place over two weeks in march and included valid email addresses. people participated and completed the survey. since the questions were not depending on each other, responses from non-finishers were included in evaluation, too. evaluation took place based on the category scheme developed during the qualitative interviews as well as by employing inductive and deductive content analysis. findings the research stages delivered various insights in careers, topics, publication and research habits as well as organizational habits in digital heritage and the adjacent area of visual-oriented digital humanities research. following, some aspects will be exemplified. authors’ background figure . nationality (online survey, top out of n= ) what is the background of people who are active in the field of cultural heritage? despite various attempts to attract researchers from other parts of the world, e.g. at conference locations in non-european countries, a community is primarily european. as stated in former studies (european commission, ; münster and ioannides, ), a majority of researchers in the field of digital cultural heritage is italian, followed by germans and greek. what are disciplinary backgrounds of authors? to classify research areas we followed the frascati manual offered by oecd (organisation for economic co-operation and development, ). other schemes are rather outdated, such as cerif (n.n., ), with resultant weaknesses esp. with regards to the distinction of computing areas or the limited compatibility to a european situation – as the american nces scheme (nces ipeds, ). to make our research comparable to former investigations, we grouped ( ) all geo- related disciplines, i.e. cartography, surveying and geodesy, and ( ) all architectural disciplines. figure . disciplinary background (online survey, n= ) a majority of participants assorted themselves to humanities, most frequently named within was archaeology. the high rate of researchers in that field stood in contrast to our former isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume iv- /w , th international cipa symposium , august– september , ottawa, canada this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprs-annals-iv- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. investigations, where especially the rate of computing was much higher (c.f. fig. ). it may be assumed that especially engineers and architects – whose rate is significant higher in the survey - ( ) work in departments dedicated to computing or ( ) - since each authorship was counted in the literature-based assignment – are having a lower publication output than researchers in computing. figure . disciplinary background (left column: online survey, n= , right column: manual tagging of authors by institution, n= . this was originally published in (münster and ioannides, ) what are research areas and topics? as derived from former research (münster, ), an academic discourse in the field of digital heritage is widely driven by technological topics - especially aspects of data acquisition and management (cf. table ). in contrast, specific humanities- related approaches on “methods” or “analysis” are only occasionally named. a third group of research topics deals with social issues of digital heritage like aspects of communication such as crowdsourcing and virtual exhibitions or user practices. category count examples data management e.g. gis, bim, databases, metadata data acquisition photogrammetry, laser scan communication e.g. museum exhibition, crowdsourcing analysis e.g. visual or spatial analysis, computer vision visualisation e.g. virtual reality, drawing methods modelling e.g. d modelling, reconstruction user practices documentation education others table . “what are your fields of research related to archaeological information/visual humanities?” (carried out on arkdis conference, contributors, answers) with regards to the relevance of individual topics (c.f. fig. ), especially data management was most frequently named, ranging from gis and bim to metadata schemes and data architecture, followed by data acquisition, analysis and visualisation. figure . topics (online survey, n= ) as an additional note on the survey carried out at arkdis, numerous researchers work on topics of conservation or on the non-digital management of heritage objects. a large number of answers did not fit into the predefined categories and were subsumed in “others” – in most cases disciplinary approaches, epochs or objects were named. similarly, a majority of interviewees in the qualitative interview series estimated the access to data as “biggest challenge” of digital humanities, as mentioned by a phd student in geosciences. that includes for instance aspects of data availability which is limited by legal barriers or company ownership. since “much data is being shared [via] services like facebook”, it is – as mentioned by a research coordinator - “[potentially] going to be locked away and inaccessible” for researchers. moreover, with regards to aspects of long term preservation and availability “we can't rely on commercial companies to pay [attention] for this”. furthermore, and beside the vast amount of data which is not available online for various reasons, much data is currently not accessible due to insufficient tagging, indexing or linking. as a consequence, “we don't really know what's in there, if […] a web page [links to] […] broken images”. finally, this relates to the question how to archive and preserve digital data like “digital art”. what are standards in digital heritage? item count publications repositories projects institutions standards not recognizeable methods others table . “what are ‘gold standards’ in your field of research?” ( contributors, answers) while both publications and projects were named as anchor examples in the questionnaire manual, it was remarkable that various data repositories and services were named as “standards” (cf. table ), which underlines the high relevance isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume iv- /w , th international cipa symposium , august– september , ottawa, canada this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprs-annals-iv- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. of data as well as the availability of high-quality infrastructure suppliers. with regards to publications, both conference series and journals were named nearly equally often, but no books or book series were mentioned. moreover, “methods” – even if named as anchor example – were named only occasional. an explanation may be that digital heritage is – as mentioned by a head of digital museum technologies - “around the subject”, incorporating a wide plurality of contributing institutions as well as methods and approaches. what are most relevant publication bodies? against that background we queried within the online survey which podia were estimated as most relevant. since we selected the sample on the base of specific conference series, we assumed that results will be biased esp. with regards to named conferences. nevertheless we expected ( ) to query further podia and especially journals of relevance as well as ( ) to derive a ranking of publications. figure . conference series named as “most relevant” (online survey, top , n= out of named publications) with regards to conference series named, especially the caa series was mentioned as most relevant (fig. ), followed by the relatively young digital heritage series which took place for the first time in . among journals, those published by the isprs were mentioned as most relevant, especially the isprs archives and annals. a major influencing factor for that may be that all proceedings of cipa symposia and workshops were published in special issues of these journals. furthermore, the acm journal on computing and cultural heritage (jocch) and the journal of archaeological science were named as relevant. since conference series were named nearly twice as often as journals, it may be assumed that communication in the field of digital cultural heritage primarily takes place via conferences. in total different publication bodies were named - undoubtedly there exists a large variety of podia of relevance for researchers in the field of digital cultural heritage. projects another online survey question was about projects which are estimated as most groundbreaking (c.f. fig. ). similar to publications a wide variety of projects was named as most relevant. with regards to these namings, all top ranked projects were funded by the eu. focusing on individual endeavours, the most frequently mentioned project is the epoch project, followed by ariadne and europeana as well as d-coform. since most of the mentioned projects were named by only few researchers these findings are relatively weak. figure . journals named as “most relevant” (online survey, top , n= out of named publications) . conclusion what are findings of relevance from these investigations? most of the researchers in the field of cultural heritage are europeans and have a disciplinary background in the humanities and in particular archaeology. even if there is a wide scope of topics addressed, most of these are around data in terms of data acquisition and management, visualization or analysis. moreover, digital heritage as scholarly area is primarily defined by publication bodies, repositories and projects. especially conference series such as caa or digital heritage seem of great importance for scholarly communication. while many single projects were named in the online survey as influencing, only a few were mentioned by multiple researchers. similarly, there is probably no single institution or method explicitly mentioned as standard – maybe due to the “diverse nature of the methods used” (long and schonfeld, , p. ). figure . projects named as “most relevant” (online survey, n> , n= out of named projects) isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume iv- /w , th international cipa symposium , august– september , ottawa, canada this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprs-annals-iv- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. some potential weaknesses of these investigations have to be mentioned. since a sample for the online survey was constructed from authors active in specific conference series, a community around these conferences may only partly represent a community on topics of digital cultural heritage. furthermore, the classification of the qualitative answers may be biased - even if a detailed coding scheme was created and employed. a future task will be to compare results from the investigations described in this paper with those of literature-based investigations and to further assess phenomena such as the low rate of researchers from computing. moreover, it seems of particular interest to repeat the survey periodically to study how the field of research will change over time. acknowledgements the research which this paper is based on was part of the junior research group urbanhistory d’s activities which has received funding from the german federal ministry of education and research under grant agreement no ug . references arnold, d., geser, g., . epoch research agenda – final report, brighton. beacham, r., denard, h., niccolucci, f., . an introduction to the london charter, in: ioannides, m., arnold, d., niccolucci, f., mania, k. (eds.), papers from the joint event cipa/vast/eg/euromed event, pp. - . bendicho, v.m.l.-m., . the principles of the seville charter xxiii cipa symposium – proceedings. cetina, k.k., reichmann, w., . epistemic cultures. - . drucker, j., . is there a “digital” art history? visual resources , - . european commission, . survey and outcomes of cultural heritage research projects supported in the context of eu environmental research programmes. from th to th framework programme. european commision, brussels. evans, t.l., daly, p.t., . digital archaeology. bridging method and theory. routledge, london [u. a.]. frischer, b., dakouri-hild, a., . beyond illustration. d and d digital technologies as tools for discovery in archaeology. archaeopress, oxford. gläser, j., laudel, g., . experteninterviews und qualitative inhaltsanalyse als instrumente rekonstruierender untersuchungen, ., überarb. aufl.. ed. vs verlag für sozialwissenschaften, wiesbaden. heusinger, l., . applications of computers in the history of art, in: hamber, a., miles, j., vaughan, w. (eds.), computers and the history of art. mansell pub., london and new york, pp. - . hicks, d., . the four literatures of social science, in: moed, h.f., glänzel, w., schmoch, u. (eds.), handbook of quantitative science and technology research: the use of publication and patent statistics in studies of s&t systems. springer science & business media, pp. - . huvila, i., . archives, libraries and museums in the contemporary society: perspectives of the professionals, iconference proceedings, pp. - . kansa, e.c., kansa, s.w., watrall, e., . archaeology . . new approaches to communication & collaboration. cotsen digital archaeology. kiouss, a., karoglou, m., labropoulos, k., moropoulou, a., zarnic, r., . recommendations and strategies for the establishment of a guideline for monument documentation harmonized with the existing european standards and codes, xxiii cipa symposium – proceedings. knorr-cetina, k., . epistemic cultures. how the sciences make knowledge. harvard university press, cambridge. kohle, h., . digitale bildwissenschaft, glückstadt. krishnan, a., . what are academic disciplines. some observations on the disciplinarity vs. interdisciplinarity debate. university of southampton. national centre for research methods, southhampton. lave, j., wenger, e., . situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. cambridge university press, cambridge long, m.p., schonfeld, r.c., . supporting the changing research practices of art historians. ithaka s+r. mayring, p., . qualitative inhaltsanalyse. grundlagen und techniken, . auflage ed, weinheim. mieg, h.a., näf, m., . experteninterviews, . auflage ed, zürich. münster, s., . employing bibliometric methods to identify a community, topics and protagonists of digital d reconstruction in the humanities, iconference , wuhan. münster, s., ioannides, m., . the scientific community of digital heritage in time and space, in: guidi, g., scopigno, r., torres, j.c., graf, h. (eds.), nd international congress on digital heritage , granada. münster, s., niebling, f., . building a wiki resource on visual knowledge related knowledge assets, in: spender, j., schiuma, g., nönnig, j.r. (eds.), proceedings of the th international forum on knowledge asset dynamics (ifkad ) dresden, germany. june - th . university of basilicata, dresden, pp. - . n.n., . cerif (common european research project information format). official journal of the european communities l . nces ipeds, . classification of instructional programs (cip). organisation for economic co-operation and development, . frascati manual. proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development. oecd publications service, paris. pfarr, m., . dokumentationssystem für digitale rekonstruktionen am beispiel der grabanlage zhaoling, provinz shaanxi, china (dissertation), darmstadt. isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume iv- /w , th international cipa symposium , august– september , ottawa, canada this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprs-annals-iv- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. scollar, i., . years of computer applications in archaeology. caa. sürül, a., Özen, h., tutkun, m., . icomos digital database of the cultural heritage of trabzon. xix cipa symposium - proceedings. svensson, p., . the landscape of digital humanities. digital humanities quarterly . terras, m., . disciplined: using curriculum studies to define 'humanities computing. literary and linguistic computing , - . terras, m., nyhan, j., vanhoutte, e., . defining digital humanities. a reader. ashgate. weingart, s., . submissions to dh , the scottbot irregular. wenger, e., . communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. cambridge university press, cambridge. isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, volume iv- /w , th international cipa symposium , august– september , ottawa, canada this contribution has been peer-reviewed. the double-blind peer-review was conducted on the basis of the full paper. doi: . /isprs-annals-iv- -w - - | © authors . cc by . license. . introduction . related work . research . research design findings . conclusion acknowledgements references türk kütüphaneciliği , ( ), - dijital İnsanî bilimler konferansı raporu the report of digital humanities conference sümeyye akça* ve müge akbulut** *arş. gör., hacettepe Üniversitesi bilgi ve belge yönetimi bölümü. e-posta: sumeyyesakca@gmail.com research ass. hacettepe university department of information management "arş. gör., yıldırım beyazıt Üniversitesi bilgi ve belge yönetimi bölümü. e-posta: mugeakbulut@gmail.com research ass. yıldırım beyazıt university information and records management department geliş tarihi - received: . . kabul tarihi - accepted: . . Öz bu çalışmada, - temmuz tarihlerinde polonya'nın krakow şehrinde düzenlenen dijital İnsanî bilimler konferansı'nda edinilen izlenimler yer almaktadır. anahtar sözcükler: dijital İnsanî bilimler konferansı; dh ; polonya. abstract in this paper, impressions from digital humanities held in krakow, poland in july - , is presented. keywords: digital humanities conference; dh ; poland. giriş bilgisayar teknolojilerinin insanî bilimlere uygulanması şeklinde tanımlanan dijital insanî bilimler (mccarty, ), dijital teknolojilerin yaratılması, uygulanması ve yorumlanması için geniş bir uygulama alanı sunan şemsiye bir terimdir (presner ve johanson, ). bu alanda yapılan çalışmalar, tarihsel bir gerçeği, olayı, eseri somutlaştırarak anlatır (krischel ve fangerau, , ss. - ). dijital insanî bilimler alanında çalışmalar yapan kurumları bir çatı altında toplayan alliance of digital humanities organizations (adho) ana sponsorluğunda her yıl bu alanda konferans düzenlenmektedir. katılımcıları tüm dünyadan bilgisayar mühendisi, tarihçi, arkeolog, eğitimci, kütüphaneci, akademisyen gibi çok çeşitli mesleklerden oluşan bu konferansın ilki yılında düzenlenmiştir. konferans polonya'nın krakow şehrinde jagiellonian (jagiellonian university in krakow) ve pedagoji (pedagogical university in krakow) üniversitelerinin ev sahipliğinde yapılmıştır. ana teması geçmiş ve gelecek olan konferansa farklı ülkeden kişi katılmıştır. konferansa reşat nuri güntekin'in mektupları üzerine yaptığımız sosyal ağ analizi çalışması (akça ve akbulut, ) ile katılarak ülkemizi temsil ettik. Çalıştaylar konferansın ilk iki günü ( - temmuz) çalıştaylara (workshop) ayrılmış olup, katıldığımız çalıştaylardan ilki a demonstration of multispectral imaging başlıklı çalıştaydı. yarım günlük bu çalıştayda, çeşitli sebeplerle (nem, solma, ısı, yeniden yazım gibi) hasara uğramış olan mailto:sumeyyesakca@gmail.com mailto:mugeakbulut@gmail.com dijital İnsanî bilimler konferansı raporu the report of digital humanities conference______________________________________________ yazmaların okunabilmesi için uygulanan görüntüleme sistemi tanıtıldı. mississippi Üniversitesi tarafından yürütülen the lazarus projesinin (www.lazarusprojectimaging.com) tanıtımı yapılarak oluşturulan portatif çoklu ortam görüntüleme cihazları ve bunların kullanımı gösterildi. aynı gün öğleden sonra katıldığımız çalıştay ise tei (text encoding initiative) metin kodlama üzerineydi (tei processing model toolbox: power to the editor). bu çalıştayda exist db (http://exist-db.org/exist/apps/public-repo/index.html) uygulaması üzerinden denemeler yapıldı. Özellikle edebî metinlerin tei standardına uygun hale getirilerek dijital ortamda nasıl yayımlanabileceği üzerinden uygulamalar yaptırıldı. İkinci gün digital archiving and storytelling in the classroom with omeka and curatescape başlığındaki çalıştaya katıldık. omeka (http://omeka.org/) programı kullanılarak dijital ortamda arşiv geliştirme ve hikaye anlatma (storytelling) uygulamalı olarak gösterildi. duke university lab for digital art history & visual culture tarafından geliştirilen eğitimler öncülüğünde yapılan örneklerle omeka içerik programında dijital arşiv oluşturuldu. yine curatescape (http://curatescape.org) lokasyon tabanlı uygulama hakkında bilgi verilerek örnekler yapıldı. omeka eklentileri (plugins) ile web sitesinin kişiselleştirilmesi üzerine çalışma yaptırıldı. bu programla oluşturulan projelerden örnekler gösterildi (gothicpast projesi (http://www.gothicpast.com) vb.). açılış cern araştırma konseyi (cern research council) başkanlığını yürüten parçacık fizikçisi agnieszka zalewska açış konuşmasında cern'ün genel yapısı, çalışma alanları ve ülkelerle olan işbirliği konularına değindi. teknik bir dille kaleme alınan konuşmada ağırlıklı olarak cern'ün başarısındaki anahtar faktörler tartışıldı. cern'ün son yıllarda dünyaya açılma girişimlerinden de bahseden zalewska, kısaca yürütülen projelere değindi. devletlerin üyelik durumları ve işbirlikleri sunumun dikkat çeken kısımlarıydı. zalewska konuşmasında cern'ün çalışma yapısındaki bilgi ve becerilerin öğrencilere aktarılmasını örnek göstererek bu sistemin dijital insanî bilimler için bir model olabileceğini belirtti. konferans günleri temmuzda aynı anda on bir salonda yapılan paralel oturumlara geçildi. semantik teknolojiler, kültür ve sanat alanında büyük verinin kullanılması, sosyal ağlar ve kültürel miras gibi çok farklı alanlarda yapılan çalışmaların sunumlarını izledik. aynı gün olan poster sunumları ise iki farklı şekilde düzenlenmişti. İsteyen yazarlar çalışmalarını - dk. süre zarfında sözlü olarak sundular. daha sonra ise sözlü sunum yapmak istemeyen yazarların poster sunumlarına geçildi. temmuzda paralel oturumlar devam etti. aynı günün akşamı adho tarafından verilen busa Ödülünün bu yılki kazananı olan helen agüera'nın konuşmasını dinledik. agüera, amerikan ulusal İnsanî bilimler vakfının (national endowment for humanities) projeleri desteklemedeki rolünü ve vakfın işleyişini değerlendirdi. vakıf tarafından erken dönemde ( - ) yapılan desteklerin (hibe) merkezinde kütüphane işbirliği ağının geliştirilmesi ve veri tabanları gibi konular varken, dijital insanî bilimler alanının gelişmesiyle birlikte daha çok eğitim (daha çok bilgisayar yeteneklerinin geliştirilmesi üzerine), teknoloji araçları ve dil çalışmaları (istatiksel analizler) gibi konularda destek verildiğini dile getirdi. diğer bağış http://www.lazarusprojectimaging.com http://exist-db.org/exist/apps/public-repo/index.html http://omeka.org/ http://curatescape.org http://www.gothicpast.com okuyucu mektupları / reader letters___________________________________________ akça ve akbulut kurumlarıyla olan ilişkilere de değinen konuşmacı, vakıf tarafından desteklenen uluslararası projelerden örnekler verdi (tei, unicode gibi). paralel oturumların devam ettiği son günde ise konferansın kapanış konuşmasını durham Üniversitesinden claire warwick yaptı. touching the interface: bishop cosin and unsolved problems in (digital) information design başlıklı konuşmasında warwick, dijital kaynakların henüz tam olarak içselleştirilemediği ve hâlâ insanların dijital kaynakları kullanmaya uyum sağlayamadığı sorununu tartıştı. bu sorunda mekânsal bağlılıktan, dokunma duyusunun önemine kadar birçok sebebin etkili olduğunu belirten konuşmacı, internet ve kullanıcı arasında daha etkili bir deneyim sağlayabilmek için çalışmalar yaptıklarını söyleyerek ortaçağ manastır kütüphaneleri tasarımlarından örnekler verdi (durham psikoposu cosin gibi). bu konferans önümüzdeki yıl kanada'nın montreal şehrinde mcgill ve montreal Üniversitesinin ev sahipliğinde yapılacaktır. kaynakça akça, s. ve akbulut, m. ( ). content based social network analysis of reşat nuri güntekin's letters. digital humanities (dh ), krakow, poland, - july, . krakow: jagiellonian university and pedagogical university. krischel, m. ve fangerau, h. ( ). historical network analysis can be used to construct a social network of th-century evolutionists. classification and evolution in biology, linguistics and the history of science, - . erişim adresi: http://www.steiner- verlag.de/fileadmin/dateien/steiner/ebook/ _eb.pdf#page= mccarty, w. ( ). what is humanities computing? toward a definition of the field. erişim adresi: http://www.dighum.kcl.ac.uk/legacy/teaching/dtrt/class /mccarty_humanities_computing.pdf presner, t. ve johanson, c. ( ). the promise of digital humanities: a whitepaper. erişim adresi: http://www.itpb.ucla.edu/documents/ /promiseofdigitalhumanities.pdf http://www.steiner- http://www.dighum.kcl.ac.uk/legacy/teaching/dtrt/class /mccarty_humanities_computing.pdf http://www.itpb.ucla.edu/documents/ /promiseofdigitalhumanities.pdf microsoft word - ris special issue v - revised - changes accepted king’s research portal doi: . /ijhac. . document version early version, also known as pre-print link to publication record in king's research portal citation for published version (apa): dunn, s., & hedges, m. ( ). crowd-sourcing as a component of humanities research infrastructures. international journal of humanities and arts computing, ( ), - . 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( ). crowd-sourcing as a component of humanities research infrastructures. international journal of humanities and arts computing this version: pre-print https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/crowdsourcing-as-a- component-of-humanities-research-infrastructures% ddb -e c- bce-b cf- b c aeb % .html this pre-print version has been submitted for publication https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ mailto:librarypure@kcl.ac.uk https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/crowdsourcing-as-a-component-of-humanities-research-infrastructures% ddb -e c- bce-b cf- b c aeb % .html https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/crowdsourcing-as-a-component-of-humanities-research-infrastructures% ddb -e c- bce-b cf- b c aeb % .html https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/crowdsourcing-as-a-component-of-humanities-research-infrastructures% ddb -e c- bce-b cf- b c aeb % .html crowd-sourcing as a component of humanities research infrastructures stuart dunn, mark hedges centre for e-research, department of digital humanities, king’s college london, - drury lane, london, uk mark.hedges@kcl.ac.uk, stuart.dunn@kcl.ac.uk abstract: crowd-sourcing, the process of leveraging public participation in or contribution to a project or activity, is relatively new to academic research, but is becoming increasingly important as the web transforms collaboration and communication and blurs the boundaries between the academic and non- academic worlds. at the same time, digital research methods are entering the mainstream of humanities research, and there are a number of initiatives addressing the conceptualisation and construction of research infrastructures for the humanities. this paper examines the place of crowd-sourcing activities within such initiatives, presenting a framework for describing and analysing academic humanities crowd- sourcing, and using this framework of ‘primitives’ as a basis for exploring potential relationships between crowd-sourcing and humanities research infrastructures. keywords: crowd-sourcing, research infrastructures, citizen science, scholarly primitives, typology. introduction crowd-sourcing, the process of leveraging public participation in or contribution to a project or activity, is relatively new to academic research, and even more so to the humanities. however, at a time when the web is transforming the way in which people collaborate and communicate, and is blurring boundaries between the spaces inhabited by the academic and non-academic worlds, it has never been more important to examine the role that public communities are beginning to play in academic humanities research. at the same time, digital research methods are starting to enter the mainstream of humanities research, and there are a number of initiatives addressing the conceptualisation and construction of research infrastructures that would support a shift from ad hoc projects and centres to an environment that is more integrated and sustainable. such an environment will inevitably be distributed, integrating knowledge, services and people in a loosely-coupled, collaborative ‘digital social marketplace’. the question naturally arises as to where crowd-sourcing activities fit within this framework. more specifically, what contributions can public participants, and the communities to which they belong, make to a humanities research infrastructure, and conversely how can these participants and communities, and the academic researchers who make use of the knowledge and effort that they contribute, benefit from such participation? to begin to address these questions is one of the aims of this paper. the paper is organised as follows: we begin by describing the context in which the work was carried out, and the methodology used. we then review a number of existing terminologies and typologies for crowd- sourcing and related concepts, and follow this with an analysis of the main motivations for engaging with crowd-sourcing, from both the volunteer’s and the academic’s points of view. finally, we build upon this by presenting the outline of a framework for describing and analysing academic humanities crowd-sourcing projects, and use this framework of ‘primitives’ as a basis for exploring the potential relationships between various forms of crowd-sourcing activity and humanities research infrastructures. background and methodology the research described in this paper was mostly carried out as part of the crowd-sourcing scoping study project (ref. ah/j x/ ), which ran for nine months from february-november , and was funded by the arts and humanities research council as part of its connected communities programme. the study’s methodology had four main components: • a literature review covering academic humanities research that has incorporated crowd-sourcing, research into crowd-sourcing as a method, and less formal outputs such as blogs and project websites. • two workshops facilitating discussion between, respectively, humanities academics who have used crowd-sourcing, and contributors to crowd-sourcing projects; • an online survey of contributors to crowd-sourcing projects, exploring their backgrounds, histories of participating in such projects, and motivations for doing so; • interviews with academics and contributors. the study does not claim to be comprehensive: there are bound to be important projects, publications, individuals and activities that have been omitted, and there is a strong uk and anglophone focus on the activities studied. in particular, while the survey was widely publicised, it was self-selecting and makes no claim to being statistically representative; it functioned rather as a means of gathering qualitative information about contributors’ backgrounds and motivations. crowd-sourcing and related concepts the term crowd-sourcing was coined in a wired article by jeff howe, in which he draws a parallel between reducing labour costs by outsourcing to cheaper countries, and utilising ‘the productive potential of millions of plugged-in enthusiasts’. in an academic context, the term has developed from an economic focus to an information focus, in which this productive potential is used to achieve research aims. however, the term is problematic and requires further analysis. it is first necessary to distinguish crowd-sourcing from some related concepts. it is broader and less easy to define than ‘citizen science’, which is commonly understood to refer to activities whereby members of the public undertake well-defined and (individually) small-scale tasks as part of larger-scale scientific projects. another related concept is the ‘wisdom of crowds’, which holds that large-scale collective decision-making can be superior to that of individuals, even experts. although academic crowd-sourcing can be about decision, the decisions involved are rarely as neatly packageable as those implied in the world of business, where the ‘good’ or ‘bad’ nature of a decision can be evaluated on the basis of profitability. such collective decision-making also lacks the elements of collaboration around activities conceived and directed for a common purpose that characterise crowd-sourcing as commonly understood. another important distinction is that between crowd-sourcing and ‘social engagement’. according to holley, social engagement involves ’giving the public the ability to communicate with us and each other‘, and is ’usually undertaken by individuals for themselves and their own purposes‘, whereas crowd-sourcing ’uses social engagement techniques to help a group of people achieve a shared, usually significant, and large goal by working collaboratively together as a group‘. holley also notes that crowd-sourcing is likely to involve more effort, and implies a level of commitment and participation that goes beyond casual interest, whereas social engagement is an extension of the kinds of online activities – tweeting, commenting – that millions do on a daily basis anyway. in one way, this aligns crowd-sourcing with ‘citizen science’. indeed, wiggins and crowston develop this theme by highlighting a distinction between citizen science and community science, and stating as a key ingredient of the former that it is not self-organising and ’does not represent peer production ... because the power structure of these projects is usually hierarchical‘. a fundamental aspect of citizen science is thus that the goal is defined by a particular person or group (almost always as part of a professional academic undertaking), and the participants (recruited through an open call) provide some significant effort towards achieving that goal. however, the different intellectual traditions of the sciences and the humanities embrace, and are embraced by, different kinds of non-academic community. indeed, as trevor owens has noted, most successful crowd-sourcing activities in the humanities and cultural sectors are not really about crowds at all, in the sense of ’large anonymous masses of people’, but are about ’participation from interested and engaged members of the public’. while a crowd-sourcing project may have the capacity for involving large numbers of people, in many cases only a few contributors end up being actively engaged, and these contribute a large percentage of the work. while there may be a centralised recruitment process, at this level the body of contributors is self-organising and self-selecting. a number of attempts have been made to identify the key characteristics, or to formulate a typology, of crowd-sourcing and related activities. estellés-arolas and gonzález-ladrón-de-guevara identify eight characteristics, distilled from distinct definitions identified in the literature: the crowd; the task at hand; the recompense obtained; the crowdsourcer or initiator of the crowdsourcing activity; what is obtained by crowdsourcing process; the type of process; the call to participate; and the medium. this extremely processual definition is comprehensive in identifying stages that map easily to business processes. for the humanities, the ‘type of process’ is both more significant and more problematic, given the great diversity of processes in the creation of humanities research material. a more task-oriented approach is taken by wiggins and crowston, who construct a typology for ‘citizen science’ activities, identifying five areas of application: action, conservation, investigation, virtual, and education. the factors that lead to an activity being assigned to a category are multivariate, and the identification of the categories was based on whether there is an occurrence in a category or not, rather than frequency of those occurrences. the coverage is therefore extremely broad; ’action’, for example, covers self-organising citizen groups that use web technologies to achieve a common purpose, often to do with campaigns on local issues. moreover, the use of the word ‘science’ (at least in the usual anglophone sense) confines the activities reviewed (in terms of both the methods and the content) to a particular epistemic bracket, which inevitably excludes some aspects of humanities research. one widely-quoted set of definitions for citizen science projects was presented by bonney et al.. this divided the field into three broad categories: contributory projects, in which members of the public, via an open call, contribute along lines that are tightly defined and directed by scientists; collaborative projects, which have a central design but to which members of the public contribute data, and may also help to refine project design, analyze data, or disseminate findings; and co-created projects, which are designed by scientists and members of the public working together and for which at least some of the public participants are actively involved in the scientific process. this approach shares important characteristics with the ‘task type’ described below, in that it is rooted in the complexity of the task, and the amount of initiative and independent analysis required to make a contribution. the galleries, libraries, archives and museums (hereafter glam) sectors have in particular seen efforts to develop crowd-sourcing typologies. one such typology has been proposed by mia ridge in a blog post, and includes the following categories: tagging, debunking (i.e. correcting/reviewing content), recording a personal story, linking, stating preferences, categorizing, and creative responses. again, these categories imply a processual approach, concerning the type of task being carried out, and are potentially extensible across different types of online and physical content and collections. another typology from the glam domain was developed by oomen and aroyo. their categories include correction and transcription, defined as inviting users to correct and/or transcribe outputs of digitisation processes (a category that ridge’s ‘debunking’ partially, but not entirely, covers); contextualisation, or adding contextual knowledge to objects, by constructing narratives or creating user generated content (ugc) with contextual data; complementing collections, which is the active pursuit of additional objects to be included in a collection; classification, defined as the gathering of descriptive metadata related to objects in a collection (ridge’s ‘tagging’ is a subset of this); co-curation, which is using inspiration/expertise of non-professional curators to create (web) exhibits (somewhat analogous to the co- created projects of bonney et al., but more task-oriented); and crowdfunding, or the collective cooperation of people who pool their money and other resources together to support efforts initiated by others. ridge explicitly rejects crowdfunding as a component of crowd-sourcing. these typologies from the glam world perhaps represent best the different crowd-sourcing activities examined by the study, although such lists of categories do not reflect fully the complexity of the situations encountered. instead, we propose a typology that is orientated along four distinct, although inter- dependent, facets, as described in crowd-sourcing and research infrastructures below. motivations motivations of participants overview most studies have concluded that crowd-sourcing contributors typically do not have a single motivation; our own survey indicated overwhelmingly ( %) that the contributors who responded have both personal and altruistic motivations. however in many cases it is possible to identify a dominant motivating factor, which is almost always concerned directly with the activity’s subject area. in an analysis of forum posts and interview responses for example, the galaxy zoo project found that the top motivations were an interest in astronomy ( %), a desire to contribute ( %) and a concern with the vastness of the universe ( %). a study of volunteers for the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission’s nesting beach survey found that concern for turtle conservation was the overwhelming motivating factor. moreover, studies of the motivations of the contributors to academic crowd-sourcing projects have emphasised personal interest in the subject area concerned, and the opportunities provided to exercise that interest and to engage with people who share it, without material benefit. such interest is usually concerned with the outcome, but it can also be in the process, or some combination of both. for example, in her assessment of volunteers to the trove project, holley notes that ‘a large proportion was family history researchers’, who were highly motivated and had ‘a sense of responsibility towards other genealogists to help not only themselves but other people where possible’. in general, it may be said that research into crowd-sourcing motivations suggests a clear primary, although not exclusive, focus on the subject or activity area, and that motivations can be personal or altruistic, and extrinsic or intrinsic. rewards for the most part, crowd-sourcing projects do not reward their contributors directly in material or professional terms, and conversely contributors to crowd-sourcing projects are not subject to discipline (in either sense) or sanction in the way that members of conventionally-configured research projects are. indeed, it is clear that the motivations of participants in academic crowd-sourcing tend to be intrinsic to the activity. however, we may regard more indirect benefits as constituting a form of reward: the fulfilment of an interest in the subject; personal gains such as skills, experience or knowledge; some form of status; or a feeling of gratification. in our survey, contributors mentioned a number of skills gained, including general it competencies, such as editing wikis and using skype for distributed collaboration, as well as specialised skills such as tei encoding. many contributors gained domain knowledge, for example through the opportunity to edit historical documents (ships’ histories) resulting from participation in the old weather project. this project showed that the domain interests of the participants can differ from those of the project team, which in this case is solely interested in those parts of the documents being transcribed that relate to climate history, whereas several contributors became interested in the histories of individual ships, and in addressing niches of history that had been hitherto unexplored. participants can also pick up a basic grounding in research methods of collation, synthesis and analysis in the area of interest to them. less concrete benefits also function as rewards. it was frequently noted that some form of ‘feedback loop’, through which a participant is informed that their contributions were correct and valuable, is a very important motivating factor for engaging with crowd-sourcing projects, and conversely that a lack of feedback can be very frustrating and discouraging to the participant. feedback also plays a key role in building a sense of community, and making participants feel that they have a stake in the project. for complex tasks, feedback may also be a necessary part of improving volunteers’ work practices, as in transcribe bentham. this feedback can be immediate and specific to an individual contribution – for example,. participants in the british library’s georeferencer project (blg), who could see the results of their work immediately – or it can be deferred and cumulative, for example by means of rankings. contributors may receive various ’social’ rewards, for example through rankings, increased standing in the crowd-sourcing community, or (in the case of galaxy zoo) being credited and named in publications. similarly, contributors may be subjected to social sanctions, such as banning (e.g. removal of pages or blocking of accounts on wikipedia), which can adversely affect their reputation and enjoyment, and may even in rare cases reflect on their professional standing. as well as simple feedback interactions between the project and an individual user, the ability to interact with other participants, for example via a project forum, is an extremely important motivation. such project-based social networks are used both for ‘exchanging chit-chat’ and for discussing and sharing information on the practical and technical issues raised, and can foster a sense of community among the participants that can extend beyond the immediate activities of the project itself. a good example of this is the old weather forum, which contains exchanges among participants that are indicative of a high degree of collaborative, communal working in addressing problems that arise during the process. the importance of forums was also noted by participants in transcribing bentham and british library georeferencer. gamification some approaches have emphasised the importance of tasks being enjoyable, and have focused on the development of games for crowd-sourcing of different kinds. prestnopnik and crowston discuss the role of games, and in particular possible approaches to creating an application for crowd-sourced natural history taxonomy classification using design science. the bodiam castle project provides an example of the potential for games in the context of archaeological analysis of buildings, although this had a greater emphasis on visualisation than on competition. however, prestnopnik and crowston also note that ‘gamification’ can act as a disincentive to contributors who have expert knowledge or deep interest in the subject. gamification can also be a barrier for users who simply want to engage with the assets or processes in question, and can trivialise the process of acquiring or processing data. in their analysis of the bird network project, in which gathered data about the use of bird-boxes by birds, which was then shared with the scientific team, brossard et al. note that participants’ interest in ornithology was likely to overshadow awareness of scientific process, and thus stymie efforts by the lab to contribute to scientific awareness and education. competition although very few participants in our survey admitted to being motivated by competition with each other, among those who attended our workshop competition featured strongly as a factor, although this should be qualified by the fact that those present tended to be ‘super contributors’, who are likely to feel more competitive than those in the ‘long tail’ of the crowd. for many projects it is possible to track individual participant’s contributions and to acquire statistics on contributions, and in such cases projects can establish ‘leader boards’ indicating which participants have made the biggest contributions (in whatever terms the project is using). for example, the british library’s georeferencer project displayed the handles of the users who processed the most maps, and the ‘winner’ was invited to meet the library’s head of cartography. the old weather project also encouraged competition by assigning roles to contributors based on the number of pages transcribed. however, in order for competition to be a significant motivating factor, the tasks and their outcomes must be sufficiently quantifiable to allow mutual comparison; matters can become complex when tasks are not comparable directly. for example, in blg some maps were more complex than others, and the team felt that this affected the meaningfulness of comparing the effort needed to georeference them. where more creative or interpretive outputs are being created, this lack of commensurability is a still greater issue, and there may even be conflicts between outputs; simple rankings seem inappropriate to such scenarios. in any case, the encouragement of competition should not be at the cost of alienating potential participants who are not by nature competitive, nor of favouring speed and volume at the expense of quality and care. indeed, competition can be defined not just in this quantitative sense; volunteers may compete to produce more high-quality work, although in the absence of metrics this can amount to competing only against oneself. note also that competition is not incompatible with a sense of common purpose; for example, old weather participants often ‘feel like part of the ship’ on which they are working. motivations of academics at least part of the success of galaxy zoo and other zooniverse projects is that they catered to clear and present academic needs. in the case of galaxy zoo itself, the assets – photographs of galaxies – were far too numerous to be examined individually by any research team, and the task – the classification of those galaxies – was not one that could be performed by computer software, although for the most part could be carried out by a person without specialist expertise. quite simply, this is work that could not have been carried without large-scale public engagement and participation. most cases where humanities academics have engaged with crowd-sourcing have been driven by specific research questions or the need for a particular resource. for example, the transcribe bentham project was motivated by the fact that , folios of bentham’s work were untranscribed, and thus these valuable primary sources were inaccessible to people researching eighteenth or nineteenth century thought. blg was motivated by the desire to make its map collections more searchable and thus more exploitable. in old weather, researchers were motivated by the desire to be able to use information contained within the assets to explore historic weather patterns, although these motivations may not necessarily be shared by the participants. although the research motivations are various, the key characteristic leading the project to use crowd-sourcing is that each involves tasks that a computer could not carry out, and that a research team could only do only with prohibitively large resources. note however, during the initial six-month testing period of the project, the rate of volunteer transcription compared unfavourably with that of professional researchers, possibly due to the complexity of the material and the difficulty of bentham’s handwriting. there was also an extremely high moderation overhead, with significant staff time needed to validate the outputs and provide feedback to the contributors. since then, the volunteer transcription rate has improved significantly, so there is potential for avoiding significant costs in the future. however, this example can serve as a warning against assumptions that crowd-sourcing provides free labour. other researchers, particularly those in the glam sector, see crowd-sourcing as a means of filling gaps in the coverage of their collections, as it can be an effective way of obtaining information about assets (or the assets themselves) to which only certain members of the public have access, for example through personal or family connections. however, in order to be usable for academic purposes, a degree of curation is required, and this may involve expert input. it is clear that public engagement and community building is frequently an unintentional by-product of crowd-sourcing projects. in some cases it is seen as an explicit motivation, with the aim of encouraging public engagement with scholarly archives and research, and thus increasing the broader impact of academic research activities. crowd-sourcing and research infrastructures a conceptual framework for crowd-sourcing one of the outcomes of our study is a typology for crowd-sourcing in the humanities, which brings together the earlier work cited in section with the experiences and processes uncovered during the study. it does not seek to provide an alternative set of categories specifically for the humanities, in competition with those considered above. rather, we propose a model for describing and understanding crowd-sourcing projects in the humanities by analysing them in terms of four key facets – asset type, process type, task type, and output type – and of the relationships between them, and in particular by observing how the applicable categories in one facet are dependent on those in other facets. error! reference source not found. illustrates the four facets and their interactions. • a process is composed of tasks through which an output is produced by operating on an asset. it is conditioned by the kind of asset involved, and by the questions that are of interest to project stakeholders (both organisers and volunteers) and can be answered, or at least addressed, using information contained in the asset. • an asset refers to the content that is, in some way, transformed as a result of processing by a crowd-sourcing activity. • a task is an activity that a project participant undertakes in order to create, process or modify an asset (usually a digital asset). tasks can differ significantly as regards the extent to which they require initiative and/or independent analysis on the part of the participant, and the difficulty with which they can be quantified or documented. the task types were identified the aim of categorising this complexity, and are listed below in approximately increasing order. • the output is what is produced as the result of applying a process to an asset. outputs can be tangible and/or measurable, but we make allowance also for intangible outcomes, such as awareness or knowledge etc. error! reference source not found.–error! reference source not found. list the categories that the study identified under each facet; these are based for the most part on an examination of existing crowd- sourcing practice, so it is to be expected that the lists will be extended and/or challenged by future work. detailed descriptions of each category may be found in the report by dunn and hedges; in the rest of this paper, we examine the framework specifically in relation to humanities research infrastructures. from crowd-sourcing primitives to research infrastructures rather than attempting to map the elements of this crowd-sourcing framework to specific infrastructures or infrastructural components, we note instead that it may be thought of as a framework of ‘primitives’, in a sense analogous to that of ‘scholarly primitives’. scholarly primitives may be defined as ’basic functions common to scholarly activity across disciplines’, and they provide a conceptual framework for classifying scholarly activities. given the diversity of humanities research, it is not surprising that there are various sets of candidates – in addition to palmer et al. there are, for example, unsworth, benardou et al. and anderson et al. – and such a structure has in particular been used as a framework for conceptualising and developing infrastructure for supporting humanities research. the process facet in particular may be regarded as providing a set of primitives in this sense, and the output type composite digital collection with multiple meanings may in particular be regarded as a form of humanities ‘research object’, in the sense used by bechhofer et al. and blanke and hedges. of course, the categorisation into primitives described above is quite different to those in the works cited; this is only to be expected, as it represents the activities of quite different stakeholders, namely interested members of the public rather than professional scholars (although of course one person can play different roles in different circumstances). in particular, there is a greater emphasis on creating or enhancing digital assets in some way, rather than using these assets in research (although again these activities can overlap. for the remainder of this paper, we will look in more detail at each of the process types in turn, using specific examples examined by the study with a view to seeing how crowd-sourcing can contribute effectively to humanities research infrastructures. collaborative tagging collaborative tagging may be regarded as crowd-sourcing the organisation of information assets by allowing users to attach tags to those assets. tags can be based on existing controlled vocabularies, but are more usually derived from free text supplied by the users themselves. such ‘folksonomies’ are distinguished from deliberately designed knowledge organisation systems by the fact that they are self- organising, evolving and growing as contributors add new terms. it is possible to extract more formal vocabularies from folksonomies. collaborative tagging can result in two concrete outcomes: it can make a corpus of information assets searchable using keywords applied by the user pool, and it can highlight assets that have particular significance, as evidenced by the number of repeat tags they are accorded by the pool. research in this area has examined the patterns and information that can be extracted from folksonomies. golder found that patterns generated by collaborative tagging are, on the whole, extremely stable, meaning that minority opinions can be preserved alongside more highly replicated, and therefore mainstream, concentrations of tags. other research has shown that user-assigned tags in museums may be quite different from vocabulary terms assigned by curators, and that relating tags to controlled vocabularies can be very problematic, although it could be argued that this allows works to be addressed from a different perspective than that of the museum’s formal documentation. in any case, such approaches to knowledge organisation are likely to play a significant part in the organisation of humanities data in the future. an example is the bbc’s yourpaintings project, developed in collaboration with the public catalogue foundation, which has amassed a collection of photographs of all paintings in public ownership in the uk. the public is invited to apply tags to these, which both improves discovery and enables the creation of an aggregation of specialised knowledge. a more complex example is provided by the prism project. collaborative tagging typically assumes that the assets being tagged are themselves stable and clearly identifiable as distinct objects. prism allowed readers to highlight significant areas of a text and apply tags to them, and thus build up a collective interpretation of the text. unlike many humanities crowd-sourcing activities, such as transcribing texts according to well-defined procedures, which have identifiable completions, interpretation can go on indefinitely, and there are no right or wrong answers. linking linking covers the identification and documentation of relationships (usually typed) between individual assets. most commonly, this takes the form of linking via semantic tags, where the tags describe binary relationships, in which case it is analogous to collaborative tagging. in principle, this could also include the identification of n-ary relationships. transcribing transcribing is currently one of the most prominent areas of humanities crowd-sourcing, as it can be used to address a fundamental problem with digitisation, namely the difficulty of rendering handwriting into machine-readable form using current technology. typically, such transcription requires the human eye and, in many cases, human interpretation. in terms of our typology, the output of a transcribing process will typically be transcribed text. two projects have contributed significantly to this prominence: old weather (ow) and transcribe bentham (tb). ow involved the transcription of ships’ log-books held by the national archives, in order to obtain access to the weather observations they contain, information that is of major significance for climate research. tb encouraged volunteers to transcribe and engage with unpublished manuscripts by the philosopher and reformer jeremy bentham, by rendering them into text marked up using tei xml. the collaborative model needed for successful crowd-sourced transcription depends on the complexity of the source material. complex material, such as these two cases, requires a high level of support, whether from the project team or a participant’s peers. simpler material is likely to require less support; for example, when transcribing the more structured data found in family records, the information (text or integers) to be transcribed is presented to the user in small segments – e.g. names, dates, addresses – and transcription requires different cognitive processes that are less dependent on interaction with peers and experts. note that this category includes marked-up transcriptions, e.g. using tei xml, as well as simple transcription of characters. there will be a point however at which the addition of semantic mark-up will go beyond mere transcription, and will count as a form of collaborative tagging or linking, and the output will typically be enhanced text. correcting/modifying content while content is increasingly ‘born digital’, projects for digitising analogue material abound. many mass- digitisation technologies, such as optical character recognition (ocr) and speech recognition, can be error-prone, and any such enterprise needs to factor in quality control and error correction, which can make use of crowd-sourcing. the trove project, which produced ocr-ed scans of newspapers from the australian national archives, is an excellent example of this. the volume of digitised material precluded the corrections being undertaken by the archive’s its own staff, and using uncorrected text would have significantly reduced the benefits of digitisation, as search capability would have been very restricted. another potential application in this category is for correcting automated transcriptions of recorded speech, as such transcription is currently highly error-prone, with error rates of % or more. recording and creating content processes in this category frequently deal with ephemera and intangible cultural heritage. the latter covers any cultural manifestation that does not exist in tangible form; typically, crowd-sourcing is used to document such heritage through a set of processes and tasks, resulting in some form of tangible output. the importance of preserving intangible cultural heritage has been recognised by the un, and the ways in which this can be documented and curated by distributed communities is an important area for future research. frequently this takes the form of a cultural institution soliciting memories from the communities it serves, for example the tenbury wells regal cinema’s memory reel project. such processes can incorporate a form of editorial control or post hoc digital curation, and their outputs can be edited into more formal publications. another example is the scottish words and place-names (swap) project, which gathered words in scots, determining which words were in current use and where/how they were used, with the ultimate aim of offering selected words for inclusion in the scottish language dictionaries resource. candidate words were gathered via the project website as well as via social media – facebook in particular was an important venue for developing conversations around the material – and words that the project felt were suitable were passed to lexicographers for further scrutiny. by ephemera, we understand cultural objects that are tangible, but are at risk of loss because of their transitory nature, for example home videos or personal photographs. there are a number of project addressing such assets, for example the europeana - project, which is collecting digitised personal artefacts relating to the first world war. the ubiquity of the web, and access to content creation and digitisation technologies, has led to the creation of non-professionally curated online archives. these have a clear role to play in enriching, augmenting and complementing collections held by memory institutions, and in developing curatorial narratives independent from those of library and archive professionals. processes in this category are also likely to have elements of the ‘social engagement’ model, in terms of holley’s distinction. commenting, critical responses and stating preferences processes of this type are likely to count as crowd-sourcing only if there is some specific purpose around which people come together. one example of this is the shakespeare’s global communities project, which captured audience responses to the world shakespeare festival, with the aim of investigating how ‘social networking technologies reshape the ways in which diverse global communities connect with one another around a figure such as shakespeare’ . the question provides a focus for the activity, which, although not itself producing an academic output, provides a dataset for addressing research questions on the modern reception of shakespeare. appropriately managed blogs can provide a platform for focused scholarly interactions of this type. for example, a review by sonia massai of king lear on the year of shakespeare site attracted controversial responses, leading to an exchange about critical methods as well as content. what differentiates such exchanges from amateur blogging is the scholarly focus and context provided by the project, and its proactive directing of content creation. the project thus provides a tangible link between the crowd and the subject. categorising categorising involves assigning assets to predefined categories; it differs from collaborative tagging in that the latter is unconstrained. cataloguing cataloguing – or the creation of structured, descriptive metadata – is a more open-ended process than categorising, but is nevertheless constrained to following accepted metadata standards and approaches. it frequently includes categorising as a sub-activity, e.g. by loc subject headings. cataloguing is a time- and resource-consuming process for many glam institutions, and crowd-sourcing has been explored as a means of addressing this. for example, the what’s the score project at the bodleian investigated a cost-effective approach to increasing access to music scores from their collections through a combination of rapid digitisation and crowd-sourcing descriptive metadata. cataloguing is related to contextualising, as ordering, arraying and describing assets will also make explicit some of their context. contextualising contextualising is typically a more broadly-conceived activity than the related process types of cataloguing or linking, and it involves enriching an asset by adding to it or associating with it other relevant information or content. georeferencing georeferencing is the process of establishing the location of un-referenced geographical information in terms of a modern coordinate system such as latitude and longitude. georeferencing can be used to enrich geospatial assets – datasets or texts, including maps, gazetteers or travelogues, that refer to locations on the earth’s surface – that do not include such explicit information. a major example of crowd-sourcing activity in this area is the british library georeferencer project, which aimed to ’geo-enable‘ historical maps in its collections by asking participants to assign spatial coordinates to digitised map images, a task that would have been too labour-intensive for library staff to undertake themselves. once georeferenced, the digitised maps are searchable geographically due to the inclusion of latitude and longitude coordinates in the metadata. mapping mapping (in the sense of this typology) refers to the process of creating a spatial representation of some information asset(s). this could involve the creation of map data from scratch, but could also be applied to the spatial mapping of concepts, as in a ‘mind map’. the precise sense will depend on the asset type to which mapping is being applied. there is an important distinction between maps and related geospatial assets created by expert organisations, such as the ordnance survey, and those created by community-based initiatives. the former may have the authority of a governmental imprimatur, and the distinction of official endorsement. however, the recent emergence of crowd-sourced geospatial assets – a product of the recent global growth in the ownership of hand-held devices with the ability to record location using gps – has led to the emergence of resources such as open street map, which has in turn led to a discussion about the reliability of such resources. in general, it has been found that open street map in particular is extremely reliable, but that the specifications for such resources must be carefully defined. the impact of open street map on the cartographic community generally has been noted. the importance of mapping as a means of convening spatial significance means that this kind of asset is particularly open to different discourses, and possibly conflicting narratives. the digital realm, with its potential for accommodating multiple, diverse, contributions and interpretations, holds great potential for such material. translating this covers the translation of content from one language to another. in many cases, a crowd-sourced translation will require a strongly collaborative element if it is to be successful, given the semantic interdependencies that can occur between different parts of a text. however, in cases where a large text can be broken up naturally into smaller pieces, a more independent mode of work may be possible; for example, suda on-line, which is translating the entries in a th century byzantine lexicon/encyclopaedia. a more modern, although non-academic, example is the phenomenon of ‘fansubbing’, where enthusiasts provide subtitles for television shows and other audiovisual material. conclusions one of the main conclusions of our study is that research involving humanities crowd-sourcing can best be framed and understood through an analysis in terms of four fundamental facets – asset type, process type, task type, and output type – and of the relationships between them. depending on the activity in question, and what it aims to do, some categories, or indeed some facets, will have primacy. outputs might be original knowledge, or they might be more ephemeral and difficult to identify: however, considering the processes of both knowledge and resource creation as comprising of these four facets gives a meaningful context to every piece of research, publication and activity we have uncovered in the course of this review. we hope the lessons and good practice we have identified here will, along with this typology, contribute to the development of new kinds of humanities crowd-sourcing in the future. significantly, we have determined that most humanities scholars that have used crowd-sourcing as part of some research activity agree that it is not simply a form of ‘cheap labour’ for mass digitisation or resource enhancement; indeed, in a narrowly cost-benefit sense it does not always compare well with more conventional mechanisms of digitisation. in this sense, it has truly left its economic roots, as defined by howe ( ), behind. the creativity, enthusiasm and alternative foci that communities outside that academy can bring to academic research is a resource that is now ripe for tapping into, and the examples above illustrate the rich variety of forms that this tapping can take. we have noted the similarity between some aspects of our typology and the concept of the ‘scholarly primitive’, which has proved valuable in humanities e-research for providing a conceptual framework of fundamental building blocks for describing scholarly activities and modelling putative research infrastructures for the humanities. we have used this relationship to investigate how crowd-sourcing activities falling under various process types can contribute effectively to such research infrastructures. acknowledgements and additional information a list of the projects investigated by the study, and a description of the survey (including the questions and a summary of the results) may be found in appendices b and a respectively of (dunn and hedges ). the project website is at http://humanitiescrowds.org, and additional information (in ‘raw’ form) from the workshops organised as part of the study may be found at http://humanitiescrowds.org/wp- uploads/ / /workshop_report .pdf. we are very grateful to all those who have shared their knowledge and experience with us during the study, and in particular those who agreed to be interviewed, or participated in the workshops, or provided feedback on the project report. we follow the convention of hyphenating ‘crowd-sourcing’; other authors use ‘crowdsourcing’ or ‘crowd sourcing’. in quotations, we preserve the original form. t. blanke, m. bryant, m. hedges, a. aschenbrenner and m. priddy, ‘preparing dariah’, th ieee international conference on e-science, stockholm, sweden ( 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j. trant, d. bearman and s. chun, ‘the eye of the beholder: steve.museum and social tagging of museum collections’, proceedings of the international cultural heritage informatics meeting (ichim ), toronto, canada ( ). http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/yourpaintings/ http://www.scholarslab.org/category/praxis-program/ p. brohan, r. allan, j. e. freeman, a. m. waple, d. wheeler, c. wilkinson and s. woodruff, ‘marine observations of old weather’ bulletin of the american meteorological society, , issue ( ), - . t. causer, j. tonra and v. wallace, ‘transcription maximized; expense minimized? crowdsourcing and editing the collected works of jeremy bentham’ ( ). for example, http://www.familysearch.org r. holley, many hands make light work: public collaborative ocr text correction in australian historic newspapers ( ). m. wald, ‘crowdsourcing correction of speech recognition captioning errors’ proceedings of the international cross-disciplinary conference on web accessibility - w a ' ( ), http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/ / /crowdsourcecaptioningw allcrv .pdf. r. kurin, ‘safeguarding intangible cultural heritage in the unesco convention: a critical appraisal’, museum international, , issue - ( ), – . http://www.regaltenbury.org.uk/memory-reel/ c. hough, e. bramwell and d. grieve, scots words and place-names final report, jisc ( ), http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/digitisation/swapfinalreport.pdf. see also http://swap.nesc.gla.ac.uk/. http://www.scotsdictionaries.org.uk/ this usage differs from the standard usage of the term by museums. http://www.europeana - .eu/en/contributor m. terras, ‘digital curiosities: resource creation via amateur digitisation’ ( ). r. holley, ‘crowdsourcing: how and why should libraries do it?’ ( ). www.yearofshakespeare.com http://humanitiescrowds.org/wp-uploads/ / /workshop_report .pdf http://bloggingshakespeare.com/year-of-shakespeare-king-lear-at-the-almeida http://www.whats-the-score.org; http://scores.bodleian.ox.ac.uk c. fleet, k. c. kowal and p. pridal, ‘georeferencer: crowdsourced georeferencing for map library collections, d-lib magazine, , no. / ( ), http://www.dlib.org/dlib/november /fleet/ fleet.html. m. goodchild, ‘editorial: citizens as voluntary sensors: spatial data infrastructure in the world of web . ’, international journal of spatial data infrastructures research, ( ), - . http://www.openstreetmap.org/ m. haklay and p. weber, ‘openstreetmap: user-generated street maps’, pervasive computing, ieee, , issue ( ), - . m. haklay, ‘how good is volunteered geographical information? a comparative study of openstreetmap and ordnance survey datasets’, environment and planning b: planning and design, , issue ( ), - . c. brando and b. bucher, ‘quality in user generated spatial content: a matter of specifications’, proceedings of the th agile international conference on geographic information science, guimarães, portugal ( ), - . s. chilton, ‘crowdsourcing is radically changing the geodata landscape: case study of openstreetmap’, proceedings of the th international cartographic conference, santiago, chile ( ), http://w.icaci.org/files/documents/icc_proceedings/icc /html/nonref/ _ .pdf. c. fink, ‘mapping together: on collaborative implicit cartographies, their discourses and space construction’, journal for theoretical cartography, ( ), - . m. graham, ‘neogeography and the palimpsests of place: web . and the construction of a virtual earth’, tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, , issue ( ), - . http://www.stoa.org/sol/ j. d. cintas and p. m. sanchez, ‘fansubs: audiovisual translation in an amateur environment’, journal of specialised translation, ( ), - . figure : typology framework process type collaborative tagging linking correcting/modifying content transcribing recording and creating content commenting, critical responses and stating preferences categorising cataloguing contextualisation mapping georeferencing translating table : process types asset type geospatial text numerical or statistical information sound image video ephemera and intangible cultural heritage table : asset types task mechanical configurational editorial synthetic investigative creative table : task types asset type original text transcribed text corrected text enhanced text transcribed music metadata structured data knowledge/awareness funding synthesis composite digital collection with multiple meanings table : output types adp .tmp open access document downloaded from king’s research portal general rights citation to published version: neurocognitive literary studies and digital humanities dr. valiur rahaman (paper presenter) asstt professor, department of english madhav institute of technology & science gwalior-india founder president, indian society of digital humanities (formed ) principal investigator of crs research project on humanities inspired technology long presentation at adho conference / digital humanities /virtual conference keywords: humanities-inspired technology, research in digital humanities, neurocriticism, autism, literary studies, literary data modeling, digital narrative, social media, transdisciplinary research neurocognitive literary studies and digital humanities abstract the paper demonstrates how neurocognitive social psychology can be applied to study human behavior through literary character analysis with digital tools; and how the digital literary studies in terms of neurocognitive psychology may help develop new models for technology and theories of contemporary science. on the basis of the theses, the paper illustrates the theoretical methodology called “humanities-inspired technology for society” as an essential sub-branch of digital humanities and its application to the two major research studies: to great classics of all times and to etiology of autism. the paper advocates to bring literary theory and neurocognitive literature in the curricular of science and technology. keywords: humanities-inspired technology, research in digital humanities, neurocriticism, autism, literary studies, literary data modeling, digital narrative, social media, transdisciplinary research . introduction psychology, cognitive science and psychoanalysis are often intersectional subjects with literary studies. digital humanities strengthens literary studies when its scholarship help develop models for advancement of science and technology. till date, a very few studies have gone to this direction-how dh scholarship help technological modeling for challenging social problems and healthcare issues. the paper highlights the conceptual ground of humanities-inspired technology for society (hits), its applications and functions. it has a major component 'neurocognitive literary study' through digital tools and hence the paper establishes a networked rapport of literary arts with neurocognitive science and digital humanities/studies. at the beginning of the paper, the author defines hits as an approach to knowledge system and concludes with its applications. . hits as sub-branch of dh: a study in digital humanities to technological advancement digital humanities scholarship is utilized to disseminate, preserve, conserve and represent visuals of the knowledge system but seldom used for advancing human technologies for social welfare. the paper explores humanities inspired technology as a subdiscipline of digital humanities which studies how humanities scholarship intersected or interpreted or analyzed with digital technological tools and it demonstrates attributes to modelling for technological development. it deals with practical expositions of literary or language philosophers, and critical theorists as impetuses for modeling of cognitive computational technology. hence, it strongly establishes an inseparable bridge between practices in technology and humanities epistemology. the function of humanities-inspired technology for society (hits) essentially lies with developing models based on digital studies in philosophy of language and literary studies in terms of brain, mind and behavior. it coordinates the two different streams of knowledge system for three reasons: first, to remind; second to upgrade; and third to develop. it reminds what is missed by the world of technology; suggests to upgrade technological tools and devices for their humane utilization without their hazardous impacts on the earth and beyond; and develops new models out of scholarly studies in humanities for technological advances. for instance, there is no neuro- model based technology developed till date to identify the factors of sexual deviant criminals, to control or detect such heinous criminals. begun with empathy to the victims, a hits scholar studies the behavior patterns of such personalities in literature in terms of neuro-cognitive psychology and social psychology and may develop behavior semiotic model based on the studies patterns and prepared corpus. such studies develop industry-based research and development in the fields of digital humanities, which is much awaited epistemological contention in the arena of humanities departments in india and across the world. for ages, literature is studied in its own terms: aristotelian, longinian, classicist, romantics, modern, postmodern, gender, colonial and postcolonial. literary studies seldom go beyond its defined disciplinary territories and this was the major reason for its fall across the world. its boundary is defined for its users and the users are not allowed to go beyond the boundaries, thus, communication with the real world is questioned in literary studies. the influences of marx, freud, nietzsche, foucault, lacan, and derrida are irresistible penetrating human thinking so they could touch the offshoots of the literary studies despite the disciplinary resistance of classical rhetoricians. now, something has happened more than that: interferences of science and technology in the study of humanities with slow but steady manners; in respective phases resulting in humanities computing, computational humanities, digital humanities, speculative digital humanities (speclab), and public digital humanities. . conceptualization, experimentation, and invention the demand of transdisciplinary studies of science and arts, aesthetics and technology are observed in the history of ideas of contentions of difference and epistemological hybridity. i.a. richards’s collaborative works with c.k ogden developed a transdisciplinary approach to the poetics called ‘science of criticism’ (green); c. p. snow observed two cultures in the “intellectual life of the whole of western society” (rede lectures); e. o. wilson‘s consilience: the unity of knowledge (wilson) is the finest exposition of trans-disciplinary thought argues for “consilience” referring to “the synthesis of knowledge” derived from different specialized fields of human endeavor to envision a new field of knowledge serving the society. “the greatest enterprise of the mind has always been and always will be the attempted linkage of the sciences and humanities.” (wilson; morris) how this linkage is possible? let’s understand with few examples: descartes’ painting is a part popular science known as a pattern-design of the first experimentation in designing the airplane.(miller) the coordinate system is ingrained in descartes's philosophy; and similarly, thomas carlyle’s circle is well-known model in mathematics (detemple) as “a certain circle in a coordinate plane associated with a quadratic equation” and may similar studies are yet to be done. the implications of humanities knowledge of the two are examples of humanities inspired technology and science. such findings of interferences of humanities in the domains of science and technology are observable to establish an ideation that science and technology are developed also by the epistemological influences of humanities (esp. linguistics, literature and cultural heritage). the hits never establishes superiority of a knowledge system over another one such as demonstrated in science and poetry as a problem in epistemological enquiries. (midgley) . literature, neurocognitive science, and technology: substantial studies in neurocognitive digital humanities based on the concept argued above, the paper now reflects substantiated studies research on humanities inspired technology. in this, it is shown how knowledge of humanities polishes, cherishes the motives for developing technological tools to guarantee the safety and security of the human society at large. we conducted two studies together: i theorized the ‘neurocognitive literary theory’ based on “activated neurons affecting/effecting the human behavior (anaehb)” patterns and applied to study hamlet’s neurological problems equating his mental status with existing persons in real society; to study r.n. tagore’s the post office in terms of how neurocognitive forces in an author empathetically influence the audiences of the play resulting in its translation and staging across the world during the world war. (rahaman and sharma); and to study neurodevelopment issues reflected through behavior such as the mental anguish and moral dilemmas of rodion raskolnikov in fyodor dostoyevsky’s crime and punishment ( ), and neurocognitive factors of racial discriminative behavior patterns of marlowe & kurtz in joseph conrad’s heart of darkness ( ), and sexual deviant behavior of david lurie in j. m. coetzee’s disgrace ( ). these characters illustrate the behavior patterns of the socially disturb mindset resulting in numerous societal problems at large. the specific factors of behaviors disturbing the other members of the society and their connection with the cns are etiologically studied and replied to the research questions: can literary reading be intersected with neurological and computational studies? can reading in humanities or knowledge of humanities help solve complex problems in the development of ai, neurocomputation, human nature inspired computing, and medical computing? based on the following findings which are observed as outcomes of neurocognitive literary studies: . the impulses of human beings through deep reading of literary classics, and compare with real-life situations in human society is feasible . understanding human impulses identifying neurological causes behind human behavior and developed computational modeling to express the criminal mindset . based on humanities and knowledge engineering for medical & technology, developed a device to protect a woman from the unwanted accident . established the possibility of trans-disciplinary research in arts & literature intersected with cognitive sciences and computational studies . established literature & language as a reflection of socio-neuron behavior and identified mental patterns of the neurological disorder in humans to commit rape and murder. for literary studies, words are the only media for assessing human behaviors so atlas.ti the software application is used to analyze the patterns of behavior through frequencies of words used by the characters of the literary works. . literary narratives, neurodevelopment and techno-epidemiology as argued, the trans-disciplinary approach always brings novelty in the procedures of experimentation resulting in prismatic ways to see the world. for example, friedrich salomon rothschild ( - ), a psychiatrist and colleague of erich fromm ( - ) developed the theory of biosemiotics. rothschild was a reader of charles w. morris (i have cited above) who studied engineering and psychology at nu and earned a ph.d. under the research supervision of psycho-sociologist george herbert mead ( - ). his book signs, language, and behavior ( ) elucidates the signs representing human behavior; specific modes of signifying adequacy, truth, and reliability of signs; and defined life is but the semiotic narrative, and as the signature of human behavior. similarly, j. c. whitehorn and g. k. zipf collaboratively wrote “schizophrenic language” ( ); g. k. zipf edited the psycho-biology of language ( ), “the unity of nature, least-action, and natural social science” ( ), and “observations of the possible effect of mental age upon the frequency-distribution of words, from the viewpoint of dynamic philology” are the oldest research papers archived in the pubmed and remain foundational works in cognitive- linguistic disorders which symptomatize the autism basically. these works are the consequences of inclinations towards what we called “research consilience” a trans-disciplinary approach to knowledge serving humanity and its associated agencies. . zef factor of autism the prevalence of the rate of autism in the world states itself the facts of a less effective approach to cure and challenge autism. to do so, there is unavoidable necessity to observe the history of the etiology of autism: from the second decade of the twentieth century to the ww i & ii, and to . the entire history of autism reveals various factors of autism established by medical practices or special treatment. the keen observation of etiology of autism states that the epidemiological historians of autism could really not differentiate the terms between symptomatology and etiology of autism. the problem is strongly put forth in “deconstructing the etiology of autism and its cure through social media & digital literary narratives” (rahaman ) and came up with a major finding that autism eventuates during fertilization periods, longtime before the birth of a child. it is the evaluative study of the research pursued in the etiology of asd and the possibility to develop a parallel treatment way by deconstructing the established hardcore medical practices for asd. we studied, critically evaluated articles published between and , consulted the world health organization reports of the prevalence of asd in usa & eight south asian countries, and develop an additional idea as therapy of asd through “social media” & “literary narratives” differentiating technological and developed a model of post-technological autism treatment. the study contributed to help the cure procedures for asd through “social media” and “literary narratives” further requirement of upgradation in epidemiological treatment through technological imaging and development of technology based on the zef factors of autism. the other findings establish the open possibilities of research in the fields required to design further research and make policies to resist the prevalence of asd around the world. acknowledgements the concept of “humanities inspired technology & science” (hits) sprung from the readings for the ongoing research project sponsored by the collaborative research scheme under teqip-iii, national project implementation unit of mhrd, govt. of india. the aim of the project is to define the potential of humanities & social sciences to be used for the development of technology and science for the welfare of human beings with minimum after-effects or side-effects upon common lives or its target groups. the title of the presentation "cognitive literary studies for computational cognitive modeling: a humanities inspired approach to technological advancement" is briefed as short title "neurocognitive literary studies and digital humanities". the presentation is one of the outcomes of the collaborative research project funded under the national project implementation unit (npiu)-aicte, mhrd-govt. of india. the membership to adho is subscribed by the npiu. the contribution of dr r k pandit, director mits gwalior for his supports in forms of rich discussion for the research studies. works cited detemple, duane w. “carlyle circles and the lemoine simplicity of polygon constructions.” the american mathematical monthly, vol. , no. , , pp. – , doi: . / . . . green, elspeth. “i . a . richards among the scientists.” elh fall, vol. , no. , , pp. – , doi:https://doi.org/ . /elh. . . midgley, mary. science and poetry. routledge london, . miller, leonard g. “descartes, 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“critical pedagogy in digital era: understanding the importance of arts & humanities for sustainable it development” (may , ). proceedings of international conference on digital pedagogies (icdp) . available http://dx.doi.org/ . /ssrn. . peter tepe, discourse studies, vol. , no. , special issue on hermeneutics and discourse analysis (october ), pp. - . . pineda, jaime a., ed. . mirror neuron systems: the role of mirroring processes in social cognition. springer. humana press. . rahaman, valiur. introducing digital humanities. yking books. jaipur. india . . rahaman, valiur. . “epi/pandemic in literature: a study in medical humanities for covid prevention plenary speaker. national webinar on literature & epidemics. may . mk bhavnagar university, gujarat. india.” bhavnagar: bhavnagar university india. https://sites.google.com/view/webinar-eng-mkbu/plenaries?authuser= . . rahaman, valiur, and sanjiv sharma. “reading an extremist mind through literary language: approaching cognitive literary hermeneutics to r.n. tagore’s play the post office for neuro-computational predictions.” cognitive informatics computer modelling, and cognitive science. ed. g r sinha and jasjit suri., – . academic press. elsevier. . doi: https://doi.org/ . /b - - - - . - . . ramchandran v. blackslee, sanda. ( ) phantoms in the brain: probing the mysteries of the human mind. harpercollins. london. . p . https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc /( ) https://ia .us.archive.org/ /items/ghettodiary-englishjanuszkorczak/ghettodiary.pdf.% retrieved% on% . . https://ia .us.archive.org/ /items/ghettodiary-englishjanuszkorczak/ghettodiary.pdf.% retrieved% on% . . https://ia .us.archive.org/ /items/ghettodiary-englishjanuszkorczak/ghettodiary.pdf.% retrieved% on% . . https://dx.doi.org/ . /ssrn. https://dx.doi.org/ . /ssrn. https://sites.google.com/view/webinar-eng-mkbu/plenaries?authuser= . shakespeare, william.. hamlet. ed. burton raffe and bloom. yale university press. london. . doi: . /cbo . . . wolfrey, julian. . introducing criticism at the st century. introducing criticism in the st century, edinburgh university press. london. . wilson, matthew w. “cyborg geographies: towards hybrid epistemologies”. gender, place and culture, ( ) ( ): – . . yeo, richard. defining science, william whewell, natural knowledge, and public debate in early victorian britain. cambridge university press. . . v. gallese, m.a. gernsbacher, c. heyes, g. hickok, m. iacoboni, “mirror neuron forum”, perspectives on psychological science ( ) ( ) - . https://dx.doi.org/ . % f atari-go atari go st on es to p la y rules . two teams, black and white, take turns placing a stone (game piece) of their own color on a vacant point (intersection) of the grid on the board . once placed, stones do not move . a vacant point adjacent to a stone is called a liberty for that stone . connected stones formed a group and share their liberties . a stone or group with no liberties is captured . black plays first . the first team to capture anything wins th e bo ar d the white stone has liberties, while the black group has liberties white has been captured (no more liberties available), black wins cu t a ll th e bl ac k an d w hi te sq ua re s to g et th e st on es bonus implement the function below in python, that takes in input the colour of the player who has to play the turn (parameter colour), the sets of coordinates (i.e. sets of tuples) of all the black stones (parameter black) and white stones (parameter white) already positioned on the board, and returns the x, y coordinate (a tuple) of a free intersection where to place a new colour stone. the coordinates of the various positions of the board are those ones defined in "the board" in this paper. def place_stone(colour, black, white): # study the board and calculate the # best place where to position the stone return x, y # the coordinates of the new stone atari go, a.k.a. capture go, is a simplified version of go, usually proposed to beginners so as to learn the basic rules of go. improve the wikipedia page about it: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capture_go (for help in editing wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikipedia:faq/editing) this work has been designed by silvio peroni (twitter: @essepuntato) for the computational thinking and programming course of the dhdk degree at the university of bologna (twitter: @unibodhdk). all the rights have been waived worldwide under copyright law, including all related and neighboring rights, to the extent allowed by law. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /legalcode version . . , december x axis y ax is https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capture_go https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wikipedia:faq/editing https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /legalcode mirror neuronsand human-robot interaction in assembly cells - © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference doi: . /j.promfg. . . procedia manufacturing ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect th international conference on applied human factors and ergonomics (ahfe ) and the affiliated conferences, ahfe mirror neuronsand human-robot interaction in assembly cells sinem kuza, henning petrucka, miriam heisterüberb, harshal patelb, beate schumannb, christopher m. schlicka, ferdinand binkofskib ainstitute of industrial engineering and ergonomics, rwth aachen university, aachen, germany bsection for clinical cognition sciences, department of neurology, rwth aachen university hospital, aachen, germany abstract when interacting with a robot, the level of mental workload, comfort and trust during the interaction are decisive factors for an effective interaction. hence, current research focuses on the concept, whether ascribing gantry robot in assembly with anthropomorphic movements can lead to a better anticipation of its behavior by the human operator.therefore, in an empirical study the effect of different degrees of anthropomorphism should be compared. this is based on the scientific research concerning the neural activity of the human brain when watching someone performing an action. within the study videos of a virtual gantry robot and a digital human model during placing movements were designed to use in the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri). the aim is to investigate the underlying brain mechanism during observing the movements of the two models. © the authors.published by elsevier b.v. peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference. keywords:human-robot interaction; mirror neurons; action perception; human motion tracking . introduction when considering the cooperation between humans and robot in assembly cells, it is necessary to ensure occupational safety. besides this aspect, when working with a robotic co-worker, the level of stress, strain, comfort and trust during the interaction are also decisive factors for an effective interaction. to take all these variables into consideration, the field of human-robot interaction should focus on the concept of anthropomorphism, i.e. the simulation of human characteristics by non-human agents such as robots. by using anthropomorphism, a higher level of safety and user acceptance can be achieved [ ]. in industrial robotics however, transferring anthropomorphism in appearance might be difficult to do. hence, current investigations focus on the question, © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). peer-review under responsibility of ahfe conference http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.promfg. . . &domain=pdf sinem kuz et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – whether an industrial gantry robot with anthropomorphic movements can lead to a better anticipation of its behavior by the human operator. this idea is mainly based on the results from the neuro-scientific research on the effects of action observation on the behavior and the neural activity of the beholder. the results demonstrate that observation of actions which belong to our motor repertoire activate specialized brain areas in our brains and make our own movements faster. these special brain areas belong to the so-called mirror neuron system (mns) and are activated both by action performance and observation of other humans’ actions [ ]. there is evidence, that the mns is crucial for the recognition of the content and the intention of actions. hence, due to a stronger activation of the mns anthropomorphic robot movements are more effectively perceived and intentionally followed than conventional robotic movement. for this reason, the work that will be presented within this paper focuses on the effect of different degrees of anthropomorphism, in particular in motion behavior of a gantry robot in comparison to a digital human model, on human motion perception. to measure the brain activity, videos of a virtual gantry robot and a digital human model were designed to use in the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri). in order to generate the anthropomorphic movement data, a preliminary experiment was conducted using an infrared optical tracking system. hence, human motion trajectories during placing an object were recorded. the motion data was analyzed to compute the joint angles of the human arm during the placing movement. this information was used to drive the model of the virtual gantry robot and a digital human model. this paper includes a detailed description of the methodology i.e. the producing of the videos with different degrees of anthropomorphism and the the first results of a pilot fmri scan to validate the stimuli. . mirror neurons and human-robot interaction mirror neurons are a class of neurons that become active both when individuals perform a specific action and when they observe a similar action done by others and have been originally discovered in special brain areas of the monkey [ ].afterwards,they were also confirmed in the human brain by several neuroimaging experiments [ ]. the main function of the mns is to understand what another person is doing. some studies have tried to investigate human mirror neuron activation during observation of robotic actions and had controversial discussions about the activation of the mns in human brains to robots. tai et al. [ ] in a positron emission tomography (pet) examined movement sequences that were repeated identical but could not prove any significant mirror neuron activation of the humans during monitoring an industrial robot. they presented videos in which either a human or a robot arm grasped an object. they could prove grasping action performed by the human elicited a significant neural response in the mns, while the observation of the same action by the robot didn’t show the same activation. the conclusion was that the human mns is only activated when watching humans performing grasping actions. in another pet study perani et al. [ ] investigated whether observation of real or virtual hands engages the same activations in the human brain. their results have shown that only the monitoring of biological agents’ actions activates the areas associated to the mns. nevertheless, gazzola et al. [ ]investigated the neural activation by the observation of human and robotic actions by using fmri. they compared videos of simple and complex movements performed either by a human or by an industrial robot with only one degree of freedom and a constant velocity curve. however, the authors found the same activations for human and robotic actions. gazzola and colleagues explained these contrasting results showing that the presentation of exactly the same robotic action several times does not activate the mns. in an eeg study by oberman and colleagues [ ] a similar result could be proven. they investigated whether the monitoring of a robot hand performing either a grasping action, or a pantomimed grasp without an object would activate the mns. the aim was to determine the characteristics of the visual stimuli which evoke mns activation. results revealed no difference in the activation of the mns between two stimuli. alsochaminade et al. [ ] showed no differences in the activation of thesebrain areas during the watching robotic agents and humans. accordingly, robotic agents can evoke a similar mns activation as humans do. the need of producing anthropomorphic robots able to establish a natural interaction with the human counterpartin different areas like the industryis becoming more and more relevant. furthermore, in contrast to traditional approaches in industrial robotics, there are an increasing number of new concepts for automation solutions that combine appearance characteristics of an industrial robot and a humanoid such as yumi from abb [ ] and baxter or sawyer from rethink robotics [ , ]. this developmentimplies the necessity of designing new sinem kuz et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – controls for roboticactions especially in industrial environments. therefore, we investigate whether anthropomorphic movement control of a virtual gantry robot relates to increased brain activations in mns in comparison to conventional robotic ptp movement control. . method . . trajectorygeneration for the experiment by using an infrared optical tracking system that is based on recording infrared signatures of reflective markers, the human motion data for the virtual simulation could be acquired. the used system consist of four cameras to record the d positionswith a rate of hz of four markersthat were placed on the participants joint angles of the right arm. to track natural human placing movements, a participant was placed in front of a table with black plastic discs mounted at regular intervals for placing a cylindrical object (see fig. ). the task was to place the object on four predefined roundson the table always starting from the same position and with the same posture. for the analysis,both theposition of the markersin three-dimensionalspace, and the rotationof the markers aredetected.the markerm ismountedon the upper arm, the marker m exactlyat the elbowjoint,so that the connectingline betweenm andm is exactlyparallelto the upper armand runsthe connecting line betweenm andmarkerm ,which is placedon the forearm (see fig. ). the markerm is fixed at thecylinder whichis heldinthe hand of theparticipant.the coordinate systemisset sothat the armis fullymovedinthe x-y plane, wherein the y-axis is directed upward. due to the restrictions of the kinematics of the virtual gantry robot with six-degree-of freedom, the movementof the armis consideredonlywithinthe x-y plane.only therotationof the markerm is consideredin three-dimensionalspace andtransmitted to thehand of thehuman modelandonthe end effectorof the gantry robot. fig. . the experimental setting to track human placement movements. sinem kuz et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. .the human motion and the ptp trajectory in comparison in a cartesian coordinate system. to adapt the acquired placing movements to the human digital human model and the virtual gantry robot, the joint angle of the shoulder, the elbow joint and the rotation of the hand were calculated based on the d coordinates of the markers on the right arm of the participant. for the calculation of the angle of the shoulder joint, first the direction vector between m and m wasdetermined. the angle of the joint corresponds then to the angle between the direction vector and the negative y-axis. analogous for the angle of the elbow joint the directional vectors between m and m and m and m are examined. the angle between these two calculated direction vectors corresponds to the angle of the elbow joint. the remaining anglescould be specified directly in the form of the recorded rotation of the marker m (see fig. (a)). in the end, we tracked human joint angles for four different placing movements in the xy- plane. afterwards, ptp trajectoriesfor the same start and target positions of the tracked placing movements were computed.overall,eight motion datawithfourptpand fourtrajectories with the human angle positions were created. figure shows theacquiredhuman motion trajectory for a placing movement from the initial position until reaching the target position in comparison to a conventional ptp movement for the same action. the humantrajectoryproceeds on adegressive curve, while theclassicrobot movementrevealsa slight tendency to a progressive course. . . stimuli and design to produce the stimuli, we used a c++ simulation environment that was already developed and used within different works of the cluster of excellence [ ] as the virtual presentation of a gantry robot and aneditor for manual work activities (ema) [ ] for simulating the human and. using the simulation environments, four different videos ranging in length of about three secondscould be produced for the experiment. two of the videos featured a digital human model(man, th percentile) in a natural, standing position with a cylinder in the hand (fig. (left)). the other two videos consisted ofa virtual gantry robot with six degree-of freedom in the same position also holding the cylinder in the tool center point (fig. (right)).the generated motion data (four anthropomorphic and four ptp) were used to drive the virtual models of the human and the gantry robot. overall, we had eight different videos of the human model and eight of the virtual gantry robot. the general design of one trial consisted of three steps. first a video was shown with the specific virtual model and the corresponding placing movement ( sec.). afterwards, the participant was presented a scale, where the perceived anthropomorphism of the movements could be rated by a -point scale ( sec.). after the rating phase, the scene on the screen was turned into a fixed image with a grey background ( sec.) as a control for the baseline activation (see fig. ). each participant had to do eight blocks with each repetitions of one trial. sinem kuz et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – fig. .the digital human model (left) and the virtual gantry robot (right). fig. .general steps of the experiment. . . apparatus the measurements were carried out by using a t magnetic resonance imaging (mri) scanner by siemens. the system is a whole-body mr scanning with the fallowing parameters: echo time te ms, flip angle °, and the repetition time tr ms.the head positionof the participantsin the scanneris stabilized by using a vacuumpillow, in order to minimizeheadmotion artifacts. the videos are presented in full color with a resolution of x pixels using a back projection system, which incorporated a lcd projector that projected onto a screen place behind the magnet. the screen was reflected on a mirror installed above the eyes of the participants.additionally, an fmri suitable response button pad with three buttonswas used to enable ratings on a point scale ofthe perceived anthropomorphism of each movement. . . task across the experiment, the participants received identical instructions. first the personal data of the participants were collected, e.g. age and profession.their task during the main part was to watch each video closely, and to rate onthe -point scale on a response button pad with their perceived anthropomorphism of each movement.in the exemplary subject the rating was a continuum between very “robotic” (score ) and very “humanlike” (score ). video response fixed image/ background sec. sec. trial = sec. trials per block (= . min.) sec. blocks (= min.) sinem kuz et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . . participants within this paper, results of one participant will be presented exemplary. the participants’ age was . across the experiment, all participants were naive to the purpose of the experiment, free of any neurological or psychiatric disorder, and were not on medication at the time of the experiment. all participants were monetarily compensated for their time to take part at the experiment. the local ethics committee approved the experimental procedure. . . variables the analysis of variance was performed on the preprocessed fmri data using the general linear model as implemented in the software package statistical parametric mapping (spm ). the main factors for the analysis were the movement types (anthropomorphic vs. ptp) as well as the virtual models (humanvs.gantry robot). the first data inspection was performed at the statistical significance level of p<. (uncorrected). . results the first analysis of the fmri data of the exemplary subject who was asked to distinguish between anthropomorphic and robotic movements demonstrates that both movements strongly activate the front-parietal movement recognition areas. additionally, activation of other motor areas like the supplementary motor cortex and the cerebellum could be observed. regarding the underlying model, the robot activated the right temporo-occipital areas stronger, whereas the observation of the digital humanmodel was reflected by stronger activation of the left temporo-occipital and mesial-parietal areas (see fig. (a)). most importantly the observation of humanlike movements activated the fronto-parietal mns stronger than observation of robotic movements. whereas the observation of robotic movements activated the left inferior-parietal cortex (see fig. (b)). in summary, the imaging data show that observation of both anthropomorphic and robotic movements is process in very similar networks of brain areas. nevertheless, both anthropomorphic and robotic movements additionally coded in most specialized brain regions. the observation of anthropomorphic movements activated the mns independent of the underlying virtual model stronger than theptp movements. fig. .brain activation during observation of anthropomorphic (a) and of robotic movements (b). sinem kuz et al. / procedia manufacturing ( ) – . summary and outlook in this paper, a study measuring the effect of different degrees of anthropomorphism, in particular in motion of a virtual gantry robot with six-degrees-of-freedom in comparison to a digital human model, was presented. to conduct the study, videos of a gantry robot and a digital human model were designed. anthropomorphism was varied using different degrees of shape, velocity and trajectory. the neural activation of the human brain was measured using anfmri. across the experiment the task was to watch each stimuli closely. after each presented video, participants were asked in the scanner to rate on a -point likert scale whether the movement in the presented video is humanlike ( ) or non-humanlike ( ). the implementation of the designed videos of the gantry robot and thedigital human model into the fmri environment was successful. from the behavioral responses of the subject it can be clearly recognize that the distinction between the two types of movements could be made for both models. the preliminary imaging data show the expected stronger activation in the mns for observing anthropomorphic movements. we applied the same experimental procedure to further subjects. the exact analysis of the data is still in process. but already now we can infer that the recognition of robotic and human like movement is already mirrored in the brain activity of the participants. this approach is therefore very promising for providing observer independent assessment of anthropomorphism in the field of cognitive ergonomic. acknowledgements the presented project anthrobot (investigationof cognitivecompatibility of anthropomorphicmodeledtrajectoriesinhuman-robotinteractionusingfunctionalmagnetic resonance imagingmeasurements) is supported by financial resources of the federal ministry of education and research (bmbf) within the frame concept “human-system interaction in demographic change”. references [ ] b. r.duffy. anthropomorphism and the social robot, robotics and autonomous systems, , ( ) - . [ ] g. rizzolatti, et al. premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions, cognitive brain research, , ( ) - . [ ] g. di pellegrino et al. understanding motor events: a neurophysiological study, exp brain res , ( ) – . [ ] l. fadigaet al. motor facilitation during action observation: a magnetic stimulation study, j neurophysiol, , ( ) – . [ ] y.f. taiet al. the human premotor cortex is ‘mirror’ only for biological actions. journal of current biology, . , – . [ ] d. perani et al.different brain correlates for watching real andvirtual hand actions. neuroimage , , , – . [ ] v. g. gazzolaet al. the anthropomorphic brain: the mirror neuron system responds to human and robotic actions. journal of neuroimage, , ( ), - [ ] l. m. obermanet al. eeg evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. brain res. cogn. brain res. , – ( ). [ ]t. chamide et al ( ). brain response to a humanoid robot in areas implicated in the perception of human emotional gestures. plosone, ( ), e . [ ] e. guizzo. abb's frida offers glimpse of future factory robots.. in spectrum, ieee. . [ ] e. guizzo; e. ackerman. the rise of the robot worker. in spectrum, ieee, . [ ] e. guizzo.sawyer: rethink robotics unveils new robot. in spectrum, ieee, . [ ]b.odenthal et al. investigation of error detection in assembled workpieces using an augmented vision system. in: proceedings of the iea th world congress on ergonomics (cd-rom) beijing, china, ( ) - [ ] l. fritzsche et al..introducing ema (editor for manual work activities) – a new tool for enhancing accuracy and efficiency of human simulations in digital production planning, . the th advanced summer school on service-oriented computing comput sci res dev ( ) : doi . /s - - -z editorial the th advanced summer school on service-oriented computing june –july , hersonissos, crete, greece wolfgang reisig © springer-verlag berlin heidelberg the th advanced summer school on service oriented computing (summersoc’ ) continued a successful series of summer schools that started in , regularly attracting world-classexpertsinserviceorientedcomputingtopresent state-of-the-art research during a week-long program orga- nized in several thematic tracks: patterns, formal methods for soc, computing in the clouds, data science, e-health and emerging topics. the advanced summer school is regularly attended by top researchers from academia and practitioners from industry as well as by graduate students from programs with international acclaim. during the morning sessions at summersoc renowned researchers gave invited tutorials on subjects from the themes mentioned above. the afternoon sessions were dedicated to presentations of original research contributions in these areas: accepted contributions were submitted in advance and b wolfgang reisig reisig@informatik.hu-berlin.de institut für informatik, humboldt-universität zu berlin, unter den linden , berlin, germany have been peer-reviewed. in addition, the contributions had been extensively discussed during a poster session. the feed- back of this discussion too has been folded into the version published in this special issue. the first set of articles discuss issues from cloud com- puting and service development like detecting patterns for cloud deployment, discovering cloud offerings, gathering of devops solutions, provisioning of data mashups, as well as microservices. the next two articles are devoted to dig- ital humanities, presenting an approach to apply mining technologies to discover (costume) patterns, and an overall method to discover patterns in musicology. the final batch of articles discuss how to use situation models, how to use utility functions in transportation systems, and to properly select nosql database systems. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -z&domain=pdf the th advanced summer school on service-oriented computing june –july , hersonissos, crete, greece